THE LIBRARY OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 AT CHAPEL HILL 
 
 ENDOWED BY THE 
 DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC 
 SOCIETIES 
 
 QC955 
 
UNIVERSITY OF N.C. AT CHAPEL HILL 
 
 1000108727 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2014 
 
 https://archive.org/details/tornadoeswhattheOOfinl 
 
TORNADOES. 
 
 WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW TO OBSERVE THEM; 
 WITH PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION 
 OF LIFE AND PROPERTY. 
 
 QC 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN P. FINLEY, M. S., F. S. Sc. 
 
 Lieut. Signal Corps, U. S. Army ; 
 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Science, Letters and Art, London ; Member 
 of the Societie Meteorologique de France, Paris. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 The Insuranxe Monitor. 
 
 1887. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the 3^ear 1887, by C. C. Hine, in the 
 office of the Librarian oi Congress at Washington. 
 
The important information set forth in this book is the result 
 of many years of labor and the examination of more than five 
 thousand storms. Ascertained facts have been taken as the 
 basis of every statement, and it is believed that, while further in- 
 vestigation may add truth to truth, it will only set more strongly 
 the seal of authority upon what is here presented concerning 
 the special characteristics of tornadoes and the great dangers 
 which accompany them, augmenting the practical knowledge 
 thus far obtained regarding the protection of life and property. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tornadoes Peculiar to America 7 
 
 Chart No. i, Showing Geographical Distribution of Tor- 
 nadoes facing page 7 
 
 Cyclones 10 
 
 Hurricanes 13 
 
 Whirlwinds 14 
 
 Waterspouts 15 
 
 Hailstorms 16 
 
 Thunder-storms 17 
 
 The Tornado ; its Definition, Conditions of Formation, etc. 19 
 
 Premonitory Signs 25 
 
 Illustrations of Tornado -clouds 27, 29, 31, 33, 36, 37, etc. 
 
 Protection 43 
 
 Suggestions for Escape 44 
 
 Plan for a Tornado-cave 51-65 
 
 Illustrations of Tornado-cave 54, 56, 58, etc. 
 
 Descriptions of Individual Tornadoes, with Numerous Illus- 
 trations 69-100 
 
 Tornado in Saline County, Kansas 69 
 
 Tornado at Lee's Summit, Missouri 78 
 
 Tornado in Marshall County, Kansas 86 
 
 Tornado in South Carolina 95 
 
 Chart No. 2, Delineating Course of Progressive Movement, 
 
 facing page loc 
 
 Tabulated Statistics of Tornado Observations 104-144 
 
 Summary of Results 145 
 
 Scientific Resume of Tornado Characteristics 147 
 
 Instructions for Observing Wind-storms 169 
 
 General Instructions to Volunteer Tornado Reporters 189 
 
TORNADOES, 
 
 BY 
 
 Lieut. John P. Finley, U. S. A. 
 
 The people of the United States are no longer strangers to" 
 that dreaded aerial monster, the Tornado. A single experi- 
 ence of this awful convulsion of the elements suffices to fasten 
 the memory of its occurrence upon the mind with such a 
 dreadful force that no eff'ort can efface the remembrance of it. 
 The destructive violence of this storm exceeds in its power, 
 fierceness, and grandeur all other phenomena of the at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 For over two hundred years past the scientific records of 
 this country have furnished information concerning these 
 storms. It is the same fearful story year after year, of destruc- 
 tion and death, and the records are now sufficiently complete 
 to show beyond all contradiction or exception that tornadoes 
 are indigenous to this country. They belong here because 
 our geographical position and the topography of the country 
 are altogether favorable for the conditions which give rise to 
 their formation. No other country in the world is scourged 
 by them as is the United States of America. If our broad ex- 
 panse of country was cut up by mountain ranges running in 
 every direction, forming a network over the vast plains of 
 the West, and cutting up like a checker-board the great valleys 
 between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain ranges, then 
 
s 
 
 topographical conditions would intervene and present formid- 
 able barriers to the direction and effect of surface currents. 
 These conditions, if they were present, would well nigh rid 
 the country of the funnel-shaped cloud. Fortunately — or un- 
 fortunately, we are not to say which — there are no natural barri- 
 ers to the development of tornadoes in the greater portion of 
 the United States. Their geographical distribution is graphic- 
 ally presented by chart No. i (see frontispiece), and the effect 
 of the Appalachian chain of mountains, and that of the 
 Rockies and the Sierra Nevadas over the vast stretch of 
 country west of the looth meridian (Greenwich) is strongly dis- 
 played on the chart and the argument set forth is conclusive. 
 
 The populous region of the United States is forever doomed 
 to the devastation of the tornado. As certain as that night 
 follows day is the coming of the funTiel-shaped cloud. So 
 long as the sun shines upon the vast regions in the Mississippi 
 and Missouri valleys, there will forever occur those atmos- 
 pheric conditions which terminate in the destructive violence 
 of the tornado. Nature's laws are unerring in their certainty 
 of procedure, the earth must travel in its orbit about the 
 sun and the seasons must recur in regular sequence as the re- 
 sult of this wonderful periodicity of movement. The earth 
 must revolve upon its axis, and daylight and darkness, heat 
 and cold, must succeed each other with infallible precision. 
 Without these great and regular mutations dependent upon 
 the solar system, atmospheric phenomena would cease alto- 
 gether. Granting that the solar system must continue intact, 
 we have but to watch and protect ourselves as best we may 
 against the fury of the elements. Ignorance of our surround- 
 ings is a most unfortunate plea for those who stubbornly fail 
 to heed the warnings of science. Thousands of people com- 
 fort themselves with the thought that as they have escaped in 
 the past, so will they always remain free from danger; but a 
 knowledge of the tornado, and the necessary precautions to 
 be taken for purposes of safety, should be as common and 
 
9 
 
 familiar to the people living in tornado districts as a knowl- 
 edge of the ordinary methods of extinguishing fire. Every 
 effort should be made to popularize the information on this 
 most important subject. 
 
 In spite of all that has been written and published about 
 tornadoes in the press, in scientific journals, and through the 
 Signal Service, much confusion prevails regarding the appli- 
 cation of the term and the distinctive character of the storm. 
 This confusion leads to a most unfortunate disregard of cer- 
 tain necessary provisions for safety which should not be 
 neglected by people residing in the tornado districts. Under 
 the head of wind-storms there are various atmospheric 
 phenomena, severally designated as tornadoes, cyclones, hurri- 
 canes, whirlwinds, waterspouts, hailstorms, and thunder- 
 storms, which are essentially distinct in their characteristics. 
 While they are all seriously destructive in their effects, there 
 are many differences which give rise to modifications in their 
 development which it is of importance to know. All of these 
 storms are more or less destructive to life and property, there- 
 fore means of protection should invite the earnest attention of 
 all people. 
 
 The coming and going of these storms are as certain as 
 death, yet adequate means of protection for the body and 
 for property are strangely ignored ! A practical knowledge of 
 the various kinds of storms known to the United States 
 should be one of the subjects of instruction in our public 
 schools. As the country increases in wealth and population, 
 which it now is doing with wonderful rapidity, the danger to 
 be apprehended from the violence of wind-storms is ap- 
 palling. Formerly, these violent meteors left no mark upon 
 the treeless and uninhabited prairie, or if passing through the 
 wooded regions there remained but the ''windfall" to denote 
 the track of the monster, but now the farm-house and the 
 village dot the plain, and the hardy laborer has forced his 
 way with his family into the depths of the forest. Where, years 
 
lO 
 
 before, there were but inanimate objects to mark the fury of 
 the tornado, precious lives and hard-earned property now 
 succumb to its violence. The funnel-shaped cloud with its 
 tail lashing the earth must now pursue a most tortuous course 
 to avoid the farm-house and the mill, the schoolhouse and 
 the church. The best evidences of civilization and material 
 prosperity suffer untold misfortune, and must continue to do 
 so while our earth has an atmosphere and the sun shines 
 upon it. 
 
 This state of things, which upon first consideration may 
 cause alarm and discouragement, should upon reflection give 
 rise to courageous efforts in the direction of securing in- 
 demnity from loss of property, and establishing provisions of 
 safety for human life. The protection of life and property 
 from fire, shipwreck, and disease has compelled the growth 
 of institutions under State authority which afford a safe and 
 generous indemnification in case of loss ; a similar necessity 
 in the event of destruction by wind-storms must call for the 
 growth and support of similar institutions. 
 
 I have previously referred to the necessity of a practical 
 knowledge by the people generally of the various classes of 
 wind-storms, particularly the tornado. It will not be amiss 
 here to give a brief description of those phenomena, point 
 out their differences, and then follow with a special discus- 
 sion of the tornado. 
 
 CYCLONES. 
 
 A cyclone is not a tornado, either in the perfection of its 
 development, or in any stage of its formation and progressive 
 movement. The two storms are essentially different. The 
 cyclone possesses the following characteristics: The path of 
 the storm is a parabolic curve. It trends northwestward from 
 the West Indies until it reaches parallel 30° N. when it curves 
 to the N. E. and continues in that direction, either at some 
 distance off the Atlantic coast, on its immediate border, or a 
 
II 
 
 short distance inland. The storm finally disappears ocean- 
 waid in the vicinity of parallel of 50° N. The diameter of its 
 path varies from several hundred to over one thousand miles. 
 At the immediate center of the storm there is a dead calm, a 
 most fatal place for ships to be caught. At no point without 
 the storm's center does the air actually move or whirl in a 
 circle, but there is a cyclonic tendency of the atmosphere 
 about the region of barometric minima, viz.: where the 
 barometer is the lowest. Upon taking a number of points, 
 located here and there in the four quadrants* of the meteoric 
 disturbance, it will be found that in the northeast quadrant 
 the winds vary from southeast to northeast ; in the northwest 
 quadrant from northeast to northwest ; in the southwest 
 quadrant from northwest to southwest, and in the southeast 
 quadrant from southwest to southeast. The barometer is a 
 veiry important factor in all calculations bearing upon a 
 determination of the character and approach of the cyclone at 
 any point in the parabolic course of the storm. The wind 
 very rarely reaches either an estimated or measured velocity 
 of one hundred miles per hour. The maximum velocity gen- 
 erally ranges from sixty to eighty miles per houn As a rule 
 there is no sudden, overwhelming dash of the wind, but a 
 gradual approach or increase of movement which eventually 
 culminates in a fierce intensity sufficiently powerful at times 
 to destroy buildings or sink the largest ships. Cyclones 
 occur most frequently in the months from August to Novem- 
 ber. In the China and Japan Seas this class of wind-storms 
 is called typhoons. In general, as to their place of origin, 
 cyclones form south of the Tropic of Cancer, between the belt 
 of calms and the southern limit of the trade-winds ; say, 
 briefly, in the vicinity of 10° N., 50° W. This region co- 
 incides with the zone of constant rainfall, where evaporation 
 
 * Quadrant ; the fourth part ofa circle. In describing wind-storms, etc., it is cus- 
 tomary to speak of the area alluded to as divided into four " quadrants the north- 
 east, northwest, southwest, and southeast. 
 
12 
 
 is very rapid, cloud formation exceedingly brisk, the lair 
 almost constantly saturated with moisture, and heavy con- 
 densation a regular feature of the day. Typhoons form 
 south of the Tropic of Cancer and in the vicinity of the 
 Philippine Islands, moving thence northwestward to the Asiatlic 
 Coast and then curving to the northeast over the adjacent seas 
 and islands. As to the character of the region in which th^y 
 form, the same remarks apply as in the case of cyclones. 
 
 TORNADOES. 
 
 The tornado is truly and invariably a land-storm, which we 
 find possessed of the following prominent characteristics : A 
 path varying in width from a few yards to eighty rods. T^e 
 general direction of movement of the tornado-cloud is ii:i- 
 variably from a point in the southwest quadrant to a point 
 in the northeast quadrant. The tornado-cloud assumes the 
 form of a funnel, the small end drawing near to or resting 
 upon the earth. This cloud, or the moving air of which it 
 is the embodiment, revolves about a central, vertical axis 
 with inconceivable rapidity, and always in a direction con- 
 trary to the movement of the hands of a watch. The 
 destructive violence of the storm is sometimes confined to 
 th^ immediate path of the cloud, as when the small or tail 
 end just touches the earth While, on the other hand, as the 
 body of the cloud lowers, more of it rests upoh the earth, the 
 violence increases and the path widens to the extreme limit. 
 The tornado with hardly an exception occurs in the afternoon, 
 just after the hottest part of the day, and generally disappears 
 before the going down of the sun. The hour of greatest fre- 
 quency is between three and four p. m. A tornado very 
 rarely, if ever, begins after six p. m. , but a tornado commencing 
 about five p. m. may coniinue its characteristic violence until 
 nearly eight p. m., which only means that the tornado-clouci 
 may be traveling after six p. m. or after seven p. m., but it does 
 not develop, that is, make its appearance for the first time,: 
 
13 
 
 after those hours. Without the path of destruction, even to 
 the shortest distances, at times even along the immediate 
 edge, the smallest objects often remain undisturbed, although 
 a few yards distant the largest and strongest buildings are 
 crushed to atoms. At any point along the storm s path, 
 where there is opportunity afforded the tornado-cloud to dis- 
 play its power, the disposition of the debris presents unmis- 
 takable signs of the revolving, right-to-left action of the wind. 
 The violence and intensity of the destructive power increases 
 directly as you pass from the circumference of the storm to its 
 center. 
 
 Observations with the barometer are of little practical value 
 at any one point, whether made before or after the tornado- 
 cloud has formed or while it is approaching. Such observa- 
 tions will not indicate its approach, however near the position 
 of the instrument to the point of the cloud's inception. The 
 ' ' tornado season is embraced between March and October. 
 The months of greatest frequency are May and July. There 
 are exceptional instances in a long series of years where tor- 
 nadoes have been reported in every month of the year. They 
 may, and sometimes do, occur in some of the Southern States 
 during the winter and spring months. Taking the whole 
 United States together and averaging the dates of occurrence 
 for a long series of years (over 200) it is found that the 
 region of greatest frequency embraces the States of Kansas, 
 Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa. Of all the States in the 
 Union, Kansas and Missouri rank the highest in regard to 
 frequency. 
 
 HURRICANES. 
 
 Although it seems hardly necessary to'define the hurricane, 
 it will perhaps be well to state that as here considered it means a 
 straight wind of extraordinary velocity. It may, and frequently 
 does, occur without the accompaniment of any precipitation. 
 On the summit of Mount Washington, White Mountains, 
 New Hampshire, a measured velocity of nearly two hundred 
 
14 
 
 miles per hour has been recorded. On the summit of Pike s 
 Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado, a measured velocity has 
 several times exceeded one hundred miles per hour. On the 
 coast of the Carolinas maximum measured velocities have 
 ranged from seventy-five to one hundred and sixty miles 
 per hour. In the Eastern Rocky Mountain Slope and in 
 the Lake Region measured velocities are sometimes re- 
 corded ranging between sixty and eighty miles per hour. 
 This storm may be known as the Blizzard of the Northwest, 
 the Chinook of the Northern Plateau, the Norther" of the 
 Southern Slope and Texas, or the Simoon of the Desert. 
 Hurricanes may occur at any hour of the day or night and 
 in any month of the year. The most violent, however, take 
 place during the spring and autumn. The width of the path 
 of the storm is very irregular and may vary from many rods 
 to many miles. In either case the velocity at all points within 
 the storm's path is not necessarily the same ; in fact such a 
 condition never occurs. The duration of the storm is also 
 extremely variable, it may continue for only a few minutes or 
 for several hours, although in the latter case the maximum 
 velocity is not maintained throughout the entire period; 
 on the contrary, there are periods of recurrence alternating 
 with decided diminutions of the highest activity. There are 
 perhaps but few portions of the country altogether free from 
 the possibility of their occurrence. In the low table-lands of 
 mountainous regions, where most of the country is extremely 
 broken, the habitable portions are shielded from the power of 
 violent wind-storms. No surface currents can attain any 
 great velocity in such regions, although on the mountain 
 peaks and elevated plateaus dangerous hurricanes at times 
 prevail. 
 
 WHIRLWINDS. 
 
 In defining these disturbances it will be best perhaps to 
 recall the occurrence, on a warm, dry day, of the formation 
 of a dust-whirl as it suddenly bursts upon you in the open 
 
'5 
 
 street, fairly enveloping your body with fine particles of dirt, 
 straw, leaves, and the like. Whirlwinds suddenly start up 
 from some barren, sandy spot unduly exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun. Over a small surface thus exposed the air 
 rapidly rarifies, and ascensional currents form which move 
 spirally inward and upward, carrying dust, leaves, straws, and 
 sometimes objects of considerable weight. The whirlwind's 
 path has a diameter of several feet (sometimes rods), and the 
 direction of its course of movement is decidedly irregular, 
 possibly moving toward any point in the compass. On the 
 sandy plains of Arizona, Southern California, and Nevada 
 these phenomena occur with great frequency during the sum- 
 mer months. Columns of whirling sand, sometimes several 
 in a group, move rapidly over the surface. A whirlwind is 
 harmless and generally of but a few moments' duration. In 
 comparing it with the tornado let it be borne in mind that the 
 whirlwind starts from the earth's surface, extends upward and 
 moves onward, not leaving the earth, being solely confined 
 to the region of surface currents, while the tornado forms near 
 the superior limit of the lower regions of the atmosphere and 
 between the upper and lower sets of currents, or the currents 
 prevailing in the upper and lower regions of the atmosphere ; 
 the former currents are indicated by the appearance of the fine 
 cirrus* clouds and the latter by the heavy cumulus formations. 
 From this lofty seat of origin the tornado-cloud gradually 
 descends to the earth s surface, increasing rapidly in size and 
 augmenting in power. 
 
 WATERSPOUTS. 
 
 These disturbances generally form at a considerable height 
 in the air, although at times they seem to ascend from the 
 water's surface ; that is to say, there is no visible agent in- 
 fluencing the ascension of the water, but of course in every 
 
 * Cirrus clouds are fibrous or woolly-looking. Cumulus clouds are convex masses, 
 piled one upon another. Stratus clouds are spread over the face of the sky evenly 
 or in horizontal layers. Nimbus is a name given to ordinary rain-clouds. 
 
instance the causative power is from above and in the latter 
 case near the water s surface. When I speak of the formation 
 of the waterspout at a considerable height in the air, I mean 
 that the embodiment of the whirl, or the revolving current of 
 air, first appears as a dark cloud of minutely divided particles 
 of water, the result of rapid condensation, of course in the 
 air and therefore above the water. The swift passage of the 
 air in a spirally upward motion over the surface of the water 
 raises it in the form of spray and carries it upward in the 
 center of the whirling cloud, which then presents the appear- 
 ance of a densely opaque body and conveys an impression 
 to the eye of the observer, that a huge column of water is 
 ascending in the form of a long spout, widening gradually 
 toward the top. There are instances, however, where the 
 force manifested is sufficient to raise a considerable quantity 
 of water several hundred feet in the air. Waterspouts form 
 during periods of excessive heat, generally in the afternoon 
 and at or near the hottest part of the day. In the temperate 
 zone they only occur during summer months. They are of 
 most frequent occurrence in the region of calms between the 
 tropics, but are not altogether strange sights in the Gulf of 
 Mexico and along the gulf stream south of parallel 40° N. 
 In regard to motions they possess both a rotary and pro- 
 gressive action, but in neither do they manifest a perma- 
 nency of direction. Waterspouts cannot be considered as 
 altogether harmless, for there are instances where vessels have 
 been wrecked by them. 
 
 HAILSTORMS 
 
 Are peculiar atmospheric disturbances which, in regard to 
 the dimensions of their paths, are next to the tornado the 
 most circumscribed of all storms save the whirlwind. They 
 are characterized by a strange cloud formation and a peculiar- 
 ity of precipitation unlike any other phenomena in the cate- 
 gory of storms. The cloud from which the hail falls is bas- 
 
7 
 
 ket-shaped, with a dark and portentous exterior, a ragged and 
 ominous-looking opening at the bottom, and within a whirl- 
 ing conglomeration of snow-flakes, pellets of snow and ice, 
 partly formed and perfect hailstones, the latter of an almost 
 infinite variety of shapes. The hail-cloud forms between the 
 currents of the upper and lower regions of the atmosphere 
 and moves forward in the plane of these currents, either 
 within or just above the upper limit of the lower atmospheric 
 regions, where it finally disappears and the deposition of hail 
 ceases. The path of the storm, as indicated by the distribution 
 of the hailstones, is at times very narrow, although the range of 
 width is decidedly inconstant, varying from one to fifteen miles. 
 The hailstorm travels quite rapidly, from thirty to fifty miles per 
 hour, and the length of its path is even more variable than 
 the diameter, ranging as it does from ten miles to two hundred 
 or more. The direction of the course pursued by the storm 
 is always from some point west to some point east. It may 
 be from northwest to southeast or from southwest to northeast. 
 Hailstorms may occur at any time of the day or night, although 
 they are most frequent in the afternoon, just after or near the 
 hottest part of the day. They are most prevalent in that 
 region of country embraced between the parallels of 30° and 
 50° N. South of parallel 30° N. hailstorms are of rare oc- 
 currence at the level of the sea, but at the height of one or 
 two hundred feet they occur more frequently, and in the 
 mountains of British India they are very common, the hail- 
 stones being usually of large size. Hailstorms are not neces- 
 sarily confined to the land areas, but may and frequently do 
 occur over large and small bodies of water 
 
 THUNDER-STORMS. 
 
 These phenomena are atmospheric disturbances of great 
 variability of extent and power. They are always accompanied 
 by such manifestations of the presence of electricity as are 
 ordinarily termed thunder and lightning, the former being 
 
i8 
 
 entirely consequent upon the existence of the latter. Thun- 
 der is but the reverberation of the concussion produced by 
 the inconceivably rapid propulsion through the air of that 
 physical element we are pleased to term electricity. Thunder- 
 storms may be a few miles or several hundred in extent, and 
 their length of duration is quite as uncertain, viz. : from a few 
 hours to one or more days. There is no regular time of day 
 for their occurrence, although they are perhaps more fre- 
 quent in the afternoon. However, they may occur at any 
 time during the day or night. As to the season of year, sum- 
 mer is the period of greatest prevalency. There is no month 
 of the year entirely free from them. Whether the precipita- 
 tion be rain or snow the presence of electricity has still been 
 manifested in the usual form. With the former character of 
 condensation of vapor the evidence of electricity is . most 
 common, while with the latter it is the rare exception. As re- 
 gards geographical distribution, thunder-storms are most fre- 
 quent between the equator and parallel 40° N., and from thence 
 to parallel 70° N. the average frequency diminishes with 
 considerable rapidity. In the vicinity of parallel 80° N. it 
 is believed they never occur, although this in the main is 
 mere supposition. There are certain portions of the United 
 States where thunder-storms are unusually frequent as com- 
 pared with other parts. They seldom appear in the Pacific 
 Coast States, especially California, and are most frequent and 
 violent in the Eastern Rocky Mountain Slope, the Lower 
 Missouri Valley, and in the Lake Region. 
 
 Having briefly outlined the characteristics of the various 
 classes of storms, we will now proceed to consider more in 
 detail the most important (at least in certain respects) of 
 all atmospheric disturbances. At this stage of our inquiry in 
 regard to the character and classes of storms, I presume it 
 will be admitted, that no two of the several storms defined, at 
 least appear to be alike. There are, however, points of re- 
 semblance, but in some these features are stronger than in 
 
19 
 
 others. As each is studied more carefully, the essential 
 points of difference will be more clearly contrasted. It is 
 not within the province of this book to discuss at length the 
 points of difference or harmony, nor to enter into an intricate 
 analysis of meteorological phenomena and the multiform op- 
 erations of atmospheric changes attending the origin, devel- 
 opment, and complete formation of these disturbances. On 
 the contrary, it is simply desired to present a brief but com- 
 prehensive resume of the leading features of storms, as known 
 at least in the United States, if not in North America, and in 
 particular to present rather a minute consideration of the 
 peculiarities of tornadoes, with a view to place at the disposal 
 of the people most interested^ the facts and practical results of 
 past and present investigations of this most terrible and yet 
 most wonderful and interesting of storms, the dreaded tornado. 
 
 THE TORNADO. 
 
 What is a tornado ? In defining this storm it would seem 
 almost a necessity to rehearse its long line of striking charac- 
 teristics, but this in the common acceptation of the term 
 would not strictly be a definition. For the sake of brevity, 
 we will state that the tornado is that form of atmospheric dis- 
 turbance which takes the outward, visible fashion or figure of 
 a funnel-shaped cloud, revolving about a vertical axis from 
 right to left* with an inconceivably rapid movement and an 
 immensity of power almost beyond calculation. 
 
 Conditions of Formation. — These may be divided into 
 classes. First, those within the reach of and which may be 
 known or investigated by an isolated observer. Second, those 
 conditions only to be witnessed and analyzed by the intelligent 
 and practiced eye of the student of the weather map. To the 
 single observer, located mayhap at his farm home, the work- 
 shop, or the store, there are important atmospheric conditions 
 which he may carefully watch and study with profit, viz. : the 
 
 * As you would turn a nut onto a bolt, point downward. 
 
21 
 
 gradual setting in and prolonged movement of the air from ; 
 
 the north and south points ; the gradual but continued fall j 
 of the thermometer with a prevalence of the northerly currents, 
 
 or a rise with the predominance of the southerly. If the north- ; 
 
 erly currents are the prevailing air-movements at your place \ 
 
 of observation, the atmospheric disturbance is forming to the | 
 
 southward, but if the prevailing air-currents are from the ; 
 south the storm is forming to the northward of your location. 
 
 Carefully study cloud development, color as well as form, also ; 
 
 manner and direction of approach. The approach of the cirrus ] 
 
 cloud (perhaps at a height of six to eight miles) from the \ 
 
 southwest is very significant, and is the first evidence of the i 
 gradual but certain advance of the upper southwest current, 
 
 which eventually plays so important a part in the development ^ 
 
 of the tornado-cloud. Clouds are but the embodiment of air- \ 
 
 currents, yet they are full of meaning. A study of the upper j 
 
 currents of the atmosphere would be impossible without their j 
 
 manifestations, and that, too, in a variety of forms. Without | 
 
 cloud formation, the face of the sky would become a blank, j 
 
 and intelligent reasoning thereof a superhuman task, \ 
 
 Wind direction, temperature, and clouds are the proper j 
 
 subjects of observation and thought by the isolated observer. \ 
 
 The barometer is of little if any importance in this line of in- \ 
 
 quiry. If you cannot compare your barometric observations ; 
 
 with those taken at near or distant points and at the same .,' 
 
 moment of actual time, they are of no practical moment, \ 
 
 even though your instrument is a standard one and your cor- \ 
 
 rections for temperature and elevation carefully applied. The j 
 
 storm you are watching for (the tornado) is an extremely ■ 
 
 local affair, whereas the barometer indicates general changes, \ 
 
 Note. — Photographs of tornadoes and tornado-clouds are rare. We "^^ 
 
 have the reproductions of three which are claimed to be instantaneous ; 
 
 photographs, but the majority of our cloud illustrations are sketches \ 
 
 from memory, most of them by persons not artists, and, while the col- 3 
 
 lection is the most varied and perhaps the most correct ever published, 1 
 
 we do not claim for it any higher merit than these facts will justify. 1 
 
22 
 
 affecting a large extent of country. Your instrument, if a 
 standard, does not lack possession of the delicate sensitive- 
 ness requisite for all the purposes of its construction, but if it 
 were placed in the immediate track of the tornado-cloud, it 
 would not indicate its presence until the crash of the storm 
 was upon the instrument, when of course it would be too 
 late. Barometrical observations appear to advantage and are 
 absolutely necessary to a successful consideration of the mete- 
 orological conditions of tornadoes from the standpoint of the 
 weather map. From this panoramic view of the situation a 
 vast extent of country can be most carefully watched from 
 hour to hour, for days, weeks, or months. Atmospheric con- 
 ditions on opposite sides of the probable course of the storm 
 can be watched from their inception, and any relation easily 
 detected and analyzed. From a study of the weather-map it 
 has been found that the formation of what is termed a bar- 
 ometric trough or elongated area of low pressure (where the 
 barometer stands below the normal for that region at the 
 hour of observation) precedes the occurrence of tornadoes in 
 the Lower Missouri Valley or adjoining States to the south 
 and east. This low-pressure area assumes the form of an 
 ellipse and generally extends from southwest to northeast be- 
 tween northern Texas and the Upper Lake Region. Such a 
 depression may lie between the Central Mississippi Valley and 
 the Lower Lake Region, trending northeastward just south of 
 Michigan and over the Ohio Valley. The major axis * of 
 either of these depressions is easily estimated, while the minor 
 axis may be stated as generally varying from three to five 
 hundred miles. To the north of the major axis, even to a 
 distance of several hundred miles, the winds are found to 
 proceed from any or all points between northeast and north- 
 west with comparatively low temperatures, accompanied some- 
 times by a cold rain or even snow. South of the major axis, 
 and generally to a greater distance, the winds come from 
 
 * See chart No. 2, facing page 100 ; also illustrations on page 102. 
 
24 
 
 any or all points between southeast and southwest, accom- 
 panied by comparatively high temperatures, high humidity, 
 and often dashes of quite heavy rain. 
 
 As these conditions continue to prevail there is a growing 
 contrast of temperature to the north and south of the major 
 axis, owing to the long-continued movement of the atmos- 
 phere from opposite directions, such movement eventually af- 
 fecting the disposition of air in the warmer regions of the 
 extreme south and likewise the colder regions of the extreme 
 north. The contrast of temperature now naturally increases 
 with marked rapidity, and the formation of clouds com- 
 mences in earnest. Huge masses of dark and portentous 
 appearance bank up in the northwest and southwest with 
 amazing rapidity, and soon the scene becomes one of awful 
 grandeur. The struggle for mastery in the opposing cur- 
 rents is thus indicated by the gathering cloud formations. 
 The condensation of vapor from the extremely humid south- 
 erly currents by contact with the augmenting cold of their 
 struggling opponents continues. It increases rapidly. Fi- 
 nally, when resistance to the unstable equilibrium can no 
 longer be maintained (controlled by the rate of temperature 
 change and rapidity of condensation), the opposing forces are, 
 as it were, broken asunder, followed by the upward rush of 
 huge volumes of air. The outward indication of this event 
 is first shown in the whirling, dashing clouds over the broken 
 surface of the heavy bank of condensed vapor, forming the 
 background. A scene not easily depicted or realized by one 
 who has not witnessed it, but never to be effaced from the 
 memory of the actual observer. There is an awful terror in 
 the majesty of the power here represented, and in the unnatu 
 ral movement of the clouds, which affects animals as well as 
 human beings. The next stage in the further development 
 of this atmospheric disturbance is the gradual descent of the 
 funnel-shaped cloud from a point apparently just beneath 
 the position of the enactment of the first scene. The tornado 
 
2S 
 
 is now before us, not fully developed, but soon to acquire 
 that condition when the terrible violence of its power will 
 make the earth tremble, animals terror-stricken, and men's 
 hearts quake with fear. 
 
 PREMONITORY SIGNS. 
 
 On the day of the storm, and for several hours previous 
 to the appearance of the tornado-cloud, the indications of its 
 probable formation and approach are within the comprehen- 
 sion of any ordinary observer and can readily be detected by 
 him. A sultry, oppressive condition of the atmosphere is 
 thus described by various observers as follows : "1 really 
 experienced a sickly sensation under the influence of the 
 sun's rays." I was compelled to stop work on account of 
 the peculiar exhaustion experienced from physical exertion." 
 *'It seemed as if the lightest garments that I could put on 
 were a burden to me." ''There was not a breath of air 
 stirring. " * ' The air at times came in puffs as from a heated 
 furnace." " I felt a want of breath, the air frequently appear- 
 ing too rarified to breathe freely." "I was starded at the 
 sudden and continued rise in the thermometer, especially at 
 this season of the year." *' In the forenoon I actually wore 
 an overcoat, but shortly after dinner I put on my straw hat 
 and worked in my shirt sleeves." I noticed a remarkable 
 change in the temperature, many of the neighbors spoke 
 about it and said that there was a peculiar feeling about the 
 heat, something they had not before experienced in years." 
 * ' It was terribly oppressive ; it seemed as if the atmosphere 
 was unusually heavy and pressing down on me with a great 
 weight." 
 
 These citations clearly indicate the character of this pecu- 
 liar sultriness. Other signs equally important and reliable 
 may be found in the development and peculiar formation 
 of the clouds in the western horizon. Sometimes these 
 peculiar clouds extend from the southwest through the west 
 
26 
 
 by the north to the northeast. More frequently, however, 
 they form in the northwest and southwest, sometimes com- 
 mencing, first in the former quarter and then again in the 
 latter, but in either case they are equally significant. The 
 marked peculiarity of the clouds is found to occur not only 
 in the forin but in the color and character of development. 
 
 The sudden appearance of ominous clouds, first in the 
 southwest and then almost immediately in the northwest or 
 northeast (perhaps the reverse in the order of their appearance), 
 generally attracts the attention of the most casual observer, 
 and frequently overcomes him with astonishment. In almost 
 all cases these premonitory clouds are unlike any ordinary 
 and usual formation. If they are light, their appearance re- 
 sembles smoke issuing from a burning building or straw- 
 stack, rolling upward in fantastic shapes to great heights. 
 Again, like a fine mist or quite white, like fog or steam. 
 Some persons describe these light clouds as at times appar- 
 ently irridescent or glowing as if from their irregular surfaces 
 a pale, whitish light was cast. 
 
 The dark clouds at times present a deep, greenish hue, 
 which forebodes the greatest evil and leaves one to imagine 
 quite freely of dire possibilities. Again, they appear jet black 
 from center to circumference, or, in a change of form, this 
 deep-set color may only appear at the center, gradually dimin- 
 ishing in intensity as the outer edges of the cloud or bank of 
 clouds are approached. Sometimes these dark clouds, instead 
 
 Note. — The following three pictures are of the great tornado at 
 Ercildoun, Chester County, Penn., July i, 1877, and are from very 
 rough and imperfect sketches. The storm formed about 2:30 p. M. and 
 passed in a direction nearly due east for about twenty miles, injuring 
 many people and destroying over $40,000 of property. Width of track, 
 1 50 to 300 feet. Diameter of tornado-cloud, 50 to 75 feet. It is de- 
 scribed as having very closely resembled a balloon, although the 
 sketches do not disclose that fact. A balloon-shaped cloud is repre- 
 sented on another page as having appeared near North Vernon, Ind., 
 in 1883. 
 
27 
 
 of appearing in solid and heavy masses, roll up lightly, but 
 still intensely black, like the smoke from an engine or loco- 
 motive burning soft coal. They have been described as of a 
 purple or bluish tinge, or at times possessed of a strange 
 lividness. Frequently dark green, again an inky blackness 
 that fairly startles you with its intensity. Many observers are 
 at a loss for words in which to give an adequate description 
 of the terrible scenes and simply say : ''They were the worst- 
 looking clouds I ever saw, perfectly awful/' Said one 
 observer, ''The clouds seemed to be boiling up like muddy 
 
 Tornado at Ercildoun, Pa., July 1, 1877. First appearance. See note on 
 page 26 for description. 
 
 water, the upper surface of the cloud reminding me of the 
 incessant eddies or whirls seen in the muddiest portions of 
 the Missouri River." Other observers as follows : "I saw two 
 whirling circles of lightish gray clouds in the west ; they 
 were acting independently of each other and moved slowly 
 inward toward each other from opposite directions. The 
 clouds were very low, seemed to be on the earth, the wind 
 
28 
 
 in contrary directions across the face of the western sky 
 and surrounding clouds in great confusion/' ''Observed 
 clouds moving in all directions, some of a dark green color, 
 others white as steam/' ''The lower end of the cloud was 
 very white, like fog." "I saw a great smoke, and supposed at 
 first it was a fire. " "I saw a terrible cloud of a dark 
 purplish color." *' There was a peculiar and terrifying look 
 to the clouds." " I saw a green-looking cloud in the north- 
 west, surrounded by others not so deep-set in color. Under 
 the cloud from the southwest, there came a large number of 
 little thunder-heads, some very dark but others as white as 
 steam. They seemed to be separated and running very low. 
 I never saw clouds so low before. Pretty soon they began 
 to go in all directions, some up, some down, right and left, 
 backwards and forwards. I next saw a cloud that looked 
 even all over in color and very white, the edges pretty even. 
 It moved remarkably steady and seemed to be right under 
 the edge of the cloud from the southwest." "The clouds 
 looked as if a mosquito-net had been spread out over the sky." 
 " I saw clouds tumbling over and over in terrible confusion." 
 "I noticed a strange action in the clouds and saw a cloud 
 rolling on the ground coming from the southwest." "The 
 ground was covered with white, steamy-looking clouds that 
 prevented one from seeing any distance." "Two clouds, 
 one from the northwest and the other from the southwest 
 seemed to meet, and after meeting passed still lower. Above 
 their place of meeting black smoke appeared in very pecu- 
 liar shape." " The air presented a very peculiar appearance, 
 it seemed to be in different-shaded strata and quite marked. 
 ' ' At the bottom of the cloud a hazy appearance rose up, 
 obstructing the view." "Two clouds came together, one 
 from the southwest and the other from the northwest ; the 
 latter was the highest, and the former the heaviest and looked 
 the worst." " A heavy cloud spread out before us to a width 
 of about six hundred feet, and as black as night. " 
 
29 
 
 The peculiar action of the clouds while they are forming is 
 another interesting and significant feature which should be 
 carefully watched. Under ordinary circumstances clouds 
 form, move about, and disappear without causing the slightest 
 remark, or perhaps thought, from the casual or even the 
 interested observer. In the event of a thunder-storm or hail- 
 storm the movement and disposition of the clouds are not 
 looked upon with fear or as possessed of power to create 
 great havoc, but on the occasion of a tornado the formation 
 and movement of the clouds strike most persons almost 
 
 Tornado at Ercildoun, Pa., July 1, 1877. Later appearance. See note on 
 page 26 for description. 
 
 dumb with fear; there seems to be some strange connection 
 between the almost .simultaneous appearance of clouds in 
 the southwest and northwest, possessing as they do such 
 unusually threatening forms. 
 
