UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA BOOK CARD Please keep this card in book pocket ■■/. ft. ■:T I i i i a ■ I r " [ K mmpmJU S C3 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL ENDOWED BY THE DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETIES DC203 •H6 1878 a 00000 44719 6 THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL LIBRARY PURCHASED ON THE DR. AND MRS. JOSEPH EZEKIEL POGUE ENDOWMENT FUND jok is due at the LOUIS R. WILSON LIBRARY on the te stamped under "Date Due." If not on hold it may be d by bringing it to the library. E RET. SuE E RET '-Ji XCD * «* Iv ^U ■ "^" *■——■- b13 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.archive.org/details/historyofnapoleoOOhorn ,.,... NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE BY R. H. HORNE NEW EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS BY S. R. TOWNSHEND MAYER ■71 ILLUSTRATED WITH SEVERAL HUNDRED DESIGNS BY RAFFET AND HORACE VERNET GEORGE ROUT LEDGE AND SONS LONDON AND NEW YORK INTRODUCTION. EMINENT CRITICS — MANY ACTORS IN EVENTS RECORDED STILL LIVING IN 1840— SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR THE ORIGINAL AND PRESENT EDITIONS — GREAT CHANGES IN MODERN NAVAL AND MILITARY WARFARE — RIFLED CANNON— NEEDLE-GUNS — LONG RANGE — EFFECT OF ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH AND RAILWAYS ON MOBILIZATION — ON STRATEGY — FIELD TELE- GRAPHY — IMMENSE TERRAIN COVERED BY MODERN BATTLES — SADOWA, ALADJA DAGH, PARIS, AND PLEVNA COMPARED WITH WATERLOO — NAPOLEON AND VON MOLTICE FIRST-CLASS GENERALS BECAUSE CONSUMMATE STRATEGISTS — PRINCIPLES OF STRATEGY — TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS— WELLINGTON'S OPINION OF NAPOLEON— NASSAU SENIOR'S— DE TOCQUEVILLE'S — GCETHE'S — REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS — ILLUSTRATIONS. OF a work which, in its original form, was eulogized by such emi- nent critics as Elizabeth Barrett Browning, John Forster, Charles Dickens, and Douglas Jerrold, it is not necessary to speak generally by way of preface. As, however, the present edition has been virtually re-written throughout, and in many places much enlarged, readers are entitled to know why such changes were needed and on what principle they have been made. When, thirty-eight years ago, the first edition of this " History of Napoleon Bonaparte"* was issued, many of the chief characters whose acts are recorded therein were living ; moreover, as the chief events described were (to use Mr. Home's words) " of a nature to call into play the strongest passions, interests, and opinions — political, social, com- mercial, philosophical, and religious ; the consequences of which are still fresh in the memory of the world, and still felt by extensive popula- * The first biography of Napoleon illustrated by French artists which appeared in this country. VI INTRODUCTION. tions ;" it was very difficult to arrive at what he happily termed "a fixed equilibrium of truth." To give a history of France during the stormy days of the Revolution, or the successive periods of the Directory, the Consulate, or the Empire, was not attempted ; the author limiting himself to a narrative of the public career of Napoleon, with, however, such occa- sional glimpses of his private life as were requisite " to furnish a clear and succinct view of his integral nature," and afford a key to the motives which inspired his policy of the hour. The sources of information then available, though numerous, have, during the interval which has elapsed, been considerably increased. In addition to the works of Scott, Hazlitt, Bourrienne, Foy, O'Meara, Sir R. Wilson, Segur, Las Cases, Marmont, Savary, De Pradt, Fouche, and Napier, consulted by Mr. Home, I have had the advantage of Thiers, Jomini, Capefigue, Montholon, Siborne, Muffling, D'Abrantes, Malmes- bury, Londonderry, Jackson (the " Bath Archives"), Sir Neil Campbell, Menneval, Forsyth (Sir Hudson Lowe), Gourgaud, and Lanfrey — autho- rities whose repute as historians and known diversity of opinion will indi- cate the thoroughly impartial basis of the present edition, and be a suffi- cient guarantee to the reader of its general accuracy and completeness. When Mr. Home wrote he instanced as a difficulty in his path the " great alterations " which had taken place in " the system of war " since Napoleon's day ; but those alterations were insignificant compared with those which have revolutionized every branch of military and naval warfare during the last five and twenty years. Breech-loading rifles — Sniders, Henry-Martinis, Remingtons, Chassepots, and Needle-guns, — deadly at an average of twelve hundred yards, have taken the place of Brown Bess, with its cumbersome ramrod and uncertain flint and steel lock, which killed at less than a third of that range; rifled cannon — Armstrong's, Krupp's, Uchatius ' — most of them steel, also loaded at the breech, and throwing twelve-pound percussion shells more than a mile* — have superseded the old bronze and iron guns whose round shot Napo- leon knew so well how to direct ; while ships armoured with fourteen inches of iron, of nine thousand tons displacement, propelled by steam equal to 8,000 horse power, and carrying rifled guns weighing from eighty to a hundred tons each, loaded by hydraulic machinery, and pointed and fired by electricity, triumphantly rule the seas as the suc- cessors of the three-decked, white-winged first-rates, which for centuries * Two big guns placed in position by the Russians near Soubatan threw shells close to Mukhtar Pasha's headquarters on the Aladja Dagh, from a distance of seven thousand yards.—" History of the Russo-Turkish War." By Edmund Oilier. Vol. i., p. 461. INTRODUCTION. vii •constituted England's " wooden walls." An army of a quarter of a million of men is mobilized by aid of telegraphy and railways in less than a fortnight, and may be marched on an enemy's capital with the speed and ease of a mere battalion under the old system.* When invading Bohemia in 1866, the Prussian armies entered the mountains at points sixty or seventy miles apart with no lateral com- munications, and effected a junction on the plain held by the Austrians — actually on the field of battle. Only the electric telegraph enabled them to do this in the face of two hundred and fifty thousand highly trained troops. The wires flashed daily to Von Moltke, at Berlin, the position of each army, so that he might regulate its advance on the morrow by proportionate steps. Had one army received a serious check, he could probably have saved the others from being compromised by too forward an advance. In other words, "he would not," says Hozier, "let the hand be stretched out further than the arm could bring it back." This pre- cision went far towards securing a decisive victory. A modern battle-field of any magnitude may comprise an area of from twenty to thirty square miles : the Austrian alignment at Sadowa, for instance, extended for nearly ten miles, — : the key of the position being five miles from the extreme left ; and head-quarters at Koniggratz, as the apex of a triangle, equidistant about nine miles from each wing. The battle of Waterloo, equally decisive, was fought within an area of about four square miles ! By means of field-telegraphs laid down during the advance, a com- mander can control the movements of troops forty or fifty miles distant with such exactitude that, as in the battle of the Aladja Dagh, a com- bined assault on the enemy's rear and front shall take place simulta- neously, although the attacking forces be separated by rivers, ravines, and inaccessible mountains.t Napoleon's repulse at Waterloo became a deroate, the French army was annihilated, and the empire fell, because during the whole of the day Grouchy, who was operating within ten miles of the Emperor's right, could not be communicated with ! * A modern corps cTarmee, sixty thousand strong, with all its trains, ambulances, transports, telegraph apparatus, baggage, and munitions complete, advancing by one road, forms a column of march twenty miles long. " If," says Captain Hozier, " only the combatants themselves and the most necessary train, such as ammunition waggons and field hospitals, form the corps, it will stretch over ten miles ; so that, if the head of the column is attacked as it issues from a defile where the troops cannot move off the road, the rearmost battalion will not be able to support the most advanced until four hours have passed." t With the aid of the same scientific appliance, lines of circumvallation can be drawn for thirty or forty miles ; as round Paris and Plevna. Vlll INTRODUCTION. But, if the weapons of war and the means of concentrating and moving large masses of men have been totally changed in character, the prin- ciples of strategy are unchanged. Victory is still generally on the side of the largest battalions ; it is still true that the best defensive is a rapid offensive ; it is still essential to have (what Napoleon III. lacked in the Franco-Prussian War) one definite object in view to which every move- ment of the campaign should be subordinate ; it is still right to intercept your enemy's communications and cut off his supplies ; to divine and frustrate your opponent's plan (if he have one) — to deceive him as to your own ; and, taking him by surprise, to strike your strongest blow at his weakest point. Of all these arts (and many more) that go towards making a great strategist, Napoleon was a consummate master sixty years ago, as is Von Moltke to-day ; hence, both will always rank as first-class generals ; Napoleon's generalship being judged, not by the changed conditions under which a commander at the present time has to conduct a campaign, but by the inadequate appliances and want of means of inter-communication at his disposal. Upon this principle Napo- leon's operations have been estimated in the present edition, aided by the keener insight which recent events have afforded into what troops under certain circumstances are capable of performing — and enduring. The fine strategic movements by which Napoleon accomplished his grandest results, such as the crossing of the Alps and the capitulation of Ulm, have been traced from their inception with minute care, but not, it is hoped, tediously ; while every tactical evolution by which in a moment of inspiration he decided a victory, such as that of Austerlitz, has been made as clear to the reader as the fewest possible words could make it. Wellington declared Napoleon's presence in the field to be " equal to forty thousand men in the balance," — because, being Sovereign of the country as well as its military chief, he was, unlike a delegated com- mander, irresponsible and omnipotent. All the resources of the State, civil, political, and financial, were in his hand ; and as all the offices and rewards of the State were reserved primarily for the army, any officer, nay, even any private soldier, might aspire to the sovereignty of a kingdom as the reward for his services. An army so constituted and directed by its Emperor in person had obviously greater incentives to exertion than any which could be opposed to it. Moreover, Napoleon's presence as Sovereign and General controlled the jealousies of the marshals and secured that unity of action which is absolutely essential to success, and which by the very nature of their constitution his enemies lacked. In England the national hatred of Napoleon and his dynasty has long; INTRODUCTION. i x ago died away, and for many years it has been possible for an English- man to express his opinion of the Emperor freely, without suspicion of resentment or jealousy. Indeed, the " exercise of a temperate judgment" on the subject is more common in this country than in France. English opinion has been happily expressed by the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Nassau Senior. " Napoleon," says his great conqueror, " was a o-rand homme de guerre, possibly the greatest that ever appeared at the head of a French army." " An alliance with England," says Mr. Senior, " was one of the favourite dreams of the First Napoleon. He believed and with reason, that England and France united could dictate to all Europe. But in this respect, as indeed in all others, his purposes were selfish. Being master of France, he wished France to be the mistress of the world. All that he gave to France was power, all that he required from Europe was submission. The objects for which he desired our co-operation were precisely those which we wished to defeat. The friendship from which we recoiled in disgust, almost in terror, was turned into unrelenting hatred ; and in the long struggle which followed, each party felt that its safety depended on the total ruin of the other."* The opinion of intelligent Frenchmen may be gathered from De Tocque- ville, who regarded Napoleon as a man who, though he possessed genius and industry such as are not seen coupled, or indeed single, once in a thousand years, yet ruined himself by the extravagance of his attempts, for he went on playing double or quits till he had exhausted his good fortune, and his domestic enemies joined with his foreign ones. " Though gigantic in war and in legislation," continued De Tocqueville in 1850, "Napoleon was imperfect and incoherent in both. No other great gene- ral, perhaps no other general whatever, suffered so many defeats. Many have lost one army, some, perhaps, have lost two ; but who ever survived the destruction of four ? So in legislation : he subdued anarchy, he re- stored our finances, he did much to which France owes in part her power and her glory. But he deprived her not only of liberty, but of the wish for liberty; he enveloped her in a network of centralization, which stifles individual and corporate resistance, and prepares the way for the des- potism of an Assembly or of an Emperor. Assuming him to have been perfectly selfish, nothing could be better planned or better executed. He seized with a sagacity which is really marvellous, out of the elements left to him by the Convention, those which enabled him to raise himself and to level everything else ; which enabled his will to penetrate into * " Correspondence and Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with Nassau William. Senior, from 1834 to 1859." Edited by M. C. M. Simpson. Vol. ii., p. 121. INTRODUCTION. the recesses of provincial and even of private life ; and rendered those below him incapable of acting and thinking, almost of wishing, for themselves." * As a tertium quid, it will be particularly interesting just now to supple- ment these opinions with the remarkably just and comprehensive estimate of that great German — Gcethe. Napoleon was " always enlightened," he says, " always clear and decided, and endowed at every hour with suffi- cient energy to carry into effect whatever he considered advantageous and necessary. His life ivas tlie stride of a demigod, from battle to battle and from victory to victory When it was said of Napoleon that he was a man of granite, this applied particularly to his body. What was there he could not and did not venture ? From the burning sands of the Syrian deserts to the snowy plains of Moscow, what an incalculable amount of marches, battles, and nightly bivouacs did he go through ! And what fatigues and bodily privations was he forced to endure ! Little sleep, little nourishment, and yet always in the highest state of mental activity! After the awful exertion and excitement of the iSth Brumaire, it was midnight, and he had not tasted anything during the whole day ; and yet, without thinking of strengthening his body, he felt power enough in the depth of the night to draw up the well-known proclamation to the French people. When one considers what he accomplished and subdued, one might imagine that in his fortieth year not a sound particle was left in him ; but even at that age he still occupied the position of a perfect hero The real focus of his lustre belongs to his youth. And it is something to say that one of obscure origin, and at a time which set all capacities in motion, so distinguished himself as to become, in his seven-and-twentieth year, the idol of a nation of thirty millions ! " But highly as Gcethe admired and extolled the heroic side of Napoleon's character, he did not fail to point out that " for the sake of a great name Napoleon broke in pieces almost half a world ; " and he declared, with reference to the alleged privations and restraints of Longwood, that such a fate for " a man who had trampled underfoot the life and happiness of millions " appeared to him on reflection to be " very mild." " Fate is here," he continued, "a Nemesis who, in consideration of the hero's greatness, cannot avoid being a little generous. Napoleon affords us an example of the danger of elevating oneself to the Absolute, and sacrificing everything to the carrying out of an idea." Later on, indeed only twelve months before his death, Gcethe thus prophetically described the influence of Napoleon's example in France — * Ibid., vol. i., p. 113. INTRODUCTION. XI that influence which rendered the Second Empire possible, and which expired, it is to be hoped, on the battle-field of Sedan : — " The example of Napoleon has, especially in the young people of France who grew up under that hero, excited a spirit of egotism ; and they will not rest until a great despot once again rises up among them, in whom they may see the perfection of what they themselves wish to be. The misfortune is, that a man like Napoleon will not so soon again be born ; and I almost fear that some hundred thousands of human lives will be wasted before the world is again tranquillized." To the trilogy of opinion cited — English, French, and German — nothing is left for me to add ; every reader of the following pages can judge for himself how far it is just and in accordance with the facts narrated. Although the original edition of this work extended to two volumes, and the present is comprised in one, a careful comparison will show that while nothing material has been expunged, much new matter from the latest and best authorities has been introduced. It may also be asserted with confidence that this is the most profusely illustrated History of Napoleon Bonaparte in the English language. S. R. TOWNSHEND MAYER. Richmond, Surrey ', Aug. 26th, 1878. BONAPARTE, GENERAL OF THE ARMY OF ITALY. CONTENTS. Genealogical Sketch of the Bonaparte Family ■••'■«..', A I Facsimiles of Napoleon's various Signatures from the late Mr. Sainsbury's Collection ... 2 CHAPTER I. Birth of Napoleon— Brienne— Anecdotes— Early Character— Paris— Gets his Commission— First Love— Authorship CHAPTER II. ^' 1 ~ I2 Corsica— Paoli— His Revolt— Napoleon's Politics— Poverty in Paris— The ioth of August— Events in Corsica- Promotion — Toulon — Little Gibraltar . 13 — 21 CHAPTER III. Napoleon's Arrest— Robespierre— Napoleon's Poverty— French Victories— Revolt of the Sections on the 13th Ven- demiare- Josephine— Napoleon's Promotion and Marriage ...... 22—30 CHAPTER IV. Napoleon as Commander-in-Chief— State of the Army— Proclamations— Colonel Rampon— Napoleon's Victory at Montenotte — First Blow at the Coalition— Personal Appearance . . , „_ ,g CHAPTER V. Josephine-La Harpe-Seizure of Works of Art-Bridge of Lodi-Napoleon's Entry into Milan-Insurrection of Pavia— Kellerman— The " Guides " 37—41 CHAPTER VI. Mantua-Venice— Insurrections-Naples-Leghorn-Citadel of Milan— Wiirmser— Battles of Salo, Lonato, Castig- lione— Junot— Napoleon's Danger— Flight of Wurmser— Third Blockade of Mantua . 42 _ 47 CHAPTER VII. Campaign on the Rhine— Moreau-Jourdan — Archduke Charles — Fourth Army of Austria-Alvinzi— Battle of Areola— Austrian Retreat-Fifth Army of Austria— Battle of Rivoli-Provera-La Favorita— Flight of the Austrians— Surrender of Mantua . . „ 48—55 CHAPTER VIII. Wiirmser's Departure-His Gratitude -The Pope breaks the Treaty-His Army-Napoleon enters Romagna— Battle of the Senio— Napoleon's Clemency— Ancona— Loretto— Tolentino— The Pope submits— Treaty of Rome — The Cispadane and Transalpine Republics . 6 _ CHAPTER IX. Army of the Archduke Charles-Bernadotte— Napoleon at Bassano— Massena crosses the Piave-Passage of the Tagliamento— Pesaro— Chiusa— Retreat of the Archduke— Austria solicits an Armistice . . 60—65 CHAPTER X. Preliminaries of Leoben— Insurrection of Venice— Massacre at Verona— Napoleon's Return to Italy— Dissolution of the Venetian Senate ... ,,• , 66 — 69 CHAPTER XI. Napoleon in Milan-Montebello— Josephine-Genoa-Protracted Negotiations-Unsettled state of Paris-Augereau and Lavalette— Cisalpine Republic— The Valteline— Ingratitude of the Directory . . .70-74 CHAPTER XII. Pichegru — Baboeuf- Eighteenth Fructidor— Moreau- Count Cobentzel -Treaty of Campo-Formio- Death of General Hoche— Napoleon at Mantua— Takes leave of the Army at Milan— Departure— Congress of Rastadt —Arrives at Paris— Grand Fetes— Elected a Member of the Institute . . 75—80 xiii xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. Politics in Paris — Madame de Stael — Affairs of Rome and Switzerland— Napoleon relinquishes the Invasion of England — Egypt— Embarkation at Toulon — Surrender of Malta — Nelson — French Army lands at Alexandria —The Desert— Battle of Chebreissa ........ j>p. 81—91 CHAPTER XIV. Battle of the Pyramids — Entrance into Cairo — Battle of the Nile— Change in the Prospects of the Expedition — Napoleon's Arrangements — Revolt at Cairo — Napoleon Crosses the Red Sea at Suez . . 92 — 100 CHAPTER XV. Napoleon's Expedition into Syria— Berthier— March across the Desert— Pauline— El Arisch, Gaza, Rameh, and Jaffa taken— Turkish Garrison put to Death— Siege of St. Jean d'Acre— Sir Sydney Smith— Napoleon's Retreat — Story of Poisoning the Sick— Arrival at Cairo— Battle of Aboukir— Napoleon departs from Egypt 101— 114 CHAPTER XVI. Napoleon's Return to Paris— Josephine— The Directory— State of Parties— Sieyes— Bernadotte — Moreau— Revolu- tion of the 18th and 19th Brumaire — Napoleon First Consul ...... 115 — 124 CHAPTER XVII. Formation of the Ministry — Debates on the New Form of Government— Sieyes and Ducos Retire— Declaration of the Constitution of the Year Eight — Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun, Consuls — Letter to the King of England — Napoleon resides in the Tuileries — Funeral Honours to Washington . . . 125 — 133 CHAPTER XVIII. New Coalition — Russia deserts it— The Emperor Paul — Napoleon prepares for War — Messena in Genoa — Napoleon in Italy — Passage of the Alps — He enters Milan — Passes the Adda — Takes Bergamo and Cremona — Genoa capitulates to Austria— Battle of Montebello — Desaix joins the Army— Affairs of Egypt— Battle of Marengo — Armistice— Restoration of the Cisalpine Republic — Victories of Moreau— Napoleon returns to Paris. 134—146 CHAPTER XIX. Plots against the Life of the First Consul— Death of Kleber— England grants to Austria a Loan of Two Millions- Austria rejects the Treaty with France — Malta surrenders to England — Second Letter of Louis XVIII. to the First Consul — His Reply — Hostilities renewed — Battle of Hohenlinden — Armistice with Austria — Infernal Machine— Arbitrary measures of the First Consul— Confederation of the North— Treaty of Luneville 147—153 CHAPTER XX. War with England— Battle of Copenhagen— Death of Paul I.— Preparations to Invade England— Fulton's Steam- boat — Invasion of Portugal — Battle of Alexandria — Capitulation of Menou — The Concordat — Return of the Emigrants — Mr. Pitt succeeded by Mr. Addington — Preliminaries of Peace with England— Vigorous and beneficent internal Government of France — Peace of Amiens — Legion of Honour — Napoleon Consul for Life. 154—165 CHAPTER XXI. Expedition to St. Domingo— Toussaint l'Ouverture — Conquest by the French — The Yellow Fever attacks the French Army — Toussaint seized and sent to France — Revolt of the Negroes — Death of General Leclerc — Barbarities of Rochambeau— Death of Toussaint— The French Fleet and Army of St. Domingo surrender to England ............. 166—172 CHAPTER XXII. Attitude of France and England— England retains Malta— Affairs of Italy, Germany, and Switzerland— Splendour of Paris, and increasing State assumed by the First Consul— Newspaper Wars — Napoleon and Lord Whitworth — England begins Hostilities— Napoleon imprisons all the English Residents in France — Seizes Hanover — Occupies Naples — Fortifies Tuscany and Elba — Preparations in England against Invasion . 173 — 180 CHAPTER XXIII. Conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal — Pichegru and Moreau — Conspirators arrested — The Duke d'Enghien seized, Tried, and Executed — Death of Pichegru— Captain Wright— His Death— Trial of Georges and Moreau— Execution of Georges — Moreau Banished — Protests of Foreign Courts .... 181 — 188 CHAPTER XXIV. Napoleon Emperor— The Imperial Constitution — Protest of Louis XVIII.— The Emperor at the Camp of Boulogne — Napoleon's New Title Recognized by the European Powers; England, Russia, and Sweden excepted — Arrival of Pope Pius VII. at Paris — Napoleon's Coronation — Scene with Raguideau . . 189—197 CHAPTER XXV. Russia's hostile attitude towards France— Letter of Napoleon to George III.— Completion of the Civil Code- Napoleon Crowned, at Milan, as King of Italy— Third Coalition against France— French Army advances on Austria— Capitulation of Ulm— Napoleon enters Vienna— Battle of Austerlitz— Retreat of the Emperor Alex- ander — Napoleon grants an Armistice to Austria — Interview between the two Emperors . . 198 — 217 CONTENTS. xv CHAPTER XXVI. Battle of Trafalgar-Retreat of Alexander-Affairs of Prussia, Naples, Sweden-Treaty of Presburg-Death of Pitt-Negotiations for Peace between England and France-Napoleon creates New Kingdoms and Titles of Nobility-Peace with Russia and Turkey-Death of Fox-War with Prussia- Battles of Saalfield, Auerstadt and Jena— Occupation of Prussia by the French— Napoleon Enters Berlin . . pp, 218—23^ CHAPTER XXVII. Prussia treats for Peace, but fails-Berlin Decree-The Russians in Poland-French Army crosses the Vistula- Cossacks of the Don-Napoleon at Warsaw-Battle of Eylau-Napoleon offers Peace, but is refused-Battle of Friedland— Armistice— Treaty of Tilsit— Return to Paris— The Imperial Guard . . . 233—247 CHAPTER XXVIII. Sweden-English Expeditions- Bombardment of Copenhagen -France declares War on Portugal- Proclamation of Godoy-Treatyof Fontainebleau-Invasion of Portugal-Flight of the Royal Family-Junot enters Lisbon —Affairs of Spain —Quarrels of the Spanish Bourbons . o • 248—255 CHAPTER XXIX. Occupation of Spain by the French-Insurrection of Aranjuez-Abdication of Charles IV.-Ferdinard VII -Fer dmand's Journey to Bayonne-Insurrection of Madrid-Second Abdication of Charles IV.-Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain- Insurrection of Cadiz-Battle of Rio Seco-Murat King of Naples-Capitulation of Baylen -Joseph leaves Madrid-Sir Arthur Wellesley in Portugal-Battle of Vimiera-Convention of Cintra-The French evacuate Portugal . 256 — 272 CHAPTER XXX. Turkish Revolution-Conference at Erfurt-Napoleon leads his Army into Spain-Surrender of Madrid-Sir Joha Moore's Advance to Sahagun-His Retreat-Napoleon leaves Spain-Battle of Corunna-Surrender of Sara- gossa, and Victories of the French Armies • ■ • 273—283 CHAPTER XXXI. Advance of the Austrians-Napoleon places himself at the head of his Army-Battles of Abensberg and Eckmuhl -Ratisbon taken-Bombardment and Capitulation of Vienna-Napoleon takes possession of the Papal Territory -Warm Italy, Poland, Germany, and the Tyrol-The German Tugend-Bund-Passage of the Danube-Battle of Esshng-Death of Lannes-The French Army Entrenched in the Island of Lobau . . 284-292 CHAPTER XXXII. Operations of the hostile Armies - Napoleon Excommunicated -Passage of the Danube -Battle of Wagram- Arm.stice-The English Expedition to the Scheldt-Battle of Talavera-The Pope kidnapped and carried to b ranee— Attempt to Assassinate Napoleon— Peace of Vienna 293—300 CHAPTER XXXIII. Napoleon's Divorce from Josephine and Marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria-Differences between Napoleon and Louis Bonaparte-Holland incorporated with France-Bernadotte elected Crown Prince of Sweden-Successful Campaign of Lord Wellington in Portugal-Birth of a Son to Napoleon-Victories of the French m Spain-The Guerilla System-Conscription of One Hundred Thousand Men. . 301-310 CHAPTER XXXIV. Causes of the Russian War-Alliance of Austria and Prussia with France, and of Sweden and Turkey with Russia -Napoleon at Dresden-The French Army enters Poland-Passage of the Niemen-Entry into Smolensko- Battle of Borodino-Napoleon at Moscow-The Burning of Moscow-Retreat-Frightful Loss of Life in cross- ing the Beresina-Napoleon deserts the Army and returns to France-A Wasted Half Million of Men 311-363, CHAPTER XXXV. NaPOle L ° o n r ; :\vT~ A neW Ar ^ f?f- TJ -P°Pe- Affairs of Spain-Storming of Badajoz-Battle of Salamanca -Lord Wellington enters Madrid-Prussia declares War against France-Rapid movements of the Russian and Prussian Armies-Maria Louisa Regent-Napoleon leaves Paris for Mayence-Combats of Weissenfels Bautze°„ Se De~th ea f D ^1^^ .* L ^~^^n at Dresden -Austria Mediates -Battle of Bautzen-Death of Duroc-Three Months' Armistice granted by Napoleon .... 364-371 CHAPTER XXXVI. Napoleon at Dresden-Congress of Prague-State of Spain-Advance of Lord Wellington-The Battle of Vittoria -The French Army retreats upon Bayonne-Lord Wellington on the Pyrenees- Napoleon refuses the Con- ditions of the Allied Sovereigns-Hostilities recommence-Austria declares War against France . 372-376 CHAPTER XXXVII. SUe Kat h zb a nd h DiSt ^ Uti ° n ° f th \ A ™, ieS - Ba " le of Dresden-Death of Moreau-Battles of Culm, Gross-Beeren, of Lei™ ^^"--f-^P 01 -" abandons the Right Bank of the Elbe-Retreats from Dresden -Battle Repeat uTont Rh n V°^ °l J™* Wu " emb ^. and Baden-Death of Poniato.ski -Napoleon Retreats upon the Rhine-Defection of Bavaria-Battle of Hanau-The Allies on the Rhine . 377-388 CHAPTER XXXVIII Affairs of Spain to the close of l8l3 -Napoleon at Paris -Declaration of Frankfort- Surrender of the French Garrisons in Germany and Prussia-Napoleon Rejects the Bases of Frankfort-Treaty of Valencay-New Con scription of Three Hundred Thousand Men-Convocation of the Senate, Legislative BodyTnd ctldl of • 389—394 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXIX. Invasion of France — Capitulation of Dantzic — Napoleon leaves Paris for the Army — Combats of Brienne and La Rothiere — Congress of Chatillon — Battles of Champaubert and Montmirail — Victories of Nangis and Mon- tereau — Quadruple Alliance — Lord Wellington enters Bordeaux — The Allies march on to Paris — Battles of Arcis and Fere-Champenoise — Siege and Capitulation of Paris ..... pp. 395 — 409 CHAPTER XL. The Allied Sovereigns Enter Paris — Talleyrand — Provisional Government — The Senate proclaims that Napoleon has Forfeited the Throne — Conference at Fontainebleau — Napoleon Abdicates in favour of his Son — Defection of Marmont — Napoleon Abdicates Unconditionally — Treaty of Fontainebleau — Death of Josephine — Battle of Toulouse — Louis XVIII. enters Paris — Restoration of Pius VII. — Napoleon leaves Fontainebleau, and lands in Elba ............. 410 — 417 CHAPTER XLI. Napoleon in Elba — State of France under the Bourbons — Napoleon leaves Elba — Lands at Cannes — Advances to Grasse — Joined by Labedoyere — Enters Grenoble — Lyons — Assumes the reins of Government — Joined by Ney — Arrives at Fontainebleau — Joined at Melun by the last Royalist Army — Flight of Louis XVIII. 418 — 426 CHAPTER XLII. Napoleon's Entrance into Paris — His first Review and Levee — First Public Acts — Declaration of the Congress of Vienna — Napoleon makes overtures of Peace to the Sovereigns of Europe — New Coalition of England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia — Murat — Napoleon's New Constitution — Fouche — The Champ-de-Mai — Opening of the Chambers — Strength and Distribution of the Armies of France, and of the Allies — Napoleon leaves Paris for Belgium — The Caudine Forks .......... 427 — 437 CHAPTER XLIII. Force and Position of the Allied Armies — Wellington- — Blucher — Napoleon takes Command of his Forces — Ad- dress to the Soldiers — Duchess of Richmond's Ball at Brussels — Attack on Charleroi and Fleurus — Battles of Ligny and Quatre-Bras — Battle of Waterloo — Defensive Resources of France . . . 438 — 457 CHAPTER XLIV. Napoleon's Flight to Paris — Holds a Council — La Fayette — The Chambers declare their Sittings permanent — Abdi- cation of Napoleon — Demands Frigates to convey him to America — Retires to Malmaison— Advance of the Allies, who Proclaim Louis XVIII — Napoleon departs for Rochefort — The port Blockaded by British Ships — Letter to the Prince Regent— Embarks in the Bellerophon, which sails for England — He is not permitted to land — Is transferred to the Northumberland — Departure for St. Helena .... 458 — 474 CHAPTER XLV. Description of St. Helena — Residence of Napoleon at the Briars — Establishment at Longwood — Deaths of Murat, Ney, and Labedoyere — Arrival at St. Helena of Sir Hudson Lowe as Governor — Napoleon abstains from Exer- cise — Arrest and Deportation of Las Cases — Removal of O'Meara — Of Dr. Stokoe — Progress of Disease in Napoleon — Arrival of Antommarchi — The last Illness of Napoleon — His Death — Obsequies . 475 — 506 CHAPTER XLVI. The Second Funeral of Napoleon, in Paris, a.d. 1840 ....... 507 — 520 Honours Conferred by Napoleon ........... 521 The Republican Calendar ........... 