TecWnolog* o^» xWc ra.ryr\ . <>. 3>ep^. ciP.fiy^ u.ve W[\? IGtbrary of tift HntttprBiti) nf Nortlj (Earnlitta (EoUertimt nf Norttj (Earnltmatta C(o3o U5^ This book must not be taken from the Library building. Form No. 471 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.archive.org/details/technologyonfarmOOunit TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM A Special Report by an interbureau COMMITTEE AND THE BUREAU OF AGRI- CULTURAL ECONOMICS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE August 1940 FOR SALE HY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, WASHINGTON, D. C. • PRICE 40 CENTS (PAPER) Foreword In this book we count ihc costs and values to American farmers of some new changes in machines, animals, plants, tillage, and processes. During the industrial revolution of the eight- eenth and nineteenth centuries, workers tried to stop a relentless transition to mechanization by breaking the machines they thought would eliminate their jobs. They failed. Our times are like that period or are, perhaps, a continuation of it. It would be useless for us to try to curb this march of technology, for we know that it gives jobs, as well as takes them away. Our task, rather, is to study ways to equalize the advantages brought by technology and to help plan a more stable economy. This is a pressing problem. It is important because technology, even its agricultural seg- ment, touches all our lives, our food, clothes, shelters, and employment, and our economy, basic resources, and social well-being. Technical progress has given farmers equip- ment to raise their production even further and to increase each worker's output. But we have not reached maximum efficiency in farm pro- duction; that entails costs and values just as inertia or an attempt to return to a simpler life has its costs and values. There is the matter, too, that agriculture has been affected by improvements perhaps more than industry, pardy because farm production and prices are less certain than industrial pro- duction and prices. Industry can control the output of many of its products, but the farmer can do little about the cycles of growth, the systole and diastole of biology, the seasons, and the dynamics of seedtime and harvest and science and technology. At the same time, willingness and ability to accept new things vary among farmers. There also are variables of plagues, pests, fertility, and weather. And now there are wars in the world, follow- ing closely a period marked by efforts to recover from agricultural expansion demanded by the World War and by emphasis on greater produc- tion (in the years following 1926) so that an unhealthy disparity grew between prices and costs, work and workers. With the new conflicts have come new ques- tions and a rephrasing of old ones: Whether rising prices would mean a permanent solution of the "farm problem," whether a boom would render unnecessary public agricultural pro- grams, whether expanded industries could take up surplus farm labor, whether new markets could be found for extra farm commodities. Another factor is increased interest in hus- banding our resources and charting our course in the light of new knowledge about plants, animal breeding, power, and extended uses for farm products. These inventions, these prob- lems, have brought us close to a crest of social change, the direction of which we cannot fore- see, but which has many facets and indicates a need for planning. In whatever planning we do individually or nationally, it is difficult to predict the future. It is impossible to forecast the nature of inven- tions, whims, fashions, and movements that will affect agriculture, but it is possible to forecast that there will be inventions, whims, fashions, and movements. Too many things can upset the most careful calculations, but interpretations of trends are valuable and often valid. By careful plans and analyses we can avoid, in some measure, a repetition of upsets of the past. We shall be prepared better to cushion shocks and forearm ourselves. Industrialists and business- men take periodic inventories of what they have and what they need to meet uncertainties of competition and demand. 00 This we do in the present volume by analyzing the major agricultural developments. The book has two parts. One outlines the problem, surveys the most important contributions of technology, considers their importance and relation to farming and the national welfare, and suggests measures of improvement and remedy. The second part covers some of the same ground, but discusses in greater detail the changes and improvement in agricultural practices. The work is not complete. It could not be, not when every day brings new discoveries or rediscoveries of how to do things better, faster, and more cheaply. Furthermore, an attempt was made to limit topics to those of outstanding importance in the immediate past and future or of immediate personal interest to farmers; otherwise, the field would be too big for ade- quate cultivation. It is a serious, factual book, but a cheering one withal, because every page discloses or implies the great inventiveness of Americans, new opportunities and progress, new plans and hopes for conquering problems. It emphasizes facts, because it is brief. But the reader is reminded that behind almost every develop- ment mentioned herein is a story of struggle and accomplishment. Many minds in the United States Department of Agriculture contributed to the volume. An interbureau committee supervised the work. The Division of Farm Management and Costs of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics (especially Sherman E. Johnson, R. S. Kifer, A. A. Thornbrough, and B. R. Hurt) had a large part in the organization and analysis of the material and in the preparation of the report. Fourteen subcommittees submitted sur- veys in special fields. Their names appear else- where; their interest and help merit heartier thanks than can be given in this brief acknowl- edgment. Most of the interpretations and con- clusions are by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. In the work we have tried to avoid the danger of condemning our times as wholly out of joint. An individual can recall many problems, later solved, in his own life. So can a nation, and so can agriculture. Howard R. Tollev, Chief, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. VI The Interbureau Committee on Technology Foster F. Elliott, Chairman A. D. Stefferud, Editor Bureau of Agricultural Economics R. S. Kifer, Secretar Sherman E. Johnson Bureau of Agricultural Economics C. C. Farrington Agricultural Adjustment Administration H. L. Garver R. B. Gray Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering Lon A. Hawkins Bureau of Entomology and Plant Qiiarantine N. R. Bear Soil Conservation Service Paul E. Howe Bureau of Animal Industry R. W. Hudgens Farm Security Administration Ernest Kelly Bureau of Dairy Industry S. P. Lyle Extension Service Albert R. Merz Bureau of Plant Industry J. Paul Miller Bureau of Biological Survey Department of the Interior Day Monroe Bureau of Home Economics Richard W. Nelson Forest Service S. R. Newell Agricultural Marketing Service Preston Richards Bureau of Agricultural Economics S. C. Salmon Bureau of Plant Industry Carl C. Taylor Bureau of Agricultural Economics Lawrence S. Tuttle Public Roads Administration Federal Works Agency W. B. Van Arsdel Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering Oris V. Wells Bureau of Agricultural Economics T. E. Woodward Bureau of Dairy Industry VII Members of Subcommittees Agricultural Adjustment Administration William A. Minor, Jr. Joseph L. Orr Hurt an of Agricultural Economics Extension Service A. P. Brodell James P. Cavin Martin R. Cooper M. A. Crosby Wylie D. Goodsell C. C. Hampson H. W. Hawthorne B. R. Hurt R. D. Jennings Einar Jensen Neii. W. Johnson Paul H. Johnstone S. W. Mendum Wessels S. Middaugh R. L. MlGHELL B. B. Powell E. Rauchenstein Walter M. Rudolph B. H. Thibodeaix F. L. Thomsen A. A. Thor.nbrough R. S. Washburn W. F. Watkins Agricultural .Marketing Service Joseph A. Becker R. J. Cheatham Bureau of Animal Industry Orville G. Hankins Earl W. MoComas Ralph Hoagland Bradford Knapp, Jr. Harry W. Schoening Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering W. V. Hukill M. A. R. Kelley F. E. Staebner J. R. Dodge R. S. Hollingshead A. T. Holman J. B. Bain M. H. Fohrman Bureau of Dairy Industry G. E. Holm E. O. Whither Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine F. C. Bishopp R. W. Harned C. P. Clausen C. M. Packard F. C. Craighead R. C. Roark S. B. Fracker E. R. Sasscer B. M. Gaddis D. L. Van Dine J. I. Hambleton W. H. White O. S. Fisher R.J. Haskell C. D. Lowe J. B. Parker K. F. Warner W. K. Williams J. R. Allgyer J. J. Rjggle Farm Security Administration George Mitchell Forest Service H. S. Betts Verne L. Harper H. L. Shantz C. S. Smith W. N. Sparhawk Bureau of Home Economics Margaret Ballard Dorothy' S. Martin Bur R. O. E. Davis H. P. Gould Roland McKee ■hi of Plant Industry Oswald Schreiner Franklin E. Allison Harvey L. Westove Rural Electrification Administration Oscar Meier Soil Conservation Service C. R. Enlow Ernest C. Holt M. M. Hoover A. G. McCall John F. Preston R. E. Uhland G. E. Ryerson Public Roads Administration Federal Works Agency Frank Curran VIII Contents FOREWORD v THE COMMITTEES vii-vm I. Meanings Chapter 1. THE PROBLEMS OF CHANCE 3 Technology: Science, art, invention, and many other things; a paradox when produc- tion is high and prices are low. The nature of technology and its onward sweep. Rea- sons for this study: Past agricultural pressures, possible effects of wars, changes in farm employment. The scope, an ever-widening circle that embraces the growth of popula- tion, industrial lags, higher productivity of labor, regional specialization. The dilemma of unemployment. Desirable paths for technology; an urgent need to develop methods of directing scientific change into socially desirable paths and to conserve physical and human agricultural resources. Chapter 2. OUR DYNAMIC AGRICULTURE .... 6 Some contributions of the scientific age. Technical progress, the result of the response of producers to a combination of new opportunities for production. Details that deter- mine the introduction of machines: High wage rates and farm incomes. The reliability of estimates. New inventions and discoveries in the future. Chapter 3. CHANGES IN MACHINES 9 The numbers and importance of tractors, and their use throughout the United States. A prediction: 500,000 more tractors will be in use by 1950. Pneumatic tires. Tillage and harvesting implements. Rural electrification — a tremendous development since 1920. Chapter 4. CHANGES IN ANIMALS 17 The nature and influences of market demands. Animal feeding and the importance of vitamins, minerals, forage, silage. Diseases and parasites. Progeny testing. Cross- breeding of cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry. Artificial insemination, a practice of great potentialities. The probable effects on production. Chapter 5. CHANGES IN PLANTS 21 Hybrid corn, whose importance it is almost impossible to exaggerate. A prediction: Probably 80 to 85 percent of the corn acreage may be planted to hybrids in the Corn Belt before 1950. The values of hybrid corn. Improved varieties of wheat, oats, soybeans, and other crops. A look ahead. IX Page Chapter 6. CHANGES IN THE USES OF LAND .... 27 Developments in the conservation of natural resources promise to initiate fundamental changes in farm production. Conservation practices include shifts in crop uses, like hay and pasture; cover crops; mechanical measures like terracing, strip cropping, contour farming, and pasture and range improvement. Lime and phosphate. Fertilizers and soil amendments. Higher concentration of plant food in fertilizers. Forestry and wild- life. The new and expanding pulp and paper industry. The values of conservation. Chapter 7. IMPROVEMENTS IN PROCESSES AND USES . . 34 The growth and the specialization of the farmer's job. Frozen packing, a growing industry. Freezer lockers and canning. Synthetic textile fibers, including rayon and the truly synthetic nylon. Plastics from farm products — from cellulose, skim milk, soybeans, and others. Vegetable oils — tung, corn, wheat, sunflowers, rape, sesame, pcrilla, peanuts, cotton, flax. Starch; the swectpotato, a newcomer. Motor fuels. The exhaustion of petroleum reserves; other sources of oil. Alcohols, another farm prospect. Chapter 8. A SUMMARY OF PRIMARY CHANGES ... 42 Profit and loss and the adoption of new machines and techniques. An appreciation for human factors in agricultural technology. The complicated interrelationship of supplies, demand, and sales. Fluctuating rates of adoption of new techniques. A list of important developments and the primary changes they may bring. Chapter 9. EFFECTS ON THE VOLUME OF PRODUCTION . 44 Motor equipment displaced nearly 10 million horses and mules on farms between 1915 and 1939. A prediction: Approximately 1.5 million horses and mules more may be replaced by tractors by 1950. The influence of new crops. Results of conservation practices. Influence of new products. Greater livestock production. Chapter 10. EFFECTS ON REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION . . 49 Unequal facility of areas in the adoption of new techniques. Possible effects on the Southern States, the North Atlantic States, the North Central States, the Great Plains and Inter-Mountain States, the Pacific Coast States. Chapter 11. EFFECTS ON PRICES, COSTS, AND RETURNS . . 54 The effect of technology on the determination of the level of farm prices. Prices, costs, and returns from grains and roughage. Grain for livestock. Other effects, includ- ing canning and freezing, textiles, soybeans, vegetable oils, industrial uses. The effects on farm costs, fixed costs, and total investment. The place of mechanization. Increased capital needs for agriculture. The most significant change in farm costs: An increase in the proportion of cash costs to total farm costs. Chapter 12. EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND PEOPLE . . 61 Technology, a major factor in the changing proportion of people in agriculture and nonagricultural work. Growing efficiency on the farm. Unemployment among rural youth. The reduction in manpower in agriculture. A prediction: The displacement of 350,000 to 500,000 farm workers in a decade. The effects on farm tenure and on the number and size of farm units and degree of commercialization. Living standards, rural institutions, and culture. Page Chapter 13. EFFECTS ON THE NATIONAL ECONOMY ... 72 Shifting benefits to other groups. The complex consequences to national production. Effects on purchasing power. Noncommercial farming. A reconsideration of the goals of "economic efficiency" is needed. Chapter 14. TECHNOLOGY AND THE FARM PROBLEM . . 77 The basic problem is to provide employment and security to the displaced and under- privileged persons most adversely affected by technology. The difficulty of maintaining farm prices and income at reasonable levels. The problems confronting the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the Farm Security Administration. The influence of mechanization and acreage adjustments upon the shift from a position as tenant and sharecropper to one as wage hand. Questions with respect to the loan program. Yearly additions to the working population. Chapter 15. SOME SUGGESTED LINES OF ACTION ... 81 1. Measures to provide employment and security for displaced and underprivileged persons. (a) A rural conservation works program for immediate relief and rehabilitation. (b) Other recommendations for permanent rehabilitation and security: That the Farm Security Administration program of supervised loans, debt adjust- ment, et cetera, be extended to reach a greater number of the low-income group. That a more adequate program for farm labor be developed by: A farm placement service. A housing program for farm labor. A counterpart of wages-and-hours, unemployment, and old-age plans for farm labor. That the further development of owner-operated family-sized farms be encouraged by: Expanding the present tenant-purchase program. Providing that all reclamation and other new farm developments be settled on a family-sized and owner-operator basis and that the perpetuation of this tenure system be guaranteed. Settling or resettling shifting and nonowner farm families on good lands that are now owned and operated in larger than family-sized units. Extending cooperative loans. Scaling further Agricultural Adjustment Administration allotments and payments in favor of the small producer. Equalizing credit opportunities, making credit available to small holders at reason- able rates of interest. Facilitating the transfer of land from old to young farmers. That assistance be given farmers in the development of new sources of employment and self-help by: Establishing self-help cooperatives. Expanding rural industries. Establishing noncommercial farms in good agricultural areas. Facilitating cooperative farming. Training disadvantaged farm people for placement in both agricultural and non- agricultural pursuits. 2. Measures to stabilize agricultural economic conditions. (a) Measures designed to increase consumption and demand: An extension of the Food Stamp Plan and the Surplus Commodities Purchase Pro- gram, to subsidize the consumption of food among the low-income group. A lowering of costs of distribution through market reorganization or through the adoption of special techniques for increasing sales and decreasing the cost of marketing and distribution. Educational emphasis on the need for better diets. An expansion of industrial uses for agricultural products, through research. Subsidizing of exports. XI Chapter 15. SOME SUGGESTED LINES OF ACTION— Continued. (b) Measures to maintain agricultural prices and income by: Expanding and strengthening the commodity-credit, loan-storage program. Continuing and strengthening acreage control and marketing-quota and agreement programs. Extending the crop insurance program. 3. Measures to create a wider appreciation for the values and benefits of rural life. (a) The extension of the benefits of technology to lighten the burden of farm labor and to make the farm life more attractive by: Encouraging rural electrification. Developing machines and machine techniques that will extend the benefits of tech- nology to the small farm. (b) The stabilization of rural settlement so as to develop a more permanent rural life by: Emphasizing conservation. Meeting the need for better rural facilities, like roads, schools, and houses. (c) The promotion of measures that will develop inherent values in rural life: New and experimental patterns of rural life. The use of leisure time to develop a better organized and integrated community life. The development of technical methods that will lighten the burden of farm work. The maintenance of prices and income at a level that will give farmers equal economic opportunities with other classes. The development of a stable and satisfying rural culture. II. Surveys Chapter 16. MACHINES 101 Tractors. Rubber tires on machines. Tillage machines. New machines for planting. Machines that change types of work. Ensilage equipment. Sugar beet harvester. Other harvesters. Improvements in irrigation. Machines for clearing the land. Chapter 17. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION .... 109 The growth of electrification. Uses of electricity on the farm, in the home, for pump- ing water, in poultry production, for irrigation, on dairy farms, for milking. The further development of electrification. Chapter 18. FARM TRANSPORTATION 113 Roads and farming. Present trends. Government road building. Chapter 19. ANIMAL FEEDING AND DISEASES . . . .117 The use of supplements, including calcium, phosphorus, and manganese, and vitamins in animal rations. Feeding dairy cattle. Meeting consumers' preferences. Forage and concentrates. Disease and parasite control, cattle ailments, tuberculosis, Johnc's disease, Bang's disease, mastitis infection, Texas fever. Diseases of swine. Diseases of sheep, goats, and poultry. Chapter 20. BREEDING OF ANIMALS 127 Progeny tests. Beef and dual-purpose cattle. Swine. Dual-purpose cattle breeding. Cross-breeding of the cattle, swine, sheep, poultry. Artificial insemination, its nature, history, limitations, and uses. Chapter 21. PLANTS 135 Hybridization of corn as an example of the workings of genetics. New kinds of wheat, cotton, oats, barley, alfalfa and lespedeza, grain and forage sorghums, sugarcane, sugar beets, tobacco, fruits and vegetables. Nutrient solutions for growing crops. XII Page Chapter 22. CONTROL OF PLANT PESTS 145 Insects. White pine blister rust. Black stem rust. Grasshopper control. Cereal and forage tests. Insects affecting man and animals. Truck crop insects. Insecticides. Bees. Chapter 23. VEGETABLE OILS AND STARCH CROPS . 155 Soybean oil: The world market, values of soybeans, a continuing growth, a bundled million bushel production? Peanut oil. Cotton seed oil. Linseed oil. Starch: From corn, sweetpotatocs. Possible expansion of starch uses. Chapter 24. PRESERVATION OF FOODS 162 The development of canning. The influence of dietary habits. Fruit juices. Canned fish. Cold packing and frozen packing. Northern-grown vegetables. Curing, drying, and smoking. Rendering and refining fats. Chapter 25. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 169 The growing use of fertilizers. Their plant food content. Fertilizers and crops. The influence on costs. Nitrogen fixation processes. The placing of fertilizers for small grains, potatoes, cotton, corn, tobacco, sugar beets. Chapter 26. MINOR SOIL ELEMENTS, MANURES, LIME 175 Necessary traces. Zinc in fertilizers. Concentrated salts. Calcium, sulphur, and magnesium. The importance of magnesium. The danger of heavy applications. Animal manures: Their uses, composition and amounts, absorption. Artificial manure. Lime. Chapter 27. CONSERVATION PRACTICES 181 The meaning of conservation. Methods of conservation. Our problem. Erosion. Soil fertility. The nature of conservation practices: Terracing, contour farming, strip cropping, cover crops, crop rotations. Limitations on future use. Some effects on agri- culture. Wildlife: Its importance and monetary value, recommendations, the prospect of change, the farmer's part, utilization. State game farms. Game management. Wild furs. Rodent control. Chapter 28. FARM FORESTRY 195 The extent of farm forests. Reasons for neglect. Cooperative associations. Dollars- and-cents returns. Forestry in the Mississippi Valley. The Southern Pine Region. Pulp- wood in the South: Future expansion, the farmer's stake, pulpwood and employment. Chapter 29. TECHNOLOGY IN THE FARM HOME ... 203 Ability to buy. Patterns of farm family living. Lessening isolation. Farm dwellings and their facilities. Equipment for household tasks. Diets of farm families. Medical care. Solving the problems: Production for family use, balancing the present and future, wise purchasing, the place of education, equalizing advantages. Chapter 30. THINGS TO COME: 1940 213 The prospect of continuing technological change. The sources of this change. Major immediate improvements in plant breeding, improved human and animal nutrition, and in textiles, building materials, plastics, and uses of farm products. Better living as the aim. Prospects in plant breeding, including colchicine, vitamins, growth substances, sprays. New crops. Foods: New knowledge of nutrition, vitamins, experiments with processing and foods at experiment stations. New processes. LITERATURE CITED 223 XIII TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM Part I Meanings TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM • Chapter l The Problems of Change In an old story a boy had a magic porridge mill that he could not stop. His whole village was choked with the gruel. The situation he faced resembles the problems we get from new machines, improved plants, advanced processes, and better animals. These we discuss in this first chapter; we see how technology complicates production, living conditions, distribution, trade, employment, prices. Difficulties arise from unequal response to innovations. Technology is science, art, and invention. It is tractors, combines, corn pickers. It is the testing and breeding of animals and the conquest of diseases. It is hybrid corn, new kinds of wheat, soybeans, kudzu, and lespedeza. It is ways to feed cows, plants, and men. It is road building and rural electrification. It is contour plowing, conservation of soil, manage- ment of forests, protection of wildlife. It is mar- keting and distribution. It is a race between insect pests and ways to kill them. Technology is in the workshop, in the laboratory, barn, grove, field, and home. It is a social and econo- mic force that challenges thought and ability to plan, because its many-sided nature combines the intricate influences of getting and spending, savings and debts, employed leisure and unem- ployed relief. Technology may be a paradox. Scientists discover that the cross-breeding of two highly developed strains of corn gives a productive and healthy hybrid: Within two short decades hy- brid seed corn is used on 24 million acres; the estimated increase in yield in that time is 100 million bushels. The force of the change is still unspent. Not all the corn can be used; prices drop; farmers worry. Mechanization has changed American agri- culture so swiftly and so surely that between 1915 and 1940 the tractor, truck, and automo- bile eliminated the need for the labor of thou- sands of men and caused a reduction of nearly 10 million in the number of horses and mules. Science learns more about the needs of soils. Engineers perfect labor-saving machinery. New ways to preserve food come from laboratories. Plant innovations, ways to control insects and disease, new uses for agricultural products, more knowledge of breeding practices and mar- keting, and countless other developments bring higher productivity, better living for town and country folk, improved nutrition and health, and the widening of markets. They also bring problems. No end is seen to these products of science, genius, or accident. Technical progress has given us many farm commodities, some of which we have been unable to distribute to those who need them. It has given farmers equipment that can increase each worker's output, and the ma- chine may become more important than the man. Set in motion are forces that affect all people, rural and urban, and show the need for programs to improve agricultural conditions. ^3:i955° —40- It is not that these scientific advances in them- selves are to be blamed; the troubles, if any, arise from the inequality of adjustments and responses in agriculture and industry to such advances. Why the Study is Important Now These forces have existed for centuries, and have helped or troubled men for a long time. But several factors give especial urgency to the problems now, and make important a study of technological changes and their effects on na- tional production, regional specialization, dis- placed manpower, and loss of income by some farm groups. American agriculture has gone through a period of attempts to recover from the bad effects of expansion demanded by the World War. Many of these efforts augmented the volume of goods marketed at a time when farmers' capacity to produce exceeded any expected demands, both foreign and domestic. In other words, the tendency of technology to increase production just adds to agricultural pressures rooted in other causes — wars and threats of war since 1935, a consequent loss of foreign markets, slow indus- trial recovery, social problems, and others. The short-term effects on agriculture of new wars seem to be in the direction of reducing further the export outlets for most of our agricul- tural products. A prolonged conflict might alter temporarily this prospect, but it would only accentuate the problem at the end of the war. Increased volume, without a corresponding in- creased demand, brings lower prices, and the economic benefits of greater efficiency go to the consumer, rather than the farmer. Mechaniza- tion reduces the amount of labor needed in agriculture. This means less need for hired labor, or perhaps a shift from tenants and share- croppers to wage hands. Thus undesirable effects, appearing perhaps temporarily as a re- sult of the change from the old to the new, bear most heavily on the groups that are already at a disadvantage in American agriculture. To him that hath is given, and from him that hath not is taken away. An Ever-Widening Circle If we want to develop ways of meeting immedi- ate and undesirable effects of technology we must understand better how new processes are introduced into our economy and their probable long- and short-term consequences. Farmers adopt innovations in the expectation that they can increase the volume of production, improve the quality of the product, lower unit costs, reduce the actual amount of labor needed, or lessen the fatigue and tedium of farming. The fulfillment of these aims releases produc- tive power for other uses. When mechanization reduces the labor needed to produce 100 bushels of wheat, for example, the displaced labor is available to grow more wheat, to do other work, or to take advantage of increased leisure. When the use of hybrid seed increases yields 15 to 20 percent, as much corn as before can be grown on 13 to 17 percent less land, and that land can be used for other crops or for more corn. Or, the displaced men and acres may remain idle. Once, our constantly expanding economy assured new industrial jobs for workers dis- placed by agricultural improvements and for young people from farms. The growing indus- trial population, with constant recruits from farms, and large foreign markets (made espe- cially accessible before the World War through our position as a debtor nation) caused few doubts about finding outlets for an expanding volume of wheat, cotton, corn, oats, tobacco, meat. But the situation has changed. Our popula- tion is growing slowly. Industry lags. And industry, more than agriculture, can withhold improvements that might augment production and employment. Industry also can emphasize innovations that cut costs but require litde increase in investments that would add to em- ployment. The volume of industrial output and employment has not kept pace with the in- crease in the productivity of labor (7). 1 1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, pp. 222-223. When the prices of industrial goods do not reflect the decreases in costs resulting from a worker's increased productivity, purchasing power may be unused, so that employment suffers in other sectors of our economy, unless new investment and new production are under- taken. Workers supplanted by technological advances in one field cannot readily find em- ployment in other fields unless industrial out- put expands sufficiently to use those workers and the ones who enter the labor market each year. The Dilemma of Unemployment Here is a dilemma. Scientific advances in agriculture constantly release labor at a time when employment opportunities are no longer open in urban industry. In fact, industry has an unemployment problem of its own; and the service and professional occupations are limited by the inadequate purchasing power of con- sumers of these services. Lacking other alter- natives, the surplus hired men of agriculture swell the ranks of migratory farm workers, apply for direct relief, or find some shelter in subsistence farming, too often in the poorer localities. The difficulty is made worse by differences in the birth rate, which is higher among farmers than among urban groups: Each year young workers, who formerly would have gone into industrial occupations, are seeking their liveli- hood in agriculture. A jump in industrial production (in armament industries, for ex- ample) might change briefly this situation but — on the basis of a long perspective — might not permanendy solve it. This increased manpower in agriculture natur- ally results in a pressure to increase the produc- tion of agricultural products, even when markets will absorb the commodities only at much lower prices, and farm people, who have no choice but to remain in farming, get lower incomes. Desirable Paths for Technology But surely improvements that lessen the physical burden of farm work, or that increase crop yields without appreciably increasing ex- penses, can be guided into paths that are socially desirable. Historically, technology makes possible greater production along many lines, and thus contributes to the higher levels of living. Cultural advancement would surely be a boon to the farm population, provided it could be properly distributed among different groups and could be obtained without too great a sacrifice of a purchasing power that is badly- needed for other things. The urgent need is to develop methods of directing technological change into socially desirable paths. Technical progress that creates jobs should be stressed in these methods. Op- portunities for wisely used leisure should be properly distributed. Even within agriculture, new products may be developed to widen market outlets for farm production. New regional Federal laboratories and older research units give promise of per- forming this task in time. Perhaps new mar- kets can be found for old products, or maybe we can devise ways and means of encouraging the consumption of those foods most needed in the national diet. We also need to concentrate on new ways and means of conserving our agricultural resources — both physical and human. Our goal is to develop new techniques that will aid rather than hinder progress of the groups already disad- vantaged in American agriculture. TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM • Chapter 2 Our Dynamic Agriculture In this section we list first, and then describe in some detail, the major developments affecting the farm. This is the groundwork for later chapters that discuss the significance of technology. The next few pages stress that agriculture is dy- namic, not static, and that technical progress is not a series of unrelated details but grows from the response of producers to a combination of new opportunities. Of the countless contributions of the scienti- fic age, some are little known and little used; some are destined to collect dust on the shelves of the Patent Office; some may revolutionize agriculture; some may solve troublesome prob- lems; others will create new problems. Changes in Machines — Continued They include Changes in Machines All-purpose tractor One-plow tractor Pneumatic tires for tractors and other equipment Diesel-engine tractor "Baby" combined harvester-thresher Corn picker Power mower Field ensilage cutter Windrow pick-up baler Mechanical beet lifter and topper Mechanical cane harvester Mechanical cotton picker Multirow planter Improved potato plantei Single-seedball beet planter Band fertilizer placement equipment Variable-depth planter Grass field harvester chopper Power sprayer Power duster Automatic drainage pump Plates for accurate seed placement Spray irrigation equipment Electric power unit Electric lighting and equipment for poultry Electric fence Dairy sterilization equipment Hay dryer Crusher mower Hay chopper Tractor-mounted equipment Duck-foot cultivator Rod wcedcr Damming lister Grass drilling equipment Refrigerated trucks Changes in Animal 's Progeny testing Artificial insemination Cross-breeding Cattle Hogs Sheep Poultry New feeding techniques Controlled feeding Increased efficiency of production through balanced rations Volume and quality control through feeding methods Chang Hybrid corn Rust-resistant wheat High yielding soybeans Longer staple cotton Rust- and smut-resistant oats Fall seeded flax Sanitation Control of disease Sleeping sickness of horses Tuberculosis Bang's disease Cattle tick fever Poultry diseases Control of insect and other internal and external parasites in Plants Disease-resistant sugar- cane Cold-tolerant sugarcane Disease-resistant barley Early maturing sorghums Range grasses Wilt-resistant alfaifa 6 Change's in Plants — Continued Improved strains oi lespedeza Scale-resistant potatoes Wilt-resistant flax Tung oil trees New sweetpotato varieties Plant hormones Growth of plants in nutrient solutions Improved sugar-beet seed production Methods of insect control by- plant breeding quarantine tillage poisons and traps biological controls Improvements in Land L ' Terracing Contour farming Strip cropping Rotations Green manure and cover crops Emphasis on vegetative cover Shift to legumes Shift to forage crops and pasture Pasture fertilization (phosphate) Range improvement Higher analysis fertilizers Minor plant food elements Increase in lime applications Shift of cropland and pasture to woodland Use of farm and forest for wildlife Improvement of highways and farm to market roads New Ways of Processing and Using Farm Products Grass silage Legume silage Chopping hay Frozen packing Cold packing Farm cold storage lockers Community cold storage lockers Concentration of milk Homogenization of whole milk Fruit juices and combinations Waxing poultry Latex bag packaging Plastics from casein Plastics from soybeans Synthetic fibers Paper from domestic pulp Starch Alcohol from farm products Technical progress is not a series of separate responses to unrelated developments. It is the result of the response of producers to a combina- tion of new opportunities for production. The steps in the use of these new opportunities sup- plement each other and depend on each other. The tractor, for instance, is important because it is an improved power unit and because it com- bines added power with machinery that can do work not possible with horses. Moreover, the use of more power may mean the displacement of workers, an increase in the size of farms, and the adjustment in crop and livestock organization that accompanies a shift from horses to tractors. The added power may contribute to other significant developments, such as the adoption of soil-conservation practices that require power and equipment and that, in turn, may be furthered by developments in breeding and in- troducing plants and producing livestock. The flow of technological improvements, with their incentive to adjustments in farming, is one of the forces that make agriculture dynamic. Changes in the economic situation, the growth and disappearance of markets resulting from shifting population, the growth or decline of competing areas, and changes in customers' habits likewise may induce changes in organiza- tion and volume of production. These economic factors may be felt directly; they may also in- fluence markedly the rapidity of technical changes and hence accelerate or retard the adjustments to new farming methods. Details That Determine the Introduction of Machines Just as high wage rates stimulate the adoption of labor-saving equipment, high prices encourage practices leading to an increased output. The rate at which processes requiring additional capital investments are accepted may depend on a farm income above that needed for living or upon interest rates and the ease with which credit for future production can be obtained. Therefore, estimates of future rates of adoption of even known techniques contain a large ele- ment of uncertainty, because the rates depend upon the stage of development, the use of com- plementary processes, and the economic situa- tion. One cannot forecast inventions and innova- tions; most developments involving important changes in the farming system or much new in- vestment occur gradually. Tractors were used for some types of farm work in 1910, but it was not until about 1920 that the influence of power equipment was really felt in production. After nearly 25 years of increasing use, the tractor is still the dominating factor in agricultural ad- justment resulting from technical progress. In 1920, one could have foreseen an increased use of tractors, trucks, and automobiles, but one probably would have missed some important developments in plant varieties that were intro- duced and adopted in the 1920's. A forward look in 1930 again would have included in- creased use of tractors and perhaps more em- phasis on special equipment for use with tractors, but it probably would have overlooked the rapid acceptance of hybrid corn in the Corn Belt. From these illustrations we can draw some conclusions concerning the type of developments for which some estimate of change can be made. For example, the influence of tractors and com- plementary equipment was anticipated because the technique had been quite well perfected and adoption of the improvements was already under way. The investment required and the changes in farming systems that were needed for effective operation offered sufficient resistance to adoption of tractor power so that the increase in use was gradual over two decades. Some machines, like the combined harvester- thresher (or "combine") and the cotton picker, remain on the horizon a long time before a satis- factory machine is developed. The exact time when the technique will be perfected cannot be foreseen; combines that threshed grain in the field were built before 1850, and were manufac- tured for use in California by 1890. The stage of development of the combine in 1850 was apparently that of the cotton picker in 1930. Adoption may be held up even after the design of the machine is satisfactory, for its use may meet resistances because of relative labor costs, or because it requires a change in the farming system or in the social organization. On the other hand, a development like hybrid corn can be adopted rapidly once its value is known, because it requires only a small increase in variable costs and no change in production technique, in the farming system, or in the social pattern. By contrast, livestock improvements are made slowly. The slow growth of the livestock enterprise in the South may be attrib- uted to a lack of knowledge concerning the care of livestock, the prevailing system of tenure and organization for cotton production, a lack of organized markets and adequate credit for purchases, and the relatively better returns from cotton. The Reliability of Estimates Estimates of technological change from 1940 on should be somewhat more reliable as guides for public policy than those which would have been made either in 1920 or in 1930. We have in 1940 a broader knowledge about new- developments and agricultural conditions. Con- sequently an analysis at present should give us a more reliable picture of the future than could have been drawn at earlier periods. However, new discoveries that are likely to be introduced promptly during a 10-year period may alter significantly existing trends and, therefore, change our present picture of future developments. Of one thing we can be certain: New inventions and discoveries will come in the future as in the past, and the importance of their effects will be increased, because, in a sense, the effects are cumulative, as new processes are added to those already in use. TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM Chapter 3 Changes in Machines The tractor, more than any other force, has brought an industrial revolution to our farms. And there has been, in turn, a revolution in design, so that a lighter machine, a jack-of-all-trades, has replaced the cumbersome tractor of 1910. Other important mechanical innovations are rubber tires for field machines, more flexible implements for tilling and harvesting, and rural electrification. Men still young can remember when farmers owned a half dozen pieces of light ma- chinery, a horse-drawn binder, mower, plow, hay rake, harrow, and perhaps a hand corn- sheller and cream separator. Farmers drove to town once a week for a few necessities not pro- duced at home. They worked hard, had few social contacts, and were nearly self-sufficient. Since then, a revolution has occurred in farm machinery. Many farmers of today have an automobile, truck, and tractor. They may have a combined harvester-thresher, a field ensilage cutter, special fertilizer distributing devices, multirow tillage machines, and electric appli- ances in house and barn. Reasons for these changes are many. Com- petition within their own areas and in other sections of the country led many farmers to introduce machines even though they had to mortgage their property. Some bought equip- ment, perhaps on the instalment plan, to keep sons on the farm. Borrowing and going into debt was easy. Some sought a release from routine. For some, machinery meant inde- pendence from hired labor and an attempt to lower production costs. For others, it meant increased efficiency and greater marketable production. The World War years of expan- sion, new frontiers, virgin lands, easy money, free spending, high prices, ready employment, and drives for greater production (Food Will Win The War!) brought tractors, new cultiva- tors, harvesters, and other mechanical aids to farming. Tractors The tractor brings more drawbar power to particular operations, and thus makes it possible to use larger and more effective equipment at a higher speed than is feasible with horses. Belt pulleys on tractors provide mobile power for work otherwise done with a stationary engine. The power take-off, a substitute for the belt pulley in some work, increases the efficiency and dependability of harvesting equipment like mowers, binders, small combined harvester- threshers, corn pickers, and field ensilage cutters. From the heavy, cumbersome tractor, limited to draft work and certain belt operations, the trend has been to lighter, higher-speed tractors adapted to various uses. Further modifications in tractor design are expected; the immediate future is likely to bring greater use of small tractors on small farms, and wider use of rubber tires on tractors. An estimated 1,626,000 tractors were in use (2) in the United States in 1939 — almost double the number reported in 1930. Three-fourths of 9 all tractor sales in the United States in 1937 were general-purpose tractors (3); it is probable that 50 percent of farm tractors in 1940 were of this type. A growing proportion has rubber-tired wheels. The new machines are constructed for greater speed, wider utility, and more com- fortable operation. Table 1. — Number of farms, number of tractors, and con- centration of tractors hy groups of Stales Farm, Tractors Trac- tors per 100 Group Larger than 100 1930' report- farms of 100 All rug 19301 1939" acres acres tors more, 1939 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Xu ru- /arms farms farms tractors tractors ber North Atlantic 483 202 90 96 152 75 North Central 2,079 1,274 534 568 997 78 South Atlantic 1.059 257 44 47 85 33 South Central 2, 165 594 86 98 231 39 Western 603 228 97 111 161 70 United States 6,289 2,555 851 920 1,626 65 i U. S. Census, 1930. ' Farm Implement News, April 6, 1939. In the 1930 census of agriculture, 100 tractors were reported for each 94 farms using tractors. At that ratio, about l^ million farms, or 22 percent of all farms (as reported by the census in 1935), had tractors in 1939. Because many very small farms were included in this census, however, it appears more accurate to assume that probably 60 percent of those large enough for motor equipment used tractors in 1940. Tractors in Various Sections Tractors are used all over the United States, but the highest degree of adoption is in the small- grain areas, the Corn Belt, and specialized sec- tions like the dairy, truck, and orchard areas of the Eastern and Western States. In the South- ern and Eastern States, small farms and low incomes have not favored the purchase of trac- tors, but some large specialty farms have been mechanized. The small, all-purpose tractor should increase the rate of mechanization of small farms in these regions. This machine, also adapted to the small farms of the North Central States, may offset a tendency there to combine and enlarge family-operated farms. In the small-grain areas, which are more nearly mechanized than any v\ TRACTORS ON FARMS 4 rs. , ^~~~Tt — -___Jncrease in Number, April 1, 1930-July 1. 1938 r\ ^ ■— — .7 ft* ■ / mm -' •: i 1 ■ ■■..••..-.. FA-:.- N — - ./Wrl / ^A"- M i y^y«^^-^' \ . H,'l \ ^j&'* f % FfJ"* T " ' "*S -s2 1 5 T_r-^ ■^~p~ r ~^: 1 • '•' >:•::'.- ■ - ' \— t^w j-'Mr. jSji ^F \\\ \ ■is*. •' •. C«5i^^^"^"N<*''~ N \ ' \ UNITED STATES NET INCREASE ^ 657.272 TRACTORS OR 714 PERCENT \ :iS&^ Each dot represents ^t- i n k 100 tractors V. j f V \ - 10 other, the small tractor may displace horses on small farms, and the number of tractors may grow somewhat. Future Use of Tractors Despite the prevalence of small farms and a limited amount of cropland on each farm, the use of tractors is common in the North Atlantic States (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Con- necticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, and Pennsylvania), where the ratio of tractors to farms larger than 100 acres is higher than in any other region except the North Cen- tral States. Even if future tractor use is confined to relatively large farms and to small truck and fruit farms, further expansion can be expected. Farmers' use of made-over automobiles and trucks as power units indicates that the small all-purpose tractor will fill a need in this region. The cost of horse feed and its alternative value for dairy and poultry production encourage the replacement of work-stock with tractors. The rate of change from horses to tractors undoubtedly will be influenced by feed costs and horse prices, but an increase in this region of 35,000 tractors by 1 ' J 5 ( ) would mean that there would then be 93 tractors per 100 farms larger th. in 100 acres. Most farms of that size, and many smaller ones, probably can be expected to use the new small tractors. The concentration of tractors is highest in the North Central States (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Mis- souri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas), with nearly a million in 1939, but further expansion is probable there. An increase of about 155,000 would result in a ratio of 90 tractors per 100 farms larger than 100 acres. As some smaller areas have almost as many tractors as farms, such growth by 1950 is not unlikely. Restraining influences are most apt to be effective in places of low pro- ductivity like the Ozark Region, the Great Lakes cut-over lands, and the broken areas of southern Indiana and Illinois. Low feed prices, a consequence of increased crop production, may encourage the retention and use of horses until the production of livestock or their products for sale may be increased. The introduction of tractors has been slow in z TRACTORS ON FARMS UNITED STATES TOTAL NUMBER ON FARMS 1.577.233 11 the South Atlantic States (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida). In 1939, there were only one-third as many tractors as there were farms larger than 100 acres. The number of small farms, a low level of farm incomes, low wages, and a system of farming requiring much hand labor have retarded mechanization. We hardly can estimate the future numbers of tractors in the region, but we can expect an increase, because more mechanical power could be used on many farms with little adjustment of production or organization, and because other forces encourage a modification of the cropper system. The small all-purpose tractor should increase the use of mechanical power in the area, especially because more power than is now available on many farms is needed for improved crop and conservation practices. With an in- crease of 60,000 tractors, the number still would lie only 56 percent of the number of farms larger than 100 acres. The South Central States (Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisi- ana, Oklahoma, and Texas), include some areas, like the high plains of Texas,where tractors large- ly have displaced horses and mules. In the deltas of Arkansas and Mississippi and the black lands of Texas, tractor operation has grown rapidly, more rapidly than in any other group of States, particularly in the western cotton areas of Texas and Oklahoma. Many Plains areas are almost completely mechanized (4). The trend is ex- pected to continue. If 190,000 tractors are added before 1950, the increase would not be much greater than that since 1930, and the total number of tractors in the area would be only 71 percent of the number of farms larger than 100 acres. The Western States (Montana, Idaho, Wyom- ing, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, and California), have a wide range of conditions and of degrees of tractor use. A further growth in the number of tractors is probable, in view of the number of smaller irrigated farms and orchards to which modern tractors are adapted. A slight accelera- tion of tractor purchases would increase the number of tractors by 60,000 before 1950. At that rate, the number would be about 96 percent of the number of farms larger than 100 acres. Such a concentration seems not unlikely in the Western States, where many farms are large and where the small irrigated farms have a high proportion of land in crops. A Prediction: 500,000 More Tractors by 1050 To summarize the probable changes in the number of farm tractors: It seems conservative to assume that a continuation of present condi- tions would result in an increase of about 500,000 tractors by 1950. A considerable slow- ing down of tractor adoption in the North Central and North Atlantic States and an acceleration in the other regions is indicated (table 2). The latter assumption is predicated on a more rapid acceptance of the new small tractors in areas of smaller farms. Table 2. — Estimated increases in numbers of tractors from 1930 to 1939, and probable increases in numbers from 1940 to 1950, by groups of States Group Increase in tractors Tractors per 100 farms of 100 acres and larger 1930-39 1940-50 1939 1950 1,000 tractors 56 429 38 133 50 706 1,000 tractors 35 155 60 190 60 500 Tractors 75 78 33 39 70 65 Tractors 93 90 South Atlantic South Central . 56 Western United States 96 S3 More farmers could buy tractors in a shorter time if prices of farm goods stimulated adjust- ments in the type of farm power as an aid to increased production. On the other hand, low farm incomes or greater restrictions on the use of cropland would slow down the rate of adjust- ment. An estimate by the Work Projects Administration (5) that 2 }& million tractors may be in use by 1950 or 1960 agrees generally with this statement. The rate of increase un- doubtedly will depend on farm purchasing power, alternative opportunities for workers now in agriculture, and the facility with which 12 adjustments in land holdings can be made, particularly in the East and Southeast. Pneumatic Tires Putting rubber tires on tractors and field ma- chinery, a singularly rapid development, has expanded the usefulness of many implements, reduced operating costs, facilitated ficld-to-ficld transportation, and given greater comfort and convenience to the operators. Fuel consumption is 10 to 20 percent less than that of tractors with steel wheels. Repair bills have been reduced, and the life of the machine extended. Lower operating expenses often offset the somewhat higher first cost of rubber tires. Eventually, the total investment for farm equipment also may be reduced. Trailers for use with the higher-speed, rubber-tired tractors may supplant motor trucks in some places. Tillage and Harvesting Implements Tillage implements have become lighter, more flexible, and more usable with easily maneuver- able tractors. The recognition of the erosion problem and the modification of tillage practices to control erosion have also influenced the de- velopment. Three implements, the duck-foot cultivator, rod weeder, and basin or damming lister, have come into widespread use in the Great Plains. The first two are good for cultivating summer fallow, and the lister, with damming attachment, is being used more and more for breaking ground. All three lower the hazards of crop production. Tractors with power mechanisms and mounted implements (like plows, cultivators, drills, and planters) have made it easier to adopt conserva- tion practices on the rougher lands in the East. Some machines make it easier to till rolling fields. Advantages in reducing man labor and insur- ing timely operations during critical periods are gained by combining seedbed preparation, fer- tilizer distribution, and planting. Some combi- nations were accomplished with various classes of horse-drawn machines, but with tractors suffi- cient power is available to use heavy tools and for satisfactory, simultaneous operation of several kinds of equipment. New fertilizer distributing machines include the adaptation of fertilizer attachments to var- ious new types of tractor, tillage, and planting equipment; distributors for areas and conditions where new requirements are imposed; distribu- tors for new forms of fertilizers, such as granular, free-flowing material, concentrated fertilizers that must be applied lightly, and liquid fertiliz- ers; and placement devices to obtain more effec- tive use of fertilizers. 13 The combined harvester-thresher is the most important development in harvesting equip- ment. New types are adapted to harvesting grass seeds, soybeans, and small grains (oats, wheat, barley, rye). Less than 5 percent of the wheat crop was harvested with combines in 1920. but approximately 50 percent of the crop was "combined" in 1938 (6). Although the investment was large, the adop- tion of the 12- to 16-foot combine on the small- grain farms of the Great Plains meant savings in hired labor and in threshing costs and greater flexibility of operations. The "baby combine," introduced in 1935, cuts a swath 5 or 6 feet wide, is driven by a power take-off from a tractor, and can be operated by one man. Equipped with pneumatic tires, and with an increased threshing capacity per foot of cutting width, it can be operated at 4 to 5 miles an hour under favorable conditions. These features and a relatively low first cost meant rapid acceptance, and were partly responsible for an increase in the acreage sown to soybeans. In 1935-36 about 10,000 were manufactured. The "midget" combine, that cuts a 40-inch swath and is operated by one man, came into use in 1939, primarily on small farms. It costs little more than a grain binder, is built for speed in operation, and may give to the small farmer an advantage in harvest costs heretofore held by operators of large holdings. In 1939, 80 percent of the combines sold were 6 feet or less in width. Each year about 90 million to 100 million acres are planted to corn in the United States. Approximately a tenth of this is on farms with at least 100 acres in corn, and about 20 percent on farms with 50 to 100 acres in corn. Probablv less than 15 percent of the crop was picked by machine in 1938. Mechanical corn pickers on the market in 1940 seemed to be economical only for harvesting 100 acres or more, but a simplification of design to lower the initial cost may extend greatly their use — a distinct possibility in view of the rapid developments in machines for family-sized farms. A small, low-cost picker would tend to discourage the concentration of corn acreage in large units. With a two-row picker and modern facilities for hauling and cribbing corn, yields of 60 to 70 bushels an acre can be harvested with only 1 }i to 2 man-hours an acre. Hand picking and scooping would require 9 man-hours to harvest a 70-bushel yield. More than 800 patents have been taken out on cotton harvesters and much attention has been given to their development, but no machine (except that of the stripper type) was considered beyond the experimental stage in 1940. PERCENTAGE OF ACREAGE OF CORN FOR GRAIN HARVESTED WITH MECHANICAL FIELD PICKER. 1938 14 The stripper, as the name implies, lakes up the plants between slots and fingers as it is pulled along the row. Much foreign material is gathered with the seed cotton, thus lowering the grade. The Stripper has been used somewhat in the Southwest where weather conditions and plant growth are favorable. The mechanical cotton picker is intended for use on higher grades of cotton in the South Central States. Several pickers were being developed in 1940, but were not in regular production. The quality of mechanically picked cotton is at least one commercial grade lower than hand-picked cotton under similar condi- tions. This loss in quality is due partly to the inability of the mechanical cleaners to remove leaves and bits of trash entangled in the lint, and partly to stains occurring when the leaves are entwined and squeezed by the cotton as it is wound on the spindles. Spinning tests have revealed machine-picked cotton to be more "wasty" than similar hand-picked lots. Under close supervision, a rate of 1,200 pounds or more of seed cotton an hour is possible with the mechanical picker for short periods in heavy- yielding cotton. Seasonal capacity, of course, would be lowered by rainy days, soft fields, heavy dews, and machine break-downs. The mechanical cotton picker can be said to be on the horizon. Any scarcity of labor for cotton production would probably hasten its adoption, even at the 1940 stage of develop- ment, and would induce greater effort to perfect a more satisfactory machine. Rural Electrification Scarcely more than 100,000 rural homes received current from electric power lines in 1919, but by June 1940 service had been ex- tended to approximately 2 million farms, or about 29 percent of American farms. The proportion of farms receiving current at the end of 1939 varied from 78.5 percent in the Pacific States to 10 percent in the West South Central States. Rural electrification started in the 1920's. Farm and utility leaders supported the move- ment, and research projects, financed almost wholly by utility companies, were inaugurated. Expansion slowed down in the early 1930's, but was soon revived, stimulated by the Rural Electrification Administration. 15 There has been more than a threefold in- crease since 1926 in the quantity of electrical energy utilized by farmers, from 723 million kilowatt-hours in 1926 to 2,500 million kilowatt- hours in 1938. The average quantity of electric- ity used annually by each electrified farm east of the 100th meridian has increased steadily since 1932, the average consumption in 1938 being 1,045 kilowatt-hours. West of the 100th meridian, in regions where the use of electricity on farms often is associated directly with irriga- tion, the average annual consumption was 4,386 kilowatt-hours in 1938. Some 250 farm uses of electricity have been listed, not all of them commonplace. The total annual amount of electricity used on farms has been apportioned in this way: 40 to 50 percent for irrigation; 30 percent for household appli- ances; 20 to 30 percent mainly for lighting barns, yards,and out-buildings, but some for small equip- ment like pumps, chick brooders, and milking machines. In areas outside of the regions requir- ing irrigation, household appliances generally represent the main uses of electricity on farms (7). Rural electrification during late 1939 and early 1940 has been rapid, the number of farms re- ceiving electricity increasing about 25,000 a month. At this rate all the farms in the United States would be electrified within 15 to 20 years. How-ever, the sparseness of population and the extremely low incomes of farmers in some areas may prove to be insurmountable obstacles to electrification, unless financial aid is granted to farmers in such areas. The influence of these factors will become greater as rural electrifica- tion is extended. Nevertheless it seems reason- able that a total of 3 million to 3.5 million farms — 45 to 50 percent of all farms — will be receiving electricity from power lines within the next 10 to 15 years. But the investment by each farmer for line, wiring, and equipment may limit the extension. It costs the average farmer about $700 to install and equip his farm with electric services and appliances, although some of this expense can be saved if the farmer can and will do part of the work himself. (Other aspects of new machinery are treated in chapter 16. Rural Electrification is discussed in chapter 17.) 16 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM Chapt er 4 Changes in Animals Jack Sprat would eat no fat, his wife would eat no lean, and their relatives had decided preferences for breast meat. Market demands depend on factors like that. So, farmers and cattle breeders have developed better ways of feeding animals, keeping them healthy, testing their value, and increasing their reproductive ability. A preliminary view of such progress is given here. Americans have changed their mode of living. They have new appetites and knowledge of nutrition. Their work has become more seden- tary and less physical, and allows the use of food of lower caloric value. Reducing diets have cut the farmer's market for animal fat. Kerosene was substituted for tallow candles and in turn is being replaced by electricity. Hydrogenated vegetable oils compete with lard. Smaller families have meant a smaller demand for large roasts and large turkeys. Preferences for breast meat encouraged the breeding of poultry with large amounts of such meat. Hogs and cattle are bred and fed so they will have more lean meat and less fat. These are but some of the changes in market requirements and, indeed, in animals themselves. Changes in livestock production have done much more than meet new market preferences — new and basic techniques have been developed. The results of nutritional studies are often quite as applicable to farm animals as to human beings, and new knowledge of pests and germs and min- erals has been widely used in controlling animal diseases. The science of genetics has contrib- uted to improvement through cross-breeding. Animal Feeding Research in animal feeding has been directed toward learning the importance and use of vita- mins, minerals, forage, pasture, hay, and silage in rations and the effects of processing and stor- age on feeds. Much of this work has preceded studies in human nutrition. Further work is needed to locate areas in which mineral deficiencies exist and to determine the quantities and kinds of each of the minerals re- quired in them. Some areas are known to lack iodine, calcium, phosphorus, cobalt, copper, or iron, and methods have been devised for correct- ing the deficiencies. The addition of small amounts of manganese to poultry feeds prevents deformity in broilers and increases the hatchability of eggs. In 1939, all leading feed manufacturers and most poultry- men were adding minerals to poultry rations. A greater gross income from broilers and a de- crease in the cost of producing chicks have resulted. The lack of vitamins, organic food substances essential to the well-being of animals and humans, may lead to lameness, loss of appetite, 17 blindness, paralysis, rickets, nervous disorders, and sterility. Vitamin A appears to be the vita- min most likely to be lacking in the feeds of beef cattle, particularly those in the South and semi- arid West. The addition to rations of small quantities of leafy legumes, rich in carotene, corrects the fault. Diseases and Parasites All classes of livestock and fowl are subject to diseases and parasites that cause general un- thriftiness and sometimes death. Many control methods are available and in use in varying degrees. Sleeping sickness is the worst of the horse diseases. Outbreaks of varying severity occur each year in the late summer and early fall. Approximately 200,000 cases among horses and mules were reported in 1 938, with about 40,000 deaths. Experiments have developed a vaccine which, if found to be generally successful under field conditions, will probably reduce these losses. A cooperative campaign inaugurated in July 1917 to eradicate tuberculosis among livestock has been highly successful. Nearly all dairy and breeding cattle in the United States have been tuberculin tested. Except for nine counties in California, the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands were modified accredited areas in 1939, meaning that bovine tuberculosis among cattle has been reduced to less than 0.5 of 1 percent. Paratuberculosis, Bang's disease, and mastitis are the most important diseases affecting Ameri- can cattle. No satisfactory control methods, except testing and slaughter, have been devised. Sometimes even this method has failed, mainly because of inadequate tests. The campaign against the cattle fever tick has succeeded in reducing the area under Federal quarantine to 15,000 square miles in Florida and Texas, compared with approximately 700,000 square miles in quarantine in 1906, when the campaign was undertaken. There has been little apparent increase in cattle numbers as a result of tick eradication, but this work, combined with control of other diseases, the correction of mineral deficiencies, and cross-breeding, should permit increased emphasis on livestock production in the South- ern States. Progeny Testing Progeny testing is a means of identifying superior individuals by the performance of their progeny, and enables breeders to select animals better able to transmit desirable characteristics to their offspring. The practice has been most widely used with dairy cattle. Production records were kept on about 2}i percent of all dairy cows in the United States in 1939. Since 1927, dairy herd improvement association records have been used to prove sires; and, since 1936. the practice has MILK PRODUCTION PER COW MILKED. 1909-39 been expanded and made more accurate by the use of ear tags for identification and by a system of permanent records. Estimates of year-to-year changes in milk production per cow from 1909 to 1939 are shown in an accompanying chart. Such esti- mates cannot be made with absolute accuracy because interpretations vary as to the propor- tion of cows classed as milk cows. Year-to-year variations arise largely from condition of pas- tures, amount of concentrates fed, and closeness of culling the dairy herd. Although the droughts of 1934 and 1936 affected production, the estimates do reveal a fairly consistent upward tendencv in individual production, averaging about 25 to 30 pounds of milk a year. A large part of the gain in produc- tion per cow is probably the result of the heavier feeding that was encouraged by the higher butterfat prices relative to prices of feed con- centrates in most of the post-war years. Progeny 18 testing no doubt will accelerate the upward trend in such production, but its effect will be relatively small until it is widely adopted as a basis for culling. Testing of Other Animals Progeny testing of beef animals has disclosed a wide variation in the ability of sires to transmit the characteristics needed for economical gains in the feedlot. The calves from one sire, for example, produced 100 pounds of gain for each 500 pounds of total digestible nutrients con- sumed, while calves from another sire required more than 1,000 pounds of total digestible nutrients for each 100 pounds of gain. It is evident that the show-ring performance, which progeny testing supplants, is not a very accurate measure of productive efficiency. Poultry breeders use progeny testing to obtain strains of poultry superior in egg production, egg weight, and body weight, but farmers who are not specializing in poultry have found that too much work is required for the necessary trap- nesting and record keeping. For other types of livestock, extensive pro- grams of progeny testing remain to be developed. A program to improve swine has been successful in Denmark for more than 40 years, but in the United States the process has been limited to experiment stations and the Department of Agriculture. Cross-Breeding Cross-breeding involves the mating of animals of different breeds or species. Brahman cattle from India are crossed with beef breeds of British origin to get a quality beef animal that can withstand the high tempera- tures, humidity, and insect infestations along the Gulf Coast. The crosses seem able to utilize forage somewhat more effectively than other beef cattle, and appear to need less attention. There has been an increasing demand for Brahman cattle in the South since 1915, and especially since 1930 in the eastern part of the Gulf Coast States. It is estimated that at least 500,000 head — about 20 percent of the cattle along the Gulf Coast area — show Brahman breedins;. The greatest technical limitation in cross- breeding beef cattle is the necessity for constant crossing. Cows with a high percentage of Brah- man blood should be crossed with British-type bulls for the production of high-quality animals. It is therefore essential for a breeder using Brahman crosses to own, or have available, animals of the two breeds that he is crossing. This tends to make cross-breeding a practice that only the large cattle producers can follow economically. Swine, Sheep, and Poultry Experimental cross-breeding of swine indicates that cross-bred pigs require about 5 percent less feed for the same amount of gain and about 5 percent less time to reach maturity than do purc- breds. At the same time they yield better carcasses. Estimates indicate that 60 to 70 percent of the swine reaching Corn Belt markets in 1938 showed evidence of cross-breeding; but most of them did not involve crossing of pure- bred lines, and the chances of superior offspring were probably much reduced. Cross-breeding of sheep of the wool-and- mutton type has been practiced for a long time. Such breeds as the Columbia and the Corriedale have been developed by this means. Because of the change in the relative values of wool and mutton, cross-breeding has increased since 1930. It is estimated that approximately 10 percent of the range sheep were involved in cross-breeding in 1939. Cross-breeding of poultry finds its greatest use in broiler production, where the ability of the cross-breds to make more rapid growth is a distinct advantage. In the broiler area of Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland almost 85 percent of the broilers are produced by cross- breeding, mainly of Rhode Island Red and Barred Plymouth Rock. It is expected that 85 percent of the broilers in all areas ultimately will be those coming from intercrossing. Artificial Insemination Artificial insemination is the act of inserting semen into the female by mechanical means. It permits the use of proved sires on more females than does the natural method. The technique 239955° 19 has been well developed, although further im- provement can be expected. Effective use requires adequate equipment handled by well- trained operators. The practice is employed with various degrees of success among cattle, horses, foxes, sheep, swine, and poultry. Seventeen artificial breeding associations for dairy cattle were functioning in 1939 in 10 States. These included approximately 15,000 cows. The Farm Security Administration had about 2,600 breeding rings in all classes of live- stock among its clients in 1939. A few of these rings were using artificial insemination and it was planned to extend its use to more of them. The rate of increase in the number of breeding associations using the technique during the past several years has been such that further expan- sion can be expected. The final result of the program is similar to that of progeny testing — better quality of livestock herds. By extending the use of proved sires over several hundred females a year instead of 25 or 50 in a single herd, faster improvement can be made in the quality of the entire livestock population. Because the cost of cooperative purchase of a good sire, added to that of collecting and transporting semen, will tend to offset the amount that farmers otherwise would spend for more sires and for feed, the total cost for breeding probably will not be changed materially. Probable Effects on Production To summarize: It should be emphasized that results of the work in livestock improvement affect production rather slowly, and that there- fore the necessary adjustments usually can be made as the improvements themselves take place. As a result of mechanization, changes in cropping systems and the release of feed crops for meat and milk animals probably will have a much more important immediate effect on the volume of livestock products than the improve- ments in breeding and care of animals. The latter are effective particularly in enabling farmers more efficiently to utilize, through live- stock, the increases in feed produced. (Chapters 1 9 and 20 give a more complete summary of developments in animal nutrition, progeny testing, cross-breeding, artificial in- semination and diseases and pests.) 20 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM Chapter 5 Changes in Plants Hybrid corn is as important among plants as the tractor is among machines. Ap- proximately 24 million acres were planted to hybrid corn in 1939, with an increase in production of 100 million bushels. Within the next 10 years probably an in- crease of an additional 100 million bushels can be expected. As we see in this chapter, there also have been many improvements in wheat, oats, soybeans, cotton, and flax that have helped farmers win battles against insects, rusts, and drought. among the greatest fighters in the battle xi. against crop failures are the plant technol- ogists. Their slow, painstaking, highly techni- cal efforts have achieved new, more vigorous, and more productive plants. Perhaps their greatest triumphs have been the development or discovery of varieties that survive drought, dis- ease, and parasites. Farmers who have been almost whipped by dry weather, rust, smut, chinch bugs, root worms, and other hazards have been given a fresh chance by new plants such as hybrid corn, Thatcher wheat, and rust- and smut-resistant oats. It often is difficult to measure the dollar-and- cents value of these developments, for many of them maintain, rather than increase, yields. Innovations in plants affect many crops and all agricultural regions by making available new species to regions that formerly had not grown them, increasing yields through more vigorous and prolific strains, improving crop quality, and adapting plants to specific types of machines. From experiments with hybridization and other means of improvement may come some of our most important technical developments. We know much about genetics and the prin- ciples of breeding, but that knowledge may be merely the shadow of things to come. Plant hormones and other growth and food sub- stances may work still another revolution in our forests, fields, and gardens. These are discussed later; this chapter is primarily a brief appraisal of recent developments most likely to affect national production in the near future. Hybrid Corn It is almost impossible to exaggerate the im- portance of corn. It is the most valuable of all farm crops in the United States, and any threats to its success are watched carefully by millions of persons. The additional security against low yields and crop failure offered by hybrid corn is an outstanding farm achievement of the past decade. The first commercial hybrid seed corn was produced in Connecticut about 1922, and hy- brids adapted to the Corn Belt became available 7 years later. In 1933, about 40,000 acres were in hybrid corn in the United States, but just 6 years afterwards approximately 24 million acres were grown — roughly one-fourth of the national corn acreage. About 55 percent of the total corn acreage in Ohio and Illinois and 75 percent in Iowa were in hybrids in 1939. 21 Probably 80 to 85 percent of the corn acreage eventually — perhaps before 1950 — will be plant- ed to hybrids in the Corn Belt. Further expan- sion will be limited by low soil productivity in some areas where the hybrids have too slight an advantage over open-pollinated corn. In parts of the Great Plains, where too little mois- ture limits yields, the returns from hybrids may not justify the extra expenses involved. When all factors are considered, the grain sorghums HYBRID CORN; ACREAGE GROWN IN THE NORTH CENTRAL REGION. 1933-39 ACRES IHIIUONS- ACR AGE PEflOENT 40 20 PERCENT OF TOTAL ICREAGE 1933 1934 1935 1936 937 1938 are more dependable for some of these places than corn. The development of corn hybrids for the South has not been neglected, but those now under trial may not be ready for extensive distribution among southern farmers before 1945. The development of a hybrid suited to the climate of the Mississippi Delta and other fertile southern regions would give considerable impetus to feed production there. Rather slow adoption of hybrid corn in the South seems to be indicated because of the greater cost, relatively low corn yields, and the fact that corn is not a southern cash crop. Insect damage makes it difficult to maintain inbred lines of corn in that section, and may mean that the cost of producing hybrid seed in the South will be greater than in the Corn Belt. Seed adapted to southern conditions apparently cannot be successfully produced in the Corn Belt. The Values of Hybrid Corn An important characteristic of hybrids is their increased productiveness, for yields sometimes exceed those of open-pollinated varieties by 1 5 to 30 percent. Another is increased "stand- ability," of especial value when mechanical corn pickers are used. Some hybrids resist disease, and several are somewhat immune to chinch bugs and corn root worm. Certain experimental hybrids display some resistance to the European corn borer and to the corn ear worm. Plant breeders conservatively estimate in- creases in yields of 15 to 20 percent from using hybrid seed under field conditions. They expect about the same relative increases in both low- and high-yielding areas. Since expenses will not rise proportionately with additions to yields, this would tend to give a further advan- tage to the high-yielding areas (8~). Future Production One basis for estimating the higher production attributable to hybrid corn is given in table 3. It is assumed that 80 percent of the acreage in the North Central States and 40 percent of the acreage elsewhere will be planted to hybrids and that 15 percent will be added to yields by the assumed adoption of hybrid seed. These assumptions may be conservative. However, there is little basis for estimating the future spread of hybrid seed outside of the Corn Belt, and 40 percent of the acreage may not be planted to hybrids for many years. Many areas within the North Central States (for instance, in the Lake States and the Dakotas) will prob- ably be far below the estimated 80 percent in hybrids for some years, but the heart of the Corn Belt is likely to exceed this figure quite soon. If hybrid corn were adopted as estimated (80 percent in the North Central States and 40 per- cent in other States), production would be 273 million bushels greater than production calcu- lated by multiplying the average yield of 1 923-32 by the average harvested acreage of 1928-32. If the 1939 harvested acreage is used and the other assumptions remain the same, the corn 22 Table 3. — Possible production of corn under specified assumptions with respect to hybrids^ North Central States compared with all other States Acreage harvested Yield per aero 10-year average 1923 32 i Product ion from acreage of 1028-32 Produc- tion, 1939, as re- ported 2 Production from 1930 acreage Group of States Average 1928-32 ' 1939' A. From open-polli- nated seed only 3 B. from hybrid seed ' Increase (B-A) ('. At 10- yenr aver- age yields 1023 32 I). From hybrid seed < North Central 1,000 acres 05, 932 37. 487 1,000 acres 61, 145 37, 058 Bushels 18.0 1,000 bushels 1,951,587 674, 700 1,000 bushels 2, 183,868 715, 252 1,000 bushels 232,081 40, 480 1,000 bushels 1,901,834 657, 303 1,000 bushels 1,513,892 677, 844 I, ism bushels 1,693,922 718, 5l. r , United States-.. - . 103,419 88, 803 25. 4 2, 020, 353 2, 898, 920 272, 507 2,019, 137 2, 191.730 2. 112, 437 North Central Percent 03.8 30. 2 Percent 57. a 42.4 Percent Percent 74.3 25.7 Percent 75. 