TUn-S, UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 9090 013 418 161 ^ /^^j Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cumminas School of Veterinarv Mftdlnlnfi at JOHNA.SEAVERNS HORSE-SHOEING Frontispiece,] A HANDBOOK OF HORSE- SHOEING WITH INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT BY JNO. A. W. DOLLAE, M.E.C.V.S. EDITOR AND TRANSLATOR OF MOLLER'S "VETERINARY SURGERY." AUTHOR OF "an ATLAS OF VETERINARY SURGICAL OPERATIONS," ETC. WITH THE COLLABORATION OF ALBEKT WHEATLEY, RKC.V.S. New York : WILLIAM R. JENKINS, VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER, 851 AND 853 Sixth Avenue. 1898. h Copyright, 1898, by William R. Jenkins. All Rights Reserved. PREFACE. The friendly reception accorded to previous efforts encouraged the hope that a vohime dealing with that less studied though scarcely less useful subject, Horse-shoeing, might fiud similar acceptance. To provide material, all the best known German, French, and Italian treatises have been ransacked, the leading English works referred to, and the information thus gained collated. Without any intention of disparaging the labors of other authors, the writer feels bound to confess that he has found no work of more practical and scientific value than Leisering-Hartmann's masterly Handbook, " Der Fuss des Pferdes;" which, though in a much modified form, and with the addition of a. large amount of new matter, has been adopted as ther model and substantial basis for the present volume. Other sources of information are indicated in the Bibliography hereto attached. The first nineteen pages, on the history of Horse-shoeing, have been translated, with little alteration, from Leisering- Hartmann. In the section devoted to the Anatomy of the Foot, Professor Mettam has kindly contributed pages 61 to 65, and fig. 66 on page 106. The part dealing with practical Horse-shoeing has been almost entirely re-written, while many additions drawn from the write'r's own experience or from Continental literature have been made in order to adapt the book to the requirements of English readers. To Mr. Albert Wheatley is due one of the chief features of the book, viz., the large-sized blocks of horse-shoes printed on separate sheets, and the descriptions accompanying them. VI PREFACE. The engraving of these has occupied considerably longer time than was at first anticipated, but the important character of the added matter fully compensates for any delay, and must be held as largely contributing to whatever degree of success the book may eventually attain. To the pains Mr. Wheatley has taken in superintending the preparation of both shoes and illustrations, the enthusiasm he has exhibited in the work now completed, and the personal kindness he has at all times shown, the writer cordially testifies. Messrs. Schonefeld of Dresden have kindly permitted the use of the majority of the wood-cuts, and Messrs. Phipson & Warden, iron merchants, etc., Birmingham, have accorded a similar privilege in respect of the illustrations marked with an asterisk. To Professor M'Queen, of the Boyal Veterinary College, London, who rendered such valued service during the publi- cation of the work on Veterinary Surgery, the writer has once more the sincere pleasure of tendering his thanks, and of gratefully acknowledging how much he owes to that gentle- man's kindly encouragement and assistance in revising proof- sheets during the two years devoted to this later task. JNO. A. W. DOLLAE. London, October, 1897. CONTENTS. Introduction, History, PAGE 1 2 PART I.— THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. Section I. — The Structure of the Foot. General Remarks on the Horse's Foot, Chapter I. The bones of the foot, . . . 1. The lower end of the great metacarpus, 2. The suffraginis bone or first phalanx, 3. The two sesamoid bones, 4. The coronet bone or second phalanx, 5. The pedal bone or third phalanx, 6. The navicular bone, .... Chapter II. The ligamentous structures of the foot, 1. The fetlock joint, .... 2. The pastern joint, .... 3. The pedal or coffin joint. Chapter III. The locomotor apparatus of the foot, 1. The extensor pedis tendon, 2. The flexor pedis perforatus tendon, . 3. The flexor pedis perforans tendon. Chapter IV. The elastic tissues of the foot, 1. The lateral cartilages, 2. The plantar cushion, .... Chapter V. The blood-vessels and nerves of the foot, A. Blood-vessels, ..... 1. The arteries, .... 2. The veins, .... B. The nerves, . . . ' . Chapter VI. The protective structures of the foot, A. The horn-secreting structures, 1. The perioplic ring, 2. The coronary band, 3. The sensitive laminae, 4. The sensitive sole, 5. The sensitive frog, 20 24 24 24 26 27 28 30 32 33 37 38 40 41 41 42 45 46 48 53 52 54 57 59 61 67 67 68 70 73 73 Vlll CONTENTS. B. The horny structures, 1. The horny wall, .... 2. "The horny sole, .... 3. The horny frog, . Section II.— The Functions of the Foot. Chapter I, Histology of horn, Chapter II. The growth of the hoof. Chapter III. The mechanical functions of the foot, Changes in form of the hoof. Bearing of the above on practical shoeing. PAGE 73 74 84 88 90 93 101 111 115 137 PART II.— THE HORSE'S FOOT IN 'RELATION TO SHOEING. Section I.— Shoeing of Healthy Feet. Chapter I. Horse-shoes, etc., 1. Material for the manufacture of shoes, 2. Shoes and their properties, 3. Forging the shoe, 4. Varieties of shoes, Chapter II. Winter shoeing, 1. Rough nailing, 2. Roughing by means of sharp heels and toes, 3. Roughing with screws, 4. Cogs, ..... 5. Shoes with removable toe-grips, 129 129 133 140 146 153 154 156 158 164 167 Section II. Chapter I. The foot in its relation to the entire limb, 1. Conformation of the limbs, 2. General conformation of the feet, when viewed from in front, behind and the side, . 3. The method of advancing the hoof, 4. Form of the hoof, 5. Characteristics of the sound hoof, 6. Wear of the hoof and of the shoe. Chapter II. The practice of shoeing, 1. Management and control of the horse, 2. Determining the style of shoeing, . ' 3. Removal of the old shoes, 4. Preparation of the hoof for shoeing, . 5. Working without shoes, 6. General principles to be observed in the choice of the shoe 7. Choice of the shoe for specific uses, . , . . 171 171 178 182 185 191 192 196 196 199 201 202 r:3 210 217 CONTENTS. IS (1) Hacks. . . . c . c Special shoes for hacks, .... Fullered fore shoe, .... Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, . (2) Hunters, , . s . , , Temporary shoes, .... Special shoes for hunters, Fullered seated fore shoe, Concave partially-fullered "dub-toed" fore shoe. Concave fullered, feather-edge fore shoe, Stamped fore shoe, .... Concave partially-fullered hind shoe. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, Charlier hind shoe, . » , . (3) Race horses, . . t . . Racing plate (fore), .... Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasing), (4) Trotting horses, . , , . . Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), (5) Carriage horses, ..... Special shoes for carriage horses, . ,. Fullered fore shoe, seated and tapped for screws, *' Rod way " fore shoe. Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe, Fullered fore shoe (dished on ground surface), (6) Omnibus horses, . . , , , Special shoes for omnibus work, , Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with two calkins, ..... Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with calkin and wedge heel, .... Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, (7) Cart horses, ..... Special shoes for cart horses, Cart liorse hind shoe for town work, Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purposes, "North country " stamped fore shoe, ** North country " stamped hind shoe, Stamped fore shoe for farm work, , Stamped hind shoe for farm work, . Stamped fore shoe for railway shunting horses, Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, (8) The Charlier shoe, .... (9) Tips. . . . , o (10) Sir F. Fitzwygram's shoe, , , , PAGE 217 218 218 219 220 222 223 223 223 224 224 226 226 228 228 229 231 231 232 235 236 241 241 242 242 243 244 245 245 245 246 247 249 249 250 250 251 251 252 252 253 253 254 256 260 CONTENTS. (11) The Turkish or Oriental shoe, , « (12) Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, 8. Changing from one style of shoeing to another, 9. The shape and fitting^of the shoe, 10. The nails, ..... 11. Nailing on the shoe, .... 12. Examination of the horse after shoeing, 13. Disadvantages of shoeing, 14 Effects upon hoofs and limbs j^roduced by work on especially stone paved, streets. paved Chapter III. Forging and cutting. 1. Forging, Special shoes for horses that forge. Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, .... Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse. Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur" for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, 2. Cutting or striking, ..... Special shoes for horses that cut, Fullered feather-edged hind shoe {with two calkins), Feather-edged stamped hind shoe (with two nails inside toe), ..... Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe. Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Fullered hind shoe, " set" inside, . Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or riding horse, ..... Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, ' Fultered feather-edged concave fore shoe, Fullered hind shoe for hack. Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered. Concave partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, Concave three-quarter hind shoe. Three-quarter partially fullered hind shoe, Chapter IV. Leather and rubber soles, etc., 1. Leather soles, ...... 2. Rubber pads on leather, .... 3. Downie & Harris's rubber pad with frog cleft, 4. Hartmann's removable rubber pad, . 5. Rope pads (fixed) , 6. Straw pads, 7. Cork pads, 8. Felt pads, 9. Pads of elastic cement, Chapter V. The shoeing of mules and asses, PAGE 261 263 264 26.'> 272 273 277 278 280 282 282 284 284 284 285 286 293 293 293 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 298 298 299 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 307 307 308 308 309 310" CONTENTS. XI Chapter VI. Care of the hoof, (a) Treatment of unshod hoofs, (6) Care of the shod hoof, PAGE 312 312 318 Section III. — The Shoeing of Diseased Feet and of Lame Horses. ' quoit ' ' shoe around outer the coronet or Chapter I. Inflammation within the hoof, Concave bar fore shoe, Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe) , Fullered seated bar fore shoe, Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for harness horse) Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse), Substitutes for horn. Chapter II. Deformities and diseases of the hoof 1. Flat sole, .... Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse). The ' Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) ' ' set ' margin, .... Stamped hind shoe (for cart horse), 2. Upright hoof, .... Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece, 3. Special shoes for horses knuckled over at fetlock, ..... 4. Contracted foot, A. Methods of re-establishing the counter-pressure of the ground , or compensating for its absence B. Mechanical methods. Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse) with frog plate Tip for producing frog pressure. Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding con tr acted feet, ..... C. Operative interference in contraction, . 5. The laterally distorted hoof, .... 6. The curved hoof, ..... Chapter III. Solutions of continuity in the horn, 1. Sand cracks, . .... (a) Sand crack origirating at the coronary margin, (b) Sand crack of the bars, .... 2. Transverse cracks of the wall, 3. Loose wall, seedy toe, etc., . ' . 4. Thrush, ....... Chapter IV. Inflammation of the structures enclosed by the hoof, .... 1. Pricks in shoeing, 2. Picked-up nails. Stamped cart fore shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... 316 324 325 326 327 327 328 330 330 334 334 335 336 338 339 340 347 350 353 353 354 355 360 363 365 365 369 371 372 372 375 378 379 381 383 Xll CONTENTS. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ..... Plates for surgical shoes, .... Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ..... Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ..... 3. Treads on the coronet, ..... 4. Inflammation of the perioplic ring, . o. v^ornSj ...••.. Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe, . Fullered fore shoe "set" on ground surface of inside heel 6. Shoeing after laminitis, .... 7. Keratomata, or horn tumorg, 8. Canker of the frog or sole, .... 9. Ossification of the lateral cartilages. Side bones, . 10. Navicular disease, ..... 11. Curb, strain of flexor tendons, and capped elbow, . Stamped wedge-heeled hind shoe. Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe for harness horse, Fullered patten hind shoe, .... Stamped patten (or " staple ") fore shoe, Stamped patten (or "staple ") hind shoe, Patten hind shoe, ..... Fullered seated fore shoe, .... PAGE 383 384 384 385 386 386 387 395 395 396 398 400 403 407 410 410 411 411 413 413 413 413 APPENDIX A.— THE SHOEING OF OXEN. Chapter I. The structure and functions of the ox's foot, Chapter II, The shoeing of oxen, .... 415 433 APPENDIX B. I. Farriers' teaching schools, II. Shoeing competitions, . 437 439 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Frontispiece. FIG. Berkshire County Council's Sclioool, 1. Iron hipposandal, 2. Celtic shoe, .... 3. Shoe from the grave of Childeric, 4. 5. The most ancient Northern shoe, 6, 7, 8. Shoes of the Middle Ages, . 9. Postero-lateral view of right fore foot, 10. Perpendicular mesial section of right fore foot, Colored plate. Section of horse's foot, 11. Antero-lateral view of bones of foot, 12. Pastern and sesamoidal bones, 13. Posterior view of pastern and sesamoid bones, 14. Antero-lateral view of coronet bone, 15. Posterior view of coronet bone, Plate. The bones of the foot, 16. Antero-lateral view of pedal bone, 17. Postero-lateral view of pedal bone, 18. Inferior surface of pedal bone, 19. Antero-superior surface of navicular bone, 20. Postero-inferior surface of navicular bone, 21. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from the 22. 23. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from behind, ........ 24. Pedal bone, etc., ....... 25. Antero -external view of right fore foot, 26. Posterior view of right fore-foot, . . . . 27. Right fore-foot seen from behind and slightly from one side, 28. Pedal bone, etc., ....... 29. Right fore foot, ....... 30. Postero-lateral view of pedal bone and inner lateral cartilage, 31. Infero-posterior view of right fore foot, 32. Plantar cushion seen from below, . . . . 33. Plantar cushion seen from above, ' . . , . 34. Vertical mesial section of plantar cushion, 35. Vertical section of foot from side to side, 36. Lateral view of fore foot, . . . . . 37. Foot, seen from below and behind, . . . , 38. Right fore foot, seen from below, behind, and somewhat from one side, ........ 39. Vertical section through tlie human nail and nail-bed, PAGE 4 6 9 10 . 12, 13 21 22 facing 22 25 26 26 27 27 facing 18 28 29 29 31 31 34 35 39 40 42 43 46 46 47 49 50 50 50 50 54 56 58 61 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 40. Foot deprived of horny capsule, ..... 4L Foot from which the outer portion of the horny wall and the greater part of the sensitive structures have been removed, 42. Horn-secreting papillae from the coronary band, 48. Lower surface of foot denuded of horny capsule, 44. Hoof with vascular structures removed, 45. Under surface of right fore foot, 46. Under surface of right hind foot, 47. Mesial vertical section of hoof with horny frog removed, 48. Hoof with portion of wall removed, 49. Portion of inner surface of hoof where horny wall and horny sole join, ..... 50. Transverse incision through the laminal sheath, 51. Vertical transverse section of hoof with very thin sole 52. Left lower part of above section , 53. Vertical section from sole (magnified), . 54. Horny frog removed from hoof, . 55. Vertical mesial section of horny frog, 56. Perpendicular section from horn of wall (magnified), 57. Horizontal section of wall, 58. Horizontal section through a part of the wall', . 59. Horn cells from wall, etc., 60. Horn cells from sole, etc. , ... 61. Horn cells from the perioplic ring, 62. Horn cells from the frog, .... 63. Cells from horn lamina, .... 64. Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn from sole, 65. Perpendicular section of horn frog, 66. Horizontal section of horny lamina, etc., 67. Cross section of the connecting sheath of the wall, 68. Transverse section of two horn laminae still connected with the middle sheath of the wall, 69. Vertical cross section of a foot seen from behind 70. Vertical cross section of foot seen from behind, 71. 72. Right fore foot seen from below and above, 73. Special forms of rolled bar iron, 74. Rodway bar, 75. Single fullered bar, 76. Bevelled bar, 77. 78. Concave bar, 79. Plain concave bar, 80. Corrugated " Grip " bar, . 81. Charlier steel bar, 82. 83. Racing plate steel, 84. Racing plate iron, 85. Right front shoe seen from below 86. The same seen from above, 87. Left hind shoe seen from above, PACK 69 69 70 72 74 75 75. 77 81 83 83 85 85 86 88 89 93 94 95 96 96 97 97 98 98 99 106 108 109 123 124 126 130 130 130 131 131 131 131 131 131 132 134 134 134 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV :fig. page 88. Transverse section of a fore shoe through one of the nail holes, . . . . , . . . 135 89. Cross sections of four fullered shoes, .... 137 90. German military shoe for fore feet, , . . . 139 Fireman's tools, ..... facing 141, 142 91. Partly completed fore shoe, ..... 143 92. Partly completed hind shoe, ..... *145 93. Right fore shoe with calkins, ..... 147 94. Shoe with obliquely cut off heel, .... 147 95. Shoe fitted for removable toe and heel pieces, . . . 149 96-98. Heel-pieces (sharp), ...... 149 99. Blunt heel-piece, ....... 149 100. Removable toe-piece, ...... 150 101. Removable toe-piece, . . . , , .150 102. Tool for removing old heel-pieces, .... 150 103. Left hind shoe with toe-grip and calkins, . . . 151 104. Steel rod with toe and heel grips partly formed, . .351 105. Frost nail and stubs, ...... 155 106. Delperier's frost nail, ...... 155 107. Stamp for Delperier's frost nail, . . . . . 156 108. Section of shoe with Delperier's nail inserted, , . 156 109. Outer heel " sharpened," . . . . .157 110. Inner heel " sharpened," . ..... 157 111. Count von Einsiedel's winter shoe for front feet, . . 157 112. The same for hind feet, ...... 157 113. Heel of " screwed " shoe with countersunk hole, . . 158 114. Anvil for making screws, . . . . . 159 115. Screws (full size) provided \sath Whitworth thread, . . 160 116. Screw-cutting machine, ...... 160 117. Frost screw with concave sides, ..... 160 118. Frost screws used by the German army, . . . 161 119. Mould for making screws, . . . . . 161 120-124. Screws, ....... 162 125. Taper tap, ........ 162 126. Plug tap, ........ 162 127. Screw with H-shaped head, ..... 163 128. Screw with + -shaped head, ..... 163 129. Screw with angled head, ...... 163 130. Screw with Y-shaped head, ..... 163 131. Hollow screw, . . .- . . . . 163 132. Perforated screw, ...... 163 133. Universal screw-key, . . . , . .163 134. Sharp cog, . . . ' . . . . . 164 135. Blunt cog, ........ 164 136. Counter-sink for enlarging holes in shoe, , . . 164 137. Round sharp cogs, . . . . . . 165 138. Mould and anvil, ....... 166 139. Transverse section of toe of grip-shoe for draught horse, . 168 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TIG. 140. Toe-grip with oval shank and nut, 141. Transverse section of shoe, 142. Patent shoe with movable toe-grip, 143. Normal position of fore limbs, 144. Turned-out toes, . 145. Calf -kneed formation, 146. Pigeon-toed formation , 147. Normal conformation of limbs as viewed from the side 148. Leg over-extended, 149. Backward incurvation at knee, 150. Oblique pastern, . 151. Upright pastern and limb, 152. Bowing over at knees, 153. Normal position of limbs, 154. Hocks turned in, . 155. Hocks turned out, 156. Excessively curved hocks, 157. Entire hind limb placed too far back, 158. 159. Pair of normal feet seen from in front and from behind 160, 161. Form of feet where toes are turned outward, 162, 163. Form of feet where toes are turned inward, 164. Foot of normal limb and foot of abnormal limb, 165. Abnormally flat (oblique) hoof, . 166. Normal hoof, ..... 167. Upright hoof, 168. Two feet viewed from the side, . 169. Peculiar distortion, hoof upright, pastern oblique, 170. Normal progression (showing position of feet), 171. Mode of progression with turned-out toes, 172. Mode of progression with turned-in toes, 173. Lateral view of hoof, normal progression, 174. Oblique hoof, mode of progression, 175. Upright hoof, mode of progression, 176. Normal right fore foot, . 177. Right fore foot (out-turned toe), 178. Right fore foot (in-turned toe) , . 179. Normal right hind hoof, . 180. Wide " spreading " hoof, . 181. Narrow hoof, . . . 182. Diagram of proportions of fore foot. 183. Diagram of proportions of hind foot 184. Diagram of proprotions of fore foot (lateral view), 185. Diagram of proportions of hind foot (lateral view), 186. Diagram of proportions of fore foot (seen from above), 187. Diagram of proportions of hind foot (seen from above) 188. Overgrown and laterally distorted hoof, 189. Examining style of movement (horse receding), 190. Examining style of movement (horse approaching), PAGK- 169 169 169 172 173 173 173 174 175 175 175 176 176 177 177 177 178 178 179 179 ISO- ISO 180 180 180 182 182 183 183 183 185 185 18^ 186 187 187 188 188 188 189 189 190 190 190 190 193 199 19^ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVll too long riG. 191. Examining formation (lateral view), Doorman's tools, . 9 , . 192. Arabian shoeing knife. 193. Section through normal hoof, 194. Section through hoof with thin sole, . 195. Section through normal foot, . 196. Front foot, .... 197. Right fore-foot of normal and turned-in limb 198. Vertical section through wall at toe, . 199. Hoof too oblique, ... 200. The same hoof properly prepared, Colored plate. Hoof prepared for shoeing, 201. Two feet seen from the side (a, too long a toe; b 202. Foot axis in oblique foot, 203. Foot axis in normal foot, 204. Foot axis in upright foot, 205. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 206. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 207. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc 208. Ewerloff's Podometer, 209. Fullered front shoe for hack, . 210. Fullered fore shoe for hack, 211. Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, 212. Fullered front shoe for hunter, 213. Lateral view of concave front shoe for hack or 214. Hind shoe for hunter, 215. Temporary shoe with leather boot and straps 216. Fullered seated fore shoe, 217. Concave partially-fullered "dub-toed" fore shoe, 218. Concave fullered feather-edged fore shoe, 219. Stamped fore shoe, 220. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 221. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, 222. Concave ijartially-fullered hind shoe, 223. Charlier hind shoe, 224. Racing plate, .... 225. Section of racing plate iron, 226. Racing plate (fore), 227. Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasing 228. Steel fore shoe for trotter with toe-weight, 229. Steel hind shoe for trotter, 230. Hind hoof shod with weighted shoe, 231. Weights seen from front and side, 232. American toe-weighted shoe, 233. American quarter-weighted shoe, 234. Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), 235. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, ground surface, 236. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, foot surface, . hunter. ), faci PAGET . 20a facing 203 . 204 -- c 205 - . 205 . 205 . 206 . 206 . 207 . 208 . 208 facing 208 heels), 209 211 211 211 212 213 214 216 217 ing 218 •' 219 " 220 . 221 . 221 . 222 facing 22S 223 224 224 226 226 228 228 . 229 . 23(y'- facing 231 " 231 . 232 . 234 . 234 . 234 facing 23.> . 23(i. . 232 :xvni LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. facing a facing and (< (( <{ (( (( <( "FIG. 237. Concave fore shoe for carriage horse, 238, 239. Fullered fore shoe, 240. "Rodway" fore shoe, "241. Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe, 242. Fullered fore shoe, 243. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with two calkins 244. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with calkin wedge heel, ..... 245. Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, 246. Cart horse hind shoe for town work, 247. Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, 248. Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purposes, 249. *' North Country" stamped fore shoe, . 250. " North Country" stamped hind shoe, 251. Stamped fore shoe for farm work, 252. Stamped hind shoe for farm work, 253. Stamped fore shoe for railway shunting horses, 254. Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, 255. Ordinary tip, ..... 256. Upright hoof shod with a tip, 257. Special knife with stop used in preparing groove for Charlier tips, 258. Hoof prepared for Charlier tip, 259. Hoof shod with Charlier tip, 260. Stamped fore tip, 261. SirF. Fitxwygram's shoe, 262. SirF. Fitzwygram's shoe, 263. Oriental shoe, 264. Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, 265. Front shoe rounded at the toe, 266. Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes, 267. Left hind shoe for horse ^^dth turned-in toes and contraction of outer quarter and heel, 268. Hand-made nails, 269. French nails, .... 270. Machine-made nail, 271. Badly-formed nail head and shank defective, 272. Cross section of a sound and well-shod hoof, 273. Forceps, .... 274. Right fore shoe with rounded inner edge (forging shoe), 275. Right hind shoe with two lateral toe-clips (forging shoe), 276. Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, ..... facing 277. Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse, . " 278. Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur " for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, . . facing 279. Examination of horse that strikes, .... 280. Cutting shoe, ground surface, .... PAGE 238 241 243 242 243 245 245 246 249 250 250 251 251 253 252 253 253 257 257 258 258 258 259 260 261 263 263 267 209 271 273 272 273 273 275 276 283 283 284 284 285 287 288 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xis: FIG. 281. Cutting shoe, foot surface, 282. Cutting shoe for left hind foot, 283. Cutting shoe for right fore foot, 284. Cutting shoe (right hind) for horse that cuts with the 285. Shoes for horse that turns the toes out, 286. Fullered feather-edged hind shoe, with two calkins, 287. Feather-edged stamped hind shoe,wit]i two nails inside 288. Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe, 289. Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 290. 291. Fullered hind shoe, "set" inside, . 292. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or horse, ...... 293. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, 294. Fullered feather-edged concave fore shoe, 295. Fullered hind shoe for hack, 296. Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered, 297. Concave partially -fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 298. Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, 299. Concave three-quarter hind shoe, 300. Three-quarter partially-fullered hind shoe, 301. Rubber bar pad on leather, 302. Rubber frog pad on leather, 302 A. Downie's rubber pad, .... 302b. Showing method of inserting Hartmann's pad, and PAGE 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310, 312. 313. 314. 315, 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. . 305 . 306 ■ 307 . 307 . 310 . 310 , 310 . 313 . 318 . 321 . 323 facing 324 325 326 larness facing 327 327 330 330 333 Left front foot with inside half of sole " dropped " or convex, 333 Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse). The "quoit" shoe, facing 334 Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) "set*' around outer margin, . ...... facing 33^ tongs, ...... Hoof surface of shoe with Hartmann's pad inserted, Special shoe for straw or fibre pad, Upper surface of above shoe, Hind foot of ass, seen from below. Fore foot of ass, seen from below, Fore foot of mule, seen from below. Instruments for cleaning out feet, 311. Special pincers for examining diseased feet, Special "searcher " used in giving exit to i)us, Bar shoe, seen from above. Concave bar fore shoe , . 316. Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe). Fullered seated bar fore shoe, Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for horse) , . . . . . Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse) > Section of flat hoof with weak sole. Special shoe for above foot. Transverse section through a flat-soled hoof with shoe. • 288 • 289 • 289 toe, . 289 • 290 facing r293 toe, " 293 a 294 (( 294 ( t 295 riding facing 296 t ( 296 ( ( 297 (( 297 (< 298 <( 298 <( 299 (( 299 , horny sole: q, horny frog ; r, ergot at base of fetlock ; s, skin. At the first glance the horse's foot, as represented in fig. 9, might appear to one who had not studied its construction to be exceedingly simple. By making a perpendicular mesial H III o w t ui < J O CC lU I- ?o C < J < COLLtflO-J rf O Uu , sesamoid bones; a, npper articular surface of pastern ; b, do. of sesamoids; c and d, rough surfaces for insertion of ligaments; e, lower arti- cular surface. Fig. 13. —Posterior view of pastern and sesamoid bones. A, pastern ;. B, sesamoids ; n, rough triangle for ligamentous iusei'tion : b, surface for insertion of superior sesamoideau ligament ; c, surface covered (in lite) by intersesamoidean ligament. lage. Its centre presents a slight depression (tig. 12, e), and on either side a prominence, the inner being somewhat larger than the outer and projecting rather further backwards. Above these prominences are rough surfaces for the insertion of liga- ments (fig. 12, d). o O. The two Sesamoid Bones (Figs. 10 and 11, C ; Figs. 12 and 13, B) Are small rounded pyramidal bones lying at the back of the lower portion of the great metacarpus. They appear to con- tinue the suffraii^dnis bone. Each has three surfaces, a summit and a base. The anterior surface (fig. 12, h) is slightly concave, almost triangular, and covered with articular cartilage. The opposed borders of the two bones are so rounded off that when in position they enclose a groove corresponding to and con- tinuing the central groove on the upper end of the suffraginis bone. The two sesamoids, combined with the suffraginis bone. THE CORONET BONE. 27 form a surface which responds to that of the great metacarpus, with which they are in contact. The outer surface of the external sesamoid and the inner surface of the internal are very rough, and show marked depressions for the insertion of ligaments. The two remaining surfaces of the bones (fig. 13, c) are convex and smooth ; in front they are in contact, posteriorly they recede more and more from each other, and when in position form a groove filled with cartilage in the living animal, over which the flexor tendons play. The upper end or apex is pointed and formed by the con- vergence of all three surfaces. The lower end or base is rounded off. 4. The Cokonet Bone or Second Phalanx (Figs. 10 and 11, D\ Figs. 14 and 15) Lies below the suffraginis but above the pedal and navicular bones. It is approximately one-half the size of the suffraginis. In form it resembles a cube, slightly compressed from before to Fig. 14.— Antero-lateral viewof coronet bone. «, upper articular surface ; b, anterior surface ; c, lateral surface ; d, lower articular surface. Fig. 15. — Posterit>r view of coronet bone, a, smooth facet, over which the flexor pedis peiforans tendon glides: h, lower articular surface. behind. It, therefore, presents six surfaces. The upper and lower are for articulation ; the upper shows two lateral depres- sions and a very slight central prominence ; the lower (figs. 14 and 15, h) in this respect resembling the lower end of the suffraginis bone, two lateral prominences and a central depres- sion. The anterior edge of the upper articular surface exhibits a broad, low projection. Towards the sides this edge is sharp, behind strong and rounded : powerful ligaments are attached to it. Behind is a smooth area (fig. 15, «), wdiich serves as a gliding surface for the flexor pedis perforans tendon. The anterior and posterior surfaces (figs. 14, h, and 15) are, when 28 THE BONES OF THE FOOT. healthy, tolerably smooth, and are perforated with a multitude of little holes. The lateral surfaces (fig. 14, c), on the other hand, are always rough. - a» 5. The Pedal Bone or Third Phalanx (Figs. 10 and 11, E: Figs. 16, 17, 18) Is the lowest bone of the foot, and is entirely surrounded by the hoof and by soft tissues. It presents three surfaces, three prominences, and three borders. The anterior surface responds to the wall of the hoof (fig. 16, a, and fig. 17). In general, it takes the same form as the hoof, that is, it is convex from side to side, is crescent-shaped, and runs obliquely downwards and for- PiG. i6.-Ant'ero-iaterai view ,.f pedal wards or outwards. The autcrior bone, ff, anterior surface, which is pro- „„-.t. ^f ^Up n-ni-inr hnvrlpr cjhnw, upper or articular surface ; ,..„«Vp,l nrmm'npnpp whiph hfm c, outer wing of pedal l)one: /' Fig. 36.— Lateral view of fore-foot, with prepared vessels and nerves, a, digital artery ; &, perpendicular artery; e , preplantar ai'tery ; /', twigs from the plantar arterj- which escape through the foramina, just above the lower margin of the os pedis, and by their anastomosis form f, the circumflex artery of the toe ; A, digital vein ; B, coronary venous plexus ; C, laminal plexus ; G, circumflex vein ; 1, digital nerve; 2, anterior tei'minal branches of digital nerve : 3. posterior ter- minal branches of digital nerve ; 4, cutaneous branches. the limb as far as the pedal bone, being known as the digital arteries. At the pedal bone each digital divides to form the preplantar (fig. 36, e!) and plantar artery (fig. 38, /). Examining the vessels more closely, one notices, (l) that each digital artery (a) is a fairly-large vessel, lying at the sidci of the flexor tendons, to which, or to the check ligament of ARTEPJES OF THE FOOT. 55 which, it is fastened by connective tissue. In front i.s placed the vein of the same name ; behind it the digital nerve. About the middle of the os suffracjinis it mves off: — (a) The sufFraginal artery. This is a very short vessel, which runs at right angles to the digital artery, and almost immediately divides into two twigs. (aa) The perpendicular artery (the German term means anterior suffraginal artery) (tig. 36, h) runs forward, and divides into a short and a long twig : the former running upwards, the latter downwards. Both anastomose freelv with the similar artery of the opposite side. They are distributed to the ex- tensor tendon, the skin and the fetlock joint. The lower twig assists in supplying blood to the perioplic and coronary bands. (hh) The posterior suffraginal artery. This is one of Bouley's rameaux dchelonn^s (fig. 38, 5), passes backward and supplies the flexor tendons and their synovial sheaths, the inferior sesamoidean ligament, the suffraginis bone, etc., and anastomoses with its fellow of the opposite side. ih) The artery of the plantar cushion (figs. 37 and 38, c) arises at about the lower end of the os suffraginis, runs backwards and downwards below the centre line of the foot, and oives off numerous branches in the plantar cushion, and especially in the sensitive frog. In addition, it sends twigs to the sensitive bars. (c) About the middle of the coronet bone there arise from the digital artery, sometimes together, sometimes separately — {aa) The anterior coronary artery, or anterior artery of the coronary band (fig. 36, d). This is the larger branch of the two, and chiefiy supplies the coronary band. It anastomoses with its fellow of the other side, forming a very complete net-work termed the coronary circle. (hh) The posterior artery of the coronet bone (fig. 38, d), or posterior artery of the coronary circle, .which passes backwards, unites with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, and supplies the synovial membrane of the coronary and pedal joints, the coronet bone, flexor tendons, ligaments, and skin.* * Professor Mettam regards the arteries to the coronary band as derived in front from the coronary circle and behind from the artery to the phmtar cushion. The arteries from the coronaiy circle are two descending on either side of the extensor pedis tendon. They divide, right and left branches uniting, and the efl'erents from the artery to the plantar cushion doing the same, and uniting with branches from the others, a circumflex artery of the band is formed. — [Jno. A. W. D.] 56 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. Finally, the digital artery arrives at a point between the navicular bone and the wing of the pedal bone, where it divides into two branches, of which one runs outwards over the sur- face of the OS pedis, tlie other into the substance of tlie bone. The former is termed — (2) The preplantar artery, or artery of the wall (figs. 36, e! , and 38, e). Before passing outward this vessel gives off a twig, which is dis- tributed to tlie plantar cushion and sensitive sole. It then passes through the foramen, between the wing of the OS pedis and tlie lateral cartilage, and at once divides into three branches. The most im- portant (tig. 36, d) runs in a foi .ard direction in tlie preplantar groove, and is chiefly distributed to the sensitive laminae. The branch running backward supplies the outer surface of the posterior part of the lateral cartilage and the tissues adjoining with blood ; that running down- wards has connections with the artery next mentioned. (3) The plantar artery, of coronary plexus ; D, solar plexus ; G, circumflex ,'y.T,py. riprlQl arfprir nr avfpvv vein of toe ; 3, posterior division of digital nerve ; ^^^^^^ pcuctl <\.v lei j ,ui dl Ltliy 4, cutaneous branches of digital nerve. ^f ^|^q SCnsitivC Sole (fig. 38,/) is a direct continuation of the digital. After giving off some twigs to the pedal joint (fig. 38, g), it passes, lying in the plantar groove towards the plantar foramen, through which it enters the interior of the pedal bone, where it anastomoses with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, the plantar-arch or semilunar anastomosis, from which small arteries are given off in all directions (fig. 38, f'). These Fig. 37. — Foot, seen from below and behind, a, digital artery ; c, artery of the plantar cushion ; /'", twigs of the plantar artery, which divide to form the solar plexus ; A^ digital vein ; J5, lateral portion VEINS OF THE FOOT. 57 minister to the nutrition of the pedal bone, but a number, termed the anterior laminal arteries, escape from the bone by the numerous foramina piercing its anterior surface, and supply the sensitive laminae. Others again, known as the inferior communicating, pass out- wards through the eight to twelve or more little channels open- ing on the external surface of the os pedis, just above its inferior margin (fig. 36, f), run chiefly downwards, and unite with twigs given off by the preplantar artery, forming a more or less well- marked vessel, which encircles the lower border of the pedal bone, and is termed the circumflex artery of the toe (fig. 36,/^'). From this twigs pass backwards over the lower surface of the foot, supplying chiefly the sensitive sole (fig. ?>7,f"). 2. The Veix\s. After the blood has traversed the capillaries, which in the horn-secreting structures are somewhat large, it is collected into another series of vessels, which form several superimposed net-w"orks, and are so intimately connected one with another tliat its return by one path, if for any reason impeded, can always be effected by numerous alternative channels. The blood brought to the foot by the arteries finally arrives in a large vein, which runs parallel with the digital artery, and is termed the digital vein (figs. 36 and 37, A). This vein is formed by— (1) The solar plexus (fig. 37, D), the net-work of small veins which closely cover the under surface of the foot, aided by those from the plantar cushion and sensitive bars. It discharges partly through the net-work formed by the veins of the plantar cushion (solar plexus) (fig. 37, B), partly through that formed by the deep coronary vein which collects the blood from the inner face of the lateral cartilage (fig. 38, E), and possibly through the coronary plexus, with all of which it is in direct communication. (2) The laminal plexus (fig. 36, C) resembles, in most re- spects, that of the sole. The blood which it contains is either discharged into the coronary plexus, or makes its return by the circumflex vein of the sole. The venous net-work of the sensitive sole (solar plexus) and 58 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. that of the sensitive laminte (laminal plexus) are connected by— (8) The circumflex vein of the toe (figs. 36 and 37, G). This is not perhaps a true vein, but might rather be regarded as a sinus, being formed of several thin -walled tubes or sacs of vary- ing length, which en- circle the lower border of the OS pedis, and are of much greater calibre than the veins of the solar and lam- inal ])lexuses with which they are con- nected. (4) The coronary plexus encircles the entire coronet with the exception of the anterior part, cover- ing both the outer and inner surfaces of the lateral cartilage, by which it is divided into a superficial and paiiying arteries / are shown too thick ; they should be a dcCT) DOrtion. less than half as broad as figured, a, digital artery ; h, r^-, r> • t, («) The superficial plexus (fig. 36, By covers the outer sur- face of the lateral car- KiG. 38. — Right fore-foot, seenfrom below, behind, and some- what from one side, Tiie outer lateral cartilage is re- moved, together with sufficient of the pedal bone to render visible the vessels, etc., in its interior. The nerves accom posterior sutt'raginal artery ; c, artery of plantar cushion (cut through) ; d, posterior artery of coronary circle ; /, plantar artery, which anastomoses with its fellow within the pedal bone, and gives off twigs/', which pass to the anterior surface of the pedal bone, just above its lower edge ; g, twigs of plantar artery supplying cotfin joint ; E, deep lateral layer of coronary plexus, clothing inner sur- face of lateral cartilage ; F, divided ends of superficial part i • p of coronary ple.xus. From these arise the digital vein (not tllao'C, and is lOrmcd shown) ; H, plantar vein ; 4, posterior branch of digital ^ i p i nerve accompanying vessels into pedal bone ; 5, twigs of by VCSSels irom the posterior branch passing towards sensitive lamina;. . . , . -^ sensitive laminae. Its veins are larger, and the meshes of the net-work wider than those in the sensitive lamina\ At the upper border and postero-superior angle of the lateral cartilage a number of large veins unite, and, in combination with those of the deep JsEKVES OF THE FOOT. 5ft coronary plexus and of the plexus of the plantar cushion, form the digital vein. (b) The deep plexus (fig. 38, JS) lies embedded in the depres- sions of the inner surface of the lateral cartilage, which we have already noticed. It likewise is formed by somewhat large vessels intimately connected with the superficial plexus by means of apertures in the lateral cartilage. As a rule, this plexus receives — (5) The plantar vein (fig. 38, H), which issues from the foramen in the pedal bone, and is to be found lying in the plantar groove along with the plantar artery. It is formed by intraosseous branches, which collect and carrv off the blood after its circula- tion in the pedal bone, but it has nothing to do with the removal of blood supplied to the horn-secreting structures. During its course it often receives veins from the pedal articu- lation, though, in other cases, these open separately into the deep coronary plexus. (6) The venous plexus of the plantar cushion (fig. 37, B) is really nothing more than an extension backwards and upwards over the bulbs of the heel of a part of the solar plexus, the meshes of the net-work becoming wider, the veins larger ; afterwards they unite to form large vessels, which, as already noted, assist in the construction of the digital veins. During its course upwards the digital vein of the foot (A) lies in front of its artery at the side of the flexor tendons, receiving, in addition to some innominate cutaneous veins, the suffraginal and perpendicular veins. After the digital veins pass the fet- lock joint, they unite in front of the flexor tendons and form a plexus, from which the metacarpal veins (3) arise. Their con- tained blood, however, has yet to traverse a large number of other vessels before it reaches the heart. B. THE NERVES. The nerves are white, rounded cords of varying thickness, which arise from the brain and spinal cord, and, in their course, usually accompany the arteries. Like the latter, they divide into stems and branches, and are finally lost in the tissues which they supply. Whilst the blood-vessels carry to and fro material for the nutrition of the tissues, the nerves preside 60 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. over, and, in a certain sense, regulate the nutritive and secre- tive processes, thus exercising a most important influence on growth, in addition to serving as channels for the conveyance of impulses which result in motion or sensation. The extra- vascular portions of the foot, i.e., the horny tissues, are destitute of nerves, so that cutting the horn of the hoof and the hairs above it causes the animal no pain ; but the skin and the horn- secreting structures, on the other hand, are freely supplied. For this reason most diseases of the foot cause lively pain, whether they result from bruising, pricks in shoeing, inflamma- tion, contraction of the foot, or any (me of the many other possible forms of injury. The nerves which supply the foot arise from the spinal cord, and in the lower part of the limb, where they accompany the digital artery and vein, are termed the digital nerves. Each digital nerve (fig. 36, 1) divides at the fetlock into two twigs. The anterior (fig. 36, ^) passes obliquely down- wards and forwards over the digital artery and vein, and splits into a great number of small branches, which are distributed in the skin, the coronary band, and the sensitive laminae. The posterior branch (figs. 36, 37, 3, and 38, ^) is the larger, and lies behind the artery, which it accompanies as far as the point where the latter forms the net-work in the pedal bone. On its way to the plantar foramen it gives off a few twigs for the skin (figs. 36 and 37,^), for the joints, and especially for the sensitive frog and sensitive sole. The portion which accom- panies the plantar artery into the pedal bone divides into very fine branches, which run side by side with the small arterioles, make their way out of the pedal bone, and are finally lost in the lamina3 (fig. 38, 5). A third (middle) branch of the plantar nerve can sometimes be distinguished running down immediately behind the vein and supplying the coronet and sensitive laminae. In the horn- secreting tissue, especially in the sensitive frog, peculiar structures have been found connected with the nerves, which are known under the names of Pacinian or Vater's corouscles. CHAPTER Vl. THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. The portions of the limb which have, up to the present, been studied, are, like all other portions of the body, covered and protected from injury by the skin. The covering of the foot, however, differs from that of all other parts of the body. The Skin.—ThQ skin or common intecjument is divided into a super- A. ticial epidermis and a deeper corium or true skin. The epidermis or scarf skin is composed of a multitude of cells united tos^ether so as to form a layer that covers the entire body. From it are derived certain structures, such as hairs, horns, and hoofs, which have important func- tions to perform, and so to render parts of the body more lit for the purposes to which they are put. In animals that have coloured skins, or skins provided with a thick hairy cover- ing, the epidermis is found to be divided into two por- tions, — one the rete mucosum or stratum malpighii ; the other, and one that is constantly shed as scurf, the 61 Fig. 39. — Vertical section through the human nail and nail-bed. a, stratum malpighii of nail-bed ; b, stratum granulosiim of nail -bed ; c, the deep layers of the nail substance ; d, the superficial layers of same. (From Klein's Histology.) 62 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. stratum corneurn. The deepest layer of the stratum mal- pighii, that lying next to the corium, is a very active layer, tlie elements are capable of dividing and giving origin to otliers that go to take the place of those constantly being shed. Moreover, from this layer any loss of epidermis, as in a wound, is made good. Further, from the cells of this layer all the epidermal appendages are derived, as we shall presently explain. During the passage of the cells, derived from the actively grow- ing cells of the stratum malpighii, to the surface, various changes occur in them. Their substance is converted into a horny material, they apparently lose their nuclei, they become flattened and more or less dissociated. Eventually, they are lost as scurf. The epidermis of the domestic animals generally is not so thick as that of man, nor can it be shown to consist of so many well- marked layers ; this masking is due to the amount of pigment contained in the epithelial cells, and the finer differentiating details are thereby lost. The corium is composed of a felted mass of connective tissue (both white and yellow varieties are present, the former in greater amount), and it contains blood-vessels, nerves, lym- phatics, etc. A certain amount of fat, too, is present, occupying the interstices of the connective tissue and mostly near the blood-vessels, but fat is not abundant in the corium proper ; it is below the corium in the subcutaneous tissues that the great mass of adipose tissue seen in some animals, as the ass, is iy:^^?f^;^A when made in this direction (fig. 56,/). ^^^^^^^^^^S^ Until recently, it was generally stated that the horny, like the sensitive, laminae possessed secondary laminae running in the direction of their greatest length. Professor Mettam, however, who has given special atten- tion to the subject, is sceptical of the existence of secondary Fig. 49. — A portion of the inner sur- face of the hoof where horny wull and horny sole join (about natural size), a, laminal sheath ; b, line of union ; between the individual laminae are seen spaces which ac- commodate the horn -secreting papillaj ; c, horny sole. ?^ C ^' «J- ^^^&mMm e Fig. 50. — Transverse incision through the laminal sheath, a, inmost part of the middle sheath ; the horn tubules are seen to reach right up to the horny lamina) ; 6, body of the sensitive wall; c, cornitied portion of lamina) connected with middle sheath of wall ; d , irregular laminse, which do not extend as far as body of sensitive wall ; c", non-cornified portion of rete mucosum ; d, vascular laminaj ; d', vascular laminae which during de- velopment have split, thence given rise to the irregular horny laniime d ; «, injected artery. horny laminae. He says : — " The cells formed by the secondary sensitive laminae had not changed to horn, and consequently, when a section of the horny wall and laminie is viewed, no projections are seen on the latter." The relation of the horny to the sensitive laminae will be seen by reference to fig. 50, 84 THE PKOTECTIVE STKUCTUKES OF THE FOOT. which represents a transverse section of these parts. The inner- most or laminal sheath is the real means of union between the horny wall and sensitive lamime, because the former is the derivative of the latter and intimately united to the middle layer. Pambach's researches (" Beitrag zur Anat. und Physiol, der Blattchenschicht des Pferdehufes," Dcr Hvfschmied, iv., Jahr- gang 1886, pp. 137 and following) on twenty-four horses show that the average number of horny lamina3 is 554. Fambach states that at the toe fifty lamina.' occupy an average space of 18'5 millimetres ; at the quarters So millimetres ; at the heels 29"36 millimetres, and at the bars 38*9 millimetres. Fambach specially mentions that there is a distinct difference between fiat hoofs (that is, such as form an angle of less than 45°) and upright hoofs. In Hat hoofs the spaces between the laminae become relatively greater towards the heel, while in upright hoofs they remain approximately the same. Fambach further found that the depth or breadth of a horny lamina — that is, the distance between the horny wall and the free central margin of the lamina — was in direct proportion to the thickness of the wall with which it was connected. In Hat feet the laminae at the heels were narrower in proportion to the thinness of the wall. According to his measurements, which were in each case made in the centre of the particular section of the wall and perpendicular to the lamime, the depth (or breadth) was : — In Flat Feet. At the toe, 4 to 5 mm. „ quarter, 3 to 4i „ „ heel, 1 to 2i '2 " lu Upriglit Feet. At the toe, 3^ to 4 mm „ quarter, 2i- to 3i- ,, „ heel, 2h to 3 „ 2. The Hoeny Sole (Figs. 45 and 46, /, and 48, g) Is produced by the sensitive sole, and takes the form of a strong plate, covering the greater part of the under surface of the foot. It consists of hard horn, which, however, is not so tough as that of the wall. After a time, j)ortions loosen in the form of flakes or plates, and either break away by themselves THE HORNY SOLE. 85 or are removed in shoeing, so that the sole never exhibits the smoothness of the wall, but has a rough, uneven appearance. The detached pieces are often so changed that they can readily be reduced to a pulverulent mass, nor does even the newly- formed horn close to the sensitive sole exhibit the firmness of the horny wall ; it can easily be cut with a knife, and permits of foreign bodies, like nails, penetrating much more easil}' than that of the wall. The horny frog and bars complete the under surface of the foot. They are inserted into the triangular, wedge-like space which the sole exhibits towards the baclv, and which divides it into an anterior continuous part, termed the body (figs. 45 and 46, /), and two posterior parts, separated ce — # Fig. 51. Fig. Fig. 51. — Vertical trausverse section of hoof with very thin sole, a, periople, continued over the entire wall as indicated by a': b, middle sheath, showing at b' its white tint ; c, lami- nal sheath; (7, union between laniinal sheath and sole (white line); e, sole (excessively trimmed) ; /, point of frog ; f1^>^^0'i to be mere minute holes — a conclusion m\%^^^^ confirmed by the microscope (compare te-i^:SS^%^'^.Sll^^'^^ / ^§- ^'^)- Under a low power the sec- fc^lk''^^ ?^/^'*S' tion shows a number of rounded or oval holes (a) surrounded by dark, crossed lines, which again are em- 'tSoIs"?S£'on,onriS'i bedded in a lighter coloured mate- i, iiiter-tubular horn. The dark y\.{\ ('k\ specks seen in the section repre- \^/* sent masses of pigment. rpj^^ j^^j^^ ^^^ _^ ^^^^^ ^^^.j, SUrrOUud- ing tissue correspond in position to the parallel dark striae found in longitudinal sections, hence we conclude the striae of the wall are hollow tubes, which, however, are not always empty but often contain loosely packed cells or broken-down cell pro- ducts. They are, in fact, horn tubes, a more correct term than that of horn fibres, which has also been given them. The lighter horny material surrounding them has been termed inter- tubular or connective horn. Examination of the sole and soft horn of the fro^- or periople shows an almost exactly similar appearance. The lower surface of the sole, like the upper, exhibits minute openings. On section in an antero-posterior direction, stria are seen running obliquely from above downwards and forwards, the microscopical examination of which shows them also to be horny tubes, though they differ from those of the middle sheath of the wall in their greater breadth and more oblique direction. Sections of fresh, soft horn (like that of the frog) exhibit very fine striae, which usually take a somewhat wavy course. When, however, soft horn is allowed to soak in water for some time STRUCTURE OF WALL, WHITE LINE, AND SOLE. 95 striae appear as thicker, thread-like lines, and are then very distinct. By making a horizontal section, embracing portions of the bearing surface of the wall, of the white line and of the sole (fig. 58), we see that the spaces between the individual horny laminae are not filled by connective horn alone, but that a number of horn tubes are included. The horny laminae possess no horn tubes. Their surfaces show slight striai and small secondary laminae or lamellae, more or less vertical (fig. 56, d and e), resembling those of the sensitive laminae abeady described at p. 71. Transverse sections of the horny laminie show these secondary laminae as small radiating prominences (fig. 66, d), which are to be found both in old and young hoofs. The horn Fig. 58. — Horizontal section through a part of the wall, the white line and the sole, a, horn wall ; b, horn laminae. The horn surrounding the laniina; contains horn tubes c, cut through obliquely ; d, horn sole. of the hoof, therefore, with the exception of the horny laminae, consists of innumerable distinct, parallel, closely -packed horn tubes, running obliquely downwards and forwards, and sur- rounded by an inter-tubular horn which cements them firmly together. We may next go a step further, and seek to discover the nature and mutual relations of the horn tubes and of the inter- tubular horn which connects them. The moderate amplifica- tion which revealed the tubular structure of the hoof is now insufficient. Powers of 200 to 300 diameters are required, and the examination will be found to present peculiar difficulties. To facilitate cutting we must employ horn which has been long macerated, or, if possible, parts from young animals, and some- 96 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. times subject the horn to solutions which soften its structure and make clearer its finer characteristics ; the most useful is caustic potash or soda. Taking some dead, almost powdery, horn from the sole, or a little of the white cheesy material from the cleft of the frog, we place it on a slide, add a little clean water, and dropping over it a cover-glass, subject the specimen to moderate pressure. Under the microscope such a preparation shows only a number of cells resembling those of the epidermis described on p. 61. These are horn cells. By making a second preparation with some of the slimy Fig. 59. — rt, horn cells from wall ; 6>, isolated horn tube from the wall of a new-born foal's foot (has been treated with caustic potash). Fig. 6U. — Horn cells from the sole. a, young cells from the surface of the sole ; b, cells from horn which has been cast material always to be found on the inner surface of the sole, frog, etc., after removal of the hoof (especially when the hoof has undergone prolonged maceration), we see nothing but thousands of horn cells, though in this case they are younger than in the former. Of horn tubes and inter-tubular horn we see absolutely nothing in either case. We may next take a minute particle of dead horn from the sole, or loosen a fragment of the striated soft horn from a macerated foot, and examine it microscopically after the addition of a little caustic potash. We shall then see clearly both horn CELLULAR CONSTITUENTS OF HOEN. 97 tubes and inter- tubular horn. The horn tubes are formed, like the inter-tubular horn, from single cells (compare figs. 62, c, 64, and 65). By pressing on the cover-glass, cells may be detached from the horn tubes and are then difficult to distinguish from those forming the inter- tubular horn. The same appearance is presented by the horn of the middle sheath of the wall (fig. 59, h), though in this case examination is more difficult, and seldom succeeds without the use of some caustic fiuid. Leisering has, however, made Fig. 61.— Horn cells from the perioplic ring, a, young ; b, older cells. Fig. 62. — Horn cells from the frog. a, young ; b, older cells ; c, iso- lated horn tube. good preparations from macerated young hoofs. The horn tubes which project above the bearing surface of the wall in new-born foals, after the removal of 'the cap which covers the toe until birth, are useful for such demonstrations. The horny laminee, as we have seen, contain no tubes, but may be divided in a similar way into single horny cells. In their case it is not so essential to add an alkali. From the results, then, of microscopical examination it may be concluded that the horny cells are the elements from which the horn is built up. The horn tubes, the inter-tubular horn connecting them, and G 98 HISTOLOGY OF HOKN. the horny lamina all consist of cells, which are variously described as tubular, and inter- tubular or connective cells. Leisering states that, in general^ the cells of the soft horn and of the sole are larger than those of the wall. The cells of the horny laminse are longer and less thick than those of other portions of the hoof. Young, imperfectly cornified cells lying close to their point of formation (papillae, sensitive laminse) are rounded, soft, and soon disappear after the addition of caustic potash solution ; they are, therefore, better studied in dilute *?reSTSu%'Sner,,';Wug "oetic acid, which destroys them less sensitive wall ; b, older cells from rqi-)iHl y a fragment of horn lamina (treated '^1 J ' with caustic potash). Lciseriug believes that the cells of the horn tubes lie with their greatest length in the direction of the tube ; the inter-tubular cells, however, at right angles to the tube. The tubular and connecting cells, therefore, cross more or less in direction. This is well shown in sections of the soft horn of the frog, where the cells cross almost at right angles (fig. 65). Leisering has ob- served the same fact Fig. 64.— Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn lU tllC middle shcath from sole. The horn tubes a, like the inter-tubular horn p ,i it • -ii b, are seen to consist of cells. At c some of the horn 01 tUe Wall, especially tubes have been torn away. • i, i: j • m young hoots and m such as have been long macerated. In the sole the formation is somewhat different. The tubular cells there lie with their greatest length more nearly transverse to the direction of the tube. Perhaps this position of the cells and the less intimate connection which exists between them throughout the sole explain the flaking of the sole during work. The cells of the horny laminae always lie with their greatest length across the CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF HORN. 99 lamina, in a somewhat oblique direction from fixed border to free edge, or downwards and inwards. The tendency of the homy laminae always to tear in this direction appears due to the arrangement of their cells (tig. 56, /). The exceedingly fine particles of brownish, blackish, or deep black material which the microscope always shows to be present in greater or less amount between the cells of the tubes and inter-tubular horn is pigment. As its presence interferes greatly with micro- scopical examination, it is best to employ uncoloured hoofs. . This pigment appears to serve no particular purpose in the construction of the hoof, the colour of which varies from white, yellow, or grey to a deep black aCCOrdincr to the amount fig. 65. -Pei-pendiculai- section of horn frog. . , . a, horn tubes; 6, cells of the inter-tubular of piSfmentatlOn. As the pier- horn, which are seen to run at right angles ^ ^. 5 to the horn tubes. ment is produced by the corium, striped hoofs are due to absence of pigment-forming cells in certain recjions of the coronet. It is said that dark hoofs are stronger than light, but this requires confirmation. The contents of the horn tubes consist of loosely packed, incompletely cornified cells, with broken - down material. Sometimes traces of blood are found in the tubes, especially after severe bruises of the corresponding horn-secreting parts. A very few lines on the physical and chemical properties of the horn must suffice. The horn forming the hoof, when fresh or after soaking in water, is fairly elastic ; but after drying it loses this property. It is a bad conductor of heat, and there- fore protects the parts it covers from freezing in winter weather and from burning during the fitting of a hot shoe. Burning horn produces a thick smoke, which has a character- istic smell resembling that of burning feathers. Acetic acid acts least, nitric acid most on horn, the latter turning it soft and yellow ; sulphuric acid produces its effect slowly and renders the cells more distinct. Caustic alkalis (soda and potash) dissolve the inter-cellular substance and break up the horn into its component cells. Ammonia acts similarly : 100 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. hence it mast be injurious to the feet to be continually in contact with manure which contains considerable quantities of this alkali. According to Mulder the elements of the horse's hoof are: — Carbon, 51-41; hydrogen, 6"96 ; nitrogen, 17'46 ; oxygen, 19*94 ; sulphur, 4*23. Clement's analysis is as follows : — Wall Sole. Frog. Water, 1612 36-00 42-00 Fatty rnateiial, .... 0-95 0-25 0-50 Material soluble in water, 1 04 1-r.o 1-50 Insoluble salts, .... 0-26 0-25 0-22 Animal matters, .... 