522 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, Page Napoleon Bonaparte Frontispiece Vignette Title-page Heading Tailpiece Bonaparte, General of the Army of Italy Heading Tailpiece Heading Tailpiece Napoleon, Emperor of the French Bonaparte's Autographs Birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, and Initial ... Napoleon studying Geography Napoleon's snow fight at Brienne Bonaparte, Lieutenant of Artillery Napoleon at Lyons Ajaccio, and Initial The Mob at the Tuileries Junot and Napoleon before Toulon " Batterie des Hommes sans peur" Muiron's attack on " Little Gibraltar" Battery emplacement Artillery in position, and Initial Napoleon and President Aubry Napoleon in Paris Lodgings Napoleon in the Gallery of the Convention Sections of National Guard Eugene Beauharnais demanding his Father's Sword Napoleon addressing the National Guard Josephine and the Prophetic Negress Napoleon's Staff, and Initial Napoleon addressing the Army of Italy Crossing Italian Rivers Soldiers reading the Proclamation The Bridge of Lodi, and Initial Bessieres Commander of the Guides Studying the Map of Italy Hussars in Camp A French Chasseur The Chamade, and Initial Surrender of the Austrians at Rivoli xn xiii xvi xvii xix xx 2—6 7 9 io 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 3 1 32 33 36 37 40 41 42 47 48 52 Provera's Stratagem Klenau recognizing Napoleon In the rear Artillery on March Cavalry Combat Austrian Defeat on the Tagliamento Capture of Sterzing French Infantry French Hussars, and Initial Napoleon receiving the Courier Junot before the Venetian Senate Napoleon at Josephine's Levee, and Initial Burning the Golden Book of Genoa >fapoleon in his Study The Bivouac, and Initial General Hoche Napoleon and M. de Gallo Death of General Hoche The Conqueror of Italy Napoleon's reception by the Knights of Malta, and Initial Napoleon's departure for Egypt General Desaix Napoleon's Army crossing the Desert Mourad Bey Camels ... Napoleon's entry into Cairo, and Initial Napoleon at the Pyramids Revolt in Cairo c Napoleon crossing the Red Sea St. Jean d' Acre, and Initial Napoleon crossing the Desert Napoleon at Mount Tabor Battle of Aboukir Combat in the Fort at Aboukir Franco-Egyptian Wit Landing at Frejus Welcome in Paris, and Initial Napoleon at St. Cloud Napoleon before the Council of Five Hundred .. The General presides ■ Page 53 54 55 56 59 60 63 65 66 67 69 70 72 74 75 77 78 79 81 84 37 89 90 91 92 93 99 100 101 10*- i°5 108 no III 114 115 121 I23 124 XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page 125 129 133 134 137 139 M3 145 146 147 149 153 i54 158 161 165 First Consular Meeting at the Luxembourg, and Initial Presentation of Sabres Funeral Honours to Washington Napoleon's triumphant entry into Milan, and Initial Napoleon crossing the Alps Napoleon's descent of the Alps The Battle of Marengo The Wall of Granite Death of Desaix Conspirators' Rendezvous, and Initial General Kleber The French in Egypt Hussars on the March, and Initial English and French Cutters Napoleon at Notre Dame Voting for the Life Consulate British Squadron rounding Cape Frangais, and Initial Toussaint L'Overture dictating Despatches The Maroons of St. Domingo Death of General Leclerc Capture of L'Overture Watching the English from Boulogne, and Initial Napoleon and the Ambassadors Napoleon at Boulogne ... Naval Battle Dragoons on the March, and Initial Arrest of Georges Cadoudal Napoleon reading Ordener's Report at Malmaison The Duke d'Enghien's Grave Excelsior ! and Initial... Napoleon's reception of Soult at Boulogne Napoleon distributing Crosses of the Legion of Honour at the Camp of Boulogne Napoleon receiving Pius VII. Napoleon in the Tribune French Vedettes, and Initial Napoleon Imperator ... ... Imperial Ball at the Tuileries Christening of Prince Napoleon, Louis Bonaparte Napoleon on the Field of Marengo Napoleon's Coronation at Milan Capitulation of Ulm Napoleon rewarding the Dragoon of the Lech ... The Night before Austerlitz 213 Encounter between the Russian and French Guards 216 Meeting of the Emperor of Austria and Napoleon 217 The German Diligence, and Initial 218 Marshal Soult 221 Death of Prince Louis of Prussia 2*5 The Duke of Brunswick wounded 227 Battle of Jena 229 Fidelity 232 Napoleon's first sight of the Niemen, and Initial... 233 Relieving Guard in Poland 236 Charge of Cuirassiers at Eylau 239 169 171 172 173 177 179 180 181 183 J85 193 195 197 198 199 201 203 205 206 210 211 Page French Charge at Heelsberg 241 Interview between Napoleon and the Emperor Alexander 243. Napoleon rewarding Russian Cavalry 245 The Imperial Guard 246 Return of the Imperial Guard 247 French Intendance Waggon, and Initial 248 Junot's March to Abrantes 252 Napoleon reviewing Troops for Spain 255 Entry of British Troops into Lisbon, and Initial ... 256 Attack on Godoy's Residence 257 Insurrection at Madrid 261 Napoleon at Bayonne ... ... ... 262 Balthazar Calvo blessing the Poniards 263 Defence of the Outskirts of Cordova 267 Plundering Prisoners after the Capitulation at Baylen 269 Portuguese Enthusiasm 271 British Troops in Portugal 272 Death of Sultan Selim III., and Initial 273 Napoleon and Alexander at the Er f jrt Theatre ... 275 Napoleon with his Staff in Spain 277 Napoleon rebuking Morla 279 Napoleon's descent of the Guadarama 281 Napoleon's interview with the Abbess of Santa Clara 282 The British at Corunna 283 French Cuirassiers of the Guard, and Initial ... 284 Napoleon wounded at Ratisbon 285 Napoleon visiting the Ruins of Dierstein ... 287 Hofer's entry into Innspruck 288 The German Tugend-Bund 289- The French crossing the Danube 291 The Death of Lannes at F.ssling 292 Crossing from Lobau, and Initial 293. Battle of Wagram 295 Kidnapping the Pope 297 In the Marchfeld ... 298 Staps led to Execution 299 Massena 3°° French Bivouac in Spain, and Initial 301 Maria Louisa en route for France 303 Meeting of Napoleon and Maria Louisa 304 The Emperor and his Nephew 306 French Cruelties in Portugal 308 " It is a King of Rome ! " 3°9 One of the Results of War 3 10 French requisitions, and Initial 3 11 The Imperial Antechamber at Dresden 314 Berthier, Rapp, Napoleon, and Murat 315 Passage of the Niemen 3'7 Napoleon receiving the Polish Deputation ... 319 Repulse of the Cossacks 3 2 3 Russian Lancers 3 2 S The Occupation of Smolensko 326 Murat, King of Naples 3 2 9 French Soldiers and the Portrait of Napoleon's Son 332 Battle of Borodino 335 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX Burying the Dead after Borodino The first sight of Moscow Arrest of the Incendiaries In Moscow ... ... Eugene's Aide-de-camp applies for Succour In rear of the Grand Army Napoleon leading the Old Guard Crossing the Beresina Passage of the Beresina Napoleon retreating from Moscow Ney defending Kowno Lancers of the Guard, and Initial Napoleon arriving at Mayence Repulse of the Prussian Lancers ... Battle of Lutzen Death of Duroc Wellington's Quarters at Vittoria, and Initial The Conference at Prague The Flag of Truce Palisades at Dresden, and Initial Before Dresden ■Mlied Entrenchments before Leipsic Death of Poniatowski Napoleon in the Forest of Hanau Spanish revenge, and Initial ... French Prisoners of War in Germany French Conscripts " Dirty linen should not be washed in public !"... Cossacks and Croats, and Initial Napoleon surprised at Brienne by a party of Cos- sacks ... French Peasantry pursuing the Army of Silesia ... Napoleon at Montereau Austrian Prisoners of War Napoleon trampling on the Shell Napoleon at Arcis-sur-Aube Combat of Fere-Champenoise News of the Capitulation of Paris The Entry of Alexander into Paris, and Initial ... Departure from Fontainbleau Going on board the Undaunted Napoleon at Elba Elba, and Initial Pa?e 336 339 34i 345 347 349 355 356 357 361 363 3 6 4 367 368 369 37i 372 374 376 377 380 383 385 387 389 392 393 394 395 400 401 402 404 405 407 409 410 4'5 417 417 418 Napoleon on board the Inconstant ... Return from Elba Flight of Louis le Desir£ *' Vive le Emperenr 1 " and Initial ... Marshal Carnot ... The Entente Cordiale Inspecting the Federates of Paris ... Napoleon at the Champ-de-Mai The Imperial Guard taking Farewell Parisians ... Highland Laddies, and Initial Marshal Ney The Duke of Wellington Hougomont French Cuirassier Charge of Cuirassiers Wellington's Advance Napoleon at Waterloo Napoleon's Flight Earthworks outside Laon After the Battle The French retreat, and Initial Farewell to France Longwood, and Initial Consultation with Las Cases in the Topog Cabinet Labedoyere's Grave Off James' Town, St. Helena O'Meara and Napoleon Napoleon in his Garden Napoleon lying in state Napoleon's Grave at St. Helena, and Initial Napoleon's Coffin The exhumation ... On board the Belle Poitle The rites of the Church Grecian Temple at Courbevoie The Funeral Car ... Arrival at the Invalides Interior of the Invalides Emblematic Tailpiece ... Headpieces to pp The Carmagnole ... of the Page 422 425 426 427 429 432 433 435 437 438 441 443 .45 447 449 452 453 455 456 457 458 474 475 raphic ... 483 ... 485 ... 488 ... 499 ... 505 ••• 5°7 ... 5°8 ... 5°9 ... 5" ... 512 ... 514 ... 517 ... 518 ... 519 ... 520 521—522 ... 522 NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON. A GENEALOGICAL SKETCH OF THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. NAPOLEON was born on the 15th of August, 1769, at Ajaccio, in Corsica. On the 23rd of April, 1779, he was admitted into the Royal Military School at Brienne, from which he went to that at Paris. Before his admission, proofs were required to be delivered at the Herald's office of the nobility of his family. M. d'Hoz-ier de Servigny, of that department, informed Charles de Buona- parte, Napoleon's father, by letter, dated Paris, March 8th, 1779, that his name was in all the records without having the article de prefixed to it ; and that although a decree of the nobility, in the year 177 1, gave to his family the name of " Bonaparte," he signed De Buonaparte. He also inquired how the Christian name of his son, Napoleone, could be translated into French. At that time Napoleon's father was the representative of Corsica at the Court of France. He sent a reply from Versailles, saying the Republic of Genoa had, two hundred years previously, given to one of his ancestors, Jerome, the title of Egregium Hieronium de Buonaparte, and that the article de had been omitted because it was of very little use in Italy; that Napoleone was Italian; and that his family name was "Buona- parte," or " Bonaparte." The Bonapartes are of Tuscan origin. In the middle ages they were eminent as senators of the Republics of Florence, San Miniato, Bologna, Sarzana, and Treviso ; and as prelates attached to the Court of Rome. They were allied to the Medici, the Orsini, and Lomellini families. A manuscript written by one of the family was first printed at Cologne in 1756, and the volume, now in the Royal Library at Paris, contains a genealogy of the Bonapartes, which is carried back to a very remote period, and describes them as one of the most illustrious houses of Tuscany. Napoleon's father was born in 1745 ; he married in 1767, and died in 1785, at the age of forty; leaving five sons and three daughters, viz., Joseph, born 1768, died 1844; Napoleon, born 1769, died 1821; Lucien, born 1775, died 1840; Louis, born 1778, died 1846; Jerome, born 1784, died r86o; Eliza, born 1777, died 1820; Pauline, born 1780, died 1825; and Caroline, born 1782, died 1839. Napoleon's mother was born in 1750, married at the age of seventeen years, and died in 1836, in her eighty-sixth year — in the same month of the year as her husband. Napoleon was born in the same month of the year as his mother. He married Josephine on the 8th March, 1796; and Maria Louisa (Berthier being his proxy at Vienna), nth March, 1810. Lucien's title of Prince of Canino was conferred on him by Pope Pius VII. By the Treaty of Paris, in 1814, it was stipulated — having been proposed by the Emperor Alexander of Russia — that the whole of the Bonaparte family should retain the titles of Prince and Princess. The late Emperor Napoleon III., born 1808, died 1873, was the third son of Louis and Hortense. FACSIMILES NAPOLEON'S VARIOUS SIGNATURES. COPIED BY PERMISSION FROM THE COLLECTION IN THE POSSESSION OF THE LATE MR. SAINSBURY. IN the year 1785, Napoleon left the Military School of Paris, and was admitted as second lieutenant into the regiment De la Fere; at that time he thus concluded a letter to his father : — [Votre tres humble Buonaparte fils cadete gentilhomme a' l'Ecole Royale Militaire de Paris.] When in command of the artillery at the siege of Toulon, in 1793, he signed at that time — On the 5th October, 1795, Napoleon commanded, under Barras, the army of the Convention against the sections of Paris, and was by them promoted to the rank of a general of division. The Convention shortly afterwards named him to the chief command of the army of the interior ; Napoleon had, up to this period, retained the letter u in spelling his name. The official letters are headed " Buonaparte, General-in- Chief de l'Armee d'Interieur;" and his despatches are signed — [Citizen Buonaparte.] FACSIMILES OF NAPOLEON'S VARIOUS SIGNATURES. The last signature is at the end of the " Note sur l'Armee d'ltalie " of three pages, which Napoleon dated thus : — [29 Nivose.] On the 29th Nivose, in the fourth year of the Republic (19th of January, 1796), Napoleon signed like the pre- ceding, his plan for the invasion of Italy, to the Minister of War. In the Memorial of St. Helena (vol. i., p. 132, French edition, 1823), Napo- leon, it is stated, during his youth signed Buonaparte, like his father, and did not alter his signature until after he was promoted to the command of the army of Italy, to which he was appointed general-in-chief 23rd of February 1796, and continued to sign Buonaparte up to the 29th of the same month. His principal object for omitting the u was to shorten his signature. Among Mr. Sainsbury's manuscripts are two of Napoleon's letters, both bear- ing the same date, viz., " Head-quarters, Paris, 11 Ventose, An. iv. (1st March, 1796)." One of them has 11 p.m. added to the date ; both are addressed to the Commissary of War, demanding certain books and maps for his journey. They are signed " Bonaparte " and " Buona- parte." Napoleon joined the army of Italy on March nth, 1796; and in the first letter he sent to the Executive Directory from his head-quarters, at Nice, on the 28th, he informs them of having taken the command of the army on the pre- ceding day, and signs thus : — ■"s=a» [Bonaparte. From that time his official letters were headed "Bonaparte, General-in- Chief of the Army of Italy •" and from his head-quarters at Carcare, Napoleon reports the battle of Montenotte, which opened the campaign of Italy, to the Directory at Paris, in a letter dated April 14th, 1796, and signed — In his celebrated proclamation at Milan, on the 20th of May, 1796, Na- poleon thus addressed his army : — "Soldiers, you have precipitated your- selves like a torrent from the top of the Appenines. Milan is yours ! " and signs — As general-in-chief of the French army in Egypt, Napoleon also signs — From Cairo, on the 30th of Jul y, 1798, also as First Consul and Consul for Life of the Republic of France, Napoleon signed thus : — From his accession to the imperial dignity, the Emperor signed thus : — Napoleon's proclamation after the battle of Austerlitz, dated from the im- perial camp, on the 3rd of December, 1805, was signed — THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. From the campaign of 1806, he signs only the first letters of his name, thus : — On the 27th of January, 1807, from Warsaw, thus : — in On the 26th of October, 1806, from Potsdam, the Emperor signed thus : — From the imperial camp at Tilsit, on the 22nd of June, 1807, the Emperor signed only the initials of his name, as under, and very seldom afterwards in full :— And on the 29th of October, 1806, from Berlin, thus : — On the 7 th of December, 1808, from Madrid, thus : — At the commencement of the campaign of 1809, on the 18th ol April, the Emperor wrote to Marshal Massena, from Donawerth, as follows :— [Activity, activity, celerity. I recommend myself to you. — Napoleon From the imperial camp at Ratisbon, on the 24th of April, 1809, the Emperor addressed a proclamation to the army, ending thus: — "Before a month has elapsed I shall be at Vienna;" and sisrned it thus : — FACSIMILES OF NAPOLEON'S VARIOUS SIGNATURES. 5 In less than three weeks afterwards the French army was at Vienna, and the Emperor signed his decrees from the Palace of Schonbrunn, on the 13th of May, thus : — The same variety of signatures is again found among the Emperor's orders issued from Moscow (which city he entered as a conqueror on the 12 th of September, 1812); thus: — On the 2 1 st of September, 18 12, at three o'clock in the morning, the Em- peror signed thus : — On the 6th of October, 181 2, from Moscow, similar to the above. During the campaign of 18 13, the Emperor sent an order from Dresden, to the Major-General Berthier; it is dated October 1st, at twelve o'clock. General Pelet states that he hesitated some time before sending it ; the sig- nature has been cancelled with the pen twice, and written a third time : — One of the most extraordinary of the Emperor's signatures is the following, which he gave at Erfurt, on the 23rd day of October, 181 3, at twelve o'clock: On the 4th of April, 18 14, from Fon- tainebleau, thus : — On the 9th of September, 18 14, from Longone, Isle of Elba, thus : — From the Isle of Aix, on the 14th of July, 1815, the Emperor's letter to the Prince Regent of England is signed thus : — %> From Longwood, St. He- lena, the Emperor, on the nth of December, 18 16, sent to the Count de Las Cases a con- solatory letter, on the latter 6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. being ordered to leave the island. The letter was only signed by Napoleon, and this was his first signature at St. Helena : — The following is the concluding part of Napoleon's Will, which is preserved in the Prerogative Office, Doctors' Commons, London : [Ceci est mon testament 6crit tout entire de ma propre main. — Napoleon.] BIRTHPLACE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. CHAPTER I. BIRTH OF NAPOLEON— BRIENNE— ANECDOTES— HIS EARLY CHARACTER— PARIS— GETS HIS COMMISSION — HIS FIRST LOVE — AUTHORSHIP. "jVTAPOLEON BONAPARTE was born on the -L ^ 1 5th of August, 1769, at Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica. His ancestors, on the mother's I side, were Neapolitans; on his father's they were members of certain noble houses of San Miniato, in Tuscany. The majority of his biographers endeavour to show that his descent was illustrious, if not slightly tinged with royalty. The name of Bonaparte stands high among the senators in the "Golden Book " of Bologna ; but there is no proof that Napoleon was lineally descended from that family. Charles Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon, was a man of good intellect and education — possessing much eloquence, a dignified ad- dress, and unaffected vivacity. He was an advocate in the Royal Court of Assize. He manifested his patriotism and energy in the struggle of the Corsicans under Paoli against the barter of their country by the Genoese to the French, through the diplomatic manoeuvre of the Duke de Choiseul. To the scene of warfare in which he had taken so prominent a part, he was accompanied by his wife, Letitia Ramolini, a lady of superior mind and much beauty and courage, who often shared his fatigues and dangers. The French won the battle of Ponte Nuovo, which decided the fate of the Cor- sicans ; and Letitia Ramolini, then enceinte, was compelled to take refuge among the mountains of Ronda, whence she regained Ajaccio in safety. Here, being anxious to attend mass at the celebration of the Assumption, she went forth at an imprudent period ; was overtaken with sudden pains, returned home in haste, but 7 8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. was unable to reach her chamber in time. The mother and her offspring were found lying upon a carpet in an adjacent room, Letitia Ramolini having there given birth to a son. This child was called Napoleon, after one of the Italian Bonaparte family. A Saint Napoleone once existed in the Romish calendar, but had fallen out by some accident or neglect. In after times the Pope restored the saint to his former rank, in compliment to his namesake. Many prognostics were made concerning Napoleon ; some of which would cer- tainly never have come to light had he not accomplished the alleged predictions, while others were evidently founded on observation of his early character. Among the former we may class the predictions said to have been founded on the circum- stances attending his birth. M. de Las Cases, for instance, having discovered that the carpet on which the future conqueror first saw the light was covered with antique figures, illustrative of certain fables or allegories, suggests that they were, "perhaps," some of the heroes of Homer's Iliad. Subsequent biographers, over- looking the " perhaps," have adopted this fancy. Among the admissible class of these pre-visions is the opinion delivered by his great -uncle, the Archdeacon Lucien, when on his death-bed. The archdeacon, who had been the preceptor and adviser of his relations, always considered Napoleon (the second son of Charles Bonaparte) as the head of the family : and so convinced was he of the true grounds of his impression, that he exhorted the elder brother, Joseph, never to forget that fact. Alluding to his childhood, Napoleon said, " I was an obstinate and inquisitive child. I was extremely headstrong ; nothing overawed me, nothing disconcerted me. I made myself formidable to the whole family. My brother Joseph was the one with whom I was oftenest embroiled ; he was bitten, beaten, abused : I went to complain before he had time to recover from his confusion." He displayed a vivid intelligence ; rapid comprehension ; a keen, and often a splenetic sensibility ;. wilfulness under restraint ; unbounded energy ; and a violent temper. Whether the aggressor or the aggrieved, he generally gained his point. Nobody had any command over him except his mother, who found means, by a mixture of tender- ness, severity, and strict justice, to make him love and respect her. From her he learnt the virtue of obedience. In 1779 Napoleon was admitted to the Military School at Brienne, where he soon attracted notice by his reserved manners, and the assiduity with which he prosecuted his studies. He devoted himself principally to history, mathematics, and geography. He spoke only the Corsican dialect on first entering the college, but speedily made progress in the French language. He hated Latin. Bourrienne says, " During play-hours, he used to withdraw to the library, where he read works of history, particularly Polybius and Plutarch. I often went off to play with my comrades, and left him by himself in the library." His poverty, subjected him to mortifications among his comrades, who also ridiculed him on account of his country, and twitted him with the obsolete saint whose name he bore. They sometimes made insulting allusions to his mother, which exasperated him beyond all bounds. He was at this time a studious, reflecting, solitary boy, whose premature de- velopment of mind, without a corresponding clearness of purpose, gave him a contempt for the companionship of his fellows, without inducing satisfaction in himself. Hence he was grave, moody, brusque ; and sometimes morose from disgust with his masters, his mates, himself, and his position. He felt a power within, but could not see his way; and in spite of his devotion to the exact sciences, the hot imagination of youth got the better of his understanding. The saturnine boy was not suffered to remain unmolested in his solitary moods, as sundry bickerings attest ; but in general he withdrew himself from all com- panionship in silent scorn. If he revenged himself, he did it openly. He had occasionally to superintend certain tasks or duties. However he disliked his com- I779-84-] STUDENT LIFE AT BRIENNE. rades, he never reported their misdemeanours — contemptuously preferring to go to prison himself. He and Bourrienne were once placed as superintendents of some duty, which being neglected, Napoleon persuaded the latter to accompany him to prison rather than report the offenders. They remained ten days in confinement. The first impression he received at Brienne was of an irritating nature, though it originated in circumstances not commonly felt by boys of ten years of age. He observed a portrait of the Duke de Choiseul hanging in the hall. " The sight of this odious character, who had sold my country," he afterwards said, " extorted I'll NAPOLEON STUDYING GEOGRAPHY. from me an expression of bitterness." For this he had to endure much persecu- tion. "I let malevolence take its course," proceeded he, "and only applied more closely than ever to study. I perceived by this what human nature was." At the same time that Bourrienne was Napoleon's fellow-student, Pichegru was his tutor. He made few friends among his masters or his school-mates ; but some of the former entertained a high opinion of his intellect, and he possessed great influence with the latter, notwithstanding their mutual animosities. On one occasion the cadets had been ordered to confine themselves strictly within their own precincts, during the annual fair held near Brienne ; but, under the direction of Napoleon, they undermined the wall of their exercising ground with so much skill and secresy that, on the morning of the fair, a part of it accidentally fell, and through the breach they instantly sallied to the prohibited amusement.* Many stories have been invented in order to show the atrocities of Napoleon's early youth. One of these, generally believed in England, asserted that he fortified his garden against his comrades ; and, watching an opportunity, fired a train of gunpowder, whereby many of them were seriously injured. Bourrienne says, " The fabrication probably originated in the juvenile affair of the snow forts and snowballs. In the winter of 1783-4, there were immense Sir Walter Scott, vol. iii. chap. 1. 10 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. falls of snow. Napoleon, being prevented from taking his solitary walks, proposed to his comrades that they should sweep and shovel up the snow in the great courtyard, and make hornworks, raise parapets, dig trenches, &c. ' This being done,' said he, ' we may divide ourselves into platoons, form a siege, and I will undertake to direct the attacks.' The proposal, which was received with enthusiasm, was immediately put into execution. This little sham war was carried on for the space of a fortnight." Napoleon made no very marvellous progress in the usual school routine. Some of his French biographers aver that the school was proud of him. It does not appear that there were any scholastic reasons for this, though the school no doubt became proud of the association. He, however, attained sufficient mathematical knowledge to pass his examination for admission to the Military School of Paris. NAPOLEON S SNOW FIGHT AT BRIENNE On arriving there he found the whole establishment on so expensive a footing that he addressed a memorial to the Vice-Principal of Brienne, showing that the plan of education was really pernicious, and far from being calculated to fulfil the object which every wise Government should have in view. The result, he said, was to inspire the pupils, who were all the sons of poor gentlemen, with a love of ostentation, and sentiments of vanity and self-sufficiency ; so that instead of returning happy to the bosom of their families, they were likely to be ashamed of their relations and to despise their humble homes. Instead of the numerous attendants by whom they were surrounded, their dinners of two courses, and their horses and grooms, he suggested that they should brush their own clothes and clean their own boots and shoes ; that they should eat the coarse bread made for soldiers, &c. Temperance and activity, he added, would render them robust, enable them to bear the severity of different seasons and climates, to brave the fatigues of war, and to inspire the respect and obedience of the soldiers under their command. Thus reasoned Napoleon, at the age of sixteen, and time showed that he never deviated from these principles. Of this the establishment of the Military School at Fontainebleau is a proof. M. de l'Eguille, his instructor in history, is said to have made the following note in his reports of the scholars : — -" Napoleon : Corsican in character as well as by birth; he will go far, if circumstances assist him." He was as much dis- tinguished for grave and studious habits at Paris as at Brienne ; but he showed a disposition to detect and expose abuses in the establishment, which perhaps shortened the period of his residence at the college, for he remained there not 17S5.] LIEUTENANT OF ARTILLERY, AND IN LOVE. ir BONAPARTE, LIEUTENANT OF ARTILLERY. quite a year. He now began to mingle in society, and attended the literary con- versaziones of the Abbe' Raynal, under whom he read a course on legislation and political science. In August, 1785, he was examined by the celebrated mathematician La Place, and obtained the brevet of a second lieutenant of artillery in the regiment of La Fere. In the beginning of this year his father died. The regiment of La Fere was stationed at Valence, in Dauphine, where Napoleon was in garrison. He was well received at the house of a lady in the neighbour- hood, named Madame de Colombier. He conceived an affection for her daughter ; and the young lady appears to have found pleasure in his society, and to have favoured him with sundry promenades in the gardens — "where the happiness of two lovers," as Napoleon used to relate, " was limited to their eating cherries together." Some disturbances at Lyons caused his removal to that city with his regiment. While there, he narrowly escaped being drowned in the Saone. The cramp seized him while swimming, and after repeated ineffectual struggles, he sank ; but the current drifted him against a sand-bank, on which he was found in a state of insensibility by his companions. 12 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. His regiment afterwards passed to Douay, in Flanders, and to Auxonne, in Burgundy. While in garrison at this place, he composed a brief history of Corsica, and treated with M. Joly, a bookseller at Dole, for its publication. This bookseller went over to Auxonne to transact the business, and found Napoleon lodging in a chamber with bare walls, the only furniture in which was an indifferent bed without curtains, two chairs, and a table standing in the recess of a window, covered with books and papers ; his brother, Louis, slept on a coarse mattress in an adjoining room. They agreed about the expense of the impression ; but Napoleon was expecting every moment an order to leave Auxonne, and nothing was settled. The order arrived a few days after, and the work was never printed. This was not his first literary effort. While at Lyons he had gained a gold medal from the college for a theme on " What are the sentiments most proper to be cultivated, in order to render men happy ? " Both compositions are lost, but are known to have abounded in sentiments of liberty, in accordance with the spirit of the day. The Revolution had broken out, and men's minds were in a state of ferment. Napoleon had himself adopted extreme Republican opinions. NAPOLEON AT LYONS. AJACCIO. CHAPTER II. •CORSICA — PAOLI — HIS REVOLT— NAPOLEON'S POLITICS — POVERTY IN PARIS — THE IOTH OF AUGUST — EVENTS IN CORSICA — PROMOTION — TOULON — LITTLE GIBRALTAR. "\^/TTHIN a year after the commencement of the Revolution, the venerable Pascal Paoli returned to his native island. He had devoted himself from his youth to the liberties of Corsica, and had lived in England since the period of their total over- throw, in the struggle of 1769, when the whole country was annexed to France. Upon the passing of the decree proposed by Mirabeau in the National Assembly, recalling the exiled Corsican patriots, Paoli re- turned from his banishment of twenty years, which had been shared by four or five hundred of his countrymen. He was hailed with shouts of enthu- siasm on his arrival in Corsica, where he was appointed lieutenant-general in the French service. In 1792 Napoleon obtained leave of absence from his regiment, and passed six months in Corsica. He sought Paoli ; who received him as the son of his old friend, and tried, by every means in his power, to induce him to remain at a distance from the scenes of turbulence which then threatened France. The Revolution had assumed a fierce and desperate character. In its beginning it had maintained a lofty aspect, pulling down arbitrary power, abolishing notorious abuses, with little bloodshed (and that little unauthorized), and building up a liberal and tolerably pure system of government under the form of a constitutional monarchy. But the coalition of foreign Powers against this new state of things had made France one vast camp, and the French people were roused to a state of frenzy. Beset on all sides, they prepared for the contest. The frontiers were ordered to be put in a state of defence, a hundred thousand national troops were levied, and the momentous struggle began. Paoli was among the number of those friends of liberty who were shocked at 13 14 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the excesses into which France was carried. He again conceived the idea of asserting the independence of Corsica, and urged Napoleon to join him in the enterprise. Paoli was at this time nearly eighty years of age. He had a high opinion of Napoleon, and used to say, as he patted him on the shoulder, " This young man is cut from the antique : he is one of Plutarch's men." But Napoleon was not to be won. He tried to persuade Paoli that the island ought not to be severed from its natural connection, on account of the inconvenience it had to suffer from the present alarming state of France, which he affirmed would not be lasting. He saw that Corsica was no longer the scene on which the love of free- dom and of military prowess could take its stand. Napoleon's first military enterprise was on the part of the French Government, when he sailed against Sardinia and was repulsed. The expedition failed through the bad management of his superiors ; nevertheless, he brought his men back in safety. He took a small fortress, called Torre di Capitello, but was so hotly be- sieged that, after a gallant defence and holding out till the garrison was compelled to eat horseflesh, he was obliged to evacuate the fortress and retreat towards the sea. While in Corsica, he was called to Paris to answer some charge made against him by an old enemy of his family. The accusation fell to the ground. He associated frequently at this time with Bourrienne, who narrates his difficulty in finding daily funds to pay for his dinner ; his pawning his watch ; and his proposals that they should take several houses, then building, in the Rue Montholon, merely for the purpose of sub-letting them. " Every day," says Bourrienne, " we conceived some new project or other : everything failed. At the same time he was soliciting employment at the War Office." During this visit to Paris, Napoleon followed an infuriate crowd, in order to watch their proceedings. He saw the mass surround the Tuileries, bring the King forth, and place a red cap upon his head. Upon which, Napoleon ex- claimed, " How could they suffer this gross mob to enter ? They should sweep down four or five hundred with the cannon, and then the rest would run away ! " The scene was not lost upon his mind ; and he shortly afterwards wrote to his uncle Paravicini, — " Do not make yourself at all uneasy about your nephews ; they'll help themselves to seats." The massacre of the Swiss Guards, in the courts of the Tuileries, on the ioth of August, was also witnessed by Napoleon. The Royal Family, finding the National Guard had suddenly sided with the revolutionists, took refuge in the National Assembly to escape the fate that awaited them from the half-frantic people. The sight of the courtyards and gardens, strewed with the dead bodies, shocked him to a degree that could hardly have been expected from one of his stern nature, accustomed to regard the end and never to shrink from the means he thought necessary to its accomplishment. Paoli openly revolted against the French Government. He was assisted by the English, and affairs daily grew worse for the French party. Meantime Napoleon had returned to Corsica. He had a conference with Paoli in the Convent of Rostino. The arguments of the veteran made no impression upon him, and, to avoid the coming storm, he left the island precipitately, taking with him his whole family. Their property was instantly confiscated by the enraged old man ; and their house at Ajaccio, after being pillaged, was used as a barrack by the English troops. The Bonaparte family took refuge at Marseilles. Banished their country, and stripped of their property, the family of Napoleon had to con- tend with considerable difficulties ; but the Convention granted a certain aid to all the patriots who had suffered in its cause. Napoleon soon began to rise in the army, where his genius only wanted an opportunity to disply itself. Among the pro-consuls of the Convention was Salicetti, a native of Corsica, who took a strong interest in the welfare of the Bonapartes. He mentioned Napoleon to Barras, became a pledge for his ardent 1792- 3.] ROYALIST RESISTANCE IN THE SOUTH. 