3 24.7 Percent 85. 1 14.9 Percent 74.9 25. 1 Percent 09. 1 SO. 9 l'trct ut 70. 2 All other 29.8 United States. 100.0 ion. n lllll II 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 Figures from Agricultural Statistics, 1938, table 43. Corn for all purposes. 3 Figures from Crops and Markets, vol. 10, no. 12, December 1939, p. 207. Subject to revision. 5 Produetion at the 10-year average yield. * Computed on the assumption that hybrid corn outyielded open-pollinated corn by 15 percent, the North Central States was in hybrid corn while 40 percent in other States was in hybrid corn. rod that 80 percent of the corn acreage in crop would be 221 million bushels greater. Strangely enough, the actual production in 1939 exceeded the hybrid estimate by 207 million bushels, for the 1939 corn yields were well in excess of the 1923-32 average and slightly in excess of the assumed yield of hybrids. 2 On the basis of the corn acreage harvested in 1 93S, or the smaller acreage in 1 939, it seems con- servative to estimate that the use of hybrid seed will add at least 220 million bushels to our total corn production. Perhaps a little more than half of this increase has already been experienced. Wheat Improved varieties of wheat have been made available to American farmers by three methods — introduction of new varieties from other countries, selection from mixtures and natural hybrids in fields, and hybridization, fol- 2 The estimated yield per acre in 1 939 was 29.5 bushels, compared with the 1923-32 average of 25.4 bushels and the 1 928-37 average of 23.0 bushels. This would seem to indicate that conditions were exceptionally favorable for corn production in 1939, but corn yields were also high in 1937 and in 1938. The average yield for 1937-39 was 28.5 bushels. These should not be regarded as exceptional, for the 3 years 1919-21 had an average yield of 28.6 bushels, and the 5 years, 1919-23, had an average yield of 28.3 bushels. These high yields for earlier years show what open-pollinated corn can do under favorable conditions. lowed by selection from the progeny of artificial crosses. The third way is the most recent, but progress in its use is not rapid, because when one variety is crossed with another, undesirable characters usually are introduced and the elimi- nation of these requires several years. Improvements in wheat may have not initi- ated far-reaching effects upon wheat production, but have served, instead, to meet an increasingly unfavorable situation; wheat yields and quality have been maintained despite depleted fertility, increasing pests, and extension of production into high-risk areas. An outstanding achievement was the develop- ment of Thatcher, a hard red spring wheat, that possesses greater resistance to stem rust than other varieties. Grown on some 20,000 acres in 1935, it was found to be less susceptible to stem rust than either Marquis or Ceres in the epi- demics of 1935 and 1937. It has become extremely popular; some think- that the acreage planted for the next few years to Thatcher wheat will fluctuate around 6 million acres, or approximately one-third of the spring wheat acreage. On the assumptions that two or three severe stem-rust epidemics will occur every 10 years and that Thatcher will yield, as an average for all years, 1.3 bushels an acre 23 more than Ceres and 3.3 bushels more than Marquis, the substitution of Thatcher wheat on 6 million acres would result in an annual in- crease of 10 million bushels. Oats The development of oats with greater resist- ance to stem rust, crown rust, and smut has reached the stage where seed stocks are being distributed to farmers in the North Central States. These new kinds may replace present oat varieties on approximately 8 million acres by 1950. The effect may be that about 30 million bushels of oats (3 to 4 percent of present produc- tion) will be added to the total production for the region. Southerners have begun developing new strains of red oats that are resistant to crown rust, but it is too early to foresee the ultimate success of this experimental work. Soybeans Soybean production for seed has grown phenomenally and it is one of the most promising crops from the standpoint of furnishing raw materials for industrial uses. The soybean was introduced into the United .States in 1804, but it received only slight atten- tion for a century. Only 50,000 acres were grown in 1907. The rapid increase in recent years may be attributed to the development of high seed-yielding varieties, to improved har- SOYBEANS: ACREAGE GROWN IN THREE REGIONS. UNITED STATES. 1924-39 "T — / North Ce «-, n ~ s ^ x / \ 1 — South Central — ■gion .. „„ 1 1 I vesting equipment, and to new industrial outlets for the product. The North Central States led in soybean pro- duction in 1939 (table 4). Plant breeders there are trying to develop varieties adapted to other areas, to improve the seed-producing ability of the adapted kinds, to raise the oil content of the SOYBEANS: PRODUCTION OF BEANS IN THREE REGIONS. UNITED STATES. 1924-39 f— North Central region -*. South Centra Ath ntic V jf region / _ - — I924 I926 192B I930 1932 19X4 1936 1938 seed, to breed and improve strains with oil of particular chemical properties, and to develop a palatable soybean. Table 4. — Soybeans grown alone: Acreage and production Acreage Production Group of States (gruwn alone) Seed Hay Aver- age 1927- 315 1 1939! Aver- age 1927-36 1939 Aver- age 1927- 36 1939 North Central Atlantic South Central 1,000 acres 2,618 507 701 1,000 acres 7,106 787 1, 130 1,000 bushels 15, 361 1,850 771 1,000 buahtis 82,007 3,470 1,932 1,000 tons 1,895 417 714 1,000 tons 4,506 642 1, 115 United States 3,834 9.023 18,000 87,409 3,025 6,263 1 Source: Crops ami Markets, December 1938, vol. 15, no. 12, p. 272-273. 2 Source: Crops and Markets, December 1939, vol. 16, no. 12, p. 273. An addition to the soybean acreage in the North Central States would mean a reduction in the acreage of other crops, particularly oats, wheat, and corn to an extent that depends upon the relative profitableness of each crop. Perhaps soybeans may not displace any mate- rial acreage of corn in the Corn Belt, unless such a shift is induced by agricultural programs, but there is a strong likelihood that they will displace some wheat and oats. Increases of 15 to 20 mil- lion bushels above 1939 soybean seed production 24 could easily take place. Farmers in these Slates have sufficient power and machinery to handle more acres of soybeans, and oil and oil-meal processing plants are available as outlets. In some parts of the Northeast, particularly in New York and Pennsylvania, the production of soybean seed has mounted since 1935. Two well-adapted varieties, the Cayuga and the Sen- eca, are available to them. Some farmers have taken an interest in local soybean processing plants, and exchange soybeans grown on their farms for soybean oil-meal. Because most of the tillable land of Northeastern farms is used to pro- duce the feed for livestock, however, an appreci- able increase in soybean production is not anticipated. The South (the South Central States and Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia), has grown soybeans for hay and forage, and the yield of seed is low com- pared with that of the North Central States. This situation prevails partly because ot the scarcity of well-adapted, high seed-yielding varieties for many of the areas. Future production may be encouraged by new prolific plants that are adapted to southern conditions — the Palmetto, Clemson, Magnolia, Seminole, and Missoy. Another factor is that cottonseed oil mills can easily be converted to soybean processing. The need for cash crops as substitutes for cotton may also stimulate production. On the other hand, the lack of adequate power and machinery for producing the crop is a retarding factor. Other Crops The most important development in cotton improvement is standardized production in single-variety communities — a procedure where- by all farmers of a locality grow one improved strain of cotton. In 1939 there were about 1,500 single-variety communities; these accounted for approximately 13 percent of the cotton crop. Yields in some single-variety communities have been increased as much as 40 to 50 pounds of lint to the acre. A part of such increases is due, of course, to better cultural practices and better seed. New research has indicated that variety is the most important single factor in determining the use value ul cotton. Some mills appreciate this, but so long as due recognition in price is not given to even character and longer staple length on local markets, some of the incentive for farm- ers to cooperate in producing large lots of uniform cotton is lacking. When manufac- turers become more conscious of varieties, this handicap largely will be overcome. Flax Recent experimental work has been responsi- ble for establishing flax production in California and Texas. Punjab flax, grown chiefly in the Imperial and San Joaquin Valleys of California, has displaced some cotton since 1935; in 1939 about 100,000 acres of this flax produced some 2 million bushels of seed. About 17,000 acres of flax were grown commercially in Texas in 1938-39, chiefly near the Gulf coast in the triangle represented by Houston, San Antonio, and Brownsville. It was grown as a fall-sown crop on land previously used chiefly for cotton. The crop, harvested in April-May 1939, was generally profitable, and it is probable that the acreage will increase rapidly. Experimental work is being directed toward the development of more cold-resistant varieties for this section. Experimental plantings of flax are also being made in Oklahoma, but it is too early to predict the degree to which this crop may compete with established crops. Grain Sorghum Droughts, which make corn harvests uncertain, have stimulated the growing of grain sorghum in northwest Kansas, northeast Colorado, Nebraska, and South Dakota since 1930. The availability of early maturing sorghums, more resistant than corn to drought, made possible this extension, and gave the localities a more stable feed supply and a somewhat more stable agriculture. A Look Ahead The past successes of plant technologists probably will be repeated in the future, but it is difficult to predict the direction or extent of 25 change. Farming in high-risk areas, continued onslaughts of diseases and parasites, the recur- rence of drought, and the hope of new market varieties present a seemingly unlimited challenge in plant development. The effects of such work may increase the problems of surplus products to the nation and low farm income to farmers not growing im- proved varieties, but alarming predictions of such increases by others have not been suffi- ciently convincing to discourage the plant tech- nologist. Perhaps efforts of industrial technol- ogists in developing new uses of farm products will be successful enough to stimulate still greater plant developments. (For further details the reader is referred to chapter 21, on hybrid corn and other plant im- provements; chapter 22, insect pests; chapters 23 and 24, the use of soybeans and other crops in new processes.) 26 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM • Chapter 6 Changes in the Uses of Land We turn now from changes in machines, plants, and animals to an even more fun- damental subject, improvements in the use of land, without which our efforts to better techniques would be in vain. This chapter considers conservation, pasturage, cover crops, terracing, contour tillage, strip cropping, fertilizers, and forestry, and emphasizes that an increase in human welfare is back of them. Developments associated with the conserva- tion of natural resources promise to initiate fundamental changes in farm production. They are not always based on new discoveries. Rath- er, they are the fruit of a growing awareness of the need to save soil and forest resources. The primary object in soil conservation is to control loss from erosion and depletion of fertility, but the results are greater than the mere mainte- nance of productivity. Suitable crop rotations, the use of cover crops on erosive soils, plowing crops under to enhance tilth, and shifting poorer lands from cultivated crops to grass and pasture all tend to increase average yields. Forestry is valuable in conservation, but for- estry also is receiving growing recognition as an alternative farm enterprise. Conservation and Shifts in Crop Uses Of the 415 million acres in cultivation in 1935, it has been estimated that only 160 million acres could be farmed without injury if present land use practices are continued. An additional 180 million acres could be tilled safely with the use of the best practices. But 75 million acres of that land cannot remain in cultivation without soil destruction (9, p. 95). Increases in Hay and Pasture A systematic crop rotation that includes soil- building (crops that improve tilth) legumes and grasses to hold the soil and improve productiv- ity is considered an effective soil conservation practice. Such rotations appear to increase yields of corn and oats in the Corn Belt from 10 to 15 bushels (70). Farmers and technical experts have recom- mended cropping systems that include sufficient legumes and grasses to maintain soil fertility. Their adoption would mean a shift of about 15 million acres from soil-depleting crops (which remove essential elements from the soil and may induce erosion) to soil-building crops. Con- sidering the increased yields that could be ex- pected from improved rotations, the total feed- grain production probably would not be greatly reduced. Total feed supplies might be slightly greater, because of the expected increases in roughage. Agricultural conservation programs have em- phasized the wisdom of shifting from grain and fiber crops to hay and pasture, both to conserve soil and to reduce the surplus of grain and cotton. The recent shifts in crop acreage are shown in 27 table 5. It is apparent that the decline in soil- depleting grain and fiber crops has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in hay and forage. A decline of 31 million acres in the acreage of corn, cotton, and wheat has resulted in an increase of about 6 million acres of soil-conserving hay (soil-conserving crops take less out of the soil and ordinarily prevent excessive erosion). The shift to crops used primarily for soil building and the shift to per- manent or rotation pasture are not reported. However, payments made under the agricultural conservation program for new seedings of bien- nial and perennial legumes and perennial grasses indicate seedings which would maintain an acreage about 20 percent above that of 1928-32. Green manure crops (small grains, grasses, and legumes which are plowed under while still green), the 1937 acreage of which was practically double that of the 1928-32 average, were given additional stimulus in 1938. The acreage of these crops paid for by the Agricultural Con- servation Program in 1938 was nearly double that of 1937; and, if the payments were 50 per- cent effective in obtaining new acreage (as they apparently were in 1937), the acreage in green manure and cover crops (crops planted on other- wise idle land to reduce wind and water erosion) in 1 938 would be about three times that of 1928-32. Table 5. — Acreages of specified crops, United States, average 7928-32, annual 1937-39 Crop 1928-321 1W37 « 1938' 1939 3 Million acres 104 67 41 ^rillion acres 96 81 34 Million acres 94 86 25 Million acres Wheat (planted). Cotton (July 1 estimate) .. 25 Total 3 erops 212 211 205 181 Soil-conserving hay * 51 51 55 57 1 Agricultural Adjustment 1937-38. table 24. p. 163. - Crops and Markets, December 1938. 3 Crops and Markets, December 1939. 4 Includes acreages harvested of alfalfa, clover and timothy, les- pedeza, sweet clover, miscellaneous tame hay, sweet sorghum for hay and forage, and cowpeas and soybeans grown alone in the South and Southeastern States. A significant shift into pasture and forage crops has wide effects on the organization of agriculture because livestock is required to utilize these crops. These effects occur within the area in which the shift occurs and in com- peting areas. The relatively slow increase in hay acreage, caused partly by drought injury to new seedings, has retarded this shift. It appears that the increased acreage of hay and pasture could result in a rather large net increase in the feed supply if improved rotations result in ex- pected increases in yields of feed grains. Another important change in hay and forage production has been an increase in the alfalfa and lespedeza acreage and a corresponding de- crease in timothy and clover. Such a substitu- tion of higher quality legumes for other hays results not only in increased tonnage, but in higher feed value from the same tonnage. Comparing the average acreage of 1928-32 with that acreage of 1 939, one finds a decrease of 6 million acres in timothy and clover, and an increase of 1 .7 million acres in alfalfa and 3.2 million acres in lespedeza. The group of soy- bean, cowpea, and peanut-vine hay increased 3.3 million acres. Approximately 80 percent of the reduction in clover and timothy hay came in the North Cen- tral States. Alfalfa increased largely in the Great Lakes States, and lespedeza increased in Kentucky and Tennessee. The lessened de- mand for hay for horses, higher yields of alfalfa, emphasis upon the soil-improving qualities of legumes, and an increased ability to grow le- gumes are the major reasons for the smaller clover and timothy acreage. The production- increasing effects of this substitution of hays have been largely obscured by drought that destroyed alfalfa acreage in the West. In the North Central States, however, the shift ap- pears to have increased the expected yields of tame hay acreage about 4 percent from that of 1 928-32. 3 If alfalfa continues to replace timothy and clover at the same rate as in past years, a yearly total of 16 million to 18 million acres probably will be planted to alfalfa by 194S-46. This would mean an increase of one-fourth to one- 3 Mighcll (77) compares 1938 acreages of constituent hays with the 1927-33 average. Using 1923-32 yields, he finds a 7 percent increase in yield expectancy in the North Central States. 28 third above the 1928-32 average of 11,700,00(1 acres (the 1939 acreage was 13.5 million). Assuming the higher acre yields from alfalfa, such a shift would increase annual hav pro- duction by about 3 million tons, roughly equal to 4 percent of the relatively large 1939 production. Cover Crops Intertilled crops leave the ground between rows open and expose it to serious soil losses and deterioration. Cover and green manure sowings with and after the intertilled crops prevent these losses. Winter cover crops fit in especially well with farming practices in the South, for the warmer climate allows consider- able growth during the winter. The acreage of winter cover crops in 1937 ex- ceeded by about 130 percent that of 1928-32. Estimates of the acreage of these cover crops for 1938 are difficult to make because all green manure crop acreages were combined, but another large increase, mostly in the South, was indicated by the increase in all green manure crops. On the basis of experiments and demonstrations, it is reasonable to expect that the increased yields from use of cover crops in many southern areas would be 100 pounds of lint cotton or 12 bushels of corn per acre, varying somewhat between soil type and area and between years on the same farm (12, p. 5, 13, and 14). However, this increased produc- tion can only be gained with generous use of commercial fertilizer and heavy expenditure for cover crop seed. It is estimated roughly that the 1938 acreage of cover crops in the Eastern and Southern States would increase corn production by about 37 million bushels, cotton by about 370,000 bales, and cottonseed by about 185,000 tons in the years following 1 938. Cover crops were used in 1938 on about 15 to 18 percent of the total acreage to which they are adapted, and, with a further expansion in acreage, additional increases in crop yields may be expected. Terracing Terracing provides a system of drainage that permits holding all the water possible on the land and taking of] excess quantities without severe soil losses or damage to the growing crops. This is done through a system of con- tour channels and protected outlets. In arras of low precipitation, moisture con- servation resulting from terracing and contour tillage has effected substantial increases in pro- duction. In areas of high precipitation, dis- posing of the excess water without soil loss< s is more important. Terraces have been used mostly in the South, but their use is growing throughout the Corn Belt and in sections of the Great Plains. Terraces are used in combination with other conservation practices, and are especially valu- able on many soil types in supporting crop rotations and contour farming. Contour Farming The practice of farming around the hill on the level, known as contour farming or contour til- lage, controls erosion and conserves moisture on regular slopes, but is not adapted to hummocky land and irregular slopes. In a general way this practice has been used for many years in the East and South, but, until recently, its use has been limited in the commercial corn and wheat areas. Agricultural programs have had a direct in- fluence on the rapid adoption of contour farm- ing. It is used for cultivated row crops and, to some extent, for small grains. An increased crop yield from contour farming can be expected on most soil types in the Western Corn Belt and in the Southern Great Plains. A short test in one area under a particular set of climatic conditions showed that contour farm- ing boosted corn yields from 5 to 23 bushels an acre. Probably about 15 million acres of corn grown annually on sloping land in the Western Corn Belt could be farmed on the contour. About 500,000 acres were reported contoured in 1937 and about 5 million acres in 1938. Because of continued emphasis on this conservation prac- tice and marked increase in its use in areas where a concentrated program has been developed, at least two-thirds of the rolling western Corn Belt land may be contoured in the future. This could provide a potential increase in corn pro- duction of about 50 million bushels. 29 Strip Cropping The growing of alternate strips of erosion- resisting and erosion-encouraging crops is called strip cropping. The strips or bands are laid out on contours for water erosion control, and are run perpendicular to the prevailing winds for wind erosion control. Strip cropping is usually associated with crop rotations. In the humid northern areas, peren- nial and biennial grasses and legumes are used; in the South, annual semi-erosion resisting crops are used; and in the Northern Great Plains, strip fallow has increased rapidly. Some increase in crop yields will probably result from strip cropping, especially in areas of low rainfall where its use prevents excessive water runofL Pasture and Range Improvement Experiments in the application of lime and phosphate to pastures indicate that an applica- tion of 16 percent superphosphate at the rate of 300 pounds per acre once every 3 years, com- bined with liming in accordance with the needs of the soil, would give about a 20 to 25 percent increase in livestock carrying capacity of pas- ture. 4 These results apply particularly to areas in the East and the South. If 300-pound applications of 16 percent super- phosphate were made per acre, there would have been approximately 500,000 acres top- dressed in 1937 by participants in the agricul- tural conservation program. The phosphate applied in the agricultural conservation program in 1938, compared with 1937 figures, dropped by approximately 30 per- cent in the Northeast Region and nearly doubled in the East Central Region (Agricultural Adjust- ment Administration region definitions). On the basis of phosphate applied in 1937 and 1938, it can be estimated that the resulting addition in feed from pasture was equivalent to increases of 0.5 percent of total pasture on farms in 1934 for the Northeast Region, 0.4 percent for the East Central Region, and negligible for the Southern Region. Although the total effects 4 Among the numerous bulletins and reports of pasture experiments, the following were used in making this estimate: (75), {16), (77), (18), (19), (20), (21), and (22). of top-dressing were probably not great in 1940, there are important potential possibilities for pasture improvement along these lines. Under the range conservation program, a large number of practices has been put into use that will help improve the range, or prevent further deterioration. Deferred grazing, which permits the grasses to grow and produce seed, has been stressed. One form of this practice is to rotate grazing so that a given sod has a com- plete rest during the growing season once every several years. Another is to allow seeding to occur through limited grazing. Under the 1937 range conservation program, deferred grazing was being practiced on 12 million acres and limited grazing on 2 million more acres. These practices were even more widely used by participating ranches in 1938. It was estimated that the range was 60 percent overstocked in 1935 (23). Considerable im- provement is needed, therefore, to raise the carrying capacity up to the needs of livestock on the range in 1939 (when the number was ap- proximately the same as in 1935). The most that could be expected from deferred grazing in the immediate future would be to aid in bringing the sustained carrying capacity of the range up to the level needed by present livestock num- bers. Such improvement would lower the need for supplemental feeding, reduce losses of calves, and improve the quality of livestock. Numbers of marketable livestock, however, would not be greatly increased. Other practices, like rodent control or the development of more watering places to spread grazing more uniformly, should assist in re- establishing the range and prevent localized de- pletions. Terracing and artificial seeding, though costly, are necessary steps to get certain portions of the range back into vegetative cover. Fertilizers and Soil Amendments The rapid increase in the use of commercial fertilizers for several years before the World War was a natural consequence of efforts to increase agricultural production to meet the needs of a rapidly increasing population and to satisfy expanding foreign markets. From 1921 to 1930, trends in income from farm production, 30 expenditures for fertilizers, and the tonnage of fertilizer consumed were upward. With the beginning of the depression in 1929, these trends were reversed and continued downward until about 1932. In 1932, they were again reversed and con- tinued upward until 1937. Thus, since 1910, there has been a close relationship between gross income from farm production and ex- penditures for fertilizers. This relationship un- doubtedly will continue to influence farmers in their use of fertilizer. Aside from, or in conjunction with, cropping practices to improve soil productivity, the use of commercial fertilizers provides a method of increasing tremendously crop production when prices of farm products are high enough to induce increased use. Soil Amendments Research in the application of fertilizing ma- terials has added to the number of chemical elements known to be vital to plant growth under widely differing conditions. Many dis- eases of plants have been traced to the deficiency of certain soil elements. A lack of magnesium may cause sand-drown of tobacco or chlorosis of tomatoes. The addition of zinc to the soil and its use in orchard sprays remedies pecan rosette, peach little leaf, and similar diseases. More recently, it has been shown that internal cork of apples, cracked stem of celery, and several other diseases can be controlled or pre- vented by small additions of boron to the soil. The importance of most of the developments pertaining to the minor soil amendments is confined for the most part to specialized crops in rather limited areas. Because of this, and the fact that these elements are required only in minute quantities, it is uneconomical to add these elements freely to fertilizer mixtures. Moreover, excessive amounts may cause serious crop injury, and care must be taken to insure that the carrier compounds in the mix- ture will be compatible. Thus, expansion of the minor elements in fertilizer use is dependent upon the results of actual experimentation. I'luni Food Concentration Another important development has been the higher concentration of plant food in fer- tilizers. This has the economic advantage of lowering the costs of handling, bagging, and transportation. The grade of mixed fertilizer used is higher in areas where its adoption is of comparatively recent origin, but for the United States as a whole there has been an increase of 20 percent in the plant-food content of mixed fertilizers in the past 20 years (9, p. 529). Developments in the placement of fertilizers have increased the effectiveness of fertilizer applications, especially where heavy applica- tions of fertilizer are likely to delay germina- tion or injure young plants if placed too close to the seed or plant. Phosphate and Lime Under the 1938 agricultural conservation program, nearly 500,000 tons of phosphate were applied to soil-conserving crops and pastures, and approximately 5 million tons of limestone were used on crop and pasture land. A study of fertilizer use indicated that 90 percent of all fertilizer applied on soil-conserving crops in the United States in 1937 was used on farms par- ticipating in the agricultural conservation pro- gram (24). From the use on these participating farms, compared with the applications on all farms in 1928-32, it is estimated that the agri- cultural conservation program increased the use of phosphates on soil-conserving crops in 1938 somewhat more than 325,000 tons above the 1928-32 level. Likewise, the use of limestone was increased about 2% million tons above the amount applied on soil-conserving crops in 1928-32. Insofar as phosphate and limestone are neces- sary to establish hay or pasture crops, the greater use of these soil amendments should increase the acreage in soil-conserving crops. However, phosphate is used not only as an aid in the establishment of soil-conserving crops, which in- clude crops for green manure as well as for hay and pasture crops, but also as a top-dressing 31 applied on hay or pasture already established. Instead of expanding the acreage in soil-con- serving crops, top-dressing tends to improve the stand and yield of existing acreage. The top- dressing technique is almost wholly a new prac- tice. It is relatively unimportant on hay land, as much of it is probably fertilized before its establishment, and fertilizing together with plow- ing and reseeding would bring more rapid results. Forestry and Wildlife Production There is increasing recognition that farm woodlands have not been used as effectively for supplementing farm income as they might have been. Too often the wood lot has been regarded only as a source of fuel, or as an enterprise that would return an income once in a generation. The need for alternative income enterprises, especially in the South, and the large amount of unemployment prevailing in rural areas have focused attention on the possibilities of the forestry enterprise. Pulp The most significant recent change is the rapid expansion of the pulp and paper industry in the South. Major expansion there has been in the manufacture of coarse-textured brown paper. Southern mills are now supplying 70 to 80 percent of the total kraft paper consump- tion of the United States, and it is expected that production will continue to increase. Light-colored pulps now are being manu- factured also in the South. Five mills, either operating or in the process of construction, will furnish pulp for manufacture of book paper, bond paper, and artificial silk. A mill at Lufkin, Tex., is the first to use southern, pulp, for making newsprint. Nearly 50 percent of the domestic paper con- sumption is ordinarily imported as paper, pulp, or pulpwood, mainly from Canada, Sweden, and Finland. If a product can be produced to compete with imports on a quality and price basis, domestic production can increase consid- erably to absorb a part of the market now- supplied by imports, although it should be recognized that any such reduction in imports might require a readjustment of trade relation- ships with the countries concerned. An increase in the production of rayon also adds to the demand for pulpwood, but only 10 percent of the woodpulp of similar types pro- duced in the United States and Canada is used at present in its manufacture. Estimates by the Forest Service indicate that our future annual requirements of pulpwood may approach 25 million cords. This is approximately 3}i times the amount used in 1936. Thus, domestic production could ex- pand both to meet the increased demand and to substitute for a part of the present imports. It is expected that farm woodlands will fur- nish about 30 percent of the future pulpwood requirement. The remainder will come from commercial forests. Application of effective farm forestry practices should aid in making farm woodlands an important supplement to farm income in many areas. Increased atten- tion to farm forestry may at the same time fur- nish both part-time and full-time employment opportunities to many rural workers. Wildlife Forestry and wildlife management are closely related, but the value of wildlife to the farmer is primarily that of satisfaction derived from hunting and fishing. The propagation of wild- life and the use of idle land for wildlife refuges depend less on technological developments than upon the need of land for commercial produc- tion. Some economic benefit accrues through the sale of hunting or fishing permits and, on a small scale, through the sale of animals and pelts. Fur farming is definitely limited by the luxury market for furs. Values of Conservation The underlying purpose of many of the im- provements in land use that have been initiated in recent years has been an increase in human welfare. Thus, the emphasis on conservation has not been so much from the standpoint of husbanding the use of the natural resources as 32 it has been from a desire to redirect their use programs have not yet been realized. Some to supply human needs more effectively, both will appear in the next 10 years. Others will for the present generation and for posterity . be apparent much later. Sometimes good land-use practices will pay (A further discussion of fertilizers is given in immediate dividends, but often their value chapter 25; of soil amendments in chapter 26; becomes apparent only in future returns. conservation practices, chapter 27; forestry, Most of the effects of the present conservation chapter 28.) 33 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM • Chapter 7 Improvements in Processes and Uses The farmer has become a main cog in the machinery of mass production; his products go into many channels of trade and manufacture, where once they had limited, although basic, uses. There are, too, new ways to preserve foods, and new outlets in plastics, artificial fibers, paints, fuels, and starches for farm commodities. They are of great potential importance. The farmer's main job is to help supply man's basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing His cows give meat and milk, his woodlands provide lumber, his cotton makes shirts and dresses. But human wants and needs continue to mul- tiply. Cattle now produce leather, glue, gelatin, soap, glycerine, fertilizers, and hair felt, besides meat and milk. Cotton has come to be used for cordage, tires, bags, chemical cotton, paper, soap, fertilizer, packing and artificial leather. Trees contribute to vehicles, railroad cross-ties, telephone and power poles, fence posts, crates, barrels, fiber board, paper, furniture, acetic acid, methanol, boats, tanks, tanning extract, chem- ical cellulose, turpentine, rosin, and artificial leather. Once the farmer ground his own wheat and corn. Now he sells it to an industrial mill, and his wife buys a loaf of bread, baked, sliced, and wrapped. Once he used much of his wool and flax at home. Now he buys his overalls, socks, and suits, and his part in their production is a small part of their price. The farmer's increased dependence on the market place also increases the importance of improvements in marketing and processing, and the development of new uses for farm products that promise to widen the market outlets. There are many present and potential developments, and the choice of topics for this survey is neces- sarily arbitrary. This discussion is confined to frozen packing and other methods of preserving farm products, synthetic fibers, plastics, vege- table oils, starches, and motor fuels. The choice is based partly on an anticipation of the prob- able time-lag in the general adoption of known processes, and partly upon the availability of information about the different developments. This survey indicates a wide variety of poten- tial outlets for agricultural products, but prob- ably we should not expect a revolutionary de- velopment to solve instantly problems of farm surplus and income. New uses of some products are on the horizon. Some new markets may materialize rather quickly. But there does not appear to be any immediate industrial develop- ment that can utilize a large proportion of our farm crops. Frozen Packing The preservation of fruits, vegetables, and meats by frozen packing retains to a high degree original properties of the foods, such as compo- sition, nutritive value, color, aroma, flavor, and vitamin content. Proper treatment in the freez- ing plant and storage at correct temperatures 34 arrest deterioration, and the product keeps much of the fresh quality. No general agreement exists as to the time required for "quick" freezing, but perhaps the term "quick" should not be applied to processes in which freezing requires more than 1 or 2 hours. There are several patented systems, but satisfactory freezing can be accomplished with- out infringement of the patents. In all the methods, the fundamental problem is to with- draw heat from the product as fast as possible and, of course, at the lowest cost. The volume of frozen foods has grown rapidly in the short time in which the industry has operated. Distribution was hampered at first TOTAL U S FROZEN FRUIT PACK. 1925-38 by costly and mechanically unsatisfactory retail storage facilities, but the development of lower- priced and more efficient retail cabinets has facilitated handling. Every indication points to further rapid expansion. The present relative position of frozen foods is shown partly in table 6 by the value of canned, dried, and frozen foods packed in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico, and in Alaska and Hawaii. Table 6. — Estimated value of western production of canned* dried ', and frozen fruits and vegetables, 1938 1 Item Value Propor- tion of total Item Value Propor tidll Of total Fruits: Canned Dried Million dollars 115 52 4 Percent 67 31 2 Vegetables: Canned Frozen Total Million dollars 57 4 Percent 93 61 mil Total 171 100 Many fruits and vegetables have not yet been frozen in commercially important quantities. In 1938, about 11 percent of the commercial crop of strawberries and nearly 25 percent of the sour cherries were processed by freezing. Relatively fewer vegetables than fruits wen- frozen. The more popular frozen packs utilized about 5 percent of peas for manufacture, 35 percent of lima beans for manufacture; also 3 percent of the commercial crop 6 of asparagus, and about 1 percent of snap beans and spinach. In some ways, frozen packing is more ap- plicable to vegetables than to fruit, because vegetables are generally cooked before use and the changes in texture during the freezing arc not so apparent in the cooked article. The cook- ing time of frozen vegetables is less than the time necessary for "fresh" vegetables, but the resulting changes in texture are the same, regardless of the time of cooking. The flavor and aroma of fruits can be maintained very satisfactorily through freezing, but so far it has been impossible to preserve the crisp, succulent characteristics of fruits and berries. It appears that packing by freezing would be a logical addition to canning operations, since existing canneries have the equipment, knowl- edge, and experience to carry on the preliminary operations that are identical for either type of preservation. The canner would have the choice of preserving his pack by freezing or heat sterilization, or by both methods. The quality of the raw materials and other factors would influence this choice. Actually, new freezing plants are being constructed, and some of the old canneries are being equipped with freezing equipment. The activity is perhaps greatest in California and the Rocky Mountain States. East of the Rocky Mountains, New Jersey is the largest producer, followed by New York, Mary- land, Minnesota, and Virginia. Frozen-packed fruits and vegetables appear to compete most keenly with canned fruits and vegetables for the hotel, restaurant, and insti- tutional supply trade. Frozen foods for the home compete more directly with fresh fruits and vegetables in retail stores. Perhaps not From Western Canner and Packer, Apr. 30, 1939. 239955° — 40 4 5 As distinguished from the part of the commercial crop manufactured. 35 more than 20 percent of the frozen fruits and vegetables were sold in 1940 through retail outlets. The largest potential markets for frozen articles seem to exist in the retail rather than in the wholesale field, but both have great, undeveloped possibilities. An expansion of freezing processes will have important repercussions on some of the areas producing fruits and vegetables. These effects are analyzed in a later section. Another form of frozen packing, sometimes called cold packing, is the one applied mainly to fruits for use in the manufacture of preserves, ice cream, and bakery products. The method is simple and requires no specialized apparatus. The fruits are cleaned, sorted, and prepared by peeling, coring, or capping, and then placed in containers holding 1 to 50 gallons. Sugar may or may not be added. Freezing is completed in 2 to 3 days, depending upon the size of the con- tainer, the amount of sugar, and the temperature of the freezer room. Storage temperatures are such that they can easily be maintained in cold- storage warehouses and in transit. This type of frozen packing began on the Pacific coast, where climatic conditions made possible the production of certain fruits, particu- larly strawberries, but where the distances to markets made the shipment of fresh fruit uneco- nomic. About three thousand 50-gallon barrels of cold-packed fruit were produced in 1918, the year that can be taken as the beginning of the industry. In 1937, the total pack was about 265,000 barrels with a slightly upward trend in production still apparent. Freezer Lockers A cold-storage locker is a "safety deposit box" kept in a room with a temperature near zero Fahrenheit, where families may store home- grown or purchased food supplies. Meats, poultry products, butter, fruits, and vegetables can be frozen and stored for as long as a year. These lockers, of about 250 pounds capacity, rent for approximately $10 a year, with an ad- ditional service charge for cutting, wrapping, grinding, and freezing. Cold-storage lockers came into prominence in the Pacific Northwest in the late 1920's, spread to the Corn Belt about 5 years later, and in 1939 had expanded to an estimated 2,000 plants in 34 States. This expansion is continuing. Canning The canning of fruit and vegetable juices, an important development in preserving agricul- tural products, is a growing industry. The importance of juice production in the utilization of agricultural surpluses is shown by the quantities of raw products required for a given output of canned juices. Roughly, 1 bushel of tomatoes, 1 bushel of apples, or 1 Florida box of oranges or grapefruit is used for each case of 24 No. 2 cans of juice. On this basis, the figures in table 7, showing the United States pack of fruit juices and nectars, can be translated directly into terms of bushels or boxes by substituting "bushels" and "boxes" for "cases." Table 7. — United States pack of ftuit juices and nectars [1,000 cases of 24 No. 2 cans] Year Grape- fruit i 205 174 417 288 739 740 2,556 2, 113 6, 083 Oranges Lemon Pine- apple Grape juice Nec- tars To- mato • 1929 1930 . .. 38 99 36 111 342 1. 107 1,227 1.975 1931 . 1932 1933 100 300 500 700 2,000 2,500 5.000 7.500 4, 171 1934 5,704 1935 1936 1937 1,217 1,500 1.650 123 250 1.201 9,287 13, 105 13, 445 1 Including Puerto Rico. 2 Almanac of the Canning Industry. Synthetic Textile Fibers The world production of rayon in 1938 was 1,900 million pounds, or nearly 60 times the production in 1920. This represents primarily a natural expansion in the use of a new textile fiber of desirable properties; however, in Ger- many, Italy, and Japan, production was aug- mented greatly by governmental policies de- signed to increase the production of substitutes for the natural fibers ordinarily imported. A further expansion in rayon production and utilization during the next few years is to be expected, but, on the basis of its present proper- ties and prices compared with those of competing 36 fibers, a slowing down in the rate of expansion seems probable. In uses where a combination of durability and low price is important, rayon cannot yet compete successfully with cotton. The basic raw material used in rayon is cellu- lose, present to some extent in all vegetable matter. In 1938, about 73 percent of the cellu- lose pulp for rayon was made from wood, chiefly spruce and western hemlock, and 27 percent from cotton linters. More than half of the wood pulp for rayon ordinarily has been imported from Canada. All the linter pulp is domestically produced and accounts for about 13 percent of linters production, while wood pulp used in rayon amounts to something less than 10 percent of the pulp annually produced in the United States and Canada. Nylon is a truly synthetic product, a chemical compound, and it is the first man-made organic textile fiber that is elastic over a wide range of moisture conditions. Vinyon, produced from a vinyl type of synthetic resin, is also synthetic and is said to be highly elastic and stronger than rayon. The commercial production of nylon began in 1940. Its possibilities appeared to be greatest in such uses as women's stockings, although competition seemed possible with the more expensive cotton fabrics. The most prob- able competition of vinyon will be with silk, rayon, and nylon. Plastics From Farm Products Cellulose — in the forms of cotton linters, cotton fabric, wood pulp, paper, wood flour, and the like — is the agricultural material most important to the production of plastics. Pro- teins, of which casein from skim milk has been utilized in greatest volume, have had secondary importance. Soybean meal has been used to a limited extent as a modifier and filler for a molding compound. Plasticized material can be produced from vegetable oils in combination with resins, and has been used somewhat in paints and varnishes. Considerable research, both governmental and private, has been directed to the development of a plastic from lignin-containing materials like wood, cornstalks, and bagasse (sugarcane refuse). Interesting results have been obtained. A plastic from soybean protein, requiring heat for molding and formaldehyde lor hardening, awaits only the discovery of some means to make il fluid enough to be used in injection-type molders; once the means is discovered, this plastic should have commercial importance. There also appears to be a potential market of moderate size for other types of molding com- pounds containing soybean meal. Interesting plastic materials have been developed by the chemical conversion of lactic acid. The total production of the leading cellulose- plastics was about 13,500 tons in 1938. The addition of the cellulose filler of phenolic and urea acids gives a total of 30,000 tons, which is a very small proportion of total cellulose produc- tion in the United States. The use of cellulose in plastics may be expected to increase, but even if it should double, it would still be less than half of the amount consumed by the rayon industry. It appears that the recent rapid technical advances in the arts of making and using plastic compositions are likely to lead to continued growth of the plastics industry. The quantity of agricultural products required in such growth, while not inconsiderable, is still relatively small, compared to the total supply of the products. The extension of fundamental knowledge of complex organic substances and the further development of processing methods offer a possibility of opening up entirely new fields of use for low-cost molded products, which would furnish outlets for very substantial quantities of certain agricultural materials. Vegetable Oils The United States is the world's largest con- sumer and producer of fats and oils. The total annual consumption exceeds 9 billion pounds. Recent imports, except for the record year 1937, have averaged about 2 billion pounds a year. Exports of oils and oilseeds have averaged 200 to 300 million pounds, besides oils and fats exported as paint, soap, and finishes on manufactured products such as automobiles and refrigerators. Approximately 67 percent of the fats and oils consumed in this country is used for food. About 42 percent of the 1938 consumption was of 37 vegetable origin; and of this amount about 70 percent was accounted for by cottonseed, soybean, corn, peanut, and linseed oils. It is these oils, animal fats excluded, which are most extensively produced on American farms. The products from which they are derived repre- sent cash crops, and changes affecting their pro- duction and use are significantly reflected in farm incomes. Developments may come with respect to tung and corn oils, wheat germ oil, and the uses of castor, sunflower, rape, sesame, and perilla oils, but the following discussion is confined to the currently more important cotton- seed, soybean, peanut, and linseed oils. The interchangeability of various fats and oils in food processing and utilization makes it possible to substitute sources of supply when any single oil is not available. Less interchange- ability is possible for soaps and drying oils. Cottonseed Oil Cottonseed oil is the most important vegetable oil produced in the United States. The pro- duction of cottonseed oil depends primarily on the volume of cottonseed production, but several possibilities exist for increasing the quantity of oil that can be extracted from a given amount of seed, among them the chances of developing special strains intended primarily for oil pro- duction and of improving the handling and processing of cottonseed. The achievement of the greatest possible efficiency in processing cottonseed would require the virtual abandonment of the present process- ing system and the substitution of solvent ex- traction factories, like those erected in the soy- bean processing industry. Such a drastic shift could not be effected rapidly, as solvent extrac- tion plants must be operated by trained men and must be of large capacity to be economical. It seems more likely, provided competition from other oils is not too great, that improvements in the present processing practice will be introduced gradually and only as existing plants become obsolete. Soybean Oil The domestic production of soybean oil in- creased from 1 3 million pounds in 1 929 to 322 million pounds in 1938, making the United States the foremost producer of the oil. Tech- nological improvements have occurred in every phase of soybean processing, so that the nutritional value, digestibility, and palatability of solvent-extracted meal for feeding are enhanced. Advances in processing have been largely responsible for the successful adaptation of soy- bean oil for human food. In 1938, more than 143 million pounds of soybean oil were used in making compounds and vegetable shortenings, compared to about 3 million pounds in 1934. Approximately 40 million pounds were used in making oleomargarine, compared to 24.000 pounds or so in 1934. Processors have antici- pated a continued expansion of soybean pro- duction, and have augmented crushing capacity by the erection or enlargement of more than 30 plants since 1938. New processing plants are being built. Peanut Oil Peanut oil is being used increasingly as food. Its wider use in oleomargarine and shortenings followed the discovery of its superior resistance to rancidity. Between 1922 and 1933, domestic production of the oil ranged from 5 million to 25 million pounds, and increased to 77 million pounds in 1938. The possibilities of further use as shortening, the adaptability of the peanut plant to certain sections of the South, and the wider application of the results of research should make it possible to extend the use of the oil. Under sufficient stimulus, peanut produc- tion no doubt can become as highly mechanized as that of soybeans, with a consequent greater volume and lower costs. Linseed Oil The United States crushes more flaxseed and consumes more linseed oil than any other coun- try. The difference between domestic con- sumption and production is supplied by imports. Although the duty on flaxseed increased from 20 cents a bushel in 1921 to 65 cents in 1930 (the 1940 rate), the higher protection has not brought greater domestic production, but rather has tended to encourage the substitution of 38 cheaper oila and the development of other products. Linseed oil is used principally in making paints, varnishes, and enamels. It is used also in many other products of the drying-oil industry, espe- cially synthetic resins, linoleum and oilcloth, printing inks, oil lacquers, core oils, putty, and caulking compounds. Before the World War, linseed oil constituted about 95 percent of the total oils used in the drying-oil industry, but this percentage has fallen to 60 or 65 percent. Linseed oil is still supreme among drying oils for the production of exterior house and maintenance paints, but there are many new products for which other oils are as good or better. Tung Oil The demand for faster-drying, waterproof varnishes and enamels led to the use of tung oil, imported from China. Tung oil has come to be used in connection with linseed oil for cer- tain types of enamelized paints, and, recently, a patent was granted covering the production of a high-temperature thermolyzed soybean- tung mixture for use in exterior paints. There may be some opportunity to develop further domestic tung oil production in certain areas of the Gulf Coast region. The greatest future changes in the production of oils and oilseeds may be expected in relatively new crops, like soybeans, for which it is much easier to develop entirely new agricultural and processing practices, than in established crops, like cotton and flax, for which it may be neces- sary to alter radically an existing system of production. Starch Starch comes mostly from the tubers of many plants and from the seeds of cereal grains. In the United States, corn is by far the most important source of pure starch, but potatoes, rice, sago, and cassava are the main raw mate- rials in some parts of the world. Starches are much alike, but each species of plant produces a starch having its own individual characteristics. It is possible, however, to con- trol the breakdown of starch and to stop it at any point, so that many desired combinations of physical properties may be obtained by appropriate treatment. Thus, starches are some what interchangeable, and further experimen- tation may disclose ways to broaden the de- gree of interchangeability. At present, certain starches have superior qualities for some uses; for instance, such root-starches as tapioca and sweetpotato have the advantage over others in the production of dextrin for use as a postage- stamp adhesive. Corn is the most important domestic raw mate- rial for starch, but only about 9 percent of the crop is used for all industrial purposes, including the production of starch. This apparently low percentage should be expected, for corn is the nation's primary feed crop. The production of potato starch in the United States has been based not upon the primary crop but upon the utilization of culls and off- grade potatoes in some of the large shipping centers. The industry has been comparatively small and irregular in operation. In 1937, an unusually large yield led to the diversion of some first- and second-grade potatoes to the produc- tion of starch, with the aid of benefit payments for such diversion. However, it appears un- likely that any large part of the potato crop can be considered seriously as a source of com- mercial starch. Pure potato starch has a some- what specialized market in the sizing of paper and textiles; the economical recovery of a good grade of starch from culls and wastes may become possible on the basis of redesign of plants and further experimentation with proc- esses. Sweetpotatoes seem to be a promising source of starch for some uses. Varieties grown pri- marily for starch have yielded as high as 400 bushels an acre, with 200 bushels representing an attainable average. At the latter figure, the starch production would be about 2,500 pounds an acre, compared to about 1,700 pounds from corn. Recent experimental efforts led, in 1934, to 6 The total sales of corn products in 1937 were, in millions of pounds: Corn starch, 731; corn sugar, 418; corn sirup, 1,035; dextrins, 83; corn oil, 133; corn oil meal, 58; gluten meal and feed, 1,084. 39 the establishment of a small commercial sweet- potato starch plant, operated by a local coop- erative in Mississippi under technical super- vision furnished by the Department of Agricul- ture. In 1938, the plant processed about 1.6 million pounds of starch, most of which was used in the textile industry. The plant is still in an experimental stage, with many technical problems to be overcome before maximum efficiency can be obtained. The characteristics of sweetpotato starch indi- cate that its natural fields of use will be in sizing textiles, making dextrin for adhesive, and in various food products to which it imparts desir- able qualities. It does not compete at present with corn starch for conversion into glucose sirup or sugar. The United States has been importing annu- ally approximately 300 million pounds of tapioca and sago, roughly the equivalent of 40 percent of the annual production of corn starch. Most of the white-potato starch used in this country is also imported. To some extent, the imported starches enter fields in which their individual characteristics give them an advantage; but the low prices in tropical countries have also given the imported starches a strong competitive posi- tion. Future research work may result in lower costs and better quality, and thus aid domestic supplies in securing a larger portion of the market for special starches. It should be noted that even an increase of several hundred percent in the consumption of starch could occur without necessitating any substantial increase in total acreage require- ments. Thus, replacement of the entire quan- tity of imported starches by expansion of the domestic sweetpotato starch industry would require a shift to industrial sweetpotato produc- tion of only about 200,000 acres, or about 1 percent of the present cotton acreage in the Southeastern States. However, even these in- creases might have a decided effect upon the cash income of many farmers. Motor Fuels Of the potential outlets for farm products there has been more discussion of motor fuels than of any other development. The impor- tance of this problem is indicated in table 8, which presents estimates of future motor-fuel requirements of the United States as compiled by the American Petroleum Institute. Automobile fuel in the United States is now practically limited to petroleum, but the rate at which resources are being used has caused some concern for the future. Coal, shale oil, and natural gas are possible mineral sources of motor fuel, but, like petroleum, they are irre- placeable. Their time of exhaustion cannot be predicted, but a gradual advance in the price of fuel from such sources may be anticipated as the better supplies are exhausted. Table 8. — Estimated motor-fuel consumption in the I T nited States l Total demand Available from— Esti- mated fuel con- sump- tion per automo- tive unit Estimated total ve- hicles registered Year Benzol and natural gasoline Crude pe- troleum 1940. .. 1950... 1960... Barrets - 563, 880, 000 636, 570, 000 657, 490, 000 Barrels 45, 000, 000 47, 000, 000 48, 000, 000 Barrets 518, 880, 000 589, 570. 000 609, 490, 000 Barrels 17.38 16.90 15. 95 Number 29, 200.0< hi 33,900,0 ToUl number tusianod S by colt tiumben • ^— -J — £___J___^ *• * ell* under 1 >«j ~ ~- * ■ / Looking at this side of the picture, one con- cludes that higher prices for young work stock may accelerate the rate of purchase of tractors. The estimated increase of 500,000 tractors within the next decade thus appears to be conservative, and if the 1940 rate of colt production continues, the calculation could be raised 50 percent. Thus, the release of a large crop acreage that was formerly used for horse feed seems to be fairly certain. The Influence of New Crops Hybrid corn has brought the most important boost in crop production likely to result from plant improvement. Perhaps a little more than half of an estimated increase of 221 million bushels occurred before 1940. Of course, still more vigorous hybrids may be developed for the Corn Belt or adapted for other fertile areas. If so, even greater production is to be expected. The need for soil-improving crops to maintain the high yields may modify somewhat the cropping systems in the Corn Belt. The introduction of a rust-resistant wheat for the spring wheat belt should remove one cause of severe losses. The extent to which Thatcher wheat, for instance, would increase wheat pro- duction depends upon how widespread and severe was rust damage, but it seems likely that the production of hard red spring wheat would fluctuate less in the future than in the past. Progress in developing small grains suited to particular conditions promises to reduce hazards in production, and — as in the case of flax in the Southern States — may open new areas for production. An expansion of soybean acreage in the Corn Bell may continue, depending on the returns from soybeans compared to returns from corn and hogs. A reduction of oats acreage and a shift from other hay crops to alfalfa would permit some expansion of soybean acreage. The soybean is one farm product most likely to receive a stimulus from any development of new industrial uses. Result of Conservation Practices Estimates of potential increases in crop pro- duction from the general adoption of soil con- servation practices are difficult to make because they involve variables, such as the response of many different soils on varying degrees of slope and under different climatic conditions. The influence of conservation practices, moreover, is likely to be cumulative as soil fertility improves. We have some measure only of the extent to which the agricultural conservation program has encouraged conservation practices; we do not know the rate at which conservation districts will increase their use. As conservation programs develop, cropping systems that will retard erosion and prevent further deterioration of the soil, and as land is directed into more effective use for crop pro- duction, some adjustment in acreages and some change in yields should be expected. The use of cover or green manure crops, in the South especially, may bring immediate increases of production if cover crops are properly fertilized, and if the crops are plowed under at the right time. This assumes that farmers will have sufficient power and equipment to do the work. Exper- ience indicates that much greater yields of corn and cotton may be obtained in the Southeastern States. Moisture-conservation practices in subhumid regions may reduce drought hazards. The results of the past few years indicate that striking increases in yields may be obtained under some conditions. The continued substitution of high-yieldint; hays for those of lower yield promises a con- siderable increase in the production of roughage. As conservation programs give further impetus to planting legumes and liming and fertilizinc 45 hay lands and pasture, more roughage and pas- ture forage will become available. The use of fertilizers may increase rapidly where soil fertil- ity has declined. The first effect would be to increase crop production. In general, the use of fertilizers depends upon the level of prices for farm products and the level of farm incomes. Results of New Practices Increases in harvests that may accrue from new practices are estimated in table 9, which includes only the more important crops and only the practices for which some quantitative estimate of effects can be made. These estimates should be considered merely as indicating the direction and magnitude of change under the specified conditions. Potential increases in some truck and fruit crops may be quite large as new varieties are adopted, new methods of disease control become known, and new methods of harvesting and marketing come into use. Table 9. — Potential annual increases in crops available for market or for livestock production as a result of technological developments in the United Stales, period 7940-50. Nature of development Crop Me- chani- za- tion Con- serva- tion prac- tices Crop im- prove- ment Acre- age shift Total Corn.-. million bushels . 56 20 2,662 37 97 —5 190 15 Hav. l,000tons._ (') 2,662 10 18 10 18 Cotton 1,000 balos 370 185 370 185 Pasture. 1,000 acres, . 2,425 91 2,425 91 1 The influences of conservation practices on the production of hay have not been estimated. Information of the effects of these practices on hay yields is lacking. Although the acreage shift from timothy and clover to alfalfa may add 3 million tons to the harvested pro- duction from the acreage in these hays, no estimate for the added production of all hays has been prepared. Undoubtedly, hay pro- duction will expand and, together with the increased supply of other roughages, possibly by more than the amount necessary to make balanced rations out of the expanded supply of feed grains. Little change in economic conditions and a continuation of wage rates and price relations similar to those prevailing during 1935-39 are assumed in the table. A continuation of agri- cultural programs on the same basis as in 1938 and 1939, no shift from feed crops to cash crops, and no shifting of crops among regions are also assumed. The changes in crop production by geographic regions are shown in table 10 and, on the basis of this regional distribution of feed grains, estimates of potential increases in livestock production by groups of States were prepared. They assume that the available grain will be used for livestock in the regions where it is produced, that the con- centrates would be used by the different kinds of livestock in the same proportions as concentrates were used in 1928-32, and that changed crop- ping systems, improvements in hay land, and improvements in pastures would be adequate to provide sufficient pasture and roughage for the effective use of the additional concentrates that would be available. The feed requirements given in table 1 1 were used in calculating the probable changes in livestock production, and no change in these re- quirements as a result of increased production was considered. The changes, therefore, assume no shift between classes of livestock and make no allowance for changes of relative prices. The potential benefits of improved livestock production practices are not included in these estimates, but the assumption is made that pro- ductive livestock will be available in the differ- ent groups of States and that production will not be restricted because of institutional limitations or because of the inability of farmers to care for livestock. The estimates in tables 9 to 11 indicate that the effect of a further reduction of 1.5 million horses and mules alone would make available for cattle and sheep nearly 4 percent of the average annual hay production for the period 1927—36. This quantity amounts to an increase of approximately 5.5 percent of the hay needed for the cattle and sheep on farms in 1938. One influence of the conservation program, including the effects of pasture improvement, should be to increase roughage supplies even further, and to encourage the production of roughage- consuming animals. The estimated increases in livestock production were based on the sup- ply of concentrate feeds. Thus, no attempt was made to balance the increases in roughage. 46 Table 10. — Potential annual increases in crops available by regions Jor market or for livestock production as n result of technological developments, period 1940 50 Group of States Corn Oats Hay Wheat Soybeans 1 '(Jllnll Cottonseed Purchased feed Pasture 1,000 bush- els 2, 265 116,437 23, 338 15, 112 1,890 189, 012 1, OUO bush- els 1,460 5,455 1,013 4,890 2,536 15, 344 1,000 Ions 232 754 317 427 2, 662 1,000 bush- els 10, 000 1,000 bush- els 17, .noil 1,000 bales 1,000 tons 1,000 Ions 20 in 48 2 91 1,000 acres 97 North Central 120 250 50 136 699 South Central 654 7117 10,000 17, 500 370 185 2,215 Average U. S. production 1927-30 2, 306, 157 1,042,461 69,754 ' 752, 891 - 18, 000 13,201 5,869 1 The increase is primarily hard rod spring of which the 1927-36 average production was 100,410,01)0 bushels, a Production in 1939 totaled 82,007 bushels. Table 11. — Grain fed per unit of livestock production by groups of States, 1928—32 Pounds of concentrates per unit Oroup of States Milk cows Other cattle Sheep Pork Chickens Horses and mules North Atlantic ' - -- Pounds per head 1,380 1,330 1,100 975 942 400 1,092 1.136 Pounds per head 600 850 910 600 500 57 576 434 Pounds per head 70 110 93 45 22 20 44 30 Pounds per cwt. 300 412 440 300 357 300 410 471 Pounds per head 70 50 48 30 35 45 45 60 Pounds per head, raised 20 18 20 10 10 15 16 15 Pounds per head 2,600 North Central East ' -.. - 2, 600 North Central West ' . . . 2,500 2,000 South Central ' .- 1,900 600 United States ' . . - 2, 160 United States 2 2,095 1 Unpublished data by Robotka and Emery on file in the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. - Data from R. D. Jenninps, estimated feed requirements in the United States (unpublished). However, considering both the crop acreage shifts of the conservation program and the sub- stitution of high-quality legumes, the roughage supply is likely to be more than ample for the increased livestock numbers. Greater Livestock Production For the United States as a whole, the addi- tional feed in prospect as a result of the changes considered, if converted to livestock production, would be sufficient to increase the volume of livestock products by more than 10 percent over the production of 1938. Since the population of the United States is expected to increase approximately 7 percent in the next decade, this increase in the supply of livestock products should be partiy absorbed by the increased demand from more people. The increase that would take place in the different kinds of live- stock products would depend upon the prevailing type of production in the areas in which the feed became available. It would, of course, also depend upon the demand for the different livestock and livestock products. Changes in price relations would not only result in a change in the relative volumes of milk, beef, pork, and eggs, but they might also alter the relation between quantities of concen- trates and roughage fed to roughage-consuming animals. A marked shift to forage crops and pastures in the interest of conservation might lead to a greater use of roughage in livestock production; if so, the volume of production might be increased less than is indicated by the estimates in table 12. Improvements in animal production and marketing should remove some difficulties of raisine: livestock in the Southern States. But 47 Table 12. — Estimated annual increases in production oj livestock products by groups of States of the United States, period 1940-50 Group of States Percentage of 1938 production Milk Beef Mutton T , ,. and lamb ' ork Chickens produced Eggs Wool sheared North Atlantic North Central Percent 4 9 19 6 Million pound* 679 5, 085 1.269 4,173 692 Million pounds 33 647 124 828 146 Million pounds 1 58 11 103 61 Million pounds 14 918 222 576 31 Millions 3 27 17 35 3 Million dozens 222 1,570 632 1,744 253 Million pounds 8 1 24 Western .. 15 10 11,898 1,778 234 1,761 85 4.421 48 U. S. production 1938 100 1 107, 155 ' 14, 160 • 2, 166 - 14, 372 1 647 3 36, 998 ' 373 i Crops and Markets, Feb. 1939, p. 30. 2 TJ. S. D. A. B. A. E. Farm Production and Income from Meat Animals by Stales, 1937-38, Apr 1939 (mimeographed i 3 Farm Production and Disposition of Chickens and Eggs, 1937-38, Mar. 1938 (mimeographed). * Agricultural Statistics, 1939, p. 349. there seems to be no reason to expect develop- ments that would immediately change present regional advantages in livestock production. Methods of handling livestock in different sec- tions of the country result in some variation in feed requirements for production, but avail- ability of leed suggests an increase of livestock production in all regions. 48 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter I O Effects on Regional Specialization Scientific advancement influences the trade, production, and living standards of a country. In the same way technology can influence competition between regions of the United States, partly through the effect of production. Not all areas can adopt new techniques with equal facility. For example, certain types of mechanization can be used more easily on level land than on hilly land. Sometimes there are economic and social resistances to change. The impact of the different develop- ments, therefore, is likely to vary, region by re- gion, according to physical, economic, and social conditions within each region, and with the extent of change in competing regions. Among the forces that are likely to have the most important effects on regional specialization are increased mechanization, the adoption of crop acreage adjustment and conservation pro- grams, the use of hybrid seed corn, other plant improvements, and new ways to preserve foods. The Southern States The introduction of tractors in the South will release for other purposes land that has been used for corn, hay, and pasture for mule feed. Most of this land has grown corn. It may continue to grow feed for other livestock, but some of it may be shifted to cash crops. The relative profit- ableness of the different alternatives and the ex- tent to which special inducements are provided for shifting will determine the choice. In considering alternative uses for this land, one must recognize the extreme urgency of soil conservation measures in certain eroded sections of the South. More close-growing crops, more winter cover crops, and fewer intertilled crops are needed. The close-growing crops — small grain, hay, and pasture — will add to the acreage of feed crops, and, for proper handling, require more power and equipment than cotton, Thus, two forces operate to reduce the amount of labor used per acre: The feed crops, that require less labor than cotton, and conservation crops, that favor the use of tractor power for turning under cover crops and for other operations. Using soil-conserving crops for livestock feed makes possible the production of more livestock products for home consumption. It has been es- timated that between 14 million and 15 million acres of crop and pasture land, in addition to that used in 1937, would be needed to produce food and feed crops sufficient to supply an ade- quate diet to the farm population in 8 Southern States (26 p. 20). Such a change would take much of the land released by the cotton acreage adjustment program and that will probably be released by mechanization. Because of the large farm population there will also be considerable pressure for development of other income alternatives. Among these is farm forestry, which may furnish a considerable outlet for land and workers as the Southern pulp- wood industry develops; also supplementary in- come may be obtained from part-time employ- ment on both public and private commercial forests. New and old cash crops will receive in- 49 creased consideration, among them fruits, vege- tables, soybeans, peanuts, and possibly flax (in certain States with semitropical climate). It is still too early to predict the effects of frozen packing on the early fruit and vegetable producing areas. Frozen foods probably will compete, however, with fresh products from southern areas that now benefit from the price advantages obtained when the foods mature early and are marketed quickly. Increased use of tractor power and comple- mentary equipment intensifies the advantage in cotton production of level and more fertile areas that also have less serious conservation problems. Relatively greater specialization in cotton pro- duction than in the Cotton Belt generally is perhaps to be expected in the Mississippi Delta, the Black Prairie of Texas, western Texas, and Oklahoma. The North Atlantic States Further adoption of tractors and comple- mentary equipment in these States will release land formerly used to produce feed for work stock and make it available for other uses. In view of the importance of dairying and the relative shortage of feed crops, it seems likely that a large part of the released land will be used to produce feed for dairy cattle. The probable shift to more dairy feed resulting from mechanization must also be related to the adoption of soil-improvement practices. The agricultural conservation program appears to have encouraged dairymen to step up the normal rate of adoption of soil-improvement practices. In other words, the conservation program seems to be hastening a desirable adjustment, but it is an adjustment which means more dairy feed. Increased use of lime and fertilizer is bound to affect hay and pasture yields over a period of years. What are the implications of such changes? Will it mean too much milk? Will farmers really adjust their rations to take advantage of increased home-produced feed? Perhaps not, for some recent farm records indicate that dairy- men are slow to adjust their purchases of grain when more roughage is available. A companion problem is the probable effect of the conservation programs on dairy production in the Midwest, and on the supplies of grain feeds that farmers in the North Atlantic States must buy. Preliminary studies indicate that these programs by themselves will not greatly increase dairy production in the Midwest. In fact, dairying in the Corn Belt increases more rapidly in depression periods — when corn, hogs, and beef cattle are selling at distress prices. Potentially, the Corn Belt is a formidable com- petitor in dairy production, but this competition will not become a reality so long as corn, hogs, and beef cattle are more profitable enterprises. Greater competition may be expected from the Great Lakes States which have fewer alternatives. Developments in the preservation by freezing of fruits and vegetables will probably intensify competition for the vegetable growers in the North Atlantic States who are depending for their advantage on nearness to large population centers. But there are probably certain areas with natural production advantages that will benefit. Increased mechanization on vegetable farms involves larger and larger investments in the business. These, of course, are made in the first instance with the hope of increasing incomes, but, if they involve the use of bor- rowed money, they increase the risks of the enterprise and leave the operator vulnerable when rapid changes take place in market prices. On the other hand, a mechanized large-scale enterprise even with its risks may be the only type that can compete successfully with other areas. If so, producers who can afford to carry such risks may become predominant in this type of farming. The poultry industry in this region has developed close to the urban markets along the Atlantic Seaboard and has benefited from a period of relatively low grain prices. It has been influenced tremendously by a remarkable development in scientific knowledge of breeding, feeding, and control of disease. Some of this development came earliest in eastern experiment stations — and the eastern poultrymen took ad- vantage of the possibilities more rapidly than their competitors in the Midwest. One cannot be certain, however, that the resulting regional advantage is permanent. To retain it means 50 that leadership in new technical and economic developments must be held in this region. The North Central States The effects of technological developments in the North Central States probably will be greatly different in the Corn Belt than the Great Lakes dairy areas. The latter are too far north to compete in corn production, and have few alternatives to dairy farming if they are not adjacent to special markets. Hence, they arc mainly dependent upon the long-term price outlook for manufactured dairy products. New developments that reduce costs in dairy farming will affect these areas favorably unless lower prices intervene. Increased dairy production elsewhere (that is not offset by increased demand) constitutes the greatest threat to farm income in the dairy areas of the Great Lakes States. One means of meeting such a threat would be to feed less concentrated feed and relatively more roughage and pasture. Such an adjustment would utilize more effectively the natural competitive advan- tages of these areas, but the shift should be accompanied by a definite increase in the quality of the roughage to prevent losses in milk pro- duction. Conservation programs emphasizing the use of lime and fertilizer to build up legumes and pastures may assist materially in adjustment to increased competition. These States have some areas well suited for fruit and vegetable production; these areas may benefit from developments in frozen packing. Cut-over areas may benefit from the develop- ment of markets for forest products. Such a development would make it possible to combine farming and forestry. The Corn Belt States naturally have been affected most by the use of hybrid seed corn. Further effects of this development in the next few years will have the most direct impact on these States, and to the extent that expanded production is not offset by acreage control, these States will produce an increased proportion of the total corn crop. The combined effect of hybrid corn and the release of land formerly used for horse feed will mean a significant increase in the feed supply for meat animals unless offsetting measures are taken. The crop-adjustment and conservation pro- grams probably will tend to shift livestock pro- duction towards roughage-consuming animals such as grass-fed cattle and sheep. Alfalfa should continue to replace timothy and other low-yielding hays, and thus add further to the feed supply. Soybeans will tend to replace a part of the small-grain acreage and perhaps a part of the corn acreage. In the southern part of the Corn Belt interest is growing in planting lespedeza with small grain, particularly barley. There is a conse- quent reduction in corn acreage. This rotation may become well established in the next few years and be hastened by limitations on corn acreage and by emphasis on conservation programs. With the increased use of motorized equip- ment, the typical Corn Belt farm is now a highly commercialized business, requiring a large investment in land, livestock, and equipment. Will further mechanization and fuller adoption of hybrid seed corn mean even larger and more strictly commercialized farms? It may not, because the introduction of small tractors and "baby combines" indicates a tendency to adapt machines to existing sizes of farms. But much remains to be done to take advantage of such new developments without inflicting undue hardships on the groups adversely affected by the changes. This problem is discussed in later sections. The Great Plains and Intermountain States In the Great Plains the drought cycle has been so severe that many persons have asked whether any type or size of farm can be developed that will permit a farm family to survive prolonged drought periods on a self-supporting basis. Recent Government activity in the Plains has been directed toward answering this question. Survival will be aided by the further develop- ment of programs designed to conserve both human and natural resources by shifting some of the higher-risk dry-farming areas to less 239955° — 40- 51 intensive grazing uses. Programs that encour- age improved methods of reseeding will hasten the adjustment. Even in some of the better areas a way will have to be developed for maintaining the organic matter in the soil in order to prevent soil blowing. In the Northern Plains, perhaps, this can best be achieved by seeding perennial grasses on a con- siderable part of the present crop acreage, leav- ing the land in grass over a period of years, and plowing it for crops only as rapidly as an equiva- lent acreage is seeded back to grass. A combination wheat-and-grass farm will require the addition of livestock to utilize the grass, and, therefore, raises the problem of feed supplies in dry years. Although herds can be sold clown to basic foundation stock, a minimum feed reserve of some kind is necessary. In some parts of the region more certain annual feed supplies may be provided by new, early matur- ing varieties of grain and forage sorghums. These sorghums now have an important place in the Southern Plains, but there are difficulties in obtaining stands of perennial grasses in some parts of the Plains. Eventually the indicated developments in the Great Plains probably will mean less wheat and more roughage-consuming livestock, largely beef cattle and sheep. Combined livestock and grain farming will be more prevalent. The mechanization of wheat production is largely an accomplished fact, and adding livestock to the wheat farm would probably not mean less mechanization, but would accelerate the trend to larger farms. If the more strictly ranching areas are to maintain their most important resource — grass — they must institute an effective conserva- tion program. Because there is no alternative to grazing as a use of the land, conservation can mean only less intensive use — fewer cattle and sheep on the range. In many areas, however, the range is now so overcrowded that lighter stocking will actually result in more pounds of beef, lambs, and wool. There is some possibility of increasing the carrying capacity of land by developing more accessible water supplies, by rodent control, by rotation grazing, and other means. These devices alone are insufficient, and adequate stabilization of agriculture in ranching areas will require adjustment of livestock to the numbers that the range can permanently sup- port. Further development of conservation programs in other regions mav result in increased numbers of beef cattle and sheep that will offset reductions on the Western ranges. The Pacific Coast States The most important effects of technological developments on the West Coast are likely to be felt in the commercial fruit and vegetable areas. Washington and Oregon produced about one- fourth of the total United States pack of frozen vegetables in 1938. This represents a tenfold increase in 5 years, and further rapid expansion appears probable. The rapid development of frozen packing probably will mean that the areas of the South and Southwest (including California) that now produce small fruits and vegetables for northern and eastern markets during the winter and early spring will lose an important part of their market outlet, unless they can remain in production at prices comparable to those prevailing when the products from the more temperate areas come on the market. The higher acre yields and smaller production expenses give the temperate areas an advantage that will increase the adverse effect of frozen packing on those areas now producing "out-of-season" fruits and vegetables. On the Pacific coast, frozen packing is likelv to favor the northern part of the region where it may furnish an alternative enterprise to dis- tressed orchard areas. But one must bear in mind that many areas in this country are physically suited for growing the high-quality fruits and vegetables required in freezing. In the next few years the industry may develop faster in the North Central States and the North- east, where production will be closer to present consuming markets. In any consideration of agricultural changes in this region, however, one must not neglect the rapid increase in population on the Pacific coast. The population of Washington, Oregon, and California about doubled between 1910 and 52 1930, and increased more than a half million development in this region is likely to be con- between 1930 and 1940. This change in the centrated on food staples, in view of the un location of the consuming population means not satisfactory long-term outlook for deciduous only better local outlets for poultry, eggs, fruits, fruits. Such a development would lend stability and vegetables, but also larger markets for dairy to farming in the region, and would also lend to products and meat animals. Future agricultural promote greater conservation of resources. 