81-63 62-00 100-00 55-78 100-00 100-00 Lungwitz found by experiment that fresh, healthy horn from the frog contained about 40 per cent, of water. In the case of perioplic horn, however, this figure rises to 50. The excess of water in the perioplic horn explains its greater softness and flexibility. Fat is also present in small quantities in the horn, being formed by fatty degeneration of the loose cells contained in the horn tubes. In the soft horn structures of newly-born animals the quantity of fat is sometimes so considerable that little drops of it may be seen under the microscope. CHAPTER II. THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. MoLLER distinguishes three periods in the development of the hoof: — (1) The period of general epidermal formation ; (2) The period of the provisional hoof ; and (3) The period of the hoof proper. The period of general epidermal formation comprises the first two months of uterine life, during which one can only distinguish at the extremity of the limb a slight thickening of the epidermis, marking the position of the future hoof. The second period extends over the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth months of foetal life, during which are formed the coronary band and the remainder of the keratogenous or horn- secretincr membrane. At the seventh month the wall itself appears distinctly, then the sole and frog, whicli are completely developed soon after birth. The third period is characterised by the greater hardness of the horn. Development takes place from the region of the toe towards that of the heels. During the latter half of gestation the hoof begins to assume the appearance of ordinary horn, the chans^e conimenciii£^ at the coronet. At birth the hoof is conical in shape ; its horn soft and elastic. The frog is greatly developed -and the sole is not yet apparent. It is only towards the fifteenth to eighteenth month that the hoof assumes its final form. At first like a truncated cone with its base above, it gradually assumes a cylindrical form, finally changing once more to the conical shape, but with the base below. Tlie heels, formerly very oblique, become parallel to the toe, and the sole develops a marked concavity. An examination of the feet of a fuUv srown but unshod 101 102 THE GKOWTH OF THE HOOF. horse which has been employed in field work, and has not been much on hard roads, will show that they are of the same size and length. If the hoof be marked with a rasp or file, it will be found, after some time, that the mark is receding from the coronary border and approaching the ground ; in a word, it is " growing " downwards. If, however, the horse is not working (or is shod) its hoofs will become longer. Both appearances — the recession of the mark and the elonga- tion of the hoofs — show tliat the latter grow from above down- ward, just as do our nails and hair. The explanation, however, why the unshod hoof of a horse working on the land remains the same length and the shod hoof increases, is to be found in the fact that in the first instance as much horn is worn away from the bearing surface as is produced above, whilst in the other, wear is prevented by the protection afforded by shoes or by the absence of movement. Growth seems to be regular, at least in the wall. Hartmann, who made numerous experiments to discover w^hether the toe grew faster than the (quarters or heel, always found that the fine transverse incisions, which he made at similar distances from the coronary border (though at different points of the circumference of the foot), preserved an equal distance from the coronary border during their passage downwards, so that he concluded growth was equal at all points in the wall. It being so difficult to study the growth of horn in the sole and frog, it is at present not possible to say whether it takes place there more rapidly than in the wall. Hartmann says the frog grows most rapidly when the animals are kept hard at work, though only then if the part comes in contact with the ground. Grohn ascertained negatively the influence exerted by nerve supply upon the growth of the hoof, and found that when the digital nerves of one leg were divided, the wall of the corre- sponding foot grew more rapidly than that of its fellow. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronary border to the ground edge of the wall varies greatly, being from eight to sixteen months at the toe, six to ten months at the quarters, and four to six months at the heel. The length (or height) of the wall and the angle it makes with the ground must, of course, be taken into consideration. If we RATE OF GROWTH. 103 regard the average growth as 8 millimetres (^^ inch) per month, the length of time required for complete renewal of the hoof at any point is easily reckoned. But, as before stated, the rate of growth is not always the same. Luncrwitz studied this question somewhat closely and formulated his results as follows : — 1. The growth of the horny wall is slow and averages about 8 millimetres (t% inch) per month. 2. Unshod hoofs grow more rapidly than those shod. 3. Hind hoofs grow more rapidly than fore. 4. The wall grows slower in stallions than in other horses. 5. Growth takes place to an equal extent round the entire hoof. 6. There is no connection between the colour and rapidity of growth of the hoof. Growth is favoured by the horse going barefooted. The following case is given in the Hufschmied, v. p. 38 : — A horse, the normal growth of whose front hoofs was 3 millimetres monthly, was sent to grass without shoes for three months. A light cantharides blister was applied around the coronet. During this period the growth rose to 8*9 millimetres per montli. In horses which are shod, growth is favoured by free move- ment on moderately soft ground, by careful shoeing which provides for the expansion of the foot, by regularly shorten- ing the wall, by nourishing diet, normal state of health, and by all factors which increase local circulation. Growth is retarded by want of movement, ill health, low condition, exercise on hot sand or on stones, drought, excessive length of the hoof, unequal distribution of wei2;ht in the two limbs, and by continued standing on one foot. Wear depends to some extent on the pace. Thus at a full gallop or fast trot the heels seem to wear most, at a walk or slow trot the toe. That is to say, that at a fast pace the foot is brought liat to the ground or even with the heel first, but at a walk the toe strikes the ground first. It is worthy of note that draught horses usually wear the outer quarter more than the inner. The question of how the hoof grows cannot well be answered by direct inspection of the parts, and requires a careful study of the formation of the specialised corium, which produces the horn, of the microscopic appearances of the horn itself, and of 104 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. the processes of renewal wliich are always going on in the hoof-forming tissues. On page 62 it was shown that the surface of the corium is continually secreting cells which form the epidermis, that the older of these are compressed by the younger and last-formed, in consequence of which they become flatter and drier, take on a horny character, and finally are thrust off*. The growth of the hoof is very similar. Like the epidermis, the hoof consists of cells secreted by the specialised corium, and gradually compressed and dried into a solid adherent mass corresponding to the more superficial epidermal layers. Nevertheless, the arrangement and forward growth of the horn cells difl'er essentially from those of the epidermis. As the hoof corium, which produces horn cells, is not a level surface like that of the skin, but presents numerous papilhe and laminae, the growth and formation of horn naturally presents many peculiarities. This folding of the horn-secreting surfaces ensures a very intimate connection between the horny and sensitive parts, a union characterised by firmness and resistance to dis- placement, but presenting also a sufficiently yielding char- acter to permit of the growing down of the wall. Leis- ering suggested the following theory of the growth of the hoof : — Every point in the corium, however small, is capable of producing horn cells. The papillae, the little surfaces be- tween them, the sensitive laminiii and their interspaces, are all concerned in producing horn, but each in a particular way. Let the reader imagine the papilke in function, ilrstly, they produce a circular layer of horny cells ; below these another layer, a second, a third, a fourth, and so on. As, however, the older cells cannot continue to retain their original position as the newer cells are formed, they are gradually thrust outwards and onwards in proportion to the space required by the new cells. As each papilla is more or less conical, the rows of cells are first arranged in a funnel shape, and finally each papilla becomes the growing base of a horn tube. As, however, the individual (and concentric) layers of cells are firmly united to one another, and as each layer is intimately connected with the next, there are no marked intervals be- HOKN TUBES AND INTER-TUBULAR SUBSTANCE. 105 tween the little tubes thus produced. Eacli papilla, therefore, furnishes the material for and produces a horn tube modelled on its own form. The horn tubes correspond in size to the papillaB producing them, the thicker papilhe producing larger tubes. But this is only a part of the process, for were there no cementing substance the innumerable tubes thus produced would only loosely cover the sensitive foot, just as hair covers a man's head or the mane a horse's neck, and therefore we have to note that whilst the papilla- are producing tubes, the surfaces between are secreting inter-tubular cells which interlock with those of the tubes, and bind the whole into one firm mass of horn. The strength and hardness of horn depend to some extent on the age of the hoof. The older the cells the harder they become ; hence the horn close to tlie secreting parts is softer and more readily cut than that further removed. The degree of toughness appears to depend largely on the arrangement of the cells, being greater the more varying the direction between the cells of the tubes and those of the inter-tubular horn ; it is perhaps greatest in the softer horn structures and middle sheatli of the wall, where the cells run in every direction (compare fig. 65). The horn of the sole in which the arrangement of the cells is entirely different exliibits little toughness. Havint,^ obtained an idea of the method in w^hich the horn of the wall, sole, and frog is produced and grows, it only remains to note how the horny wall and horny sole are "». -- ^ •X'ii. • ■ \ ,. :feV - ■-=^ ^<- /.{ > All' v^x. 'f:i ith ■s>''-'-\ ■■ML'' * ^' ''>l''j i# ••• •.• ' ■ >^- ^ "■■(;■ '■ •%. F ^^ v ■ V ,i Fig. 66. — Horizontal section, showing relation of a horny lamina to the corium. A. the horny lamina derived from the cells B, B, which have grown into the corium C. When the horny lamina is withdrawn after macerating the foot, the space it occupied is the cleft between the " fleshy " lamina;, and the processes upon which the lines from B end are then known as secondary laminse. It will be seen that they increase the horn- producing area ; the cellular character of the horny lamina is, however, still evident. (From a micro-photo., Oc. 3, obj. 7.) ^ of horny cells on either of its surfaces. The opposing rows of horny cells between each pair of sensitive laminse unite, forming a single horny lamina. Hence each pair of sensitive laminse enclose a horny lamina, and the total number of horny and sensitive laminae is approximately equal. The amount of horn contributed by the sensitive laminae to the middle layer of the wall is extremely small, being confined to a very thin layer of cells secreted by the margins of the sensitive lamiut^e, PART PLAYED BY THE LAMINi-E. 107 and collected in the interspace between two horny laminae. All the rest of the cells go to the formation of horny laminae. Henle {Das Wachsthum des menschlichen Nagcls unci des Pferdehufs, Gottingen, 1884, p. 32) says, " In my opinion the laminae of the sensitive wall correspond to the folds of the corium in the human nail-bed. The horny laminae correspond to the stratum mucosum of the nail, and between the two structures there is only this difference, that in man the stratum mucosum and the horny layer are shar23ly differentiated from one another, whilst in the horse the horny laminae and the horny wall insensibly coalesce. From this fact I conclude that in man the body of the nail glides forward over the deeper structures without taking up new elements, whilst, as in the hoof the horny laminae and wall are intimately connected, it seems quite possible that the wall may receive additions from the laminae. That this increment is very slight however, is shown by the fact that the wall remains of equal thickness throughout any vertical line." (For cut of human nail-bed, see p. 61.) The horny laminie produced by the sensitive wall are gradually thrust or carried by the downward growth of the horny wall towards the ground, remaining, however, in un- broken continuity with the middle sheath of the wall, and, as a whole, representing the inner sheath. On the ground surface of the hoof thev form the white line. Normal cppowth of the wall essentially depends on a normal condition of the sensitive and horny laminae. The layers of cells formed by the latter may be regarded as permitting the gradual downward movement of the horny wall, and as preventing its quitting its proper direction. Such an explanation is strengthened by the existence of a l^emarkable peculiarity in the formation of the horny laminae, which will later be de- scribed. The firm connection between the laminal and middle sheaths of the wall, and the interdigitation of the horny and sensitive laminae, explain the intimate connection between the horny and sensitive walls, but not that between the hornv wall and sole, for the laminal sheath, which in its continuous downward progress projects beyond the laminae, would not of itself form a sufficient 108 THE XiROWTH OF THE HOOF. bond between the two. The lower ends of the sensitive laminae are provided, however, with horn-secreting papilhe, which again are continuous with those of the sensitive sole, so that in the hoof after removal from the foot they appear merely to be the marginal papilke of the sensitive sole. At the point where wall and sole meet, and between the individual horny laminae, these papilhe and the surfaces between them produce tubes and inter-tubular horn, and thus fill the spaces previously occupied ^- FlG. (57. — t'ross section of the cxMinectiny' sheath of the wall. a. iimeiinust portion of the protective slieath of the wall : tlie horn tubes are seen to extend right up to the liorn haniina; ; b, portion of the vascular wall ; c, portions of horn lamina? connected with horn wall ; d , irregularly developed horn laniinte ; c", the so-called secondary lamina; ; d, sensitive or vascular lamina;; d' , irregularly developed vascular lamina;; e, injected arterial vessels. by the sensitive laminae, which would otherwise divide the horny lamina?. The horn thus thrown out connects the lower portions of the laminal sheath with the sole, and assists in forming the " white line " (compare fig. h^). Strictly speaking, therefore, the white line is produced by the sensitive wall alone. The horny lamincC are derived from the lateral surfaces of the sensi- tive lamina^ which, however, they have left behind ; the inter- laminal horn is a later acquisition, being produced by the papilla? which terminate each sensitive lamina, and, like the • horn of the sole, is still in connection with the structure pro- ducing it. An interesting point has been raised as to how the coronary papilla? secrete tubes of horn and not solid cylinders. It is, of course, clear that, as the papilla becomes covered with FUNCTION OF THE SENSITIVE AVALL. 109 cells and these again are thrust off by continued growth, a cyUnder must be formed. It would seem, however, that the cells produced by the tip of the papilla are different in character to those produced by the sides, and that at a very short distance from the papilla itself the central cells of the liorn cylinder begin to contract so that spaces are left, much in the same way as in the stalks of certain grasses. As growth proceeds, the cen- tral cells contract more and more, until the original cvlinder becomes a veritable tube. By examining a cross section of horn laminae, like that shown in fig. 68, with ^-inch objective, it is seen, even after treatment with water alone, that the lamina consists of two distinct parts. The condition is better brought out by the use of alkalis or colouring materials. On treating the section with dilute potash solution the outer part of the lamina clears up and becomes almost invisible, while the centre remains un- altered, save that its cells become rather more distinct. Again, the outer layer of cells readily absorbs a carmine stain while the inner refuses it. The outer portion consists of young, uncornified cells just secreted by the sensitive la- minte. The central, darker part is made up of cells which have already become cornified. The function of the well-developed mucous sheath (stratum mucosum) of the wall appears to be to facilitate the downward movement of the wall from coronet to bearing marsin. After disease of the sensitive wall the downward growth appears impeded and the crust is apt to show defor- mation. The function of the sensitive wall has been the subject of Fig. 68. — Transverse section of two horn lamina) still connected with the middle sheath of the wall, a, middle sheath ; b, trans- verse section of horn tubules ; c, central cornified portion of horn lamina ; d, e, and/, young horn surrounding the fully cor- nified parts. 110 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. lively controversy. The principal views on the point are as follows : — (1) The sensitive wall only produces the laminal sheath of the horn wall. This is the generally accepted view, and is supported by H. Bouley and Leisering. (2) The sensitive wall produces the entire mass of cement substance or inter- tubular horn (Fuchs). (3) The sensitive wall produces the inter-tubular horn of the inner (white) sheath of the wall (Brauell). (4) The sensitive wall has no part in the production of horn laminae, but the entire wall, including the lamina, grows downwards from the coronet. The sensitive wall produces a fine layer of horn lying between the laminie and the mucous sheath of the sensitive laminae. This view appears untenable, if only because it fails to explain the gradual increase in width of the horny lamimv as one proceeds from above downwards. CHAPTER III. THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. At rest the horse's weight is distributed over four columns, the framework of each of which is formed by bones. Taking any one of these columns we find the load finally falls on the pedal bone, and is transmitted by it to the hoof, which may be compared to a socle or plinth sustaining the entire limb. The body- weight, however, is not distributed equally over the four hoofs, the front feet, which lie nearer the centre of gravity of the body, carrying a greater proportion than the liind. Every object must be supported, at least at one point. If all the parts surrounding this are themselves in equilibrium the point of support will lie vertically below the centre of gravity. Living objects, including the horse, have, instead of a point, a surface of support, which, in the horse, may be delimited by lines uniting the outer borders of the hoofs, and will therefore be found to take the shape of an elon- gated rectangle. The centre of gravity of the body falls at a point somewhat in advance of the intersection of the two diagonals. When the horse stands on three legs, the centre of gravity is shifted, and the surface of support becomes triangular. If a hind-foot is rested, the point wilLbe displaced in a back- ward direction, if a fore-foot, forwards. As the feet can only sustain weight when in contact with the ground, it follows that in movement the surface of support may be an elongated strip, i.e., a surface as broad as the hoof, and as long as the space between the two hoofs (trot), or may even be diminished to the area presented by the single hoof, which for the time being carries the entire body-weight (gallop). In addition to the weight of the body, the limbs have often to bear a con- 111 112 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. sideiable added load, and are hence exposed during severe work to many chances of injury and disease. The action of weight on the hoof differs at a slow walk and at higher rates of speed. At a walk the rise and fall of the load is slight, but at the trot, gallop, or leap it greatly increases. At these paces tlie impact of the body- weight is violently trans- mitted to the lower parts of the limbs, and, in proportion to the rapidity with which the animal moves, the hoof suffers a more or less violent shock at each contact with the earth, such shock producing in its turn a corresponding counter-shock. Considering the weicfht of the animal's bodv, it is clear that, were it not for the peculiar anti-concussive arrangements in the hoof and limb, such violence must be followed by severe injury both to limb and trunk. The angular formation of the limbs, and the position in which they come in contact with the earth, the presence of joints, and the excentric form of their articular surfaces, the resiliency of articular cartilages, the lubrication by synovia, the elasticity of ligaments, of the lateral cartilages, plantar cushion, coronary band, and horny capsule, and, finally, the peculiar union between hoof and pedal bone, all co-operate in diminishing the effects of violent impact with the earth, and in preventing transmission of shock to the trunk. An exhaustive examination of these anti-concussive media would extend to even more distant regions, for the entire limb is elastic, while the fore-limbs are connected with the trunk, not by bones, but by muscles, a device which, in itself, tends very materially to minimise shock. The hind-limbs, certainly, are directly connected with the rest of the skeleton, but this is compensated for by their angular formation, and by the ligament- ous tissues connected with the stifle and hock joints. In every joint, therefore, the vibration transmitted to the limb is some- what diminished, and, as a consequence, the body sustains only slight and unimportant disturbance. Of the lower joints of the limb, the fetlock shows this anti-concussive mechanism best. Its articular depression, into which fits the lower extremity of the metacarpal bone, consists of three bones, con- nected together, but nevertheless relatively movable. By means of the powerful suspensory ligament, the sesamoid bones are suspended from the bones of the carpus, and are connected to the upper end of the metacarpus ; hence, when the fetlock HOW CONCUSSION IS NEUTRALISED. 113 joint is excessively flexed under the incidence of the body- weight, these bones yield to a considerable extent. The sus- pensory ligament, in common with the inferior and lateral sesamoidean ligaments, and the two bands of the suspensory which pass downwards and forwards (fig. 25, h^) to unite with the extensor pedis tendon, assure to this joint a secure position without any exertion of muscular strength, while yet permitting the backward and downward movement of the lower end of the metacarpal bone during movement. The anatomical peculiarities indicated greatly assist the fetlock joint in neutralising shocks produced by the incidence of the body- weight, so that in the normal position of the fet- lock the force of impact is at least diminished by one-half, and what remains is transmitted through the bones of the foot to the hoof. As at the coronet joint the coronet bone is firmly attached to the suffraginis, little movement can occur, and, therefore, little diminution of shock. The coronet bone is connected directly with the suffraginis, and indirectly with the sesamoid bones and common extensor pedis tendon, an arrangement which prevents displacement of the coronet joint under any ordinary load. So far as the dissipation of shock is concerned, the pedal joint is much better arranged, its lower articular surface consisting of two bones, the pedal and navicular. The mobility of this joint is greater than that of the coronet joint, though not equal to that of the fetlock ; on the other hand, the joint allows of considerable lateral deviation. It is assisted in distributing concussion, firstly, by the division of its articular surface into two ; secondly, by the possibility of movement between the pedal and coronet bones ; and thirdly, by the elastic nature of the structures between the pedal bone and hoof. The pedal and navicular bones are connected by ligaments, namely, two strong lateral ligaments, two suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone (postero-lateral ligaments), which run upwards somewhat spirally arranged, and the fibro-elastic apparatus attached to the skin, referred to, p. 43 (fig. 27, e), in addition to the ligaments connecting the navicular and pedal bones (strahlbeinhufbeinbiinder) and the navicular bone and lateral cartilages (strahlbeinhufknorpelbander). Broadly viewing, then, the collective ligaments of the three joints of the foot, they are seen to lie chiefly on the posterior H 114 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. surfaces of the bones, and, owing to their method of origin and insertion and their radiating formation, to be capable of assuring the relative position of the bones forming the joints without the intervention of other structures. The justice of this theo- retical deduction is shown by the fact that, after section of the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus, the angle between the metacarpus and os suffraginis often remains little altered. The joints named, and especially the pedal joint, are further supported in position by tendons, particularly by the flexor tendons, with their limiting and encircling ligaments. Immediately the foot comes in contact with the ground the ligaments and tendons are thrown into tension, the position of the hoof remaining the same from the beginning to the end of this period. We see that the articular depression of the pedal joint forms the point of rotation for the termination of the column of bones carrying the weight of the body. We see, also, that, varying with the weight carried by the limb, the fetlock joint moves to a certain extent backwards and down- wards, though it returns again immediately the load diminishes, and that while the fetlock has full play the hoof remains stationary. This play of the fetlock would be impossible were the pedal joint immovably connected with it. The strain on tendons and ligaments is not, however, equally severe throughout these joints at all times, but tension and relaxation alternate according as the axis of the fetlock is more or less inclined to the horizontal plane. At the moment when the fetlock is most oblique, all the ligaments of the fetlock joint, and especially the superior suspensory ligament and the perforans and perforatus tendons, are exceedingly tense. The ligaments of the pedal joint, on the other hand, are relaxed. But just before the hoof leaves the ground, all the ligaments of the pedal joint become tense to their extreme margins. At this moment, in consequence of the forward movement of the body, the foot is tilted, but the flexor muscles do not begin to act fully until the toe of the foot quits the ground. As the weight diminishes, the suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone, the four posterior corono-suffraginal ligaments, the ligaments passing between the lateral cartilages and skin of fetlock, constituting the plantar aponeurosis, and CHANGES IN FORM OF THE HOOF. 115 especially the cartilaginous plate at the back of the pastern (fig. 27, e), become excessively tense, causing the navicular bone to be applied closely to the posterior part of the articular surface of the coronet bone, and the anterior rounded part of its articular prominence to be pressed firmly into the articular depression of the pedal bone. The formation of the articular groove of the coronet bone favours the fixation of the pedal joint at the moment when the parts are relieved of weight. When flexion is complete, extension immediately begins, and the hoof is advanced, whereupon the stage of weight-bearing commences and is followed by relaxation, a series of changes which recurs again at each step. In order to ensure free and perfect action, it is absolutely necessary that the hoof should leave the ground lightly and easily. Everything which impedes this phase of movement interferes with action, and may lead to disease of tendon, ligament, or bone. Such action can, however, only result when weight is equally distributed throughout the joints of all four limbs, and the (imaginary) axis of the foot, as viewed from the side, appears nearly straight. Slight deviation of the axis of the foot in a forward direction, thus I does no harm, but deviation backwards is excessively injurious, be- cause it leads to greater weight being thrown on the above- mentioned ligaments, and may produce lameness without the horse being exposed to any special strain. Injury may result even when standing in the stable, especially when the surface of the pavement falls too much towards the heel-post. Bearing in mind these facts, the farrier should strive to so form the hoof that the load between the ligaments and tendons in the region of the pedal joint is evenly distributed. Changes in Form of the Hoof. We have seen that the body>weight is conveyed to the pedal bone through the medium of the coronet bone. As, however, the pedal bone is connected through the laminal sheath of the sensitive wall with the horny wall, it is clear that the weight is further conveyed to the horny wall itself. This, like the other parts of the hoof, is somewhat elastic. Elastic bodies change their shape under pressure, a rule to which the hoof 116 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. is no exceptioD. The character and extent of these changes of form, and how and at what times they occur, are points which have been studied both in living and dead hoofs, though results vary greatly, and in some instances even contradict one another. This is explained partly by the different interpretations of different observers, partly by the difference of the objects examined, and partly by variations in methods of examination, though it is also probable that contradictory results have, in certain cases, been caused by unappreciated or doubtful anatomical conditions in the hoof. Historical. — The elasticity of the hoof was recognised even in the last century by Lafosse, jun., and J. Clark, although they attributed it to the elasticity of the horn alone. In 1810 Bracy Clark went a step further. He referred the elasticity of the hoof to the formation of the horny capsule, which he divided into three chief paits — wall, sole, and frog. He also laid great stress on the flattening of the concavity of the sole, and the driving apart of tlie heels by the frog at the moment when weight was placed on the foot. He concluded that any interference wdth this lateral movement of the heels by the shoe might be injurious, and his observations were, therefore, of great practical importance, for they form part of the foundation of our present system of shoeing. The shoe he recommended had no heels, possessed a perfectly horizontal bearing surface, and had nail holes distributed through its anterior half only. A Frenchman, Perier, attacked these views to some extent in 1835, for while he allowed that the sides of the bearing surface of the hoof might move slightly, he denied that the heels as a whole did so. An English experimenter, Gloag, of the Army Veterinary Department, working on both livino' and dead hoofs, initiated new ideas in 1849. He found no lateral movement, no sinking of the sole, but only a slight sinking of the bulbs of the heel. Next year, however, Gloag's results were contradicted by Eeeve. In order to demonstrate the descent of the sole in the living horse, he used a shoe which carried between the quarters a cross bar provided on the upper side with small upright spikes. After the horse had been walked a few steps, the hoof w^as examined, but showed nothing to indicate that the sole descended. The horse was then trotted and galloped ; EARLY EXPERIMENTS ON EXPANSION OF THE FOOT. 117 a second examination left no doubt, for each spike, which was still at the same distance from the surface of the sole as at- the commencement of the examination, had produced a mark in the sole. There were altogether nine visible punctures, showiiif!: that the sole during movement had sunk and risen again. In a similar way he also proved the lateral expansion of the hoof at the bearino; surface. The famous French experimenter, H. Bouley, in 1851, like- wise proved the dilatation of the hoof and the descent of the sole during movement. In 1852 Mills traced the circumfer- ence of the hoof, both when bearing weight and when free, and showed that the circumference of the hoof when loaded was greater than when unloaded. Leisering and Hartmann,in 1861, made experiments on dead and livinsj hoofs. Leiserino- found that in dead feet the posterior parts of the horny sole sink more than other points, provided the navicular bone is also under pressure. He con- sidered that the descent of the sole is accompanied by only a slight dilatation of the periphery and bearing surface, and that at the coronary border of the wall there is even diminution in size. According to his view, the hoof carries the greatest weight at the moment when the fetlock joint is most extended forward (dorsal flexion). Experimental measurements of living hoofs, which he made in company with Hartmann, gave the following results : — Dilatation of the lateral w^alls of the hoof at the bearing surface, about 1 to 2 millimetres, at the coronary border an equal degree of contraction ; dilatation of the walls of the heel at the coronary margin, 2 to 4 millimetres, and at the bearing surface, 2 to 3 millimetres. Leisering's views on the movement of the foot were generally accepted until 1880, but in 1881 Lecbner came forward with his experiments made on dead hoofs. These seemed to directly contradict the views previously received. Lechner even believed that the previously received views as to the movement of the hoof were entirely erroneous and had stood in the way of rational shoeing. He placed especial w^eight on what he called rotation of the foot, and laid down the following dicta : — 1. Dilatation at the bearinii' surface in the sense of the older theories, that is, increase beyond the normal size of the 118 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. hoof when bearing weight, never occurs in a normally formed and sound hoof. 2. The hoof dilates, or at least becomes tense, at the moment of greatest dorsal flexion* of the fetlock, along the entire coronary border, but not along the bearing margin. On the contrary, at this moment the posterior part of the hoof " rotates " on the bearing surface, especially the angle of the bars and the walls of the heels, together with the other tissues lying between them, whilst the wall and sole of the anterior half of the hoof move towards the middle line, that is, the hoof becomes narrower below at the moment when the anterior half of the bearing surface is under the greatest strain. 3. The sole does not sink at the moment indicated, the bars and portions of the sole next them rather rising and approaching one another laterally. The sole, therefore, presents a narrower and not a wider appearance. 4. The limbs of the frog are not thrust asunder at the above- named moment, that is, broadened and pressed backwards, but are pressed together, thickened from the sides, and their length, as a whole, increased, the under portions of the bulbs being drawn somewhat backwards and outwards. 5. This rotary movement in the hoof occurs both above and below synchronously and isochronously, that is, simultaneously and at equal periods of time. Lechner's results, which are entirely supported by those of Gierth, introduced new views as to the physiology of the horse's hoof, and at the same time gave rise to fresh experiments. Lungwitz and his assistant (now Oberroszarzt a. D. H. Schaaf) made experiments on living hoofs in regard to dilatation of the hoof at the bearing surface, using a specially constructed instrument. The dilatation of the bearing border during the period when the hoof carries weight is shown in the following table : — * It will be noted that the fetlock joint may be flexed in a forward direction (dorsal flexion), as during the last phases of movement, preparatory to the foot leaving the ground. Dorsal flexion of the fetlock is sometimes, though perhaps less precisely, described as " extension.'' Flexion backwards (volar flexion) takes place during movement of the limb through the air, and is the condition most often indicated, in this country, by the term "flexion.'' LUNGWITZ'S CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 119 Number of Experiments. Dilatation in Millimetres. At Outer Wall of Heel. At Inner Wall of Heel. Between. At rest, Walk, Trot, Gallop, ..... 32 33 69 12 0-25 0-55 0-84 106 0-30 70 1-22 1-81 0-55 1-28 2-23 3-04 In addition, Lungwitz by himself undertook another series of experiments on living feet, using girdles, callipers, and pieces of gummed-on paper. He came to the following conclu- sions : — 1. Dead hoofs, both sound and diseased, except those with ossified lateral cartilages, dilate at the coronary margin of the heels. 2. In healthy hoofs the bearing surface dilates, both at the coronet and at the ground surface. 3. This dilatation results in a slight shortening of the longi- tudinal diameter of the hoof, which is best shown at the coronary border. 4. Dilatation of the bearino- surface of the wall is shown in different ways, according to the form of the hoof. In flat or laminitic hoofs it increases from the toe towards the heels, but diminishes again towards the bearing surface, o. Dilatation of the bearing surface is impeded by shoeing and by dryness of the horn. 6. Flexibility of the horn, and a well-developed but un- trimmed frog, favour dilatation of the hoof at the bearing surface. 7. In hoofs with wired-in heels and compressed bars, dilata- tion under the body-weight may still occur, but the most posterior part of the bearing surface of the heel does not take part in it — rather the contrary. In the year 1882 Bayer undertook experiments on the dilatation of the living hoof, using an electrical apparatus. He also found that, when weight was placed on the foot, dilatation occurred at the heels both at the coronary and bearing margins. 120 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. Martinak measured the living hoof by means of callipers, and found well marked dilatation at the bulbs and heels of the hoof when loaded. His experiments on the living hoof, in which he used a bar shoe, also seemed to contradict Lechner's rotation theory. Steglich, along with Schenkel, made experiments on dead hoofs. They concluded that : — " The weight of the body produces lateral dilatation of the hoof, greatest at the coronary border and least at the bearing surface of the horny capsule. Dilatation both of the coronary and bearing surfaces is best marked in the region of the heels. Towards the quarters it becomes less, and where the quarters abut on the toe it entirely disappears. The cause of dilatation at the coronary margin is the thrusting downwards and inwards of the broader parts of the os coronas between the lateral cartilages at the moment of greatest extension (greatest weight). Dilatation at the bearing surface is produced by lateral dis- placement of the plantar cushion and horny frog under the pressure of the body-weight. The simultaneous descent of the horny sole permits of expansion of the bearing surface of the foot." Schwentzky measured twenty-two living hoofs, and, except in the case of four abnormal hoofs, found that, when the animals were standing at rest, the amount of dilatation at the bearing margin was from 1 to 2 millimetres ; the average 1*45 millimetre. Peters has taken a prominent part in the study of the expansion of the foot. He advanced what was termed the " depression theory," and placed .particular stress on the possibility of elongation of the laminal sheath of the wall and on the direction of its fibres, by which alone descent of the pedal bone becomes possible, and in the further study of which the explanation of all the phenomena of the movements of the foot is to be found. His experiments led him to the conclusion that the pedal bone, which is fastened to the wall, enjoys a certain degree of mobility, owing to the possibility of elongation of the laminal sheath and to the elasticity of the coronary border of the hoof ; that movement occurs around the toe of the OS pedis as around a fixed point, and, therefore, that the navicular bone, being, as it were, an appendix of the os pedis, must take part in these movements. Tlie depression or elastic THEOKIES OF STEGLICH, PETERS, BAYER, ETC. 121 distention of the wall occurs in a backward direction, causing change in the lateral profile of the hoof. He advances, as the most important of his conclusions, the following : — 1. The OS pedis and lateral cartilages, together with the navicular bone, perform movements within the horny capsule, rotating in the segment of a circle round the point of the toe. 2. The elastic wall, through its laminal sheath, is forced to follow this movement, and, therefore, the quarters of the hoof change in shape, while the coronary border, being thrust out- wards and backwards, descends to a slight extent, and the height of the hoof is diminished. 3. Diminution in height is accompanied by increase in the transverse diameter of the lioof ; as much space being thus gained at the sides, both at the coronary and bearing borders, as is lost by reduction in height. Lateral dilatation is produced by the walls being pressed outwards and the bearing surface following suit under the pressure of the pedal bone and lateral cartilages. 4. The posterior part of the sole becomes flattened under the pressure of the body- weight, and, by thrusting aside the portions of the wall nearest it, provides space laterally exactly correspond- ing to that lost owing to the pressure from above. Fambach's experiments on the laminal sheath of the hoof also support the depression theory. Bendz refers the dilatation of the heels to the pressure of the navicular bone on the bars. Bayer, who employed an electrical instruuient to detect the changes of form in the hoof, was of the same opinion. Foringer, and afterwards Lungwitz, Gutemicker, Schwentzky, and others, made similar experiments. Foringer, who employed a specially constructed electrical apparatus, with an alarm bell, examined living!* hoofs, and found that the wall of the heel dilated both at the coronary and bearing surfaces, and that the sole was depressed during movement. Gutenacker, employing Foringer 's apparatus, made certain discoveries which appear to support Peters' depression theory. Schwentzky also used an electrical apparatus. His experiments appear to agree on essential points with those of Bayer, Fijringer, Gutenacker, and Lungwitz. Lungwitz probably made the greatest number of experiments on the living hoof. He modified Foringer's 122 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. apparatus in such a way as to permit all parts of the hoof to be- examined. He experimented both on the animal at rest and in motion, and demonstrated movements in all parts of the wall. His researches prove the occurrence of expansion at the coronary and bearing surfaces of the heels, and simultaneous depression of the sole at the moment when the fetlock joint was most extended (or dorsally flexed). Dominik's experiments, on the other hand, which extended to both living and dead hoofs, seem rather to favour Lechner's rotation theory. The complicated construction and form of the hoof, its con- nection with the limb, and the continuous variation of the conditions during movement, prevent our attaching the same importance to post-mortevi experiments as to those made on the living animal. Infra-vitam experiments, moreover, have a greater claim to consideration, partly because of the great number which have been performed, and partly because of the agreement in their results. The following principles, based on numerous experiments, agree in great part with the more important experiments both old and new, and only conflict with those of Lechner and a few others. The point of rotation is the pedal joint. At the moment when the foot first meets the ground pressure is slight. It increases as the limb approaches the perpendicular, and is greatest when the fetlock is most markedly extended, after which it diminishes until the hoof is raised from the ground. The changes in form are most marked at the moment of greatest extension (dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. They consist, firstly, in lateral expansion of the entire heel region ; secondly, in contraction of the coronary border of the anterior half of the hoof ; thirdly, in diminution in the height of the hoof as a whole, with simultaneous descent of the bulbs, and, fourthly, in descent of the sole. These changes occur simul- taneously and bear a direct proportion to the weight imposed on the foot. Leisering accepts Peters' depression theory as explaining these, with, however, the qualification that he regards the moment of greatest change in form as coincident not with the removal of weight but with greatest extension (or dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. The extent of displace- ment of the heels and sinking of the sole is slight, and varies from 0'5 to 2 millimetres, seldom more. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 123 In order to understand the mechanics of the hoof, it is desirable to study the changes in movement somewhat more closely. According to Peters' theory, the pedal bone, with its comple- mentary parts, the na- vicular bone and lateral cartilages, rotates in the segment of a circle around its own point, which is to be regarded as its axis. If we bear in mind that the inter- fig. 69.— vertical cross section of a foot seen from behind. ., 1 1 • '^' coronet bone; B, navicular bone; C, pedal bone; Vals between the elastic «, lateral cartilage ; b, anterior portion of plantar ^ . cushion ; c, divided part of flexor pedis perforans ten- lamillie and the horny don ; rf, postero-lateral ligaments of navicular bone ; ^, , - . horn wall ; ?« , horn sole ; n, white line ; o, horn frog. wall mcrease towards the heels (Fambach), it will be seen that the connection between the sensitive and horny laminae is not everywhere equally firm, but becomes less so towards the heels, and, there- fore, that at this point the greatest movement might theoreti- cally be looked for. In consequence of its formation, its strong and long wall, and its connection with the pedal bone, the toe would be expected to suffer least displacement under pressure, whilst the posterior parts of the hoof, being less thick and less firmly attached to the bone, would yield to a greater extent. In its descent the os pedis tends to draw the lamime backwards and downwards, so that their inner margins, instead of pointing towards the centre of the foot, tend to point towards the bulbs, a condition which results in slightly diminishing the height of the hoof, diminishing the diameter of the toe and lateral parts of the coronet, pressing backwards the bulbs, causing the posterior parts of the sole to descend and the heels to widen. Immediately pressure is removed, the laminae seek to return to their former position and thus restore the normal state of the foot. At the time when the fetlock is most extended, the lateral cartilages and plantar cushion also come more prominently into play. The posterior, i.e., the broadest, part of the coronet bone glides backwards and downwards between the lateral car- tilages, thrusting them apart, and through the medium of the 124 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. tendons exercising pressure on tlie plantar cushion. As tbe latter is closely connected with the lateral cartilages and com- pletely fills the upper depression of the horny frog, it tends to drive apart the quarters and to cause the bulbs to swell, while, as the horny frog now rests on the ground, it contributes to this dilating effect. In the shod hoof, however, the horny frog is not always in contact with the ground, or at least not through- out its whole extent ; it is, therefore, easy to understand oc why the expansion of the hoof is more marked at tbe coro- nary border than at the bear- FlG. TO.^Vertical cross section of foot seen from iug SUlfaCC of the liecls. It behind (this section has been made nearer the ^, ■, i ^i^i„4- heeis than fig. 69). o, posterior part of plantar must also DC remembered that cnshion ; h, median ridge of frog; c. lateral i r? t i j ^ i. 4-^ 1-.,. cartilage ; (7, horn wall ; e, lateral face of frog; hootS Whcn SllOQ arS apt tO DC /", point of union between the bars and frog. t j 4.x £ ^ ^,,u. ■ ' ^ very dry, and the frog poorly developed, or diminished by excessive paring or by disease, and, therefore, dilatation at the bearing surface is often difficult to detect. These considerations go far towards explaining the somewhat common, though erroneous, belief that the bearing surface of the heels is incapable of dilatation. All parts of the foot, not even excepting the os pedis, are elastic, although not to the same extent. The os pedis is least elastic ; then comes the horny wall, horny sole, horny frog, lateral cartilage, plantar cushion, coronary band, cutis, and sub- cutis. The posterior half of the hoof allows of the greatest change in form ; a fact which explains the frequent occurrence of disease of this portion of the foot under the influence of severe work, neglect of the hoof and faulty shoeing. 1. Movement at the Coronary Border (fig. 72). — While the horse stands equally on all four feet, the anterior and lateral parts of the coronary border, and especially the points opposite which the wall forms an acute angle with the earth, are in a condition of tension and incline to contract. At the posterior part, where the wall forms an obtuse angle with the ground, there is a tendency to dilatation. When considerable weight is placed on the foot, that is, during backward and downward movement of the fetlock, a slight contraction occurs in the anterior parts of the hoof, and extends backwards to a varying EXPANSION AT CORONARY BORDER. 125 distance. In the region of the heels, on the other hand, there is distinct dilatation ; the coronary border of the heels bulges outwards, a condition clearly visible in hoofs in which the coronary border is well curved. Where, however, the latter is straight, bulging is imperceptible or fails to occur. The bulbs of the heels swell, and are thrust somewhat backwards and downwards. If, now, the fetlock rises, the dilatation of the coronary border of the heels disappears in a forward direction like a fluid wave and with a rapidity proportioned to the speed of ascent of the fetlock ; while the contraction of the lateral and anterior regions of the coronary border is replaced, immediately the foot is lifted, by slight swelling and dilata- tion of the coronary border of the toe. With the renewed sinking of the fetlock these changes of form are repeated in inverse order. Low, Hat, broad hoofs show^ these changes more distinctly than those which are deep and upright. Absolute rest of the coronary border (at least while the animal is stand- ing on the foot) is inconceivable, for the slightest movement of the body immediately evokes some change in its form. The coronary border of the hoof may be compared with an exceed- ingly elastic ring which yields to the slightest pressure of the body-weight, dilatation at one part producing a corresponding retraction at another. The great elasticity of this ring is due to the perioplic horn, which is found at the points where the greatest movement occurs — along the quarters as far as the bulbs, and at the toe front. Permanent defects in the position of the limbs (such as knuckling, etc.) interfere witli the normal function of the coronary border, and may be followed by irregular formation and distortion of the hoof. 2. Movement at the bearing margin or ground surface differs somewhat from that at the coronary border. In front, and as far as the centre of the quarter, no distinct change occurs ; from the centre of the quarter, how^ever, to the end of the bearing surface (fig. 71) it is always possible to demon- strate dilatation in sound, unshod hoofs, especially when the horny sole and horny frog are supported. The amount, of this dilatation varies, with the weight on the foot, from 0*1 to 1*5 millimetre at either side, while it is also greatly depend- ant on the angle formed by the heel with the ground. In heels which converge in their course from above downwards 126 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. dilatation is slight, and, in fact, in narrow-heeled feet con- traction may replace the normal expansion. The greatest obstacle to dilatation, however, is shoeing, inasmuch as it removes the counter pressure of the ground to a greater or less extent, and prevents the horny sole, horny frog, and bars performing their functions in the same degree as they other- wise would. In horses working on hard roads it has been recommended to employ pads of rubber, so as to transmit the counter pressure of the ground to the sole and frog, and so promote dilatation, but the advocates of this plan overlook the fact that pads press continuously on the frog, and that much of their beneficial action is thus lost. Figs. 71 and 72.— Right fore-foot seen from below and above. The dotted lines show the changes in form which occiu" at the moment of extreme extension of the fetlock joint. 3. Movements of the Sole. — The horny sole becomes flatter under the body-weight, most distinctly at the posterior parts of the sole, and least so at the toe and towards the periphery. The width of the hoof and thickness of the horny sole are of considerable importance in determining the extent of this movement, the descent of the sole being greatest towards the heels in flat and spreading hoofs. A proof of the changes in form of the hoof may be found in the bright and sometimes excavated friction surfaces at the heels of the shoe. Peters says these prove the existence of two movements of the bearing surface of the hoof, that occurring in the longitudinal direction MOVEMENT OF BEARING MARGIN AND SOLE. 127 producing the deepest depression. One result of this friction is the wearing away of the bearing surface of the heel on the shoe ; the loss of horn may amount to 5 millimetres or more within a month. The advantages of expansion of the hoof are manifold. 1. The yielding of the tissues protects the hoof and its contents from injury, even under the greatest shocks. 2. It greatly diminishes at its point of origin the concussion, which would otherwise be transmitted to the body, thus assisting the action of the limb and adding to its elasticity. 3. It favours nutri- tive processes in the parts enclosed by tlie horny capsule, and is of importance in the production of the hoof itself. Move- ment is of great importance in insuring sound hoofs and the production of healthy horn. If for any reason movement is lessened or prevented the hoof suffers. Bearing of the above on Practical Shoeing. In the practice of shoeing, the chief precaution is to preserve normal movement in the foot. We know that shoeing, by diminishing or preventing contact between the horny sole and frog and the ground, and by fixing the bearing surface of the wall to an inflexible ring of iron, checks or prevents movement at the bearing margin. One method of shoeing which avoids this disadvantage is the tip or modified Charlier. The task of the farrier is, therefore, to so form and affix his shoe as to minimise ill consequences. In paring the hoof and frog, intelligent ideas must prevail. The counter pressure of the ground should, if possible, be preserved, and the parts allowed to sustain weight each in its appropriate degree. For this reason the flat shoe is the most natural. For diseased feet the bar shoe is very advantageous ; it unites in itself all the good points of the ordinary shoe with few of its disadvan- tages. It arouses the normal movements of the foot when in abeyance, regulates them when disordered, and, if properly used, never injures but always improves the diseased or faulty hoof. A further point of great importance is a horizontal bearing surface in the posterior half of the shoe, equable dis- tribution of pressure over the entire circumference of the wall, and the insertion of nails in the anterior half of the shoe alone. 128 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. As pads of different kinds indirectly convey to the sole and frog the counter pressure of the ground, they may be of use for horses working on hard, stony ground, or the pavement of towns. For military and agricultural horses they can be dispensed with. PART 11. THE HORSE'S FOOT IN RELATION TO SHOEING. SEOTIOIsr I. SHOEING OF HEALTHY FEET. CHAPTER I. HORSE-SHOES, ETC. The production of a good shoe demands intelligence, skill in the use of tools, and the ability to measure accurately with the eye ; while the farrier who desires to excel must possess and constantly apply a knowledge of the formation and functions of the foot. 1. Material for the Manufacture of Shoes. Wrought Iron. — The best material is tough, fine grained, ductile, wrought iron, which, however, must retain its toughness when hot and stand the test of fullering. To obtain special durability old shoes are sometimes employed, from one and a- half or two of which is produced a n-ew shoe. Such are more difficult to make, but being ' steely ' last considerably longer. A great many patterns of rolled iron are on the market, from which shoes for light horses and for special purposes can be made. These special bars when of English manufacture are usually seated on the hoof surface ; the German patterns are flat. The ground surface of some is roughened by projec- tions and recesses, arranged either cross-wise or length-wise or in both directions. Of these latter there are many different I 130 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. patterns (fig. 73), but they are now comparatively little used in England. With, perhaps, the exception of the ' Grip ' (fig. 80) pattern, bars with cross depressions are liable to break on the outside when being bent, and, as a rule, shoes prepared from them are less tough than tliose made from ordinary bar. Fig. 73.— Special forms of rolled bar iron. English manufacturers have always been noted for the high quality of their products and the essentially practical nature of the improvements they have introduced. Below are figured the sections of rolled bars most widely used. Eig. 74. Rodway section, seated on hoof surface, made in sizes from f X f inch to 1|- x -| inch. This iron was introduced many years ago by Messrs Phipson & Warden, the patentees, and is now very extensively used. It makes suitable shoes for all animals drawing light vehicles in cities. The corrugated surface gives an excellent foothold, which, on the first introduction of the section, was sought to be increased by the use of a specially soft iron. Though excellent for the purpose mentioned, this section is not sufficiently durable for horses in heavy work. Eig. 75. Single fullered iron, made in sizes from f X § inch to 1|- X -f inch, is most suitable for light harness and saddle horses. As the nails are scarcely Fig. 74.— ■Rod- way bar.* Fig. 75.— Single fullered bar.* SECTIONS OF ROLLED BAR IROX. 131 Fig. 76.— Bev- elled bar.* SO secure in a fullered as in a plain stamped shoe, and the dura- bility is less, it is not so useful for horses in very heavy work. Fig. 76. Plain bevelled bar is made in sizes from £ x y"g- inch to 1^ X "I inch, and is used for making plain stamped shoes, the bevelling saving labour in seatino- out. It serves for shoes for all horses in medium and heavy draught, and is especially use- ful for defective feet on account of the facility with which plain shoes can be fitted. This subject will be referred to later when speaking of stamped shoes. Figs. 77 and 78. Concave iron is made in sizes from inch to 1-1- X |- inch and is used for hacks and hunters, occasionally for carriage horses, which must, how- ever, have strong feet and well ;^^^,yyyyyx,^yyyyyyyy^j-yy^yj'^'' Figs. 77 and 78.— Concave bar.* arched soles. Section 77 has rather less hold on the ground than section 78, but wears correspondingly longer. On account of the shape of its inner margin, the latter is best suited for horses which foroe. Fic^. 79. Plain concave bar, sizes from ^ X -L S -^ 2 inch Fig. 79.— Plain concave bar.* inch, useful for ponies, hacks, and hunters. When nail holes are stamped in this iron the outer wall becomes vertical, so that a bevelled edge is only left inside. Horses shod with it require, on account of the narrow bearing surface, specially strong feet with arched sole and strong wall. Fig. 80. Corrugated ' Grip ' iron, sizes f x y^ inch to 1^ x ^ inch, useful for horses in medium draught. This iron is less liable to break than other sections with cross depressions, but should only be used on strong feet, as the nails cannot be placed just where needed,' and (owing to the projections) cannot be so well driven home as in plain shoes. Fig. 81. Charlier steel, sizes from -| x For Charlier shoes only. Figs. 82 and 83. Pacing plate steel; 82, ^ X ^ inch ; 83, |- X g; inch. This section used only for actual racing. In training, light fullered shoes are commonly employed. Fig. so.— Corru- gated ' Grip ' bar.* FIG. 81. — Charlier steel bar.* 4 inch to I 1 inch. Figs. 82 and 83 — Racing plate steel.* 132 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. Fig. 84. Eacing plate iron, -f X ^ inch. Now little used, having been superseded by steel. Cast Iron. — To effect a saving in cost many Fig. 84.— Racing attempts have been made to introduce cast shoes. plate iron.' Up to the present no real success has been recorded, although shoes have been produced which admit of being shaped and punched at a red heat, if special precautions be observed. Even the best cast shoes are extremely brittle both when hot and cold, are difficult to ' fit out,' wear more rapidly than wrought shoes, give a bad foothold, and expose the horse to the danger of slipping. Steel is fairly ductile and malleable and possesses the power of being * tempered,' in which condition it is harder and more elastic, though more brittle, than before. Certain improve- ments recently made .in the manufacture of steel seem to point, however, to the possibility of using it more extensively, and the Paris General Omnibus Company have now employed it for some years both for front and hind shoes, to the exclusion of iron. In France steel of the kind used costs less than iron. It is said to wear with perfect regularity until the shoes are extremely thin. The farriers like it, and can turn out per day a larger number of shoes than with iron, but certain precautions are needful where it is employed : the metal must not be overheated, suddenly quenched, nor much worked, in this respect differing from iron, which is improved by hammering. The present opinion in England is that good iron is sufficiently durable, and that steel, unless of a low grade, is too difficult to work, and becomes too smooth in use, so that it gives no foothold; but this view deserves reconsideration after the successful experiments in Paris. Aluminium, being one-third the weight of iron, has been used with success for racing plates. When pure, it can even be worked cold, but must then be free of silicon, which renders it brittle. It should never be heated above a dull red. To diminish wear of the shoe, steel nails, with soft shanks and hardened heads, are used. Chrome aluminium, being very hard, might perhaps be used with advantage. Aluminium bronze, composed of aluminium 90 parts, copper 10 parts, is harder than the pure metal, but must be heated, being difficult to work cold. Shoes of this substance are there- fore cast, but have not been found sufficiently durable. CHARACTERS OF SHOE — FORM. 133 Aluminium copper can bo wrought at a red heat, but is just as heavy as iron. Although aluminium resists the action of acids it is readily attacked by alkalies, and even on chalky roads wears away very quickly. Fhos]jlior bronze was used at Brussels in 1880. The shoes are cast, must not be warmed, are softer than iron, and seem to check slipping. The difficulty of fitting and want of dura- bility are, however, against their extended use. 2. Shoes and their Properties. A horse-shoe is an iron or steel rim fastened by nails to the wall and covering the bearing surface of the hoof to a greater or less extent. All ordinary shoes present two branches, an inner and an outer. The anterior part, where both branches unite, is termed the toe. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is termed the foot surface, the lower is the ground surface. The fullering is on the ground surface, the seating on the foot surface. Shoes are variously named, according to the objects for which they are destined, or to the method of manufacture ; for example, fullered shoes, stamped shoes, flat shoes, shoes with calkins, summer and winter shoes, etc., of which more will l^e mentioned below. Another division is into hand-made and machine-made shoes, Init neither of these divisions is of special importance. Characters of the Shoe. — These may be divided into essential and non-essential. The non-essential, however, such as calkins or grips in winter, may, under certain circumstances, become of great importance. (1) Form. — A good shoe should respond exactly to the shape of the hoof ; the farrier mus't therefore, in making the shoe, keep clearly in his mind the form of the foot for which it is intended. Front and hind, left and ri^lit feet differ in shape, and each requires a shoe with certain special modifica- tions (figs. 85, 86, and 87). Too much stress, therefore, cannot be laid on the fact that the farrier must make himself thoroughly acquainted with the normal form of the bearing surface and fashion his shoe accordingly. It is always well to make the shoes in pairs, that is, a left and a right. 