15 THE MOB AT THE TUILERIES. zeal in the cause of the Republic, and obtained his promotion in the artillery. Napoleon's rapid ascent of the grades of authority gives proof of his competency in rilling them ; for, in those days, if men could not suitably fill their posts, they quickly lost them, and occasionally their heads at the same time. Napoleon had not yet joined his regiment at Avignon, when he was summoned to the army of Italy, by General Dujear who commanded the artillery. He was employed in several delicate commissions, particularly in preventing the inter- ception of convoys of ammunition by the Royalists of Marseilles. About this period he published a short pamphlet, under the title of "The Supper of Beaucaire." Its subject (suggested by a conversation at an inn during one of his journeys) was the state of parties in the south, and aimed at showing the perversity of the "disaffected." At this time he contemplated marriage with Mademoiselle Desire'e i6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Clary, the daughter of a merchant of Marseilles ; but his poverty occasioned delay, and the marriage never took place. Marseilles was shortly afterwards conquered by General Cartaux ; but Toulon received the Royalists of that city within her walls, and, in concert with them, gave up the place to the English and Spanish squadrons which blockaded the harbour. The French Government made vigorous efforts to retake this important place, which contained immense naval stores, several fine establishments, and was a station for about twenty ships of the line. Generals La Poype and Cartaux, with an army of nearly twelve thousand men, accompanied by Freron and Barras as representatives of the people, advanced upon it from different quarters to form the siege ; and Napoleon was appointed, by the Committee of Public Safety, to the rank of commandant of the artillery. He joined the besieging army on the 1 2th of September, 1793. The commander-in-chief was Cartaux. He had been a painter, and was unfit to JUNOT AND NAPOLEON BEFORE TOULON. be a general. Napoleon urged objections to his impractical measures and erroneous operations. The wife of Cartaux once said, " Do let this young man have his way; he really knows more about it than you : you will get the credit." Napoleon found better assistance for his military designs in Gasparin and Duroc, with whom he first became intimate at this siege. During the construction of a battery, he called for some one who could write : a sergeant stepped forward : while Napoleon was dictating, a shell struck the embankment, so close as to cover them both with dust. " Well," said the sergeant, proceeding with his writing, " we shall not want for sand." This sergeant was Junot, and the commandant of artillery did not lose sight of his merits. Napoleon, on arriving at Toulon, found the army occupied in preparations to burn the allied squadrons, and " take Toulon in three days," according to orders from Paris. General Cartaux issued his directions to the commandant of the artillery to open fire accordingly; but great was Napoleon's surprise, when, on visiting the batteries, he found the guns planted a quarter of a league from the important passes of Ollioules ; at three gun-shots from the English vessels, and two from the shore ; while the soldiers were occupied in heating the balls at all the country houses around, forgetting they would cool on their way to the guns. 1 793-] BLUNDERING GENERALS BEFORE TOULON. 17 He exposed these absurdities, and his intelligence was not lost upon Gasparin, one of the commissioners of the Convention. The plan of attack was now the important point. From the moment he had examined the ground, Napoleon had made up his mind on this subject ; and, while councils of war debated whether to open fire on the right or left of the town, and studied the directions for commencing a regular siege drawn up in Paris by General D'Arcon, of the Engineers, he maintained that Toulon was not the point of attack at all. The promontory of Balagnier and L'Eguillette, which com- manded both harbours, was the point. " Toulon," he repeated, " lies there.'" That gained, a fire might be kept up on the combined squadron, which would force it to abandon the town, and thus the garrison would be reduced to a state of blockade. In two days after that position was gained, Toulon would belong to the Republic. After a warm discussion, this plan was adopted. Had it been put in practice when first suggested there would have been little difficulty ; but the English, perceiving the importance of the place, had landed four thousand men, and thrown up strong entrenchments, calling it " The Little Gibraltar." A serious attack was necessary to take it, and for this the Republican army prepared. Cartaux continually throwing impediments in his way, Napoleon entreated him to write his plan that the artillery might clearly understand his orders. The general complied. Napoleon made marginal comments, and sent the papers off to Paris by a courier. The answer was the removal of Cartaux from his command. He was superseded by Doppet, who had formerly been a physician and was no better adapted for the post than his predecessor. This Doppet, thoroughly un- qualified to devise any efficient plan for conducting the siege, was equally unable to avail himself of the most fortunate accident. It happened that a quarrel en- sued between some of Napoleon's artillerymen and a party of the Spanish soldiers in Little Gibraltar. The French were so exasperated that they rushed sponta- neously to the attack. Other Spaniards joined their comrades : other Frenchmen theirs ; and the contest became furious. Napoleon perceived that an advantage had been gained, and urged Doppet to follow it up, assuring him that a general attack would now be less dangerous than a retreat. Doppet consented : the columns rushed forward ; the promontory of Caire was already reached by the chasseurs, and the grenadiers were making their way through the gorge of the fort when, one of the aides-de-camp of Doppet receiving a shot by his side, the general ordered a retreat to be sounded. Napoleon was slightly wounded on the head. Doppet was shortly afterwards deposed, and succeeded by Dugommier, a veteran soldier. The siege now commenced in earnest. Batteries were raised against Little Gibraltar, and another against Fort Malbosquet, nearer the town. This latter battery had been constructed with great secresy, and Napoleon had laboured in- cessantly to have it completed, even sleeping at night in his cloak beside the guns. This battery was to be unseen until the grand attack was made upon Little Gibraltar, when its sudden opening would distract the attention of the enemy. But the repre- sentatives of the people went to inspect it, and, learning that it had been finished eight days without being used, ordered the cannoniers to open fire. They obeyed with alacrity, to the exasperation of Napoleon and the extreme surprise of the English, who sallied out and spiked the guns before the commandant of artillery could reach the spot. A sharp conflict ensued, in which the English were at first successful, but eventu- ally obliged to retire into the town by Napoleon who, perceiving a long and rather deep ditch at the back of the mount, overhung with bushes and willow-trees, ordered one of the infantry regiments to creep hastily along the bottom of the ditch, and not discover themselves until close under the enemy. Having accom- plished this, they were ascending the bank, when a single figure appeared on the top. He was instantly made prisoner, and proved to be the English com- mander, General O'Hara. The English, disheartened by this strange and sudden 2 18 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. V\T N ' BATTER1E DES HOMMES SANS PEUR. loss, retreated. Some desperate fighting nevertheless occurred, during which Napoleon received a thrust from a bayonet in his thigh, and was caught in the arms of the gallant Captain Muiron who carried him out of the fray. So skilfully was General O'Hara captured, that the people of Toulon suspected treachery on the part of Admiral Hood, in order to make terms with the Repub- lican army. They therefore placed their reliance on the Neapolitans and Spaniards. Napoleon now considered it absolutely necessary to take Little Gibraltar. Under cover of a plantation of olives he raised a battery, parallel with the English battery, and at the distance of about two hundred yards. The moment the works were unmasked the English sent a volley that destroyed all before it. The French soldiers refused to man the battery again. Certain destruction seemed to await the attempt. Napoleon called for Junot, and commanded him to write on a placard in large letters, " Batterie dcs Hommes sans Peurf" and erect it above the dreadful spot. All the artillerymen rallied as if inspired. The combat was 1793-1 GALLANT CAPTURE OF "LITTLE GIBRALTAR." 19 terrific on both sides, and lasted from the 14th of December till the night of the 17th ; but the English fort remained unsubdued. A general assault of the whole French army upon Little Gibraltar was fixed for the 1 8th of December, at midnight. Napoleon ordered several thousand shells to be thrown into the fort, in order to confuse the enemy. The weather was dreadful, rain falling in torrents. The representatives of the people, appalled by the scene and despairing of success, called a council to deliberate whether the attack should take place. Napoleon and Dugommier ridiculed these fears : the army was im- mediately put in motion, headed by Dugommier. All the promptitude and secresy of their approach could not, however, defeat MUIRON'S ATTACK ON "LITTLE GIBRALTAR." the vigilance of the English skirmishers, who had drawn themselves up in front of the fort, and opposed the French with determined energy. Dugommier was obliged to give ground, and as he was beaten back exclaimed, " I am a lost man!" — for failure might have led him to the scaffold. Napoleon, perceiving the point most open to attack, dispatched his aide-de- camp, Captain Muiron, whose courage and presence of mind he well knew, at the head of a battalion of light infantry, strongly supported. They were to ascend by the winding paths leading to the summit, and surprise the fort. The perilous ascent, favoured by the darkness and by his knowledge of the ground, was ac- complished by the gallant Muiron without the loss of a man ; and rushing through an embrasure, he was received by the pike of an English soldier, and fell danger- ously wounded ; but his men poured in close at his heels, and Little Gibraltar was taken. The English and Spanish gunners were killed at their posts. The representatives of the people, with drawn swords in their hands, repaired to the scene of carnage to load the troops with eulogiums. The French took 2 — 2 20 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. possession of the different batteries by break of day, intending to turn their fire upon the combined fleet; but a short delay occurred, in consequence of some errors in the construction of the platforms, which endangered the gunners. Napo- leon therefore ordered the guns to be planted on the heights behind the batteries. But when Lord Hood saw that the French had taken possession of these heights, he made signal to weigh anchor and get out of the roads without delay. He repaired to Toulon, to make known that the fleet could no longer hold its posi- tion, and recommend to the council of war, which met on the instant, to make a desperate effort to retake Little Gibraltar : it was determined, however, that Toulon must surrender, and the garrison received orders to embark immediately. The plan of Napoleon was thus crowned with success, and his promises to the Convention fulfilled. Early in the contest Lord Hood had seen the importance of Little Gibraltar as a position, and he did not lose a moment in avoiding the disastrous consequences of its loss. The fleet offered a refuge to such of the unfortunate inhabitants as wished to fly from the vengeance of the Convention. Many thousand families embarked, struck with consternation at this sudden termination of a siege which had lasted four months. The batteries began to play upon the fleet before it quite cleared the roads, and several English ships were much damaged. The horrors and confusion of the night which succeeded were lighted by the conflagration of all the property which it was possible to destroy. Nine French seventy-four gun ships, and four frigates, were burnt, under the orders of Sir Sydney Smith. The fire and smoke from the arsenal resembled a volcano, and two powder-vessels blew up with tremendous explosions. The Republican troops were seen entering the town at all points, while the last parties of the fugitives had scarcely reached the ships. So many escaped that the tribunals, however exasperated at the burning of the vessels and wanton destruction of property, had little work to do ; but between three and four hundred persons were shot " according to law," which added its horrible mite to the thousands destroyed by war. A family of emigrants, named Chabrillant, who happened to be driven on the coast by stress of weather at this period, never forgot their obligations to Napoleon, who rescued them with some difficulty from the hands of the mob and got them out of France in a covered boat. Many years after they let him know that they had carefully preserved the written order by which he had saved their lives. The Parisians had been impatient at the delay in taking Toulon, and while the siege was in progress, Napoleon received nearly six hundred different plans from debating societies, showing " exactly " how the thing was to be done. A demon- stration of a more practical nature was made. Fifteen handsome coaches arrived one day at the camp, filled with young men from Paris. They demanded an audience of the commander-in-chief, and the orator of the party thus addressed him, with all the style of an ambassador : " Citizen general ! we come from Paris ; the patriots are indignant at your inactivity and delay. The soil of the Republic has long been violated ; she is enraged to think that the insult still remains un- avenged : she asks, ' Why is Toulon not yet retaken ? Why is the English fleet not yet destroyed ? ' In her indignation she has appealed to her brave sons : we have obeyed her summons, and burn with impatience to fulfil her expectation. We are volunteer gunners from Paris : furnish us with arms, — to-morrow we will march upon the enemy." The commander-in-chief stood confounded ; but Napo- leon whispered him to receive them with courtesy, and he would manage them. Next day he politely directed them to man a park of artillery on the beach. They expressed surprise at finding no shelter of batteries or epaulments, but there was no alternative. Meantime an English frigate, seeing a great bustle among the guns ashore, saluted them with an interrogative broadside ; whereupon some of these valiant patriots fled at once, and the rest mingled with the regular troops. The whole camp was convulsed with laughter. The reputation of Napoleon was established from the day of the surrender of '793-J PROMOTION AND SELF-APPROVAL. 21 Toulon. He was made brigadier-general of artillery, at the recommendation of Dugommier, who expressed his opinion in these words : " Promote this young officer, or he will promote himself." With this new rank Napoleon was now ap- pointed to the army of Italy, being ordered to inspect the fortification of the coast previous to his departure. Napoleon's character at this time is thus summarized by himself in a letter to his friend " Dangeais," written from before Toulon : " I am persuaded that I alone can appreciate myself. This conviction is one of my greatest satisfactions. Why have I anything in common with other mortals ? I would wish to be completely a man apart. I possess, however, the sole approbation that I aspire after — that is, my own." BATTERY EMPLACEMENT. ARTILLERY IN POSITION. CHAPTER III. NAPOLEON'S ARREST — ROBESPIERRE — NAPOLEON'S POVERTY — VICTORIES OF THE FRENCH — THE SECTIONS — JOSEPHINE — NAPOLEON'S PROMOTION AND MARRIAGE. '"~pHE army of Italy formed that portion of the French force which was commis- sioned to defend the southern frontier, and repel the King of Sardinia and the Emperor of Austria, both members of the coalition against France and her new principles. The Emperor possessed all Lombardy ; while the King of Sardinia, as Sovereign of Savoy and Piedmont, held nearly all the fortresses which guard the passes of the mighty chain of moun- tains forming the natural boundary of Italy. He was, therefore, said to wear the keys of the Alps at his girdle. The Republic had now assumed the offen- sive, and its army, under command of General Dumerbion, was preparing to push forward. Napoleon joined him at Nice, and originated some plans of campaign, which, being proposed to the Convention, were adopted, and the French, in con- sequence, succeeded in dislodging the Sardinians from the Col di Tend — thus becoming masters of the higher Alps. The commander-in-chief wrote to the Com- mittee of War: " I am indebted to the comprehensive talents of. General Bonaparte for the plans which have insured our victory." The English, driven from Toulon, had made themselves masters of Corsica with the concurrence of Paoli, who formally offered the crown of Corsica to his Britannic Majesty. It was graciously accepted, and the distinction cost the British nation annually two millions and a half sterling. After the second year, his Majesty was obliged to surrender his prize by a successful insurrection of the people of Corsica, apparently at the instigation of Napoleon. Shortly after this, Napoleon was entrusted by the representatives of the people with a secret diplomatic mission to Genoa. On his return he was arrested, sus- pended from his command, and arraigned before the Committee of Public Safety. The cause assigned was the very journey to Genoa which he had performed by order of the Government. He was considered as one of the " suspected." While in this perilous predicament, Junot, now an officer, and Captain Sebas- tiani, formed the project of cutting down the gendarmes who guarded Napoleon, and setting him free, if he were ordered up to the fatal capital. Napoleon made a written defence while in confinement, which is remarkable for clearness, energy, and simplicity. This defence, together with further inquiry, and a sense of the 22 I794-] SINISTER INFLUENCES. 23 great value of his services, procured his release. He was a fortnight under arrest. Had he been accused three weeks earlier, during the summary proceedings of the Reign of Terror, his career might have ended on the scaffold at the age of five- and-twenty. A fierce consummation had just startled even the times in which terror had become habitual. Robespierre was guillotined. The chief members of his party had been imprisoned or condemned to banishment. The confusion attendant upon a change of men and measures was partly the cause of the arrest of Napo- leon ; but it was mainly brought about by the intrigues of men jealous either of his rising reputation, or of his supposed sympathy with the Royalists. Napoleon, when in Paris, was removed from the army of Italy, and appointed to that of La Vendee, with the rank of brigadier-general of infantry ; but, disliking NAPOLEON AND PRESIDENT AUBRY. the service, and considering the change from the artillery into the infantry a degradation, he refused the post. Aubry, an old artillery officer, the President of the Military Committee, placed himself in strong opposition to these " preten- sions," as he considered them ; and, in the heat of discussion, he interrupted an angry remonstrance from Napoleon against the proposed change, by reminding him of his youth ; to which Napoleon replied, that " a man soon grows old on the field of battle." Napoleon was thus obliged to remain unemployed in Paris throughout the con- clusion of the year 1794 and till the autumn of 1795, hoping that some new field •of action might open to him. Sinister influences, of the same kind as those which occasioned his arrest, were at work against him ; otherwise, in the situation in which France then stood, the genius he had already shown would have insured him employment. He was indignant at the treatment he received, and conceived the intention of quitting the country. He thought the East a fine field for glory, and meditated entering the service of the Grand Seignior ; and was so much in earnest in this plan, that he transmitted to the War Office a paper which he had drawn up, in order to enforce upon the Government the policy of increasing the military power of Turkey as a check upon Russia, offering his services to organize their artillery. No notice was taken of this proposal. Had a clerk in the War Office but written upon the memorial, " granted," that little word would probably 24 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. have changed the fate of Europe. He worked and planned out his idea with enthusiasm for several weeks. Wherever he might find a field for action, he always anticipated attaining the summit of power. He said to a friend, with reference to this Eastern project, " Would it not be strange if a Corsican soldier became King of Jerusalem ? " Occasionally, as if tired with fruitless expectations, he turned his thoughts to quiet pursuits. Hearing that his brother Joseph had married Mademoiselle Clary, sister to the lady he had himself so nearly married, he exclaimed, " That Joseph is a lucky rogue !" At another time, he thought of taking a house in the Rue de Marais, and settling there with his uncle Fesch and an old schoolfellow. "With that house over there," he said, "my friends in it, and a cabriolet, I shall be the happiest fellow in the world." But these quiet fancies did not last long. NAPOLEON IN PARIS LODGINGS. Madame de Bourrienne, with whom he appears at this time to have been no favourite, relates that he was frequently brooding over the unemployed world of power within him — silent, reserved, and absent. " He often slipped away from us," she says, in describing their visits to the theatre together ; " and when we supposed he had left the house, we would discover him in the second or third tier, sitting alone in a box, and looking rather sulky." At another time, during the performance of a farce which convulsed the whole house with laughter, she says : " Bonaparte alone was silent, and coldly insensible to the humour which was so irresistibly diverting to every one else ! " He passed most of his time in his own lodgings, where he studied hard ; and, being distressed for money, was glad to avail himself of an engagement to draw maps, procured for him by Doulcet de Pontecoulant, one of the Representatives. The French armies being successful everywhere, the Powers of Europe were beginning to discover that they had placed themselves in hostile array against a people likely to make them suffer for the aggression. The coalition of crowned heads had intended to put down the new state of things, and to sweep into the dust all republican innovators ; but when they found how successful a resistance was offered, they considered themselves aggrieved. Several of the smaller Powers, however, took a different view. The Grand Duke of Tuscany was. 1795] REVOLT OF THE SECTIONS. 25 the first to acknowledge the French Republic as a legal Government ; Prussia was forced to enter into a treaty of peace early in the year 1795 ; and Spain followed the example. Pichegru had conquered Holland, driven out the Stadtholder, and deprived the King of England of his continental dominions ; while the civil war which had so long raged in La Vendee had been nearly stifled by the vigorous and well-conceived measures of General La Hoche, who drove away the cattle instead of destroying the people. Wiser than Ajax, who killed the captured herds in his rage, he restored them to their former owners in exchange for their arms. The few bands of Royalists which still held together retired into Brittany, where they united with the disaffected of that province and where their leaders obtained powerful assistance from England. This great maritime ally landed on the coast, at the peninsula of Quiberon, an army of fifteen thousand French emigrants ; six thousand Republican prisoners, who had enlisted for the purpose of getting back to France; sixty thousand muskets, and an equipment for an army of forty thousand men. This formidable invasion was seconded by the Royalists already in arms. The invaders were attacked by Hoche ; the Republicans enrolled in their ranks deserted ; and though the emigrants, who were mostly officers in the ancient French marine, fought with determined bravery, the whole army was utterly routed. According to the deadly system pursued between the Republic and the emigrants, no quarter was given to the vanquished ; and that party never recovered the severe loss it sustained. The coalition against France now numbered, among smaller European Powers, Naples, Bavaria, the petty princes of Germany and Italy, and the King of Sardinia. The naval force of England, and the immense military strength of Austria, re- mained formidable opponents, with whom the French Republic had to maintain a doubtful contest. Their hostility soon compelled France to call into action the genius of the only man who could paralyse the one, and who so long held the other at bay. Events of a serious nature in Paris first brought him out of his retirement. The National Convention, having prepared a new form of Government to be vested in five directors and two elective assemblies, was to dissolve in the autumn of this year ; but, in order to avoid the risk of a counter-revolution, and taught by the experience of the Constituent Assembly (which had, fatally for the country, declared its members incapable of being again chosen as representatives of the people), the Convention decreed the re-election of two-thirds of its members, and limited the nomination of members by the electors to one-third. Another law submitted these clauses to the acceptance of primary assemblies of the people. A restriction upon the freedom of election naturally created a ferment among the Parisians. Disregarding Paris, the Convention pronounced the new Consti- tution, in all its parts, ratified by the majority of the primary assemblies throughout France. This was the signal for open revolt. Out of the forty-eight sections into which the National Guard was divided, five only sided with the Convention ; forty- three formed themselves into armed deliberative assemblies, rejected the decrees which restricted the freedom of election, declared their sittings permanent, pro- ceeded to nominate electors for choosing the new members, and presented a very formidable appearance to the Government. The Section Lepelletier took the lead. It now became imperative upon the Convention to adopt vigorous measures and enforce its authority. It accordingly called in the troops from the camp at Sablons, and delegated its powers to a committee of five, who were charged with the care of the public safety. Their first measure proved an utter failure. On the evening of the 12th Vendemiaire, answering, in the new nomenclature adopted by the French, to the 3rd of October, General Menou was dispatched, with three representatives of the people, and a numerous escort, to dissolve the Assembly of the Section Lepelletier. Its committee, however, refused to obey ; 26 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. and after about an hour's indecisive conference, General Menou withdrew, leaving the sectionaries triumphant. Napoleon was at the Theatre Feydeau, close to the spot, when this scene was transpiring ; and hurrying forth, he mingled with the crowd to watch the result. When the troops retired, he went to the gallery of the Convention, to observe what effect would be produced by the ill success of its deputation. The representatives who had accompanied Menou, eager to justify themselves, threw all the blame upon him, and he was arrested on a charge of treachery. Each member then began to name some general on whom they could depend, as the fittest to succeed NAPOLEON IN THE GALLERY OF THE CONVENTION. Menou. Those who had been on duty at Toulon, and the members of the Committee of Public Safety, recommended Napoleon, who, having heard all that passed, had already considered and formed his resolution. " A deputation was sent to offer the command to me," he says ; " I balanced, however, for some time before I would accept it. It was a service that I did not like ; but when I con- sidered that if the Convention was overturned, Fetranger would triumph ; that the destruction of that body would seal the slavery of the country, and bring back an incapable and insolent race ; those reflections, and destiny, decided that I should accept it."* Napoleon, having agreed to serve the Committee of Public Safety, boldly de- clared that his authority must be unimpeded, and that the contradictory counsels "A Voice from St. Helena," by Barry E. O'Meara, vol. ii. p. 360. 1795-3 STRUGGLE OF THE THIRTEENTH VENDEMIAIRE. 