 As they approach from opposite directions they are sud- 
 denly thrown into the greatest confusion; breaking up, as it 
 were, into small portions, which dash pell-mell over each other 
 and in every direction ; now darting toward the earth, 
 
30 
 
 now rushing upward to considerable heights like sky- 
 rockets, or at moderate elevations rolling over each other 
 in a well-developed whirl. An observer, in describing the 
 approach of the clouds from the southwest and northwest, 
 stated that they ''came together with a terrific crash, as if 
 thrown from the mouths of cannons. " Generally, following 
 closely upon the existence of this condition, the funnel-shaped 
 tornado-cloud appears against the western sky, moving 
 boldly to the front from without this confused mass of flying 
 clouds. As the tornado-cloud advances these scuds continue 
 to play about its top and sides, constituting a characteristic 
 feature of the scene. 
 
 Another and invariable sign of the tornado's approach is a 
 heavy, roaring noise, which augments in intensity as the tor- 
 nado-cloud advances. This roaring is compared to the pas- 
 sage of a heavily loaded freight train moving over a bridge 
 or through a deep pass or tunnel. To the roaring of a rail- 
 road train such as is heard on damp mornings when the 
 sound is very clear and loud. The sound coming from the 
 rapid movement of a large number of empty box cars is ac- 
 counted rather peculiar and quite noticeable. At times the roar- 
 ing has been so violent that persons have compared it to the 
 simultaneous ''rush of 10,000 trains of cars.'' Of course, 
 there is no importance to be attached to the exact number 
 here given, it being used in a figurative sense and is quite 
 likely exaggerated. Again, the roaring is likened to the 
 low rumbling of distant thunder. The varying intensity of 
 the roar as here represented is, in the main, due to the lack 
 of uniformity in the positions of the yarious observers with 
 respect to the advancing tornado-cloud. Those situated 
 nearest the cloud, other things being equal, experience the 
 loudest roar, while to those at greater distances the noise is 
 proportionally weaker. In any event, however, the noise 
 is sufficiently peculiar and distinct to create alarm, and as a 
 means of warnijig should not be overlooked under any pretext. 
 
31 
 
 How TO Benefit by Signs. — In order to be prepared for 
 the possible appearance of a tornado, so far at least as the 
 above indications are concerned, let every person situated 
 in those regions of country where the tornado is of yearly 
 occurrence commence (to-day is none too soon) to carefully 
 observe and record the daily changes in the face of the sky, 
 the variations of temperature, the direction of the wind and 
 
 Tornado at Ercildouii, Pa., July, 1, 1877. Last appearance. See note on 
 page 26 for description. 
 
 the character and development of clouds. We do not mean 
 that any person should devote all or most of his time to this 
 work of observation, and possibly not even all of his spare 
 time. For the sake of regularity and uniformity we will 
 suggest certain hours for regular work of this nature, viz. : 7 
 A. M. and 2 and 9 p. m. These hours are not altogether 
 arbitrary, but there is a reasonable amount of prudence in 
 their selection, looking to a proper and successful use of the 
 results of your labor. 
 
 Should the violence of a storm be unusually marked during 
 either the hours of the forenoon or afternoon, or even in the 
 
32 
 
 night, it would be advisable to increase the number of hours 
 for observation and record, possibly making them every hour 
 or half hour, or even at shorter intervals, as the importance 
 of the case demands. By this means of frequent observa- 
 tion every feature of the storm would become the sub- 
 ject of inquiry and the most important results would be 
 attained. For purposes of investigation of this class of 
 storms your observations need not continue throughout the 
 entire year, at least in the Northern and Western States, 
 although such a length of record would by no means fall 
 amiss of great value. Yearly records will pay. However, 
 observations should commence without fail by the istof April, 
 and continue unremittingly until at least the last of Septem- 
 ber. Observations through the autumn can be maintained 
 with profit. It will be a valuable adjunct to this work of 
 regular-hour records if a summary of miscellaneous phe- 
 nomena is kept Enter the dates of occurrence and im- 
 portant particulars of such phenomena as auroras, mirage, 
 meteors, lunar and solar halos, prairie and forest fires; the 
 migration of birds and insects; the leafing and blossoming 
 of trees, flowers, and shrubs; droughts, excessive rainfalls, 
 earthquakes, zodiacal light, frosts and the formation of ice. 
 The great importance of systematic observation and record 
 is urged with much earnestness, particularly in the tornado 
 districts and during the tornado season, but further detail 
 is omitted in this place and the student and volunteer 
 observer are warmly recommended to examine the tornado cir- 
 cular of the Signal Service, which is printed in full at the end 
 of the book. It contains 234 questions and suggestions, 
 under eighteen different headings, and constitutes the most 
 complete, as well as the most compact, scheme of instruction 
 ever compiled for the purpose. 
 
 Character of Tornado-Cloud and Attending Motions. — 
 The tornado-cloud is, genei;ally speaking, funnel-shaped, 
 that is to say, it tapers from the top downward, not always 
 
33 
 
 in\ the same degree with every appearance of the cloud, 
 bat the lower end of it (the part nearest the eanh) is in- 
 vairiably the smallest. Whatever the inclination of the 
 central axis of the cloud to the vertical or plumb line, the lowest 
 erid is the narrov/est and nearest the earth. As seen in differ- 
 ent positions and stages of development by various observers, 
 Icpcated differently, the tornado-cloud has been called : '*bal- 
 l())on-shaped * ' basket-shaped * ' egg-shaped * * trailing 
 oji the ground like the tail of an enormous kite of bulb- 
 ejus form;" *Mike an elephant's trunk,'*' etc., etc. In the 
 majority of instances, however, observers describe the cloud 
 as appearing like an upright funneL When the tip end of 
 
 Tornado-cloud ivhich passed near Garnett, Kansas, at 5:30 r. tt, April 26, 
 1884. From au iiistautaueous pUotograpIu 
 
34 
 
 the cloud reaches the earth, the violence of its whirl creates a 
 powerful suction over a small portion of the surface, upon 
 which there is immediately formed a peculiar cloud of dust, 
 and finely divided debris, around which play small gatl(ier- 
 ings of condensed vapor. To all appearances now, the 
 tornado-cloud has two heads, one on the surface of ihe 
 earth and the other in the sky, the bodies of each joimVig 
 in mid-air and tapering both ways with the smallest diamdter 
 at their junction. In other words, the cloud now assumes 
 the shape of an hour-glass and the lower portion, or tjiat 
 assuming the form of an inverted funnel, displays an ex- 
 traordinary violence. The extreme fury and the tremendous 
 power of the tornado-cloud are now experienced, and nojth-^ 
 ing is able to stay the awful force of its onward march. This 
 last and most fatal form of the tornado-cloud is fortunately not 
 a constant feature of Che storm. The tornado-cloud is con- 
 stantly changing from the hour-glass form to that of the 
 upright funnel or some other intermediate shape previously 
 referred to. 
 
 The various gradations of form, not any of which, however, 
 affect the stereotyped relation between the size of top and 
 bottom, number some twenty-five or thirty, so far as I have 
 been able to gather information upon this point. These 
 variations of form are quite important in a critical study of 
 the tornado. They depend upon the peculiar movements 
 of the whirling currents of air within and about the cloud 
 vortex, the direction of the currents being outlined to the 
 eye by the singular disposition of the rapidly condensing 
 masses of vapor. The characteristic motions of the tornado- 
 cloud number four, and are described as follows : — 
 
 No. L is called the whirling or gyratory motion of the tor- 
 nado-cloud, which is invariably from right to left, or against 
 the course of the sun. From the peculiar character of the 
 formation of the tornado-cloud, this motion is in all prob- 
 ability the first evidence of the existence of the cloud, and 
 
35 
 
 shotald therefore be .placed first in order of consideration. 
 Above all other motions, this is attended with the greatest 
 violjence, and its velocity of movement is far in excess of any of 
 the others. This gyratory motion forms what is termed the 
 vortex of the tornado-cloud, within which the velocity of the 
 centripetal currents of air is almost beyond conception. 
 Malny efforts have been made, but most of them altogether 
 fruitless, to estimate the rate of progress of these currents, and 
 velocities ranging from roo to 800, and even 1,000 miles 
 per hour, have been deduced; the two latter are the ex- 
 treiiies that have been ventured upon and of course are not 
 reliable, while in the majority of instances more trustworthy 
 determinations have ranged between 100 and 500 miles per 
 hour. Theoretical velocities of over 2,000 miles per hour, 
 based upon certain assumed atmospheric conditions, have 
 been deduced. Such velocities are mathematically possible, 
 but not meteorologically probable. 
 
 The uncertainty in computing the velocity of centripetal 
 currents arises from the difficulty attending the acquirement 
 of the requisite data. In all carefully conducted investiga- 
 tions heretofore made, there has unfortunately occurred such 
 a long interval between the happening of the storm and the 
 arrival of the person authorized to commence the work, that 
 valuable and satisfactory results in this direction were pre- 
 cluded. It is always of prime importance to ascertain 
 definitely what portion of a building or other object was first 
 struck by the wind in order to determine the configuration 
 and inclination of the exposed surface. As a rule such 
 examination is rendered next to impossible by the rapidity 
 with which devastated districts recover from the violence of 
 the storm. This fact is a most praiseworthy and well- 
 deserved commentary' on the exemplary industry and deter- 
 mined spirit of the people of the Lower Missouri Valley, 
 With the gyratory motion of the tornado-cloud, objects are 
 drawn inward to the center of the storm and then carried 
 
36 
 
 violently upward by a spirally inward and upward motion 
 which fairly crushes and grinds into pieces buildings, trees, 
 and whatever else falls in the line of the advancing cloud. 
 The spirally upward motion throws the ascending debris iri a 
 circular manner outward at the top of the tornado-cloud. 
 This debris, when beyond the central whirl of the cloud, fillls 
 to the earth, but in such a manner and so disposed as to 
 indicate the character of the force which acted upon it 
 
 Tornado near Redstone, DaTl.sonCo., xvakota^ Aug. 28, 1884. From asketcli 
 by J. H. Nott. See o^>i>osite pafre. These two pictures of the same storm, made 
 20 miles apart in aiMoiiiing counties hy different pei-sons having no knowledge 
 of each other, are valuable conhnnatious ol one another. 
 
 No. II. is called the progressive motion of the tornado- 
 cloud, the motion which determines the cloud's track from 
 one point to another. The rate of progressive velocity ranks 
 next in order to the velocity of motion No. L, although it is 
 at all times far below the high degree of the latter. 
 
 The rate of progress of the tornado-cloud is subject to 
 great variability throughout the path of any one storm, al- 
 though on the average tornado-clouds possess a moderately 
 uniform velocity of progression. Some observers have indi- 
 cated the movement by the following expressions: ''All in 
 an instant" ''Gone in a moment'' "Quicker than 
 
37 
 
 chonght'^ " Without a moment's warning/* It moved no 
 fester than a horse gently galloping." ' * I just saw what it was 
 and then all was over." Before I had time to turn about 
 in my tracks it flashed by me/' It seemed to remain almost 
 motionless, as if held to the ground by some mysterious force." 
 **I shuddered, held my breath, and the monster had van- 
 ished." *' It seemed to move no fester than I could run." 
 
 Toirodo clouaaaseeiiatllowarcL Miner Co., lKikota» Ang. 28.1884. Photo- 
 graphed by F. N. RohiBSon. The clond passed 22 niUea west of aim in a soiith- 
 easferly direction, remaining in sight over two boui-s. Several people were 
 lulIod» and ali property in the path was destroyeiL 
 
 These estimations of velocity are not to be taken alto- 
 gether literally. The circumstances under which the im- 
 pressions were received must be considered, viz.: undue 
 excitement or abject terror. However, the comparative re- 
 sults are important, and to a certain extent reliable. 
 Through them, the reader will at least not be led astray in his 
 conceptions of the awful grandeur of the panorama, or fall 
 into the fatal mistake of encouraging a belief that the tor- 
 nado is not what the united experience of all observ'ers has 
 portrayed it. 
 
38 
 
 Such data will not answer, however, to figure on very 
 closely, but the items, average diameter of cloud, actual time 
 (local or standard), and measured distances, must be care^ 
 fully obtained before an approach to accurate calculations 
 can be secured. Reliable data are very difficult to obtain, 
 especially time. This fact should be thoroughly appre- 
 ciated by observers and every reasonable effort made by them 
 to examine their clocks or watches upon the approach 'and 
 passage of the tornado-cloud. Generally speaking, it is a 
 good habit to form, of jotting down in some place of rfeady 
 reference the hour, day, month, and year of nolable 
 eventSe In regard to this matter of time, so far as past de- 
 terminations can be valued, the progressive velocity of the 
 tornado-cloud is variously estimated at from twenty-five to 
 seventy miles per houn The former is perhaps too low and 
 the latter quite likely too high, and although in both in- 
 stances they represent the extremes, yet either of the above 
 velocities may have existed for short intervals. The general 
 average is probably about forty miles per hour. 
 
 No, III. is termed the rising and falling motion of the 
 tornado-cloud, the character of which finds definition in the 
 following expressions from various witnesses: *'The top of 
 the cloud seemed to pop up and down, and then to rush for- 
 ward." **It bounded over the ground like a ball." It 
 was the strangest jumping and flopping object I ever saw." 
 
 At times it seemed to lash the earth in terrific fury with its 
 huge tail." ''It came along, popping up and down in a 
 most fantastic way." ''Rising up like the uncoiling of a 
 huge rope, it cut loose from the earth and passed over us 
 with a horribly whizzing sound. " ' ' Ever and anon it would 
 shoot directly upward from the earth, sometimes with great 
 rapidity, and then again quite slowly, each time dashing to 
 the surface with apparently renewed vigor." It is perhaps 
 clearly seen that this is a distinct motion with striking pecu- 
 liarities which define its character. Sometimes, upon the 
 
39 
 
 liftilig of the tornado-cloud from the earth, it does not again 
 desrt:end for a distance of several miles, at times making the 
 retifm movement or descension twenty or thirty miles distant, 
 the( intervening space proving a complete blank in its track. 
 More frequently, however, the!5e gaps are from one to five 
 miles in length. 
 
 While the tornado-cloud is traversing the atmosphere at 
 some considerable distance above the earth, it may reach 
 down so low as to just skim over the tops of the highest 
 trees; descend to a level with the roofs of buildings, simply 
 scaling off the shingles in spots or entirely on one side, leav- 
 ing the roof-boards and rafters unmoved; removing the tops 
 of chimneys ; taking out all the fans in the wheel of a wind- 
 mill and leaving every portion (even the tail) of the re- 
 mainder of the mill unharmed ; take off the cornice without 
 disturbing the remainder of the roof; removing simply the 
 top board of a five-board fence, or one or two of the top 
 rails of an ordinary rail fence. The tornado-cloud may, 
 however, remain at a perfectly safe distance throughout its 
 aerial course, and where it may be seen at a great height, 
 moving solitary and alone, like a huge balloon. While in 
 this condition it has not a few times been unwittingly taken 
 for the latter object, but the mystery and sensation were en- 
 tirely dispelled when the news came in from the surrounding 
 country of the frightful power of this now silent monster. 
 
 There is still another condition, which the fearful aeronaut 
 may assume in his flighty movements. Upon rising fiom 
 the earth and passing through a few uncertain struggles, ap- 
 parently to decide as to whether the final direction shall be 
 up or down, the tornado-cloud is ultimately lost sight of in 
 the surrounding clouds, and re-appears suddenly again at its 
 point of descension, or perhaps only to remain at a safe dis- 
 tance. 
 
 No. IV. is called the zigzag motion, or swaying from side 
 to side of the central line of cloud movement. This motion 
 
41 
 
 is sometimes quite suddenly performed, but generally it is a 
 moderately slow movement and one that can be watched and 
 easily identified. It seems to occur most frequently just as 
 the tornado-cloud touches the earth in completing the last act 
 of motion No. III. In completing the extent of a single act 
 of this motion, the toniado-cloud will diverge about an equal 
 distance on either side of the central line of movement, 
 though these tangents to the major axis are not necessarily of 
 equal length. 
 
 At the commencement of this motion the tornado-cloud 
 always moves first to the left (N. N. E. ) and then to the right 
 (E. S. E.) forming an obtuse angle on the north side of the 
 major axis. On the return movement, the cloud may or may 
 not cross the major axis (to E, S. E.). If it does, it will then 
 form a similar obtuse angle on the south side of the major 
 axis. This zigzag movement, first from one side and then 
 from the other of the central line of progressive action, may 
 continue for several miles^ or it may cut short its existence 
 after the first few moves. The regularity of this peculiar ac- 
 tion appears to depend upon indraughts from the south side 
 of the major a^^is of violent currents of air, which frequently 
 advance (only from the south side) and give evidence of 
 their existence by swaths or narrow paths of destruction (al- 
 ternating with spaces of no damage) cut inward toward and 
 joining with the central line or track. The tornado-cloud 
 may, upon the return movement (whether executed upon the 
 north or south side of the major axis, it matters not), fail to 
 cross it, but upon reaching it, continue onward in the central 
 line of movement to the northeast 
 
 The distance traveled by the tornado-cloud in departing 
 from the major axis, * either to the north or south, is gener- 
 ally subject to considerable variability, ranging from forty or 
 fifty yards to nearly as many rods. While executing this zigzag 
 motion itvery frequently happens that the tornado-cloud simply 
 skims over the earth without manifesting its extreme violence. 
 
42 
 
 Building Spots.— In regard to the matter of buildiings, 
 the question may be asked whether there is not some choice 
 in a building spot, with a view to safety from the viol ence 
 of the tornado-cloud. Many persons have thought that if 
 their house or barn was perched upon some high " divide," 
 or on the brow of a steep decline, in fact upon any mai:ked 
 rise above the surrounding level, the tornado-cloud by reason 
 of some mysterious effort of clemency would rise from the 
 earth and pass over them. This is a careless and unreason- 
 able supposition when the facts are known. It does not 
 seem to occur to the mind of an observer that there is no 
 reason why the tornado-cloud should not follow the rolling 
 surface as well as the plain. The tornado-cloud pursues a 
 general course to the northeast without regard to the charac- 
 ter of the earth's surface, and if your buildings are in the 
 line of its destructive path, whether upon a hill, in a valley, or 
 within a ravine, they are subject to its violence. Western towns 
 as a rule are not built upon high * divides," but are more 
 frequently sheltered between neighboring hills. The same 
 may be said of farm buildings, it being the prevailing cus- 
 tom to select building spots along the low bottoms of a 
 stream for convenience to water and timber, and for protec- 
 tion from the continued heavy winds that break over the 
 open prairies. 
 
 From the above facts it will be seen that there is very little 
 opportunity offered the tornado-cloud to display its violence 
 on the hill-tops, even though it were so disposed. Repeated 
 investigations have shown that buildings were destroyed with 
 as great violence and completeness upon high lands as upon 
 low lands, but the largest number in valleys because of the 
 facts above cited. In many instances the funnel-cloud has 
 passed from one ridge to another, doing damage on both, 
 but skipping the intervening depression. Again, it has fol- 
 lowed high ' ^ divides " for several miles where they coincided 
 with its general course of movement. Ridges and valleys 
 
43 
 
 are almost invariably crossed at right angles when their 
 courses are from northwest to southeast^ 
 
 Electricity. — ^The rain and hail which sometimes pre- 
 cede and at other times follow the tornado-cloud, but always 
 accompany the heavy clouds which form in the north and 
 west, are not always but generally attended by lightning ; 
 somietimes most violent manifestations, and then again but 
 occasional flashes. The most terrific displays are reported 
 during the heavy precipitation which often occurs after the 
 tornado-cloud has passed, some ten to twenty minutes. 
 Very often its darting flash is observed in the dark clouds 
 which begin to rise above the western horizon an hour or 
 more before the storm. The relations of electricity to the 
 tornado are so fully and so conclusively set forth in the 
 ''Scientific Resume," printed at pages 147, etc., that further 
 examination of that particular point is omitted here. 
 
 PROTECTION, 
 
 If you have a tornado-cave or a dug-out, get into it with 
 your family and your treasures before the storm reaches you ; 
 if you have no such means of retreat and cannot get away 
 from the storm, go into your cellar and get as close to the 
 west wall as possible, ne:ver go to the east side of a cellar or of 
 any other ihiclosed space in any building toward which the 
 tornado is approaching; always seek the west side, towards 
 THE STORM. Frequently life may be saved by timely flight 
 in the rig& direction, A tornado travels from southwest to 
 northeast stand facing it as it approaches ; if it is going 
 to the right of you, run to the left ; if it is going to the left of 
 you, run to the right ; never run towards the storm nor with it, 
 
 ALWAYS RUN TO THE NORTHWARD OR SOUTHWARD AT A RIGHT 
 ANGLE FROM IT, GIVING THE BENEFIT OF DOUBT IN FAVOR OF THE 
 
 NORTH. Read attentively the small print following for details 
 in regard to saving life, property, and live-stock. 
 
44 
 
 Means of Protection. — First in regard to life. How can you save 
 your life or avoid injury ? In regard to this question much, if not 
 everything, depends upon the manner and in what direction you 
 7nove^ together with the distance of the tornado-cloud, its direction, 
 and the kind of motion prevailing at the instant you determine upon 
 changing your location. 
 
 We will now suppose the various conditions, and proceed to poi4t out 
 the necessary action in each instance. In all cases it is granted f(ir the 
 sake of convenience in illustration, that you are in front of or situated 
 directly in the line of the advancing tornado-cloud. Under thes(^ cir- 
 cumstances if No. II., or the progressive motion of the cloud is prevailing, 
 
 c. 
 
 and your distance from it is, say, eighty rods or more, move directly 
 and with all possible dispatch to the north. Whenever this motion is 
 prevailing always run to the north, unless in so doing you would be 
 obliged to cross the entire path of the storm. A sharp glance to the 
 
45 
 
 westward will tell yon whether you are about on the southern edge of 
 the probable path of the tornado-cloud, or more to the north. If in the 
 center or half-way between the center and the southern edge, your 
 chances are best in a direct course to the north. If further to the south, 
 move directly and very rapidly to the south, bearing slightly east. In 
 no event should you ever run directly to the east or northeast. Sup- 
 pose the tornado-cloud to be distant from you (W. or S.W.) eighty rods 
 and its progressive velocity sixty miles per hour, it would follow that 
 one mile is passed in sixty seconds, or eighty rods in fifteen seconds. 
 Assuming the average width of the destructive path of the tornado- 
 cloud to be forty rods and your position at the center of that path, it 
 will be seen that you have fifteen seconds in which to reach the outer 
 edge of the path to the north (a distance of twenty rods) before the 
 tornado-cloud could arrive at your location. 
 
 I have taken an extreme case in every particular. Most persons first 
 see the tornado-cloud at a much greater distance, from one to three 
 miles, sometimes five and ten miles -on the prairies. Of course, at the 
 unusual distance of five or ten miles you could not determine very sat- 
 isfactorily its probable course, especially with regard to your buildings 
 or the safety of your own location. Watching the approach of the 
 tornado -cloud closely at a distance of ten miles, and from that position 
 on and on in its eastward course until it came within a mile or so of your 
 point of observation, would give you sufficient opportunity to predict its 
 probable course in regard to your location. When that matter is set- 
 tled satisfactorily to your judgment, move immediately and without 
 further hesitation. If you wait until the tornado-cloud is distant one 
 mile, you have at least sixty seconds in which to run a distance of thirty 
 rods, supposing that you are obliged to cover more than half of the de- 
 structive path of the storm. In an average case you will probably 
 have between eighty and ninety seconds in which to run a distance of 
 twenty rods. In either case I am supposing that you are prepared in 
 every particular to move at the very instant of timely warning. 
 Further, I am supposing that you have been watching the weather of 
 the day and understand that a terrible storm is imminent There is, 
 under ordinary circumstances, no reason why you shoiild not be so in- 
 formed. A tornado- cloud does not come out of a clear sky, and there 
 are many and ample signs of its approach. 
 
 What has been said in regard to the directions in which persons 
 should move when the progressive motion is prevailing, will for all 
 practical purposes apply to motions Nos. I. and III. With respect to 
 motion No. IV. (the zigzag) the following preliminary remarks should 
 be most carefully considered. Remember that while possessed of this 
 
46 
 
 motion the tornado-cloud crosses from one side of the central line of 
 movement or major axis to the other. That this peculiar motion most 
 frequently occurs just after the termination of the rising and falling mo- 
 tion (No. IIL), so that when you see the tornado-cloud descending to the 
 earth from one of its aerial flights you may expect (not absolutely) the 
 zigzag motion to follow. That the first departure of the tornado-cloud 
 from the major axis is to the left or on the north side of the path. 
 That all departures from the major axis, whether forward or return 
 movements of the tornado-cloud, are mvariably executed to the east- 
 ward. There is no backward movement to the west. That the 
 tornado-cloud never continues to move in the direction of any tangent 
 to the major axis, but in the event of any departure it ultimately re- 
 turns to the central line of movement. Having these points well in 
 mind, you are quite satisfactorily prepared to act when the exigency oc- 
 curs. When the departure of the tornado-cloud is to the left and your 
 position is at any point in the central line of movement (better near the 
 center of the path), move directly north with the utmost rapidity, even 
 if the cloud is at a long distance from you. Should ic chance that your 
 distance from the cloud is reduced to from twenty to forty rods, run in- 
 stantly to the south, bearing slightly west. This movement will take 
 you away from the forward and return action of the tornado-cloud. 
 Another case, suppose your position to be the same as just given, viz. : 
 at any point in the central line of movement, but that the tornado- 
 cloud had just crossed over that line to the southward. In this event 
 you should move instantly and directly to the north, bearing slightly 
 west. This movement will also, as in the case previously cited, take 
 you away from the forward and return action of the tornado-cloud. 
 
 How TO Act on its Formation. — The following remarks apply to 
 your manner of action when the evidences of the existence of the 
 tornado-cloud are undeniable. Suppose the actual tornado cloud is 
 not yet in sight, but other infallible signs (heretofore given) of its forma- 
 tion and probable approach from a point possibly below your horizon, 
 are present. Act immediately, judiciously, and with the utmost rapidity, 
 but never for one instant allow yourself to become excited or reckless 
 in anything. Take the situation as calmly as possible, knowing as you 
 ought (or probably will) the terrible power you have to deal with. Do 
 not, with an overweening sense of fancied security or an inclination to 
 a superstitious feeling that your life is mysteriously over-shadowed by a 
 peculiarly beneficent power, think and act leisurely about the matter of 
 self-protection. A tornado-cloud never sends forward a flag of truce 
 or even solicits the "right of way." There are certam indications 
 which we have heretofore spoken of that frequently, if not always, 
 
47 
 
 manifest themselves from half an hour to two or three hours in advance 
 of the tornado-cloud. 
 
 Many foolhardy acts have been committed, perhaps through fear and 
 excitement or positive ignorance, which have resulted in death or dread- 
 ful injuries, because persons have tried to run in front of the tornado- 
 cloud, thinking they could outstrip it in such a race. Others have at-= 
 tempted to cross the path just ahead of the advancing cloud, feeling 
 that they could reach a safe distance on the opposite side before the 
 funnel-shaped monster passed. In one of our late storms a person es= 
 sayed this trip with two horses and a lumber wagon, confident that he 
 could at least rush his horses across the apparently narrow path of a 
 storm which seemed to progress within such circumscribed limits. Not 
 so. He was instantly killed, one of his horses dreadfully mangled, the 
 other seriously injured, and the wagon a total wreck. The work of an 
 instant. An ignorant, reckless rush into eternity. 
 
 Protection of Property, — What can be done to in any way lessen 
 the actual damage (present or prospective) to property, especially 
 buildings ? In the first place it is impossible to move your buildings 
 from the path of the advancing tornado-cloud. Secondly, it is impos- 
 sible to stop the tornado-cloud after it has started on its course of death 
 and destruction, or in any way prevent its formation. Thirdly, it is 
 impossible to construct any building strong enough to completely resist 
 the extraordinary violence of the tornado-cloud. To sum up, this is 
 all equivalent to saying that you can never expect to save your build- 
 ings. This is the truth as I comprehend it, and it is that to which all 
 thought upon the subject will sooner or later conform. It is advisable 
 that, under all circumstances, you should avoid any labor especially 
 directed to the construction of any building whatsoever, for the express 
 purpose of resisting the violence of the tornado-cloud. Build your 
 houses, bams, and stores as you would without the knowledge of a 
 tornado. Other things being equal, a frame building is better than a 
 brick oi stone one. The former will hold together longer, is more elas- 
 tic (if you will permit the term), and persons seeking refuge within its 
 walls are much less liable to injury. There has at times been evidence 
 to show that, of all frame buildings, those constructed with a hip-roof 
 and a story and a half in height were the best able to resist the vio- 
 lence of the tornado. But where there are cases reported of this class 
 of buildings^ being saved there are as many, if not more, where they 
 were destroyed precisely as any other frame building would have been 
 under similar circumstances. 
 
 It matters not how you construct or of what material, if your building 
 rises above the surface of the earth, which it must necessarily do, it 
 
48 
 
 thereby offers obstruction to the advance of the tornado-cloud, and it 
 will go, either from the foundation, or into kindling-wood and a dis- 
 tracted mass of bricks and mortar, in spite of the propagation of any 
 theory on the possibilities of architectural skiU. In conclusion I would 
 finally say, that you must take every precaution to avoid or remove 
 from, rather than attempt to fight against or any way resist, the power 
 of this formidable adversary. The question now suggests itself, what 
 can be done ? That which remains to be done can be accomplished in 
 an unostentatious and quiet, but secure manner. Every man can and 
 should construct a tornado-cave at some suitable point, within a conve- 
 nient distance of his housCc If a person is situated within a town or 
 city, let him select some portion of his yard for the purpose, but if re= 
 siding in the country he will not be confined to narrow limits in the 
 selection of a desirable location. Where a person living in the village 
 has no yard, he must, if he has a cellar, construct a cellar tornado-cave 
 to be described further on. With respect to the tornado-cave, in no event 
 should the roof be other than level with the surface of the earth; in 
 fact it is highly desirable that the retreat should be so constructed that 
 the ordinary surface of the earth would form the roof or covering, and 
 that all preparation of the domicile proceed by way of excavations and 
 supports from beneath. As to location, the most important points are, 
 excavation of cave to the westward of house or other building; con- 
 venient distance ; a high, dry place, and possible opportunities to exca= 
 vate into the northern or eastern slope of a knoll or hill. In the latter 
 instance the entrance way would suffer less from the violence of the 
 storm, providing, perhaps, that it did not entirely envelop your re- 
 treat, for in that even t,] in the whirl of the flying debris, all sides 
 alike would be at the mercy of the winds. Having decided upon the 
 location, as regards your house or other buildings, sink a shaft, say, 
 four to six feet square, the entire depth of yom* tornado-cave. From 
 either the northern or eastern (better the former) wall of this shaft, 
 make the necessary preparations for purposes of ingress and egress. 
 On the west side of the shaft commence the excavation for the in- 
 closed retreat. The size of the room will of course depend upon how 
 much you may at any time wish to secure from injury. Better have the 
 excavation too large than not large enough. The slight difference in 
 the expense of time and labor may, perhaps, be the means of saving you 
 a great deal when you least expect it. The entire room should be be» 
 low the surface of the ground a distance of at least three feet, and the 
 overhanging roof of earth should be supported from beneath by heavy 
 timbers, to provide against any emergency, like the dashing of heavy 
 debus upon it or the tramping of horses and cattle. 
 
49 
 
 In the event of a tornado your retreat (lornado-cave) may be entirely 
 buried beneath huge piles of debris. Everything mubt be made as se- 
 cure as possible. The entrance door should be made, either of sheet 
 iron or of the heaviest timbers and supported between casings of similar 
 strength of construction. Arrangements should be made to secure the 
 door by heavy fastenings. In order that ventilation may be provided- 
 for, a box spout, of hard wood or vitrified tile, squaring about eight 
 inches, can be let through the roof. The top of this spout must be 
 level with the surface of the ground and protected by iron gratings. 
 Ventilation may be provided for by openings through the upper por- 
 tion of the door, but these also should be protected by iron gratings. 
 The question of how to provide the most approved form of tornado- 
 cave, with every detail of cost, material, and method of construction, is 
 very fully considered a few pages further along. 
 
 If you are not possessed of the tornado-cave or cellar tornado-cave, 
 your best plan is to move from your house or wherever you may be at 
 the moment, as directed concerning the various motions of the tornado- 
 cloud. If not able to benefit by these directions, retreat instantly to your 
 cellar and place yourself, face forward, against the west walL This is 
 the best position in any cellar. If, for any reason,- you cannot get to the 
 west wall, take your position (the next best) face forward against the south 
 wall, but as near the southwest corner as possible. In these positions 
 the building, if removed from the foundation, will always be carried 
 above and over you, or if torn to pieces, the debris will be instantly re- 
 moved to the eastward. Under no circumstances^ whether in a building 
 or a cellar^ ever take a position in a northeast room, in a northeast cor- 
 ner, in an east room, or against an east wall. Remember that the tor- 
 nado-cloud invariably moves in a northeasterly direction. I have not 
 space here in which to relate to you, how many and in what manner, 
 persons have been instantly killed or terribly crippled, for no other rea- 
 son than that they ignorantly threw themselves within the very grasp 
 of the monster cloud. The lives of most, if not all, of the people de- 
 stroyed in tornadoes might have been saved by a clear understanding 
 and a strict adherence to the simple rules herein set forth. 
 
 The rule prohibiting movement to the northeast must be obeyed. 
 The northeast quarter is a fatal position, and I care not what you may 
 tell me about destruction to life or property in any other. If you can 
 get out of your house never remain in it or any other building that 
 is at all likely to be torn down or removed from its foundation. If 
 through some misfortune you are closely pressed by the advancing 
 cloud, never remain standing and attempt to weather the storm, but 
 throw yourself prone (face downward) upon the ground, head to the 
 
so 
 
 east, and arms thrown over the head to protect it. If you should 
 chance to be near a large stone ur stump, or some heavy object low 
 down and firmly imbedded in the ground, take a position directly to 
 the east of it, lying prone upon the earth, head toward the object, 
 protecting the former with your folded arms. This advice is given in 
 the event of extreme exigencies where other and better opportunities 
 have been forfeited. It is better, if possible, never to trust yourself be- 
 hind or about any object located within the center of the storm's path ; 
 by all means not a tree or any object that rises some distance above the 
 surface of the ground. If forced to remam in your house and where 
 you have no cellar, always take a position against the west or south 
 wall (better the former) either prone (face downward) upon the floor or 
 standing with your back to the wall. 
 
 In any building always take your final position on the first or ground 
 floor. Never stand or lie in front of a door or window, or near a stove or 
 heavy piece of furniture. Make every effort to get into the west room, 
 and if possible before the onslaught remove therefrom all furniture, at 
 least from the western portion. Always shut tightly every window and 
 door in your house or other building in which you may be located at the 
 time of the storm. You should never let doors and windows remain 
 open during any violent storm. Never take refuge in a forest, in a 
 small grove of trees, in an orchard, or near a fence of any kind, unless 
 all these obstructions are entirely out of the line of the storm. 
 
 If possible, always open your buildings and let your stock out, driv- 
 ing them to the north. In this matter of caring for stock (which should 
 not be neglected if otherwise possible) always drive them from your 
 buildings to the (as a rule) northward. Try and perform this duty on 
 the first indications of the character of the storm, though not until you 
 have assured yourself of the probable course of the tornado-cloud. Of 
 course it is quite possible that the tornado- cloud may pass to the north 
 of your buildings; in that event your stock should be driven southward, 
 and vice versa* 
 
SI 
 
 PRIZE TORNADO-CAVE. 
 
 Through the courtesy of the Burlington Insurance Com- 
 pany, of Iowa, we are the first to publish the design of John 
 R. Church, architect, of Rochester, New York, which was the 
 one selected by the author (empowered by the Burlington 
 Company to adjudicate the claims of competitors and award 
 the prize) from 122 designs submitted in competition for the 
 $200 prize offered by that company. 
 
 These plans and specifications, and all that pertains to 
 them, are protected by special copyright, and are the property 
 of the Burlington Insurance Company. 
 
 DESIGN FOR A TORNADO-CAVE, BY JOHN R. CHURCH, 
 ARCHITECT, ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 The general design of the cave is indicated by the accom- 
 panying drawings. 
 
 The cave is designed for two different methods of entrance. 
 In design A " the entrance is from the cellar of dwelling. In 
 design B " the plan is intended for a dwelling without cellar, 
 the entrance to cave is from a room in the rear part of dwell- 
 ing and through trap-door in floor. 
 
 The drawings indicate walls of stone 18 inches in thickness; it 
 is intended that they should be laid up in mortar of good quality 
 cement and clean, sharp sand. The excavation should be made 
 large enough to allow the walls to be pointed and plastered on 
 the outside with cement mortar, to prevent water from coming 
 through them. The walls should be started on a bed of cement 
 mortar i inch thick. 
 