53 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter i i Effects on Prices, Costs, and Returns The economic welfare of most farmers depends largely upon the market value of their products and upon the prices they pay for the goods they buy. Most of the economic effects of new developments, therefore, must be traced through their effects on farm prices, costs of farm products, and the part of farm returns that can be used for family living. It is also through the price structure that the benefits of many developments may be shifted to other groups in society. Comparisons of the prices for a farm product, before and after the adoption of a new tech- nique, may not disclose the true impact of tech- nology on price fluctuations, which may be con- cealed by major forces like changes in domestic or foreign demand or the effects of production adjustment programs on supply. Technological change, nevertheless, may have an important effect in determining the level of agricultural prices. Because most technological developments reduce costs of production relative to the prices received, production tends to ex- pand and eventually bring price declines. How- ever, the prices of some of the elements needed in production may vary and thus alter the relation of cost of production to price that existed when the technological change was made The cost of production for a commodity may actually be higher than it was previously, and if it persists long enough, production of this product will be lowered and the price will rise to follow the change in cost. Yet this cost would not be in- creased so much as it would have, had the tech- nological change not occurred, nor would the contraction of production and the subsequent rise in price be so great. Insofar as this is true, technological change results in "lower" levels of prices for agricultural products. However, because of the overshadow- ing effect of other factors, such changes are usually not apparent when the actual course of prices is followed. Grains and Roughage A major consequence of technical develop- ments is an increase in the supply of grains and roughages. How much more the future supply will increase as the developments become more widespread cannot be stated precisely, but it is expected that it will continue to grow. No doubt the additional corn production resulting from the use of hybrid seed in the Corn Belt was a factor in bringing about the need for a lower allotment acreage in corn for 1940 in the Agri- cultural Adjustment program of the Department of Agriculture. An expansion in livestock production seems certain as a result of mechanization, hybrid corn, conservation practices, and shifts to high- yielding hays. Not only will there be available for livestock (other than workstock) a greater proportion of the total feed, but there probably will be more feed produced in some areas because of higher 54 yields of corn and hay. In the Corn Belt, 100 acres of hybrid corn and alfalfa, the corn being harvested for grain, will produce a larger number of feed units than will 100 acres of open- pollinated corn also harvested for grain (49). A restriction of the corn acreage may offset the potential increase in production resulting from hybrid corn and thus assist the corn-loan program in maintaining corn prices, but the effects that hybrid corn will have are not entirely removed. Further restriction of the acreage in corn will free additional acreage for soil-con- serving crops or pasture. The total supply of roughages will increase and the prices of rough- ages relative to corn prices may decrease. Roughage-consuming livestock under these con- ditions probably will receive more roughage and less grain, and the production from this type of livestock will tend to expand relative to the acreage in corn. If the demand for livestock products does not expand with the new livestock production, the prices received by farmers for these products will tend to fall. The maintenance of corn prices at too high a level as the prices of livestock and livestock products decline accentuates the substitution of cheaper feeds for corn, and may bring forth new ways of making livestock pro- duction more efficient in the use of grain. Grain for Livestock There is only meager evidence concerning the gains in efficiency from using grains for livestock production and the extent to which the various roughages and feed grains are substituted for each other in feeding livestock. Obviously, the shifting back and forth between grains and roughages is greatest for cattle, particularly beef catde. Yet a study of the cost of producing hogs in Champaign and Piatt Counties, Illinois, during 1920-38 shows a greater use of pasture and a decline in the amount of grain fed for each 100 pounds of live weight produced (50). The amount of grain fed for each 100 pounds of live weight fell from an average of 508 pounds for 1920-24 to an average of 434 pounds in 1934-38, while days on pasture increased from 7 to 46. At the same time, proteins fed increased from 7 pounds to 19 pounds. The amounts of grain fed annually to cattle and horses on Iowa farms between 1923 and 1932 seemed to vary between 40 and 60 bushels per head (49). This same study concludes thai a 10 percent reduction in grain accompanied by a corresponding increase in hay and pasture would not have any significant effect on the type of livestock and livestock products produced in Iowa. This estimate, however, was prepared before the widespread adoption of hybrid corn. Whether there has been a significant increase in the efficiency of feeding grain to livestock for the United States as a whole cannot be clearly determined. If the amount of grain estimated to have been fed during a year to all livestock, including workstock, is related each year since 1909 to the amount of grain estimated to have been required at average rates of feeding for the yearly livestock production, no great change in the amount of feed consumed relative to the requirement is indicated. In other words, the average rate of feeding for all livestock seemed to be about the same in the period 1909-14 as it was during 1937-39. More significant, however, are the indications from this comparison that during the years of reduced grain supplies live- stock production becomes more efficient in the use of grain. Livestock production is greater relative to the amount of grain. Despite the probable overestimation of the hog production resulting during years of reduced quantities of grain and despite the fact that the utilization of roughages is unaccounted for, it is likely that grain can be used more effectively when it becomes necessary to do so. An elasticity in the use of grain thus exists, even though no signifi- cant long-run gain in efficiency can be observed. The expansion in the production of roughages is likely to increase the possibilities of substituting roughage for grain. As long as the corn-hog ratio is favorable for the feeding of hogs, a re- duction in corn acreages probably will be offset in part by farmers feeding less grain and more roughage to roughage-consuming livestock and thus diverting corn either to hogs or to the market. If the prices of livestock relative to the prices of corn become too low for the feeding of corn, the existence of larger supplies of higher-quality 55 LIVESTOCK CONSUMPTION OF GRAIN AS A PERCENTAGE OF LIVESTOCK REQUIREMENT, 1909-39 1909- 1912- 1915- 1918. 1921- |924- 1927- 1930- 1933- 1936- 1939- roughages makes all the more possible the shift from corn. If the prices of corn persist at this relatively high level, the total requirement for corn may become less. Roughages will be utilized more effectively in maintaining the same livestock production with less corn. Larger numbers of livestock will be marketed at the weights that give the maximum gain from a given quantity of grain. Eventually, livestock numbers may be reduced, even if temporarily. It is possible that if high prices of corn are prolonged, the average grain requirement for livestock production may de- cline. Thus technological developments pose problems for the corn-loan program. Other Effects An increase in the production of livestock and livestock products will, of course, exert a down- ward pressure on prices. There would then be a reduction in their total market value, because the character of the demand for most of these products indicates that a smaller volume of production and sale by farmers gives a larger total return than does a larger volume. Further- more, the decrease in the rate of population growth intensifies the effects that increases in production will have on price. Although there are unsatisfied demands in our population, some sort of financial assistance may be required to make these demands effective. The most optimistic estimates of the potential increases in the available production of wheat, cotton, sorghum, and many other crops are small relative to the annual production of these crops. The annual variation in the total pro- duction is much greater than any expected increase. Thus, although these increases would have price-depressing effects, they may not be significant enough to be recognized in the market. Canning and Freezing Several developments affect the demand for agricultural products. The continued expan- sion of the canning of fruit and vegetable juices may have adverse effects upon fresh fruits and vegetables and canned products. Much of the expansion in this direction is merely a substitu- tion of one product for another. The fruit juices tend to be substituted for canned and dried fruit and even for fresh fruits, such as grapefruit and oranges. Frozen fruits and vegetables sub- stitute for fresh products and for canned goods during the seasons when fresh fruits and vege- tables are scarce or high in price. The canned goods packed for the "luxury" trade .will probably feel the competition of frozen products, but it is doubtful if there will be much substitution of the higher-priced frozen products for the canned goods sold to lower income groups. The prices of canned goods may be depressed, and thus the prices received by farmers whose only outlet is that of the canneries will be low- ered. On the other hand, there may be some price stimulation in the areas well adapted to growing vegetables for freezing. The stimulation will probably be in the North. The South would lose a part of its advantage in producing for the off-season, high-price trade. As frozen-packing becomes more developed and the problems of distribution of such products less difficult, the fresh vegetables of the off- season may have to meet the competition of an effective substitute. Prices then will tend to be lowered in the southern areas of production. The possibility exists, however, that some sort of seasonal price pattern will develop for the frozen goods that will permit the processors to take full advantage of the high prices of the off-season. The development of an ''industry consciousness" by the processors may lead to close cooperation in pricing. This would tend to reduce the competition between frozen and fresh products during the winter months. 56 The other main source of developments af- fecting the demand for agricultural products is that of industrial uses. Expansion of demand for wood pulp produced domestically seems to be the most important development affecting the demand for cellulose from the farms of the United States. Although domestic pulp must face normally the competition of the low-price, duty-free pulp from Canada and Northern Europe, the new pulpwood plants in the South may provide higher prices in that region for wood suitable for pulp. Textiles Agriculture may not be the basic source for textile fibers in the future. Rayon, which has replaced cotton in a number of uses, requires cotton lintcrs and wood pulp as a source of cellulose. Nylon, a synthetic fiber produced from coal and other materials, may cause much substitution; its substitution for cotton and rayon would directly reduce the demand for agricul- tural cellulose, and its substitution for silk indirectly may reduce the demand for the cotton produced in the United States, because a reduc- tion in the imports of silk will make it more difficult for Japan to purchase cotton and other products in this country. This, together with the relatively minor substitution of rayon for cotton that is expected in the immediate future, may exert some downward pressure on the prices of cotton. Soybeans Industrial demand for soybeans has been strong, and outlets probably will continue to expand. The acreage available for soybeans, however, is ample, and a reasonable expansion of demand probably will not cause much in- crease in price. On the contrary, production of soybeans may expand greatly at 1940 prices if the prices of corn and competing crops become relatively low, thus exerting a downward pressure on soy- bean prices. Vegetable Oils Technological developments in the vegetable oil industry seem unlikelv to increase the total demand for the vegetable oil crops in the next 5 to 10 years. The ease of substitution among the oils prevents the expansion of demand for many vegetable oils. The possibility does exist, how- ever, of increasing the domestic production of vegetable oils at the expense of imports from other countries. An increase in livestock produc- tion will add to the supply of fats and oils, and thus there may be some downward pressure on these prices. Although current developments arc slowly adding to the demand for agricultural products in industry, the value of these developments to agriculture is still largely potential rather than actual. The widespread use of an alcohol- blend gasoline for motor fuel would require the use of a large amount of land. However, conversion costs are far too high to allow com- petition with gasoline at present prices. Even though raw materials were free, the cost of alcohol would greatly exceed current prices of gasoline. Until less expensive conversion techniques are discovered, or until the petroleum resources become very scarce, no strengthening of agricul- tural prices can be expected from this industrial use — that is, in the absence of public subsidy. The current supplies of proteins and cellulose are large enough to meet the probable expansion of industrial uses in the next few years. How- ever, industrial uses can strengthen prices at levels above those which would exist if there were no such developments. Technology in its continuous march will create more efficient techniques of production and dis- tribution and will undoubtedly discover addi- tional uses for agricultural products. If the national income were to rise to higher levels, a number of developments would have greater benefit for agriculture, for the production and consumption of many articles made from agricultural products would be greater. In addi- tion to this increase, it would also become feasible to promote many products that cannot profitably be introduced while the national income remains low. Effects on Farm Costs Most new techniques and improvements used in farm operations are adopted because it is ex- 57 pected that returns from their use will exceed the additional costs incurred and thus result in a lowering of costs per unit of product. Some im- provements are adopted solely because they make farm work easier. Many tractors are probably purchased because the work can be done more quickly and easily with them rather than because net farm income will be increased. The tractor is also undoubtedly purchased by many farmers because they, or their sons, prefer to operate tractor-powered equipment. To sat- isfy this preference may require some sacrifice in net income. Greater convenience and satisfaction are the most important reasons for the adoption of im- provements used largely in the farm household, such as the appliances and equipment made pos- sible by rural electrification. Obviously, the limit to the purchased "convenience" improve- ments is the amount of farm income available for cash or instalment purchases. Types of Costs There is a complicated relationship between the adoption of a given improvement and its effect on farming costs. To analyze this relation- ship one must distinguish between "fixed" and "variable" costs and between "cash" and "non- cash" costs. The purchase of a tractor represents a large initial investment, and the machine is expected to last for several years. Once this investment has been made, interest and depreciation repre- sent fixed costs on a given farm; but the purchase of gasoline and oil, and the repairs incident to current use of the tractor, are variable costs in the sense that they vary in amount with the use of the machine. The latter costs are also cash costs of operation during the production period. If payment for the tractor is made in cash, its initial purchase is also a cash cost, but one on which returns are expected over a period of years. If money is borrowed to purchase the tractor, the interest and amortization charges on this debt occur as cash costs of operation. It is apparent that a shift from horses to trac- tors may greatly change the nature of farming costs. Fuel and oil are bought for cash in place of the horse feed produced on the farm. Thus, a larger proportion of the annual costs of farm power is cash, and the farm becomes less self- sufficient in furnishing its power. An improvement like a tractor that repre- sents a large initial outlay and results in a fixed cost for equipment is likely to be adopted more slowly than one that affects only the variable costs, as does the use of hybrid seed corn. It should be noted, however, that even the substitution of purchased hybrid seed corn for a home-grown, open-pollinated variety increases the cash costs of farm operation. There is also a further difference in that once a new tractor has been bought the fixed cost represented by this investment will retard adoption of a new type of tractor even though it represents con- siderable improvement in design. The cost of discarding the old machine enters into the calculation. Total Investment Mechanization of agriculture may be expected to increase somewhat the total investment in equipment on farms, compared with the invest- ment that would be required if horse operations were maintained. This will mean that the fixed costs of the farms making such shifts will be increased. The changes in equipment, however, are likely to have less important effects on the total farm investment. In 1930, the value of land and buildings made up 84 percent of the value of farm property. Machinery represented only 5.8 percent of the total valuation. Tractors, trucks, and automobiles reduce the number of horses and displace horse equipment; therefore, they do not increase farm investment in propor- tion to their total cost. For instance, the invest- ment in tractors and equipment on a mechanized cotton plantation of 950 acres would be approxi- mately the same as the investment in mules and mule equipment for operating with animal power (27, p. 84). On small farms mechanization would probably increase the investment, the amount depending on the number of animals that could be displaced. Mechanization in the North Central States has apparently increased the investment in equip- ment and power. On farms of 135-174 crop- 58 acres using horse power in 1937, the investment in power and equipment averaged $1,640, and on farms of the same size group using general- purpose tractors the investment averaged $2,192 (2S). As these figures arc based on current values, part of this difference can be accounted for by the tendency to have newer and more expensive equipment on farms using tractors, and by the likelihood that some horse-drawn equipment was still carried in the inventory. Another study, made in 1931, indicated that the investment in power and equipment on Illinois farms of 200-239 acres increased from about $2,000 on horse-operated farms to about $3,000 on tractor-operated farms (29). Here, much of the added investment was due to dupli- cation of horse and tractor equipment; but there were also more trucks, corn pickers, and com- bines on farms using tractors. If the investment were corrected for the low prices of horses in 1931, a smaller difference would appear between the investments on horse-operated farms as com- pared with tractor-operated farms. There is also the probability that many of the tractor- operated farms performed some custom work for neighbors. This work would tend to de- crease in amount as tractors are used on more farms. More important than the actual increase of investment in equipment for the ordinary farm is the fact that farming an acreage less than that efficiently handled by a particular set of equip- ment leads to excessively high machinery costs. The equipment unit cannot be divided easily; consequently, an operator on a small scale must usually invest in a complete set of equipment that could be used more economically on a larger farm. Rural electrification requires rather heavy in- vestment for line and equipment, and to make full use of electricity for both the household and the farm would require an even greater invest- ment. Insofar as the installation of the power line is financed by others, or the cost amortized in the charges paid for current, the farmer may not be aware of an increased investment. It appears as an increase in his current expenses. If livestock numbers are increased, the invest- menl will be increased accordingly, and some addition. il outlay for buildings and equipment will be necessary on some farms. The Future The evidence points to increased capital needs for agriculture, but an increase probably not much greater than 25 percent of the working capital and 5 percent of the total investment. Whatever increase is made in the size of com- mercial farms will enlarge the required invest- ment per commercial farm and will increase the difficulty that a farm laborer has in acquiring sufficient capital to begin tenant operations. On the other hand, any growth in the number of subsistence farms with smaller capital require- ments would tend to prevent a large increase in the average investment per farm for the country as a whole. The most significant change in farm costs will be an increase in the proportion which cash costs are of total farm costs. That the need for gasoline, oil, grease, and repairs for tractors will necessitate larger cash outlays than if horses were used and were fed home-grown feeds has already been mentioned. Quite transitory advantages from new tech- niques often become capitalized into land values. Adoption of the standard tractor and the prairie- type combine probably gave a temporary bulge to land values in some Great Plains areas in the 1920's. Mechanization probably has tended to en- hance the level of land prices in the areas best adapted to it and to depress values in the areas not well suited to it, because of the competition which it has initiated among farmers to obtain the more level farms with large fields. Since mechanization encourages an increase in the number of acres operated by individual farmers and is likely to cause some displacement of farmers, the competition for the better land may become keener. With farmers willing to pay more for the good farms, or willing to pay higher rentals for leasing them — in some in- stances even to the extent of sacrificing their level of living — it appears likely that mechani- zation may still exert a pressure toward higher 59 land values in the better farming regions, at least as a first stage in adjustment. The development of mechanical equipment especially for small farms and the probable greater demand for farms in the poorer agricul- tural areas (on the part of those farmers who can- not gain a foothold in the better regions, or who cannot find employment outside of agri- culture) will probably work to maintain land values even in the poorer agricultural regions. It is necessary to emphasize that such a tend- ency is dependent upon attempts of the displaced group to remain in agriculture because of the lack of better opportunities. Perhaps this can be characterized as the second stage in adjust- ment to the new situation. At a later stage, if net incomes from farming are considerably lowered by reduced prices, there will naturally be a tendency toward lower land values. Such a tendency is likely to appear even though other alternatives do not open up for the displaced population, because a living for the farm family represents the first claim on farm income. How much land values will be affected depends in part on how tena- ciously farmers will cling to their accustomed levels of living. In summary, one can say that technological changes will exert an upward pressure on land values in the stage when farmers' net incomes are increased. If this stage is accompanied by increased production which eventually results in lower prices, the upward effect may be only temporary and may cause greater distress in the low-priced period because of indebtedness in- curred at a high level of land values. If no alternatives are open to the population that tends to be displaced through mechanization, the level of land values may be maintained for a time even under lower prices, but only at the expense of the levels of living of many farm families. 60 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter I 2 Effects on Employment and People Details brought out in this chapter: The number of farm workers in 1938 was 94 percent of the number employed in 1924-29. The 1937 Unemployment Census reported that 705,000 totally unemployed males were living on farms. The labor- required on an acre of wheat in 1934-36 was half the amount needed in 1909-13. In the Southern States, tractors may ultimately displace 300,000 farm families. Before 1950, it is likely that mechanization will force 350,000 to 500,000 workers from farms. Technology has been a major factor in the changing proportion of people employed in agriculture and nonagricultural pursuits. The discovery and manufacture of new prod- ucts and the desire for new services have pro- vided employment for millions. The develop- ment of machinery and improvement of indus- trial procedures also have made possible the production of many items formerly produced by the farm household; some functions have been shifted from agriculture to industry, but at the same time, farmers have become more efficient in tasks still performed on the farm. "In 1787, the year the Constitution was framed, the surplus food produced by 19 farmers went to feed 1 city person. In recent years 19 people on farms have produced enough food for 56 non- farm people, plus 10 living abroad" (30). The net result is a decline in the proportion of agricultural workers from one-half of all workers in the United States in 1 870 to one-fifth in 1 930. The forces responsible for the change have oper- ated during this entire period. But the economic depression of the 1930's has retarded migration from farms, and it appears probable that the 1940 census will reveal about SHIFTS IN OCCUPATIONS. 1870-1930 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 ASSIF/ED the same proportion of gainfully employed in agriculture as in 1930, possibly even an increase. However, the total farm population in 1939 was almost the same as it was from 1910-14. The large cityward migration from farms, resulting in annual net decreases in farm population in the early 1920's, slowed down in the latter part of that decade and even reversed itself in 1931 and 1932. Since 1932, there has been a net cityward migration, but not sufficiently large to offset the natural growth of the farm population. Despite a slackening in the movement of popu- lation from farms, the number of people actually employed in agriculture continues to decline. The number of workers employed on farms in 61 1938 was only 94 percent of the number em- ployed during the period 1924-29 (31). Thus, changes in the need for farm labor have affected the wage worker more than any other class. Although there are three times as many family workers as hired workers on farms, three-fourths of the 430,000 decrease in agricultural workers during this period was in the hired-worker class. Many persons now on farms are only partially employed, indeed the 1937 Census of Unem- ployment reported 376,000 partly employed males living on farms, 260,000 emergency work- ers (W. P. A., C. C. C, N. Y. A., etc.), and 705,000 totally unemployed males. About half of the totally unemployed were living in the Southern Appalachian Mountain Region and in the Cotton Belt. Unemployment has hit rural youth partic- ularly. In the whole nation, half the totally unemployed males were 15 to 35 years old, and the age of those on farms probably had a similar distribution. Twelve percent of the totally un- employed males were 12 to 19 years old. Nearly 30 percent were under 25 years. The number of unemployed would be even greater had not an increasing number of youths attended high school. In the decade 1928-38, the enrollment in the public high schools of the nation increased from 3,911,000 to 6,227,000. Reduction in Manpower in Agriculture The rate at which machines are put into use depends somewhat on the relation between wage rates, the ability to obtain competent help, and the cost of machines. Labor displacement usually occurs first on commercial farms operated with hired labor and proceeds more slowly on the more numerous family-operated farms. It may be retarded by the difficulties of consolidating small farms and the displacing of entire families, or it may be postponed because members of the family no longer needed on the farm are unable to find other employment. The number of workers displaced by mecha- nization depends not only on the type of equip- ment but also on the kind of farm. Displace- ment is not necessarily in proportion to the time saved on a specific job. On large farms oper- ated with a flexible supply of hired labor, equip- ment that reduces the time of performing work by half may at the same time reduce the working force by half. But on the family farms, the labor force represented by members of the family may not be reduced by labor-saving equipment. Less additional labor may be hired, but the actual reduction of workers would be consider- ably less than the working time saved. The influence of changes in equipment on the use of labor is more apparent when it is ex- pressed in terms of the labor required to handle crops with different sets of complementing equipment, or in terms of the labor required to operate a farm of a given size and type with dif- ferent sets of equipment. For instance, with the machinery and power in common use in the central winter wheat areas about the year 1900, the approximate time to prepare land, seed, har- vest with a binder, shock, thresh, and haul wheat to the granary was 8.8 hours per acre. With the use of a tractor, tractor equipment, and a 12-foot combine, the time for comparable work was re- duced to 3.3 hours. The time required for corn production in the Corn Belt was reduced from 1 5.1 hours to 6.9 hours an acre (32). Because the large-scale machinery is not adapted to all areas, and because the power and equipment represents a heavy capital invest- ment, its use has ordinarily been limited to the more productive commercial farming. The localized advantage of improved equip- ment in reducing labor on wheat farms in differ- ent areas of the United States is revealed by table 13. In the Middle Eastern States, neither practices nor the type of power used changed much during the period 1909-36, and the time required to produce an acre of wheat was not significantly reduced. In the Corn Belt a shift to tractors, and to some extent to combines, reduced labor require- ments for wheat nearly 5 hours an acre. Prac- tices and equipment used in the small grain area, even in 1909, were such that less labor an acre was needed than in the Eastern areas in 1934. Yet changes of power and harvesting equipment reduced the required labor by half in the 25 years. Some of the differences among areas in the amount of labor used can be accounted for 62 by differences in yield per acre. A higher yield is usually obtained in die more humid areas and more labor is used both in tillage and har- vest operations. Table 13. — Estimated man hours required per acre to produce wheat at different periods in different sections of the I hnled Stairs 1 IK in Period United States Small- grain area Corn area Eastern dairy area Middle eastern area Wheat Do Do Do 1909-13 1917-21 1927-31 193-1-3(1 I lour a 12.7 10. 3 0.7 0. 1 Hour* 9.8 7.3 ■1.9 4.2 Hour* 10. I 14. 1 12.0 11. 7 Hours 21.5 18.3 17 2 11 out a 18.3 18. 1 18.0 17. 1 1 Elwood, Robert B., et al. Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Wheat and Oats, Works Progress Administration, National Research Project, 1939. Data from table 24. p. 95. Table 14. — Estimated man hours required per acre to produce crops at different periods in the United States Period Wheat i Oats ! Corn 1 Cot- ton* Pota- toes 5 Sugar beets B 1909-13 1917-21 1927-31 1934-36 Hours 12.7 10.3 6.7 6. 1 Hours 12.5 10.8 8.6 7.9 Hours 28.7 27.6 23.3 '=22.5 Hours " 105 95 85 "88 Hours 89 m 70 Hours > 113 10 112 n 99 "94 i Elwood, Robert B. ( ct al. Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Wheat and Oats, Works Progress Administration, National Research Project, 1939, p. 95. = Ibid, p. 98. 3 Macy, Loring K., et al. Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Corn. Works Progress Ad- ministration, National Research Project, 1938, p. 120. ' Holley, William C, and Arnold, Lloyd E. Changes in Tech- nology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Cotton. Works Progress Administration, National Research Project, 1938, p. 103. s Knowlton, Harry E., et al. Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Potatoes. Works Progress Administration, National Research Project, 1938, p. 67. 6 Macy, Loring K., et al. Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Sugar Beets. Works Progress Administration, National Research Project, 1937, p. 37. ' 1907-11. ■ 1913-17. • Not available. i» 1920-24. " 1928-32. '« 1932-36. " 1933-36. Similar reductions were made in other im- portant crops, although the most striking savings in labor were made in wheat production (table 14). One of the factors influencing the reduc- ion in man-hours used per acre of these crops is a gradual shifting of production to areas where less labor is used. This has been most pronounced in wheat and cotton. Only half as much labor was needed per acre of wheat in 1934-36 as in 1909-13. Going back even further, it is estimated that more than 20 hours of labor per acre were needed in 1880. Thus, there has been a reduction in labor requirements of more than two-thirds during the past 60 years. The Outlook No mechanical developments under way at the present time seem likely to affect the use of labor in the near future so drastically nor on so large a scale as did developments in wheat machinery in the 1920's. However, perfection and adoption of the cotton picker or the use of sugar-beet tillage and harvesting machinery would have effects comparable to the recent mechanization of wheat production. Although the small tractor placed in service on a livestock or general farm would reduce the time required for field labor, the usual adjustment of increasing the numbers of productive livestock as workstock are displaced would tend to maintain the total amount of labor used. Labor displace- ment in cash corn areas seems likely to continue, and in the cotton areas it may be large in pro- portion to the degree of mechanization (4, 33, 27). The traditional plantation and sharecropper system of farm organization in parts of the South is passing even without the mechanical cotton picker. Prices of cotton and wages of labor have given an income advantage to the operators using hired rather than share labor. The result has been an increase in the proportion of cotton grown with wage labor. This has been particu- larly true where additional economies in cost of operation could be achieved through the use of wage labor and power machinery. In one area the proportion of cropland worked with wage labor shifted from 31 percent of the acreage in 1933 to 53 percent in 1936. The proportion worked with sharecroppers dropped from 55 to 42 percent in the same period (27) Although the change in method of payment for work does not necessarily mean a reduction of laborers, the use of tractor power and displace- 63 ment of families are likely to accompany these increases in wage labor. Mechanization is only one of the factors con- tributing to adjustment in the organization and size of units. It is therefore difficult to isolate and measure the influence of the tractor alone. The number of families displaced by the tractor will vary according to the size of the plantation and the supply of labor originally available. Unpublished data (35) indicate that under some circumstances an all-purpose tractor might not reduce the number of families at all, but that on plantations of a size suited for tractor-use a reduction of two families could ordinarily be made for each tractor. This conclusion was reached from a study of 3 groups of plantations; one on which tractors were used in 1932 and through 1938; one on which tractors were intro- duced and used after 1932; and one on which no change from mule power was made. All expe- rienced similar changes in cotton acreage and in the acreage of other crops during the period. On the plantations shifting toward mechaniza- tion during 1932-38, 36 tractors were put into use for each 10,000 crop acres; 91 families, or 22 percent of the original number, were displaced from 10,000 acres of cropland. The second group on which tractors per 10,000 crop acres increased from 18 in 1932 to 24 in 1938 displaced 65 families, or 16 percent. The third group on which tractors were not used displaced 22 fami- lies, or 6 percent. Tractors and Families During the years 1934-37 when the acreage of cotton was increasing, the plantations that be- gan using tractors after 1932 continued to de- crease the number of families and in 1937 carried only 84 percent of the number in 1932. For the entire period, displacement of families on plantations on which tractors were introduced exceeded that on nonmechanized plantations. On the basis of 418 families originally on 10,000 acres of cropland, displacement of 67 families could be attributed to 36 tractors. Comparing the nonmechanized plantations with those al- ready mechanized in 1932, the rate of family displacement per tractor amounts to about 4 families, indicating that the full adjustment of families to tractors on this particular group had not been made before 1937 and 1938. As long as cotton must be picked by hand the need for harvest labor will prevent some dis- placement of cotton workers, yet tractor use will reduce the need for many permanent workers in the South. The rate of family displacement would undoubtedly be lower in areas other than those in which the plantation organization pre- vails; and, in some of the rougher areas, me- chanization will necessarily proceed slowly, yet it is not unreasonable to assume that within the next decade the number of tractors used in the South will nearly double, and that as a result some 300,000 families now living on farms may be displaced. This would represent a displace- ment of only a little over one family for each new tractor, whereas the data for plantation areas in- dicate a displacement of two or more families per tractor. This would mean a reduction of 1 6 percent in the number of tenants and croppers reported in the Southern States in 1935. Many others prob- ably will assume the status of hired workers. Outside of the cotton producing areas, the trend to greater mechanization will probably continue the present tendency to reduce the labor used on farms and increase acreages per farm in commercial agricultural areas. The use of small tractors may have the effect of stabilizing the size of farms in some general farming areas. However, adjustments are still to be made in areas mechanized during the past 10 years; and (except in the wheat and fruit producing areas where adjustments are fairly complete) further reduction of labor used, and thus a continuation of population displacement can be expected. Adjustments in labor used in the East North Central States in the past decade may indicate future results of mechanization outside the South. This area was not greatly affected by drought, and to a large extent tractors were introduced on livestock and on general farms. Tractors in- creased by 212,000 from 1930 to 1939. In 1938, the number of hired workers reported for the region was 97,000 less than the number reported in 1930 {36). The number of family workers had increased by 41,000, so that the net decrease in employment amounted to 56,000 64 workers. If this relation between the increased number of tractors and the decrease in workers is continued, an increase of 250,000 tractors out- side the Southern States would reduce family workers engaged in agriculture by 65,000 and the number of hired workers by 100,000. A Displacement of 350,000? Displacement of 300,000 families in the South- ern States involves an even larger number of FARM EMPLOYMENT AVERAGE ANNUAL NJMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THE UNITED STATES, 1930-39 Total /am __ employment ' / Numbor of farr ily workers ^ " / _ N 1 jmber of hired -*» — ^/ i i workers as this term is used in reporting farm employment. Some estimates indicate as many as 1.5 workers per sharecropper family. It seems likely that during the next decade at least 350,000 workers, and perhaps as many as 500,000 will be displaced by mechanization over the entire country. Displacement of the lower num- ber could readily take place in the South alone, even without the adoption of the cotton picker. Another approach to estimating labor dis- placement is to assume a continuation of the trend experienced in the last 10 years. Con- tinuation of recent trends would result in a dis- placement Of 350,000 to 500.(100 workers. The preceding analysis indicates that such a trend seems likely to continue or even to become accelerated unless: First, wage rates are lowered so that a shift to equipment use is retarded and workers are retained on farms; second, agricul- tural production is increased to the extent that workers can be profitably employed regardless of the extent of mechanization; and third, indi- viduals displaced in areas of commercial produc- tion are established in noncommercial areas or on subsistence units in commercial areas. Unless some direction is given to the course of develop- ments, adjustments will probably be made in all three ways and, as in the past decade, many workers will be thrown on relief rolls or will join the stream of migratory labor. Effects on Farm Tenure Developments that increase the land area op- erated by one man, or that increase the income per unit of land in one area as compared with another, will set in motion forces which change existing tenure and labor relations. Just as the standard tractor and the combine increased the size of family-operated farms in the wheat regions and at the same time reduced the need for hired workers, so the general pur- pose tractor and the corn picker are having a similar influence in the corn areas. The result is greater competition for land and a consequent increase in the rents. The com- mon practice of charging cash rent for use of buildings, pasture, and land not in cash crops on share-rented farms permits an increased rent for the farm without changing the sharing of cash crops. When adjustments in rent of this type are made, the benefits of new develop- ments are shifted from the tenant to the land- lord. We have noted that in the plantation areas there appears to have been a notable reduction in the relative numbers of share tenants and croppers, and an increase in raising cotton with wage hands. Even though this change of status is not made, the cotton acreage per cropper is often reduced to a mere patch and sometimes has no separate identity. The 65 cropper himself is frequently called upon to work "through and through," that is to say, on the share-cotton acreage generally without any reference to his own particular patch. Often he is called upon to do work which is very similar to that of wage hands. An increasing number of croppers finds little to choose between their status and that of wage hands. The old cropper system is not readily adapted to the use of large-scale power equip- ment. Thus, mechanization favors a shift from cropper to wage status. In cotton areas of the Western High Plains, mechanization has encouraged increases in size of farms. This has decreased the number of owner and tenant operators and regular laborers, and in turn increased the degree of dependence upon seasonal laborers, usually transients. During recent years the phenomena formerly associated with the so-called "agricultural lad- der" have changed. Various studies of tenure history have indicated, first, that movement up the ladder, through the various stages from that of farm laborer and tenant to that of owner, has been seriously retarded (37); second, that movement down the ladder, involving loss of status as owner, reduction in status as tenant, or loss of the farm entirely, has been accelerated; and, third, that the tendency for American farmers to stay at particular levels of the agri- cultural ladder has become more noticeable. This last tendency appears to be particularly pronounced among colored farmers in the South. The precise relation of mechanization to these changes cannot be measured, nor would it be correct to assert that they are due solely to changes in technology. It seems clear, how- ever, that mechanization has been a contribut- ing factor to the increased difficulty in climbing the agricultural ladder to ownership, and to the consequent development of permanent labor and tenant classes. Effects on Number and Size of Farm Units and Degree of Commercialization Among the recent technological changes, mechanization has the most important effect on the size of farm units. One man using mechanical power and equipment is able to prepare, seed, and harvest an acreage greater than he could handle with horsepower. Thus a farmer who purchases a tractor for a farm on which it cannot be utilized effectively may desire, and perhaps find possible, an increase of his acreage. Adjustments in sizes of farms to mechanization occur slowly. They will be forthcoming not only from the expected increase in mechaniza- tion, but also from mechanization that has occurred in the past. Statistical examinations of changes in the average size of farms in the United States have not been conclusive. In the census groupings, it is not possible to separate the mechanized and commercial farms from the small nonmechanized farms belonging to the self-sufficing, part-time, and sharecropper groups. The averages therefore may conceal trends toward increases in numbers of the small noncommercial farms and toward fewer and larger commercial farms. Observation in some of the older mechanized areas reveals that mechanization has been accompanied by an increase in the average size of commercial farms. As the typical family farm increased its acreage, other farms had to be reduced in size and still others were completely absorbed. Farmsteads abandoned entirely, or used only for storage by the operator of the combined units, are no uncommon sight in certain parts of the wheat producing regions and the Corn Belt. Some increases occurred as a necessary adjust- ment away from the 160-acre unit which was inadequate for a family income in semiarid regions. Increases in the acreage per farm have been particularly common in areas where the pattern of operation was not definitely established, and also in cash-crop areas where labor saved in crop production could be employed only in an expansion of the crop enterprises. For example, the tilled land on 100 mechanized farms in Montana increased from 627 acres in 1924 to 1,284 acres in 1929 (3S). Increases in acreage operated per man, definitely the result of mech- anization, were made in the wheat-producing areas during the period following 1909 (table 15). On farms studied for the effects of changes 66 in technology in the western wheat area, the acreage of land in crops apparently increased by 108 acres in the 26-year period. The increase in size was even more striking in the Pacific Northwest, but was relatively minor in the eastern hard spring wheat area. Changes in size of farm in the Corn Belt fol- lowed the introduction of the general-purpose tractor. In the cash-corn area, the number of acres per farm increased in 1929-36; this indi- cated the beginning of a tendency to operate more acres. Table 15. — Acreage per farm in all crops, selected jarms in particular areas, 1909, 7979, 7929, and 7936 » Wheat:' Western winter wheat 3 Eastern hard winter wheat * Northwestern s Eastern hard spring wheat 8 . Corn: 7 Cash grain s ._ Livestock feeding 8 Eastern corn 10 Northeastern dairy » Western dairy t: - Cotton: is Coastal plain " Delta" Western semiarid l6 ._ 1909 1919 1929 .-teres ,4cres Acres 442 451 490 1ST 200 215 598 743 799 315 353 358 ITS 176 176 no 133 132 82 92 93 60 02 64 91 87 90 87 100 85 174 203 247 132 159 200 .4cre« 550 225 925 333 190 135 92 65 91 80 271 200 I Data from Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production. Works Progress Administration, National Re- search Project. - Report A-10, Wheat and Oats, pp. 108-109. 3 Counties: Ford and Thomas, Kans.; Swisher, Tex. * Counties: Phelps, Nebr.; Garfield, Okla. 5 Counties: Sherman, Oreg.; Whitman, Wash. 6 Counties: Grand Forks and Morton, N. Dak.; Spink, S. Dak. ' Report A-5, Corn, pp. 49 and 82. s Counties: Douglas, 111.; Pocahontas, Iowa. 9 Counties: Hancock, 111.; Iowa, Iowa. 10 Counties: Clinton, Ind.; Greene and Putnam, Ohio. II Counties: Worcester, Mass.; Steuben and Herkimer, N. Y.; Tioga, Pa.; Orleans, Vt. 13 Counties: Steele, Minn.; Green and Waukesha, Wis. 13 Report A-7, Cotton, p. 117. M Counties: Sumter and Brooks, Ga.; Darlington, S. C; Madison, Miss. 15 Counties: Washington and Bolivar, Miss. '« Counties: Lubbock, Tex.; Tillman, Okla. In sections where livestock production pre- vails, the area in crops per farm has shown little tendency to increase. A study of changes in farming resulting from the use of tractors in Minnesota indicates that in the small grain area the acreage on 49 percent of the farms was increased after the purchase of a tractor, in 23995r>°— 40 6 contrast with the dairy area where only 1 K percent of the farms were increased in size. 7 A study in Deer Creek Township, Cass County, Indiana, indicates that the use of motorized equipment has encouraged a system of field rent- ing. 8 This system arises wherever retired farmers, widows of farmers, or rural owners with urban employment rent cropland. Eventually, the system would lead to fewer rural residents as farm buildings were vacated, but it would not of itself increase the size of operating units. Deer Creek Township included 10 more commercial operating units in 1939 than it did in 1936. Over a longer period, 1915-39, the number of individual farm owners decreased from 248 to 242 with a small increase in the number of small tracts and a decrease in the number of tracts of 40 to 100 acres. The recent appearance of the small tractor re- moves one reason for larger farms. A somewhat lower purchase price and lower cost of operation of such tractors may permit the small farmer to use power equipment economically, and may have a tendency to stabilize the size of the smaller farms. If the farmer can fit the small tractor into his organization economically, he will be under less pressure to increase the extent of oper- ations. Such an adjustment might be expected in the Corn Belt. But even the small tractor may create some pressure toward larger holdings in areas where the size of the farm unit is now very small. Thus it may encourage somewhat the consolidation of farms in the Eastern States. The shift from sharecropper to wage labor now taking place in the South does not neces- sarily change the size of the operating unit. Increases in the size of wage operations on a plantation do not necessarily represent an ex- tension of ownership or control. Mechanization probably will tend to increase the size of farms in other than plantation areas, although the change in size would probably take place slowly. The pressure exerted by mechanization toward 7 Unpublished data from a study of the Effects of the Farm Tractor on Farms and Farm Organization in Different Type of Farming Areas in Minnesota, made by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. D. A. and Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. 'From unpublished study by Agricultural Experiment Station of Purdue University cooperating with the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. 67 an increase in the size of farm units suggests that the total number of farms will decline, since with a limited land area an increase in average size would mean fewer farms, but mechanization is not occurring to the same degree in all areas. Fewer farms may be expected in some of the more highly mechanized areas, but the decrease in numbers in these areas may be balanced in part by more farms in the less mechanized areas. In addition to the tendency to increase the size of commercial farms, technical advances exert pressure to increase the degree of com- mercialization on farms. This influence is much greater in the commercial farming areas than it is in the noncommercial areas. The less productive half of the farms reported by the census in 1930 contributed only 11 percent of the value of farm products entering commercial channels in 1929 (39, p. 5). Even though these small farms produced less than $1,000 worth of products (including the value of produce used in the home), some of them were still highly com- mercial. For instance, the small cotton farms operated by sharecroppers were dependent upon markets for cash to be used for family living. Many tenant- or owner-operated small farms were also highly commercialized, but a large group, perhaps as many as 1 million farms, were far down the scale in degree of commercializa- tion. Approximately one-half of these were farms classified as self-sufficing — that is, they were farms upon which the value of the produce used in the home exceeded the value of the produce contributed to commercial channels. In addition to the 1 million small noncommer- cial farms, there was approximately one-third of a million part-time farms on which the farm income was supplemented by employment off the farm. The use of tractors on some of the dairy farms of the North Atlantic States and the saving of feed as a result of displacing the work stock may enable these farms to become more nearly self-sufficient with respect to livestock feed, but all mechanized farms will have to purchase more equipment and provide for repairs, fuel, oil, and grease. The degree of self-sufficiency which is provided when work stock is fed home-grown feed will be sacrificed when tractor power is substituted for horsepower unless it is counter-balanced by greater self-sufficiency in another direction. Insofar as the use of new techniques enables farmers to produce more or to market a larger share of their production, the farms will become more commercialized. Displacement of work stock in the South where feed for the work stock was purchased will not materially change the degree of com- mercialization on these farms, but the farms that formerly produced feed for their work stock may become more commercialized, either by the increase of purchases or by increasing products for sale. Greater use of soil conservation practices ap- pears to have some significance with respect to the degree of commercialization. Soil improve- ment practices in the North Atlantic States will increase gradually the production of pasture and hay. As dairymen substitute pasture and home- grown roughage for purchased concentrates, their farms can become more self-contained. Crop adjustment and conservation programs in the South will make land available for use in producing feed and pasture for productive live- stock. Farmers of the region will thus have an opportunity to supply more of their dietary needs; this not only will make them more inde- pendent of purchased foods, but it will also give them better foods. Rural electrification, in the South and North Central States particularly, appears likely to result in greater commercialization. Farmers will be encouraged to use electrical appliances and equipment about the farm and in the home. This will involve material investments. The complicated nature of the appliances and equip- ment will require well-trained men for servicing and repairing them. These factors, plus the fact that the electric bills will have to be paid peri- odically, will tend to encourage farmers to market larger volumes of produce in order to obtain cash with which to meet the expenses incurred. The development of freezer lockers involves in part the transfer of the function of food storage from the farm to some nonfarm agency. The level of living for farmers availing themselves of 68 the service may be greatly increased, but to use such services also increases the dependence of the farmer upon services performed by someone away from the farm. The final conclusion concerning the effects of technological and related developments upon commercialization in agriculture is that they will tend to bring about a more commercial ag- riculture, and that, despite the larger acreage in commercial production, fewer farmers will be engaged in production of marketable products. Although the general tendency is toward a more commercial agriculture, workers displaced by mechanization very often move toward the less commercialized areas, such as the Appa- lachians and the Ozarks. Such a movement would mean that the agriculture of these areas will become even less commercialized than at present. A tendency to develop more farms in such areas will have undesirable repercussions if the land resources are inadequate to support a level of living that meets minimum social needs. More attention to home production and in- creased emphasis on subsistence farming for dis- placed agricultural workers may be desirable, at least as first lines of defense in working out the adjustments called for by the adoption of new techniques. Effects on Levels of Living Much of the effect of technological changes on levels of living is the indirect result of the impact of technological change on farm income, farm population, tenure, and rural culture. The level of living is highly dependent upon the farm in- come available. Yet the point has been made elsewhere in this report that the increased tech- nical efficiency of producers has not, for many reasons, raised the average farmer's income. It follows that the farmer's level of living cannot have been raised significantly. Again it has been pointed out that many tenants and laborers have been displaced from agriculture by the adoption of technological improvements. Certainly, it is unlikely that their level of living has been improved. Some are getting as low or lower incomes as wage hands on farms which they once operated as sharecroppers or tenants (or on similar farms); others have moved to the towns and cities and at best have not obtained well-paying secure jobs. Another indirect effect of technology on the farmer's level of living comes through changing cultural patterns and the desires of farm people for different types of goods. In general, we know that technology has stimulated farm people's desire for material goods as over and against the more intangible values of rural living. The influence of a money economy on family living is highly correlated with a developing technology. The modern farmer consumes a smaller and smaller percentage of what he pro- duces and buys a larger and larger percentage of what he consumes. What could be saved in efficiency by this change can easily be lost in haphazard commercial consumption. True but pathetic are stories like that of the sharecropper family going to town to buy clothes for the children and returning with toys for each of them! It takes several generations for farm people, long accustomed to an agrarian econ- omy, to develop the art of living in a compli- cated technological world. All that consumer education can do in this field is unlikely to be enough to enable the majority of farm people to catch up with an ever-changing civilization. If technology has not raised the level of living for farm people as a whole, it has certainly changed the content of living for many. A wide variety of material goods and services is available to farm families, if they have the purchasing power. The automobile and good roads have broken the farmer's isolation and opened a new world of opportunity and enjoyment to him. Rural electrification has brought the wonders of the city — material conveniences — to the farmer's home. Even if the farmers' money income be low, the fact that many of them can now enjoy many conveniences, once available to the select few, is definitely a step forward. L T nfortunately, many low-income farm groups cannot afford electrical and mechanical conveniences. One of the important series of technological developments is that enabling the farm family 69 to preserve and store its food supply. Instead of depending on the old smoke house, the underground cellar, the potato hill, and the like, the farmer now has many new ways of canning and preserving food. Pressure cookers, mechan- ical can sealers, new canning techniques, home refrigerators, cooperative freezer lockers, and rapid transportation have made it possible for farmers to have a year-round supply of either fresh or well-preserved foods at low costs. Here again it takes time for farm people to forget the old ways and learn the new. Perhaps it is not so much a matter of learning as it is of changing attitudes, values, and customs. Technology has also given the farmer new cultural and recreational resources. The auto- mobile, the radio, and popular-priced periodi- cals are available even to many families with low incomes. Here again, it should be empha- sized that the mere availability of a tool for cultural advancement does not mean that it will be used in a constructive way. Yet it is reason- able to assume that constructive use will be made of new inventions and that new types of social organizations and institutions will develop in time (40). Effects on Rural Institutions and Culture Technological changes, commercialization, and better communication in rural areas have had their influence upon the family, the neigh- borhood, and the community. Probably the most important influence has been that of widen- ing the contacts of the individual and partially freeing him from the inscrutable and relentless control of his local community. On the one hand, he has been brought into closer contact with and made dependent on the town and city where he learns to question the older values and beliefs; and, on the other hand, he has been freed from the rigorous control of the local community. Life, therefore, has become more complex. He is given new desires by association with people who have many material things which he does not have; and he is not certain what reward or loss will be forthcoming if he pursues a given line of action. His desires grow out of all proportion to the means of satisfying them. Finding himself frustrated by desires which cannot be satisfied under old standards, the sanctity of which is questioned, it is natural for him to disregard old beliefs. As impersonal relationships have become more important, the role of mutual aid has become less important. The old husking bees, house liftings, or threshing rings which brought people together on an intimate basis either have gone or are going. Neighbors are becoming less important in the farmer's economic and social life. Many a farm woman, who once worked laboriously preparing for the threshers, laments that she no longer gets together with her neighbors because the combine has displaced the old threshing ring. Machinery and increasing dependence upon the town have broken down rural society. Neighbors become more like city neighbors. Intimacy and mutual assistance are replaced by machines, and when assistance is rendered its value is often calculated in dollars and cents. The individual farmer who meets adversity or needs assistance must in most cases seek aid from impersonal Government or other agencies, whereas in former times his neighbors or others who knew him intimately might help him. The coming of better roads and automobiles has facilitated consolidation of schools and made it possible for families to go longer distances to church, cooperative, and other meetings. Thus facilities for the support of institutions, especially the schools, have been increased. This is im- portant because the complexities of modern agriculture make it imperative that the child be educated in the modern technological and com- mercial culture. Although institutions can be- come larger and more completely equipped under modern means of transportation, bigger plants do not necessarily mean better plants. Consolidation of schools may mean that chil- dren can be trained better to face the future; but they may also mean that the farmer and his wife no longer know the teacher personally, and they may fear that the children will come under evil influences. Cooperatives may be larger and more effective with modern communication facilities; but cooperatives, like schools, churches, and other institutions, must continually strive to attain the social integration which existed when 70 cooperative and institutional organizations were carried on by intimate acquaintances in the local neighborhood or community. It is apparent that technological development has affected all classes and age groups of the farm population. Probably the four most gen- eral social effects have been the lessening of the amount of irksome labor required in farm and farm-home operation, the increasing of social contacts and participation, changes in attitudes and thinking due to the acceptance of science, and the increase in leisure time. It cannot be assumed, however, that all these changes are positive signs of improvement in the rural ways of life. All change is more or less disturbing and the rapidity with which science and technology have entered agriculture has introduced instability and even frustration to some extent. Commercialization of rural life in terms of both buying and selling has added costs which have placed financial strains on many farm families and introduced a degree of both economic and social instability. Wider social contacts through newspapers, telephones, radios, and use of the automobile are guaranteed only by the expenditure of considerable funds. All segments of the farm population do not participate equally in the results flowing from the technological advances, because there is an almost constant displacement by machines of persons who were at one time stabilized on farms operated by traditional methods. These dis- placed people, who have been compelled to abandon farm homes of all types for life in transient farm labor camps, trailers, and tents, participate but little in the conveniences and higher material standards of living which have come to those on the top rungs of the agricul- tural ladder. These transient folk have suffered all of the liabilities of social and economic change without being able to participate in any of the assets. They have lost security. Their loss of security in many cases is a direct result of the mechanization of agriculture. Between those on the top and bottom rungs of the agricultural ladder are various economic classes which participate to a greater or less ex- tent in the benefits of technological develop- ments. These classes result to a considerable extent from the sifting process due to the in- crease in size of farm and increased capital required for farm operation. There is consid- erable probability that these economic strata will in due time become social strata. Once we have a pronouncedly stratified rural society, it is more than likely that we shall witness the ap- pearance of stratified pressure groups, each striving to hold, gain, or regain the degree of security which it held before agricultural society became complex. Already farm labor and tenant unions are ap- pearing. Farm families in great numbers are in need of public assistance, and unless it can be assumed that urban outlets will again develop for the increasing farm population, we may wit- ness an increasing demand for tax-supported economic and social aids for those who have sifted near the bottom of the agricultural ladder. (See chapter 29 for a discussion of the effects of technology on farm family living.) 71 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM. Chapter I 3 Effects on the National Economy Our discussion of the effects of technology ends with this outline of the influences on the national economy. It is well to bear in mind that this report is restricted to technological developments directly applicable to agriculture, with little considera- tion of industrial technology, and that the latter may reenforce or offset the effects of agricultural developments on other sections of the national economy. The problems of technological change in agriculture would be simpler if it were not for the complicated system of relationships among agriculture, industry, and other segments of our economy. Thus agricultural changes affect industry, industrial changes affect agri- culture, and trade affects them both. Favor- able to farm groups are inventions that produce new employment and help to maintain agricul- tural prices; unfavorable to agriculture are the developments that tend to increase unemploy- ment and thus intensify the problem of displace- ment in agriculture. Important to agriculture is the rate at which gains in efficiency are being made in manufac- turing and other nonagricuhural industries. In terms of average output per worker, agri- culture and manufacturing are showing some- what the same gains in efficiency. The fact that both occupations show a sharp decline in output per worker in 1934 is somewhat a coincidence. In agriculture a bad drought caused total production to fall, but in manu- facturing the trend toward a shorter workweek following 1929 was not accompanied by any great increase in production until after 1934. More workers during this period were employed in manufacturing relative to the output than in the years preceding or following the depth of the depression. As the gains of technology in agriculture tend to be passed on to other groups, the welfare of agriculture is highly dependent upon a like decline in the prices of industrial goods pur- chased by agriculture. To the extent that there must be increases in the efficiency of production PRODUCTIVITY PER *ORKER IN MANUFACTURING AND AGRICULTURE. 1919-39 19Z3-25-I00 - £ 9 manufacturing k - / \ f \ // / / u - A y<^ / V V h 1 - - \ si/ ■ricultu 1 XI - - / \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1919 1921 1923 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 193? 1939 •FXC* HtTIOMl KaUKQH nOJKT, BtPOPT Nt t-l before industrial prices can fall, manufacturing should not be a barrier to a decline in these prices. Indeed, manufacturing shows a lower gain in output per hour of work than do the mineral and electric light power industries. The main conclusion that can be drawn from a study of the relative rates of technical progress in 72 agriculture and industry since 1919 seems to be that declines in agricultural prices relative to in- dustrial prices are not caused by a more rapid rate of technical progress in agriculture than in industry. A study (34) made of the gains in technical effi- ciency of agriculture, manufacturing, and min- ing by decades between 1870 and 1930 indicates that agriculture and mining had little or no gain PRODUCTIVITY PER MAN-HOUR BY SELECTED INDUSTRIES. 1919-38 1923-25-100 PERCENT 200 180 L l±s S / 1 — ** Miner 1 mdus rlos . A" cX^— - -z^j t J ''"\ v 1 i 1 i ing , , 9)9 1921 1923 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 1937 1939 1 ATI OH A L in output per worker from 1900 to 1910; for the same period manufacturing showed an increase of 17 percent. From 1910 to 1920, however, agriculture gained 19 percent, manufacturing 12 percent, and mining 34 percent. This study concludes that between 1900 and 1930 the out- put per worker increased 41 percent in agricul- ture, 63 percent in manufacturing, and 47 per- cent in mining. Important, also, to agriculture is the technolog- ical displacement that seems to be taking place in industry; gains in efficiency per man-hour are not accompanied by large enough expansions in production to continue employing so many workers. Employment opportunities are all the more scarce to unemployed agricultural workers under such conditions. Shifting of Benefits to Other Groups The benefits of technological improvement are not all economic; often other elements can be considered beneficial. A farmer might save nothing by using a tractor, but still prefer it to horses. As long as he thinks he prefers to pay more for using a tractor, he obtains a benefit — a value that is probably psychological, and one that he would receive even though all the eco- nomic gain resulting from his tractor had disap- peared through shifts to other groups. Thus the transference to other groups of economic benefits gained by adopting new developments does noi necessarily mean that all the benefits are lost to agriculture. On first observation, it appears that severing the farm worker and operator groups from in- come produced in agriculture reduces the aggre- gate purchasing power of agriculture by the amount of wages and income that they had re- ceived. It might also appear that such displace- ment causes a further reduction in purchasing power of agriculture because increased numbers of unemployed tend to reduce the wage rates and total wages paid to the employed. Such conclusions are superficial and misleading, for what is lost in the income of the displaced is held (even if temporarily) by the groups within agri- culture that gain from the change. The first effect, then, of such displacement would be not to change the aggregate purchasing power of agriculture but to shift purchasing power from one group to another. But even the agricultural group that first bene- fits from improvements has great difficulty in maintaining the economic gains of technology, especially gains from improvements that in- crease production. This is explainable in terms of the demand for agricultural products and of the large number of farmers in agriculture. Agricultural production is tending to outrun the amounts that the population in general and the foreign outlets will buy except at extremely low prices. This condition is especially severe for those agricultural commodities that have a lower total value when the production is rela- tively high than they have when production is low. Because the number of farmers producing most commodities is large, there is little or no opportunity for an individual to affect prices through his own action. An increase in produc- tion under these conditions, unless offset by in- creases in demand, will depress prices and probably the total market value. Thus tech- nological advances that first improve the net income of some farmers may be of only tempo- rary aid to farmers and may result in painful adjustments. 