2J of the three representatives of the people had been the chief cause of Menou's failure. The members perceived the force of what he said ; and, as the only means they could adopt in order to dispense with the regular form, they appointed Barras, one of their own body, general-in-chief, and Napoleon second in command, but with the entire management. The regular troops amounted to five thousand, and, with a body of fifteen hundred men, called the Patriots of 1789, were the whole force at the command of the Convention. The sections of the National Guard, on the other side, numbered forty thousand men. The park of artillery, consisting of forty pieces of cannon, was five miles from Paris, and slightly guarded. At one o'clock in the morning the conference with the committee concluded, and Napoleon received authority to act. When he left the committee, he dispatched a major of chasseurs with three hundred horse to bring the artillery to the Tuileries : this major was Murat. A few minutes would have made him too late ; for, after he had taken possession, he met a party of the Section Lepelletier on the same mission. Upon all the bridges, at all the crossings of the streets, — in short, commanding all the SECTIONS OF NATIONAL GUARD. avenues leading to the Tuileries, the artillery was placed by Napoleon, who also sent about eight hundred muskets to arm the members of the Convention and their clerks, as a corps de reserve. He then calmly awaited the attack. The National Guards took up their positions, and it was feared that they would seduce the troops from their allegiance. Some members of the Convention thought it would be best to offer terms; others, to retreat to St. Cloud ; while some proposed laying down their arms and receiving the people as the Roman senators received the Gauls. Napoleon paid no attention to them : nothing was decided. About four in the afternoon the expected attack was commenced by the National Guard. The engagement lasted a very short time. The artillery swept the streets, and the victory was won by the troops of the Convention, at an expense of life wonderfully small considering the circumstances. Not more than seventy or eighty of the people were killed, and between three and four hundred wounded ; the troops having loaded with powder only after the two first discharges. With a force of less than seven thousand men opposed to forty thousand, nothing could more strikingly demonstrate the force of forbearance and self-confidence. _ The important service which Napoleon had rendered to the Convention was fully acknowledged, and followed by his receiving the rank of Commander-in-chief of the Army of the Interior. Menou was delivered over for trial to a council of war ; but Napoleon insisted that if he were punished justice required that the representatives of the people should be punished also ; and this saved him. Only 28 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. one man, named La Fond, was executed for the insurrection. He was an emigrant, one of the old garde du corps of Louis XVI., and had taken a very prominent part in the attack. The command of Paris devolved upon Napoleon as General of the Interior. The Convention ordered the disaffected sections to be disarmed ; and this was done under his management without opposition, though it necessarily attacked all the habits and the rights of the citizens. The scarcity of bread, which was still severely felt, added also to the difficulties of his position. He exerted himself with great address among the people ; mixing in their assemblies, and frequently haranguing them when they threatened to become tumultuous. On one occasion he was interrupted by a portly woman among the crowd, who shouted, " Do not listen to these smart officers ! they don't care who else is starved if they them- EUGENE BEAUHARNAIS DEMANDING HIS FATHERS SWORD. selves can get fat." Napoleon, who was at that time very thin, answered, " Look at me, good woman, and see which of us two is fattest ! " This turned the laugh against her, and the mob dispersed. At one of his leve'es, shortly after these events, a boy of twelve or thirteen years old presented himself to Napoleon, and entreated that his father's sword might be returned. He had been a general of the Republic, executed a few days before the death of Robespierre. " I was so touched by this affectionate request," he said, " that I ordered it to be given to him. This boy was Eugene Beauharnais. On seeing the sword he burst into tears : I felt so affected by his conduct, that I noticed and praised him much. A few days afterwards, his mother came to return me a visit of thanks : I was struck with her appearance, and still more with her esprit. " The impression made by Madame de Beauharnais at the first interview rapidly developed into a stronger feeling. Almost every evening was now spent with her ; either at her own house, where all the most brilliant society of Paris were accus- tomed to meet, or at the apartments occupied by Barras, as one of the Directory I795-6-] MARRIAGE TO JOSEPHINE. 2 9 in the Luxembourg Palace, in which luxury and splendour were fast taking the place of republican simplicity. The grace and fascination of manner possessed by Madame de Beauharnais made her one of the greatest attractions of these assemblies ; while the commanding station occupied by Napoleon, and his striking talents and power of conversation, caused his constant invitation. The National Guard was now re-modelled, and the new officers were nominated by Napoleon. In the course of the work he became extremely popular with the whole body of men, who henceforward regarded him with enthusiasm ; a circum- stance of no small importance to him subsequently; and yet not a little extra- ordinary, as there were many among them who had good reason to recollec: the quelling of the sections. NAPOLEON ADDRESSING THE NATIONAL GUARD. In March, 1796, he married Madame de Beauharnais, so well known by the name of Josephine. This union was the result of affection on both sides, and productive of mutual happiness throughout its duration. She was a few years his senior, but possessed a grace and charm of manner which, added to considerable beauty, never failed to inspire admiration in all who saw her. She had to endure many reproaches and much expostulation from her friends, who considered that she had made a very poor marriage in accepting a mere soldier of fortune. Though they could not foresee the splendour of her destiny, a singular prediction was extant at the time. A negress, who had the reputation of possessing the gift of sorcery and prophecy, had told Josephine, when a girl, that she should one day be more than a queen, and yet outlive her dignity. This romantic circumstance was known to Sir Walter Scott long before its fulfilment. He was told of it by a lady acquainted with Josephine, from whom she herself had heard the story soon after her marriage with Napoleon. With the successful termination to the revolt of the sections of Paris, the new Government of France was established. The executive consisted of a Directory of five persons : Barras, Reubel, Latourneur de la Manche, Reveilliere Lepaux, and Carnot. Tallien and the Abbe Sieyes, though not members, were very influential in all the politics of the period. The legislature was divided between two assemblies : the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred. Both were elective, and the qualifications for a member were the same in both, except that a member of the former was required to be forty years of age, and either a married man or a widower ; while, for a member of the latter, it was sufficient to have attained twenty-five years. All measures were to be first proposed in the Council of Five Hundred, and sent up to the Ancients for ratification. One of the first acts of the Directory was to confer the chief command of the army of Italy upon Napoleon. He left Paris, three days after his marriage, to join the troops. Scherer, whom he superseded, had not sufficiently improved his 30 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. advantages, and was, besides, continually writing to the Government for supplies of money and horses, neither of which they were able to provide : they therefore sent him his dismissal, and trusted to their new general to supply all deficiencies. The extreme poverty of the treasury may be understood from the fact that the sum of two thousand louis was all that could be collected to furnish him with means for so important a command. By an organized system of pillage, says Lanfrey, the Republican coffers were soon replenished to the amount of several millions ! v-.v / \ v, >^>^ JOSEPHINE AND THE PROPHETIC NEGRESS. NAPOLEON S STAFF. CHAPTER IV. NAPOLEON AS COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF — STATE OF THE ARMY — PROCLAMATIONS — COLONEL RAMPON — NAPOLEON'S VICTORY AT MONTENOTTE. ON his way to join the army, Napoleon visited his mother and family at Mar- , seilles. His letters to Josephine were full of expressions of tenderness and regret at their separation. For the first time, he was chief in command ; and for the first time, the power within him was to direct his actions, free from out- ward control. From this moment a total change in his manner, conduct, and language is to be dated ; felt by his intimate friends no less than by all who came into contact with him. " Decres (afterwards Minister of Marine) " says Las Cases, " had known him well in Paris, and thought himself on terms of perfect familiarity with him. 'Thus,' said he, 'when at Toulon we learned that the new general was about to pass through the city, I proposed to all my comrades to introduce them to him, priding myself on my intimacy with him. I hastened to him, full of eagerness and joy ; the door of the apartment was thrown open, and I was on the point of rushing towards him with my wonted familiarity ; but his attitude, his look, the tone of his voice, deterred me. There was nothing offensive either in his appearance or manner ; but the impression he produced was sufficient to prevent me from ever again attempting to encroach upon the distance that separated us.' " The same influence was exerted upon his officers. "As commander-in-chief of the army of Italy," says General Foy, "he kept, from the first, his lieutenants at the same respectful distance as he after- wards did the great men of the earth." This conduct was the result of policy. He had under his command men already distinguished in war by success and bravery : Augereau, Massena, Serrurier, Joubert, Lannes, Murat, La Harpe, Stengel, and Kilmaine, all served in the Italian campaign under the general of six-and-twenty. With reference to this stately and repelling coldness of manner, it is said that a rough sailor accosted him as he was walking on the outskirts of the town, and offered him some smuggled goods at a cheap rate. Napoleon turned upon him with a cutting look, surprised and indignant at the fellow's audacity. "Oh!" 31 32 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. said the sailor, " I have often seen you in Corsica ; and you would have been very glad to have bought some of these things for your sisters." He reached Nice, the head-quarters of the army, on the 27th of March, 1796. The troops were in a miserable condition : they were wretchedly clothed, half starved, with pay in arrears, and no means of transporting artillery. In numbers they amounted to fifty thousand. To this force two armies were opposed (one Austrian, the other Sardinian), amounting together to eighty thousand men, in fine condition, and in their own or a friendly country. Napoleon, on first reviewing the army, addressed it in a speech which was received with enthusiastic acclamations. " Soldiers ! " he said, " you are naked and ill fed : the Republic owes you much, and can give you nothing ! The patience and courage you have shown in the midst of these rocks are admirable. NAPOLEON ADDRESSING THE ARMY OF ITALY. But this gains you no renown : no glory results from your endurance. I am come to lead you into the most fertile plains in the world ! Rich provinces and great cities will be in your power ; there you will find honour, glory, and wealth. Sol- diers of Italy ! will you be wanting in courage or perseverance ? " To understand the effect produced by these proclamations, it is necessary to enter into the nature of the Republican troops. The old army had been scattered by the Revolution. The battalions of the National Guards, who, " in the first three years of the war of liberty," says Foy, " started from the earth to the number of eight hundred thousand, at the cry of the country in danger," formed the nucleus of the new army, which was constantly recruited from among the finest youths of France. No line of demarcation existed between the privates and the officers. Originally, the men elected the officers from among their own body , afterwards, three modes of nomination to commissions were adopted : seniority, election by the soldiers, and appointment by the Government. The young men of the military schools came under the last mode. An army thus composed formed one entire body. If a man behaved with courage, and escaped death, he was sure of promotion. Such soldiers endured hardships, and encountered danger and death, because they were burning for success. " How often," says General 1796.] OPENING OF THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN. __ 33 Foy, " have we seen our foot soldiers, nearly swallowed up in bogs and morasses, encouraging one another to get out of them by telling each other the motives of the forced march ; motives which their leader was interested in keeping secret, and which their sagacity had divined ! Guns were heard ; the enemy appeared • and all at once fatigue was forgotten. They hurried forward— they ran ! " This was the kind of army which Napoleon now prepared to put into instant action. His system of tactics was grounded on the principle that " the commander will be victorious who can assemble the greatest number of forces upon the same point at the same moment, notwithstanding an inferiority of numbers to the enemy when the general force is computed on both sides." Precision of plan, rapidity of movement, and thorough knowledge of the men he was leading, were the means by which he expected to overcome superior numbers and formidable obstacles. CROSSING ITALIAN RIVERS. His plan of invasion was to penetrate into Italy, at the point of junction between the Alps and Appenines, where the country is most level, keeping as close as possible to the shores of the Mediterranean ; and, rounding the southern extremity of the Alps, to traverse the Genoese territory, which remained neutral, by the narrow pass called the Boccheta. Beaulieu, the Austrian general, hastened to oppose Napoleon's approach to Genoa, dividing his army into three bodies : Colli, who commanded the Sardinians, was stationed at Ceva, on the extreme right ; D'Argenteau was ordered to march the Austrian centre upon a mountain called Monte Notte, with two villages of the same name, near which was a strong position called Montelegino, then occupied by the French; and Beaulieu himself, with the left division, moved towards Voltri, a small town ten miles from Genoa. This disposition, otherwise skilful, was faulty because, from the mountainous nature of the country, it precluded any connection between the separate divisions of his army. The van of the French army reached Voltri on the ioth of April, 1796, and was forced back upon the main body by the attack of Beaulieu. D'Argenteau advanced on the same day, by way of Monte Notte, to commence a general en- gagement. But Colonel Rampon, the French officer who commanded the redoubts at Montelegino, stopped his progress. With only fifteen hundred men, he defended the redoubts against the centre of the Austrian army during the whole of the nth. He made his men swear either to defend their post or die 3 34 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. there ; and continued to hold out till evening came on, when D'Argenteau, being thus baffled, was obliged to withdraw, intending to renew the attack in the morning. But morning found him surrounded with enemies. The van of the French army, which had retreated before Beaulieu, having joined La Harpe's division, was now established behind the redoubts : Augereau and Massena, advancing by different passes, were on the flank and rear of his army. He was obliged to extricate himself by a disastrous retreat, leaving his colours and cannon, nearly a thousand slain, and two thousand prisoners. This was the battle of Monte Notte, the first of Napoleon's victories, in which he displayed consummate skill and mathematical certainty of combination. By suddenly accumulating his force on the Austrian centre, he had destroyed it; while Colli on the right, and Beaulieu on the left, did not know of the action till it was lost. This victory enabled the French to advance to Cairo, and placed them on that side of the Alps which slopes towards Lombardy. Beaulieu and Colli now attempted to unite their forces : the former retreated to Dego, in the valley of the river Bormida ; the latter occupied Millesimo, a small town about nine miles from Dego ; having between them a strong position, occupied by a brigade, on the heights of Biastro. Here Beaulieu hoped to maintain his ground till the arrival of supplies from Lombardy ; but his antagonist had no intention of allowing him any such respite. On the 13th, the day following the battle of Monte Notte, a desperate attack was made upon Colli, at Millesimo, by a division of the French under Augereau. The outposts were forced, and a gorge, by which they were defended, was taken. Thus, two thousand men, under the Austrian General Provera, who occupied a detached eminence, were separated from the rest of the army. Provera took refuge in a ruined castle, which he defended with great bravery, hoping to receive assistance from Colli ; but next day Colli was entirely defeated by Napoleon, and obliged to retreat towards Ceva. Provera imitated the gallant example of Colonel Rampon in his defence, but not with the same success. He was compelled to surrender at discretion. At the same time that Napoleon gave battle to Colli, Generals Massena and La Harpe advanced upon Dego, where Beaulieu was entrenched. Massena seized the heights of Biastro ; while La Harpe, crossing the Bormida where the stream came up to the soldiers' middle, attacked the village of Dego in front and flank. After an obstinate resistance, Beaulieu was forced to retreat towards Acqui. The next morning Dego was wrested from the conquerors by a fresh party of Austrians, who, coming up to join Beaulieu, found the French in possession. Napoleon hastily marched to the place. The Austrians stood two attacks ; but at the third, Lanusse rushed forward, holding his plumed hat on the point of his sword, and the place was retaken. For this piece of gallantry, which was per- formed in sight of the general-in-chief, he immediately received the rank of brigadier-general. Here also Lannes first attracted the notice of Napoleon, and was promoted from lieutenant-colonel to colonel. The triumph, however, was purchased with the life of General Causse. He was carried out of the melee, mortally wounded. Napoleon passed near him as he lay. " Is Dego retaken ? " ejaculated the dying officer. "It is ours," replied Napoleon. "Then long live the Republic !" cried Causse ; " I die contented." These victories of Millesimo and Dego opened to the French the two great roads into Piedmont and Lombardy ; cost the enemy five or six thousand men, thirty pieces of cannon, and a great quantity of baggage ; and entirely divided the Austrians and Sardinians — the former now directing their efforts to prevent the French from entering the Milanese territory, while the latter strove to protect Turin, the capital of Sardinia. This division Napoleon had foreseen. Leaving a sufficient force to keep the Austrians in check, he advanced towards Colli, who abandoned Ceva and retreated behind the Tanaro. The victorious French arriving at the heights of Monte Zemolo, now beheld the 1796.] THE FIRST BLOW AT THE COALITION. 35 fertile plains of Piedmont, watered by the Po, the Tanaro, and a multitude of other rivers. The army of Colli was overtaken at Mondovi on the 22nd, and put to flight after a severe action, in which, among others, the French General Stengel was killed, and the cavalry would have been overpowered but for the valour of Murat. The Sardinians lost their best men, cannon, baggage, ten stand of colours, and fifteen hundred prisoners, among whom were three generals. Napoleon, following up his advantage, proceeded to Cherasco, within ten leagues of Turin, towards which the shattered remnants of the Sardinian army were flying for shelter. The King of Sardinia had no means of preserving his capital, or indeed his existence on the continent, but through submission to the victor. He requested an armistice, which was granted on condition of his giving up Coni and Tortona, his two strongest fortresses, and thus acknowledging that he surrendered at discretion. Murat was sent to Paris, bearing the news of this capitulation, and twenty-one stand of colours. His arrival caused great joy in the capital. The legislature had decreed, five times in the course of a month, that the army of Italy deserved well of its country. Commissioners were sent to the Directory to arrange the terms of peace. The treaty required that five more of the fortresses should be surrendered ; that the road from France to Italy should be at all times open to French armies ; that the king should break off all connection with the combined Powers at war with France ; and become bound not to entertain at his Court, nor in his service, any French emigrants. The last condition was peculiarly humiliating, as he was father-in-law to Monsieur and the Comte D'Artois (afterwards Kings of France under the titles of Louis XVIII. and Charles X.), and no exception was made in their favour. To these conditions he was forced to agree. Thus, by the genius of a Republican general, was entirely removed from the coalition the Sovereign at whose Court it was planned, and who, though a second-rate Power in Europe, derived importance from the position of his dominions, and from being the descendant of a long line of kings. He did not long survive these events. These advantages were secured to France in a fortnight. To effect the rapid movements required for such results, everything was sacrificed — baggage, stragglers, wounded, artillery, all were left behind, rather than the column should fail to reach the destined place at the destined time. Napoleon made no allowance for acci- dents or impediments. Things till now reckoned essential to an army were dispensed with ; and, for the first time, troops were seen to take the field without tents, camp equipage, magazines of provisions, and military hospitals. Such a system aggravated the horrors of war. The soldiers were necessarily marauders, and committed terrible excesses at this first stage of the campaign ; but every effort was made to prevent this evil after conquest had put the means of regular supply within the power of the commander-in-chief. The commanding influence of Napoleon's mind, his personal character, and constant presence, wrought upon the spirits of his men. He was always just to merit : every one of his despatches to the Directory relates their deeds, and urges the promotion of his brethren-in-arms. With the sufferings of the army he never failed to show sympathy, when it did not tend to compromise his plans. He visited the hospitals in person, and made his officers, after his example, take the utmost interest in this duty. His hand was applied to the wounds ; his voice cheered the sick. All who recovered could relate acts of kindness experienced from him by themselves or their comrades ; and the dead are silent. It was at this period that a medal of Napoleon was struck at Paris, as the con- queror of Monte Notte. The face is extremely thin, with long and straight hair. On the reverse, a figure of Victory is represented flying over the Alps, bearing a palm branch, a wreath of laurel, and a drawn sword. This was the first of the splendid series designed by Denon, to record the victories and honours of Napoleon. 3 — 2 36 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. After accomplishing so much, a general of less enterprise might have thought it right to rest awhile, and wait for reinforcements before attempting further conquest ; but Napoleon determined to advance without delay, giving Tuscany, Venice, and the other Italian States no time to assume a hostile attitude, and seizing on the Milanese before the Austrians could send another army to repair the disasters of Beaulieu. The next movement would be upon Rome, to chastise the Pope, with whom the French Government had a quarrel for having quietly permitted the assassination of their envoy Basseville, three years before, in a popular tumult. The French army, to which recruits were now flocking from every hospital and depot within reach, was ordered to prepare for instant motion, and a proclamation was accordingly issued from Cherasco : — " Soldiers ! Hitherto you have been fighting for barren rocks, made memorable by your valour, though useless to your country; but your exploits now equal those of the armies of Holland and the Rhine. You were utterly destitute, and you have supplied all your wants. You have passed rivers without bridges, performed forced marches without shoes, and bivouacked without strong liquors, — often without bread. None but Republican phalanxes, the soldiers of liberty, could have endured what you have. Thanks to you, soldiers ! for your perseverance. Your grateful country owes its safety to you. But, soldiers ! you have yet done nothing, for there still remains much to do. Neither Turin nor Milan is yours : the ashes of the conquerors of Tarquin are still trodden under foot by the assassins of Basseville. " Friends ! I promise you the conquest of all Italy. But there is one condition which you must swear to fulfil : it is, that you respect the people whom you come to set free ; that you forbear those frightful pillages to which some depraved men are excited by our enemies. Without this forbearance you will not be considered the liberators of an enslaved people; — you will be their scourge; you will not be an honour to the French nation ; — they will disown you. Your victories, your courage, your success, the blood of your brothers slain in the field — all will be lost, — even honour and glory. As to myself and the other generals who possess your esteem, we should blush to command an army without discipline, without curb, who know no law but force. But, invested with the national authorities, strong in justice and in law, I can make that small portion of heartless and cowardly men respect the laws of humanity and honour, which they thus trample under foot. I will not suffer brigands to soil your laurels : the robbers shall be shot without mercy : some have been shot already. It has given me satisfaction to see the manner in which the true soldiers of the Republic have executed such orders. People of Italy ! the French are the friends of all nations. Range your- selves with confidence beneath our colours. Your property, your religion, and your customs shall be sacredly respected." THE BRIDGE OF I.ODI. CHAPTER V. JOSEPHINE — LA HARPE — WORKS OF ART — BRIDGE OF LODI— NAPOLEON S ENTRY INTO MILAN — INSURRECTION OF PAVIA — KELLERMANN — THE "GUIDES." WHILE the army of Italy followed with en- thusiasm its youthful and victorious leader, their countrymen at home celebrated their successes with constant fetes, at which Josephine, her daughter Mademoiselle Beauharnais, and Madame Tallien, shone conspicuous among the beauties of the time ; their high position and influential relationships contributing to render them objects of general interest. The appearance of these ladies at a splendid ball given in the Hotel Thelusson aroused general admiration. By the side of Madame Bonaparte stood her daughter, whose deep blue eyes looked out from a profusion of silky tresses, and who appeared the younger sister rather than the child of Josephine. " Her elegant attire," says Madame D'Abrantes, "was the object of the attention and envy of every woman in the room." In all the most brilliant societies, Madame Bonaparte and Madame Tallien were objects of the same admiration. Piedmont being lost, the sole object of Beaulieu was now to protect Lombardy by covering Milan, and preventing the French, if possible, from effecting the passage ot the river Po. By a series of successful feints, Napoleon so effectually deceived the old general as to the point at which he intended to make this diffi- cult and dangerous attempt, that while the Austrians lay in wait for him at Valenza, he had marched fifty miles with amazing celerity, and carried the whole of his troops across at Placenza in the common ferry boats without the loss of a man. Beaulieu advanced rapidly in hope of forcing him to a battle under the disadvan- tage of having a broad river in his rear ; but Napoleon, who was equally aware of the danger of such a position, met him half-way, at Fombio, where the Austrians were defeated with heavy loss, and compelled to retreat across the Adda, leaving all their cannon behind. r»7 38 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. A detached body of the imperial troops, coming up after the battle, were also repulsed, but not before the death of General La Harpe. He had ridden out to reconnoitre on the alarm of a fresh attack, and returning with his attendants, was mistaken by his own men for an officer of the enemy, and shot dead on the spot. It was after the successful movements just related, that Napoleon had some talk at a bivouac with an old Hungarian officer among the prisoners, who did not know him, and who expressed his utter disapprobation of the " irregularity " of the pro- ceedings of the French commander. "The French," said he, "have got a young general who knows nothing of the regular rules of war. He is sometimes on our front, sometimes on the flank, sometimes on the rear. There is no supporting such a gross violation of rules." On entering the States of Parma, envoys were sent to Napoleon by the Duke, suing for peace and protection. This was granted, on condition that the Duke paid two millions of livres, and furnished the army with sixteen hundred horses, and a quantity of hay and wheat. A novel kind of contribution was also exacted — twenty works of art, to be chosen by French commissioners, and sent to the museum at Paris. The Duke was forced to submit to these terms. The sole resistance he offered was on the subject of the famous St.Jerome of Correggio, which was among the pictures chosen by the commissioners. He offered eighty thousand pounds to be allowed to keep it, and the army agents were earnest with Napoleon to accept the money. To their astonishment he refused, remarking that the money would soon be spent, but the possession of the masterpiece would remain a proud distinction to Paris and an inspiration to art in France. The Duke of Modena shortly afterwards obtained clemency on similar terms. Napoleon's reason for seizing works of art — those fine productions which were the pure growth of the genius of the soil — in order to transport them to his own country and there form a central school of art, was an enlarged and patriotic design ; but, on the other hand, the people of Italy were certain to be thus rendered more inimical to the Republic and the principles it was so anxious to disseminate. To oppose the passage of the Adda, Beaulieu stationed the main division of his army at Lodi ; through the ancient buildings, and between the old Gothic walls of which town, the river flows. It is crossed by a narrow wooden bridge five hundred feet in length. Napoleon coming up on the ioth of May, easily drove the rear guard of the Austrian army before him into the town, but found his further progress threatened by the fire of thirty pieces of cannon, stationed at the opposite end of the bridge, so as to sweep it completely. The enemy's infantry, drawn up in a dense line, supported this disposition of the artillery. An answering battery was instantly constructed on the French side, Napoleon, in the thickest of the fire, pointing two of the guns with his own hands. This he effected in such a manner as to prevent the possibility of any approach on the part of the enemy to undermine or blow up the bridge. Observing, meanwhile, that Beaulieu had removed his infantry to a considerable distance rearwards, so as to be out of range of the French battery, he instantly detached his cavalry, with orders to gallop out of sight, then ford the river, and coming suddenly upon the enemy attack them in flank. He next drew up a body of three thousand grenadiers in close column, under the shelter of the houses, and bade them prepare to force a passage across the narrow bridge, in the face of the enemy's artillery. The cavalry of Napoleon had a difficult task to perform in passing the river, and he waited with anxiety for their appearance on the opposite bank. A sudden movement in the ranks of the enemy showed him that his cavalry had charged, and he instantly gave the word. The head of the column of grenadiers wheeled to the left, and was at once upon the bridge, rushing forward with impetuosity, and shouting, " Vive la Rcpublique /" A hundred bodies rolled dead, and the ad- vancing column faltered under the tempest of grape-shot. At this critical moment 1796.] CONQUEST OF LOMBARD Y. 39 Lannes, Napoleon, Berthier, and L'Allemand hurried to the front, and, dashing onwards, were followed by the whole column in the very mouth of the artillery. They gained the opposite side : Lannes reached the guns first, and Napoleon second. The artillerymen were killed ; their guns seized ; and the infantry, which had been removed too far back, not having time to come up to support the artillery, the whole Austrian army was put to flight. The victory at Lodi had a great influence on Napoleon's mind. He subsequently declared that neither his success in quelling the sections, nor his victory at Monte Notte, made him regard himself as anything superior ; but that after Lodi, for the first time, the idea dawned upon him that he should one day be " a decisive actor " {the expression is to a certain extent characteristic) on the stage of the political ■world. This " terrible passage " of the bridge of Lodi, as Napoleon has himself styled it, was effected with such rapidity that, notwithstanding the heavy fire of the •enemy, it cost the French only two hundred men. It was justly styled one of the most daring achievements on record. Upon this occasion the soldiers conferred upon him the honorary nick-name of " the Corporal ; " so flattered, encouraged, and delighted were they at his thus fighting in the ranks, and placing himself foremost upon so perilous an occasion. The consequences of the victory were most important to the French. Beau- lieu, indeed, escaped, and took refuge under the walls of Mantua, after a long pursuit and heavy loss ; but Cremona was taken ; Pizzighitone, with a garrison of five hundred men, surrendered ; and, above all, Milan, the ancient and opulent capital of Lombardy, lay open and defenceless before them. During the progress of these battles, the Archduke Ferdinand, who governed Milan under the Emperor, had unweariedly invoked all the saints, made endless processions, exposed the holiest relics, performed the most imposing rites, and undergone the most select penances ; but he was shocked to find it all in vain. The passage of the bridge of Lodi, and the retreat of Beaulieu to Mantua, ad- mitted of only one answering action on his part. He accordingly retired with his Duchess from Milan, leaving a moderate force in the citadel, and accompanied only by a small retinue. As their carriages passed slowly through the streets, impeded by a vast crowd which thronged to see their departure, the ducal pair were observed to shed tears ; but the people maintained a profound silence. The departing train had scarcely disappeared before all Milan prepared for the reception of the victors. The friends of Republicanism first, and then every citizen, assumed the tricoloured cockade. The imperial arms were removed from the palace ; the nobles laid aside their armorial bearings, their servants' liveries, and all other badges of aristocracy. A deputation of the principal inhabitants repaired to Lodi, with offers of submission and entreaties for clemency. On the 14th of May Napoleon made his public entry into Milan under a triumphal arch, amidst an immense concourse of the population, and between ranks of the National Guard of the city, clothed in the three colours, green, red, and white. He took up his residence in the palace, and the same evening gave a splendid entertainment, while the tree of liberty was planted with great pomp in the principal square. Notwithstanding these demonstrations, Milan was put under a heavy contribu- tion for the support of the army. Napoleon's project of remodelling the Italian States was materially thwarted by the necessity of maintaining his troops at their expense. " You cannot," as he himself subsequently remarked, " at the same moment strip a people of their substance, and persuade them while doing so that you are their friend and benefactor." A formidable proof of the feeling of the Italians was immediately afforded. While Napoleon, who only rested six days at Milan, was preparing to march for- ward upon Beaulieu, the city of Pavia, containing a population of thirty thousand, and all the provinces around, rose in open insurrection. The populace, lashed 40 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. into fury by the priests, who incited them from "every pulpit to take vengeance upon the Republican soldiers, flew to arms. The citadel, occupied by three hundred French soldiers, was surprised,— taken, — and the walls of the city were manned by peasants. The tocsin sounded in every village, and the most imminent danger threatened the French army. Napoleon hastened to quell the insurgents before their spirit had time to spread ; having first sent the Archbishop of Milan to appease them, but without effect. Selecting, therefore, fifteen hundred men and six field-pieces, Napoleon marched rapidly upon Pavia, spreading terror and desolation as he went. The village of Binasco was pillaged and burnt, and the inhabitants massacred without BESSIERES, COMMANDER OF THE GUIDES. mercy. The gates of Pavia were blown to pieces by his cannon ; the peasants were slaughtered ; the city pillaged ; the leaders of the revolt shot. As a further precaution, several of the inhabitants were seized, and sent as hostages into France. The French garrison, now liberated, were severely reprimanded, and their captain was delivered over to a council of war and shot. During these events, uncertainty hung over the future progress of the campaign, in consequence of the timid policy of the Directory. Taking alarm at the rapid success of their young general, they sent him orders to share his command with Kellermann, who was to proceed to Italy forthwith, and press the siege of Mantua, while Napoleon, with his division, should march to Rome and Naples. His answer to an order which, by dividing the army, would cause ruin, was the resignation of his command. Upon this the Directory, sensible of their error,, 1 796.] ORIGIN OF THE "GUIDES." 