134 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. (2) Breadth and Thickness. — The breadth of the shoe depends, firstly, on the form of the hoof, whether it is narrow or wide ; secondly (but the point is very important), on the Fig. 85. — Right front shoe seen from l)elo\v. Fig. 86.— The same seen from above. rt, bearing surface ; b, seated sur- face. thickness of the wall. As a general rule, twice the thickness of the wall, including the white line, will be sufhcieut. The breadth of the toe will, therefore, be from f to 1-J; inches. Wide hoofs require a broader shoe than narrow ones. As the wall varies in thickness at different points and in different feet, the shoe also varies, being broader at the toe than at the heels ; and when intended for fore-feet, being broader than for hind. For special purposes, lil\,e racing, very narrow shoes may be required, whilst for work on stone-paved streets the breadth may advantageously be in- creased. In Paris, where the shoes, for economical reasons, are made very narrow, the feet are in general exceptionally bad. Excessive breadth, however, increases the risk of slipping on muddy or frozen roads. The thickness of the shoe also varies according to the size, weight, and duty of the horse and to the kind of ground on which it Fig. ST.— Left hind shoe seen from above. CHARACTERS OF SHOE — SURFACES AND BORDERS. 135 works, and may vary from ^ up to ^ of an inch or even more. As a rule, shoes should be of such thickness that on a horse with sound limbs and doing ordinary work they wear for four weeks. Generally, the shoe is made of an even thickness throughout, though this is subject to exceptions, — fiat shoes being sometimes thicker at the toe, sometimes at the heels. The necessity for such special shoes must be judged of by the w^ear of the old shoes. Before thickening any portion of a shoe it is well to recall that, cceteris paribus, undue thickness at any point means un- equal tread, that thickening one side of the shoe only transfers the wear to the other, that if one side has to be raised it is usually advisable to narrow it from side to side so as to preserve an equal balance of weight between the two sides, and lastly, that the upper surface of the shoe must always be flat, i.e., the projection must appear on the ground and not on the foot surface of the shoe. As a rule, it is inadvisable to attempt correcting excessive local wear by thickening the shoe at the point worn ; by far the better course is to weld in a piece of steel, or to give more cover, which increases the dura- bility of the part without disturbing the correct relative heights of the two sides of the foot. (3) Surfaces and Borders. — The upper or hoof surface of the shoe may be divided into a bearing surface and a seated surface. The bearing surface (fig. 88, a), or that part of the shoe which comes in direct contact with the wall, must be absolutely horizontal and broad enough to cover the bearing^ surface of the wall, including the white line, and a narrow rin<>- of the outer circumference of i^^ig. ss -Transverse section c" of a fore shoe through cue the horny sole. In makino- shoes it is cer- o; the naii holes ; natural •^ " size, a, bearing surface ; tainlv not always possible to know how ^ seated surface ; e.fuUei. - inch thicker. Fig. 134. Fig. 135. Fig. 136. Fig. 134. -Sharp cog. Fig. 135. — Blunt cog. a, head ; b, shank. Fig. 1.36. — Counter-sink fur enlarging holes iu shoe. FKOST COGS. 165 A mould, the holes in which have been made by the counter- sink, is necessary ; the steel rod is slightly warmed and drawn until it will enter the mould to within about one-twentieth of an inch of the end. A sufticient length is then left pro- jecting and the bar so deeply notched that it can easily be broken off. This may be done immediately, and the cog cooled, a blank resulting ; or if a chisel edge is required, the cog is grasped with special tongs having short jaws bored out to receive the shank, and the chisel edge is then formed with a hammer. It is much easier, however, not to give the shank a conical form, but merely to produce a chisel edge and to cut off the cylindrical cog thus formed. Diamond-headed cogs are pro- duced on an oblique tool, similar to that in fig. 142, b, by using a special hammer and turning the bar frequently. The cogs (fig. lo7) can easily be cut to the same length by fixing a stop at the necessary distance in front of the cutter. They are made on the anvil shown in fig. 114, it l)eing only neces- sary to have proper moulds and a proper hammer. Before nail- ing on the shoes the cogs should be tried. They are well made when the shanks fit tightly all round and their ends fill the en- tire hole, with the exception of a space of J^ to ^ inch at the upper surface of the shoe. The coo^s are insertecl after shoeiuo; : the first introduced can be fixed by means of a light blow ; in inserting the second, however, it is necessary to press gently on the first, which might otherwise jump out under the shock of hammering. All that is necessary to insure their holding is care in manufacture and fixing. (b) Quadrangular cogs were suggested by Dominik of Berlin. In usina' cosis of -3- inch thickness in the shank, a hole is punched through the heel of the shoe by means of a square, moderately conical punch, the end of which measures, say, ^ inch ; this hole is enlarged with a drift. The holes should be punched from the ground surface, care being taken to hold the tool at right angles to the surface of the shoe. Fig. 137.— Rountl sharp cogs, a, for tlvaught; h, for riding horses (nat. size). 166 WINTER SHOEING. The slight burr produced on the upper surface of the shoe by the passage of the drift should always be removed with a file, and never beaten down with the hammer. The first hole is widened by using a drift. In this process the heels of the shoe are warmed to a dull red, and the drift driven through at right angles to the surface by a few light rapid strokes. A simple method of manufacturing cogs was invented by a veterinary surgeon named Schleinitz. The blunt cogs are made cold, the chisel- edged warm. In forming a blunt cog the end of the square rod is hammered on all sides until it will a Fig. 138.— a, upper; «', lower end of anvil for forming shank ; b, anvil for forming head. enter the mould (fig. 138, a) to within about one-twentieth of an inch of the end, when it is cut off with the ordinary cutter. Chisel-edged cogs are similarly fitted and sharpened and cut off on a special anvil (fig. 138, h). They can then immediately be hardened. The thickness of the drift at its widest part corre- sponds to the greatest width of the mould. One man can thus make cogs without assistance. As compared with screws, cogs have certain advantages, viz. : — 1. They never break off. 2. Their manufacture and use are simpler. 3. Being so cheap, everyone can keep a few in stock and affix them without special help. MEEITS AND DRAWBACKS OF FROST COGS. 167 Their disadvantages, however, are : — 1. That even with care- ful fitting they are sometimes lost. This seldom occurs when the cogs are inserted by the farrier ; on the other hand, it is favoured by the horse cutting. When the snow ' balls ' in the feet, and when horses are going up-hill over hard roads, the cogs are verv liable to become loose, because thev fail to touch the ground. 2. Cogs are difficult to renew on account of becoming fixed in position, though this can be prevented by removing them immediately the horse returns home. To facilitate removal different instruments have been invented, most of which, how- ever, can only be used when the heels are very long ; but such heels are a great disadvantage, especially in riding horses. When the horse is worked without cogs the lower margin of the hole ' burrs up,' and the insertion of new cogs becomes difficult. After the drift has been in use for some time its edges become rounded and the cogs no longer fit the holes it produces. 5. Shoes with Eemovable Toe-grips. Koughing by the insertion of one or two ordinary screws in the toe of the shoe has long been practised. Provided animals thus shod are not used on stone pavements this method succeeds ; but in larcje towns screws of anv form soon become loose and fall out. As thev have afterwards to be removed the attendant frequently refrains from screwing them fully home : hence under the action of the severe strains to which they are exposed they are soon lost. It is better to employ blanks, which can be screwed in firmly at first, for although this certainly does not get rid of the strains to which the screw is exposed, it greatly diminishes the number of lost screws. Toe-cogs have stood the test of many years' trial and deserve to be more widely employed. The simplest forms are the best, and none of those which require any special contriv- ance, such as a wedge, a split pin or screw, to prevent loosening, can be regarded as practical. The chief point is the shape of the shank. This should increase in thickness about 1 in 7 or 8 ; when less tapered, — for example, 1 in 10 or 1 in 12, — cogs at first become too firmly fixed and are difficult of removal, and 168 WINTER SHOEING. later dilate the holes so that the crown of the cog conies in contact with the shoe ; the cog then becomes loose and eventu- ally lost. It is of little importance whether in transverse section the shank is elongated, rectangular, or oval, though it is very necessary that the measurement from side to side should greatly exceed that from before to behind. The breadth, thickness, and length of the shank may vary within considerable limits, according to the weiglit of the horse and its work. In heavy horses, to which toe-cogs are most applicable, the shank may be |^ to |- inch broad, |- inch in thickness, and |- inch in length ; for lighter liorses j\j inch in breadth by |- inch in thickness and -L inch in length, thickness, and breadth measured close below the head. (a) Toe-grips with elongated rectan- gular shanks (fig. 139). These are manufactured of steel, about -J inch in breadth and ^ inch thick. The shank is first forged, the head then formed on an anvil with an oblicjue face and so far I'IG. 139. — Transverse section of ^,,1. 4-K„^,,^r, ^ ^ l 4-^ ^ • i 1 • toe of grip-shoe for draught ^ut through as Only to rcquu^c breaknig ^^^^^' off, warming to a white heat and placing in a mould of the necessary sha|)e, in wliich a few light blows of the hammer suffice to perfect the form. To change these grips a thin double-jawed lever with wedge- shaped head (see fig. 102) is driven between the shoe and grip, which is then loosened by a few blows on the shoe. Shoes intended to carry these toe-grips must be somewhat thicker than usual at the toe. Heavy shoes should be from |- inch to I inch and light shoes from 1 inch to -f inch thick. This prevents dilatation and loosening. The dilatation of the opening for the toe-grip is peculiar and does not occur when cogs are used. It is produced by the enormous pressure to which the toe is exposed, especially in hind-feet, for which reason toe-grips should be formed of a more conical shape than cogs. After the clip has l^een drawn, the hole for the grip is punched from the ground towards the hoof surface and the burr thus produced on the foot surface filed away, a drift being TOE-GRIPS. 169 afterwards driven through the hole to give it its finished form. The drift should be a little smaller than the shank of the gi^ip, so that when the latter is inserted its head will not come in contact with the shoe, but a space, from ^V ^^ tV i^^^h, be left between it and the shoe, so as to allow of dilatation being compensated by the further penetration of the grip. After fitting, the hole is once more drifted. (h) Toe-grips with oval shanks (figs. 140 and 141) are made in great variety, witli and without safety nails, so that when Fig. 140. — Toe-grip with oval shank and nut. Fig. 141. — Transverse section of shoe, grip, and safety nail. tlie aperture for the grip has Ijecome somewhat dilated a rather larger grip can be used, which will still hold well. (c) Toe-grips with rounded conical shanks are made with a shank about ^V inch in length and thickness, which diminishes towards the smaller end to the extent of ^ 24 to Jg- inch. Opposite the shank are a couple of ribs about yV inch in height and the same in thickness, which prevent the grip rotating. The shoes, machine-made, are yV to ^ inch thicker around the aperture than at other parts. (d) Malleable iron shoes with remov- able toe-grips. These have a grip-hole at the toe. The grip is held firm by a thin piece of fiexible iron plate, which is bent and inserted, the grip being then placed in position and fastened by a few blows of the hammer. At the centre, near the inner border of the toe of the shoe, is a depression to permit of a pointed lever being passed under the iron plate, which, once removed, allows the grip to be readily taken out. Nevertheless, when horses are worked on stone roads, tliese grips are apt to l^ecome loose (fig. 142). Fig. 142.— Patent shoe with mov- able toe-grip. The middle fig. shows a section of the shoe. 170 WINTER SHOEING. To prevent snow ' balling ' in the feet, specially narrow shoes, or shoes with concave ground surfaces, are sometimes used, whilst in other cases the entire ground surface of the hoof is smeared with fat or soft soap. None of these means, however, is perfectly effectual. The only reliable remedy is some form of elastic pad. Among the oldest and best known are Hart- mann's, then follow pads manufactured of felt, leather, cork, straw, hemp, and gutta-percha. The last named, however, in very cold weather become too hard, and then fail to act> Sheather's pneumatic pad is also good. SECTIOjN^ II. CHAPTER I. THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. The shape of the horse's hoof is so largely influenced by the conformation of the limb to which it is attached, that, before proceeding to more closely study the former, it will be helpful to devote a short space to the limb itself. The variations in conformation of the limb largely determine the style of going, the form of the hoof, and the distribution of weight. These factors deserve our best consideration, for in shoeing sometimes one, sometimes another, and sometimes all three become of very great importance, and, broadly speaking, neither the trim- ming of the feet nor the selection and fitting of the shoe can be correctly performed without an intelligent appreciation of the conformation of the limb and its action. The necessary knowledge cannot be learnt from books. More can be gained from the study of large diagrams ; but without much practice and steady observation of living horses, both at rest and in motion^ printed instructions are of little value. The best means of all is study under the direction of a competent teacher, who will amplify his lectures by demonstrations on the living animal. 1. Conformation of the Limbs. The conformation of the limbs depends upon the varying lengths of the individual bones, and upon the angles which they make one with another. Horses, however, do not always move as one might anticipate, and the observer, before coming to an opinion, should view the horse both at rest and in motion. 17: THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. (a) The position of the fore-limbs when seen from the front is normal (fig. 143), when the limbs vertically support the body. A plumb bob let fall from the centre of the shoulder joint should coincide with the mesial plane of the limb or divide the limb into two equal parts. The fore-legs should be separated to a moderate extent, in order that the animal may have a fairly large base of support, be sure on liis feet, and not be likely to strike himself in moving. A certain separa- tion is also needful to accommodate the great pectoral muscles. The separation of the limbs should be ap- proximately equal in front and behind. The base of support then takes the form of a parallelogram, and the im- pulse of the hind-limb is conveyed in a direction parallel to the direction of movement of the whole body, a con- dition which makes for stability and allows all the power developed by the hind-lim1js to be utilised in forward movement. In simple language, when the hind-limbs are not in line with the front they tend to push the body more or less to one side instead of straisjht forward. When the toes are turned out (fig. 1-14) the plumb bob will fall towards the inner side ; the chest is narrow, the limbs run obliquely downwards and outwards, and the body-weight falls more on the inner halves of the feet. Animals with this con- formation are usually surefooted, but as the limb is not moved straight forwards but in the arc of a circle they are more readily tired than those of normal formation, the inside of the limb is surcharged with weight, and the pace is relatively slow. Again, in the calf-kneed condition, where the knees are too close, the feet too far apart (fig. 145), we have perhaps the maximum of undesirable factors. In this conformation either the foot or the entire limb may be turned outwards. Fig. 143.— Normal position of fore-limbs. CONFORMATION OF FORE-LIMB. 173 TurDed-in toes are found in conjunction with a very broad chest. The limbs run downwards and inwards ; the pkimb bob would then fall outwardly as does the greater part of the weidit. This defect renders the action clumsy, and if the animal should stumble makes it very difficult for him to recover. A particular form of this abnormality is shown in tig. 146. Sometimes the limb is normal as far as the fetlock, below which it turns inwards, producing a condition termed ' pigeon- toed.' The position of the fore-limbs, when viewed from the side, is normal when a vertical line let fall from the centre of the scapula divides the limb from the elbow to the fetlock joint in Fig. 144.— Turned-out toes. Fig. 145.— Calf-kneed forniiitiou. Fig. 146.— Pio;eon-toed formation. halves, and strikes the ground close behind the bulbs of the heel. Another method of stating the above is to say that, seen from the side, the limb should be perpendicular from the region of the fore-arm to that of the fetlock. ^ It is evident that, when the limbs are thus perpendicular to the ground, they are best fitted for supporting the weight of the body, like a column, which should always be perpendicularly under the point to be supported. The axis of the foot, that is, of the os suffraginis, os corona?, and OS pedis, and the toe of the hoof form an angle of about 45*" to 50° with the horizontal plane. From this position there are variations both in a forward and backward direction ; the 174 THE FOOT IN ITS KELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. body-weight in the former case falling more on the anterior, in the latter on the posterior half of the hoof. Goyau states that, given normal conditions, the resultant of the body-weight may be represented as passing through the centre of the foot. I.e., through the line formed by the intersec- tion of the longitudinal and transverse axes, and that any reduction of the weight-bearing surface of the hoof, either in front, behind, or on either side, brings the part so reduced Fig. 147.— Normal conformation of limbs as viewed from the side. nearer the centre of transmission of weight, and hence causes it to be unduly loaded, inasmuch as each unit of surface carries relatively more weight. Pader has studied this subject very carefully by means of an ingenious apparatus of his own, and, although we cannot describe his experiments at length, we may state his conclusions, which are as follows : — 1, At rest, the centre of transmission of weight falls in front of the centre of the sole, about midway between the centre of the sole and the point of the frog. DISTEIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN FORE-LIMB. 175 2. The centre of transmission of weicrht falls further back as the pastern is more inclined. 3. Lifting the opposite limb, and thus throwing increased weight on that under observation, causes bending of the fet- lock, and displaces the centre of weight backwards. 4. The centre of weight never falls further forward than the point of the frog nor further back than the posterior third of the total length of the foot. By the conformation shown in lig. 148 the base of support is certainly increased in front, though this is more often an ap- parent than a real gain, because the animal then usually stands with his hind-legs somewhat advanced. The strain of support- FlG. 148. Fig. 149. Fig. 150. ing the body falls more on the tendons than on the bones, and the weight more on the heel of the foot than on the toe. The centre of gravity of the trunk is displaced backwards and the loins and hocks are exposed to excessive stress. On account of the fore-limbs being already so far in advance the stride is short and the pace comparatively slow. This con- formation is often acquired as a result of disease. Backward incurvation of the knee (fig. 149) is a fault, inas- much as the knee itself is badly developed and the bending stress caused by the body-weight falls on the ligaments, etc., at the back of the joint. Flexion of the knee joint, moreover, is 176 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. not at once followed by lifting of the knee, as the limb has first to become perpendicular and then move slightly forward before its total length is diminished. Horses with this forma- tion are liable to trip and have difficulty in recovering them- selves. Fig. 150 shows a limb, otherwise normal, but with excessively oblique pasterns. Fig. 151. — Upright pastern and limb. VlG. 152.— Bowing over at knees. Horses with very upright or forwardly inclined limbs, i.e., horses which ' stand over' in front (fig. 151) and whose shoulders are ' loaded,' are insecure on their feet, firstly, because this posi- tion entails shortening of the base of support, and secondly, because when they slip there is difficulty in advancing the leg sufficiently to prevent the body coming to the ground. The fore-limbs carry more than their fair share of weight, they cannot be sufficiently advanced at fast paces, the toe is apt to catch in the ground and the animal to fall, the fore shoes may be trodden off and the horse is prone to forge. Such conformation entails fatigue and wear of the limbs, and predisposes to knuckling at the fetlock, especially in hacks where the body-weight is supplemented by that of the rider. Fig. 152 is a more advanced stage of the condition shown in fig. 151. This attitude appears to be assumed by the horse in order to relie^•e the overcharged tendons of weight, though it may also be due to contraction of the tendons or to CONFORMATION OF HIND-LIMB. 177 disease of the feet. It is usually seen in horses in which the pasterns are fairly long and oblique, and where ' knuckling at the fetlock ' is not to be expected. Where the pastern is short and upright, on the other hand, knuckling at the fetlock is the commoner condition. (&) The hind-limbs are normal (fig. 153) when a vertical line let fall from the point of the ischium divides the limb (seen from behind) into two equal parts. When viewed from the side, however, the line should touch the os calcis and fall a Fig. 153. — Normal position of limbs. Fig. 154.— Hocks turned in. Fig. 155.— Hocks turned out. short distance behind the bulbs of the heel. A vertical line let fall from the middle of the hip joint should meet the outer quarter of the hoof. The hind like the fore limbs may be bent outwards or inwards. The hocks may be turned either in (fig. 154) or out (fig. 155) or excessively curved (fig. 156), the lower portion of the limb being then too oblique ; or, lastly, the limb may be placed too far back (fig. 157). This confor- mation, though at first almost advantageous and conducing to speed, is associated after much work with partial luxation of 178 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. the fetlock joint and more or less pronounced spasmodic jerk- ing of the fetlock (knuckling over) in certain phases of move- ment. It is quite possible for each of the two fore or two Fig. 156.— Excessively curved hocks. Limbs too far under the body. Fig. 157.— Entire liind-limb placed too far back. hind limbs to take different directions. It is commonest for one pair, for instance the front, to be turned out, the other pair, the hind, to be turned in, or vice versa. Other slight differences occur, but are not of great importance to the farrier. 2. General Conformation of the Feet, when viewed FROM in Front, Behind, and the Side. In a state of nature the hoof always corresponds, and is suited, to the formation of the limb to which it belongs, but immediately a shoe is applied, the horn ceases to wear, and instead of the formation of the limb determining that of the hoof, exactly the opposite may occur. This can be demonstrated experimentally. Given an animal of normal conformation, a perpendicular line is traced on the leg from the knee to the earth. If, now, the inside of the hoof be much lowered, the erstwhile straight line will be seen to form an angle outwards at the coronet, while if the outer quarter be cut away, precisely the opposite occurs. At the same time, the limbs will be seen CONFOiniATION OF FOOT. 179 in the first case to recede slightly from one another, causing the animal to go * wide/ in the second case to approach, causing the animal to go ' close.' This conhrms Moorcroft's experi- ments on animals which cut or brush. But it cannot be too strongly insisted on that the loioering of one side of the hoof can have little effect on the general direction of the Zm??5, because, owing to all the lower joints being gingiymoid or hinge-like, movement is confined almost entirely to the backward or forward directions. For this reason lower- FlG. 158. Fig. 159. Fig. 158.— Pail- of uonnal feet seen from in front ; and 159, from behind. Fig. 160. Fig. l(ji. Figs. 160 and 161. — Form of feet where toes are turned outwanls. ing the inner or outer side of th^ hoof only produces a very slight alteration in the distance between the fetlocks. However diverse the variations in conformation of the limb, the changes they produce in the form of the hoof are all in- cluded under one of the three forms now to be described. By bearing in mind the principles enunciated, the form to be given to the hoof and the choice of the shoe will be greatly assisted. Seen respectively from in front and behind, the form of the foot will be either normal (figs. 158 and 159), or that peculiar 180 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. to turned-out or turned-in feet (figs. 160 and 161, 162 and 163). The imaginary straight line drawn through the os suffraginis, OS coronae, and os pedis, which we term the foot axis (see figs. Fig. 1C2. Fig. i6o. Figs. 162 and 163.— Form of feet whtie toes are turned inward. Fig. 164. — a, foot of normal limb, and b, foot of abnormal limb, in which, by irregular trimming, the 'foot axis' has been distorted. Tlie dotted lines show the proper rela- tions of the hoofs to their respective limbs. Fig. 165.— Abnormally flat (oblique) hoof. I'IG. 1C6.— Normal hoof. Fig. 167.— Upright hoof. 158, 162, 165 to 167), indicates whether the hoof and fetlock are or are not normally related. In the normal position (fig. 158) this line runs directly for- THE FOOT AXIS. 181 wards and downwards, in the out-tnrned toe position obliquely outwards, and in the in-turned toe (fig. 162) obliquely inwards. Viewing the foot from the side we distinguish a normal position of the foot axis (fig. 166), and may term all variations from this in a forward direction as oblique (fig. 165) and all variations in a backward direction as upright (fig. 167). Speaking generally, the foot axis, shown in figs. 165 and 167 as a dotted line, should follow a straight course in each of the four feet, provided the limbs are all bearing weight. Any deviation from this straight line, as shown in fig. 168, is abnormal. Durino: rest, the wall of the toe and the foot axis should be almost or quite parallel with each other. It is allowable in shoeing to leave the toe of the foot a tritie more upright than the general axis of the pastern. The direction of the foot axis is of great importance in the practice of shoeing. The oblique foot (fig. 165) forms an angle of less than 4:5° with the ground, and, compared with the two other forms, its hoof has a long toe and low heels. In the normal position (fig. 166) the angle is about 45^ to 55°, the toe being shorter and the heels higher than in the oblique foot. Theorists have described the correct angle of the hoof and pastern as 45°, claiming that it ensures equal distribution of the weight of the body between the column of bones and the tendons, but animals so formed are not considered well shaped by the best judges ; the pastern is too sloping. It is clear that, as there is no danger of injury to the bones from shock when the animal is at rest, it would be advantage- ous could these support a greater proportion of weight than the tendons and suspensory ligament, which would be correspond- ingly relieved. On the other hand, when, during movement, the limb comes violently in contact w^ith the ground, the major part of the weight should fall on- the tendons, etc., and thus shield from injury the bones, which must otherwise certainly be fractured. General opinion seems to regard the best angle as somewliat less than 50° for front feet and as 50° or somewhat more for hind. The greater length and obliquity of the pastern in fore- limbs compensates for the greater weight and the more violent shocks experienced ; length and obliquity being factors emin- ently favourable to neutralising concussion. 182 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. When the angle is above 55^ (fig. 167) the height of the heels naturally increases in the same proportion as the length of the toe diminishes. The same conditions rule in hind-feet, I'lG. 1(J8.— T\vt> ieet viewed from tlie side, a, witli foot axis distorted in a backward direction : /y, in a forward direction. The arrows indicate the proper position of the fetlock, wliich is given in dotted ontline. In a the toe and in J> the heels require shorteniiii;. Fig. 1(59. — Peculiar distor- tion, in which the os pedis becomes upright, while the sutfraginis is niucli in- clined. with the exception, however, that the angle formed with the earth is here somewhat greater. A peculiar position of this kind is shown in fig. 169, in which the foot axis is bent, the os pedis being much more upright than the suffraginis, the hoof following the direction of the OS pedis. 3. The Method of advancing the Hoof varies even when the animal is moving on level ground and not drawing a load. In the normal form of the limb the hoof is moved almost straight forwards (fig. 170). The toe points in a forward direction and the hoof is set down flat. But the converse is by no means true, i.e., the foot may be perfectly shaped, the proportions of its various parts absolutely normal, but the formation of the limb, and therefore the style of going, quite defective. Defects of conformation in the limb, though little marked when at rest, often appreciably affect the style of moving. In horses of normal formation the limbs are flexed and advanced in a direction parallel to that of move- ment or of the longitudinal axis of the body. When the horse is viewed from behind the hind-limb ' covers ' the front, when from in front the fore-limb ' covers ' the hind : at a trot the ric^ht and left fore and hind limbs METHOD OF ADVANCING THE HOOF. 183 respectively are separated to a sufficient distance, and are moved in perfect time ; the limbs are neither lifted too much nor too little, so that while there is no loss of time there is also no danger of catching the toe and falling. The method of carrying the limb is not affected by the form given to the hoof, though disproportion in any part of the latter has a marked effect on the pace. For instance, as the limb CD (!) (!) Q (!) Q' (!) "0 "K Fig. 170. Fig. 171. "W Fig. 172. Q Q Q swings in the arc of a circle around the toe, as around a fixed point, prior to leaving the ground, the longer the toe is left, the longer does this swinging continue ; hence loss of time in raising and advancing the limb. Low heels and a long toe are therefore obstacles to speed. When the toes turn out, the hoof is moved forwards, in- 184 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. wards, and again outwards (fig. 171) in a circular direction, the outer wall of the toe coming first in contact with the ground and sustaining the greatest part of the impact. The toe here points either directly forwards or outwards. In the in-turned toe form things are reversed, the hoof being carried forwards, outwards, and again inwards (fig. 172). The manner in which the hoofs are moved is shown semi- schematically in figs. 170, 171, and 17li. No absolute rule can, of course, be laid down and many deviations occur, re- sulting partly from peculiarities in direction of individual bones and consequent irregularities in movement, from pace, that is, whether the horse walk or trot, from the way in which the animal's weight is distributed between his fore and hind limbs, and from the position and amount of the load which the horse either draws or carries. The four feet of any one horse seldom correspond exactly in direction; one pair may point outwards, the other inwards, the hoofs being correspondingly advanced. Sometimes a defect in one part of the limb counterbalances a defect in another, so that, although close attention will enable us to classify the conformation and action with which we have to deal, yet judging of gait will always be a matter of difficulty for beginners and for the unskilled. Deviations from normal conformation are always a draw- back to the performance of work. When strongly pronounced, and especially when two or more defects occur in one limb, they greatly predispose to striking, cutting, and to disease of joints and of the foot. The course followed by the hoof when viewed from one side (figs. 173, 174, and 175) is of less importance to the farrier. In normally formed limbs it is regular (fig. 173). When the fetlock is very oblique, however, the hoof at first traces a sharp curve, which soon becomes more flattened and is pro- longed forwards before meeting the earth (fig. 174). In the case of upright fetlocks the lifting and advancing of the hoof is performed in precisely reversed order. The shock to the foot and limb is evidently least in the style of movement shown by fig. 174 and greatest in that shown by fig. 175. As every rider knows, the pace in the former case is easy, in the latter rough and unpleasant. ACTION OF THE LIMBS. 185 From the foregoing may be deduced two principles for the practice of shoeing, viz. : — (1) The normal form of the hoof should be preserved or restored, hiot with due regard to the conformation of the limhs and to the animal's action. (2) The functions of the various parts of the foot must be aroused to full activity. In regard to the first, the normal form of the foot is under- stood to be that which would result were the animal unshod Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 175. and in a state of nature. It need scarcely be said that, given this normal form, the balance of the limb must not be dis- turbed by inequalities of thickness in different parts of the shoe, but that the hoof surface of the shoe must lie in a hori- zontal plane. Eespecting the second, it is indispensable that the frog and sole come in contact with the ground. One must not forget that expansion of the foot depends entirely on the action of the plantar cushion, and therefore primarily on frog-pressure. 4. Form of the Hoof. The normal front hoof (lig. 176) shows little difference in the direction and thickness of its inner and outer walls. The outer is slightly thicker and rather less upright than the inner 186 THE FOOT IX ITS RELATION TO THE EXTIIIE LIMB. (compare figs. 158 and 159). In consequence, it describes a somewhat larger curve, as is seen on examining the bearing and coronary borders. The height of the heel, in comparison with that of the quarter and toe, is approximately as 1:2:3^ or as 1 1- : 2 : o. The toe forms an angle of about 45° to 50° with the earth (compare with fig. 166), and when viewed from the side its direction corresponds with that of the suffraginis. When the limbs are straddled (as in tig. 144), the hoof (tig. 177) is always more oblique, because the outer part of the wall is naturally somewhat longer and stands more obliquely in relation to the ground than the inner (compare fi<'S. 160 and 161). The outer bearing margin of the hoof describes a wide curve, the greatest prominence of which is at the point where the quarter joins the heel ; the inner, on the other hand, is straighter, consequently the outer division of the hoof is broader than the inner. So long as the hoof is Fig. 176.— Xormal rislit fore-foot/ healthy, the limbs of the frog are equally devel- oped. The obliquity of the hoof results from the form of the leg, and must be dis- tinguished from obliquity produced by disease. When the toes alone are turned out (as shown in fig. 145), the hoof (fig. 178) differs from the foregoing in that the circum- ference of the bearing margin is less curved at the outer border of the toe and the inner heel than at the inner portion of the toe and the outer heel. In consequence, two deep and two shallow curves lie opposite one another. The toe of the hoof * The artist has slightly exaggerated the thickness of the wall at the heel. It must not be forgotten, however, that owing to the reflection of the bars, the wall at this point is apparently reinforced, and that, as the wall is worn away obliquely, it hoks thicker than it in reality is. F0K3I OF HOOF AS RELATED TO CONFORMATION. 18- points outwards, the foot is not brought level to the ground but with the outer wall of the toe first. When the toes are turned in (as in fig. 146) a somewhat similar, but less pronounced, form of hoof is developed. The inner wall is less oblique than the outer, as is best seen at the quarters (figs. 162 and 163). The lower outer margin more nearly resembles that of the ordinary hoof, but the wall of the inner quarter and heel describes a somewhat greater curve. Not infrequently the outer heel wall appears contracted. This form of hoof is commonest in horses which bring the foot to i'lG. 177.— Eight fore-foot (out-turneil toe). Fig. 17S.— Kight fore-foot (iu-tiuued toe). the ground toe first. Front feet are almost invariably round at the toe. The foreo'oino- remarks as to the influence of limb conforma- tion in determining shape of hoof apply in most respects t<:> hind as well as to fore feet. The hind-foot (fig. 179) is not round, but elongated or oval at the toe. Its greatest width is at the commencement of the posterior third. The sole is usually more concave and the wall, seen from the side, some- what more upright than the corresponding parts of the front hoof; the angle which the toe forms with the ground varies between 50^ and 55". At times, moreover, one sees unusuallv wide or narrow feet, the shape of which is not due to the position of the limbs, but to inborn peculiarities of the various breeds. The ' wide ' hoof (fig. 180) is broad, almost circular ; its 188 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. wall obliquely inclined towards the ground, the sole slightly concave, and the frog strong and massive. The narrow hoof /r /: ^ Fig. 179. — Xormal richt hind-hoof. (fig. 181) is elongated, has upright quarters, a strongly concave sole, and comparatively a small frog of fine and tough fibres ; in the opposite form the horn fil)res are usually much larger. Fig. 180.— Wide ' spreading ' hoof. Fig. 181.— Narrow hoof. In the wide-spreading hoof there is a tendency to separation of the wall and to flattening or dropping of the sole. Figs. 165, 166, and 167 represent respectively the normal. PKOPOKTIONS OF HOOF. 189 the oblique, and the upright foot. A few remarks on the forms of hoof belonging to these respectively may here be appropriate. In the first place, the wall of the toe should correspond in direction with the general axis of the three terminal bones of the digit, and just as one speaks of an oblique or upright foot, so one might speak of the corresponding forms of hoof. In the normal hoof the wall of the toe forms an angle of 45° to 55° with the ground (fig. 166). When the angle is less than 45° the hoof may be described as oblique (fig. 165). Such a hoof has comparatively a long toe and low heels. When, on the other hand, the angle is greater than 55°, the hoof is upright (fig. 167), possessing a comparatively short toe but high heels. In the latter the anterior, in the former the posterior, half of the hoof carries the greater weight. The proportion already stated approximately as 1 : 2 : 3 or 1^ : 2 : 3, which should exist between the height of the wall at the heel, quarter, and toe, is naturally disturbed in changes of other parts of the hoof. The above is true of hind as well as of fore hoofs, though in general the normal hind hoof is about 5° more upright than the fore. The following summarised account from Lesbre and Peuch sets forth, from another standpoint, approximately the same \iews expressed in the foregoing pages. The walls of the quarters in fore-feet form an angle of 10° to 12° with the vertical ; in hind- feet of 6° to 8°. In fore- FIG. 182. Fig. 183. feet the coronary circumference is about -g- that of the plantar ; in hind-feet about y. Viewed from the side, the toe of the fore foot forms an angle of nearly 50° with the ground; that of the hind an angle of 55°. The heel is nearly parallel with the toe, and should be at least half ns high. 190 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIIIE LIMB. In the fore foot the height of the toe usually equals |- the length of the sole, and in the hind -j^. The length of the sole varies little in the fore and hind feet of the same animal, the apparent difference depending on the narrower shape of the hind- foot. Compared with that of the plantar margin, the length of the coronary margin in fore-feet is as 9:10; in hind-feet a little more. Viewed from below, the foot is almost as broad as long. In Fig. 1S4. Fig. 185. contour it resembles the segment of an oval. The sole is thick and arched. The degree of concavity depends on the size of the foot. The frog is strong, firm, and resistant to the pressure of the thumb. AVhen the foot is lifted, it should stand higher Fig. 186. Fig. 187. than the level of the wall, and therefore, during movement, should meet the ground before the quarters and heels. The bars, which participate in bearing weight, should be strong and prominent, and should be on the same level as the plantar margin of the wall, at least up to a point opposite the middle of the frog. In some feet the weight-bearing surface includes the lower surface of the frog, all of the sole, and the lower margin of the wall ; in others only those portions of the sole bordering; on the wall are included in it. CHAKACTEKISTICS OF THE SOUND HOOF. 191 Variations in the direction of the foot axis and in the form of the hoof naturally alter the distribution of pressure in the joints, and when due to faulty shoeing, and especially when exaggerated, are of grave importance. Oblique hoofs, particu- larly if shod so as to raise the frog from contact with the ground, are apt to show contraction of the heels, whereas in normal hoofs the change either fails to occur or is long delayed, the reason probably being the greater weight thrown on the posterior half of the foot. On account of this increased weight on the posterior portions of the foot, the bars and frog are unable to withstand the tendency of the heels to contract or to be thrust inwards, and if the oblique hoof lias also weak heels it is very soon converted into a contracted hoof, the bars growing inwards and corns making their appearance. The horse, especially if he have good action, soon becomes useless for work on hard roads. This form of hoof, when accompanied by out-turned toes and Hat soles, is very troublesome. The unequal distribution of weight is the chief evil, a fact which explains why, in horses with out-turned toes, corns are more frequent in the inner, and in those with in-turned toes in the outer heel. In horses with out-turned toes, unequal distribution of weight is also responsible to a very large extent for the pro- duction of sand cracks and separations of the inner wall, and in upright hoofs of sand cracks at the toe. 5. Characteristics of the Sound Hoof. The description of the hoof by no means terminates with consideration of its form. On the contrarv, its characteristics vary to such a degree that one might almost venture to say of a hundred horses no two could ber found with hoofs which would exactly correspond. They vary almost as men's faces, a fact which explains the differences in size, form, and fitting necessary in shoes. One of the first things the farrier has to consider is whether the hoof is healthy. It may be said, in passing, that healthy hoofs are not so common as is believed. The wall of a health v hoof, when viewed from in front and from the side, should run in a straight line from the coronary to the bearing margin, so that a straight-edge laid on it in the 192 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. direction of the horn tubes should everywhere be in contact. It should neither show longitudinal nor transverse splits. The significance of rings depends on their position and course. Eings running parallel to the coronet are, as a rule, of little importance : they only indicate irregular nutrition, but those which deviate from this course to any great extent, or which are more prominent at one part of the wall than at another, point to disease. Viewed from the ground surface and from behind, the bulbs should appear rounded off, strongly developed, and not displaced. The sole should be concave and show no cracks in the white line. The frog should be large, its cleft narrow, dry, and clean, and its forward prolongations equal in size. The lateral furrows, although fairly fine, should not be too narrow ; the bars should run in a straight line forwards and inwards towards the point of the frog. Any deviation towards the heels suggests commencing contraction. The sole should show no red colouring in or about the corners of the heels. The lateral cartilages should be elastic and equally developed. Finally, in forming a judgment as to its shape and sound- ness, the hoof should never be regarded alone, but in relation to the limb. 6. Wear of the Hoof and of the Shoe. In the first part of this work it was stated that the hoof grows downwards and forwards at the average rate of ^ to -j^ inch per month, Horn is lost either as a result of friction at the bearinof surface or of shelling out of the sole. Two kinds of movement combine to produce this friction ; one the forward movement, at the moment when the hoof is brought to the earth, the other the rotary movement, when it is everywhere in contact with the ground. The rate of loss varies with the weight of the animal, the quality of horn, and the roughness and hardness of the ground. On modern hard roads wear exceeds growth, and finally renders necessary some artificial protection. In fore- feet, the foot is brought to the ground more obliquely, and the toe usually wears more rapidly than in hind-feet. It is of importance to remember that, although the point which first WEAR OF THE HOOF. 193 reaches the ground may vary in position, the toe is always the last to leave it. If the farrier in preparing the hoof leaves one point or one side of the wall too high, the portion thus left touches the ground first until the inequality is removed by increased wear. Were the horse under perfectly natural conditions this would be of little importance, but as the shoe prevents the natural remedy, and as the error is often repeated at each shoeing, any injury thus produced is perpetuated. The part left too high grows even more rapidly than the rest, causing the wall to lose its straight direction and become curved. In the specimen shown (fig. 188) the outer wall has for a considerable time been left too hio;h. It will be noted that the rinses lie closest together ; on the low side of the hoof. If the toe is left unduly long it bends outwards ; if the heels are neglected they are apt to bend forwards and inwards. The hoof, moreover, wears even when shod, though only at points where friction can occur between it and the shoe, that is, at the heels. This wear is favoured by weak- ness of the wall, bad quality of horn, heaviness of the body, wet weather, faulty shape of the hoof and bearing surfaces of the shoe, and by much work on hard ground. The process itself is not directly visible, but may be detected by making marks on the wall and noting their dis- tance above the shoe. At the next shoeing these marks will be found to have approached the shoe or, in some cases, even to have disappeared. Immobility of the heels, produced, for example, by ossification of the lateral cartilages, diminishes or entirely prevents this wear. The amount worn away between one shoeing and another is certainly not much, but sufficient to require attention under special circumstances. The few experi- ments that have been made fix the amount thus worn away as from to -J- inch per month. The inner heel usually wears more quickly than the outer. The form of the friction surface N Fig. ISS.— Overgrown and laterally distorted hoof. 194 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. resembles an elongated wedge, the base lying towards the back, the point extending forward as far as the heels are capable of movement. The result of this friction is to reduce the heicrht of the heels ; in unilateral friction, to disturb the balance of the foot, to loosen the heel nails, and sometimes to produce pressure on the inner and posterior portions of the sole. As an indirect result we see increased wear of the shoe at the toe or outer quarter. Wear of the Shoe. — To the practical farrier the wear of the shoe affords valuable information. From a theoretical standpoint it should be as regular as possible ; when this is the case we know that the horse has usually a free gait, that he is not suffering pain, and that he treads level, while his shoes wear longer and — a great advantage — admit of being made lighter. Such regular wear indicates skill in shoeing, though, of course, it is impossible of attainment where the limbs or joints are already deformed. Unequal wear is very common and may be variously caused. Thus, the nearer any part of the shoe, such as the toe, the inner or outer quarter, or one or other heel, lies to the centre of the hoof, all other parts maintaining their proper position, the more rapidly it wears ; on the other hand, by so fashioning the shoe as to remove any part further from the centre, wear is diminished and in proportion to the distance. The same occurs when the shoe is badly made or nailed on, when it is too wide at one spot or too narrow at another, or when the toe is too lono- or too short. Even the form of the outer border of the shoe has some influence, the part lying nearest the centre of the hoof bearing a larger proportion of weight than portions further removed. The shoe wears unequally when the horse treads unequally. An uneven tread may be caused : 1. By faulty trimming, one spot being left too high, or (which is the same thing) the opposite being unduly lowered. 2. By an unsuitable shoe ; for instance, one with toe-grip where no grip is needed, a shoe with a narrow toe where the hoof is upright or where thrush exists, a shoe too short for an oblique foot, or a shoe too narrow and too finely holed in the outer branch for a foot with in-turned toe. 3. By well-marked faults in the conformation of WEAR OF THE SHOE. 195 the horse's limbs ; in this case the entire formation must be taken into consideration. 4. By shortening the stride ; this always produces severe wear of the toe. The stride is shortened and the horse treads on his toe when his progress is checked by the curb or by too heavy a load. Wear of the shoe may be caused principally as the foot either meets the ground or leaves it. In the latter case it is always at the toe, in the former it may be at the toe, at one or other quarter, or at the heels, or it may be distributed over the entire surface of the shoe. Both kinds of wear fall on the toe when this part has been left too long, when the horse is in heavy draught or in fast saddle work, when it is suffering from thrush, contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin, or from any of those conditions in which the action of the fetlock is limited. The wear produced by bringing the foot to the ground is greatest on the outer quarter when this is higher than the inner, or when the corresponding part of the shoe is too narrow, as well as when the toe is turned out. As, in the last case, the wear produced when the toe leaves the groimd is most marked at the inner side, an expert can sometimes diagnose the conformation of the limb from the wear of the shoe. In the following pages the wear produced when the foot comes in contact with the ground will be referred to as descent, falling, or extension wear ; that produced as the toe leaves the ground as ascent, lifting, or flexion wear. Descent or extension wear is very seldom seen on the inner limb of the shoe, a fact explained by the way in which the working horse usually treads. It is, however, seen at the heels in horses which suffer from laminitis or which go on their heels. This short resum6 indicates, that 'from the wear exhibited by the old shoe may be more or less accurately learned the conformation and distribution of weight in the limb, the proper way to pare the hoof, and the position, form, and length to be given to the shoe, all of which are of immense importance in practical farriery. The old shoe is the model from which the new must be formed, not that it should be followed slavishly, but used as a guide to possible improvement. To read its lessons aright demands keen observation and careful reflection. CHAPTER 11. THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 1. Management and Conthol of the Hokse. The horse, as n rule, and especially when well treated, is eminently tractable, and if we have frequently to deal with animals which resent the manipulation necessary during shoe- ing, it is less on account of the horse's vice than of the farrier's bad management. The farrier may fairly require that horses brought to him should be accustomed to ordinary handling. It is scarcely his business to practise horse-breaking, though he occasionally finds some restraint absolutely necessary. Such means must be used, however, with great discretion, unless they are, on the one hand, to degenerate into cruelty, or, on the other, to render the subject worse than before. In handling horses we should endeavour to obtain their con- fidence, and, therefore, quietness, firmness, a certain amount of strength and courage are required, as well as a knowledge of horses in general. We should try to discover whether the horse is restless from being unused to shoeing, from fear of a repetition of previous ill-treatment, from excess of spirit, from the absence of a companion, or from pain in the feet or joints. The method of handling older horses, or such as are accustomed to shoeing, is of less importance. As a rule, when properly managed, they lift their feet willingly, and shoeing proceeds without difficulty. It is otherwise, however, in young, raw, vicious, or timid horses, which require special precautions. The following points should be borne in mind : — (a) The horse should never be tied up with a fixed knot. The best plan is to pass the shank of the halter through a rino', and then twist the free end two or three times around the CONTROL OF HOESE DURING SHOEING. 197 fixed part, so that, if the horse ' hangs back,' the halter will readily untwist and release him. (b) Horses wliich are known to resist being quietly shod should not be fastened up, but be held by a reliable assistant. (c) No attempt should be made to hold up the foot con- tinuously until the horse has been accustomed to allow the leg to be handled, except in the case of ticklish horses, which, as they seem to resent firm treatment less than light handling, ought to be grasped firmly. (d) The foot to be shod must never be suddenly grasped, and it is well to accustom, the animal first to standing on three legs. In lifting^ the les: it should be noted whether the animal stands fairly on the other three. The farrier should avoid any un- necessary noise, the w^ork being better performed quietly, rapidly, and with as little inconvenience to the animal as possible. In young horses the limbs should not be kept raised too long ; an interval of rest is desirable. The legs of stiff, old horses should not be lifted too high, especially at the beginning of shoeing. When the hocks are very stiff, the limb should not be drawn forwards, but backwards and upwards, care being taken that the animal does not fall. Vicious horses are better shod in a winker bridle with strong snaflle, by which they can be better controlled. Any attempt at vice should be immediately punished, either by jerking the bridle or by calling to the animal in loud tones. If this is insufficient the horse may be forced to move backwards in soft ground, as this form of exercise soon wearies and reduces it to subjection. In lifting the hind-feet a broad piece of webbing may be fastened to the tail and then passed completely round the fetlock from the outside, emeri^iny means of screw a' to the lower border of wall ; b, weight; c, binding screw. strength in upward action, thus driving the toe deeply into the ground, and leads to the limb being further advanced. The improvement is stated to be from two to five seconds per English mile. Such weights are, however, still more useful Fig. 232. — American toe-weighted shoe. Fig. 233.— American qnarter-weighted shoe. for horses with defective action ; animals, for example,, which go too close behind usually improve in a surprisingly short time when provided with weights on the outer surface of the hoof. TEOTTEES. Fig, 234. — Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters). Made from |. x ^ incli iron. To face p. 235.] FOKE SHOE FOK TRfiTTIXG HORSE. 235 PAirriALLY FULLEEEJ) FOEE SHOE (FOE TEOTTEES) (Fig. 234). Made from -J- X |- inch iron. This shoe is another form of the trotting shoe before ilhis- trated. It is said to cause the horse to increase. the length of his stride ; but owing to its not being used in this country, the authors are unable to offer any opinion as to its efficacy. The piece of iron welded to the toe in place of a clip is tapped with a thread ; the toe-weight is of bell-metal, and has a hole drilled through to allow the insertion of an iron rod for screwino- the wei^fht home. 236 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 5. CAEEIAGE HOKSES. The carriage horse, being heavier, having larger feet and wearing harder than the saddle horse, requires a stouter shoe and more cover, especially at the toe of the hind-foot. For front feet a very common form of shoe is that shown in fig. 235. The fuller is deep and extends from heel to heel ; there are from five to seven nail holes, depending on the size of Fig. 235.— Fullered front shoe for carriapre horse. Grouiul surface. the shoe, the last of which should not be placed behind the centre of the outer quarter ; at the toe the cover is ample and diminishes progressively towards the heels, which should bevel off from above downwards and forwards and should not extend more than ^ to | inches beyond the wall of the heel. The clip is at the centre of the toe ; occasionally it is omitted. The foot surface presents a horizontal margin of sufficient width to cover the wall and a narrow rim of the sole ; the seating is wide at the toe and diminishes in width as it approaches the heels, J to 1 inch in front of which it terminates. Machine-made shoes of the Eodway pattern (fig. 240) are largely employed for carriage horses, for which they are very suitable. While giving sufficient cover and an excellent foot- GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN SHOEING CARRIAGE HORSES. 237 hold, they are comparatively light, and, as now made, durable enough for most purposes. In Scotland, a similar shoe is still made by hand, the double fullering being produced with a special crease. In England, the machine-made Eodway shoe has almost entirely superseded the hand-made. Concave shoes are useful for horses which forge, and can also be applied to animals having strong feet and well-arched soles which are required to present a specially smart appearance. In the hand-made pattern the dishing of the ground surface occasionally ceases an inch or less in front of the heel, but the Fig. 236. — Fullered front shoe for carriage horse. Foot surface. machine-made shoe, being fashioned from rolled bar, is necessarily dished throughout. The foot surface is perfectly flat, i.e., without seating, though it is well to slightly round the extreme inner edge next the sole. * Tips' are referred to on page 256. A number of useful machine-made carriage-horse shoes are now on the market. For the smaller class of animals with strong feet and well-developed soles, the light shoe of Charlier steel is useful, as it allows the frog to come to the ground and ensures a good foothold. It is also of value in preventing cutting, too frequently a consequence of heavy or ill-fitting shoes which tire the animal. The application of this shoe is nevertheless restricted ; its narrowness concentrates almost all the weight on the wall, into which it sinks, while it affords no protection to the heels. Further, its lightness is opposed to durability and unfits it for really hard-worked horses. The Eodway shoe has already been mentioned. Shoes made of corrugated or pattern iron give an excellent foothold, but can only be used on strong feet, as the position of the nail holes cannot be so carefully selected as in other shoes and fitting is 238 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. more clifiicult. Such shoes are also more liable to break than those of ordinary pattern, and have never come into very extended nse. The machine-made fullered fore shoe presents no essential difference from the hand-made shoe above described. The manufacturers now supply hand-made shoes of this pattern which have the advantage of lasting somewhat longer, and of permitting a clip to be drawn with greater ease, than the machine-made article. They also make similar shoes with Fig. 237. — Concave fore shoe for carriage liorse. Ground surface. (The bars - appear somewhat too pronunent owing to the preparation of the foot.) inside feather-edge for horses which cut and brush. These will be more particularly referred to under the head of ' Cutting and Brushing.' Unlike those of the hack, the carriage horse's hind shoes are generally provided with calkins of equal height, the inner being somewhat less wide and rounded on the margin facing the opposite hoof. Sometimes the inner calkin is replaced by a wedge or knocked-up heel, though this is undesir- able unless the animal goes very close or rests one hind-foot on the coronet of the other in the stable. Two calkins give a much better foothold. The shoe most commonly used has a calkin outside and wedge heel inside. For carriage horses with good action the ordinary shoe has two calkins of equal height, the inner slightly smaller than the CALKINS V. WEDGE-HEELS FOR CAEKIAGE HORSES. 