73 The ultimate gainers from the technological benefits that the farmers cannot retain appear to be the consumers or some group between the farmer and consumer. Either the prices to the consumer are lowered or the costs of distribution increased to provide more profit or to offset the costs of new services. It is not improbable that some sellers of new- agricultural equipment and appliances may be able to set prices high enough so that the farmers never receive the potential benefit. The transi- tory nature of economic benefits to agriculture from technological improvements raises an important question: How should the benefits of technological progress be distributed to the different groups and individuals in our society? Effects on National Output The ultimate effects of technological develop- ments in agriculture on the national output — the total of goods produced and services performed — are exceedingly complex. Although these developments in themselves are increasing agricultural production, at least the amount available for market, the adjustments set into motion by this increase in production and by the displacement of workers may alter both agricultural and nonagricultural outputs. Adjustments within agriculture may come through the utilization of more rigid output con- trol measures, the use of which probably in- creases the number of surplus farm workers, be- cause compliance with control programs accen- tuates labor displacement even though it increases farmers' net incomes. Thus adjust- ment to increased production through further production control would make it all the more necessary that productive work be found for dis- placed individuals in agriculture. As has been indicated, the adoption of develop- ments that save labor, or reduce the amount of purchases needed in production, releases purchas- ing power, or shifts it from one line of expenditure to another. The purchasing power gained by the individuals adopting a new development may, of course, be applied on the purchase of new- equipment necessary for the development itself. On the other hand, more "luxury" goods may- be bought by those gaining from the change. The character and extent of shifts in the use of purchasing power are difficult to ascertain, par- ticularly for consumer goods, but it seems rea- sonable to assume that the sale and production of some products will increase at the expense of others. Whether nonagricultural output as a whole is stimulated or depressed depends on how well the expansions in production of some products bal- ance the contractions of other products. A stimulus to the production of a commodity mav cause new employment and perhaps additional investment; this may bring increases in produc- tion elsewhere, which, in turn, may lead to sec- ondary rises in the production of the first pro- duct. In the same way a reduction in the sale of a product ultimately may bring secondary reductions. To the extent that the economic benefits of technological change are shifted to other groups and the total purchasing power of agriculture is reduced, industries selling products of a nones- sential nature almost exclusively to agriculture probably would become depressed; that is, unless purchasing power were maintained or increased by other means. Yet other products may be stimulated when benefits are shifted to other groups, because con- sumers generally will have to pay less for agricul- tural products and thus can spend more for non- agricultural products. By and large, it does not seem likely that the general level of nonagricul- tural output will be adversely affected by current technological developments in farming. Unless it is judged necessary to restrict by control meas- ures all of the increase in agricultural production, the national output probably will be increased by these developments. How the displaced individuals are supported during transitional or adjustment periods is also important in determining what may happen to nonagricultural output. So long as the dis- placed individuals are furnished the materials of life through charity, or through nonwork relief financed by taxation, there is a redistribution, rather than a creation, of purchasing power. Effects on Purchasing Power This redistribution, however, causes shifts in 74 purchasing power with results similar to those already indicated. Current technological de- velopments are increasing the economic depend- ence of agriculture upon industry. Frontier agriculture bought relatively few industrially produced goods, and, although the effects of the fluctuation in purchasing power were undoubt- edly severe, farmers were able to avoid the pincers-like situation found in commercial agriculture today. Farmers now need cash both for production and for family living, and a decline in their cash income may cause them either to neglect their productive organization in order to main- tain an adequate level of living, or to meet the production demands for cash, regardless of the level of living. Agriculture and industry tend to prosper and fail together. The adoption of new farm equip- ment that requires cash for purchase and for operation creates several instabilities not only for agriculture but also for industry. Farmers' may attempt to maintain their cash operating expenses during the depression, but post- poning the purchase of durable goods tends to create "replacement waves" in buying that intensify the prosperity and depression phases of the business cycle in industry. The falling off of agricultural demand for goods produced in industry has a tendency to increase industrial unemployment, which, of course, may be reflected in the reduced cash income of agriculture. Noncommercial Farming On the other hand, technological displace- ment (together with all the other factors that have created a surplus of people relative to the number of farms available and to the need for workers) is creating pressure to expand non- commercial farming. Thus, individuals who at one time may have been largely dependent on cash to buy the materials of life may try to withdraw as far as possible from commercial agriculture and its dependence on industry. The effect of such expansion on nonagricultural production is probably not very great under existing condi- tions, for many of the individuals who are now attempting this type of fanning were not buying many industrial goods in the first place. Agricultural production of food products is probably increased by this expansion, but (be- cause many of the individuals entering this type of farming need to raise their dietary standards) much of this increase would never enter com- mercial channels. This type of farming, effec- tively utilized, perhaps can raise the real income of this group above what they could obtain else- where in periods of widespread unemployment. Yet the continuance of such farming probably would mean that a large group could have few of the things that material progress adds to living standards — that is, unless financial assist- ance were provided. As long as men and resources are made idle through technology, the real problem is to utilize this unused capacity to expand the national output of goods and services or in cultural advancement. In a period when in- dustry cannot employ all who need work, it is necessary to reconsider the usual explanations of the best economic relationships between agriculture and industry. What has been true historically in the Ameri- can economic and technological development may not be true for the future. Moreover, the solution of the problem will not be found by ignoring its complexities and realities. Economic Efficiency Reconsidered Important scientific changes in an agricultural economy that already needs to adjust itself to powerful external forces make necessary a reap- praisal of our usual interpretation of the goal of economic efficiency in farming. Economic efficiency often has been considered solely from the individual viewpoint and with the assumption that great efficiency in operating individual farms will effect the greatest efficiency for all farmers and society as a whole. Chronic unemployment in other industries and lack of alternative openings for the displaced agricul- tural population compel consideration of social phases of efficiency. From the individual point of view, the most efficient farm organization is one that returns the highest net income to the operator from the use 75 of his labor and the farm plant at anticipated prices for goods bought and sold, including land. But if we consider the group aspect, we realize that prices of farm products may be influenced by adjusting the total volume of production of different commodities, as has been undertaken in the adjustment programs. Depending upon the nature of the demand for a given product, downward adjustment of production may en- hance the net returns to the farming group. The result of such an increase would be that for the same (or even a smaller) input of labor and other cost items farmers would receive an output of greater value, and economic efficiency on farms would be raised. Economic efficiency must also be considered in its broader aspects, that is, in relation to the alternative employment opportunities available to the displaced farm population if agriculture were organized for most efficient operation according to the individual viewpoint. For the whole nation, the highest economic efficiency and the greatest productivity would be achieved if all persons were employed in the lines where they contribute the most. But the accom- plishment of this goal assumes that we can have full employment (restricted of course by a reas- onable length of working day); that anyone displaced in one occupation can readily find another job, and that a worker in a new job contributes more to the national output than he would in any other job available to him. Yet under conditions of chronic unemployment in other industries, the workers displaced from agriculture may find no other work, or, if they do, they will displace industrial workers. Thus economic efficiency, considered nation- ally, must be measured in terms of the per capita product with due consideration for displaced workers as well as those remaining in agriculture. In other words, the adoption of a labor-dis- placing improvement brings a net social gain only if the cost of finding other opportunities for the displaced population is included in the calculation. If the goal of economic efficiency in agriculture is placed in this setting of national considerations, it becomes a question of seeking the best alterna- tives that are open to the entire population. Within agriculture it becomes a problem of finding the best income opportunities for all farm groups — the sharecropper and the laborer, as well as the farm operator. Because it seems all too clear that conditions are unfavorable for any easy and automatic adjustment to technological change, and because there is nothing in technological change itself that will assure everyone an equal share in its benefits, inevitably the questions are raised: What can be done to remedy the maladjust- ments arising from technological change — to cushion as much as possible the adverse effects of such change for the groups bearing the load of adjustment? How can agriculture take care of its population at levels of living desirable from the viewpoint of the general welfare? In the next chapters, answers to these questions are suesested. 76 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter I 4 Technology and the Farm Problem Wc have surveyed the major technological developments in agriculture. We have tried to look ahead and estimate the probable trend and extent of these develop- ments the next 10 years or so and to appraise their probable economic and social effects. Here we discuss the implications of these changes and the problems they raise for agriculture and the nation. Changes of the kind and magnitude indicated in the preceding pages obviously cannot take place without serious consequences to agriculture and the nation. Probably the basic problem will be that of providing employment and security to the displaced and underpriv- ileged people who are most adversely affected by these developments. Expected shifts in tenure and income raise difficult questions, for they entail loss of position and income and a progressive piling up at the lower end of the social scale, and that effect is most likely in areas of lowest agricultural pro- ductivity where the existing population is already in excess. This intensification of population pressure is bound to accelerate population movement. There will be an increased tendency to migrate between rural areas and between rural and urban areas. Furthermore, machines alone are expected to displace 350,000 to 500,000 addi- tional farm workers. The important (but not new) problem of maintaining farm prices and income will be intensified by the expected technical develop- ments. Significant increases of corn, soybeans, small grains, hay and forage, cotton, and other crops and livestock through improvements in varieties and strains, in conservation and cultural prac- tices and in insect and disease control, and through changes in feed supplies and prices, cannot come without serious repercussions upon costs, prices, and income of all farmers, but especially commercial producers. These changes, furthermore, will not take place uniformly throughout the country. Fluc- tuations in costs as a result of mechanization will be most pronounced in areas where machine methods can best be used. Similarly, changes in costs and prices will take place first in localities best adapted to the new strains, varieties, and new methods of processing, but they soon will spread and produce varying effects in other parts of the country. They will have some significant effects upon regional specialization and will intensify the problem of interregional competition. It is clear, therefore, that the extent and magnitude of these changes will be such as to render extremely difficult the task of maintaining farm prices and income at reasonable levels. Technological developments also raise im- portant questions of significance to the several national agricultural programs, which at many points are closely related to technological 77 changes. Many of the problems these programs are trying to meet, in fact, are intensified by the developments. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration, for example, in addition to its acreage allotment and conservation practice program, strives through these efforts and through loans and marketing quotas to keep supplies in line with the effective demand of the market so as to maintain farm prices and income at reasonable levels. To keep the supplies of the principal basic commodities at legally defined, normal levels, the acreage allotments are varied each year, depending upon the situation with respect to carry-over, yields, domestic and export de- mand, etc. Loans and marketing quotas are provided when supplies and prices reach stated levels, but the latter come into operation only when supplies reach rather extreme heights. Obviously under this adjustment procedure anything which materially increases yields of a particular crop, even assuming domestic and export demand are constant, will decrease the acreage allotment necessary to maintain the supply at normal levels. It is just at this point that technological changes come into the pic- ture and affect the result. We have already pointed out the rapid strides that are taking place with respect to the develop- ment and adoption of hybrid corn in the Corn Belt. Such changes in yields and production, even assuming a reasonably active domestic and export demand, would be difficult to absorb without depressing prices and income. With the domestic and foreign demand in prospect as a result of the present general unemployment situation and the maladjustments that will be accentuated by the war, the problem will be much more difficult. Because of these factors and a rapidly in- creasing carry-over, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration put through a 20-percent down- ward adjustment in the corn acreage allotment in 1939 and has requested an additional down- ward adjustment of approximately 10 or 12 percent in 1940. With the changes in prospect that have been noted, it seems clear that further downward shifts in acreage will be necessary if supplies are to be maintained at reasonable levels, unless adverse weather conditions inter- fere to cut the crop or domestic and foreign demand unexpectedly improve greatly. Growing out of these downward adjustments in acreage is another problem of increasing significance both to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and to the Farm Security Ad- ministration. Reference is made to the growing practice of "bonus" renting, whereby share tenants are forced to pay cash rent for per- quisites, buildings, crib space, meadows, pasture, and the like in addition to the usual share of the crop. Technological developments accentuate this problem in two ways. The first effect comes about through increasing yields which neces- sitate further downward adjustments in acreage to maintain a given supply. As the acreage of depleting crops is decreased, the released acreage simply swells the total of the acreage of other crops upon which "bonus" rents may be charged. Another effect is due to the influence of mechanization upon size of farm and the relation of this to the availability of farms for tenants. A few years ago, a farmer upon retirement would go to a town and rent his farm as a unit to a bona fide tenant, but now he is more than likely to stay on the farm and rent it by fields to his neighbors, who thus increase the size of their operating units. Machines help them operate the addi- tional acreage practically as efficiently as if it were a definite part of their home tracts. They stand to enlarge their operations and incomes thereby, but there is one less farm for some other tenant. This situation apparently is developing to the point where there are more tenants looking for farms than there are farms available; obviously the tenants bid against each other for a farm, and the landlord, with a definite advantage in bar- gaining, can demand and receive the "bonus" rents. Any such additional charges lower the tenant's income and standard of living. Because of such situations, the Farm Security Administration is encountering increasing diffi- culty in finding farms for its tenant-purchase and rehabilitation-loan clients. The problem of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration also is 78 made more difficult, because these "bonus" rents often take the form of "by-agreements" and raise problems very difficult to identify and correct. Closely related to this development is the in- fluence of mechanization and acreage adjust- ments upon the shift from a position as tenant and sharecropper to one as wage hand. These shifts have taken place to a considerable degree in the intensive cotton areas of the South, where mechanization has increased markedly. Many- people attribute the shift in cropper status primarily to this factor. Others lay it also to a landlord's desire to adjust his labor force to his reduced cotton acreage and to get a larger share of the benefit payments. But regardless of the causes, the fact remains that it is a serious human problem and deserves careful consideration. The problem may become even more intensi- fied in the next few years ahead. The trend toward increased mechanization is very likely to continue. This shift will further displace man labor. Even if it does not cause complete physi- cal displacement, it is likely to result in further "economic" displacement, which comes about because of the tendency of certain landlords to keep a large supply of labor on the plantation for the seasonal peak load tasks of chopping and picking. Instead of giving the croppers the usual acreage of share cotton, however, they will give them only "nominal" allotments of cotton and use them the rest of the time as wage hands. The consequences are less income for the crop- pers from the smaller acreages, less wage work, some idleness, a smaller annual income, and inevitably a lower standard of living. Note must be taken also of another problem due to technological developments of signifi- cance to the national programs — particularly to the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. This is the decrease in unit costs (resulting from increased efficiency, etc.) and their bearing upon parity payments and the loan program. The question will have to be faced sooner or later whether under the conditions of supply, demand, and prices in prospect, the level of parity prices as now calculated is one that reasonably can be attained, or whether it may be necessary to recalculate it on a more recent basis so as to take into account these new developments. In such a calculation, technological and oilier changes in nonagricultural industries also would come into the picture. In fact, as we have indi- cated previously, these changes have equalled, (and in some industries have exceeded) those in agriculture, hence the net result might continue to indicate a relationship between agricultural and industrial prices not greatly different from the existing one. But even so, we still would face the difficult administrative problem of how to attain such levels. Similar questions arise with respect to the loan program, whether the present loan levels be maintained, or if not, at what levels they can be made with a reasonable assurance of repay- ment. There is also the question of the relation of the loan and resulting price level on feed grains to the elasticity and efficiency in feeding. These changes and their effects cannot be disassociated from the existing situation, either in agriculture or industry. In fact, they really intensify an already bad situation, which has had its roots in part in other causes, but also to which past technological developments have contributed. It is generally recognized that the situation at present, in both agriculture and industry, is characterized by depressed conditions, reduced national and individual incomes, excessive un- employment and relief. It also must be evident that further technological progress either in agriculture or industry simply will add to, and accentuate, these conditions unless we find some way greatly to expand our domestic and foreign markets and absorb the already large army of unemployed. If some permanent improvement were fore- seen in these prospective economic conditions, we could be much more optimistic about the social and economic effects of technology. But unfortunately there is little basis for such opti- mism. During the next few years, at least, industrial opportunities are not likely to be of such magnitude as to absorb anything like the present industrially unemployed, to say nothing of absorbing the large excess of man- power on the farm. 79 In 1937 we succeeded in employing about 35 million persons in nonagricultural pursuits. By the end of 1939, when industrial production finally, but temporarily, exceeded the 1929 peak, total nonagricultural employment reached only about 34 million persons, nearly a million fewer than in 1937 and approximately 2 million fewer than in 1929. There are, at present, probably 42 million to 44 million nonfarm persons available for work, of whom perhaps 2 million are on Government work projects and about 2 million normally would be unemployed in prosperity years. Every year probably 500,000 are added to this available working force. Although the tre- mendous sums that are being employed for defense undoubtedly will speed up business activity and give employment to considerable numbers of unemployed people the next year or so, the effect is likely to be temporary and not on a scale sufficient to meet the problem we are discussing. Nor are the prospects much brighter for the years ahead. A prolonged European war might alter this prospect, but only temporarily. A short war, on the other hand, might make it even darker. Even when peace is declared it will require a period of years to overcome the maladjustments resulting from the war. There will be extreme competition among all nations for world markets. Because of the major im- portance of foreign markets to the prosperity of the bulk of our agricultural producers, it appears that agriculture as a whole will be affected particularly by this situation. Agriculture will be benefitted, however, to the extent that our domestic industrial economy can be made to function more effectively through expanded production, lower prices, and in- creased employment. But changes in this direction, as we have seen, probably will be slow, so slow, in fact, that agriculture likely will have to take care of not only as many but probably more people than has been the case during the 1930's. There were in 1937, according to the unem- ployment census, more than 1,500,000 males living on farms who either were totally or partially unemployed or only had emergency employment. It does not appear that this un- employment situation has improved or will improve much in the next few years, since nearly 400,000 farm males are reaching maturity each year and only about 110.000 farmers are dying each year, with possibly as many more retiring or leaving for other occupations. Unless there is an unexpected increase in net migration, therefore, the total population in agriculture in 1950 will be higher even than today, when it is the highest on record. Indica- tions are that it may reach a total of 34 million persons, approximately 2 million more than today. In the South during the 1930's, for example. 275 white persons reached 1 5 years of age for every 100 persons over 15 who died or reached 65 years. In other words, for every 100 vacan- cies there were 275 applicants. Among the Negro population comparable figures indicate that there were 210 applicants for every 100 vacancies. Consequently, there must be a material migration from southern farms or there will result a substantial increase in an area where farm population pressure is already acute. When it is realized further that there are 3 million farm families in the United States today receiving gross farm incomes averaging only $615 and more than a million and a half males of working age living on farms who are totally or partially unemployed, it is obvious that the further expected displacement of 350,000 to 500,000 workers during the next ten years, because of mechanization alone, will create an extremely bad situation and will make im- perative the adoption of remedial measures to meet it. 80 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter I 5 Some Suggested Lines of Action From the preceding discussion it is clear that conditions are unfavorable for any easy or automatic adjustment to technological change. Furthermore, there is nothing in technological change itself nor in the way our present economy works that will assure everyone an equal share in its benefits. What, then, can be done to remedy the maladjustments arising from such changes — how can we extend the benefits of technology more widely and minimize or cushion its worst effects? In this final chapter we discuss some steps which might be taken to give more aid and greater security to those groups most adversely affected in agriculture. It is recog- nized, however, that these measures are not in themselves adequate to meet the situation — their full effectiveness must await much-needed fundamental adjustments in the whole industrial economy. Opinions and ideas vary widely as to what can or should be done to meet the problems resulting from technological developments. One rather large group recognizes that tech- nology has created unemployment in some specific situations, but believes any such unem- ployment is temporary and is followed sooner or later by new and increased employment, while gains are made in the general availability of materials and services otherwise limited to a favored few. They who have this viewpoint reason that permanent unemployment is impos- sible because of technological progress; new methods make it possible to produce more goods with the same labor or the same amount of goods with less labor; reduced labor cost means a lower price, increased demand for the product, and more employment to satisfy the additional demand; or, if the demand is inelastic, the lower consumer cost goes for other articles so that em- ployment is stimulated in other fields. To this group, therefore, labor displacement as a result of technological progress does not represent a major problem, and agriculture is primarily a business in which all possible efficiency should be realized: If many farmers are poor, then there are too many farmers, and resources are being wasted (41). Strong advocates of this view often neglect to place agriculture within the setting of the current national economic conditions. Many social problems are ignored. Those in this group who recognize the short-run difficulties of dis- placement usually advocate an educational program for vocational training supplemented perhaps by pensions to take care of unemploy- ables and old-age groups. A More Pessimistic View On the other side is a group that has a much more pessimistic view of the problem. They see a tremendous amount of temporary labor dis- placement in the introduction of new machines, 81 processes, and techniques, and the growth of a permanently unemployed and relief group as a result of it. They believe that increased effi- ciency and lowered costs brought about by technology are not translated into lower prices, expanded demand, and reemployment in the easy, effortless manner suggested by the other group. Rather, they see various controls and inhibitions operating all along the line to prevent it. The trend in our modern economy, further- more, has been in the direction of increasing rather than diminishing these controls. Conse- quently, there is nothing in prospect that would indicate anything other than a continuation and intensification of them, leading; inevitably to a permanently unemployed class. Many proponents of this view regard agricul- ture primarily as a way of living, rather than a means of obtaining a living. The problem of security is central in their thinking and tech- nology is a potent force in creating insecurity. Some doubt that any social gain has been derived from the mechanization of agriculture or from the shift of certain functions from agriculture to industry. Some persons (who question the uncritical acceptance of technological change) suggest that the fundamental way to relieve the adverse effects of such changes is to prevent the changes or at least to retard their adoption. Several proposals have been made for delaying technical progress. One, to regulate the intro- duction of new inventions by a scheme to control and regulate patents, stresses the importance of selecting and promoting inventions that will put people to work and retard or restrict those that will displace workers. Another feature of the plan is the collection of royalties (in return for patent rights, particularly on labor-saving patents) that would be used to take care of technological employment. The use of a labor- differential tax, another recent proposal, would seek to increase employment by imposing a tax favorable to firms that have a large proportion of their costs in the form of wages and salaries. A third proposal is to tax the use of specific machines which directly displace labor and tend to reduce the number of farms in some areas and whose adoption and use, therefore, should be taxed to relieve the displacement they cause. Another idea is to stabilize the production and marketing of agricultural commodities by re- gions and areas. If a technological develop- ment favors one region relative to other regions, restrictions on production or marketing from the favored region could be established. Such action would be taken whenever rapid shifts would create serious maladjustment in particular areas and presumably would continue until alternatives are developed in the disadvantaged areas. Although proposals of this type often- times have considerable appeal, it is not at all clear (even assuming they would be effective in preventing the maladjustments toward which they are directed) that they would promote the public interest in the long run. This is partic- ularly true because the material welfare of a large proportion of our population is still too low, and those who advance these proposals have failed to show that more persons would be helped than would be hurt if their proposals were adopted. A Need For New Social Direction Instead of preventing or slowing up technical progress, we need, rather, to speed up and give new direction to social and institutional changes in order to keep pace with technological change. We need to spread the benefits of technology more widely — to extend the benefits to all of the people and to areas where such developments, up to now, have been negligible. We need to encourage the development of new opportunities and greater security for all farm people, particu- larly the disadvantaged groups. In this report, we accept neither the optimism of the group that believes that the problem is minor and that reemployment occurs practically automatically nor the pessimistic view that tech- nological advance must be discouraged or held rigidly in check. An underlying assumption in this report is that inventions and technological progress have been a major factor in raising the standard of living of all the people — that by cheapening the means of production, technology has greatly increased efficiency and has brought to the mass of consumers conveniences and luxuries that otherwise would have been availa- 82 blc only to a few. But it also has been recognized that these benefits have not always been distri- buted equally among all groups— that along with them have come certain maladjustments. As long as our economy was expanding and domestic and foreign markets were growing steadily, these maladjustments were temporary. Labor displaced by new machines and tech- niques was soon reabsorbed because of the expanded demand for products of particular industries and the new lines of activity opened up by inventions and new techniques. As the era of free land passed, however, as we have shifted from a debtor to a creditor nation, and as our ability to find or to hold foreign outlets for our excess products has progressively de- clined, maladjustments due to scientific progress have become accentuated. Some labor supplanted by technological prog- ress continues to be absorbed by reemployment as in the past, to be sure, but by no means does it take place in the rapid, semiautomatic manner of former years. In fact, there has been a dis- tinct slowing up, with a progressively lengthen- ing interval of idleness between the time of dis- placement and that of reemployment. It is for this reason that consideration needs to be given to measures of a remedial nature — to seek there- by to reduce the impact and to cushion the effect of these changes upon the disadvantaged groups. The measures proposed relate primarily to steps that might be taken within agriculture itself. It is not assumed, however, that these are the only steps that need to be taken nor that they will in themselves relieve the existing maladjust- ments. In fact, even more urgent adjustments are needed in the nonagricultural segment of our economy. If such adjustments were made in the direction of greater freedom of enterprise, expanded output, lower and more flexible prices, there would be much less disparity of exchange between agricultural and industrial production and prices and there would be increased oppor- tunity for the excess workers in agriculture to find gainful employment in industry. Such a fundamental development would lessen the need for specific measures in agriculture itself. Over a period of time it not only is desirable but it should lie possible to move in this direction. Such u change should make possible a highei level nl living lor the entire population. But until such adjustments are made it is imperative in the interest of justice and fair play that steps be taken within agriculture itself to cushion the adverse effects of these technological develop- ments. Suggested ways to attack the major problems created by technological developments are in three groups: Measures to provide employment and security to displaced and underprivileged people; Measures to stabilize agricultural economic conditions; And measures to create a wider appreciation for the values and benefits of rural life. Some of the suggestions are neither new nor exhaustive. Some are now being tried but need increased emphasis. Perhaps no one suggestion or combination of suggestions will meet the problem fully. But if they are developed on a reasonably adequate scale they should be helpful in minimizing the most adverse effects of technology. Measures to Provide Employment and Security for Displaced and Underprivileged People First, we need to develop a program which will provide for the immediate relief and re- habilitation of those now unemployed and in distress and which will absorb and cushion the shock for the additional numbers expected to be displaced. This calls for a conservation works program. Second, looking beyond the immediate situ- ation, we need to develop measures for the per- manent rehabilitation of these people. Such measures include: An extension of the present Farm Security Administration program to reach a greater number of the low-income group, the development of a more adequate program for farm labor, maintenance and further develop- ment of owner-operated family-sized farms, and assistance to farmers in the development of new sources of employment and self-help. 2S!HI5.T -40- 83 A Rural Conservation Works Program for Immediate Relief and Rehabilitation 10 To meet the first or immediate problem men- tioned, a rural conservation works program is proposed. In it, the present unemployed and underemployed in agriculture would be put to the productive task of building up our greatly depleted soil, forest, and water resources. The essential elements of the problem are these: We need to find secure incomes for more than 3 million men now living on farms, prob- ably half of whom are wholly or partly unem- ployed while the other half and their dependents barely exist on gross cash incomes averaging not more than $200 to $300 annually. With each passing year many more men and boys of work- ing age are likely to be looking for opportunities on the land. Accruing to this group also may be an additional 350,000 to 500,000 workers displaced during the next ten years as a result of mechanization. Over and above the work these people now get one way or another, it has been conservatively estimated that they represent an unused annual labor supply of 450 million man-days. The very areas where most of these needy farm people live are the same areas where our natural resources have been punished the most severely, where forests have been most ruthlessly cut over, and where land, water, and forest resources are unprotected from further abuse by man and nature. The present position of forestry in our rural economy typifies in a unique way this situation. At a time when farmers are threatened by over- production in many leading agricultural prod- ucts, consumption and destruction of good forest products is taking place at a rate in excess of growth of such materials, and the quality of the remaining forest stands is deteriorating. The use of land and manpower to balance the forest budget, and to relieve rural unemployment is, therefore, a logical and appropriate step. The 10 The discussion in this section is based on an Inter- bureau Coordinating Committee Report prepared under the direction of Raymond C. Smith, Chief Program Analyst, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. See also article by Mr. Smith in Land Policy Review, May-June 1940, and a statement presented by him to the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, May 24, 1940. geographic coincidence of the location of people needing supplementary employment with the location of forest lands in need of additional conservation measures makes the proposed pro- gram especially feasible. In many areas where distress of the rural population is most acute, such as the Southern Appalachian, Ozark, New England, Lake States regions, and the southern pine territory generally, the abuse and devasta- tion of forests has gone on for decades and is still in process. It is in these areas that restora- tion of the forest resources offers much promise for greater employment, more regular incomes, social rehabilitation, and a stable self-supporting economy. Here, human and forest conservation can well be effected simultaneously. We could paint a similar picture of much of our agriculture and range land, where one-crop farming, overgrazing and other exploitative practices have stripped off the precious top soil and destroyed the most productive and palatable grass species. These exploitative practices not only have stimulated erosion, but have acceler- ated floods, and flood damage to our streams and reservoirs and have endangered our irriga- tion water supplies. To rebuild these resources to a safe level and to protect them will require many millions of man-days of labor. As far as we can see right now, to do the things we know should be done is a task that requires at least 1 ){ billion man- days of labor. A rural conservation works program that would marshal the unused and wasted rural manpower now available to perform this needed task of conservation on our farms, ranges, and forests would go a long way toward giving the temporary security and supplementary income so badly needed by these people and, at the same time, would be building up a physical base underneath them and the whole population of great permanent value. Types of Projects that Might be Undertaken Under a Conservation Works Program The program, as envisaged, would include both work projects and credit activities. As far as possible these projects should be fitted into existing administrative machinery so that there 84 would be continuity in conservation efforts and duplication avoided. The work projects might include: Partially self-liquidating forest conservation works projects administered by leasing or enter- ing into cooperative arrangements with the owners of private forest lands. Such work as tree planting and forest restoration, fire protec- tion, sustained yield management, and harvest- ing of timber could be accomplished, the owners' contribution being made by an agreed-upon portion of the returns from timber sales. This would provide a means of unlocking opportunities for employment on such lands and to bridge over the difficult transition period until the forest resource is restored to sustained yield status. Partly or completely (depending on type of activity) self-liquidating soil and water conserva- tion works projects administered by the Govern- ment, pursuant to cooperative agreements with the owners of private crop and grazing lands. Terms of the cooperative agreements with the private land owners could assure the Govern- ment that the land would be managed properly after completion of the work and should state the amount which would be repaid to the Government. Soil, water, and forest conservation projects, not self-liquidating and conducted on privately owned land, are of such a nature that the conser- vation work, while of substantial public benefit, would not add sufficiently to the value of parti- cular private lands to warrant repayments by the land owners. Examples of this type of project would be: Work to protect highways, reservoirs, and other public facilities. Other activities might include tree plantings in con- nection with erosion and flood control, shelter- belt plantings in the Prairie States, stand im- provement demonstration projects, protection against forest insects and diseases, and an expansion of the fire protection efforts. If the conservation works program were ex- tended to forest lands in public ownership, several -hundred thousand additional man-years of employment could be realized. The work would include road and trail construction, tree plantings, timber stand improvement and pro- tection against fire, insects, and diseases. A lending program for conservation to be accomplished by private operations also could well be included. After the necessary machinery and arrangements were set up this might include: (a) Loans to forest products enterprises, not only for direct conservation work, but also for business purposes, such as mill construction ami expansion and road building, with the loan agreement conditioned upon the following of sound conservation practices and sustained yield management. (b) Inclusion in all tenant-purchase loans of the Farm Security Administration of adequate amounts for conservation work. (c) Short-term conservation loans to farmers for terracing and other conservation practices on their own farms. Loans also could be made to cooperative associations for limestone crushing and for the purchase of terracing equipment. Production credit associations and banks for cooperatives could well expand this type of activity. (d) Inclusion in all long-term loans made by Federal land banks and by the Land Bank Commissioner of funds for adequate conserva- tion work. Considerable conservation work might be accomplished on farms acquired by Federal land banks or by the Federal Farm Mortgage Corporation through foreclosure, before disposal of such lands to new owners. (e) Combining Farm Security Administration loans with grants to low-income farm families for accomplishing conservation work upon farms where these families live. This not only would permit more low-income families to participate in the rehabilitation program, but would im- prove their chances for making a living by build- ing up the physical base upon which they are dependent. Where such low-income families own their own farms procedures could be verv simple. Where they are tenants, appropriate leasing arrangements would be necessary to assure the benefits to low-income families. A conservation works program including projects and procedures of the character just described could be administered without great difficulty. The Department of Agriculture has already gained considerable experience in con- 85 serving natural resources. The kind of appro- priate measures are well-known and many are already being practiced although on too limited a scale. Most of the work could be handled In- unskilled labor under proper supervision. Un- employed and underemployed farmers are qualified. The work could be so scheduled that those farmers who are presently totally unem- ployed could devote full time while other farmers, a part of whose time is required by their limited farming operations, could be avail- able for work during off seasons. Both public employment supported by public works projects pay rolls, and private employment supported by public or private credit, could well be involved. A distinction would have to be made, of course, between low-income or unemployed farm people and other farmers above the low-income level. Conservation work could be undertaken under the program on lands belonging to both types of farmers. The laborers employed, however, on both types of farms should come from the underemployed and unemployed farm group. Where the con- servation work would add substantially to the value of a farm owned by a comparatively pros- perous person, the farm owner should either finance an appropriate part of the cost of such work himself, or, where the work could best be performed through public projects, agree to repay a proper portion of its costs or stand a proportionate share of the total costs through contributions of material, equipment, or labor. Within a particular area, and even on the same farm, a conservation program might be developed involving both public works projects and private work supported by public or private credit. Thus, a public works project in a particular locality might be undertaken in which certain large scale operations would be financed at public expense to constitute a devel- opmental skeleton, while loans on a self-liqui- dation basis, or a combination of loans and grants, depending upon the economic status of the landowners, could be made to individual farmers for work on their own farms necessary to complete the area conservation plan. Other Measures Proposed for Permanent Rehabilitation and Security But other measures are needed to provide permanent security and rehabilitation for these people. Presumably, after a few years, assum- ing the works program were developed on a reasonably large scale, the most urgent needs of conservation would have been met. Other devices are needed, therefore, of a continuing and longer-time nature that will give per- manency to the effort. Such programs or pro- cedures might include: First. A Proposal That the Present Farm Security Administration Program of Supervised Loans, Debt Adjustment, and the Like, Be Extended To Reach a Greater Number of the Low-Income Group For our present purpose, farms may be con- sidered in four groups. In the first are those that, assuming reasonable farm prices, are large and productive enough to support families resid- ing thereon, hence are not in need of assistance of the type available through the Farm Security Administration. The proportion of farms of this kind obviously is highest in the better agricul- tural areas, comprising nearly 100 percent of the farms in some areas but sharply diminishing from a large majority to a small minority as we pass from the good to the poor agricultural areas. In the second group are farms for which a so- called balanced farm plan can be drawn up. That is, the present earning capacity of such farms is sufficient, with a certain amount of reorganization and with reasonable farm prices, to produce enough income to support family living- and repay operating expenses and any necessary rural rehabilitation loan. It is farms in this group which now constitute the bulk of the clients of the Farm Security Administration receiving "standard" rehabilitation loans. In the third group we may place those farms which at present cannot support a family, but could do so if means were available to enable the operator to rebuild his soil resources. It is this type of farm which would be most helped by a conservation works program of the type pre- 86 viously discussed. Such a program, by building up the physical productivity base of the farm probably would permanently rehabilitate the farmer residing' thereon and give to him and his dependents reasonable security. These farms are then potentially standard farms in the Farm Security Administration sense. With temporary assistance in the form of grants for building up their resources, they would be able to support the family, pay operating expenses, and meet under reasonable terms of payment any neces- sary rural rehabilitation loan. In the fourth class arc farms whose resources are so limited that they will only partially sup- port a family even after their productivity base is developed to the utmost. In other words, there are many farm families who still could not be reached even though the present efforts of the Farm Security Administration to extend loans to this class of farmers were expanded to the fullest. Something additional will still be needed. With this general statement of the problem, it is clear that it is to the last two of the four groups of farmers mentioned to which increased atten- tion urgently will have to be given. And it is in this connection that the suggestion is made that the Farm Security Administration program be extended to reach a greater number of the low-income group. Such an extension would require an increase of supervisory personnel and funds for work grants to be tied to a farm plan and used in conjunction with rural rehabilitation loans. Such a program, if generally extended, would take care of the third group mentioned above very well. But the conservation works program would not completely meet the needs of the fourth group of farmers, who would not be entirely self- supporting even if the limited physical resources they have were developed to the utmost. If they are to be rehabilitated, either some means of supplementing their farm income from part-time' work off the farm will have to be found, or a part of them will have to be relocated in areas of greater opportunity. If enough families left these areas, the size of farms of the remaining families could be increased so that wiili the aid ill i In- Farm Security Administra- tion, most ill the remaining families could be- come self-supporting. II those families who would leave were to remain in agriculture, it would be necessary lor them to have access In good land, either new lands which may become available through drainage or irrigation, or flood control measures, or by subdividing good land which is now thinly populated in large holdings. Development of local industries which would furnish part-time employment opportunities for the families in this group would obviate the necessity for part of them to relocate. About the only alternatives to relocation or part-time em- ployment off the farm would be either a per- manent public works program or permanent relief. Second. A Proposal That a Afore Adequate Program for Farm Labor Be Developed Up until very recent years, the problem of farm labor received but little attention. Most people apparenily thought of farm labor in the conventional setting of the hired man in the Corn Belt and general farming areas where usually not more than one man was hired on each farm. Furthermore, he was probably a son of a neighbor and was taken into the house- hold and virtually occupied the status of a family member. Farm labor under such a setup ob- viously did not create many serious economic or social problems. But even in this earlier period this picture of farm labor was by no means com- plete. Before the era of the combine in the Great Plains, for example, we had the migrant harvest laborer, and in the intensive fruit and vegetable, sugar beet, and similar areas we had hired labor working under conditions that were not too good. In recent years the problem has become much more acute. With the increased mechanization that has taken place, more and more hired labor has been displaced. Their adverse situation has been intensified by drought, by unemployment in the cities, and by the other conditions arising out of the general depression. The problem has been dramatized by the situation of the migrant farmers and their families who left the Great Plains and adjacent areas in the 1930's to go 87 farther West, in search of work and a place to live. Three remedies are suggested: A farm placement service both for short-time labor and for permanent settlement, either as farm operators or as farm workers. — For short-time labor, the main function of such a service would be to coordinate the labor demand in an area with a labor supply from another area. This would involve a determination by the labor placement service of the amount of the seasonal labor de- mands of the various types of work on the basis of acreages and normal yields and the amount of labor obtainable locally. It would also in- volve the placement of labor orders with the employment service by individual growers and the making of such information available to laborers within other areas. Such a service also should be designed to enable tenants to find desirable farms and enable landlords to get in contact with suitable tenants. It should also keep abreast of conditions in different parts of the country and keep rural people in one area currently informed as to other areas which provide either full-time farm- ing opportunities or a combination of part-time farming and outside farm or nonfarm employ- ment opportunities. Some work along these lines is now being done by the Farm Placement Service of the Social Security Board and in some of the States, notably Texas, but a much greater effort is needed. A housing program for farm labor. — Not only should aid be given to facilitate the employment of farm laborers, but a well-planned housing pro- gram is needed to provide them with adequate living conditions. Such a program may take various forms, depending on local conditions. Camps for migratory workers, although in operation already, require further development in areas where perishable or other crops afford a short labor season and force laborers to move frequently from area to area. Such camps with adequate shelter and sanitary and water facilities should be constructed on land either leased or owned by the Government so as to provide security to residents and to enable the Govern- ment to provide them with technical guidance. Labor homes should be provided in areas in which it is desirable to maintain, within the area, the peak-season labor supply throughout the year. In such places as southeastern Missouri, for example, the crops are nonperishable and the peak labor season lasts for several months. Such labor home sites should include sufficient acreage for home gardens, a brood sow, poultry, and milk cows for home use. The combination of such a subsistence program with seasonal labor income should afford in many instances sufficient real income for an improved standard of living. Rural counterpart of wages and hours unemployment and old-age devices needed for farm labor. — For the further benefit of the low-income farm labor group, we should have a rural counterpart of the wages and hours legislation and the unemploy- ment insurance and old-age retirement that are now in effect for urban workers. To accomplish this will not be easy, but these people need pro- tection and security just as much as urban work- ers. This is particularly true of that large group of migrant seasonal laborers who follow the crops. Third. A Proposal Looking Toward Maintenance and Encouragement of the Further Development of Oivner- Operated Family-Sized Farms Another major proposal looking toward the rehabilitation and permanent security of these displaced and underprivileged people is to encourage and maintain the family-sized farm. We have noted that progress in mechanization in recent years has resulted in stepping up the size of farms in particular areas and in displacing farmers. When one individual extends his operations, either through purchase or by leas- ing, to cover areas formerly handled as indi- vidual units by one or more other farmers, obviously he is intensifying the problem of bona fide tenants seeking farms to operate. This, as we have seen, is already becoming a problem of considerable importance in certain parts of the country. Various measures might be adopted for encouraging and maintaining the family- sized farm. One is to expand the present tenant-purchase program so that the Government can make loans on a much larger scale than at present to quali- fied tenants, sharecroppers, and farm laborers to 88 enable them to acquire family-sized farms and to make the necessary improvements on them. The keen interest that tenant farmers have taken in the tenant-purchase program of the Farm Security Administration since 1937 points clearly to the fact that American farmers are eager to own family-sized farms. The Farm Security Administration has been limited in the number of tenant farmers that it could assist in becoming owners, but the experience that has accumulated is invaluable as a guide to an en- larged program. A second suggestion is to provide that all re- clamation and other new farm land develop- ments be settled on a family-sized and owner- operated basis and that the perpetuation of this tenure system be guaranteed. We might well give consideration to the pos- sibility of using reclamation areas as a means of rehabilitating low-income farmers and landless farm workers. But if such were done it is im- perative to prevent concentration of holdings in these areas as long as a population surplus exists in agriculture. For those areas yet to be settled, restrictions on size can more easily be put into effect, but measures ought to be adopted to encourage and maintain family-sized farms even in the older reclamation areas. Another suggestion is to settle or resettle shift- ing and nonowner farm families on good lands now owned and operated in larger than family- sized units. With our land resources already occupied in acceptable farming areas, an in- crease in the number of farms must come mostly from subdivision of larger holdings. If the large holdings are not now effectively used, subdivi- sion probably will result in a net gain in the amount of employment afforded by the area. Machinery and funds will be needed to utilize such lands and rather close guidance in sub- dividing and settling would be necessary. A fourth suggestion is to extend cooperative loans, and technical guidance when needed, to groups of operators of family-sized farms, both owners and tenants, for the purchase of purebred sires, mechanical equipment and like things as a means of bringing the latest, proved benefits of technology to relatively small farms. A compan- ion measure is to extend federal aid, both financial and advisory, to farm-forest cooperative associations, which hold considerable promise for betterment in the marketing and management aspects of farm forestry. Of two methods for fitting machines and equipment to farms, one involves designing machines to fit the needs of the farms, and the other involves "designing" the farms to fit the capacities of the machines and equipment. The objective of both is to lighten the overhead costs of owning and operating equipment. In the absence of well-adapted machines for small farms, an attempt to adjust the size of farm to the capabilities of existing machines involves enlarging the size in acres, but this may mean the displacement of some other farm family. To give the advantages enjoyed by large operat- ors to those with small farms, therefore, the cooperative ownership of expensive machines is recommended. This would entail real co- operation and planning, but would not be difficult with sincere and intelligent effort. Small farms would benefit even from the cooperative ownership of ordinary farm ma- chinery such as combines, manure spreaders, drills, and the like. They also would benefit from the cooperative ownership of large ma- chines, such as those required for conservation operations, land leveling, or clearing. Coopera- tion need not be limited to the use of machinery and equipment. It might be employed in a number of directions, including cooperative farming, cooperative medical care, etc. There may be or probably will arise a need for credit on the part of groups interested in such cooperative undertakings. Where such a need exists, efforts should be made to provide the necessary loans. A fifth suggestion is further to scale Agricul- tural Adjustment Administration allotments and payments in favor of the small producer. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration has already gone a considerable way in this direc- tion but possibly could go somewhat farther. But there are many problems involved in it. Obviously, this should not be carried out to the point of alienating the support of the larger producer because to do so would tend to defeat the purpose of the Agricultural Adjustment 89 Administration program, and result in lower farm incomes of all classes of farmers. In place of further scaling of allotments, it might be easier, and more practical, to work out a procedure for further scaling of payments in favor of the small producer. At present the law requires a write-up of all payments under $200 to any person on any farm. Because of the limitation upon funds allotted and of large participation in the program, the bulk, possibly 90 percent or more of the benefit payments made, average less than $200 per person per farm. This means that the big majority of the checks have to be stepped up, and further that the above-average income farmer gets an increase just the same as the farmer with low; income, although the percentage increase is much greater on the smaller than on the larger pay- ments. If some other scheme of calculating the allowance could be devised whereby the small farmer would earn greater payments without having to go through the stepping-up process it might result in greater equity. A sixth suggestion is to equalize credit oppor- tunities by making credit available to small holders at reasonable rates of interest. Remov- ing part of the present burden of financing small farms, however, requires more than just a re- duction in interest rates. The terms under which an individual farmer may borrow are quite often much more severe than the terms on which corporations obtain funds. When a loan for production purposes is not paid, a deficiency judgment may be rendered against the borrower. Thus if a farmer has other property, he may bear all the risk of the loan and the lender very little or none. Restricting the use of deficiency judgments and requiring that the lender limit his security to the collateral on which the loan is to be made would decrease this abuse. In the most distressed situations it would be desirable to limit the amount of credit given to what can be repaid by the estimated earning capacity of the farm and to extend any necessary additional funds on the basis of a conservation work agreement grant. By the additional aid of a small grant for use in building up the pro- ductivity base of the farm, it may be possible to render the farmer completely self-supporting in a short time and thereby improve the security of the original loan. Another heavy credit load, particularly for small farmers and for noncommercial farmers, is the requirement of high amortization payments, or the renewal fees on term mortgages. Financ- ing over a longer period lessens the annual principal repayment burden and is to be en- couraged. This is true, too, of the adoption of amortization payments varying in accordance with the financial success of the farm business. But even such payments may represent elements of forced saving and building up of an estate that small farmers can ill afford. It would be well, then, to investigate circumstances under which it would be unnecessary for a farmer to repay all the principal. A low requirement of principal repayment (but one that would somewhat more than cover depreciation on improvements), and a continuance of interest payments form one plan for reducing the finan- cial burden of small farmers; principal pay- ments are lessened, and the farmer's stake in the land might still be strong enough to give all the advantages of ownership. If this measure were adopted, the land should not be pledged as security for any other debts. A seventh suggestion is to facilitate transfer of land from old to young farmers. Many farm owners have reached retirement age but are unable to utilize their property to provide for their retirement. There perhaps is no heir to take over the farm, or the ow r ner may be unable to sell without too large a risk on a loan to the purchaser. Even if there is a good cash sale, he may not know how to invest his funds securely. Further, it is often difficult to find a home suit- able for living during retirement. On the other hand, many capable younger men want land. It is logical, then, to advance a program to facilitate arrangements for the retirement of these older farmers; both groups would be helped. This can be done by setting up regional semi- public corporations, such as the Federal land banks, or agencies to act with the land banks. The corporations would stand ready to purchase farms from operators wishing to retire, giving 90 investment bonds of the corporation in exchange, the bonds to be secured by the real estate and guaranteed by the Government. Rental and interest income from the purchased lands would furnish funds for the interest payments on bonds; and repayment of principal through amortiza- tion would provide funds for bond retirement. The corporations would lie ready to buy back bonds at par from retired farmers who wanted to liquidate a part of their estate. An annuity arrangement can be worked out for the farmers who have a current need for gradually liquidat- ing their estates. The land would be carefully appraised and classified according to its most desirable use, size of farm, and need for con- servation. The difficulty of finding suitable homes for the retirement years could be overcome by estab- lishing suitable homes, perhaps on plots near villages and towns. An agency set up to estab- lish noncommercial units could cooperate in this function, and the homes could very well be part of the allowance paid the retiring farmers for their farms. Retirement homes might also be provided for the older farm people who have not been able to accumulate an estate. If the local units of government can build these homes and rent them to the older people eligible for old-age pensions, these people can earn a part of their living on such small tracts of land. More room on the land thus is provided for the younger age groups, and the morale of both groups is strengthened. Fourth. To Give Assistance to Farmers in the Develop- ment of New Sources of Employment and Self -Help The basic assumption underlying this proposal is that the foregoing measures may not take care of all displaced workers. To the extent that these people do not find gainful employment either in agriculture or in industry, it is neces- sary to provide other ameliorative measures that might incfude: Establishment of self-help cooperatives. — The well- being of disadvantaged farm people might be greatly improved if they were able to use their otherwise idle time in the production of things that they want and need. More farm people might have electricity, for example, if they were in pool their labor and abilities for the purpose of constructing electric lines in their com- munities. In regions where there is a heavy concentration of disadvantaged people, the otherwise idle lime likewise could be used for the production of some goods not produced directly on the farm lint needed by the local people. The products would not be permitted to enter commercial channels, but would be distributed only to the needy, a part, or all, of whom actually produced them. Such self-help cooperation should be encouraged and aided. Expansion of rural industries. — Rural industries and handicrafts also can help disadvantaged farmers by providing additional employment opportunities. With some direction and assist- ance, rural people can develop various sorts of home industries. There are four possibilities that should be investigated : Industries to process products that are used within the community, such as lumber for farm improvements in conjunction with a sustained yield forestry program, facilities for storing and processing meats and vegetables, furniture and bedding for home use, and so on. Industries to process agricutural products, especially for new uses, within the area in which the products are grown. Production and marketing of handicraft articles which rural people are making or could learn to make. Decentralization of industry into rural areas particularly with respect to the defense program. The actual establishment of rural industries outside the home probably will proceed slowly. Careful analysis of experience is advisable in order to determine why some industries succeed while others fail, and every idea for a possible new rural industry must be examined carefully before it is promoted. Public funds will be necessary to initiate action in many cases. We might, in fact, experiment with the subsidizing of promising rural industries conditioned upon guided location and observance of suitable employment conditions. Regardless of all the obstacles, it seems that with proper planning and with the will to sue- 91 ceed in solving our agricultural problems, to- gether with the progress that has been made in rural electrification, refrigeration, transporta- tion, and other fields, rural industries can be successfully established. A great deal more attention needs to be direct- ed toward part-time farming, or the organiza- tion of small farm holdings around factories and small industrial centers in such manner as to allow people to live in the country and divide their working time between agricultural and industrial employment. There is already a con- siderable movement in this direction, and any guidance and additional encouragement that can be given would be accelerating this current trend. The rapid advance in the spread of electricity in rural areas since 1935 adds to the feasibility of the development of local industries in rural areas. Some persons argue for the general decentrali- zation of industry, often implying that current industrial centers should be broken down and their enterprises relocated. Such a breakdown, however, would not be necessary to the develop- ment of a very considerable degree of decentrali- zation, if the greater number of new plants and new industries that are continuously being developed could be started in small centers or open country rather than in already existing centers of population or near them. The development of air bombing and mechan- ized warfare generally also has a direct bearing in this field. That is, there seems to be con- siderable reason for recommending the establish- ment of a large number of decentralized plants supplying or capable of supplying munitions and materials of war throughout the interior of the country. Such plants, if properly planned, could be distributed so as to take advantage of existing sources of unemployed agricultural labor. And, since the majority of such plants would be entirely new they could probably be accom- panied by the development of small-scale rural holdings in such manner as to offer a source of part-time employment to a maximum population. Establishment of noncommercial farms in good agri- cultural areas. — Successful noncommercial farm- ing requires that some cash income be obtaina- ble for the purchase of articles that cannot be produced in agriculture, and the land must be fertile enough to avoid large cash expenditures for fertilizer. If the land requires fertilization, some sort of financial assistance will have to be provided. Much of the noncommercial farming is now confined to the poorer land, but a positive approach to the extension of this type of farming is the establishment of such farms in areas of commercial agriculture, where land is more productive, and part-time farm employment for cash will be more plentiful. We can then inte- grate the small farm and the part-time farm with opportunities for employment on commer- cial farms and with rural service work, such as milk hauling, transporting school children, and servicing rural telephones. The development of such part-time farms, however, must not be greater than the employment needs of an area if adequate opportunities for cash income are to be maintained. Further, great care must be taken to avoid locating such farms in relation to employment in a manner that the noncommer- cial farmer has no choice but to accept whatever wage immediately neighboring farmers are willing to pay. Facilitation of cooperative farming. — Cooperative farming, too, can bring benefits to farm families. It involves more than the cooperative ownership of machines. It includes also operation of the land and cooperative sharing in the returns. A competent manager of cooperative farms can effect more efficient operation than is possible on many individual units. Land and buildings may or may not be jointly owned. If not, a satisfac- tory arrangement is to keep title to the land and buildings in the hands of a public agency so that the plant can be maintained on a continuous basis. Such enterprises may also take over pro- cessing and selling functions, like cheese making or retailing produce to nearby centers. Cooper- ative farms should be studied as a basis for future action and as an idea that promises a method of establishing families where the Government is undertaking the job of land development and settlement. 92 Training of disadvantaged farm people fur placement in both agricultural and nonagncultural pursuits. — A lack of adequate training and education handi- caps disadvantaged farm people. A training system of instruction and direction in methods of earning a living is a remedy. A farm laborer who is taught the more general farm operations and how to operate specialized machines and equipment can more easily get work on highly mechanized farms and in farm forestry. New tractors, electric appliances, and other mechani- cal devices on farms have created a need in rural areas for individuals skilled in servicing the various machines. There are opportunities in rural areas, too, for men who know carpentry, plumbing, and construction and remodeling of farm buildings. Such skills enable disadvantaged groups to pro- vide themselves with better homes and buildings, even if they are not able to use the skills to in- crease their cash incomes. Knowledge of such trades as well as others will enable young farmers to get work outside of agriculture when oppor- tunities arise. This point reenforces the wisdom of establishing a farm placement service and an agency that will direct the movement of farm people from agriculture to nonagricultural pursuits. Measures to Stabilize Farm Economic Conditions Measures are also needed to stabilize the in- come from agricultural commodities in order to insure an even distribution of the advantages of technology. To the extent that technology tends to increase supplies, this increase manifestly will tend to bear heavily on agricultural prices unless additional markets are found. And again, to the extent that technology widens the area of production or the area supplying a given market, it will tend to intensify competition and work to the disadvantage of many farmers unless it can be modified. On the other hand, to the extent that prices and income can be maintained by increasing demand, a greater number of workers can be kept gainfully employed in agriculture. But, if solely in the interest of particular minority groups, restriction is carried to the point of maintaining an unreasonable or artificial level of prices, then the reverse situation will result and there will be further displacement in agriculture. Measures needed to stabilize agricultural eco- nomic conditions may be divided into (1) meas- ures designed to increase consumption and de- mand, and (2) measures designed to stabilize returns to commercial producers, including such devices as acreage adjustment, commodity loans, crop insurance, marketing quotas, and marketing agreements. Measures Designed to Increase Consumption and Demand The most obvious way to increase the total demand for agricultural products would be through a general raising of national income so that all classes would have increased sums to spend. That would be highly desirable, but a general solution of the problem of unemployment and industrial depression lies outside the field of agriculture itself. Even if our national income were materially increased it is probable that a large group of low-income consumers still would be inade- quately fed and clothed unless special means could be devised to increase their consumption. There appears to be two general ways to ex- pand domestic consumption and demand for farm products — by increasing the consumption of food and clothing by low-income groups, and by discovering new industrial uses for farm products. One way in which to add to the purchases of farm products is to extend the food stamp plan and the surplus commodities purchase program. The results obtained from these measures are promising and it would seem especially desirable to consider the rather rapid extension of the food stamp plan, provided the present situation with respect to unemployment and under- employment persists. Essentially, both of these plans subsidize the consumption of food among the low-income group. The surplus-purchase device operates through the Federal purchase of surplus com- modities in given areas, in given markets, or at particular seasons, and the distribution of com- modities so purchased through regular relief 93 organizations as supplementary food supplies to persons on relief. The food stamp plan operates in a somewhat different manner in that persons on relief are given an additional allowance which can be used to purchase specified foods provided they also spend a normal amount of their regular relief allowance for food. This plan also has been adapted recently to cotton, and cotton stamps are now being issued. It is generally recognized that an increase in the consumption of food and clothing among the low income classes is greatly needed. The use of a subsidy to encourage directly such increases would seem to have several advantages. It can be handled so as to insure the expenditure of the additional sums for food and clothing. And in the second place, it assures that the additional sums will be spent for surplus commodities or for those foods that are cheapest. Another approach to the problem is by lower- ing costs of distribution, either through market reorganization or through the adoption of special techniques for increasing sales and decreasing the cost of marketing and distribution. So far as market reorganization is concerned, several studies have recently been conducted which look toward the reorganization or rebuilding of certain food and vegetable markets in the large cities, and which would effect substantial economies in operation. One recent study has considered, at some length, the desirability of simplifying the milk-marketing system of a metropolis to eliminate duplicate milk routes and the underutilization of processing and delivery equipment. Although these studies are only indicative, there is certainly need for concerted and con- tinuous effort in this direction, since even at best progress is likely to be slow because of the numerous institutional factors involved. As a first step, we need to give more attention and more thought as to the nature of an "ideal" market structure or organization. This is needed in order that we may get a clearer picture as to where improvement may be made in the marketing structure and be better able to evaluate the costs and forces involved. Another method that seems to offer some promise is best illustrated by the low-cost relief milk distribution programs now being operated in conjunction with marketing-agreement pro- grams in several cities. These programs provide for the sale of milk which otherwise would be classed as surplus milk at a price considerably lower than the regular fluid price to school children and persons on relief. Farmers agree to take a price only slightly above the regular price for surplus milk, while the distributing agencies only add the additional cost of handling the milk, charging their overhead operating expenses into the regular fluid-milk market. These programs also are subsidized, but the sums involved are relatively small. As in the case of the food stamp plan, the experience to date is promising and there is reason to believe that this approach should be expanded. Educational emphasis upon the need for better diets is another means of increasing con- sumption, and one which should be an especially effective supplement to the more direct ap- proaches just discussed. This is a field in which many home economists are now interested and which can be expanded considerably. Essentially, of course, it is an effort to create a broad understanding of the value of good diets and their relation to health, and to bring about more rational buying on the part of the people in the low-income group. Another approach is the expansion of in- dustrial uses for agricultural products. This calls for chemical and technological research in order to find new uses for farm products, the development of efficient processing and manu- facturing methods, and the introduction of the new products on the commercial market. At present, work of this type is being conducted by a number of industrial concerns, and the De- partment of Agriculture is engaged in estab- lishing and maintaining four regional labora- tories — in the Northeast, the South, the Mid- west, and the West — for such research. Although this is a development that offers considerable hope, it must be remembered that research often seems a relatively slow process and that cheap raw materials are often essential to successful developments in industrial chemis- try. As a result, even though agricultural products are available in many cases for in- 94 dustrial uses, they cannot be so utilized uniil the prices of competing raw materials rise or until agricultural prices are reduced substantially. This, for example, is tin- current situation with respect to fuel alcohol. Partly because of the raw material situation and partly because the development of new manufacturing plants is often a costly experiment, it may be necessary either to subsidize the construction and operation of plants designed to produce new products from agricultural raw materials or to subsidize the consumption of these products. In cither case, such subsidies may have to be extended over a considerable period. And finally, the subsidizing of exports has proved a rather effective means of increasing the foreign demand for certain commodities under certain situations. Care must be taken, of course, to see that such programs as are devel- oped in this field are not such as to lead to foreign reprisals and are so integrated with the other lines of activity as not to encourage farmers unduly to increase acreage or produc- tion. And, as a rule, such programs should be designed to tide over emergency periods or to meet certain situations, since any continuing subsidy of this nature could perhaps be better used to subsidize domestic consumption through encouraging lower cost distribution, or through such devices as the food stamp plan. Measures To Stabilize Farm Prices and Income Until such time as the effective demand for agricultural products can be substantially ex- panded it seems desirable to continue or strengthen current activities designed to main- tain agricultural prices and income at a reason- able level. One of the most effective devices in this field is, of course, the ever-normal granary program. One of the essential features of the plan is that loans will ,be made to farmers in years when yields are good and stocks and production are high, at something above the price that other- wise would prevail, and that these loans and the accompanying surplus stocks will be liquidated in years when yields are below average or de- mand is high. The device undoubtedly is effective for stabilizing agricultural prices and supplies and one that works in the interest of both the general public and the farmers them- selves. Hut care must be taken to see that the lo.iu rate is not seLso high that serious losses will follow, and that the loan program is geared in with the acreage adjustment and marketing quota approaches in such a way as not unduK to stimulate acreage and production. As the chief surplus crops — cotton, corn, wheat, and tobacco — also are the chief soil-depleting crops, it has been possible to combine both acreage adjustment and conservation objectives in the agricultural-conservation program. This program, as it now operates, provides for the control or adjustment of the acreages of the chief soil-depleting crops and encourages farmers to adopt the soil-conserving practices or systems of farm and range management. Aside from the conservation feature, this program is a necessary accompaniment of the commodity-loan program. The loan program, naturally, should operate in such a manner as to offset changes in yields from year to year, while the conservation program should operate in such a manner as to stabilize acreages and the average level of production. At the same time, of course, it is desirable that the adjustment program should be as flexible as possible in order to allow farmers a maximum degree of freedom. But for the chief surplus crops especially it is necessary that acreage be controlled, and the exemptions and allowances that are made in the interest of new producers and small producers must be limited if such control is to be maintained. And finally, it must be realized that acreage allotments must be maintained at such a level as will allow a reasonable amount of farm employment, so that the acreage -adjustment program must be supplemented by a ceaseless hunt for new markets or means of increasing consumption. Even though acreage regulation under the conservation program may be reasonably suc- cessful, it is still possible for surplus supplies of certain commodities to develop in particular years or over a period when several successive high yields are obtained, or in case domestic or foreign disappearance is depressed because of in- 95 dustrial recession or by the adverse effects of such a factor as a world war. As a result, marketing quotas may be needed to reinforce the acreage -control and commodity-loan features of the program. At present, marketing quotas can be applied to corn, wheat, cotton, tobacco, and rice when- ever supplies reach specified levels, subject to the approval of the farmers affected in a general referendum. Such quotas have been used and have proved successful in the cases of cotton and tobacco. To be most effective, they need to be handled so as to restrict marketing and to en- courage cooperation in the acreage adjustment program. The combined loan, adjustment, and market- ing quota approach, will, certainly, be most effective when a high degree of cooperation is obtained in the basic agricultural conservation program. Inducements to stay within the acre- age allotments under this program are far greater than the conservation payments them- selves, because farmers who stay within their acreage allotments can qualify for commodity loans and automatically are in compliance with their marketing quotas in cases where quotas are invoked. Parity payments are an additional device to make agricultural returns more attractive and to insure cooperation, since these payments are used to supplement farmers' income and are made to farmers who stay within their acreage allotments under the agricultural conservation program. So far, these payments have been made from sums appropriated by Congress, which have been divided among the several basic crops — corn, cotton, wheat, tobacco, and rice — largely in proportion to the extent to which the income actually received fell below parity income. If such payments are to be con- tinued, it is especially desirable that some more permanent source of funds be found. The mar- keting certificate plan, which would operate on essentially the same principle as the old process- ing tax scheme, or a manufacturers' sales or tariff equalization tax have been suggested in this connection. For fluid milk and the specialty fruit and vegetable crops, a somewhat different type of program is needed. In general, the program for raising and stabilizing the prices for these commodities calls for some combination of mar- keting agreements and orders, Federal surplus purchasing or subsidized consumption, and in some cases, acreage stabilization and marketing quotas. The current Marketing Agreement Act provides for programs that operate through orders issued by the Secretary of Agriculture, and is designed to regulate marketing condi- tions or movements for the particular crop or commodity affected. Surplus purchase and the several devices for encouraging increased con- sumption, including the food stamp plan, already have been discussed. Crop insurance, another means of stabilizing agricultural returns, should be expanded as rapidly as is feasible. At present a crop insur- ance program is in operation for wheat. Under this program, producers can insure the yield on the wheat acreage allotted under the agricul- tural conservation program up to three-fourths its normal level and pay the premiums in cash or wheat or by means of an advance against agricultural conservation and parity payments. In effect this means that farmers turn in a portion of their product in years when yields are high and receive this back in years of low yields. This allows them to operate on a more stable level and is a device that seems to offer opportunity for most of the major field crops, provided the necessary actuarial data can be obtained, and provided cooperation is wide- spread enough to allow administration at a reasonable cost. Measures to Create a Wider Appreciation of the Values and Benefits of Rural Life So far we have discussed measures designed to provide employment or security for displaced or low-income farm people, and measures designed to raise and stabilize the returns obtained from commercial production. We now turn to a dis- cussion of measures that should operate to the benefit of farm people generally. 