41 reinstated him with undivided authority, and never afterwards attempted to inter- fere with his proceedings. Without further delay, the army advanced upon Beaulieu's position. The Mincio was passed at the bridge of Borghetto, though the Austrians had succeeded in demolishing one of the arches, which was repaired by the French soldiers under a heavy fire from the enemy ; and Beaulieu was forced to retreat behind the Adige. Napoleon now established his head-quarters at Valeggio, the position occupied by Beaulieu before the action ; and a strange reverse of fortune nearly happened in consequence. Massena's division, destined to protect the town, instead of passing the bridge, remained behind cooking their dinner ; the rest of the army were in pursuit of the Austrians. A small retinue only remained in Valeggio with the commander-in-chief. During this state of fancied security a division of the Austrian army, which had not been engaged at Borghetto, and was ignorant of the defeat, suddenly marched into the place. Napoleon would inevitably have been made prisoner had not some of his escort hastily barricaded the gates of the house in which he had taken up his quarters, and defended it with the most obstinate courage, while he escaped by the garden and, mounting his horse, galloped towards Massena's division, which he reached in safety. The party whom he left in such peril were quickly rescued by the advance of their comrades, and the Austrians put to flight. This narrow escape was the cause of the formation of the body of men called u Guides ; " whose duty it was to remain always near the person of the commander- in-chief, and who were only brought into action when, important movements or desperate emergencies required the utmost efforts. They were placed under the command of Bessieres. STUDYING THE MAP OF ITALY. HL'SSARS IN CAMP. CHAPTER VI. MANTUA — VENICE — INSURRECTIONS — NAPLES — LEGHORN — CITADEL OF MILAN — WURMSER — BATTLES OF SALO, LONATO, CASTIGLIONE — JUNOT — NAPOLEON'S DANGER — FLIGHT OF WURMSER — THIRD BLOCKADE OF MANTUA. AUSTRIA had now lost all her Italian possessions except the citadel of Milan, and the strong fortress of Mantua, the natural position of which renders it nearly impregnable. The city and fortress are situated on an island called Seraglio, in the midst of three lakes, formed by the river Mincio, and com- municate with the mainland only by five causeways. The garrison amount- ed to between twelve and fourteen thousand men. It was a matter of high importance that Napoleon should reduce this place of strength quickly, for a large army, under Field-Marshal Wurmser, one of the most able and experienced of the Austrian generals, was about to enter Italy. But to carry such a position by a coup de main was impracticable. Napoleon accordingly began a regular siege. The occupation of Verona was a necessary step, and by this the neutrality of Venice was violated without scruple. " You are too weak," Napoleon said to the Venetian envoy Fescarelli, "to pretend to enforce neutrality with a few hundred Sclavonians on two such nations as France and Austria. The Austrians have not respected your territory where it suited their purpose ; and I must, in requital, occupy such part as falls within the line of the Adige." It was by no means the intention of Napoleon to quarrel with the Venetians yet: he had work enough upon his hands. But it was convenient to maintain his army at their expense, and it was necessary for him to occupy Verona. He there- fore assumed just so much of the tone of haughty displeasure as made them anxious to propitiate him and ready to accede to all his demands, while he carefully avoided driving them to hostilities. These preliminaries being accomplished, the chief attention of Napoleon was fixed upon the siege of Mantua. His troops rapidly seized four out of the five causeways by which the communication of the Seraglio is kept up with the main- 42 =a £^§ t=;: SS8sfe§g^ 1796.] SOUTH ITALY AND CORSICA SUBDUED. 43 land ; the fifth was defended by a strong citadel called La Favorita. The posses- sion of the four enabled the French commander, with only eight thousand men, to keep the Austrian garrison, amounting to ten thousand, in check. Notwithstanding this success, and all its previous triumphs, the situation of the French army was at this time critical. The whole train of artillery at its command was employed in the attack upon the citadel of Milan ; and though there was urgent necessity for dispatch, the siege of Mantua was, by compulsion, reduced to a blockade. Meantime the intrigues of Genoa, Venice, and Rome (all of which regarded the French Republic with smothered enmity), incited the late imperial fiefs to continual revolts. Detached bodies of the French were attacked at every oppor- tunity ; a hundred and fifty soldiers were suddenly massacred at Arquata, where they were quietly garrisoned. The Pope only waited the arrival of six thousand English, whom he expected to land at Leghorn, to declare himself openly. Above all, Wiirmser, with his army, was approaching by the Tyrol, to form a junction with the remains of Beaulieu's forces, which had taken refuge there, under com- mand of Melas ; Beaulieu having been superseded in disgrace. As soon as he should arrive, the Austrian force would amount to seventy thousand men, includ- ing the garrison of Mantua. The French army now numbered forty thousand men, ardent from recent conquests, and placing unbounded reliance in their commander. At this moment the King of Naples, alarmed for the safety of his States, de- serted the coalition, and solicited an armistice, with the view to a definite peace. It was granted ; and this proved an important event, as it secured the inaction of his army, and also of his fleet, which had hitherto co-operated with the English. The Neapolitan auxiliaries immediately left the army of Beaulieu and returned to their own country. The imperial fiefs were quieted by a detachment of twelve hundred men, under Lannes, who took the most dreadful vengeance on the patriots that military execution can inflict. Tranquillity was enforced by terror. Murat was dispatched to Genoa with a letter of menace, which he read in the Senate, and which pro- duced immediate concessions. Augereau had passed the Po at Borgo-Forte, and occupied Bologna and Ferrara, the territories of which belonged to the Holy See. Bologna threw off the Papal yoke, established a national guard, and declared itself a free city under the protection of France. Reggio and Modena imitated its example. The Pope, in extreme alarm, sent to beg an armistice : to this Napoleon acceded, on condi- tion of receiving for the French Government a million sterling, and a hundred works of art. At the entry of the French into Bologna, four hundred of the Papal troops were made prisoners, with a cardinal who acted as their officer. This latter was dismissed on parole ; but when summoned afterwards to the French camp, he declined to obey the mandate on the plea that the Pope had absolved him. Napoleon now seized Leghorn, confiscated all English goods, and destroyed the English factory. As this port belonged to Tuscany, he violated the neutrality of the Grand Duke ; but he made no casuistic apologies. " The French flag," he said, " has been insulted in Leghorn ; you are not strong enough to enforce respect to it : the Directory has commanded me to occupy the place." The opportunity had now arrived for depriving the English of Corsica, situated only twenty leagues from the coast of Tuscany. Napoleon collected all the Corsican refugees, united them in Leghorn, and sent over a party with arms and ammunition. The Corsicans, utterly discontented with their foreign masters, and ripe for revolt, flew to arms, and in three months Corsica became a Department of France. The siege of the citadel of Milan, rigorously pressed, was at length successful. The garrison capitulated on the 29th of June. By the 18th of July, one hundred and forty pieces of cannon were before Mantua. After seeing the trenches 44 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE: opened, Napoleon returned to Milan, and completed the ratification of treaties and the organization of Lombardy. All Italy was now subdued, or in alliance with the Republic, excepting Mantua. The Austrian army, in three divisions, under the command of Generals Davido- wich, Quasdanowitch, and Wiirmser himself, descended from the Tyrol during the last days of July. Wiirmser, confident in his numbers, and calculating upon the absorption of the energies of the French army by its endeavours to subdue Mantua, disposed his forces in the most admirable manner to improve a victory, never reflecting that he might be defeated. Untaught by all the previous disasters of Beaulieu, he committed the error of dividing his army, in order to cover an extent of country. His right wing was detached, with orders to occupy Brescia, and cut off the retreat of the French in the direction of Milan ; his left wing was sent to descend the Adige and manoeuvre on Verona ; while the centre, under his own command, advanced to raise the siege of Mantua. During the two first days of his approach, the French generals, after resisting to the utmost, yielded up successively Rivoli, Brescia, and Salo ; but these two days were sufficient to make Napoleon master of the plan on which Wiirmser proposed to carry on the campaign, and he instantly disconcerted the whole of it, by a movement so unlike that of any ordinary general as to defy all calculation. In one night he raised the siege of Mantua, sacrificing the whole of his artillery. The men spiked the guns, burnt the carriages, threw the powder into the lake, and buried the balls. Augereau and Massena were stationed to defend the line of the Mincio as long as possible. Before morning the whole French army had disappeared from Mantua, and Napoleon was hurrying forward to attack the right, wing of the Austrian army, before it could effect a junction with the central body under Wiirmser. The Austrian right wing was advancing in three divisions. Napoleon defeated one division at Salo, and another at Lonato. At the same time, Augereau and Massena, leaving a sufficient number of men at their posts to maintain a defence, marched upon the third division at Brescia ; but it had already fled in disorder towards the Tyrol. The French generals instantly countermarched to the support of their rear guards, which had been forced by the Austrians. Wiirmser meanwhile had reached Mantua, where he found the trenches aban- doned, and no enemy to oppose. Seriously alarmed for the fate of his right wing, he dispatched two divisions to force a junction with it. These divisions, obtaining possession of Lonato and Castiglione, were speedily attacked, defeated, and put to flight by Massena and Augereau. Detached parties of Austrian soldiers were wandering about without method, and striving to rejoin Wiirmser or any part of the army still in the field. A body of four or five thousand of these stragglers, receiving information from the pea- santry that the French had only left a garrison of twelve hundred men in Lonato, determined to take possession of the place, and their commander sent an officer to summon the garrison to surrender. The information as to the smallness of the French force was perfectly correct, and a prize little anticipated by the Austrians was also within their grasp. Napoleon had just before entered Lonato, attended only by his staff. Into his presence the Austrian officer was brought blindfolded, according to custom on such occasions. With admirable presence of mind, Napoleon averted this imminent danger. Collecting all the officers of his staff around him, and assuming the state of a commander-in-chief at the head of his army, he ordered the officer's eyes to be unbandaged, and addressed him in a tone of astonishment at his audacity : — " Go and tell your general," he said, "that I give him eight minutes to lay down his arms : he is in the midst of the French army ! That time passed, he has nothing to hope." The officer, appalled at discovering in whose presence he stood, returned to his comrades with this message. The shortness of time allowed prevented the truth from being discovered, and they immediately surrendered to a force about one-fourth of their own. 1796.] CELERITY OF THE FRENCH MOVEMENTS. 45 Wurmser, whose fine army was thus being destroyed in detail, had been re- victualling Mantua. It was on the night of the 31st of July that Napoleon had suddenly deserted the works at that place ; the victories we have described have only brought us to the night of the 4th of August, when the army was collected at Castiglione. Before the morning of the 5th, General Fiorella, dispatched by Napoleon with a body of men, suddenly appeared on the left wing and flank of the Austrian army, which was now, under Wurmser himself, approaching the French position at Castiglione. The assault took him quite by surprise. Napoleon led the attack in front. The Austrian forces were entirely routed ; Wurmser was nearly taken prisoner, and pursued into Trent and Roveredo, the positions from which he so lately issued confident of victory. Napoleon has reckoned the losses of his army in this campaign of five days at seven thousand men. Rapid marches and incessant fighting had exhausted the troops. Napoleon himself had not taken off his clothes nor enjoyed regular -repose for seven days and nights. A rigorous blockade of Mantua was, nevertheless, instituted without a moment's delay. The quiescence of the French army was not of long continuance. Wurmser, reinforced with twenty thousand fresh troops, giving him again the command of fifty thousand men, descended from the Tyrol in the beginning of September. Leaving twenty thousand men under Davidowich to cover the Tyrol, he advanced by the valley of the Brenta to raise the blockade of Mantua. Napoleon had been reinforced by only six thousand men ; but the Austrian general again com- mitted the error of dividing his forces beyond the power of combination. Napo- leon suffered him to advance till the distance between his two divisions was sufficient for his purpose, and then leaving Kilmaine with three thousand men, to cover the blockade of Mantua, rapidly marched to attack Davidowich, and defeated him at Roveredo on the 4th of September. The Austrian camp was strongly entrenched in front of the town, while Calliano and its castle upon the steep rock which overhangs the Adige remained as a place of secure retreat in case of a defeat. The entrenchments were carried by the Hussars, headed by General Dubois, who, though mortally wounded, cheered them on to the last, and fell waving his sabre above his head and ejaculating his satisfaction at dying for the Republic. The rout of the Austrians was complete : they fled in disorder, pursued by the victorious French during the whole night, through defiles and strong positions hitherto considered impregnable, into Trent and far into the Tyrol. The French took possession of Trent and Lavisa, made seven thousand prisoners, and took -twenty-one pieces of cannon and seven stand of colours. Wurmser was now cut off from the Tyrol. This victory was scarcely gained before the French army was put in motion to return to the attack of the Austrian commander-in-chief. First issuing a pro- clamation to the Tyrolese, exhorting them to lay down their arms, and assuring them of friendly intentions, Napoleon executed in one day a forced march of forty miles, and the next of twenty more, which brought him in front of Wiirmser's vanguard at Primolano. The effect of the surprise, and the impetuosity of the attack, more than counterbalanced all the advantages of position. The Austrians were routed, and fled in confusion, while four thousand laid down their arms. The same night the French advanced another league, and halted, exhausted with fatigue, at Cismone, within four leagues of Bassano, where Wurmser, with the main body of his army, was stationed. Napoleon endured the same privations as his men. Baggage and staff appointments were unable to keep up with such rapid movements. The consternation of Wurmser may be imagined when he learned that the j enemy, whom he had supposed deeply engaged among the passes of the Tyrol, J was rapidly approaching him He had weakened his army still further by dis- patching a strong division against Verona. Wurmser now hastily summoned this 46 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. force to return, but it was too late : Verona was distant fifteen leagues, and Napoleon was within four. Before three o'clock on the 8th of September, the French army descended upon Bassano, forced every position, drove the Austrians before them in every direction, seized the cannon by which the bridge was defended, and, for the second time, narrowly missed capturing the field-marshal and his staff, now in absolute flight. He escaped, but his troops were destroyed ; six thousand laid down their arms ; his artillery, baggage, and colours were taken. He fled towards Vicenza, where he met the division of his army returning from Verona ; and now, at the head of sixteen thousand men out of fifty thousand, with whom a week before he had left the Tyrol, he desperately fought his way towards Mantua. In one of the fierce skirmishes attending the retreat of the gallant old Wurmser r it chanced that Napoleon being separated from his staff in the heat and confusion of th£ moment, and dashing forwards to the support of a part of his advanced guard which seemed likely to be cut to pieces, became completely surrounded by the enemy. He only escaped by reining aside his charger, and spurring away at a furious rate. So rapid was the whole occurrence that Wiirmser, who was aware of the situation of Napoleon, instantly rode up and ordered the soldiers to be- sure to bring him in alive ! Wiirmser himself would have been taken in attempting to cross the Adige, but: for the negligence of the Governor of Legnago, who suffered him to pass without opposition; and even then he would have been stopped, had not the orders of Napoleon, to destroy the bridges of the Molinella, been neglected. The brave though discomfited veteran reached Mantua in safety, and finding that, including the garrison, he could muster twenty-five thousand men, he once more attempted to make a stand. He was, however, unable to maintain his ground. This en- gagement, which was fought close to the citadel of Mantua, is called the battle of St. George. It was severely contested, and ended in the flight of Wiirmser within the walls of the city, three thousand of his men being made prisoners. Still he- was master of the Seraglio and the causeways, and succeeded in re-victualling the place. On the 25th he made a sally, hoping to obtain the command of the Adige,. but was repulsed with severe loss. On the 1st of October General Kilmaine regained the command of the communications to the Seraglio, and Wiirmser was strictly blockaded within the citadel of Mantua. Thus concluded the campaign : sixteen thousand men shut up with Wiirmser, and ten thousand 'dispersed in the Tyrol, were all that remained of his army. He had lost seventy-five pieces of cannon, thirty generals, and twenty-two stand of colours. Marmont, one of Napoleon's aides-de-camp, was sent with the trophies to the Directory at Paris. Napoleon returned to Milan. His army, being in absolute need of repose, went into cantonments ; maintaining, nevertheless, the blockade of Mantua, and protecting their various conquests. The mind of Napoleon was actively employed in this interval of comparative repose. He was earnest in the formation of plans for the creation of independent Republics in all those States which had been freed by his arms from the yoke of Austria. He proposed that a Congress should be assembled at Modena and Bologna, composed of deputies from all the neighbouring States; that the objects of the assembly should be : — " First, the organization of the Italian Legion ; secondly, the proper arrangements for the defence of the communes ; thirdly, the mission to Paris of deputies to demand the liberty and independence of Italy." To these enthusiastic views, which included the conquest or revolution of every Italian State, till of that whole beautiful country, one free nation — the ally of Republican France — should be made, the Directory replied by cold diplomatic directions, in order to delay any final measures. It might be necessary, they said, to make the Milanese the barter for a durable peace with Austria, and to restore those States to their old rulers in exchange for Belgium and Luxembourg. 1796.] REORGANIZATION OF THE ITALIAN STATES. 47 Napoleon, however, was not to be stopped in any favourite plan that was practicable. He encouraged the patriots in every direction ; superintended the organization of their internal governments; improved and remodelled their fortifi- cations. An Italian Legion joined his army, and the National Guard of Reggio served at the siege of Mantua. Every branch of the army came under the revision of the commander-in-chief. He inquired into and regulated the minutest details ; his habits ot business and regularity in all transactions being as remarkable as his military genius. He had repressed every sort of extortion and extravagance in the officers, civil and military, under his command ; and however oppressive were his exactions for the support of his army and the aggrandizement of France, his own name is pure from peculation or selfish grasping. He refused four millions of francs in gold from the Duke of Modena, and seven millions from the Government of Venice ; both sums being offered to gain his protection. At this period he seemed actuated by no ambition but that of increasing the glory of the Republic. ^IllliiSi^ '^1 A FRE.NCH CHASSELR. THE CHAMADE. CHAPTER VII. CAMPAIGN ON THE RHINE — MOREAU — JOURDAN — ARCHDUKE CHARLES — FOURTH ARMY OF AUSTRIA — ALVINZI — BATTLE OK ARCOLA — AUSTRIAN RETREAT — FIFTH ARMY OF AUSTRIA — BATTLE OF RIVOLI — PROVERA — LA FAVORITA — FLIGHT OF THE AUSTRIANS— SURRENDER OF MANTUA. THE struggle of Republican France against the empire of Austria was maintained, it must be remembered, at two points: in Italy and on the Rhine. The plan of the campaign of 1796, adopted by the Directory, had been de- signed by Carnot, and revised by Napo- leon and Moreau. According to its provisions, the two armies of the Rhine, under Generals Jourdan and Moreau, were to advance, form a junction with Napoleon by the Tyrol, and, when united, to penetrate into the heart of Germany, and dictate a peace under the walls of Vienna. Napoleon only had been able to perform his part of the plan. The victories of the army of the Rhine had filled Austria with consternation ; and Moreau was fast advancing towards the desired result, when the genius of the Archduke Charles changed the fortune of the war, and compelled Jourdan to a hasty flight, and Moreau to a retreat through the Black Forest celebrated for the great skill with which it was conducted. Austria, relieved from apprehension of danger to her capital, now turned with undivided attention towards Italy. Alvinzi, an officer of high reputation, was placed at the head of a new army of forty thousand men, to which he joined eighteen thousand under Davidowich in the Tyrol. His threefold object was to raise the blockade of Mantua ; release Wiirmser ; and, with a force which would, by the accession of the garrison of the latter, amount to eighty thousand men, to re-conquer Lombardy. Three large armies, advancing with similar objects, had been utterly destroyed by Napoleon ; a fourth now prepared to pour down upon him, under still more menacing circumstances. He had been reinforced with twelve battalions from France, amounting to about seven thousand men ; but his army was little more than two-thirds of the number of the enemy. Wiirmser maintained a resolute 48 1796.] THE BRIDGE OF ARCOLA. 49 defence, and it was obvious would hold out to the last extremity ; so that Mantua remained a point of danger. But Lombardy, in general, was well affected to the French ; the spirit of the soldiers was high ; their confidence in their general unbounded ; and a growing belief in the predestined success of Napoleon kept those States quiescent which bore him no good will. The battle of St. George, and the strict blockade of Wurmser in Mantua, took place in the middle of September. Alvinzi's army commenced its march in the beginning of October. Napoleon instantly ordered Vaubois and Massena to advance to the attack of Davidowich, in the Tyrol, before he could form a junction with Alvinzi. Both failed : Vaubois, after two days' fighting, was defeated ; lost Trent and Calliano ; and was forced to retreat to the positions of Corona and Rivoli : Massena, in consequence, had to effect a retreat ; and Alvinzi approaching fast gained possession of all the country between the Brenta and the Adige, and the com- mand of the Tyrol. Napoleon retreated to Verona. The positions of Corona and Rivoli, occupied by the division of Vaubois after its retreat, were imme- diately visited by the commander-in-chief. The troops came before him with dejected looks. " Soldiers ! " he said, " I am not satisfied with you. You have shown neither discipline, constancy, nor courage. You have allowed yourselves to be driven from positions where a handful of brave men might have arrested the progress of an army. Let it be written on the colours, ' They are not of the army of Italy.'" Tears and groans answered his words. Several of the veteran gren- adiers, who had obtained badges of distinction, called from the ranks, " General ! we have been misrepresented : place us in the van of the army, and you shall then judge whether we do not belong to the army of Italy." Hitherto, the course of events since the approach of Alvinzi had been very un- favourable to the French army. Unused to retrograde movements, failures, and losses, the soldiers began to feel discouraged. Napoleon, perceiving their state, talked with them ; was frequently among them ; and his power over them was such that their spirits quickly revived. He lost not a moment in taking them into action. Alvinzi had occupied the heights of Caldiero, and threatened Verona. Massena attacked the heights, but found them impregnable. The French were repulsed with great loss. A dreadful storm of wind and rain prevailed during the attack ; of which circumstance Napoleon took all the advantage he could, and as it had not prevented the Austrians from beating back the French, he said in his de- spatches that it had prevented the French from gaining the victory. Napoleon found it necessary to attempt the heights of Caldiero by other means, in order to prevent the junction of the army of Davidowich with Alvinzi. Feigning, therefore, to retreat on Mantua after his discomfiture, he returned in the night, and placed himself in rear of Alvinzi's army. When his columns advanced on Areola, the enemy thought they were only skirmishers, and that the main army of the French was in Verona. The village of Areola is surrounded by marshes, intersected by a small stream ; by ditches ; and by three causeways, or bridges, across which alone the marshes are passable. Areola, and the bridge leading to it, were defended by two bat- talions of Alvinzi's army and two pieces of cannon. The two remaining causeways were unprotected. Leaving fifteen hundred men, under Kilmaine, to defend Verona, Napoleon marched with celerity, under cover of the night, and passing the Adige at Ronco, reached the causeways without opposition. He had only fifteen thousand men under his command ; but on such narrow ground the conduct of the leading files must determine the result : numbers were comparatively unimportant. A French column advanced (15th of November) on each of the three causeways. The division of Augereau occupied the bridge of Areola, which was swept by the enemy's cannon, and assailed in flank by their battalions. Even the chosen grenadiers led by Augereau fell back under the destructive fire. Napoleon, who 4 50 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. knew the moment was decisive, rushed to the head of the column, — seized the colours, — and hurrying onwards, planted them with his own hands on the bridge, amidst a hail of balls from the enemy's artillery and musketry. His soldiers rallied at the sight, and again advanced ; but even the enthusiasm of the moment could not withstand the devastating effects of the fire. Alvinzi, seeing the attack, sent succours to his battalions. The Austrians fought with fury, and the French were unable to maintain their ground. Napoleon, being in front of the fight, was soon surrounded by his faithful Guides, who bore him in their arms through the dead and dying, as they were driven backwards with horrible carnage. While thus endeavouring to rescue their general, the group was borne against one side of the bridge, and carried over into the morass beneath. Napoleon sank up to his middle and, being quite unable to extricate himself, remained a mark for the Austrian muskets. The enemy were now between him and the French troops, so that he was completely cut off from succour, and at the mercy of the first man who happened to recognize him through the smoke. At this frightful crisis, Lannes pressed forward through the marsh, and reached him ; as also did the gallant Muiron. Almost at the same moment a shot was fired at Napoleon. It was received by Muiron, who died covering Napoleon's body with his own. He had previously saved the life of Napoleon at the siege of Toulon. Still the French general remained in the utmost peril ; and now it was that the love of his soldiers gave them power to effect what example and heroism had failed to accomplish. They bore madly onwards through all opposition ; one cry only was heard, — "Save the general!'' Nothing could resist them: Napoleon was quickly extri- cated ; again he was at their head ; a party of the French contrived to get across at another place, and attack the Austrians in the rear ; and Areola was taken. The obstinate defence had enabled Alvinzi to evacuate his position by an orderly retreat. Verona was, however, safe ; and Napoleon, returning to Ronco, remained stationary all night. Next morning, finding that Davidowich made no movement, either to attack Vaubois or relieve Mantua, and that Wiirmser quietly lay within the walls, he again advanced to attack Alvinzi. During the whole day the battle raged with fierce and fluctuating success, amidst the dykes of Areola. Next morning it was renewed, and to the discom- fiture of the Austrians. So many perished in the marshes, that Napoleon was able to encounter the rest, with numbers tolerably equal, on firm ground. The day was decided by a stratagem. Napoleon perceived the critical moment of lassitude in both armies, when the bravest would have been glad to be in their tents. The left of the Austrians being protected by a marsh, he sent thirty of his Guides, with four trumpets, to do that which would have been impossible for the whole of his cavalry. They forced their plunging horses through a distant part of the swamp, and reaching the other side, all the trumpets were suddenly sounded, while the Guides made a gallant charge. The Austrians, believing that they were turned by the whole French cavalry, retreated, and gained the Tyrol. Great numbers were killed on each side during these three battles of Areola : the Austrians lost twelve thousand men killed, six thousand prisoners, eighteen pieces of cannon, and four stand of colours. Davidowich now began his advance upon Verona. He quickly retreated, how- ever, on learning the disasters of Areola, and followed Alvinzi. Wiirmser, too, made a desperate sally, when the army that could have supported him was dis- persed ; and he was therefore repulsed. The horses of the garrison had long since been killed and salted for use. The men were now reduced to half rations, and the pestilential air of the lakes was destroying numbers by disease. Still the veteran did not think of surrender. The Austrians kept possession of Trent and the command of the Tyrol. This fourth attempt of Austria to conquer Napoleon ended, therefore, in a manner less disastrous to the empire than the former ; but it left him in possession of Lombardy. He returned to Milan, and the army enjoyed four months of repose. 