239 ■outer, seven nail holes, which extend back considerably beyond the centre of the quarter and are sunk in a deep fuller, and a broad, solid, and therefore durable toe. The cover is approxi- mately equal throughout. The inner heel is well rounded off. There is usually a clip at the toe. This has the advantage over clips on either side of the toe of allowing the inner branch of the shoe to be fitted very close, and of still further avoiding the risk of cutting. As the pace is much slower than that of the hunter, there is less danger of overreach, and rounding the toe, giving two side toe-clips, and setting back the shoe are unnecessary. To give additional security, an outside quarter- clip may be added. The foot surface is perfectly fiat and broadest at the toe, becoming gradually narrower as it aj)proaches the heels. The inner branch of the shoe is sliohtlv narrower than the outer. Wedge heels are used to increase wear and diminish the danger of ' treading ' the coronet when the horse is in the stable. There is little real difference between the shoe with two wedo'e heels and that with an inner wedge heel and an outer calkin, though, as the calkin gives a somewhat better foothold than the wedge heel, the latter shoe is preferred by many. With the object of preventing injury, many horses are shod with a ' feather-edge ' inside. The shoe is then nailed around the outside and at the toe, and may carry a toe and outside quarter-clip. The ' feather-edge ' should be of the same height as the outer calkin and be bevelled away from above down- wards and well rounded off. This kind of shoe is always ' set under ' a trifle and the horn of the quarter and inside of toe rasped away so as to leave no sharp edge capable of inflicting injury. As the nails are disadvantageously placed, the plain stamped shoe (which gives more support to the individual nails and can be more easily, and more ,perf ectly, fitted) is to be pre- ferred to the fullered shoe. The feather-edged stamped shoe has one great mechanical disadvantage : the inner border form- ing a plane, polished surface gives practically no grip on the ground, the calkin then forms the only holding portion of the shoe and there is a constant tendency for the foot to rotate round this as around a fixed point. Although competent authorities deny that any evil results in practice, it seems to us that the use of such shoes, at least on wood and asphalt 240 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. pavements, must expose the limb to severe and unnecessary strains. It has been found that many horses, which * cut ' when shod with any form of preventing shoe, go perfectly well with a flat shoe, of which the inside branch is bevelled from above down- wards. A well-developed frog is almost indispensable, however, when this shoe is used, in order to secure foothold, though the difficulty may be partly overcome by the employment of india- rubber pads. It is scarcely needful to say that, for horses which cut, the use of hind shoes with a calkin and a flat heel lower than the calkin, though common, throws a great strain on the articula- tions, and should only be resorted to when all other methods have failed. CARRIAGE HORSES. Fio. 238. — Fullered fore shoe (seated and tapped for screws). Made from 1 X I inch iron. Fig. 239. — Ground surface of above shoe. To face p. 241.] SHOEING CARRIAGE HORSES THAT SLIP. 241 SPECIAL SHOES FOE CAREIAGE HORSES. iTLLEKED FOEE SHOE, SEATED AND TAPPED FOE SCKEWS (Figs. 238, 239). Made from 1 X ^ incli iron. Shoes when tapped and screwed have a wide range of use- fulness. Though primarily intended to check slipping on frozen streets, screwed shoes are now frequently used all the year round in London, sometimes in conjunction with india- rubber pads, for the purpose of assuring a firm foothold on asphalt, wood, etc. Even show horses are sometimes shod with them if the showyards have become hard from prolonged drought. The screw at toe of shoe is useful in hilly country. The fulleiins: of the shoe should not extend round the toe nor right up to the heels ; half-an-inch being left solid in which to punch the screw hole prior to tapping. The spikes or blanks can be removed when the horse is resting, corks being inserted in the screw holes to exclude grit. As the edge of the holes becomes ' burred over,' how- ever, even with this precaution, a plug-tap is needed to clear them before reinserting the screws. A common plan is to use very low blanks when the horse is not at work. This preserves the screw holes. To prevent one foot injuring the coronet, etc., of the opposite foot when the horse is turning, the inner heels are often provided with blanks, the sharps being reserved for the outer heels. Q 242 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. ' EODWAY ' FORE SHOE (Fig. 240). Made from -g^ X ^ inch rolled ^pattern' iron. This shoe is made from ' Rod way ' iron by hand. It is very largely used in London to minimise slipping on bad roads, for which purpose its use may be conjoined with that of india- rubber pads or screws. In the country it is scarcely durable enough, and its continued use on any but the strongest feet is apt to be followed by injury, in consequence of the need for frequent renewal. It has many important advantages for town work : it aftbrds a fair amount of cover ; its thinness allows of the frog coming to the ground ; its lightness lessens the chance of the horse cutting or striking, while its double grooves give an excellent grip of the ground. In light work it wears from three to four weeks, a sufficient time to permit the necessary growth of the hoof. Some care is required in heating and turning the special iron, to prevent the regularity of the grooves being destroyed, especially at the toe. The iron should only be red hot, and should be ' pulled ' round on the beak iron rather than hammered. THIN HEELED FULLERED SEATED FORE SHOE (Fig. 241). Made from 1 X -| inch iron. This shoe is suitable for animals wdth thrush, weak or wiry heels, bent knees, navicular disease, and in some cases for ' corn ' and separation at the heels. It may also be used for upright boxy feet, with a tendency to contraction ; but in this case the heels of the foot must be well lowered before applying the shoe. In some cases it is an advantage to ' cradle ' the shoe, i.e., to thin both toe and heels, leaving the quarters of the full thickness of iron, and thus giving a rocking motion to the foot during progression. C A E E I A G E H E S E S. Fig. 240. — ' Rod way ' fore shoe. Made from | x | inch rolled '' pattern " iron. Fig. 241. — Tliin heeled fullered seated fore shoe. jNlade from 1 x g inch iron. {To face p. 242. CAKEIAGE HOKSES. Fig. 242.— Fullered fore shoe (dished on ground surface). Made from 1 X i inch iron. To face, p. 243.] SHOEING CARRIAGE HORSES THAT FORGE. 243 FULLERED FORE SHOE (DISHED ON GROUND SURFACE) (Fig. 242). Made from 1 X -J- inch iron. Young horses, when first broken to harness, are apt to forge. For such as contract this habit, but have weak, spreading feet, to which narrow-webbed shoes would be inappKcable, the present shoe is indicated. It is also useful for hunters exer- cised on roads, and for riding and driving horses. Its ' cover ' and flat foot surface cause the pressure due to the animal's body-weight to be distributed over a wide surface of the foot, extending, in fact, towards the centre of the foot beyond the white line. Should the foot be very ' fleshy ' and the sole thin, the inside edge of the foot surface of shoe may require to be slightly rounded off or ' eased,' to prevent undue pressure at this point. Where the shoe is used for hunters, the heels must be sloped away obliquely, and the shoe fitted close at the heels to prevent its being trodden off. 244 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 6. OMNIBUS HORSES. Until very recently most omnibus horses were shod in front with a plain stamped shoe, of equal thickness throughout, but broader at the toe and outer quarter, where the chief wear falls, than at other points. To avoid unduly loading the toe, the increased breadth is chiefly secured by increased seating out. The ordinary shoe has seven nail holes, four outside and three inside ; the last outside nail hole is placed at about the centre of the quarter. We believe that of late years the London General Omnibus Company has adopted a machine-made fullered front shoe, which has been found easy to fit and apply, and the use of which is steadily extending. Machine-made shoes are less durable than hand-made, however, and most private shoeing firms continue the use of hand-made stamped shoes for 'bus horses, especially for hard wear. The hind shoe is of good breadth and thickness at the toe and outer quartei- where wear is usually severe. To secure durability, many hind shoes are made from ' old stuff,' one and a half or tw^o shoes produciug a new shoe, or a piece of steel is welded into the toe. The inner branch of the shoe is slightly narrower than the outer, and usually terminates in a wedge heel to lessen the danger of ' treading ' the opposite coronet. For horses that cut, the inner branch of the shoe bears one or two nail holes close to the toe-clip, is fashioned rather straight from the back of the toe as far as the last part of the quarter, and fitted very fine. The horses of the Compagnie Generale des Omnibus de Paris are shod with steel shoes of a much lighter pattern than is usual in England. Both fore and hind shoes are thick at the toe and become thinner towards the heels. Each has six nail holes distributed at equal distances around the toe and is avail- able for either a right or left foot. The system is said to work very satisfactorily, but we cannot help thinking trouble must arise in the shoeing of diseased or weak feet. ]\1 X I r> U S HO R S E s. Fig. 243.— stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with two calkins. Made ft'om old shoes. Fig. 244.— Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with calkin and wedge heel. Made from old shoes. To face p. 24 'i.] SHOEING OMNIBUS HOKSES THAT WEAK AT TOE. 245 SPECIAL SHOES FOB, OMNIBUS WORK. STAMPED HIND SHOE (for Omnibus Wokk), WITH TWO CALKINS (Fig. 243), Made from old shoes. The toe being the seat of greatest wear iu by far the majority of cases, this omnibus hind shoe should have a thick- ness at that point of |- inch. To give the necessary durabil- ity in cases where wear is exceptionally severe (in ' toe-biters,' as the working farrier terms them), a piece of steel may be welded into the toe. When the horse dra^s the toe, a short, thick toe-clip is drawn, in which the steel is worked round. This protects the point of greatest wear. Clips can be drawn at the toe, the toe and outside quarter, or at the outside and inside quarters : the latter arrangement is of service when it is difficult to keep shoes on. The shoe shown is for feet varying from 5^ to ^)\ inches in width. Since the wide adoption of foot brakes on omnibuses, many horses in this service are shod with flat shoes behind. Many persons still prefer calkins, however, as giving horses a better foothold when descending hills and turning corners. STAMPED HIND SHOE (fok Omnibus Wokk), WITH CALKIN AND WEDGE HEEL (Fig. 244). Made, from old sJioes. This shoe only differs from the preceding in having a wedge heel inside in place of a calkin. The wedge heel is greatly to 246 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. be preferred when a horse is in the habit of resting the heel of the hind shoe on the coronet of the opposite foot while in the stable, or when an animal, in consequence of skin irritation, scratches its hind-legs with the heels of the shoes. In such eases the wedge heel can be cut off obliquely, leaving a sloping surface, much less likely to inflict dangerous wounds than is the square-sided calkin. The size and thickness of the shoe are similar to those of that preceding. STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOE OMNIBUS WORK (Fig. 245). Made from 1 X -| inch iron. This is the shoe commonly used in London for omnibus work, though machine-made fullered shoes are also largely employed. It should be fitted quite full at the quarters, and well ' boxed up ' to the foot, i.e., the upper outer edge should be rasped round so as to present a slanting surface about -^^ inch in breadth extending round the outer and upper margin of the shoe. This minimises risk of the shoe being torn off. The heels should be fitted fairly long, care being taken, however, that they are not so prolonged as to endanger the shoe being trodden off. The foot surface of this shoe is seated. OMNIBUS HORSES. Fig. 245. — Staiujied fore shoe (for omnil)u>; work). Made from 1 X finch iron. I To facf p. 246. PROPORTIONS OV CART HORSE SHOES. 247 7. CART HORSES. Owing to the position assumed in hauling heavy weights, the cart horse wears most heavily at the toe and outer quarter. These points must, therefore, be strengthened to the utmost without unduly increasing weight, whilst the less worn parts must be of a strength corresponding to the degree of attrition. A careful examination of the old shoe will soon show what parts require to be strengthened. The front shoe is generally of equal thickness throughout. The cover is [greatest at the toe and diminishes towards the heels. There are seven to eight nail holes, those on the outer rather more widely spaced than those on the inner side. To increase the soliditv and wear of the shoe nail holes are some- times omitted from the parts where friction is greatest. The toe-clip is, if anything, somewhat towards the outer side of the toe. The hoof surface presents a plain rim sufficiently wide to cover the wall and about ^ of an inch of the outer margin of the sole. The seating terminates 1 to 1^ inches from the heel, which is well rounded and which sliould project -^ to f of an inch beyond tliat of the foot when the shoe is affixed. Although in London the front shoe is usually flat it is customary in many parts of the country, especially in Newcastle, Liverpool, and Scotland, and on the continent, to raise the heels by the use of low calkins or, short of this, to considerably increase the thick- ness of the heel itself. This will be referred to in the succeed- ing pages. The hind shoe is thickest and broadest at the toe ; the inner branch is narrower than the outer, is fitted close to the foot, and the inside nail holes extend back to a less distance than the outer ; there are two calkins of equal height, the inner somewhat narrower than the outer, and two clips, one at the toe and one at the outer quarter. The calkins should not much exceed in lieioht double the thickness of the shoe at the quarter. Horses which ' tread ' the opposite coronet may be shod with an inside wedge heel. Calkins favour the muscular action of the limb and greatly assist the animal in descending hills. To help the animal in starting, Fader suggested placing 248 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. the calkins much further forward than usual. The upper surface of the shoe is perfectly flat and only the inner margin is slightly rounded off. Cart horses seldom overreach or cut in their ordinary work, so that no special precautions are needed on this account. The Scotch cart-horse shoe is usually straighter in the branches than the English shoe, the calkins are broader from side to side but not so long, and the quarters are fullered. Shunting horses, employed for moving railway trucks, should be shod very close and sliort and the heels of their shoes bevelled to prevent the shoes becoming fixed in points or sleepers ; calkins are absolutely contra-indicated. Pit ponies require similar precautions. CAET HOESES. Fig. 246. — Cartjhorse hind shoe for town work, Made from okl shoes. To faceup. 249.] CART HOKSE SHOES FOR T(JWN WORK. 249 SPECIAL SHOES FOR CART HORSES CART HOKSE HIND SHOE FOK TOWN WOIIK (Fig. 246). Made from old shoes. Being made from 'old stuff this shoe is more durable than if made from new iron. It has a thickness at the toe of |- inch. The clip is drawn at the toe, or at toe and outside quarter. The calkins should be square, short and strong, not higher in fact than is necessary to ensure a secure foothold. Calkins are of considerable importance to the town cart horse, because, as a rule, the strain of checking the load on inclines falls entirely on the horse, foot-brakes being fitted only to certain of the four- wheeled vehicles and to few of the two-wheeled. Further- more, they are almost indispensable to the animal in backing a load. The shoe illustrated is for feet of 6 to 7 inches in width. Though less durable, cart horse hind shoes can be made from new iron. A useful size is 1^ x -| inches. Front shoes made from 1^ X |^ inch iron should be fitted rather long, very full at heels and well ' boxed up.' They usually require an outside quarter clip to prevent their being driven across the foot. 250 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. CAKT HORSE STAMPED FORE SHOE FOE SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 247). Made from 1 J X ;J inch iron. To give an appearance of strength to defective, weak, or shelly feet, and to im[)rove the appearance of fairly good feet, the shoe is made ' boxed np ' (as it is termed) ' the wrong way on.' In less technical language, the outer w^all of the shoe is given such a bevel that when the shoe is nailed on it appears as a continuation of the wall of the foot ; or, the circumference of the shoe is greater at the ground than at the foot surface. This makes the foot, when lifted for inspection, appear wider. This shoe is unsuited for ordinary work on account of its favouring cutting, especially when somewhat worn ; the inner ground edge then ' burrs over,' forming a sharp saw-like margin, and may inflict ugly wounds on the opposite coronet or fetlock. Owing to its shape, the nail holes must be so stamped as to appear very ' coarse ' when viewed from the ground surface. Vide illustration. CART HORSE STAMPED HIND SHOE FOR SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 248). Made from 1^ x ^ inch iron. This shoe is made and used in precisely the same way and for the same purpose as the foregoing. The heels may be level, as shown, or wedged, according to whether it is desired to give a natural bearing or to raise the heels. iaSS^p a^'il ii^J^'^^^^'^^^ ^ H Q [To face p. 250. w. O o » X ^ w i-tM C3 T— 1 o O ^ ^ ^ o 5^ o lO (N , CS •—1 ^ To face -p. 251.] CART HORSE SHOES FOR WORK ON GRANITE ' SETTS.' 251 'NOETH COUNTEY' STAMPED FOEE SHOE CFiG. 249). Made from 1^- X ^ inch iron. This shoe has strong low calkins and a long toe-piece welded or * shut-on ' across the toe ; the toe-piece extends about -| inch on either side of the toe. It is used throughout the North ; in fact, wherever steep inclines paved with granite ' setts ' are to be found. The toe-piece drops into the interval between two rows of stones and gives a firm foothold for starting^ a load, while the calkins enable the horse to hold back his load in coming down hill and assist him greatly when backing. The toe-piece and calkins beiog of equal height do not disturb the natural level of the foot, though they necessarily lift the frofr from the ground. The shoe {vide illustration) is well seated out to prevent pressure on a weak or ' dropped ' sole. 'NOETH COUNTEY' STAMPED HIND SHOE (Fig. 250). Made from 1^ x ^ inch iron. This is the hind shoe corresponding to that just described and is similarly fitted. With regard to the toe-piece, a few words may be said as to the process of welding or ' shutting-on.' The shoe must be finished and the clip drawn preparatory to welding. A light rod of iron having been selected, the end is drawn down so as to form the intended toe-piece and the part half cut through but not detached, as the bar is intended to form a handle for manipulating the toe-piece. The toe-piece and shoe are then heated together to- a white (welding) heat, care being taken to keep both free from dirt and not to melt the clip from off the shoe ; (this may easily happen if the clip is allowed to come in the direct line of the blast). The toe- piece and bar should be so hot as to ' sizzle ' when withdrawn from the fire. The toe-piece is adjusted in position on the shoe, and with one or two liglit blows is welded. Some farriers stamp a hole in the shoe and draw out a tang on the toe-piece with which to fasten the two together before heating. The first described is, however, the most workman-like method. 252 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. STAMPED FOEE SHOE FOE FAKM WOEK (Fig. 251). Made from 1^ or 1^ X ^ inch iron. As the amount of wear at farm work is comparatively light, the above section of iron is found quite sufficient for horses with feet up to 7 inches in width. The shoe is slightly seated and has (S nail holes, and is fitted rather full at the heels. The heels of the shoe, however, must be kept shorter than is usual for town work, as there is a greater chance of the shoe being torn or trodden off in heavy ground. Marked seating-out is also to be avoided, as it increases the suction experienced under similar circumstances. A toe-clip is usually sufficient except when the outside heel is very wiry, in which case three nail holes fairly close together should be punched at the outside toe and a quarter clip drawn just behind the last. The shoe should be fitted wider than usual at the outside heel. In ex- ceptional cases it may even be necessary to punch 5 nail holes inside. STAMPED HIND SHOE FOE FAEM WOEK (Fig. 252). Made from 1-|; x ^ inch iron. On account of its having no calkins, this shoe is often termed the ' farmer s flat.' The absence of calkins is in every way an advantage, because farm horses seldom have loads to back, and when they are turned out to grass together there is less chance of their injuring one another by kicking. The thinness of the shoe allows of its being bent cold, a point of considerable importance when it is remembered that farm horses are often shod at the stable. To lessen the chance of nails breaking in animals which stamp or kick in the stable, an outside quarter clip or even outside and inside quarter clips may be fitted. CART HORSES. Fig. 251. — Stamped fore slioe (for farm -work). 1^ or 1^ X h inch iron. ^[ade Ironi Fio. 252. Stanijtcd liind shoe (for farm work). 1]- X ^ inch iron. Made from [To face p. 252. CART HORSES. •NiJL> Fia. 253. — Staiui)ed fore shoe (for railway shunting horses). ]\[ade from H x | inch iron. Fig. 2^>4. —Stamped hind shoe (for railway shunting horses). Made from li x | inch iron. To face p. 2.53.] CART HORSE SHOES FOR FARM AND SHUNTING WORK. 253 STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOE KAILAVAY SHUNTING HOESES (Fig. 253). Made from I2" X |^ inch iron. There being a great risk of shunting horses' shoes catching in sleepers, rails, ' points,' etc., or of their being torn off by the hind-feet, special precautions are required in making and fitting them. The heels must be fitted very closely to those of the foot and be sloped off very obliquely on the ground surface. With a special view to prevent the heels of the shoe catching in ' points,' it might be of advantage to form the quarters and heels slightly concave. Shunting horses being much exposed to the risk of ' picking-up ' nails whilst working in railway yards, it is generally advisable to shoe them with leather soles as a protection. The shoe shown is suitable for foot 6 to 7 inches wide. STAMPED HIND SHOE FOE EAILAVAY SHUNTING (Fig. 254). Made from l|- X |^ inch iron. For reasons stated above, calkins or wedge heels are inadmis- sible on the hind shoes of shunting horses. The heels of the shoe are rounded and sloped off obliquely on the ground surface and are fitted very short, closely following the contour of the foot. The above shoe is suitable for feet 6 to 7 inches wide. 254 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. The following systems of shoeing exhibit special features, which lead us to consider them separately : — 8. THE CHARLIER SHOE. In or about 1854 Messrs Mavor of London and Duluc of Bordeaux suggested the use of comparatively narrow, thick shoes to prevent slipping on greasy pavements. Mavor directed his shoe, which was without fullering, to be fitted warm and in such a way as to be slightly incrusted in the foot. In 1865 Charlier introduced a system, in which a narrow, deep band of iron, without fullering, was sunk in a groove encirclinsj the entire ground surface of the hoof. To secure frog and sole pressure the ground surface of the shoe when applied was on a level with that of the foot. Charlier claimed to afford the necessary protection to the wall without in any way diminishing the natural elasticity of the foot or impeding its expansion. The Charlier shoe corresponds exactly in shape to the form of the hoof, is deeper than broad, of equal thickness throughout or slightly less broad in the inner branch. The hoof surface is a trifle narrower than the ground surface ; the upper and inner margin is rounded off. There are from six to eight oval nail holes punched obliquely so as to obtain the best (possible) hold of the wall. The heels are rounded, of the same length as those of the hoof and inclined to corre- spond with the direction of the wall. In preparing the foot, the special guarded knife shown in fig. 257 is used to form the groove in which the shoe is lodged. The sole and frog remain untouched save when partially loose fragments require removal. As stated, Charlier claimed by this method of shoeing to permit expansion of the foot, to restore diseased feet to their normal shape, to favour development of the frog, and to prevent or cure contraction of the heels, sandcrack, corns, etc. These claims have in large measure been rejected, and, in point of fact, the Charlier system of shoeing has of late years largely gone out of fashion in England. There are several reasons for this. The deep groove cut to accommodate the ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF CHARLIEK SYSTEM. 255 shoe weakens the imioii between sole and wall and, except in specially strong feet, approaches dangerously near seiisitive structures. In this connection it must not be forgotten that horn, even in thick layers, is a yielding substance (so that the untouched wall will gradually be affected by constantly maintained pressure), and that, though a considerable thickness of sound horn separates the shoe from the nearest vascular structure, evil results inay follow, though tardily. The inventor recognised this and advised that the groove be not sunk beyond the point to which the sole would be pared in ordinary shoeing. Unfortunately, with so shallow a groove the frog no longer comes to the ground, l^ecause, on account of its want of cover, the shoe has to be very much tliicker than the ordinary form. And this raising of the whole foot is ill- compensated by the increased thickness of the sole, etc., especially w^hen compared with modern shoeing, in which the sole is spared and therefore retains all its strength. Again, if the heels of the shoe be sunk deeper into the hoof in order to preserve frog pressure, an increased load is thrown on the tendons,, with undesirable results. In frosty weather the horse shod witli Cliarlier shoes slips badly ; not so badly, perhaps, as the horse with ordinary shoes, but infinitelv more than one with coq;s or screws or even rough heels. And the Charlier svstem admits of no effective rou^h- ing, so on this score it certainly has no advantage. When tirst introduced a great deal was said of the lightness of the Charlier shoe. Xow, though very narrow, this shoe is necessarily made very deep, and therefore heavy, not only to resist wear but to prevent it opening under the weight of the body, because, weight for weight, a broad thin shoe offers infinitely greater resistance to this spreading movement than a narrow deep shoe. The increase in depth is so considerable that for .small feet the Charlier shoe has little advantage over the ordinary form. In large feet, on the other hand, it has a marked advantage. As the shoe surrounds the foot like a ring, one of two things must occur when the animal is in fast work : either the shoe must totally prevent expansion of the heels, or the force of expansion must be so great as to drive the heels of the shoe asunder. We believe it is the pain caused by this constant 256 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. effort of the foot to expand, and the equally constant constric- tion by the shoe, wliich is largely responsible for the low, shooting action which horses thus shod soon acquire. Pain is greatest when expansion is greatest. Expansion is greatest when pressure on the posterior parts of the foot is greatest ; pressure on these parts is greatest when the foot descends most nearly perpen- dicularly to the ground, hence the animal avoids raising the foot high and brings it to the ground as obliquely as possible. Preparing the foot, fitting and nailing on are delicate opera- tions ; the shoe is ill-adapted for defective or diseased feet, wear is comparatively rapid ; when partly worn, the shoe is liable to spread, and, owing to complications, the system is more costly than ordinary shoeing. We do not deny that the Charlier system, when introduced, had many good points ; it taught the farrier to spare the sole and bars, it drew attention to the need of frog pressure, and it showed the advantages of light as opposed to" heavy shoes. At the present day it is still useful as a front shoe for ponies and hunters with small narrow feet, for animals which slip on smooth pavements, and for those with commencing contraction of the foot ; but to the reputation of a panacea, formerly awarded it, the Charlier system has forfeited all claim. 9. TIPS. The tip covers the toe and a portion of the quarters and only protects the anterior half of the hoof against wear. There are two kinds ; firstly, the ordinary tip, and secondly, the modified or Charlier tip. The advantages of this method of shoeing consist in the light weight of the shoe, which in the case of ordinary tips is about five to seven ounces and in Charlier four to seven ounces ; but principally in the fact that the posterior half of the hoof comes directly in contact with the ground, giving more frog-pressure, diminishing slipping, moderating the shock to the limb, and favouring circulation in the hoof, thus producing a more rapid growth of horn and increasing the strength of the foot, while allowing of the freest possible expansion and contraction. Tips are very useful for hunters ' turned up rough.' Nevertheless, tips; their form and application. 257 they have certain disadvantages. Thus they are not sufficiently durable and do not protect the hoof enough for hard work. They last, as a rule, from ten to twenty days, but this is scarcely enough to permit sufficient growth. They are most useful for young horses in light work in which the foot, when viewed from in front, is of normal shape, and when viewed from the side does not appear oblique. They are more useful for front than for hind feet, though an exception may be made when the hoof, faultless in form, is provided with a strong wall and the horn is of good quality. (1) The ordinary tip has a breadth at the toe of from ^ to ^ inch, and a thickness of |- inch. Towards the extremities, the inner angles of which should be rounded off", it becomes thinner. The extent to which the thickness should be diminished posteriorly depends on the strength of the horn in the foot in question. In weak hoofs the ends of the tip should be thin and fitted full, thouc^h even then the correct relation Fig. 255.— Ordinary tip. Fig. 256.— Upright hoof shod with a tip. between the position of the hoof and that of the fetlock cannot always be attained. In strong feet, on the other hand, it is sufficient if the extremities are left ^ to ^ inch in thickness. The ground surface of the tip requires no fuller and can be dished out. As a rule four or five nail holes are sufficient. This method of shoeing is most easily carried out when the feet are strong. The bearing surface of the wall is only lowered in the usual way at the points to be covered by the tip, that is, the toe and part of the quarters. The ground surface of the finished tip, which is to some extent embedded in the anterior half of the hoof, must lie in the same plane as the ground surface of the heels. Where the horn is very strong and the anterior half of the hoof requires to be much lowered, the remaining horn in the posterior half may project 258 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. below the shoe. In such case it should be reduced to a level with the shoe by the aid of the rasp. When shoeino- weak feet the first and chief consideration is the form of the foot as seen from the side. As the tip is not then embedded, it is apt to raise the toe and by throwing the Fig. 257.— Special knife with stop used in preparing the groove for Charlier tips. hoof out of line with the axis of the foot to injure the animal's action. The horse is liable to stumble and fall or to go lame, especially when ridden on hard ground. To meet peculiarities in the formation of the limb, the form of the hoof, the style of the tread and wear, the tip may, in exceptional cases, require to be modified, one branch to be longer than the other, or both branches to be lengthened. An offspring of the Charlier shoe, and one which preserves many of its best features, is : — (2) The Charlier tip, which consists of a thin half shoe, not exceeding in breadth that of the wall into which it is sunk, Fig. 258.— Hoof prepared for Charlier tip. Fig. 259.— Hoof shod with Cliarlier tip. usually fullered and exhibiting from four to five nail holes. The outer margin is either perpendicular or slightly sloped out- wards and the inner upper margin well rounded off; the nail holes are punched as near the middle as possible and are CHARLIER TIP. 259 'pitched in,' otherwise they are apt to split the wall. The length varies somewhat, though perhaps the best results are obtained when the ends of the shoe do not extend further than the middle of the quarter ; sometimes one branch extends to the heel, the other stopping short at the middle of the quarter (three-quarter tip). The groove for the tip is made by first rasping away the edge of the hoof and then using the special Charlier knife (fig. 257). It is very important to obtain accurate fitting. Should a Charlier shoe or tip be lost, lameness readily follows from pressure on the sole, and unless the hoof be exceptionally strong it becomes very difficult to affix an ordinary shoe. Fig. 260. — Stamped fore tip. Made from 5 x § inch iron. The Charlier tip is most useful for upright ' blocky ' feet with wired-in heels and atrophied frogs, in which its use is often followed by remarkable improvement in a comparatively short time. As in the case of the Charlier shoe its use demands much care, skill, and judgment. Tips are of much value for horses turned out at grass, or doing light work. They permit the frog to come to the ground, promote greater physiological activity of the horn-secretiug structures, thus increasing the growth of horn, produce a large h,ealthy frog, often cure thrush, and when contraction of the foot is taking place are of great service. In the latter case, the heels should be well lowered before applying the tip. Tips, again, are useful for horses worked on asphalt and wood pave- 260 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. ment, as they permit the frog to come to the ground and check slipping. The quarters of the tip must be fitted ' full,' otherwise the foot is apt to suffer, the horn s]_ reading over the tip and splitting off. The tip illustrated is broader than usual It is intended for a rather weak, fleshy foot, with thin quarters. 10. SIR F. FITZWYGRAM'8 SHOE. The web of the shoe is not wider than the weight bearing surface and is of even width until it approaches the heel, where the inner margin exactly follows the course of the bars, on which it rests. The ground surface of the shoe is dished evenly from without inwards, corresponding in shape to the Fig. 261. — Sir F. I'itzwygram's shoe. concavity of the sole. There are five nail holes, three outside and two inside. About half the width of the toe is thinned on the beak of the anvil and rolled upwards, forming a kind of broad clip extending almost from the beginning of the inside quarter to a corresponding point on the outside. In fitting, the toe of the foot is rounded to a similar extent. am ¥. FITZVVYGKAM'S SHOE. 261 The hoof surface of the shoe is perfectly Hat. This method of shoeing is not absolutely novel, for rounding of the toe has always been recognised as an advantage and forms part of both the German and French systems of shoeing. In the former it is termed ' Zehenrichtuug,' and in the latter * Ajusture.' It is only in the degree to which this rolling is carried and in the peculiar dishing of the ground surface of the shoe that the novelty of the above method consists. ¥iG. 2ti2.— Sir F. Fitzwygram's shoe. For strong, fairly healthy feet, for high blocky feet with a tendency to contraction, disease of the frog or corns, for navicular disease, and for hunters ' stale ' in their action and liable to stumble, we regard the Fitzwygram shoe as excellent. It is somewhat dithcult to make and fit, however, and does not suit horses with tiat or ' dropped ' soles or those with large spread- ing feet and thin defective crust. ' 11. THE TURKISH OR ORIENTAL SHOE Is said to have been used by the Arabs since the year 622 a.d. It consists of a flat plate of iron, very broad at the toe and narrowing towards the heels (which are welded together) in euch a way as to enclose a round or triangular space, through 262: THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. which access may be had to the frog. The shoe (tig. 263) with rounded aperture is common in Turkey, that with triangular aperture in Africa. The hoof surface is wider than the ground surface, so that the upper outer margin slightly overhangs the lower. There are six to eight round nail holes equally spaced in the quarters, but none at the toe. The shoe is fitted cold, the horn being allowed to project a trifle beyond the shoe at the quarters, and to a considerable extent at the toe ; the heels of the shoe are bent upwards so as to protect the bulbs of the t'lG. 2G3. — Oriental shoe. foot. After nailing on, the hoof is trimmed to the shoe by means of a large knife. The nails have large strong heads with lateral projections, the object of which is to give increased foot- hold. As these projections meet when the nails are driven home, they also tend to mutually support each other. The neck of the nail is round, the shank, however, square, and the point tapering. The point is not wrung off after driving, and there are no clenches, but the projecting portion is formed into a spiral, which is gently beaten flat on the wall of the hoof. As the iron of which the nails are composed is of excellent quality, this method permits of the same nail being used more than once. The Oriental shoe, as opposed to that used in Europe, takes ORIENTAL SHOE AND SHOES WITH ROPE, WOOD, ETC. INLAID. 263 a bearing over a large portion of the sole and is not bedded on the wall alone. The nail holes not being countersunk, the shoe being thin and the nails not fitting with absolute accuracy, a certain degree of expansion is possible. Whether the excel- lence of Arab horses' feet be due to Oriental shoeing is largely open to question, but the method at least teaches one useful lesson, viz., the ability of the sole to bear weight and, under favourable circumstances, the positive advantage of imposing weight upon it. 12. SPECIAL aROOVED SHOES WITH ROPE INLAID. These shoes are of cast Bessemer steel, and present on the ground surface a broad deep channel filled with a piece of tarred rope (fig. 264); the hoof surface resembles that of an Fig. 2W. ordinary seated shoe. The rope is removed before fitting and replaced after the shoe has been nailed on. The advantages of these shoes are their lightness and their power of diminishing slipping on stone, wood, and asphalt pavements ; they do not prevent falls, however, in wintry weather. To some extent they diminish shock. Owing to their method of manufacture they will not bear heating to a high temperature, nor much alteration in shape, and therefore are only of value for sound, well- formed feet. 264 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. They are widely used in the large towns of Germany, especially as front shoes. They have the further disadvantages of being difficult to nail on (the nails can only be driven home by means of a punch), and the fact that the thickness of the shoe prevents the frog touching the ground. They are apt to crack and readily bend when half worn through, to prevent whicli they are now frequently made in the form of bar shoes. Steel bars with wood inlaid are made in Copenhagen. A groove on the ground surface contains a firmly compressed ring of wood. They are exceedingly light and correct in construc- tion, but are very noisy, and as they cannot be warmed, their use is confined to cases where they exactly fit the hoof. Shoes with rubber inlaid are made by a number of firms. In certain cases the shoe is cast, in others it is rolled. In the latter the nails are driven through the rubber ; in the former, however, the rubber is inserted after the shoe is nailed on. Eubber is neither so cheap nor so lasting as rope. 8. Changing from one Style of Shoein(j to Another. It is sometimes found desirable to vary the style of shoeing, a horse which has been accustomed to flat shoes, for instance, being shod with tips, or with calkins, or again with toe-pieces. In making such cliange it is of great importance to note the way in whicli the foot is brought to the ground, and the direction of its axis. Whatever the form of the new shoe, the horse should tread level. Horses working on hard streets require the greatest care under such circumstances, for even a slight change, if continued, may seriously injure the action. Throwing the horse on its toe seems to be more serious than the opposite condition. The direction of the foot axis is of equal importance with the tread. Where the foot grows rather oblique (fig. 202), as happens when the shoe becomes worn, the animal has difficulty both in standing and going on hard ground, but when the opposite condition occurs this difficulty is want- ing. It is, however, best to always seek a normal tread and a normal position of the foot axis. PKECAUnONS REQUIRED WHEN CHANGING STYLE OF SHOE. 265 Bearing this in mind, it is easy to see that a change from shoes with calkins to those without may be injurious, and in fact is injurious, if the toe be not shortened to such an extent as to restore the foot and hoof axes to their normal relationship. In the event of the horn being too weak to permit of thus lowering the toe, the shoes sliould at least be somewhat thicker at the heels. The following sometimes occurs : — The owner of a horse shod with calkins hears of the advantages of Hat shoes, and without further notice has his horse's shoes removed and replaced with liat shoes. He finds, however, the horse ,2^oes worse than formerly, and blames flat shoes accordingly. The cause of this tied-in gait, and the tripping and stumbling, is to be sought in the low heels. Eemoval of the calkins has disturbed the relations of the hoof and foot axes, and has produced another kind of tread, in which the toe comes first to the ground. Had the farrier been guided by the conformation and tread, and had he found it impossible to shorten the toe, owing to want of horn, he could either have objected to the change, or, at least, selected shoes with thick heels, which would not have destroyed the balance. 9. The Shape and Fitting of the Shoe. Shaping and fitting the shoe, like preparing the hoof, are most important parts of the farrier's duty. Fitting can be performed with the shoe either hot or cold. In this work skill and the ability to ' carry the form in his eye ' are absolutely necessary. Hot fitting has the advantage of allowing faults in the shoe to be rapidly corrected, as well as producing very perfect •coaptation between shoe and foot in the shortest possible time. A hot shoe should never be applied to the hoof for more than ten to thirty seconds, otherwise serious injury, such as burning the sole and causing inflammation of sensitive structures, may be done. Cold fitting certainly avoids these disadvantages, but never produces such complete contact between shoe and hoof, nor can the peculiarities of the hoof or of the gait be so exactly 266 THE PUACTICE OF SHOEING. :: compensated for, as in hot fitting. Nevertheless, under certain circumstances, as in war, etc., it may be advantageous. It is impossible to give detailed directions to meet all circumstances. Flat shoes must be fitted somewhat differently to those with calkins and toe-pieces, and variations have constantly to be made to meet special requirements. In fittino' the shoe it should be brouoht tr) a brii»ht red heat. If irregularly heated, the hammer often produces dis- tortion in other parts than those to be altered. The nearer either limb of the shoe approaches the middle line of the hoof, the greater the wear on it and the greater the w^eight thrown on that particular half of the hoof, while at the same time the bearing surface is reduced. The converse is equally true, though the results of all such peculiarities are more marked on the outer side of the shoe. The same principle applies both to- the toes and limbs of' the shoe. Needless to say, the distances through which such modifications are possible can be measured only in sixteenths of an inch. It is always necessary to keep' the inner limb of the hind slioe comparatively narrow, and the calkin (if present) well rounded off, both to avoid the shoe being trodden on and to prevent striking. It should also be remembered that it is an advantage and preserves the wall to provide the broadest possible bearing surface between the shoe and the hoof. The breadth of the bearing surface of the shoe must necessarily correspond to that of the wall, the white line, and the narrow rim of sole before indicated. In fiat, oblique hoofs, therefore, with oblique walls, the bearing surface must be broader than in others. All defects on the bearing surface, in the nail holes, etc., must be removed in fitting, clips must be drawn, and the shoes made to correspond exactly to the contour of the foot. The bearing surface, especially at the back of the shoe, must be absolutely horizontal, its breadth being regulated by that of the hoof. When it slopes inwards that very injurious con- traction of the hoof which always occurs to a certain extent as a result of shoeing will be promoted. In the region of the nail holes, on the contrary, a slight slope is not only harmless, but indeed favourable. Generally speaking, a shoe should be a plane, so that if laid on a flat surface all portions of its hoof- bearing margin will be in contact with it. The only exceptions- FITTING THE SHOE TO FOOi" 267 are shoes with a rolled toe and special shoes, such as those for laminitis. Some front shoes are rounded at the toe (tig. 265) ; as a rule, this roundino- off should commence at about the centre of the toe and be carried upwards to a distance equal to half the thickness of the iron. This corresponds to the form produced by natural wear, and is said to facilitate the last portion of the stride. The trutli of the statement is, however, somewhat donbtful. At the best the toe should only be ' rolled ' when the horse wears excessively at that point. A rounded toe, though possibly of use to heavy horses in slow work, prevents the horse obtaining a firm ' grip ' of the ground, is awkward to form and to tit, makes it difficult to produce a satisfactory clip, Fig. 265. and allowing, for the sake of argument, that it facilitates turning and other movements in a small space, certainly decreases the animal's speed. Those who claim that it reproduces the form assumed by the unshod hoof, forget that the shoe in nowise reproduces the hoof, and that the bearing of the unshod hoof is altogether dift'erent from that of the shoe. {a) Fitting Shoes to Normal Feet. — After selecting the shoe, giving it the proper form, and drawing the clips, it is applied to the hoof at a dull red, in order to see whether it fits. Errors in shape, etc., are then corrected, and any points on the hoof which have been left too high are lowered by rasping away the burnt horn. Provided the parts have been correctly trimmed and the shoe holed, the depression for the toe-clip can then 268 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. be made, though only sufficient should be cut away to enable the clip to lie close. The shoe fits, (1) when its outer border corresponds with that of the bearinsj surface of the wall throuc^hout the toe and quarters, from which points it becomes rather wider as it runs backward, so that at the heels it projects on either side from ^ to ^ inch ; (2) when the nail holes correspond to the white line ; and (3) when it lies in absolute contact with wall, white line, and a narrow zone of the sole as wide as a straw. The width of the shoe can be judged best by grasping the fetlock with the left hand, allowing the hoof to fall slightly, and viewing the parts from above and behind. With the exception of the narrow zone indicated, a space of -|- inch should exist between the shoe and sole, due partly to the spring of the sole, partly to the seating of the shoe. A narrow space should also separate the extremities of the heels from the fro^. A good general rule is to fit the shoe to the hoof, but in such a way as to produce the best possible form of hoof. Faults in the shoe should never be compensated by altering the hoof. In dealing with hoofs already deformed we should seek gradually to give the shoe such a form as the hoof had when healthy, a principle derived from the experience that the hoof after a time takes the form of the shoe. As soon as the shoe is cool, the nail holes are again punched from the ground surface and the outer border of the shoe is rasped round. This rasping gives a smart appearance, and removes any sharp points or roughness. To prevent cutting, the edges of the inner side of the shoe should receive special attention. In filing up the shoe only one part should be grasped in the jaws of the vice at once, or otherwise the entire shoe may be bent. (b) Shoes for irregular Conformations. — In cases where the foot or limb is abnormal, it, is no longer sufficient to fit the shoe to the hoof, but an attempt to improve the position of the limb must be made, in order to secure proper distribution of weight and to ensure better support ; the more defective the formation the more necessary does this become. As already mentioned, the hoof of a turned-in foot ditlers in MODIFICATIONS OF SHOE FOR IRKEGULAR CONFORMATION, ETC. 269 shape from that of one which is turned out. The distribution of weight is also different, and some change in the width of the posterior portion of the limb of the shoe, therefore, becomes necessary. In shoeing turned-out feet the inner limb of the shoe must be rather wider than the outer ; in turned-in feet the opposite. How much cannot, of course, be exactly stated ; it depends on the amount of deformity, and on whether the shoe is flat or has calkins and toe-grips. In well-marked out- turned toes the inner part of the toe should be rather flattened, allowing even the wall to project in order to prevent striking. In turned-in toes the shoe is fitted so that the inner limb exactly corresponds to the inner circumference of the hoof, the sharp edge of which should be rounded off rather more than usual. At the same time the outer limb from the toe back- wards should be fairly broad (fig. 266). In dealing with contracted or broken feet both branches of the shoe should be so shaped as to correspond with the stronger Fig. 266. — Left hind shoe for horse with turned-iii toes. The outer bianch is seeii to be wider than the inner. The dotted lines indicate the bearing of the hoof. or better preserved side of the hoof. The shoe will then project to a certain extent beyond the broken or contracted wall. It is, of course, often difticult or dangerous to allow the edge of the shoe to project at the inside of the toe or quarter, but there is no danger in giving extra width at the heel, because the horse seldom or never cuts with this part. Should the shoe he fitted to the foot in such cases, the weakened portion of the wall sus- tains more weight than it would were it sound (so that a !270 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. smaller surface has to carry a greater load), with the inevitable consequence of greatly aggravating any existing evil. The guiding principle must be to give the greatest width where the greatest weight falls, the shoe being regarded as the base of support and, therefore, requiring to be a little broader below that portion of the hoof which carries the greater weight. (c) The Fitting of Shoes for Rapid Work. — In addition to following the directions laid down in the section ' Choice of the Shoe,' it is necessary, in shoeing hacks, coach and race horses, which work at a trot or gallop, to tit the shoe everywhere as closely as possible. It should, therefore, represent a prolonga- tion of the horny wall. The inner limb requires particular attention, and must lie close, with its upright surface inclined slightly inwards. To prevent the shoe cutting, beiug torn off, or catching in ol^stacles, it should not exceed in length what is absolutely indispensable. (d) Fitting Shoes for Heavy Draibght Horses. — Heavy draught horses require a broad bearing surface ; consequently, the re- strictions as to width and length of the shoe are less imperative in them than in other animals. One sometimes sees hoofs which, without being diseased, have yet sufi'ered severely in previous shoeings. The heels of the shoe should then be fashioned wider than the hoof, for if onlv the bare width is allowed the level tread will be destroyed, especially when toe-pieces and heels are employed. Heavy draught not only shortens the stride but tends to cause turning in of the toes, in consequence of which the outer limb of the shoe is generally exposed to heavy wear and the hoof becomes deformed. To diminish this, to favour regular wear of the shoe, and to give better support, it becomes necessary to fit the shoe fuller than usual on one side, especially when the toe is turned inwards, or it may even be necessary to form the web somewhat broader (fig. 266). The extent is determined by the degree to which the wall has become inclined, but on the outer side it is always safe to increase the width of the shoe until its outer edge comes vertically below the coronary margin. If, for example, the coronet is wider at the outer heel (that is, greater in circum- ference) than the bearing margin, the outer edge of the shoe from the last nail hole backwards may be kept so wide that a perpendicular line let fall from the coronary margin will meet FITTING SHOES FOR HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 271 it (tig. 267). The inner web, on the other hand, must be as narrow as possible. The new shoe sliould be broader at the point where the old shows greatest wear and may also be titted fuller, i.e., be rather more bowed outwards. The nail holes should be correspondingly coarser. This obviates the need for bendinsr outwards the outer heel. The width of the web must depend on the style of tread and on the wear of the old shoe. Sometimes the bearing surface of the outer heel is not completely covered by the shoe and is then apt to be compressed. The remedy is to widen the web. We advise the adoption of a perfectly level, that is, horizontal, Fig. 267. — Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes and contraction of outer quarter and heel. The shoe has feather edge and (a) quarter-clip. bearinii surface for contact with the wall, because it allows the foot to expand to the greatest extent, and because experience teaches that the hoof is thus best conserved. Dominik has suggested another method, which, however, in our opinion is unpractical, namely, to trim the bearing surface at rifjht angles to the c^eneral direction of the wall and mve the shoe a corresponding form. The upper surface of the shoe, therefore, in general appears concave, shoes for flat hoofs being most markedly seated, those for upright hoofs less so. The system, however, has met with little acceptance. 272 THE PEACTICE OF SHOEING. 10. The Nails. Of late years great progress has been made in the manu- facture of horse nails by machinery. The first requisite for making a good nail is iron of the best quality. In form, the nail should resemble a slender wedge, its width being twice its thickness. To meet the requirements of everyday work ten sizes are required. The nail should never be thicker or longer than is absolutely necessary, and more than one size is often required Fig. 268. Hand-made nails. Fig. 269. Fig. 270. Fig. 271. Badly-=formed French nails. Machine-made nail; head and nail. shank defective. in the same hoof. Every nail makes a hole, and the smaller the hole the better for the hoof. Although it is indis- pensable to secure the shoe firmly to the hoof, this does not depend on the use of large nails alone, and should a strong nail split the w^all it becomes less secure than a weak nail in a sound wall. It is rare that the loss of a shoe can be referred to the use of weak nails. Much more frequently the shoe does not fit or the nail holes are faulty in form, direction, or size. Hand-made nails require preparation to enable them to penetrate easily and in the proper direction through the horn wall. This preparation, termed ' pointing,' can only be satis- COKRECT SHAPE, ETC., OF HORSE-NAILS. 273 factorily undertaken after ascertaining the form and condition of the wall. The nails should be smooth and regularly formed, but should never be hammered more than is absolutely necessary, for, cceteris paribus, the softer they are the better. The amount of hammering they should receive depends, therefore, to some extent on the hardness of the wall. As the nail is required to take a straight and not a curved course through the horn, its inner side, that is, the part turned towards the laminae, should be somewhat curved outwards, in order to provide against the known fact that straight nails always pass in a curved direction through the wall, and then not only fail to remain firm but are very liable to injure the horn and even the soft structures. The point is finished with a short triangular surface obliquely inclined to the general direction of the shank (figs. 268 and 270). A short point causes the nail to emerge low down on the wall, whereas an oblique point results in it taking a longer course and emerging higher. No fixed rule can be given in regard to the niceties of pointing, because different forms of wall, and to some extent nails of different thickness, require different lengths of point. The point, however, should never be curved. Its outer side must invariably be straight, and the point, though sharp, must not be thin, still less excessively fine. At the present time machine-made nails, highly polished and ready for driving, are almost exclusively used. Of extreme regularity, they are cheaper and more easily driven, though less tough than the old-fasliioned nail. 11. Nailing on the Shoe. Before affixing the shoe the farrier places it once more in position to see whether it fits accurately and whether it is in every respect suitable. So far as nailing on is concerned, the shoe fits when, firstly, all the nail holes correspond in position to the white line, and secondly, when each hole has been punched with due regard to the direction of the correspond- ing part of the wall. Any errors must be corrected before nailing on commences. s 274 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. N'ailing on is intended to unite the shoe witli the hoof hrmly and lastingly, and to effect this with the least possible injury to the horn and without wounding or pressing on sensitive structures. As each nail, on account of its wedge form, tends to drive the shoe towards the side to which the point is directed, the latter should be placed as nearly as possible in the centre of the nail hole ; lateral displacement of the shoe is then less likely to occur, and after driving two or more nails it is scarcely possible, the horn yielding rather to the nail. When slight displacement has occurred after driving the lirst nail, it can be remedied by attention in inserting that of the opposite side, but if two or more have been driven, or displacement is considerable, the nails should be withdrawn and redriven. It is of comparatively little moment which nail is first driven, though, as a rule, one' or other of the toe nails is selected and the nailing on continued from this point. To protect the wall and avoid injuring sensitive parts, nails should be driven only so high as to grasp firm horn. For light shoes -J to 1 inch and for heavy 1^ to 1^- is sufficiently high, measured from the upper margin of the shoe. Many farriers, thinking to show greater skill or to attain greater security, drive all nails as high as possible without reference to the style of hoof or shoe. This is a grave error, for, quite apart from the dangers of punctures and ' binding,' the hoof is soon penetrated by so many nail tracks that in time it becomes difhcLilt to discover a solid part. The less the horn has been split and injured by numerous thick or high driven nails, the better will be the hold of a well-fitted shoe. Special skill in the farrier is shown when few or no old holes can be found in the hoof. In driving, the nail is held as long as possible between the fingers to ensure its taking the proper line. The two principal indications are furnished by what the Germans term the Gang und Klang^ that is, the manner in which the nail advances, or rather the sensation its progress imparts to the workman's hand and the sound it gives forth. Each blow should be sufficient to drive it from -f^ to ^ inch forward. As soon as the sound becomes clearer and the nail drives with more difficulty, the farrier knows that the point of the nail has entered the outer NAILING OX THE SHOE. 275 hard sheath of the wall, and, therefore, is in the proper direction. A moment later he detects, by means of the second and third fingers of his left hand, which rest lightly on the wall, the point at which the nail will emerge, when he releases his hold on the nail, and drives it fully home. The force to be applied depends on the hardness of the horn and the size of the nail. Nails which penetrate ^- inch and still go ' soft,' or which cause the animal to flinch, should at once be withdrawn. Im- mediately the nail is driven home its point should be turned over. It looks well, and is a mark of good workmanship, for the nails of each side to appear at an equal height in the wall, Fig. 272.— Cross section of a sound and well-shod hoof, showing the position of the nails. a, pedal bone ; 6, sensitive sole ; c, horny sole ; d, horn wall ; e, dark-coloured outer layer of do. ; /, laminal sheath ; g, nails. though this is by no means absolutely necessary ; certainly it is much more important that they should be driven so as not to injure the hoof. If more than six nails are driven to an equal height, injury may result, as the nails then come closer together. When all the nails have been driven the hoof is supported by the left hand, and with a few powerful blows the heads are sunk securely in the nail holes. The shoe is thus firmly fixed to the hoof, the third condition mentioned above. The nails being firmly driven, the pincers are held under the turned-down points, which are completely bent and brought in close contact with the hoof by light blows on each in succession. This is done not to cause the nails to hold more firmly in the hoof, but only to facilitate nipping off the points and clenching. 276 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. Each nail as it emerges from the hoof causes the outer sheath of the wall to bulge slightly, and, therefore, in order to form the clench the point of the nail is removed close to the horn, there being little fear of its proving too short. As far as possible twisting or other movements which might loosen the nail should be avoided. After nipping off the points the horn below the exposed part of the nail is lightly rasped to form a groove, the end of the nail being either left of full strength or only slightly thinned. The clenches are then turned down with a few lioht blows of the hammer. It is suliicient if the ' turn down ' of the clench is the same depth as the nail is broad, or in other words, if the part of the clench showing is square. Finally, any horn projecting beyond the edge of the shoe is rasped away, and the edge of the hoof slightly rounded off by inserting the edge of the rasp between the lower margin of the Fig. 273. hoof and the upper part of the shoe, though if the fitting be properly performed this should only be needful at the inside of the toe. Under no circumstances should that part of a sound hoof above the clenches be rasped. The hoof is now put down, the old nail holes can be filled with wax if desired, or, as is usual, brushed over with some ' dressing,' and the horse walked and trotted to see how he goes. In hoofs injured by the use of too many nails, or weak in horn, the nail holes must, of course, be appropriately distributed in the shoe, so as to take advantage of the soundest parts. With this precaution, and by employing high clips, even the worst of feet can generally be shod. In special cases ' bar ' FINISHING OFF THE HOOF AFTER AFFIXING SHOE. 277 clips (giving a hold on the bar as opposed to the quarter or toe) have even been successfully employed. Occasionally a nail when driven may splinter or break, and portions of it remain in the hoof, defying all efforts at extraction with ordinary pincers. To meet such special cases forceps have been invented (fig. 273) but have never come into general use. The forceps enable the portions to be more easily grasped and removed, the adjustable screw serving as a pivot. Similar forceps might be of value to veterinary surgeons in certain operations. 12. Examination of the Horse affer Shoeing. The animal is first walked to see how he treads, and trotted to see whether he goes lame. Next the farrier should glance at the limbs from in front to see that the foot axis neither inclines inw^ardly nor outwardly, and from the side to see whether the horn of the wall is in the same line as the axis of the bones. A slight uprightness of the wall, however, is not always a disadvantage. The heels will be of a height corre- sponding to the formation of the hoof. Next he notes whether the horn of the wall runs in a straight line from the coronet to the bearing surface. The straighter all portions of the wall appear the better. At the same time, any defect in form and position of the shoe is seen. Above each nail should be a small opening, for this shows that the nail has been turned over of full strength in clenching. The clenches should be situated in sound horn, approximately at the same height, equally spaced, and sunk level with the w^all. The clips and the length and breadth of the shoe are next noted. The toe of the hind shoe is broader and thicker than the quarters. The clips should be of equal form and size, and their length and width proportioned to the form of the hoof and to the weight upon it, as well as to the work required of the horse. The clip of the front shoe should be in the centre of the toe ; that of the hind a trifle towards the inside. When (in hind shoes) there are two quarter-clips, each should be at the same distance from centre of toe. Finally, each foot is lifted and the position of the 278 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. nail holes Doted. The form of the shoe, the relations of the nail heads to the holes, and the relation of the shoe to the sole and frog are seen. The sole, bars, and frog should be strong, and the frog should project sufficiently to touch the ground. The shoe should take a level Ijearing throughout. In front shoes the nail holes should be distributed chiefly in the anterior half ; in hind shoes, on the otlier hand, they may extend as far as the posterior third. The nail heads should fill the countersinks and should either not project at all beyond the ground surface of the shoe or only about yV of an inch. The inner and under margin of the shoe should never be sharp nor project towards the middle line, i.e., towards the opposite limb. The inner and upper margin should not touch the liorny sole, nor should the lieels lie in contact with the frog. After this examination, which is performed very rapidly, all old nail holes are filled with wax and, if not seen to before, the entire hoof and sole rubbed over with hoof ' dressing.' 