96 Extend the Benefits of Technology to Lighten the Burden of Farm Labor and to Make Farm Life More Attractive One of ihc most interesting possibilities is to be found in the development and adaptation of technical devices in such a way as to lighten the burden of farm labor and to make rural life more attractive, or at least to make the technical facilities available to rural people more nearly comparable with those available to the urban group. Perhaps one of the most desired, and at the same time one of the most spectacular, developments in this field is the extension of electricity to an increasing number of farm homes. Since the inauguration of the rural electrification program in 1935, the proportion of farm homes supplied with electric light service has increased from around 10 percent to approxi- mately 29 percent and the prospect is for further steady development in this field. This develop- ment has been brought about chiefly by the redesign of transmission lines and electrical equip- ment in such a way as to cheapen very materi- ally the cost of rural electricity, and by the development of a means of organizing and financing rural electrification cooperatives at a very reasonable cost. At present, of course, attention usually is focused on the advantages of electricity as a source of light, but because of the development of low-cost radios and refrigeration units and the increasing amount of electrical equipment used on the farm, the possibilities in this field appear bright. This leads to a second development on which it seems increasing attention should be cen- tered — that is, the development of machines and machine techniques that will extend the bene- fits of technology to the small farm operating unit. In the past, the benefits of many of the techno- logical developments have been most marked and, in many cases, almost restricted to operating units of considerable size. This has been espe- cially true of tractors and tractor equipment. One of the most hopeful developments in this field is the small rubber-tired, general-purpose tractor with equipment to match. And it seems that engineering research should be pointed more and more toward the development of efficient small-scale equipment, rather than concentrated on a hunt to find better large- scale equipment. Stabilize Rural Settlement so as To Develop a Mme Permanent Rural Life A second series of measures that should benefit rural people generally, and also are especially conducive to the national welfare, is to be found in those lines of activity that tend to stabilize rural settlement and to develop a richer and more continuous rural culture. The effort to conserve our soil and forest re- sources in such a manner as to allow the develop- ment of a stable and continuing agriculture should receive continuing stress. In the past we have generally felt that our supply of land was almost unlimited, and in an effort to build rapidly and to maintain a relatively high rate of profits and interest, soil exploitation has been common. Since the World War, however, we have come increasingly to the realization that our soil resources are no longer unlimited and that the social consequences of continued exploi- tation and deterioration are by no means desir- able. This, in turn, has directed attention toward the need for conservation and we are now beginning to endeavor to work out means and methods by which our soil and water re- sources can be best conserved. The development of conserving systems of land use that will allow sustained productivity of the agricultural staples, or of grass, or of timber, would do a great deal to cut down internal rural migration and allow the development of a stable type of rural occupancy that leads to the development of better rural facilities and to a much improved tenure system. Attention should be given to this need for better rural facilities. Owing to the fact that our agriculture has been exploited, and that our pioneering psychology had led a large number of people to look for a return in the form of increased land values rather than in the form of a stable and satisfying rural life, the rural facili- ties such as roads, schools, and to a marked ex- tent rural housing, have not been developed adequately even in the better farming sections of the United States. We must develop a permanent agriculture to allow for a needed investment in roads, houses, 97 and other rural service and living facilities. Farm prices and farm income must be maintained at such a level as to allow the needed investment. In this connection, the development of tech- niques and machines that make the benefits of technology available to farm people, as dis- cussed above, is quite important. Educational and Other Measures to Enhance Values in Rural Life Finally, our attitude toward rural life must be such as to make it as attractive as urban life. This means that we need to consider measures that will develop a more mature consideration and wider appreciation of the value and benefits of rural life. These measures might include: (a) The development, either through private initiative or under public auspices, of new or ex- perimental patterns of rural life, especially in areas or among classes of farm people where current methods and patterns obviously are un- satisfactory. Some of the developments in this field were discussed earlier — as, for example, labor allotment cottages or self-sufficing small holdings, self-help cooperatives, rural training, handicrafts, cooperative farming, etc. But it would be very desirable to be able to do some work in this field of a frankly experimental na- ture in which new methods and new combina- tions could be tried out without being subjected to continuous pressure of a program that is de- signed to alleviate or solve some particularly dis- tressing problem within a relatively short period. (b) The direction of an increasing amount of attention toward the use of leisure time in such a manner as to develop a better organized and integrated community life. Current technologi- cal developments could, if applied in a given way, simply result in a smaller number of farm- ers producing a larger output with a continua- tion of long hours and low living standards — in fact, if technology is itself the goal this is what might be expected. But in America wc have always believed that technology should result not only in an increased output and more economi- cal production but also in shorter hours of work and in order to allow more time to develop a fuller family and community life. And certainly at present this type of development is needed among farm people as much or more than among the other classes of the nation. (c) If we are to develop a rural life in which the technical and other elements are integrated in the most desirable manner, we must work toward developing a rural life that is generally recognized as a desirable way of living. In part this depends upon the development of technical methods that will lighten the burden of farm work; in part it depends upon the maintenance of prices and income at a level that will give farmers equal economic opportunities with other classes; and in considerable part it de- pends upon the manner in which farmers and others think of farm life and upon the develop- ment of a stable and satisfying rural culture. This, of course, calls for a reorganization of a great deal of the thinking of almost all classes in the country and a very considerable reworking of educational ideals and methods. It means that rural youth must be interested not only in the material comforts of life but they must also be trained in such a manner as to derive con- siderable satisfaction from the fact that they themselves are an important part of one of the classes whose work is most fundamental to our American civilization — our agricultural group. Summary In our consideration of problems and reme- dies, we should not assume that industrial expansion — the best way to absorb those who have no particular desire to remain in agricul- ture — has ceased for all time. Something like a huge defense program may be a key to industrial expansion; if so, certain of the suggested remedies no longer will be needed so badly. But of several considerations we should be mindful: Industrial expansion through arma- ment expansion may be temporary and lead only to a recurrence of the problems we have been encountering; we should seek permanent stability for American farming; over a long- period, it should be possible for the United States to adjust its economy in a way that will permit expansion of production in industry and agriculture. That would make possible a higher level of living for the entire population. That is our goal. 98 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM Part II Surveys 239955°— 40 8 Machines This pictorial saga of the machine begins with the plow in the good earth. It continues with tractors, tillage im- plements, planting devices, and many others of varied and highly specialized uses. Machines have brought increased leisure, efficiency, and production to many American farms. But they have brought problems, too — questions relating to "overpro- duction," social adjustment, unemployment, regional specialization, tenancy, and others. Many machines for particular uses have been perfected in the past few years. In many others there have been striking impro%'ements in design and materials, so that they are safer, easier to operate, and more efficient and convenient. Some new ones are made to fit particular crops. An important innovation is rubber tires for tractors. The picture at the top of this page shows a boy plowing with oxen in Alabama, a far cry from the new whirling plow (second from the top) used in soft, powdery muck soil in Florida to prepare the ground for planting sugar- cane. Below that is a scene in Arkansas, where 10 men and 20 mu'es are cultivating cotton. Perhaps tractors will displace them before long. The bottom picture is of a modern, rubber-tired tractor, also in Arkansas. TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter i 6 Machines The 400 years between 1430 and 1830, be- tween the development of the turret wind- mill and McCormick's reaping machine, saw the discovery and invention of few machines highly important to agriculture: The wagon on springs; Leonardo da Vinci's centrifugal pump, gears, and screws; a fodder-cutting machine; a machine for plowing, manuring, and sowing; the spinning jenny; Proude's drill plow; van Berg's and Meiklc's threshing machines; the cotton gin; the grass tedder; Whitney's milling machine; Bell's reaping machine. A list much longer, if no more important, can be given for the years since 1830, or, indeed, since 1900. The number of new devices and machines is impressive, but just as impressive are the improvements (through better design and materials) to fit equipment to particular tasks and crops, and to make machines safer, easier to operate, and more durable, efficient, convenient, and comfortable. These inventions and discoveries come in waves; a key practice or device can unlock many related developments. We can, therefore, ex- pect more machines, improvements of what we have now. Perhaps an existing machine will gain significance with passing years and lead to many more developments. These may be of three primary kinds, those with equipment for gathering and processing low-value crops chiefly for industrial use; those that fit crops (as in the case of hybrid corn and cotton) to machines, instead of machines to crops, and those that carry out the trend of giving farmers more specialized implements. Tractors Tractors offer the best example of the last. The crawler type of tractor, for instance, with a higher first cost and heavier maintenance charges, has its highest adaptation for heavy drawbar work on loose, light soil, or for work in orchards with low-hanging branches. Diesel motors in some of them reduce fuel costs. Standard wheel-type tractors are made in a range of sizes but the size adapted to two- or three-plow operation is being replaced gradually in many sections by the general-purpose type that made possible the adaptation of tractor power to work on cultivated crops. A two-plow, all- purpose tractor was introduced about 1924. In 1930 a three-plow, four-row, all-purpose tractor further enlarged the scale of operations of one man. After 1932 the one-plow, two-row tractor enlarged the field for tractor sales by putting a low-cost power unit in the hands of farmers operating on a scale too small to justify operation of larger tractors. Garden tractors are now in use, too, but their general adoption by gardeners probably depends on low-cost manufacture and distribution. Further modifications in tractor design may be expected. The production of a small tractor at low cost is an actuality. Rubber Tires on Machines Rubber tires likewise are an innovation de- signed for purposes of adaptability and wider use. Low-pressure tires were introduced in 1932. Fourteen percent of tractors manufactured in 101 ■*■ iiraDL . Plows Since 1935, tillage implements have been made lighter and more flexible. One reason is the growing recognition of the erosion problem — the new, efficient two-way plow is good for moving soil up slope and developing terraces; the lister helps control wind erosion; tractors with power lift mechanisms and mounted plows, cultivators, drills, and planters have been found useful in conservation practices in the rougher eastern localities. The top picture is of a disk tiller in Washington. The cultivation is preparatory to seeding alfalfa and grass. Next is one of one-way disk plows used to establish trashy fallow when vegetative matter is present. Contour listing of land before wheat is planted in Texas is shown in the third photograph. The lister has gained rapidly in favor as a satisfactory method under normal rainfall. Two three-row, 14-inch bottom listers are pulled behind a 40-horscpower tractor. The bottom illustrates the con- struction of contour furrows. Other tillage implements include small garden tractors with disk harrows, spring-tooth harrows, and other tools, two-way plows, duck-foot cultivator, rod wceder, and basin lister. 1935 left the factories on rubber tires. I In number steadily increased to an estimated 75 percent in 1930. The higher-speed, rubber- tired tractors in some areas may replace more expensive motortrucks. Rubber tires also mean the saving of the time lost in removing lugs of steel wheels and travelling from field to field at low speeds. Tillage Machines Tillage implements, since 1935, have become lighter, more flexible, and more usable with light tractors. A two-way plow has an advantage over con- ventional types in controlling erosion, because it is particularly adaptable to moving soil up- slope and to reshaping and developing terraces. Many farmers use it, but its widespread adoption awaits a wider understanding of its value and the need to replace present equipment. Because it roughens the surface and lifts and exposes clods, the lister is excellent for control- ling wind erosion, although the furrows it makes are susceptible to damage by water erosion. A damming attachment, however, provides a means of retarding run-off. In humid regions, tillage implements on trac- tors facilitate erosion control, and tractors with power-lift mechanisms and mounted plows, cultivators, drills, and planters will further con- servation practices on the rougher lands of the East. The function of these implements is much the same as that of the older types, but the new ones are more easily controlled on slopes and do better work. New Machines for Planting Innovations in planting machinery have to do with tractor-operated planters and related equip- ment, machines for specific requirements, fea- tures to permit the use of new planting methods. and the combination of equipment for simul- taneous tilling, spreading fertilizers, and planting. From the economic standpoint, the two-row, tractor-mounted corn planters and tractor hitches for two-row planters are the most important. Four-row tractor planters and improvements in check-rowing equipment make it possible ! Vi IS 54 {,() (Hi ¥ « « .S — ™^ 1 J J %■ ■ ■ r For a long time farmers have frequently resorted to the use of crossbreeding for the production of market hogs. From time to time several of the State experiment stations as well as the United States Department of Agriculture have crossed breeds of swine as a means of producing superior animals in both feeding qualities and carcass qualities. Although there has been considerable vari- ation in the results of such studies, the cross- bred pigs appear to be slightly superior to purebreds when all characteristics are con- sidered. In the pictorial pedigree shown here, the Duroc-Jcrsey boar (top) was mated to the Danish Landrace sow (middle), producing the crossbred progeny shown below. The cross- bred exhibits a smoothness as well as thriftiness desired in market hogs. On the following page are pictures showing the breeding of Brahmans and English-type cattle. animal is established and natural selection is eliminated. There were in 1939 more than 600,000 identi- fications and 275,000 milk-production and sire cards for approximately 46,000 bulls in the per- manent record system of the Dairy Herd Im- provement Associations. Of the 46,000 sires with one or more tested daughters, nearly 5,000 have been proved by dam and daughter comparisons, that is, progeny tested. Progeny tests help breeders determine the transmitting ability of sires and thereby locate proved sires to be used in bettering the produc- ing ability of dairy cattle. At least a third of the cows in herd improvement associations can- not earn a profit for their owners. About half the bulls have sired daughters that produce less than their dams. This condition will be im- proved only when bulls of tested worth are used to build up the breeding quality of herds so that the young sires will be genetically better than their fathers. The gradually rising level of average produc- tion from such testing tends to increase the producer's profit, lower costs, lessen the con- sumer's price, and increase the volume of con- sumption. Because improvement through breed- ing is slow, it would bring no sudden shifts in labor, price changes, or abnormal surpluses. Beef and Dual-Pur pose Cattle Progeny tests for beef and dual-purpose cattle enable breeders to select herd bulls on the basis of how quickly, economically, and well their offspring can gain weight, not on the basis of show-ring winnings or performance, which are incomplete and misleading standards. The progeny performance test may be applied to the field in two ways. The more accurate would be the establish- ment of Government-supervised testing stations, about six of which would be located in the pure- bred beef and dual-purpose cattle breeding sec- tions to take offspring for testing at the time the calf is weaned. Each calf would be fed out for a gain of approximately 400 pounds. Then he would be slaughtered. The feeding should be done on contract and the breeder would realize some profit from the calf. The Government would pay for the feed from the sale price of the calf. Only 5 to 1 calves are needed to demonstrate their sire's power to transmit ability to gain weight efficiently and to produce good meat. Under the second method the breeder would do the feeding himself. This plan would be less accurate than the other, but it could be used more widely. A combination of the two methods might give the best results. Approximately 175,000 head of beef and dual- purpose cattle were registered by the several breed organizations in 1938, but there are ap- proximately 30,000,000 head of beef cattle in the United States. The general level of sires used in purebred and commercial herds could be materially increased by the progeny testing method. The demand from breeders, feeders, and breed associations definitely indicates that the use of the plan would increase if given Federal aid and direction. The show ring long has been a standard for selecting beef and dual-purpose cattle, but feed requirements and quality of product produced from different sires vary widely. An example: At an experiment station, two sires of approximately equal appearance and pedigree showed different results. Feed for the calves by one bull cost $30 more for 400 pounds of gain than did feed for the calves of the other. In quality of product the sires were approxi- mately equal. Thus, if only the better bull were used as a herd sire, there would have been savings in feed costs, or more beef for the same amount of feed. Swine Hogs are raised on approximately 55 percent of all American farms. Their farm cash value amounts to $500,000,000 to $666,000,000 annu- ally — approximately 10 percent of the value of all farm animals. The chief means now employed to develop strains of swine superior in fertility, efficiency of feed utilization, rate of gain, and carcass quality is selection on the basis of individual merit, but the method is less effective than the progeny test, which has been practiced success- fully in Denmark for more than 40 years. 130 In the United States this work has been limited (<> ,i few experiment stations and the Department of Agriculture. Several breed asso- ciations, however, have taken steps to establish a system of registration based on the same prin- ciples underlying the experimental work. Tests at Beltsville, Md., indicated that ma- terial differences exist in the relative breeding value of different sires when compared on the basis of the performance of their progeny. One could not obtain such information by visually inspecting each sire. Differences as large as 150 pounds of feed per 100 pounds of grain and differences of 0.6 pound in average daily gain have been found among different litters fed out under similar conditions. Poultry Progeny testing for superior egg production, egg weight, and body weight is used by many breeders and in 13 States by certain members of the National Poultry Improvement Plan. The relative importance of progeny testing in poultry is shown by the fact that through the use of this breeding method the average production was raised from 176 eggs per hen from individuals selected by usual breeding methods to 200 eggs of standard weight per hen. In 4 years the National Poultry Improvement Plan has had records on approximately 125,000 birds in 396 flocks with progeny tests on 2,206 roosters and 30,081 hens, but since there were approximately 371 million hens and pullets on American farms in 1939, the field for growth is large. The advantages of the progeny test are illustrated by an example: A Leghorn hen produced 206 and 210 eggs a year in her first and second laying years, respectively. Her daughters, however, produced an average of 248 eggs a year. In contrast to this hen, another Leghorn hen produced 251 and 246 eggs a year, but her daughters produced only an average of 175 eggs a year. In other words, the first hen was the better breeding hen although she pro- duced approximately 40 fewer eggs a year than the second hen. The use of progeny testing in the National Poultry Improvement Plan has increased mark- edly since its initiation in 1936, and it is antici- pated that there will be a rapid increase until about 40 States will be participating. The limitations of the future of progeny testing reside in the ability and inclination of farmers and breeders to keep the necessary records. Duai.-Purpose Cattle Breeding Dual-purpose cattle produce both milk and beef. Many general farmers, especially in the Midwest, have used such cattle for years because a ready sale is found for butterfat and slaughter steers of medium to good quality. Research indicates that the type compares favorably with the strictly dairy breeds in the production of butterfat and that the steers gain in the feed lot almost as efficiently as do the strictly beef types but are lower in grade of carcass. Experi- ments have been started to develop true breed- ing strains. In 1930 more than 3,370,000 head of beef cattle were being milked, and in 1938 about 15,000 purebred dual-purpose cattle were registered, a very definite increase over the preceding 10 years. These cattle are adapted to general farming areas where a market for butterfat and beef is available and grass and farm grown roughages may be utilized for the production of home supply of dairy products or be converted into beef, depending on prices. When slaughter cattle 'prices are high, fewer cows can be milked and more beef produced. Cross-Breeding Cattle breeders in the Gulf Coast areas long have tried to develop animals that could thrive in that semitropical climate. English-type beef breeds, repeatedly introduced, could not stand the high temperatures, intense sunlight, hu- midity, and insect infestations. Brahmans, from India, showed an ability to endure heat better than purebred cattle of English origin, and for the past 25 years there has been an increasing demand for Brahman (Bos Indicus) blood, for the ability to withstand heat is inherited by crossbred offspring. In Texas, Brahmans have been bred to Shorthorns and Herefords. The Brahman- Angus crossbred type is being developed by the >39955° — 40- 131 Bureau of Animal Industry in Louisiana. Crossbred types have not yet reached the stage of development where they may be used ex- tensively for breeding, but cross-breeding for market production in this area has been successful. It was demonstrated that when the tempera- ture was 93° F. and the relative humidity 55 percent, a Brahman (standing in the sun) had a respiratory rate of 32 per minute and a body temperature of 102° F., approximately normal for cattle, while an Aberdeen-Angus cow (also in the sun) had a respiratory rate of 196 per minute and a body temperature of 107.2°. An animal with a fever is not so likely to eat as a normal cow. Grazing tests showed that the Brahman would spend 70 to 80 percent of a hot day grazing in the sun, while Angus cows in the same pastures grazed only 30 to 40 percent of the time. Swine Cross-breeding of swine has increased in the United States since 1930 — evidence, perhaps, of the benefits of the procedure. In a systematic cross-breeding program, a farmer has to maintain two separate herds, or, if only one herd is being kept, to purchase a boar of a second breed, so as to maintain the purebred strains needed for continual cross- breeding. In either case more sows would be needed than would be required in a herd not used for cross-breeding. Unless such a plan is followed — that is, unless all cross-breeding is restricted to the mating of individuals of differ- ent breeds — much of the superiority of the first cross would be lost in the next generation. Because the value of cross-breeding depends largely upon the extent to which the characters of the parent stocks combine to advantage, trial matings must generally be made before cross- breeding is practiced on a large scale. The results of cross-breeding are seldom consistent unless the average quality of the parent strains remains fairly constant from generation to gen- eration, and therefore care must be taken to maintain the strains on the same level. Sheep Cross-breeding in sheep is practiced for the purpose of producing good quality mutton lambs from ewe stocks that give a high annual yield of wool. Rams from the Down or mutton breeds of sheep are mated to ewes of the long-wool types or high wool-producing types, like the Ram- bouillet. To get strains that produce the maxi- mum of wool and better mutton lambs than the wool breeds, such varieties as the Columbia and Corriedale have been developed from crosses between wool and mutton breeds. These new breeds thrive under ranch and farm con- ditions, are satisfactory as wool producers, and give good quality mutton lambs. Poultry Cross-breeding of poultry has been accepted in only one of its phases — the intercrossing of breeds and varieties for the production of broil- ers. Limited investigations of crossing inbred strains and top-crossing inbred males on stand- ard stock indicates a possibility of improving production through hybridization. The intercrossing of breeds and varieties will displace, in part, standard-bred stock that now is being used for broiler production. Cross- breeding for early meat production has gone beyond the experimental or testing stage, but is accepted only by a small group of poultrymen and farmers. Artificial Insemination In one season a ram or bull usually serves 50 females (the number can vary considerably) but — so careful is Nature of the species, however profligate with individuals — there are ejaculated each time millions and billions of sperms, each one of which could fertilize the egg and produce an offspring. Man has improved on this wasteful process by a technique called artificial insemination or artificial breeding, whereby semen, collected variously, is diluted, divided into small portions, and later inserted mechanically into a number 132 of females. Thus, the value of good sires is extended many times beyond that possible by natural mating. Two details need emphasis at the outset: That only skilled workers should use the method and that the practice, despite several limitations, can be a powerful factor in improving stock, because it multiplies by 10 or more the services of exceptional sires, which are all too difficult to find. Artificial insemination has proved useful also in enlarging the percentage of conceptions, ex- tending the period of usefulness of valuable sires, overcoming differences in size of the animals that make natural impregnation diffi- cult or impossible, controlling diseases in some instances, effecting conception in valuable fe- males that failed to conceive following copula- tion or refused to accept the male, and bringing about species crosses where natural mating is difficult. Its History The use of the practice dates from the Middle Ages. There is evidence that Arab horse breeders used it before 700 A. D., but the first authentic account occurred in 1780 in dogs. This was later confirmed in 1782 in another experiment, but interest waned for about 100 years. The practical value of the method was recognized soon after the beginning of the twentieth century, although it was not put into general use until after the World War. Since then, the use of the process has grown rapidly. In the United States, the horse breeders first used it as a prophylactic measure against dourine. Since 1930 its use for dairy cattle has been steadily increasing. The male fluid may be collected in several ways: from the vagina after a normal service, from a sperm collector inserted into the vagina, with an artificial vagina, by massage (in the case of turkey, rooster, and bull) with the breeding bag in the stallion, and by electrical stimulation in the ram. Its Limitations The collected sperm may be stored at low temperatures (0-10° C.) for several days, but (In- proportion of successful inseminations de- Creases rapidly after a few hours or a day of storage. At the present time, the use of an egg yolk buffer pabulum oilers promise in the pres- ervation of semen for a much longer period. The technique is well developed, although further improvements can be expected in mechanical devices, in making the instruments more readily available, and in chemical phases of the work. The organization of breeders to use the method effectively will determine the extent of its use. Effective use presupposes having adequate equipment and well-trained operators available. There are few proved sires in classes of livestock other than dairy cattle, and the use of the technique should be associated with the proved sire program. The large volume of accessory gland secretions (harmful to spermatozoa in storage) in the boar and stallion present special difficulties in these species, and make necessary the fractionating of the semen by special devices at the time of collection. Semen from stallions may be ccn- trifuged to eliminate most of the accessory substances. Usually a minimum of 1,000 cows are necessary in a limited area, usually within a 20-mile radius of the place where sires are kept, in order to supply service without excessive travel costs. It is essential that animals be easily accessible if the -technique is to be used effectively. Ani- mals must be checked for the occurrence of heat, and hand-bred. This limits use of the practice to areas of intensive livestock production, and to a relatively few specially equipped producing units in extensive areas. If the technique is generally adopted, more emphasis will be placed upon the proving of sires. Fewer sires will be used in regular breed- ing operations, but just as many, or more, males must be tested on limited numbers of females to determine which are outstanding. Cost Factors The sire is largely eliminated as a factor in the spread of diseases, if proper sanitary precautions are observed. Both the male and female should be under closer observation so that it is possible 133 to detect and treat or discard infertile animals. Thus, reproductive efficiency is increased. In the breeding circles where the members keep no sire, the cost of quarters and feed for the sire is eliminated. No marked effect on total feed consumption should be anticipated, how- ever, because many sires must be tested to select one for extensive use. The farm accident rate should be reduced where the handling of bulls, stallions, and boars is eliminated. Better sires can be made available to the members of breedintj circles than they could possibly afford to purchase individually. The total cost of breeding will probably not be changed materially, since the cost of cooperative purchase of a good sire and that of collecting and transporting semen will tend to equalize what the farmer would spend for a less expensive sire and for feed. Its Use with Various Animals The use of artificial insemination seems best suited to dairy cattle because the proved-sire program, fundamental to the success of arti- ficial insemination, is already under way and because the animals are under closer super- vision and more tractable. The principal limi- tation is the number of cows within a limited area. Artificial insemination has added im- portance because of the necessity of breeding efficient replacements for the dairy herd. Artificial insemination in beef cattle is limited at present and is not likely to increase so fast as with dairy cattle. This is because beef cattle have no sire-proving program and because most beef herds are not subject to the close observation and handling of dairy cattle. The beef-breeding areas are also more widely distributed than dairy-breeding areas. There is a possible use in large herds where an outstanding bull can be used over a larger number of cows than by natural breeding. That method is not practi- cal under range conditions. For sheep, also, the use of artificial insemina- tion is limited; no sire-testing program has been perfected for sheep. Furthermore, sheep, like beef cattle, are located over larger areas of less intensified agriculture. There is a possible limited use in large flocks where one outstanding ram can be used. Among horses and donkeys artificial insemina- tion has been used for a number of years in this country, but its use has been more to prevent the spread of disease than to perpetuate superior breeding animals. Some horse breeding is local- ized enough to make artificial insemination avail- able, but where many horses are raised under range or semirange conditions it is not practical. 134 TECHNOLOGY ON" THE FARM- Chapt- er 2 i Plants Let us study briefly the nature and production i of hybrid corn as an example of the workings of genetics, the science that embraces heredity, inheritance, the physiology of reproduction, and fundamentals of plant and animal breeding in the development of improved strains. Normally, corn is cross-pollinated. That is, mature pollen grains, each carrying two sperms, are carried from the corn tassels by the wind and fall at random upon the silks of ear shoots. There they germinate, the sperms of each pollen grain moving down through the silk to the embryo sac, where they unite with the egg, thus completing the fertilization from which is developed the corn kernel. It is possible that each kernel on an ear fertilized in the ordinary way may have had a different male parent and resemble the other kernels genetically only through having the same female parentage. Consequently, to select an ear from a good cross-pollinated plant is to select an ear from a good female plant only. To select varieties of cross-pollinated — open-pollinated — corn that will breed true for any but the most simple characters is, therefore, impossible. But to overcome this disadvantage of incom- plete identification of open-pollinated corn, a technique has been devised whereby the char- acteristics of both parent plants may be quite definitely known. It consists of selecting ears from good plants of one or more varieties of corn and using these ears as seed stocks for the next year. The plants grown from the seed are self- pollinated, that is, pollen grains are applied to the silks of the same plant from which they come, and the ears from the best plants are used for planting the following year. The process, called in-breeding, is continued for 5 to 7 years, and purifies the corn strains so that they breed practically true for the characters they possess. When two of these inbred strains are crossed, or hybridized, the better characters of both parents tend to be expressed in the first generation. Not all crosses of inbred strains give satisfac- tory results, but since their characters are quite definitely fixed, plant breeders can find good hybrid combinations quite readily. The seed — first generation seed — of the good hybrid com- binations produces plants that are more vigor- ous, uniform, and productive. The second generation seed produces plants which have lost some of the desirable characteristics of the first generation plants. The mule, a sterile offspring of a mare and an ass, is an example of a hybrid animal. The commercial production of hybrid seed involves growing the two parents in an isolated field — isolated in the sense that no other corn is permitted to tassel within approximately 40 rods of the field in which the parents are grown. The parents are planted in rows, there being one row of the male parent to every 2 to 4 rows of the female, depending upon the pollen-producing ability of the male. As the tassels of the female plants emerge, they are pulled before they shed any pollen. Several detasseling operations are required at regular intervals before all of the female tassels are removed. The entire field consequently is pollinated only by the male plants of known and desirable characteristics. 135 At harvest time, care is taken not to get any of the ears from the male parent mixed with the ears produced by the female plants, since it is the latter that represent first generation hybrid seed that will subsequently be planted by farmers for producing the commercial corn crop. In the background of the commercial produc- tion of hybrid seed corn are experiments for testing new inbred strains, new hybrid combi- nations and other developments, and the pro- duction of parent seed stocks to be used in hybrid combinations for the production of commercial hybrid seed corn. Seed of corn hybrids adapted to the Corn Belt first became available in 1924, but has been produced in appreciable quantities only since about 1932. A Phenomenal Increase The expansion in the acreage planted to corn hybrids in the past 5 years has been phenomenal. The approximate acreages of hybrid corn were 500,000 in 1935, 1,500,000 in 1936, 3,500,000 in 1937, 17,000,000 in 1938, and 24,160,000 in 1939. Approximately 77 percent of the 1939 corn acreage in Iowa, 69 percent in Illinois, 62 per- cent in Indiana, 57 percent in Ohio, 47 percent in Wisconsin, 44 percent in Minnesota, 26 per- cent in Missouri, 17 percent in Nebraska, 15 percent in South Dakota, 15 percent in Michi- gan, 7 percent in Kansas, 6 percent in Kentucky, and 5 percent in North Dakota were planted to corn hybrids. The 1939 total acreage is more than a quarter of the entire national corn acreage. The most extensive data, with respect to the relative yields of corn hybrids and varieties, are from the Iowa corn yield test. These com- parisons include a total of 155 tests in 12 districts extending over 14 years. The yields of the hybrid entries have exceeded those of the open-pollinated entries each year with an aver- age annual increase of 12.8 percent. During the period, the yield test has been used by many of the entrants for preliminary compari- sons of untested hybrids. This excess yield of the average of the hybrids over the average of the varieties, therefore, is less than that obtained from the better hybrids now in commercial production. Many of these have been exceeding the varieties by 15 to 30 percent. Besides their increased productiveness, the hybrids as a class also have shown themselves more resistant to lodging than the open- pollinated varieties with which they have been compared. Some of them are less subject to diseases, and for a few there is definite evidence of resistance to the chinch bug and the corn root worm. Certain experimental hybrids not yet available for commercial production have indicated resistance to the European corn borer and to the corn ear worm. Hybrid corn probably will yield its greatest returns on the more productive land in the Corn Belt. On the western fringe of the Corn Belt, where yields are uncertain and factors other than the inherent productivity of present varieties (including insects and the difficulty of maintaining inbred lines) govern the yields, hybrid seed may not justify its extra expense. The same may be true for the less productive areas of the South. Up to about 1938 the limiting factor in the expansion of hybrid corn in the Corn Belt was the rapidity with which the necessary founda- tion seed stocks could be increased. In the season of 1938, an abundance of hybrid seed corn was produced and there was some carry- over. In 1939, seed production was still further increased, and there should be ample supplies for most all of the regions to which the present combinations are adapted. Corn hybrids are also of significance from the standpoint of the production of roughage. Some have been found to yield more tons of total dry matter per acre than open-pollinated varieties, and experiments have indicated that the total dry matter yield of hybrids will be increased 25 to 30 percent above that of open- pollinated varieties. This development may come in 4 or 5 years, and the regions which stand to benefit most from the improvement are those in which dairying usually predominates. The extent of the use of corn hybrids for silage will depend upon the comparative cost of the hybrid seed, the ability of farmers to buy the 136 Plant technologists have fought drought, disease, and a host of parasites in developing grains and grasses that are healthy, productive, prolific. Among the most important of their long array of successes is hybrid corn, first produced commercially about 1922, and grown on approximately 40,000 acres in 1933 and 24 million acres in 1939. In the Corn Belt perhaps 80 to 85 percent of the corn land will be sown to hybrids eventually. Hybrid yields sometimes exceed those of open-pollinated corn by 15-30 percent. Directly above is a picture of corn breeding; the five ears at the bottom are hybrid results of the crosses above. At the top right is a corn field stricken by drought and eaten off by grasshoppers. Just below is shown hybrid corn, erect and heavy-yielding. The two fields should not be compared too closely; hybrids have good "standability" and some resistance to insects, but not even they can withstand blistering winds and grass- hopper hordes. Thatcher (1), Marquis (2), and Ceres (3) wheat are shown in the lowest picture. Red oats, new soybeans, Punjab flax, and early-maturing sorghums are other plant improvements. seed and the ability of these hybrids to compete with other silage crops in producing dry matter. Wheat Wheat was unknown in North America before the coming of Columbus in 1492, so the varieties now grown were introduced from the Old World or are descendants of such kinds. Im- provement in wheat varieties centered at first on the introduction and trial of types from foreign countries but then gave way, first to improve- ment by selection, and finally to improvement by hybridization. Stem rust had lowered wheat yields in the hard red spring wheat belt for a number of years, but it was not until the epidemic of 1916 that the malady attracted sufficient attention to make breeding for rust resistance a major problem. Marquis wheat was introduced into the United States in 1912 and soon became the principal variety of hard red spring largely because it matured early and escaped much of the stem rust damage suffered by older varieties. Marquis and other kinds, however, were rapidly displaced after 1926 by Ceres, a Kota-Marquis cross, which, though somewhat resistant, proved not to be sufficiently so to prevent severe losses. In 1934 a new variety, Thatcher, was distrib- uted to farmers and some 20,000 acres were in production in 1935. Because of its record yields as compared to Marquis and Ceres during the stem rust epi- demics of 1935 and 1937, the acreage planted to Thatcher has rapidly increased. It is now grown more extensively than any other hard red spring wheat. It is highly resistant to stem rust, has excellent milling and bread-making qualities, and excellent straw, does not easily lodge, matures early, and even in nonrust years produces yields comparable to Marquis and Ceres. Unfortunately it is not resistant to leaf rust, a disease which took a heavy toll in 1938 and may be expected to do so again until satisfactory varieties also resistant to this disease are avail- able. This susceptibility has prompted plant breeders to investigate other varieties in the hope of developing some which possess all of the desirable features of Thatcher plus resistance to leaf rust. Two new ones, Pilot and Rival, have been released for commercial production. Several others appear promising enough to justify their release as soon as they have been thoroughly tested. The new varieties are at least as resistant as Thatcher to stem rust, some of them more so, and most of them are highly resistant to leaf rust. All are of good milling and baking quality, yield well, and so far as is known, have no defects which would disqualify them for commercial production. The improvements in red spring wheat have been principally effective in meeting a changing situation. Had the varieties available in 1890 been grown in 1935, 1937, and 1938, it is almost certain that the losses from rust would have been much greater than was the case. It has been estimated that the varieties grown in those three years produced 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 bushels annually more than could have been possible with the 1890 varieties. The new varieties have also brought about a corre- sponding improvement in quality. Wheat varieties resistant to the Hessian fly, a serious wheat pest, have been produced recendy by breeding. One such variety has been dis- tributed in California for commercial produc- tion. The prospect of developing good com- mercial fly-resistant and disease-resistant kinds for other areas within the next few years is promising. Turkey wheat, introduced from Russia in 1873, is responsible for the initiation of the hard winter wheat industry of the Southern Great Plains. At one time it was sown on practically the entire wheat acreage of this region, but now it is used for not less than 40 percent of the hard winter wheat acreage. Improved varieties have been introduced — Kanred and Blackhull in 1917, and more re- cently, Tenmarq, and Nebred. Several million acres of these varieties are now grown. Turkey, however, remains the leading variety of hard red winter wheat. Perhaps the most serious handicap to wheat production in the Pacific Northwest has been bunt or stinking smut. In most places this disease can be prevented by seed treatment but in the Pacific Northwest the spores live in the 138 soil from the harvest of one crop to the seeding of the next. Under such conditions seed treat- ment is not effective. The situation has been met by the production of bunt resistant varieties, such as Ridit, Albit, Hymar, and Rex. The effect is best visualized by the reduction in the percentage of smutty wheat shipped to terminal markets. In 1931, more than 35 percent graded smutty as compared with only about 5 percent in 1939. Resistant varieties probably are not the only factors involved but they are among the most important. Cotton Much progress has been made in making available improved cotton strains for all parts of the Cotton Belt. The Acala strain was introduced from south- ern Mexico in 1907, and is grown on more than 1,000,000 acres in the irrigated south- western valleys. Under favorable conditions it has a fiber length of \y ie to 1 % 6 inches. It is of excellent quality. The Lone Star, of the Mexican or Texas Big Boll type, has been planted extensively in Texas and is the parent of Stonesville, Coker and 100 other varieties, now widely planted in the Midsouth and Southeast. The Express, an early, small-boll, long-staple variety was the progenitor of strains popular in the Delta regions of Mississippi, Arkansas Louisiana, and States farther east. The Yuma was developed in Arizona from Egyptian importations. It has a staple length of about 1% inches and from 1913 to 1917 was extensively grown on southwestern irrigated lands. It is important because the Pima was developed from it. Because the Pima has a greater staple length (1% 6 to 1% inches) than the Yuma and possessed other superior qualities, it superseded the latter after 1917. The production of Pima reached its high point in 1920 when 92,000 bales were produced in Arizona and California. Since then, the de- mand for it has dropped because new techniques in tire manufacturing permitted the use of shorter-stapled and lower-priced cottons. Pima is restricted now to dry goods and other products for which long-fine fibers are required. To meet the demand for cotton adapted for use as thread, the Bureau of Plant Industry developed (from a hybrid of Sakel, a long- fibcred Egyptian variety, and Pima) a variety known as S. X. P., which produces more than Pima and has larger bolls and a higher lini percentage. The fiber is somewhat shorter bul is fine and strong. Manufacturers have tested it in commercial mills and found it satisfactory. Eighty-five percent of the acreage in Arizona is in this variety. It may prove to be an ac- ceptable substitute for at least a part of tin Sakel cotton imported from Egypt. Certain significant facts have been brought out in connection with the development and improvement of cotton. It has been established that staple length in cotton, within reasonable limits, is not inversely related to yield. This fact has had an important bearing on the choice of varieties and has discounted high gin turn-out as a basis for choosing seed for plant- ing. That means that high gin turn-out may be the result of small or light seeds and may have no relation to yields per acre or to superior varieties. The development of better methods for con- trolling cotton diseases caused by bacteria and fungi is materially reducing the hazards of cotton production. Treating planting seed with mercury dusts is reducing losses from seedling diseases, and in some cases increasing yields as much as 10 percent. Losses from wilt are being reduced by very general planting of excellent wilt-resistant kinds developed in recent years. Oats Before Victoria oats were introduced from South America in 1927 and Bond oats from Australia in 1929, all programs of breeding oats for disease resistance were handicapped by the lack of varieties equally resistant to crown rust. For the Corn Belt the Victoria Richland cross has been one of the most productive. Selec- tions from it now available are highly resistant to stem rust, crown rust, and smut, and possess satisfactory agronomic characteristics. These new oats also appear to have considerable heat tolerance and some resistance to root rots, and in tests at stations in the Corn Belt exceeded all 139 the older standard and improved varieties in yield. One of these selections, named Boone, was chosen for distribution in Iowa in 1940. The indications are that this type of oats may in- crease the yield of grain at least by 5 bushels to the acre in the Corn Belt and may go far toward displacing the Kherson oats and Kher- son selections now extensively grown. This displacement will occur only as rapidly as seed stocks are accumulated, and probably 7 or 8 years will elapse before it is complete. For the northern part of the Corn Belt, two new strains of oats, Marion and Hancock, which were developed from a cross involving Markton and Rainbow, appear promising. Both are highly resistant to stem rust and to nearly all races of the oat smuts, but they do not possess the high resistance of Boone to crown rust. They are highly productive and produce grain of excellent quality. Hancock has a very tall, stiff straw and may prove to be a good variety to combine over a stand of sweetclover. It was planned to distribute these strains in 1940. Significant progress is being made in develop- ing new strains of red oats for the South, where crown rust limits oat production. At College Station, Tex., several promising strains from a Nortex X Victoria cross have been increased for distribution in south Texas, probably in 1940 or 1941. These strains are resistant to smut and crown rust and give promise of increasing the grain yields of oats 15 percent. In north Texas, at Denton, new lines of con- siderable potential promise from Victoria X Fulghum and Victoria X Nortex crosses are being tested in field plots. Selections from similar crosses are being developed at Baton Rouge, La.; Stuttgart, Ark.; Gainesville, Fla.; Tifton, Ga.; and Hartsville, S. C. Meanwhile, two introductions, Alber and Berger — strains of the Red Algerian oat — have sufficient resistance to crown rust, without further improvement, to justify their distribution to farmers in northern Florida and southern Louisiana. In 1938 and 1939 several hundred bushels of Alber were sent to Louisiana farmers by the Baton Rouge experi- ment station. These strains appear capable of increasing yields 20 to 30 percent above those usually obtained. Barley The acreage of winter barley in the South has been increasing somewhat since 1936. This has been due to the release of new varieties, the prevalence of mild winters (which have encour- aged the production of winter varieties farther north than usual), greater use of the crop for pasture, and to its more extensive utilization as a winter cover crop. Present varieties are only partly satisfactory and the introduction of new improved kinds will no doubt cause an expansion of the winter barley acreage. Disease-resistant and better malting varieties of spring barley are sought for the upper Mis- sissippi Valley. Progress is slow and satisfac- tory strains may not be available within several years. No appreciable geographic shift in barley production is apparent there, but farmers are changing over more and more to smooth- awned varieties, notably to Wisconsin Barbless. Progress is being made in developing more drought-resistant varieties, which will, there- fore, be better adapted to growing conditions on the Great Plains Region. Further work is necessary, however, to test those strains which appear to be superior. Alfalfa and Lespedeza Turkistan alfalfas in general have shown con- siderable resistance to bacterial wilt, a disease which kills stands of susceptible alfalfa in 2 to 4 years. In the western regions of the United States the Turkistan alfalfas are quite satisfac- tory, but in the more humid regions to the east they are not so well adapted because of their susceptibility to leaf and stem diseases. One of the Turkistan alfalfas introduced in 1929 proved so promising in eastern Oregon that it has been increased and given the name of Oreston. The Nebraska station has propa- gated the strain known as Haridstan. The seed-producing ability of Turkistan alfalfa is generally poor. Through selection and breed- ing, however, much progress has been made in developing lines that are believed to be suffi- ciently resistant to bacterial wilt, that are more productive of hay and seed than Turkistan, and that are better adapted to a wide range of con- 140 ditions. A few of the outstanding strains are being increased in relatively large blocks for further testing, but it will take until 1944 or later to produce sufficient seed to distribute generally to farmers. Little is known of the possibilities of improv- ing lespedeza. Some recently selected strains have made it possible to extend the areas in which the crop can be satisfactorily grown, but the introduction of this crop into new areas has been largely by the use of existing varieties and strains. There is little likelihood that any out- standing varieties or strains of lespedeza will be developed within the next 5 to 10 years that will materially extend its production to areas beyond where it is grown now. A bacterial disease not previously known was serious in some localities where a particular early-maturing variety of lespedeza was grown. The most serious damage from the disease has been reported from Missouri. The unselected Korean lespedeza — the lespedeza most com- monly grown — seems to be more resistant to the malady, but it is impossible to predict how- serious it may become. Grain and Forage Sorghums A program undertaken by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1919 to breed short, erect-headed grain sorghums suitable for harvesting with wheat machinery led to the dis- tribution of Beaver, the first combine-type grain sorghum, about 1928, and the Wheatland variety, about 3 years later. These two were grown on approximately 500,000 acres in the Great Plains region in 1 933, but since that time the acreage has decreased — probably tempo- rarily — because of drought. More recent experiments have demonstrated that dwarf types of grain sorghum can be sown with a wheat drill and harvested with a com- bine. This permits adjustments in cropping systems in the wheat area, where advisable. One problem still to be solved, however, is the development of combine-type grain sor- ghums that are resistant to chinch bug injury. Experiments have resulted in the development of strains of milo that are about as resistant to chinch bug injury as the sorgos and kafirs that have been grown in place of the milos in areas infested with chinch bugs. The distribution and growing of chinch-bug resistant combine-type milos is to be expected within the next 5 to 10 years. Experiments to develop grain sorghum strains with a low prussic acid content have been under- way for some time. Early results seem to indi- cate that something can be done in this direction. At present, however, even though the prussic acid content has been considerably reduced in some varieties and strains, the amount of acid still remaining is sufficient to be toxic to live- stock, if liberated when consumed. Before too much emphasis is placed upon a reduction in the quantity of acid, therefore, further effort is necessary to learn more about the liberation of the acid in the digestive tracts of animals. Sugarcane The introduction and development of disease- resistant sugarcane varieties are the most im- portant technological developments for the sugarcane producing areas of the United States. Root rots, red rot and mosaic threatened to destroy sugarcane production before 1919 when much was learned concerning the nature and transmission of mosaic. Evidence was had that the control of this disease could not be effected through seed cane selection and roguing. A search for mosaic-resistant varieties among those domestically grown revealed that one, Cayana, was immune. Although unsuited to sugar production, it found immediate utiliza- tion in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mis- sissippi for sirup production. Introductions and tests of varieties from foreign countries revealed that some possessed sufficient tolerance of mosaic and other diseases to justify their use in Louisiana. These selected varieties were distributed in 1924 and 1925 and were primarily responsible for the increase of the average yield for the Louisiana crop from about 7 tons in 1926 to approximately 16 tons in 1929. By 1929 much progress had been made in developing improved disease-resistant varieties and from 1930 to 1936 such varieties, including five bred by the Department of Agriculture, were distributed. These varieties have helped 141 maintain or increase the average yields in Louisiana. In 1936, 1937, and 1938 the aver- age yield for the State was about 21.4 tons although growing and harvesting conditions were sometimes unfavorable. Average production of sugarcane in Louisiana is a little above the level prevailing before plant diseases threatened to destroy the industry. There is reason to believe that further work in developing sugarcane varieties and disease con- trol will help sustain present average yields, if not contribute to a slight increase of average yields. Sugar Beets The breeding of strains of sugar beets resistant to curly top (a virus disease, transmitted by the beet leaf hopper), and the distribution and widespread use of these strains have removed much of the danger that formerly threatened destruction of the beet sugar industry in parts of California, western Colorado, Idaho, and Utah. The improved varieties have been in extensive use only since 1934; a highly resistant kind, U. S. 12, was released in 1938. These varieties are not wholly immune to curly top, and some decrease in yields occurs when the plants are subjected to severe exposure. The threat of crop failure because of curly top has, however, been definitely removed. Sugar beets grown on approximately 600,000 acres in the humid acreas and in the irrigated districts east of the Rocky Mountains are sub- ject to Cercospora leaf spot, a fungus disease that attacks the foliage of the plants, and, when severe, materially reduces the yield and lowers quality. None of the European varieties is immune to leaf spot, but certain strains developed through breeding investigations in this country have been found to be definitely superior to the older varieties in this respect. The production of leaf-spot resistant varieties suitable for commer- cial use has resolved itself into the development, by breeding, of suitable resistant strains and the discovery of the crosses to be made between strains in order to obtain superior hybrids. A leaf-spot resistant variety, U. S. 217, was released in 1937 and approximately 30,000 acres were planted with it in 1938. Results were satisfactory. A new release, U. S. 200X215, produced by intercrossing two resistant inbreds, was tested on approximately 15,000 acres in 1939. In this variety, for the first time, a defi- nite attempt was made to utilize first-generation hybrid vigor. The degree of leaf spot resistance now attained is still far from adequate. Experi- ments now in progress clearly indicate that a greater degree of immunity can be obtained without sacrificing high yield or quality. Tobacco Concerted efforts are being made to develop varieties of tobacco which are resistant to par- ticular tobacco diseases, among them root rots, black shank, root knot, wilt, blue mold, and mosaic. Aggregate losses in yield and quality caused by these diseases are heavy. Although the plant breeding work is still largely experi- mental, varieties resistant to black root rot and black shank are in use and progress is reported with other major diseases. Apart from the direct losses caused by them, the soil-born diseases tend to force shifting of the crop to less desirable soils, thereby materi- ally lowering the quality of the product though the acreage grown may not be greatly affected. On diseased soils it is possible to continue pro- ducing tobacco to some extent, providing proper cultural practices are followed. Some of the tobacco diseases are localized more or less, but others are general in incidence and probably no one district suffers from the ravages of all of them. Even the localized areas serve, however, as points for the spread of the diseases and already some localities are confronted with complicated tobacco disease problems. In the case of blue mold, tobacco farmers have three choices. They can provide seedbed areas sufficient for the acreage to be planted without considering the blue mold. On this basis they lay out about 100 square yards of seedbed for each 3 acres of tobacco to be planted. If the beds escape injury the farming operations progress as usual. If the plants are attacked when young, they may all be killed and others must be obtained elsewhere. If plants have 142 attained a good growth before blue mold comes most of them may recover within a short period. Another way is to provide about three times more seedbed area than ordinarily needed. Thus chances are better of having sufficient plants to supply their needs. The third choice is to use some form of control measure, such as a spray of cuprous oxide and cottonseed oil. This must be continuous and is only about 75 to 80 percent effective but the cost of materials would probably be only $1.50 per 100 square yards of bed area for the season. Another measure is based upon the use of gas with benzol or paradichlor-benzine as the source of fumes. These can be relied upon to control the disease after the plants show evidence of being attacked by it. The costs approximate S5 to $7 per 100 square yards of bed area. Both of these methods are 100 percent effective, but they require con- siderable attention to details to be successful. At present no blue mold resistant varieties of tobacco are available. Fruits and Vegetables Among the technological developments lead- ing to better varieties and more economical production and marketing of fruits and vege- tables are those, such as the introduction of varieties of dates from Egypt, that have made possible the development of new industries. Others have literally saved important industries from extinction. Such, for example, is the pro- duction of the Marglobe tomato, which, because of resistance to wilt and nailhead rust, saved the tomato shipping industry of Florida. More- over, the Marglobe has become one of the most important varieties in the trade. In a similar manner the production of blight- resistant varieties of lettuce, mildew-resistant cantaloup, and varieties of cabbage resistant to yellows, have saved the industries concerned with these crops from destruction in certain areas. A better understanding of deterioration during storage and transit, the development of better standards for determining maturity, improved spraying practices, and more efficient removal of spray residues have resulted in putting better products into the hands of consumers, and have also extended the markets for fruits and vegetables. Both producers and con- sumers have benefited. Definite estimates of benefits cannot be made but they undoubtedly amount to savings of millions of dollars annually to the industries involved and have resulted in more adequate diets and better health to millions of consumers. Numerous new varieties and methods of im- proving the products that ultimately reach the consumer have been made available too recently to determine their ultimate effects. These include several new varieties of potatoes, straw- berries, raspberries, blackberries, almonds, pea- nuts, filberts, beans, sweetpotatoes, and others. Progress is being made in developing varieties for special situations as, for example, fruits and vegetables for the Great Plains (where the climate generally is unfavorable for available varieties) and blight- and disease-resistant pears and wine grapes for the Eastern United States. Nutrient Solutions for Growing Crops For 75 years or more scientists have grown plants in nutrient solutions to determine their food requirements. More recently the same principle has been employed in producing crops for commercial purposes. The method is called tray agriculture, tank farming, hydroponics, and so on. Shallow tanks or other watertight receptacles about 8 inches deep are provided to hold the nutrient solution in which the roots of the plants grow. A support for the plant is provided by stretching a wire mesh over the top of the tank^ which, in turn, is covered with a layer, 3 or 4 inches thick, of some porous material like excelsior, peat moss, or rice hulls. This covering is moistened, and the young plants or seeds are planted in it. As the roots reach down into the solution and use it up, more of the liquid is added. Chemical tests must be made to main- tain the proper degree of acidity of the solution and to keep the nutrients in proper adjustment. The solutions should contain all the essential mineral elements. However, no one chemical formula superior to all others for all plants has been evolved. Several State agricultural experiment stations 143 have studied the growing of crops in nutrient solutions with varying success. These investiga- tions have included details of operation, like aeration and circulation of the solution; means of maintaining proper acidity and chemical composition, and other essential factors. Interest also has developed, particularly among research specialists, in the use of solid, inert materials to anchor the roots. Among them are silica gravel, ordinary gravel of the kind used in some grades of cement, cinders, and haydite, an artificially prepared material. In the medium, placed in beds to a depth of 7 or 8 inches, the roots develop. The nutrients are ap- plied in solution, automatically in some cases, bv being pumped into the medium periodically, and the surplus allowed to drain into a solution tank, from which it is again redistributed to the beds. Probably the most promising use of either method is in greenhouse culture where intensive crops are grown and where environmental conditions are largely under control. Both of these methods of applying nutrients in solution to crop plants are still in the experi- mental stage, and modifications and changes will undoubtedly be made from time to time. 144 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 2 Control of Plant Pests There are more than 750,000 known kinds of insects. Some of them help mankind, but many are relentless enemies that jeopardize the well-being of men, animals, and plants, injure industries, infest homes, spread diseases, wreck buildings, destroy crops. Millions of dollars are spent yearly in the war against them, but billions would be lost without that ceaseless battle. Insect pests and plant diseases markedly in- fluence the cost of crop production; if they were not controlled they could be limiting factors in determining what crops were produced in a locality. To protect crops from the pests, we try to prevent them from entering the country by quarantines, regulate the movement of com- modities apt to be infested with uncommon pests, procure and rear insects parasitic upon other insects of economic importance already established in this country, and apply various insecticides and breed crop plants that resist insects and plant diseases. Many of our most destructive insects are of foreign origin and entered this country on nursery stock, produce, or other commodities. The boll weevil, codling moth, Hessian fly, alfalfa weevil, Japanese beetle, and many others came into this country before the Plant Quar- antine Act of 1912 was adopted; it has been estimated that the annual losses caused by introduced insects alone is more than a billion dollars. Since 1912, quarantine stations have been set up at 66 ports of entry; 234,858 insect and 85,587 interceptions of plant diseases, many of which are not known to occur in the United States, were made at these places between 1934 and 1939. Insects Let us consider the importance of some of these insect pests, their influence on crop pro- duction, methods of control or prevention of spread, and certain bacterial and fungous dis- eases of plants to which large-scale eradication or control measures can be applied. Codling Moth The codling moth is present in all apple- and pear-growing sections of the United States. Lead arsenate mostly is used to control the pest. The tendency has been to use more lead arsenate to each 100 gallons of spray, to apply more gallons per tree, to make more applica- tions, and to use adhesive or deposit builders to increase the quantity of poison present on the fruit. This has meant greater difficulty in removing the residue before the fruit is marketed and has necessitated the installation of equip- ment to heat the wash solution and the use of tandem washers in which the fruit is passed first through an acid solution and then through an alkaline solution, or vice versa. These greater costs have occurred when the apple industry has faced unusual financial difficulties. Investigators in State and Federal agencies and insecticide manufacturers have tried hard to develop cheaper, more effective, and easier substitutes for lead arsenate, but their task is exceedingly difficult and its successful comple- tion was not foreseen in 1940. The most promising substitute for lead arse- 145 >.«_!*. '***•*: » ra :fe¥^i - Insects These pictures top to bottom show: Using an airplane to dust cotton with calcium arsenate; Japanese beetles feeding on corn (a) and destroying the silk, with the result that ears are only partly filled, (b) ; rust-harboring barberry bushes being eradicated by the application of common crushed rock salt in Fond du Lac County, Wise. ; a field of wheat completely destroyed by grass- hoppers. There are more than 750,000 known kinds of insects. Some of them harm humans, plants, and animals, and millions of dollars are spent in the war against them, but millions or billions would be lost otherwise. An important part of the battle is quarantines at ports of entry. Another is insecticides, and a third is biological control. In all these measures, entomologists are making progress. Among the outstanding plant pests are the codling moth, cotton worms and weevils, Japanese beetle, white pine blister rust, black stem rust, grasshoppers, Mormon cricket, sweetpotato weevil, Hessian fly, chinch bug, and aphids. nate — nicotine bentonite — has been used effec- tively in several commercial orchards, but its use has overcome little of the necessity for wash- ing, has meant little or no reduction in produc- tion costs, and has involved difficulty in working- out a complete program for controlling fungous diseases, as well as codling moth, since most of the present-day fungicides reduce the effective- ness of the nicotine bentonite. Several organic compounds have shown con- siderable toxicity to the codling moth, and these or other materials yet undiscovered may ulti- mately replace lead arsenate. This work, how- ever, is in the nature of long-time research. Cotton Insects Cotton insects and the problems they bring have had an important effect upon the Nation's agricultural and industrial life: Among them are the pink bollworm, boll weevil, and cotton flea hopper (which are discussed in this chap- ter), and the bollworm, leafworm, leaf aphids, root aphids, thrips, and tarnished plant bug, against which control measures are being developed. The pink bollworm has never been allowed to increase and spread in the United States sufficiently to cause commercial damage to cotton, except along the Rio Grande River in southwestern Texas. It has been held in check, its spread has been prevented, and it has been eradicated from several regions by methods developed in the Department of Agriculture. In 1940, however, a light infestation of the insect over a wide area in Mexico and the United States in the Lower Rio Grande Valley and adjacent areas created an international problem of importance. Little hope was held of checking it without the annual expenditure of hundreds of thousands of dollars, and remov- ing the constant danger of spread over a large part of the Cotton Belt — probably into all of the nine Gulf Coast and Atlantic Coast States where cotton is grown, and possibly into Okla- homa, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Three possible courses were outlined: To keep up a continuous and expensive fight against the pink bollworm. In cooperation with Mexico, to arrange for the elimination of all cotton and other host plants of the pink bollworm in infested areas in both countries. This would mean taking out of cot- ton producion several hundred thousand acres in each country for two or more years, with consequent reduction of several hundred thou- sand bales of cotton and serious economic and social problems. Furthermore, the grain, for- age, and vegetable crops grown in place of cotton would compete with similar crops grown in other regions and in that way affect farmers in sec- tions far from the Cotton Belt. To do little or nothing and allow the worm to spread to all parts of the Cotton Belt. This would increase the cost of cotton production so greatly that many millions of acres now planted to cotton would be devoted to fruit, vegetables, grain, forage crops and livestock. Such a change in practices would increase competition and reduce prices that the farmers in all other parts receive for their dairy products, cattle, hogs, and sheep, grain, vegetables, and fruit. The spread of the pink bollworm is not merely a southern problem, or an agricultural problem, because many American industries dependent upon the cotton lint, seed, and oil of the South- ern States would be forced out of business. For 40 years the boll weevil has been the most serious insect pest of cotton in the United States. It threatened to wipe out cotton growing over large areas. In some years it causes millions of dollars of damage but the fact that cotton can be grown successfully in all the areas where soil and climate are favorable is due to the efforts of many workers. Entomologists studied the life history of the boll weevil and developed methods of combating it by taking advantage of certain habits. Plant breeders developed cotton varieties very differ- ent from the kinds that were most successfully grown before the weevil came. Agronomists achieved improved methods in planting and cul- tivating the crop that helped to overcome the weevil damage. Chemists developed calcium arsenate dust for use as an insecticide. More than 20 firms make this insecticide, and 40,000,000 pounds have been used in a single season. Engineers developed many types of 239955° — 40- 147 dusting machines for applying the calcium arsenate varying in size from hand machines that may cover 6 to 8 acres a day to airplane dusters that may cover thousands of acres a day. The Sea Island cotton industry once was wiped out entirely when the boll weevil reached Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. A deter- mined effort has been started to revive the grow- ing of the cotton there, but complete success depends almost entirely upon the success of growers in controlling the boll weevil. The cotton flea hopper is such a small, incon- spicuous insect that for generations it was not recognized as the cause of serious reductions in cotton yields. But entomologists finally found it to be responsible for extensive shedding of small cotton squares over large areas, and thousands of growers now appreciate its importance. Sulphur dust and arsenical dusts are used to combat it. Japanese Beetle The Japanese beetle apparently gained entry into the United States before 1912, but its presence was not discovered until 1916. An indication of the damage it does was given in a survey made in 1933, when it was found that 29 golf clubs in a heavily infested area spent an average of $619 each for destruction of Japanese beetle larvae in greens and fairways. The yearly cost of trapping and spraying — the main methods of control — in 19 private estates was $513 each. Damage to field corn was estimated to range from 3.5 to 80 percent, while sweet corn growers reported losses averag- ing 35 percent. Commercial orchardists re- ported an average fruit injury of 43 percent on 6,300 susceptible apple trees, while peach grow- ers reported losses averaging 27 percent. Twenty-eight general farms reported an aver- age loss of $1.76 an acre. Efforts at various points demonstrate that a continued, persistent program of trapping and spraying can suppress or eradicate the beetle. The effectiveness of the trapping-treating pro- gram was illustrated in St. Louis, where succes- sive trap catches were: 1934 1,351 1937. ... 