 In a country where stone is more expensive than brick, an 
 8-inch brick wall can be substituted for the stone wall, plas- 
 tering the wall on the outside with cement mortar and laying the 
 brick in same kind of mortar. 
 
 The floor of the cave and passages to be paved with one course 
 of hard-burned" brick, these to be laid on a bed of cement 
 
53 
 
 mortar 2 inches thick, and the joints to be thoroughly grouted 
 with cement. 
 
 The construction of the roof to be with iron beams and 8-inch 
 arches of " hard-burned" brick as shown, the brick to be laid 
 in cement mortar, top to be leveled up and sloped as indicated 
 with concrete, and the whole to be covered with a coating of 
 best roofing pitch ; this to be applied hot and the roof made 
 water-tight. Roof of the passage to be constructed in same way. 
 
 Iron beams indicated should be 6 incheS; 40 lbs. per yard, 
 with 4x6 inch angle-irons laid on the walls as shown - to pro- 
 vide skewbacks for the arches — angle irons to weigh 30 lbs. per 
 yard. The bolts to be i inch in diameter, and to be fixed as 
 indicated. Roof of the exit ''to be covered with flag-stone 
 6 inches thick., 
 
 For ventilation two lines of 12-inch, salt-glazed, vitrified tile are 
 provided, these to connect with outer air as indicated, tile to 
 run up above the ground about 6 inches and to have cast-iron 
 grating in top. 
 
 The doors to be made of 2-inch matched plank, hung with 
 strap hinges, battened, and provided with bolts, latches, etc. 
 
 An exit to open air is provided in addition to the entrance to 
 cave from dwelling ; this can also be used for an entrance if 
 desired 
 
 SPECIFICATION 
 
 Of materials and labor required in the construction of a *' tornado- 
 cave " for Mr. to be located on the west side of his dwelling, 
 
 situated , in accordance with accompanying drawings prepared 
 
 by John R. Church, architect, 54 Osburn House Block, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 DIMENSIONS. 
 
 The size of the cave to be seven feet by twelve feet inside, and the 
 height to be six feet six inches in the clear, passages, etc., all to be as 
 shown on the drawings, which consist of — 
 
 (i.) Plan of the cave at ground. 
 
 (2. ) Plan of cave below ground. 
 
 (3.) Four sections of cave on different lines. 
 
 (4. ) Perspective sketch of entrance. 
 
 (5.) Perspective sketch of interior. Drawings have the scale indi- 
 cated on them. 
 
55 
 
 EXCAVATION. 
 
 Excavate for the cave, the passage from cellar or house, and for the 
 exit-passage, all as shown on the drawings. The excavation to be 
 made large — at least eighteen inches outside of the walls on all sides — 
 so that the walls can be plastered on the outside. 
 
 The excavation to be carried down to seven feet below the surface of 
 the ground, as indicated on the sectional drawings. After the walls 
 have been plastered as hereinafter specified, and the mortar is dry, 
 pack the earth in against the walls, and after the roof is on cover the 
 same with earth, as shown by the drawings, and slope it from the top of 
 cave as indicated. 
 
 STONE-WORK. 
 
 The walls of the cave to be of stone, eighteen inches thick; these to 
 be built with good, flat, building stone, the walls to be laid by and full 
 to a line both faces, and the walls to be properly flushed and pointed; 
 the walls must be filled solid, leaving no empty spaces in them. 
 
 The stone walls are to start four inches below the finished line of 
 floor of cave, lay the footings of same on a bed of cement mortar not 
 less than one inch thick, the same extending well outside of the walls. 
 
 All of the stone work to be laid in mortar made of clean, coarse, 
 sharp sand and a good quality of cement, mixed in the proportion of 
 three of sand to one of cement ; all to be mixed dry, and only wetted 
 up as fast as used. 
 
 The outer face of the walls to be plastered with a good coat of ce- 
 ment mortar, the same to be carried down to the mortar under the 
 wall, the mortar made in same manner as specified above for the stone- 
 work. 
 
 If brick is used for the walls instead of stone, substitute the follow- 
 ing for the above : — 
 
 BRICK WALLS. 
 
 All brick used in the construction of the cave must be *' thoroughly 
 hard-burned brick," no soft brick to be used in any part. 
 
 Start the brick walls on a bed of cement mortar at least one inch 
 thick, and four inches below the finished floor of cave ; this mortar to be 
 made of clean, coarse, sharp sand and a good quality of cement, in 
 parts of three of sand to one of cement. 
 
 Construct the brick walls in the best manner, all to be eight inches 
 thick, built of hard -burned brick laid in cement mortar; the walls to be 
 properly bonded with headers every sixth course, every course to be 
 flushed solid, leaving no empty spaces in the walls — the inside of the 
 walls to have the jomts neatly struck, and the outer faces of the walls 
 
57 
 
 must all be plastered with a go©d coat of cement mortar, the same to 
 be carried down to bottom of the walls. All brick must be well wet 
 before laying. 
 
 IRON-WORK. 
 
 Provide iron-work for the support of the roof, as shown by the draw- 
 ing of same. 
 
 Support the roof of cave with two six-inch I beams weighing 40 lbs. 
 per yard, to form skewbacks for the arches ; place 3x5 angle-irons on 
 the walls, and connect the whole with three lines of iron bolts one inch 
 in diameter, the bolts to have nuts, etc. 
 
 Support the roof of the passage as shown, using 3x5 angle -irons on 
 walls to form skewbacks for the arches, place one-inch iron bolts as in- 
 dicated, the angle-iron to weigh 30 lbs. per yard. 
 
 ARCHES. 
 
 Construct the arches forming the roof of the cave as shown by the 
 sectional drawings, using only hard, well-burned brick, no soft brick to 
 be used; the arches to be two '* row-locks," as indicated, and to be 
 built on proper centering. The brick must all be soaked in water be- 
 fore using, to be laid with cement mortar, and the joints to be made 
 close, and filled solid, leaving no empty spaces in them. All joints to 
 be well slushed up with cement mortar. 
 
 Fill in on top of the roof of cave and passage, as shown on the sec- 
 tional drawings, with concrete made of clean, coarse, sharp sand, 
 broken stone-chips, or coarse gravel, and a good quality of cement; the 
 top of the cave and passage to be of convex form as indicated, so that 
 it will shed water. Top to be made flush and smooth. 
 
 PITCH. 
 
 The whole top of cave and passage to be covered with a good heavy 
 coat of good roofing pitch, this to be applied hot and the roof to be 
 made water-tight thereby. 
 
 FLAG-STONE OVER EXIT. 
 
 Provide and place over the exit-passage, as indicated on the draw- 
 ings, a flag-stone not less than five inches thick ; set same in cement 
 mortar, and pitch the joints to make water-tight. 
 
 Provide a stone sill to the outer exit-opening ; this to be four inches 
 thick. 
 
 FLOOR OF CAVE. 
 
 Spread a bed of cement mortar two inches thick on the ground in 
 the cave and the passages; this to be leveled off true and smooth, and 
 covered with one course of hard-burned brick laid flat, the joints of 
 which are to be thoroughly grouted in cement. 
 
59 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 For ventilation of the cave provide two lines of twelve-inch, salt- 
 glazed, vitrified tile; provide 1-4 bends as shown, and carry tile up to 
 six inches above the finished grade, as shown by drawings; the 
 joints must all be made tight with cement, and the outer openings of the 
 tile to have iron gratings as shown. 
 
 DOORS. 
 
 Construct two doors as indicated on the plans, these doors to be of 
 two-inch planed and matched pine stuff; the same to be battened on the 
 back, the same put on with screws, and to be hung to the frames with 
 large, heavy T hinges. 
 
 The door-frames to have sills of oak, the jambs to be of pine two 
 inches thick, the same rebated for the doors; the jamb to which the 
 door is hung to be four inches wider than the others; this to project 
 into the cave, so as to secure the hinges to it. Provide the doors with 
 heavy thumb-latches, iron bolts, staples, and a padlock to each door. 
 
 The head-jamb of the door-frames and the sills of same to project 
 three inches into the walls at sides. 
 
 Provide lintels of segment form, as indicated on the drawings, over 
 door-openings on which arches of brick are to be turned as shown. 
 
 SEAT AND STEPS. 
 
 Construct seat and steps as shown on the plans; all of sound dry 
 pine, two inches thick, to be planed and constructed and put up in a 
 good, substantial manner. 
 
 OPENING IN CELLAR WALL. 
 
 Cut opening through the cellar wall of the dwelling as indicated, for 
 the passage to cave, properly fill out the jambs of the opening and fin- 
 ish plumb and true. 
 
 FOR A HOUSE WITHOUT A CELLAR, INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :— 
 
 The wall of the passage to be carried under the house as shown on 
 the plan. 
 
 Cut out the floor-timbers, floor, etc., in the house, and frame trim- 
 mers, headers, etc., as required for the proper support of the floor. 
 
 Construct trap-door as indicated, with flooring same as in the room, 
 the door to be battened on the back, the battens to be put on with 
 wrought nails, the door to be hung with heavy 8-inch T hmges and 
 trimmed with ring and staple to open. 
 
 Construct a flight of stairs leading to passage, as indicated on the 
 plan ; the stringers to be of two-inch pine plank and the treads of 1 i -4 
 
6o 
 
 inch pine stuff, the edges chamfered 3-8 inches, the treads to be housed 
 into the stringers, and the whole well nailed and put together in a sub- 
 stantial manner. 
 
 For the construction of the walls of wood in the place of brick or 
 stone. 
 
 Construct all the walls of cave and passages with 2x4 inch pine 
 stuff, laid the flat way, all well spiked together, the joints to be prop- 
 erly broken at the angles and corners; the stuff to be placed horizon- 
 tally and to make walls four inches thick without exterior covering. 
 This stuff should all have a good coat of coal-tar, applied hot, and same 
 to cover all four sides of the stuff'; this to preserve the wood. 
 
 Cover the outside of the above walls with 7-8 planed and matched 
 pine stuff, this also to be coated on both sides with coal-tar; these 
 boards to be placed vertically, and all well nailed. 
 
 Construct the roof with 2x8 stuff, placed on edge and close together, 
 forming a solid roof eight inches thick in the center; the ends of same to 
 be cut down to six inches, so as to form a pitch for the roof, which will 
 slope from the center to either side. Cover the top of roof with 7-8 
 matched pine stuff, all well nailed; the above roofing to be covered with 
 coal-tar, same as specified for the side walls. Cover the roof-boards 
 with a good coat of roofing pitch. Construct the roof of the passages 
 in the same manner, using 2x6 stuff and cutting down to 4 at ends. 
 The floor, arrangement for ventilation, doors, etc., to be the same as 
 specified for cave built with stone or brick. 
 
 Of cost of tornado-cave, in accordance with design for same pre- 
 sented by John R. Church, architect, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Note. — Estimates are based upon following prices for materials and 
 labor : — 
 
 SPECIFICATION 
 
 WALLS. 
 
 ROOF. 
 
 ESTIMATES 
 
 Excavation 
 
 Building stone 
 
 Brick 
 
 Sand 
 
 Cement 
 
 Iron 
 
 Pine lumber (rough) 
 
 Tile 
 
 Pitching roof 
 
 Labor, mason 
 
 Labor, laborer 
 
 .30 per cubic yd. 
 
 6.00 per cord. 
 
 8.00 per thousand. 
 1.50 per cubic yd. 
 
 18.00 per thous. ft. 
 
 1.25 perbbL 
 .03 Vi per lb. 
 
 .40 per ft. lin. 
 
 .05 per sq. ft. 
 3.00 per day. 
 1.50 per day. 
 
6i 
 
 Estimate for cave connected with house having cellar. Walls of cave 
 of stone. Includes labor. 
 
 100 cubic yds. excavation $ 30.00 
 
 Stone-work, 50 perches (of 16 ^ cubic ft.) 112.50 
 
 Concrete and plastering 30.00 
 
 Flooring, 600 brick 8.40 
 
 Roof, 2,700 brick 37.80 
 
 Flag-stone over exit 12.00 
 
 Stone sill at exit 2.00 
 
 Pitching roof, 300 feet 15.00 
 
 Iron- work, 750 lbs 24.38 
 
 Tile for vent. .\. 10.00 
 
 Laying same 3.00 
 
 Gratings for vent opening (2) 2.00 
 
 Doors, seats, etc 12.00 
 
 S299.08 
 
 Where the cave is to be used independent of any building, and 
 passage to house is omitted, deduct from the above figures the sum 
 of $62.30, making the estimated cost of cave under those conditions 
 I236.78. 
 
 Estimate of the cost of cave with brick walls connected to house 
 having cellar. Labor included. 
 
 85 cubic yds. excavation $ 25.50 
 
 8,100 brick in walls 113.40 
 
 600 brick for floor 8.40 
 
 2,700 brick for roof 37.80 
 
 Flag-stone over exit 12.00 
 
 Stone sill at exit 2.00 
 
 Pitching roof, 300 feet : 15.00 
 
 Iron- work, 750 lbs 24.38 
 
 Concrete and plastering 30.00 
 
 Tile for vent 10.00 
 
 Laying tile and trenching 3.00 
 
 Gratings for vent 2.00 
 
 Doors, seats, etc 12.00 
 
 $295.48 
 
 Where the cave is to be used independent from any building, and 
 the passage to cellar is omitted, deduct from the above figures the sum 
 of $60.88, making the estimated cost of cave under those conditions 
 $234.60. 
 
 Estimate of cost of cave v/ith brick walls, connected with house 
 having no cellar. Labor included. 
 
 110 cubic yds. excava^tion $ 33.00 
 
 10,200 brick in walls 142.20 
 
 600 brick for floor 8.40 
 
 2,700 brick for roofing 37.80 
 
 Concrete, plastering, etc 32.00 
 
 Flag-stone over exit 12.00 
 
 Stone sill at exit 2.00 
 
 Pitching top of roof, 300 feet 15.00 
 
 750 lbs. iron in roof - 24.38 
 
 Tile for vent, 23 feet, 3 bends 10.00 
 
 Laying tile and trenching 3.00 
 
 Gratings for top of tile 2.00. . 
 
 Doors, seats, etc.. 12.00"^ 
 
 Stairs, trap-door in house, etc , 10.00 
 
 1344.38 
 
62 
 
 Estimate of cost of cave having stone walls,, connected with house 
 
 having no cellar. Includes labor. 
 
 126 cubic yds. excavation $ 37.80 
 
 Stone-work, 62 perches (of 16^ cubic feet). 139.50 
 
 600 brick in floor 8.40 
 
 2,700 brick in roof 37.80 
 
 Concrete and plastering 32.00 
 
 Flag-stone over exit 12.00 
 
 Stone sill at exit 2.00 
 
 Pitching roof 15.00 
 
 Iron-work, 750 lbs 24.38 
 
 Tile for vent 10.00 
 
 Laying and trenching same 3.00 
 
 Gratings for vent 2.00 
 
 Doors, seats, etc 12.00 
 
 Stairs, trap-door, etc 10.00 
 
 $345.38 
 
 Section of Cave. Woodconstruction. 
 
 Estimate of cost of cave, walls constructed of wood, and connected 
 
 with house having cellar. 
 
 Excavation, 85 cubic yds $25.50 
 
 3,000 feet rough pine 54.00 
 
 1,000 feet matched stuff 20.00 
 
 Labor on above 35.00 
 
 Tarring roof and lumber 20.00 
 
 Floor, brick and cement 12.00 
 
 Tile for vent, laying same and giating 15.00 
 
 Doors, seat, etc 12.00 
 
 $193.50 
 
 Where the cave is to be used independent from any building, and the 
 passage to house is omitted, deduct from above figures $39.00, making 
 tine estimated cost under those conditions $154.50. 
 
 For walls constructed of wood as above, connected with house 
 having no cellar, add to above figures the sum of $25.50. 
 
63 
 
 Remarks upon the Construction and Use of Tornado-caves, 
 BY Lieut. Finley. 
 
 The importance of securing absolute protection against bodily injury 
 from the violence of tornadoes cannot be questioned, and there are few 
 people who now speak lightly of the necessity of resorting to extraor- 
 dinary means in the presence of the king of storms. The word extra- 
 ordinary " is used advisedly, because ordinarily man obtains immunity 
 against the fury of the elements by refuge in the usual forms of habita- 
 tion; but the dreadful force of the tornado compels us to ignore all 
 places of security ^here the structure rises above the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 Let us take an example, illustrating the force of the wind. Assume 
 the progressive velocity of the storm to be twenty-five miles per 
 hour. Suppose a house 24 x 30 feet on its foundation exposes a plane 
 surface to the wind of 720 square feet. Twenty-five miles per hour is 
 equivalent to about two pounds pressure upon each square foot of sur- 
 face, presented at right angles or perpendicular to the direction of the 
 wind. On 720 square feet of surface the pressure exerted at right angles 
 to it would be 1,440 pounds. This is not enough force to move the 
 building, because it is much less than the actual weight of the structure, 
 and therefore insufficient to overcome its point of stability. But twenty- 
 five miles per hour is simply a brisk wind. 
 
 Air moving with a velocity of 100 miles per hour against the building 
 here referred to would exert a pressure of 21,600 pounds upon its ex- 
 posed surface of 720 square feet. With a velocity of 500 miles per hour 
 the pressure would be increased to 486.000 pounds, or 243 tons. This 
 enormous pressure is but about one-half of that which would result in 
 the case of a perfect vacuum in the tornado's vortex. In a perfect 
 vacuum, the air rushing into it would move at the rate of about 1,400 
 feet per second, which would be nearly equivalent to a velocity of 1,000 
 miles per hour. The pressure upon each square foot of surface exposed 
 to such a velocity would be about 2,700 pounds per square foot, or if 
 thrown upon the entire building, that is, 720 square feet of surface, i,- 
 944,000 pounds, or 972 tons. 
 
 The force here assumed is force acting only in right lines. But when 
 it is understood that in the actual tornado the forces in play are ex- 
 erted both in right lines and in curved lines, the destructive power is 
 seen to be of almost incalculable fury and energy. In the majority of 
 instances the determinations as to the force of* the wind in a tornado 
 have ranged between 100 and 500 miles per hour. Theoretical veloci- 
 ties of over 2,000 miles per hour, based upon certain assumed atmos- 
 
65 
 
 pheric conditions, have been deduced. Such velocities are mathemati- 
 cally possible, but not meteorologically 'probable. What has now- 
 transpired shows the absolute and undeniable necessity for an under- 
 ground retreat to secure protection from the tornado. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 1st. Locate the cave west of the house, so that if the building is de- 
 stroyed the debris will not be as likely to be thrown upon it, the storm 
 always coming from the southwest quadrant. 
 
 2d. The entrance and exit to the cave should be east of the cave 
 proper and connected with it by a tunnel or chamber, and securely pro- 
 tected from mjury. 
 
 3d. It is preferable that the entrances should connect with the cellar 
 of the house, or if there is no cellar, then by means of a trap-door 
 within the house leading by a stairway to the underground chamber, 
 which finally connects with the cave proper. 
 
 4th. The entrance way should have two doors, one at the beginning 
 of the chamber or tunnel, and the other at the end opening into the 
 cave, as precaution agamst the intrusion of fire and smoke, where the 
 debris of the house might be destroyed by fire. 
 
 5th. The entrance and exit should be independent of each other, and 
 the latter lead out to the open air by a short chamber with two doors, 
 one exterior and the other interior, the latter opening into the cave 
 proper. 
 
 6th. The roof of the cave should always be arched, because offering 
 more resistance to the force of the wind and falling debris than a plane 
 surface. The upper surface of the roof should be at least three (3) feet 
 below the earth resting upon it. This precaution gives additional pro- 
 tection against driving timbers thrown by the force of the wind. 
 
 7th. The excavation for masonry work should be of sufficient depth 
 to permit the upper surface of the roof of the cave to rest about one foot 
 below the surface of the (surrounding) undisturbed earth. This arrange- 
 ment, hy allowing three feet of earth to cover the roof, will raise a 
 mound of about two feet, which, while serving as a protection to the 
 masonry, will also serve to turn the surface-water away from the roof 
 of the cave. 
 
 8th. The earth covering the roof should be well pounded. It may 
 be mixed with broken stone. The surface should be sodded or sown 
 with blue grass. Every precaution must be takeu to render the earth 
 above the roof of cave proof against flying missiles and timbers, which 
 are frequently driven several feet into the solid earth. 
 
66 
 
 Qth. Stone or brick, with Akron or Portland building cement, is the 
 best material for purposes or construction. 
 
 loth. It is folly and false economy to build a cave without taking 
 every precaution to prevent decay of materials used. 
 
 nth. Drainage. Particular attention should be paid to constructing 
 the cave in such a manner that it v^^ill keep dry. If possible, a dry 
 cave should be constructed by laymg all masonry in cement mortar 
 and carefully pointing the exterior of all w^alls, and then plastering on 
 the outer faces with cement mortar. 
 
 The roof should take the convex form suggested, and should be cov- 
 ered with a good coat of coal-tar or roofing pitch. 
 
 The cave should never be connected with the house-drain, cess- 
 pool, or sewer, receiving waste from the house, on account of the diffi- 
 culty of so disconnecting same as to prevent the entrance of sewer-gas 
 into cave — as during the dry season the water-seal of the trap would be 
 likely to be broken from evaporation and other causes. 
 
 The cave should not be connected with a cesspool receiving waste 
 from the house, on account of the possibility of same overflowing into the 
 cave. 
 
 1 2th. Where practicable, the entrance and exit doors which open into 
 the cave proper should be of iron, or oak covered with sheet iron. 
 
 13th. Careful attention should be given to secure complete and un- 
 disturbed ventilation of the entire cave. 
 
 14th. During the season when tornadoes are most likely to occur, the 
 cave should be provided with all things necessary to place it in readi- 
 ness for occupation at any moment of night or day. Every precaution 
 should be taken to keep the entrance and exit ways free from all obsta- 
 cles that might prevent or delay the immediate use of the cave. The 
 cave should always be provided with the means of lighting it, say, 
 safety-lamps or lanterns. 
 
 15 th. Every one constructing a tornado-cave should bear in mind the 
 necessity which may occur of their being compelled to use it as a home 
 for a considerable time while repairing or building anew from the ruins 
 of the storm. Therefore, where it is possible, it is of the utmost im- 
 portance to erect the tornado-cave with care, thoroughness, and a due 
 regard to comfort. The poor man, if he must build slowly for 
 lack of funds, should build exceedingly well, while the rich can con- 
 struct rapidly, thoroughly, and with every regard for comfort and adorn- 
 ment. But in either case the absolute protection from injury and loss 
 should be the same, because the poor man cannot afford to waste money 
 and time, and subject himself and family to great danger, by reason of a 
 hasty and improperly constructed cave. 
 
67 
 
 1 6th. During that season of the year when tornadoes are not likely to 
 occur, the tornado-cave may be turned to practical account for the 
 storage and safe keeping of many thmgs necessary for household use. 
 
 17th. The cave proper may be constructed in circular form, with con- 
 vex roof, as perhaps being more durable and economical of space than 
 the angular form with convex roof, but whatever the particular fancy of 
 the builder may dictate, let the work be done thoroughly and with the 
 best materials. 
 
 With regard to the protection of life and property in the many small 
 towns, and even cities, liable to be visited by the devastating tornado- 
 cloud, what has already been suggested in the manner of north and 
 south movements, dug-outs, and cellar-caves will, of course, apply here. 
 Where, as in a village or city, a large number of persons are congregated, 
 each intent upon his or her particular business, it is hardly to be ex- 
 pected that they will have the leisure to observe, or be inclined to give 
 any attention to the face of the sky. Should it chance that any per- 
 son watched the atmospheric changes and received indications of the 
 approach of a tornado-cloud, he might not think it his duty (probably 
 forget it in his excitement) to warn others of the impending danger, or 
 provide for the safety of more than his own family. Of course, in any 
 event it is natural to suppose that he would first secure his own household. 
 This supposed case is a very probable one; at least nine times out of ten 
 we find that towns are devastated without apparent warning, and the un- 
 fortunate people, startled from their imagined security, are killed in 
 their struggling efforts for escape. Some provision should be made for 
 the mass of inhabitants who are performing their various duties in and 
 out of doors, and who by reason of their peculiar situation or labor 
 could not, if they would, ascertain the prognostics of the sky. 
 
 With regard to this matter we will offer a few suggestions which may 
 not be amiss. On any day when there is presaged in the weather condi- 
 tions evidence of the probable approach of a violent wind -storm, it 
 should be the duty of those in authority to deputize certain intelligent 
 persons to watch the character and approach of the storm and, if a tor- 
 nado, to give timely warning of its advance to the various families in 
 their respective wards, and take charge of the removal of persons and 
 property to places of safety. The church and school bells might be 
 rung in a peculiar manner as a signal of warning. These men should 
 be cool, brave, active, and judicious. They should understand the situ- 
 ation, know precisely what is needed and how to supply it. All per- 
 sons should at the proper time appreciate the situation of those in 
 authority and avoid confusion by a strict compliance with orders. 
 
68 
 
 The signs (as before described) ot tornado-cloud formation and ap- 
 proach are distinct and sufficiently suggestive to afford opportunity for 
 timely and concerted action. The time for action will necessarily be 
 limited, and the watch need not commence until there is every reason to 
 believe that such a course is absolutely necessary. Some persons may 
 be disposed to smile at the novelty and minuteness of this arrangement, 
 or at the idea of employing weather-guards at Western towns. I will 
 venture to say that these smiles will not appear on the faces of persons 
 who have experienced the irresistible and overwhelming violence of a 
 tornado. I have never detected levity or indifference among those who 
 were left to tell the tale of distress in any of the many almost annihilated 
 towns of the West. You may smile or wonder at the thought of hardy, 
 brave men who have, without flinching and in support of their country's 
 honor, faced the red-hot belchings of a score of batteries, who now at 
 the sight of a threatening cloud or the experience of a brisk wind, make 
 a bold dash for places of safety, or, throwing themselves upon the 
 ground, clutch at the first object within reach. Such is the abject terror 
 which possesses all alike after the experience of a tornado. 
 
 Immediately following and for some weeks after the occurrence in 
 Kansas and Missouri of the violent tornadoes of 1879, hundreds of people 
 along the tracks and in the vicinity of the storms hardly went to bed, 
 but remained dressed and, with their lanterns trimmed and burning, 
 watched intently every foreboding appearance of the sky. Every dark 
 cloud or sudden increase of the wind was calculated to affect them with 
 an indescribable terror which could not be allayed until every vestige of 
 the supposed danger had vanished. This is not the pitiful tale alone of 
 Kansas and Missouri sufferers, but wherever the dreaded tornado makes 
 it way, be it in Michigan, in Mississippi, in Georgia, in Massachusetts, or 
 in Minnesota, the awful roar and power of its march strike all life dumb 
 with fear. A great deal can be accomplished towards allaying this fear 
 by a dissemination of practical knowledge concerning storms and by a 
 general effort among intelligent people to appreciate such information. 
 All intelligent persons can and should become familiar with the various 
 classes of storms and be qualified to detect their formation and approach. 
 
 There is no country on the face of the globe where meteorology can 
 be studied with so much advantage, practically and scientifically, as in 
 North America. The elementary principles of meteorology, especially 
 in regard to storms, should be taught in every school, country, town, 
 and city. In the colleges and universities an advanced course should 
 be prescribed. Speculation regarding the weather is exceedingly rife, 
 affecting every branch of the science and in a manner quite without 
 precedent in the line of methodical knowledge. 
 
69 
 
 Tornado prediction is no longer a mere possibility, but in many re- 
 spects may be considered an accomplished fact. By this I do not mean 
 absolute perfection, but reasonable success. The system of preparation 
 and study which leads to the result is subject to improvement, both as 
 to manipulation of charted data and the verification of forecasts; but it 
 is believed that the work now in hand with the above end in view, will 
 greatly enhance the present measure of success. Tornado predictions 
 have been made daily, largely as a matter of study, but in part for the 
 information of the public, through Signal Service official bulletins, since 
 March 1st, 1884. 
 
 That all people may know and become impressed with the excep- 
 tional power and awful grandeur of the tornado, illustrations of its work 
 in particular instances will be opportune at this time. 
 
 REPORT ON THE TORNADOES OF MAY 29TH AND 3OTH, 1 879, AT 
 SALINE COUNTY, KANSAS. PROFESSIONAL PAPER OF 
 THE SIGNAL SERVICE NO. IV., BY LIEUT. FINLEY. 
 
 On the 30th of May, 1879, about 3 p. m., a tornado 
 passed over a portion of Saline County, Kansas, concerning 
 which the following graphic description was prepared by an 
 eye-witness : — 
 
 ''It rains so gently this afternoon that the weather is really 
 enjoyable. Plants grow and flowers bloom as they never do 
 when it is dry. The Solomon Valley seems almost a second 
 Garden of Eden. A short time before the clock strikes 
 three, hailstones begin to fall, which rapidly increase in 
 size. We gather some of the largest and find that it takes six 
 of them to weigh a pound. But notice that hail-cloud south 
 of us ! What wonderful contortions, evolutions, and twistings. 
 
 Note. — Pictures of the identical storms described are not obtainable, 
 and, per contra, descriptions of the storms photographed are not at 
 hand; but as one tornado is essentially the counterpart of another, we 
 have adopted such pictures as we could get to illustrate the destructive 
 force of these terrible meteors. There is no pretense that the pictures 
 represent the events narrated other than in their characteristics. With 
 this explanation no one need be misled by the juxtaposition of text and 
 plate, which are in reality foreign to each other. 
 
70 
 
 The hail that is falling from it is plainly visible from here, 
 although it is four miles to the southwest. A few strips 
 of cloud like whip-lashes hang from it. 
 
 Tornado at Griiuiell, Iowa, June 17, 1882. View near tho residence of Mr. 
 Graham, looking northeast. From a Photograph. 
 
71 
 
 ''The cloud now revolves rapidly from right to left. We 
 gaze at the magnificent scene with awe and wonder. The 
 center becomes lower and lower, until it resembles a funnel 
 
 Tornado at GrinneU, Towa, June 17, 1882. Debris of Dr. Ford's dwelling, ^ 
 
 looking east. From a Photograph. \ 
 
 The truth now bursts upon us. // is a tornado! We hear its | 
 
 awful roar like an earthquake or distant thunder. The fun- i 
 
72 
 
 nel rapidly descends till it reaches the earth. It moves rap- 
 idly northward. It rises, a dark cone ascends from the 
 ground to meet it, and it descends. It strikes the river. All 
 the water is drawn from the channel, perceptibly widening 
 the cone. From the first the tornado has had the appearance 
 of a waterspout at sea. We think it is coming near us. We 
 can now see its fury. It is not far away. Shall we leave the 
 house ? No, for we are not certain on which side it will 
 pass. We are apparently as safe here as elsewhere. We can 
 only trust in Providence. The windows are nailed fast. 
 Three of us lean against the door which is nearest the storm. 
 The rest go into the cellar. It is about 4 p. m. A moment 
 of breathless suspense and the storm strikes us. The timbers 
 creak, the sides of the house sway in and out. Surely, they 
 cannot outlast it. We hear no well-defined roar now, for on 
 the outside, boards and other debris are fiercely clashing. All 
 is dark within. In about fifteen minutes the storm is over. 
 We leave the house. The center of the storm has passed to 
 the west of us and we can see its dark form moving away in 
 a northeast direction. " 
 
 After leaving this point a neighbor was visited, and with 
 what awful results! It makes the blood chill in the veins to 
 rehearse the horrors of the scene. Wild and dreadful was the 
 carnage of that hour. The buildings, the hard earnings of 
 many years, were swept from the earth. A large, two-horse 
 sulky plow, weighing 700 pounds, was carried a distance of 
 thirty-five rods, breaking off one of the iron wheels attached 
 to an iron axle if inches in diameter. Two stoves were 
 found broken into small pieces, not any of them larger than 
 six or eight inches square. Wagon hubs without a single 
 spoke in them, wagon tires curled into fantastic shapes, 
 pieces of clothing and bedding wound about sticks and tim- 
 bers or scattered over the prairie, were the only signs of a 
 once thrifty home. Upon the destruction of the house one 
 of the daughters was ca^rried by the wind 200 yards to the 
 
73 
 
 northwest, and thrust head foremost into a barbed-wire fence. 
 She was almost instantly killed, the clothing was stripped 
 from her body, which was found covered with black mud 
 and her hair matted with it. The posts along the fence for a 
 
 Tornado at Grinnell, la., June 17, 1882. General view looking in direction 
 taken by the storm. From a Photograph. Dr. Grinnell's house in background. 
 Shadow under the floor shows the place from which he took his wife and four 
 children unharmed. 
 
 distance of twenty-five rods were covered on the south, side 
 with mud, straw, chaff, and bits of rags to a depth of nearly 
 three inches, and near the bottom of the posts it was one 
 
74 
 
 foot thick. It was plastered on as if thrown with the greatest 
 velocity, requiring a sharp instrument and considerable phys- 
 ical exertion to make an impression upon it. Five of the 
 posts were literally pulled out of the ground from a depth of 
 twenty-eight inches. The wire was stripped from the posts 
 and wound up into a ball. The eldest son was carried thirty 
 rods to the northeast into a wheat field, his clothing torn into 
 shreds, and his body covered with black mud. Another 
 daughter had a piece of board driven nearly through the 
 fleshy portion of her thigh, cutting a gash about seven inches 
 wide; the board was pulled out of the flesh during the storm, 
 probably by the violence of the wind. The ghastly wound, 
 upon being examined by the attending surgeon, was found to 
 contain pieces of nails, straw, mud, and splinters of wood. 
 In all cases women suffered the most, as they were divested 
 of their garments and left perfectly at the mercy of the flying 
 debris that filled the air. The hair of all persons caught in 
 the midst of the storm was so matted with mud that their 
 heads had to be shaved in order to clean them. It seemed as 
 if the mud belonged there naturally, and that the hair was 
 but a mere usurper. Eyea and ears were also filled with 
 mud, preventing the natural use of these senses. All of the 
 wounds received were torn and 'jagged, and found mostly 
 upon the back of the body and running upward. Two 
 strangers passing by at the time of the storm stopped at the 
 barns to seek shelter. One of them was repeatedly dashed to 
 the ground and rolled about until death came to release him 
 from his sufferings. The other took refuge in a straw-stack 
 which was turned over upon him, and then finally scattered 
 in every direction. When completely left to the mercy of the 
 elements he was lifted in the air, how high he did not 
 know, but while above the ground he came in contact with 
 the tail or mane of a horse, which he grasped, but was finally 
 separated from, coming down to the earth, with hat in one 
 hand and hair in the other. A light, two-horse wagon, with 
 
7S 
 
 one horse attached, the other being killed by flying debris, 
 was observed at a height of about loo feet in the air. A 
 large barn forty feet square, with sixteen-foot posts, v/as com- 
 pletely demolished, and every timber carried away from the 
 
 Tornado at Grinnell, Iowa, June 17, 1882. General view looking east. 
 Wrecked buggy with spokes blown out of hub. From a Photograph. 
 
 foundation. Six horses were killed, two outright, and the 
 others so seriously injured by flying debris driven into their 
 bodies that they had to be shot. One animal was badly 
 mangled about the body, and bad nearly all of its bones 
 
76 
 
 broken, having fallen from a considerable height, making a 
 large depression in the tough sod of the prairie. Eighteen 
 fat hogs, weighing from 300 to 500 pounds each, were killed 
 outright, and six others died afterwards from their injuries. 
 
 Tornado at Grinnell, Iowa, Juno 17, 1882. Ruins of Geor^re Parse's resi- 
 dence. From a Photograph. Six wounded. Mrs. Parse blown 50U feet. 
 
 One hog weighing 300 pounds had a scantling seven feet 
 long and six -inches square driven lengthwise through its 
 body. Another had a fence-board driven through it in the 
 same manner, and still another had a sharp-pointed post 
 
77 
 
 driven through the body from side to side ; one was carried 
 300 yards out on the prairie. Two new lumber wagons 
 were carried from thirty-five to fifty rods in different direc- 
 tions and torn to pieces. One of the wheels was carried a 
 distance of one mile to the northwest. In other instances 
 wheels were broken from the axles, the spokes twisted from 
 their sockets, and the large, heavy, iron tires twisted into the 
 most fantastic shapes. A log twelve feet long and ten inches 
 
 Tornado at Grinnell, Iowa, June 17, 1882. Ruins of Dr. Grinnell's resi- 
 dence. From a Photograpli. 
 
 in diameter was carried 320 rods to the northwest. The 
 front iron axle ( inches in diameter) of a top buggy was 
 found bent double, the two ends crossing each other, and 
 both wheels were torn off even to the hubs. The rear axle, 
 with wheels attached, was carried one quarter of a mile to the 
 northwest. A wooden sill eight by ten inches and sixteen 
 feet long was carried twelve rods to the northwest. A cat 
 was found half a mile northeast of the house in which she 
 
78 
 
 was seen just before the storm, with every hone broken and 
 the body crushed as flat as if it had been passed through a 
 cider-press. Chickens were stripped of their feathers and 
 carried long distances, one being found three miles to the 
 northeast. 
 
 The iron mold-board of a heavy, wooden-beam plow was 
 found driven into the ground so firmly that it had to be dug 
 out. Osage hedges were filled with debris that defied re- 
 moval without digging the bushes from the earth. 
 
 THE lee's summit TORNADO, JACKSON COUNTY, MISSOURI. 
 MAY 3OTH, 1879. 
 