13. Disadvantages of Shoeing. Shoeing has certain innnediate bad results, which the farrier must be acquainted with, in order to be able, as far as possible, to minimise them. Many farriers and owners are unaware of how these are produced, and are satisfied to refer them to defects in form and length of the shoe, etc., in accordance with their particular, often erroneous, theories. With the knowledge, however, that shoeing completely alters the relations of the hoof to the ground, in fact places the hoof in an entirely unnatural condition, the reasons for injury are more easily understood. The body-weight is now no longer supported by the entire lower surface of the hoof but rests almost entirely upon the wall, which again rests upon the shoe. The following are some of the disadvantages. (1) The sole and frog are almost entirely relieved from the counter-pressure of the ground ; in consequence they lose their function, and in common with the posterior parts of the foot tend to shrink. At the same time, an excess of weight is thrown on the wall, checking its growth, exposing it to severe internal strain, and in too many cases leading to contraction and deformity. DISADVANTAGES OF SHOEING. 279 {2) The hoof grows continuously. When shod, however, wear ceases — save, perhaps, in the posterior sections, where, in consequence of elasticity, a slight loss occurs — and the hoof becomes too long and too high. This alters the relation of the hoof to the limb, impedes movement, tires the animal, favours stumbling and falling, and may even produce disease of joints and tendons. (3) Shoeing removes the hoof from direct contact with the ground and, therefore, from the moisture it would otherwise receive. The horny capsule becomes dry, hard, and unyield- ing, it tends to contract and to press on the contained soft structures, thus cramping action and even producing lameness. (4) The nail tracks weaken the hoof, and accidents, leading to serious results, may follow the carelessness or want of skill in workmen. All these results occur earlier and in more pronounced form in fore-feet, because these bear a greater proportion of weight and are more exposed to the drying process. Such changes do not appear, however, with like rapidity nor to a similar extent in all hoofs. Experience shows that when animals are severely worked the limbs often suffer far more tlian the hoofs in conse- quence of shoeing. The dogma that of 100 lame horses 90 are lame in the feet is unsupported by statistics. Between the years 1879 and 1891 the Veterinary School in Dresden received 10,727 lame horses. Of these oooo, that is 31-07 per cent., were lame in the feet, but as lame horses sometimes make more than one visit the percentage may be even lower. In the Practical School of Farriery at Dresden in 1884 the number of well-marked diseased feet noted was 6"53 per cent. ; the per- centage of horses lame in the feet was even lower. The statistics of the Military School of Farriery in Berlin show that between 1877 and 1880 the percentage was 40*06. In London, though no precise statistics are available, the number of horses lame in the feet is probably not higher than 30 to 40 per cent. The diminution in cases of foot lameness has been very marked since the introduction of wood paving and machine-made nails. Speaking generally, the feet which most often become diseased are those attached to limbs of irregular conformation, lameness being due not so inuch to shoeing: as to irrej^ular distribution of weight. 280 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. With regard to the injurious effects of shoeing it has justly been said, " Shoeing is an evil ichen ill practised." 14. Effects upon Hoofs and Limbs produced by Work ON Paved, especially Stone-Paved, Streets. While draught is facilitated by the hard, smooth surface of modern streets, concussion and slipping are increased, and are productive of very serious effects in the feet and limbs of all draught animals. The gain, therefore, of very smooth hard pavements is somewhat less than would at first appear. So far as the preservation of the hoofs and joints is concerned the most favourable ground is that which admits of the shoe entering slightly, thus modifying the shocks incidental to rapid movement and the slipping produced when the foot comes to the ground, as well as restoring to the sole and frog the counter- pressure necessary for healthy growth. A soft yielding surface, in which the hoof sinks deeply, entails great exertion and rapidly produces fatigue. Very hard ground, on the other hand, causes shocks, slips, and falls in proportion to its rough- ness and hardness. Granite setts and asphalt are the most injurious of all pavements, because they absolutely prevent the feet impressing them, because the horny sole and frog become functionally inactive on account of the absence of counter- pressure, and because the sensitive structures and joints are apt to become bruised and inflamed, producing a peculiar shuffling and unsymmetrical gait. While granite blocks are worse than macadam or gravel, the evil becomes immensely exaggerated when the surface is much curved. Streets thus paved present an ever increasing danger for horses, a danger produced by the hardness and smoothness of the surface and bv the faultv or diasjonal setting of the t/ I/O C7 individual stones. Slips and falls are then frequent, as owners in large towns know to their cost, but the disease processes produced in the joints, by trotting heavy horses on granite paved streets of excessive curvature, are less well recognised. In consequence of the form of the roadway the horse, where- ever he happen to be, almost always treads unequally, the outer margin of the right hoof and the inner of the left coming first in contact with the ground. This inequality of DISEASES OF FOOT AND LIMB CONSEQUENT ON SHOEING. 281 the ground not only causes anxiety, insecure gait, slipping, and falling, but more or less marked compression, if not contusion, of the articular surfaces of that side on which the hoof first comes in contact with the ground ; whilst on the opposite side strain of the articular ligaments occurs. When we think how often horses suffer in their gait by faulty preparation of the feet in shoeing when going on perfectly level ground, it will be clear that on such curved surfaces or on rough hard streets these strains in and about the joints must be very much greater. On soft ground the unequal tread is of little or no import- ance, because the part of the hoof which first touches the earth buries itself to a corresponding extent. On hard streets, however, the accommodation occurs at the expense of the joints. Faults in shoeing have often been blamed for the excessive wear of horses' legs, but the foregoing will show this view to be in large measure unjust. CHAPTER III. FORGING AND CUTTING. 1. FORGINO. Forging is due to faulty action, in consequence of which the toe of the hind shoe strikes the heel or under surface of Fig. 274. — Right fore shoe with rounded inner edge (forging shoe). the fore shoe. In most cases the toe of the front shoe is the point struck. The sound is very unpleasant, while the action itself may be dangerous, as the bulbs or sole of the fore- FlG. 275.— Right hind shoe with two lateral toe-clips (forging shoe). foot or the toe wall of the hind-foot may be damaged, the shoes loosened, or the front shoe become locked with the hind, and the animal thrown down. 282 REMEDIES FOR KOItCIXG. 283 The causes are either faulty conformation or defective and careless shoeing ; some animals only forge when tired or when ])adly driven. Horses which ' stand over/ i.e., whose fore- limbs incline backwards, and whose hind-limbs are placed too far under the body, or, in other words, animals with comparatively short bodies and long limbs, are specially pre- disposed. Bad shoeing is often the cause, the fore shoe being unduly long and the toe of the hind shoe too prominent, but in most cases forgino; is caused bv the toe of the fore shoe being too long and the heels too low. Such a shoe impedes tlie movement of the fore-limb, the long toe delaying the lifting of tlie foot from the sjround. The fore-foot, there- fore, remains under the horse too long, and is overtaken by the hind-foot. The remedy is to avoid making the shoe longer or wider than the hoof. The heels of Hat shoes should also be bevelled off obliquely from behind forwards, as should calkins, if used. When the horse strikes the lower surface of the fore shoe at the toe, the fault can often be prevented by rounding off or seating ont the ground surface. In horses that forge, the front shoe should be formed so as to represent merely a prolongation of the hoof. The hind slioe should be shortened at the toe, and llie lower anterior wall well rounded off. Quarter-clips are preferable to a toe-clip, and unless the horse ' goes on his toe,' the shoe must be fitted so that three-quarters of the thickness of the toe wall projects in front of the shoe. The nails must be well driven home, and should project as little as possible. The sound of forging can sometimes be pre- vented by inserting a fragment of leather or thick rubber between the shoe and hoof at the toe, so that \ inch projects. This comes in contact with the front shoe, and prevents the objectionable noise. Charlier shoes in front are often a complete cure. 284 FORGING AND CUTTING. SPECIAL SHOES FOE HORSES THAT FORGE. FULLERED HIND SHOE FOR HARNESS HORSE WHICH FORGES AND WEARS WALL OF HIND-FOOT (Fig. 276). Made from f X ^ inch iron. Horses that forge sometimes wear away the toe of the hind- foot to a very considerable extent, owing apparently to the front of toe of the fore foot striking that of the hind in mid-air. The point worn varies in position, being sometimes low down, near the shoe, sometimes close to the coronet. The shoe illustrated is intended to prevent wear close to the ground surface. A long, broad, stout clip is drawn (with the face of the hammer), which protects the point of impact. The heels of the shoe are Hat or may be slightly thinned. In this connection it may be pointed out that ' forging ' is not always caused in one way ; sometimes the toe of the hind- foot strikes the inner margin of the fore shoe, sometimes the toe walls of the fore-foot. It is for the latter condition that this shoe is intended. DIAMOND-TOED FULLERED HIND SHOE FOR HARNESS HORSE (Fig. 277). Made from J X ^ inch iron. As a preventive of forging, few shoes are more etiicient than the diamond-toed. The heels of the shoe are thinned down to about |- of an inch. It may be laid down as a general principle that (hind) shoes with calkins, as compared with flat shoes, and flat shoes as compared with thin heeled shoes, favour forging. Horse-dealers often object to this shoe as drawing attention to a defect, and it may then be replaced by a shoe Fig. 276. — Fullered liind shoe for harness horse Avhich forges and wears wall of hind foot. ]\Iade from S x i inch iron. ■-^^^-v.. ,<..'■"" ""■»■ Fig. 277. — Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe (for harness horse). Made from f x J inch iron. [To face p. 284. Fig. 278. — Diamond-toed hind shoe witli 'toe s])ui'' (for harness horse which forges and wear.s wall of hind foot). ]\Iade from old shoes. To face -p. 285.] SHOEING HORSES WHICH FORGE. 285 square across the toe and clipped on either side of the toe, though this affords no protection to the toe of foot, which often becomes worn away. For hard-working horses nothing succeeds better than the diamond-toed shoe. Clips may be drawn at the toe (the apex of the diamond), at either side of the toe, or at the toe and outside quarter. In preparing the foot the horn at the toe must be spared so that it overhangs the sides of the toe of shoe. Should the hind foot still overtake the fore, it is then the horn and not the shoe which makes contact, and the noise is materially diminished. The heels of the foot should be lowered, the toe left fairly long. To enable the shoe to be kept as light as possible it is often fashioned from steel. DIAMOND-TOED HIND SHOE WITH ' TOE-SPUE ' FOR HAENESS HOESE WHICH FOEGES AND WEAES WALL OF HIND-FOOT (Fig. 278). Made from old shoes. Occasionally the wall of the hind-foot is worn away quite close to the coronet, as explained in the foregoing note. The sensitive structures may even be exposed and bleeding result. The shoe illustrated is intended to prevent such injury. It consists of a diamond-toed shoe with an upward prolongation or spur accurately fitted to the contour of the wall at the injured spot. The spur is made from half-round iron |^ inch in width, and is of sufficient length to reach nearly to the coronet. It is ' shut-on ' or welded to the shoe when the latter is com- pleted. The spur must be very carefully shaped to the wall, otherwise it increases the noise, and its appearance is very unsightly. The heels of the shoe should always be thin. Unless for some special reason, such as the existence of sprain of the 286 FOKGING AND CUTTING. subtarsal ligament or of the liexor tendons, it is considered desirable, by giving calkins, to relieve the tendinous structures of a portion of their load. A light concave fore shoe should be used in conjunction with the ' spur ' shoe. If the fore-feet are weak or fleshy, and a shoe with good cover is indispensable, it sliould be dished on the c^round surface. 2. Cutting ok Stuiking. A horse is said to strike or cut when the coronet, fetlock, or other part of the limb is touched by the foot of the opposite side during movement. A graduated series of injuries is recognised : ' brushing,' when the hair is roudiened or soiled with mud ; ' cuttinsj,' or ' interfering,' when the skin is cut through, and bleeding ensues ; ' striking,' or ' buffing,' when the fetlock is struck and bruised with the flat of the opposite foot, but without a wound being produced. The terms, however, are employed in different senses by different persons and in different parts of the country, so that the above definitions must be regarded as relative only, not absolute. Injuries are thus produced on the inner side of the coronet, of the fetlock joint, or sometimes, in front limbs, as high as the knee. The last condition receives a special name, ' speedy- cuttino'.' Lameness is a common result. The injury may vary from mere roughening of the hair and slight abrasion of the epidermis to severe bruising, etc., causing well-marked lameness. The periosteum may become inflamed, leaving thickenings and exostoses ; some- times septic material obtains entrance, and causes violent inflammation of the subcutaneous connective tissue, with abscess. The causes of striking may be referred either to faulty shoeing of the striking foot or of the foot struck, to fatigue (from whatever source arising), to swellings about the coronet or fetlock, to the conformation of the limbs, or to the use to which the horse is put. Horses with well-formed limbs do not strike if properly shod ; those with turned-in toes occa- PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF HORSES WHICH CUT. 287 sionally strike, but horses in which the limbs appear turned in as high as the fetlock, and above that point recede from one another, very frequently strike. Bouley states that with turned-out toes the striking point is usually towards the back, with turned-in toes towards the front of the foot, but this is not absolutely correct. AVhen one trace is longer than the other, when the horse (especially if young and fresh) becomes tired, and when the shoes are much worn, striking is very apt to occur. To minimise or prevent this fault, the examination of the limbs, the gait, and the shoeing, as before indicated, must Fig. 279. — Examination of horse that strikes. The animal sliowu has two defects : its feet are too closely placed and it crosses the feet when moving. , be thorough (fig. 279). Four chief points have to be borne in view : the formation of the limbs, the inclination of the fetlock joint of the limb which is struck, the style of tread, and the part which inflicts' the injury. The more closely the fetlock joint approaches the centre of the body, the less the ' clearance,' and, consequently, the greater the chance of striking. This is usually produced by too low an inner wall : in such case the cause is to be sought in the foot which is struck. It must always be remembered, however, that when the limb is deformed, i.e., when the toe is turned in or out, the foot will not be of normal shape, and to attempt to render it so is a grave error which will 288 FORGING AND CUTTING. probably exaggerate the condition. An uneven tread is apt to result in an irregular method of advancing the foot; this favours striking. Before proceeding to special measures, it is generally desirable to try the effect of a perfectly flat shoe and level bearing. In the majority of cases this will stop cutting. The point which strikes can usually be precisely located, as it is either whitish or smooth, or at least free of dirt; sometimes it is reddened with blood. In the ab- sence of such indication, the hoof or the point struck may be whitened, and the horse trotted. The colouring matter will then be transferred from the hoof to the fetlock, or vwe Fig. 280. — Cutting shoe, ground surface. Fig. 281.— Cutting shoe, foot surface. versa, and the exact points which come in contact clearly indicated. When the cause is too broad a hoof, projecting clenches, twisting of the shoe on the foot, it is only necessary to amend the shoeing, but when faulty conformation is in question, the striking point must be discovered, the hoof diminished in size, its bearing surface altered, the shoe opposite it straightened and so applied that it lies well within the margin of the hoof. The hoof should project to the extent of about one-third the thickness of the wall. When striking is excessive, it may be necessary to use a shoe holed and nailed only on one side (' blind-sided shoe '). ' Anti-cutting ' shoes, or shoes in which the inner limb is diminished in width and deepened, forming a ' wedge heel ' KEMEDIES FOK STRIKING AND CUTTING. 289 (fig. 282), are useful where the toe is turned in, especially if the inner wall of the foot cannot be induced to grow sufficiently fast in spite of careful attention. The greater depth lifts the otherwise displaced hoof into its proper position. In each ~.jt FlQ. 282.— (Jutting slioe for left hind-foot. a, position of clip. The dotted line shows the outline of the wall of the hoof. Fig, 283.— Cutting shoe for right fore- foot, holed on one side only. «/_- Fid. 284.— Cutting shoe (right hind) for horse thaf cuts with the toe. a, quarter-clip. case the shoe should be so fitted that the hoof overlaps slightly at the striking part. When the horse strikes with the inner surface of the wall, and when, consequently, injury is apt to occur from the clenches projecting as the shoes wear out, shoes holed only on one side are employed (figs. 282 and 283) both in front and behind. The style of tread must determine whether T 290 FORGING AND CUTTING. such shoes should be made with low heels or not. It seems plain, however, that when a horse with turned-in toes strikes himself in spite of being shod with anti-brushing shoes, the heels are either too high or altogether harmful. For horses with turned-out toes anti-cutting shoes are seldom of much benefit. These animals usually cut with the inner part of the toe or quarter close to the toe ; sometimes with the heel. Consequently, the shoe, whether provided with heels or not, should have a straight margin without nail holes, should be very narrow and very carefully rounded off in a downward direction at the striking point (tig. 284). The hoof should also extend beyond the shoe. The other parts of the inner margin of the shoe may, and sometimes Fig. 285. — Shoes for horse that turns the toes out. a, the part of hoof that strikes ; b, the inner limb of shoe is seen to be longer and broader than the outer. even must, be wider than the hoof at the heels. It is some- times advisable to make the inner heel higher than the outer. The width of the outer branch also requires special attention ; towards the heel it should be narrow and closely follow the direction of the wall, while it must be kept short, for a long, projecting outer heel favours the inward thrusting of the fetlock joint by throwing the weight on the inner half of the hoof. It thus facilitates striking. It need scarcely be remarked that the clenches should sit close without projecting. FITTING SHOES FOR HORSES THAT CUT. 291 To prevent the shoe shifting its position a side clip (a) must be fitted. Neither the shoe nor the hoof should ex- hibit any sharp or projecting edges on the inner side, and any prominent nail heads must be removed. The remedies for striking produced by local swellings, weakness, over- work, or unequal length of the traces are self-apparent. In some cases shoeing can only diminish striking and the in- jured part must always be protected by a well-fitting boot. Other means of protection are the insertion of a fragment of leather between shoe and hoof which projects to the ex- tent of -|- or ^ inch and is kept well greased. The contact of the leather with the part struck is less injurious than that of the hoof or shoe. Special pads are made for this purpose, consisting of a small, elongated, rounded portion and a flattened expansion, through which the nails are driven. The rounded part projects at the sides of the foot and serves the same purpose as the leather. Thick rubber rings are occasionally used, being slipped over the hoof and allowed to rest just below the fetlock. Yorkshire boots (of doubled blanket) are also employed as temporary pro- tection. Delperier recently described a very ingenious way of preventing the horse cutting. He used gaiters extending from the upper part of the coronet to below the knee, and found that, by tightly lacing these, the action of the limb was somewhat limited and that marked abduction occurred. His experiments extended over two years, and he was able by this method to completely prevent cutting in a horse which had resisted all other methods of treat- ment. The American weighted shoe is sometimes of value, and is certainly worth a trial in inveterate cases. A last method is to insert in the hollow of the heel a moderate sized pad fixed in position by means of a strap. This limits the flexion of the limb in a similar way to Delperier's gaiter and induces a degree of abduction pro- portioned to the amount of interference with flexion. A very little difference in movement is sufficient to entirely prevent injury, and this system has been favourably reported on by a large number of observers. The pad does not cause 292 FOEGING AND CUTTING. the animal to appear lame or to go unevenly, as the opposite limb is moved in sympathy with the one to which it is applied. The tendency to strike is diminished in direct proportion to the simplicity and lightness of the shoe. Fig. 286. --Fullered feather-edged hind shoe (with two calkins). INIade from | x i inch iron. Fig. 287.— Feather-edged stamped hind shoe (with two nails inside toe). ]\Iade from | x | inch iron. To face p. 293.] CARRIAGE HOKSE SHOES (lIIND) FOR HORSES THAT CUT. 293 SPECIAL SHOES FOR HORSES THAT CUT. FULLERED FEATHER-EDGED HIND SHOE (AVITH TWO CALKINS) (Fig. 286).* Made of ^ x }y inch iron. This is a useful shoe for carriage horses used on macadam roads, and for horses which slip with their hind-feet, and yet require a feather-edged shoe. It gives the horse better foothold and more confidence in going. The calkins should be rather low and strong. In the shoe illustrated they are 1-^ inches in height. The clips are placed on either side of the toe. FEATHER-EDOED STAMPED HIND SHOE (WITH TWO NAILS INSIDE TOE) (Fig. 287). JIade from -|- X ^ mch iron. This shoe is much used in London. It is ' knocked up ' inside, has a calkin on the outside heel, and is slipped at the toe and outside quarter. Although useful as a stock shoe for carriage horses, it has no special advantage, and the inside limb presenting so narrow a bearing surface for the foot, soon liecomes imbedded in the horn. * Great dilliculty has beeu found in drawing a sharp line of demarcation between shoes which may properly be regarded as of every-day use and those which should be relegated to special sections, such as 'cutting and forging.' The arrangement adopted is far from perfect, but, in face of the great practical difficulties to be encountered, the reader's forbearance is relied on. 294 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. PAr.TIALLY FEATHER-EDGED FULLEEED HIND SHOE (Fig. 288). Made from f X -J inch iron. For harness or riding horses which have not much horn at the toe, or which cut towards the back of the inside heel of shoe and require to be clipped on either side of the toe, this shoe has been designed. Two nail holes are placed in a short length of fullering close to the inside toe. The calkin on the outside heel gives a certain amount of hold on slippery ground. The foot surface of the inside limb is considerably greater than in the ordinary feather-edged shoe, and the shoe is therefore less likely to sink into the foot. PARTIALLY-FULLERED FEATHER-EDGED HIND SHOE (Fig. 289). Made from ;| X -^ inch iron. This shoe is intended for harness or riding horses which cut badly at the inside toe. There are two clips, one at the outside toe and another at the inside heel. This disposition allows the inside toe to be fitted very fine. The inside clip is drawn on the corner of the anvil and from the inside of the shoe, so that no clip hole appears on the part of shoe opposite the injured limb ; this part of the shoe, on the contrary, presenting a per- fectly plane surface. The shoe is, in fact, not of sufficient substance at this point to allow^ of a clip being drawn in the ordinary way. The above method of drawing a clip is worthy of special notice, as such inside clips are often very useful when the horse breaks the inside nail of his hind shoes or drives the shoe outwards. Fig. 288. — Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe. :\[ade from f x ^ inch iron. Fig. 289.— Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. inch iron. ;Made from | x ^ \ To face p. 294. h,^aii||i,ii',i',|'i-i;it '^^C Fig. 290. — Fullered hind shoe, * set' inside. Made from i square iron. Fig. 291. — Side view of al)Ove special hind shoe for horse which cuts hi& fetlocks. To face p. 295.] CARRIAGE HORSE SHOES (HIND) FOR CUTTING. 295 FULLEKED HIND SHOE, 'SET' INSIDE (Figs. 290, 291). Made from ^ square iron. This is really a feather- edged hind shoe which can be nailed inside. AVhen a horse is deficient in horn at the toe, or the toe cannot be utilised and the horse cuts his fetlocks badly, this shoe is very useful. Though difficult to make and not commonly used, it has been subjected to a thorough practical test and found satisfactory. The inside of the shoe is drawn very much like that of an ordinary feather-edged shoe ; it is then turned on the beak iron of the anvil and the ' set ' tool applied. When sufficient ' ledge * is obtained, the part is fullered and the nail holes stamped. The shoe has a calkin outside of equal height with the in- side feather-edge and is clipped at either side of the toe. It is suitable for hacks or for harness horses. 296 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. FULLEEEU SEATED FEATHEE-EDGED FORE SHOE. FOE HAENESS OE EIDING HOESE (Fig. 292). Made from -|- X -J- inch iron. Where [i horse cuts close to the inside toe and has a tendency to cast his shoes, the use of this shoe is indicated. Two nails inside give greater security than one, and the clip provided at the outside quarter prevents the shoe being driven in, across the foot, as is apt to occur with horses which go much on the outside.- The quarter clip also prevents the farrier placing the shoe ' across the foot ' in nailing-on. All shoes of this class should be lightly chamfered or bevelled along the outer, lower border of the inside limb. It will be noted that the shoe has two clips, one at the toe and one at the outer quarter. FULLEEED SEATED FEATHEE-EDGED FOEE SHOE (Fig. 293). Made from 1-|- X ^ inch. On account of its being so frequently employed, it has been thought desirable to figure this shoe, but its use cannot be recommended. The inside quarter and heel are drawn down almost to vanishing point. The foot surface is narrow, and the shoe soon becomes embedded in the foot, bruising the sensitive structures and producing corns. Fig. 292. — Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe. For harness or riding. ]\Iade from | x ^ inch iron. Fig. 293. — Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe. inch iron. ^Made from 14 x i ¥ iTofacQ-p. 296. Fig, 294. — Fullered featlier-edged concave fore slioe. INlade from -I x f B" '^ 8 inch iron. Fig. 295. — Fullered hind shoe for hack. Made from I- x i inch iron ^ ^ 2 To face 'p. 297.] KACING AND HACK SHOES FOR CUTTING, FORGING, ETC. 297 FULLERED FEATHER-EDGE CONCAVE FORE SHOE (Fig. 294). Made from -^^ X ^ inch iron. This is a very light pattern shoe, suitable for a steeplechase horse that requires a feather-edged shoe, or for a hunter which wears little and has a fairly strong foot. The lightness of the shoe is, in itself, a powerful factor in lessening the chance of a horse cutting ; and the toe-nail being placed well forward and close to the clip, the shoe can be fitted ' fine ' at the inside toe. If made of steel this shoe often cures cases where a horse both ' cuts ' and * forc^es.' It may even be used for riding and harness horses with strong feet. FULLERED HIND SHOE FOR HACK (Fig. 295). Made from -^'^ X ^ inch, iron . This shoe is for cases where it becomes necessary to nail the shoe back at the inside heel, as when the toe is defective from having been worn away by ' forging,' or wlien the horse cuts at the inside toe, so that nails either cannot be inserted at that point, or the fitting has to be so very ' fine ' that some other device seems preferable. The outside calkin is perhaps not an advantage. Calkins seem to displace the centre of gravity of the body in a forward direction or, in simple language, throw the weight of the l^ody further forward : hence the offending foot is able to reach further. Whether the reader accept this explanation or not, it is at least certain that some horses which forge when shod with calkins cease to do so when shod flat (behind). Of course flat shoes should not be used when the horse suffers from curb, etc. Clips are placed at the outside toe and inside heel. The three inside naiWioles can, if preferred, be stamped without fullering. 298 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. CONCAVE FEATHEE-EDGED HIND SHOE PARTIALLY FULLEEED (Fig. 296). Made in concave tool from old shoes or from ^ x i inch iron. This shoe has the inside edge chamfered down, is level on. the ground surface, and has only one nail hole, stamped well forward close to the toe-clip. The clips are not shown in drawing, but are usually drawn at the toe and outside quarter, the shoe being intended for use when the horse cuts badly. In exceptional cases the shoe may be cut down to three quarters or even less inside. Assuming that the horse cuts to this degree, only one nail can be placed inside, and even then special care is required to see that the nail is well hammered home, the clench well drawn, and the head of the nail rasped off flush with the inside of the shoe (i.e., the surface opposed to the injured fetlock). The nail hole must not be back-pritchelled, or only very slightly so, as this is a frequent cause of clenches ' rising ' when the shoes become worn. As a very great strain falls on the single nail, it is often advisable to draw a clip at the inside heel, in addition to those at the toe and outside quarter. In this position the clip relieves the single nail of all lateral or ' shearing ' stress, and is a natural advantage. The toe of the foot may be allowed to overhang that of the shoe. It may not be out of place to repeat that the inside margin of shoe opposite the fetlock, which is struck, must be well chamfered down, as shown. CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLEEED FEATHEE-EDGED HIND SHOE (Fig. 297). Made in voiuave tool from old shoes, or from |- x -J inch iron. To ignore this shoe might be looked upon as an oversight, but although it is included its general use cannot be recom- mended. The shoe is clipped at either side of the toe ; has a calkin on the outside, and an inside feather-edge of equal height with the calkin. Fui. 296.— Concave feather-edged hind shoe, partially fullered Made in concave tool, from old shoes or from f x ^ inch iron. Fig. 297.— Concave partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Made in concave tool from old shoes or from £ x i inch iron. [To face p. 298. Fig. 298. — Feather- edged fullered concave fore shoe, Made in concave tool from ^ X ^ inch iron or steel. Fig. 299.— Concave three-quarter hind shoe. Made in concave tool from S X i inch iron. To face p. 299.] TIACIXG AND HACK SHOES FOR SEVERE CASES OF CUTTING. 299 The objections to it are, the narrowness of its inside foot surface, which becomes imbedded in the foot after two or three weeks' wear, and may loosen the wall at the inside quarter or heel, and the fact that, as the fullering extends round the toe, a sharp knife-like edge is produced capable of inflicting very severe injury on the heel of the fore-foot in case of the horse overreaching. FEATHER-EDGED FULLERED CONCAVE FORE SHOE (Fig. 298). Made in concave tool from -| X \ inch iron or steel. This shoe, being very light, is suitable for steeplechasers, or light-weight hunters, which are exercised on grass. The inside is hammered or chamfered down to a very narrow ground surface, although the foot surface of the inside of shoe is preserved of equal or, if anything, of greater width than that of the outside. The inside of shoe exhibits one nail hole only, and is fitted very fine. Sometimes it is possible to stamp a second nail hole, but the nail heads must then be rasped off flush after nailing on the shoe. The above is a useful shoe for horses which forge badly and cut the opposite leg. If the horse is used on the road, the shoe must be of steel. The fullering is produced by a ridge in the groove of the concave tool. CONCAVE THREE-QUARTER HIND SHOE (Fig. 299). Made in concave tool from -| x -J- inch iron. In some cases of cutting, as, for instance, when the cutting part is near the heel, this shoe is very effective. Having no nail holes at the toe, it can also be well ' set-back ' at that point, in the event of the horse overreaching, and on account of 300 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. the inside heel being cut off, it may be advantageously used for a horse with inside false quarter. Being most frequently used for hunters which are always on soft ground, the calkin is a distinct advantage ; but when ani- f mals thus shod are worked on hard roads, there is a tendency to strain the joints, as the bearing is uneven. As shown by the illustration, the clips are on either side of the toe. THREE-(^Ux\.ETER PAKTIALLY FULLEEED HIND SHOE (Fig. 300). Jfadc frovi old sliocs, steel, or ^ X -|- inch iron. Many horses which otherwise cut badly can be kept at work by using this shoe. As the fullering stops short of the outside toe nail-hole, both toe nail-holes can be stamped, and the inner one can be placed well forward, while a strong clip can also be drawn. The position of the clips is sufficiently indicated in the drawing. The inside limb of shoe is gradually thinned down to about a quarter of an inch. The inner margin of the shoe (opposite the part struck) is chamfered down and liot rasped, so as to present a rounded surface. The inside toe of the shoe must be fitted very fine. In extreme cases of cutting, the shoe can be cut off close behind the inner nail hole. The disadvantaoes of this shoe are that, as the position of the inner nail hole cannot be changed, the nail holes come in precisely the same spot, time after time, when shoeing ; if the feet are weak and brittle, this constitutes a grave drawback. It is perhaps scarcely needful to point out that to place the inner nail hole closer to the toe would inter- fere with drawing the clip, while to place it farther back would probably result in the animal again cutting. ^Ss^^^^> Fia. 300. — Three-quarter partially fullered hind shoe. ]\Iade from old shoes, steel, or f X i inch iron. [To face p. 300. CHAPTER lY. LEATHER ANT) RUl^.BER SOLES, ETC. These soles are either nailed on, and, therefore, remain in position until the next shoeing, or are slipped in and out between the limbs of the shoe. Until comparatively recently only leather soles were in use, the object being to protect weak soles or diminish the pressure of the shoe on the hoof, which had been either excessively worn away or thinned with the knife. Ftubber pads are quite a modern production. Following rubber came a series of materials, such as cork, straw, tarred rope, felt, bast, hemp, wood fibre, etc. \Miatever the nature of the material, the purpose is to diminish or remove the disadvantages resulting from shoeing, especially in horses used on hard pavements. As one such contrivance has little advantage over another, they may here be considered in general. All, to a greater or less extent, (1) prevent slipping and falling on smooth pave- ments, (2) check desiccation of the sole, (3) prevent balling of snow in the foot, (4) diminish concussion, (5) favour expansion of the foot, and (6) guard against picking up nails. Leather pads transmit to the sole, frog, and bars some of the weight which would otherwise fall on the wall and increase the functional activity of tliese parts. In a degree, therefore, they restore the hoof to the normal unshod condition. Eemember- ing that many diseased conditions, like contracted hoof, sand- crack of the wall or bars, corns, etc., are ameliorated, if not cured, by removing the shoes and turning the horse out, the improvement produced by artificial soles is more easily under- stood. When used with suitable shoes they provide a means not only of arresting the bad results of shoeing, but also of curinii foot diseases while allowinj^r the animal to work. Expansion of the hoof follows their use. Nevertheless, they 302 LEATHER AND KUBBER SOLES, ETC. have their disadvantages. Occasionally they cause thrush, bruising of the sole, and, in some instances, they tend to loosen the shoe. When the sole is permanently hxed in position, thrush is comparatively common and cannot always be pre- vented even by using antiseptics or tar dressings. Leather pads, therefore, should only be used when the horse works on hard pavements. The following resuvU is far from exhaustive, but contains a description of the pads most frequently used. 1. Leather Soles are formed of leather from yg- to ^ inch in thickness. The hoof surface of the shoe is laid on a square piece of this, the outer margin and the recess for the clip marked, and the sole cut out. As the sole raises the hoof and renders it somewhat wider, the shoe must be fashioned to correspond. The clips should be drawn rather longer than usual, the exact extra length being the thickness of the leather used. The leather of the sole is fastened to the heel of the shoe by means of a * stub.* The leather sole itself is of comparatively little service, but becomes much more effective when the space between it and the horny sole is filled with tow or similar elastic material, which transmits to the sole a certain amount of the pressure produced during motion. The tow may be locally distributed, any portion of the hoof which is painful being left uncovered ; other parts may be caused to take more pressure. Leather soles can be used both for ordinary and bar shoes, even when the frog is affected with thrush. In such case, all loose parts are removed from the diseased frog, which is dressed with carbolic solution, smeared with Stockholm (wood) tar or Venice turpentine, so as to protect the frog from the air and from septic matter, and the space completely filled with tampons of tow. It is only necessary to use suffi- cient tow to exercise moderate pressure on the sole. With the exception of cases of canker and exposure of the sensitive structures of the sole, the leather sole with stopping may be used with advantacfc in all hoof diseases. Disadvantages. — The most frequent accident is the entrance of sand, etc., between the horn and leather, causing bruised sole. When the stopping is carefully inserted, however, this INDIA-RUBBER FROG PADS. 303 need not be feared. Drying of the leather sole can be pre- vented by dressing the upper surface with tar or grease. In treating narrow or contracted hoofs it is well every few days to immerse the entire hoof in a bucket of water so as to thoroughly moisten the horn. Afterwards the sole itself may be rubbed with some form of hoof dressing. 2. Rubber Pads ox Leather. The leather used is similar to the foregoing, but on it is sewu, or more frequently cemented, a mass of rubber of varying shape. In the case of fig. 301 the rubber is about f inch and in fig. 302 about |- inch in thickness. In the sole shown in fig. 301 the rubber corresponds in size to the width of the posterior third of the hoof. The heels of the shoe are, of Fig. 301.— Rubber bar pad on leather. Fig. 302. — Rubber frog pad on leather. course, shortened. The pad shown in fig. 302 is used with an ordinary flat shoe. As the rubber projects considerably the shoe should be made a little thicker than usual, though to act most effectually the rubber must project -J- inch beneath the shoe. The pad shown in fig. 302 is much more easily and rapidly fixed than that shown in fig. 301. These pads are useful both for sound and for many diseased hoofs, in which they may advantageously be used where a leather sole would otherwise be applied, while at the same time they prevent slipping. They are only fully effectual when used in conjunction with a properly applied stopping of tow and tar. 304 LEATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC. 3. DowNiE & Harris's Eubber Pad with Frog Cleft. This is one of the oldest riihher pads. It is fixed to the shoe and forms a cushion, at the same time transmitting pressure to the sole and hars. Towards the frog cleft (b) it is depressed and becomes thinner (a). The margins of the frog cleft should lie in the lateral furrows of the frog. The pad prevents concussion, diminishes slipping, and obviates balling of snow. It can be worn continuously and improves many ElG. 302 A. — Downie's rubber pad. a, concave portiou ; b, incision for the recei)tioii of the frog ; c, outer margin on which the wall rests. (defective) feet. For convex soles, however, it is disadvantage- ous, and in very oblique hoofs there is difficulty in applying it. In fitting it the lateral furrows of the frog should be moderately cut out, especially towards the heel, and to make it correspond to the sole the pad must sometimes be trimmed with the knife. The shoe should be moderately strong and not excessively seated out, the inner upper border being well rounded off. At the toe the pad should not project below the ground surface of the shoe, but at the heels it may extend -|- inch lower. In driving the nails the cushion part should be pressed against the inner margin of the shoe by the thumb of the left hand, so as to ensure its lying correctly. The disadvantages of using this pad are the occasional loosening of the shoe and the entrance of sand, which leads to bruising" of the sole. hartmann's kemovable kubbek pad. 305 4. Hartmann's Removable Rubber Pad. This consists of an oval thick mass of rubber, correspond- ing in outline to the inner border of the shoe. The surface opposed to the hoof is rounded and exhibits at the back a depression for the reception of the frog ; the under surface has two long shallow depressions. At the front and on either side a steel tongue projects, which slips into the space between the sole and seated portion of the shoe and holds the pad in position. The shoe must be well seated, and the heels converge suffi- ciently to prevent the pad slipping out behind. Special tongs (fig. 302 b) are used for inserting and removing the pad, which Fig. 302 b. — Showing method of inserting Hartmann's pad, and use of tongs. is bent on itself, placed in position, and fastened by allowing the little steel projections to slip between the shoe and the hoof. The tongs are then relaxed and removed, the pad re- covers its shape, thrusting the steel 'tongues well under the shoe. This pad is useful in winter, when it prevents the balling of snow very effectually, and in summer for horses working at high speed on hard roads. It can be used for all horses with concave soles, but when the sole is flat it is of little value, if not positively injurious, while it is difficult to fit to the foot, because the shoe must not only fit the margin of the hoof but that of the pad in addition, while the nail holes cannot, of course, be displaced. u 306 LEATHER AND RUBBER SOLES, ETC. The more irregular, therefore, the form of the hoof the more difficult does fitting become. Whether the horse will go well or badly depends upon the fit of the pad. The sole will not bear strong and continued pressure, and, therefore, while the back of the pad may project slightly below the shoe, the toe should always be above its ground surface, and even then should yield a little under the pressure of the finger. To secure this, the pad when first applied must be fitted to the concavity of the sole by rasping Fig. 303.— Hoof surface of shoe with Hartmann's pad inserted. or paring. The hoof is prepared as usual, except that the point of the frog must not be left too high. After fastening the shoe with a couple of nails the pad is inserted, and if found to fit the nailing on is completed as usual. Twenty different sizes are made, ten in rounded and ten in long forms. For hind-feet ten different sizes are also manu- factured, so that there should seldom be much difficulty in fitting the foot. The pad should always be long enough to cover the limbs of the frog. The time it will wear varies according to the horse's work. It may serve for as many as four shoeings. As soon as the horse is brought home the pads should be removed and washed. ROPE AND STRAW PADS. 307 If left on the feet they favour thrush, bruising of the sole, and other mischief. These pads are contra-indicated when there is extensive disease in the white line. They should then be replaced by leather soles. They should never be used in the treatment of diseases of the hoof, except under the advice of a veterinary surgeon. Similar pads, provided on the ground surface with a number of depressions and on the hoof surface with a layer of spongy rubber, are made by Priest & Co., Oxford Street, W. They are termed anti-concussion pads. 5. liopE Pads (fixed) consist of a leather sole covered on the hoof surface with thick felt and on the ground surface with a flat coil of rope arranged to form a pad resembling Hartmann's. They are inserted in the same way. On moist, greasy asphalt, wood, or stone pavements these are more effectual against slipping than Hartmann's, on account of their picking up sand and always presenting a rough surface. They are not removed in the stable. 6. Straw Pads were invented by a German military veterinary surgeon, Reinicke. They consist of straw plaited into a flat mass, corre- " Fig. 304.— Special shoe for straw or fibre pad. Fig. 305.— Upper surface of above shoe. spending in shape to the space enclosed by the shoe. The shoe used with them is well seated out, and provided with 308 LEATHEli AND KUBBEK PADS, ETC three projections on its inner margin, while the heels are turned inwards at the ends, like a broken or interrupted bar shoe. Before insertion, the straw is moistened, and the horny sole smeared with tar to prevent thrush. To ensure it re- maining in position, the pad should be so large that its margin extends between the hoof and shoe. It has the same advan- tages as the rope pad, and is very cheap — in fact, it can be made by the groom. Its disadvantages are : the rapidity with which it wears out on rough hard ground, and the fact that in thrushy feet its use aggravates the disease, despite the previous use of tar or other disinfectant. Pads formed of wood fibre or hemp are somewhat more durable, but otherwise have no special advantages over straw pads. 7. Cork Pads are made by cutting from a sheet of cork about ^ inch thick a piece corresponding in size to the outline of the seated portion of the shoe. The piece is then pared so as to fit the surface of the sole, and the outer and under margin cut away, corresponding to the seating of the shoe. After being softened in hot water, the mass of cork is forced into position between the limbs of the shoe. It is not necessary for the heels to be so incurved as when using straw pads, nor for the cork to enter so far under the shoe. Being at first soft, it moulds itself to the inner margin of the shoe. The cork pad is light, cheap, and durable ; sometimes, how- ever, it induces thrush. 8. Felt Pads. Felt, which on account of its soft, elastic nature has been largely employed, as an upper layer, in various forms of pad for tender feet, and even as a material for the fabrication of entire pads, does not, in general, deserve the praise it has received. It is too yielding, and, therefore, does not always prevent pressure by the shoe. It rubs through at the heels, takes up too much water, and in oblique hoofs renders the sole soft. Further, its yielding soon causes the shoe to become loose. In all these- respects it is much inferior to leather. If it is intended merely to PADS OF ELASTIC CEMENT AND OF FELT. oOO prevent shock, felt should be employed in con junction with leather. 9. Pads of Elastic Ck.mknt. In this case the shoe is of the ordinary variety, the pad being inserted after shoeing is complete. The hoof is first cleansed and disinfected. The elastic cement is melted in a ladle over a slow tire, until it forms a thick Huid. It is then smeared over the entire surface of the sole with an iron spatula, and well pressed in between the seating of the shoe and the hoof. When sufhcient has been inserted, the cement is cooled in water, or the hoof let down, i hough in such case the ground must be level and moist, so that the cement shall not stick to it. Instead of being melted in a ladle, the cement may be softened in water until ductile, in which con- dition it is pressed into the hoof. Artificial soles of elastic cement appear to succeed very well, the upper surface necessarily corresponding exactly in shape to the sole, of which it is a plastic reproduction. The counter-pressure of the ground is, therefore, evenly transmitted to the entire sole. The frog can be covered or left exposed. At the toe the ground surface of the shoe should be about -J- inch deeper than the inserted cement, so that the latter does not touch the ground when the animal stands on a level surface. CHAPTER V. THE SHOEING OF MULES AND ASSES. Mules and asses used on htird roads, either in draught or under the saddle, must necessarily be shod. In these animals the formation and functions of the hoof are precisely similar to those of the horse, the form alone dififering somewhat. The mule's hoof is long' and narrow, round at the toe, possesses somewhat upright quarters and a concave sole. In the ass the elongated form is still more pronounced. The horn of the wall is thick, the entire frog well developed, especially in its Fig. 306.— Hind-foot of ass, seen from below. Fig. 307.— Fore-foot of ass, seen from below. Fig. 308.— Fore-foot of mule, seen from below. limbs, and, therefore, the posterior portion of the hoof is com- paratively wide (see fig. 306). In both animals the horn is very tough. In proportion to the size of the hoof, and com- pared with small equine hoofs, the thickness of the wall in mules and asses is very marked. In mules the hoof at the toe is from |^ inch to i inch, at the quarters -^ inch less, and at the heels about \ inch in thickness. In asses the thickness MULE SFIOES. 311 at the toe is -f^ inch to ^ inch, at the quarters -^^ inch to |- inch, and at the heels -j^ inch to ^- inch. The shoes differ from those of the horse in respect of the number and disposition of the nail holes, and in being lighter and less thick. In the ass the nail holes need not exceed four, and in the mule five to six in number. As the wall is very hard and tough, the nails employed are short, but fairly stout.' Ordinary horse nails are rather weak in the shank, and, though often used, are liable to double up when being driven, if used for donkeys or mules. CHAPTER VI. CAEE OF THE HOOF. The ideas entertained by many owners, and especially by farriers and coachmen, as to the proper treatment of the hoof, are usually so peculiar, and their practice is attended by such disastrous results, that a few remarks on the care of the hoof may not be superfluous. The primary objects should be to retain the natural form of the hoof, and to keep the horn sound and elastic. (a) Tkeatment of Unshod Hoofs. The treatment of the foal's hoof is of considerable import- ance. The most beneficial effects are obtained by free exercise on dry but not stony ground. The hoofs being thus worn down, it is only occasionally necessary to note whether wear is regular, and should it not be so, to remove irregularities with the rasp. When foals are confined to the stable this regulai- wear ceases, the hoof becomes distorted, the wall growing too long, becoming bent, or at times even separated, from subjacent structures. Weak heels tend to bend inwards and to diminish in width. The toe becomes elongated, rendering the fetlock too sloping, the tread unsafe, and the gait stumbling. It should, therefore, be shortened from time to time. In-curved heels are to be lowered and the outer and lower margin of the wall rounded off with the rasp. Should the hoof begin to assume a flat appearance much may be done to remedy the defect by intelligent trimming of the hoof, always keeping in mind, however, the normal relations of the hoof and foot axes. Eegular washing of the hoofs and the provision of plenty of clean bedding are of great importance. TREATMENT OF THE HOOF. 313 The shoeing of colts is to be strongly deprecated. The development of the hoof is impeded by shoeing, and young horses when shod are often excessively worked and thus ruined before they attain maturity. Moderate w^ork in the fields does not injure young stock, but for this purpose shoes are not required. When full-grown unshod horses are not regularly exercised it is also necessary from time to time to lower the wall and to round off its outer edge with the rasp. (6) Cake of the Shod Hoof. The hoof when shod is more exposed to injury than when unshod, for shoeing, though absolutely necessary to permit of work on hard roads, prevents or diminishes the expansion and Fig. 309.— Instniinents for cleaning out feet. Left, portable form : rijjht, stable form with hammer. -contraction of the hoof, and thus interferes witli local circula- tion and checks the growth of horn. To this may be added the bad effects of standing in stables. The animal suffers from want of exercise, from the foulness of the surface on which it stands, and from drvint; of the hoof. Continued standing causes contraction of the hoof, a condition favoured by dryness. This is best seen in front hoofs. Badh- laid or uneven floors cause fatigue of the limbs, favour the accumulation of urine, etc., and are thus indirectly responsible for attacks of thrusli. To prevent such contingencies the hoof should be shortened every foui- to six weeks, and if necessary 314 CARE OF THE HOOF. the horse should be re-shod. The stall should be kept clean and the foot itself moist. The straw should be dry and renewed daily, and the hoofs picked out and washed everyi morning. This will prevent thrush in the hind-feet. The front-feet gain sufficient moisture from the daily washing to^ preserve their elasticity, and thus permit of the horny capsule yielding when weight is thrown on the hoof. To prevent the hoofs becoming dry, the entire surface may afterwards be smeared with hoof ointment. This prevents loss of moisture, and, in cases where daily washing is impossible, some variety of hoof dressing is advisable. Only a small quantity of the ointment is necessary, but the entire hoof, especially the perioplic ring, frog, and horny sole, should be covered. Vaseline and lanoline are very good dressings, the latter being somewhat expensive. • One of the chief means of securing a healthy hoof is plenty of exercise. This increases local circula- tion and growth of horn, for which reason horses in regular work usually have better hoofs than those much confined to the stable. Note. — Zschokke, Smith, and Dominik have all made experi- ments on the action of hoof ointments. Zschokke considers they diminish absorption and evaporation, and are most effectual where these processes go on most actively, viz., in the frog and in the sole. They have little effect on the horn wall. Vase- line and lanoline produce the best results, glycerine tends to dry the hoof. Apart from this indirect action no hoof ointment appears to have much effect in preserving the horn. Vaseline, applied to freshly trimmed soles and frogs, may prevent rapid drying of the exposed horn and exclude dirt or irritant Huids. Its action principally depends on its retarding the evaporation of water previously absorbed ; it has little effect on the wall, and its effects on the sole and frog are increased by previous cleansing. An ideal hoof dressing should not chemically alter the horn, should keep well, be impervious to moisture, exercise a disinfectant action, and be cheap. According to Veterinary- Major Fred. Smith (see " The Chemistry of the Hoof of the Horse," Veterinary Journal, 1887, page 373), the horn very readily loses water, fresh wall horn losing in twenty-four hours from 1-92 to 2*45 per cent., and in five days from 4-36 to HOOF DRESSINGS AND THEIR ACTION. 315- 4*71 per cent. Smith gives the following figures as to the capacity for absorption of fresh wall horn. In from twenty- six to ninety-eight days the horn absorbed : — Water, . . . 20'3G per cent. Castor oil, . . 0*2 34 per cent, (brittle, dry horn). Olive oil, . . 2-2 per cent. Lanoline, . . 8*5 per cent. The loss of such substances in a j^iven time is more or less the same as the gain. Dominik has confirmed the experiments of Zschokke and added to them as follows : — 1. Horn loses moisture but slowly ; evaporation is greatest from the periople, frog, sole, and portions of the wall which have been rasped or fissured. 2. Horn takes up water to a slight extent, absorption being freest in the frog and periople ; less so in the freshly pared sole and in the rasped and fissured wall. ,. 3. The frog and periople become completely softened and their length and thickness alter. 4. Hoof ointments diminish both evaporation and absorption of water, especially by the periople and frog. 5. Oil is a less valuable dressing- than ointment. The dressing should be of moderately firm consistence and may contain wax, turpentine, and fat. ■■ 6. Tar penetrates and softens the superficial layers. It is, therefore, only suitable for the sole and frog, in which the; superficial parts are naturally shed. , 7. Ointments of wax, turpentine, and fat are most effectual on the periople, on the freshly trimmed frog and sole, and on the rasped or fissured wall. They preserve the elasticity of the horn chiefiy by preventing evaporation. Poultices and foot-baths are only necessary where the feet become excessively dry from horses standing continuously in the stable. As ointments have little power of softening horn, their us^ should always be preceded by that of water. SECTIOlsr III. THE SHOEING OF DISEASED FEET AND OF LAME HORSES. On account of the intimate coniioctiou and interaction between the hoof and the linil) above it, changes in one part are usually associated with changes in the other, and it is not always possible to draw a sharp line between sound action and lameness. Disease of the limb may produce changes in the form and condition of the foot, while, vice versa, changes in the foot or faults in shoeing may be followed by disease in the limb. The diagnosis of disease of the hoof and limb is chiefly the function of the veterinary surgeon. l)ut the instructed farrier should possess at least an elementary knowledge, because it is his duty, on the one hand, to avoid inducing disease, and, on the other, to prevent or minimise its evil •effects. CHAPTER I. INFLAMMATION^ WITHIN THE HOOF. Lameness is usually produced by a localised disease process, consisting of interference with nutrition and its resulting phenomena, which are recognised under the title of inflamma- tion. The first stage of inflammation is indicated by the sudden determination of blood to the part. This is followed by congestion and even by complete stoppage of circulation in INJURIES TO HORN SECKETING STRUCTURES. 31T the injured area. Certain constituents of the blood may then pass through the vessel walls into neighbouring tissues, causing changes in form and relation and interfering with the function of the inflamed parts. The symptoms of intlammation are five, viz., pain, increased warmth, local reddening, swelling, and impaired function. These symptoms are only to be observed in their entirety during inflammation of superficial portions of the body. Inflammation of internal organs, on the other hand, can only be conjectured from disturbed function and its consequences. In inflammation within the hoof the Ave above named symptoms are all present though not all observable ; thua swelling and redness can only be noted when the coronary band and the bulbs are inflamed, and even then redness is only to be seen in non-pigmented skin. In laminitis, however, another important symptom is usually present, viz., increased pulsation of the digital arteries. Pain, increased warmth, and lameness are, however, invariably present, and are, therefore, of the greatest diagnostic value. The seat of inflammation is usually the corium. When lameness is solely due to contrac- tion, etc., of the hoof, symptoms of inflammation are wanting, though laminitis is probably more apt to occur in weak and fleshy than in sound, strong hoofs. The inflammation in from about two to six days ends in resolution, or may be followed by so-called rheumatic or chronic laminitis, suppuration, which is indicated by continued pain, or even by necrosis and septic-inflammation, wliich are usually followed by loss of the hoof and death. The examination should be commenced by walking the horse, when it will be seen whether the animal is lame at all, and if so, on which limb. The statements of the groom are not always to be relied on, nor (after exercise) is the lameness always so marked as to be seen at the first glance ; sometimes it is only visible at a trot or on hard pavement. The horse when walked or trotted, especially on hard ground, will be seen to go short and timidly on the lame foot, the limb not being extended in the ordinary way, the diseased foot being lifted from the ground more rapidly than the sound one, and the weight of the body thrown more rapidly and with more force on the normal foot. The body, therefore, appears to 318 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. sink towards the sound .side. In short, the horse nods. Once the lame limb is discovered the foot may be examined. The painful spot may be only of small size, and, therefore, the examination should be thorough. Specially formed tongs have been made for this purpose, the smaller of which (fig. 310) is for the examination of parts close to the circumference of the sole, the larger for parts further removed and for the examination of the joint and navicular bone. The farrier's ordinary pincers serve every purpose, however. It requires considerable care to distinguish between the natural sensitiveness of the horse and the pain caused by disease. Rough, violent use of the pincers must always be Figs. 310, 311. — Special pincers for examining diseased feet, avoided, for severe pressure will produce pain even in the soundest hoof. The same force must be applied at each spot, the hoof being tested at short intervals over its entire surface, as the diseased spot and corresponding area of tenderness are often very restricted. The degree of pressure should be adapted to the condition of the sole. When the parts are thin and yielding, very little pressure produces pain, and the tender spot is quite sufficiently indicated by slight quivering of the muscles of the shoulder and upper limb. Sometimes the pincers fail; the suspected spot may then be tested by light blows with the hammer. Increased local warmth sometimes gives information, which can be confirmed COMBINATION FARHIER'S TOOL. The tool illustrated combines in itself pincers, hammer, and buffer. "'As it occupies no more space than an ordinary pair of pincers, it may be carried with- out inconvenience, and is useful for removing a shoe in an emergency. By remov- ing the nut, the hammer and buffer can be used to cut the clenches, and by replacing it a pair of pincers for removing the shoe and ' trying round ' the foot is obtained. [To face p. 318. EXAMINATION OF HOOF FOR CORNS, ETC. 319 by the use of the Immmer. The condition of the lateral cartilages should be noted and the individual joints of the foot tested by passive movement and by manipulation to detect new growths or excessive sensitiveness. If, in spite of all this, no satisfactory indication of disease is forthcoming, the liexor tendons may be examined by running the thumb and fore- finger along their course and noting any thickened or painful spot. The causes are numerous and varied. They may be divided into (1) congenital, (2) mechanical, (3) thermal, (4) chemical, and (5) specific. The first three, however, are of chief import- ance. Congenital causes are to be found in faulty conforma- tion of the limb and irregularities in the condition of the hoof causing unequal distribution of pressure. Mechanical causes are numerous ; amongst them must be ranked, errors in trim- ming the foot, weakening the hoof, bad fitting (causing local pressure), dryness of the hoof, unskilful or excessive driving, as well as direct wounds and bruises of the sensitive structures of the hoof. Amongst thermal causes is burning of the toe during fitting. Chemical and specific causes are rarer. The fact that the corium lies between the hard horny box and the equally hard os pedis explains the frequency with which it is bruised and inflamed. The front feet (especially in their inner half) are more often diseased than the hind. This results from the greater weight they carry and the drying influences to which they are exposed. In shoes with heels or heels and toes, one heel is apt to be higher than the other, and as the foot is then raised unnaturally high, any slight error in form or fitting is exaggerated, the joints are strained, and the hoof itself sufiers. Treatment — The chief object is to remove the cause, per- manently if possible. The shoe is carefully taken off, and its form, position, and bearing surface examined. By replacing it for the moment we note whether it fits at all points or not. The hoof is then carefully examined in every part ; the white line especially should receive attention. After removing a thin slice from the white line and neighbouring parts the form and direction of the nail holes can be seen. Any superfluous horn is then removed from the wall and sole. The frog is cautiously 320 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. trimmed, partly to assist the action of poultices, should such be required, partly to make the horny capsule more yielding (and to discover injury caused by gathered nail, etc.). If the sole is- coloured yellow, yellowish-green, yellowish-red, red, or pink, we know that blood has been, extravasated and has penetrated the horn. The cutting out of the diseased hoof should follow the examination with pincers, and the amount removed should not be sufficient to alter tiie direction of the limb, nor the manner of tread. To limit the local inflammation the hoof should be kept cool and soft. The difficultv is less to cool it than to soften the horn, and so, by relieving pressure on the inflamed spot, to favour free circulation of blood. Linseed-meal poultices, to which is added some antiseptic, act most effectually, especially when frequently mmstened with water. A piece of sacking 20 to 30 inches square is taken, the poultice placed in the centre, the foot placed on the poultice, and the sides of the sacking drawn upwards and fastened around the coronet by a bandage or straw band, which impedes the flow of blood much less than cords or straps. The portions of sacking which pro- ject above the straw band are then turned downwards and fastened securely below the straw band by means of a tape. To thoroughly soften the hard, dry hoof it is necessary to leave the poultice forty-eight hours in position and to moisten it freely with water during that time. In fact it does no harm to leave the poultice in position until the pain has greatly diminished. But this method must not he resorted to when pus formcdion has oecurred, as it favours discharge of pus at the coronet and the formation of ' quittor.' After removing the poultice the hoof is washed clean, the shoe replaced, if necessary, and the hoof rubbed with vaseline or fat. Instead of the poultice described, six or eight thicknesses of wet linen may be wound round the hoof and retained in position by a leather or felt boot. The onset of suppuration is notified by severe, continued pain and marked pulsation of the digital arteries. To provide free drainage for the pus, the most painful spot has first to be discovered. The sole should then be thinned all round the painful spot until the sensitive structures are reached, the bear- ing surface of the wall being left intact. For this purpose a ' searcher,' t.c, a special knife with a slender blade, or the in- TREATMENT OF SUPPURATING CORN. 321 strument shown in fig. 312 may be used. The margins of the opening, so far as they are formed by the sole, should be thinned until they yield to the pressure of the finger. If pus be discovered the parts are next flooded with warm 5 per cent, carbolic, creosote, or creolin solution, and covered with carbolic, sublimate, iodoform, or salicylic wool. There is some advantage in afterwards painting the parts with a resinous tincture, like tincture of myrrh or the compound tincture of myrrh and aloes. The dressing is held in position by broad strips of gauze and a Fig. 312. — Special ' searcher ' used in giving exit to pus, shoe with leather sole applied. A better way to fix dressings in position is by thrusting two thin strips of wood or hoop iron cross-wise between the dressing and shoe. If no pus be found, cold poultices or baths may be continued. The colour of the pus is of importance. A grey fluid dis- charge is a result of superficial inflammation of the corium; a condition which readily yields to treatment. The production of yellowish thick pus, however, even in very small quantities, points to inflammation of the deeper lying layers of the corium and to a more obstinate condition. Under such circumstances the advice of a veterinary surgeon should be sought. 