1 1935 1,232 1938. ... 27 1936 88 1939.... 26 The beetle has numerous host plants, corn being one of those preferred. White Pine Blister Rust The eight native species of white pine, found in 39 States, are important in forestry, and their protection is a vital economic problem. They are used as windbreaks to protect farm build- ings, crops, and livestock, and as cover to pre- vent soil erosion and for the protection of water- sheds and wildlife. White pine blister rust is a fungous disease that kills the white, or five-needled, pines. Young trees are killed relatively quickly but infected older merchantable trees usually can be salvaged before the rust has had time to kill them. The greatest damage in this country has occurred in white pine growth up to 30 years of age where currants and gooseberries either have not been eradicated, or else were not removed soon enough to prevent severe infection. As a result, numerous strands of young growth have been damaged or ruined. The disease reduces and often prevents natural restocking, and if uncontrolled eventually would eliminate the white pines as a farm wood lot and forest crop. The control of blister rust is accomplished by removing currant and goose- berry bushes from white pine stands and from a surrounding protective zone 900 feet wide. This is done by hand pulling, which sometimes is too expensive or ineffective; chemical treat- ment; or by mechanical means, such as a special rake attachment for bulldozers, hooks for use with tractors, and different kinds of plows and hand tools. The application of control measures have been under way in farm wood lots for a number of years under the leadership of the United States Department of Agriculture with the active cooperation of States, counties, towns, and individual owners. About 30,000,000 acres, including approximately 15,000,000 acres of white pine in forest stands, farm wood lots, and 148 protective zones, are in the control areas. The rust already has been brought under control on more than 20,000,000 acres, or two-thirds of the control area acreage, by eradication of currants and gooseberries. Black Stem Rust Of the many diseases that attack wheat, oats, barley, and rye, stem rust is among the most common and destructive. It is caused by a fungus (Puccinia graminis) that lives for a time each spring on the leaves of certain kinds of barberry bushes where spores are produced that will infect the succulent leaves and stems of growing grain plants and many native grasses. Once established in a grain field, the rust pro- duces a new crop of spores every 6 to 10 days, and the disease continues to spread from one grain plant to another and from field to field until weather or the maturity of the grain retards further development and winter spores are formed. In years when rust becomes epidemic over wide areas, as in 1916 (when losses to grain growers were estimated at 185 million bushels), the results may approach an economic disaster in areas where small grain is the principal cash crop. Only since 1920 has substantial progress been made toward eliminating stem rust. Since 1918, thirteen North Central and Western States have cooperated in a regional barberry eradication program that has brought about the removal of more than 29 million susceptible barberry bushes on 108,000 different properties. During this period, a survey involving a detailed inspec- tion of all planted and native shrubs has been made in approximately two-thirds of the coun- ties in the protected States. Species of barberry susceptible to attack by the stem rust fungus are not native to the north- ern part of the United States, but in many localities have spread rapidly from the orna- mental plantings made years ago. A Federal quarantine, supported by State regulations, prevents further propagation of condemned species within the protected area. New var- ieties of grain have been developed by plant breeders that are more resistant to attack by the fungus than those formerly grown, and cultural practices have been adopted by many growers thai tend tu hasten maturity ol crops, thus per- mitting them to escape the injury thai, often occurs in late fields. To what extent the number and severity ol local epidemics of stem rust will be reduced during and after the next decade will depend upon the progress made in barberry eradii a- tion. If the program is continued on its 1940 scale until 1950, the local sources of rust in- oculum will be largely eliminated and extensive damage from rust may be expected to occur only in those years when the disease becomes epidemic in Southern States and spreads north- ward rapidly. Plant breeders may be expected to produce new varieties of grain resistant to the parasitic strains of rust now prevalent, thus decreasing the possibility of widespread epidemics develop- ing from sources of inoculum outside the pro- tected States. It is important, however, in breeding programs, to eradicate barberry bushes because new parasitic strains of rust are con- tinually being produced by hybridization, which can occur only on barberry. The practical control of stem rust of wheat, oats, barley, and rye will aid materially in stabilizing yields and improving the quality of cereal crops. Grasshopper Control An unprecedented demand for cereal grains in the World War period stimulated cultivation of extensive areas of marginal land in the Wheat Belt. The return to normal prices and a dry cycle caused abandonment of great acreages in this area, making conditions ideal for enormous grasshopper populations scattered in 24 States. New and improved methods of combating these pests became necessary. Federal appropria- tions permitted the purchase and delivery of large quantities of bait to States and counties. Federal and local officials have cooperated with communities and individuals in furnishing, mix- ing, and distributing bait. Bait materials were improved and include bran, sawdust, and sod- ium arsenite, spread at the rate of 15 to 20 pounds to the acre. Better mixers and spreaders speed up the application of bait during the 149 short period in which grasshopper damage is usually inflicted. Airplanes have been fitted with spreading mechanisms to permit rapid distribution in emergencies. Mormon Cricket Apparently 'stimulated by favorable weather conditions of the drought period and de- prived, by overgrazing, of adequate food in iis native habitat, the Mormon cricket has spread to new areas. This pest, the most destructive agricultural enemy of early Mormon settlers in Utah, was found in 1940 in 11 Rocky Mountain and Great Plains States. Federal, State, county, and community and individual efforts have been coordinated against it. Sodium arsenite dust (applied directly to the crickets in com- bination with tin and oil on a water barrier) has proved effective in combating them. Ex- periments have been conducted with a mixture of bait bran, sawdust, and sodium fluosilicate, which has been found equally effective, less dangerous to handle, and more economical, and is equally effective against grasshoppers where infestations overlap. White-Fringed Beetle Increased international commerce has con- tributed materially to the establishment of agricultural pests in previously uninfested areas, countries, and continents. Among the new- comers to the United States is the white-fringed beetle, a potentially serious pest, which came from South America, and in 1940 infested four Gulf Coast States. To stop it, the Federal De- partment and the States have used insecticides, clean cultivation, and quarantines that prevent the introduction of the pest to new areas. Sweetpotato Weevil An increasing demand has stimulated com- mercial production and shipment of sweet- potatoes. In turn, this has increased the traffic in materials that provide ideal conditions for spreading the sweetpotato weevil, a serious pest in southern sweetpotato areas and difficult to control because of the presence of host plants along the coast. Eradication is possible on individual properties by the destruction of infested seedbeds and volunteer plants and by cleanliness in fields and storage places. State quarantines restrict the movement of host material from infested areas to sections where the pest is not found or where it has been eradicated. Cereal and Forage Pests The Hessian fly is the principal insect pest of winter wheat and causes an estimated annual loss of 17,000,000 bushels of wheat. Its control is mostly through cultural practices. As early as 1904 it was discovered that delays in seeding of fall-planted wheat to prevent the grain from appearing above ground until after the main brood of flies had emerged and died would usually help the crop to escape major damage even in years of severe outbreaks. In some years of abnormal weather conditions, however, this practice is unsuccessful and may result in winter killing of the crop. Further- more, it is not applicable in some parts of the country. Seeking other methods of combating the fly, several State and Federal plant breeders began to investigate the possibility of developing com- mercially desirable wheat varieties with resist- ance or immunity to attack by the fly. For many years certain varieties had been reported to possess these qualities in some degree, and as the studies developed this was proved true. It was also proved that fly resistance could be transferred to other, more commercially desir- able, wheats by crossing and selection. The development and expansion of this work during the past 20 years is now beginning to culminate in good fly-resistant wheats, adapted for use in different parts of the country. Average yields of wheat may be increased in the near future through the introduction of varieties highly resistant to the Hessian fly and to fungous diseases. European Corn Borer The European corn borer causes an estimated loss of 3 percent per borer per plant in field corn and 8 percent in sweet corn. A recommended method of control includes the disposal of all 150 corn debris each year by feeding or burning ii or plowing it under before May 15, but this in- volves extra farm operations and more eco- nomical methods have been sought. Extensive experiments have indicated that certain selections of corn consistently sustained less injury than others. Research was started to determine whether such apparent resistance could be fixed and intensified, with the result that agronomically satisfactory hybrid corns of consistent resistance were developed. The stud- ies were continued in the confident belief that there will result the production of hybrid corns having at least 50 percent more resistance than open-pollinated varieties. Pea Aphid The pea, or alfalfa aphid, a serious pest of both field and garden peas, does extensive dam- age also to the alfalfa hay crop in subhumid and semiarid regions of the West. In studies made by Federal and State entomologists, it was observed that certain plants escaped injury, and a cooperative project with State and depart- mental agronomists was started to develop commercial selections of alfalfa that could with- stand the attacks of the aphid. By 1939, strains had been produced that exhibited consistently resistant qualities, and the prospect seemed excellent that alfalfas prac- tically immune to injury by this pest would be produced in a few years. Chinch Bug The chinch bug periodically damages corn, sorghum, and small-grain crops to the extent of many millions of dollars in a single year. Only partial prevention of these losses can be achieved by the methods of control now available. Varieties of corn and sorghum have been dis- covered, however, that can withstand attacks of the insect. These are being utilized in breed- ing programs which promise to effect distinct reductions in the losses in the next 10 years. New improvements in storing, fumigating, handling, and milling grains made in recent years and the wider application of these improve- ments now in progress should result in the mate- rial reduction of the enormous annual losses due to die insects attacking cereals and cereal products. The growing ol alfalfa seed, an important industry, particularly in the Rocky Mountain States, is subject to several important factors limiting yields, among them several insects that injure or prevent the formation of the seeds. There is now some indication that yields of alfalfa seed may be materially increased through the application of control measures resulting from studies now in progress. Corn Earworm One of the major pests of corn is the earworm. While no very satisfactory methods of control in field corn are known, an insecticidal treat- ment is being perfected that promises to be of practical value in sweet corn and may consider- ably increase the area in which this crop can be grown successfully. Insects Affecting Man and Animals Insects exert a considerable influence upon the development of the Nation's livestock in- dustry. Various species have seriously inter- fered with production and their attack has made the limited production much more costly than it would be otherwise. Screwworm An outstanding example is the screwworm, the larva of a blowfly that infests fresh wounds of warm-blooded animals of all kinds. It rapid- ly destroys vital tissue and soon causes death. It occurs rather commonly throughout the southern portion of the United States, but the major losses occur in the grazing areas of the Southwest. Insecticidal treatments for infested wounds have been developed. Many of the changes in range management recommended for screwworm control are of a type calculated to improve livestock and general farm and ranch conditions. Cattle Grub Another pest of importance is the cattle grub, the larva of a fly that attacks cattle. Loss of flesh and reduction of milk flow is caused by the adult fly. The grubs live within the body of the 151 animal for about 9 months, seriously damaging the hides for leather purposes and sometimes causing severe infections. Control measures involving the use of insec- ticides, applicable to small herds on a community basis, have been developed. A start has been made in adapting these practices to range animals and methods of treating range cattle are being developed. The general adoption of control practices will result in the production of 30 percent more No. 1 hides. Mosquitoes and Sandflies Mosquitoes and sandflies attack humans and animals and have an indirect effect upon agri- culture in the vicinity of pleasure resorts. Some- times the resorts fail because of the insects, and farmers suffer the loss of markets. Malaria, carried by mosquitoes, is a chief factor that inter- feres with economical farm production, and impedes social development in the South. The control of the mosquitoes wouldgive a tremend- ous impetus to all industry in the South. Biting insects, like stable flies and horn flies, lower the condition of animals, interfere with farm operations and decrease the amount of dairy products. The development of improved insecticides and mechanical devices for control- ling the flies has given promise of some relief. Biological Control of Insect Pests Since most of the destructive insect pests in the United States are of foreign origin, their greater injuriousness in this country is due, in part at least, to the absence of the natural enemies that attack them in the country of origin. The first attempt to control a major crop pest by importing and establishing a natural enemy was upon the cottony cushion scale of citrus in California in 1888-90. The pest had become so destructive that many orange groves were being abandoned. Within 2 years after the importa- tion of the natural enemies from Australia, the pest was under complete control throughout southern California, and it has remained so since that time. Several species of mealybugs attacking citrus have also been fully controlled in this way. Some years ago the citrus industry of the Culf States was threatened by the presence of a destructive pest, the citrus black fly, in Cuba, the Bahamas, Central America, and elsewhere. A cooperative project between the Departments of Agriculture of the United States and Cuba resulted in the importation of its parasites from Malaya in 1930-31. These quickly brought the pest under control, and there is consequently much less chance that it will gain entry into the continental United States. These and other successful efforts to control insect pests by this method have made it a promising line of approach to the solution of a number of major insect problems. A successful outcome would eliminate the need for the peri- odic application of insecticides. Truck Crop Insects Research work on insects injurious to truck crops has been mainly toward the development and application of insecticides so as to avoid harmful residues on the product at harvest time. Emphasis has been placed in this work on the use of organic materials, like cube, derris, and pyrethrum. Such materials in dosages of suffi- cient strength to kill certain insects are not recognized as poisonous to man. Studies of the growth of celery, cabbage, spinach, and lettuce have revealed the point in their development at which the use of poisonous insecticides would result in excessive residues on the marketed product. Technical workers have warned repeatedly of dangers in the promiscu- ous use of arsenicals or other similar materials on vegetables. The results of these studies are widespread, and now the grower has at his dis- posal insecticides that may be used to control such pests as cabbage caterpillars, celery leaf tier, bean beetle, and pea weevil, without leav- ing harmful residues. An outstanding feature of research work with cube and derris roots has been the development of a control of the pea weevil, by insecticidal treatment and with clean- up measures, so that it has been removed as a hazard in pea production. The effect has been particularly important to the Northwest pea-processing industry. Since 1935, pea canning and frozen packing have in- creased in this area, and until 1937 the pea 152 weevil threatened the success of the industry because of the actual injury or losses in yield and because the weevil developed within the edible part of the peas which then had to be hand sorted. Health officials decreed such peas as unfit for human consumption. Consequently, the industry was gravely concerned, but with the development of the control measures, the industry was put on a stable basis. The tomato-canning industry also was threat- ened with great losses because of the tomato fruitworm and tomato pinworm, which fed within the tomato fruits. Even after careful selection, insect fragments were found in the canned product. Research work has yielded results of distinct advantage in the protection of the canned products. The raspberry fruitworm threatened seriously the raspberry and blackberry crop which was being produced in the Puyallup Valley of Washington. Intensive studies on the control of these insects yielded control measures which have been generally adopted by the growers with success. The redberry mite affects the blackberry and this crop cannot be produced now in the infested area without control measures. Insecticides In the production of many agricultural crops, the use of insecticides has become a necessity, and the accompanying expense to the farmer may easily be an important factor in determin- ing monetary success or failure. The total annual expenditure for agricultural insecticides in the United States amounts to many millions of dollars, and increases year by year. To complicate matters still further, new- conditions are continually arising. The Cali- fornia red scale apparently develops an increased resistance to hydrocyanic acid, thus upsetting- established means of control, and requiring intensified search for better means of applying it and for development of new and more effec- tive substitutes. Public health restrictions on the presence of poisonous elements on foodstuffs require the development of means of removing the unwanted substance by washing, or the development of less objectionable substitutes. The cumulative effect of arsenic upon the productivity of the land on which it falls or into which it is incor- porated sometimes seriously lowers land values. Some of these considerations have led to an immense amount of effort to find less objection- able substitutes for the arsenicals, of which about 100 million pounds, costing nearly 10 million dollars, are used annually. The search has been directed toward the utili- zation of organic materials, either those that occur naturally in plants or those that can be manufactured. Plants have long fur- nished two of the world's most useful insecticides, namely, pyrethrum and nicotine. Recent ef- forts have greatly increased the interest in the use of both of these materials in agriculture and have led to the development of so-called fixed nicotine preparations that are finding incrcas- ing use against the codling moth on apples and of methods of using pyrethrum in the field on some insects, particularly the celery leaf tier. Besides, various rotenone-bearing plants, like derris from the East Indies, cube from Peru, and timbo from Brazil, have assumed great im- portance in the control of certain insects, notably the Mexican bean beetle, the pea weevil, and insects infesting cabbage and other leafy vegetables. A possible result of using these natural insecti- cides may be that a farmer can produce new crops. Intensive experiments have shown that pyreth- rum, produced mostly in Japan, will grow satis- factorily in the United States, and one rotenone- bearing plant, devil's shoestring, grows easily on very poor land in the South. If current breed- ing experiments are successful in raising the rote- none content to a satisfactory level, this plant may become an important crop. The search for synthetic organic insecticides has also brought some definite advances. For example, methyl bromide has become estab- lished as a valuable fumigant, giving such good control of some insects that shipment of agricul- tural products from quarantined areas is greatly facilitated. Phenothiazine has proven deadly to the codling moth, and when certain difficul- ties connected with its practical use are over- come, may supplant lead arsenate. 153 Bees Technology also has helped the beekeeping industry, although that activity remains largely dependent upon manpower rather than upon machines. New chemical methods and inventions pro- tect beekeeping equipment, such as combs, wax, comb honey, and hive parts, from the ravages of destructive insects. The use of cellophane helps the marketing of comb honey. Some of the newer metallic alloys are being used in the rendering of beeswax, making it possible to place on the market beeswax that can be used by the cosmetic trade and by the arts and industries. A refined technique for detecting small quan- tities of arsenic is used to ascertain the dangerous limits of the application of insecticides, as they affect the conservation of pollinating insects, particularly the honeybee. The use of improved photographic techniques makes possible the accurate measurement of the egg-laying capacity of queen bees and the brood rearing propensities of colonies, matters of considerable importance in selecting high- producing strains of honeybees for breeding. The application of the photoelectric cell for measuring the flight of colonies contributes to the same end, although such possibilities are only now being explored. New beekeeping territories have been opened to production through the use of electric fences by protecting apiaries from animals. The improvement of certain optical instruments has resulted in the standardization of honey as to color. The application of the newer knowledge of nutrition has helped materially in studying the etiology of certain devastating diseases of bees. Improved methods of processing soybean flour have made it possible to utilize flours of known protein and fat content to stimulate and pro- mote brood rearing in colonies of honeybees, giving the beekeeper a means whereby colonies can be brought to maximum strength at the time necessary to produce a maximum honey crop. The perfecting of new instruments and refined techniques have resulted in the ability to control the mating of honeybees so that the process of selecting improved stock should be shortened. It also encourages scientific studies of the genetics of the honeybee, looking to the possibilities for improving the honeybee and for developing special strains for particular purposes, such as for pollination under adverse conditions, hardi- ness, gentle bees for suburban areas, resistance to disease, and high productiveness. Beekeeping from the standpoint of marketing honey and beeswax will undoubtedly follow the trends imposed by prevailing marketing conditions. It appears, however, that there is nothing in sight with respect to future technical progress that will replace the honeybee as a pollinating agent. Since it scarcely seems possible that the beekeeper will ever be able to make a livelihood from maintaining bees solely for pollinating purposes, the commercial pro- duction of honey will have to furnish the bee- keeper a livelihood if agriculture is to be pro- vided with an adequate number of honeybees to effect the pollination of those plants upon which it is so dependent. 154 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 3 Vegetable Oils and Starch Crops The United States surpasses most European countries in independence of external sources of fats and oils and could no doubt become self- sufficient in this respect. But it would not be economical to do so, and such self-sufficiency would result in widespread industrial disloca- tions in industry and changes in habits of Americans. Of the 9,000,000,000 pounds of oils and fats consumed in the United States in 1938, approxi- mately 3,750,000,000 pounds were of vegetable origin. The cottonseed, soybean, corn, peanut, flax, and other sources of these oils represent cash crops, and consequently any changes in production, improvements in processing or conversion to finished products, and extension of markets through the development of new products are quickly reflected in the farmers' income. Changes of this type are constantly occurring. Some of them, like increases and decreases in crop production, are apparent and readily evaluated. Others represented by improve- ments in technological processes and adaptations to new uses or the development of new products may be obscure and slow in making their effect visible. After the period of the World War, the United States experienced a series of dislocations in the fat and oil industry resulting from changes in agricultural production, imports, processing, and utilization of vegetable oils. Before 1934, the United States exported a large part of its lard. These exports reached a maximum of slightly more than a billion pounds in 1923 and then fell to 88,000,000 pounds in 1935, but increased to 234,000,000 pounds in 1 938. Domestic lard production increased from about 1,500,000,000 pounds in 1900 to approxi- mately 2,700,000,000 pounds in 1923, after which it declined to 1,200,000,000 pounds in 1935. During this period there was little change in per capita consumption of the fat, which varied from a minimum of 10.5 pounds in 1917 to a maximum of 14.5 pounds in 1923 and 1924, with an average consumption of 12.5 pounds per capita for the 35-year period, 1900 to 1934. Since 1924, however, the consumption of lard and vegetable shortenings has remained fairly constant at 22 pounds per capita, with changes in one type of fat being offset by opposite changes in the other. This constancy in the domestic consumption of cooking fats and the considerable variation in domestic production and export demand for lard have markedly influenced both the production and demand for vegetable oils. Soybean Oil The introduction of the soybean as an Ameri- can oilseed crop and the rise of the United States to the position of the world's foremost producer of soybean oil illustrate how changes in agriculture, processing practices, extension of old uses, and development of new uses can affect the Nation's fat and oil economy. Before 1929 the domestic production of soy- beans was less than 10,000,000 bushels, of which fewer than 1,000,000 bushels were crushed for oil each year. After 1930, domestic production increased steadily, reaching 87,400,000 bushels in 1939; the 1939 acreage harvested for beans exceeded that of 1938 by 35 percent for the country as a whole. From 1924 to 1939 the 155 yields increased from 11 to nearly 21 bushels an acre. The World Market Imports of soybeans, never large, practically ceased in 1939. Exports, principally to Euro- pean oil centers, increased to 2,650,000 bushels in 1938. During the World War when an acute shortage of fats occurred in most countries, the net imports of soybean oil rose to approximately 332,000,000 pounds, but by 1920-21 fell again to a net of approximately 17,000,000 pounds and thereafter never exceeded 41,000,000 pounds. Domestic production of soybean oil increased meanwhile from slightly more than 2,000,000 pounds in 1924 and 1925 to 322,000,000 pounds in 1938, with the prospect of about 400,000,000 pounds in 1940. In 1938 the United States became the largest producer of soybean oil, with 143,750 long tons. Germany produced 115,584 tons and Manchoukuo, 65,503 tons. Values of Soybeans Causes of this growth in soybean production in the United States are to be found in the adaptability of the soybean to a variety of soils and climatic conditions, its relative freedom from attack by insects, resistance to drought, and adaptability to mechanized farm practice. The rise in the soybean in 10 years from an inconspicuous domestic source of vegetable oil to a position second only to cottonseed in the United States is probably unparalleled any- where in agricultural history and resulted directly from research. Years of work by geneticists and agronomists brought new strains of soybeans with superior oil and protein content, greatly increased yields, and adaptability to mechanized agricultural practice. The soybean combine and the rotary hoe made possible still further increases in pro- duction and corresponding decreases in the costs. A Continuing Growth Technological improvements have occurred in every phase of the processing practice. The crushing capacity of the continuous presses has been more than trebled. The unit power con- sumption has been reduced to a fraction of its former value. The amount of oil recovered has continually increased. Residual oil in the cake or meal has been reduced from about 5 percent to SU percent in the newest type of expellers. A still further reduction to 2 percent is expected in the expellers now under construction. Large-scale, automatic solvent extraction plants have been erected. Others are under construction to produce oil of exceptional quality and meal containing less than 1 percent of oil. New processes have increased greatly the nutritional value, digestibility, and pala- tability of solvent-extracted meal for feeding. Continuous centrifugal refining equipment has been adopted almost as rapidly as it could be installed. Improved bleaching and deodorizing methods and equipment have been developed specifically to improve the quality of the finished oil. The successful adaptation of soy- bean oil for food has resulted largely from advances in the process of hydrogenation and subsequent deodorization of the hydrogenated product. In 1934 about 3 million pounds of soybean oil were used in making compounds and vege- table shortening; more than 143 million pounds were thus used in 1938. In 1934 approximately 24,000 pounds of soybean oil were used in making oleomargarine; about 40 million pounds were thus utilized in 1938. The 1939 figure approached an estimated 60 million pounds. The expansion continues. Processors expect an increasing production of soybeans for some years to come. New processing plants are being built. Crushing capacity has been increased by the erection or enlarging of more than 30 plants in the past two years. This means an invest- ment in buildings and equipment of millions of dollars, the provision of considerable employ- ment in the construction and equipment indus- tries, and further employment in prospect in the processing industry and in agriculture. Evidence is available that the production of soybeans will continue to increase, especially in areas outside of the limits of the present Corn Belt. Recent experience with the newly de- veloped variety, Seneca, indicates that it can be grown successfully in central New York where it 156 yields well and finds a ready market. The high iodine number of its oil, about 140, makes il particularly suitable to the drying-oil industry. Processors have encouraged farmers in Georgia to plant Mamredo, Arksoy, and Herman varie- ties, previously grown on the southern limits of the Corn Belt. Prairie farmers increasingly have been substituting soybeans for oats in crop rotations. All these considerations—introduction of new varieties, the construction of more efficient pro- cessing plants, the sustained application of scientific and technological research, the de- velopment of new and the extension of old uses for both oil and meal — point to a probable future production in excess of 100,000,000 bushels of soybeans annuallv. Peanut Oil Before 1035, 8 million pounds or less of peanut oil were used in making shortening, but in 1935 more than 98 million pounds were used. In 1935, nearly 81 million pounds of peanut oil were imported, but the amount declined in 1939 to 15 million pounds. From 1922 to 1933 the domestic production of peanut oil ranged from 5 million to 25 million pounds but reached 77 million pounds in 1938. Since 1932 the acreage of peanuts grown alone for all purposes has averaged about 2 million acres. Plantings in 1939 were estimated at about 2.4 million acres, 12 percent more than in 1938. Oil millers are anxious to obtain in- creased domestic supplies for crushing and are encouraging farmers to increase their acreage of Spanish nuts, which are preferred for oil production. The replacement of cotton acreage with pea- nuts would seem to be desirable from several viewpoints but primarily because such a shift would result in a decreased production of fiber and simultaneously lead to increased production of oil. Peanut production could no doubt be as highly mechanized as soybean production, with a consequent increase in volume and de- crease in costs. ( !c >TT< INSEED < )lL Among domestic fats and oils, cottonseed oil is exceeded in consumption only by butler and lard. More than 90 percent of the factory use of cottonseed oil is in the production of edible products, principally shortening. Since 1937 cottonseed oil has replaced cocoanut oil as the leading oil in making oleomargarine. In 1938 cottonseed oil formed 46 percent of the total ingredients of oleomargarine. Unlike soybean, peanut, sunflower, linseed, tung, and castor oils, cottonseed oil is a by- product of a more valuable primary product, cotton fiber. Because cotton production and consumption are affected by many factors which do not normally influence oil production and consumption, it is to be expected that cottonseed oil production would vary more than that of some of the other oils. Because the production of cotton oil depends on the production of fiber, however, any future increased production of this oil must be ac- companied by increased output of the fiber. It is, however, possible to increase the produc- tion of oil without at the same time increasing the amount of seed. Although the industrial extraction of cotton- seed was started 75 years ago, the process has not attained the maximum possible efficiency. In good practice the cake or meal contains about 4 percent of residual oil. On the basis of experience with other seeds and other proc- esses, it is possible to reduce this residual oil content to 1 percent or less. Assuming that the oil content of the cake and meal were reduced on an average from 4 to 1 percent, the addi- tional oil recovered would amount to 120 million pounds, if the annual production of cake and meal is 2 million tons. Assuming a price of 7 cents a pound for crude oil and $25 a ton for meal, this residual oil represents a difference of approximately $7,000,000, a large part of which would go to the cotton farmer. Furthermore, under present processing prac- tices, much of the crude cottonseed oil contains 5 to 20 percent of free fatty acids which have to 157 be removed during refining. The acids are recovered in the form of soap stock, which sells for only a fraction of the price of refined oil. Through improved handling and processing, the production of refined oil could be increased by about 75 million pounds on the basis of the present volume of crushing. More efficient methods of handling and processing cottonseed are being introduced. They are directed toward increasing the production and quality of the oil, improving efficiency and lowering process- ing costs. Predrying of seed before storage and improved cooking practices before expressing the oil are followed in some plants. Continuous ex- peller and screw presses are being more widely adopted in the place of the commonly used hydraulic press to save hand labor and lower production costs. Linseed Oil Technological changes that have brought new processes and new products adapted to indus- tries completely dominated by linseed oil have cut the use of the oil in the drying-oil industry. The demand for faster-drying and waterproof varnishes and enamels led to the use of tung oil, imported from China, in the manufacture of these products in preference to the slower- drying and less waterproof linseed oil. A serv- iceable and popular wrinkle finish, preferred for many types of metal goods, became possible with the introduction of tung oil. The intro- duction of modified alkyd resins for use in air- drying and baked-enamel finishes led to the replacement of considerable quantities of linseed oil by soybean oil and fatty acids of soybean oil, especially for making white or light-colored products. Among baked finishes the handicap of the slower drying of soybean oil has been off- set largely by the higher temperature of the bak- ing ovens, so that its lower price and superior color retention have led to the use of consider- able quantities of soybean oil for this type of finish. The use of soybean oil in the drying-oil indus- try has increased from 9 million pounds in 1931 to nearly 19 million pounds in 1938 and may be expected to increase further both because of its cheaper price and the development of pre- bodying and certain chemical treatments to improve its drying properties. There has been little change in the proportion of linseed oil used — about 65 percent of the total oil ingredients — in the production of linoleum and oilcloth. The volume of linseed oil used in printing ink has been growing, but the pro- portion compared to other oils has declined since 1930. In 1931 linseed oil constituted nearly 90 percent of the total oils used in the manufacture of printing ink but by 1938 the proportion had dropped to approximately 75 percent. Tung and perilla oils have been the principal replacements. Synthetic resins have been used in printing inks, especially for high- gloss varnish finishes for colored illustrations. The quantity of linseed oil, approximatelv I million pounds annually, used in manufac- turing paste and liquid soaps especially adapted to cleansing metals such as automobile bodies, has shown little change since 1930. However, the amount of soybean oil used for the same purpose has generally exceeded linseed oil dur- ing the same period and in 1938 reached nearlv II million pounds. Although soybean-oil soap differs somewhat in its properties from linseed- oil soap, it is being used for similar purposes. The discovery that castor oil could be dehy- drated to form a synthetic drying oil with prop- erties intermediate between those of linseed and tung oils brought a new competitor into the drying-oil field. The consumption of this syn- thetic oil, which bears a variety of trade names, increased from 2 million pounds in 1933 to 8 million pounds in 1937. Its production and use will no doubt become more important in the future, not so much because it is identical in composition and properties with either linseed or tung oil, but because it possesses character- istics which adapt it to its own particular varietv of uses. The processing of fish oils has been markedly improved, and these products, together with so-called neo-fats prepared by the resynthesis of fish oil and other fatty acids, are finding special uses in the drying oil fields. Changes also have been occurring in the domestic production of flax and in flaxseed processing practice. The flax plant has been grown for linseed oil 158 production in the United States for more than a century but in recent years acreage and yields have been declining, principally as a result of drought and grasshopper and wilt fungus infes- tations. The pre-war production of flax averaged about 19 million bushels annually but in 1910 h fell to 7 million bushels. From 1919 to 1924 it increased to 31 million bushels. Since then production has fallen, being approximately 5 million bushels in 1936, but in 1938 produc- tion increased to somewhat more than 8 million bushels, and an upward trend was manifest in 1939, when more than 20 million bushels were produced. Minnesota, North Dakota, and Cali- fornia led in flaxseed production in 1938. Starch Starch, the main energy-storing component of most food crops, has long served mankind also for a wide variety of nonfood uses. Its value for sizing textiles and paper and for making adhesives is traditional. In recent years its uses have been extended into diverse fields through the development of new physical and chemical methods of processing it. While it has not yet shown the versatility of its near-relative, cellulose, those most familiar with it believe that there are many unexplored possibilities of widening its usefulness in the arts. Starch is apparently used by plants to store the energy of sunlight against the time when a large expenditure of energy will be needed for germination or growth. Thus, the most impor- tant sources are the tubers of a wide variety of plants and the seeds of the cereal grains. These reservoirs of concentrated energy are, of course, the primary source of food for many land animals, including man. Pure starch may be separated comparatively easily from corn, potatoes, rice, sago, and cassava, the main raw materials in the United States and other parts of the world. Starches isolated from different plants all have the same fundamental chemical composition, characterized by the fact that, like cellulose, they are quite easily convertible into the simple sugar, dextrose. That fact is the basis not only of the glucose sirup and corn sugar industry, but also of the fermentation industries which use starchy raw materials like corn or potatoes. The break-down of the complex starch structure may also be carried only part way, in which case the product may be one of the "modified starches," or a dextrin. But despite this fundamental similarity, each species of plant docs produce a variety of starch which has its own individual characteristics, due partly to the kind of impurities which arc associated with the starch, partly to the way tin- large molecules are arranged in the starch granule, and partly to the size of the starch molecule itself. In any case, the differences affect the physical properties of the starch and of products made from it, even when the starch is broken down to any intermediate product short of glucose. It is possible, however, to control that break-down, or modification, and to stop it at any point, so that many desired combinations of physical properties may be attained by appropriate treat- ment of the several different kinds of starch. To some degree, therefore, starches are inter- changeable. The United States has been importing annually approximately 300,000,000 pounds of tapioca and sago, which can be substituted for domestic starches. Most of the white potato starch used in this country is also imported. To some extent these imported starches enter fields in which their individual characteristics give them a quality advantage; but the low costs of production in tropical countries have also given them a strong competitive position. Research work may make it possible to supply a larger proportion of our requirements by prod- ucts made from domestic crops, both by reducing the cost of production and by improving the quality. Cornstarch The most important domestic raw material for starch is corn. The corn kernel contains about 60 percent starch, and the total corn crop alone produces about 50,000,000 tons of starch annually. Less than 1 percent of that total is now actually being recovered as cornstarch. Some dry-milled corn flour is used in cold- 159 water paints, foundry flours, fillers, and sizes. Cornstarch, however, and therefore its conver- sion products — dextrin, sirup, and sugar — is made by the wet-milling process. Corn oil, corn-oil meal, and gluten feeds are recovered as byproducts. Sweetpotato Starch The sweetpotato crop is exceeded only by the white potato crop in the vegetable production of the United States. During the 10-year period 1928-37 the aver- age yearly commercial production was 70,000,000 bushels, and the average total acreage devoted to this crop was about 840,000 acres. The average yield for the country as a whole is only about 85 bushels an acre, but individual States have averaged 150 bushels; this, of course, is for the food varieties. Varieties which have re- cently been grown primarily to serve as a new- source of starch have yielded under favorable circumstances as much as 400 bushels an acre and 200 bushels is regarded as a fair attainable average. The starch content of these industrial varieties has been raised to about 23 percent. At a yield of 200 bushels an acre, the starch production may therefore rise to over 2,500 pounds an acre. A reasonably comparable figure for the production of starch by corn would be 1,700 pounds an acre, at a yield of 50 bushels an acre. Experimental work began as early as 1895 with the object of establishing a sweetpotato starch industry in the United States. It has long been in operation in Japan. Numerous technical problems remain to be studied: The development of new sweetpotato crosses that may have superior qualities, meth- ods of planting, fertilizing, and harvesting the crop, the technique of handling the potatoes in the plant, and purifying the separated starch. This development has illustrated the modifica- tions in farming methods that may come by shifting from a food crop to an industrial one. Up to the time of the establishment of a small cooperative sweetpotato starch factory in Mis- sissippi in 1934, growers had been interested chiefly in obtaining as high a yield as possible of marketable sweetpotatoes, that is, potatoes of medium size and uniform shape. Since that time, growers near the starch factory have been chiefly concerned with obtaining high yields of starch per acre, and, in fact, a large proportion of their present crop would be unsalable in the food market. Comparatively low prices which can be paid for the crop as a source of starch are at least partly compensated by higher acre yields and lower costs of production than are possible with the food types of sweetpotato. In 1937 the Agricultural Adjustment Admin- istration added a crop-diversion payment of 10 cents a bushel to the price of 20 cents paid bv the starch plant, so that the gross return to the farmer was 30 cents a bushel. Possible Expansion of Starch Uses The conversion of corn starch into glucose sirup is a long established industry, but the further step of preparing pure crystalline dex- trose, or corn sugar, from the sirup is a compara- tively recent development that is still growing rapidly. Both the sirup and the sugar find their major uses in the food and beverage industries. Large quantities, however, are used in tanning, in rayon spinning baths, in tobacco products, and in the pharmaceutical industry. Crystalline dextrose is one of the cheapest pure organic compounds made on a large scale, so that further research may well uncover important new uses for it; but aside from such possible new oudets, any marked expansion of the present industrial consumption appears to be improbable. The fermentation industries are large users of starch, generally in the unpurified form of ground grain. Besides the important use for beverages and the production of a certain amount of industrial alcohol, there has also been some industrial production of such important chemicals as acetone, butanol, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, and gluconic acid. The demand for all of these except gluconic acid, which is a comparative newcomer, is rela- tively stable, and there is keen competition between several alternative ways of producing them, so that the outlook is not promising for any large increase in this outlet for the starchy- crops. 160 Any substantial development of an alcohol- blend motor fuel, on the other hand, might have far-reaching effects on farm economy. The traditional uses of starch for laundry work, for sizing paper and textiles, and for the preparation of dextrin adhesives, have been intensively developed over a long period of years. A normal continuance of growth may be expect- ed, but no tremendous increase in demand of the kind that would affect the primary starch crops. The chemical conversion of starch to various esters, ethers, and polymers is a comparatively new and undeveloped field. A small, but grow- ing, quantity of such starch derivatives is already being used in protective coatings, adhesives and water-resistant binders, explosives, beverages, and plastics. A quantitative evaluation of this potential new outlet for starch is, of course, impossible now; too much depends upon the outcome of future research. But it might be remarked that some of the outstanding triumphs of chemical technology have occurred in the analogous field of cellulose derivatives — nitro-cellulose lacquers and rayon, to mention only two. 161 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 4 Preservation of Foods LONG before recorded history, man learned how wise and needful it was to keep food from harvest time until he wanted it later. Farm products, meat, and fish were salted, smoked, or dried. Milk was probably used fresh or in cheese. Perhaps milk was not a common part in the human diet, except for infants. For centuries these methods of preserva- tion were sufficient. Napoleon realized the necessity of providing satisfactory food to an army, and after his Russian campaign the French Government awarded a prize to Nicolas Appert, for develop- ing a process of canning. In the United States it appears that the first commercial canning was started in 1819 in New York City by Kensett and Daggett, who packed various meats and fish in glass containers. In 1825 a tin can was patented. By hand a can maker could pro- duce only about 60 cans a day, but even so the characteristics of the tin container led to an expansion of the industry. The first machine- made cans appeared in 1847, and the output of cans increased considerably. The Development of Canning The early canners soon learned that for unknown reasons a large part of the pack fre- quently spoiled. Experiments indicated that an increase in the temperature of sterilization would reduce these losses. The higher tem- perature was first obtained by the addition of calcium chloride to the water in which the con- tainers were boiled. This was adequate for sterilization, but frequently the cans exploded because of the inside pressure developed at temperatures of 240° to 250° F. A steam retort invented in 1874 overcame this difficult}- and stimulated greatly the industry. It was essen- tially a large and strong metal cylinder with a removable top and pressure- and temperature- indicating devices. The retort was filled with cans, the cover was bolted on tightly, and steam was admitted at a pressure of 10 to 15 pounds. Cans could thus be heated to the desired tem- perature and the pressure in the retort prevented explosion of the cans, since the interior and ex- .terior pressure of the cans was the same. The earlier tin cans were soldered by hand on the sides and the end. Later, machines did most of the soldering, but the final closure remained a hand operation. The tops of the early cans had a two-inch hole through which the cans were filled. Many products had to be ground or mashed before they could go through such a small opening. In 1899 the present open top or '"sanitary" can — a cylinder closed at one end and entirely open at the other — was invented. After the can had been filled, its top was put on by a special machine and the top and body joined together by tightly clinching overlapping flanges. A little solder was used, applied only to the outside seam. About 400 cans a minute can be made and closing machines are almost as rapid. Along with the mechanical developments of canning machinery there occurred develop- ments in the machinery to harvest or prepare the food products for canning. Several are outstanding. Large-scale operations in the pea-canning in- dustry are only possible by the use of the pea 162 viner, by which one can speedily harvest a large field. Vines and pods arc fed into the viner, which separates the peas and delivers them almost completely free from pods and leaves. 1 1 saves much work and time. The bean snipper, which cuts the ends from the string beans, also is outstanding. Without it canned string beans would be far costlier. In 1914, Henry Ginaca developed a machine that peels the hard shell of the pineapple, removes the core, and cuts off the end in one operation at a rate of more than 80 pineapples a minute. Previously the work was a hand opera- tion. Another is the '"Iron Chink" now used in all salmon canning factories. It removes the heads, splits the fish and eviscerates it, and removes the fins, tail, and scales. The fish are fed into the machine by hand at the rate of about 80 a minute. A Tremendous Industry If one adds up the production of the various kinds of canned foods during the last years one gets the reasonable estimate of 337,000,000 cases of canned vegetables and soups, fruits, fruit juices, meats, milk, and fish, with a value at the point of production of about $836,000,000. Canned vegetables and soups amount to 200,000,000 cases. Canned fruits and canned milk account for about 50,000,000 cases. Expressed in another way, about 15,000,000,000 cans of food were packed. Among the canned vegetables, corn is the largest single item, closely followed by peas, the former amounting to 26,000,000 and the latter 24,000,000 cases, according to the 1937 Census of Manufactures. Tomatoes are next, 23,- 500,000 cases. Canned peaches amounted to about 13,500,000 cases. Other fruits, including apricots, pears, grapefruit, fruit salad, berries and apple sauce, run from 5,800,000 cases down to 3,300,000. Nearly 13,000,000 cases of fruit juice, valued at more than $25,000,000, were produced in 1937. Of the canned meats, about 10 percent con- sists of canned sausage, the remainder being various products not statistically separated. More than 90 percent of the canned milk con- sists of condensed unsweetened milk, the remain- der being sweetened condensed milk. Both skim and whole milk products are prepared. Salmon is the most important of the canned fish and accounts for approximately 40 percent of the total. Sardines and tuna constitute about 24 percent of canned fish. The Influence of Dietary Habits Americans have changed their eating habits to a great degree in the last 30 years. More of the common vegetables are canned now than in 1918, but even greater is the general increase in the amounts used for fresh market consump- tion. The reasons: A greater appreciation of the desirability of fruits and vegetables in the diet and improvements in their distribution. An example: The increase in the total produc- tion of peas between 1918 and an average year between 1933 and 1937 approximated about 16,500,000 bushels. Of the increase, 7,800,000 bushels went to the fresh markets and 8,700,000 bushels for manufacturing purposes. In 1918 only 604,000 bushels were reported as being sold on the fresh market. To put it another way: The total pea crop increased 63 percent, the amount used for manufacture increased 34 percent, and the amount used for the fresh market increased 1,290 percent. Extensive surveys have shown that consumers accept canned foods on the bases of availability, ease of preparation, and cost. It is recognized that sterilizing processes believed to be necessary frequently result in flavors different from those obtained when the same foods are home cooked. Consequently, current research is aimed toward improving the flavor of canned foods. The most striking new change in canning is the production of canned fruit and vegetable juices which have come on the market very rapidly and in large quantities. Tomato juice was the first — only about 10 years ago. The canning of grapefruit followed. Attempts to can orange juice were without satisfactory results until the development of the deaeration flash pasteurization procedure in the Depart- ment of Agriculture. 230955° -12 163 Frcit Juices Methods have been perfected for producing and preserving apple juice. Previously sweet cider was an article of commerce for only a few weeks in the fall, but by the new methods apple juice can be prepared so its flavor resem- bles that of the freshly expressed juice. It will maintain this flavor at least a year. A process of concentrating apple juice under high vacuum has also been developed. Further study is needed on blending the juices of different varie- ties of apples to obtain the maximum palata- bility and uniformity. Another problem has to do with blending mixtures of juices of various fruits to obtain products of high flavor and comparatively low costs. It is possible that plant geneticists may be called upon to develop varie- ties of the several fruits most adaptable to juice production. There are reasons to believe that the rate of increase in the canning of fruit and tomato juices and nectars will remain constant for some years. The possibility of developing other fruit juices or mixtures of them for purely beverage purposes and not as adjuncts to a meal must also be recognized. One may hazard, a guess that within five years the production of these items may be at least three times that of 1937, or roughly 100,000,000 cases It has been shown that milk can be preserved in its natural condition by storage under pres- sure of selected gases and by frozen packing, but it is doubtful now whether the products will replace dairy milk. New methods have been perfected for concentrating milk and pre- serving it in cans by sterilization or by the addi- tion of cane sugar. Possibly the control of fluid milk by cooperative or other groups of producers and the further development of monopolistic tendencies in distribution may re- sult in price increases to the extent that retail distribution will decrease, in which case it seems probable that milk canning may be done advantageously, because the consumers, by pur- chasing canned milk, will be able to escape some of the economic pressure arising from such control over local milk sheds. If this develop- ment does come, a decrease in milk cattle near the centers of consumption might be expected, together with an increase in such cattle else- where. Canned Fish The production of canned salmon in Alaska is closely controlled under the terms of the White Act, a protective measure. The pro- visions of the act have been effectively applied and, if the market should require it, quantities perhaps 20 percent larger could be packed. It does not appear probable that the canning of salmon within the borders of the United States will increase appreciably. In recent years there have been, however, some interesting changes in connection with other fish. Tuna For some unknown biological reasons for a number of years tuna practically disappeared off the coast of California. A change in these con- ditions and further changes on the Pacific Northwest coast have caused the fish to appear in considerable quantities, so that plans were made to open several new tuna canneries in Washington and Oregon. It has been found also that the tuna or "horse mackerel" of the Atlantic coast is practically identical to the Pacific coast tuna. Nearly 1,000,000 of the Atlantic coast fish were canned in 1939. This figure can be expected to increase as better facilities become available. It is also possible that an increase in the canning of shrimp can be expected as a result of the extensive studies of its life history. Canning sardines is important in California but the canners have made less money from sardines than from processing sardine oil and meal. The extension of conservation measures, improvement in the quality of the canned prod- uct, and increasing prices of meat, however, may shift the utilization of sardines from fish oil and meal to the canned product. The manu- facture of sardine oil and meal is increasing greatly in the Pacific Northwest. Cold Packing The methods of preserving fruits and vege- tables bv freezing fall into two sreneral classes, 164 cold packing and frozen packing. Both arc comparatively recent in their development. Cold packing is applied mainly to the several fruits that are subsequently used by the manu- facturers of preserves, ice cream, and bakery products. In the Pacific Northwest, particularly in the case of strawberries, fruit is grown primarily for freezing. In other sections of the country, notably Louisiana and the Southern Atlantic States, the cold pack treatment is applied to the part of the crop which cannot be sold at satisfactory prices as fresh fruit. The quality of the frozen product is affected very largely by the variety of the fruit. Kinds which are most satisfactory for fresh market shipments are not ideal for cold packing and preference frequently is given therefore to the Pacific coast pack because of the use there of varieties most satisfactory for freezing preserva- tion. Because of the texture and quality of the cold packed fruit, the market will probably always be limited to "secondary" manufactur- ers, since an acceptable table or dessert fruit cannot be obtained by this method of preserva- tion. The method is, however, most satisfactory for secondary manufacture because the texture and quality are suitable for such uses and because the storage life is sufficiently great to enable the manufacturer to carry on his operations through- out the year. More than half of the cold pack fruits are strawberries. Others, in the order of their importance, are red raspberries, blackberries, red sour cherries and loganberries. Under 1940 marketing conditions, cold packing acts somewhat as a buffer to variations in market prices of the fresh fruits and to that extent is of value to the grower. Because the operation can be carried on wherever cold storage ware- houses are available, it can be used as an emer- gency operation almost anywhere in the coun- try. It appears possible that with the more extended development of frozen packing the volume of the cold pack may be reduced because of a shift to the other types of freezing. An indication of the growth of frozen packing is given in figures showing that the pack of frozen vegetables increased in Washington and Oregon from 2, 500, 000 pounds in 1933 to an estimated 25,000,000 pounds in 1938. In the United Slates an estimated loo, 000,000 pounds were frozen in 1938, and new plants are being built and freezing equipment installed in existing factories in many parts ol tin' country. The rate of freezing for packing depends, among other factors, upon the method of with- drawing heat from the product. No engineer- ing studies have been published on the relative efficiencies of the several current methods of quick freezing. Ideally, from the point of view solely of heat transference, the most satisfactory method would be the immersion of the article to be frozen in a cooling liquid. Several attempts have been made to carry out this procedure, at least in principle, and with further refinements of procedure some of these methods have great promise. Frozen packing can be considered under two general heads, "unit" freezing and "package" freezing. In the former the material to be frozen is subjected to a stream of cold air either on a traveling belt or on trays which are moved through the refrigerating compartment. In one type of equipment, the material, spread out on trays, is cooled by circulating currents of air, the trays remaining stationary. This "unit" method is being widely used and has many ad- vantages. Among these may be mentioned the rapidity of freezing and the ability to defer the selection of a shipping package until shipment is actually made. In the package-freezing processes the raw ma- terial is placed in the container in which it is frozen by the circulation of cold air, by contact with refrigerated plates or belts or, in the case of hermetically sealed packages, by immersion in a refrigerated liquid. Under reasonable conditions of operation, it is possible to carry on frozen packing so that not more than three or four hours need elapse from the time a particular crop is harvested until freezing is completed. This means that the consumer can be furnished with an article which, in his kitchen, will be comparable in texture and flavor with one picked from his own garden three or four hours previously. 165 Northern-Grown Vegetables Several investigations have been made, par- ticularly with corn, peas, and tomatoes, which indicate that their quality generally is higher as one approaches the northern limits of the regions in which they can be grown. It appears that the acre yield of a number of vegetables tends to increase as the crop is produced in the more northerly areas. In the case of peas, for exam- ple, the acre yield in Wisconsin is roughly twice that recorded in the "early crop" States. Al- most the same ratio exists in the comparison of New York with the Southern States. The yield of asparagus in California is approxi- mately three times as much per acre as in Georgia and South Carolina, and in the "late" States the ratio is about two and one-half to one. Similar figures can be developed by comparisons of the yield per acre of corn in the Northern States with those in the southern group, with spinach in California as compared to spinach in Texas, and the "second early" and "late" States. For statistical purposes, a carload of "fresh" peas is taken as 625 bushels of peas in the pod, 30 pounds a bushel. On the average, 2^ pounds of peas in the pod equal 1 pound of shelled peas. On this basis, a car of peas in the pod contains only 7,500 pounds of edible food, although 18,750 pounds are shipped. If 25 percent of the net weight of shelled peas is allowed for necessary containers, only 50 per- cent of the refrigerated cars now in use for ship- ping peas would be needed if frozen peas rather than peas in the pod were sent to the consuming markets. The importance of this factor can be esti- mated from the fact that in the period 1933 to 1937 the average number of car shipments of peas was 8,051. Practically three-fourths of this movement was into the markets of New York, Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia. On the basis of these figures one can speculate as to the effect on railroad finances of the reduced volume of movement of this very high class of freight. In Florida, Texas, and southern California, large areas are planted to truck crops for ship- ment to the Northern States during the season of no production in the terminal markets. Much of the land so used is not of an ideal qualitv for those crops. Heavy fertilization is necessary; frequently the land must be irrigated and other factors may tend to increase the costs. When such crops have been matured to the stage which will permit shipment, they are moved to the consumer market; not infrequently this degree of maturity is considerably below that at which the vegetable contains its highest degree of flavor and nutritive value. Even with this compara- tively low quality at the time of shipment, there is a chance for considerable further deteriora- tion before the article reaches the consumer kitchens. Curing, Drying, and Smoking The processes of curing, drying, and smoking have long afforded an excellent and potentiallv abundant supply of animal food products at reasonable cost to persons who cannot com- mand an adequate supply of the more perish- able or expensive food products of animal origin. .The original purely utilitarian objective of these processes has become largely overshadowed bv a secondary objective, the satisfaction of con- sumer preference. Doubtless most of such products are now pur- chased primarily because consumers prefer the flavor, aroma, and texture of the goods, or the smaller amount of labor and waste involved. The extension of refrigeration facilities, there- fore, will not necessarily effect an important transfer of consumer preference toward fresh meat, particularly in view of the fact that cur- ing, drying, and smoking are being improved with regard to both expense and quality. Moreover, consumers now largely demand products so lightly processed that the meats should be kept under refrigeration in any event. Rendering and Refining Fats Many advances have been made in processes of extracting, refining, and otherwise processing fats and oils of vegetable origin. Such products may now be obtained of bland flavor, of good keeping qualities, and of practically any degree of texture or stiffness desired. Sources of origin are numerous and the total supply is abundant. 166 Animal fats for cooking purposes arc likely to suffer increasingly keen competition from prod- ucts of vegetable origin. Nonetheless, lard is preferred to other shortenings by many con- sumers because of certain inherent characteris- tics. Producers of lard may perhaps do better by building up a demand for a product of uni- ormly high quality, than by attempting to compete with other shortenings on a price basis. Other animal fats are employed mainly as con- stituents of compound shortenings, as well as of oleomargarine. The proportion of animal fat used in such products is subject to wide varia- tion depending on the relative market prices of various possible ingredients, for manufacturers as a rule employ highly flexible formulas. 167 Fertilizers Manganese, zinc, copper, and boron have been added to the list of elements regarded as important to plant nutrition. They are known as trace or secondary ele- ments; often they are needed in only a few parts per million of soil. Without these vital substances, plants (and animals) suffer from serious diseases. It is known, too, that human nutrition is best based on the products of well fertilized soil. The top picture shows how potato leaves suffer from magnesium deficiency in the soil; a normal leaf is on the left. The others show successive stages of magne- sium deficiency symptoms. Below it is a picture of tomatoes — in manganese-deficient soil on the left, and on the right in soil on which fertilizer containing man- ganese sulphate was placed. Next is shown a modern method of handling manure on a dairy farm. At the bottom is a picture of a tractor-driven machine dis- tributing fertilizer on a large field of sugarcane in Florida. Recent developments in fertilizers include: More ac- curate placement of nutrient*;, higher plant-food content, and growing knowledge of the care of manures and of composts. TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 5 Commercial Fertilizers The Indians advised the Pilgrims to put a fish in each corn hill. They had discovered that plant growth would thus be encouraged, although they did not know, as we do, that fish contain nitrogen and phosphorus, essential to plant health. Indeed, it is probable that pre- historic man had similar experiences with plant nutrition. Science has progressed far in such basic ideas. It has discovered new sources of plant food and made improvements in the physical condition of fertilizers, methods of applying them, and in equipment for placing them so the plants will get the greatest benefit and suffer no damage. Scientists know now that several minor elements are needed for proper growth. Farmers are learning to demand fertilizers of higher plant food content to save transportation costs. The importance of animal manures and compost materials and their proper handling is recog- nized increasingly. A growing use is made of phosphate and lime for meadows. We are more aware that secondary substances in food and feed are valuable to human and animal life and contribute to size, stamina, and resistance to disease and can best be supplied through foods obtained from crops grown on fertile and well- fertilized soils. These are signposts pointing to future prog- ress. They have an important bearing on agricultural production and national welfare. But whether the farmer will put more commer- cial plant food on his fields depends on the relationship between the cost of fertilizer and the returns he gets for his products. The Growing Use of Fertilizers The use of fertilizers has grown rapidly in the United States. Peruvian guano was first im- ported about 1824; chemical plant food was probably used first about 1830 when nitrate of soda was brought from Chile; domestic produc- tion of mixed fertilizers began about 1850. Several years later superphosphate was first manufactured in this country. The total esti- mated domestic production of fertilizers in 1856 was approximately 20,000 tons. From an esti- mated 1,150,000 tons in 1880 the use of commer- cial fertilizers rose rapidly and amounted to 8,220,000 tons in 1930. From that high level, consumption declined with the greatly reduced farm incomes of 1 930 and 1931. In 1932, it was lower than in any year since 1905, but in 1937 the amount was about the same as in 1930. Consumption declined in 1938 following a drop in farm prices in 1937. Commercial fertilizers are used mostly in the States east of the Mississippi. Farmers of the South Atlantic States as a rule use more than 50 percent of the total. The North Atlantic and the South Central States are also important users, each group using about one-sixth of the yearly total. Consumption in the North Atlan- tic States has tended slighdy upward since 1910; in the East South Central States it has varied widely, depending largely on cotton prices, and in the East North Central States it has approximated 10 percent of the United States total since about 1935. In the West North Central and Western States it has in- 169 creased substantially since 1910; during the pre-war years they together consumed less than 2 percent of the national total and slightly more than 5 percent in the 5 years ending with 1938. Plant-Food Content of Fertilizers Marked changes have taken place in the actual plant-food content of fertilizers and con- sequently consumption in tons does not reflect fully the changes that have occurred in the use of fertilizers. Because new and improved man- ufacturing processes have made higher grade inorganic nitrogenous materials, superphos- phates, and potash salts available to the fertilizer manufacturer, a ton of fertilizer now contains appreciably more plant food than in earlier years. In 1880, when 11.4 pounds of fertilizer were used per acre of cropland, plant- food consumption amounted to an estimated 1.5 pounds. In 1937, the use of fertilizers averaged 43.6 pounds, and plant-food consump- tion 7.9 pounds to the crop acre. The plant- food content of complete fertilizers averaged 13.4 percent in 1880 and about 19 percent in 1938 and increased about 42 percent in those 59 years. The best measure of the relative use of com- mercial fertilizers in different States is the quan- tity of plant food put on a crop acre. In Florida in 1934 about 100 pounds of plant food were used, the highest for any State. This was ob- tained from an average application of about 500 pounds of fertilizer, containing 20 percent plant food, to a crop acre. The 12 States leading in plant-food consumption are along the Atlantic coast. Large acreages of truck crops, fruits, cot- ton, and tobacco are grown in those States, and soils in some places are of low natural produc- tivity. Consumption of plant food is relatively high in the States immediately west of the Atlantic Coast States, and relatively low in most States west of the Mississippi River, although California uses about 8 pounds of plant food from commercial fertilizers to an acre of cropland. Fertilizers and Crops It is estimated that in 1936 about 22 percent of the total tonnage of fertilizers was applied to corn; cotton, 20 percent; small grains, 15 per- cent; and vegetables and small fruits, 13 percent. In 1928 cotton was fertilized with about 30 percent of the total tonnage, compared to 20 percent in 1936. Reductions in both cotton acreage and in amount of fertilizer used per acre accounted for the drop. Corn, small grains, and truck and small fruit crops, each used a larger percentage of the total tonnage con- sumed in 1936 than of the tonnage used in 1928. Some of the intensive crops, such as tobacco, potatoes, truck crops, and fruits have used much fertilizer in relation to their acreages. Thus, in 1936, tobacco used, on less than 0.5 percent of the cropland, more than 6 percent of the total fertilizer tonnage, and white potatoes, with less than 1 percent of the total crop acreage, used 7.5 percent of the total fertilizer. On the other hand, hay crops use relatively small quantities of fertilizer in relation to the acreage. In 1936, about 18 percent of the total acreage for crop use was in hay and this crop used only 4 percent of the total tonnage of fer- tilizer. In most of the major small-grain areas, commercial fertilizers are not used on those crops. The Influence of Prices Farmers try to use their resources in ways that will return them the greatest income. They reduce operating costs in periods of low prices for their products. When prices are good, the practice is reversed. Commercial fertilizer is an item of cash expense; therefore the tendency is to curtail expenditures for it in periods of low income and to increase expenditures for it when incomes are higher. A close relationship is apparent between gross income from agricul- tural production and the amount spent in the following year for commercial fertilizers. This relationship is much closer than the relationship between gross income and the tonnage of fer- tilizer and of plant food used. Since 1929, fer- tilizer prices have declined substantially, and consumption has gone down relatively less than has income from farm production. Farmers generally spend for commercial fer- tilizers a rather unifonn proportion of the pre- vious year's gross income. The tonnage over a 170 period of years, therefore, will depend largely upon the price relationship between fertilizers and farm products, and prices of farm products will depend largely upon the supply of the prod- ucts. Thus, adjustments in production auto- matically cause adjustments in the quantity of fertilizer used in agriculture. This balancing process applies to periods of time and not necessarily to individual crop years. So far as it relates to fertilizer consump- tion it has decided regional and commodity — as well as national— implications, and operates to the fullest extent in a freely competitive economy. Farm management surveys indicate a positive connection between crop yields and net farm income. But the yields obtained may be influenced by factors like soil productivity, cli- mate, crop rotations, variety and quality of seed, and the use of animal manures and commercial fertilizers. Under actual farming conditions it is hard to separate and measure the effect of these factors on yields. The question of costs and profits from the use of fertilizers is of more concern to farmers than is the increase in physical production. Because of this, farmers usually do not use quantities of fertilizer that will produce maxi- mum acre yields. Furthermore, because of risks in farming, few farmers follow the general prac- tice of using the maximum quantity of fertilizer to the acre that at a given time will return the maximum profit for its use. In the case of cotton, for example, South Carolina farmers used an average of about 350 pounds of fertilizer per acre from 1924 to 1937, but experiments with fertilizers at Bishopville, S. G.j indicate that about 750 pounds was the average quantity of fertilizer (with 3.33 percent nitrogen, 8 percent phosphoric acid, and 3 per- cent potash) that would return a maximum profit for its use during the period. These aver- ages, however, do not describe the situation at any particular time in the 14 years. The experimental data indicate that in 1924, when cotton prices averaged about 22.8 cents a pound, maximum profits from an acre would have been obtained with an application of about 1,500 pounds of fertilizer oi the indicated analy- sis per acre, and in 1931, when cotton averaged 6 cents, an application oi about 2Mii pounds would have resulted in maximum net return from the use of the fertilizer. It is doubtful if any appreciable number of South Carolina farmers used an equivalent of 1,500 pounds of the 3.33-8-3 fertilizer to the acre of cotton in 1924. They had to reckon with the possibility of serious boll weevil damage, and they had no assurance at planting time that the crop would sell for nearly 23 cents a pound. Even if they could have foreseen such a possi- bility, they probably had learned through experi- ence that beyond some point of application successive additional units of fertilizer result in successively smaller additional yields. In 1924, for example, the first unit of 200 pounds returned SI 0.32 per acre above the cost of the fertilizer and the cost of picking and ginning the additional yield. The second unit of 200 pounds returned $4.44 above these costs. The third unit returned only $2. 