1 796-7.] THE NIGHT BEFORE RIVOLI. 5 1 The interval was partly employed by Napoleon in conciliating all classes in Italy. Their language being his native tongue, added to his knowledge of their literature and his sympathy with their genius for the arts, contributed to accom- plish his object. Even the priesthood, who had hitherto denounced him, began to feel mollified by his consummate address. One rich old canon of the name of Bonaparte cordially received and feasted the conqueror as a relative, declaring him to be a scion of the Tuscan family of that name. When the old canon died, he bequeathed all his wealth to Napoleon. In the year 1796, Catherine II., Empress of Russia, died. Her death was im- portant to the Republic, as her successor, Paul I., completely altered the policy of the North and broke all the engagements of Russia with the coalition. • For the fifth time Austria prepared to renew the contest. The spirit of the people was roused to restore the national honour. A volunteer corps took the field. Vienna furnished four battalions, to whom the Empress of Austria presented -a banner wrought with her own hands. The Tyrolese also flocked to the standard of their hereditary Sovereign. The Pope, invited by the Austrian ambassador, broke the Treaty of Bologna, and raising an army of seven thousand men, waited in readiness to act in concert with Wiirmser, when he should be released from Mantua. A messenger dispatched to Wiirmser from the Imperial Court was taken "by the French ; he swallowed his despatches concealed in a little ball of wax. But he was seen to do this, and means being taken to recover them, Napoleon thus learned the designs of the Austrian Government. The wax enclosed a letter to Wiirmser — signed by the Emperor's own hand — to the effect that Alvinzi was once more at the head of sixty thousand men, and was to march into Lombardy, and raise the siege of Mantua ; that Wiirmser was to hold out to the last extremity; and that if the army of Alvinzi could be united with his garrison, the destruction of the French seemed undoubted ; if not, he was to cut his way into Romagna, and take command of the papal troops. Early in January, 1797, the Austrians advanced by Bassano. Experience had no influence on their counsels, for again their forces were divided. Alvinzi, who led the principal army, directed his march upon Roveredo. Provera, already distinguished for his courage at the battle of Millesimo, advanced with the other division upon the lower Adige. His vanguard forced a party of French to cross the river at Bevi FAcqua. Napoleon had concentrated his army at Verona, uncertain which was the prin- cipal attack. On the night of the 13th of January he received information that Joubert, whom he had left in defence of Corona (a small town strongly fortified), had been attacked, and having with difficulty maintained his post throughout the day, was on the point of retreating to secure the heights of Rivoli, a position of great importance. Deciding at once that Alvinzi led the principal attack, Napoleon, having left Augereau to keep Provera in check, made a forced march towards Rivoli, and reached the heights by two o'clock on the morning of the 14th. Joubert, who was in the act of evacuating Rivoli, was ordered to countermarch and resume his post. From the eminence on which Napoleon stood, he surveyed the bivouac of this new army, destined, like the four which had preceded it, to be destroyed by him. The moon shone down on the dark masses of the Austrians, divided into five distinct bodies. From this he inferred that their attack would be made in five columns, and from the distance of their bivouacs from the position of Joubert, he divined that neither their artillery nor cavalry had arrived, and that they meant to w r ait for them. To hurry the battle on before these important auxiliaries came up w r as the object of Napoleon. He ordered the attack at daybreak ; and it began by the French driving the Austrians from the Chapel of St. Mark. The nearest Austrian column endeavoured to retake it, but was repulsed ; the next came up, and the French were beaten back. The affair became doubtful : Napo- 52 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. leon galloped off for reinforcements ; Massena's division was the nearest ; the men, tired with marching, had lain down to sleep, but started up at his voice, and repulsed the Austrian column. The third advanced, and was in turn defeated. Quasdanowitch, who commanded the fourth, observing the chapel on the height of St. Mark abandoned by the French in the pursuit, sent three battalions to- retake it. His design was frustrated : as the Austrians ascended the hill on one side, the French ascended on the other, and their superior activity bringing them first to the top, they drove the Austrians down in disastrous confusion. The French batteries made havoc of the broken columns; the cavalry charged repeatedly ; four out of the five divisions were utterly routed. The fifth now made its appearance in the French rear, after bringing up the artillery and baggage,, according to the orders of the Austrian general before the action. Had this SURRENDER OF THE AUSTRIANS AT RIVOLI. movement been made a little sooner, it might have turned the fortune of the day ; as it was, the French soldiers only exclaimed, " Here come further supplies to our market ! " — and the Austrians, exposed to a withering fire from the artillery, were forced to lay down their arms. Napoleon had remained during twelve hours in the hottest of the fight ; he had three horses killed under him, and was exposed to imminent danger. This victory, won by consummate skill, decided the fate of Alvinzi's army, which fled in confusion closely pursued by the French, and never rallied again. Napoleon then hastened to attack Provera, leaving Massena, Joubert, and Murat to pursue the remnants of Alvinzi's battalions. Provera, with his division, effected the passage of the Adige on the very day of the battle of Rivoli, and advanced to Mantua, which he attempted to relieve by stratagem. The suburb of St. George, manned by fifteen hundred French under Miollis, was defended only by a circumvallation. A regiment of Austrian cavalry, disguised in white cloaks, like the French hussars, presented themselves at the barricades, and would have been admitted but for an old sergeant, who observed 797-] THE SOMNOLENT SENTRY. 53 provera's stratagem. that the cloaks were too fresh and white to belong to the hussars, who had worn theirs in many a rough day; he instantly closed the barriers, and warned a drummer who was near him of the danger. These two gave the alarm, and the guns of the blockading force were turned upon their pretended friends, who were forced to retire. This attempt showed the necessity for constant vigilance ; and Napoleon, unable to rest, passed the night in visiting the different outposts. At one of these he discovered the sentinel lying at the foot of a tree, fast asleep from exhaustion. Napoleon took the soldier's musket without waking him, and walked backwards and forwards on guard during half an hour. Suddenly the soldier started from his slumber, terrified at what he had done. He fell on his knees. " My friend," said the general mildly, " here is your musket. You have fought hard and marched long, and your exhaustion is excusable ; but a moment's inattention might endanger the whole army. I happened to be awake, and have held your post for you : you will not again neglect your duty." By noon on the following day (January i6th), Provera appeared in full force before St. George ; but Miollis and his little garrison defended the suburb until Napoleon, by forced marches of wonderful celerity, had reached Roverbella, and was now within twelve miles of Mantua with his victorious army. Provera had contrived to communicate with Wiirmser across the lake. A junction effected with his garrison of twenty thousand might retrieve all the disasters of the Austrians. Early on the 17th, Wiirmser, according to the plan concerted between them, 54 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. sallied forth with his whole garrison, and attacked St. Antoine, while Provera assaulted the citadel of La Favorita. But in the night Napoleon had stationed General Victor, with the brigade Rivoli, between the two positions, to prevent the junction. Some desperate fighting ensued : Serrurier, with the blockading army, engaged Wiirmser ; while the fifty-seventh demi-brigade, under Victor, per- formed certain feats of desperate courage which gained for them the name of " The Terrible." A commandant of Austrian hussars rode out from the ranks on meeting with one of the French squadrons, and challenged their leader, Duvivier. It was accepted : the Austrian was cut down, and the French, charging his men, made them prisoners. Wiirmser was beaten back and again forced into Mantua after a deadly struggle, in which Napoleon led a renewed attack in person. Serrurier and Victor then surrounded Provera, and the battle raged in the suburb of St. George. Provera KLENAU RECOGNIZING NAPOLEON. and his whole force were compelled to lay down their arms. Not more than two thousand men, who had been left beyond the Adige, out of the whole of his division, escaped. The army of Alvinzi experienced a similar fate. Abandoning one position after another, they fled. Lavisio, Treviso, Bassano, and Trent once more fell into the hands of the French, who thereby regained the command of the Italian Tyrol. Large bodies of the Austrians surrendered. Their dispirited condition and the elated audacity of the French were in striking contrast. Rene', a young French officer keeping guard of a position with about one hundred and fifty men, sud- denly encountered and took prisoners a small party of Austrians ; when, on advancing to reconnoitre, he found himself in front of a body of eighteen hundred more, whom a turning in the road had concealed from sight. " Lay down your arms ! " said the Austrian commandant. Rene' answered, with ready boldness, "Lay down your arms ! I have destroyed your advanced guard; — ground your arms, or no quarter ! " The French soldiers joined in the cry, and the whole body of the astonished Austrians laid down their arms to a party which, they found to their exasperation when too late, was in numbers one-twelfth of their own. I797-] CAPITULATION OF MANTUA. 55 This fifth and last attempt to drive the French out of Lombardy cost Austria thirty thousand men, of whom nineteen thousand were prisoners, more than sixty pieces of cannon, and twenty-four stand of colours. Mantua was now without hope of relief. The hospitals were crowded, the provisions exhausted; but Wurmser still held out. Napoleon informed him of the rout and dispersion of the Austrian army, and summoned him to surrender. The old soldier proudly replied that " he had provisions for a year ; " but a few days afterwards he sent his aide-de-camp, Klenau, to the head-quarters of Serrurier to treat for a surrender. At the conference a French officer sat apart from the two others, wrapped in his cloak, but within hearing of what passed. After the discussion was finished, this officer came forward and wrote marginal answers to the conditions proposed by Wurmser ; granting terms far more favourable than those which might have been exacted in the extremity to which the veteran was reduced. " These," said the unknown officer, giving back the paper, "are the terms that I grant, if he opens his gates to-morrow ; and if he delays a fortnight, a month, or two months, he shall have the same terms. He may hold out to his last morsel of bread : to- morrow I pass the Po, and march upon Rome." Klenau recognizing Napoleon, and struck with the generosity of the conditions he had granted, owned that only three days' provisions remained in Mantua. On the 2nd of February, 1797, Wurmser gave up the city of Mantua. Of his garrison of thirteen thousand men, seven thousand were lying in the hospitals. Napoleon completed his generous conduct on this occasion by leaving the place before the surrender, and sparing the conquered veteran the mortification of giving up his sword to so youthful a commander. Upwards of five hundred brass cannons, together with an immense quantity of military stores, fell into the hands of the French by these victories; and Augereau was dispatched to Paris with sixty stand of colours, as a triumphant present to the Directory. Thus, making all ascertainable additions of supplies, and deductions for killed wounded and prisoners, Napoleon, with a total force of ninety-five thousand men, conquered, in their own country, and under the succouring hand of their own ■Government, five successive armies, amounting in all to upwards of two hundred thousand well-appointed, well -provisioned soldiers, under old and experienced commanders. IN' THE HEAK. ARTILLERY ON MARCH. CHAPTER VIII. WURMSER'S DEPARTURE — HIS GRATITUDE — THE POPE BREAKS THE TREATY — HIS ARMY — NAPOLEON ENTERS ROMAGNA — BATTLE OF THE SENIO — NAPOLEON'S CLEMENCY — ANCONA — LORETTO — TOLENTINO— THE POPE SUBMITS — TREATY OF ROME. GENERAL SERRURIER received the surrender of Mantua, and saw the brave old Austrian field-marshal file off with his staff. Napoleon was by this time in Romagna : Wurmser sent him a letter, acknowledging the generosity and delicacy of his conduct, and at the same time apprising him, by his aide-de- camp, of a conspiracy to poison him in the dominions of the Pope, with whom he was about to wage war. On the temporary success of Austria at one period of the campaign, his Holi- ness, who had contrived to evade the fulfilment of some important points of the engagements in the Treaty of Bologna, suddenly discovered that " all negotiation with the French was incompatible with the Catholic religion and his duty as a Sovereign," and therefore formed a league with the Emperor. A messenger from Cardinal Busca, Secretary of State at the Papal Court, was intercepted by the French : they learned from his despatches that the Emperor had empowered General Colli to take command of the troops which the Pope was levying in Romagna, and that every means afforded by the power of superstition had been put in practice to incite the population to take arms against the French. It must be added in justification of the Pope that it was the evident purpose of the Directory to strip him of his secular power. Before the end of January the papal army was in the field, Cardinal Busca himself at its head : it consisted of seven thousand soldiers and a multitude of peasants and monks. The French Minister was recalled from Rome, and an army of eight thousand six hundred men, partly French and partly Italian, was assembled at Bologna, under General Victor. Napoleon joined them, issued a manifesto, in which he accused the Pope of having violated his treaty, and published the intercepted letters in corroboration. On the 2nd of February his head-quarters were fixed at the bishop's palace, at Imola, belonging to Chiaramonte, afterwards Pius VII. On the 3rd, the French troops reached Castel Bolognese, on the river Senio, behind which Cardinal Busca, with his army, was encamped, intending to dispute the passage of the bridge with eight pieces of cannon. The French had performed a fatiguing day's march, and as they were stationing their outposts, an officer, with a flag of truce from the Cardinal, came up, and fiercely announced that "if they continued to advance, he would fire upon them." There was much laughter among the soldiers at this threat, and the reply was,, 56 1 797-] ROUT OF THE PAPAL ARMY. $7 "that they did not wish to expose themselves to the Cardinal's thunders, and were about to take up their quarters for the night." However light the French soldiers made of their antagonists, they would have found them formidable if their discipline had equalled their fanatical fury. Cardinal Busca had boasted that he would make a Vende'e of Romagna, and he had succeeded : the tocsin had been sounding for three days in every village ; the populace were in a state of frenzy ; pretended miracles were wrought by the priests ; and a kind of holy war had begun. In the night Lannes crossed the river with the advanced guard, at a league and a half above the French position, and drew up in line in the rear of the enemy. The papal troops were, by this movement, cut off from their retreat on Faenza, and panic-struck to find themselves in the morning between two fires : the French forced the passage of the bridge in close column, and their opponents were completely routed after a short resistance ; baggage, artillery, — all were taken. This "Roman" army fled in disorder; some hundreds were killed, amongst whom were a few monks ; but the Cardinal himself escaped. Crucifixes, mixed with poniards and arms of all sorts, strewed the field of battle. The loss of the French was small : they marched forward to Faenza the same day ; the gates were closed, the ramparts manned and lined with a few pieces of cannon, and the populace answered the summons for admittance with violent abuse : it became necessary to force the gates ; Napoleon would not, however, permit the pillage of the place. " These," he said to the soldiers, " are only misled people, who must be subdued by clemency." In pursuance of this policy, his first care was to tranquillize the vanquished : all the prisoners taken in the previous battle were collected in the garden of one of the monasteries. When Napoleon ap- proached them, they threw themselves on their knees in terror, imploring mercy ; he said in Italian, " I am the friend of all the nations of Italy, and particularly of the people of Rome. You are free : return to your families, and tell them that the French are the friends of religion, of order, and of the poor." Transports of joy and gratitude succeeded to their terror and hatred. He next went among the officers who had been made prisoners, talked long with them ; spoke of the liberation of Italy, the abuses of the papal power, the folly of resistance to the Republic ; and then gave them their liberty, only asking them, in return, to tell their countrymen of the sentiments he had expressed. As these prisoners amounted to several hundreds, some of them belonging to the first families of Rome, the impression he made upon them was of great importance. They went home loudly proclaiming his praises, and, from that moment, the spirit of the entire population was altered materially towards the French. General Colli, with three thousand men — all he had been able to collect — had taken up a good position on the heights before Ancona. Victor advanced upon this body of troops, and having surrounded, summoned them to surrender. Colli, with his officers, had retired into Loretto on the approach of the French, and his men could do no otherwise than lay down their arms. Not a shot was fired. These prisoners were sent home in the same manner as the former. Ancona, the only seaport of the Papal States, was next entered, with very slight opposition. The arsenal was found to be well provided with one hundred and twenty pieces of cannon, besides five hundred muskets sent lately by the Emperor. A capture was also made of a very extraordinary image of the Virgin, the construction of which was on principles of such sympathy with mundane affairs that, while the soldiers helped themselves to whatever ornaments and relics pleased their fancy, she shed a current of tears. Crowds of Italians prostrated themselves before this miracle. .The French being, however, less reverentially credulous, took down the weeping Virgin, and carried her to head-quarters. On examining the sources of her sensibility, no fountain of tears was discovered ; but a fine circlet of glass beads, which, passing from her eyes, and escaping in the folds of her robe, was made to revolve with a flowing effect by means of clockwork. 58 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. On the ioth of February the French army entered Loretto, famous for con- taining the Santa Casa, long visited by devout pilgrims of all nations, having been the residence of the Virgin Mary, and transported to that place by angels. It is a little cabin ten or twelve yards square. The immense wealth in gold and jewels, once amassed in this shrine from the gifts of the visitors, had been removed. The wooden image of Our Lady of Loretto was sent to Paris, and remained in the National Library till 1802, when Napoleon restored it to the Pope. It is roughly carved, but was said to be of celestial workmanship. A bedgown of dark-coloured camlet (warranted to have belonged to the Blessed Virgin) and the sacred por- ringer were also captured. Meantime the soldiers took up their quarters wherever they could make themselves most comfortable, without any nice considerations of sanctity, some of the confessionals being converted into sentry-boxes. The army now resumed its march towards Rome. The Prince of Belmonte- Pignatelli, who attended at head-quarters as Neapolitan ambassador, came to Napoleon to show him, in strict confidence, a letter of the Queen of Naples pro- posing to send an army of thirty thousand men to protect Rome. Napoleon, who instantly penetrated the spirit of this communication, answered by calling for his portfolio and reading from a copy of one of his own despatches to the Directory, written some time previously, the following extract : — " I postpone the movement upon Rome till after the surrender of Mantua, when, if the King of Naples should interfere, I shall be able to spare twenty-five thousand men to inarch upon his capital, and drive him over into Sicily." Prince Pignatelli said no more about Neapolitan armed interference. Great dismay now pervaded the Patrimony of St. Peter's. The Pope in vain exhorted the inhabitants to rise against this second Alaric, who was approaching the Holy City. One plan adopted by the monasteries to conciliate Napoleon was that of turning out the exiled French priests, who, to the number of several thousands, had taken refuge in Rome ; but this he would not permit, publishing a proclamation commanding the army to look upon them as friends and country- men, and ordering the monasteries to supply them with food, lodging, and every- thing needful, and fifteen livres (twelve shillings and sixpence) per month each, for which the priest should say as many masses as were usually considered tanta- mount to that sum. The army was at Tolentino, within three days' march of Rome, on the 1 3th of February. The Pope, reduced to despair, was on the point of taking flight and seeking refuge in Naples. The horses were already put to the state carriages, when his Holiness was induced to throw himself upon the mercy of the French. Napoleon had communicated with him through the superior of the monastic order of Camalduli, and through Cardinal Mattei, assuring him that no personal harm was intended to him, and that he had only to change his Ministers and send plenipotentiaries to Tolentino to arrange a peace with the Republic. Four Ministers were accordingly sent to the head-quarters of Napoleon, of whom Mattei was one, and the treaty was soon concluded. The Pope renounced every alliance, offensive and defensive, against France ; ceded Ferrara, Bologna, and Romagna to the Republic ; allowed Ancona to be occupied by the French till a general peace ; disavowed the murder of Basseville, and re-established the French school of art at Rome ; agreed to make good all the articles of the Treaty of Bologna ; and to give an additional supply of money (upwards of a million sterling), horses, and works of art. These conditions, hard as they were, were more lenient than the Directory wished. Napoleon thought, however, that by proceeding to the extremity of entirely depriving the Pope of his temporalities, popular resentments might be roused, which would increase his spiritual influence. He also expected such a step would provoke Naples to aggressions that would occupy his army, instead of allowing him to march upon Vienna, his favourite object. He therefore concluded the peace. He wished to enforce the abolition of the Inquisition; but gave up the point as a particular I797-] C1SPADANE AND TRANSPADANE REPUBLICS. 59 favour to the Pope, who declared that it was now only a tribunal of police, and that the auto-da-fe no longer took place. Junot, who had recovered from his wounds, was sent with a respectful letter from Napoleon to the Pope, and Victor was left to see the treaty fulfilled. Napo- leon himself proceeded to Mantua, which was full of Austrian invalids : he super- intended the repair of the fortifications, and then went to Milan. On his way he had sent a deputy to the little State of San Marino, which, only acknowledging the Pope as a protector, had maintained its independence for many years. It consisted of a single mountain and town, with seven thousand inhabitants, governed by their own laws. Monge, the chief of the Committee of Artists attending the army, who was sent to them, carried offers of an accession of territory and close alliance with France. The latter was gladly accepted, the former declined, lest it should embroil them with other States. Bologna and Ferrara, now free, coalesced with Reggio and Modena, which had thrown off the yoke of their Duke and formed one independent State, with the title of the Cispadane Republic. A Congress of a hundred delegates from the four districts met to effect the formation of their Government, and an address was sent by them to Napoleon to announce their proceedings. The Provisional Council of Milan had completed the revolutionizing of Lombardy, which now took the name of the Transpadane Republic. The form of Government adopted in France was the prototype of these rising States : they abolished all feudal dis- tinctions, appointed National Guards, and National Representation; and the formation of their institutions was superintended and protected by Napoleon. At the same time, every possible encouragement was given by him to literature and art, and he took pains to collect about him all the men distinguished for genius or learning. A spirit of liberty had arisen and was rapidly spreading in Italy. The army of Italy was at length reinforced effectively, with some thirty thousand men, out of which nineteen thousand might be considered in good fighting con- dition. Napoleon reviewed these troops upon his return from Tolentino. ^ ■ tomi uM^^M^^M ¥' b^i^M [ £W^MM y • '" * AUSTRIAN DEFEAT ON THE TAGLIAMENTO. CHAPTER IX. ARMY OF THE ARCHDUKE CHARLES — BERNADOTTE — NAPOLEON AT BASSANO — MASSENA CROSSES THE PIAVE — PASSAGE OF THE TAGLIAMENTO — PESARO — CHIUSA — RETREAT OF THE ARCH- DUKE — AUSTRIA SOLICITS AN ARMISTICE. UNCONQUERED by the defeat of their armies, unsubdued by the slaughter of their best men, their energies not destroyed by failures fivefold, with strong invasion on the very threshold of their power, the Austrian Government again raised an army which prepared to advance towards the Italian frontier. Napoleon being now at the head of a force probably amounting to nearly eighty thousand men, determined to meet, instead of awaiting, the attack. Before putting his army in motion, Napoleon found it necessary to come to an understanding with Venice, which at present remained in what its Government termed " a state of impartial neutrality ; " in other words, while keeping quiet by compulsion, they watched the first opportunity to rise against France, whose free institutions the Venetian oligarchy hated and* feared. The Doge had made new levies, formed military magazines, and could com- mand fifty thousand men. But the Venetian territories were divided against themselves. The inhabitants of the Terra Firma, or mainland, were jealous of the superior privileges of the insular nobility of Venice, and threatened, after the example of the new-created Republics, to throw off their allegiance. Brescia and Bergamo in particular were eager for independence. Napoleon urged the Govern- ment to form an alliance offensive and defensive with France, but in vain ; they kept to their temporizing policy, notwithstanding Pesaro, who then managed the concerns of their Republic, had undertaken to employ his good offices in the affair. Napoleon, therefore, taking care to let them know that he left a sufficient force in Italy to watch their proceedings, without further negotiations put his army in motion towards Germany. On the oth of March his head-quarters were fixed at Bassano. Napoleon, when his main army advanced upon Germany, left under General Kilmaine, for the preservation of Italy, numerous garrisons in all the fortified places and castles ; two Polish Legions, two Lombard Legions, and the whole of General Victor's division which came from Rome. All the castles of Verona, Porto-Legnago, Peschiera, and Palma-Nuova were in the power of the armies of Italy and in a state of defence. The Archduke Charles, who had rendered himself famous as a general by his victories on the Rhine, where he had defeated Jourdan and Moreau, was now to be opposed to Napoleon. He led the Austrian army, which amounted to fifty 60 I797-J THE ARCHDUKE CHARLES RETREATS. 