322 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. .The shoe is made wider or longer in the diseased region than at the points opposite. If, for example, the inner heel is painful, the inner heel of the shoe should be a little longer and a little wider than its fellow, and vice versa. To prevent the shoe pressing on the painful spot, the wall is slightly rasped away around that point. But if an ordinary shoe is so fitted that one side of the hoof is free of pressure, it will be noted that during movement the hoof approaches, and actually comes in contact with, the shoe at that point, and with a rapidity in direct proportion to the flatness of the hoof. The hoof springs, in fact. Under such circumstances there must inevitably be pressure upon the diseased spot, and, therefore, in flat feet, ordinary shoes should never be used. In strong, upright feet, on the other hand, this ' springing ' is much less, the heels descend comparatively little, because the posterior half of the hoof bears much less weight than in flat feet. The bar shoe (fig. 313), so called because its heels are united by a transverse bar, is of the greatest service for injured or diseased feet. It enables the frog to assist in supporting the Fig. 313.— Bar shoe, seen from above. body-weight, thus relieving the wall to a corresponding extent, and whilst with ordinary shoes the frog is almost always functionally passive, the bar shoe restores it more or less to its normal function. In heavy horses with weak feet this relief is of great importance. A few practical examples will confirm this. We may take the action of the ordinary seated shoe, having a narrow bearing ' SHOEING AFTER CORN^ 323 surface covering that of the wall but not extending to any portion whatever of the sole. In horses with narrow upright hoofs and in those working on soft ground this shoe is quite satisfactory, but is liable, under opposite conditions, to produce separation of the wall. By increasing the width of the surfaces of contact between shoe and hoof, or by applying a bar shoe, this is, however, entirely avoided. In horses with weak heels the ordinary shoe is apt to cause the heel to turn inwards and its use to be followed by pro- duction of corns and contraction of the hoof. The cause is the shape of the shoe, which relieves the frog and sole of weight at the expense of the heels, which yield, bend inwards, and cause lameness. The lameness disappears, when, by the appli- cation of a bar shoe, the frog is forced to sustain a portion of the weight. In sandcrack and cracks of the bar, this form of shoe supports the posterior part of the foot, and by increasing its functional activity encourages growth and expansion. Where a hoof shows more than one crack the action of the bar shoe is assisted by applying a thick leather and padding the space between it and the sole of the foot with tow. A portion of the weight is then borne by the frog and by the sole itself. A bar shoe can always be applied, even when one quarter or quarter and heel are much broken, provided the frog be sound and fairly developed. Should the frog be healthy, but small, it may be built up by applying gutta-percha or the special cement later described. In case of the frog being affected with thrush, the pro- cedure is as follows : — After the shoe is fitted, all loose pieces of horn are removed by a searcher, the parts thoroughly washed with water, then with 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, creosote, or creolin, the entire ground surface of the hoof smeared with wood tar or Venice turpentine, a pad of tow applied, a leather sole fitted over all and the shoe nailed on. The bar shoe should not be employed in navicular disease, double side-bones, or in the case of picked-up nails (which almost always enter the frog). The bar shoe permits any part of the bearing surface of the hoof to be left uncovered and to be reheved of pressure without stoppage of work. The entire frog is capable of bearing weight, but the posterior part is best suited for the purpose, and there the bar should take its bearing. 324 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. CONCAVE BAE FOEE SHOE (Fig. 314). Made in concave tool from g- X ^ inch iron. This is a bar shoe for hunters suffering from sandcrack or any of the other conditions in which bar shoes seem indicated. Although it is often stated that bar shoes are inappHcable to hunters as they are sure to be torn off, the experience of the authors is to the contrary, and Mr Wheatley has on many occasions appKed them with success. Special precautions, however, are necessary. The shoe must be drawn from the centre of the quarter towards the bar until the extreme posterior part is only about -|- inch in thickness, and the bar must not project even a fraction of an inch behind the heels. To obtain the best results the heels must be fitted ' full ' on either side, and the upper outer edge hot-rasped to the dimen- sions of the foot, so as to present an oblique bevelled margin about X6 ^^ i^ '^^'^^^ wide. There is then no danger of the shoe being trodden off. Fig. 314. —Concave bar fore shoe. Made in concave tool from # x I inch iron [To face p. 324. Figs. 315, 316. — Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe). Made from I X f inch iron. To face "p. 325.] BAK SHOKS. 325 FULLERED BAR HIND SHOE (SEATED AROUND TOE) (Figs. 315, 316). Made from J X -f iron. This is a special shoe for harness or riding horses with * dropped sole ' in a hind foot ; it can also be used for the treatment of ' seedy-toe,' as the diseased parts can be dressed through the seating without the shoe being removed. Clips are drawn on either side of the toe, because in many cases there is not sufficient horn at the toe to permit of their being placed there, and also because clips in this position allow the shoe to be placed further back if required. The shoe is shghtly cradled, i.e., it is thinner at the toe and heel than at the quarter, a formation which enables the animal to place more weight on the back of the foot, thereby relieving the toe. In many cases this is a very important consideration. The toe of the shoe is widened as well as seated-out, so as to give ample ' cover ' to the injured or diseased parts. 326 INFLAMMATION^ OF THE HOOF. FULLERED SEATED BAE FORE SHOE (Fig. 317). Made from -g X -;V itt^ch iron. This is the ordinary form of har shoe for harness horses. Among the conditions in which its use is indicated are : — 1. Corns. Here it reheves the heels of pressure by imposing a proportion of the weight on the frog. A bar shoe can also be fitted * fuller ' at the heels than an ordinary shoe, and hence is less likely to produce pressure on the seat of corn than a narrow heeled shoe. 2. Flat or dropped sole following laminitis. The heels of the shoe should be thinned, or the heels and toe also may be thinned, the quarters being left of full strength. This ' cradling ' of the shoe much improves the gait of horses with dropped sole. 3. Flat feet with weak, low heels. By giving a broad bearing surface at the heels and by transferring weight to the frog, attrition between the heels of foot and of the shoe is lessened, and an opportunity is given for the parts to grow and become stronger. 4. Sandcrack and seedy toe. It is possible that in the case of sandcrack steady pressure on the posterior parts of the foot lessens the chance of the crack opening, and, by retaining the edges of the crack in apposition, favours the growth of a (new) sound wall. Wherever there is any painful affection about the toe of the foot and the horse goes on his heels, bar shoes are useful. They should be fitted ' full ' at the heels, and either ' boxed up ' or ' hot-rasped ' up to the heel of the foot. This is more impor- tant than fitting them so long at the heel, as is customary. Fig. 317. — Fullered seated bar fore shoe. Made from | x ^ inch iron. {To face p. 326. Fig. 318. — Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for harness horse). Made from 5 x A incli iron. Fig. 319. — Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse), Ij X ^ inch iron. To face 2?. 327.] ]\rade from BAK SII0E8. 327 FULLEliED SEATED THEEE-QUAETEK BAE FORE SHOE (FOE HAENESS HOESE) (Fig. 318). Made from -g X J inch iron. This shoe is intended for a fleshy, low-heeled, weak foot, or for a foot with dropped sole and with a corn in the inner heel. In cases of suppurating corn it allows of the parts being efficiently poulticed, and in sandcrack or false quarter invol- ving the extreme back portion of the inside quarter is very useful. The back part of the inside quarter of shoe must be fitted ' full,' otherwise it is liable to cause the hoof to split away at this point, especially as hoofs affected with sandcrack are usually very brittle. The clip may be at the toe or outer quarter, or a clip may be placed at both points. The outer quarter is recommended, however, as the preferable spot. STAMPED BAE HIND SHOE (FOE CAET HOESE) (Fig. 319). Made from l^x^ inch iron. This shoe is intended for cases where the hoof shows a ' false- quarter ' inside, and where the horse has sustained an injury to the inner heel, which must be relieved -of weight. The inside nail holes are therefore placed opposite the only sound part of the foot, viz., that close to the toe. The clips are at the toe and outer quarter. 328 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. Substitutes for Horn. De Fay's hoof cement was the first material introduced for the treatment of cracks, etc., in the wall. It consists of purified gutta-percha and gum ammoniacum. The gutta-percha is softened in water, divided into pieces the size of a hazel nut, mixed with an equal proportion of gum ammoniacum and melted in a vessel of tinned iron over a slow fire. The mass is slowly stirred until thoroughly mixed, when it has the colour and appearance of chocolate. Lastly, it is formed into sticks. Thus prepared, it is hard at ordinary temperatures, and is, therefore, suited for use in summer ; softer mixtures for winter use can be prepared by increasing the proportion of gutta- percha. De Fay's artificial horn closely resembles natural horn in consistence and toughness. It can readily be softened and moulded, is insoluble in water, and adheres very firmly to the hoof. It may be employed to build up too low a wall or to replace lost portions; to close sandcracks and thus prevent entrance of dirt ; in the various forms of dropped sole to raise the bearing surface of the wall in seedy toe, or, before applying a bar shoe, to build up the frog if atrophied and functionally inactive. It should not, however, be resorted to in cases of loose wall, because, after hardening, it acts as a wedge and increases the separation. In use it is warmed till fluid, and applied with a spatula to the part to be filled up or raised. To smooth off the surface the spatula is moderately heated and once more passed over it. Before applying the composition, the horn should be freed from grease, thoroughly dried and slightly roughened. To remove grease, the parts are rubbed over with a few drops of sulphuric ether or benzolin applied on a pledget of tow. As repeated heating injures the qualities of the mass, it is advis- able to melt only the exact amount needed on each occasion. Until recently this was the best known material for repair- ing and replacing horn, but of late another and better material has been produced. It is a German preparation, and is termed * huflederkitt.' As purchased, it resembles leather, is reddish- HORN SUBSTITUTES. 329 brown in colour, and appears to consist largely of gutta-percha with the addition of some india-rubber and inorganic materials. It is very elastic and tough, can be warmed either in water or over a fire, w^hen it becomes plastic ; on cooling, it again assumes its hard, leather-like condition, without losing the form given it. It may be used in any part of the hoof where additions are required. As compared with De Fay's artificial horn it possesses the following advantages : — 1. After melting it solidifies more rapidly than De Fay's preparation. 2. In cooling it remains firmly fixed to the horn wall and does not shrink, whilst De Fay's mixture contracts, and is apt to lose its hold. 3. It can be melted as frequently as required without losing its qualities, whilst De Fay's cement rapidly deteriorates. 4. It requires no special preparation, like the removal of grease or the roughening and drying of the horn, though such precautions are perhaps still advisable. In all cases where De Fay's artificial horn can be used with advantage this preparation may now be substituted for it. In Germany it is largely used instead of vulcanised rubber or rope in special grooved shoes designed to diminish slipping on smooth pavements. It has also been employed as a dressing for hoofs. In this case the under surface of the hoof is care- fully cleaned and disinfected, and the melted ' huflederkitt ' applied with a spatula. The frog may be covered or left ex- posed. If the space be filled up as far as the bearing surface of the shoe, the counter-pressure of the ground is transmitted very perfectly to all parts of the sole, etc., whilst at the same time slipping on asphalt or stone pavements is minimised. CHAPTEE II. DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 1. Flat Sole. A FLAT sole is one which exhibits no archino; towards the centre, but lies more or less evenly in the same plane as the wall, the latter being usually very oblique. The condition is commoner in front than in hind feet, and is frequently con- FlG. 320.— Section of flat hoof with -weak sole, a shows weakened sole ; 6, weakening of the union ))etween wall and sole. genital, especially in horses reared on soft marshy ground. It may also be produced by paring away too much of the sole around its union with the wall (figs. 320 and 321), and keeping the hoof continually moist. Apart from congenital conditions i'lG. 321.— Special shoe for above foot. the most frequent cause, however, is the use of shoes which raise the frog clear of the ground, and thus throw the entire weight on the wall. On account of its oblique course, the wall is then unable to sustain the load, and the os pedis^ especially in its posterior parts, gradually descends ; the FLAT SOLE. 331 descent being greater on the side which bears the greater weight. The union between the sensitive and horny structures is exposed to severe strain, the laminae gradually enlarge and yield, and the os pedis presses on the sensitive and horny soles until it finally thrusts them downwards. This is followed by changes in the sole and atrophy of the os pedis, best marked at its wings and sharp plantar margin. The more developed the atrophy the more convex does the horny sole appear. Change in position of the os pedis, again, produces distortion of the coronary band and displacement of its papilke. This gives rise to the formation of rings and splits in the wall, while, owing to its oblique position, the wall itself tends to bend out- wards at the bearing surface. The more oblique the wall and the heavier the horse the more rapidly do such changes pro- ceed. When the toe is much turned out they only affect the inner half of the foot, but then occur very rapidly. The flat- soled hoof grows chiefly forwards and outwards, and is hence very liable to suffer from separation of the wall. When the heels are weak and the sole flat the heels turn inwards ; when the hoof is less spread the bars may grow over the posterior portions of the sole : in either case corns are common. It is impossible to cii^rc this flat condition of the sole. Possibility of improvement exists when the condition is not far advanced, when the horn fibres are fine and tough, and the animal is of light weight, but, as a rule, all the unfavour- able factors are combined. The animal is then absolutelv un- suitable for rapid work on hard roads, and can be employed only at a walk or in the fields. Something may be done to improve matters and prevent the changes which have taken place becoming aggravated. The sole, being very thin, should be trimmed as little as possible. Loose fragments of horn may be removed, the bars, if over- lapping the posterior portions of the sole, cut back, and the bearing margin of the wall levelled with the rasp. The outer edge of the wall, especially at the toe, should be well rounded off, and unduly convex portions as far as possible levelled. The frog and sole must be spared. Where the position of the limb is normal and the horn of good quality an ordinary flat, wide-webbed, well-seated shoe with a broad bearing surface, and made from thick iron, is suitable ; the heels should be some- 332 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. what long. A leather sole is useful, and the frog should be allowed to come to the ground. In all other cases, as when the horn is of bad quality, or when corns, contraction, sand crack, separation of the wall, etc., are present, bar shoes are preferable. The bearing surface should be as large as possible, so that the weight may be distributed over the entire foot. The wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole should all assist. Where the wall projects below the sole, the bearing surface of the shoe may be given a slight cant inwards (fig. 322, h), but a horizontal bearing surface should be preferred when the wall has grown down again. The toe-clip can be Fig. 322. — Transverse section through a flat-soled hoof with shoe. At a the wall is suffi- ciently high and the surface of the shoe is therefore flat. At h the wall is not high enough and the bearing surface of the shoe is therefore canted inwards. let into the foot almost as far as the white line without injury — sometimes several clips are required ; the direction of the nail holes must in all such hoofs be governed by the direction of the wall. The space caused by separations in the wall may be filled with tar or Venice turpentine. De Fay's hoof cement mass should never be used, because as it hardens it acts like a wedge, and causes further separation. Two quarter-clips may be raised opposite the point of the frog, and will be found very useful in retaining the shoe in position. To protect the sole, it may be smeared with Venice turpentine, pitch, or soft resin. Where the wall and frog are defective, a leather sole can be applied. If, however, the frog is large, and projects below the heels, the cross piece of the bar shoe may be allowed to bear on it, or an ordinary flat shoe provided with low heels may be applied. The condition just discussed may be still more aggravated. The sole is then distinctly ' dropped ' or convex. This con- dition may involve either one or both sides of the hoof ; in FLAT ANr) ' DROPPED SOLE. 333 fig. 323 only one-half of the sole, the inner, is so deformed. The wall generally exhibits rings and furrows, and is more or less depressed at the centre, its outhne being concave. In the unshod hoof the frog and horny sole then take the entire weight, hence animals with convex sole can neither go nor stand continuouslv without shoes. The vva\'y appearance sometimes shown, which reaches from ISiliis Fia. 323.— Left front foot with inside half of sole ' dropped ' oi" convex, seen from below, in front and in section, a-h, direction of section ; c, broken wall ; d, ' dropped ' portion, of sole ; e, os pedis atrophied by pressure ; /, depression extending from coronet to ground ; g, concave inner quarter. the coronet to the bearing surface, and the form and condition: of the hoof, point strongly to the displacement of the os pedis. Dropped sole may result from a continuation of the process which produces flat sole, or from laminitis. In the former case- one lateral half of the sole is usually deformed, and the white line is not increased in breadth ; in the latter the convexity usually appears in front of the point of the frog, the white line is perceptibly broader, and the rings on the wall are close together at the toe, but diverge as they extend towards the heels. In general, the same treatment is appropriate in convex as in flat sole. When the sole projects so far below the bearing surface of the wall that it would touch the ground even after the application of a thick bar shoe, it may be necessary to build up the wall with an artificial composition, and to secure the sole from contact with the ground by the use of toe-pieces and heels. Screws are then very useful in conjunction with bar shoes. On account of the brittleness of the wall, as few nails as- possible should be employed, and to secure the shoe it is often well to form a quarter-clip at either side. The position of the 334 DEFORjriTIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. nails should be slightly changed at each shoeing. Horses with convex soles are, of course, quite useless for rapid work. To prevent the sole being bruised the shoe must be well seated out, and, unless the case is very aggravated, a leather sole applied. To save the hoof being softened by long con- tact with moisture during wet w^eather, a hoof ointment should be used. STAMPED FOKE SHOE (FOR CAET HORSE). THE 'QUOIT' SHOE (Fig. 324). Made from 1-g^ X -g- inch iron. In making this- shoe the outer margin of the web is thinned down to ^ or |- inch, the inner margin being left of the full ^ inch strength. The shoe has been recommended for cases of laminitis where exudation is occurring and there is danger of the sole becoming convex, but where pain is slight. Some practitioners consider this condition is best treated by applying a ' quoit ' shoe and steadily working the animal on soft ground. STAMPED FORE SHOE (FOR CART HORSE) 'SET' AROUND OUTER MARGIN (Fig. 325). Made from l-J- X | inch iron. This shoe is ' set ' around the outer margin of the ground surface and is deeply seated-out on the foot surface, and has two calkins. The * set ' tool resembles a single-faced hammer. It is held and applied in the same way as a stamp or fuller ; the result of * setting ' is well shown in the illustration. This shoe is intended for a horse with very convex (dropped) soles and weak feet and large frogs. o QJ O g .cr» ,o X 12(00 -/. o CJ v.—* ■;:; ^"> « ■73 -^ o ^ ^*^ rf X ^' (>) CO o o »-H rf #s -IJ ,— « rn o (—1 ^ • I-H ^ j-H a> o w -—1 p— ( • pH o «lao -i-i X »-H ri — 11 o I— 1 .2 a o o CJ X o ■r ■-d crt a -H f^ i«q n Vn '^ D «^-l ^— ^ to CO r-t ;3 1 ?H a> -+-> v:^ =1 0\ o CO [To/acc^. 334. o o C isjca X H« 1— t B o O) 'O CO ft O o ,o 0} o m a a: 1-^ CO (M CO • OQ o To face p. 335.] SHOES FOR CART-HORSE WITH 'DROPPED' SOLES. 335 STAMPED HIND SHOE (FOE CART HORSE) (Figs. 326, 327). Made from ij X |- inch iron. Being intended for a foot with ' dropped sole ' or ' seedy toe ' (or both), this shoe is deeply seated out round the toe, at which point, in consequence, it has extra ' cover.' The shoe has a clip on either side of the toe, and the nail holes are stamped a little further back than usual, in order to obtain a firm liold of the foot even when the toe is ' seedy/ and to allow the shoe to be set further back on the foot and the toe to be shortened. Calkins as shown are necessary to give working horses a good foothold, though it is open to question whether they could be pronounced advantageous were one considering the question of disease alone. 336 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 2. IJPEiGHT Hoof. The description ' upright ' may be applied to any hoof, the toe of which, when viewed from the side, forms an angle of more than 60° with the ground, and the heels, compared with the toe, appear too high. The relative lengths of heel and toe vary. While in slight cases of upright hoof the length of the toe is scarcely double that of the heel, measured at the posterior border, in aggravated cases the height of the toe and heel may be equal. The toe is then at right angles to the earth, and the quarters nearly perpendicular. The sole is usually very concave, though the os pedis does not always correspond. In walking, the toe is most worn, and (except in the conformation shown by fig. 169) the entire weight of the body falls on the anterior half of the hoof. Upright hoof is seen in all classes of horses, and affects both the fore and hind feet. The condition is peculiar to the positions shown in figs. 151 and 169. It is due to hereditary tendency, or is produced by neglect of the feet in young animals, the toe being dis- proportionately shortened in comparison with the heels, and is apt to follow diseases of the limb, which, for lengthened periods, prevent extension of the fetlock joint. Among such are inflammation of the flexor tendons and of the posterior ligaments of the limb, spavin, and ring bone. Thrush is very apt to accompany this formation of hoof. According to Siedamgrotzky, it is always present in old standing cases of contracted tendon. In consequence of the gradual shortening of the flexor tendons, the os pedis undergoes a partial rotation on its transverse axis. The resulting pressure on the toe leads to the papillae of the coronary band assuming a more upright position, and to the formation of an upright, thin, but firm toe wall. This is followed by a similar change in the heeJs, while, under continued pressure, the anterior portion of the sole becomes flattened and the white line increased in breadth. The prognosis depends on whether the condition is congenital, i.e., whether it results from the conformation of the limbs or whether it is acquired. SHOEING HORSES WITH UPEIGHT FEET. 337 When due to faulty conformation the defect is incurable, but less grave than when acquired. The uncertain, stumbling, borinoj oait seen in horses with such hoofs is oftener a result of defects in the limbs than of the form of the hoof. The worst cases are those in which the heels do not touch the ground during movement, and the condition is not due to mal- formation of the limb. The tendons and ligaments are then continuously under great strain, and, in unshod animals, the sensitive structures of the toe are bruised in consequence of excessive wear. In concrenital cases the heels bear an undue proportion of the weight. An approximately ecpial wear of the shoe and a level tread show that the faulty position of the limb has been compensated by change in form of the hoof. In fact, where the conformation of the limb is abnormal, uprightness of the hoof is, strictly speaking, neither pathological nor faulty. The method of shoeing varies. The upright hoof, when compensatory to defective conformation, must be left alone. This is the case where the entire foot from the fetlock down- wards is upright, or where the suffraginis bone is nearly horizontal. But if it result from increased wear of the toe in foals which have not been shod, and it seem impossible to restore the normal position by shortening the heels, a tip or plain shoe with thin heels may be applied. On the other hand, in heavy bodied horses doing hard work on streets the heels should be lowered and care taken that the tread is kept level, while the axis of the foot is rendered somewhat more oblique. Uprightness consequent on excessive paring of the toe can be diminished by using shoes with thin heels and broad toes, sometimes by building up the toe with a horn substitute {hitfleclerkitt), or by gradually lowering the heels. If the cause be some diseased condition of the limb above the hoof, the object of the farrier should be to ensure a level tread, and it may be necessary to apply shoes with calkins or with thickened heels. In this case the production of upright hoof should be favoured, a course which at first sight may appear objectionable, but will be better understood by recalling the improvement which follows the application of a thick-heeled shoe in fiat-footed horses with strain or contraction of the Y 338 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. flexor tendons. The hoof is then too low at the heels to allow' of regular distribution of weight and must be raised. In pro- portion as the disease of the limb, which causes uprightness, disappears, a better form can be given to the hoof by appropriate paring. To attempt to convert an upright into a normal hoof at one operation is only allowable in view of performing tenotomy. In shoeing ordinary working horses with upright feet it is generally necessary to strengthen the toe. This is best effected by letting in a piece of steel at that point, by drawing up a strong toe-clip and by ' rolling ' or rounding off the toe. The shoe must be broad in the web, and take a good hold of the toe of the hoof. The calkins should be so high as just to touch the ground when the horse is standing level on all four feet. In shoeing horses with spavin, ring bone, and shortened tendons a similar shoe, but with wedge heels instead of calkins, is useful. STAMPED CAET HIXD SHOE, WITH TOE- PIECE (Fig. 328). Made from 1^ x -g- inch iron. In cases of commencing contraction of the flexor tendons of the hind limb this shoe will often be found useful. The calkins give the animal an assured foothold, while the toe-piece prevents ' knuckling ' at the fetlock, limits wear of the toe of shoe, and maintains a steady though limited pull on the con- tracted structures. At each shoeing the calkins may be slightly lowered, so as to keep pace with the improvement in position of the limb. Many horses, which would otherwise rapidly become useless, can be rendered workable, if not actually cured, by the applica- tion of this shoe. The toe-piece, which is about 1^ inches long, is made inde- pendently of the shoe, and is ' shut ' or welded on to the foot surface. v'<-Ti.":5tei">' Fig. 328. — Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece. Made from li x f inch iron. [To face p. 338. SHOEING HOESES THAT 'KNUCKLE OVER. 339 3. Special Shoes for Houses Knuckled Over at THE Coronet or Fetlock. ' Knuckling ' at the coronet or fetlock is produced by shortening of the flexor tendons or by bony growths around the joints ; the foot, from the fetlock downwards, takes a perpendicular or nearly perpendicular course, so that the animal treads on the toe alone. This condition can sometimes be modi- fied, though never cured by shoeing. Sufficient may be done, Fig. 329.— Shoe for 'knuckling over.' a, bone deposit around the coronet ; b, flattened end of the shoe, which is kept from touching the wall by the leather disc, c. 1*'IG. 330.— Special shoe for ' knuck- ling ' associated with obliteration of the coronet joint. however, to permit of the animal continuing for a long time at work. The shoes should be provided with heels which just touch the ground when the animal stands on all four feet, but in aggravated cases this is not sufficient, and to assist in move- ment it becomes necessary to lengthen the toe of the shoe. The exact extent and form of this prolongation cannot be given, as they must necessarily vary in each case. Such shoes have the disadvantage of being torn off occasion- 340 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. ally, the prolongation at the toe acting as a lever. To prevent this, Neuschield thins and flattens the extremity and bends it upwards and backwards so as to take a bearing on the wall of tlie tue, a stout piece of leather being interposed. For the early forms of this condition in foals a special shoe has been used, provided with a kind of iron splint welded to the toe and extending upwards above the fetlock joint. It is made to fit the front of the large metacarpal bone, to which it is secured by a well-padded bandage. The steady opposition to the pull of the shortened tendons gradually causes elongation and reduction of the knuckling. 4. CONTKACTED FoOT. (A). Contraction of heels. — In contracted foot the posterior half of the hoof becomes narrower and presses on the con- tained structures, such as the corium, lateral cartilages, etc. The condition frequently affects flat feet, and is commoner in front than behind. It may develop to a very varying extent, and its recognition demands a clear perception of the form of a normal hoof. This should have, firstly, a broad and well- developed frog. Both limbs of the frog should be of equal size, and between them should lie a moderately deep but broad groove. In unshod horses neither the central nor lateral furrows are widely open, because the horny frog is pressed flat and thrust closely against the bar at either side. In the contracted hoof the triangular space destined for the reception of the frog is diminished in size and the frog itself is smaller to a corresponding extent. The extremities of the wall, therefore, approach one another. When the condition is aggravated the lateral and central grooves of the frog are narrow, they exist as more or less deep fissures, and in fully developed cases the limbs of the frog almost disappear. The bars are sometimes even in contact or overlap one another, and the previously rounded prominent bulbs of the frog become thin and closely pressed together. Whilst in hoofs of good form the bars are straight, in this condition they describe a curve, directed towards the bearing surface of the wall, that is, they run backwards, outwards, and again inwards. In flat CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT. 341 hoofs the frog sometimes becomes compressed by the bars (fig. 331) ; this is not infrequently the forerunner of contraction. Just as the space occupied by the frog diminishes, the direc- FlG. 331.— Strangulation of the frog by the bars. tion of the walls at the heel alters. The heels gradually encroach on the frog, converging from the coronet towards the bearing surface ; they draw together either in an equal degree Fig. 332.— Excessive contraction of heels. The frog has almost disappeared. Fig. 333.— Unilateral contraction. (fig. 332), or one to a greater extent than the other (fig. 333). It must not be supposed, however, that every hoof in which the walls at the heel converge is a contracted hoof, because, 342 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. with the exception of pronounced upright hoofs, all show moderate convergence of the posterior parts of the heel walls. Horses with contracted heels usually stand with the fetlock upright while the axis of the foot is not infrequently hent backwards (see fig. 201). The diseased foot is placed a little in advance and is also slightly flexed. When both feet are diseased the animal rests them alternately, and when the con- dition has existed for long there is bending at the knees. Both the last named symptoms result from tenderness of the sensitive structures. Tlie gait is low, ' shuttling,' and uncertain, especially for the first few steps. The foot strikes against obstacles and the animal stumbles, even on fairly level ground. This symptom, most marked when the horse is ridden, renders him both unpleasant and unsafe. At a trot he fails to extend the front limbs, and if only one hoof is affected may go quite lame. If the shoes impede expansion of the heels, the pain may even become acute enough to throw the horse off its feed, and cause it to lie continually. The pain forces the animal to go on the toe, and there is at first increased wear of that part of the shoe, though, when the process is complete, the shoe may again be worn level. Manual examination reveals slightly increased warmth at the heels, pulsation of the digital arteries, pain on pressing and on tapping the heels. In consequence of the changes going on in the hoof it loses its normal form and becomes longer and narrower, the horny sole being usually more concave, and the horn of the heels weaker and less tough. The bulbs are atrophied so that the frog partly disappears. On dissection, there is often to be found in the posterior half of the foot atrophy of the coronary band, of the plantar cushion, and sometimes even of the os pedis. Atrophy of the pedal bone is best seen at the wings, but in severe cases may extend even to other parts. As the hoof contracts at the heels the sensitive sole is sub- ject to continued pressure in direct proportion to the degree to which the heels converge and to which they are thrust down- wards. Both conditions are most marked in flat feet, and, as a consequence, flat feet with contracted heels almost always exhibit corns as a complication. The point which suffers most is perhaps CHANGES IN FORM OF COXTKACTED FOOT. 343 where the coronary band is reflected forwards to become con- tinuous with the corresponding part of the bars. The strain on the coronary margin often causes sandcrack, and as the bars become distorted from the continued approach of the heels they may also exhibit fissures. Contracted feet expand to a much less extent than do normal feet, and experiments on the living animal show that in well- marked cases this movement is diminished, sometimes even entirely absent or replaced at the most anterior portion of the bearing surface of the heel by contraction. The coronary margin of the heels, on the other hand, dilates, and whilst, in the healthy foot, contact of the frog with the ground produces dilatation both at the coronary and bearing margins, in con- tracted feet this is always diminished if not inhibited. The symptoms seem due to the position of the heels relatively to the ground, because the more the heels converge, from above down- wards, the less does the bearing margin expand. Under tha body- weight the portions comprised between the two heels, that is, the plantar cushion, lateral cartilages and sensitive wall, are strongly compressed by the inner surfaces of the heel walls, especially when the shoe is fitted ' too fine ' at the heels. Tliis pressure (caused by the body-weight) is rendered more injurious by the shoe preventing any yielding at the heel — a condition comparable to that produced in man by too narrow a boot. This contraction at the heels leads to bruising of sensitive structures, rupture of small blood-vessels, and extravasation of blood, which stains the new horn red, while the increased strain at the coronary margin favours splitting and formation of sand- cracks. Though usually easy to detect, the condition may be mistaken for shoulder lameness, chronic navicular disease, or strain of the pastern joint. Tlie corns which occur as a sequel are sometimes regarded as the principal disease. The causes are numerous, but may be divided into two groups, namely, predisposing and exciting. (a) The predisposing causes include faulty conformation of the limb and defective shape of the hoof, but they seldom come into play before the hoof is shod. The greatest tendency to contraction is seen in weak feet, wliich naturally possess long 344 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. toes and low heels, and in which the anterior and posterior margins, viewed from the sides, form an angle of less than 45° with the earth. The more oblique the hoof, the more rapidly does contraction proceed, whatever the previous condi- tion of the heels. Despite every care in shoeing, contraction may still occur in consequence of the altered direction of the walls at the heel and of the greatly increased load they are called on to bear. It is the excessive pressure on oblique and inw^ardly-directed heels, in the absence of counter-pressure on the sole and frog, which so rapidly produces the change in form. At the same time, instead of the coronary and bearing margins of the heels being equally exposed to the expanding strain when weight is thrown on the foot, dilatation occurs only at the coronary margin, which is, therefore, continually in tension, while the bearing margin is fixed or even thrust from all sides towards the centre of the sole. A well-developed frog and strong bars, especially when exposed to the counter-pressure of the ground, prevent contraction. If, however, the parts are weak or diseased and the horny frog no longer bears weight there is nothing to oppose its progress. It has even been suggested that a small or diseased frog and weakened bars form the sole cause of contraction, a view in a measure sup- ported by the following examples. In severe thrush in flat feet the portion of the frog marked &, in fig. 35, may be lost. Under such circum- stances the hoof contracts precisely to the extent left vacant by tlie portion lost. In upright hoofs, on the other hand, even when this part of the frog is lost, contraction does not occur. The cause of contraction is, therefore, not thrush, but the pres- sure of the body-weight, which forces the w^alls of the heel downwards, forwards, and inwards. On the same day two young carriage horses were shod for the first time. In one horse the front hoofs formed an anole of 40 and in the other of 55 with the ground. All four hoofs were sound. These animals were shod in precisely the same way for a year, but^ despite similar treatment, the fiat hoof was visibly contracted as compared with the other. In this case the greater weight thrown on the posterior half of the hoof was not the only cause. A pair of trotting horses, of similar age, size, weight, and breed, had each weak fore-heels. In one case, however, th& CAUSES OF CONTRACTED FOOT. 345 hoofs were flat, in the other upright. The horse with flat hoofs suffered from contraction, the other did not, the reason appear- ing to be simply that in upright hoofs the heels bear less weight than in flat hoofs. As a rule, when the formation of the limb as viewed from in front appears normal, both heels contract equally, but when the toes are turned in or out contraction is unequal. AVith turned- out toes the inner, with turned-in toes the outer, heel appears to suffer most. Once the heel contracts sufficiently to run downwards and iniuards, the body-weight aggravates the condi- tion. The heel becomes more and more oblique and the affected half of the frog diminishes in size. The os pedis wing of the same side also suffers and may undergo atrophy. The change progresses with a rapidity proportioned to the extent to which the toes are turned out or in, and is sometimes very marked in flat feet. When contraction is limited to one side of the foot the bulbs of the heel may be displaced. (h) Exciting Causes. — 1. The first of these is defective shoe- ing, that is, not only the use of badly constructed shoes but faulty preparation of the feet. Of the latter class of errors perhaps the most serious is weakening the bars and frog by excessive paring, and next, thinning the sole. It may be laid down as a principle that to remove more than loose horn is a fault. Fortunately, excessive use of the knife is much less common than formerly ; at one time it was usual to pare the parts until the sole yielded to the pressure of the finger and spots of blood appeared on the frog. In-curved heels, which tend to compress the frog, should be carefully lowered without weakening the union between heel, frog, and bar (see fig. 331, a, h). "When the heels are lowered overmuch the toe becomes disproportionately long and the axis of the foot distorted, so that worse e'ffects are produced than by corresponding lowering of the toe. The direction of the foot axis must always be kept in view when paring the foot. In flat hoofs contraction may also be favoured by insufficient paring or by allowing the shoes to remain on for too long a time. Shoes with bearing surfaces inclined inwards at the heels and shoes fitted too wide, that is, in which the heels (of the shoe) do not cover those of the hoof, compress the latter. 346 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. The same effect is produced wlien the seating is continued right up to the heel of the shoe, especially if the bearing surface of the heel (of the hoof) rest in the seated out portion. Shoes with calkins favour contraction more than Hat shoes. Finally, by shoeing young horses too early complete develop- ment of the hoof is checked and contraction favoured. 2. Dryness. — Dryness of the horn diminishes its elasticity and volume. 3. Insufficient Exercise. — Tf young liorses, after being shod for the first time, are long confined to the stable, the posterior lialf of the hoof invariably contracts, while want of exercise causes the front hoofs to become hard and dry and the hind-feet to be attacked with thrusli. Circulation and liorn secretion are also less vigorous. In yearlings all these ill results are seen in an aooravated form. Prognosis. — Attention should first be directed to the state of the lateral cartilage, because, when this is ossified, no improve- ment in form need be expected. Next, the conformation of the limbs demands consideration. When the axis of the foot and the form of the hoof seen from the side are upright or snormal, the prognosis is favourable. If, on the other hand, the foot axis is oblique and the lioof fiat, and if in addition the toes are turned out, the conditions all point to contraction, and in such cases the inner heel will be found wired in and the bulbs of the frog displaced. In old animals, whicli for years have suffered from contraction, the prognosis is unfavourable, because atrophy of the os pedis has often occurred, and complete recovery is impossible ; but in young animals even well-marked contraction, if uncomplicated, can frequently be cured without much difficulty. Preventive measures have occupied the attention of many investigators, but owing to the treatment of working horses and the various styles of shoeing, success has been distinctly limited. It is often useful, after correcting the form of the feet, to turn the horse out to grass without shoes, and later to apply a shoe which permits free movement of the posterior section of the foot and allows the frog to come to the ground. Treatment, therefore, comprises the application of a flat shoe, with a horizontal surface at the heels, non-interference with the frog, and abundant exercise on moist ground. The farm PROBABILITY OF PwECOVERY AFTER COXTRACTIOX. 347 horse seldom shows contracted hoof, for he is, almost always on soft ground, and his soles are, therefore, exposed to the counter- pressure of the earth. Horses working in towns require this moisture to be supplied artiticially, and it is sometimes necessary to use flat shoes and to fill the space between the limbs of the shoe with felt pads or to give a foot-bath occasionally. In severe cases bar shoes promote the growth of the frog and hinder contraction. The tiratmcnt aims at restoring the normal width of the hoof, and is best commenced by the use of poultices or warm baths which soften the horn. Thereafter several courses are open. (A) Kestoration of the counter-pressure of the ground. This may be regarded as the natural method of cure. Under it are comprised : — (1) Turning horses out to grass without shoes. (2) The use of tips. (3) Of shoes with thin heels. (4) Of heelless shoes with leather soles. (5) Of bar shoes with or without leather soles. (6) Of pads covering the entire sole. (B) The use of mechanical devices, which thrust or draw apart the heel, such as : — (7) De la Broue's slipper shoe. (8) Shoes with bar clips. (C) Operations on the hoof itself, either alone or in conjunc- tion with one or another of the methods already named. A. Methods of Ee-establishing the Counter-Pressure of THE Ground or Compensating for its Absence. 1. Eest at grass, to be effectual, should be oontinued from four to six months, at any rate not less than three, and is not advisable for animals with very weak low heels. As a preparation, excess of horn should be removed, the wall rounded off, incurved heels, pressing on the ground, removed, and the point of tlie frog (to the commencement of the central groove) lowered to the same height as the bearing surface of the wall ; the limbs, on the other liand, may be left somewliat higher. The horse can then be turned out to 348 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. grass or, if this be impracticable, regularly exercised in a large- shed. Light saddle or draught work on soft ground is useful. In horses with well-marked unilateral contraction, turning out to grass is inadvisable and it is better to trust to proper shoeing. 2. The use of tips produces a somewhat similar effect to- turning out to grass, and can be recommended when the animal cannot be rested or when, on account of the condition of the ground, the hoof tends to contract in spite of light work. Two kinds of tips may be distinguished : the ordinary and the modified Charlier ; both are well adapted for feet of the upright and ordinary shapes, but less for oblique feet. The methods given under 1 and 2 have the advantage of producing a more rapid growth of horn because of the natural distribution of weight in all parts of the ground surface of the hoof, which favours the normal movement of the parts and the circulation of blood. The final result is to increase the width and strength of the hoof at its posterior half. 3. Shoes with thinned heels can be used both for upright feet and those of normal angle, but are less desirable in flat feet. They act by allowing the frog to come to the ground and bear a certain proportion of weight. 4 Heelless shoes with or without leather soles are sufficient in all cases of moderate contraction if the frog is strong enough to touch the ground, and their effect is more marked the more faulty the previous treatment and shoeing. AVhere the sole and bars have been weakened and the seating out of the sho& has been continued to the heels, it is sufficient to round the toe and to apply a shoe with a perfectly horizontal bearing surface at the heels to produce in two or three shoeings a marked improvement. The application of a leather sole will hasten recovery. 5. Ear shoes, with or without leather soles. Where the frog is healthy and the bar can take a bearing on it, a leather sole is scarcely required. Should the bearing surface of the hoof be defective or broken away, or should corns or sand- cracks co-exist with contraction, the ordinary, or the three- quarter bar shoe, is perhaps to be preferred. It is fitted close at the toe and quarter and slightly ' sprung ' at the heels. Expansion of the hoof is greatly assisted by carefully filling TKEATMENT OF CONTRACTION. 349 the lateral and central furrows of the frog with some plastic composition. If, however, the frog is attacked with thrush, or if other diseases of the hoof accompany defects in the bearing surface of the wall, a simple leather sole and stopping are more useful. The bar shoe with leather sole can also be used in uni- lateral contraction with displacement of the bulbs. As the chief object is to restore the bulbs of the frog to their normal position and to thrust outwards the contracted wall, it must be borue in mind that the upward displacement of the bulbs results from excessive and irregularly distributed weight. Various authors and practitioners recommend lowering the affected heel wall until there is a clear space between it and the shoe, thinking thus to allow the affected bulb to sink, but experience shows that this often fails in its object. Lowering the affected heel is not sufficient ; it is of much greater im- portance to throw the weight of the body on the wall of the opposite quarter and heel. To effect this the hoof should be pared and shod so as to bring the higher side to the ground a little earlier than the other, though it is necessary to avoid distorting the axis of the foot, and to fit the shoe close to the outline of the sound heel, but somewhat broader and longer than that of the unhealthy one. If this style of tread cannot be produced by trimming the hoof alone, the branches of the shoe can be made of unequal thickness. A leather sole with plenty of stopping will greatly assist recovery. 6. Filling the hoof with cement is a slow method, and it is absolutely necessary that the cement should thoroughly cover the limbs of the frog. Straw or cork soles or Hartmann's rubber pads are to be preferred on account of their continued pressure, though precautions must be taken against thrush. The gutta-percha composition may advantageously be tried ; being perfectly plastic it moulds itself to all the depressions of the ground surface of the hoof, and exercises an exceedingly even and, therefore, efficacious pressure. In the treatment of unilateral contraction the bar shoe and leather sole are to be preferred to all other measures. Plenty of tow must be used in the furrow of the frog on the diseased side, so as to main- tain constant pressure. 360 DEFOKMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. B. Mechanical Methods. 7. De la Broue's slipper shoe tends to expand the entire wall of the hoof. It is claimed that the bearing margin lying on an oblique surface spreads outwards under the pressure of the horse's body-weight, and that the shoe is useful in all cases of contraction where the coronary margin is wider than the bear- ing margin of the hoof. It exposes tlie white line, however, to excessive strain, and is, therefore, no longer used in this form, especially as there are other and less dangerous methods of expanding the hoof. By confining the outward slope of the bearing surface to the heel (or heels, when both sides of the foot are affected), it, however, renders good service. Never- theless great care is needed in determining the exact amount of slope, and the distance to which it should extend, otherwise severe lameness results. It is usually sufficient if the outer margin of the hoof surface is ^ to -i- inch lower than the inner, and this oblique surface should only extend as far forwards as the wall of the heel forms with the ground an acute angle. The same principle may, of course, be applied to the heels of bar shoes. 8, SJiocs vAth bar-dijjs. — (a) De Fay's is a fiat shoe with a clip at the inner margin of either heel. The clips should lie in the lateral furrows of the frog, exactly at the points where the wall is refiected to form the bars. They should fit evenly on the bars, but should not extend to the bottom of the lateral furrow of the frog. The foot surface at the heel must be absolutely horizontal. The shoe should be cooled and nailed on, and the dilator (fig. 334) then adjusted with its cheeks between the heels, which are expanded by turning the screw h. This forcibly widens the hoof. The method requires the greatest care, and is certainly not often applicable. On the first occasion it is sufficient to dilate the parts y\j to -|- inch, and nothing further should be done until the space gained can be filled with horn, that is, in from ten to fourteen days. (h) Hartniann's expanding shoe (fig. 335) is narrow, and possesses one or more saw-cuts on its inner border. When it is desired to dilate the hoof equally, these cuts are made at METHODS OF DILATING THE FOOT. 351 the centre opposite the toe-chp, but when contraction has taken pLace at the heel, the cnts are placed towards the side of the shoe at which contraction is visible. (c) Einsiedel's automatic hoof- expanding shoe (fig. 336) is. Fig. 334.— Instrument for expanding De Fay'.s shoe, a, the iron cheeks which fit between the heels of the shoe ; b, square head on the right and left-handed screw, for taking the key. an ordinary flat shoe with bar-clips, the bearing surfaces of which are moderately inclined outwards. After accurately tittincf, but before nailing the shoe, it is advisable to dilate the 352 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. heels about -|- inch. The animal's own weight is the expanding power. It produces its effect slowly but surely. In uni- FlG. 335.— Shoe for expanding the hoof, a shows the point where the bar-clips should come. lateral contraction the bearing surface of the clip only inclines outwards on the affected side. Shoes with bar-clips should Fig. 33().— Einsiedel's shoe, seen from behind. not be used when the heels are very low and when the lateral clefts of the frog are correspondingly shallow. Other special shoes for promoting expansion of the foot are •described in the next two pages. Fig. 337. — Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse), with frog plate. Made from 1 x ^ inch iron. Fig. 338. — Tip for producing frog pressure. Made from | x ^ inch iron. To face p. 353.] SHOES FOR PKODUCING FKOG PRESSURE. ■ 353 FULLERED EORE SHOE (FOE HAKNESS HOESE) WITH FEOG PLATE (Fig. 337). Made from 1 X |- inch iron. To obtain frog pressure without interfering with the animal's paces, and to widen the foot and to promote the growth of a strong healthy frog, are the objects of this shoe. Care must be taken, when fitting the shoe, that the frog plate has a good bearing on the frog itself, otherwise it will prove ineffective. To ensure a beariug, it is sometimes neces- sary to rivet pieces of leather on the frog plate, so as to raise it to the needful height. TIP FOE PEODUCING FEOG PEESSUEE (Fig. 338). Made from f- X J inch iron. The tip is made in the same manner as the ordinary pattern, the frog plate being made, and welded on after- wards. The clip is then drawn, and the tip is ready to fit to the foot. The plate must take a good bearing on the frog ; sometimes it is necessary to rivet on pieces of leather in order to secure frog pressure. The above tip is very useful for horses having one foot smaller than the other. Its application will often expand the contracted foot to a marked degree, but it requires care in fitting. The quarters must be fitted full, to prevent the tip sinking into foot at this point, and splitting away the wall. The frog plate should be a trifle shorter than the animal's frog, otherwise the toe of the hind-foot is liable to catch it, and tear off the tip. 354 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOK PROFESSOE F. SMITH'S FORE SHOE FOR EXPANDING CONTRACTED FEET (Fig. 339). Made from |- X -I- inch iro7i. The diagram sufficiently explains the construction 'of the shoa By means of the screw, steady, but slight, pressure is exer- cised on the bars. Neither Mr Dollar nor Mr Wheatley has used this shoe, but it has been highly recommended by Pro- fessor Smith, who kindly lent the shoe from which the illus- tration was made. It will be seen to closely resemble Fourre's shoe for the same purpose. Fig. 339. — Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding contracted feet. Made from | x J inch iron. \_ To face }). 354. SURGICAL OPERATION FOR CONTRACTED FOOT. 355 C. Operative Interference in Contraction. (a) Thinning the wall of the toe was recommended by Dominik, but is of little real value, the improvement noted probably resulting from the animal's being turned out to grass without shoes. (&) Collin's method consists in making a groove about I" inch broad and as deep as the sensitive wall, beginning -| inch from the skin of the coronet and running parallel with it. From this he carries two wider grooves as far as the lower margin of the hoof, the posterior groove being about | inch from the heels, the anterior running obliquely backwards ; its highest point being about 1^ inches, its lowest about ^ inch from the posterior furrow. The wall of the quarter behind the anterior furrow is lowered with the rasp until it no longer touches the shoe. Where both quarters are diseased, the same procedure is adopted on either side. A bar shoe is then applied. When the frog is insufficiently developed to afford the shoe proper support, a leather, gutta-percha, or vulcanised pad is applied, and the grooves are filled with ointment, with which the entire hoof is dressed. If movement is painful, the feet can be placed in a foot-bath, and poultices applied, after which lame- ness soon disappears. Collin's method undoubtedly produces good results when the animal can be rested for several months ; otherwise, the next in order should be tried. (c) Thinning the Wall of the Contracted Heel — A portion of the coronary margin, about J inch in breadth, should be left intact. A bar shoe is then applied, which should not touch the heels by about -|- inch. The limbs of the frog should, however, take a good bearing on the bar of the shoe. If necessary, the frog may be filled up with artificial horn com- position or a leather sole, and plenty of stopping applied. To prevent drying and hardening, the exposed parts should be dressed with a tampon of tow or wood wool saturated with tar, and lightly bandaged. The results are good ; the horn of the heels grows in a better direction, and lameness soon dis- appears. (d) Simple Incision below the Coronet. — Three-quarters of an inch below the meeting of hair and hoof, parallel with it and 366 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. to an extent corresponding to the contracted wall, an incision is made with a searcher, saw, or an instrument resembling a drawing chisel, the horn being removed as deep as the laminal sheath. The groove is filled with wax. The further treat- ment may comprise any of the methods given under A. A bar shoe taking a good bearing on the frog succeeds best if the horse cannot be completely rested. The effect is shown by the upper margin of the incision overlapping the lower in consequence of expansion at the coronet. Cure results from the portion of the wall above the incision growing down in the normal direction. Many other methods have been suggested, such as those of Bracy Clark, Coleman, Fulch, Barbier, Beaufils, etc., but cannot be recommended. {B) Weak heels (figs. 340 and 341) are sometimes developed to an extraordinary degree. Being too weak to carry the body- FlG. 340.