51 above costs. Stated in another way, the first three units (600 pounds) returned a net income of $17.27 per acre greater than the net income when no fertilizer was used, and the next four additional units (800 pounds) returned an additional net income of only $2.89 per acre. In 1931, when cotton prices were unusually low, the value of the additional yield of cotton and seed from the use of 200 pounds of fertilizer was only 13 cents greater than the cost of getting the additional yield. The yields from addi- tional units of 200 pounds each were worth less than the additional cost for fertilizer and picking and ginning the cotton, until with an application of 1,600 pounds of fertilizer per acre, the value of the production from the use of the fertilizer was $11.56 less than the cost of obtaining the additional yield. The future trend in the consumption of plant food depends to an appreciable extent on the world outlet for such crops as cotton, tobacco, wheat, and fruit, and the relation of prices of farm products to fertilizer prices. For the country as a whole, the consumption of plant food from fertilizers is likely to increase slowly. 171 Nitrogen Fixation Processes The commercialization of synthetic ammonia nitrogen fixation processes in the United States in 1924 was of outstanding importance in that it opened up as a new source of nitrogenous fer- tilizers the practically unlimited supplies of atmospheric nitrogen. Our domestic supplies had been limited previously to organic refuse from other industries, fish scrap, cottonseed meal, animal tankage, and blood meal, natural ma- nures and byproduct ammonium sulphate from the coke industry. Our present nitrogen problem appears mainly to be a question of the economics of the different synthetic processes in relation to sources of energy in the various parts of the country and of transportation charges of the products from the points of manufacture to those of consump- tion. Prices of nitrogen in fish scrap, cotton- seed meal, animal tankage, blood meal, and similar high-grade organic ammoniates have not declined because these products have been diverted largely from fertilizers to animal feeds. As a result of the successful application in 1929 of the froth flotation concentration process to the treatment of phosphate rock, large quan- tities of high-grade phosphate are now recovered economically from hitherto valueless waste and low-grade ores. Furthermore, the electric fur- nace and blast furnace methods for producing phosphorous and phosphoric acid, materials that may be used for the manufacture of ferti- lizers, permit the utilization of low-grade sintered phosphate matrix. These develop- ments, apart from the discovery of additional deposits, have greatly increased our phosphate reserves. Most of the reserves are in Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming, States that use less than 0.1 percent of the fertilizers used nationally. The exploitation of these, therefore, depends on the manufacture of concentrated products like phosphorus, double superphos- phate, and ammonium phosphate, which can be transported economically over long distances. Methods have not been perfected for the economical production of fertilizers from the country's widely distributed and practically inexhaustible supplies of water-insoluble potash minerals, nor are prospects of their commercial exploitation imminent. The known potash reserves in brines and nonsilicate minerals exceed 93,000,000 tons, sufficient to supply domestic demands, at the 1939 rate of consump- tion, for about 200 years The principal sources are the brines of Searles Lake, Calif., and the mineral deposits of New Mexico and Texas, both remote from areas that use the greatest amounts of fertilizer. Methods have been devised whereby high-grade potassium chloride containing more than 60 percent potash is extracted from California brines containing only 2.5 percent potash, as well as from the deposits in New Mexico, for shipment to ferti- lizer-producing centers in competition with foreign potash salts. The Placing of Fertilizers Field trials have demonstrated that the proper placing of commercial fertilizers with respect to the seed is important for crops that need heavv applications of commercial plant nutrients. If the fertilizer is put too close to the seed, germi- nation is delayed or prevented, and young plants are injured. Experimental evidence indicates that for most crops more economical returns are obtained by placing fertilizers near the row than by applying them broadcast. Small Grains In the case of small grains, where compara- tively small quantities are used, applying the fertilizer at planting time through the fertilizer attachment of the grain drill has been found to be better than separate application, either broad- cast or drilled. The attachment places the fer- tilizer near the seed. This overcomes the stool- ing habit of the plants and the use of many more seeds than are required for a satisfactory stand, and that benefit appears to make up for any losses resulting from fertilizer contact with the seed. Potatoes Marked changes have occurred in the use of fertilizers for potatoes. In many places mixtures carrying 20 units of plant food have been re- placed by some with twice that amount, and 172 time and money are saved. Tests have demon- strated that the largest returns may be expected from applying the fertilizer in bands about 2 inches to each side of the seed piece and at the same, or slightly lower level, than the seed. It was found that a relatively high concentra- tion of fertilizer salts near the seed (or near the place of the first sprouts) delayed growth and lowered the yield, and that the side placement produced better crops than any other method of application. In tests in Maine, the yield of potatoes from the side placement of fertilizer averaged 35 bush- els more to the acre than from band placement directly tinder the seed, and 43 bushels more than when the fertilizer was mixed with the soil in the row. In similar tests in New Jersey, the yields for side placement were 44 and 24 bushels higher. In Virginia, side placements produced 33 and 20 bushels more, respectively. The additional yields were due not to any difference in the kind or quantity of the fertilizer, but to the difference in placement. It is not so clear, however, whether all the ingredients should be side-placed. Other trials indicated that potato fertilizer mixtures might be more efficient if superphosphate is applied in the row and the nitrogen and potash distributed in side placement bands. Results from two- year trials on one soil type at Onley, Va., showed a yield increase of 27.5 bushels per acre in favor of the split application, compared with the application of an equal amount of complete fertilizer in a band on either side of the seed piece. This is an interesting development. It should be studied further, because if it is con- firmed in additional tests, still larger returns on the fertilizer investment will result. Experience suggests that accurate placement can best be attained by the use of the combined planter and fertilizer distributor. Potato plant- ers, either of the single or multiple-row type and either horse- or tractor-drawn, are available with depositors for placing the fertilizer in bands. Cotton Experiments with cotton in Southeastern States showed that planting and fertilizing might be accomplished in one operation if the proper method were used, with a saving in labor costs by an increased efficiency of the fertilizer mixture, field trials demonstrated the si i| h-i i- ority of side placement, both as to viability of the seed and the yields of seed cotton on all sandy and sandy loam soils included in the experi- ments, and frequently on the heavier soil types. Moisture conditions during the first growing period proved to be important because tiny influenced the effect of placement. Under conditions of light rainfall and conse- quent low soil moisture, side placements proved superior on all soils. When fertilizer mixtures were applied in the furrow, and the seed planted on the settled bed above the fertilizer 10 days later favorable results were obtained on some soils, especially those of the heavy clay type. In the Southeastern cotton region, fertilizer placed in bands on each side of the row gave average yields that were 253 pounds per acre- more than when the fertilizers were mixed with the soil under the seed in a zone about 3)i inches wide. During seasons of favorable mois- ture conditions the results obtained from the various placements did not differ widely. Corn Hill or row applications of fertilizer for corn are generally superior to broadcasting except in dry seasons. When corn is check-planted, the fertilizer should be dropped at the hill in bands 6 to 8 inches long on each side of the hill but separated from the seed by an inch or more of fertilizer-free soil. For drilled corn, the placement should be in continuous bands in the same relative position as that suggested for hill application. Side placement fertilizer de- positors are available on multiple-row planters of the type used in the central Corn Belt and on rigid-frame single and multiple-row corn plant- ers used principally in the eastern section for drilled corn. Tobacco Fertilizer for tobacco should be applied in bands about 3 inches to each side of the row and 1 inch below the root crown of the plant. In cases where ordinary simple distributors are employed, care should be exercised to avoid 173 too great a concentration of the fertilizer im- placements that are most promising for average mediately under or around the seedling roots. conditions are those in which the fertilizer does not adversely affect seed germination but is in bugar Beets a p OS j t i on to stimulate the young seedling, Observations indicate that sugar beet roots such as application in a band 1 to 2 inches extend downward rapidly but grow horizontally below the seed level, either directly under the more slowly. It has been demonstrated that seed or one-half to 1 inch to the side of the fertilizer benefits the young seedling, thus the row. 174 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 6 Minor Soil Elements, Manures, Lime Scientists used to recognize 10 chemical elements as important to plant nutrition — nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, mag- nesium, sulphur, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and iron. Many believed that only these were necessary for the growth and maturing of crops, that only the first three should be considered as fertilizer ingredients, and that the others were supplied by soil, air, and water, and as accompanying substances in manures and fertilizer materials. Other elements, however, are known now to be essential for vigorous, highly productive plants, and that in large regions crop growth is low because one or another of the necessary elements is naturally lacking in the make-up of the soil or has been reduced to a minimum level through continued cropping or erosion. Often these elements are reeded in only a few parts per million of soil, or a few pounds to a ton of fertilizer. But without these vital traces, plants and animals suffer from serious diseases, called malnutrition diseases or soil deficiency diseases. This is one of the most fascinating fields of modern research in plant and animal nutrition and needs the highest type of scientific ingenuity, skill, and instru- ments. Necessary Traces The actual quantities of these so-called minor or secondary elements frequently are so small that routine chemical methods cannot measure quantities capable of producing striking effects on the plant or animal. Recent studies of the effects of these elements have explained failures in plant and animal development previously attributed to other causes, such as diseases. It is now generally considered that for normal development plants require, besides the 10 elements mentioned, manganese, copper, zinc, and boron, but the necessary quantities may vary considerably. Because the soil is such a complex mixture of many minerals, it was supposed that the aver- age soil would contain enough of these secondary elements to produce normal growth. Agricul- tural workers, however, began to notice in many places that certain crops gave poor yields and were affected by the deficiency diseases. Familiar examples are the sand drown of tobacco, occurring chiefly on sandy soils that lack magnesium; magnesium deficiency in potatoes, occurring on the otherwise fertile and highly fertilized soils of northern Maine, as well as the sandy, much-leached soils of the Coastal Plains; the chlorosis of tomatoes on the Florida marlglade lands; pecan rosette, peach little leaf, and citrus chlorosis, which are remedied by the application of relatively in- finitesimal quantities of zinc sulphate to the soil or in orchard sprays. The chlorosis of tomatoes is cured by the application of a few pounds per acre of manganese sulphate, or an application of stable manure from a region where manganese is plentiful in the food for animals. Zinc in Fertilizers The value of zinc as an addition to fertilizers has become known only recently, but its agri- cultural use has already reached considerable proportions. Zinc is deficient in the soils of 175 Florida, the Gulf Coast States, and some of the Pacific States; it is necessary to apply zinc to many soils there to produce tung oil trees, pecan trees, many field crops, and citrus fruits. Most tung oil trees, which form a large, newly developed industry, receive zinc, for on most soils the crop is a failure without it. A disease known as bronzing of tung oil trees is controlled by zinc. In northern Florida and the Gulf Coast section, it is used to control white bud of corn and helps enlarge the yield of many field crops, like peanuts, grain, and forage crops. Zinc is used extensively on citrus in Florida and California to control a nutritional deficiency disease known as mottled leaf. More recently, it has been shown that the internal cork of apples, cracked stem of celery, browning of cauliflower, top rot of tobacco, heart rot and dry rot of sugar beets are controlled or prevented by small applications of boron to the soil, or in the fertilizer used. Copper compounds similarly have produced remarkable results in peat lands and made possible the growing of sugarcane and vegetable crops on extensive areas. Copper sulphate has been extensively used on citrus trees and is useful in correcting the per- manent wilting of the upper leaves of the tobacco plant — a symptom of copper deficiency. Cop- per sulphate produces a higher coloring of the skins of onions, making them more desirable for market. Manganese similarly heightens the color of tangerines and other citrus fruits. Like copper sulphate, the use of manganese sulphate has opened up new agricultural uses for what were originally extensive tracts of useless land. More and more attention must be given to deficiencies of all elements essential for normal development of crop plants and farm animals. Larger crops grown on highly cultivated soils are exhausting the reserves in all cases where the crops are removed from the soil. Concentrated Salts Another important factor is that commercial fertilizers applied to obtain larger yields consist more and more of comparatively pure salts of high plant food concentration, which, by inter- action with the soil complex, known as base exchange, tend to displace the secondary- ele- ments, making them at first more available to plants but ultimately causing them to be used and removed with the crops, or even to be carried away by drainage waters in humid regions. These concentrated commercial fertilizer salts are different from farm manures, in that they do not ordinarily contain enough of the second- ary elements to be of any significance. Some persons believe that part of the increased yield from the use of commercial fertilizers is due to the increased availability of the secondarv ele- ments, and not entirely to the nitrogen, phos- phorus, and potassium applied. With the present tendency to use very con- centrated salts as fertilizers to reduce hauling, bagging, and application costs, the depletion of the elements not supplied may be even more rapid. The most pronounced depletion will probably be in the sulphur, magnesium, and calcium reserves of the soil, although other secondary elements are also involved. Potash salts and superphosphate, principal constituents of most commercial fertilizers, frequently contain magnesium and calcium and sulphur, and a deficiency of magnesium, cal- cium, or sulphur has not occurred as generally as otherwise would have been the case. Calcium, Sulphur, Magnesium Calcium, magnesium, sulphur, boron, copper, manganese, zinc, and iron are of more imme- diate practical interest to fertilizer investigators and to the fertilizer industry. Calcium, sulphur, and magnesium are used by crops to a greater extent than the other secondary elements. Ordinary superphosphate, the most exten- sively used of all phosphatic fertilizer materials, contains about 19 to 22 percent of calcium. It also contains about 10 to 12 percent of sulphur, and ammonium sulphate, the most extensively used of the nitrogenous fertilizer materials, con- tains about 23 percent. While most ordinary commercial fertilizer mixtures contain superphosphate and am- monium sulphate, and therefore furnish suffi- cient calcium and sulphur to the soil to prevent 176 a deficiency of either element, there are other fertilizer materials that are almost completely lacking in both elements. If such materials were utilized in the produc- tion of complete fertilizers, it is conceivable that their continued use would accelerate in time the exhaustion of the available calcium and sul- phur naturally present in the soil to such an extent that it would be necessary to add calcium and sulphur compounds to the fertilizer to pre- vent the deficiency. Notable cases of sulphur deficiency have been observed and reported in connection with certain soils of Oregon and Washington. The Importance of Magnesium Magnesium deficiency in all probability has affected crop production more widely than that of any other secondary plant food. Its wide- spread occurrence along the Atlantic seaboard in recent years has been due primarily to two factors, the use of commercial fertilizers made from materials containing very little magnesium and increasing soil acidity resulting from the heavier use of acid-forming salts, which facili- tates the leaching of magnesium from the soil. Formerly the main sources of magnesium in fertilizer mixtures were the low-grade potassic materials, which contained considerable quan- tities. They now have been largely displaced by high-grade potassium salts that contain little magnesium. The Kainits, containing about 13 percent of potash, also contained about 7 per- cent of magnesium; but potassium chloride, the potassic fertilizer material most used at present, with 50 percent or more of potash, generally contains less than 0.1 percent of magnesium; potassium sulphate, with about 48 percent of potash, usually contains less than 0.5 percent of magnesium. Although the organic ammoniates, formerly the principal sources of nitrogen in fertilizers, contained only small amounts of magnesium — about 0.5 percent in cottonseed meal, for ex- ample — nevertheless, they supplied considerable quantities because of the large tonnage used. They have now been largely displaced by cheaper products containing practically no magnesium. Realizing the necessity for the ad- dition i>l magnesium-containing materials to fertilizers for tise on soils requiring this element, many fertilizer manufacturers in recent years have incorporated calcined kicscrite, an an- hydrous form of magnesium sulphate that con- tains about 19 percent of magnesium in water- soluble form, or sulphate of potash-magnesia (a potassic fertilizer material), that has about 6 percent of water-soluble magnesium. Magnesium-containing, or dolomitic, lime- stones and dolomite which contain up to about 12 percent of water-insoluble magnesium, arc also extensively employed as additions to fertil- izer mixtures. The primary purpose, however, in many cases is not to supply magnesium but to prevent the increase in soil acidity caused by certain nitrogenous fertilizer materials. Dangers of Heavy Applications There is occasional need for the addition to fertilizers of other elements in decidedly smaller amounts than calcium, sulphur, and magnesium, either as direct additions to the soil or as addi- tions to mixed fertilizers or spray materials. The compounds being used chiefly as sources of these elements in fertilizers are manganese sulphate, copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, borax, and ferrous sulphate, all of which are water- soluble. It is essential to keep in mind that too heavy an application of any secondary element to the 'soil in fertilizers may be unwarranted, uneconomical, and may readily lead to serious crop injury. The addition of secondary elements to com- mercial fertilizer is a complicated one and must be conservatively handled. Their promiscuous addition to all fertilizers cannot be recommended in the present state of knowledge of their behavior. Animal Manures The one billion tons of manure produced annually by livestock on American farms is estimated as capable of producing two billion to three billion dollars worth of increase in crops. In terms of 1 940 values, a ton of manure contains plant food materials equivalent to SI. 25 to $2. Experiments have indicated that values in increased crops from a ton of manure 177 vary from SO. 96 to $8.67, depending on soils, crops, and other factors. But the total potential value is not realized in crop production. One-half of the excrement is dropped in pastures and uncultivated areas and most of this is lost through leaching or weather- ing. Besides, the collected portion in many cases is handled improperly and much, maybe half, of its value is lost. The Uses of Manure Manure on the farm serves several purposes. It returns to the soil plant food removed by crops, thereby conserving soil. It increases humus in the soil, insuring proper biological and physical conditions for plant growth and improving the moisture relations of the soil. It adds certain products, like plant and animal hormones, from metabolic processes that are known to have a stimulating effect on plant growth, thereby improving the nutritional con- ditions for the plant and giving a better quality of crops. Through the decomposition of or- ganic material in the soil, insoluble mineral plant foods are made available for plant use. Composition and Amounts The average mixed farm manure contains about 10 pounds of nitrogen, 5 pounds of phos- phoric acid, and 10 pounds of potash per ton, but there are many variations, depending on the type of food consumed, the kind of animals, their age, and use. Cows, sheep, and pigs excrete larger propor- tions of their excrement as liquid than do horses. Poultry produce only solid excrements; and both the cow and pig produce solid portions with higher water contents than in like material from the horse and sheep. The daily amounts produced vary with the animals; mature ani- mals produce daily: horses 35 and 8 pounds; cows, 52 and 20; hogs, 6 and 3.5; sheep, 2.5 and 1.5; and poultry 0.1 and of solid and liquid, respectively. Manure is produced in largest amounts by cows and hence this type assumes greatest importance. In general, there is recovered in manure, on an average, about 80 percent of the nitrogen and phosphorus, 90 percent of the potassium, and 50 percent of the organic matter contained in the food consumed. With working and fattening animals, 85 to 95 percent of the plant food elements are recovered: with young, growing animals and milk-produc- ing cows, only 50 to 75 percent; and with ani- mals not giving milk nor adding weight, the plant food consumed and excreted are about equal. The liquid portion of excrements is much richer in nitrogen and potassium for these ani- mals, except pigs; the solid portion in all cases contains practically all of the phosphorus. Absorptive Bedding Litter or bedding employed in stables to ab- sorb moisture and maintain sanitarv and com- fortable conditions for animals is important as a constituent of the collected manure. Its most important physical property should be high ab- sorption of moisture to prevent loss of urine. Other properties influencing the selection of a lit- ter are cheapness, retention of ammonia and potash, amount of plant food constituents and proportion of easily decomposed organic matter. The litter most used is straw from grain crops, because it is readily obtainable on the farm. Other materials are sawdust, wood shavings, spent tanbark, leaf litter, and peat moss. The last is highest in absorptive powers, but its cost may make its use inadvisable except in gutters to absorb liquid manure. Care generally is exercised at larger dairv farms in the conservation and use of manures, but often much of the smaller quantities is handled in a manner favoring the loss of nitrogen and potassium compounds. At least half of the available amounts of these two elements is prob- ably lost for effective fertilizer purposes. In terms of plant food value this amounts to more than $400,000,000 a year, and it is those least able to bear the loss who lose the most. This loss in plant food represents about twice the value of the fertilizer at present purchased by the farmer. A prime necessity in the preservation of animal excrement is the addition of an absorp- tive litter to serve in collecting urine and furnish a mixture sufficiently dry to prevent drainage losses. By the daily removal and distribution 178 in the field of fresh manure, the greatest amounl of the plant food constituents may be utilized. Soluble nitrogen is leached into soil and if the manure is mixed with the soil there will be prac- tically no loss of fertilizer constituents, except under unusual conditions of sandy soil and dry, hot weather. This method is not always con- venient, possible, or advantageous, however, and sometimes it is more practical to store the manure until a convenient time for distribution. In storing, the manure may be put in a well- compacted heap with nearly vertical sides and slightly concave top. Rain will keep it moist without drainage. The sides should be pro- tected by plastering with soil or by using a concrete bin or wooden boards. Often a covering is desirable and conducive to better control, if water is available for sprinkling. A completed pile is covered with soil and left undisturbed for 3 to 4 months. With sufficient moisture present and the exclusion of air, bac- terial action reduces the mass to a well-rotted manure with a minimum loss of fertilizer con- stituents. The addition of various materials to manure as fixing agents for ammonia has been practiced, gypsum having been employed for years. Superphosphate is more generally used now because it fixes ammonia and increases the phosphorus content of the manure. On dairy farms where sanitary or health conditions per- mit, and where plenty of bedding is available to keep cows clean, it is the belief of some dairy husbandmen that the best way to preserve manure is to keep the cows in an open barn or shed and allow manure to accumulate. The cattle keep manure moist and packed. Artificial Manure An ''artificial manure" can be produced by composting materials like straw, cornstalks, leaves, legumes, spoiled hay, weeds, miscella- neous crop residue, and farm wastes, with various accessory substances. Generally in this country compost piles are constructed in the open, of any width and up to 5 feet in height, by putting down alternate layers of the main organic material together with smaller amounts of animal manures for inocula- tion; mineral fertilizers to supply nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and lime, and possibly peal, muck or sods. Sometimes the natural rainfall is insufficient for rapid decomposition and water must be added when the compost pile is made, and at intervals subsequently. Under ideal conditions, and at summer temperatures, the process usually requires about 2 to 4 months for completion. Such a compost, when properly prepared, resembles decayed animal manure and usually acts as an entirely satisfactory substitute for it. The composting process may often be used to good advantage for the production of a special material (like compost for use in greenhouses, on vegetable and small fruit farms, in floricul- ture, and for mushroom growing) and to hasten the decay of highly carbonaceous materials like straw, so that they can be returned directly to the soil without depressing plant growth. A major reason for the limited use of artificial manure as a supplement to animal manures is the cost of labor, mineral additions, water in certain areas, and the value of the straw, corn- stalks, and other materials from which it is made. Exclusive of labor, artificial manure may vary in cost from almost nothing to perhaps $4 or more a ton, depending upon the particular local conditions. A marked increase in the use of artificial manures during the next few years seems un- likely although the long-time trend will probably be upward and influenced by any tendency to reduce the size of farms, because this usually means more labor available per acre and a greater tendency to grow small fruits, vege- tables, flowers, and special crops. Lime The use of liming materials, long recognized as a good farming practice, has increased sharply with the growing emphasis on soil con- servation. On acid soils, which represent a substantial portion of the agricultural area of the United States, the use of such materials is necessary for the successful production of many legumes and grasses, which, in turn, add to the fertility and humus content of the soil. 239955° — 40- 179 In 1939, more than 95 percent of the total output of liming material was used in the North- east, East Central, and North Central States. From approximately 3,700,000 tons in 1929, the total liming materials increased to an esti- mated 6,300,000 tons in 1936, and 7,200,000 tons in 1938, upon the inauguration of the agri- cultural conservation programs. In 1939, a considerable volume of liming material was furnished farmers as grants of aid under the programs. Further increases are expected in the amount of materials used. The kind of fertilizers used, through their effect on soil acid- ity, will have an influence on the amount of lime required in the future. Kinds of Liming Materials Estimates of the use of liming materials in past years indicate that the percentage of the total amount of materials derived from limestone screenings has increased. The use of hydrated lime has dropped relatively, while there has been a substantial increase in the use of marl. The sales of "lime" and "limestone" for agri- cultural use, as reported in the Minerals Year- book, indicates a substantial shift from hydrated and burnt lime, reported as lime, to ground limestone, which may include some screenings. The increased use of limestone screenings for agricultural purposes is probably due to increased building activity, particularly the construc- tion of roads. The finer particles, which are not suitable for construction purposes, are made available for agricultural use, and since such materials are a byproduct, they are usually available at relatively lower prices than other materials. The principal effect of the increased use of lime on agriculture will be the improvement of the soil-building legume and grass crops and pastures. This should result in the use of larger acreages for such crops and correspondingly smaller acreages of tilled crops. It should also result in the conservation and improvement of substantial areas of land now being seriously depleted. It is important that the increased use of lime be encouraged until such time as the needs of the soil for lime are being met. 180 TECHNOLOGY ON" THE FARM* Chapter 2 7 Conservation Practices WE have exploited our land, the precious film of soil on which we live and by which we live. We have plowed prairies on which little rain falls and were better left in grass. We have drained marshes and felled trees pro- tecting hillsides. We have abetted erosion, and made floods worse and dust storms possible. We have tilled some fields so that they became vic- tims to strong winds. We have worked large areas to sterility. We have wasted our substance and we have reaped weeds. One can find excuse or justification, perhaps, in drought, depressions, demand for greater production, and over- capitalization, but dust storms, erosion, and abandoned farms restate the lesson of waste not, want not. The Meaning of Conservation Conservation means husbanding or storing some natural or living resource in order to use it immediately or in the future. It implies long- time maintenance of human life and the highest possible living standards. It is saving and using. It seeks to fulfill the wants and needs of each generation in relation to the wants and needs of coming generations. In agriculture, conservation is merely a re- finement of the term to apply to soil, plants, water, trees, and — most important — the people on the land. Nature, a good conservationist, has the power to create and put energy in a form that can at once be saved and used. One has only to observe an idle field that is being covered naturally by green growth. Sun, air, water, and soil work together to produce some- thing to be eaten by animals or to wither and rot and be used to form a usable material for further and usually better growth — nature being dynamic and soil being the product of plants, climate, parent material, and age. But man has disturbed this process. His needs and wants have forced him to grow too many foods and fibers on unsuited land, to be careless of natural vegetation where the topsoil is thin and apt to wash or blow away when the pro- tective cover is removed, to drain bogs where rain and subsurface moisture are dangerously low, to plant crops that demand more food, humus, bacteria, minerals, and natural parent materials than the soil can continue giving. Nature is not inexhaustible. She must have time and help to recover her powers after creation. Farmers know this, but circumstances of popu- lation pressure, finances, land prices, failure to use sound management practices, cultivation of too steep slopes, desires for cash crops, and re- lated factors caused them to forget. We can correct this in several ways: By using vegetation, including trees, to restore fertility and stop erosion, and limiting the amount and time of grazing on range and pasture lands, or of the use of land in general; By mechanical practices like terracing, basin listing, contour tillage, controlling gullies, and stream erosion; By supplying used-up or originally absent minerals, manures, lime, commercial fertilizers, and other organic materials to improve tilth. Which to use depends on the type of soil, the location of the land, neighboring farming prac- tices, the kind of farm organization, prices, 181 r :W*->i&\ . jt ^"^-^^^ ■ Conservation 5=r i i7.-«i«"«rf|" i ,*^m^i Workers from relief rolls are employed to improve submarginal land areas, as shown in the top picture. The scene is of a project in southwestern Michigan where sandy soil had been cultivated unsuccessfully. Branches arc being placed on the surface to prevent the wind from blowing dunes into the woods and injuring vegetation. Just below is a dike on a marsh lake that should never have been drained. The purpose of the dike is to control the water level. A detail of the construction of a wind- erosion fence is next, and, at the bottom, a scene in Childress County, Tex., at the edge of the Texas Pan- handle. Strip cropping, as practiced here, helps retain water and protects the soil from the wind. rttfattrartii«ifi climate, the state of fertility, and the growth of population. To conserve the soil might be the relatively simple thing of making available a supply of lime, or the very complex rearrangement of crop rotation, fields, and changes in the type of farming. Enlarging a number of farms from 80 to 640 acres, for example, would involve factors like movement of population, changes in the taxation base rate, and rearrangement of public facilities. There are questions also of temporary or permanent lowering of soil productivity, and the interplay of various fields of knowledge, in- cluding economics, sociology, forestry, chemis- try, hydrology, wildlife management, and others. Our Problem ' Farmers annually cultivate about 375 million acres, about 25 million acres less than before 1934. One can rightly ask, Why bother, when we now have more land than we need? But it is a matter of more than merely halting acceler- ated erosion. Our greatest natural resource, the soil, is at stake, and with it the stabilization of farming for the present and future. Erosion, the outstanding and most apparent form of soil deterioration, is general in all our farming areas, except the Mississippi Delta and part of the Corn Belt. The Soil Conservation Service estimated in 1937 that only 39 percent of the land classed as cropland in the 1935 census could be indefinitely continued in culti- vation under present practices, and that with even the best practices, not more than 82 per- ent could be continuously cultivated — 18 per- cent of land cultivated in 1935 must be retired sometime from cultivation. The most pressing need for additional con- servation practices is in the Pacific Northwest, Northeast, the Southeastern cotton, and the East Central Regions, but adjustments also are re- quired on 26 to 50 percent of the cropland elsewhere. Besides, we will need some day more produc- tion than now: Our foreign markets may rise 1 This section and the one on soil fertility draw heavily on an article in The Land Policy Review, May- June 1940, by W. F. Watkins, principal soil conservation- ist in the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. from their current level; our population is in- creasing, and even if it stabilizes at around 150 million with the present average per capita consumption and with some further increases in yields, an extra 25 to 35 million crop acres may be needed. And we hope we can feed better, clothe better, and house better our low- income groups; giving them the necessary pur- chasing power will mean a wide market for products of the land. We have the acres to replace land that must eventually be retired and to meet additional demands; the Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture estimated that more than 100 million un tilled acres were suitable for cultivation under the best conservation practices and price levels equal to those of 2921-36. But nevertheless, conservation is desirable to save the cost of clearing and draining, to maintain a stable community life, and to maintain current acreages of hay and pasture. Erosion Erosion is an "eating away" of soil by rain or wind. Under normal, natural conditions it is a slow weathering process that helps develop new soils. But when man is careless and strips away protecting cover of grass and trees, erosion is accelerated and carries away swiftly the precious topsoil, making gullies, and laying bare the hard, unproductive clay. Approximately 282 million acres of our land — virgin, mellow, and rich just 300 years ago when pioneers started moving westward — have been ruined or impoverished by erosion. One- fourth to three-fourths of the topsoil on 775 million additional acres has been washed from hillsides, and has clogged streams, filled reser- voirs, harmed irrigation systems, killed fish and game, buried rich bottomlands under sand and clay, caused more frequent and violent floods, and impoverished families. Indirect effects, too, are costly. Streams and harbors must be cleaned of debris and silt. Soil and sand pile up behind dams and ruin water systems and power plants. Farming communi- ties retrogress. Commerce suffers. Railroads, community life, education and jnst itutions 183 *&■&*. sW*w^^^^^*^" Good Uses of Land These pictures show good uses of land. The first three are taken from the same place, and show the same land on which a program of strip cropping is used. The top scene is of strip cropping of alfalfa and corn. The second shows fields after wheat has been cut and shocked. Note the strips of alternating fields in the back- ground. The next picture is of third-year strip cropping in the field in the foreground and second-year strip cropping for field in background. The bottom illustration shows shocks of sorgo grown in contour rows; the shocks themselves have been placed on the contour and are used as winter forage. suffer. Thousands are forced to migrate from lands once rich bill now poor, worn out. Table 15. — Some soil conservation accomplishments, 1928-32, 1937, ami 193S Estimator] Practices re- total acreage ported, nan Agri- cul- Practices Soil i iir il Ad- Aver- Conser- just- ment Ad- age, 1937 vation 1928-32 Sorv- ininis- tra- tion 1 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Annual: acres acres acres acres Contour tillage - P) ( J ) 2, 711 6, 439 Cover crops and green manure 1 1, 574 ' 2, 102 25, 243 Permanent or semipermanent: Terracing 1. 377 2,519 1,569 784 ( J ) ( J ) 955 713 Contour furrowing ( J ) ( 3 ) 673 270 1,000 1,000 1,000 1.000 Soil amendments: tons tons tons t(ns 3,286 6,969 101 5.019 Fertilizer 6,990 8,139 175 508 1 Practices reported for fiscal year W38-39. - Preliminary estimates, based on data supplied by Agricultural Adjustment Administration. 3 Not estimated. * Cover crops and crop residues. Of the 522 million acres of cropland and plowable pasture available, according to census figures, for tillage, about 85 percent, or 443,700,- 000 acres, are eroding or subject to erosion. To fight this, the Soil Conservation Service has a demonstration program covering about 20 mil- lion acres. On May 1, 1940, 38 States had passed conservation district laws enabling citizens to establish local conservation organizations; 258 districts had been organized in 29 States and em- braced more than 151 million acres. Soil Fertility Another aspect, one less spectacular and ap- parent than erosion, is loss of fertility. Avail- able information indicates that much of our farm pasture land is improperly used, that soil resources are being depleted at a rate of about one-third to two-thirds of 1 percent annually, that about 40 percent of the cultivated cropland does not have a proper conservation balance. and thai only a small pail of the range land supports the type of vegetation best for con- servation and watershed protection. The agricultural conservation program has been effective in reducing (In- acreage in 1940 of the main soil-depleting crops by 25 to 35 million acres below the level of 1928—32. This would be sufficient if the right acres were removed from cultivation, and provided they were correctly used. But it may be true that the acres taken oul of the chief soil-depleting crops (corn, cotton, and wheat) have been left idle, and that the acres of soil-conserving crops (grasses and le- gumes) have not materially increased. Some submarginal cropland must be devoted to other uses, grazing, forestry, and recreation, but it is doubtful if much more than 5 million acres, or 10 to 20 percent of the acreage that must eventually be changed, has been so shifted. It is estimated that we are currently using con- tour tillage on not more than 5 percent of the 225 million acres that need to be so tilled, that cover crops and crop residues are utilized on about 20 to 25 percent of the 125 million acres that should be so treated, and that permanent and semipermanent practices like terracing, strip- cropping, and contour furrowing have probablv been adopted on only about 5 to 1 5 percent of the land where such practices are needed. With respect to range land, the Forest Service estimated in 1935 that the western ranges were overstocked by almost 60 percent, and that approximately 75 to 80 percent of the 728 mil- lion acres covered by their study was subject to continued deterioration and erosion. The Soil Conservation Service has brought about reductions of 15 to 30 percent in some areas in the acreage of soil-depleting crops by application of long-time grass rotations and strip-cropping practices. For the nation as a whole, there has been a reduction of about 28 million acres in the two principal row-cultivated crops of corn and cotton since 1928-32, chiefly as a result of the agricultural conservation program. Regarding this acreage taken out of corn and cotton: There has been an increase of about 5 million acres of soybeans in the last 10 years, pri- marily in the Corn Belt, and an increased acre- age of sorghums in the Great Plains States. 185 Some of the acreage diverted from soil-deplet- ing crops doubtlessly has been permanently placed in pasture, forests, and other permanent vegetative cover. The annual report of the Soil Conservation Service for 1938 shows that more than 1 million acres of submarginal land has been retired permanently through the land-purchase program, and a retirement from cultivation of 14 percent or about 1,000,000 acres of cropland on farms cooperating with the Service in demon- stration work. In addition, about 3 million acres of cropland in the Great Plains States has been designated as "restoration land" under the agricultural conservation program, and a part of corn and cotton acreage has undoubtedly been permanently retired from cultivation. Suggested national goals for some conserva- tion practices follow: Annual: Acres Contour tillage 227. 071, 000 Cover crops and crop residues 125, 870, 000 Permanent or semipermanent: Retirement from cultivation 50. 166, 000 Terracing 139, 865, 000 Strip cropping 108, 234, 000 Contour furrows 60, 961, 000 Acres of land in farms (1935 census). ... 1, 054, 515, 000 The Nature of Conservation Practices Terracing is a kind of surface drainage system to regulate water run-off, conserve moisture and protect cultivated lands from erosion. Terraces built on the contour form intercepting channels or platform-like ridges that break long slopes into short sections. They provide low-velocity surface drainage that materially reduces the amount of soil that can be carried from the field by surface run-off. Ordinarily, terraces are given a slight grade varying according to soil types, rainfall, and terrace lengths. In areas of low rainfall, absorptive soils, and gentle slopes, the terraces are placed on the contour in order to retain as much of the run-off as possible on the fields and thus aid in erosion control by con- serving moisture. Terraces may be classified by use as bench terraces, that exemplify the original meaning of the word "terrace" and that reduce the surface slope by constructing flat or slightly sloping benches between steep riser sections, and drainage terraces, which intercept and 186 divert surface run-off and thus increase absorp- tion and soil moisture. Where there are erodible soils, long slopes, and high rainfall and where a large proportion of erosion-permitting crops must be planted in rotation to provide a profitable farm income, applicable control measures may give onlv partial erosion control and must be reinforced with terracing before adequate protection from erosion can be assured. Terraces are best sup- plemented with good cropping practices, be- cause terraces in themselves do not improve soil fertility but serve primarily as a basis for soil improvement and other conservation practices. During 1929-32, about 1,330,000 acres were being added annually to the terraced area in the United States. By 1937 the annual increase was more than 2,500,000 acres, or 83 percent. Terracing is one of the oldest mechanical measures used in regulating run-off from the land. The Incas built terraces on their steep hillsides more than 4,000 years ago. The American farmer has been building various types of terraces since Colonial days. Contour Farming Contour farming has been practiced in varv- ing degrees in hilly sections of the East and South a long time. Probably a third of the farms in these areas operate across the slope and roughly on the contour. Relatively little contour farming has been practiced in the Central and Western States. Contour strip farming, however, is a comparatively recent develop- ment in most of the farming areas of the United States, but in certain sections of Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, the practice extends over a period of 25 years or more. Contour operations were in use in 1939 on about 2 to 3 percent of the nation's cropland. Such oper- ations, except terracing, on farm and pasture lands are increasing. Contour operations, other than terracing, are applied to sloping lands. "Level farming on sloping land" is practiced by confining all field operations to farming around the hills or along the slopes on the contour level, rather than up and down the slopes. Such farming aids in erosion control, helps conserve soil moisture, and reduces the power requirements in field operations. Entire slopes may be plowed, planted in bands in succeeding years and culti- vated in this manner if conditions of soil, slope, and precipitation are such that erosion is con- trolled rather easily. Strip Cropping Other conditions may make it necessary to confine tilled crops to strips alternating with strips of close-growing crops in order to hold the soil. This is called strip cropping, and pro- vides for erosion control through the mechanical influence of the dense-growing vegetation in reducing and spreading run-off. Strip cropping for wind erosion control is usually accomplished by running the strips perpendicular to the prevailing winds in order to break up the ground sweep of wind currents. In many cases the application of strip cropping presupposes the use of contour cultivation, crop rotation, and the maintenance of a cover of plants. Strip Cropping There are four generally recognized types of strip cropping: Contour strip cropping — strips of variable width on which dense erosion-control crops are alternated and usually rotated with erosion-permitting crops placed crosswise to the line of slope and approximately on the contour; Field strip cropping — uniform parallel strips on which erosion-control crops are usually ro- tated and alternated with erosion-permitting crops placed crosswise to the general slope but not on the truecontour; Wind strip cropping — relatively narrow, straight, parallel strips on which erosion-control crops are alternated with erosion-permitting crops or summer fallow placed crosswise to the prevailing direction of the wind and without regard to the contour of the land; Buffer strips — a form of strip cropping in which ''heavy duty" perennial types of vegetation are established on critical slopes, as guide lines for contour farming, for absorbing irregularities between uniform width strips to be contour farmed, and on the risers of bench terraces in orchards. Cover Crops Clover crops may occupy the land completely or be used in combination with Other crops. They are usually returned entirely to the soil, as green manure, to increase fertility and im- prove the physical condition of the soil by the addition of organic matter. In some instances they may be left as a permanent cover. Often they are used as a light pasture supplement. While growing, cover crops greatly reduce leaching of soluble plant food and lend to prevent erosion. The value of cover crops for soil improvement and increased crop production has been known since ancient times, but it is only in more recent years that there has been an improvement in crops for this specific purpose, and improvement in their handling. While cover crops have a wide adaptation, there are some regions in which they cannot be used profitably because of a failure to fit readily into the cropping system and high cost of production. Any plant, even weeds or volunteer growth, might at times be considered a cover crop. Cover crops can be used most advantageously in places having weather conditions favorable to their production at a season that does not interfere with the regular cash crops. In the southern half of the United States where climatic conditions permit growing winter cover crops, these interfere but little, or not at all, with cotton and corn. In orchard areas throughout the country, cover crops can usually be grown during a part of the year at least with little or no interference to the fruit crop. In the northern half of the country, where a winter cover crop cannot be grown, it is necessary to sacrifice a season if a cover crop is to be had or the cover crop must be grown in combination with the main crop. This is not always entirely satisfactory. Summer cover crops can sometimes be grown in the North after a regular cash crop of grain. In the South this is becoming fairly common. Cover crops should be on the land during periods of heavy rainfall so that erosion and leaching of plant food will be avoided or reduced to a minimum. Results from experimental plots at Statesville, 187 N. C, on cecil sandy clay loam, with 10 percent slope, indicate the effect of a cover crop of rye and vetch following cotton in reducing soil and water losses on the following corn crops. Two plots were desurfaced and a rotation fol- lowed of cotton (rye and vetch) and corn (cow- peas) with 600 pounds of 4-10-4 fertilizer on the cotton and 400 pounds of 4-10-4 fertilizer on the corn. Four plots, on normal surface soil, had a rotation of cotton, corn, wheat, and lespedeza, with 600 pounds of 4-10-4 fertilizer on the cotton, 400 pounds of 4-10-4 fertilizer on the corn, and 400 pounds of 4-10-4 fertilizer on the wheat, and no cover or green manure crops of rye and vetch following the cotton crop. The results for the 7 years from 1932 to 1938 on the two plots showed an average annual rainfall run-off for the corn crop year of 3.47 inches, which carried off the top soil at the rate of 9.84 tons per annum. On the four other rotation plots, where no crop of rye and vetch followed the cotton crop, the rainfall run-off for the corn- crop year averaged 4.98 inches annually, and carried off soil at the rate of 30.23 tons per year. Thus the rainfall run-off increased about 30 percent without the crop of rye and vetch following the cotton crop, while the soil loss increased three times or 300 percent. Cover crops now used are mostly legumes, which take nitrogen from the air and return it to the soil. Thus soil-building matter is added, plus nitrogen, which otherwise would have to be purchased as a mineral fertilizer. Cover crops therefore are displacing in part the use of commercial nitrates. Among the most commonly used cover crops are Austrian winter peas, hairy vetch, crimson clover, bur clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, sour clover, sesbania, cowpeas, soybeans, velvet beans, red clover, common vetch, and Hungarian vetch. Their use has been increasing rapidly. Crop Rotations Crop rotations are widely used in the Corn Belt with a high degree of success. They are also common in general farming under humid and irrigated conditions but are used less in the Cotton Belt, although their use has proved advantageous in cotton production in many instances. Definite crop rotations do not usually form a part of farming in the spring wheat area. They are comparatively rare under dry land farming conditions which may limit the choice of crops to small grains and a few types of grasses. Experiments are in progress, however, with rotations in dry land farming and wheat pro- duction. The adoption of crop rotations has been slow in the South, largely because of difficulties in adapting them to the commercial agriculture of that region. Research is being conducted which may indicate more adaptable crop rotations for these types of conditions. Crop rotation involves the growing of different soil building and conserving crops in recurring succession on the same fields. It is the opposite of single or haphazard cropping. Limitations on Future Use No one of these conservation practices is equally applicable in all parts of the country because of variations from locality to localitv, from farm to farm, and even field to field. Almost always a combination of several measures is found necessary. The reasons for this may become apparent through examination of the limitations of each practice. Too often terracing is represented as an alter- native to a permanent vegetative cover of grasses or trees. This is a misconception. Terracing should not be considered for land that can be placed or retained under permanent vegetative cover, except possibly where terraces may be required to conserve moisture or divert water for gully control or to aid in establishing a satisfac- tory cover of permanent vegetation. Neither can terracing be justified economically on lands that can be adequately protected by proper tillage and agronomic measures like contour tillage, crop rotations, and strip crop- ping. These measures alone may provide suffi- cient protection where relatively low rainfall intensities and high soil infiltration rates are encountered, where erosion-resistant soils or relatively flat slopes prevail, and where a farmer can introduce profitable rotations that will pro- vide an erosion-resistant cover during a large part of the rotation cycle, particularly during the rainy seasons. 188 A terracing program requires some farm ad- justment. Farming operations involve working on the contour parallel to the terraces and re- quire a break with the old habits of farming straight rows. This inconvenience may not be nearly so great, however, as the possible in- convenience or disaster caused by gullies on unterraced fields. Terraces for the control of water erosion are somewhat costly to build and require intelligent maintenance. Terracing on thin soils may ex- pose subsoil in the terrace channels with a con- sequent decrease in yield for several years. Damage may also result from the diversion and concentration of run-off at uncontrolled points unless precaution is exercised. These technical limitations, however, are not especially difficult to overcome. Preliminary investigations seem to indicate that farming on the contour usually costs no more, and in many cases less, than farming the same land up and down hill. Technical limita- tions to strip cropping are few because of the variety of ways in which the practice may be applied. Strip cropping, in general, is inexpensive and requires little or no cash outlay. However, an expenditure may be required for grass and legume seed. Where it is desired to pasture stubble or to use the control strips as pasture, an additional fencing cost is sometimes necessary. Cover crops are limited by the available seed supply and price. Practically all the available seed of cover crops in the United States is planted and domestic production has been sup- plemented by importations. The practice of maintaining a seed plot to produce seed at home is gaining favor in those sections where cash to purchase seed is a limiting factor. The major limitations to the extension of crop rotations are those imposed by climatic or eco- nomic factors. Rotations are usually needed most seriously in those areas where a tendency exists to maintain too large a proportion of the farm land in a single cash crop. Sometimes these changes are physically impossible, but the shift from a highly commercialized cash crop system to a diversified and more self-sustaining agriculture involves so many changes in I arm ami area organization that progress may be slow. Some Effects on Agriculture Soil conservation practices arc designed pri- marily to maintain or increase productivity and effective use of the soil in relation to the rest <>l the land. Terracing, strip cropping and con- tour farming, if successful, would do no more than permit on rolling land the use of soil-build- ing practices which are effective in maintaining yields on level land. In the subhumid area under certain conditions contour operations for moisture conservation may increase or stabilize yields. Experimental data on annual soil loss in run-off from terraced and unterraced fields indi- cate that on the average from 8 to 10 times as much soil loss was recorded from the unterraced as from the terraced fields. All fields were sup- ported by crop rotations and contour tillage so the reductions in soil loss, other conditions being equal, can be attributed to the terraces. When it is further considered that the average annual soil loss in run-off from the unterraced fields was around 40 to 50 tons per acre and that an acre- inch of soil represents around 150 to 200 tons of soil, then it is readily apparent that terracing will have a considerable economic effect on agricul- ture over a period of years. Regarding the effects of contour operations on the requirements of man labor, power, and materials in performance of field operations, 65 farmers gave their views. About half re- ported no change in power requirements, about 5 percent reported increases, and 45 percent said that decreases were experienced in farm- ing on the contour. Sixty percent reported no changes in time requirements, 10 percent reported increases, and 30 percent de- creases. Results of experiments of the Agricultural Engineering Department of Kansas State Col- lege were that operations on the contour covered about 12 percent more acres per hour, and fuel consumption was about 10 percent less than operations up and down the slope. The ad- vantage in contour operations was somewhat greater where slopes and soil conditions were 189 such that gears had to be shifted in traveling up the slopes. A slight decrease in man labor was indicated in a survey conducted in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia where farmers have practiced strip cropping for many years. Where strip cropping is done on the contour, less power will usually be required, the extent depending upon the slope and other topographic conditions. A slight increase in manpower and man labor required may be expected, however, in areas where a larger type of farming machinery is in use or where fields are small and irregular and where the adoption of strip cropping will re- duce the efficiency of operating the equipment due to the time element. Individual farmers who practiced strip crop- ping in Ohio and Minnesota for many years estimated increased yields ranging from 25 to 50 percent. In areas subject to wind erosion, the protection afforded by strip cropping often increases yields because of the protection af- forded against blowing and may prevent a com- plete failure. Under some conditions a better quality of product may be expected through strip cropping, especially in areas of low fertil- ity, because strip cropping requires the use of soil-building and erosion-resisting vegetation. Planting and turning under cover crops may in some cases involve more manpower, but on the average farm it is believed that this could be done with the usual labor supply. Turning under heavy growing green manure crops would increase the power needed on the farm to a limited extent. The use of cover crops may be expected to reduce the need for nitrogenous fertilizers in some areas. A wisely selected combination of crops in a rotation distributes the farm work more evenly throughout the year. This reduces peak de- mands for labor, machinery and power. The maintaining of rotations also reduces fluctua- tions in crop acreages, tends to reduce fluctua- tions in annual production, and improves the quality of the crops raised. But diversification and crop rotation are not a panacea for agriculture, and cannot be ex- pected to revolutionize the industry. Crop rotations have been practiced for many years, and a drastic shift from one crop system to diversification does not appear to be very likely. As knowledge increases, however, the gradual tendency toward crop rotation may continue. Wildlife Wildlife is a product of the land and reflects the care given the land. Important and interesting in its own right, wildlife gains additional im- portance and interest in that its culture and care involves the conservation of other natural re- sources. Wildlife conservation contributes to agriculture by providing additional uses for practically all types of land. It offers an ad- ditional inducement to the landowner to pro- tect his land from erosion and provides for the maximum natural protection of crops from insect pests and certain rodents. The Monetary Value Wildlife has a definite monetary value and as a crop can be produced over and above other crops on the same land. Some States recog- nize that wildlife is a major attraction for a profitable tourist trade. License fees alone from sportsmen make hunting and fishing a big business. Those who hunt and fish pour millions of dollars into trade channels for guns, ammunition, tackle, equipment, and travel. There are also recreational, esthetic, and scientific values of social importance, each a contribution to a better human home. A portion of all of these attributes directly or indirectly benefits the farmer. Undoubtedly one of the most important wildlife developments on agricultural lands during recent years has been the integration of wildlife management with programs of soil and water conservation, put into operation by Fed- eral and local agencies, and their cooperating farmers. These programs brought the com- bined efforts of farm managers, agriculturists, engineers, biologists, foresters, range managers and soil experts to bear upon the problem of properly using land without wasting soil, water, or other natural resources. 190 9HHHH99 Wildlife The conservation and protection of wildlife is receiv- ing increased attention because of growing emphasis on soil conservation. Wildlife is a product of the land; it will flourish if given a chance — by plantings along streams or fences, revegetation in eroded gullies, limitation of grazing, etc. At the top is a dry, dusty, overgrazed, and almost- useless lake bed. Immediately below is an "after" scene — after the swamp lake came back and vegetation was allowed to get a hold. It is a refuge for wildlife, and represents another land use. Next is a game cover fence with flood patch in background — a way to en- courage animals and birds. The returns from such efforts are esthetic primarily, but there are returns to sports- men, trappers, and farmers who derive satisfaction from hunting and fishing. There is a monetary benefit from the sale of animals and pelts and hunting rights. Recommendation s The Prospects of Change The consideration of the requirements of wildlife has resulted in the modification of conservation practices on croplands, on farm woodland, and on range and pasture land, by recommending the following: On croplands — the protection of the entire farm drainage system from such disturbances as fire, overgrazing, and debrushing; the use of buffer strips and hedges on cultivated land for wildlife purposes, at the same time control- ling water and wind action; the selection of vegetation for use in the revegetation of outlet channels, drainages and other sites requiring permanent vegetative protection that would particularly benefit wildlife, at the same time pre- venting erosion; the development of protective border strips or permanent vegetation, partic- ularly adjacent to woodland; the use of species particularly beneficial to wildlife for green manure and cover crops; and the dedication of galled spots, sink holes and other nonproduc- tive areas to the production of wildlife. On farm woodland — the encouragement of a variety of species of uneven age classes; the development of protective border strippings for woodland and the encouragement in these borders of plants of particular value as food for wildlife; the establishment of slash piles, the leaving of den trees, and selective cutting; the protection of farm woodland from fire and graz- ing; and the planting of species beneficial to wildlife in new forest plantings. On range and pasture land — the reduction of the livestock load to the carrying capacity of the land; the consideration of the grazing activities of wildlife in the estimation of the carrying capacity of such lands; the modification of grazing dates so as to disturb wildlife production as little as possible; the establishment and pro- tection of water impoundment for the benefit of wildlife (this technique is particularly important in arid and scmiarid regions) ; and the vegetation of the shore lines and inlets of waterholes to prevent siltation and the piping of a water supply to stock bevond the confines. Although wildlife and the technological de- velopments of its conservation have thus in- fluenced farm practices, its production under present conditions is not sufficiently remunera- tive in itself to induce farmers to change their • crop or livestock systems or to devote their more productive land specifically or primarily to wild- life production. There are no apparent indica- tions that this situation will materially change within the relatively near future. A notable development in research and wild- life management has been the work of 11 co- operative wildlife research units under the administration of the Biological Survey and sup- ported through funds contributed by the land- grant colleges where they are located, the State conservation departments, American Wildlife Institute, and the Biological Survey. Most of these units were set up in 1935; since then they have obtained data of value in conservation and restoration of important game and fur species. Each of the units is provided with land upon which to work, the size of the trial areas varying from 1 , 500 to 1 1 5 ,000 acres. Several colleges have instituted four-year courses leading to a degree in the subject of wildlife management. There also has been a great development in the amount of wildlife conservation work among 4-H Clubs. The Farmer's Pari More attention is being paid by the States to the part played by the farmer in producing a wildlife crop. In some States, the farmer is given a small subsidy to leave corn unharvested near cover. In others, farmer-sportsmen co- operatives have been organized and the land- owner is given a small compensation for the privilege of hunting on his land. In general, the emphasis formerly placed by State game departments on game-rearing and restocking is in the process of being shifted to habitat improve- ment. Overly zealous campaigns against many kinds of animals, collectively called "vermin" and suspected of harming game birds or mam- mals, are gradually being reduced. 192 Wildlife work carried out on the 10,088,000 acres in 206 land utilization projects of the Soil Conservation Service has consisted largely of food and cover planting, stream improvement, lake and pond development, and the develop- ment of refuges. Another, and less encouraging, aspect is that in some areas farmers appear to have been ex- ploited for the benefit of the sportsmen; some- times they are imposed upon by hunters who may often inflict damage to farm property. This situation has brought a depletion of wild- life on agricultural land and steadily less cordial relations between farmers and sportsmen. The development of techniques designed to curtail depredation by hunters, therefore, is of im- portance to the farmers of the country and may ultimately exert considerable influence on farm management practices. Wildlife Utilization There are three major technological develop- ments in wildlife utilization on agricultural lands, namely: Private shooting preserves, State farm game programs, and game management areas. Private shooting preserves are not available for public use and depend on State laws to permit the establishment, conduct, and development of such enterprises. They are generally confined to lands of relatively low value and are usually financed at considerable expense by private individuals. When lands are rented for such purposes, leasing rates are low and frequently amount to no more than "the taxes, or less. Maintenance costs are not included. Ten to fifteen cents an acre probably is an average fee. Such areas are prevalent in a varying degree in the eastern part of the United States. There seems to be little likelihood of expansion of this system because of the relatively high cost involved. Such units are managed for the benefit of private individuals or members of exclusive clubs. There is a variation of this procedure in the Southwest, however, where hunting rights are sold to the public on a re- stricted basis. The sale of hunting rights in these areas is usually supplementary to the income from cattle production. This procedure as practiced in the Southwest seems to be limited in its possibilities because of the restricted mar- keting and habitat limitations. Where adopted it offers limited employment to ranch hands as guides, etc., but will not materially increase faun employment. State Game Farms State farm game programs have been initiated by a number of State game departments. Two practices appear to receive about equal con- sideration. In some instances game departments have leased from farmers the hunting rights on their property. Such programs have not met with entire success, because of the fact that the payments made are relatively small, usually not in excess of ten cents per acre annually, and do not afford adequate protection to the land- owner. This does not warrant the farmer's giving any attention to the production of wildlife on his land and consequently game frequently suffers from overhunting. On the other hand, it gives the public free access to the farmer's property, a feature which prevents the better farmer from entering into this agreement. The other method pursued by the game de- partments is the actual purchase of land to be used primarily for hunting. The only farm lands purchased for such use are worn out and fre- quently have been previously abandoned. Prices paid are seldom over $3 to $5 per acre. It is probably impossible for most of the States to acquire enough land in this manner to supply the demand of hunters in their States. This is particularly true where heavy hunting pressure is exerted. Game Management Game management areas have appeared throughout the United States almost exclusively within the farming districts where there has been a rapidly growing movement to organize farmer- sportsmen hunting associations. In most in- stances the financial return to the farmer is in- consequential. However, such organizations, when properly administered, are of a definite ad- vantage to the farmer, as they protect his rights 193 and property and afford him an opportunity to control hunting on his land. On probably the best managed area in the United States the net return to the farmer, allow- ing him nothing for the time he puts in, which in many instances amounts to considerable, is esti- mated at approximately 2>% cents an acre annually. Wild Furs The trapping and selling of furs by farmers offers a better opportunity to obtain a cash return from wildlife crops than most methods of utiliza- tion, but farmers probably receive little more than half of the value of the fur actually trapped on their lands. Present estimates indicate that revenue derived by farmers from wild trapped fur does not greatly exceed $1 per farm on the average for the entire country. While the coun- try's fur crop has been valued in the neighbor- hood of $65,000,000 a year, this value resides mostly in the industry and is several times the amount actually received by the farmer- producers. Fur and Game Farming Raising fur animals in captivity in the United States has come about mostly since 1935 and in- volves primarily silver foxes and minks. The number of silver fox pelts produced and sold in the United States has increased from an esti- mated 6,000 in 1937 to 325,000 in 1939 and the total value of sales has increased from $81 9,000 to approximately $9,750,000 during the period. The world production of silver fox pelts is more than a million annually. In 1939, 200,000 minks were produced in captivity for their pelts. Current research to improve pelt quality in- cludes the study of the reproductive cycles of fur animals. Data of this sort are applied in deter- mining the proper trapping season for fur animals, in attempting intelligently to supple- ment the natural supply by restocking and trans- planting, and in improving methods for produc- ing fur animals in captivity. Breeding experi- ments have been conducted to determine the in- heritance of prolific production of young as well as of fur quality, including color, sheen, and density. The production of fur in pens requires a highly technical training and definite skill, since the animals are particularly sensitive to handling, subject to disease and sensitive to diet. It is not considered an occupation suited to layman participation. Game farms are maintained to produce game birds and animals for restocking purposes. The cost of production of birds of this type limits the possibilities in this field. Mature birds so pro- duced usually sell at from $2 to $2.50 each and the market is therefore limited. Many game species will not reproduce satis- factorily in confinement. The amount of space required by a game farm is relatively small in proportion to the investment involved and, therefore, any increase in this field will have little if any perceptible effect upon the total of crop-producing agricultural lands. The amount of labor involved will probablv be inconsequential. Wildlife farms of other types, such as frog farms, fish farms, turtle farms, and the like, athough of local importance, prob- ably will not greatly influence agricultural trends within the near future. Considerable opportunities exist in this field in certain locali- ties, but the capital investment, the technical skill required, and the instability of market prices tend to limit the potentialities. Rodent Control Rodent control techniques have been im- proved, particularly with reference to mouse and rat control. Definite advancement has been achieved in the matter of developing effective repellent sprays or paints used in protecting trees against damage by rabbits and mice. These have been tested extensively, and seem effective. Progress has been made in develop- ing a poisonous gas cartridge that can be used in clean-up work on field rodents. The car- tridge simplifies field procedure and almost wholly eliminates the danger incidental to the use of bulk poisonous fumigants in field work. The cartridges can also be used safely by indi- vidual farmers in reducing rodent infestations on areas where it is not advisable to expose poisonous grain baits. 