 ''At a little past 7:00 p. m. I saw the funnel-shaped cloud 
 whirling terribly and approaching from Mr. Hutchins. I 
 was standing near the center of the south frame part of 
 the house, and rushed to the south door to hold it, but 
 before I could pull a chest to the door from a distance of 
 ten feet the storm-cloud was upon us. The wind struck 
 the south end of the house first, raising it from the foun- 
 dation ; then the log and frame parts to the north were struck 
 upon the east side, also raising them from the foundation, 
 when the top of the entire house fell in, and the whole 
 confused mass was turned over twice to the northwest. It 
 was left there but for a moment, apparently to give the 
 whirling current time to pass around the barn to the west 
 and south, which it did without injuring it, but throwing 
 down the surrounding trees." 
 
 Returning to the house, \yhich it did almost instantly, 
 the violent southwest current carried all but the west 
 side back to the north, a distance of several hundred 
 yards, smashing everything into kindling-wood. No 
 part of the roof and upper floors could ever be found. 
 Mr. Warden, Jr., was carried with the house to the north- 
 west, and while the current passed to the barn, was held 
 between two of the floors and badly bruised, and on the 
 
79 
 
 return of the current was carried to the north 200 yards. 
 His father and younger brother pursued about the same 
 course, except that the former was blown to the northwest 
 
 Tornado at Kansas City, July 17, 1880. Ruins of Carrigan's barn, cor. 17th 
 St. and Madison Ave. From a Photograph. 
 
 and there remained with the west side of the house, while 
 the latter was carried to a point within a few feet of his 
 elder brother. 
 
8o 
 
 All of the parties were covered with mud from head to 
 foot ; eyes, mouths, and ears filled, and clothing torn into 
 shreds. The elder son had his head and face cut, and 
 shoes torn from his feet, one of them being found at the 
 house, and the other carried one-fourth of a mile to the 
 northeast. His trousers and shirt were torn into strips, 
 hair matted with black mud, his face bruised, and dirt 
 driven into the flesh. 
 
 The mother and two small children were left in the 
 rubbish, the former having her head crushed, and her long 
 hair, which reached below her waist, was partly cut and 
 partly torn from the scalp, twisted into a rope, and found 
 several feet from her body. That portion of the hair left 
 upon the scalp was twisted into little wisps and mixed 
 with mud. The baby was thrown to the southeast about 
 twenty yards, and another child was carried to the west 
 112 feet, and two large splinters driven through its thigh, 
 one of which came from Mr. Hutchin's house, one-fourth 
 of a mile to the southwest, it being identified by the pecu- 
 liar color of the paint upon it. A little girl was thrown 
 six rods to the northwest and uninjured. In all cases cuts 
 were made only upon the heads, and bruises upon the body. 
 All the members of the family had their hair matted with 
 mud and their clothing so filled with it, that it was impossi- 
 ble, even after a number of washings, to render the gar- 
 ments fit for use. 
 
 The bodies of most of the children, after having been 
 washed daily for four days, were still covered with specks 
 of fine dirt and bits of leaves, which seemed to be driven 
 into the flesh. 
 
 The following will indicate some of the peculiar freaks 
 of the storm : A carpet upon the floor of the log part of 
 the house and securely tacked about the edges was taken 
 up and carried out of the house without being torn. A 
 new sewing machine was broken into forty or fifty pieces. 
 
8i 
 
 Fine feather beds were torn into strips, and the contents 
 scattered broadcast over the country. Several garments 
 were carried five or six miles to the northeast. An iron 
 kettle holding fifteen gallons was broken into six pieces, 
 
 Tornado at Kansas City, JtQy 17, 1880. Mr. Doggett's house, cor. IGtli and 
 Dripps Sts. From a Photograph. 
 
 and scattered about in several directions. A ten-gallon keg 
 filled with vinegar was carried to the northeast forty rods. 
 A large iron-bound trunk, fitted with an extra heavy lock, 
 was torn to pieces and the lock found a half mile to the 
 
82 
 
 northeast, sticking into one of the rails of a fence. Several 
 photographs, which were known to have been securely placed 
 in an album* which was packed in the trunk, were found on 
 the ground, a distance of over four miles to the northeast. 
 A vest belonging to i\Ir. Warden and containing his watch, 
 was carried out of the house. The watch, becoming sepa- 
 rated from the vest, was carried by the wind fifty yards to 
 
 Tornado at Kansas City, Jtdy 17, 1880. Mr. Post's house, 19th and Mercer 
 Sts. From a Photograph. 
 
 the northeast, and found covered with mud. The vest was 
 carried to the east a distance of twenty yards. Several 
 chickens were carried to the northeast, a distance of about 
 one mile, and entirely stripped of their feathers. Two 
 stoves were broken into small pieces, but one standing 
 near the middle of the house escaped uninjured. 
 
84 
 
 Heavy bed-quilts were so filled with mud that when 
 dry they were as stiff and hard as boards. A lumber 
 wagon was carried to the northwest ten rods, the box torn 
 to pieces, and nearly all of the spokes taken out of the 
 wheels. An iron-beam plow, standing twenty-five feet 
 west of the house, was not moved or injured, and a seed- 
 drill and harrow, near the barn, were also untouched. The 
 debris from the house was scattered over a region of coun- 
 try one mile wide by five miles long. The path of great- 
 est destruction was eighty rods wide, but fences were torn 
 down for a breadth of nearly two miles. 
 
 Another dreadful disaster in the course of this storm 
 occurred at the house of the ill-fated Harris family. It was 
 situated in a little ravine near one of the branches of Sni-a-bar 
 Creek, one-half mile east of Blue Springs, and sixty feet west 
 of the storm's center. The family, consisting of father, mother, 
 and four children, ran out of the house on the approach of 
 the storm, the former and one or two of the children first 
 moving to the northwest, but thinking that the cloud was 
 coming directly towards them in that position, they turned 
 back to the east, and by the time they had reached a point 
 about on a line with the storm s course, they were struck by it. 
 
 The father and baby were carried into a field northeast of 
 the house, a distance of 150 yards, coveied with mud and 
 bruises, and found in the agonies of death. 
 
 The mother, who had not succeeded in getting as far away 
 from the house as the two former, was carried to the east 
 seventy-five yards, and lodged against a small tree, around 
 which her body was partially twisted. Her skull was 
 crushed, and she died in a few minutes after being found. 
 Her clothes were stripped from her body, which was bedaubed 
 with mud from head to foot. One girl, eight years old, was 
 found dead and mangled in the center of the storm's path, a 
 distance of fifty yards northeast of the house. One boy was 
 blown into a straw-stack, a distance of forty-five yards to the 
 
86 
 
 northeast. A little girl was found eighty yards to the north- 
 east, lying in the center of the storm's path. The two latter 
 were not dangerously injured. 
 
 Those who examined the bodies of the dead, among them 
 a physician, stated that after they were washed the entire sur- 
 face was found to be ecchymosed ; or, in other words, they 
 had been so severely bruised and dashed about by the vio- 
 lence of the wind, that the flesh was nearly black by the 
 settling of the blood in the tissues of the skin. 
 
 The ground upon which the house stood was swept as 
 clean as if scourged by fire. There was hardly a vestige 
 of clothing anywhere to be found. Now and then a small 
 rag could be seen fluttering from some tree-top, caught upon 
 a rail fence, or wound around some broken piece of timber. 
 
 The creek, about half a mile southeast of where the house 
 stood, was found choked up with a mixture of straw, rags, 
 feathers, kitchen utensils, rails, boards, household furniture, 
 and pieces of farming implements. Wagon hubs were to be 
 found with every spoke gone, some broken ofl" and some 
 pulled out. Two heavy quarter-inch wagon tires were 
 twisted into knots. The iron mold-board of a plow, one-half 
 inch in thickness, was broken in two, and one of the 
 parts driven into the ground a depth of 9^ inches. There 
 was not a single farming implement or article of furniture 
 that was not rendered unserviceable. 
 
 TORNADO AT MARSHALL COUNTY, KANSAS, MAY 3OTH, 1 8 79. 
 
 The following relates chiefly to some of the dreadful experi- 
 ences in the great tornado of May 30th, 1879, at Irving, 
 Marshall County, Kansas. 
 
 '*The funnel-cloud now swept on a mile and a half over 
 the valley beyond the town, scattering fences and twisting off 
 small trees until it reached the Big Blue River at a point 
 about 800 feet south of the large iron bridge. In crossing 
 the river the clouds struck the heavily wooded bluffs on the 
 eastern bank, rising from 75 to 150 feet, and turned imme- 
 
87 
 
 diately up the river, striking the bridge squarely from the 
 south, which it lifted bodily from the two stone piers and one 
 abutment, and dashed it into the river. So completely 
 
 Tornado near Connersville, Ind., May 14, 1883, about 7:00 P. M. Ruins of an 
 iron bridge lifted from abutments and dashed into the river below. From a 
 Photograph. 
 
 twisted into shapeless ruin was the large mass of iron rods 
 and stringers that it entirely disappeared from view in a few 
 
88 
 
 feet of water. The superstructure rested upon a heavy stone 
 abutment at the east end, and upon two stone piers rising 22 
 feet above the water, one in the center and the other at the 
 western extremity of the first iron span. From this pier to 
 the western bank of the river, 140 feet, a wooden trestle- 
 
 Tornado near Connersville, Ind., May 14, 1883. See also page 87, anotlier 
 view of same bridge. From a Photograph. 
 
 work completed the structure. Thirty feet of the eastern 
 end of this trestle was carried away with the iron spans and 
 deposited in the river. Where the wooden portion separated, 
 timbers lo to 15 inches square, fastened with heavy iron 
 
89 
 
 bolts, were broken asunder as if they had been pipe-stems. 
 The iron portion of the bridge consisted of two spans of 125 
 feet each, and four chords with a rise each of 1 8 feet, weigh- 
 ing twenty-seven tons to the chord. Several of the large iron 
 
 Tornado at Gi iimell, Iowa, June 17, 1882. Portion of train on Iowa Central, 
 east of track. From a Photograph. 
 
 rods, 2 J inches in diameter, sticking out of the water upon the 
 sandy beach were found broken square in two; smaller ones, 
 and broad, flat strips of iron were twisted into fantastic shapes. 
 
go 
 
 So easily and yet so completely was the great structure 
 lifted from its foundation that but two of the top stones were 
 moved from the eastern pier. This was perhaps the most 
 terrific manifestation of force ever exhibited by any storm in 
 
 Tornado at GrinneU, Iowa, June 17, 1882. Portion of train on Iowa Central 
 west of track. From a Pliotograpli. 
 
 this section of country. The structure was practically new, 
 having been built but a few years before at a cost of $20,000. 
 The cloud from this point passed up the river, following the 
 bends to the north and northwest for a distance of about 
 
91 
 
 i,200 feet, when it reached a small 'draw ' from 250 to 300 
 feet wide, cutting up through the bluffs to the east and reach- 
 ing the high prairie beyond. Up this opening the cloud 
 ascended with terrible fury, uprooting and breaking off large 
 oaks and hickories 18 inches to three feet in diameter, and 
 plowing up the earth in deep furrows. While passing up the 
 river the water was subjected to the extraordinary violence of 
 the whirling currents of air and forced backward on either 
 side to the banks, exposing to view the bed of the stream for 
 a considerable distance. The violent uprush of the air in the 
 center of the cloud carried the water in spray above the tops 
 of the highest trees. " 
 
 A further description of this storm, in the vicinity of Irving, 
 Kansas, presents a thrilling account of the terrible devasta- 
 tion wrought by it. A heavy westerly wirfd, causing consid- 
 erable damage, prevailed at Waterville and Blue Springs, 
 eight miles to the northwest. This current passed eastward 
 to Irving, reaching the town after the first storm had disap- 
 peared on the high prairie beyond the river. In the wake 
 of the first tornado a warm southerly wind passed over the 
 town accompanied by rain. The sun, now partially exposed 
 beneath the heavy clouds lining the western horizon, threw 
 its warm rays upon the terror-stricken inhabitants, who, at 
 this welcome invitation, assuring them as they thought of 
 peace and^ protection, emerged from their cellars and dug-outs 
 to witness the destruction already committed and relieve 
 their suffering neighbors. Hardly had the people recovered 
 from the first shock, when there appeared in the West a 
 cloud of inky blackness and enormous dimensions, present- 
 ing a square front of apparently two miles in width and a 
 perpendicular height from earth to sky. It moved along 
 slowly, but with the most inconceivable majesty of force, an 
 nihilating everything within its reach. The cloud is now 
 at the outskirts of the town, and as it begins to execute its 
 frightful mission of death and destruction the earth fairly 
 
92 
 
 quakes and trembles. All nature stands aghast, and every 
 living thing seeks, but in vain, to find security from the im- 
 pending danger. Many people actually believe that the 
 Judgment Day has come, and offer fervent prayers and loud 
 appeals for preservation. But the hand of mercy stays not 
 the dreadful carnage. It begins. The awful roar, like the 
 belchings forth of a thousand Columbiads, drowns the most 
 piercing cries of the wounded. The cloud strikes into a 
 cluster of eighteen houses and other buildings filled with 
 human beings and the accumulations of years. 
 
 In an instant everything is swept from the earth in terrible 
 ruin. Death is experienced in its most dreadful forms. 
 At the house of a Mr. Keeney, the father, mother, and 
 grandfather were blown two hundred yards to the northeast, 
 where they were f6und lying within a few feet of each other 
 mangled and dead. Mrs. Keeney was dashed head foremost 
 into the soft ground up to her shoulders, entirely stripped 
 of her clothing, and covered with black mud. The other 
 two were partially stripped of their garments and also covered 
 with mud, which was fairly beaten into their clothes. The 
 three children of this family were carried by the wind several 
 hundred yards, stripped of their clothing, their bodies cov- 
 ered with mud, but they were not killed. 
 
 The house of a Mr. Sheldon was crushed to the earth and 
 portions of the debris carried for miles in the air. A daughter, 
 twenty-two years of age, was blown to the southeast a distance 
 of two hundred yards, into a low, wet piece of ground. 
 Nearly every bone in her body was broken, and the flesh in 
 many places terribly lacerated by flying debris. The body 
 was found in a perfectly nude condition and almost unrecog- 
 nizable, because of the grass and mire beaten into it. 
 Mr. Leddy's house was surrounded by a grove of cotton- 
 wood trees and a picket fence. The building was lifted 
 bodily above the tops of the highest trees and dashed to 
 pieces upon the earth. The east and south fencing was car- 
 
94 
 
 ried away, and those of the trees left standing were stripped 
 of every portion of bark and foliage and most of the limbs. 
 Wound about their trunks and fluttermg from the bare limbs 
 were fragment of garments, strips of long prairie grass and 
 scraps of paper. On that portion of the picket fence not 
 destroyed, there hung shreds of every article of clothing 
 common to the household; and within a radius of thirty to 
 forty rods lay portions of chairs, sofas, bedsteads, stoves, tins, 
 and crockery-ware, mingled with shingles, lath, shedding, 
 clap-boards, sills, doors, window-frames, etc. The utter des- 
 olation was dreadful to behold. A few moments before, 
 health, happiness, and plenty made these homes the scene 
 of comfort, where now grim death and absolute waste reigned 
 supreme. 
 
 The effect upon those who were left to mourn the tragical 
 death of friends and relations was pitiful in the extreme. 
 This prosperous community had been scourged by a fell de- 
 stroyer more dreadful than either flood or fire, epidemic or 
 war. It came in the twinkling of an eye and all was gone ; 
 life, property, happiness crushed and annihilated; swept 
 with lightning speed into eternity. The little graveyard 
 was dotted with many fresh mounds. The power of the tor- 
 nado-cloud for a few moments had sufficed to accomplish what 
 disease and accident had not done in years. The terrible 
 storms of May 29th and 30th, 1879, will never be forgotten 
 in the States of Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Nebraska. 
 Night after night following the storms, hundreds of people 
 never went to bed ; but, with lanterns trimmed, peered into 
 the darkness watching for a recurrence of the dreadful scenes 
 through which they had just passed. Every dark cloud or 
 sudden freshening of the wind filled them with evil forebod- 
 ings which could not be allayed until every vestige of sup- 
 posed danger had vanished. The terror depicted upon the 
 countenances of the bravest men at the sight of a dark cloud, 
 though it might be perfectly harmless, was something beyond 
 
95 
 
 description or realization, except by those who could witness 
 their excitement. Persons were preparing to quit the coun- 
 try; business of every kind succumbed for a season except 
 that of generously supplying the wants of the sufferers by 
 well-organized relief committees. Many acts of self-sacrifice 
 and devotion redound to the glory and honor of Kansas 
 people. 
 
 THE SOUTH CAROLINA TORNADO OF APRIL i6tH, 1 879. 
 
 The following information relates to the tornado of April 
 1 6th, 1879, near Wakerborough, South Carolina. The data 
 are taken from the Chief Signal Officer's report for 1879. 
 
 VELOCITY AND FORCE OF THE WIND IN THE CLOUD VORTEX. 
 
 A pigeon-house exposing 24 square feet of surface to the 
 action of the wind, and weighing 1,000 pounds, was carried 
 
 Tornado at Kansas City, July 17, 1880. Mr. Post's liouse, 19tli and Mercer 
 Sts. From a Pliotograph. 
 
96 
 
 8o feet and demolished against a house. By adding to this 
 one-third of its weight for friction , the least possible wind velocity 
 required to move it is 105 miles per hour. It may have been 
 twice that velocity. — A one-story house exposing 200 square 
 feet to the wind and weighing 15,000 pounds was carried a 
 distance of six feet. Least required velocity, 142 miles per 
 hour. — A church exposing a surface of 1,000 square feet to 
 the wind and weighing 50,000 pounds was carried 20 feet from 
 its foundation and demolished. Velocity required, 116 miles 
 per hour. — A house exposing 360 square feet of surface and 
 weighing 25,000 pounds was moved 20 feet from its founda- 
 tion. Least required velocity, 136 miles per hour. — ^A store- 
 room weighing 10,000 pounds and exposing 128 square feet 
 of surface, tilted to an angle of 45°. Velocity required, 144 
 miles per hour. — A piece of timber weighing 600 pounds, its 
 greatest surface exposed to the wind being 20 square feet, 
 was carried 440 yards. Least velocity required, 90 miles per 
 hour. — A buggy weighing 150 pounds was carried up in the 
 whirl, and the pieces hung on a tree at the height of 60 feet 
 from the earth. Distance carried, 300 feet. — Two panels of 
 fence weighing 150 pounds were carried a distance of 300 
 feet. — A weather-board was found to have been carried a dis- 
 tance of six miles, it being recognized by the paint ; weight, 
 six pounds. — A chicken-coop, strong box, 4 by 4 feet, was 
 carried a distance of four m.iles; weight, 75 pounds. — A hick- 
 ory tree 54 inches in circumference at butt, and weighing 
 3,000 pounds, was lifted out of the ground and moved up a 
 bank ten feet. — A cart weighing 600 pounds was carried up 
 in the whirl, torn to pieces, and the tire of one wheel found 
 1,320 yards distant. — An iron chisel weighing four pounds 
 was carried 90 feet, and driven into a piece of pine timber a 
 distance of 2 inches. — Two large hubs of a road-wagon, with- 
 out spokes, but attached to an iron axle, and weighing 175 
 pounds, were carried a distance of 750 feet. — A basket of 
 books weighing 50 pounds was carried a distance of 2^ 
 
97 
 
 miles, and found hanging on a tree with the contents intact. — 
 A cart weighing 400 pounds was carried a distance of 125 
 feet and demoUshed. — Geraniums in pots were found by the 
 owner one mile from town uninjured. — A buggy left at a shop 
 near the center of the town to be repaired, could never be 
 found. — Letters and books were carried a distance of 6 miles. 
 
 Tornado at AuTtJum, Ala., April 15, 1884. EXUBS of a. dwelling. From a 
 Photograph* 
 
98 
 
 Pieces of matting and dresses *were found lo miles away. 
 Dead sheep were found shorn of their wool to the bare skin, 
 by the force of the wind. — Fowls were plucked of their 
 feathers as if picked by hand. — Birds were killed, and none 
 were seen in the neighborhood for several days after the 
 storm. 
 
 Tornado at Racine, Wis., May 18, 1883. House twisted from its fonndation. 
 From a Pliotograph. 
 
 On February 19th, 1884, the States of Virginia, North Car- 
 olina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Ten- 
 nessee, and Kentucky were visited with the most terrible de- 
 vastation by wind ever experienced in this country. From 10 
 o'clock in the morning until 1 2 midnight sixty tornadoes 
 occurred in different parts of the above-named States. Rough 
 estimates placed the loss of property at from $3,000,000 to 
 
99 
 
 $4,ooo,ooo; the loss of life at 800, and the number of 
 wounded at 2,500. The number of people rendered home- 
 less and destitute numbered from 10,000 to 15,000, many ot 
 whom were left in a starving condition. The number of 
 buildings destroyed was about 10,000. Cattle, horses, hogs, 
 and other domestic animals were destroyed in great numbers. 
 
 Tornado at Springfield, Mo., April 18, 1880. Ruins of Catholic cliurcli. 
 From a Pliotograph. 
 
 The tale of distress, ruin, and death might be readily aug- 
 mented by reciting the horrors of the Grinnell tornado, which 
 desolated a large section of central Iowa on the afternoon 
 and night of June 17th, 1882. The town of Grinnell, with 
 its fine college buildings, was nearly swept from the earth, 
 and 130 human souls dashed into eternity in less time than 
 it takes to relate it. 
 
lOO 
 
 The great tornadoes of April i8th, 1880, in southwestern 
 Missouri, destroying the town of Marshtield, and kilUng over 
 100 people. 
 
 The tornadoes of August 3d, 1885, in Maryland, Dela- 
 ware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, destroying over two 
 millions worth of property and many lives. 
 
 The tornadoes of April 14th, 1886, in Minnesota, destroy- 
 ing the towns of Saint Cloud and Sauk Rapids, with a loss 
 of over $500,000 and nearly 100 lives. 
 
 Each year sw^ells the record of death and destruction, and 
 makes the contempladon of these dreadful events, which oc- 
 cur W'ith so much certainty and regularity, a source of the 
 deepest concern to those who live in the tornado districts; 
 and, naturally, turns the mind towards the means for the pres- 
 ervation of life and indemnification for property loss. 
 
 CHART NO. 2. 
 
 Chart No. 2 refers to the very remarkable tornadoes of 
 February 19th, 1884. 
 
 On the upper portion of the chart there is delineated the 
 course of progressive movement of the main storm-center, or 
 the central area of barometric minimum. By this is meant 
 the path pursued by the general storm which prevailed over 
 the northern portion of the United States on the day above 
 indicated. It is usual to represent the direction of movement 
 of the center of a great storm by a line. In the cartographical 
 study of storms by the Signal Service the position of the 
 center is described at three distinct times during the 24 hours, 
 viz.: At 7 A. M., 3 p. M., and 10 p. m. To illustrate the direc- 
 tion of movement and the day and hour of observation, 
 the following symbol is used, similar to that shown on the 
 accompanying chart. 
 
 18 ' IH 18 19 
 
 @ — ^ — © — ^ — 
 
 1 2 3 1 
 
 The upper figures indicate the day of the month, and the 
 
I 
 
loi 
 
 lower figures show the hour of observation, i is equivalent 
 to 7 A. M., 2 to 3 p. M., and 3 to 10 p. m. The track of the 
 general storm is shown for the i8th, 19th, and 20th. On the 
 lower portion^f Chart No. 2 is shown the position and direc- 
 tion of movement of the various tornadoes that occurred on 
 the 19th of February, 1884. The tracks are indicated by the 
 
 following symbol : X X X X X X ^ — 
 
 The principal object of this chart is to show that a definite 
 relation exists between the location of the center of the general 
 storm and the place of tornado action and development. It 
 is now established beyond question that no tornadic action 
 ever takes place without the presence (always north and 
 west of the tornado region) of a general storm or 'Mow/' as 
 it is technically called, and that, too, of marked intensity 
 and peculiar form. Now, it is of great practical import- 
 ance for the public to bear this fact in mind when they are 
 watching the daiJy bulletins and weather indications of the 
 Signal Service, which are published broadcast throughout the 
 country. Whenever a general storm is known to be moving 
 eastward over the United States in the season of year favorable 
 for tornadoes, the following deductions, which have resulted 
 from a long and careful consideration of the subject, should 
 be thoughtfully studied and clearly understood. 
 
 1. There is a definite portion of an area of low pressure 
 within which the conditions for the development of tornadoes 
 are most favorable, and this is called the dangerous octant. 
 
 2. There is a definite relation between the position of tor- 
 nado regions and the regions of high contrasts in temperature 
 (temperature gradient), the former lying to the south and 
 east. 
 
 3. There is a similar definite relation of position of tornado 
 regions and the region of high contrasts in dew-points, the 
 former being as before to the south and east. 
 
 4. The position of tornado regions, or the area of tornadic 
 action, is to the south and east of the region of high contrasts 
 
I02 
 
 of cool northerly and warm southerly winds — a rule that 
 seems to follow from the preceding, and is of use when obser- 
 vations of temperature and dew-point are not accessible. 
 
 5. The relation of tornado regions to thof^movement of 
 upper and lower clouds shows that the former indicate the 
 presence of the cold northwest current, and the latter the 
 warm southwest current of air, which ultimately lead to the 
 
 4/^ 
 
 / ^ 
 / a 
 
 1 //nrizon 
 
 
 Iw "§ 
 \ ^ 
 
 
 / Ma/or ® 
 
 N 
 
 Iw ' is 
 
 
I03 
 
 development of the high contrasts of temperature so essential 
 to the birth of tornadic action. 
 
 6. The study of the relations of tornado regions to the 
 form of barometric depressions shows that tornadoes are more 
 frequent when the major axis of the barometric trough trends 
 north and south or northeast and southwest, than when it 
 trends east and west. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. SEE OPPOSITE PAGE. 
 
 The forms of barometric depression, as shown in diagrams 
 Nos. I and 2, are favorable to tornado development; those 
 shown in diagrams Nos. 3 and 4 are unfavorable to such de- 
 velopment. These facts should be carefully considered when 
 examination is made of the storm conditions as shown on the 
 daily weather-map of the Signal Service, which is now dis- 
 played in all of the principal cities of the country and is 
 placed in the hands of many private subscribers. 
 
 The following table, prepared by Prof H. A. Hazen, of the 
 Signal Service, presents very interesting and valuable informa- 
 tion concerning the relation of the region of tornadic action 
 to the position and intensity of the area of barometric mini- 
 mum or general storm-center. 
 
 The general average of this table gives the mean distance 
 of tornadic action from the 'Mow," or storm-center, as 453 
 miles. The mean direction is south 39° east. The mean 
 temperature fall is ten degrees in 259 miles. The winds are 
 almost uniformly from the south and southeast, and if from 
 any other quarter, all are from that direction. The distances 
 to the nearest north winds are variable, and in many instances 
 there were no north wijids on the map near the ''low ''or 
 near the tornado. The mean distance of north winds in 
 thirty-one cases was 407 miles. 
 
I04 
 
 •eailonT 
 
 iiiiil ill i|i iiiaipi 
 
 •B9iTai ai oOT 
 
 i 
 
 >o »rt r/^ fvi r<i rri ^ ift r<i r<i >o >o »o !("' r*^ rTi 
 
 illiillillllltligl 
 
 Itei 
 
 CKilSKSBGlSEaKiSfe 
 
I05 
 
 01 aoa^ieid 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOO • 'OOO 'OO 
 
 OkooooicoiooirtHiot-oocD ; :(Nocci :cth 
 
 rjH O lO iH CO t1< cocoes cocoon . .-^iXiCO .COtO 
 
 OQ H CQ f4 CQ ^ 02 02 
 
 •eQiTui m oOI 
 
 ooooooocooooooooooooooi 
 oocqd(M-<#(Mcooo:iocdoicOthO'^»ool^io 
 
 O (M t1< (M tH tH t> tHr-( rH tH 00 rH CO 03 
 
 CD O ® 
 
 ^0202' 
 
 00 
 
 (MO 
 
 00© 
 
 CO(M(M 
 
 0000 
 
 00000 
 
 OiOOOtNCD 
 (Mrt^COCO 
 
 0202 ~^.aim<y^ 
 ^ 02 
 
 OOOOOOOCC 
 
 ^ 03 (M CO CO CO (M 10 
 0300^0^ C3'^tJ< 
 
 a sa a a aaa 
 
 Ph fl ft P< d ^ d d d ^ d d ^ ^ d ^ ^ d d d 
 o ^00 ^.o ^. H Ro ^ *^oo ^.1000 ^ ^ H 
 
 CO ftCO-O C^rH ftP^ftCO ftftCO'* ft-^f^COCO ftftft 
 rHI>Ti5o4t>'^ COC^I>OCOTt<0 0iOQCOCO»OTHCOCO 
 
 x"^^o^coooco"co"co"coco"o''^"oo"•^">o"cD"o^o"o"^^ 
 
 iHrH OQiHOQr-iO? rH rH tH tH 03 CO CO iH 
 
 ^ ^ g g O ^ ^ g ^ j» 
 
 03 O O CO Oi 03 rH tH 00 0^ Oi Oi Ol O GO l> GO CO 00 1> O 
 
 03 tH t> CO O O O 03 CO CO Kt) C- 03 1> GO Oi 03 Ci CO Ti< 0^ 
 
 c30 
 
 dHdd^ . 
 d^^-ga^M 
 
 |w o 
 
 Sh 05 o 
 
 oS)X 
 
 rt'^ <^ a 
 
 g TO (J) o 
 
 oTM o 
 
 g ^ ft® 
 
 d^ 
 
io6 
 
 LIST OF TABLES GIVING CONDENSED INFORMA- 
 TIONS CONCERNING TORNADOES; GEO- 
 GRAPHICAL, FINANCIAL, CHRON- 
 OLOGICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, ETC. 
 
 The following tabulations present in a comprehensive and 
 concise manner the very foundation upon which the super- 
 structure of this work has been reared. 
 
 Tornado study as submitted in these pages was pursued by 
 inductive methods. Investigation was made in the field, subject 
 to all the inclemencies of the weather. 
 
 The tornado's peculiar formation and dreadful violence were 
 carefully observed and actually experienced, no effort or sacri- 
 fice being spared to secure the unvarnished facts without pre- 
 disposition to any theory. 
 
 We have then as the outcome of such methods of study, a 
 compendious summary of tornado observation and research, 
 which has been conducted unremittingly for the past ten years 
 and which will form the ground-work of all future investigation 
 into this class of meteorological phenomena. 
 
 The data used in these tables are matters of official record, but 
 their presentation and arrangement conform to the ideas of the 
 author and exhibit a classification which it is thought will best 
 serve for the information of those interested. 
 
 Table No. i. Total number of tornadoes observed, 1682 to 
 1886, inclusive. 
 
 Table No. 2. Violence of tornadoes ; relatively by States. 
 
 Table No. 3. Violence of tornadoes ; by States, including 
 loss of life and property. 
 
 Table No. 4^ Actual years of tornado records. 
 
 Table No. 5. Periods of development in different portions 
 of the country. 
 
I07 
 
 Table No. 6. Tornado record of the last seventeen years. 
 
 Table No. 7. Time of occurrence, hour of day and night. 
 
 Table No. 8. Direction of progressive movement of the cloud. 
 
 Table No. 9. Form of tornado-cloud. 
 
 Table No. 10. Temperature before the tornado. 
 
 Table No. 11. Temperature after the tornado. 
 
 Table No. 12. Valuation of property destroyed; by States. 
 
 Table No. 13. Periods of observation; by States. 
 
 Table No. 14. Relative frequency ; by months. 
 
 Table No. 15. Relative frequency ; by States. 
 
 Table No. 16. Relative frequency; by months and States. 
 
 Table No. 17. Monthly frequency expressed in percentages; 
 by States. 
 
 Table No. 18. Relative frequency, days of the month. 
 
 Table No. 19. Combination table, maximum frequency, etc. 
 
 Table No. 20. Consideration of States by quarters. 
 
 Table No. 21. Relations of tornadoes to forests and cleared 
 land. 
 
 Table No. 22. Combination table ; occurrence by months, 
 States, etc. 
 
 Table No. 23. Hour of occurrence, months and States. 
 
io8 
 
 Table No. 1. 
 
 A table showing the total number of Tornadoes observed in the United States 
 during a period of 205 years, from 1682 to 1886, inclusive. 
 
 Statks and Territories. 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 Texas, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Pennsj'^lvania, . 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 North Cai olina, 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Dakota, 
 
 No. of 
 Storms. 
 
 156 
 153 
 128 
 127 
 118 
 102 
 92 
 84 
 78 
 73 
 71 
 67 
 61 
 59 
 59 
 57 
 52 
 49 
 46 
 
 States and Territories, j g^^jij^s 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Florida, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Indian Territory, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 District of Columbia,. 
 
 34 
 31 
 26 
 22 
 19 
 18 
 16 
 13 
 12 
 10 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 Total number observed, 1,867 
 
 Table No. 2. 
 
 The Violence of Tornadoes expressed relatively by States in the order 
 named. By A^iolent in this sense is meant the most completely developed stoi ms, 
 with perfect conditions longest sustained. 
 
 States. 
 
 States. 
 
 States. 
 
 States. 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Dakota, 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Texas, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Indian Territory, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Khode Island, 
 Delawaie, 
 Colorado, 
 Florida, 
 West Virginia. 
 
I09 
 
 Table No. 3. 
 
 Violence of Tornadoes by States, embracing the destruction of property, 
 reportedln definitely as "much," " great. " etc.; loss of life, reported definitely 
 and indefinitely : and numher of people wounded, reported definitely and 
 indefinitely. 
 
 
 Destruction 
 property. 
 
 OF 
 
 
 Lives 
 
 Lost. 
 
 Persons 
 Injured. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 ery 
 
 ctive," 
 cases. 
 
 uch 
 
 erty," 
 
 cases. 
 
 Town 
 troyed," 
 of cases. 
 
 ruction 
 
 at," 
 
 cases. 
 
 c 2 
 
 CP ^ 
 
 m 
 i-^ 
 
 eral," 
 cases. 
 
 dreds " 
 cases. 
 
 
 i-l 
 
 eral," 
 cases. 
 
 
 
 
 P 6 
 
 
 ^® 
 - 6 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 
 ■ o 
 
 
 dest 
 
 I iM O. 
 
 
 - CO . 
 
 " <v o 
 
 
 ^ 6 
 
 6 
 
 Q !!; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'A 
 
 " A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alahama, 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 117 
 
 5 
 
 b 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 229 
 
 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 1 
 
 Dakota Ter., 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 1 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florida, 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 "'6 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 '"6 
 
 
 
 G eorgia, 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 192 
 
 
 6 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 368 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 161 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Indian Ter., 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 424 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 204 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Mass. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ' 3 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 'i 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 4 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 567 
 
 "i 
 
 4 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 
 935 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 471 
 
 
 3 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 
 247 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 1050 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 New Hamp., 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 lil 
 
 
 
 New York, 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 "i 
 
 3 
 
 N. Carolina, 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 
 142 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 i 
 
 
 154 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 252 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 Penn., 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 
 142 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Rhode I 'Id., 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. Carolina, 
 
 '2 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 91 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Texas, 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 '2 
 
 
 146 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 "i 
 
 
 141 
 
 "i 
 
 2 
 
 
 382 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Totals, 
 
 233 
 
 384 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 3165 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 5049 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 Note.— This table is only approximate in its values, for in many cases of Torna- 
 do occurrence no reports could be obtained as to loss of life and injury to persons 
 and property. " Destruction of property" referred to in this table is entirely 
 independent of the money value given in table No. 5. 
 
Table No. 4. 
 
 Actual years of tornado Records represented in the charts and tables. 
 
 1082 
 
 1804 
 
 1818 
 
 1830 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1869 
 
 1878 
 
 1728 
 
 1805 
 
 1819 
 
 1831 
 
 1841 
 
 1851 
 
 1861 
 
 1870 
 
 1879 
 
 1720 
 
 1807 
 
 1820 
 
 1832 
 
 1842 
 
 1852 
 
 1862 
 
 1871 
 
 1880 
 
 1761 
 
 1808 
 
 1821 
 
 1833 
 
 1843 
 
 1853 
 
 1863 
 
 1872 ■ 
 
 1881 
 
 1787 
 
 1809 
 
 1822 
 
 1834 
 
 1844 
 
 1854 
 
 1864 
 
 1873 
 
 1882 
 
 1788 
 
 1810 
 
 1823 
 
 1835 
 
 1845 
 
 1855 
 
 1865 
 
 1874 
 
 1883 
 
 1791 
 
 1811 
 
 1824 
 
 1836 
 
 1846 
 
 1856 
 
 1866 
 
 1875 
 
 1884 
 
 1794 
 
 1814 
 
 1826 
 
 1837 
 
 1847 
 
 1857 
 
 1867 
 
 1876 
 
 1885 
 
 1795 
 
 1815 
 
 1827 
 
 1838 
 
 1848 
 
 1858 
 
 1868 
 
 1877 
 
 1886 
 
 1797 
 
 1816 
 
 1829 
 
 1839 
 
 1849 
 
 1859 
 
 
 
 
 Total uimilDer of years, Eighty-Seven. 
 
 Length of Period (1682-1886), Two hundred and five years. 
 The Tornado for 1682 occurred at New Haven, Conn., June 10, at 2 30 P. M. 
 and was exceedingly destructive. 
 
 Table No. 5. 
 
 Time of Tornado Development with respect to Region of Country. 
 Average results. 
 