— Contracted hoof from unshod horse. This growth resulted from want of move- ment and neglect of the feet, a, excessively long heels ; b, clefts in the region of the white line. weight when the horse is shod, they grow inward over the posterior parts of the horny sole and bars ; indeed in some cases over the limbs of the frog, and cause bruising, which we recognise as corns. The hoof becomes narrower, and falls within the definition of ' contracted hoof.' : Weak heels are only too common in thin, shelly feet, and WEAK HEELS. 357 when occurring in flat hoofs render the animal useless for rapid work on stone-paved streets. The best application is a bar shoe and leather sole, the frog resting on the bar, but the heels being kept clear of the shoe. The nail holes should be confined to the anterior two-thirds of the shoe. Pads, etc., are of little service. {C) Local Contraction, or Contraction at the Coronary Margin. — Instead of the wall of the heel running in a straight line from the coronet to the bearing margin, it pursues a curved course (fig. .S42, a\ This contraction affects either one Fig. 341.— Left fure-fout with weak heels. The dotted lines indicate the portion to be removed. Fig. 3'42.— Foot with local contraction. a, the contracted spot. or both heels ; the hoof appears as if drawn in by the applica- tion of a cord, and its outline has been compared to an hour- glass. Occasionally, instead of this wide curve, it presents local deformities, but the latter are most common in flat hoofs. The horse goes in a shuffling style, or is positively lame, especially at a trot. Pressing on the hoof with pincers pro- duces pain, as do light blows over the contracted portion of the wall. Broad, flat feet are especially disposed to this form of contraction, though it is also found in hoofs of normal character and in those with turned-out or turned-in toes. In upright hoofs, however, it never appears to such an extent as to produce 358 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. lameness, though even hoofs with very strong walls do not always escape it. The comparative frequence after the first shoeing of this form of contraction in horses which work on hard dry ground leaves little doubt that desiccation of the hoof and want of counter-pressure are its principal causes, though these again depend upon the artificial conditions set up by shoeing. All who have carefully studied the question agree that the change in the normal direction of the heel wall is produced by inter- ference with the expansion of the hoof. Dominik, who first described the condition, refers it to interference with expan- sion at the coronet. The tendency to contraction is, therefore, greatest at the coronary margin. Fambach regards it as due partly to excessive obliquity of the heel wall, and to removal of support from the frog. In this connection it may be pointed out that almost all hoofs that show local contraction of the heel wall are otherwise sound. The contraction at the coronary margin probably results as follows : — By lifting the frog clear of the ground, the shoe more or less prevents expansion of the bearing margin of the heel. The coronary margin, being the most yielding part, spreads outwards under the continuous strain of the body-weight. The direction of the coronary papillae is changed, the horn they secrete takes a more perpendicular course, and the wall, previously quite straight, shows, after eight to ten days, an apparent slight contraction opposite the lower third of the coronary groove. By grov*^th from the coronet the contracted part is thrust downwards ; finally it reaches the centre of the heel wall, where it produces an appearance resembling an hour-glass. Arrived at the bearing margin it gradually disappears just as it had appeared above. The effects, however, continue, for on close observation it will be seen that the entire portion of wall involved has become more upright, so that instead of pointing outwards and back- wards it now points forwards and inwards. In other words, the heel walls previously diverged ; now they converge. The hoof has become narrower at the bearing margin of the heels. When the weight is greater on one side and the hoof very flat, well-marked furrows may appear on one or other heel wall, as can be proved by comparative measurements of the hoof immediately before the first shoeing and a few weeks or months CONTRACTION AT CORONARY MARGIN OF HOOF. 359 later. Eest in the stable will produce similar results. The causes are shoeing, deiicient frog support, desiccation, and insufficient exercise. The prognosis is favourable and lameness disappears when the contraction has grown down as far as the lower third of the wall. When it affects only the posterior part of the heel it can be removed in two or three shoeings, but if the feet are flat and the contraction extends further forward it may persist for a much longer time. Treatment consists in paring the hoof, so as to produce a level tread and straight foot axis ; the use of shoes of a thickness proportioned to the animal's size a,nd work, and such as will allow the frog to bear weight. The bearing surface of the shoe should be horizontal at the heels : the other portions may be horizontal or inclined slightly inwards, depending on whether the sole is concave, flat, or con- vex. If the frog is well developed and projects below the wall an ordinary thin-heeled shoe is most suitable, as it allows the frog to touch the ground. If, however, the frog is low or badly developed, a bar shoe is preferable. With this the neces- sary frog pressure can generally be produced, even when the frog is affected with thrush. In such case the frog is cleansed and disinfected, well smeared with tar or Venice turpentine, and the bar shoe, provided with a leather sole and plenty of stopping, nailed on. Needless to say any, portions of the wall which appear painful must be eased, that is, where it is impracticable to sufficiently seat out the shoe, a sHght amount must be removed from the bearing surface directly below, before affixing the shoe. In cases of even well-marked lameness thinning of the heel wall and four to eight days continued poulticing is often sufficient. The hoof should be kept moist and the animal exercised at a walk. This treatment is not directed towards preventing contraction at the bearing surface, but only aims at restoring the natural counter-pressure of the ground and thus promoting expansion of the hoof. Other means of relieving the heels and forcing the frog to bear a certain amount of weight, like the use of tips, filling the hoof with elastic cement, etc., are sometimes found advantageous. So far as its occurrence, position, and treatuicnt are concerned, contraction of the coronary margin may be 360 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. regarded as a modification of ordinary contraction, for the main differences between them are — the former affects flat, spreading feet and only the extreme posterior part of the heel region, whilst ordinary contraction is commonest in upright feet and affects both quarters and heels. Many other sub-divisions of contracted hoof are described by German writers but have little interest for English readers, the practical advantages of such classification being almost nil. 5. The Laterally Distorted Hoof is produced by one quarter and heel being upright, while the other takes a slanting direction. Such a hoof, therefore, when cut through its longer diameter consists of two unequal portions. It has previously been remarked that oblique limbs usually have oblique hoofs, which may, therefore, be termed normal oblique hoofs and which should not be regarded as pathological. In determining whether a hoof of this description really is pathological, attention should be paid to the direction of the walls when viewed from behind and the width of the back of the hoof. When one-half of the wall runs from above down- wards and inwards, i.e., towards the middle line of the hoof, and the corresponding half of the frog is smaller than its fellow, the hoof is abnormal. The condition, in fact, may be regarded as imilateral contraction. Similar distortion is produced by faulty paring of the hoof. Causes. — Whilst in normal oblique hoofs the primary cause is almost always bad conformation of the limb, and consequent unequal distribution of weight, in pathological oblique hoofs the same unequal distribution of weight is aided by excessive par- ing or wear of the upright half of the wall. All faults in shoeing which favour contraction promote this condition, especially when they affect the upright wall. One of the most fertile causes is neglect of the hoof during the first year& of life. The degree to which this malformation may be developed varies immensely. In some, the upright wall is drawn inwards, and the corresponding limb of the frog almost entirely atrophied * in others, the (previously) normal wall may be affected as well, being bent outwards and exhibiting a convex surface. TREATMENT OF LATERAL DISTORTION. 361 Prognosis. — When the distortion of the hoof is a result of the deformation of the limb, and the old shoe shows com- paratively level wear, the condition is not serious. If, however, the hoof is much deformed, the liorn of the wall weak, the wall itself curved inwards, and if, in addition, other disease exists, improvement is difficult and affected animals are of little use for work on hard roads, least of all at a rapid pace. Hoofs so deformed show a great tendency to disease, the up- right wall always suffering first ; corns and sandcracks are of frequent occurrence. The style of shoeing depends on the degree of disease and on the conformation of the limb, the two chief objects being to- remove or minimise existing defects and to promote the return of the foot to its normal shape. The hoof must be trimmed so as to make the tread level, the bars and sole of the upright side being left stronger than those of the opposite, for a strong sole and well developed bar Fig. 343.— Bar shoe for laterally distorted hoof, a, the upright (contracted) wall ; 6, the spot over which the hoof is ' spruug.' prevent contraction of the wall better than any special shoe. Flat shoes {i.e., without heels) are most suitable, because they favour a level tread and equalise wear. Too much weight may be thrown on the upright wall, a& happens when, during the extension of the fetlock joint, the fetlock, instead of remaining behind the middle line of the hoof, tends to assume a position above the contracted coronary mar- gin of the heel. In such case an attempt should be made to- relieve the contracted wall of weight. The hoof is, therefore, trimmed so that the upriglit wall comes in contact with the ground before its fellow when the animal is walked. Unless 362 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. striking is to be feared the limb of the shoe covering the up- right wall should be fitted as full as possible, the extreme edge being perpendicularly beneath the coronary margin of the con- tracted wall, whilst that on the sound side should exactly fit the wall. A bar shoe is even more useful, especially when the bulbs of the frog are displaced ; the shoe, however, should be fitted as described and the bar should take a bearing on the outer limb of the frog (fig. 343). Pathologically oblique hoofs may also be treated with De Fay's dilating shoe (see ' De Fay's shoe '), the notches on the inner margin of the shoe being made at the same side as the deformed wall, so that the effects may be confined to that side. If the hoof has been pared unevenly and the disproportion in the height of the two walls cannot be removed by trimming the horn, the parts may be built up by using some gutta-percha 'Composition. Once improvement occurs and the upright wall assumes the Tig. 344.— Right hind-foot of foal with three-quarter shoe of unequal thickness. Tlie foot ■ is thus tipped inwards, b, untouched bar ; c, bar cut back. same direction as the limb, while the posterior portions of the hoof are of nearly normal width, treatment should cease, as its continuance may produce other evils. The distortion of the hoof sometimes seen in unshod young horses cannot always be cured by paring and rasping the hoof, LATERAL DISTORTION AND CURVATURE OF HOOF. 363 •and a special shoe becomes necessary. The heel is thick on the same side as the contracted wall, and the shoe gradually becomes thinner from this point to its termination (fig. 344). In severe cases the shoe need only extend as far as the centre •of the quarter (three-quarter shoe). 6. The Curved Hoof. The form of this hoof is well seen in fig. 345. One side is bent outwards, the other inwards, so that when viewed from in front they respectively appear convex and concave. Exagger- .ated cases of this distortion are uncommon. Fig. 345.— Right fore-foot showing lateral curvature. The causes are unequal distribution of weight and unequal wear ; in unshod horses and foals neglect of the hoof is a fertile 'Cause. The curvature is often accompanied by contraction. In older (shod) horses the same condition may be produced by injudicious trimming of the hoof and by shoes badly made or fitted. If, for instance, one or other quarter is left too high for several shoeings, the corresponding side of the wall (fig. 346, a) becomes convex, whilst its fellow tends to become con- •cave (b). Such distortion is favoured, for instance, by the outer half of the shoe being fitted too narrow in comparison with the ■circumference of the hoof and the opposite portion too wide. The bowing of the hoof always sets in from above. Prognosis. — As a rule in curved hoofs the column formed 364 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. by the pastern, coronet, and pedal bones is twisted to one side^ i.e., there is lateral distortion of the foot axis, the greater angle being directed towards the convex side of the hoof. In conse- quence the weight of the body is unequally distributed over the articular surfaces of the coronet and pedal joints, there is a tendency to bruising of the bones, while the lateral ligaments- of these joints are exposed to strain. The chief indication in treatment is to restore the normal position of the hoof. The convex half of the wall (fig. 346, a) is usually too high and too narrow, the opposite half (&) too low and too wide. The indications for fitting are, therefore, plain. The bearing surface of the shoe corresponding to the high and narrow side should be as wide as possible. A straight-edge I'lG. 346. — Cross section of a right fore-foot, showing hiteral curvature. The horse turns his- toes outwards. «, convex outer wall ; 6,°concave inner wall. The line c-d shows how much too high is the outer wall. The lines c-e and g-h show the points to which the outer and inner limlis of the shoe must respectivelj- be produced ; / indicates the amount of horn to be removed. laid on the convex half of the wall only touches it in the centre, and the point at which it meets the (imaginary) pro- longation of the bearing surface shows how far the bearing surface of the shoe should extend outwards. The opposite half of the wall exhibits a concavity at the centre. With the- straight-edge it is easy to determine how much of the lower margin must be removed before fitting the shoe. The cure of this deformity requires considerable time. CHAPTER III. SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN TRE HORN. 1. Sandcracks. A SAKDCRACK is a lissure in the wall running parallel with the direction of the horn fibres. Its position, length, and depth Fig. 347. — Hoof showing sandcracks at coronary and at bearing margin, and a sandcrack extending throughout the wall. The latter exhibits a nail inserted for the purpose of ' riveting ' the crack (semi-diagrammatic). are all of importance in determining its probable results and the proper treatment to adopt. According to position we distinguish sandcracks of the toe, quarter, heel, and bar. Some afiPect the coronary margin, some the bearing margin, while some extend from one margin to the other of the wall ; some are superficial, others penetrate the thickness of the horn wall. There is little difficulty in recog- nising sandcrack, except when a slight fissure has just com- menced at the coronet and the hoot has been dressed with an ointment or when the crack has been filled up. To avoid overlooking such cases the hoof should be thoroughly cleansed before examination. Deep cracks which extend from top to bottom of the wall are easily seen, because bleeding often occurs when the animal is worked, and lameness is a frequent though not a constant feature. "VYhen of old standing, and involving the entire thickness of the wall, sandcracks show prominent edges, which sometimes overlap and which are very noticeable. 366 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. The depth of the crack may be measured with a nail beateo flat at the point. Some sandcracks are ' open,' others are ' closed ' or only slightly open. The causes comprise : injuries destroying a portion of the coronary band and thus leading to changes in the character of the wall ; excessive tension at the coronary margin in upright feet (producing sandcrack of the toe) and in flat and con- tracted hoofs (sandcrack of the quarter). Fissuring is favoured by weakness of the wall, drying of the horn, bad fitting of the shoe, ' springing ' the heels when shoeing with ordinary shoes, in the case of carriage horses by trotting work on hard, rough, or frozen streets, and in riding horses by trotting, galloping, or jumping with a heavy rider. Sandcracks sometimes start from the bearing margin, as when horses are turned out without shoes and without the hoofs having been rounded off; when the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, and when the counter-sinks allow the nails to penetrate too far or when the nails themselves are too large. Prognosis. — Sandcracks vary in gravity according to their cause and position. The most troublesome, perhaps, are those resulting from excessive strain on the coronary margin produced by unequal distribution of weight, because recovery then depends upon the downward growth of an unbroken mass of horn from the coronary band, and this again depends upon the length of the crack. The animal may be useless for months, for a time, in fact, sufficient for the hoof to be entirely renewed. During this period fresh cracks may develop if attempts are made to use the horse for trotting, galloping, or jumping, and again postpone recovery or seriously imperil it. Cracks result- ing from wounds of the coronary band are also grave, especially when a portion of the horn-secreting structure is destroyed. On the other hand, those due to drying of the horn or to bad shoeing are unimportant, provided the hoofs are well-shaped and sound. The same is true of cracks at the bearing surface. Treatment. — Eecovery is assisted by fixing the opposing margins of the crack firmly in position, thus preventing the new horn from being torn through. Immobilisation of the edges is not, however, the principal point, and it is much more important to attend to the distribution of weight in the hoof and to improvement of its form. METHODS OF FIXING TOGETHER EDGES OF SANDCRACK. 367 The margins of the crack may be fixed together by one of the followincj methods : — 1. By means of clips, vvliich may be either bought ready made or fashioned out of thin rod iron by the farrier himself. A depression to receive the clip is made in the horn by apply- ing a specially shaped red-hot iron. The clip is then placed in position and the ends pressed inwards by means of special pincers. The operation should be performed while the animal stands on the foot, and the clip, which sliould be sunk almost flush with the wall, applied immediately after removing the iron, because then the horn is soft and allows the points to^ penetrate, while it ensures the clip holding firmly. According to the length of the crack one to three clips may be applied. This method is only applicable to sandcracks around the toe and in strong hoofs. 2. By metal plates (fig. 351), fastened with small wood screws corresponding in length to the thickness of the outer sheath of the wall. For quarter and heel cracks shorter but broader plates are used, in which the screws are applied one below the other. The plate is slightly countersunk before being screwed on, by heating to a dull red and pressing it on the proper spot. Plates can be used for any kind of crack, except those at the extreme ends of the heel. They appear to have given satisfaction. 3. By rivets. One or two specially prepared horse nails are- driven through the borders of the crack and afterwards clenched in the usual way. The operation is rendered easier by boring or burning the holes for the rivets beforehand. This is the oldest process and if carefully performed is very successful, but can be employed only at the toe and quarters. 4. By means of the special teethed sandcrack band invented by Koster. The hoof is cleansed, the edges of the crack, if necessary, smoothed, and grooves for inserting the jaws of the 368 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. band burnt with a special iron. The band is then inserted from above in the grooves and driven downwards to close the crack. This band holds exceedingly well, and in consequence of the toothed edge it never slips back ; nevertheless, it some- times has a tendency to produce fresh splits in the horn at the spot where the grooves have been burnt. 5. By means of sandcrack straps (fig. 350). These are intended to hold the edges of the crack firmly together. The broad, enlarged, and concave portion of the strap lies around the coronet. A mass of tow moistened with some fatty material is placed below it and the whole drawn together. The strap is removed every three or four days, the crack Fig. 350.— Sandcrack strap. •cleansed and a fresh tampon of tow applied. The advantages stated by Schleg are: (1) it allows of permanent application of fatty materials, which render the horn more elastic, and assist the normal growth from the coronet, while it prevents the separation of the edges ; (2) it can be used along with any other method of fixation ; and (3) it can be used as a preventive on brittle hoofs. It is, however, difficult to draw it sufficiently tisfht. 6. By means of broad linen tape. After applying a mass of tow moistened with tar, fat, or oil to the coronet, the tape is moistened and wound firmly round the upper part of the hoof. The ends are tied or sewn together, and the whole is then smeared with tar. This dressing, which acts somewhat like the strap, remains in position until the next shoeing. 7. To check the continued opening and closing of the crack, a shoe with ' bar-clips,' fitted closely to the bar of the foot on either side, has been successfully employed. By diminishing expansion at the heels, this shoe lessens movement in all other parts and prevents the sensitive tissues being nipped between •the margins of the crack. USE OF STRAPS, TAPE, ETC., FOR SANDCRACK. 369 The methods 1 to 4 are applicable where the crack follows the direction of the horny fibres, but are of no value where the margins are irregular, zigzag, wavy, or overlapping. In the latter case the parts should be thoroughly thinned with a rasp or fine searcher, but bleeding should be avoided. The animal is then shod and the strap (5) or linen tape applied. All these methods act by bringing the edges of the crack together, and minimising movement at the coronet. Grosswendt in 1888 suggested another method for use in spe- cial cases. As the crack was open and filled with granulations from the sensitive parts, riveting would have been useless (or worse). Grosswendt, therefore, applied a wooden wedge, thrust between the edges of the crack, thus holding it open. With suitable local treatment he effected a cure. (a) Sanclcrack originating at the Coronary Margin is the form most commonly seen. In seeking the best method •of shoeing it should be borne in mind that everything which renders the hoof broad and strong, improves its form, and relieves the diseased portion of the wall of pressure, favours recovery. Accordingly, tips, dilating shoes, bar shoes, and stop- pings which cause counter-pressure on the sole assist recovery. Fig. 351.— Hodf shod for sandcrack of the toe. Fig. 352.— Hoof shod with l)ar shoe for quarter crack. The part of the waU which has been ' eased' is shown by dotted lines. 1. Toe sandcrack is best treated bv trimmincr the hoof so as to give a level tread and by applying a shoe with two toe- clips. The nail holes should be punched somewhat further back than usual. The edges of the crack may be fixed together by metal plates (fig. 351) or by the insertion of a few rivets or 2 A 370 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. special clips. The choice of these must be determined by the position and character of the crack. Bar shoes are only resorted to when the bearing surface of the wall is defective. 2. Quarter and heel cracks are best treated by the use of bar shoes. Before nailing on, the portion of the wall below and behind the crack should be lowered so as to relieve it of weight. The exact area from which to remove horn can be judged as follows. The crack is prolonged in imagination in the same direction as the horn hbres until it reaches the bearing surface. From the upper end of the crack an im- aginary vertical line is dropped to the bearing surface of the hoof. The portion comprised between these two lines is then lowered sufficiently to prevent any pressure on that part until the next time of shoeing (fig. 852). Another, and per- haps preferable, method is to seat out the shoe at the points indicated, leaving the wall untouched. The same rule applies to cracks at the heel, even when the imaginary vertical line falls behind the bearing surface. Stoppings are of value because they convey a portion of the body-weight to the sole and frog, lead to expansion of the hoof, and diminish concussion during movement, all of which tend to prevent the new horn from cracking. When the crack is widely open and the frog small, or when the hoof is contracted, a shoe with bar-clips may be employed. If the edges of the crack are irregular or overlapping, all projecting parts should be removed. To assist the growth of sound wall and diminish the tendency to fresh fissures, the upper portions of the wall near the crack should be thinned, the hoof kept moist, and a sandcrack boot or tape applied. French clips are not advisable in cracks of the quarter, and are distinctly injurious in cracks of the heel. To prevent the fissure extending further, a furrow may be burnt or cut at its extreme end, and at right angles to its general direction. The furrow is made at the lower end of cracks starting from the coronet, and at the upper end of those starting from the bearing margin of the wall. Blisters of cantharides or biniodide of mercury are some- times applied to the coronet to stimulate the growth of horn. The wall secreted is found to be thicker than before. Animals suffering from sandcrack often recover without treatment if SANDCKACK OF CORONAEY MARGIN AND BARS. 371 turned out barefooted, though an exception must be made as regards those with sandcrack starting from the bearing surface. If during the first few days there is inflammation and lame- ness cold poultices may be applied. When lameness is absent horses may be used for slow work. Carriage and riding horses should not be used at a fast pace until at least half an inch of sound horn has grown. O' (b) Sandcrack of the Bars nearly always results from deformity of the heels, produced by contraction or by allowing the heels to become too high. It almost invariably affects fore-feet and is generally accompanied by corns. When it exposes the sensitive structures, superficial inflammation and lameness supervene. The limb is knuckled over at the fetlock during rest, and unless treatment is at once commenced, the inflammation extends to deeper-seated struc- tures as far even as the plantar cushion, the bulb of the heel on the afi'ected side shows tumefaction and severe lameness results, which demands the attention of the veterinary surgeon. The bars form part of the most yielding portion of the hoof. The crack alternately opens and shuts during movement and tends to increase in length, while the sensitive parts become irritated and inflamed. By paring the parts after removal of the shoe, the split is seen as a black line, which exudes a little of the grey horn pus, or, in severe cases, even blood. Treatment should be directed towards producing a fresh growth of sound horn. The borders of the crack are to be entirely removed, the surrounding horn thoroughly thinned, and the affected heel wall relieved of all shoe pressure. The heel w^all is lowered and a bar shoe with leather sole and stopping applied. Eemoval of the margins of the crack may leave a deep groove, especially in upright hoofs. If the bottom of this groove appears moist, a little tampon of tow moistened with tincture of myrrh or aloes is inserted, and the space filled with wax. The crack gradually closes, if due precautions be taken. 372 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. (c) Cracks at the Bearing Margin of the Wall are commonest in unshod horses, and result from excessive outward strain on this part. They can generally be prevented by rounding off the lower edge of the wall with a rasp before turning the horse out. In shoeing, such cracks may result from the use of large nails, especially when the nail holes are punched too near the outer edge of the shoe. Every crack at the coronet may in time extend to the bearing surface. To prevent such cracks in unshod horses it is usually sufficient to shoe them, but in horses already shod attention must be given to the position of the nail holes and the use of thinner nails. The bearing surface in the neigh- bourhood of the crack should be lowered in the way afterwards described. To prevent the crack extending, a deep transverse furrow is cut or burnt at its upper end. 2. Transverse Cracks of the Wall may occur at any point ; they are generally seen at the inner quarter and toe, as a result of treads from sharp or faulty calkins. Pus from suppurating corns, etc., may break through at the coronet, and produce the same result by interrupting, for a time, the connection between the horn and coronary band. Such cracks are occasionally seen at the heel, the horn fibres having broken across, owing to dryness and contraction of the horn. They are not of much importance, and need only attract attention when they come within the region embraced by the nails. In order to avoid disfiguring the hoof, the horn below the cleft should be preserved as long as possible, the wall at this point being lowered and kept clear of the shoe. If, however, the piece becomes loose, it is better to remove it and fill up the resulting cavity with gutta-percha or some composition. 3. Loose Wall, Seedy Toe, etc. {a) When at any point in the white line the connection between the wall and sole is destroyed, the resulting condition is described as ' loose wall.' SANDCRACK, LOOSE WALL, AND SEEDY TOE. 373 It is commoner in fore than in hind feet, and at the inner than at the outer side. Taken as a whole it is not of in- frequent occurrence, though it only attracts notice when it extends to the soft parts and makes the horse lame. On account of this fact an artificial division between superficial and deep-seated loose wall has been made. The latter causes lameness by reason of the separation extending towards the lower margin of the sensitive wall and there producing super- ficial intlammation or even pus formation. Loose wall can only be detected with certainty by removing the shoe and searching the foot, although its presence may sometimes be guessed by the bulging of the lower margin of the wall (fig. 353, a). The prognosis depends on whether the separation is super- ficial or deep, and whether it involves a large portion of the wall. Separations occasioning lameness are, like sandcracks, apt to be very troublesome. .. (X. Fig. 353. — Vertical section of a hoof (semi-diagrammatic), a, loose waU ; b, seedy wall (the process has extended furthei'). The causes of loose wall are various. When the wall forms an oblique angle with the ground, it is more liable to separate than when upright. Wide, fiat hoofs, therefore, are its commonest seat, but laterally distorted and contracted hoofs also exhibit the condition. The soft horn composing the white line is doubtless largely responsible for the occurrence of separations, offering, as it does, little resistance to the ammoniacal fluids, etc., to which it is so often exposed, and suffering more severely than contiguous parts from the heat of the shoe when applied for fitting. Contact with manure alters its nature, the heat of the shoe dries it, and causes cracks and irregular strains in different portions, while the downward progress of the wall, which rather favours tension and cracking of the sole even when sound, contributes to the production of 374 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. loose wall. Front feet suffer more frequently, because they are kept drier and carry greater weight. Eapid work on hard ground and faulty fitting of the shoe are also frequent causes. Narrowness of the bearing surfaces and an inclination outwards at the heels particularly favour separation. Loose wall can only be cured by the downw^ard growth of healthy horn. In this case the old advice to remove the cause is especially applicable. Careful preparation of the hoof is of great importance. The connection between the wall and sole should never be weakened, though all ' seedy ' and broken-down horn must be removed, and the bearing surfaces should be made as broad as possible by allowing the shoe to slightly overlap the margin of the sole. This relieves the loose part of the wall of weight without doing any harm. Convex walls should be judiciously rasped so as to bring them towards their normal direction. If the hoof is weak, the bearing surface of the shoe may be very slightly inclined inwards. If, however, in addition to loose wall other disease of the hoof exists, a bar shoe with leather sole should be applied ; sometimes quarter-clips are useful. When lameness is present, the separated section of the wall should be relieved of weight, but this is not always possible when the separation is of large extent. To prevent drying and the entrance of dirt the space may be filled with tar, or, better still, with Venice turpentine and tow, failing which, wax can be used. Horn substitutes like gutta-percha become hard, and are apt to act as a wedge, increasing the size of the space ; they should, therefore, be avoided. If pain is excessive and suppuration feared, the suspected area can be opened at its lowest point with a small centre-bit, and any blood-stained or purulent fluid removed, when the pain will diminish. After-treatment is similar to that given on page 320. In unshod horses loose wall is treated by removing all the separated horn and, if necessary, by applying a shoe. (h) Seedy toe is a condition in which the laminal and tubular sheaths of the horn wall are divided in the direction of their respective surfaces. Compared with that previously described, this condition is rare. TREATMENT OF LOOSE WALL AND SEEDY TOE. 375 The presence of seedy toe may be suspected when a portion of the wall appears either prominent or hollow, and gives forth a hollow sound on being struck. To confirm the diagnosis the shoe must be removed. The white line is then seen to be replaced by a narrow slit, which, however, in no way indicates the extent of the disease. The division between the two por- tions of the wall extends further upwards than in loose wall, in many cases as far as the coronet. The space is usually filled with degenerated horn. The width of the diseased part may at times be very considerable. Moller states that it varies from -|- inch to 4 inches. Seedy toe is generally painless, but lameness is caused when weight is thrown on the diseased portion of wall and when the •animal is worked at a fast pace. The cause is stated by Moller to be an interruption in the formation of horn. In fact, there is considerable diversity of opinion on this point, but tentatively seedy toe may be con- sidered as possibly due to the action of some fungus-like organism which obtains entrance to the inner sheath of the wall and induces change in the horn. A cure requires con- siderable time. In sJioeing, the diseased portion of wall should always be relieved of weight. The cavity should be cleared out and, after dressing with pure carbolic acid, filled with tow and tar, turpentine, or wax. "When the disease is more extensive a bar shoe should be applied and the nails omitted at the diseased spot. The radical method of dealing with seedy toe is to remove all separated and disintegrated horn, thoroughly disinfect the parts with pure carbolic acid, apply a bar shoe and blister the coronet. This, of course, necessitates a long rest. 4. TlIKUSH is characterised by the presence in the cleft of the frog of an ill-smelling, blackish fluid, and by the frog itself being ragged or atrophied. The disease usually begins in the central furrow of the frog and extends thence to the other portions, which it destroys partly or even entirely. The products of decomposi- tion irritate the sensitive parts and cause tenderness if not 376 . SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HOEN. actual lameness. The central portion of the frog first dis- appears ; and as a result of the unopposed pressure of the wall the limbs next approach and fill up the previously existing cleft, a condition which renders it difficult to keep the space clean. At the same time, the discharge gradually attacks the horny bulbs and may lead to a similar process in the periople. This is followed by the formation of rings in the superficial horny sheath of the wall. The rings can be distinguished from those of the deeper sheath both by their appearance and course. They usually consist of slight elevations, which approach in front and towards the upper part of the foot, where they may end or again may take an irregular course backwards, extending as far as the opposite half of the wall. They always cross the rings of the deeper sheath ; indeed, when thrush has existed for a long time, they some- times cross one another. This peculiar ring formation, which is almost pathognomonic of thrush, .shows that the disease has existed for at least several months. Thrush results chiefly from want of cleanliness, insufficient exercise, and faulty shoeing. If for a long time the frog is prevented touching the ground by excessive trimming, or by the use of unsuitable shoes, it either atrophies or thrush develops. Prolonged rest, however, without any fault in shoeing, may produce the disease. It has been suggested that thrush is due to inflammation of the sudoriparous glands of the frog. Prognosis. — The views held as to the significance of thrush are unusually varied. Some regard it as a very trifling disease, which may continue for years without any particular ill consequence, or even as a benign condition not to be inter- fered with. If thrush in itself is not of much importance, it often leads, however, to much more serious conditions. It weakens the framework of the hoof, and in flat feet favours the advent of contraction. It may interfere with the animal's use, and even when not actually producing lameness, it causes the stride ta be shortened and diminishes freedom of movement. When affecting one side of the frog, it is apt to lead to unilateral contraction and obliquity of the hoo.f. In addition, it has been held responsible for the production of corns, sandcracks, and even canker. THRUSH. 377 The treatment of thrush is neither complicated nor difficult, provided neglect has not resulted in serious changes in the lioof. When the attack is recent and there is no marked change in form, cure will be obtained by allowing the diseased frog to come in contact with the ground and exercising the animal freely. In more serious cases removal of all loose fragments of horn, thorough washing of the diseased frog several times daily, and the application of some antiseptic or mild astringent, such as raw pyroligneous acid or a 5 per cent, solution of sulphate of copper, will usually prove sufficient. To prevent irritation by manure, etc., the frog should be cleansed and smeared with Venice turpentine, after which a moderately warm iron may be slowly passed over the parts- without actually burning them ; if, however, the disease is of old standing, the frog almost denuded of horn, and the hoof so- contracted that the walls of the heel press on the plantar cushion and frog, De Fay's shoe (page 350) may be employed with great advantage. Contraction at the heels favours the disease, and conversely its removal assists recovery. As soon as possible the frog should be allowed to come in contact with the ground. Needless to say, the dilating shoe is useless- except when the hoof is contracted. By using the knife in conjunction with astringent powders, thrush can be cured, i.e., the offensive discharge can be stopped ; but, as compared with the sound, well-developed organ which results from proper shoeing, the small, dry, shrivelled frog thus produced is most unsatisfactory. Thrush can only be regarded as cured when the discharge has ceased and the frog is once more dry and well developed. This is not to be obtained by the application of chemicals ; regular exercise and the intermittent pressure it causes can alone produce sound horn. Canker can only be efficiently treated by the veterinary surgeon, and the work of the farrier in such cases is confined to fashionim^ the neces- sary shoe. CHAPTER IV. INFLAMMATION OF THE STEUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 1. Pricks m Shoeing liESULT from misdirection of the nail in driving, in consequence either of the driver's carelessness, or (and much more fre- quently) of badly-punched nail-holes. They may be divided into two kinds, direct and indirect. The effects of the first are immediately perceptible, those of the second may be delayed. In cases of direct injury the nail penetrates the sensitive sole or wall, and the lesion may vary from simple perforation to fracture of the edge of the os pedis. There is always bleed- ing, though the blood may not be seen. In the second case the nail does not penetrate vascular tissues, but passes close to them, thrusting the soft horn inwards, pressing on sensitive structures, and in the course of a few days producing inllammation and lameness. There is no bleeding. This condition is often termed ' binding.' Symptoms. — The first symptom of direct injury is pain, shown by the limlj being pulled away, and intimating to the farrier that the nail has taken a wrong course. When removed, more or less blood follows the nail or discolours its point, but bleeding may occur inwardly without being visible. It is otherwise when the foot at some part is bound or indirectly injured. Pain is not then immediately evinced, or at least not until the animal places weight on the foot. If attempts are made to raise the opposite foot the horse leans in that direction and appears uneasy. The effects of indirect pricks usually become apparent in from two to three days, but may be post- poned for eight to fourteen days, when inflammation and lame- DETECTION OF PRICKS FROM SHOEIXG. 379 iiess draw attention to the foot. The hoof is then hot, painful to percussion and to pressure with the pincers ; there is slight swelling, increased pulsation of the digital arteries, and partial or complete inability to bear weight on the foot. Pricks in shoeing may be suspected when the animal is tender on the foot, when it has been newly shod, when the hoof appears too small for the size of the body, when the wall is excessively rasped or portions are broken away, and when the nails are very high or very unequally placed. Premising that even with every precaution pricks in shoeing are sometimes unavoidable, the more common causes may be arranged as follows : — (1) badly placed or misdirected nail holes ; (2) excessive paring and lowering of the hoof : (3) thin- ning the wall by rasping the outside ; (4) faults in fitting the shoe ; using very narrow shoes ; sinking the toe-clip too far into the hoof (the nail holes, instead of corresponding with the w^hite line, then fall within the region of the sole) ; (5) faulty driving ; the use of badly pointed or excessively large nails ; (6) placing the nail too deep, or reversal of its point. As accidental causes may be mentioned, (7) old stubs left in the hoofs ; (8) very thin or broken walls ; (9) abnormal softness of the horn, which renders it difficult to ascertain the course of the nail by the resistance and sound : (10) restlessness of the animal while the nails are being driven ; and (11) (nowadays a very uncommon event) splitting of the nail in the hoof. To detect pain in the foot the pincers are applied with moderate and regular pressure all round the sole and the clenches, and the lower part of the wall is gently tapped with the hammer. If the horse flinches at a certain spot, the shoe must be removed, each nail being drawn separately. Xote should be taken of the direction and thickness of the nails and of any adherent blood, blood- serum, or pus. The point where each nail enters the hoof should be examined. If, instead of passing through the white line, one of the nail holes appears within it, i.e., nearer the centre of the foot, it is in the highest degree probable that that particular nail hole is at fault. Each hole is then examined by passing a clean nail into it and pressing the point towards the soft tissues at different depths. Under such conditions symptoms of pain are a sure indication of the animal having been pricked. It need scarcely be said 380 INFLAMMATION OF STEUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. that the position and direction of the nail holes in the shoe- must be carefully examined. Treatment. — If the horse flinch while a particular nail is being driven, the nail should at once be removed, the hole- disinfected with a few drops of carbolic oil (5 per cent.) and closed with wax. There is seldom any bad result. But when bleeding follows, the shoe should once more be carefully tried,, and only affixed when it is seen to fit perfectly and the nail holes to exactly correspond with the white line ; the nails should be left out in the neighbourhood of the injury and the- latter disinfected and closed with wax or tar. After severe stabs or pricks a more or less well-marked infiammation of the coriiim is to be expected, though it may be prevented by cutting out and disinfecting the injured part, resting the- animal, and using cold poultices. When, however, the wound is clean and fresh no good object is served by cutting it out. ' Binding ' (or nail pressure) often remains undetected until' pain becomes severe. In such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is usually covered with, or followed by, pus, or a. dark coloured, sometimes stinking fluid. To allow the freest possible exit for this discharge it is advisable to remove all horn which has become ' underrun,' i.e., which is separated from the sensitive tissues. The particular nail hole may be cut out sufficiently to accommodate the little finger, the surrounding parts of the sole well thinned, and discharge assisted by warm baths or poultices. Excessive paring is to be avoided. If pain continues after removing the nail and allowing the pus^ to escape, warm baths of 3 to 5 per cent, carbolic solution are very useful. The moisture and warmth soften the horn and diminish pain. If after two or three warm baths the pain is diminished or not very severe, a few drops of carbolic oil or tincture of myrrh may be applied to the injured part and the opening closed with a little carbolic jute or wood wool. In most cases com- plete recovery will soon occur. If shod so as to prevent pressure on the injured spot, horses which have been pricked can often be returned to work in a few days. The shoe must take its bearing only on the wall, and pressure on the white line and margin of the sole must be avoided. No nails should, be driven in the neighbourhood of the injury. Although, when PRICKS IN SHOEING AND PICKED-UP NAILS. 381 ■early detected and appropriately treated, pricks in shoeing are not dangerous, yet in some cases they lead to extensive suppuration and loss of the hoof, or become infected, determine the onset of tetanus, and thus prove often fatal. 2. PicKED-up Nails. It not infrequently happens that nails and sharp bodies accidentally penetrate the hoof, either through the horny sole or ■frog, and, driven onwards by the weight of the animal's body, Fig. 354.— Hind-foot shod with surgical shoe for retaining dressings. Teach the sensitive sole, sensitive frog, plantar cushion, per- forans tendon, navicular sheath, pedal bone or even the coffin joint. The hind feet are perhaps more frequently affected than the fore. The commonest points of perforation are the lateral furrows of the frog, and, when weakened by excessive trim- ming, the sole and frog. The symptoms are usually sudden pain and lameness. The shoe should be removed and a thin slice taken off the sole and frog when the point of entrance of the foreign body (or the body itself), whether a nail, piece of glass, or other pointed 382 INFLAMMATION OF STKUCTUEES EXCLOSED BY THE HOOF. object, will be discovered, and should be cautiously removed^ particular care being taken not to leave any fragment behind. As the prognosis largely depends on how deep the foreigiu body has penetrated, the latter should be preserved, so that the veterinary surgeon may examine it. In sliglit injuries of the sensitive sole or frog, where pain i& only moderate, the wound should not be enlarged, and it is only necessary to carefully thin the adjacent horny parts. In deeper penetrating injuries and when pain is severe, a veterinary surgeon should be called in. Poultices or dressings are then necessary, and the special shoe (fig. 354) may be found useful. The shoe is well seated Fig. 355.— Shoe for surgical dressing; of the foot, a, screw holes ; and b, depression on upper surface for fastening the cover shown in next fig. Fig. 35C. — Cover for shoe sliown ii> previous fig. The letters indicate simi- lar points. out and the dressing itself held in position by flexible pieces of wood thrust between the shoe and the horny sole. By using two crossed ' splints ' of thin wood or hoop iron, a dressing may be retained in an ordinary shoe, the special form then being unnecessary. In very special cases, when it is desired to exercise pressure on the injured spot and when the entire ground surface of the hoof must be protected, the shoes shown in figs. 355 to 362 may be used ; the sole is protected by an iron plate affixed by means of a point at the toe and a screw at either heel. U, C ^J o • f-H ^ > •F^ ? — IM i— t V ctf .a -IM tD I— 1 ^ _^ CO o "•^ — " ;4 ® c>~ o 4) X — ^ o C8 o O tj tc O) zz .— r/J C/2 •5 1-1 iC CO « '—^ o i— 1 ^ «d 0^ -i-l ^ za •T3 rH CO P^ [To/ao'p. 384. / Fig. 361.— Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical), with arrangement for dressing foot. ]\[ade from H x ^ inch iron. To face p. 385.] To face p. 385.] Fig. 362. SURGICAL SHOES. 385 STAMPED CART HIND SHOE (SURGICAL), WITH ARRANGEMENT FOR DRESSING FOOT (Figs. 361, 362). Made from ^\x-^ i'^^ch iron. This shoe has a plate attached at the heels by a hinge, and at the toe by a screw. As shown in the following illustration the plate folds back, giving free access to the sole for the pur- pose of inserting dressings. The shoe is complicated and can only be made by a good workman, but in cases where a great deal of pressure on the sole is required it is of real value. Otherwise it can advantageously be replaced by the shoe with sliding plate. 2b 386 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 3. TkEADS ON THE CORONET are often produced, in horses with itchy legs, by the animal rubbing the coronet with the heel of the opposite shoe. At intervals the horse stamps violently, and it is then that the injury is done. The front and inner side of the coronet of hind-feet are most frequently injured. A ' tread ' is a bruise or contused wound, associated with inflammation of the coronary band, which often results in destruction of a portion of the horn-secreting structures and permanent injury to the hoof. Such accidents are commonest in winter when animals are shod with sharp heels. The inflammation results either in resolution or in necrosis with suppuration. The periople when separated does not again become adherent, • and in consequence of this and of the interrupted formation of horn a cavity results in the horn wall (see page 372). When lameness follows treads, the portion of the wall below the injury must be relieved of weight. In fresh cases the injured parts should be carefully cleansed with warm water, all dirt, hairs, and loose portions of tissue removed, and some antiseptic (5 per cent, carbolic lotion) or mild astringent, like 5 per cent, alum or acetate of lead solution, applied. Severe treads always require the attention of a veterinary surgeon. 4. Inflammation of the Perioplic King. The periopUc ring becomes inflamed comparatively seldom. The inflammation may affect the entire ring or, as when it results from dirt and irritants, only the portions above the toe wall. The S7/mptoms are increased warmth, swelling, tenderness on pressure, in white feet well-marked redness of the skin, and (later) a change in the condition of the perioplic ring and superficial sheath of the hoof. This superficial sheath exhibits elevations and depressions, running parallel with the coronet, and thus forming more or less complete rings, or the perioplic ring becomes irregularly thickened. The perioplic horn after- wards cracks longitudinally and transversely, giving the affected part of the hoof an appearance resembling the bark of an elm INJUKIES TO INFLAMMATION OF CORONET. 387 tree (fig. 363). Above the perioplic ring the epidermis usually shows an abundant growth of bran-like scales and crusts (as in dry eczema). In many cases the perioplic ring appears denuded of horn and so swollen as to project considerably above the upper margin of the wall. The disease takes a chronic course. The causes are only partially understood. The perioplic ring, especially in pigmented hoofs, appears covered with dry, rough, brittle scales. Where fragments have broken away the FiQ. 363. — Showing appearance of hoof after long-coutinued inflammation of the perioplic ring. reddened and inflamed perioplic ring becomes visible. Treads on the coronet or the use of irritants (frequent poulticing, grease, etc., etc.) may give rise to this condition. Gutenacker describes cases caused by the use of unrefined vaseline. Treatment consists principally in removing the cause. The parts are thoroughly cleansed with water and (carbolic) soap and any proliferations or thickenings removed. Gentle infric- tion with boric acid ointment or 3 per cent, carbolic ointment has been followed by good results. Some recommend sulphur ointment, consisting of sulphur 2 parts, lard or lanoline 5 parts, or a lotion of 2 parts tartaric acid in 100 parts glycerine, with the addition of 3 to 5 parts creolin. * When deep cracks form and discharge, a pressure bandage combined with astringents is often useful. 5. Corns. In the widest acceptance of the word a corn may be defined as a bruise sustained by the keratogenous membrane. Corns are recognised by the yellowish-red or purple colour of the 888 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. horn of the white line and sole. Their commonest seat is between wall and bar. A light bruise causes exudation at the surface of the corium, forming the sensitive laminae and papillae. After more severe bruises blood-vessels are ruptured, blood poured out between the corium and growing horn, is absorbed by the latter and gives rise to the above described discoloration. The coloured portions are carried downward by the continued growth of horn, until finally they reach the ground surface. It is, there- fore, clear that a corn is never visible at the time of its pro- Fig. 364.— Cross section of the horny and sensitive walls from a case of contracted heel. Magnified 26 diameters, a, horny wall ; b, horny laminae ; b', their foldings ; c, showing change in direction of secondary laminai ; d, sensitive wall. duction, and cannot be detected until the hoof has been ' cut out.' Corns may be situate in the sensitive wall of the heel, the sensitive sole coverino- the corner of the heel and the sensitive bar, for which reason, wall, sole, and bar corns have been differentiated. They are rare in unshod horses. The front feet, and especially the inner heels, are their commonest MICROSCOPICAL CHANGES AFTEK ' CORN.' 389 seats. According to their severity and seqneke corns may be divided into several varieties. (1) Slight bruises lead to distortion of the horny lamina^ and secondary laminae (fig. 364, tl and c) and to superficial in- flammation of the corium with exudation of sero-sanguineous fluid, which causes a yellowish, waxy or yellowish-red colora- tion. Extravasation of blood produces a red or bluish-red colour. The fluid exuded is again absorbed, leaving the spot dry, hence the name * dry corn.' Lameness is seldom associ- ated with this form. (2) Severe bruising and the entrance of pyogenic organisms, lead to inflammation and suppuration, the condition termed ' suppurating corn.' Failing artificial paths of escape through the horn, the abscess enlarges in the direction of least resist- ance, i.e., upward between the sensitive and horny laminse Fig. 365.— Transverse section of horny and sensitive wall from case of corn of the wall. X 24. a, horn wall ; b, horny laminae ; c and d, degenerated horn ; e, sensitive wall ; /, space produced by formation of pus; g, shrivelled sensitive lamina;; h, distorted horny laminae. (fig. 365, f), and finally breaks through at the coronet. In corns of the sole the sensitive and horny soles are separated to a greater or less extent, and in corns of the bar suppura- tion may even extend to tlie plantar cushion. Suppurating corns often produce great pain and lameness. (3) When mechanical irritation is continually renewed, the corn becomes permanent. Organic changes occur in the corium and hoof and sometimes in the pedal bone itself. The 390 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. horn is greatly discoloured, permeated with cracks, blood- stained, and of soft consistence. Long continued irritation of the sensitive wall produces change in the horn of the quarters and heels. The sensitive wall often loses its laminated character .at the centre of suppuration and exhibits a deep groove devoid of laminae, though without sacrificing its power of producing horn. Though no horny laminae are produced, the space becomes -w^,' m Fig. 366.— Portion of the inner surface of the wall showing changes after old standing corn, a, horn tumour. 111- !?',■.••■:■. 'A" ■'■) w Fig. 367. — Ground surface of pedal bone showing bony enlargements on the wings (retrossal processes) in consequence of old standing corn. filled with horn, which forms firm masses or tumours of vary- ing size (fig. 365, c, and 366, a). The wings of the os pedis become enlarged, in consequence of chronic inflammation, ostitis or periostitis (fig. 367), as sometimes discovered after death. The symptoms of corn are those of inflammation of the corium. In horses visibly lame there is always pain and in- creased warmth. The reddened spot in the heel is found on cutting out the foot. Corns may be due to very varied causes, and are by no means consequent on bad shoeing alone. Such causes are often to be found in the formation of the hoof itself or even in the conformation of the limb. Hence certain animals suffer more frequently than others, in spite of the best attention in shoeing, while, in consequence of the greater load thrown on them, the fore are much more liable to corns than the hind feet. Unequal distribution of weight in feet which are turned in or out largely influences the position of the corn, which is SYMPTOMS AND CAUSES OF COKN. 391 most frequently found in the inner heel when the toe is turned outwards and vice versa. Weak, low, badly formed or contracted heels are all potent causes. Corns are also very common as a disease secondary to side bone. ' Dropped ' soles often exhibit corns, the heels of the shoe being liable to press on, or even become embedded in, the sole at the point of the heel. The external caioses are many. First come faulty prepara- tion of the hoof, bad shoeing, and reckless paring of broad flat hoofs ; then follow weakening of the heels, sole, bars, and frog in all other forms of hoof, at the same time that the toe is left too long ; unequal paring of one side of the hoof destroying the level character of the tread ; excessive trimming of the sole and bars in order to give the appearance of a strong hoof, and cutting away the bars. Amongst faulty shoes may be mentioned those which are either too short, too far set under the hoof or nailed on across it, and shoes which incom- pletely cover the bearing surface or in which the bearing surface itself inclines inwards at the heels. These confine the expansion of the hoof. In flat and dropped soles insufficient seating out of the shoe is also a cause. Irregular and insecure fitting and shifting of the shoe from carelessness in nailing on may also cause strain of laminae in the heel. Bad shoeing usually produces corns of the sole. In certain circumstances stones, becoming fixed between the frog and the heel of the shoe, bruise the sole. Inasmuch as dryness is injurious to the hoof it may also produce corns. It renders the horny box hard and unyielding and produces a ' shuffling ' gait at the commencement of work. After long continuance of wet weather the sole may become softened and so rather more liable to bruising, yet this is only of importance when other causes are also acting. The very real character of the complaints as to hard roads, fast pace, etc., causing corns is shown by the fact that, in spite of good shoeing, horses which work in towns suffer much more frequently than even badly shod farm horses. As shoes cause the entire body-weight to rest on the lower surface of the wall while the sole and frog are more or less suspended (especially when calkins are used), it is not difficult to believe that in the suspciuling parts, ^.c., the sensitive lamiuse, 392 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. strain is common. In this respect, as in many others, shoeing is a necessary evil. The prognosis is influenced by the conformation of the limbs and condition of the lateral cartilages, etc. Turning out or in of the toe, weakness of the quarters, and (especially) ossification of the lateral cartilage are all unfavourable factors. The general treatment of corns, from whatever cause arising, is tolerably constant, save when side bones are present, in which case bar shoes are objected to by some. The consequences depend not on the colour of the horn, etc., but on the position of the injury, on the degree of pain associated with it, and on the cause. As in other diseased conditions, removal of the cause plays an important part in treatment. Trifling bruises producing little pain and accompanied by slight extra- vasation of blood soon become converted into dry corns. Over- grown toes should be shortened, excessively high heels lowered, and a shoe applied which interferes as little as possible with the function of any part of the hoof. Before nailing on the shoe the posterior part of the bearing surface of the heel is often lowered -|- inch, so as to prevent pressure and pain, but the use of a shoe ' set ' at the heel is preferable. When pain is so marked as to indicate extensive injury and severe extravasation of blood, the shoe should be removed, the horn thinned, the foot placed in warm boracic acid or per- manganate of potash lotion for an hour or two, and poultices then applied, to diminish the inflammation, and, if possible, prevent suppuration. If, in spite of this, pain increases, suppuration has generally set in. By careful examination the pus is found, and should be allowed free exit. The most direct way is the best, proAdded it necessitates no injury of healthy soft tissues or the removal of excessive quantities of horn. The first object must, how- ever, be to provide free drainage ; even when pus has reached the coronet, an opening should be provided below. A warm foot-bath often facilitates the discharge, especially when the pus is thick or inspissated. Once pain is removed, the horse can be shod. The shoe must protect the diseased parts from external bruises and internal strain ; a well- constructed bar shoe is usually best. This transfers, without damage, the weight of the body from the diseased to the sound TKEATMENT OF COKN. 393 parts. The depression iu the horn is closed with a pledget of tow saturated with carbolic oil or tincture of myrrh, and retained in position, if necessary, by a leather sole. In old corns it is not sufficient to temporarily protect the diseased spot, but the same precautions must be observed continually or for a long time. A three-quarter bar shoe is very useful, a portion being cut out at the diseased spot, so that it experiences no pressure whatever. The illustration (fig. 368) Fig. 368. — Three-quarter bar shoe, a, seat of the corn. Fig. 369. ^Ordinary three-quarter shoe. sufficiently shows the construction of this shoe. In light horses with good frogs the ordinary three-quarter shoe, that is, a flat shoe minus the inner quarter, suits very well (fig. 369). In corns associated with side bone, flat shoes with a thick leather sole are applied, and the hoof is kept moist. If, in cases of old-standing corn, ojie or other of the bulbs becomes backwardly displaced, it is probable that the os pedis is diseased, as shown in fig. 368. The shoe, whether a bar or ordinary shoe, should then be provided with longer heels in order to remove weight from the diseased side (compare page 322). Other complications, like sinus, etc., consequent on the further development or neglect of corns, require the attention of a veterinary surgeon. 