194 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 2 8 Farm Forestry Something is happening out in the woods where, by tradition, the farmer and his family find recreation, pasturage for cattle, pro- tection for the farmstead against storm, fuel, and perhaps some money from the sale of timber products. In a workaday and competitive world these may be relatively inconsequential. They can mean little to a farmer who must make every one of his acres yield the utmost in cash crops or who rents the land and thinks a grove is a luxury or a bother that warrants little care and pays few dividends in money and better living. What is happening recognizes that argument. The belief is growing that farm woodlands can be used to ease the shock of technological changes, to supplement other phases of farming, and to lead to better-balanced farm manage- ment. On an increasing number of farms, trees are being grown and harvested according to plan. Management methods are being developed in connection with farm forest cooperatives. Fire protection methods are better. The aim is to restore the wood lots, build up a growing stock of trees, and keep the farm woodland yielding steadily a paying crop. Farm forestry can solve some problems; it creates few problems. Industrial developments have served to broaden the market and increase the demand for forest products. New methods of processing pulp and changes in the import situation are enlarging the market for domestic pulpwood and are causing more species to be included in the pulp- ing category, especially in the South. Methods of preserving wood have lengthened the period of usefulness of poles and have saved the market for this product against competition by substi- tutes. The development of the dry kiln has improved ways to season woods. These have stimulated interest in better management of farm woodlands. The shelterbelt development going on in the Prairie States exemplifies the progress in planting methods. In this region farm woodlands are being created where none occurred naturally before. Shelterbelts have increased from a few uncertain plantings in 1935 to a total of approxi- mately 162 million trees on 23,000 farms and an aggregate of 14,200 miles of belts at the end of the 1940 planting season. The Extent of Farm Forests Eighteen percent, or more than 185 million acres, -of all land in farms now bears some type of forest cover. Nearly one-third of the entire forested area of the United States is in farm woodlands, nearly 60 percent of which are found in 14 Southern States. A significantly sharp increase in the area of farm woodlands between 1930 and 1935 pre- sumably reflected the combined effects of the depression in agriculture and an abandonment of attempts to cultivate low-grade lands. The larger part of this increase, almost 60 percent, was in the Southern States. It has been estimated that by 1950 an addi- tional area of 50,000,000 to 75,000,000 acres may be abandoned for cultivation and be avail- able for reforestation. Only 8 percent of the commercial farm wood- land area — that is, land that yields commercial forest products or is capable of doing so — is 239955°- 195 Forestry Exploitation for years threatened American forests, much as carelessness, ignorance, or need caused serious depletion of soil fertility over wide areas. An example is the lamentable practice pictured at the top of this page. It shows logs left in the woods by logging operators — illustrative of great waste sometimes accompanying private ownership and exploitation. Immediately below is a stand of jack pine on the Black River Falls Land Use Project, Wisconsin. It can be regarded as an example of an enlightened attitude toward forests and their proper management, for profit, pleasure, another use of land, and as a conservation and wildlife measure. At the bottom is a picture of pulpwood going down the river Styx to Mobile by inland waterway near Robertsdale, Ala. The rapid expansion of the pulp and paper industry in the South represents one of the outstanding technological develop- ments in forestry. Farm woodlands may some day fur- nish 30 percent of the country's pulpwood needs, that may approach 25 million cords in the future. On the next page are pictures of homes — that can be taken to reflect partly the value of the soil and partly cropping practices. From top to bottom, and left to right, they show: Asubmarginal farm on cut-over land in Florida, in Hernando County ; houses that were deserted when the mill closed and people could not live off the soil; a new house on the Wolf Creek Farms project, Ga., and a scene in the Greenbclt, Md., housing project. regarded as being managed on a sustained-yield basis. It is estimated that farm woodlands yield only 30 percent as much as equivalent areas in intensively managed industrial forests. The Northeastern States make the best relative show- ing in this respect, although the Southern States have a large acreage. Such reasonably good management of farm woodlands as now exists is found mainly in the eastern half of the country. In the western half, where most of our remaining stands of old- growth timber are situated, the characteristic attitude of forest owners more frequently is that of "timber-mining." Forty-seven million acres of farm forest lands are regarded as noncommercial. Approximately 139,000,000 acres are in the commercial class. But of the latter, only 44,000,000 acres fall into two low-grade classes: "Fair to satisfactory restocking areas," that include lands on which at least 40 percent of the area is fully occupied by commercial species predominantly below cordwood size, and "poor to nonrestocking areas" — that is, lands with less than 40 percent of the growing space fully occupied by com- mercial species predominantly below cordwood size. From this it appears that most farm woodlands are in such condition that proper care and attention would bring dividends to their owners without waiting too long. Even "fair to satis- factory restocking areas" could soon be made to yield some returns from improvement cuttings, in the form of posts, pulpwood, fuel wood, and the like. Reasons for Neglect Neglect of farm woodlands has been due to several factors, among them the lack of in- formation, an annual-crop complex, a "big- forest" idea (by which it is assumed that forestry is related only to virgin timber, or is something found only "down South" or "out West" or almost any place except "at home"), the tenancy situation (in which it is difficult to arrange for continuity of adequate management) , and indiscriminate grazing of farm woodlands, a correlation of the generalization that forestry and grazing frequently are conflicting uses of land, and that pasturage sometimes represents the higher economic usage. The lack of adequate local markets and the existence of exploitative marketing practices partly have been responsible for low returns. No sawmills or other wood-using plants may be present locally, or close enough to pay reasonable transportation costs. A single mill, particularly of the portable type, may furnish only an extreme "buyer's market," and cause the farmer to sacrifice the stumpage in a lump-sum sale for only a fraction of its actual value. Haphazard cutting practices may serve to reduce the quality of the timber products, resulting in much lower prices per unit of material than might have been obtained. Fi- nally, the market for low grade products from inferior species and "weed" trees is unsatis- factory and is likely to remain so until improved utilization techniques and new uses have been developed for products of this type. The lack of satisfactory markets for farm wood products is sometimes the result of a vicious circle: A shrinking supply of timber leads to dwindling markets, which in turn are discour- aging to woodland owners and productive of still further overcutting, abuse, and neglect: The farmer has a poor market because he has a poor wood lot. Obviously, the need is for a sharp about-face in the handling of woodlands. Cooperative Associations One approach to the marketing problem is the farm forestry cooperative association. Only a few such organizations are now operating suc- cessfully in the United States; nevertheless, the cooperative seems to hold sufficient promise for improving the farm forestry situation to warrant the belief that such associations will grow in numbers and in importance. If marketing is the sole concern of the cooper- ative, the result may be to encourage the ex- ploitation of the timber resource; wherever possible, therefore, improvement of management policies and silvicultural practices should be a major objective of the association. Viewed broadly, the long-range objectives of cooperatives in farm forestry may be listed thus: General conservation of forest resources from 198 the standpoint of national economy, utiliza- tion and improved management of farm wood- land resources for maximum sustained yield, and gradual improvement in the quality ol growing timber, both in species and form for greater economic benefit to the forest owners. Success, too, is based on considerable educa- tional activity among members of a cooperative by means of meetings, lectures, outings, motion pictures, and visits to wood-using industries, to promote better understanding of the cooperative way of doing things, to teach forest owners about subjects related to forestry, and to exchange information concerning supply and demand, prices, discoveries in new uses of wood, produc- tion information and the like. Maybe some kind of governmental assistance will be needed in some instances to assist in working out the most efficient forms of cooper- ative organization, to furnish sympathetic and constructive leadership, to provide public loans at low rates of interest, at least for the initial financing, and to furnish expert advice, espe- cially regarding forest management. Dollars-and-Cents Returns An example of financial returns from timber operations conducted on a basis of continuing yield is furnished by a tract of 80 acres in northern Wisconsin. The forest was put under management in 1924 and was well stocked with old-growth hemlock and hardwoods, averaging about 12,000 board feet to the acre. In 1924, a rather heavy cut reduced the stand per acre by about one-half. In 1936, a survey to determine the volume of timber and the net growth during the 12 years showed that the increase was slightly more than 50 percent, or a little more than 3,000 board feet to the acre. The estimated value of this growth in 12 years was $13.60 an acre. After subtracting the estimated taxes and costs of administration and protection, there re- mained a net return per acre of $9.98. This is an average annual net increment of 83 cents an acre, or earnings (at the compounded rate of 3% percent on the 1925 stand investment) of $18.10 an acre. Perhaps this experiment yielded such good results because ol the comparatively heavy growing slock present ;il die beginning. A landowner undertaking to restore cutover or understocked tracts would have to wait several decades before he could hope to get equall) good returns. Bui, on the other hand, even better results might have been attained in this case if an annual harvest had been made. Forestry in Various Areas Even in the Stales of the fertile and highly valued Corn Belt there are millions of acres for which forestry can be a high economic use. The Mississippi Valley The bottom and overflow lands in the Mis- sissippi Valley above the mouth of the Ohio are well suited to forestry operations, although their possibilities have not yet been explored in any systematic manner. Several valuable species will grow readily, but perhaps Cottonwood will yield maximum returns over a short rotation period. It is estimated that a reasonably good stand will grow at the annual rate of at least 1 ,000 board feet to the acre, yielding a yearly net return from stumpage of 75 cents to $6.00 an acre, depending upon the nature and quality of the harvest. The Southern Pine Region Because of the favorable climate and rapidity of tree growth, topography conducive to low-cost logging, and accessible and expanding markets, the outlook for farm forestry in the southern pine region is especially impressive. Here also the problem of stand rebuilding is minimized, because volunteer growth of accept- able species generally appears if seed trees are present, livestock is excluded, and there are no fires. In some areas that are either denuded or taken over by "weed" species, however, planting may be the most economical method of reforestation. The number of commercial plantations of southern pine is steadily increasing, but they have not existed long enough to afford adequate records of financial returns. A calculation of costs and returns from a plantation of loblollv 199 pine has been made by R. R. Reynolds of ihe Southern Forest Experiment Station, however, on the basis of available information as to rate of growth of this species. Allowance is made for growth at a conservative rate; competent man- agement is assumed; and figures for costs and values of products reflect current prices and taxes, with due consideration for risks. Com- putations are based on land value of $4 an acre, planting costs at $4 an acre, and a compound interest rate of 3 percent. If the plantation is managed on a 36-year rotation for pulpwood only, it is estimated that the net returns would average 49 cents an acre for the entire period. This return is much less, however, than might be obtained in subsequent years if the stand were to be managed for integrated uses on a sustained-yield basis, em- phasizing the production of quality saw timber. If so managed, the average net income per acre should be $1.11 annually for a transition period of 8 years, from the thirty-sixth year to the forty- fourth year. Eventually, or after the stand has passed the 50-year mark, it is estimated that an average annual net return of $2.49 per acre could be realized. This hypothetical example relates to a sizeable commercial plantation, but there is no apparent reason for doubting that the data on acre returns would apply to smaller areas and farm wood- lands. The example serves to emphasize the potentially much larger returns from manage- ment for multiple products, in contrast with cutting for pulpwood only. Pulpwood in the South The expansion of the pulp and paper industry in the South is undoubtedly the biggest change now affecting farm forestry. This growth began only recently, although technical advances in experimental pulp and paper processes have been available for some- time and have indicated a wide range of species suitable for pulping. The major advance in southern pulp mills has been in making coarse-textured brown paper, rather than the lighter-colored papers, although a marked trend in that direction is indicated also. Southern mills in 1939 supplied 70 to 80 per- cent of the total brown-paper consumption of the United States, with prospects that the South would exceed 3 million tons a year of that class of pulp alone. But that is not all. Plans have been made for 5 mills to furnish pulp for conversion into book, bond, and writing paper, and arti- ficial silk. The rapid rate of the expansion in southern pulp mill capacity is shown here: Daily pulp capacity Daily wood re- quirements Daily em- ployment in woods Before 1937... Tons 5,445 > 9, 754 10, 054 Cords ' 8,712 15, 606 16, 0S6 Persons 2 1937-3S 24, 814 1939 1 1.6 cords per ton of pulp. 2 1.59 persons per cord employed in woods and in primary transpor- tation of pulpwood; ("not including long hauls by rail or water). 3 Includes additional capacity in old mills. Future Expansion The outlook for continued expansion in pulp- wood production is bright. In fact, future re- quirements of pulpwood may increase steadily to an estimated national annual total of 25,000,000 cords — about 3'? times more pulp- wood than was produced in the United States in 1936. In the years just prior to 1940, about 50 percent of our paper requirements were im- ported as paper, pulp, or pulpwood, mainly from Canada, Sweden, and Finland. Further expansion to replace imports and provide for increased consumption would have to be in the Pacific Northwest, besides the South, and to a lesser extent in Alaska, rather than in the northeastern and lake regions where, until recently, the pulp industry was concentrated. This, of course, would involve a substantial broadening of the number of species used, a trend already in evidence. The Farmer's Stake Because nearly a third of the commercial forest land of the United States is in farm woodlands, the farmer's share of production (taking the country as a whole) can be expected to be about in that proportion. For individual sections the proportions naturally would vary. In the South, where the expansion has been the liveliest, farm woodlands make up 41 percent of 200 the commercial forest land, and (as estimated in 1937), the pnlpwood produced on these wood- lands was one-half of the total pulpwood pro- duced in the region. But in the Columbia River Basin the pulpwood production from farms is likely to be a much smaller portion of the regional total than the relation of farm woods to total forest land would indicate. Pulpwood and Employment It is estimated that pulpwood produced on southern farms in 1937 provided continuous work for nearly 8,000 men in the woods and in hauling the pulpwood to a shipping point or mill, and that the full-time employment of more than 28,000 men would be needed if full production is to be attained in the South in the future. The utilization of wood for pulp and paper does not seriously interfere with the use of other agricultural crops for that purpose. Attempts are being made constantly to utilize various field plants and plant wastes (cornstalks, hemp, and others) for paper, but none competes yet with wood in the production of large-tonnage paper grades. Perhaps the nearest approach to serious replacement of other products by wood is the increased use of pulpwood for rayon, partly at the expense of cotton. The opportunity of the farmer to sell pulp- wood each year at almost any season provides a source of cash income to carry him through the months required to mature his crop, and may give him a measure of independence which he might not otherwise claim. Another aspect is that where paper and pulp mills are established, a certain portion of the rural population may obtain work in the mills or part-time occupation for teams and trucks in supplying the mills with raw materials. If southern farm woodlands have even ,i mini- mum stocking of i ires of satisfactory species, the continuous application of sound bin simple measures generally suffice to restore them to productive condition. As a broad approxima- tion, it is estimated that the average small southern farm, under existing stand conditions and with virtually no management by the owner, will yield an annual net return of 75 cents an acre if stocked with loblolly pine, or 33 cents an acre if bearing bottom-land hardwoods. These are minimum figures that could be increased substantially if heavy stocking and better man- agement were present. From studies of growth and costs on large commercial forests, it has been found that annual yields from stumpage range from 50 cents to $2.50 an acre in the loblolly-shortleaf pine region. These figures should be equally appli- cable to farm woodlands. If the highest returns are to be obtained, the land must be fully stocked with thrifty uneven- aged trees, losses from fire and insects and dis- ease must be minimized, livestock must be excluded while regeneration is in progress, and the stand must be managed so as to maximize the growth of timber of highest quality and high value. Furthermore, in addition to the direct return from stumpage, the farmer should be able to increase substantially his annual income by doing his own logging and marketing logs and other products, rather than by selling trees on the stump. 201 Using up the Land vf^tj^' :-'$$&> It starts this way: Poor covering of thin soil; a groove at first, when heavy rains come; then a gully, a canyon: then impoverishment, with tons of topsoil washed away and millions of dollars' lost. it^^iriildi m miW ' -*." TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM. Chapter 2 9 Technology in the Farm Home Technology has produced goods and services whose potentialities for improving farm family living cannot be measured. Through the automobile, the radio, and other devices for transportation and communication, it provides the means of lessening the isolation of farm life and broadening family interests. Im- proved laboratory equipment has resulted in better medical care and an increased knowledge of how to feed families and how to conserve health. Running water, modern plumbing, electric lights, and furnaces with thermostatic controls are some of the devices for making dwellings more comfortable. Technology has also increased the leisure of the farm family by providing machines for doing farm and household work. Many tasks of household production have been taken over by factories. Foods are canned, clothes are ready made, laundry and dry cleaning are done out- side. Vacuum cleaners, electric irons, washing machines, and mechanical refrigerators help the housewife. Mass production, modern distribution meth- ods, systems of large-scale selling, consumer cooperatives, second-hand markets, greater dur- ability, standardization of parts for replacements, the accessibility of mechanics to repair machines — all these have served to reduce the expenses and worries of ownership, to lower prices, to make buying easier. All have made possible an improvement in farm family living. All con- tribute to the prowess of our machines, and are a sort of American saga. But often the story stops with the potentialities of progress. The benefits of technological developments an- judged by what our markets offer — not by what families have actually bought, or the changes in the homes of the well-to-do, described as though they were typical of improvements in all American homes. A family's ability to pay may determine the extent to which it enjoys these benefits, and an appraisal of the impact of tech- nology upon farm family living may well begin with an analysis of the distribution of families by income. Ability To Buy About one-fourth of American farm families were in the nonrelief group with net incomes below $500, or had received direct relief, in 1935-56. Somewhat fewer than one-fourth had incomes of SI, 500 or more. The remainder, a little more than one-half, were in the nonrelief group with incomes between S500 and 11,500 (42). The level of living that an income provides depends, of course, upon the number of persons to be maintained. Obviously, small families with limited means fare better than large fam- ilies with limited means. But this picture of income distribution indicates that the kind of living described as adequate or wholesome was beyond the reach of many of the farm popula- tion. The general income level of farm families tends to be below that of city families, as is 203 HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT, BY INCOME FARM FAMILIES HAVING SPECIFIED EQUIPMENT 4 SELECTED COUNTIES IN PENNSYLVANIA AND OHIO, 1935-36 INCOME , MONEY AND NONMONEY $500-$999 SI, 500- $1,999 $2,500-$2,999 MECHANICAL I REFRIGERATOR ICE REFRIGERATOR fll PRESSURE c f COOKER MOTOR-DRIVEN WASHER $m VACUUM CLEANER (ii ° c H ° r. P m o fSR5R ski M° M° ^O ° O n ° BR BR o B t& Mm Bj rta ifi n ra ra v3 ra ra r °_n On ° n EACH SYMBOL REPRESENTS 15 PERCENT OF ALL FAMILIES IN EACH INCOME CLASS shown by the following data for nonrelief groups in 1935-36: Type of community Average number of persons per family Median income per nonrelief family Metropolises, 1,500,000 population and 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.7 4.5 $1 730 Large cities, 100,000 to 1,500,000 population Middle-sized cities, 25,000 to 100,000 pop- ulation _ Small cities, 2.500 to 25,000 population 1, 560 1, 300 1.290 1,210 966 Furthermore, farm families tend to be larger than those in cities. A farm family income, therefore, frequently must maintain more per- sons than a city income. Insofar as technolog- ical developments are related to the present national unemployment situation, they are also related to the lack of opportunities for farm youth to migrate to cities — a situation that is throwing an increased burden on income from agriculture and multiplying the problems of farm family maintenance. Urban unemployment also has tended to re- duce farm families' money receipts from non- farm sources. Although such receipts are not a large part of the total income of most families- averaging less than one-fourth of aggregate net income of families of farm operators the country over — they may make an appreciable difference in the level of living achieved, especially among the lower income groups. Farm incomes also are somewhat less flexible than those of city families. Much of the income from the farm is in kind — farm-furnished food, fuel, and housing. For the low-income groups, such nonmoney in- come may be considerably more than half of the total; for the more well-to-do, it is a smaller proportion. But all farm families have less cash for buying the products of industry than do citv families at comparable income levels. Patterns of Farm Family Living The effects of technological progress upon farm family living are not to be measured solely by ownership of material goods — automobiles, radios, and bathtubs. The low-income family 204 HOUSEHOLD FACILITIES, BY INCOME FARM FAMILIES HAVING SPECIFIED FACILITIES 4 SELECTED COUNTIES IN PENNSYLVANIA AND OHIO, 1935-36 INCOME, MONEY AND NONMONEY ~P *1 a RUNNING WATER SINK WITH DRAIN HOT WATER KITCHEN, BATH ELECTRICITY FOR LIGHTING FURNACE FOR HEATING $500- $999 m ftftftf o rara B 51,500 - $ 1,999 ftftf, O n O n o o, m Ml nl nl n v3 v3 v3 v3 v? m mm mt $2,500- ^2,999 °S> Lml> £mP ,°.o ftftfcftftf n ° r. P o n o n o _ o n o Kfl lb | |V^ fry. M v3 v3 v3 v3 R ° O On On RJBfi EACH SYMBOL REPRESENTS 15 PERCENT OF ALL FAMILIES IN EACH INCOME CLASS owning none of these things has a pattern of consumption that differs from that prevalent at this income level 50 years ago. Its interests and wants and ways of doing things are affected by what more fortunate families have and do. Its children profit by what science has accomplished in modern edu- cation and through the health programs of schools. However, statistics indicating the ex- tent to which farm families are using certain of the gifts of our machine age are helpful as in- dicators of the spread of some, though not all, of the advantages of technology. The following picture is based mostly on data for families of native-white farm operators with incomes of $1,000 to $1,250 — a figure somewhat above the median income for the whole country. Facts and figures for this intermediate-income group usually do not differ greatly from aver- ages for families at all income levels the country over. The data are taken largely from the study of consumer purchases conducted in selected farming sections by the Bureau of Home Economics of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. 2 Some figures from other sources are given for all families, but the amount of recent informa- tion on a nation-wide scale is limited. Lessening Isolation Hard-surfaced roads, the automobile, the rural bus line, rural mail service bringing daily papers, the radio, and the telephone all serve to encourage social contacts and bring farm families in closer touch with neighborhood and world events. The automobile has enlarged the radius of contacts of families, increased their participation in civic and social affairs, enabled them to shop in larger centers, to attend '■ The consumer purchases study was a large-scale study of family income and expenditures, 1935-36. The Bureau of Home Economics surveyed 66 farm coun- ties, 140 villages, and 19 small cities; the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor, 10 small cities, 14 middle-sized and 6 large cities, and 2 metropolises. The study was conducted as a Work Projects Administration project with the cooperation of the National Resources Planning Board, and the Central Statistical Board (43). 205 motion pictures, and to see how other groups live. Relatively more farm than urban families with comparable incomes have automobiles. Thus, it is estimated that approximately seven- tenths of the farm families in the income range SI, 000 to $1,250 the country over were car owners in 1935-36, compared to 30 percent of the Chicago families at this level (48). This larger proportion of owners among the farm families may reflect their greater use of cars for business. But there is the possibility, too, that the automobile ranks higher in the scale of wants of the former than the latter group. Farm families tend to practice economy in car buying, however; more than two-thirds of the automobiles bought by farm families sur- veyed in the North Central States in 1935-36 came from the used-car market, compared to only half of those bought by the small-city families. Automobiles would be used more if family in- comes were higher; mileage for household (not business) use of the car averaged about 3,800 miles for Michigan and Wisconsin farm families with income of $1,000 to $1,250, compared to 6,000 miles for those whose incomes were $3,000 or more. Families with incomes of $250 and $500 traveled an average of 2,345 miles. The radio brings news, concerts, dramatic per- formances, and other features formerly available only to the population of the large cities. Small wonder, therefore, that radio ownership is in- creasing steadily among farm groups. For ex- ample, of a group of farm families included in the preliminary farm census of 1938, only 6 percent had owned radios on January 1, 1925; by 1930 the proportion was greater — 29 percent, and at the time of the survey (1938), 62 percent. This sample of farm families w : as drawn from all in- come levels but was somewhat limited in size. The figures for the sample, however, are in close agreement with data from the Joint Committee on Radio Research, which estimated that about three-fifths of the Nation's farm families owned radios in 1938 (44). Thus, while technology has produced means of spanning distances, of tuning in on events in foreign capitals, of talking with friends at a dis- tance, of widening horizons by use of its machines many farm families have failed to avail them- selves of these opportunities. That income, rather than reluctance to adopt the new, is the explanation as indicated by data for groups at different income levels. Thus, in a Southeast farming section, 17 percent of the families of white operators with incomes of $250 to $500 had radios and 71 percent of those with incomes of $2,500 to $3,000. Thirty-nine percent of the former had newspapers, 94 percent of the latter. Automobiles were owned by 28 and 96 percent of each group, respectively. A radio may mean more to a farm than a city family, yet relatively fewer farm than city fam- ilies own radios. The Joint Committee on ' Radio Research placed the proportion of city families owning radios in 1938 at 91 percent — considerably above the 59 percent in farm sec- tions (45). Greater availability of electricity in cities may account in part for this difference. The proportion of farm families having radios is much greater in the sections where a large proportion of the farms are served by electricitv than in those where electricity is comparatively rare. Thus at the same income level, $1,000 to $1,250, 96 percent of the California farm fami- lies had radios in 1935-36, compared to 31 percent of the white-operator families in a southeast section. The telephone has served farm areas longer than the automobile or radio, but its use is less widespread. According to the 1930 census, tele- phones w r ere installed in 34 percent of all farm homes. Since that time the proportion probably has increased little, if any. Other products of technology that lessen the isolation of the farm family and increase its business and social contacts are widely used when easily available. Thus, in the North Central region, about nine-tenths of the farm families in this intermediate-income group had daily newspapers — a proportion almost the same as in the small cities. Similar proportions were reported in other farm areas which were only a few hours distant from large cities; but in the cattle-range section of the Plains and Mountain region, where newspapers would be a day old before they reached many of the farm families, only 53 percent were subscribers to dailies. 206 Farm Dwellings and Their Facilities The modern home, lighted by electricity, heated by a well-regulated furnace, equipped with modern sanitary facilities, and provided with running hot and cold water day and night, is often cited as evidence of what the machine age has done for American families. But only a small proportion of the farm homes are thus modernized. Kerosene lamps still provide light for many farm families. Some regions lag far behind others in the use of electricity on farms. Thus, at the same income level, SI, 000 to $1,250, only 4 percent of the families of white operators in a farming section of the Southeast region lighted their homes by electricity, as against 92 percent of those in a fruit-growing section of California in 1935-36. In cities, the cost of bringing electricity to the dwelling is far less than in a farming section, where a power line may be several miles away. Given the same income, therefore, a city family is much more likely to be emancipated from cleaning kerosene lamps than is the family on a farm. Thus at the income level $1,000 to $1,250, 99 percent of the families in small cities of the North Central region, compared to 39 percent of those in farming sections of Michigan and Wisconsin, had electrically lighted homes. Running water — that boon to the homemaker who must wash dishes, bathe small children, and do the family laundry — was available in onlv 16 percent of the homes of farm families at the intermediate-income level in 1935-36; an even smaller proportion, 8 percent, had botli hot and cold running water in kitchen and bath. Only 10 percent had an indoor toilet of any sort. A farm family must provide its own pumping system for running water and its own system of sewage disposal; these are provided in a city, thereby making costs of installation of such facilities much less than on a farm. Hence, a far greater proportion of the urban families enjoy these comforts; probably about nine-tenths of those at this income level in small cities have running water and indoor toilets and about three-fifths, a kitchen and bath provided with both hot and cold running water. Homes of farm owner-operators arc much better equipped than those of tenants, according to the following figures from the preliminary farm survey made by the Census Bureau in 1938: Estimated percentage of farms in each tenure group flaring specified facilities, 79JW Owner Tenant Electric lights 51 21 Water piped into dwelling 43 16 Water piped into bath 32 8 The advantages of central heating are many; but stoves or fireplaces heat most farm dwellings. Only one family in eight at this intermediate- income level had a central heating system. The more well-to-do the farm family, the greater the likelihood that its dwelling will be modernized. Tenure is partly responsible for the differences between the upper-and lower- income groups; the former included more own- ers, and ownership is an incentive to modernizing the home. But even among the more well-to-do owners there were many who felt they could not afford these comforts. Fewer farm than urban families suffer from overcrowding, as measured by the standard of one room for each person. Yet in every farming section there are some families in the middle- income groups that fail to meet this standard. Doubtless many others suffer from crowding in the winter when some of the rooms are not used because of lack of heat. Housing of many of the low-income farm families is comparable to that in urban slums. Large families of croppers in the Southeast live in one, two, or three rooms in houses of poor construction, out of alignment, and in poor repair. Housing of migratory farm families may be merely makeshift shacks unless they are so fortunate as to live in a Government camp. Many have no toilet facilities, not even an outdoor privy. For these families all the ad- vances of technology in the field of housing mean nothing; their homes are worse than those of the American Colonists 200 years ago. Equipment for Household Tasks The farm home still harbors many of the house- hold production activities that city families have 207 turned over to industry. Thus, in the North Central region, only 1 percent of the farm fami- lies with incomes of SI, 000 to $1,250 sent laundry out during the year, compared to 14 percent of those in small cities. Almost all, 99 percent, of the farm homemakers, but only 59 percent of those in small cities, canned food for their families; the former put up an average of 246 quarts each. Farm homemakers share in farm business activities, such as grading and selling eggs and keeping the farm records. With larger families, less help from industry and from paid household employees doing housework, and greater partic- ipation in the family business, farm house- wives would seem to be more in need of labor- saving devices than city housewives. However, many of these devices demand electricity and therefore cannot be used in many farm homes. Equipment operated without electricity and of unquestioned usefulness in household produc- tion tends to be as widely used by the farm as by the city family. In the North Central region, 84 percent of the farm homemakers in the inter- mediate-income group had sewing machines, a larger proportion than among those with simi- lar incomes in the small cities, 66 percent. Washing machines were owned by 77 percent of the former and 76 percent of the latter group. With mechanical washers of the gasoline or kerosene type widely available, fewer than 16 percent of the machines in the farm homes were hand-driven. Refrigerators of the types most usual in the markets are not usable in farm homes that are far from established ice routes or are not equipped with electricity or gas. Only 28 per- cent of the farm families with incomes of $1,000 to $1,250 in the North Central region as com- pared with 75 percent of those in small cities had refrigerators of any sort; 6 percent of the former and 1 7 percent of the latter families had mechanical refrigerators. Ownership of a mechanical refrigerator is much more usual in those farming sections where electricity is commonly available than in those where only a small proportion of the farms are reached by power lines. Thus, given the same income, $1,000 to $1,250, the per- centage of farmer's families having such equip- ment was as follows: California, 44; New Jersey, 36; Oregon (part-time farms), 14; Washington and Oregon (full-time farms), 11; Vermont, 11; Colorado, Montana and South Dakota, 7; Michigan and Wisconsin, 6; North Carolina and South Carolina, 5; Pennsylvania and Ohio, 4; Kansas and North Dakota, 4; Georgia and Mis- sisippi, 2; Illinois and Iowa, 1. Again, the close relationship between income and use of the products of technology by the farm family is evident. Thus, in a general farming section in Pennsylvania and Ohio, 15 percent of the families with incomes of $250 to $500 had refrigerators, compared to 50 percent of those with incomes of $2,500 to $3,000. Diets of Farm Families Technology has done much to improve our food supplies. Improvements in refrigeration and in transportation make fresh fruits and vege- tables available throughout the year. The quality of meats and many other foods from our farms is better than it was 50 years ago. Milk supplies are safer. Canneries and cold storage preserve food so that a wide variety is available at low cost the year round. The science of nutri- tion, aided by new laboratory techniques and new equipment, has also made great strides in discovering what nutrients and how much a human being needs, and what foods will best provide these essentials of the diet. In general, farm families have better diets than urban groups, largely because many of the so-called protective foods, such as milk, eggs, and green, leafy vegetables, can be produced on farms for less than they can be bought in city stores. It would seem, therefore, that families on farms enjoy some advantages from producing much of their own food; they do not have the conveniences of many ready-to-serve foods offered by urban markets but neither do they pay urban retail prices. Yet not all farm families have diets that can be rated as good, according to nutritional standards. Probably about two-thirds of the farm families with incomes of $1,000 to $1,250 have diets that would be classed as good or fair. Of the remain- der — those whose diets were rated as poor — 208 many had meals of too low a money value to meet standards of adequacy no matter how wise their food choices. Others had meals whose money value was sufficient to provide an ade- quate diet; but because their choices of the foods they bought and produced were ill advised, their diets were inadequate with respect to one or more nutrients. At lower-income levels the proportion of fam- ilies with poor diets is much greater. Those far- ing worst are families of sharecroppers or laborers that produce but little of their food supply and have money incomes too small to cover their many needs. Thus, a study of a group of Negro sharecroppers in the Southeast region whose in- come fell within the range $250 to $500 indicated that more than four-fifths probably had diets that were deficient in one or more respects. Wiser programs of food production and pur- chase would enable all farm families in the inter- mediate-income groups to have diets adequate nutritionally. The spread of new methods of canning and preserving food would help to give greater variety to the food supply without the money outlays needed for purchasing foods out of season. Thus, storage lockers in local refrig- eration plants make it possible to keep home- produced fruits, eggs, and meats from periods of plenty. Improved equipment for canning, such a's the pressure cooker, makes it possible to can a wider variety of food than by methods formerly used . Coopera tive ownership of storage facilities and of canning equipment enables many families to use more efficient methods of food conserva- tion than would otherwise be within their reach. Medical Care Benefits of medical progress are less available to farm people than to urban folk. In many rural areas the number of doctors and nurses is inadequate for the needs of the population. It is estimated that more than 40 percent of the counties in the United States have no registered general hospitals (47). It may not be necessary to have a hospital in every county if such services are available in an adjacent county at a distance of 50 miles or less; but there is no doubt that there is a severe shortage of hospital facilities in manv rural areas. Free medical care for the poor is confined for the most part to large cities; such services arc provided for comparatively few low-income farm families (46). Group medical care plans, sponsored by the Farm Security Administration and worked out in cooperation with the State medical asso- ciation, are helping to extend the benefits of modern medicine to low-income farm families. But there is need for extension of such programs, for expansion of public health services and of maternal and child health services in the rural areas, and for establishment of hospitals that can serve as health centers and thus increase the number of medical personnel if the health needs of the farm population are to be met. Solving the Problems Along with the advantages of technological developments in which practically all farm families have had some share, even though small, have come problems that must be suc- cessfully met if these developments are to bring a net increase in the well-being and happiness of the farm population. Some of these problems can be solved by the individual family; but others, far-reaching in scope, must be solved by society, through government or other group action . For the individual farm family, the progress of technology has brought problems involving the relationship between money and nonmoney income, between net income used for the farm business and that used for living, and between work and leisure. Patterns of consumption, choices of ways of spending, are involved, also. To achieve a wise solution, the family should seek the help that research and educational agencies can give; but the final decision must be its own, based upon its needs and its goals of living. Production For Family Use Since money is needed to buy offerings of science and invention, many farm families have followed production programs that tend to increase money income at the expense of nonmoney; they have emphasized commercial agriculture, discarding production for household use as an old-fashioned procedure, out of line 209 with the machine age. The worth of the latter practice has been measured in terms of the net money value of the products the farm furnished the family; intangible values that bring human satisfactions have been overlooked. A return to the self-sufficing farm of Colonial days is not to be advocated, but a farm family may well consider the disadvantages, as well as the advantages, that come with an income of money only. One of the intangible values of production for family use is increased security. If the farm provides an appreciable part of the food supply, a family has some protection against the down- swings of the business cycle. The nutritive value of food does not decrease in a depression period even though its money value may be halved. In farming areas where production of food for household use is uneconomic, families lack this means of protecting their customary levels of living. Another of the values of income in kind is that it provides some safeguard against the tempta- tions of the market and its efficient salesmen. A low-income family with a well-planned food supply as a considerable part of its income will usually have a diet more adequate nutritionally than the family whose income is similar in amount but almost wholly in the form of money. The family that buys gasoline for the car instead of milk for the baby is not mythical; immediate wants are strong and it is easy to believe that the milk can be bought tomorrow. Production for household use also gives oppor- tunities for family members to share the responsi- bility of earning their income. All persons old enough to work can help to produce food for household use. The old folk and the young can contribute according to their abilities. Com- mercial agriculture may offer fewer such opportunities for family participation. Harvest- ing wheat is not customarily the work of women and children, though caring for a garden or poultry may well be within their strength. In cities, where the machine age has brought almost complete dependence upon a money income, the wife and children may be unable to make similar contributions. In more than half of the urban families, current income is largely from the earnings of the husband — a situation fraught with a high degree of insecurity. Participation in making the family's living tends to bring other advantages. Family ties are strengthened through a common interest in the success of a joint undertaking and through the satisfactions that come from working toward a worth-while goal. Farm children have oppor- tunities to learn through doing, an advantage over the situation of urban children whose families have turned so much of their work over to industry. Balancing the Present and Future Competition between the use of money in- come for family living and for buying land has been sharpened by pressure upon consumers to purchase products of machines. The family that is paying for a farm must be able to with- stand this pressure; it must use funds for mort- gage amortization and therefore cannot buy as many of the offerings of technology as the rent- ing family at the same income level. Once the mortgage has been paid and ownership is achieved, the former family has much greater security than the latter. But it is hard to con- centrate on the future when present wants are strong and are stimulated by skillful merchan- dising practices. Undoubtedly there have been instances where the farm business won more than it should in the competition for a share of income, and family health and happiness were sacrificed in order to add more acres and build up working capital. There is evidence, however, that such cases are becoming less frequent than formerly. Perhaps there is a tendency to go too far in the opposite direction. A wise balance between the present and the future is difficult to achieve, and it is not made easier by the fact that man's wants grow as the products offered for their satisfaction increase. Because Americans have a keen appreciation of the wonders of the machine age, many tend to measure progress toward higher levels of living in terms of ownership of goods rather than of the health and all-around development of family members. This may lead to badly planned con- sumption, to purchasing things instead of family 210 well-being. To keep human values and long- time goals well to the fore as a criterion for evaluating its plans for living is not one of the least of the modern farm family's difficulties. Plans for making and using income must take account of the family's need for a happy balance between work and leisure. Much has been said in praise of the labor-saving services of machines. But will there be a net gain in leisure if the family must increase its efforts to make money in order to meet the costs of operating the machines? Sometimes the answer will unquestionably be "yes," but not always. Wise Purchasing Once the family has decided which of the products of technology to buy, it faces difficulties as a purchaser. The great variety of market offerings has made it well nigh impossible for the consumer to choose wisely, to know what goods are best suited to his needs. Many of the old guideposts are gone; new ones, such as in- formative labels, grades, and standard termi- nology are not as yet generally provided. Mass production has lowered the quality of some goods. For example, pots and pans that can be bought for as little as ten cents lack the wearing qualities of their more sturdy (and more ex- pensive) predecessors. The endurance of some modern textile fabrics is a moot question. The prevalent emphasis upon fashions in dress, pro- moted by modern merchandising methods, un- doubtedly has increased expenditures for re- placement of garments. The homemaker can study to become a better buyer; but she-cannot spend efficiently until the business world has adopted merchandising methods that are better suited to her needs than those now current. To achieve such changes, groups of consumers are more effective than individuals. The Place of Education Some of the developments of technology are made available to farm families through govern- ment and private agencies. Thus schools, libraries, hospitals, hard-surfaced roads, public parks, and the like are provided by group rather than individual expenditures. If the farm com- munity is to be assured that its expenditures for such facilities bring it the best that science and t lie machine have made possible, local groups must solve many of the same problems that the individual family meets in spending its income. Modern schools and hospitals are found onl\ where interested local organizations have worker! for them. Education can do much to help the farm family, working alone or with others, to maxi- mize the benefits of twentieth century progress. Many of the advantages of scientific and tech- nological developments are unused because un- known; families do not know how to make the best use of what they have, how to gain most from their land and labor, how to better their families' diets, how to make their homes more comforta- ble, how to improve their schools and county health services. Cooperative undertakings, such as those of the associations for medical care, for group purchase and use of equipment, and for extension of rural electrification also can bring more widespread enjoyment of these advantages. Equalizing Advantages But there remain the broad socio-economic problems, national and international in scope, that families can help solve only as citizens working through their governments. The na- tion as a whole faces the problem of its disad- vantaged families, rural and urban, of giving them enough of a share of the national income that they may have at least the minimum essen- tials of wholesome living, according to our modern standards. The nation also faces the problem of equaliza- tion of the advantages of progress as between certain rural and urban groups. Cities, with higher general income levels and with more property and people than in rural areas to be taxed for support of community programs, have been able to provide better schools and libraries, better hospitals, clinics, public health services and other facilities for health. Only through programs for use of public funds to help some of the poorer, sparsely settled rural counties can farm families be given comparable advan- tages. Other problems of farm family living, closely 2M99.j5°- -15 211 related to the coming of technology and Nation- wide in scope, are those arising from lack of opportunities for farm youth to find urban em- ployment; those of conserving the soil and thus safeguarding farm family resources; those of increasing the stability of income from agri- culture; of flood control; of farm tenancy; of farm credit. These are discussed elsewhere in this volume. Efforts to solve them through national policies and programs and through work of other government agencies have been begun. But the solution cannot be wrought quickly or easily. The beginnings must be expanded and continued, and there must be widespread cooperation in working toward these long-time objectives. In short, if all farm families are to live the wholesome, well-rounded lives that science and technology have made possible, they must face the problems that this century has brought and must work individually and through local or- ganizations and their government for their solu- tion. Only thus can the potentialities of increased family well-being become actualities. 212 TECHNOLOGY ON THE FARM* Chapter 3 O Things to Come: 1940 Amoving object tends to continue its direc- tion and velocity unless an external force acts upon it. The principle can be just as true of an idea as of the wheel of a cream separator or the cogs of a Babcock tester, as true of the spirit of inventiveness as of inventions them- selves. We see ahead no external force to change the direction and velocity of the conditions that have brought an ever-increasing number of American patents, 268 in the 1790's, 5,641 in the 1830's, and 485,205 in the 1930's. We see ahead no external force to bend or thwart the march of technology. Our genius, inventiveness, needs — maybe even limitations — may add to its strength. Research, experimentation, investigation, acci- dent, the element of time, these will affect the course. Industries and governments spend millions to find better ways to do things. Studies of population movements, needs, numbers, prefer- ences have a part in the march of technology. So, too, the white-coated chemist in his soils laboratory; the county agricultural agent; the sociologist, who studies the needs and thoughts of men; the breeders of plants and animals; the economist; the makers of machines and clothes; those who plan programs; those who work and those who want work, migrants, hired men, teachers, students, farmers and farm leaders; scientists. Or the unpredictables and variables of public indifference or interest, whim, prosperity, adversity, industrial or gov- ernmental encouragement and funds, inter- national affairs, floods, droughts, overproduc- tion, politics. We can foresee their products only to the extent that we could have foreseen the tractor in 1900, the science of genetics in 1850, the eradication of bovine tuberculosis in 1910, or the automobile in 1880. But the force of the moving object, the onward sweep of technology, and the first indications and hopes of research in progress give assurance of discoveries and improvements to come. On the basis of information about develop- ments now on the horizon, we confidently can expect that among the foremost of these will be plant breeding, improved human and animal nutrition, and a group of industrial-agricultural innovations that includes new textiles, building materials, plastics, and extended uses of farm products. On the basis of less complete knowl- edge and experiments, we could predict, in the more distant future, changes in sources of power (an outgrowth of atom-smashing) and in engines, alloys, and engineering. But here we must limit our scope, in the face of daily announce- ments of innovations and experimental progress, to a few things, or in places, to discussions that indicate broadly the nature of the improve- ments. Outside our specific field, too, are things like a wider use of prefabricated houses and other buildings; air conditioning in city homes, and on farms for comfort, and as an accepted contribution to greater efficiency in work, storage, and the growing of plants and animals; superhighways; heating by short waves, sunlamps, and similar products of engineering and industry. Previous chapters have mentioned the possi- bility of wider uses of plastics and the making of new ones; the utilization of farm wastes for wall- 213 The Future Technology in the future is indicated in these three pictures. One shows a machine for making fibcrboard, in Madison, Wis., and can be regarded as an example of hopes attached to the finding of new uses for farm products. The second shows a grain elevator in Vin- cennes, Ind. The third picture was taken at the Depart- ment of Agriculture experiment farm at Bcltsvillc, Md. The test tube will be important in future technology. board and a host of Other products; lacquers, in- dustrial solvents, and alcohol; new textiles from a variety of nonagricullural products; the con- quest of animal and plant diseases; artificial in- semination; new methods of preserving food; increasing interest in forestry, wildlife, and conservation practices. The end and aim of much of this is better living, expressed in terms of better food, better clothing, and better health. We are coming to realize more that an impor- tant safeguard of health is food that fulfills dietarv essentials, and contains proper amounts of vitamins, fruits, vegetables, dairy, and poultry products. Perhaps vegetable fats and proteins will be modified so that they equal animal prod- ucts in nutrition value and thus lower costs. We may see "capsule" foods and an extension of the practice of fortifying foods with the essential minerals and vitamins, as is done in iodized salt and milk enriched with vitamin D. Dietetics will become more important with our growing knowledge of the place in diets of calcium, cop- per, aluminum, phosphorous, vitamins, concen- trated foods, and so on, and of their influence on glands, feelings, personality, and general health. Plant Breeding Exciting new fields for research are opened by the use of colchicine, growth substances, vita- min B,, and plant nutrients. Maybe our prog- ress so far in plant breeding is as nothing com- pared to their possibilities. They are discussed here at some length because of potentialities and because they can be used as examples of a wide field of experimentation. Colchicine Colchicine, a powerful drug from seeds of the meadow saffron, a wild plant found in Asia and Europe, causes rapid cell development in young plants. It may open a realm of fertile hybrids and inherent plant changes of great economic importance in the case of cotton, certain cereals, tobacco, fruits, and grasses. Consider cotton, for example. Several species like Asiatic, wild American, American Upland, and Sea Island have desirable qualities that could be blended into a superior strain were it not thai these species are difficult to intercross and that such crosses as have been made usualh were sterile hybrids. Colchicine, however, may give them power to reproduce, so that desirable features of several, like resistance to drought, insects, and disease, might be combined in a true-breeding hybrid. The first generation cross of Upland and Sea Island has hybrid vigor, the long staple of Sea Island, and some of the early maturity of Up- land. But the hybrid, while fertile, disintegrates after the first generation cross and loses its desirable qualities, much like hybrid corn. A true-breeding strain depends on a freak of nature, a twin embryo found commonly in Sea Island and at times in Upland. Usually one of the embryos produces a shoot with only half the number of chromosomes in one set, instead of the regular two sets required for fertility. Bv doubling with colchicine the chromosome num- ber of this shoot, scientists hope to get a pure- line cotton with two sets of identical chromo- somes that should breed true. In getting only half the number of chromosomes it is a matter of chance whether the pure-line cotton will have desirable characteristics or undesirable ones. By treating twin embryos, however, it is expected that some pure-line plants with desirable characteristics will be found. The same is true of tobacco. Cultivated tobacco crossed with wild types produces in- fertile hybrids. By doubling the number of chromosomes, fertile and approximately true- breeding hybrids were obtained of possible economic value for producing insecticides. Scientists hope to produce fertile hybrids from such a cross as the Loganberry and ordinary blackberry. The hybrids have delicious flavor but the plants thus far produced have been sterile, incapable of reproduction. By crossing the red raspberry with other berries, better able to withstand heat, it may be possible that a new raspberry variety capable of growing farther south will be a reality. Horticulturists have doubled the number of chromosomes in the cul- tivated strawberry and in peaches, but the effect can be determined only when fruit is produced- in two or more years, in the case of the peach. Colchicine affects the cell, the unit of plant 215 life, that begins with a single fertilized cell and divides into two, four, eight, and so on into countless millions. As the cells divide, each has sets of chromosomes containing genes which determine the behavior of the plant. These heritable factors have been the basis of modern plant breeding. The chromosome number remains constant as the cells divide, if the plant grows naturally. Each cell has the same factors that influence characteristics like color, disease resistance, or susceptibility, height, ability to yield. Nature prevents a piling up of chromosomes in plants and animals by halving the number in the repro- ductive cells. Fertilization of egg cells by sperm restores the normal number of chromosomes found in the body cells. Thus, the appearance and the behavior of the plant is inherited through genes obtained from both parents. Although the plant body dies, the germ plasm lives on in the seed. Selecting plants with superior germ plasm — those with desirable characteristics — is the basis of selective breeding. Fertile hybrids are obtained only when the parent chromosomes pair successfully. Lack of perfect pairing leads to an unequal distribution of chromosomes to the new cells with the result that they fail to function. For this reason off- spring from so-called wide crosses — where par- ent chromosomes are unequal in number or have some other fundamental difference — have been difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Growth Substances When cuttings of many plants are treated with a suitable solution of one of the recently dis- covered growth substances or plant hormones, they grow more roots and grow them more quickly than untreated cuttings. Plant scientists have accepted this as a fact, but they have been puzzled as to how it happens. Experiments in- dicate that the real root-forming substances are already in the plant, not in the treatment. Several chemicals are known to promote root- ing, among them indole-3-acetic acid, one of the first chemicals identified as a growth substance. Probably the chemical treatment causes the downward transport of naturally occurring root- forming substances already in the plant and nec- essary for root formation. The substances have been named rhizocaline. Experiments with various plants indicate that plants that do not root readily when treated — Delicious apple cut- tings, for example — are lacking in rhizocaline, the chemical nature of which has not been dis- covered. Sprays Other growth substances are naphthalenescetic acid and naphthaleneacetimide. Growth sub- stances came into practical use in 1937. Since then, it has been found that their appli- cation in the form of a spray promises to prevent the dropping of apples before harvesting, the tendency that generally characterizes early varieties. As the fruit approaches the proper maturity and color for harvestins:. the danger of loss from dropping increases. In experiments, 21 kinds of trees were sprayed thoroughly; from 7 to 8 gallons were used for small trees and as much as 25 gallons for large trees carrying 20 or more bushels of fruit. It was found that a sufficient strength was obtained by using one part of the growth substance to 200,000 parts of water, or about one-half tea- spoonful to 100 gallons of water. Examples of effectiveness of the sprays: When eight Stayman Winesap trees were sprayed with a 0.0005 solution, the average drop 18 days after the spray amounted to 23.4 percent. On unsprayed trees the drop came to 61.4 percent. With York Imperial under the same conditions, the sprayed trees dropped only 14.1 percent compared to 40.7 percent for the unsprayed trees. Vitamin B l Many gardeners have become greatly inter- ested in Vitamin B,. There is some definite evidence that its use may increase the rate of growth of some plants under some conditions, but many plants show no added response when irrigated with it. This is particularly true if they arc grown in rich soils, reasonably well supplied with animal manures or decaying vege- table matter, because such manures in them- selves often supply an abundant quantity of Vitamin Bj. In some instances actual harm may result from 216 its use, especially if relatively large amounts arc applied or if large applications arc made fre- quently. Vitamin B, may occur naturally in varying quantities in several parts of the plant and animal body. Many plants manufacture and store it in their leaves, stems, fruits, or seeds, and animals obtain it when such plant parts are eaten by them. Similarly when plants decay, at least a part of the vitamin they contain may become available to other plants. At present the most pronounced influence of Vitamin B ( on plant development appears to be its effects upon the growth of roots. There may well be many other effects of this vitamin upon growth and development, but further experi- mentation is needed before positive statements can be made. Applied in solution, powder, or in any other form, it is certainly not a panacea or cure-all, nor will its application or use make all types of plants grow better. It does not take the place of mineral fertilizers essential to plant growth. If these are not already present in the soil they must be added whether Vitamin Bj (thiaminchloride) is applied or not. ''Keys" To Deficiencies Only the plant itself can tell the whole story of what plant food is lacking in the soil in which it grows. Chemical soil tests show what elements are in the soil, but do not, as a rule, give an accurate measure of how much of each element is available to the plant. After 20 years of research with tobacco, scien- tists of the Department of Agriculture have worked out a""key" to deficiencies of nine essen- tial plant nutrients on the basis of certain symptoms evident upon close examination of the leaves, stems, and roots of the plant. They have found, for instance, that the symp- toms of a lack of potassium in tobacco and of "potash hunger" of cotton are similar. Other plants may not show these symptoms so readily, but a thorough knowledge of the tobacco plant habits may be the key to nutrient deficiency problems of other plants. When an element is deficient, there is a reduction in growth of the plant and a typical reaction. When there is not enough nitrogen, for example, the plant shows light green color; a la< k of phosphorus makes the plant dark green, and causes it to remain immature. When nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, or magnesium are absent, the older, or lower, leaves or the whole plant may be affected. Lack of calcium, boron, manganese, sulphur, and iron affects in the initial stages the upper and bud leaves of the plant. A deficiency of iron may be noted as the young leaves lack green color and the principal veins are darker green than tissue between the veins. When the veins lose their color all of the leaf tissue is white or yellow. Neither the size nor the age of the plant alters the effects due to the deficiency of an element. They may show up at any time from the seedling stage to maturity. When more than one element is deficient there is a greater reduction in growth, although the visible symptoms are those charac- teristic of the element lacking most. Once nutrient deficiency problems of plants are solved, the plant — like an animal on a balanced ration — will be in better physical condition and will be more able to withstand disease and insect pests. Other Prospects Examples of further new knowledge about plants: A patent has been granted to the discovery that ordinary resin, mixed 0.03 of 1 percent in soily hastens plant growth and preserves food and humus in the soil against attack by micro- organisms. Other research has disclosed evidence that bacteria in the soil have a mechanism whereby they develop specific chemicals against man's bacterial enemies. An antidote against hostile microbes thus is foreshadowed; the chemicals may be useful in treating diseases like pneumonia and should tell us more about the chemistry of living cells. New Crops New kinds of crops are being announced almost daily; we can well believe that many more will be announced periodically. Among them are: A new soybean variety, Seneca, that is intended chiefly for use as grain and has a re- 217 ported yield 30 percent greater than Cayuga and a growing season 10 to 14 days longer than Cayuga; A hull-less variety of oats, named Nakota and released in 1939 by South Dakota State College as the result of many years of investigation, is said to thresh easily, and be smut- and rust- resistant and medium early, with straw of good stiffness and height and a yield of 35 to 40 bushels an acre; Another kind of oats, Huron, developed at Michigan State College, is said to be resistant to smut and to have a superior test weight over other oats grown in Michigan; Six wheat strains of high resistance to 20 strains of rust, developed at the Dominion Rust Re- search Laboratory in Winnipeg; A popcorn cross for which its sponsor, the Minnesota Experiment Station, claims a 16 percent better yield, 29 percent greater popping volume, earlier maturity than open-pollinated varieties, and a lower susceptibility to smut; New varieties of cotton, barley, rice, flax, potatoes, sugar beet, alfalfa and sorghum, an- nounced by various experiment stations since 1938. Foods An example of efforts to discover new foods is the finding that grass, which has high vitamin content, can be made into palatable food. Three scientists of Kansas City reported that their work was "the first successful scientific effort to transmit the unique properties of grass direcdy into human nutrition'' and that the vitamin content of grass and leaves is much greater than that of 4 standard classes into which fruits and vegetables are divided. Grass and leaves on an equal-weight basis are said to contain 280,000 international units of vitamin A, while potatoes contain only 1,000 units, tomatoes and citrus fruits 2,000, leafy vege- tables 12,000, and other fruits and vegetables 1,290. It was reported that grasses contain 1,300 international units of Vitamin B u about 10 times the amount obtainable from any other vegetables and fruits. A method of preserving food is by vacuum drying, to supplement frozen packing, in which storage at low temperatures makes it difficult to maintain some desirable properties of food- stuffs. But if the moisture present as ice in the frozen foods is removed by evaporation in a high vacuum, the dessicated products can be transported and stored without the need for refrigeration. There is also a large saving of weight. Other experiments and developments involving foods are: The use of soybeans for salad emulsions; the reintroduction of the im- portant wheat germ into flour, from which milling often removes it; bread baking demon- strations to test wheat and to teach principles of wheat improvement; the discovery of a product, called avenex, made from oat grain, to prevent flavor changes of foods, including ice cream, lard, potato chips, peanuts, oils, candy, and coffee; and the door-to-door selling from refrigerated trucks of frozen-packed complete dinners which may include 1 pound of fillet of sole, a package of asparagus and one package each of peas, corn and asparagus, with string beans or spinach as alternates, all for 89 cents, as in a suburb of Philadelphia. Biochemical studies in the relative protein value of various foods show that a diet consisting wholly of vegetables provides the body with a much lower protein intake value than a diet that also includes meats and other proteins of animal origin; the point is of especial im- portance in warmer regions where the provision of a fully adequate protein supply can be a problem. A method of determining protein in wheat flour has been developed through the use of the electric eye or photoelectric cell. After the ex- traction of the protein from the flour and its pre- cipitation, the ray is passed through a given quantity, and its optical density automatically measures the gluten protein content of the flour. The new process saves time, space, and money, and efforts are being made to adapt the new method to determine the protein content of wheat in a way that will permit its use in grain inspection work. New Knowledge of Nutrition Meat and meat products are known to have important amounts of the valuable and essential 218 vitamins of the B group. A pork chop may fur- nish a third or more of the probable requirement of thiamin or vitamin B,, which often is removed from one of its chief sources, wheat, by modern milling methods. It has been estimated that one-tenth of a pound of fresh liver or one pound of fresh beef will furnish the entire daily require- ment of riboflavin, another of the B vitamins now known to be essential in human nutrition. The United States Public Health Service has discovered numerous cases of human aribo- flavinosis, curable by riboflavin, in the South. Increased meat consumption might end this condition. A connection has been found be- tween pellagra and a deficiency of nicotinic acid. It is estimated that one-fourth pound of veal and less than one-half pound of pork would meet the daily requirement of nicotinic acid. Experimental work has suggested a definite interrelationship among certain vitamins, a de- ficiency of one leading to a depletion of stores of another. The deficiency of B,, riboflavin, and vitamin A, for example, were found to lead to reduced stores of vitamin C in certain organs. It is thought that a lack of one of the yet un- identified factors of the vitamin B complex is responsible in experimental animals for graying hair; a cure was affected by the administration of concentrates made from yeast, rice bran, or liver. It has been suggested that such concen- trates may be effective in preventing premature senescence in certain vital organs in man. Research is going forward into the vitamin C metabolism of humans and the testing of differ- ent foods for the availability of their vitamin C. It has been found, for example, that frozen red raspberries are rich in vitamin C and that the vitamin is well utilized by the human organism as pure crystalline vitamin C. Other studies pertain to the vitamin C content of potatoes, ru- tabagas, and other crops. But adequate diets involve more than the analysis of records; it is not always poverty, but often incorrect use of available resources (either in locally available food or in garden space for raising fruits and vegetables) that is responsible for poor diets. Some scientists feel that family dietary studies should be combined with the examination of all members of a family to ascertain their nutritional status. Ai the Pennsylvania experiment station an interesting development is the adaptation of the photo- electric cell to determine bone density, a measure of the utilization of calcium. Investigations have shown that 21 percent of Americans have diets with average energy values one-fourth below accepted standards. Less than a third have grade A diets and more than one-fourth get grade C diets, which fail to meet average minimum nutrition requirements as known to scientists. Besides, persons in various parts of the country suffer from various diet deficiencies. Farm chil- dren in Florida and other regions, for example, are in danger of severe nutritional anemia if they live on home-grown food from poor soil that is lacking in iron. Anemia was discovered in 52 to 96 percent of rural children in Florida in regions where the soil was predominantly deficient. A new study has indicated that butterfat is more important than we have thought. In an investigation at the University of Wisconsin, all of the known vitamins of butterfat were added to skim milk, in which was placed a certain vege- table fat or butter. None of the vegetable fats produced the same growth that was shown by animals fed on skim milk plus butterfat. It is reasonable to assume that these experiments, continued with animals, would show a similar result with humans. The butterfat produced better growth and better health than the other fats like corn oil, cottonseed oil, or soybean oil. Intensive research in experiment stations has brought recommendations as to the best varie- ties of apples for vitamin C content and as to other aspects of vitamins — that cantaloupes are good sources of vitamin C, for example, that certain kinds of tomatoes yield as much vitamin C as oranges, and that there is a relation between stages of ripeness of tomatoes and vitamin con- tent. It has been shown that green snap beans are a good vegetable to grow in the home garden, for when freshly cooked, one medium sized serv- ing will furnish about one-fifth of the day's requirements of vitamins A, B, and C. In canning, only vitamin C suffers seriously. A new vitamin, provisionally labeled vitamin 219 Bp, has been discovered. It is concerned with the development and shape of bones but its exact significance, other than for the prevention of perosis in chicks, is still a matter of speculation. Experiments With Processing and Foods Continuous and interesting progress is made in perfecting new processes to preserve farm products and to extend their practical use. One is the waxing of vegetables. A cold wax emulsion is applied to carrots, beets, squash, cucumbers, tomatoes, peppers, egg plants, and others. The film reduces water loss and gives an attractive glossy appearance without affect- ing the flavor of the vegetable. It is easily, removed with warm water and costs less than 2 cents for a bushel of root vegetables. Many eastern growers have adopted the practice, partly because vegetables so treated bring a premium of 20 to 30 percent a bushel over untreated vegetables. Leafy vegetables and bunched root crops cannot be waxed satis- factorily, mainly because they cannot be dried after waxing. Food chemists have been successful in trans- forming curds and whey into varieties of plas- tics, beverages, and foods, with possibilities of large markets in both food and nonfood indus- tries. One development is a mixture of con- densed whey and potato flour made into a smooth paste and baked in strips that resemble cheese wafers. A promising plastic from whey is a substance that stretches and returns to shape slowly. Rubber can be made from milk plastic and is highly waterproof and gasproof, so that it may be superior in making tight gas- kets, protective clothing, and some articles for which rubber has been used. Candy also can be made from whey. Further uses of grapefruit and other citrus fruits have been studied intensively. It was announced that a method has been developed for preparing calcium lactate and lactic acid from the juice of culled grapefruit. A commer- cially feasible method of producing oil from grape seeds by the solvent method has been the goal of private research in California, with the result that a paint manufacturer has been per- fecting a new paint formula utilizing grape seed oil. The development can be of great: impor- tance because California vintners had 800,000 tons of wine grapes unused from the 1939 crop. An important achievement is the synthesizing of starch from glucose, a form of sugar, an- nounced by a British chemist, who thus was said to have duplicated in the laboratory a process occurring only in plants. Only 20 grains of synthetic starch were produced, but it meant another successful attempt to fathom the mystery of life. At Experiment Stations Much research is going on in experiment stations throughout the country. A list of the investigations, taken from the 1939 report of the Chief of the Office of Experiment Stations, indicates the scope of some of the work related to foods: Vegetable breeding: Research to determine genetic principles underlying the inheritance of vegetables grown in the South and the method of inheritance in watermelons and other plants of weight and shape of fruit, color and length of seed, and sex variations in flowers. Pasture improvement: Investigations to ascer- tain new facts about improved pasture plants in 12 Northeastern States; the problem of self- sterility, important for certain grasses and clovers; crosses between perennial ryegrass and meadow fescue; diseases of pasture plants; re- search to determine for several grasses the effect of cold, length of day, intensity of light, and nutrient concentrations on growth and com- position. Soybean industrial products: Conditions for the dispersion and precipitation of soybean pro- tein; dispersion of soybean meal in formaldehyde for use in developing a laminated board and plastic with leather scrap filler; stability of fats and oils; backcrossing to develop improved com- mercial varieties. Swine-breeding improvement: To develop in- breeding Poland China and Duroc Jersey swine; to fix genes for desirable characters to test the effect of selection on the rate and economy of gain in two lines of Hampshires, one a rapid-gain line and the other a slow-gain line. Relation of soils to plant, animal, and human 220 nutrition: To determine bases for the evidence that physiological disorders are common among man and animals in certain sections of the country but do not occur in others, and that some soils contain undesirable elements that inhibit plant growth and adversely affect animal growth; research on the problem of the occur- rence, availability, absorption, utilization, and knowledge of the mineral elements in plant and animal nutrition and of methods of replenishing these elements and modifying the chemical com- position and growth substances of plants used for animal and human food. Deterioration of vegetable seeds: To study the quick deterioration of vegetable seeds in warm, humid regions and methods for its prevention, the proper conditions for preventing damaging increases in moisture content of seeds and to know how quickly and at what temperatures high moisture content can be reduced to a safe level without harm to seeds. Grain storage on the farm: To ascertain types of storage structures that will best preserve and improve quality; the maximum moisture content for safe storage for various periods; the develop- ment of effective methods for reducing moisture content; and the part played by micro-organisms in the deterioration of stored grains. Effects of light upon growth and reproduction of plants: To learn the relation between length of day and time of flowering; to test new varieties and promising strains under controlled condi- tions to determine their adaptability for use in different sections. - New Processes A business firm in Mexico has announced plans for establishing a plant to manufacture from cactus a product with the properties and uses of a common plastic. A new method for cracking English walnuts has been developed in California. A gas mix- ture introduced between the shells and kernels is exploded in a flame so that about 60 percent of the kernels are liberated in whole or half pieces. Research is going on to find a perfectly satis- factory package for frozen packed foods. Most efforts are being expended upon developing a better inner liner or bag; other experiments seek to perfect cans out of fiber board. In line wiili this is the development of paper milk-containers of different stocks, all of which were found to give greater protection from the effect of light rays than did bottles. Paper and paper board for use in the food packaging industries are arousing increasing interest, and methods of bacteriological paper analysis are being de- veloped. A new cardboard container for pro- cessed cheese is intended to take the place of wooden boxes. Scientists have made experimentally a wool- like fiber from soybeans. The result is said to re- semble silk. Liquid wood is a new product described by scientists as so closely related to the raw material from which the synthetic fiber Nylon is made that it should readily prove pos- sible to obtain from it a new variety of this interesting fiber, the raw material being wood instead of coal. Liquid woods are made under high pressure by adding hydrogen to the molecules. Animals Research has disclosed many new facts about animal feeding, deficiencies, and new strains. A study at the LTniversity of Illinois is attempt- ing to ascertain whether a distinct line of faster- gaining hogs can be developed and whether they will breed true. If there is any possibility of establishing such lines, the results will have far- reaching effects. A new breed of chickens whose sex can be de- termined upon hatching has been accomplished by Dr. R. George Jaap, of Oklahoma, who started work in 1936 with a foundation stock of White Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Dark Cornish fowls. The new breed, which he has named Oklabar, has easily distinguishable markings, the male chicks being light colored and the female, dark. They have barred mark- ings and segregation of the males and females is easy. Considerable experimentation, however, is needed to establish uniformity of feathering, body shape, and egg production. 221 Literature Cited (1) Spurgcon Bell. Production, Wages and National Income. Brookings Institution, 1940, pp. 164-184. (2) Farm Implement News, April 6, 1939. (3) United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Reports on the Manufacture and Sale of Farm Equipment and Related Products for 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1938. (4) C. Horace Hamilton. The Social Effects of Recent Trends in the Mechanization of Agriculture. Rural Sociology, Vol. 4, No. 1, March 1939, p. 7. (5) Eugene G. McKibbcn and Austin R. Griffen. Changes in Farm Power and Equipment — Tractors, Trucks, and Automobiles. 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