 In considering tliis question the application of the rule is made in a general 
 sense, and a somewhat arbitrary geographical distribution of time over tliat 
 section of the United States east of the Rockj^ Mountains is matle. Tliere are 
 four periods of time, and therefore four separate regions of tor nadio action, which 
 are described as follows :— 
 
 First Period.— December to March, inclusive, comprising the region embraced 
 l)ythe following States: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
 Florida, Alabama, Mississipi)i, Tennessee, and Southern Kentucky. 
 
 Second Period.— April to .Tune, inclusive. Region : Texas, Louisiana, Arkan- 
 sas, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, and Miunesota<> 
 
 Third Period.— June to August, incl-isive. Region: Wisconsin, Michigan, 
 Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Northern Kentuckj-, Western Penusj^lvania, \Vestern 
 New York, and West Virginia. 
 
 Fourth period.— August to November, inclusive. Region: Maryland, Dela- 
 ware, New .Tersey, Eastern Pennsylvania, Eastern New York, and the New 
 England States. 
 
Ill 
 
 Table No. 6. 
 
 Tornado Record of the Seventeen Years last past. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Storms. 
 Ot)served. 
 
 9 
 
 Year. 
 
 Storms. 
 Observed. 
 
 1879 . 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1881 . 
 
 1882 . 
 
 1883 . 
 
 1884 . 
 
 1885 . 
 
 1886 . 
 
 .137 
 -114 
 - 88 
 .161 
 .200 
 -136 
 .280 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 9 
 
 1872 13 
 
 1873 12 
 
 1874 21 
 
 1875 ---- 80 
 
 1876 66 
 
 1877 70 
 
 1878 81 
 
 Total number in seventeen years, 1566. 
 
 A comparison of the data presented in this tahle with that shown in Nos. 1 and 
 8, reveals the fact that over 80 per cent of the observed tornadoes belong to less 
 than 9 per cent of the length of period. This fact, combined with a cursory- 
 review of table No. 12, might lead one to the conclusion that tornadoes were on 
 the increase. This would certainly be erroneous, and for the following reasons : 
 
 1st. A careful study of tornado development and distribution, shows that there 
 are as many considerations to justify the belief that tornadoes were quite as 
 frequent a hundred years ago as now, and that this degree or frequency will not 
 be diminished for a hundred years to come. 
 
 2d. The means of observation and record for 1886 surpassed those of any other 
 year, because the Signal Service had greater facilities for collecting reports, and 
 the rapid growth of the conntry, with a greater zeal of the press, brought to 
 light many occurrences which, before, would have been lost sight of. 
 
 3d. A stady of tornado development and distribution appears to indicate that 
 there are periods of maximum occurrence, alternating with those of minimum 
 occurrence, but the truth of tlie supposition remains yet to be determined, 
 when more complete and extended records are obtainable. 
 
 4th. Tornado records are not yet sufficiently full and complete to permit the 
 deduction that they are or are not on the increase. 
 
 5th. The conditions, atmospheric,topogTaphical, and geographical,under which 
 tornadoes are peculiar to the United States, or certain sections of it, have 
 remamed the same for ages, and there is no likelihood of a change in this direc- 
 tion to prevent or increase the occurrence of tornadoes. 
 
'P8AJ8S 
 
 -qo sia.iois 
 JO o >c li?;ox 
 
 112 
 
 Table No. 7 
 
 1,867 
 
 •yapjoD 
 . -a.i joa Qini; 
 JO -ox: 
 
 
 i 
 
 •sasBO JO -ox 
 
 CO ^ ^ o 1 ^ ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Wfhiiii 
 
 IP ^ 1 f r ^ f f = 
 
 
 •S9SB0 JO -OX 
 
 
 1,039 
 
 TIME. 
 
 \. to 12.80 p.m. 
 111. to 1.00 " 
 ' " 1.80 " 
 c u 2.00 '« 
 ' " 2.80 " 
 ' " 8.00 " 
 ' 8.80 " 
 ' " 4.00 " 
 ' " 4.80 " 
 ' " 5.00 " 
 ' " 5.80 " 
 ' " 0.00 " 
 ' " 0.80 " 
 ' " 7.00 " 
 ' " 7.80 " 
 ' " 8.00 " 
 ' " 8.80 " 
 ' " 9.00 " 
 ' " 9.80 " 
 ' " 10.00 " 
 ' " 10.80 " 
 ' " 11.00 " 
 ' " 11.80 " 
 ' " 12.00 mid 
 
 
 
 JO -OJSr 
 
 
 iH 
 
 TIME. 
 
 
 Totals, 
 
 
113 
 
 Table No. 8. 
 
 •p9AJOsqo 
 
 JO -o^ moj. 
 
 •pQp.IOOOJ 
 ^Oa KOI^.39Jip 
 
 JO -ox 
 
 m m m xfi ^Ji m m m m 
 
 •sasEO JO -ojsj 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 00 00 
 
 •sasBO JO -ojs^E 
 
 i-O CO 
 
 ^ C<l O 
 
 (M O (v^ 
 
 •89S^0 JO -o^ST 
 
 ^ ^ J 
 
 W 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 t ^ ^ 
 
114 
 
 •paA.iasQo 
 eaopBiLiox 
 JO osL mo I 
 
 
 1,867 
 
 •papjoDOj 
 
 10 II UIJOJ 
 
 sasuo JO 'Oisi 
 
 
 00 
 lO 
 
 JO "OK 
 
 Ti^ Oq iH tH iH tH rH iH 
 
 
 ) rmation. 
 
 "Whirlwind." 
 
 " Inverted funnel." 
 
 " Elephant's trunk." 
 
 " Ball." 
 
 "Whirl." 
 
 " Local Whirlwind." 
 
 "A grayish, fluffy J 
 mass." 5 
 
 "Immense dark ) 
 whirling mass." S 
 
 "Large revolving ] 
 cloud sent fun- [ 
 nel roots to the ( 
 ground." ) 
 
 
 
 
 •sasBO JO "Oisi 
 
 C CO CO rH tH iH iH tH tH 
 
 
 Formation. 
 
 "Balloon." 
 
 "Waterspout." 
 
 " Cylindrical." 
 
 " Pear." 
 
 "Twister." 
 
 " Huge Serpent." 
 
 " Dense rolling mass" 
 
 "Dense cloud of ^ 
 scowling hlack- > 
 ness." ) 
 
 "Two funnels small ) 
 ends together." 5 
 
 
 •sas^O JO 'OK 
 
 T}<OrJlTHHr-lrH rH iH 
 (MiH 
 
 
 
 
 
 Formation. 
 
 " Inverted cone," 
 
 " Cone." 
 
 "Serpent." 
 
 "Turnip." 
 
 "Hogshead." 
 
 "Heavy rolling." 
 
 "Dense rolling 
 
 "Streams, 20 in ) 
 number." S 
 
 " Large masses, a 
 if white sprf 
 fell to the earth 
 
 
 •sasBO JO -OSL 
 
 I— 1 r-i Ti< iH iH iH tH iH iH rH 
 OOrH 
 
 Ci 
 
 1,003 
 
 
 
 
 Formation. 
 
 "Funnel." 
 
 " Hour-glass,". 
 
 "Basket." 
 
 "Acorn." 
 
 ''Column. ' 
 
 "Dark mass." 
 
 " Boiling cloud." 
 
 "Black circular cloud. 
 
 "Clouds rolled like a 
 barrel." 
 
 "A long streak like 
 a spout reaching 
 from bottom of 
 cloud to earth." 
 
 Totals. 
 
"5 
 
 saop^ajox 
 JO -OK mojL 
 
 •888^0 JO "O^ 
 
 C^rHrHtHTHrH(>JrHrHrMiHC<lrHC<lrHrHrHiHC^t>tHrHCCrHC^rHrHrHOTHi-HrHrH^ 
 
 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
 ooor^c<^clc^l(^lcocoT^^Tflo^Oloco^>c350000(^^'^l(^^»clClOco^>xoi»oo 
 
 X CO GO (X) GO 00 (X) 00 (» (X) 00 (X GO CO OO X (X) GO Oi 05 Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi O: CS 05 o: o: Oi O tH 
 
 ■sas-BO JO *ojsr 
 
 rHrHTHrHrHrHrHrHr^iHrHC<JrHrHTHrHrHHrHrHrHtHrHrHrHrHC^iHC<lC^iHrHiH 
 
 o o o o 
 
 ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
 OC<J»OiOXXXOOOOOOOO(M<MC^^Tj<iOOiOiC<X>XXOO 
 (X><:o:DCDiXiOiXit>t>t>t>t>t>'Xit>L^I>L^t>t>l>l>t>t:^t>t>t>XX 
 
 ■S88B0 JO -o isT 
 
 eas-BO JO -OK 
 
 JHiHrHrHrHrHrHOOiHrH 
 
 g I o 
 q © o 
 
 s □ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ o 
 
 02 P 
 
 O O 
 
 ft^«2'^ 
 ft® 
 
 i P r fl". "-^ s 
 
 o ftb"t^4^ 
 
ii6 
 
 Table No. 11. 
 
 TEMPERATUKE AFTER THE TORNADO. 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Condition. 
 
 
 Condition. 
 
 
 coo; 
 
 Condition. 
 
 OfC 
 
 (Thermomet- 
 
 o 
 
 (Thermomet- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 of C 
 uper 
 reco 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 rically.) 
 
 d 
 
 rically.) 
 
 d 
 
 d o-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Cooler and cliilly." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *' Cooler (next day)." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Nov., ) 
 < next J> 
 / morn S 
 
 
 66° 
 
 t April.) 
 
 - 
 1 
 
 
 
 " Chilly." . 
 
 45 
 
 8° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 68° 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 "Cool." 
 
 188 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Cooler." 
 
 49 
 
 45° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 ]^ 
 
 68° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 " Slightly cooler." 
 " Much cooler." 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 
 69° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 " Probably cooler." 
 "Cold." 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 54° 
 
 (April.) 
 
 1 
 
 70° 
 
 (July.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 "Very cold." 
 
 " Suddenly very cold.' 
 
 " Colder." 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 56° 
 
 (April.) 
 
 2 
 
 72° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Much colder." 
 
 1 
 
 56° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 2 
 
 73° 
 
 (Aug.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 " Gradually cooler." 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Gradually cold." 
 " Gradually cool." 
 
 
 6 
 
 58° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 1 
 
 75° 
 
 (July.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Gradually colder." 
 
 16 
 
 60° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 2 
 
 75° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 " Suddenly cooler." 
 " Suddenly cool." 
 " Suddenly cold." 
 " Suddenly cold(sno'w 
 after, next day)." 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 60° 
 
 (April.) 
 
 2 
 
 80° 
 
 (Oct.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 60° 
 
 (Aug.) 
 
 2 
 
 81° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Suddenly colder." 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 62° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " No change." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " No decided change." 
 " No great change." 
 
 
 3 
 
 64° 
 
 (May.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Not much change." 
 
 1 
 
 65° 
 
 (June.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " No sudden change." 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Warm." 
 
 8 
 
 65° 
 
 (Sept.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Intensely hot." 
 
 " Suddenly cool, tem- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 66° 
 
 (Sept.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 perature falling sev- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eral degrees in a few 
 minutes. " 
 
 
 
 66° 
 
 (July.) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals, 
 
 565 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 11 
 
 1,270:1,867 
 
117 
 
 Table No. 12. 
 
 Reporled Valuation of Property Destroyed by Tornadoes. The values 
 here given are in the main largely underestimated, owing to imperfection of re- 
 ports, and in many cases failure to give any mention of the loss. It is estimated 
 that these values give, on the average, about 10 per cent of the actual loss sus- 
 tained. 
 
 Length 
 of 
 
 Tornado 
 record in 
 years. 
 
 63 
 46 
 205 
 12 
 12 
 92 
 52 
 68 
 44 
 28 
 77 
 18 
 27 
 54 
 78 
 64 
 
 Valuation of 
 property 
 destroyed. 
 
 $142,000 
 535,000 
 272,000 
 540,000 
 2,500 
 600,000 
 675,000 
 787,000 
 1,553,000 
 520,000 
 25,000 
 120,000 
 2,000 
 20,000 
 50,000 
 226,400 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 N. Hampshire, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 New York, 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Texas, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 Length 
 of 
 
 Tornado 
 record in 
 years. 
 
 32 
 64 
 46 
 16 
 70 
 65 
 99 
 61 
 83 
 76 
 125 
 79 
 34 
 58 
 71 
 43 
 
 Table No. 13. 
 
 A table showing the period of observation and record of the occurrence of 
 Tornadoes for each State from which they have been reported. States arranged 
 alphabetically. 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Dakota, 
 
 Florida, 
 
 (Jeorgia, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 1823 to 1886 
 1840 " 1886 
 
 1877 ' 
 1682 ' 
 18T5 ' 
 1875 ■ 
 1795 ' 
 1835 ' 
 1818 ' 
 1843 ' 
 1859 ' 
 1810 ' 
 1869 
 1860 
 1833 
 1809 
 1823 
 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 1886 
 
 No. of 
 Years. 
 
 63 
 46 
 10 
 205 
 12 
 12 
 92 
 52 
 68 
 44 
 28 
 77 
 18 
 27 
 54 
 78 
 64 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 N. Hampshire, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 New York, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 South Carolina, 
 Tennessee, 
 Texas, 
 Vermont, 
 Virginia, 
 West Virginia, 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 PERIOD. 
 
 1855 to 1886 
 
 32 
 
 1823 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 64 
 
 1814 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 46 
 
 1871 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 16 
 
 1807 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 70 
 
 1822 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 65 
 
 1787 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 99 
 
 1826 * 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 61 
 
 1804 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 83 
 
 1811 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 76 
 
 1761 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 125 
 
 1808 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 79 
 
 1853 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 34 
 
 1829 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 58 
 
 1816 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 71 
 
 1880 ' 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 7 
 
 1844 ' 
 
 ♦ 1886 
 
 43 
 
ii8 
 
 Table No 14. 
 
 KELATivK Frequency of Tornadoes, by months. 
 
 
 No. of 
 Storms 
 
 MONTHS. 
 
 No. of 
 Storms 
 
 g Or-: 
 III 
 
 Total No. of 
 Toriuuloos 
 observed. 
 
 January, 
 
 22 
 
 JULY, 
 
 232 
 
 
 
 FEBRUARY, 
 
 89 
 
 August, 
 
 147 
 
 
 
 MARCH, 
 
 152 
 
 September, 
 
 114 
 
 
 
 ArRH>, 
 
 313 
 
 OCTOBER, 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 MAY, 
 
 339 
 
 NOVEMBER, 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 June, 
 
 285 
 
 December, 
 
 27 
 
 51 
 
 1,867 
 
 Table No. 15. 
 
 A table showing the relative frequency of Tornadoes by States according to 
 the area of each in square miles, and to the length of record of observations dur- 
 ing a period, in the total, of 205 years, from 1682 to 1886, inclusive. 
 
 Relative frequency in this table is expressed decimally in terms of the unit of 
 value for each State, which is taken, for convenience of comparison, at 10,000 
 square miles. 
 
 
 
 h of 
 
 record 
 
 rs. 
 
 1 num- 
 year 
 State. 
 
 
 
 o ® 
 
 2^ 
 
 hof 
 
 record 
 
 irs. 
 
 1 num- 
 year. 
 State. 
 
 iiimiber 
 vnv for 
 sq. miles. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 fcJDO O 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 
 ^ tj 
 
 
 Aiea in 
 10,000 
 
 mi 
 
 
 O} f-f 
 
 m 
 
 
 Area in 
 10,000 
 mi 
 
 Tornad 
 in 5 
 
 S <y 
 > S ^ 
 
 < iH 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 5.1 
 
 63 
 
 1.62 
 
 0.32 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 8.4 
 
 32 
 
 2.44 
 
 0.29 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 5.3 
 
 46 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.14 
 
 MississipiJi, 
 
 4.7 
 
 64 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.16 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 10.3 
 
 10 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.04 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 6.5 
 
 46 
 
 3.39 
 
 0.52 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 0.5 
 
 205 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.12 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 7.6 
 
 16 
 
 3.25 
 
 0.43 
 
 Dakota, 
 
 14.7 
 
 12 
 
 3.83 
 
 0.26 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 7.9 
 
 70 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.01 
 
 Florida, 
 
 5.4 
 
 12 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.15 
 
 New J ersey, 
 
 0.8 
 
 65 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.22 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 5.8 
 
 92 
 
 1.39 
 
 0.24 
 
 New York, 
 
 4.7 
 
 99 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.14 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 5.5 
 
 52 
 
 2.44 
 
 0.44 
 
 N. Carolina, 
 
 5.1 
 
 61 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.19 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 3.4 
 
 68 
 
 1.23 
 
 0.36 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 4.0 
 
 83 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.27 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 5.5 
 
 44 
 
 2 67 
 
 0.49 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 4.6 
 
 76 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.17 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 8.1 
 
 28 
 
 5.46 
 
 0.67 
 
 S. Carolina, 
 
 3.4 
 
 125 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.13 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 4.0 
 
 77 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.08 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 4.6 
 
 79 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.08 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 4.1 
 
 18 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.26 
 
 Texas, 
 
 26.2 
 
 34 
 
 2.14 
 
 0.08 
 
 Maine, 
 Maryland, 
 
 2.9 
 
 27 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.09 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 0.9 
 
 58 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.07 
 
 1.1 
 
 54 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.27 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 4.0 
 
 71 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.06 
 
 Massachus'tts 
 
 0.8 
 
 78 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.35 
 
 W. Virginia, 
 
 2.4 
 
 7 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.12 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 5.6 
 
 64 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.20 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 5.4 
 
 43 
 
 1.37 
 
 0.25 
 
119 
 
 Table No. 16. 
 
 
 
 
 MONTHLY TORNADO FREQUENCY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TOTAL NUMBER OF TORNADOES FOR EACH 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 8TATE. 
 
 
 
 
 Month, by States. 
 
 
 
 
 Cases, mon 
 not repon 
 
 Total No 
 Tornado 
 per Stat 
 
 1 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 1 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 0 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 102 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 Dakota Ty., 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Dist. of Colnmbia, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Florida, 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 "4 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 '5 
 
 6 
 
 128 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 127 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 Indian Ty., 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 
 '3 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 "7 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 Maine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 71 
 
 Minnesota, 
 Mississippi, 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 78 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 i3 
 
 5 
 
 '8 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 156 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 'i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 67 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 ii 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 59 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 '2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 92 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 61 
 
 Khode Island, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 Texas, 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 '3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 West Virginia, 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 '7 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 59 
 
 Totals, 
 
 22 
 
 89 
 
 152 
 
 313 
 
 339 
 
 285 
 
 232 
 
 147 
 
 114 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 27 
 
 51 
 
 1,867 
 
I20 
 
 Table No. 17. 
 
 ClT ATT 
 
 Monthly frequency expressed in percent- 
 age OF TOTAL Number of Tornadoes 
 
 IN EACH STATE. 
 
 Month of 
 greatest fre- 
 quency, 
 per cent. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 
 bb 
 
 < 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 > 
 o 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Marcli. 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 April. 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May Jun 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 July! 
 
 Dakota Ter., 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 August. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 August. 
 
 Florida, 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 2l) 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 "4 
 
 Men, Apr. 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 May. 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 May. 
 
 Indian Ter., 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 May. 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 3i 
 
 id 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Xansas, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 May. 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 
 is 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 March. 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 26 
 
 
 April. 
 
 Maine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 57 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 "7 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 "7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 August. 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 May. 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 July. 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 April. 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 May. 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 June. 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 50 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 "8 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 "8 
 
 
 August. 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 "8 
 
 13 
 
 45 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 July. 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 ii) 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 March. 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 May. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 May, Aug. 
 
 Bhode Island, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 August. 
 
 Soutli Carolina, 
 
 
 i^4 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 February 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 April. 
 
 Texas, 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 July. 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 July, Sep. 
 
 West \ irginia, 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apl,June. 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 July. 
 
121 
 
 Table No. 18. 
 
 Kelative Frequency of toiinadoes. 
 Months— Days. 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March J 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Pi 
 
 <V 
 
 m 
 
 Oct. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 A 
 
 1st. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2(1. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 3d. 
 
 
 'i 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4tli. 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 5tli. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 6th. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 7th. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 8th. 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 . 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 'i 
 
 9th. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10th. 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11th. 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 12tli. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 13th'. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 14th. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 62 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 -- 
 
 15th 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 16th! 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 17th. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 
 
 18th. 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 38 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 19th! 
 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 20th. 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 21st 
 
 
 'i 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 2 2d.' 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 23d. 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24th. 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 25th. 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 26th. 
 
 
 "i 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 27th. 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 28th. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 "i 
 
 2 
 
 
 29th. 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 
 'i 
 
 30th. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 
 31st. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cases, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 days 
 not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 recorded. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tornadoes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 month. 
 
 22 
 
 89 
 
 152 
 
 313 
 
 339 
 
 285 
 
 232 
 
 147 
 
 114 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 27 
 
 Number of cases month not recorded, 51. 
 Total Number of Tornadoes observed, 1,867. 
 
122 
 
 TABLE No. 19. 
 
 CONSIDERATION OF STATES liY QUARTERS. 
 
 
 
 
 N.E. Quarter 
 
 S. E. Quarter 
 
 S.W. Quarter 
 
 N.W. Quart'r 
 
 
 
 ^1 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Number of 
 Years of 
 Tornado Recoi 
 
 Total Nurabe 
 of Tornadoes 
 
 
 
 1 Total Number i 
 of Tornadoes. 
 
 
 1 Total Number i 
 of Tornadoes. 
 
 
 Total Number i 
 of Tornadoes. | 
 
 
 
 1 Total Nu 
 of Torn a 
 
 Month 
 greatest 
 quenc 
 
 Month 
 greatest 
 quenc 
 
 Month 
 greatest 
 quenc 
 
 Month 
 greatest 
 quenc; 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 bo 
 
 102 
 
 57 
 
 April. 
 
 8 
 
 March. 
 
 8 
 
 Mh.Nov. 
 
 29 
 
 March. 
 
 Aikaiisas. 
 
 46 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 M^arch, 
 
 5 
 
 April. 
 
 15 
 
 Apiil. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 May. 
 
 3 
 
 June. 
 
 
 
 Conn. 
 
 205 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 Jul., Sep. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Jun., Ag. 
 
 5 
 
 May, Jul. 
 Ag., Sep. 
 
 Dakota. 
 
 
 46 
 
 12 
 
 August. 
 
 27 
 
 July. 
 
 3 
 
 June. 
 
 2 
 
 Maich. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 D.Columbia. 
 
 72 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florida. 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 July. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Ap.,May 
 
 Till 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 92 
 
 128 
 
 33 
 
 Feb. 
 
 10 
 
 March. 
 
 19 
 
 April. 
 
 65 
 
 April. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 52 
 
 127 
 
 30 
 
 May 
 
 13 
 
 Sept. 
 
 55 
 
 May. 
 
 29 
 
 May. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 68 
 
 84 
 
 28 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 22 
 
 Aug. 
 
 11 
 
 May. 
 
 Indian Ty. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 May. 
 May. 
 
 3 
 
 May! 
 
 
 2 
 
 April. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 44 
 
 118 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 June. 
 
 34 
 
 April. 
 
 30 
 
 June. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 Za 
 
 153 
 
 87 
 
 May. 
 
 39 
 
 June. 
 
 1 o 
 iz 
 
 April. 
 
 15 
 
 May. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 77 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 Mh., Jul. 
 
 7 
 
 March. 
 
 7 
 
 Dec. 
 
 4 
 
 Fb.,May. 
 Ag. Nov. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 Oc.,Nov. 
 
 8 
 
 April. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 8 
 
 Ap., Nov 
 
 Maine. 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 May, Jul. 
 
 5 
 
 July. 
 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 54 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 August. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Q 
 
 Fb., Ag., 
 Sept. 
 
 7 
 
 July. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 78 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 August. 
 
 2 
 
 Jul., Ag. 
 
 9 
 
 July. 
 
 4 
 
 July. 
 
 Micliigan. 
 
 64 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 
 Ap., Jun, 
 Sept. 
 
 34 
 
 April. 
 
 29 
 
 May. 
 
 4 
 
 Sep., Oct. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 32 
 
 78 
 
 2 
 
 Ap.,May 
 
 45 
 
 Jun., Ag. 
 
 22 
 
 Jnly. 
 
 9 
 
 Aug. 
 April. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 64 
 
 49 
 
 20 
 
 March. 
 
 8 
 
 April. 
 
 17 
 
 April. 
 
 6 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 63 
 
 156 
 
 36 
 
 May. 
 
 21 
 
 April. 
 
 31 
 
 April. 
 
 72 
 
 My., Jun 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 11 
 
 Sept. 
 
 39 
 
 June. 
 
 2 
 
 My., Jun. 
 
 
 N. II amp. 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 7 
 
 July. 
 
 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 65 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 4 
 
 Jul., Ag., 
 Sep., Nov 
 
 1 
 
 April. 
 
 New York. 
 
 99 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 August. 
 
 19 
 
 July. 
 
 32 
 
 July. 
 
 9 
 
 July. 
 
 N. Carolina. 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 10 
 
 August. 
 
 14 
 
 Feb.,Mh. 
 May. 
 
 22 
 
 March. 
 
 10 
 
 April. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 83 
 
 92 
 
 21 
 
 June. 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 May. 
 
 31 
 
 May. 
 
 Penn. 
 
 76 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 
 Oct. 
 
 22 
 
 Aug. 
 
 24 
 
 May. 
 
 9 
 
 Jun., Jul. 
 
 Khode Is, 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 
 
 S. Carolina. 
 
 125 
 
 57 
 
 8 
 
 March. 
 
 8 
 
 April. 
 
 15 
 
 Fb., Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 March. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 79 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 Ap., Jun. 
 
 3 
 
 Fb., Ap., 
 Nov. 
 
 11 
 
 April. 
 
 13 
 
 April. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 34 
 
 73 
 
 51 
 
 June. 
 
 14 
 
 June. 
 
 4 
 
 April, 
 
 3 
 
 April. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Ma., Jul., 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 July. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 71 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 Sept. 
 
 9 
 
 July. 
 
 3 
 
 June. 
 
 1 
 
 .lune. 
 
 W. Virginia. 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 June. 
 
 1 
 
 April. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 43 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 July. 
 
 30 
 
 July. 
 
 21 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 July. 
 
 Totals 
 
 2,129 
 
 1,867 
 
 504 
 
 
 470 
 
 
 463 
 
 
 430 
 
 
f 
 
 123 
 
 NOTE.— In preparing table 19 (see opposite page), the data for each State was 
 carefully charted on a large county map. The State was then divided into foar 
 approximately equal portions, making four quarters denominated N. E., S. E., 
 S. W., and N. W. quarters. The data for each was considered by itself in de- 
 termining the peculiar value of that section, and afterwards tlie four sections of 
 each State were tabulated and brought together in convenient form for compara- 
 tive study, as indicated on page 122. 
 
 Table No. 20. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Total number 
 of Tornadoes 
 per State. 
 
 -I- 
 
 o f2 fl 
 
 January.. 
 
 22 
 
 2.75 
 
 Alabama 9 
 
 Georgia 4 
 
 Illinois 1 
 
 Mississippi 1 
 
 Ohio 2 
 Pennsylvania 1 
 
 Tennessee 1 
 
 Texas 2 
 
 1.12 
 .50 
 .12 
 .12 
 .25 
 .12 
 .12 
 .25 
 
 1885 
 
 1866 
 1869 
 1870 
 1883 
 
 FEBliUAKY..< 
 
 17 
 
 89 
 
 5.23 
 
 Alabama 
 Georgia 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 Iowa 
 Kentucky 
 Louisiana 
 Maryland 
 Michigan 
 Mississippi 
 Missouri 
 New York 
 No. Carolina 8 
 Ohio 6 
 So. Carolina 13 
 Tennessee 3 
 
 1.59 
 .06 
 .12 
 .12 
 .18 
 .12 
 .06 
 .06 
 .12 
 .24 
 .06 
 .47 
 .35 
 .76 
 .18 
 
 1805 
 1820 
 1854 
 1867 
 1868 
 1871 
 1882 
 1883 
 
 March . 
 
 25 
 
 152 
 
 6.04 
 
 Alabama 
 Arkansas 
 Dakota 
 Georgia 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 Iowa 
 Kansas 
 Kentucky 
 Louisiana 
 Mississippi 15 
 Missouri 5 
 New York 2 
 No. Carolina 14 
 Ohio 6 
 Pennsylvania 3 
 So. Carolina 11 
 Tennessee 3 
 Texas 4 
 Virginia 2 
 Wisconsin 1 
 
 1.08 
 .08 
 .08 
 
 1.20 
 .24 
 .28 
 .04 
 .16 
 .24 
 .04 
 .60 
 .20 
 .08 
 .56 
 .24 
 .12 
 .44 
 .12 
 .16 
 .08 
 .04 
 
 1884 
 
 1849 
 
 185 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1874 
 
124 
 
 Table No. 20 — Continued. 
 
 Month. 
 
 ^ .' ^ ^ ? 6 ^ 
 I— I ■y I— 1 c — s 
 
 Total nnmber 
 of Tornadoes 
 per State. 
 
 ^ ? o ® 
 
 - E S 
 
 o P c 
 b S £ 
 
 55 p 
 
 Begion of 
 Maximum 
 Frequeucy. 
 
 April. 
 
 34 313 9.21 
 
 Alabama 21 
 Arkansas 12 
 Dakota 5 
 Florida 1 
 Georgia 30 
 Illinois 15 
 Indiana 6 
 Indian Ter. 2 
 Iowa 31 
 Kansas 30 
 Louisiana 7 
 Michigan 11 
 Minnesota 16 
 Mississippi 19 
 Missouri 32 
 Nebraska 
 JSTew Jersey 1 
 No. Carolina 11 
 Obio 
 Pennsylvania 2 
 So. Carolina 12 
 Tennessee 10 
 Texas 22 
 Wesi Virginia 1 
 Wisconsin 2 
 
 .62 
 .35 
 .15 
 .03 
 .88 
 .44 
 .18 
 .06 
 .91 
 .88 
 .21 
 .32 
 .47 
 .56 
 .94 
 .24 
 .03 
 .32 
 .18 
 .06 
 .35 
 .29 
 .65 
 .03 
 .06 
 
 1886 
 
 1804 
 1819 
 1823 
 1827 
 1829 
 1830 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1837 
 1843 
 1852 
 1860 
 1865 
 1866 
 1873 
 1874 
 
 Iowa 
 and 
 Missouri. 
 
 May 
 
 35 339 
 
 9.40 
 
 Alabama 
 Arkansas 
 
 Colorado 2 
 
 Connecticut 1 
 
 Dakota 2 
 
 Florida 1 
 
 Georgia 8 
 
 Indian Ter. 1 
 
 Illinois 50 
 
 Indiana 25 
 
 Indian Ter. 3 
 
 Iowa 18 
 
 Kansas 45 
 
 Kentucky 3 
 
 Louisiana 1 
 
 Maine 1 
 
 Maryland 1 
 
 Michigan 14 
 
 Minnesota 4 
 
 Mississippi 8 
 
 Missouri 42 
 
 Nebraska 11 
 New Hamp. 1 
 
 New York 5 
 No. Carolina 3 
 
 Ohio 32 
 
 Penn. 13 
 So. Carolina 6 
 
 Tennessee 4 
 
 Texas 8 
 
 Vermont 1 
 
 Virginia 1 
 
 Wisconsin 7 
 
 .26 
 .26 
 .06 
 .03 
 .06 
 .03 
 .23 
 .03 
 
 1.43 
 .71 
 .11 
 .51 
 
 1.29 
 .09 
 .03 
 .03 
 .03 
 .40 
 .11 
 .23 
 
 1.20 
 .31 
 .03 
 .14 
 .09 
 .91 
 .37 
 .17 
 .11 
 .23 
 .03 
 .03 
 .20 
 
 1886 
 
 1761 
 1808 
 1809 
 1823 
 1831 
 1832 
 1834 
 1835 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 1854 
 1855 
 1860 
 1867 
 1870 
 
125 
 
 Table No. 20. — Continued. 
 
 Month. 
 
 ® C <Ii 
 <J as p 
 
 ^ cdLj 
 
 Total iinmber 
 of Toi'iia loes 
 per State. 
 
 Region of 
 Maxmnim 
 Frequency. 
 
 36 
 
 285 
 
 -.91 
 
 July . 
 
 32 
 
 232 
 
 7.24 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Micliigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 No. Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Penn. 
 
 So. Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Virginia 
 
 W. Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Ham p. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 is'ew ^ ork 
 
 No. Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Penn. 
 
 So. Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .06 
 .06 
 .06 
 .22 
 .11 
 .72 
 .36 
 1.03 
 1.11 
 .06 
 .03 
 .08 
 .22 
 .42 
 .03 
 .81 
 .50 
 .03 
 .22 
 .08 
 .42 
 .33 
 .03 
 .08 
 .72 
 .08 
 .03 
 .22 
 
 .09 
 .09 
 .44 
 .06 
 .22 
 .12 
 .28 
 .47 
 .56 
 .12 
 .03 
 .12 
 12 
 .28 
 .22 
 .62 
 .41 
 .19 
 .12 
 .06 
 .88 
 .09 
 .28 
 .28 
 .12 
 .03 
 .12 
 .06 
 .16 
 .59 
 
 1886 
 
 1682 
 1794 
 1829 
 1840 
 1841 
 1843 
 1845 
 1854 
 1855 
 1864 
 1865 
 1867 
 1869 
 1870 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 1884 
 
 1814 
 1816 
 1831 
 1834 
 1845 
 1850 
 1854 
 1861 
 1867 
 1870 
 
 New York. 
 
126 
 
 Table No. 20. — Continued. 
 
 Montli. 
 
 Total number 
 of Tornadoes 
 per State. 
 
 o 5 n 
 
 OJ c c? 
 
 Region of 
 Maximum 
 Frequency. 
 
 147 
 
 4.19 
 
 3 
 11 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 7 
 1 
 3 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 6 
 5 
 5 
 17 
 1 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 9 
 4 
 6 
 13 
 
 Rhode Island 1 
 So. Carolina 2 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 Vermont 
 Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Connecticut 
 Dakota 
 Delaware 
 Dist. Col. 
 Illinois 
 Indiana 
 Indian Ter. 
 Iowa 
 Kansas 
 Kentucky 
 Maine 
 Maryland 
 Mass, 
 Michigan 
 Minnesota 
 Mississippi 
 Missouri 
 ISTebraska 
 New Hamp. 
 New Jersey 
 New York 
 No, Carolina 
 Ohio 
 Penn. 
 
 September. 
 
 20 114 
 
 5,71 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hamp. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 No. Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Penn, 
 
 So, Carolina 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .09 
 .31 
 .03 
 .03 
 .14 
 .20 
 .03 
 .09 
 .23 
 .06 
 .03 
 .17 
 .14 
 .14 
 .49 
 .03 
 .14 
 .06 
 .03 
 .09 
 .26 
 .11 
 .17 
 .37 
 .03 
 .06 
 .09 
 .14 
 .03 
 .06 
 .37 
 
 .10 
 .20 
 .15 
 .15 
 .75 
 .30 
 .15 
 .35 
 .05 
 .10 
 .75 
 .15 
 .40 
 .30 
 .05 
 .10 
 .35 
 .20 
 .20 
 .20 
 .20 
 .25 
 .25 
 
 1787 
 1818 
 1822 
 1823 
 1827 
 1834 
 1838 
 1843 
 1844 
 1852 
 1858 
 1859 
 1860 
 1862 
 1870 
 1879 
 
 1886 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 1811 
 1822 
 1845 
 1848 
 1857 
 1867 
 1872 
 1873 
 1876 
 
 Illinois 
 and 
 Michigan. 
 
Table No. 20. —Continued. 
 
 Month. 
 
 © 6 <3-' 
 
 Total number 
 of Tornadoes 
 per State. 
 
 Region of 
 Maximum 
 Frequency. 
 
 OCTOBER. . . 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Missouii 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hamp. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 No. ('arolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 1 
 Wisconsin 2 
 
 .05 
 .05 
 .10 
 .10 
 .05 
 .15 
 .30 
 .10 
 .05 
 .05 
 .20 
 .05 
 .10 
 .05 
 .05 
 .10 
 .05 
 .20 
 .10 
 .05 
 .10 
 
 1883 
 
 1797 
 1824 
 1826 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1837 
 1844 
 18i7 
 1854 
 1872 
 1880 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 3.96 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Yoi k 
 
 No. Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 So. Carolina 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .64 
 .29 
 .07 
 .14 
 .43 
 .29 
 .14 
 .07 
 .14 
 .36 
 .14 
 .07 
 .07 
 .43 
 .07 
 .07 
 .07 
 .07 
 .07 
 .07 
 .14 
 .07 
 
 1885 
 
 18' 1 
 1870 
 1870 
 1875 
 1876 
 1882 
 1884 
 
 AlaDaraa. 
 
 December.. 
 
 2. 70 
 
 Alabama 5 
 Georgia 5 
 Illinois 1 
 Indiana 1 
 Kentucky 1 
 Missouri 6 
 Nevada 1 
 No. Carolina 3 
 Oii^o 1 
 Pennsylvania 1 
 So. Carolina 1 
 Tennessee 1 
 
 .50 
 .50 
 .10 
 .10 
 .10 
 .60 
 .10 
 .30 
 .10 
 .10 
 .10 
 .10 
 
 1884 
 
 1864 
 1870 
 1878 
 1883 
 
 Missouri. 
 