6l thousand men, and was intended to form a junction with forty thousand more who were advancing to meet him from the army of the Rhine. He assembled his force at Friuli. He was fettered by the directions of the Aulic Council (which, according to the strict etiquette of the empire, he was forced to obey), or his position would have been more naturally fixed in the Tyrol, where his reinforce- ments from the Rhine could have joined him ten days sooner than was possible at Friuli ; and Napoleon hastened forward to attack him before the junction could be effected. Upon entering the Austrian dominions, Napoleon confidently reckoned on the co-operation of the armies of the Sambre and Meuse, and the Rhine, under Hoche and Moreau. The three united would have amounted to nearly two hundred thousand men, and might have dictated a peace to the empire on any terms. But the Directory, apparently from jealous fear of the ambition and success of their young general, sacrificed the interests of France. They persisted in keeping the armies separate. From the Sambre and Meuse, eight regiments only, amount- ing, as previously stated, to nineteen thousand efficient men, under the command of Bernadotte, had been sent to join Napoleon ; but these were full of spirit, and elated at the idea of forming part of so victorious an army. Bernadotte felt this on arriving within sight of the squadrons, and could not forbear exclaiming, with a mixture of envy, pride, and national vanity, " Soldiers of the army of the Sambre and Meuse, the army of Italy is before us ! " Without attempting a remonstrance with the Directory against their policy of separation, Napoleon proceeded vigorously on his career. He issued one of his stirring proclamations at Bassano, and then advanced to attack the Archduke, who was stationed upon the plains bordering on the banks of the Tagliamento. At the same time he dispatched Massena with a division of cavalry to effect the passage of the Piave, a river thirty miles to the westward of the Tagliamento, where the Austrians had an army of observation under Lusignan, and to occupy the mountains on the right of the Archduke's army. This service Massena per- formed with great skill: he crossed the Piave on the nth of March, made Lusignan and five hundred of his men prisoners, and drove the rest beyond the Tagliamento, taking Feltre, Cadore, and Belluno. Guieux's division passed the Piave at Treviso, where the river is deep, but the soldiers surmounted every diffi- culty : a drummer was the only person in danger of being drowned, and he was saved by a woman who swam after him. On the 1 6th of March the two armies, headed by Napoleon and the Archduke Charles, in person, were drawn up on opposite sides of the Tagliamento. The Austrians were posted admirably; their artillery, sharp-shooters, and their fine cavalry so disposed as to make the attempt to force the passage of the river extremely hazardous. After some cannonading, the French, who had marched all the previous night, retired to the rear and bivouacked. The Archduke, knowing they had performed this long march, concluded that they declined to make the desperate attempt of crossing the river in the face of his army, and accordingly withdrew to his encampment. He had scarcely done this, when the French army, which had lain down in orderly ranks to rest a couple of hours, suddenly sprang up, and was formed in two lines. Napoleon marched them rapidly to the river, threw the first line into columns which, being supported on each flank by the cavalry, plunged into the stream, and reached the opposite side before the astonished Austrians could assume battle array. They charged the French repeatedly with great courage, but could not drive them back ; and the second line now coming up, the Archduke was compelled to retreat, leaving eight pieces of cannon and some prisoners behind. The Venetian Minister, Pesaro, visited the head-quarters of the French general after this victory. Napoleon made a last effort to change the crooked policy of that State, and received nothing but the old answers. "Venice," said Pesaro, " rejoices in your triumphs ; she knows that she cannot exist but by means of 62 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BO NAPA R IE. France ; but, continuing faithful to her ancient and wise policy, she wishes to re- main neutral." Napoleon took leave of him with a threat that could not be mis- understoood. " I am marching on Vienna," he said. " Things that I might have for- given when I was in Italy would be unpardonable crimes when I am in Germany. Should my soldiers be assassinated, my convoys harassed, and my communica- tions intercepted in the Venetian territories, your Republic will cease to exist." During the action of the Tagliamento, Massena had crossed the river nearer its source, destroyed the troops he found before him, and occupying the passes of the Julian Alps, placing himself between the imperial right wing and Vienna. The Archduke, with a view to remove this danger, joined to his force a column of grenadiers just arrived from the Rhine, and, putting himself at their head, hurried forward and encountered Massena at Tarwis. The Archduke made the attack with fury, repeatedly exposing his own person to imminent danger, and more than once on the point of being taken prisoner ; but he could not overcome the French soldiers. He fought till his last battalion had been engaged, and then fled beyond the Drave, where his broken forces rallied. Massena now commanded the pass of the Tarwis, by which three Austrian divisions, coming up through the valley of the Isonzo, were cut off from their main army. The Archduke continued to retreat : the Isonzo, a deep and furious torrent, enclosed by mountains, seemed, after he had passed it, to afford an insurmountable barrier to his pursuers ; but the frost had made it fordable in many places. Napo- leon, coming up with Serrurier's division, effected the passage. The division of Bernadotte had attempted to cross by Gradisca, a town strongly fortified, and four hundred men had been lost in the assault. When Serrurier's division appeared on the heights above the town, the governor surrendered with his garrison of nearly three thousand men. Head-quarters were advanced to Goritz next day. The French now took possession of Trieste and Fiume, the only seaports be- longing to Austria ; seized the English merchandise ; and made a prize of quick- silver from the mines of Idra to the amount of several millions of francs. Still pressing onwards, the French army passed the Urave at Villach, and advanced to Klagenfurth. It had emerged from the passes of the Carnic and Julian Alps, and penetrated into the valley of the Drave in Germany. The lan- guage, manners, and customs of the people were different from those of Italy. Napoleon took pains to conciliate them. He distributed a proclamation, in which he assured them of goodwill and protection, entreating them to take no part in a war in which they had no concern, and the blame of which he laid on English gold and Austrian treachery. " Let us be friends," he said, "in spite of England and the Court of Vienna. The French Republic possesses the rights of con- quest over you : let these rights be cancelled by a contract which shall be binding upon each of us. Do not interfere in the wars of others." These people must have been somewhat puzzled to comprehend the nice distinction whereby they were to consider themselves as having no concern in a war carried on in their own country. Napoleon also invited them to supply his army, instead of paying their taxes to the Emperor. This address had considerable effect in calming their minds, though " supplies " were brought in with all the haste of fear. Napoleon also re- paired and garrisoned the fortifications of Klagenfurth, and, establishing hospitals and magazines, took up his head-quarters there. He was now only sixty leagues from Vienna. The Austrian divisions under Bayalitsch, retreating before General Guieux, gained the strong position of Chiusa, where they thought themselves safe. But Massena came up in front, while Guieux attacked the rear. The fourth demi- brigade of the line, called " The Impetuous," climbed the mountain that com- mands the left, and Bayalitsch was obliged to lay down his arms. His baggage, guns, and colours were taken, and five thousand men surrendered prisoners of war. The rest of his army, composed of natives of Croatia and Carniola, disbanded, and endeavoured, by the passes of the mountains, to reach their respective villages. I797-] INVASION OF AUSTRIA. 63 Napoleon, who had hitherto advanced in three divisions, now saw that the moment had arrived to concentrate the whole army on one point. General Joubert, who had been left in the Tyrol, received orders to join the main army. He was opposed by the Austrian Generals Landon and Kerpen, and, fighting his way, he conducted the enterprise with ability and success. "He con- quered Landon, and by the 28th of March had compelled Kerpen to evacuate Sterzing and retreat behind the Brenner. The way was now clear before him, and calling in all his posts from the Tyrol, except twelve hundred men, he began his march towards Klagenfurth. Bernadotte was also ordered to bring up his division, leaving only fifteen hundred men, under General Friant, to keep Carniola in awe. The Archduke, on the other hand, who had already lost one-fourth of his army, weakened it still further by misconceiving the designs of the French commander- in-chief. General Kerpen had been stationed at Innspruck, expecting an attack from Joubert ; but no sooner was it found that Joubert, abandoning Innspruck and the Tyrol, was proceeding to Carinthia by the valley of the Drave, than the Austrian general returned into the Tyrol. Quasdanowitch, who had hastened to the defence of Hungary, also finding no advance made in that quarter, marched 64 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. rapidly into Carniola, which Napoleon now considered of little importance. Such was the state of affairs twenty days after the opening of this campaign. Vienna was filled with dismay and confusion. The Archduke was powerless to protect the city, which possessed no available means of self-defence ; and Napo- leon, established at Klagenfurth, was only sixty leagues distant with his victorious army. The Danube was covered with boats, conveying everything that was most valuable into Hungary. The children of the Royal Family were sent there for safety. Among them was the future Empress of France, — the Archduchess Maria Louisa, then five years and a half old. The people of Vienna murmured that the Ministry did not make peace. There was, however, less cause for alarm than the Austrians supposed. Napoleon had learned definitely, on the 31st of March, that he was not to expect the co-operation of the great armies of the Sambre and the Meuse, and of the Rhine, upon which he had reckoned accord- ing to the original plan of the campaign. Within twelve hours after the receipt of this communication, which disappointed all his expectations of compelling the empire to a firm and lasting peace, Napo- leon determined to make the best use of his present advantageous position by concluding such a peace as his present forces enabled him to dictate. Laying aside all technical formalities, he wrote to the Archduke in the following terms : — " While brave soldiers carry on war, they wish for peace. Has not the war already lasted six years ? Have we not killed men enough, and inflicted sufficient suffer- ings on the human race ? Europe has laid down the arms she took up against the French Republic. Your nation alone perseveres ; yet blood is to flow more copiously than ever. Whatever be the issue, we shall kill some thousands of men on both sides ; and after all we must come to an understanding, since all things have an end, not excepting vindictive passions. The Executive Directory of the French Republic communicated to his Majesty the Emperor its wish to put an end to the war which afflicts both nations. The intervention of the British Court defeated this measure. Is there no hope of arrangement ? And must we, on account of the passions and interests of a people who are strangers to the horrors of the war, continue to slaughter each other ? You, General, whose birth places you so near the throne, and above those petty passions which often actuate Ministers and Governments, are you disposed to merit the title of a benefactor U the human race ? Do not imagine, sir, that I mean to deny that it may be pos- sible to save Germany by force of arms ; but even supposing the chances of war should become favourable to you, the country would nevertheless be ravaged. For my part, General, if the overture I have the honour to make to you should only save the life of a single man, I should feel more proud of the civic crown I should think I thereby merited, than of all the melancholy glory that the most distinguished military successes can afford." The Archduke replied, on the 2nd of April, with great courtesy and manly feeling, but declared himself not empowered to conduct the diplomatic business of the empire. " But whatever," he added, " may be the future chances of war, or whatever hopes of peace may exist, I beg you to rest convinced, General, of my esteem and particular consideration." Napoleon had not waited for this answer. His proposal of peace was seconded by a rapid advance towards Vienna. On the 1st of April Massena entered Freisach, after an encounter with the Austrian rear guard, whom he drove before him, and pursued almost to Neumarck, where the Archduke was stationed. Napoleon came up to the attack, and an engagement ensued, in which the Austrians were defeated with great loss. At night the French troops entered Neumarck. The Archduke now proposed a suspension of arms for twenty-four hours, hoping that auxiliaries would arrive in that time. But Napoleon allowed him no such advantage. He continued to advance through dangerous and difficult passes, while the Archduke retreated on Vienna. On the 3rd the van had a furious and 1 797-] ARMISTICE OF LEO BEN, 65 final engagement in the defiles of Unzmarkt with the Austrians, who lost many- men and made no further resistance. On the 4th and 5 th Napoleon was at Scheiffling ; on the 7th he reached Leoben. Generals Bellegarde and Merfeld, with a flag of truce, now presented themselves at head-quarters, bringing a proposal from the Emperor for a suspension of arms to the furtherance of a permanent peace. The armistice was granted by Napoleon for the term of five days ; all the country as far as Simering, together with the strong town and citadel of Gratz, being surrendered to him and immediately occupied by his army, which was now concentrated by the junction of Joubert and Bernadotte, who brought up their divisions about the 8th of April. Jg7~ ^S^lyr^' FRENCH INFANTRY. ■KliNCH HUSS.-VKS. CHAPTER X. PRELIMINARIES OF LEOBEN — INSURRECTION OF VENICE — MASSACRE AT VERONA- RETURN TO ITALY — DISSOLUTION OF THE VENETIAN SENATE. -NAPOLEON S "L7ARLY on the 13th of April when *— the armistice would have expired, r 5 " the Marquis de Gallo, ambassador from Naples to Vienna, accompanied by one of the Emperor's general officers, arrived at Leoben with full powers to negotiate and sign pre- liminaries of peace. General Clarke had been furnished by the Directory with full power to complete the treaty; but as he was still at Turin, Napo- leon took the responsibility upon himself of signing on the part of France on the 19th. This independence was unpalat- able to the Directory. The Austrian plenipotentiaries had set down as a primary concession that " the Emperor acknowledged the French Republic." "Strike that out," said Napoleon : " the Republic is like the sun, that shines by its own light : none but the blind can fail to see it." By the preliminaries agreed on at Loeben the boundary of the Rhine was assigned to France, and the dominions of Venice were destined, in some way or other, to compensate Austria for the loss of Belgium and Luxembourg. One Republic in Italy was to be acknowledged by Austria, the boundaries of which were not very strictly defined, and Mantua was to be restored to the empire in return for the strong fortress of Mayence on the Rhine. The Directory were dissatisfied with the treaty, and blamed their general for not continuing the advance on Vienna, forgetting that he had earnestly wished to make that movement, which they alone had rendered impracticable with any safety. On the morning when the preliminaries were signed Napoleon was joined at 66 1797-] VENE TTA N TEE A CHER Y. 6 7 Leoben by his old schoolfellow Bourrienne. They had not met since the days when the present conqueror of Italy had projected a scheme for sub-letting houses and keeping a cabriolet. Bourrienne was immediately appointed his private secretary. Reports were fast arriving of the disturbed state of Venice. It will be recol- lected that Napoleon had declared to the equivocating Pesaro, that if any treachery were practised in his absence the Government of Venice should cease to exist. This treachery had been manifested in the blackest shape. The peasantry, to the number of thirty thousand, had been secretly armed, and, excited by the Government and the priesthood, had massacred all the French in the Venetian territories. When Joubert left the Tyrol to join the army at Klagenfurth, General Landon increased his force, beat the French division of fifteen hundred men, and forced them to retreat on Montebaldo. Having become master of Trent and the Tyrol, Landon raised false reports of victories achieved by the Archduke and disasters sustained by the French. Every little reverse was magnified into a great defeat. V:-^3llR NAPOLEON RECEIVIN-G THE COURIER. The Venetian oligarchy, thus misled, openly declared hostility to France. The French Minister endeavoured to convince them of their delusion and impending ruin if they persisted. Pesaro and the leading men were so anxious for the de- struction of the army of Italy, that they would not listen to any doubts of the reports which favoured their wishes. Bourrienne, who passed through Verona on the eve of these events, says that the priests chose Easter Sunday as the day to incite the people to a general rising. On Tuesday in Easter week, the 17th of April, the tocsin sounded in Verona after vespers, and the French were mur- dered wherever they could be found, — even in the hospitals. The number of these assassinations amounted to upwards of three hundred. The French garrison at Verona, though attacked, held out manfully and bombarded the city in return. The garrison at Chiusa, however, was overpowered by an Austrian division, and slaughtered by the infuriate peasants. This blood-thirsty spirit spread to Padua, Vicenza, and other places. An insurrectionary cockade was mounted at Venice, and was worn by the English Minister, who also exhibited the Lion of St. Mark on his gondola. Napoleon set off for Italy immediately. In crossing the Tagliamento, he was 5 — 2 68 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. obliged to stop on an island until a torrent, caused by a violent storm, subsided. A courier presently appeared on the bank of the river, and with some difficulty reached the island. His despatches informed Napoleon that the armies of the Rhine and of the Sambre and Meuse were in motion, and had commenced hostilities on the very day of his signature of the preliminaries. "It is im- possible," says Bourrienne, " to describe the general's excitement on reading these despatches. He had signed the preliminaries only because the French Govern- ment had represented the co-operation of the armies of the Rhine as imprac- ticable at that moment ; and shortly afterwards he was informed that the co- operation was about to take place. The agitation of his mind was so great that he for a moment conceived the idea of passing to the left bank of the Tagliamento, and breaking all engagements under some pretext or other. He persisted for a time in this resolution, which Berthier and several other generals at length per- suaded him to forego." The bitter disappointment was increased by his hearing of successful actions and rapid advances made by Hoche and Moreau. These generals, of course, suspended their operations on learning that a treaty of peace was contemplated. As Napoleon proceeded, his ears were continually assailed with reports of Venetian treachery. The crew of a French privateer having taken refuge from an Austrian frigate under the batteries of the Lido, where they expected protection, were murdered without any interposition ; and when the French Minister com- plained of the outrage, the Senate not only laughed at his threats, but rewarded those who had participated in the action. Junot had been sent forward to Venice on hearing of the insurrection, with a letter from Napoleon to the Doge, giving him only twenty-four hours to decide between war and peace. When Junot arrived, the disturbances were entirely at an end. General Kilmaine had hurried to the support of the garrison of Verona, and arrived on the 21st: he was seconded by the Lombard division. On the 23rd the astounding news of the preliminaries of peace reached Venice : the Senate were lost in stupor, and could form no decision whether to resist or submit. The insurgents at Verona and elsewhere accepted on their knees the conditions offered by the French generals ; their panic was increased by the news that General Victor was approaching from Rome : the peasantry were disarmed and sent to their homes. Junot, on his arrival, was immediately admitted to the presence of the Senate. He made the lofty walls resound with his threats of speedy vengeance, till the members shook on their ancient seats of power. They, who held supreme dominion as Ministers of a despotic Government which had maintained its remorseless authority over mens' bodies and souls during nearly six hundred years ; a Govern- ment rendered immortal in chronicles and histories, and dramas and romances, — fictions which never yet embodied a fraction of its horrors,— this assemblage, seeing (for the first time) a stronger power above them, and seeing it by the flashing light of an impending sword, without a single struggle sued for mercy and per- mission to lick the dust from the sword-bearer's feet. The envoys bearing the humble apologies of the Senate to Napoleon met him at Gratz. He received them with deadly composure, his look and bearing indi- cative of a fixed purpose. They trembled as they ventured to touch upon the subject of a pecuniary atonement, amounting to eight million francs, offered by the Senate. " If you could proffer me the mines of Peru," said Napoleon, " if you could strew the whole district with gold, it could never atone for the French blood which has been so inhumanly and treacherously spilt." On the 3rd of May war was declared on the part of France against Venice. Napoleon issued the following order of the day, dated at Palma Nuova : — " The Commander-in-chief requires the French Minister to leave Venice ; orders the several agents of the Republic of Venice to leave Lombardy, and the Venetian Terra Firma, within four-and-twenty hours ! He orders the different generals of I797-] ABOLITION OF THE VENETIAN OLIGARCHY. 6 9 Jl'NOT BEFORE THE VENETIAN SENATE. divisions to treat the Venetian troops as enemies, and to destroy the Lion of St. Mark in all the towns of the Terra Firma." The mere appearance of this manifesto was sufficient. The Doge put off his crown ; the Senate dissolved itself; the inquisitors, and the Council of Three, all laid down their absolute offices ; and the world seemed disposed to forget that such a Government had ever existed. The enormity fell without a sound and went like a shadow into oblivion. A French division was called in to preserve the city from anarchy. On the nth of May a tricoloured flag was hoisted in the Place of St. Mark ; a popular Con- stitution declared, and a Provisional Government established. The whole of the Terra Firma had already declared itself free, and adopted the principles of the French Revolution. The Venetian fleet was manned and sent to Toulon. General Gentili proceeded to Corfu and took possession. Pesaro fled to Vienna. Napoleon did not visit the peasantry who had committed those horrible massacres with any vengeance, considering them only the instruments of an iniquitous Government. The rulers, and not the people, suffered for the crimes which had been committed. Several disorderly acts were, however, perpetrated by the French soldiers, notwithstanding Napoleon's efforts to prevent them. The bank at Verona was plundered. Colonel Andrieux, and Bouquet a commissary, were accused of being accessory to the robbery, and compelled to refund all pro- perty found in their possession. Bernadotte was dispatched to Paris, where he presented the trophies taken from the Venetians. Venice was now entirely in the power of the French. NAPOLEON AND JOSEPHINES LEVE£. CHAPTER XI. NAPOLEON IN MILAN — MONTEBELLO —JOSEPHINE — GENOA — PROTRACTED NEGOTIATIONS- UNSETTLED STATE OF PARIS — AUGEREAU AND LAVALETTE — CISALPINE REPUBLIC — THE VALTELINE. \| APOLEON repaired to Milan after set- tling the affairs of Venice, and took up his abode in the beautiful palace of Montebello. It was situated five leagues from Milan, upon a sloping hill which commands an extensive view of the rich plain of Lombardy. The Marquis de Gallo, an Austrian plenipotentiary, lived at the distance of half a league, the negotiations for peace being still under discussion. Napoleon was joined by Josephine. She had visited him at Genoa in the December of 1796, travelling from France under the guardianship of Junot. They now enjoyed an Italian summer together, and this was, perhaps, the happiest of their lives. Lad'es of the highest rank, and celebrated for beauty or accom- plishments, vied with each other in paying homage to Josephine, who received them with an easy dignity and grace not unbecoming that regal courtesy which she was subsequently called upon to exercise. Some of the letters of Napoleon to Josephine during his early campaigns in Italy are interesting, inasmuch as they assist in giving an insight to his character through a medium which concealed nothing.* * The reader will be interested in the following, as a fair general specimen of the style and tone of feeling displayed throughout these letters : — 70 1797-j GENOA RECONSTITUTED. 7 1 Negotiations for peace proceeded amid gaiety and pleasure. The various Ministers and envoys of Austria, the Pope, the Kings of Sardinia and Naples, the Uuke of Parma, the Swiss cantons, and several of the Princes of Germany, throngs of generals, and deputies of towns, with the daily arrival and dispatch of numerous courtiers, the bustle of important business, mingled with fetes and entertainments, balls and hunting parties, gave the picture of a splendid Court, which Italians called the Court of Montebello. Excursions were made to the Lago Maggiore, to Lago di Como, to the Borromean Islands, and the villas which surround those delicious regions were occupied at pleasure. Every town, every village desired to distinguish itself by some peculiar mark of homage and respect to him whom they named the Liberator of Italy. The affairs of Genoa demanded the attention of Napoleon early in the summer. A spirit of liberty had arisen in that State, and the Doge had granted a committee to propose alterations in the Constitution. The three State censors, alarmed at innovation, incited the poorer class of the people till they became furious against the new doctrines. On the 22nd of May the two parties came to open hostilities, and in the disorder which ensued, the French Minister, who had purposely abstained from interference, narrowly escaped being murdered. Several French families were in great danger ; some Frenchmen were massacred, and many detained prisoners. Napoleon immediately sent his aide-de-camp, Lavalette, to Genoa, insisting on the liberation of the French and the disarming of the infu- riate mob. The aristocratic party yielded to a power they could not resist. A deputation was sent to Montebello to settle the Constitution, and it was established on a democratic basis on the 6th of June. Napoleon urged moderation, and was highly displeased when the people, in their joy at the news of their revolution being established, committed several excesses, such as burning the Golden Book and demolishing the statue of Andrea Doria, the founder of their Government, whom he justly venerated as a great man. He ordered the provisional magis- trates to repair the statue. He also resisted the persecution of their discomfited priests, and the exclusion of the nobles from public offices ; pointedly remarking that this was practising the same injustice towards the nobles that they had hitherto shown to the people. The Government was at length settled according to his suggestions. Napoleon found quite as much interest in working these and similar measures as in the complex movements of a campaign. He prided himself more upon his genius as a diplomatist and legislator than as a military commander ; and in both these characters we must consider him henceforward. " By what art is it that you have been able to captivate all my faculties, and to concentrate in your- self my moral existence? It is a magic, my sweet love, which will finish only with my life. To live for Josephine : there is the history of my life. I am trying to reach you — I am dying to be near you. Fool that I am, I do not perceive that I increase the distance between us. What lands, what countries separate us ! What a time before you read these weak expressions of a troubled soul, in which you reign ! Ah, my adorable wife, I know not what fate awaits me ; but if it keep me much longer from you, it will be insupportable — my courage will not go so far. There was a time when I was proud of my courage ; and sometimes, when contemplating the ills that man could do me — the fate which destiny could reserve for me, I fixed my eyes steadfastly on the most unheard-of misfortunes without a frown — ■ without alarm ; but now the idea that my Josephine may be ill at ease, the idea that she may be ill, and, above all, the cruel, fatal thought that she may love me less, withers my soul, stops my blood, renders me sad, cast down, and leaves me not even the courage of fury and despair. Formerly, I used often to say to myself, men could not hurt him who could die without regret ; but now, to die without being loved by thee, to die without that certainty, is the torment of hell ; it is the lively and striking image of absolute annihilation — I feel as if I were stifled. My incomparable companion ! thou, whom fate has destined to make along with me the painful journey of life, the day on which I shall cease to possess thy heart will be the day on which parched nature will be to me without warmth or vegetation. " I stop, my sweet love : my soul is sad, my body is fatigued, my head is giddy, men disgust me, I ought to hate them — they separate me from my beloved. " I am at Port Maurice, near Oneille ; to-morrow I shall at Albenga ; the two armies are in motion. "We are endeavouring to deceive each other : victory to the most skilful ! I am pretty well satisfied with Beaulieu ; if he alarm me much, he is a better man than his predecessor. I shall beat him, I hope, in good style. Do not be uneasy : love me as your eyes, — but that is not enough, — as yourself, more than yourself, than your thought, your mind, your sight, your all. Sweet love, forgive me, I am sink- ing. Nature is weak for him who feels strongly — for him whom you love ! " — Published in a " Tour through the Netherlands," etc., by Charles Tennant. 72 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Bourrienne relates that while Napoleon was occupied with the organization of Venice, Genoa, and Milan, he used to complain of the want of men. " Good God ! " said he, " how rare men are ! There are eighteen millions in Italy, and I have with difficulty found two real ones, — Dandolo and Melzi." These two actual "men" were immediately employed in important services, and justified his estimation. I ,/ ! BURNING THE GOLDEN BOOK OF GENOA. Bourrienne also relates that Napoleon, to get through his almost interminable correspondence at this period, and to satisfy himself that people wrote too much and lost valuable time in useless answers, told him to open only the letters which came by extraordinary couriers, and to leave all the rest for three weeks in the basket. " I declare," says Bourrienne, " that at the end of the time it was un- necessary to reply to four-fifths of these communications." Napoleon laughed heartily at the success of this experiment. Eugene Beauharnais came to Montebello when seventeen years of age, and Napoleon, who was always much attached to him, appointed him one of his aides- de-camp. The negotiations with the Austrian Government were tediously protracted. The Emperor found the whole proceeding extremely unpalatable, especially as he was aware that the firmness of Napoleon was not to be shaken. While Napoleon was at Gratz, he had received from the Marquis de Gallo a copy of the pre- liminaries ratified by the Emperor. It is said that he at the same time received 1797] INGRATITUDE OF THE DIRECTORY. 