394 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. Before affixing a shoe to a hoof showing corns, especially when the horse is ' going tender/ the reddened portion of the sole should be thinned. The surrounding parts should then be moderately thinned, so that they may exercise no pressure on the diseased area. The sensitive parts must not, of course, be exposed. Eeddish spots caused by bruising sometimes appear at other parts of the sole (bruised sole). The cause is either pressure on the sensitive parts by the horny sole, which has become too thick and hard, or, as is usual, bruising by loose stones. Such bruises may also end in suppuration. The treatment is similar to that of corns. The shoes illustrated and described on next page will be found exceedingly useful in many cases of corn. Fig. 370. — Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe. Made from I X h inch iron . Fig. 371.— Fullered fore shoe (' set ' on ground surface of inside heel). ]\rade from | x i inch iron. To face p. 395.] SHOES FOR CASES OF CORN. 395 THEEE-QUARTEE FULLEEED SEATED FOEE SHOE (Fia 370). Made from 1 X ^ inch iron. This shoe is useful in cases of corn in the inside heel, wiry inside heel, or weak and low heel. In the latter case very- great benefit is often derived, and the heel speedily becomes stronger. Cases of ' capped elbow ' may also be shod with this shoe. A leather sole or frog pad may be used in conjunction. The inside heel is either cut off square, as shown, or round. The inside quarter of shoe must be fitted fairly full, other- wise the corresponding part of foot is liable to split off, ■especially if the wall be thin. FULLEEED FOEE SHOE ' SET ' OX GEOUND SUEFACE OFIXSIDEHEEL (Fig. 371). Made from -g- X J inch iro7i. The method of ' settino; ' the inside heel of shoe in cases of <;orn is infinitely preferable to that of so-called ' easing ' the heel by cutting away the wall. It gives protection to the injured parts without exposing them to the risk of pressure. Sometimes the ' set ' is placed on the foot surface, but this is less advantageous that the system illustrated. It is produced by a few blows of the turning or boss hammer, the shoe being held on the edge of the anvil. The ' set ' part should be fitted long and full. It is essen- tial that it be reduced to half the thickness of the shoe, other- wise as the shoe wears level with the ' set ' portion pressure will again be produced on the tender spot. If the horse wears hard on the inside heel, it may be needful to reduce the thick- ness still more. 396 inflammation of stkuctures enclosed by the hoof. 6. Shoeing after Laminitir. Laminitis is a peculiar inflammation of the horn-secreting structures, usually seen to follow chill, digestive disorder, or overwork when the animal is in unfit condition. It suddenly affects horses and frequently leads to changes in the form of the hoof, as shown in figs. 372 to 374. Certain facts seem to encourage the view that it results from specific infection. The disease is always accompanied with pain. The front feet are the most common seat, though occasionally all four feet or only one foot may be affected. In the first case the two front-feet are placed in advance of the body and the hind-feet thrust far under it. When all four feet are inflamed, the animal can scarcely walk. The disease often attacks very suddenly, and is then usually accompanied by well-marked fever. The sensitive laminae of the toe show the most marked Fig. 372.— Longitudinal section of hoof one year after severe attack of laminitis. Fig. 373.— Longitudinal section of hoof three months after attack, a, patho- logically modified horn of the white line ; b, distortion of the horn tubules in con- se((uence of sinking of the os pedis. Fig. 374. — Hoof after laminitis. Fig. 375.— The same shod. The dotted lines indicate the previous form. changes, those of the quarters and heels being less affected. Varying with the degree of disease the connection between the ANATOMICAL CHANGES AFTER LAMINITIS. 397 sensitive and horny lamina3 is more or less obliterated, the os pedis sinks, and at the same time a depression occurs round the coronet (figs. 372 to 375). The form of the hoof, therefore, alters and the heels appear higher. Eings form on the wall, the course of which is quite characteristic. At the toe they lie close together, gradually di- verging from this point towards the heels (fig. 374). Below the coronet the toe wall generally sinks in, while its under parts appear thrust outwards. The white line is abnormally broad, its horn is ' cheesy,' loose, and easily broken down ; as a consequence, the relations between the horny wall and horny sole are altered and there is a tendency to the formation of hollow wall. If no relapse occurs, recovery sometimes results, the new horn Fig. 376. — Special broad shoe for laminitis, with two toe-clips and a frog-clip. growing down in the normal direction from the coronet, though as a rule the horn of the white line appears altered in character. If, however, the first attack be severe or repeated, the horny sole becomes flattened or even convex around the toe in consequence of descent of the os pedis. In aggravated cases the toe of the os pedis may penetrate the horny sole in front of the frog. The wall of the toe, previously little changed, is then completely distorted and bulged outwards. Early treatment by a veterinary surgeon may cut short the attack and entirely prevent the changes in form and condition of the hoof, but when this is neglected the disease is apt to o 98 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. become chronic, and pathological changes in the hoof can never be completely prevented. The animal may certainly recover sufficiently to be usedy but its gait is always characteristic. The feet are not lifted fairly from the ground, but thrust forvv^ard and set dov^^n heel first. The heels of the shoe, therefore, wear most. In preparing such hoofs for shoeing, a large amount of the prominent, bulging toe may be removed without injury. The sole should be spared and the heels lowered only slightly. The choice of a shoe depends principally on the condition of the sole. When this still remains somewhat concave an ordinary shoe can be used, but if it is flattened or absolutely convex a broad shoe, preferably a bar shoe (fig. 376), should be chosen, especially if the bearing margin of the wall be broken. As long as the -toe continues sensitive toe-clips should be avoided and a pair of side-clips substituted, the portion of the wall lying between the clips being lowered ^ inch to prevent pressure on the diseased toe (see fig. 375). In horses which have suffered from laminitis the shoe is sometimes displaced forwards on account of the animal's unequal tread. This may be avoided by providing each heel or the heel prolongation with a clip (fig. 376). 7. Keratomata, or Horn Tumours, consist in thickening of the inner surface of the horn wall (fig. 377). They are not common. Their most frequent seat is the toe, rarely the wall of the quarter. Gutenacker regards them as due to chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall with suppuration between the sensitive and horny laminae. The- pus is retained, causes partial degeneration of the sensitive laminae and separation of the sensitive from the horny laminae. After the pus has escaped through a passage established by pressure or through an artificial opening, the space left is^ only partially filled up, and, in consequence of the inflam- mation, small prominences form on the free margins of the sensitive laminae, which are the chief agents in the production of keratomata. As the free margins of the sensitive laminae increase in thickness the track of horn they secrete becomes OBSTINATE CHARACTER OF KER ATOM ATA. 399 wider. The keratoma thus produced gradually occupies the formerly empty space, and in its turn may lead to partial atrophy (pressure atrophy) of the os pedis. Keratomata may be caused by chronic inflammation un- accompanied by suppuration. The cavity in the os pedis corresponds in form and extent with the keratoma. Symptoms. — Horn tumours do not invariably produce lame- ness, but, when lameness is present, pain, increased warmth and pulsation of the digital arteries may usually be detected. The growth can only be removed after it reaches the bearing surface. The white line is then distorted at some part of its Fig. 377.— a piece of the toe wall removed, together with keratoma, a, coronary margin ; b, plantar margin ; c, keratoma ; d, depression containing pus. course, describing a semicircle around the horn tumour, which appears at the ground surface as a waxy-looking body. The new growth occasionally undergoes degeneration, producing a depression of varying depth, with dark coloured walls, from which a greyish-black pus is sometimes discharged. Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall conse- quent on bruises, pricks in shoeing, clefts in the horn, corns, or treads. The prognosis is unfavourable whether lameness exists or not. Under any circumstances lameness is probable and liable to recur even after removal of the growth. Treatment. — When suppuration has seriously affected the 400 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. sensitive wall, or when severe pain has existed uninterruptedly for a long time, operation is advisable and can only be suc- cessfully attempted by a veterinary surgeon. If, however, suppuration is only slight, and pain insignificant, the best treatment is to thin the neighbouring parts, expose the sup- purating spot, and then to dress and plug the cavity with a 20 per cent, solution of iodoform in ether. This treatment should be repeated at every shoeing until improvement occurs. The latter, however, depends principally on thorough cutting out and cleansing of the suppurating spot. Shoeing. — When the wall is good an ordinary shoe is suffi- cient, but if broken away or diseased a bar shoe, well seated out at the affected part, is preferable. The spot itself should be relieved of all pressure. 8. Canker of the Frog or Sole is a peculiar intractable disease of the corium, which always tends to become aggravated, and which is attended with pro- liferation of the sensitive papillae or laminae, disturbance in the ordinary formation of horn, and the secretion of a thick, offensively smelling lluid. It usually begins unnoticed in one of the lateral furrows of the frog, less frequently in the sole, and is only detected after having made considerable progress. A moist discharging spot, from which the horn has been shed, is then noticed. Its base is pale red, swollen, and spongy, and not infrequently the sensitive frog, sole or wall exhibits warty, cauliflower-like or brushy growths. There is seldom lameness at this stage. The disease makes steady but slow progress, and a long period may elapse before it extends from the frog to the wall. At a later period the hoof, if not already very oblique, increases in width towards the heels. The causes are not yet sufficiently known. Slight inflamma- tion due to bruising, especially when the corium is exposed, is said to be sufficient to cause an attack. Although canker is quite distinct from thrush, the latter disease seems to favour the production of canker. The prognosis is unfavourable and should always be guarded. The principal indications are afforded by the condition of the PROGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF CANKER. 401 parts, the extent of the disease, the length of time it has existed, the rapidity of its return after treatment, and the number of feet affected. Treatment comprises the removal of all loose horn, and the careful paring away and exposure of the diseased spot. For this purpose a searcher, scalpel, and forceps are required. The parts should be spared as much as possible and care taken that the surface in which the sound and diseased parts meet exhibits Fig. 378. — Shoe prepared for canker dressing. a, heels tapped and screwed ; b, depression for talcing the tongue of the cover shown in next fig. Fig. 379.— Cover for above shoe. no hard margins. Bleeding should, if possible, be avoided. The paring, therefore, requires some skill. The parts are next thoroughly cleansed with clean lint or tow, without using water, and the dressing applied. All kinds of drugs have been tried, some with good, some with bad results. Distinct granulations should be removed by the use of mild caustics and tlie real curative material (generally an astringent and disinfectant) thereafter applied. Schleg recommends a mixture of sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, and pulverised tormentilla root in the proportions of 1 : 2 : 3, or equal parts of salicylic acid and pulverised tormentilla root. Professor Putz suggests nitrate of lead. When the materials are used in the form of powder they must be rubbed in. Finally all parts denuded of horn sliould be subjected to moderate regular pressure by a surgical dressing, or less preferably by means of a special shoe and cover (see fig. 380). Wood wool or jute tampons are applied to the spot, 2c 402 INFLAMMATION OF STKUCTUEES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. the sheet of iron slipped into position and fastened. When the diseased parts appear very dirty it is useful after cleansing to saturate the new growtli with tincture of iodine. The dressing is repeated daily, all loose fragments of horn being carefully removed. At a later stage the dressing need only be applied every two or three days. The special shoe presents nothing peculiar in regard to form, surface, nail holes, etc. ; but Fig. 380.— Special shoe for canker, with cover applied. is made specially light and narrow, and presents at the centre of the toe a depression to receive the point on the front of the sheet-iron cover. The outer margin of the cover is rounded off and rests for a distance of about -|- inch on the inner and upper margin of the shoe, which is seated for this purpose. The cover should not touch the ground. This prevents the front of the cover being pressed inwards. According to the condition and position of the diseased spots the shoe may be varied. 9. Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages. Side Bones. Lungwitz states that, in 1251 horses examined, side bones occurred as shown in annexed table : — FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SIDE BONE. 403 Description. to a> 3J . -3 c O « 4J O "H — ,!» a, 's 5 =§3 33 ! . X! No. with Pel Remarks. Belgian cart horse, Danisli carriage horse, Heavy riding horse, Do., Light riding horse, Riding horses (various weights), Military horses, . Officers' horses (heavy), 98 68 69-5 120 25 21 388 36 9 132 • • • • ■ • 133 8 6 140 3 2 200 1 0-5 40 3 1 1 7-5 1251 144 14-4 Working only on hard pavements. Do. Working in heavy ground and partly on hard pavements. Working on light sandy soil. Working on light ground. Do. Working on medium heavy ground. Working on varied surfaces. 1. Ossification of the lateral cartilage occurs principally in heavy, coarse-bred horses. 2. The fore feet suffer more ^i<-^ Fig. 381.— Left fore-foot, seen from the outer side. The .skin has been partially removed to show that portion (a) of the lateral cartilage which projects above the hoof ; i», ligament running from lateral cartilage to fetlock, one-third natural size. frequently than the hind ; 3, the cartilage of the left hoof suffers more frequently than that of the right ; and 4, the 404 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. outer cartilage suffers more frequently than the inner. 5. Ossification sometimes occurs at an early age, usually when the Fig. 382. — Pedal bone, with almost complete ossification of the lateral cartilages, a, pedal bone ; b, wing of pedal bone, from which point, as a rule, ossification commences ; c, articular surface ; d, rough, uueven surfaces. animal is first put to work. 6. Well-bred animals suffer less frequently than others. 7. The use of animals, of heavy build, on hard roads favours the occurrence of side bone. The symptoms vary according to whether one or both carti- lages are atiected, and whether ossification is partial or com- plete. Expansion of the hoof is always diminished, and may be entirely suspended. The diagnosis of side bone is easy as soon as the upper margin of the cartilage has become ossified ; it then feels hard. On the other hand, when ossification has only attacked the lower portion of the cartilage lying within the hoof, it is either very difficult or absolutely impossible to detect the change, though the form of the hoof sometimes gives valuable indica- tions. Side bones produce a clumsy constrained action and at times marked lameness. The symptoms are aggravated by rapid work on hard roads, by allowing the hoofs to become dry, and by using high calkins. When, however, the hoof is kept moist, animals may work for a long time without inconvenience. The causes are (1) congenital predisposition, in heavy, coarse- bred horses, and (2) excessive concussion produced by w^ork on hard roads, for which reason the disease is frequent in large towns. The fact that the outer half of the foot suffers the CAUSES AND PROGNOSIS OF SIDE BONE. 405 greater shock during movement, explains why the outer cartilage more frequently becomes ossified than the inner. The prognosis depends on the horse's work, weight, and breed, on the form of the hoof, and on the extent of ossifica- tion. Heavy horses with completely ossified lateral cartilages are of little use for rapid work on paved streets. When only one cartilage is affected, or when the animal is worked on soft ground, side bones are comparatively unimportant. Whilp Fig. 383.— Right fore-foot altered in form in consequence of side bone. Fig. 384.— Shoe for above foot, with broad outer hmb. ossification is in active progress the animal goes tender, if not actually lame, but as soon as it becomes complete the lameness tends to disappear, though it readily returns in consequence of bruising or strain if the tread is not level. Lameness is usually temporary, but the diseased cartilage can never be restored to its primitive condition. After ossification is complete, lameness may be produced by bruising of the plantar cushion and of the sensitive wall, which are then enclosed between two hard, unyielding structures ; the plantar cushion, being confined by the ossified cartilages, can expand neither towards the right nor left at the moment at which weight is placed on the foot and the sensitive wall being similarly placed between the horny wall and ossified cartilage. A partial improvement may occur when the plantar cushion diminishes in volume. If, in addition, the wall is contracted at the heels, the condition is even more serious. 406 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. In shoeing animals with side bone it is important to know whether the condition is uni- or bi-lateral. In side bone of the outer heel the wall of that side is comparatively immobile, and the corresponding quarter and heel of the shoe is excessively worn. On removing the shoe the outer wall is found much higher than the inner. The external heel of the shoe is thin, the internal comparatively little worn. The hoof is either unchanged in form or the wall of the outer heel is contracted, and sometimes covered with rings (fig. 383). The outer por- tion of the coronet is more prominent, and the outer limb of the frog smaller than the inner. Bruises or strains in the wall not infrequently exist. The shoe should be flat, the outer limb broader than usual, the seatinsj out should terminate behind the last nail hole, so that the entire breadth of the heel surface may form a horizontal plane (fig. 384). The outer wall should be lowered more than the inner, and the shoe so formed that its inner limb fits as close as possible, the outer being left sufficiently wide to meet a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet. The supporting surface is thus widened towards the outside, and, in consequence of the level tread, more even wearing of the shoe produced. When both lateral cartilages are ossified, a thick leather sole materially assists in diminishing shock. Special deeply- fullered shoes with rope inlay are also of value, but pads and bar shoes seem (in theory at least) contra-indicated, and, at first, cause pain by pressing on the frog and so tending to thrust asunder parts that are now unyielding. Side bones are often accompanied by corns, which are usually extremely persistent. As, however, these are not primary but secondary conditions, they deserve less attention when choosing and fitting the shoe than the ossification. Under these circumstances ' springing ' the heels, which is frequently practised in order to relieve corns, produces local strain and pain, and should be avoided. Treatment consists in applications which soften and cool the hoof. In work, the hoof should be moistened daily, and afterwards smeared with some fat or ointment so as to preserve the elasticity of the horn. definition and symptoms of navicular disease. 407 10. Naviculak Disease is a chronic inflammation of the lower surface of the navicular bone and the portion of flexor perforans tendon passing below it. The disease consists essentially in cluiDge in the gliding surface of the navicular bone and of the cartilage covering it. The previously smooth surface of the bone becomes roughened, the tendon abraded, inflammation then increases, the portions Fig. 385. — Preparation illustrating navicular disease. 1, os pedis; 2, flexor pedis perforans tendon drawn downwards; 3, lower (gliding) surfitce of the navicular bone; 4, coronet bone ; a and b, roughened, abraded spots on the flexor perforans tendon; c, eroded spots on the navicular bone ; d, proliferations from periosteum on the upper margin of the os pedis. of the tendon involved may, in extreme cases, become necrotic, and still further aggravate the existing mischief; finally, periostitis and rarefying ostitis set in, and deposits form around the margins of the bone. Occurre7ice. — The lameness usually affects one or both of the fore-feet. Horses with very concave soles appear more subject 408 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE . HOOF. to it than those with flat hoofs. Compared with other forms of lameness it may be said to be rare. Symptoms. — The first symptoms are slight tenderness on starting ; the animal goes rather short or stumbles, but this soon wears off. Next, the foot or feet are ' rested ' after any considerable exertion, but in many cases it is only after months that the symptoms become distinct. The foot is then extended and directed slightly towards the side, the fetlock is more upright in order to minimise tension on the flexor pedis perforans tendon, the gait becomes clumsy and difiicult, especially at the beginning of movement and on hard, uneven ground. When only one hoof suffers, there is distinct lameness, but when both are affected, the gait is short and cramped, and the animal seems to suffer most at the moment when weight falls .on the limb. Where the disease is well developed, the fore-limb is advanced with the toe first, and the pace comes to resemble a run. Attention to the feet and rest diminish the symptoms. The lameness is most marked on leaving the stable, but diminishes as the animal moves; after some considerable time, liowever, especially if the pace be rapid, lameness returns. In old standing cases the hoof is contracted. On compress- ing the heels or the body of the frog pain is evinced. Increased pulsation of the digital arteries and increased warmth of the hoof are seldom present, but pain and thickening of the flexor tendons in the depression of the heel can sometimes be noted. When the foot is oblique contraction soon sets in. Slight rings sometimes form on the horny wall. Any considerable weight thrown on the diseased hoof causes pain, especially when the horse has prominent frogs and is unshod. Sometimes there is atrophy of the muscles of the shoulder and fore-arm. The causes are severe strains, due to severe rapid work on hard, rough, or frozen streets. The lameness is most frequent in riding horses. The prognosis is unfavourable, for even when the diseased process can be checked the freedom of movement never com- pletely returns, because the destructive changes which have taken place are permanent. The animal's worth is thus greatly diminished. Treatment, strictly speaking, is only palliative. Attempts SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF NAVICULAR DISEASE. 409 should be made to diminish the pressure between the navicular bone and flexor pedis perforans tendon, and, in the early stages, to diminish inflammation. First of all the hoof must be softened and permitted to dilate. The shoe should be removed and the entire hoof immersed for twenty-four to forty-eight hours in a poultice, frequently moistened with lukewarm water. The hoof is then trimmed and shod. The points to Fig. 386. Fig. 387. Fig. 388. Fig. 386. — Showing normal relations of the bones of the foot and of the flexor perforans tendon. Fig. 387. — Formation causing increased strain on navicular bone and perforans tendon. Fig. 388. — Showing the manner of trimming the hoof so as to diminish, as far as possible, the effects of navicular disease. (The above illustrations are diagrammatic.) remember are (1) that the hoof should be somewhat more upright than the fetlock, and (2) that it should be dilated. The toe is, therefore, lowered freely, but the heels spared. The frog is cut down to the height of the bearing margins of the heels and a flat shoe, with thin heels and bar-clips, applied and dilated to the extent of about i inch. The toe should be ' rolled.' For the next four to six weeks the feet should be kept well moistened. At night the animal should be bedded down with good straw. The hoof, if its form allow, should, during this time, be once or twice redilated. In any case, however, pre- cautions should be taken by using fa't or ointment to prevent the horn becoming dry. If a long rest cannot be given the coronets may be repeatedly blistered with a 1 to 8 ointment of biniodide of mercury. As neither shoeing, nor the use of the firing iron, nor of blisters completely restores the action, neurectomy has, for many years, been resorted to as a remedy. It certainly removes sensation from the foot and once more renders the animal useful, but the foot is then no longer spared, and when the animal, especially if a hunter, is used on hard 410 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. ground, the pedal or navicular bone may be fractured. Not infrequently the flexor tendons undergo a kind of colloid de- generation and become ruptured. So far as shoeing is concerned, tlie before-mentioned prin- ciples apply. Bar shoes are contra-indicated and horses usually go best in ordinary shoes, especially those which raise the back of the hoof, that is, shoes with thick heels or with calkins. Attempts may with advantage be made to dilate the hoof and to diminish concussion. The action of a shoe which raises the back of the hoof will immediately be seen from the diagram- matic figs. 386, 387, and 388. The improvement produced by high heels depends on the concussion being conveyed in greater degree to the pedal bone, while pressure on the perforans tendon is diminished. 11. Curb, Strain of Flexor Tendons, and Capped Elbow. Special shoes have been devised for the treatment of each of these conditions. A few notes on some of those more com- monly employed are given below. STAMPED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE (Figs. 389, 390). Made from f X -I- inch iron. The above shoe is intended to give relief in cases of curb, spavin, or injury to ligaments and tendons, by raising the heels of the hind-foot. Should the horse not be lame or be adjudged by the veterinary surgeon to be capable of light work, he may be worked in this shoe. The height of the wedges is l| inches. Fig. 389. — Stamjted wedge-heeled hind shoe. JVIade from 5 x ^ inch iron. Fig. 390. [To face p. 410. Fig. 391.— Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe (lor liarness horse). Made from 3 x ^ inch iron. Fig. 392.— Fullered patten hind shoe. Made from | x g inch iron. To face p. 411.1 SHOES FOR DISEASED HOOKS AND INJURED TENDONS. 411 FULLERED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE FOR HARNESS HORSE (Fig. 391). Made from |^ X J inch iron. Many horses suffering from diseased hocks and tendons can be worked in this shoe, the purpose of which is similar to that of the shoe preceding, save that it is for a lighter class of horse. The height of the wedges is 1^ inches. FULLERED PATTEN HIND SHOE (Fig. 392). Made from ;| X -f inch iron. Patten shoes are intended for horses suffering from injuries to tendons and ligaments, but which must necessarily be rested. That shown is suitable for a thoroughbred. The patten (sometimes termed ' staple ') is only 1|^ inches in height and is set on obliquely, so that the cross bar rests flat on the ground. It is made separately from tlie shoe, and after the usual fitting is complete is ' shut-on' to the shoe. A defect in the shoe illustrated is that the nail holes extend rather too far back. 412 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. STAMPED PATTEN (OE ' STAPLE ') POKE SHOE (FiCx. 393). Made from J X ^ inch iron. The shoe illustrated is for a recent and severe case of ' break- down '" or cut tendon, where the tendon has been more or less severed. It affords by far the safest and most convenient method of raising the heel under such circumstances. The staple is rather more than 3 inches in height. STAMPED PATTEN (OE 'STAPLE') HIND SHOE (Fig. 394). Made from ;| X ^ inch iron. This shoe is only for animals which are resting, either in the stable or in, say, a straw yard. Its purpose is similar to that of the other staple shoe described. The staple is three inches high, and spreads outwards as it approaches the ground, so as to give a wide base of support. With this object the sides are bent outwards and the bottom is set on obliquely, so that when the shoe is affixed and the animal stands upon it the whole of the bottom bar is in contact with the ground. Fig. 393. — Stamped patten fore shoe. JNIade from f x ."^ inch iron. Fig. 394. — Stamped patten hind shoe. jNFade from ^ x ^ inch iron. [To face p. 412. Fig. 395. — Patten hind shoe. Made from f x | inch iron. Fig. 396. — Fullered seated fore shoe. INIade from § x | inch iron. To /ace p. 413.] • SHOES FOR CURB, STRAINED TENDONS, AND CAPPED ELBOW. 413 PATTEN HIND SHOE (Fig. 395). Made from J X |- inch iron. The shoe from which this iUustration is made was for a foot 4j inches in width. The patten is 4 inches in height, and has two holes in the uprights through which straps are passed and secured, through the medium of a pad, above the hock. The pad which is fixed on the hock has a buckle on either side to receive the straps. This shoe is for cases where the flexor tendons of the hind leg have been partially divided, as happens in race horses when they are struck by the fore-foot of the animal immediately following, and in other animals under a variety of circumstances. The horse must necessarily be placed in slings. FULLERED SEATED FORE SHOE (Fig. 396). Made from -g- X ^ inch iron. To prevent horses bruising their elbows, and so producing the unsightly swelling termed capped elbow, the shoes must be sloped off very obliquely at the heels, which should be kept of a rounded form, and should closely follow the contour of the foot, i.e., should be fitted ' fine.' This is, in fact, one of the few conditions in which 'fine ' fitting at the heels is necessary or desirable. I APPENDIX A. THE SHOEING OF OXEN. CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTUKE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX'S FOOT. As it is sometimes necessary to shoe oxen employed for work, a short anatomical description of the foot may not be inappro- priate. The ox's foot differs from that of the horse in possess- ing two distinct toes, each consisting of three bones, like the single toe of the horse, but presenting certain special anatomical features of its own. The rounded or triangular horny appen- dages at the posterior surface of the fetlock joint are termed after-claws. They need not occupy our further attention. The low^er end of the metacarpal bone is divided by a deep cleft into two distinct parts, an inner and an outer, each of which comports itself to its particular toe just as the lower end of the great metacarpus of the horse to its single toe. In other words, each portion of the lower end of the metacarpus presents an articular surface, which forms, with its special pastern and two sesamoid bones, a distinct ginglymoid joint ; the ox in fact has, at the point where the horse's fetlock joint occurs, two fetlock joints. With regard to individual bones, the two first bones of the toes or phalanges in form and relation resemble to a considerable extent the first phalanx of the horse, though they are comparatively shorter and weaker. The same is true of the two coronet bones or second phalanges, which are comparatively somewhat longer than the horse's coronet bone, and differ from it in that their two lateral 416 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. surfaces, which meet in front, are of a more triangular form. The upper articular surface of each coronet bone is concave, the lower is convex, and extends almost as far backwards as the middle of the posterior surface. The third phalanx, or bone of the claw, however, differs markedly from the horse's pedal bone. The claw bone is peculiarly formed, having been compared to a wedge or three- sided pyramid, the point of which is directed forwards and downwards. Each claw bone presents an upper or articular surface, an outer turned away from the cleft of the hoof, au inner turned towards it, a lower surface, an anterior and a posterior end, and three margins. The articular surface is Fig. 397. — Antero-external view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, lower eud of metacarpal bone ; 2, external sesamoid bone; 3, external, and 3', internal pastern bone; 4, external, and 4' internal coronet bone ; 5, external, and 5', internal claw bone ; 6, left navicular bone. concave and extends forwards and upwards as the pyramidal process. The outer surface is slightly convex, with numerous small apertures and with a flat groove or furrow running from behind forwards. The slightly concave inner surface exhibits at its upper posterior part a large aperture, corresponding to the plantar foramen (see p. 29), and extending into the interior of the bone. The lower surface slopes away from the cleft of the hoof towards the outside. It is comparatively smooth and provided on its lower part with a shallow groove. The anterior margin formed by the union of the outer and inner surfaces is blunt, the outer margin sharp and curved, the ANATOMY OF OX's FOOT. 417 inner margin, in consequence of the groove above it, exhibits a ledge at its anterior part. The front end is pointed, the back is blunt, and exhibits a transverse furrow, covered with carti- lage, for articulation with the navicular bone. In oxen the prolongations corresponding to the wings of the horse's pedal bone are absent and there are no lateral cartilages. In oxen, as in horses, the joints are completed by other small bones, which, in general, resemble the sesamoid and navicular bones but are somewhat smaller. Each fetlock joint has two sesamoids and each claw joint a navicular bone. Broadly speaking, the connections of the joints with one another and with the bones named resemble those of the horse, especially in regard to the lateral and capsular ligaments. The chief differences are as follows. The suspensory liga- ment of the sesamoid bones or superior metacarpo-phalangeal ligament exhibits more muscular fibre than in the horse. As it serves both fetlock joints it is divided at the posterior surface of the great metacarpal into three parts, two lateral, small in size, and a strong central ligament. The two lateral ligaments extend to the two outer sesamoid bones and send in addition a cord (ligamentum extensorum) to the extensor tendons of theii' respective claws (fig. 398, 4'). The middle and strongest limb divides a short distance below into three parts, the two lateral of which run to the two inner sesamoid bones. The middle portion, on the other hand, passes in a forward direction through the groove on the lower end of the great metacarpus, then divides into two branches, which join the extensor tendons of the inner and outer claws respectively (fig. 398, 4"). The inferior sesamoideal ligament is absent. The suftraginis or pastern bone and the bone of the claw are connected by external and internal suffragino-pedal ligaments, which are particularly strong and unite with the ligamentous tissues arisinoj from the coronet bone. The cruciform ligament or transverse ligament of the toe con- necting the two claws consists of two cords, which arise from the postero-superior parts of the coronet bones turned away from the cleft of the claw, run obliquely downwards, become more or less intimately fused at the point where they cross, and are finally insei ted into the inner {i.e., opposin^O surfaces of the claw bones and into the inner extremities of che navicular 2d 418 -'r STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. bones. They cover the posterior surfaces of the perforans tendons of the claw, and serve principally to prevent the claws being too widely separated. The movements of the joints of the toe are effected by muscles lying in the region of the fore-arm, and arranged in general like the analogous muscles of the horse. As, however, in the ox the muscles and tendons are attached to a double limb below the fetlock, some differences necessarily exist. Each of tlie two claws has a separate extensor muscle, as well as a muscle w^hich is common to both claws. The muscle corresponding to the extensor suffraginis of the horse is, in Fig. 398.— Atitero-external view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, extensor tendon of outer claw; 2, extensor tendon of inner claw; 3, extensor tendon common to both claws; 3', limb of do. attached to left, and 3", to right claw; 4, superior sesamoideal ligament; 4' and 4", reinforcing slips from same to extensor tendon ; 5, left ' after-claw.' the ox, the extensor of the outer claw. From the compound extensor of the foot, which consists of several masses of muscle, two tendons spring ; one passes to the bones of the inner claw becoming the extensor tendon of the inner claw, the other passes down the centre of the great metacarpal bone and at its lower end divides into two parts, one of which is attached to the pedal bone of the outer, the other to the pedal bone of the inner toe. The arrangement in the hind-foot is similar. The extensor (peroneus), whose tendon in the horse runs parallel with that of the extensor pedis, is in the ox the extensor of the outer ANATOMY OF OX'S FOOT. 419 elaw. The extensor pedis becomes the exteusor of the inner claw and also acts in connnon on both claws. • The arrangement of tlie Hexor pedis perforans and perforatus tendons is rather more complicated than in the horse. Suffice it, however, for our purpose to say that the tendon of the superficial flexor perforatus of the toe forms a sheath for the tendon of the deep flexor (perforans). Tliis sheath divides on either side, forming a kind of channel, which surrounds each limb of the deep flexor after its division. The tendons of the superficial flexor, which are pierced by those of the deep flexor near the upper end of the suffraginis bone, become inserted into the lower end of the suffraginis, and (chiefly) the supero- posterior part of the coronet bone of either claw. Each of two limbs of the tendon of the deep flexor of the toe (perforans tendon) is attached to the postero-inferior surface of its respective pedal bone. The tendons of the flexor muscles are held in place by a tendino-ligamentous apparatus and by strong transverse liga- ments. The limbs of the flexor pedis tendons are also supported by the cruciform inter-digital ligaments. As already stated, lateral cartilages and plantar cushion are absent in the ox. In relation to the blood-vessels it should be noted that in the fore-foot the main artery passes from behind forwards between the two after-claws towards the cleft of the foot, whilst that passing down the anterior surface of the great metacarpal runs in an opposite direction, that is, backwards, towards the same space. The inner digital arteries are far laroer than the outer. The veins do not form such rich plexuses as in the horse. The digital nerves in their general distribution resemble those of the horse. With a few exceptions the protective structures of the terminal digits correspond with those of the horse. The skin is specially modified as in the latter to form a honi-secreting structure in which a perioplic band, coronary band, sensitive wall and sensitive sole may be distinguished ; the sensitive frog is absent. The perioplic band lies between the skin and coronary band and surrounds each toe like a ring. Posteriorly it becomes much broader and forms slight bulbs, which may be connected 420 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. with those of the opposite claw by a more or less well-marked bridge. The coronary band lies between the perioplic band and sensitive wall. It is comparatively broad but flat. At its broadest spot it may measure, according to the size of the animal, as much as li inches. In the direction of the bulbs it first becomes slender and then totally disappears. The sensitive wall covers the two lateral surfaces and the anterior margin of the bone of the claw ; it extends from the coronary band downwards to the plantar margin, and back- wards as far as the bidbs. It exhibits a large number of parallel lamina', which decrease in length towards the bulbs and to a more marked deoree on the inner than on the outer surface of the claw. The number of lamina^ may be estimated at about a thousand. t 3 Fig. 399.— Supero-postevior view of an ox's lioof removed by maceration (seen from the iinier side). Ihe inner wall is foreshortened owinj>; to the point of view. 1, periople, which at 1' becomes continuous with the bulbs; 2, furrow for reception of coronary bjiud; 3, laminal sheath of the outer wall, and ;>', of the inner wall; 4, upper surface of sole. The sensitive sole covers the under surface of the bone of the claw and extends in a backward direction, becomino- con- tinuous with that portion of the coronary band forming the bulbs, there being no distinct boundary between the two structures. With the exception of the sensitive wall the portions named display a number of very small papilla} from which the horn of the claw is secreted, the best marked and largest appearing at the perioplic band. In the ox the laminie of the sensitive wall exhibit no secondary lamina? such as have been described as existing on the sensitive lamina of the horse. The horny claw is the product of this specially modified corium. It may, in general terms, be compared with the half of a horse's hoof, from which, however, the frog is absent. We THE ox's HOOF. 421 distinguish in it a wall and a sole. Thd wall can again l:>e divided into an outer and an inner part. The portion furthest from tlie cleft of the foot, i.e., the outer part, is convex and somewhat curved inwards at the toe. Thci portion towards the cleft is smooth and usually sliglitly concave. The two sides of the wall meet in a blunt, somewhat elongated anterior border. The upper part of the horny wall or perioplic ring is formed by the perioplic band and runs backwards to form the rounded horny bulbs. The coronary band rests in a flat, broad furrow at the upper part of the wall. The horny laminie of tlie wall correspond in number and size to the sensitive laminaj. The space Ijelow marginated by the wall is enclosed by the horny sole, which in front is pointed and very strong and towards the back becomes continuous with the horny bulbs. The horny bulbs of the two toes are sometimes con- nected by a bridge of soft horn. The wall is imited to the horny sole through the medium of the white line as in the horse. Needless to say that in oxen, in which the walls are not bent inwards as in the horse, the bars are wanting. Th(» claws of the hind-foot are somewhat longer and more slender than those of the fore-foot. CHAPTERIL THE SHOEING OF OXEN. The: slioemo- of oxen differs essentially from that of horses, because the ox's foot is cloven, while the pastern, coronet, and pedal bones are in duplicate. The ox, therefore, may be said to have on each limb two hoofs, termed claws, which can be distinguished as an outer and an inner. The walls are thinner than those of the horse. The sole is thin and the bulbs low. As a consequence the shoe must be thin and broad. The nail Fig. 400. — Ox'.s claw with shoe attached. holes should be punched fine and the nails should be short but strong. Each shoe is provided with a long thin clip at the inner margin of the toe, which is bent upwards and outwards around the point of the claw (fig. 400). A clip on the outer margin of the shoe increases the hold. In the Saxon Voigtland the inner clip, which lies in the cleft of the claw, starts from MEANS OF RESTRAINT. 423 the posterior third of the shoe and is then bent forwards, upwards, and outwards over the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is at the outer part of the toe, close to the anterior margin of the shoe. This shoe (fig. 401) is more ditiicult to fashion, but when well made fits better than any other. To apply a single shoe to the two claws would, of course, prevent the natural movement of the parts. The fixing of the foot for shoeing is often very difficult. It is first necessary to fasten the animal's head to a tree or wall. The fore-foot is then secured with a broad piece of webbing, which is thrown over the withers and held on tlie opposite side. The hind-foot is lifted by means of a round piece of wood thrust in front of one hock and above the other and grasped by two men, or may be kept bent by applying a leg twitch above the hock. Oxen may also be shod in an ox Fig. 401.— Voigtland shoe for oxen. travis — the foot being secured in a grooved wooden arm and the ox's body supported by a sling. In places where many oxen are shod a travis is very useful (fig. 402). This travis consists of four strong posts 11 feet high (of which o feet is firmly fixed in the earth) and 8 inches square {aa, hb), fastened 'together by longitudinal and transverse stays {cc, d). In the middle of the two front posts is the head post (c) of equal height and strength. Five feet above the gTound this is provided witli an aperture, 4 inches broad and 20 high, in which revolves a pulley (i) ; below this is a windlass {Ic) with ratchet and pawl for the purpose of winding up the rope fastened round the animal's horns. Each pair of posts have, on their front or back surface, a deep slot about 3 inches broad {n^ within which run two rails (o and^;), capable 424 THE SHOEING OF OXEN. of being raised and lowered or fastened at any point by means of iron pins. The two posts to the right are provided with a revolving eight-sided axle, to one end of which is attached a ratchet and pawl. On one of the eight surfaces of this axle are six iron hooks, to which the belly piece can be attached. c eS CO o a> 5 to C3 o O Opposite the axle and at the same height is a fixed baulk (/) with six hooks {gg). The belly piece, 6 feet in length and 6 inches in breadth, carries at either end cords 1\ feet in length, provided with iron rings at their free ends. On the inner side THE OX TRAVIS. 425 > '> O o 426 THE SHOEING OF OXEN. of the two front posts is a neck piece (h) and breast piece,, which by means of slots and iron pins may be raised or lowered. Each of the two hind posts has at the back an iron bearer 18 inches in length (s), the free ends of which carry rings 6 inches across {t). Through these a stout rod, padded at the centre, may be thrust and fixed by two pins. Above this bearer are two iron hooks for fixing the breeching. Before the animal is placed in the travis the neck piece is raised, the breast piece depressed, and the belly piece allowed to hang from the fixed cross piece. The animal is then placed in position, a rope thrown over its horns and the end passed over the pulley {i) fixed to the hook on the windlass and drawn up sufficiently tight to fix the head. The neck piece and breast piece are then respectively lowered and raised, the breeching fastened -to the point marked v and the belly piece attached to the axle, so that this latter may be drawn far enough up, if necessary, to completely support the animal's weight. The front feet durino; shoeinii; are fastened to the side bars by means of a cord attached to the fetlock. The cord is passed a few times round the bar and fixed to the hook {r). The hind-feet are fastened by a slip-knot passed round the fetlock and drawn up over the cross bar, so that the front surface of the fetlock lies on the padded part of the bar, the foot being fixed in this position by passing the cord a number of times around the bar and there knotting it. When no travis is at hand one may be improvised out of very simple materials, as, for instance, the waggon shown in fig, 403.* The ox is fixed by the head to the side of the waggon between the front and hind wheel. A strong bar is then slipped under one hind leg and between the axle and upright of the front wheel ; the opposite end of the bar is then lifted until the animal is thrown somewhat towards the other side and leans heavily on the pole. The pole can then be fastened to the waggon by means of a rope and the outer leg lifted as usual. In this way, with one assistant and without any par- ticular difficulty, the most troublesome ox can be controlled. * Although this form of waggon is not used in England the illustration has been inserted, as, with its assistance, a similar travis may readily be improvised, though necessarily with different apj^aratus. o o n o o o o o l-H w 02 fed H pa To face f. 427.] APPENDIX B. T. FAT^PtlETJS' TEACHING SCHOOLS. The farriers' trade in England being still open to all comers, and not restricted, as in Germany and certain other Conti- nental countries, to duly instructed and certificated persons, it is not always easy to induce those desiring to enter its ranks to fully qualify themselves for their life's work. Nor indeed are the opportunities afforded them. At the present time the old system of apprenticeship is fast dying out, and we cannot help again expressing our regret that the Worshipful Company of Farriers should have so neglected their opportunities as to entirely forego the exercise of the powers they took to en- courage and revive it. Apprenticeship still rei^resents the only system under which youths can become good workmen. The acquisition of a few half -understood plirases about the anatomy of the foot is of no value, and the fullest, knowledge of anatomy and physiology is absolutely useless unless conjoined with a thorough mastery of the craft, and that education of the eye and hand whicli only comes by years of steady practice under a master's supervision. It is a fact, w^e believe, that at the present time no school, competent to convey this instruction, exists in England. But for those who have already made some progress two public bodies at least, viz., the Berkshire County Council and the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society, have provided much needed assistance by instituting travelling scliools. A photo- graph of the Berkshire County Councils School, with the demonstrator and class, forms the frontispiece to this volume, and another view, show^ing the van, etc., is given here. The van contains two fires, witli anvils, vices, and all necessary 428 farriers' teaching schools. appliances. The demonstrator is a man of proved ability, and is supervised and assisted by a member of the Eoyal College of Veterinary Surgeons, who delivers a course of lectures on the anatomy and physiology of the foot. As stated, instruction is not given to beginners, but only to those already possessing a fair knowledge of the trade. In the cases of the West of England Association, the course consists of ten lectures, for which a fee of 2s. 6d. is charged. The classes contain four pupils each, and as tliese cannot always attend on consecutive nights, two classes are formed and receive instruction on alternate nights. Instruction begins at 6 I'.M. The pupils are shown the correct methods of shoeing every kind of horse they are likely to meet with, and how to adapt shoes to abnormal feet. A typical collection of shoes and hoofs is always on exhibition at the school. In addition to the apparatus contained in the van, the Society provides all necessary tools and appliances for pupils' use. In the practical course the pupils work in pairs, each pupil making one or more shoes, which are examined and criticised by the instructor, who points out the defects and the methods of avoiding or remedying them. Sometimes it is even necessary to show the pupil how to handle his tools so as to obtain the best results. The first shoes made are usually fore and hind cart, and the pupil gradually passes on, as he becomes adept, to the making of riding and carriage horse shoes, concave fullered shoes, bar shoes, ' dub-toed ' shoes, ' cradled ' shoes, ' set-heeled ' shoes, ' diamond- toed ' hind shoes, and in fact every kind of patho- logical shoe. One or two e\'enings a week are usually set aside for shoeing such horses as can be obtained in the neighbourhood, when instruction is given in handling animals, picking up feet, taking off shoes, preparing feet for shoeing, and (after making satis- factory shoes) nailing-on. From the foregoing it will be seen that, despite the public- spirited efforts of our County Councils and Agricultural Societies, England is still far behind Continental countries in providing technical education for farriers, and it is greatly to be desired either that a stimulus be given to the system of apprentice- ship, or that proper teaching schools for farriers (which could THE CURRICULUM. 429 be attached to the Veterinary and Agricultural Schools) be instituted. In London, the excessive pressure of work and the introduction of machine-made shoes and nails have dealt a death-blow to ' skill ' of the highest kind. Shop-boys graduate into doormen in the course of a couple of years without having seen, much less practised, one half of their craft ; and were it not for the constant influx of country workmen into the Metropolis, efficient doormen, capable at a pinch of fitting or making a shoe, would cease to exist. II. SHOEING COMPETITIONS. For competitions at shows teniporary sheds are required, and the arrangement of forges, stands, and enclosures for the public requires some care and forethought. The Plan here- with shows one method of utilising a space about 70 feet square, and obviates the necessity for a long description. The sheds are formed of skeleton wooden frames covered with canvas, except in the case of those containing the forges, where wood should be used for the sides and corrugated iron for the roof, to avoid the chance of ignition by a flue becoming overheated or of sparks flying from the anvils. The stalls for horses should be floored with wood, and, to protect the workers in case of rain, roofed with canvas (see Plan) ; in very wet weather a layer of sawdust spread on the floor will be found to prevent horses or men slipping. A stout wooden rail should be provided at the end furthest from the anvils, to which the horses can be fastened. The open ends of sheds containing the anvils should, if possible, look towards the north, so ns to secure a good light without the sun shining in the face of the fireman. A stand for the public will be found of advantage, as many persons interested in the competitions do not care to be jostled by the crowd which usually collects on these occasions, and will gladly pay a small sum for- ihe privilege of a seat. Competitors should be required to bring their own tools and nails, and to provide a striker, but the show connnittee should find everything else. An experienced farrier should 430 SHOEING COMrETITIONS. be ill atteiidauce to keep tlie tires going when not in use, and to clean out the sheds. There are generally two classes, nags and heavy horses. TJie horses lequired should be carefully selected by the stewards or judges the day previous to the competition, care being taken to provide animals fairly representing each class, and to exclude those with broken or defective feet, or which are known to be ditticult to shoe. On the day of the competition neither members of the public nor competitors should be allowed access to the animals until work actually l)egins, otherwise the ' old hands,' if they see a horse with bad feet, will hold back and so delay progress. Xumbers haviiiir been attached to each horse's mane or halter, a corresponding series is drawn by the competitors, each of whom afterwards takes the horse thus assigned him. The men are then assembled, and the steward in charge recites the conditions of the competition, and explains that each man must be prepared to start when called on, failing which he will be put last on the list or disqualitied. The judge or judges may add a few words, and should claim the right to stop any com- petitor at any stage without assigning to him a reason. All preparations being complete, the men's numbers are suspended above the shoeing sheds (a common practice is to take odd and even numbers alternately), the horses are brought from the stable, and work commences. Men who have tinished should at once return to their room, and should not be allowed to walk- about or in anv wav interfere with those at work. The competitor is usually asked to make a fore and a hind shoe, and to put on the fore shoe in a given time. In the greater number of instances this is a sufficient test, but, as shown by the appended form of marking-book, it is not uncommon to require the hind shoe also to be nailed on. Most judges prefer to divide the operations into three parts: (1) Taking off shoe and preparing foot ; (2) Making shoe ; (3) Fitting and nailing-on. The question of time is of minor importance, thou oh the total time allowed should not be exceeded. In a close competition the saving of a few minutes may serve to mark out the winner. The svstem of marking varies. Some judges use numbers, others terms, like fair, good, very good, etc. It is difficult to sav which is the better. It is very CONDUCT OF THE COMPETITION. 431 difficult to judge to one point, and we suspect that in most ■cases judges make tlieir awards less by the strict reading of their notes than by the general impression derived from watch- ing the competitor. Numbers awarded at any early stage may be quite discounted by some glaring error connnitted later. We refrain from oftering further suggestions on the matter of judging, as the very fact of a person occupying the position of judge presupposes him possessed of a full and intimate knowledge of the technique of liorse-shoeing. 432 SHOEING COMPETITIONS. O H O o I— I o W 72 Remarks. Oral. S - Nailing on Shoes, Hind. CD M a .1—1 • • CD • Taking off Shoes and ])reparing Feet. P=^ 1 6 o o PQ 6 l-H PS 03 »-» o o ( 433 ) GROUND PLAN OF BUILDINGS REQUIRED FOR SHOEING COMPETITION. GROUND 24 YARDS SQUARE. Scale J inch to the yard. REFERENCE TO NUMBERS ON PLAN. q L 1 10 1 " 1 2 4 5 6 7 3^ f20 21 \ / 22 _^ 25 24- 25 26 ^s r\ Zl 27 29 29 ///T mca 21 //^jT l#7^f 1 ^® I 3 FT. WIDE 29 SFT, WtOE 30 31 30 1. Doorway, 4 ft. wide, leading to stabling for horses. 2. Competitors' room, 16 ft, by 15 ft. 3. 4, 5, and 6. Blacksmiths' shops, 9 ft. wide. 7. Judges' and Stewards' room, 16 ft. by 15 ft. 8, 9, 10, and 11. Forges, 3 yards square. 12, 13, 14, and 15. Anvils. 16, 17, 18, and 19. Benches and vices. 20. Doorway, 3 ft. wide. 21. Doorway, 3 ft. wide. 22. Space for Judges, 9 ft. wide. 23, 24, 25, and 26. Shoeing sheds, 8 ft. wide, 7 ft. 6 in. high to eaves, and 12 ft. long, boarded up to 4 ft. 6 in. at front, and with wooden Hoors. 27. Space between shoeing sheds and standing place for public, 9 ft. wide all round as shown. 28. Drop rail, for admitting to shoe- ing sheds and smiths' shops, 3 ft. 6 in. high. 29. vStanding room for ])ublic. 30. Grand stand for public, 18 ft. wide. 31. Entrance, 6 ft. wide. 2e INDEX ADVANCiyG FOOT, method of, 182. AluTuinium shoes, 132. Ancients unacquainted with horse-shoe- ing, 3. Anti-concussive mechanism of limb, 112. Arteries of foot, 54. Asses, shoeing of, 310. " Back," making a, 142. Bare-foot, working, 210. Bar shoes, special, 324-327. Bars of foot, 70, 77. ,, angle of, 77. ,, relations and extent of, 78. " Binding," a cause of lameness, 380. Blood-vessels, description of, 52. Bones of foot, 24. The great metacarpus, 24, The sufifraginis bone or 1st phalanx, 24. The sesamoid bones, 26. The coronet bone or 2nd phalanx, 27. The pedal bone or 3rd phalanx, 28. The navicular bone, 30. Bulbs, cellular, of foot, 49. Calkins, 147. ,, disadvantages of, 215. " Canker " of the frog or sole, 400. ,, special shoes for dressing, 383-385, 401, 402. Capillaries, description of, 53. Capped elbow, shoe for, 413. Carriage horses, general remarks on shoeing, 236. ,, ,, special shoes for, 241-243. Cart horses, general remarks on shoeing, 247. ,, ,, special shoes for, 249-252. Cartilage, description of, 45. ,, lateral, 46. Celtic shoes, 5. Changing the style of shoeing, 264. Charlier shoe and system, 254. ,, tip, 258. Cogs, fro.st, 164. Competitions, shoeing, 429. 5> J J 5> Competitions, ground plan of buildings for, 433. ,, judge's book for, 432. Concussion, how it is neutralised, 113. Conformation of foot, 179. „ limbs (fore), 172. „ (hind), 177. Contraction of heels, 340. predisposing causes, 343. exciting causes, 345. treatment, 347, 359. mechanical treat- ment, 350. ,, De Fay's shoe for, 350. , , Hartman n's expand- ing shoes for, 350. ,, Einsiedel's shoe for, 351. foot, special shoes, etc. for, 353, 354. ,, operation for, 355. ,, weak heels, 356. ,, ,, local, 357. Control of horse, 197. Corium, 61. Corn, titting shoe for, 322. Corns, 387. ,, microscopical changes in Avail after, 388. ,, varieties of, 389. ,, special shoes for, 393-395. Coronary band, 68. ,, ' plexus, 58. Cracks, transverse, of wall, 372. Curb, shoes for, 410, 411. Curvature, lateral, of hoof, 363. Cutigeral groove, 81. Cutting or striking, general remarks on, 286. ,, ,, special shoes for, 288-300. boots for, 291. Delperier's remedy for, 291. weighted shoes for, 291. >> >} j> 436 INDEX. Development of hoof, periods in, 101. Direction of horn cells in different structures, 98. Disadvantages of shoeing, 278. Disease of feet and limbs due to concus- sion, 280. Distortion, lateral, of hoof, 360. Dorsal Hexion of fetlock, 118. "Dropped "sole, 333. ,, special shoes for, 334, 335. >i Early German shoes, 12. Einsiedel's, von, winter shoe, 157. Elastic tissues of foot, 45. ,, tissue, description of, 45. Epidermis, 61. Examination of horse after shoeing, 277. ,, prior to shoeing, 199. Expansion of hoof, early experiments on, 117. general conclusions on, 117. )} Farriers' schools, 16, 427. Fire, farrier's, 142. Fitting the shoe, 265. ,, to normal feet, 267. ,, for irregular confor- mation of limbs, 268. ,, ,, for rapid work, 270. ,, ,, for heavy draught horses, 270. Fitzwy gram's (Sir F.) shoe, 260. Flat sole, 330. ,, ,, shoe for, 330. Foot-axis, 181, 208. Foot, bones of, see "Bones." ,, conformation of, 179. ,, definition of, 20. ,, structure of, 20. ,, ligaments of, see "Ligaments." Forging, general remarks on, 282. ,, special shoes for, 284-286. Forging the shoe, 140. ,, a fore shoe, 143. ,, a hind shoe, 144. ,, a bar shoe, 146. Form, changes in, of hoof, ^115. Frog, sensitive, 51, 72. ,, horny,,88. Frog-stay, 88. Frost cogs, 164. ,, nails, 155. ,, stubs, 155. ,, screws, 158. Fullering, 136. Functions, mechanical, of hoof. 111. ,, of foot, 90. 5 > Function of sensitive wall, theories of, 110. Glands, sebaceous, 63. Groove, cutigeral, 81. Growth of horn, influence of nerve supply on, 102. Hacks, general remarks on shoeing, 217. ,, special shoes for, 218, 219- Hair, growth of, 62. Hardening the hoof, ancient methods of, 3. Heels of shoe, length of, 212. Hipposandals, 4. Histology of horn, 93. History of horse-shoeing, 2. Hoof, form and ])roportions of, 185. ,, sound, characteristics of, 191. ,, rings on, significance of, 192. ,, wear of, 193. ,, ointments, action and composition of, 314. Horn, histology of, 93. tubes or fibres, 94. cells, 96. cells, directions of, in difl'erent structures, 98. physical and chemical properties of, 99. pigment, 99. constitution of, 100, growth of, 103. substitutes for, 328. ,, De Fay's artificial, 328. , , tumours, or keratomata, 390, 398. ,, frog, how formed, 65. ,, sole, how formed, 65. „ wall, 74. ,, ,, division into toe, quarter, heel, etc., 75. ,, ,, thickness of, 76. Horse nails, 272. Horse-shoeing a science and an art, 1. ,, ,, objects of, 2. Horse-shoes, characters of, 133. form of, 133. breadth and thickness of, 134. surfaces and borders of, 135. ,, machine-made, 151. " Huflederkitt," 328. Hunters, general remarks on shoeing, 220. ,, special shoes for, 223-228. Inflammation within the hoof, 316. ,, ,, symptoms of, 317. ,, ,, ,, treatment of, 319. if J > >» INDEX. 437 Irregular conformation , fitting shoes for, 268. Joint, ginglymoid, definition of, fetlock. 33. pastern, 37. pedal or cofiin, 38. Joint oil, 32. KER ATOM ATA, 390, 398. Knife, Arabian, 204. *' drawing, 203. ''Knuckling over" at fetlock, 339. " special shoes for, 338, 339. Laced-on shoes. 222. Lacuna? of frog, 78. Lacuna, median, of frog, 89. Lameness from shoeing, statistics of, 279. Laminae, sensitive, 70. length of at various points. 71. horn, 82. number of, 84. breadth of, etc., 84. secondary, 95. Laminal plexus. 57. Laminitis, shoeing after, 396. Leather soles, 301. Ligaments of the foot, 32. fetlock joint, 33. suspensory o r superior sesa- moidean. 35. '* jmstern joint. 37. coffin joint. 38. Limbs, conformation of (fore), 172. (hind), 177 Loose wall, 372. Lymphatics, description of, 53. Material for shoes, 129. Mechanical functions of hoof. 111. Mechanism, anti-concussive, of limb, 112. Middle-ages, shoes of the, 8. Moving, how hoof is advanced in, 182. Mules, shoeing of, 310. Nail-holes, 188. Nail-holes, "coarse"' and "fine," 138. Nailing on the shoe, directions for, 273. Nails," 272. Navicular disease, 407. " gait in, 408.