128 
 
 Table No. 21 
 
 «3 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 •\oN.T 1 ^o^ooiVd 1 A 1 
 
 ox'r-ro 1 1 
 
 1 II 
 
 1 1 
 
 CONSIDERED ] 
 
 •!jd8S 1 1 1 
 
 1 1 <N Td5 
 
 rHr-l 
 
 •Snv 1 1 1 
 
 1 1 oToo 6 
 
 iHCM 
 
 •vciur 1 
 
 
 co'io't-^ 1 
 
 1 Oi ©"rH 
 
 1 coco 
 
 O 
 
 •9nn_c 
 
 co'l- 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 r-lrH 
 
 'A 
 W 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 O GO 1 
 
 oi 
 
 CCUl 
 
 'ludy 
 
 r-l <N 1:0 C<1 CO (M co'ic oi 1 
 iH i-l (N (N (M 1 
 
 
 U3CMC0'"'<tC0"iO~Qd 1 
 rHrHrHrHCqCM 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 •qojBM 
 
 rjTco't^ 0 tH (M iC CO'co'o'iM CO rji IC l> X 1 
 >-l 1-1 iH iH r-l rH CM (M (N C<l (N 
 
 
 oi 1 
 
 (M j 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 •qaa 
 
 (M'"co''»crGO~arTir:o'~a6 1 
 
 rH iH r-l r-l tH (M (M CM j 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 
 DA' 
 
 •u-er 
 
 rHCOOi 1 
 rHr-l(M 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hour of 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 6 to 7 p.m. 
 
 7 to 8 p. m. 
 11 p.m. to 
 midnight. 
 
 3 to 4 p.m. 
 
 1 to 2 p.m. 
 
 5 to 6 p.m. 
 
 6 to 7 p.m. 
 
 7 to 8 p.m. 
 
 2 to 3 p.m. 
 
 6 to 7 p.m. 
 
 Montli 
 of great- 
 est fre. 
 quency. 
 
 March. 
 
 
 April. 
 
 May, 
 June. 
 
 July, 
 August. 
 
 Total 
 No of 
 Torna- 
 does. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 rH 
 
 STATE. 
 
 ALABAMA, 
 
 ARIZONA, 
 
 CO 
 
 cc 
 
 t 
 
 < 
 
 COLORADO, 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 
 
I 
 
 29 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 DATES OF OCCURRENCE, CONSIDERED BY MONTHS. 
 
 •oaa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •aon: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •JDO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OiO 
 
 , . 
 
 ■SuY 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 •X[nr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •aun£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •qo^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •u^r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hour of 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 6 to 7 p.m. 
 
 |4 to 5 p.m.l 
 
 
 
 
 1 to 2 p.m. 
 3 to 4 p.m. 
 
 Month 
 of great- 
 est fre- 
 quency. 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 August. 
 
 ^ ■ 
 
 Marcli, 
 April. 
 
 
 i 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Dakota, 
 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 ; 
 
 : 
 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 
I30 
 
 Table No. 21. —Continued. 
 
 X 
 
 
 06 j 
 
 cc5 1 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 y< 
 0 
 
 •AOK 1 
 
 tH 1 
 
 cxT^'co 1 
 
 
 
 "1»0 1 
 
 06 1 
 
 -rfkOOi 1 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 iHiH(M(M 
 
 Co'cOfM* 1 
 rH(M 1 
 
 
 CONSIDEl 
 
 •SnY 1 
 
 
 THr-((MC<l 1 
 
 
 
 oTco 1 
 
 iH 1 
 
 THC^'rjrcOCOt^^ 1 
 
 (M(M<M 1 
 
 
 ;^ 
 0 
 
 •ounr 
 
 (M OO'Tit t> 00 oTrH CO 05 1 
 tH r-l iH iH iH (M (M <^^ 
 
 rH rH tH rH ?q (M CO | 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 ZDCOOC^ of r^ToO Oi 0"(N MlO CO t> oTo'rH 1 
 tH iH iH tH i-j r-t (N C<1 !N (N <M (M O^J :0 CO 
 
 
 x'^o^od 
 
 P3 
 
 rr! 
 
 r-i fH iH !M C^J 
 
 
 ecu] 
 
 •ITjdY 
 
 "^(£01 1 
 
 tHiHiHC<l(M 1 
 
 T-lr-ICO 1 
 
 
 FES OF 0 
 
 
 cido"odo»o 1 
 
 iHrHCMCa 1 
 
 rlTdiO 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 •u^r 
 
 
 
 
 Hour of 
 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 4 to 5 p.m. 
 
 5 to 6 p.m. 
 
 
 Montli 
 of great- 
 est fre- 
 quency. 
 
 May. 
 
 
 
 Maj 
 
 Ma;; 
 
 -Jo 3 m 
 
 
 
 
 Tot£ 
 No. < 
 Ton 
 
 doef 
 
 t> 
 
 (M 
 
 iH 
 
 rJH 
 
 00 
 
 CD 
 
 STATE. 
 
 ILLINOIS, 
 
 INDIANA, 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY, 
 
Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 Datks of Occurrence, Considered hy Months. 
 
 '09a 
 
 
 
 AOK 
 
 
 
 •JOG 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d Tji I> GO"t> GO'CO^O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •qa^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Month 
 of fifreat- 
 
 est f re 
 quency. 
 
 i 
 
 1-5 
 
 i 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 Torna- 
 does. 
 
 
 s 
 
 STATE. 
 
 0 
 
 M 
 
 KANSAS, 
 
132 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 
 •oea 
 
 r-iOi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BY MONl 
 
 
 co"q6 
 
 iH(M 
 
 
 
 
 
 •AOM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH<M 
 
 06 
 
 iH 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 RED 
 
 •:jdas 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 od'co'o"c<rco 
 
 r-l(MOq(M 
 
 DONSIDE] 
 
 •Snv 
 
 oV 
 
 
 CO 
 iH 
 
 co"© 
 
 
 (NCO 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 CiCO 
 
 C0r)<iO 
 
 !M0iCDf-iO 
 
 OOrHjq'NCO 
 
 
 •ounr 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 
 06 
 
 tHrHCO 
 
 
 
 
 r-ir-i 
 
 c4 
 
 tH 
 
 rH 
 
 c<i 
 
 
 CO X 0 rj^ 10 CO 10 1- rH 
 fH tH iH tH <M (M CO 
 
 CCURI 
 
 
 
 
 
 •IijdY 
 
 1 (M''t>oD"arcood 1 1 1 
 1 "^"^ 1 1 1 
 
 kOCOGO'iC 
 rHiH (M 
 
 TES OF 0 
 
 
 
 06 
 
 
 
 
 
 •qa^ 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 i> 
 
 
 ;^ # 
 
 < 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 Honr of 
 
 greatest 
 equency. 
 
 to 4 p.m. 
 
 to 5 p.m. 
 
 to 5 p.m. 
 
 to 6 p.m. 
 to 7 p.m. 
 
 to 5 p.m. 
 
 to 6 p.m. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 10 CD 
 
 
 »n 
 
 
 f great- 
 est fre- 
 uency. 
 
 ^* 
 
 0 
 
 April. 
 
 July. 
 
 August. 
 
 July. 
 
 May. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 Torna- 
 does. 
 
 CD 
 
 0^ 
 rH 
 
 t> 
 
 CD 
 r-( 
 
 (M 
 (M 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cc 
 H 
 
 
 
 STATE, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 LOUISIANA, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 MARYLAND, 
 
 Massachuse^ 
 
 Michigan, 
 
133 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 •SH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I ONI 
 
 •AOJsE 
 
 
 
 — > . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BY 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 — ~ 
 
 
 COCOTjrco"oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 DONSIDEl 
 
 'Sw^ 
 
 
 
 
 •Ain£ 
 
 rHCCt>C0rHiOCDr-IQ0 
 
 
 (MCOXOfNCOCDOQO 
 r-( rH iH rH (N 
 
 CE, ( 
 
 •aunr 
 
 iH rH iH iH CM (M CO 
 
 CO 
 
 iHC^COiCXINCOTjHiOCDt^XOiHO 
 iHrHr-lr-lrHr-trHCqOaCO 
 
 PS 
 PS 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 
 (MCO 
 
 IH1H 
 
 U50005i-iCOI>COOi©Tl<iX>XOiOTH 
 iH'-trHr-lrHC^(MC<>C<l(MCOCO 
 
 •ITjdY 
 
 l-tTH 
 
 iH r-( rH Cq C5 (M CO 
 
 iHQ0(MTl<00CO^COOi 
 iH iH tH (M !N <N 
 
 lES OF 0 
 
 
 
 OrH(NC0t>G0Ct>Q0 
 
 rHiH(M(MCO 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 iH 
 
 r-Tco't^ 
 
 < 
 P 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 Hour of 
 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 3 to 4 p.m. 
 
 1 to 2 p.m. 
 
 5 to 6 p.m. 
 
 Month 
 
 of great- 
 est fre- 
 quency. 
 
 July. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tota 
 
 QO 
 l> 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 MINNESOTA, 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, 
 
 i 
 
 MISSOURI, 
 
134 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 
 •09a 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 •AON 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 i 
 
 '*das 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 'Sny 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 •Ainr 
 
 
 
 2§ 
 
 
 
 •auui' 
 
 r^ TjH o'Cvi ^ sO 0 of ^ g 
 
 
 oi 
 
 T-H 
 
 rHrHr-l(M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 0 
 
 'lijdY 
 
 
 
 (M* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •WS£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 to 5 p.m. 
 
 s 
 
 n 
 
 3 to 4 p.m. 
 5 to 6 p.m. 
 
 
 Month 
 of great- 
 est fre- 
 quency. 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 } 
 
 1-5 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 Torna- 
 does, 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 NEW Hampshire, 
 
 NEW Jersey, 
 
 i 
 
135 
 
 Table No. 21.— Continued. 
 
 Dates of Occurrence, Considered by Months. 
 
 
 6 
 
 CD 
 
 
 ■Aojsr 1 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 +''0 1 
 
 -To 
 
 
 
 •Idas ^^'^ 
 
 06 
 
 I— I (M 
 
 
 
 
 iHrHrHCO 
 
 d 
 
 CO 
 
 
 rHr-i:0 
 
 r-lr-l(M 
 
 
 •9unr ^'i^ 
 
 i-H IH r-l tH r-( (M (M 
 
 coiocot-iHcct-oD'-'ao 
 
 rH iH 1-1 T-1 (M !M CO 
 
 
 
 
 r-l(N 
 
 
 
 
 cod 
 
 tH ^ 
 
 
 
 
 d"(M* 
 
 
 •qa^ 
 
 i-ti-lfHi-t 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 d 
 
 Hour of 
 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 S 
 ft 
 
 0 
 
 4 to 5 p.m. 
 
 5 to 6 p.m. 
 
 
 
 Vlonth 
 : great- 
 st fre- 
 uency. 
 
 March. 
 
 
 May, 
 ugust. 
 
 
 August. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 Torna- 
 does. 
 
 a 
 
 !N 
 
 tH 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, 
 
 OHIO, 
 
 y, 
 
 
 3 
 
 CC 
 
 W 
 Q 
 0 
 
13^ 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 <N 
 <M 
 
 d 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 •AOM 
 
 l> 
 
 d 
 
 tod 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •:^das 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •Snv 
 
 
 
 
 
 •jCinr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •9nnf 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 •lijdv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ci 
 
 d 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 to 4 p.m. 
 
 1 to 2 p.m. 
 7 to 8 p.m. 
 
 4 to 5 p.m. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Month 
 of great- 
 est fre. 
 quency. 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 Torna- 
 
 does. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STATE. 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Texas, 
 
 
 
 VERMONT, 
 
137 
 
 Table No. 21. — Continued. 
 
 02 
 
 a 
 
 
 [ONT 
 
 •AOJsI 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 
 06 
 
 CE, CONSIDERED : 
 
 
 (M* 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 did 
 
 
 <MCCr-ICOO»H(MOO 
 iHr-((N(N(M(M 
 
 
 ccoo"coV 
 
 r-lTH(MOq 
 
 
 CO 10 1- X © CO (M CO 0 CI 0 »H 
 iHrH(M(M(M<N<NCOCO 
 
 •aunr 
 
 
 CO 
 iH 
 
 
 CCURREN 
 
 
 
 
 »H(N(NCO 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 iH 
 
 FES OF 0 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 < 
 ft 
 
 'we£ 
 
 Hour of 
 greatest 
 frequency. 
 
 
 
 4 to 5 p.m. 
 
 Month 
 
 of great- 
 est f re- 
 quency. 
 
 July. 
 
 Apl, Jun. 
 
 July. 
 
 0 0 s 0 
 
 00 
 
 iH 
 
 
 05 
 
 \o 
 
 STATE. 
 
 VIRGINIA, 
 
 WEST Virginia, 
 
 WISCONSIN, 
 
138 
 
 Table No. 22. 
 
 Table showing the Relation of the Occurrence of Tornadoes to the 
 Acreage of Forests and Cultivated Lands, «y States. 
 
 o ^ 
 
 c3 g o § r 
 
 O) ^-rS O CD 2^ 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 Colorarlo, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Dakota Territory, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Florida, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Missouii, 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Noi th Carolina, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Rhode Island, 
 South Carolina, 
 Tennessee, 
 Texas, 
 Vermont, 
 Virginia, 
 West Virginia, 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 1823 to 1886 
 1840 to 1886 
 1877 to 1886 
 1682 to 1886 
 1875 to 1886 
 1885 to 1886 
 1875 to 1886 
 1795 to 1886 
 1835 to 1886 
 1818 to 1886 
 
 1837 to 1886 
 
 1859 to 1886 
 1848 to 1886 
 1869 to 1886 
 
 1860 to 1886 
 1833 to 1886 
 
 1821 to 1886 
 1823 to 1886 
 1855 to 1886 
 1823 to 1886 
 1814 to 1886 
 1871 to 1886 
 
 1807 to 1886 
 
 1822 to 1886 
 1787 to 1886 
 1826 to 1886 
 1804 to 1886 
 1811 to 1886 
 
 1838 to 1886 
 1761 to 1886 
 
 1808 to 1886 
 1853 to 1886 
 1829 to 1886 
 1816 to 1886 
 1838 to 1886 
 1843 to 1886 
 
 102 
 34 
 4 
 13 
 46 
 1 
 10 
 128 
 127 
 84 
 118 
 153 
 26 
 19 
 7 
 16 
 22 
 71 
 78 
 49 
 156 
 52 
 8 
 12 
 67 
 59 
 92 
 61 
 1 
 57 
 31 
 73 
 4 
 18 
 2 
 59 
 
 •51,540 
 53,045 
 103.645 
 
 4,845 
 147,700 
 
 1,960 
 54,240 
 58,980 
 56,000 
 35,901 
 55,475 
 81,700 
 40,000 
 45,420 
 29,895 
 11,124 
 
 8,040 
 57,524 
 72.205 
 46;340 
 68,735 
 76,185 
 
 9,005 
 
 7,455 
 47,620 
 48,580 
 40,760 
 44,985 
 
 1,085 
 30,170 
 41,750 
 262,290 
 
 9,135 
 40,150 
 24,645 
 54,450 
 
 10,430,727 
 7,861,409 
 44,117 
 646,673 
 80,264 
 279,099 
 2,186,601 
 15,269,225 
 4,935,575 
 5,935,308 
 2,755,290 
 991,187 
 10,106,072 
 4,557,332 
 2,682,296 
 1,634,019 
 1,004,099 
 4,452,265 
 2,030,726 
 9,144,323 
 10,137,790 
 321,566 
 1,296,529 
 708,092 
 5,195,795 
 13,868,086 
 5,982,507 
 6,810,331 
 182,6<i6 
 7,255,121 
 11,232,876 
 15,851,365 
 1,503,467 
 9,126.601 
 6,180,350 
 4,768,046 
 
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 RESULTS FROM TORNADO RECORDS 
 OP 205 YEARS. 
 
 1, The rotary movement of the whirling tornado-cloud is in 
 five hundred and twenty cases reported as against the hands of 
 a clock, and twenty-nine cases as probably moving with the 
 hands of a clock. 
 
 2. Electrical discharges were observed in two hundred and 
 fifty-two cases as occurrring in the clouds surrounding the tor- 
 nado-cloud ; that is, in the clouds near the horizon : and in 
 eighty-four cases as occurring in the funnel cloudc 
 
 3c The width of the path of destruction^ supposed to embrace 
 the distance between the areas of sensible winds on the two 
 sides of the tornado- cloud, varied in 1,167 cases from 10 to 
 10,560 feet, the average being 1,369 feet, 
 
 4c The length of the tornado's track, as reported in 385 
 cases, varied from 300 yards to 300 miles, the average being 
 24.79 niiles. 
 
 5. The velocity of progression of the tornado-cloud, as deter- 
 mined from the reports in 201 cases, varied from seven to 100 
 miles per hour, the average being 44. 13 miles. 
 
 6. The shortest time occupied by the tornado-cloud in pass- 
 ing a given point, varied from ^* an instant " to about twenty 
 minutes; the average being about seventy-four seconds. 
 
 7e The occurrence of thunder-storms in relation to tornadoes 
 is reported upon as follows : In 287 cases they occurred before 
 the tornado-cloud appeared; in 113 cases, accompanying the 
 tornado-cloud; in 57 cases, after the disappearance of the 
 cloud, and in eight cases their entire absence was noted. 
 
 8. Concerning the time of occurrence of the tornadoes, the 
 hours of greatest frequency are found to be from 3:30 to 4:00 
 P. Me and from 4:30 to 5:00 p. M. 
 
 9. The State in which the greatest number of tornadoes 
 occurred is Missouri, followed next in order by Kansas and 
 Georgia. 
 
146 
 
 10. The month in which the largest number of tornadoes 
 occurred is May, followed next in order by April and June. 
 
 11. The month of greatest frequency, that is, the month 
 embracing the largest number of days on which tornadoes 
 occurred, is May. 
 
 12. The prevailing direction of progressive movement of the 
 tornado-cloud is northeast. 
 
 13. Of 990 cases where the time of rain was recorded, 377 
 reported precipitation as preceding the tornado ; 437 as follow- 
 ing it; and 176 as accompanying it. 
 
 14. Of 604 cases where the time of hail was recorded, 317 
 reported the precipitation as preceding the tornado; 124 as 
 following it; and 163 as accompanying it. 
 
147 
 
 A SCIENTIFIC RESUMI3 OF TORNADO 
 CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 What follows under the head of "Scientific Resume of 
 Tornado Characteristics, " was prepared for a special purpose 
 after much investigation and careful study. 
 
 What is called the "Electrical Origin of Tornadoes/' and 
 all violent local storms of a similar character, is not of recent 
 designation. Certain French scientists, foremost of whom 
 probably stands M. Peltier, whose first writings on this sub- 
 ject appeared in 1839, have asserted that all the usual phe- 
 nomena which combine to form whirlwinds are the direct 
 result of electricity. 
 
 In about i860, M. De Fonville, a member of the French 
 Academy of Sciences, discussed the electrical origin of storms. 
 The electrical theory has found many followers in America, 
 probably the most prominent in a sensational way being Prof. 
 Tice, the "Weather Prophet," of St. Louis, now deceased. 
 
 On the loth of June, 1879, ^ terrific storm of wind, rain, 
 and hail, moving from northwest to southeast, passed over 
 Ottawa Co., Kansas, nearly destroying the town of Delphos 
 in that county. Thirty-seven buildings were torn to pieces 
 and sixteen persons seriously injured. I visited the town 
 a few days after the storm and made a careful examination of its 
 path and the destructive effects. Prof Tice heard of this storm 
 through the newspapers, and, in support of his theory, pub- 
 lished in the Cincinnati Inquirer of June 5th, 1880, a long 
 article, from which the following extracts are taken : — 
 
 T hold that electricity is the cause of all meteorological phenomena, 
 winds of every kind, cyclones, cloud formation, rain, hail, and snow. 
 
 Railroad and telegraph lines obey the laws of induction and give rise 
 to the necessary electric changes to produce storms. 
 
148 
 
 Have the following facts any significance ? Delphos, in Ottawa Co. , 
 
 Kansas, is situated on the east bank of the Solomon River, and is a 
 station on the Solomon Valley Railroad. 
 
 A tornado on May 30th, 1879, destroyed the railroad depot and many 
 houses. The town was visited by a second and very destructive tornado 
 on the 6th of June, that is two tornadoes in eight days. 
 
 In this hasty attempt to bolster up a theory the calculation 
 missed its aim through discrepancies in the facts as follows : 
 
 1st. The tornado of May 30th, 1879, passed eastward three 
 miles southeast of Delphos without producing the slighest in- 
 jury in the town. 
 
 2d. The storm which struck Delphos occurred June loth, 
 and not June 6th. 
 
 3d. There was no railroad at Delphos, no railroad build- 
 ings, and no telegraph lines, but the people were trying to 
 raise the funds to obtain such conveniences by extending the 
 track, which then terminated at Minneapolis, about twenty 
 miles distant. 
 
 In 1879, '80, and' 81 the question of the electrical origin of 
 wind-storms came before the courts of certain States, princi- 
 pally Wisconsin, Missouri and Kansas, in the interest of 
 insurance claimants. Certain parties who were policy-holders 
 had their property (which was insured against lightning) de- 
 stroyed by wind-storms, and brought suit for recovery against 
 the insurance companies on the ground that, both in the 
 popular acceptation of the term and in its true scientific mean- 
 ing, lightning or electricity was the cause of all violent wind- 
 storms. This theory the policy-holders tried to maintain by 
 every possible means, and in the course of the struggle I was 
 summoned to appear before the courts as a scientific expert 
 on the question of the origin and development of tornadoes. 
 I made special preparation for the engagement, and took 
 occasion to embody the results of my labors in the form in 
 which they here appear under the heading of Scientific 
 Resume of Tornado Characteristics/' 
 
149 
 
 In regard to the electrical origin of tornadoes, I take pleasure 
 in quoting from the pen of Prof James C. Watson, the great 
 astronomer and physicist, who at the time of making this 
 statement was director of Washburn Observatory, Madison, 
 Wis., and on the witness stand in one of the above cases. 
 He says : ' ' I think that all science that is science, proves 
 absolutely that the effect could not have been produced 
 by lightning. The force of the tornado cannot be explained 
 on the theory of electric action; it is utterly impossible, incon- 
 ceivable, and contrary to every well-established law of elec- 
 tricity.'' 
 
 A SCIENTIFIC RESUME OF TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 1 . The forces of the tornado-cloud are active and continuous 
 while the phenomenon exists. 
 
 2. They are exerted successively, uninterruptedly, and always 
 in the same general directions. 
 
 3. The forces appear to be uniform. 
 
 4. The forces are not apparently diminished by having to 
 destroy a succession of the heaviest and strongest structures. 
 
 5. The forces are not affected by having to meet with, in 
 rapid succession, totally different objects — different in size, 
 strength, shape, materials, composition and structure, relative 
 position, etc., etc. 
 
 6. The forces are exerted continuously over a breadth of sur- 
 face varying from 50 to 600 yards. ^ 
 
 7. The forces are exerted continuously for distances varying 
 from five to 200 miles. 
 
 8. The characteristics of the tornado-cloud are constant, and 
 all of its features and mode of development show it to be a wind- 
 storm, simply. 
 
 9. When the cloud disappears, it does so from the earth up- 
 wards, its action evidently depending upon forces in the upper 
 regions of the atmosphere. 
 
 10. The time of day, the time of year, and the peculiar hot 
 and stifling condition of the atmosphere indicate that heat is the 
 physical agent developing the tornado. 
 
I50 
 
 11. The tornado is invariably accompanied by hail, which is 
 evidently not of electrical formation. 
 
 12. Electricity is simply an accompaniment of the tornado, 
 as is the hail, and not the primary cause. 
 
 13. The cloud is almost invariably funnel-shaped, with the 
 small end nearest the earth. The resistance of the atmosphere 
 is less at higher altitudes because of less density, consequently 
 the cloud spreads out at the top. 
 
 14. The tornado-cloud always has a rotary motion, from right 
 to left. 
 
 15. It moves in a certain direction, S.W. to N. E., without 
 regard to obstacles. 
 
 16. The tornado-cloud is generally impenetrable to vision, 
 and is sometimes dark, like coal smoke, and then again white, 
 like steam. 
 
 17. The contrast between the white, steam-like appearance 
 of the tornado-cloud and the surrounding dark clouds gives rise 
 to the semblance of fire, and the cloud appears illuminated. 
 
 18. What is called lightning by the frightened observers is 
 never seen by them when the tornado-cloud is observed in ad- 
 vance of the dark clouds to the westward and surrounded by a 
 clear sky. 
 
 19. What is termed the smell of sulphur" is simply ozone 
 in the air, which nearly always appears after a thunder-storm. 
 
 20. It is to be noted that a calm, cool observer rarely reports 
 the appearance of lightning in the tornado-cloud proper. 
 
 21. It i§. to be noted that lightning is always observed 
 
 and after the tornado-cloud appears, but in the heavy, dark 
 clouds far to the west, north, and northeast of the tornado cloud. 
 
 22. Observers are nearly always mistaken about the distance 
 of the flash of lightning. Light travels with inconceivable ra- 
 pidity, so does the electric fluid, and the electric flash is of in- 
 tense brilliancy, consequently lightning appears much nearer to 
 the observer than it really is. 
 
 23. Observers can really give no reason for their belief that 
 electricity is the cause of the tornado, but almost invariably 
 reply to the question, *'that if electricity is not the cause, they 
 have no idea what could produce such a terrible foi ce." 
 
151 
 
 24- From an examination of a great many witnesses it is evi- 
 dent that the reason for behef in electricity as the cause is the 
 sudden, awful, irresistible, and terribly destructive force of the 
 tornado. It is of the air, wild and majestic, yet mysterious. 
 
 25. Many witnesses at first report the lightning as appearing 
 in the tornado-cloud, and then after careful thought remember 
 that the flashes were really from clouds far beyond the tornado- 
 cloud. 
 
 26. Almost invariably the observer is so placed that the 
 tornado-cloud is between him and the dark, threatening clouds 
 to the westward, so that in the excitement of the occasion he 
 cannot distinguish the exact location of the source. 
 
 27. In the tornado's track the debris is always carried in the 
 direction of the moving force, frequently in the arc of and some- 
 times entirely throughout a circle. This is not a peculiarity of 
 electric force. 
 
 28. Heavy and light objects are transported long distances, 
 the latter sometimes 50 miles. 
 
 29. Objects that are carried long distances are always trans- 
 ported to the east or northeast, and evidently by air-currents. 
 
 30. Objects carried long distances are frequently found unin- 
 jured. 
 
 31. Vegetation is withered by the action of the sun's heat in 
 evaporating the fluids from the leaves and buds that have been 
 broken and bruised by the whirling action of the air in the 
 tornado-cloud. The evaporation drys and withers the foliage, 
 and it looks seared. 
 
 32. Where the bark of trees has been chipped ofl" or loosened 
 in places the sap appears and is evaporated by the action of the 
 sun's heat, and as a result the tender surface of the exposed 
 portion of the body of the tree is turned black. 
 
 33. No ordinary wind or hardly a heavy, straight wind is able 
 to so whip the foliage of trees, or the leaves of grain and plants, 
 as to cause them to wither and appear scorched. It requires 
 the rapid, peculiar, and irresistible rotary action of the air in a 
 tornado to accomplish this result. 
 
 34. The energy of the tornado is exhibited with no greater 
 force in relation to metals than in relation to other substances. 
 
152 
 
 35' The force of the tornado-cloud is not measured any 
 respect by the character of the materials upon which it acts. 
 
 36. The form of an object, no matter what the size, does not 
 control or modify or influence in any way the intensity of the 
 tornado's force. 
 
 37. Objects are destroyed by the peculiar force of the tornado 
 before the tornado-cloud reaches them. Trees begin to sway 
 and are bent to the ground, and buildings and lighter objects 
 are drawn or sucked towards the advancing cloud from all sides 
 of it. 
 
 38. By the rotary action of the tornado-cloud the condensed 
 vapor is whirled into a fine mist, giving it the appearance of 
 steam, and lighting the interior of the cloud. 
 
 39. The tornado is accompanied by a rumbling noise (very 
 peculiar), which never ceases while the funnel-shaped cloud is 
 upon the earth or a short distance above it. 
 
 40. Timbers acted upon by the force of the tornado are often 
 driven to considerable depths into the solid earth, sometimes to 
 the distance of nine feet. They are sometimes driven into build- 
 ings and other pieces of timber. 
 
 41. Wherever fire is reported to have been seen in the debris 
 of the tornado it has, upon close examination, been found that 
 witnesses did not actually see fire (they saw light) ; but they saw 
 smoke, and from that judged that fire must be present. Now, 
 this so-called smoke is nothing but the dust and condensed 
 vapor of the whirling tornado cloud, which envelops and pene- 
 trates every structure over which the tornado passes. This so- 
 called smoke is often seen issuing from the doors, windows, and 
 other openings of the house, and even out of chimneys, when 
 fire was known not to have been in the house at the time. 
 
 42. The energy of the tornado-cloud is confined with in very 
 narrow limits, the boundaries being distinguished with remark- 
 able exactness even in the atmosphere. 
 
 43. The width of the tornado's path upon the earth's surface 
 is probably the counterpart of the diameter of the upper or broad 
 end of the funnel-shaped cloud. 
 
 44. In the ricochet motion of the tornado-cloud, especially 
 as the cloud leaves the earth, the maximum destructive force is 
 
153 
 
 found to be diminished, but not entirely suspended. The in- 
 rushing air-currents are still sufficiently powerful to overturn 
 fences, small buildings, and trees, and lift loose objects from the 
 earth. 
 
 45. In the ricochet motion of the tornado-cloud the cloud 
 does not dip down to the earth, although it appears to do so. 
 There is not an actual descent of the entire body of air within 
 which the terrible forces are at play. On the contrary, the in- 
 rushing air-currents from the earth's surface, as they pass upward 
 and unite with the disturbed conditions above, carry up dust and 
 small debris, which, mingling with the condensed vapor from 
 the rapidly rising air forms a dark cloud, and completes the con- 
 nection to the eye between the upper cloud and the earth. 
 
 46. The potential and living energies of the tornado must be 
 distinguished from the cloud, which simply shadows forth the 
 limits within which these energies exist or may be called into 
 action. 
 
 47. The so-called quiverings and contortions of the cloud are 
 but the peculiar movements, in fantastic forms, assumed by the 
 rapidly condensing masses of vapor. 
 
 48. The funnel form of the cloud is due to the peculiar 
 ascensional movement of air-currents, the vapor being condensed 
 along the central line of movement by the cold of elevation. 
 This action would tend to form a column of cloud, the upper 
 extremity of which would be broader than the lower, because of 
 the overflow and spreading out of the ascending masses of air 
 in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and also diminished 
 resistance to the gyratory motion of the vortex, 
 
 49. The motive power of a tornado and the agency which 
 lifts objects or carries them long distances, is that motion of the 
 air within the cloud set up by the variable heat conditions of 
 large masses of air over adjacent regions. 
 
 50. The violent upheaval of a small column of air forms a 
 vortex along the central line of movement within which the 
 power of pressure against all resistance is often greater than one 
 atmosphere. 
 
 5 1 . The tornado vortex may be formed either by an ascen- 
 sional movement of a mass of heated air, giving rise to unstable 
 
154 
 
 equilibrium, or by the meeting of opposite currents with high- 
 temperature gradients, or by a combination of both of these 
 meteorological conditions. 
 
 52. Two currents of air approaching each other from oppo- 
 site directions will not come directly together, because of the 
 influence of the relative motion of the earth. The mass of air 
 coming from the south would have a greater velocity eastward 
 than that coming from the north. Therefore, instead of meet- 
 ing each other in a direct line, the two currents will form an 
 angle at their intersection, and the combination of the two 
 masses will give rise to a rotation in a direction contrary to the 
 hands of a watch with its face upwards. These conditions ac- 
 count for the spiral movement of the air-currents and the forma- 
 tion of the vortex in the tornado. The cold air from the north- 
 ward will under -run the warmer air from the southward, because 
 of the difference in density of the two masses, and as a result 
 will aid in the formation of the whirl. 
 
 53. The tornado vortex cannot remain stationary on the sur- 
 face of the rotating earth, but must, by well-known dynamical 
 laws, move bodily in a direction the resultant of the opposing 
 forces in its formation. 
 
 54. The tornado vortex will have a tendency to drift with 
 any strongly prevailing current of air. 
 
 55. The tornado vortex may be very whimsical in short move- 
 ments, owing to the extreme elasticity of air and the mobility of 
 its particles. 
 
 56. After carefully reading my various papers on the subject 
 of tornadoes, H. H. Rowland, Professor of Physics, Johns Hop- 
 kins University, Baltimore, says : " It becomes apparent that if 
 electricity has anything to do with the development of a tornado, 
 it is 7iot with the tornado-cloud itself after it has foriiied and the 
 tornado is advancing over its path of destruction, but with the 
 two clouds which attend the for77iation of the tornado." 
 
 57. All of the phenomena of a tornado cannot be accounted 
 for on the supposition of opposite electrification of two clouds. 
 
 58. According to Sir William Thomson, the electrostatic ten- 
 sion of air is only equal to a pressure of 68 grammes per square 
 
155 
 
 decimetre, or one fifteen-thousandth of the pressure of one at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 59. There is no fact in observation or in electrical science to 
 prove that clouds, under any conditions, actually move about in 
 the atmosphere through the agency of opposite electricities or 
 electrical attraction. 
 
 60. In the incipient stages of a tornado, observers -always speak 
 of the rushing together of clouds from opposite directions. This 
 is a very natural and necessary effect in the development of a 
 vortex. It is the air-currents (set in motion by contrary heat 
 conditions) which cause the clouds to move, and not electrical 
 attraction. 
 
 61. There is no distinction between the movements of air 
 masses under the most ordinary atmospheric conditions and 
 those under which they move in the tornado, except in intensity. 
 
 62. If electrical attraction is the cause of air-motion in a tor- 
 nado, it is the cause of any and all atmospheric movements, 
 however feeble or mighty. But this remarkable position no 
 physicist contends for a moment. 
 
 63. The electrical tension of the air cannot under the most 
 favorable atmospheric conditions cause the movement of oppo- 
 sitely electrified air masses, because of the excellent conductivity 
 of free air, which always tends to equalize electrical potential. 
 
 64. In a mass of air or cloud having an altitude of one mile, 
 a diameter of one mile, and a thickness of one-tenth of a mile, 
 the electro-motive power can never exceed 68 grammes per 
 square decimetre. Converted into English measures this expres- 
 sion denotes a pressure of 1,049.3964 grains upon an area expos- 
 ing a surface of 15.5006 square inches. At this rate the electro- 
 motive force of the entire mass of air or cloud would be about 
 17,000,000 kilogrammes, or 37,478,561.25 pounds avoirdupois. 
 The weight of this large mass of air or cloud is about 500,000,000 
 kilogrammes, or 1,102,310,625 pounds avoirdupois. Now, the 
 square root of the ratio of the mass to the force is about 5 ; 
 hence, the velocity of motion required by the mass in moving 
 any distance will be five times less than the velocity of a body 
 falling the same distance under the action of gravity. Under 
 these circumstances the velocity acquired by the mass in passing 
 
156 
 
 over a- mile will be about seventy miles per hour. Two such 
 masses of air or cloud coming from opposite directions would 
 thus approach each other at the rate of 140 miles per hour. 
 But this is the velocity of movement of the two masses in free 
 space, which condition never actually exists. Under natural 
 circumstances the electro-motive force of the opposing masses 
 would not only have to move each mass as a whole, but the en- 
 tire atmosphere around them. Furthermore, the extreme of 
 electrical force, under the most favorable circumstances, has 
 been assumed. Returning to the numerical expressions of force 
 we find that the work done by 17,000,000 kilogrammes over a 
 distance, for example, of 2,000 inches is 34,000,000,000 kilo- 
 grammemetres or 68,000,000,000 kilogrammemetres in both, 
 which is equivalent to about 200,000,000 foot tons of work. This 
 quantity of work would cause a cylinder of air 2,640 feet high 
 and 1,320 feet in diameter to make 400 revolutions per hour. 
 At the circumference the motion would reach a velocity of about 
 300 miles per hour, decreasing towards the center. In this rough 
 calculation the most advantageous circumstances have been as- 
 sumed, and it is not to be supposed for an instant that these 
 conditions ever exist in the manner estimated. 
 
 65. Assuming variability of heat conditions as the source of 
 energy in the tornado, we may derive a force which is sometimes 
 500 times as great as the measure of one atmosphere, while the 
 force due to electricity can never exceed more than one fifteen- 
 thousandth of the same pressure. 
 
 66. A column of heated air, ascending and drawing in air 
 from the surrounding regions, would very quickly develop a 
 rotation possessing an energy which might be tens, and even 
 hundreds of times, in excess of that due to electricity. Similar 
 results would follow in case of differently heated masses of air ap-^ 
 proaching each other from opposite directions. 
 
 67. If the forces of a tornado are of electrical origin, the tor- 
 nado once formed must gradually decrease in power and motion 
 as it advances. But if the theory of heated air is conformable 
 to truth, the tornado may augment in intensity after formation. 
 In other words, if the origin is electrical, the maximum power 
 of the tornado is reached at once ; if calorffic, the maximum 
 
157 
 
 power i5 attained gradually and by successive steps. It is not 
 difficult to, realize that the results of all observation and investi- 
 gation support the theory of heated air as the source of tornadic 
 action. 
 
 68. All observation and investigation point to the fact that 
 the development of a tornado is gradual. It is not ushered into 
 complete existence at the beginning. When the tornado vortex 
 reaches the earth the extreme violence of the storm is accom- 
 plished, and this intensity continues undiminished while the 
 cloud remains upon the surface. It frequently happens that the 
 tornado vortex is observed to form by the coalescence of several 
 smaller vortices which play about the central whirl with varying 
 form and intensity. 
 
 69. The larger the volume of air (within vertical limits) em- 
 braced by the vortex the more destructive the tornado's violence. 
 Therefore, as the vortex descends from the lofty regions of its 
 inception, its aggregate energy is constantly increasing until it 
 reaches the earth. 
 
 70. The greater the elevation of the vortex above the earth, 
 the greater the mass of intervening air to overcome and the 
 smaller the volume engaged in the production of energy ; con- 
 sequently, the frequently observed intermissions of energy in the 
 tornado's path. This intermission does not mean total absence 
 of force, but only a diminution of the maximum power. 
 
 71. Owing to the great centrifugal forces of the tornado-cloud 
 the center of the vortex must very nearly approach the condition 
 of a vacuum. 
 
 72. The opportunities for the formation of a tornado vortex 
 in the upper regions of the atmosphere are greater than near the 
 earth's surface, the density of the air increasing as you descend, 
 making the resistance to motion in that medium inversely as the 
 altitude. 
 
 73. After the vortex has once formed, it readily descends to the 
 earth by drawing in the air from beneath it as well as from either 
 side. Thus the contact of air masses of different temperatures 
 is secured, rapid condensation follows, and the funnel-shaped 
 cloud is soon formed. 
 
158 
 
 74. As the vortical action of the air becomes intensified, its 
 power to overcome resistance is multiplied, and tlie descent of 
 the vortex continues. At the eaith's suiface it overcomes all 
 resistance, and the dread hour-glass form of the tornado-cloud 
 soon appears. 
 
 75. A tornado is that condition of the atmosphere which 
 gives rise to the development :*nd maintenance of a vortex, 
 whose outward visible fashion or fig^ure is a funnel-shaped cloud 
 that revolves about a vertical axis from right to left. 
 
 76. The origin of a tornado is calorific; that is, the phenom- 
 enon xesults from high-temperature gradients existing in adja- 
 cent air masses. 
 
 77. The concomitants of the tornado are an oppressive or 
 sultry condition of the air. The gradual setting in and prolonged 
 opposition of northerly and southerly air-currents over a con- 
 siderable area. A gradual, but continued, fall of the thermom- 
 eter, with a prevalence of the northerly currents, and a rise with 
 the predominance of the southerly. Decided temperature gradi- 
 ents across the line of progressive movement to the northwest 
 and southeast. Huge masses of dark and portentous clouds 
 in the northwest and southwest, possessing a remarkable in- 
 tensity of color, usually a deep green. — A remarkable rolling 
 and tumbling of the clouds, scuds darting from all points of the 
 compass towards a common center. — Hail and rain accompany 
 the tornado, the former either in unusual size, form, or quantity, 
 and the latter either in remarkable quantity or size of drops. 
 The presence of ozone is usually detected in the wake of the 
 tornado. — A remarkable roaring noise, like the passage of many 
 railroad trains through a tunnel. The clouds generated by the 
 vortex assume the form of a funnel with the smallest end towards 
 the earth. — The vortex has four motions, viz. : ist, the whirHng 
 or gyratory motion, always from right to left; 2d, the progres- 
 sive mot'on, generally from some point in the southwest quad- 
 rant to some point in the northeast quadrant; 3d, the ricochet 
 motion ; 4th, the oscillatory motion. - The remarkable contrac- 
 tion of the storm's path. The remarkable definiteness of the 
 limits of the storm's path. Upon reaching the earth's surface 
 the vortex assumes the form of an hour-glass. 
 
159 
 
 yS. The characteristic effects of a tornado are : Objects are 
 drawn towards the vortex from every point of the compass. 
 Objects passing into the vortex are thrown upward and outward 
 by the vortical action of the engaged air. Structures are Uterally 
 torn to pieces by the vortical action of the atmosphere, evidence 
 of which is afforded both by the fineness of the debris and also 
 its disposition in the storm's path. The debris is thrown inward 
 from either edge of the storm's path. Light objects are carried 
 to great heights and also great distances. Objects are carried 
 inward and upward by the centripetal action of the vortex, and 
 outward by the centrifugal force. Weight and size are conditions 
 which present immaterial values to the power of the tornado. 
 People are stripped of clothing. Fowls and birds denuded of 
 feathers. Trees are whipped to bare poles. Long and heavy 
 timbers are driven to considerable depths in the soHd earth. 
 The vortex is completely filled with flying debris. Timbers are 
 driven through the sides of buildings. Sand and gravel are 
 driven into wood. Human beings and animals are run through 
 with splinters and timbers. Straws, bits of glass, and pieces of 
 metal are driven into wood. The strongest trees are uprooted 
 or twisted off near the roots. People and animals are terribly 
 mangled by the force of the wind and by contact with flying 
 debris. In the path of the storm all vegetation is destroyed. 
 Railroad trains are thrown from the track. Iron bridges are 
 completely dismantled and carried from their foundations. 
 Heavy boulders, weighing tons, are rolled along the earth. The 
 largest railroad engines are lifted from the tracks. 
 
 79. All objects, whether metal or non-metallic, magnetic or 
 non-magnetic, simple or compound, animate or inanimate, are 
 acted upon and with in a similar manner. 
 
 80. Every effect is the result of ordinary mechanical motion 
 with varying degrees of intensity. 
 
 81. If it were possible to revolve a mass of air (similar to that 
 engaged in the tornado's vortex) with enormous velocity by 
 mechanical means, the characteristic violence of the tornado 
 would follow. 
 
 82. The motive power of the tornado is not and cannot be elec- 
 trical while our atmosphere remains in in its normal condition. 
 
i6o 
 
 83. The peculiar roaring noise which accompanies the prog- 
 ress of the tornado cannot be ascribed to the intervention of 
 electrical forces. Within the range of observation and experi- 
 ment nothing has been brought to light in electrical science 
 which will authenticate such a statement. It is far more reason- 
 able to assert that the noise is produced by the resistance which 
 the rapid and violent indraughts of air encounter while passing 
 into the tornado's vortex. The vortex approximates a vacuum, 
 and the air rushes into it at the spout end near the earth with 
 great violence, attended by a hollow, sucking sound of marked 
 intensity. 
 
 84. All sound is vibration and the sonorous body may some- 
 times be air. In the tornado it is a vast column of g)Tating air, 
 within close confines, whose vibrations are propagated through 
 the surrounding masses of air (not partaking of g}Tatory action) 
 in every direction. 
 
 85. In passing through a body of timber or during the destruc- 
 tion of buildings the roar of the storm increases because the 
 sources of sound are augmented ; there is a greater number of 
 sonorous bodies set in vibration ; the vast and varied mass of 
 flying debris furnish a multitude of vibrating centers of variable 
 degrees of intensity, and the commingling and confused succes- 
 sion of sounds produce an interminable roar. 
 
 86. The only possible method for electrical force to effect the 
 formation of the tornado, would be by some (as yet unknown) 
 relation of physical agencies to set the air in motion and keep it 
 in motion (a motion of the most terrific violence) for several 
 hours. But this result cannot be reached owing to the extremely 
 low electrical tension of the air. If it were possible, however, 
 wind would still be the immediate agent of destruction and not 
 electricity. 
 
 87. If electricity enters as the fundamental cause into the 
 origin of the tornado, it must act likewise throughout the entire 
 category of atmospheric disturbance. If so, then all wind (air 
 in motion), however feeble or violent, is of electrical origin. But 
 this conclusion leads to an impossibility. 
 
 88. It is simply absurd to suppose, and much worse to insist, 
 that electricity directly, by its attractive and repellant forces, 
 produces the destruction in the wake of the tornado. 
 
i6i 
 
 89. If, however, electricity does not act in the manner here 
 described, its intervention could only be effected by supposing 
 that the whirling masses of clouds and air were in some inde- 
 scribable method exerting the power of magnets. 
 
 90. A magnet, however powerful, will only manifest its force 
 in the presence of magnetic bodies or bodies that are capable of 
 being magnetized. 
 
 91. In the tornado, however, all objects receive the violence 
 of the storm irrespective of magnetic properties. 
 
 92. It is claimed that no disruptive discharge of electricity 
 takes place during the ascensional m.ovement of debris in the 
 tornado vortex. If so, what produces the so-called electrical 
 displays in the cloud ? 
 
 93. How does lightning appear in the tornado-cloud? Electric 
 flashes cannot form except by a disruptive discharge. Can it be 
 explained by saying that part of the electrical force is expended 
 in flashes and the remainder in moving objects upon the earth ? 
 Such results would necessitate the existence of an infinite supply 
 of atmospheric electricity. There is no evidence of any such 
 quantity in the air or the possibility of producing it through the 
 intervention of natural agencies. 
 
 94. There is no fact or record to show that an electrical dis- 
 charge or any manifestation of atmospheric electricity ever 
 entirely demolished a large stone or frame building ; ever car- 
 ried the debris of buildings for miles in the air ; ever lifted a 
 locomotive from the track ; ever carried an iron bridge from its 
 foundations and twisted the frame-work into a shapeless mass ; 
 ever rolled a boulder from its bed in the ground ; ever imbedded 
 one piece of timber into another after having carried the former 
 for several hundred yards in the air ; ever carried bedding and 
 clothing for miles in the air; ever elevated to considerable 
 heights in the air columns of water from ponds, lakes, and rivers; 
 ever lifted animals from the earth and carried them over build- 
 ings ; ever drew the water from a well or cistern ; ever twisted 
 a tree from its stump ; ever turned a building bottom side up or 
 end for end without otherwise injuring it. Many other effects 
 of the peculiar manifestations of power in the tornado might be 
 Instanced to illustrate the impossibility of electrical inter v^ention. 
 
1 62 
 
 95. There are many effects of electrical force, decidedly char- 
 acteristic, which are not within the compass of a tornado's 
 power. This statement may be' reversed with eqaul significance. 
 
 96. Lightning is the result of an extremely itensified discharge 
 of electricity in the open air. 
 
 97. The lightning's flash is the result overcoming the electri- 
 cal tension of the air at any point or succession of points. 
 
 98. The concomitants of lightning are : large accumulation 
 of electric potential, high electrical tension, the presence o 
 large masses of cumulo-stratus clouds, brilliant flashes and 
 heavy detonation. 
 
 99. The effects of lightning are : rupturing and scaterring of 
 imperfectly conducting substances and the inflaming of those 
 which are combustible ; heating, reddening, melting, and 
 volatilization of metals ; the production of shocks more or less 
 severe and often fatal to lives of men and animals ; the produc- 
 tion of ozone, causing a sulphurous odor. 
 
 100. The cause of atmospheric electricity is not definitely 
 known, but its existence has been ascribed to the following 
 agencies : evaporation, the chemical processes incident to 
 vegetable life, the friction of solid and liquid particles against 
 the earth and against each other by the movement of air- 
 currents. 
 
 1 01. By condensation, unelectrified vapor becomes an electri- 
 fied liquid, and opposite electricities are developed. 
 
 102. All atmospheric phenomena involving rapid and heavy 
 condensation are necessarily accompanied by electrical manifes- 
 tations. 
 
 103. The earth may be negatively or positively electrified, as 
 also the air and clouds may be possessed of either positive or 
 negative electrification. 
 
 104. Clouds are never insulated from the earth. 
 
 105. We may suppose that a mass of comparatively dry air 
 interposes itself between the earth and a large collection of 
 clouds for a short time. In such an event, the positive electricity 
 of the clouds induces negative electricity upon the upper sur- 
 face of the mass of dry air, repelling the positive electricity to 
 the lower surface of the mass. The positive charge induces a 
 
163 
 
 negative charge upon the earth immediately beneath, and the 
 two electricities are neutralized, leaving the superincumbent 
 mass of dry air negatively electrified and consequently repelled 
 by the earth. 
 
 106. The foregoing supposition is theoretically correct, but 
 such a condition of the atmosphere does not exist. 
 
 107. The mass of dry air, if constant and stationary, would 
 act as a sort of insulator or non-conductor between the clouds 
 and earth. But the air is constantly in motion, and therefore 
 the clouds also. The air is constantly changing its degree of 
 moisture and the tension of its vapor. All of these changes and 
 others are constantly and decidedly qualifying its degree of 
 conductivity. 
 
 108. Electricity can always be detected in the upper regions 
 of the atmosphere. 
 
 109. In clear weather atmospheric electricity is nearly always 
 positive. In stormy weather the indications are both positive 
 and negative, and about as frequently of one sign as the other. 
 
 no. Great variations are found to occur in electrical density 
 in the lower regions of the atmosphere, owing to the rapid and 
 marked changes in potential in the cloud regions. 
 
 111. Assuming the electrical density of the earth as constant, 
 there are marked differences of potential as we recede from its 
 surface. 
 
 112. Electrical density is greatest on elevated portions of the 
 earth's surface ; for example, on a mountain peak as compared 
 with the plain below ; on hills as compared with valleys. 
 
 1 13. In all conditions of the atmosphere there is a remarkable 
 variability of electrical potential. As measured with the varia- 
 bility of other meteorological phenomena, there is hardly an 
 element whose fluctuations bear any comparison, either in 
 extent or rapidity. 
 
 114. All observations unite in showing that electrical poten- 
 tial is greater in winter than in summer ; the most decided min- 
 imum being in May or June. 
 
 115. Diurnal variations indicate the presence of two maxima 
 of potential, which on the average occur at the hours 9 A. M. 
 and 9 p. M. 
 
164 
 
 1 16. Precipitation from the under surface of a cloud or mass 
 of clouds may be electrified with a sign opposite to that with 
 which the upper surface is charged. 
 
 117. The combination of the particles of precipitation, 
 whether of snow, rain, or hail, does not augment the quantity 
 of electricity or affect the potential, although it may increase the 
 electrical density of the mass. 
 
 118. The electricity of the clouds is constantly fluctuating 
 through an interminable succession of changes in the electrical 
 potential of the surrounding air and the neutralizing effect of the 
 earth. 
 
 119. That form of precipitation usually most favorable to the 
 increase of electrical potential is snow. If accompanied with 
 high wind the gain is still greater. 
 
 120. Electrolysis is the decomposition of certain compound 
 substances by the passage through them of an electric current. 
 These substances are therefore called electrolytes. 
 
 121. Liquids (they must be conductors) are the only subjects 
 which are electrolytic. 
 
 122. The vapor of water is not electrolytic because it is a gas. 
 Therefore the assertion that its electrolysis produces the heat of 
 the tornado is without foundation. 
 
 123. Electrolysis is the product of what is termed current 
 electricity, while the electricity'which is present in the tornado 
 is called frictional. Therefore no feature of the tornado can 
 owe its origin to electrolysis. 
 
 124. Every electrolyte must be composed of compound mole- 
 :ules. Even after electrolysis the anion and cation may still be 
 possessed of a number of molecules of simple bodies. Every 
 electrolyte in the liquid state becomes a non-conductor when 
 solidified and thereby loses its electrolytic condition. 
 
 125. Pure water has never been electrolyzed because of its 
 great resistance to electrolytic conduction. The purer the 
 water the greater its electrical resistance. In fact, pure water 
 must be acidulated in order to make its conductivity more sus- 
 ceptible. 
 
i6s 
 
 126. All chemical compounds are not electrolytic, and even 
 compounds containing the same components as electrolytes, but 
 not in equivalent proportions, are therefore not electrolytes. 
 
 127. In an insulated conductor the algebraic sum of the two 
 electricities which may be induced is equal to zero. But where 
 the conductor has an independent charge the resulting force of 
 the induction will be expressed by the algebraic sum of the 
 force which would exist if there was no independent charge and 
 the force due to the independent distribution without induction. 
 
 128. The forces of attraction and repulsion vary inversely as 
 the square of the distance from the inductive source. Divide 
 the distances by 2 multiplies the force by 2. Multiply the dis- 
 tance by 2 divides the force by 2. 
 
 129. The forces of attraction and repulsion depend upon the 
 amount of the charge. The charge depends upon the size of 
 the body and the distribution of the electricity. 
 
 130. In a good conductor the electric charge passes instantly 
 from one molecule on another. In fact, the discharge of each 
 molecule may be considered instantaneous. It is a moderate 
 conductor or poor insulator. Each molecule may possess for a 
 very short space of time positive electricity on one side and neg- 
 ative on the other. 
 
 131. In a good insulator the discharge is exceedingly slow, 
 and therefore a high degree of polarization may be maintained 
 for a considerable time. The above statements are in accord- 
 ance with Faraday's theory of induction by contiguous par- 
 ticles." 
 
 132. The peculiar sensations of what are termed burning," 
 "scorching," or "stifling heat," which are reported by those 
 who experience the violence of the tornado's vortex, must 
 be due to the latent heat of vaporization which is given off 
 in great quantities by the extremely rapid condensation that at- 
 tends the tornado as a constant feature. A numerical expres- 
 sion may be given to the above by stating that a pound of vapor 
 of water at the temperature of 100 degrees centigrade will pro- 
 duce 536 degrees of sensible heat, upon being condensed at the 
 same temperature. 
 
i66 
 
 133. The amount of lament heat hberated in the process of 
 condensation depends upoji the temperature at which the modi- 
 fication is effected. The lower the temperature (other things 
 being equal) of the vapor the less the quantity of heat made 
 sensible by condensation. 
 
 134. In the tornado the temperature of the vapor of water is 
 considerably lower than given in the previous example, conse- 
 quently the sensible heat is less when condensation takes place. 
 But the enormous mass of vapor condensed in part overcomes 
 this deficiency, and the total quantity of sensible heat which 
 may be experienced will be quite sufficient to produce uncom- 
 fortable sensations. 
 
 135. With the sensation of heat there appears to be experi- 
 enced a peculiar difficulty for breath. This effect is probably 
 due to the extreme rarit)' of the air in the vortex consequent 
 upon the violent centrifugal action of the currents. 
 
 136. The peculiar sensations of cold experienced in the path 
 of the tornado may be due to marked differences of temperature 
 between the interior of the tornado-cloud and the air surround- 
 ing it. The sensations as reported by observers appear to be 
 relative rather than absolute. Observers always first experience 
 a stifling heat and then a chilling cold. The latter condition 
 never precedes the former. The cold is always encountered 
 just after the period of maximum violence of the storm. A cold 
 current sets in from the west and northwest in the wake of the 
 tornado. The temperature of this current under ordinar}^ cir- 
 cumstances would not produce a chilling effect, but because of 
 the abnormal conditions in the tornado, the obsen^er's first ex- 
 perience places him in decided contrast with that which imme- 
 diately follows. The change is similar to %vhat would be 
 experienced in passing from the moist, hot air of a bath-room 
 into the cold, dry air of an ice-house. In either case the ex- 
 tremes of temperature may not be marked, but the sudden 
 change from one to the other produces a painful shock to the 
 system. 
 
 137. Electrical forces always act in straight lines, while the 
 forces of the tornado may be exerted in either straight lines or 
 in those directions embracing the most complicated cur\^es. 
 
167 
 
 Can any manifestations of electrical force twist the body of a 
 hickory tree several times about the same vertical or horizontal 
 axis ? 
 
 138. We have said that electrical manifestations accompany 
 or attend the tornado, but do not cause the storm. This 
 kind of electricity is called statical or frictional as opposed to 
 voltaic or current electricity. The latter is believed to be the 
 only form of electricity which will produce electrolysis. Experi- 
 ments have been made with the electric spark in an attempt to 
 produce electrolysis, but the efforts were not successful. The 
 electric spark (statical electricity) will, under certain circum- 
 stances, produce what may be called a dissociation of certain 
 compound substances, but this phenomenon can not be consid- 
 ered electrolysis. 
 
 139. Faraday estimates that the quantity of statical electricity 
 required to decompose one grain of water is 800,000 times as 
 much as would be required to kill a cat. Expressing this force in 
 other terms, we find that the quantity of static electricity required 
 to decompose a grain of water would, if it charged a cloud situ- 
 ated at a distance of 3,281 feet above the earth, exert an attractive 
 force between the cloud and the earth beneath it of 1,497 tons. 
 Suppose the area of the above cloud to be 50 by 38 feet, the 
 attractive force is otherwise expressed as one ton per square foot 
 of surface. This illustration of comparative electrical forces is 
 not intended for one moment to argue that these conditions ever 
 really exist in the atmosphere. The purpose is to show the 
 comparative electrolytic properties of statical and voltaic electrici- 
 ties, and to make evident the absurdity of reasoning that the 
 high temperature of the tornado vortex is due to the electrolysis 
 of atmospheric vapor. 
 
 140. In explaining the electrical origin of the tornado and 
 asserting that the electricity present acts as usual between two 
 opposite polarities, the inference does not follow as maintained, 
 viz.: That one pole being given it induces the opposite pole on 
 the nearest point of matter adjacent to it. This assumes that 
 the highest objects on the surface of the earth are subject to the 
 greatest electrical influence simply because they are the highest. 
 Now, it is admitted that elevation is a decided advantage in the 
 
i6t 
 
 comparative influence of the electrical forces of attraction, but 
 without another accompaniment elevation has no superiority. 
 The object, high or low, must be electrically connected with the 
 earth. The lightest or the most lofty of objects could not be 
 moved from their foundations by the most powerful electric 
 charge if they were insulated from the earth. The principle 
 here involved is illustrated by that old electrical experiment of 
 Volta's, by which pith balls were made to fly back and forth be- 
 tween two metallic plates oppositely electrified. The moment 
 the lower plate is insulated from the earth the balls are repelled 
 from the upper plate and remain stationary upon the lower one, 
 showing that the force of attraction is lost the instant that elec- 
 trical connection with the earth is broken. 
 
 141. Any method of reasoning which assigns tornado develop- 
 ment to planetary influences is, equally with the electrical theory 
 of their origin, without foundation. We have but to realize that 
 in the formation of the tornado and other local storms of a sim- 
 ilar character the entire action of all the forces involved, except 
 the energy of the sun's heat, is embraced in that portion of the 
 atmosphere within from two to three miles of the earth's sur- 
 face. Any influence emanating from the movements, conjunc- 
 tions, or other periodical mutations of the heavenly bodies, dis- 
 tant hundreds of thousands and millions of miles, can only reach 
 an infinitesimal amount, and entirely inappreciable in its effect 
 upon the atmosphere to produce local or general disturbances, 
 especially near the earth. 
 
 142. It has been asserted that the conditions which give rise 
 to the formation of the tornado- cloud result from the effect upon 
 the atmosphere of the mere revolution of the planets in their 
 orbits. That circular movements in the atmosphere are propa- 
 gated and continued by such influences. The effect is likened 
 to that which would result from the whirling in different direc- 
 tions in a large vessel of water of several globes attached to the 
 same spindle. Upon withdrawing the globes after a number of 
 revolutions, the surface of the water would be found covered with 
 a network of eddies. The inherent fault of this simile is the fact 
 that while the illustration provides for the circular movement of 
 the bodies within the medium which is set in motion to give the 
 
169 
 
 characteristic whirls or eddies, the subject of illustration, the 
 planets, perform their revolutions, not in the atmosphere, the 
 medium to be set in motion, but millions of miles away from it 
 in another medium, concerning which little is known. The 
 failure to properly apply the method of reasoning by analogy 
 often leads the novice into making the most ridiculous assump- 
 tions. It would be more reasonable to assume that the revolu- 
 tions of the planets give rise to the great disturbances of the 
 atmosphere, embracing extended regions of country, which are 
 known on the weather-map as ''Highs" and '* Lows," but even 
 here the same difficulties operate, although not so extravagant 
 as in the case of the tornado with its narrow path of a hundred 
 yards or more. 
 
 143. Finally, the tornado is the result of an accidental condi- 
 tion of the atmosphere ; and, therefore, it cannot be due, as 
 many believe, to some periodical influence emanating from the 
 movement or relative position of the planets, which conditions, 
 of course, recur with the most exact regularity. When the ten- 
 sion between the opposing currents of warm and cold air sud- 
 denly and unexpectedly becomes broken at any point, centripetal 
 action sets in and the funnel-shaped cloud soon appears, not 
 through some mysterious and improbable agency, but by a rea- 
 sonable and natural operation of well-known physical forces. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR OBSERVING WIND-STORMS. 
 
 The following is a full and complete copy of the Tornado Cir- 
 cular No. I, New Series," issued from the Signal Office at Wash- 
 ington for the guidance of persons who desire to aid in observing 
 wind-storms. The entire circular is inserted here as a thing of 
 great value. The questions are classified under headings, which 
 briefly refer to the general character of the data desired; the de- 
 tails being covered by the questions themselves. Persons mak- 
 ing observations for the purpose of forwarding them to Wash- 
 ington should number their communications according to the 
 following arrangement: For example, " Wind Direction No, 6 
 — Northwest, 5:30 A. M." Observations with as full particulars 
 as can be collated should be promptly forwarded to the Chief 
 Signal Officer of the Army, Washington, D. C, 
 
SUBJECTS AND QUESTIONS 
 
 DATE, TIME, AND CHARACTER OF STORM. 
 
 1. Give the year, month, day of month, and hour of day 
 (hour and minutes, and A. M. or P. M.) when the storm oc- 
 curred. 
 
 2. Did you have a storm on the above date ; and, if so, what 
 was the nature of it, and from what point of the compass did it 
 approach ? 
 
 3. When time of day is asked, give the same in hours and 
 minutes, and state whether it is local or railroad time, and by 
 what standard, viz.: Chicago, Detroit, Columbus, St. Louis, etc., 
 etc. 
 
 4. What time of day did threatening appearances commence, 
 in what portion of the horizon, and at what time were they the 
 most decided ? 
 
 5. The time of day when the tornado-cloud passed. 
 
 WIND DIRECTION. 
 
 1. The direction of the wind while the tornado-cloud was ap- 
 proaching. 
 
 2. The direction of the wind while the tornado-cloud was 
 passing. 
 
 3. The direction of the wind after the tornado-cloud passed. 
 
 4. The direction of the wind during the forenoon of the day 
 and up to the time of the first threatening appearance in the 
 heavens. 
 
 5. The prevailing direction of the wind at this season of the 
 year. 
 
 6. What was the direction and force of the wind when you 
 first noticed the weather in the early morning ? Give the hour 
 of observation. 
 
 7. When direction of wind is asked, the direction of motion of 
 the air-currents is meant, independent of the course or motion 
 of the tornado-cloud. Always give the points of compass from 
 which the wind comes. 
 
 TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS. 
 I. Was the day unusually warm and sultry ? Give the maxi- 
 mum temperature, if possible, and state the hour at which it 
 
171 
 
 was observed, together with the direction of the wind and the 
 state of the sky existing at the time. 
 
 2. What was the condition of the temperature after the torna- 
 do-cloud passed? Did the air suddenly, or gradually, grow 
 colder ? Give the minimum temperature for that afternoon and 
 evening, and during the night, with direction of the wind. 
 
 3. What had been about the average daily temperature, also 
 the maximum and minimum, together with the accompanying 
 direction of the wind, humidity, and clouds, for two or three 
 days previous to the occurrence of the tornado and for three 
 days succeeding its appearance ? 
 
 MOTION OF TORNADO-CLOUD. 
 
 1. Describe the character and motion of the surrounding 
 clouds before, during, and after the tornado-cloud passed. 
 
 2. Give the time of day at which the light or dark irregular 
 clouds surrounding the tornado-cloud were in the greatest con- 
 fusion, and describe the scene. 
 
 3. If you saw the tornado-cloud, describe or sketch it, and 
 note particularly any change in motion or the successive stages 
 of development during the time of observation. 
 
 4. Give the direction of the whirl of the tornado-cloud, as 
 against, or with, the hands of a watch, face upward. 
 
 5. Give all the motions of the tornado-cloud which you ob- 
 served, or which you heard that others had witnessed, as, for 
 example : rising and falling, swaying from side to side, or whirl- 
 ing about a central axis, etc., etc. 
 
 6. Describe minutely the manner in which objects were car- 
 ried inward, upward, and about in the whirling vortex of the 
 tornado-cloud ; how thrown outward, and from what portion of 
 the cloud. 
 
 7. Give the direction of the course pursued by tfie tornado- 
 cloud along its path of destruction in your locality, as, for exam- 
 ple : N. 70° E.; E. 30° N., or E. 20° S., etc., etc. 
 
 8. Did the tornado-cloud remain in a vertical position as it 
 traveled forward, or was the' tail of it inclined ; in what direction, 
 and how many degrees from the perpendicular ? 
 
172 
 
 g. Give an estimate of what you consider the progressive ve- 
 locity of the tornado-cloud; how many miles per hour. Give 
 the data upon which you make the estimate, and why you be- 
 lieve your estimate to be reliable. 
 
 10. As the tornado-cloud approached, from what direction 
 came the wind you first experienced, whether against your 
 body or against the building within which you were situated at 
 the time. 
 
 11. Try and give an estimate of what you consider the wind's 
 velocity within the central whirl of the tornado-cloud, and also 
 the data upon which you base this estimate. 
 
 12. In the passage of the tornado-cloud over a pond, lake, or 
 river, carefully describe every particular in the disturbance of the 
 water; how high into the air any portion of it was carried; if 
 any fish, shells, stones, or the like, were carried out, and in 
 what direction. Also state the exact position of the person, or 
 persons, who witnessed the scene. 
 
 13. Were bits of leaves, mud, straw, grass, or the like, thrown 
 against your building ? If so, state on what particular portion 
 or portions, and whether apparently thrown thereon with great 
 force. If thrown upon the bodies of persons or animals, care- 
 fully state the circumstances. 
 
 FORM OF TORNADO-CLOUD. 
 
 1. How many funnel-shaped clouds did you see? Describe 
 each, giving their relative sizes, shapes, and positions, and, if 
 possible, a rough sketch of each. 
 
 2. Describe the color of the tornado-cloud ; its density ; how 
 and when changes in color and density occur ; the color and 
 density of the bottom of the cloud as compared with the top ; the 
 existence of light and peculiar fleecy clouds over and about the 
 upper portion. 
 
 3. Give the comparative size of top and bottom of tornado- 
 cloud; note particularly and describe minutely any change in 
 form when the bottom or tail reached the surface of the ground. 
 
 4. In observations upon the tornado-cloud, please note the 
 angular height of the top of the cloud from the horizon, that is, 
 above the plane of the horizon ; also the horizontal distance from 
 
173 
 
 the observer to the bottom of the tornado-cloud. Carefully esti- 
 mate the angular height in degrees, and the horizontal distance 
 in yards or miles. 
 
 HAIL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. If a hailstorm, state whether the hailstones were large or 
 small, of peculiar shape, and few or many in number. Give ex- 
 act size and weight of some of the largest. 
 
 2. Did you examine the interior of any of the hailstones, and 
 if so, how were they formed, and what did they contain ? 
 
 3. If hail fell at intervals during the day, state the times 
 of beginning and ending of each precipitation separately, to- 
 gether with the direction of the wind at each occurrence. 
 
 4. Was there any peculiar condition of the clouds at the time 
 of the hail ? If any strange feature was noticed, give details. 
 
 5. On which side of the tornado's path (to the N. or to the 
 S. ) did the hailstones appear to fall in the greatest quantity ? 
 
 6. Did the hail fall before or after (how long) the tornado- 
 cloud passed ? 
 
 7. Did you notice any distinct peculiarity in the approaching 
 or overhanging clouds from which the hail itself fell ? Did the 
 hailstones appear to drop from the funnel-shaped cloud, or from 
 the surrounding clouds? 
 
 RAIN OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Any rain, and did it fall before or after (how long) the tor- 
 nado-cloud passed ? 
 
 2. If any rain fell during the hailstorm, be careful to state 
 whether it fell before, at the tune of, or after the hail ceased. In 
 case of the two extremes, give the interval in minutes. 
 
 3. On which side of the tornado's path (to the N. or to the 
 S. ) was the rainfall the heaviest .'^ 
 
 4. If rain fell at intervals during the day, state the times of 
 beginning and ending of each precipitation separately, together 
 with the direction of the wind at each occurrence. 
 
 5. Any peculiarity in the size of the rain-drops, or in the 
 quantity which fell ? 
 
174 
 
 ELECTRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Was thunder or lightning observed, and if so, in what por- 
 tion of the horizon, at what time of the day, and whether violent 
 or otherwise ? 
 
 2. Was lightning or other manifestation of electricity seen in 
 the funnel-shaped tornado-cioud as it approached or passed, or 
 in the dark, heavy clouds surrounding it to the N. and W.? 
 If so, describe the appearance minutely. 
 
 3. Do you know of any one who made observations concern- 
 ing the deflection of a magnetic needle during the day of the 
 storm, especially while the tornado-cloud was passing a given 
 point? If so, send his address, or give the result of the ob- 
 servations. 
 
 4. The terms lightning and electric discharge, as used in 
 this circular, are synonymous. 
 
 5. How can one determine whether electricity has ^/tk influence 
 in aiding the development and progress of the tornado, or is only 
 an uni^nportant factor ? 
 
 6. Is there any reason to suppose that the clouds approach- 
 ing from opposite directions, preceding the first appearance of 
 the funnel-shaped cloud, were oppositely electrified ? 
 
 7. Did lightning tend to pass between the approaching clouds ? 
 
 8. Did the motion of the approaching clouds appear to be 
 accelerated at the moment of, or immediately following, any 
 electric discharge ? 
 
 9. Were electric discharges observed to take place in the in- 
 itiatory whirl of the approaching clouds ? 
 
 10. Were electric discharges observed to take place between 
 the cloud-spout and the earth, while the former was yet at a 
 considerable elevation in the air ? 
 
 11. Is there any competent evidence to show an increase of 
 electrical manifestation upon the descent of the cloud-spout to 
 the earth ? 
 
 12. Was lightning observed in the heavy bank of clouds 
 along the western horizon after the tornado-cloud had advanced 
 beyond this cloud region to the eastward 1 
 
 13. Are electric discharges which take place in the bank of 
 clouds along the western horizon visible to an observer situated 
 
175 
 
 to the eastward and in advance of the approaching tornado- 
 cloud ? 
 
 14. Can flashes of Hghtning which issue from the clouds 
 along any portion of the western horizon be seen through any 
 portion of the tornado-cloud ? What portion ? May not the 
 flashes appear as if passing through the tornado-cloud from top 
 to bottom, when really they are among distant clouds ? It is 
 important to determine whether the flashes of lightning, some- 
 times reported as appearing in the tornado-cloud, are not the 
 result of an optical illusion. 
 
 15 What portion of the tornado-cloud presents the lightest 
 color ? 
 
 16. Cannot flashes of lightning be readily seen to descend to 
 the earth at the right, left, and rear of the tornado-cloud, but 
 evidently not emanating from it ? 
 
 17. Does the upper portion of the tornado-cloud at any time 
 present a glowing appearance, like the colors of a brilliant sun- 
 set? 
 
 18. Does any portion of the tornado-cloud ever present the 
 appearance of sunlight passing through fine mist or rain-drops ? 
 
 19. Always note the absence or appearance of the sun 
 (whether obscured by clouds or not) while making observations 
 upon the tornado-cloud. Give the position of the tornado-cloud 
 with respect to the sun. 
 
 20. Note the condition of the sky between the tornado- cloud 
 and the horizon at the right, left, and rear — clear, fair, or 
 cloudy? Describe carefully. 
 
 21. Were balls of fire " observed to accompany the tornado- 
 cloud at any stage of its progressive movement ? Did they ap- 
 pear to come from the tornado-cloud, or surrounding clouds ? 
 If from the former, from what portion of it, under what condi- 
 tions, and with what result ? Reply to this entire question very 
 carefully. 
 
 22. What effect had the tornado upon small vegetation and 
 the foliage of trees? How long after the tornado passed before 
 there was observed any brown or seared appearance of leaves 
 and stems, or any chan ge of color on the trunks or limbs of 
 trees or shrubs where the bark was broken or peeled off? 
 
176 
 
 23. In the event of death or injury to any person or animal, 
 observe very carefully whether the effect resulted from electrical 
 discharge or the force of the wind. 
 
 24. In the destruction or removal of an> object within the 
 path of the tornado, observe very carefully whether the effect 
 resulted from electrical discharge or simply the force of the 
 wind. 
 
 25. During the progress of the tornado does the air appear to 
 rush into the cloud vortex from all points of the compass, or 
 does it advance from only two points, viz., northwest and south- 
 west? This information can probably be secured either by 
 witnessing the passage of the tornado-cloud or carefully examin- 
 ing the disposition of the debris after the storm has cleared 
 away. Light winds occurring on one or more sides of the center 
 should be recorded as well as the destructive winds. 
 
 26. Observe whether the debris in the tornado's path appears 
 to have been thrown down and carried about by the action of a 
 continuous wind, or was the distribution the result of separate 
 winds, operating successively in a direction veering around 
 from right to left. 
 
 27. In the incipient stages of the cloud-spout does the air ap- 
 pear to rush in from all sides towards the point of inception, or 
 does the air come principally from the northwest 2ltA southwest? 
 This information can probably be secured by observing the 
 formation of clouds and their directions of movement, carefully 
 distinguishing between the several strata. 
 
 28. If possible, carefully determine whether the energy of the 
 tornado increases or gradually diminishes after it has been per- 
 fectly formed. To ascertain the facts in this case it will proba- 
 bly be necessary to make an examination embracing the entire 
 path of the tornado, or the larger portion of it. 
 
 29. Can the roaring, which always accompanies the tornado- 
 cloud in its passage over the country, be readily distinguished 
 from ordinary thunder ? Is thunder ever distinctly heard as 
 emanating directly from the tornado-cloud ? 
 
 30. Carefully examine buildings, trees, and other objects 
 which have been acted upon with marked severity by the tor- 
 nado, and ascertain if there is good evidence of electrical action. 
 
177 
 
 3 1 . Try and secure some observations upon the variability of 
 atmospheric electricity in the immediate vicinity of the tornado's 
 path. What effect was observed in telegraph offices? How 
 were the telegraph lines affected? To what extent was the 
 magnetic needle affected ? 
 
 32. The effects of lightning are : rupturing and scattering of 
 imperfectly conducting substances and the inflaming of those 
 which are combustible ; heating, reddening, melting, and vola- 
 tilizing of metals ; the production of shocks more or less severe 
 and often fatal to the lives of men and animals, and the produc- 
 tion of ozone, causing a sulphurous odor. 
 
 In conducting an examination over any portion of the tor- 
 nado's path, carefully determine whether any of the above ef- 
 fects are present. 
 
 33. Report all damaging effects by lightning, whether con- 
 nected with a tornado or attendant upon some general storm. 
 Describe the conditions of each case prior to the damage and 
 then follow these facts by carefully statmg all the particulars of 
 injury. Make a personal examination of each case when prac- 
 ticable. State whether the object damaged was protected from 
 injury by lightning in any manner and how. Note the disposi- 
 tion of debris about the object damaged, or surrounding its lo- 
 cation^ if entirely destroyed. 
 
 34. Of a building or tree, note its height above the ground 
 and its position respecting other objects. 
 
 35. Of persons or animals, describe their location at the time 
 of damage with respect to other objects, and in case of persons, 
 the character and condition of their clothing. 
 
 36. Give the hour of day when damage occurred. Send 
 newspaper items regarding the damage. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. If no tornado occurred at or near your station, please state 
 whether you experienced any sort of a storm, and give the nat- 
 ure of it. 
 
 2. Did you hear a roaring noise on the approach of the storm, 
 and if so, state in what direction, the intensity, or any accompa- 
 nying peculiarity ? 
 
178 
 
 3. Did you notice any peculiar odor in the atmosphere during 
 the passage of the tornado-cloud, and what was it like ? 
 
 4. Do you know any one who made observations on the pres- 
 ence of ozone in the atmosphere on the day of the storm? If so, 
 send his address or give the result of his observations. 
 
 5. What was the condition of the sky when you made your 
 first observation in the morning ? Was it cloudy, three-fourths 
 cloudy, one-half cloudy, one-fourth cloudy, or entirely clear? 
 
 6. What was the direction, or directions, in which the clouds 
 were moving at the time of your first observation ? 
 
 7. What time of day did it commence to cloud up, and in 
 what quarter of the heavens ? 
 
 8. Describe the character of the clouds when the first threat- 
 ening appearances began. 
 
 9. Give the time of day, the quarter of the heavens, and the 
 character of each formation, if there were frequent and sudden 
 changes in the development or grouping of the clouds. 
 
 10. How many days previous did you notice any indications of 
 an approaching storm, and what were those indications ? 
 
 11. Did you observe the form of cloud commonly called 
 mare's tails " (cirrus) ; in what part of the heavens and how 
 
 many days previous ? 
 
 12. In what quarter of the heavens did the passing storm seem 
 to be the heaviest ? 
 
 13. What time of the day did the first threatening appearances 
 commence, and in what portion of the heavens ? 
 
 14. How did the day open? 
 
 15. Did the clouds gradually thicken on this day, or was 
 there a sudden and portentous banking up of them in the W. 
 during the afternoon ? 
 
 16. Did the clouds appear to gather near the earth and extend 
 in irregular forms to great heights, or was there a heavy, dark 
 mass, with comparatively regular outlines, hanging low down in 
 the W. ? 
 
 17. What time during the day, and in what portion of the 
 heavens, did you notice small light or dark clouds, if any, driven 
 swiftly by the wind? Tell how they moved, from what direction 
 or directions they came, and where they seemed to concentrate. 
 
179 
 
 1 8. In describing clouds, especially where they are peculiar or 
 portentous in appearance, aside from indicating character or for- 
 mation, give the most striking colors and state how they blended 
 with each other. 
 
 19. In the event of the occurrence of any storm, state whether 
 it passed your location by either the N. or S. point, or directly 
 overhead. 
 
 20. What time of the day did you notice any decided change 
 in the temperature, and what was the extent of that change ? 
 
 21. In making a statement concerning any feature of- the 
 weather during the day, be careful to give the hour at which the 
 condition referred to was observed. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 I. If you, or any of your neighbors, have meteorological in- 
 struments, give the readings of the thermometer and barometer, 
 direction of the wind, and the hour of observation, for two days 
 before, on the day of the storm, and for two days thereafter. 
 
 DRAWINGS, SKETCHES, AND PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 1. If possible, try to represent the tornado-cloud by a rough 
 sketch, as also the dark and irregular clouds surrounding it. 
 
 2. Give the direction and distance from your house to your 
 various farm buildings, if possible drawing a plan of the same 
 and indicating the points of the compass. This plan need only 
 be a rough sketch. 
 
 3. Give the dimensions of your buildings, and state the char- 
 acter of each as to whether they are log, frame, stone, or brick, 
 and weak or strong. 
 
 4. In drawing a plan of your buildings, indicate the position 
 of the tornado's path with respect to each of them and the direc- 
 tion in which the tornado-cloud moved. 
 
 5. If possible, please furnish photographs, sketches, or printed 
 cuts representing the tornado-cloud or some evidence of its de- 
 structive power. They are very desirable. If you cannot furnish 
 them, perhaps you know of some one who can. This office is 
 desirous of obtaining sketches of clouds, however rough and im- 
 perfect. If in any way you can readily depict upon paper the un • 
 roofing, overturning, or crushing of a building, the destruction 
 
i8o 
 
 of an orchard, uprooted or tsvisted trees, or the falhng or twisting 
 of timber as the tornado-cloud swept through the forest, it will 
 be valuable. Perhaps you know of some one who witnessed these 
 scenes, or part of them, and who would be willing to illustrate 
 them. 
 
 6. Sketches of clouds of peculiar destructive effects, of hail- 
 stones, of anything that will illustrate any distinguishing feature 
 of the storm's violence, are very desirable. 
 
 GENERAL DESTRUCTION TO PROPERTY. 
 
 1. How far, and in what direction, are you situated from the 
 center of the path of destruction ? 
 
 2. Give the maximum and minimum width, in yards or rods, 
 of the path of destruction in your vicinity, and state, if you can, 
 whether in examining that path it was found that on the S. side 
 of the center the sweep of destruction was broader and more ir- 
 regular than on the X. side, or if any other difference existed 
 between the two sides. 
 
 3. In giving your distance from the center of the path of de- 
 struction, indicate the same in miles and parts of miles or rods, 
 stating the amount in northing and easting, northing and west- 
 ing, southing and easting, or southing and westing, estimated 
 along section or township lines. 
 
 4. In all descriptions of the tornado's path, In gi\'ing any par- 
 ticular destruction in it, or in detailing your experience while the 
 tornado-cloud was passing, be careful to state on which side of 
 the center (to the N. or to the S., and how far) the damage oc- 
 curred, or you were situated while a witness of the storm. 
 
 5. In the destruction of any building, whether unroofed, over- 
 turned, moved from the foundation, racked, or othen^ise dam- 
 aged, be very careful to state how the destructive force operated. 
 Did the wind or tornado-cloud, or whatever you may term the force, 
 cause the damage \i\ piilli?ig^ drdu'ing, or ^//ri'//^^ the building, 
 or any portion of it, inward to the center or outward from the cen- 
 ter of the storm's path ? Apply this same question to the puUmg 
 of fence-posts, uprooting trees, moving of machiner}-, or other 
 heavy- objects or animals. Did the destructive force operate as 
 an ordinary- wind in any sense, whether such wind be gentle or 
 
i8i 
 
 violent ; or, rather, was this force some mysterious, irresistible 
 power, impelUng an object (no matter how large or weighty) to 
 move, as if the pressure of the atmosphere in front of it, or round 
 about it, suddenly gave way, without your knowing how? Did 
 buildings suddenly seem to totter ; trees in an instant bend to 
 the ground; the pressure of the air against your body give 
 way all at once, or small objects move swiftly into the air or 
 over the ground, and yet all this happen without apparently any 
 wijtd? Take great care in giving facts concerning this point. 
 
 6. Give an estimate of the number and kind of buildings de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 7. Give a similar estimate of the total valuation of property 
 of all kinds destroyed. 
 
 8. Give the length and width of the tornado's path which 
 passed through your section of the State. 
 
 9. Give the position of your house with respect to the nearest 
 post-office, indicating the same in miles and parts of miles or 
 rods ; state the distance in northing and easting, northing and 
 westing, southing and easting, and southing and westing, esti- 
 mated along section and township lines. 
 
 10. State in detail and separately the damage to each build- 
 ing; what portion or portions were taken away or injured ; how 
 5ar and in what direction they were moved bodily ; what portion 
 of each was first struck by the wind, and how far and in what direc- 
 tion the debris was carried. Be very careful to give the exact 
 position and peculiarities of structure of the buildings which were 
 not damaged, although standing near those which were destroyed. 
 
 11. In the damage or destruction of each or any building, 
 state particularly how far and in what direction any portion of 
 them was carried a considerable distance. 
 
 12. If any object was carried a long distance by the force of the 
 wind, state where and what it came from ; its dimensions ; its 
 shape ; probable height to which transported in the air ; whether 
 driven into the ground or not, how far and into what kind of 
 earth. 
 
 13. State whether articles of clothing, fowls, or animals were 
 carried into the air, to what height, to what horizontal distance, 
 and in what direction. 
 
l82 
 
 14. Give detailed destruction of furniture contained in the 
 house and of farming implements in and about the barns. 
 
 15. Be particular to note any evidence of the wind's extreme 
 violence, as in the lifting of heavy objects ; the twisting of trees 
 or heavy pieces of timber f puUing up of fence-posts ; removing 
 heavy stones, etc., etc. 
 
 16. With regard to destruction in orchards, among shade- 
 trees, and in forests, be particular to give the direction in which 
 the trees lie ; how they lie on the two sides with regard to each 
 other and to the center of the path of destruction ; any special 
 acts of violence in the twisting, uprooting, or breaking off of 
 heavy timber ; give circumference of large trees, height above 
 ground where broken off, and dimensions of earth and roots 
 where notably large trees were overthrown. 
 
 17. In general, when giving the position of any person or thmg 
 with regard to the center of the path of destruction, state the 
 distance in feet or rods, and the direction, as N. or S. 
 
 18. Give the maximum and minimum width, in yards or rods, 
 of the path of destruction in your locality. 
 
 19. Did you notice any peculiarity with the manner in which 
 small objects were suddenly removed from around about build- 
 ings, as if sucked in by the advancing cloud ? 
 
 20. Did you notice any peculiarity in the falling of trees as tne 
 tornado-cloud advanced upon them ? Were they whipped about 
 and bent to and fro as in a heavy wind, or were they drawn 
 steadily inward toward the center on both sides, as if by some 
 mysterious but irresistible force ? 
 
 21. How many rods of fencing (stating kind) did you have 
 blown down; in what direction were the N. and S. fences car- 
 ried ; what was the direction in which the E. and W. fences were 
 carried ? 
 
 22. Give an estimate m money value of the loss to your prop- 
 erty occasioned by the tornado, the number of acres of timber 
 you had destroyed, and the number of fruit-trees you had up- 
 rooted or broken off. 
 
 23. Be particular to give the exact position, also the dimen- 
 sions and probable strength and weight, of small objects which 
 
i83 
 
 were not moved from about large buildings, although the latter 
 were entirely destroyed. 
 
 24. In examining the path of destruction, did you find any 
 difference between the N. and S. sides of it ? Which side was the 
 widest ; which the cleanest cut ; which the most irregular and 
 jagged along its outer edge ; on which side were narrow paths of 
 destruction cut inward toward the center ? 
 
 25. In describing the path of destruction, be careful to note 
 where the tornado-cloud left the ground, where it again de- 
 scended, the length of the interval, and the topography of the 
 earth at the points of ascension and descension. Also state 
 whether the hail and rain continued to fall after the tornado- 
 cloud rose from the earth and disappeared in the overhanging 
 clouds. 
 
 26. Estimate the time in minutes or seconds during which the 
 tornado-cloud was committing the destruction at your buildings 
 or in passing them at a safe distance. 
 
 27. In the destruction of your buildings, did you notice any- 
 thing in the disposition of the debris after the tornado-cloud 
 passed that would indicate the effect of an explosion, as, for ex- 
 ample, the sides and the ends of a building being thrown out- 
 ward and the roof carried off or let down upon the floor ? 
 
 28. Where trees were overturned and wrenched or twisted by 
 the force of the wind, describe minutely how and in what direc- 
 tion the twist runs — that is, its direction, as with or against the 
 hands of a watch. Perhaps you can compare it with the bit of 
 an augur or indicate the same by a rough pencil sketch. Also 
 state what portion or portions of the tree were twisted, and what 
 the kind of timber in the case of each tree so affected. 
 
 29. Observe carefully where the tornado-cloud passed through 
 forests, and state on which side of the tornado's path (to the N. 
 or S.) the trees were broken off at a considerable height 
 above the ground; the maximum and minimum height; gener- 
 al size of trees so affected; kind of timber, and whether broken 
 square off or twisted. Try and illustrate the path through the 
 timber by a pencil sketch showing the various directions of the 
 prostrated trees. Indicate the points of compass. 
 
i84 
 
 INJURY TO PEOPLE AND ANIMALS. 
 
 1. State the number, kind, and in what manner, stock were 
 killed or injured, and whether at the time of the storm they were 
 in or without buildings. Also narrate any miraculous escapes of 
 hfe. 
 
 2. With respect to your family, give the whereabouts and con- 
 dition of each person on the approach of the tornado, and also 
 after the tornado-cloud passed. Give age and sex of each per- 
 son, and particularize the character and extent of injuries to each. 
 State very carefully the distance and direction in which any of 
 the persons were carried, and also narrate any miraculous es- 
 capes of life. 
 
 3. In describing the injury to any person, animal, or object, 
 never fail to give the distance and direction of such person, ani- 
 mal, or object from the center of the path of destruction at the 
 time the tornado-cloud passed. 
 
 4. Estimate the number of persons killed and wounded along 
 the entire path of the storm. 
 
 5. Give a similar estimate of the number and kind of animals 
 killed or injured. 
 
 WIND FORCE AND VELOCITY. 
 
 I. To indicate the force of the wind, use the following scale, 
 expressing the velocity in miles per hour, if you have an ane- 
 mometer; or if not, estimate the same by employing the appro- 
 
 priate terms here given. 
 
 0 Calm. 
 
 1 to 2 miles per hour Light wind. 
 
 3 to 5 miles per hour Geutle wind. 
 
 6 to 14 mUes per hour Fresh wind. 
 
 15 to 24 miles per hour Brisk wind. 
 
 25 to 39 miles per hour High wind. 
 
 40 to 59 miles per hour Gale. 
 
 60 to 79 miles per hour Storm. 
 
 80 miles per hour and above Huiricane. 
 
 2. Where it occurs that a heavy body has been transported by 
 the force of the wind, please give weight, dimensions, and form ; 
 also distance carried. 
 
 3. What was tiie highest velocity of the wind in miles per 
 hour, and the direction from which it came ? Approximate the 
 velocity \i you can do no better. 
 
i85 
 
 4. What was the time of day when the maximum velocity oc- 
 curred. 
 
 5. Can you give the temperature at the time the highest wind 
 velocity occurred ? If not, say whether it was warm or cold. 
 
 6. In the event of any storm whatever, give the direction and 
 force of the wind while the storm was approaching, while the 
 storm was passing, and after the storm passed. If a number of 
 storms occurred on this day, give particulars of each. 
 
 7. At what tune, or times, of the day did you notice any fresh- 
 ening of the wind, and what was the direction at each occur- 
 rence ? 
 
 8. It is both a matter of great interest and much value to de- 
 termine high-wind velocities such as are common to the violence 
 of the tornado. The important question involved is the relation 
 of velocity to pressure. This relation varies among other things 
 with the altitude above the earth's surface, the form and size of 
 surface of impact, and the elements of friction. Experiments 
 have been made with square and spherical surfaces of very small 
 dimensions, giving certain results, which for purposes of applica- 
 tion have been expressed in the language of simple formulas. 
 For surfaces of large extent application of these formulas will give 
 approximate results, but the error for ordinary purposes may be 
 ignored. 
 
 For square surfaces at the earth's surface : — 
 P = (0.0027 A V^). 
 
 P = pressure of the air in pounds per square foot. 
 
 0.0027 is the constant determined, theoretically. 
 A = the area in square feet of the surface against which the 
 wind blows. 
 
 V = the velocity of the wind in miles per hour. 
 For square surfaces at any altitude : — 
 
 P= 0.0027 A V^^^^/_^L/, 
 
 The terms of this expression have the meaning as given in the 
 
 p 
 
 first formula, except the fraction which is explained as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 P = the pressure at the upper station. 
 
i86 
 
 P(, = the pressure (standard) at sea-level or lower station. 
 
 I + L / = I -h 0.003665 t, / being the temperature of the air 
 at the .time of observation, and 0.003665 being the co-efficient of 
 the expansion of air for one degree at a constant temperature 
 and pressure. 
 
 All measurements of surfaces should be made with the utmost 
 care. Wherever the object acted upon is not placed at right 
 angles to the direction of the wind, the exception should be noted 
 and the angle measured and reported. In cases where stone 
 shafts *are broken off by the force of the wind, all of the circum- 
 stances should be carefully described. Note particularly if the 
 broken surfaces are chipped, and if so, to what extent. 
 
 The following table furnishes the means of comparmg pounds 
 pressure per square foot with velocity in miles per hour in ac- 
 cordance with the terms of the formula previously given. 
 P = .003 A V^; assume A = i sq. ft. 
 
 Miles per Hour. 
 
 Units. 
 
 Tens 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 82 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 91 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 
 105 
 
 106 
 
 108 
 
 109 
 
 111 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 4 
 
 117 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 120 
 
 121 
 
 123 
 
 124 
 
 125 
 
 126 
 
 128 
 
 5 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAST TORNADOES OR "WINDFALLS." 
 
 1. If you recall the occurrence, in times past, of any violent 
 hailstorm in your State, give the place, year, month, day of 
 month, hour of day, direction of the storm, maximum and min- 
 imum width of path in rods or miles, size and shape of hailstones, 
 and a narration of the destructive effects. 
 
 2. If you recall the occurrence, in times past, of any other 
 tornado in your State, give year, month, day of month, hour of 
 day, the direction of the course of the path of destruction as pur- 
 sued by the tornado-cloud, its length in miles, average width of 
 destructive path in yards or rods, maximum width, minimum 
 
i87 
 
 width, and, if possible, the hour of beginning and hour of disap- 
 pearing of the tornado-cloud. 
 
 3. The following questions relate to old land marks 
 through the forests, well known by the name of windfalls." 
 In early times violent local storms of wind, rain, and hail 
 swept over portions of newly settled country, marking their path- 
 way by fallen timber, which in the heavy forests was cut down 
 in swathes or lanes, narrow but well defined. You are invited to 
 furnish such information as you can conveniently concerning 
 this subject. It is not presumed that any one person will be able 
 to answer every question propounded. Dates are especially im- 
 portant, but it is realized that to authenticate their accuracy will, 
 in many cases, be difficult. Always furnish dates when any are 
 reported, even though doubtful, and note the doubt. Perhaps 
 you can associate the occurrence of the storm with some prom- 
 inent event in the history of county or State, and thereby re- 
 move obscurity concerning the date. Some of the questions 
 call for data which anticipate the examination of records : — 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 4. Date of storm : year, month, day of month, and time of 
 day. 
 
 5. Location ot storm's path: give distance in miles and frac- 
 tions of a mile to the nearest post-office or county court-house. 
 
 6. Direction of storm's path : by points of compass, expressed 
 in degrees, if possible. 
 
 7. Width of storm's path : average width in rods or yards. 
 
 8. Length of storm's path in miles and fractions of a mile. 
 
 9. Character of timber through which the storm passed, and 
 the approximate amount of destruction. 
 
 10. Describe the disposition of the debris in the path of the 
 storm. How was it disposed witl^ reference to the north and 
 south sides of the path ? 
 
 11. Was the storm accompanied by an unusual roaring noise ? 
 Describe it. 
 
 12. Any hail or rain ? Describe the character of the precipi- 
 tation. 
 
 13. Describe the form of the storm-cloud and its peculiar mo- 
 tions, especially any motion about its axis. 
 
i88 
 
 14. Was there any display of electricity accompanying the 
 storm ? Describe fully, and note any destruction by this force. 
 
 15. Was the day of the storm unusual with respect to temper- 
 ature, variability of wind direction, humidity, and cloud forma- 
 tion ? 
 
 16. What were the general atmospheric conditions for the 
 several days preceding and succeeding the day of the storm ? 
 
 17. Was there any unusual odor observed in the atmosphere 
 on the day of the storm ? Describe it. 
 
 18. Report any loss of life and the destruction of buildings. 
 
 19. Furnish authentic record (written or published) of storm 
 when possible. 
 
 20. For how long a period did evidences of the storm remain ? 
 
 21. What speculations have been indulged in concerning the 
 nature of '^windfalls," and the causes which resulted in the for- 
 mation of such paths of destruction ? 
 
 22. In the event of copying data from permanent records 
 (books, newspaper files, etc.), give name of publication, volume, 
 page, and date of issue. 
 
 23. Enumerate and describe particular and peculiar evidences 
 of the storm's violence, such as : objects carried long distances ; 
 scars upon trees or other objects ; bowlders moved from their 
 beds ; trees torn from the earth or twisted off near the ground ; 
 pieces of timber imbedded in trees or stumps, or in the earth, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 24. Furnish post-office address of any person who may be pos- 
 sessed of information concerning "windfalls." 
 
 25. Do not fail to furnish any clue, however slight, which 
 may eventually lead to a discovery of the complete record of a 
 "windfall." 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. If not individually prepared to answer any or all of the 
 above questions, please call to your aid such persons as may, in 
 your judgment, be able to render you assistance. 
 
 2. Send any newspaper article concerning this storm or others 
 which have occurred during this season. 
 
 3. Give name and address of any one in your State who is in 
 the habit of keeping a meteorological record. 
 
i89 
 
 4. If possible, try and secure the co-operation of some intelli- 
 gent person, who, at the time of its occurrence, was situated 
 either in the path of the tornado or on the outer edge of it, and 
 who will be willing to furnish a narrative of the result of his ob- 
 servations. 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO VOLUNTARY 
 TORNADO REPORTERS. 
 
 1. The following instructions are issued for the specific ob- 
 servance of voluntary Tornado Reporters for the Signal Service : 
 
 2. Report the occurrence of all local wind-storms. 
 
 3. Reports are to be rendered in accordance with the terms 
 of this circular. 
 
 4. All reports should be rendered as soon as possible after the 
 occurrence of a storm. 
 
 5. No instruments are absolutely needed but the wind- vane 
 and the thermometer. This office can furnish a standard ther- 
 mometer (compared and corrected) at cost. An ordinary 
 thermometer which can be procured in any village, at small 
 cost, will have to answer if a standard instrument cannot be 
 purchased. 
 
 6. A price-list of standard meteorological instruments, appa- 
 ratus, text-books, forms, and publications is furnished to all 
 Reporters in Tornado Circular No. VI. 
 
 7. The back of Tornado Circular No. V. (new series) indicates 
 the character of the observations to be taken and recorded. 
 
 8. Whenever, in the judgment of the Reporter, the atmos- 
 pheric conditions at his station are such as to portend a violent 
 storm, he should immediately commence observations and record 
 them on back of Tornado Circular No. V. (new series). 
 
 9. The only observations imperatively necessary are tempera- 
 ture, wind direction, and clouds. Humidity is desirable, but an 
 additional thermometer of standard pattern (to form the hy- 
 grometer) would be required. 
 
 10. For observations on wind direction a wind- vane can be 
 furnished by this office at cost, but it is rather expensive. In 
 lieu of this, it is sufficient to erect a cheap vane upon some 
 
igo 
 
 prominent structure near at hand, where the instrument will not 
 be affected in its indications by surrounding objects. It is pre- 
 sumed, however, that Reporters will not need to resort to this 
 expense, as at every station suitable wind vanes will very likely 
 be found, either upon residences or public buildings, that will 
 answer every purpose. 
 
 11. Cloud directions must be observed independently of the 
 wind-vane. It will require some experience to observe these 
 directions accurately. There may be instances in unusual storms 
 where three or more strata of clouds will be found coursing in as 
 many different directions. It is very important to distinguish 
 the various directions, and describe the character of the clouds 
 in each current. The directions are best observed by comparing 
 the clouds with some fixed object above the observer, such as a 
 distant steeple or tree-top, or the cornice cf a building. 
 
 12. The wind is an important element in tornado investiga- 
 tion. Each Reporter is requested to use the best means at hand 
 for ascertaining the force of the wind in any particular instance, 
 and clearly state the methods by which his results were derived. 
 The strength of the wind is expressed in two ways — either (a) 
 by descriptive terms, such as light, gale, hurricane, etc., see the 
 tables of terms of this circular, or (d) numerically, by one of two 
 methods: (i) the force or pressure in pounds per square foot; 
 (2) the velocity in miles per hour. These numerical methods 
 imply the use of anemometers, but in no case should the ob- 
 server omit the descriptive terms. Observers who experience 
 the very destructive winds of the tornado's vortex should also 
 give such measures of the weight and dimensions of heavy objects 
 blown about by the wind as will give a basis for calculating the 
 force required to move them. 
 
 13. Hourly observations are desirable for the eight (8) hours 
 immediately preceding a storm, and for the five (5) hours directly 
 succeeding it. Under the usual conditions for local wind-storms 
 this division of time would bring the first observation about 8 
 A. M. and the last about 9 P. M. But these times will differ more 
 or less according to the peculiarities of each storm. 
 
 14. Observations at the following hours are desirable for every 
 day on which the conditions are even slightly favorable for tor- 
 
191 
 
 nadoes: 7 A. M., 10 A. M., 12 noon, 2 P. M., 4 P. M., and 8 P. M. 
 
 15. Where Reporters are possessed of additional instruments 
 to those here considered necessary, they may report the observa- 
 tions taken with such instruments, and blank space will be found 
 on back of Circular No. V. (new series) for their record. 
 
 16. If Reporters have no instruments, and cannot afford to 
 purchase any, this fact will not wholly incapacitate them for the 
 duties involved in their position. A large proportion of the 
 most important results are to be accomplished by simple obser- 
 vation and careful examination. 
 
 17. Reporters are informed that suggestions from them relat- 
 ing to any improvement in the work of investigation will be 
 gladly accepted and carefully considered. 
 
 18. Further instructions will be issued from time to time as 
 the exigencies of the work demand. 
 
 19. It is needless to place postage stamps upon the penalty- 
 stamped envelopes and wrappers furnished by this office. The 
 printed stamp on the upper right-hand corner of the envelope or 
 wrapper is all-sufficient for mailing any communication or 
 printed matter relating to official duties. 
 
 20. Tornado Circular No. V. (new series) will be used in con- 
 nection with the general instructions herein contained, which 
 will govern the conduct of tornado investigation. 
 
 21. A special description of every tornado is desired. The 
 following remarks are submitted as helpful in guiding the ob- 
 server : If a complete account of the entire track of a tornado is 
 undertaken, let the observer be very careful to state as accurately 
 as possible the place of beginning. This location is not neces- 
 sarily where the tornado-cloud first descended to the earth 
 (although it may be), but, more truly, it is that particular spot 
 or portion of country over which (perhaps at a great height 
 above the earth) the funnel-shaped cloud was first seen to form. 
 
 22. Having found the place of commencertient, carefully as- 
 certain all the prehminary conditions of atmospheric changes 
 existing prior to the development of the tornado-cloud. In 
 determining the exact locality of final disappearance, exercise con- 
 siderable vigilance, for you may most easily be deceived. It is 
 a characteristic feature of the tornado -cloud to rise suddenly from 
 
192 
 
 the earth, and, continuing its northeastward course in the lower 
 regions of the atmosphere, again reaching terra Jirma after an 
 interval of several miles. You may find a number of these gaps 
 along the tornado track you are examining, but do not mistake 
 them for points of termination ; rather look upon their appear- 
 ance as suggestive of a subsequent re-appearance rather than dis- 
 appearance. If these gaps occur in consecutive order as to time 
 and place, pursuing, when taken together, a northeastward trend, 
 and the difference in time of disappearance and re-appearance at 
 each interval accounts for the passage of that interval, there can 
 be no doubt of their forming disconnected parts of one and the 
 same tornado track. The invariable accompaniment of a tornado 
 is the hailstorm, vi\\\Qh precedes its first appearance, and succeeds 
 its final disappearance. This characteristic should be carefully 
 watched for and any peculiarity minutely recorded. 
 
 23. Tornado features are peculiar in that they ^lxq particular 
 rather than general. In regard to information, the test of de- 
 sirability is reached, not so much by the quantity as the char- 
 acter of the data given. It is absolutely necessary to success, in 
 securing precisely the information desired, that every observer 
 should have at his command a code of definite instructions. By 
 this means he will realize the necessity for the various lists of 
 questions, their independent use, and prepare himself to under- 
 take an intelligent examination of the tornado's path. It is not 
 expected that every observer will find it possible to answer all 
 the questions in any of the lists, because of the necessarily im- 
 perfect opportunities for observation incident to each locality. 
 It is assumed, however, that if the conditions for observation 
 were complete, every question could be readily answered. 
 
 24. The path of the storm should be divided by longitudinal 
 lines into three portions parallel to the direction of progress : 
 these will be designated as the center belt, the right side, the 
 left side. These latter may be subdivided into belts of greatest 
 or least disturbance. 
 
 25. Wherever reference is made to areas of destruction, or 
 where prostrations are described, the part of the path in which 
 the destruction occurred, or in which the debris was found, 
 should always be mentioned. 
 
193 
 
 26. To avoid confusion, no terms should be used to indicate 
 the sides of the tornado track except right " and " left." 
 
 27. The direction of all prostrated objects should be carefulty 
 given ; if they have subsequently been moved by a force different 
 from that which threw them down, or should the same force 
 continue to act in successively different directions, such separate 
 causes should be carefully distinguished. 
 
 28. The track of the tornado should be examined continuously 
 throughout, and not here and there. The examinations should 
 also be carried beyond the path of greatest violence ; for, al- 
 though no trees or houses may have been there destroyed, valu- 
 able evidence to show the mode of action can often be obtained. 
 
 29. Groups of trees lying upon each other should receive care- 
 ful attention, and distinctions should be made between the top 
 and bottom prostrations, and their several directions. 
 
 30. The topography of the ground over which the tornado 
 has passed, and especially of that where destruction begins, 
 should be observed. The comparative destruction on hilly and 
 level ground should also be noted. 
 
 31. The atmospheric conditions before and after the appear- 
 ance of the tornado, especially the presence of a thunder-storm, 
 its severity, extent, and the contrasts of temperature north and 
 south of the central area should be ascertained. 
 
 32. When prostrations are described on either side of the 
 storm's track, or at the center, their relative positions, either re- 
 specting each other, the sides of the storm's path, or the center, 
 should be stated. 
 
 33. The distance at which the surrounding currents of air are 
 sensibly influenced by the cloud vortex ought to be determined, 
 and also it should be noted whether or not any previously exist- 
 ing currents were immediately, or during the passage of the 
 tornado, changed in their direction. 
 
 34. The currents of air on the two sides, and their relative 
 directions and forces, should be carefully mentioned; also the 
 currents of the center, whether upward, downward, or rotary. 
 
 35. Any unusual manifestation of force on either side of the 
 track, the width and direction of the path of destruction, the 
 character of the ground passed over, and also of that in the .im- 
 
194 
 
 mediate vicinity, and the direction, force, and temperature of 
 currents of air should be given. 
 
 36. All explosions, the side on which they occurred, the di- 
 rection and force of the wind at the time, and the character of 
 the ground in their vicinity should be noted. 
 
 37. The place, date, time, and direction of the tornado are 
 essential. 
 
 38. Observers should state the width and length of the track, 
 giving, in the former instance, not only the entire breadth of the 
 path of destruction, but of that part over which the greatest 
 violence was exerted. 
 
 39. The velocity and duration of the storm, and the shortest 
 time it consumes in passing any one point, are important facts. 
 
 40. The form of the tornado-cloud, its motion, direction, and 
 velocity (estimating the latter approximately, if it cannot be 
 determined accurately, by its action upon surrounding objects) 
 should be given. 
 
 41. All air-currents which have been instrumental in directly 
 causing destruction are important facts. 
 
 42. The direction and velocity with which the clouds, if there 
 were any, were seen to approach before the beginning of the 
 tornado, or any strange and violent agitation of the atmosphere 
 noticed at the time, ought to be noticed. 
 
 43. The appearance and disappearance of the cloud vortex, 
 the character of the section of country over which it disappears, 
 and the conditions of the surface at the points of its departure 
 and return should be noted. 
 
 44. The occurrence of thunder and lightning, and all evi 
 dences of electrical action, particularly within the tornado-cloud, 
 should be given. 
 
 45. Particular attention should be paid to the peculiar rum- 
 bling noise attending the progress of the tornado, its duration, 
 intensity, and the distance at which it can be heard. 
 
 46. The precipitation of hail and rain, the time of its occur- 
 rence, whether before, after, or during the passage of the tor- 
 nado-cloud, the side on which it fell, and the direction of the 
 wind at the time, are necessary elements of the investigation. 
 
195 
 
 47. Efforts should be made to gather all available data regard- 
 ing cloud formation, so that when opportunity is offered any 
 peculiar development may be preserved by means of a sketch 
 made at the time the information was obtained. 
 
 48. In all attempts at sketching a tornado-cloud, particular 
 attention should be given to illustrating the peculiar whirl of the 
 cloud, so that the sketch shall show whether the direction was 
 from right to left or the reverse. 
 
 49. In all sketches of whatever nature, the supposed center 
 of the storm's path should always be indicated by a long arrow 
 pointing in the direction of the storm's progressive movement, 
 so that the relative position of the objects acted upon as com- 
 pared with that of the tornado's track may be known. 
 
 50. Every effort should be made to obtain temperature records, 
 particularly where observations have been taken on opposite 
 sides of the storm's path ; the time of day and the accompanying 
 wind direction are indispensable facts in connection with these 
 observations. 
 
 51. It is of great importance that trustworthy data concerning 
 the prevailing direction of the wind over the section of country 
 traversed by the storm (together with the temperature), for at 
 least ten days before the storm, should be obtained. 
 
 52. In entering upon the work of investigation, it is necessary 
 that the observer begin his labors as near as possible to the sup- 
 posed origin or first appearance of the storm, and then trace the 
 phenomena in regular order. 
 
 Such method will often provide the explanation of anomalous 
 effects, and materially assist him in following a train of sequences, 
 watching the successive disclosures of the various features of 
 cloud formation and attendant wind directions. 
 
 Much or most of this valuable information would be lost or 
 seriously confused by any other mode of examining the storm's 
 
 JOHN P. FINLEY, 
 2d Lieut., Signal Corps, U. S. A., and Assistant. 
 Prepared under the direction of — 
 
 Brig, and Bvt. Maj. Gen'l W. B. HAZEN, 
 
 Chief Signal Officer of the Army» 
 
196 
 
 TORNADO INVESTIGATION. 
 
 Some of the results sought to be attained by a systematic study of 
 tornadoes may be briefly given as follows : — 
 
 (i.) To determine the origin of tornadoes and their relation to other 
 atmospheric phenomena. 
 
 (2 .) To determine the geographical distribution of tornadoes and their 
 relative frequency of occurrence in different States, and in different parts 
 of the same States. 
 
 (3.) To determine the conditions of formation, with a view to the pre- 
 diction of tornadoes. 
 
 (4. ) To determine the means of protection for life and property. 
 
 (5.) To determine the periodicity of the occurrence of tornadoes, and 
 their relative frequency by seasons, months, parts of a month, and time 
 of day. 
 
 (6.) To determine the prevailing characteristics of tornadoes. 
 (7. ) To determine the relation of tornado regions to areas of baromet- 
 ric minimum. 
 
 (8. ) To ascertain yearly the loss of life and property in the various 
 tornado districts, and its effect upon the industries of the people. 
 
 (9.) To ascertam the influence of topography upon the occurrence and 
 movement of tornadoes. 
 
 (10.) To determine the influence of rainfall and forests upon the 
 development of tornadoes. 
 
 (II.) To ascertain the relations of tornadoes to hailstorms, thunder- 
 storms, and hurricanes. 
 
 The following are most of the features of map study that must receive 
 consideration in the preparation of a tornado prediction for any day : — 
 
 (i.) Barometric Trough. Region. Ratio of Axis. Pressure. De- 
 parture from Normal. 
 
 (2.) Central Area of Barometric minimum. Region. Pressure. 
 Departure from Normal. 
 
 (3.) High Contrasts of Temperature. Region. Gradient. 
 
 (4.) High Contrasts of Cold Northerly and Warm Southerly Winds. 
 Region. 
 
 (5.) High Contrasts of Dew-point. Region. Gradient. 
 (6. ) Heaviest Lower Cloud Formation. Region. Kind. 
 (7.) Opposing Movement of Lower Clouds. Region. Directions. 
 (8.) Coincident Movement of Upper and Lower Clouds. Region. 
 Direction. 
 
 (9.) Opposing Movement of Upper and Lower Clouds. Region. 
 Direction. 
 
 (10.) Opposing Movement of Lower Clouds and Winds. Region. 
 Direction. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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