73 from one of the plenipotentiaries, authorized by the Emperor, an offer of a sove- reignty of two hundred and fifty thousand souls in Germany, for himself and family, at the conclusion of the peace ; which principality, it was hinted, " would place him beyond the reach of Republican ingratitude." Napoleon smiled, sent his thanks to the Emperor, but said he wished for no greatness or wealth unless conferred on him by the French people, adding, " and with that support, believe me, sir, my ambition will be satisfied." As the negotiations progressed, it became apparent that the States of Venice were to be sacrificed in order to adjust all differences between the two contending parties. The Directory insisted on one article which Napoleon zealously enforced : the liberation of La Fayette, Latour-Maubourg, and Bureau de Puzy, who had been detained since 1792 in an Austrian State prison. They were liberated in August, up to which month the treaty of peace was still under deliberation. Napoleon became heartily tired of these long delays. He had given his ultimatum to the Marquis de Gallo, by whom it was ratified, on the 24th of May; but the Emperor, on the 19th of June, disavowed the concessions made by the latter, and insisted in referring matters to a Congress at Berne. Napoleon overruled this ; but still nothing could be decided. He was also exasperated at several attacks made on his character and proceedings by the Directory. He more than once tendered his resignation. " If only base men," he said in one of his letters to the Directory, " who are dead to the feeling of patriotism and national glory, had spoken of me thus, I would not have complained. But I have a right to complain of the degradation to which the first magistrates of the Republic reduce those who have aggrandized and carried the French name to so high a pitch of glory. Citizen Directors ! I reiterate the demand I made for my dismissal. I wish to live in tranquillity, if the poniards of Clichy " (a Royalist club at Paris) " will allow me to live. You have employed me in negotiations : I am not very fit to conduct them." A letter from the Emperor to his brother the Grand Duke of Tuscany was in- tercepted by the French at this period. It affords a curious contrast to the above and is an illustration of the principles which governed a large part of Europe at that crisis : — " Hetzendorf, July 20, 1797. " My dear Brother, —I punctually received your kind letter, containing a de- scription of your unhappy and delicate situation. You may be assured that I per- ceive it as clearly as you do yourself; and I pity you the more because, in truth, I do not know what advice to give you. You are, like me, the victim of the former inactivity of the princes of Italy, who ought at once to have acted with all their united forces while I still possessed Mantua. If Bonaparte's project be, as I learn, to establish Republics in Italy, this is likely to end in spreading Republicanism over the whole country. I have already commenced negotiations for peace, and the pre- liminaries are ratified. If the French observe them as strictly as 1 do and will do, then your situation will be improved ; but already the French are beginning to disregard them. The principal problem which remains to be solved is, whether the French Directory approve of Bonaparte's proceedings, and whether the latter, as appears by some papers distributed through his army, is not disposed to revolt against his country ; which also seems to be probable, from his severe conduct towards Switzerland, notwithstanding the assurance of the Directory that he had been ordered to leave that country untouched. If this should be the case, new and innumerable difficulties may arise. Under these circumstances I can at pre- sent advise nothing ; for as to myself, it is only time and the circumstances of the moment that can point out how I am to act. Believe me ever your best friend and brother, " Francis." From this letter Napoleon perceived the Emperor's desire for peace, his waver- ing purposes, and incertitude as to the fate of the Italian princes. Notwithstand- 74 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. ing which the tone of the Austrian demands altered and became more confident and arrogant. Napoleon had discovered the clue to a Royalist plot against the Republic, and possessed proofs of the treachery of one of the most successful French generals. He observed the acts of the French Government with a vigilant eye, and sent Augereau and Lavalette to Paris in July for the purpose of pro- curing accurate reports of all that passed there. At the same time he held him- self in readiness to march to Paris at the head of twenty-five thousand men, should the occasion render such a step necessary. On the 14th of July, the anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, he prepared the army to expect an approaching crisis. " Let us swear," he said, " by the manes of those heroes who have died for liberty, — let us swear, too, on our standards, — war to the enemies of the Republic and of the Constitution of the year Three ! " On the same day he celebrated the federation of the new democracy, which was now, under his auspices, consolidated in Italy. The Transpadane and Cispadane Republics were with the legations of Bologna and Ferrara formed into one State, with the name of the Cisalpine Re- public. He destined Mantua to be its bulwark. The keys of Milan and the fort- resses were delivered to the Cisalpine officers. From this moment a striking change in Italian manners may be dated. Public spirit and aspirations for liberty rose with the creation of this independent State. Shortly afterwards the people of the Valteline, whose beautiful country naturally belongs to Italy, but had been subject for nearly three centuries to the Grisons, whose language, customs, manners, and religion were unlike their own, made Napoleon their mediator. After some hesitation about interfering with the in- ternal economy of Switzerland, he proposed to the Grisons to give the Valteline equal rights with themselves ; but this was indignantly rejected. To the great joy of the Valteline it was incorporated with the Cisalpine Eepublic. This was the severe conduct towards Switzerland to which the intercepted letter of the Emperor alluded. NAPOLEON IN HIS STUDY. CHAPTER XII. PICHEGRU — BABCEUF— EIGHTEENTH FRUCTIDOR — MOREAU — COUNT COBENTZEL — TREATY OF CAMPO FORMIO — DEATH OF GENERAL HOCHE — NAPOLEON AT MANTUA — TAKES LEAVE OF THE ARMY AT MILAN— DEPARTURE— RASTADT— ARRIVES AT PARIS— GRAND FETES. HE French general whose treason to the Republic had been discovered by Napo- leon was his ancient tutor at Brienne, Pichegru, the conqueror of Holland. Proofs had fallen into Napoleon's hands of a correspondence between Pichegru and the Bourbon Princes, carried on since the year 1795. Great offers of money and rank had been made by the Princes, in return for the general's pro- mised betrayal of his army to them, and his march upon Paris to proclaim Louis XVIII. These proofs were dis- covered among the papers of Count de Launay d'Entraigues, arrested at Venice as a well-known suspicious character. The vacillation and imbecility of the Prince of Conde had, fortunately for the Republic, prevented a movement at the dangerous moment ; but on one occa- sion it was now certain that Pichegru had purposely deranged and disappointed the plans of the campaign, and sacrificed a portion of his troops to the enemy. He was superseded in his command ; and Napoleon learned with surprise from Desaix that Moreau, who now commanded the army of the Rhine, had known these acts of treachery previously to his own' discovery of them, but had never communicated the facts to the Directory. General Desaix, then attached to the army of the Rhine, who visited him in July from an ardent desire to become acquainted with him, and with whom he now commenced that friendship which J6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. lasted till death, told him that Moreau had learnt the secret through the capture of a waggon at Kinglin. Pichegru was now President of the Council of Five Hundred. Another un- doubted Royalist, Barbe Marbois, was also President of the Council of Ancients ; and the elections in May, 1797, had altogether given a formidable proportion to the numbers of the Royalist party in the Legislative Chambers. Barthelemy, newly elected one of the Directory, was a Royalist ; and Carnot, though a Republican at heart, yet, from some mistaken principle or from dissatisfaction with the measures of Government, joined him in opposition to the three other Directors. The executive was therefore divided, while the legislature was strongly Royalist. " The Clichy Club," composed of violent partisans of the Bourbons, watched over events, and regulated the movement they soon expected. It was evident that the Republic was again in danger and once more required the aid of force for its preservation. This was the crisis for which Napoleon held himself ready. That a Government established not two years before, professedly by and for the people, should have so little hold upon popular confidence as to need this ques- tionable support a second time, would be unaccountable, if we did not see clearly that the people, the millions, though greatly ameliorated in condition, though raised from a state of vassalage and slavery to one in which hope and progression were before them, had yet no equality of good, no acknowledgment of their right to share the gifts of bounteous Nature with the hundreds. There was scarcely any class with whom the Directory were popular. They were accused of petty and meddling enactments, ostentation, weak and indecisive measures. The army, however, continued firm in its allegiance. The Directory, in their anxiety, sent for General Hoche, with a detachment of twelve thousand men, from the army of the Sambre and Meuse. Hoche was a young officer of great ability and enterprise, ardent for renown, and beloved by all his soldiers, who followed him with devoted enthusiasm. Napoleon, indisposed to allow one of so much ability as Hoche the opportunity of influencing public events, availed himself of the application of the Directory for aid, and superseded Hoche by sending Augereau, whom he well knew to be a brave and skilful soldier, and a true Republican, but in other respects a sufficiently stupid man. Meantime he maintained a constant correspondence with the Directory. On the 17th of Fructidor (3rd of September) the Royalists in the councils, who had increased their guard to eight hundred men, went so far as to decree the arrest of the three Directors, Barras, Rewbell, and La Reveillere, on the follow- ing day, if the regular troops were not removed from the neighbourhood of Paris. The Directors gave them no time to effect their purpose. During the night the troops under the command of Augereau were marched into the city and posted at every avenue of the Tuileries. Before morning they had taken possession of the halls of the councils, and had arrested at their houses Pichegru and all the principals of the Royalist party, with the exception of Carnot, who escaped. The remainder of the members, on assembling in the morning, found the military in possession of the Tuileries, and were told that the detection of a formidable con- spiracy had obliged the Government to alter their place of meeting ; they were accordingly invited to repair to the Odeon and the School of Medicine. They complained loudly of military violence, but were obliged to submit. The proofs of Pichegru's treason, and explanations of these extraordinary proceedings, were laid before them immediately. Two new Directors were elected, the vacancies in the legislative bodies supplied, and a law of public safety passed, which con- demned the persons arrested, to the. number of two hundred, to banishment. The Directorial Government was once more saved and the Royalists defeated. When all was over Moreau tardily produced those papers concerning Pichegru's treachery which he had so long possessed. His conduct in concealing them I797-] OVERTHROW OF ROYALIST INTRIGUES. 77 GENERAL HOCHE. •exposed him to severe animadversions, particularly as, in now disclosing them, he seemed to serve no good purpose, and only to cast additional obloquy upon a man already overwhelmed with disgrace. Napoleon was intoxicated with joy at the overthrow of the Royalist plans on the 1 8th of Fructidor. The effect was quickly visible in the negotiations in Italy. Count Cobentzel was sent from Austria to Napoleon before the end of September, furnished with ample powers, and bearing a letter from the Emperor in which he expressed to the French general his desire to conclude a peace. Napoleon was in Passeriano, and there the business at last progressed in earnest. The Directory now heightened their tone. They wanted to revolutionize all Italy. They insisted that neither Mantua nor Venice should be given up to Austria, yet that France should retain Belgium and the boundary of the Rhine. At one period the negotiations were nearly broken off, and war declared; at another Napoleon again tendered his resignation, finding himself thwarted and surrounded by spies of the Government ; but he was earnestly requested to con- tinue in their service. The month of October arrived, and mountains seen covered with snow decided the business. A winter campaign was not to be risked. " It is settled," he said to Bourrienne : " I will make peace. Venice shall be exchanged for the boundary of the Rhine, and thus be made to pay for the war : let the Directory and the lawyers say what they like." 78 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The principal articles of the peace were : — The boundary of the Rhine, with Mayence, to be ceded to France ; Mantua to be ceded to the Cisalpine Republic ; \ustria to acknowledge the Cisalpine Republic as an independent State ; part of rthe Venetian territories and the Ionian Islands to belong to France ; Venice and the rest of her territories to Austria. The final conference between the contracting parties took place on the 16th of October. Count Cobentzel insisted on retaining Mantua and the line of the Adige, and finally threatened to bring down the Russians if the war were renewed, all the blame of which he laid on the French general. Napoleon upon this rose from his seat with outward calmness, and taking from the mantelpiece a porcelain vase, which Count Cobentzel prized as a present from the Empress Catherine, said, " Well, the truce is at an end, and war is NAPOLEON AND M. DE GALLO. declared ; but remember, before the end of autumn I will shatter your monarcrry as I shatter this brittle affair ! " dashing it furiously down, and covering the carpet with the fragments. He then bowed and retired. M. de Cobentzel sat still, as if petrified with the visible semblance of a scattered dominion ; but M. de Gallo, his colleague, followed the French general to his carriage, trying to persuade him to return ; " bowing and ducking his head," said Napoleon, " and in so pitiful an attitude, that, in spite of my anger, I could not help laughing excessively as I drove away." The treaty of peace was signed at Campo Formio on the following day. In taking the oath of allegiance to Austria, the ex-Doge of Venice sank insensible on the ground, and died a few days afterwards. The peace was unsatisfactory to the Directory. The partition of Venice is, no doubt, an infamous transaction ; but there seems to have been no alternative between giving Venice to Austria and beginning the war again in the end of autumn. The English Government had sent Lord Malmesbury to Lisle to treat of peace during the negotiations with Austria. There seemed no longer any object of contention, and the terms were nearly agreed upon, when the Directory, in- toxicated by their victory on the 18th of Fructidor, raised their demands, and the conferences were in consequence broken off. I797-] CONGRESS OF RASTADT. 79 The treaty required that Mayence should be given up at a Congress at Rastadt, since the German confederation must become parties with the Emperor in this important cession. Napoleon, therefore, made preparations to attend the Congress. He returned first to Milan by way of Mantua. At Mantua he was erecting a monument to the memory of Virgil ; and there also he celebrated a melancholy solemnity, — a military funeral in honour of General Hoche, who had just died suddenly at Mayence, in the flower of his age and reputation, not without sus- picions of having been poisoned by the enemies of France. Napoleon took leave of the Italians in an energetic address, dated from Milan, and of the army in the following order of the day : — " Soldiers ! I set out to- morrow for Germany. Separated from the army, I shall sigh for the moment of \ \k>\ \\\ DEATH OF GENERAL HOCHE. rejoining it, and braving fresh dangers. Whatever post Government may assign to the soldiers of the army of Italy, they will always be the worthy supporters of liberty and of the glory of the French name. Soldiers ! when you talk of the princes you have conquered, of the nations you have set free, and the battles you have fought in two campaigns, say, ' In the next two we shall do still more ! ' " Napoleon was greeted with enthusiasm during his journey to Rastadt. On entering the Valteline, he was met by three parties of young girls dressed in the three colours of the national flag, who presented him with a crown on which was inscribed the sentence which had proclaimed the liberty of their country, — "One nation cannot be subject to another." At Geneva he was received with honours. He remained a very short time at the Congress of Rastadt, where disputes arose from the dissatisfaction of the German princes, who loudly complained of the surrender of Mayence. He left the Congress as soon as the French troops were in possession of that fortress, and repaired to Paris, travelling incognito, and alighted at his small house in the Chaussee d'Antin, Rue Chantereine. The name of the Rue de la Victoire was given to the Rue Chantereine. The arrival of Napoleon created a great sensation in the capital. The streets were thronged with people, and, wherever he was seen, the air was filled with 80 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. shouts of " Long live the General of the army of Italy ! " The Directory honoured their general, " who had tilled all Europe with the renown of his arms, and given the first stunning blow to the coalition," with a public reception in the great court of the Luxembourg Palace, which was splendidly decorated for the occasion. The members and officers of the Government were ranged in a large amphitheatre at the farther end ; the windows were crowded with ladies ; the court was thronged with people. Opposite the principal entrance stood the altar of the country, surrounded by the statues of Liberty, Equality, and Peace ; the whole of the great court being roofed and canopied with the standards taken in the Italian wars. When Napoleon entered, introduced by Talleyrand the Minister for Foreign Affairs, the whole assembly arose and every head was uncovered. Talleyrand's oration was heard with impatience, so anxious was every one to hear the conqueror of Italy. He rose at the conclusion of the speech, and presented the treaty of peace. His manner was quiet and retiring ; he spoke in a firm voice as follows : " Citizen Directors ! the French people, to regain their freedom, had to contend with kings. To obtain a constitution founded on reason, the prejudices of eighteen centuries were to be overcome. The constitution of the year Three, with your aid, has triumphed over all those obstacles. Religion, feudalism, and royalism have successively governed Europe for twenty ages ; but from the peace which you have just concluded dates the era of representative Governments. You have effected the organization of the great nation, the territory of which is only circumscribed because Nature herself has fixed its limits. You have done more. The two most lovely portions of Europe, heretofore so celebrated for the sciences, the arts, and the great men cradled in them, behold with glad expectation the Genius of Liberty rising from the tombs of their ancestors. I have the honour to lay before you the treaty signed at Campo Formio, and ratified by his Majesty the Emperor. When the happiness of the French people shall be established on the best organic laws, the whole of Europe will become free." Barras followed with a long discourse of extravagant laudation, at the conclusion of which he threw himself into the arms of the general, who had to receive the same fraternal embrace from the rest of the Directors. The two councils a few days afterwards gave a splendid banquet to Napoleon in the gallery of the Louvre; the walls being covered with the masterpieces of art which he had sent from Italy. In the midst of this adulation, Napoleon lived in the society only of his inti- mate friends. He went frequently to the theatre, but sat concealed from sight, and though the audience called for him, which they were sure to do if they dis- covered he was in the house, he never came forward. He sent to the manager of the opera on one occasion, requesting the representation of two of the best pieces of the time, in which several popular performers played, " on the same night if possible." The courtly manager promptly replied that "nothing that the conqueror of Italy wished for was impossible, as he had long ago erased that word from the dictionary." The honour which Napoleon most esteemed was his nomina- tion as a member of the Institute. He frequently attended the meetings in the costume worn by the members, sitting beside his friend Monge. NAPOLEON S RECEPTION BY THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA. CHAPTER XIII. POLITICS IN PARIS — MADAME DE STAEL — AFFAIRS OF ROME AND SWITZERLAND — NAPOLEON RELIN- QUISHES THE INVASION OF ENGLAND — EGYPT — EMBARKATION AT TOULON — SURRENDER OF MALTA — NELSON — FRENCH ARMY LANDS AT ALEXANDRIA — THE DESERT. TVTAPOLEON began to long for action again, and to feel his situation awkward and precari- ous. He failed in an endeavour to get nominated one of the Directory, as his age was below the legal time fixed. His popularity did not gratify him. In an- swer to a remark upon the pleasure he must feel at his fellow- citizens so eagerly crowding to see him, he replied, "The peo- ple would crowd just as fast to see me if I were going to the scaf- fold ! " His thoughts again turned to the East, and he began to persuade himself and the members of the Government that the true point at which to attack England was Egypt. He argued that, by the conversion of Egypt into a French colony, the commerce of India would be diverted from the circuitous route by the Cape of Good Hope, and that France, instead of England, would command the great market for the supply of all Europe with the commodities of the East. " The Mediterranean," he said, "will then become a French lake. - ' 82 THE HIS WRY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The Directory, on the other hand, were restless, from the necessity of finding employment for the high-soaring and dangerous spirits called into activity by the •constant wars of the Republic ; and among these they chiefly dreaded Napoleon. Their first scheme was to make a descent upon England, and to place him at the head of the invading army ; their counsels fluctuating between this project and an Egyptian expedition. Meanwhile they gave him no adequate reward for his services # Napoleon had repeatedly refused to accept presents, in any form, from the Sovereigns he conquered. His exactions, however unjustifiable, were all for France. He had not, when he returned to Paris on this occasion, three hundred thousand francs in his possession, though he had transmitted fifty millions to the State. " I might easily," he said to Las Cases, " have brought back ten or twelve millions." It was naturally supposed that some great public reward would be given to him, and a proposal was made to give him the magnificent domain of Chambord; but it was evaded by the Directory. The society of Paris was distasteful to Napoleon, whose habits and views were too reserved and intense to harmonize with its tone. His well-known disagreement with Madame de Stael originated about this time. She has affirmed that, " far from feeling her fear of Bonaparte removed by repeated meetings, it seemed to increase, and his best exertions to please could not overcome her invincible aver- sion for what she found in his character," — while he, in speaking of her, and in his subsequent behaviour towards her, showed personal dislike. She on one occasion put his ready wit to the proof by abruptly asking him, in the middle ot a brilliant party at Talleyrand's, " Whom he esteemed the greatest woman in the world, alive or dead?" "Her, madam, that has borne the most children," answered Napoleon, with an appearance of much simplicity. Rather disconcerted, Madame de Stael drily observed that he was reported not to be a great admirer of women. " I am very fond of my wife, madam," he answered, in that brief manner with which he adjourned a debate as promptly as his manoeuvres decided a battle. Josephine was fond of society ; formed to shine in its giddy round, and to become one of its favourites. Napoleon experienced at this period feelings of indignant disgust, from the common opinion expressed that he owed his wife a debt of gratitude for his influence with the Directory ; but his affection for her does not appear to have been touched by these impertinences. He only warned her " never to talk politics." He once remarked to her, " What you say is looked upon as coming from me. Be silent, that my enemies (and you are surrounded by them) may not draw evil conclusions from your words. A woman can do her husband no good by talking politics ; she may do him much harm." The Directory, before coming to a decision as to further action, had marched an army on Rome. General Duphot was killed in a popular tumult in that city, in front of the palace of Joseph Bonaparte, the French ambassador. This outrage, which called forth the indignation of the Directory, gave them an opportunity of depriving the Pope of his temporal power, and remodelling the Roman Govern- * Napoleon presented a flag to the Directory, on which was inscribed, in the simple form of a cata- logue, the deeds of the campaign of Italy : — " One hundred and fifty thousand prisoners ; one hundred and seventy standards ; five hundred and fifty pieces of battering cannon ; six hundred pieces of field artillery ; five bridge equipages ; nine sixty-four-gun ships : twelve thirty-two-gun frigates ; twelve corvettes ; eighteen galleys ; Armistice with the King of Sardinia ; Convention with Genoa ; Armistice with the Duke of Parma ; Armistice with the King of Naples ; Armistice with the Pope ; Preliminaries of Leoben ; Convention of Montebello with the Republic of Genoa ; Treaty of Peace with the Emperor at Campo Formio. "Liberty given to the people of Bologna, Ferrara, Modena, Massa-Carrara, La Romagna, Lom- bardy, Brescia, Bergami, Mantua, Crema, part of the Veronese, Chiavena, Bormio, the Valteline, the Genoese, the Imperial Fiefs, the people of the Departments of Corcyra, of the iEgean Sea, and of Ithaca. "Sent to Paris all the masterpieces of Michael Angelo, of Guercino, of Titian, of Paul Veronese, of Correggio, of Albano, of Carracci, of Raphael, and of Leonardo da Vinci." This flag was placed in the hall of the public sittings of the Directory. .] EXPEDITION TO EGYPT PROJECTED. 83 ment according to the standard of French republicanism. About the same period they interfered unjustifiably in the affairs of Switzerland, where their rage for re- ducing all Governments to their own idea of perfection produced resistance and bloodshed. The old democratic cantons were not ready to submit to innovations, and the spirit roused by these unwarrantable measures broke forth the moment the pressure of external force was removed. Napoleon saw the impolicy of these proceedings, and endeavoured in vain to prevent them. The celebration of the anniversary of the death of Louis XVI. was at hand, and the Directory wished that he should attend, lest his absence might render the fete unpopular. He was too penetrating not to perceive that their invitation was only given from motives of policy, and therefore objected to sanctioning the solemnity by his presence, saying that " national fetes were held in celebration of victories, but that the victims left on the field of battle were lamented, and that it was impolitic to commemorate an event which, however necessary, was in itself a tragedy and a national calamity, and, whether useful or injurious, was still a melancholy event." The Government combated his arguments by reminding him of the conduct of the Athenians and Romans on similar occasions. He agreed at length to be present, but privately as a member of the Institute, with the rest of that body. He was recognized, however, and loudly cheered by the people, who forgot the business of the day in their enthusiasm for the general of the army of Italy. The nomination of Bernadotte as ambassador to Vienna was a fresh cause of contention between the Directory and Napoleon. He knew that the violence of Bernadotte's temper made him unfit for this business ; and the result proved the correctness of his judgment; a rupture between Austria and France very nearly occurring in consequence of his rashness. Two of Napoleon's brothers were now members of the legislative bodies, and he again had an intention of trying to over- come the difficulty of age, and becoming a candidate for the Directorship ■ but he never saw sufficient prospect of success to propose himself openly. At length he resolved to bring the question of the invasion of England to a decision, by a personal survey of the coast, and a calculation of the chances of success with which the attempt might be made. With Lannes, Sulkowsky, and Bourrienne, he visited the different ports on the northern coast, collecting all the necessary information, and closely questioning the sailors, smugglers, and fisher- men, to whose answers he attentively listened. He was absent only one week, but the time had been sufficient to enable him to form a decided opinion. To Bourrienne's question, on their return, he replied, " It is too great a risk : I will not hazard it. I would not thus sport with the fate of France." Napoleon returned to Paris entirely occupied with the idea of Egypt. He compared Europe to a " molehill," — adding, " there have never been great empires or revolutions except in the East." Egypt was now the inexhaustible subject of his conversation with his friends, amongst whom Monge was his daily visitor, and encouraged his enthusiasm. The Directory (rejoicing at the prospect of getting rid of him) acceded to all Napoleon's plans, and gave up to him the direction of all the preparations for the projected expedition. He selected and equipped the army, raised money, collected ships : he was employed night and day in the organization of the armament. The Directory converted his wishes into decrees as the law required. If he wanted an order signed, he frequently ran to the Luxembourg with it himself. At the same time a body of men distinguished in art, science, and literature, to the number of one hundred, were selected, under the direction of Monge, to accompany the expedition. The embarkation was to take place partly at Civita Vecchia, but the main body was assembled at Toulon. When all was in readiness Napoleon joined it : he harangued the troops in sight of the ships which were to convey them from the shores of France. He told them that he was about to lead them into a country where they would find new fields of glory, new dangers, and new triumphs ; pro- 6 — 2 8 4 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. -1 " i 4* 11 I "■Ve/f/verc-*^ NAPOLEON S UtfAKTUKE FOR EGYPT. mising that every soldier should be rewarded with seven acres of ground. He was answered by loud cheers, and cries of " Long live the Republic ! " Up to this point the objects and destination of the armament were kept profoundly secret, and every attempt was made to maintain the popular belief that England itself was to be attacked. The English Government vigilantly observed the preparations that were going on, and kept a fleet in the Mediter- ranean under the command of Nelson. It was highly important that the French squadron should sail without delay, in order to avoid the risk of being discovered by the English cruisers ; but contrary winds detained it for ten days. This interval was employed by Napoleon in attention to the minutest details connected with the forces under his command.* The army consisted of twenty-five thousand men, chiefly veteran soldiers selected from the army of Italy, and commanded by several of the first generals of France : — Kleber, Desaix, Berthier, Regnier, Murat, Lannes, Andreossi, Junot, Menou, and Belliard. Four hundred transports were to convey the troops. Thirteen ships of the line and four frigates, under Admiral Brueys, formed the naval force of the expedition. * How minute this attention was will be seen by the following list of books, which he gave in his own handwriting to Bourrienne, and ordered him to purchase, for the purpose of forming a camp library of duodecimos : — First, Arts and Science; secondly, Geography and Travels; thirdly, History; fourthly, Poetry ; fifthly, Romance ; sixthly, Politics and Morals. Arts and Science. — Fontenelle's Worlds, i vol. ; Letters to a German Princess, 2 vols.; Courses of the Normal School, 6 vols. ; The Artillery Assistant, i vol. ; Treatise on Fortification, 3 vols. ;. Treatise on Fireworks, 1 vol. Geography and Travels. — Barclay's Geography, 12 vols. ; Cook's Voyages, 3 vols. ; La Harpe's Travels, 24 vols. History. — Plutarch, 12 vols.; Turenne, 2 vols.; Conde, 4 vols.; Villars, 4 vols.; Luxembourg, 2 vols.; Du Guesclin, 2 vols.; Saxe, 3 vols.; Memoirs of the Marshals of France, 20 vols.; President Hainault, 4 vols. ; Chronology, 2 vols. ; Marlborough, 4 vols. ; Prince Eugene, 6 vols. ; Philosophical History of India, 12 vols. ; Germany, 2 vols. ; Charles XII., 1 vol. ; Essay on the Manners of Nations, 6 vols.; Peter the Great, 1 vol.; Polybius, 6 vols.; Justin, 2 vols.; Arrian, 3 vols.; Tacitus, 2 vols.; Titus Livius; Thucidides, 2 vols.; Vertot, 4 vols.; Donina, 8 vols.; Frederick II., 8 vols. 1798.] SURRENDER OF MALTA. 85 The wind being favourable, and the English squadron driven off the coast by- stress of weather, the troops embarked and all things were made ready for depar- ture. Josephine had accompanied Napoleon to Toulon, and remained with him till the last moment on board the admiral's ship L' Orient. At sunrise on the 19th of May, 1798, the armament set sail, the ships and convoys forming a semi- circle of six leagues in extent. On leaving Toulon Josephine went to the waters of Plombieres. On the 8th of June the convoys from Italy joined the squadron at sea ; on the 10th the whole fleet was assembled before Malta. The first object of Napoleon was possession of that island. He had already secured a secret party among the knights, and a very slight demonstration of hostilities spread consternation in La Valetta, and brought the whole " Order " to terms. They were no longer the warrior priests, the defenders of Christendom, but a set of idle voluptuaries, chiefly known by the balls and fetes which they gave in the seaports of Italy with the revenues intended for the destruction of the Turks. They opened their gates to the French without delay. The Grand Master received six hundred thousand francs from Napoleon, and retired to Germany ; nearly all the knights entered the ranks of the French army. As the French troops passed through the almost im- pregnable fortifications, Caffarelli drily remarked to Napoleon that it was for- tunate there was some one within such walls to open the gates for them, otherwise entrance would have been hard work. Leaving a sufficient garrison in Malta, the French squadron was again under sail on the 16th. No man ever understood the value of time better than Napo- leon, and it might be said of him that his "leisure was labour." Monge and Berthollet were. his favourite companions. General Caffarelli pos- sessed a fund of wit and information. Monge, whose ardent imagination predis- posed him to religious impressions, found more sympathy from Napoleon than Berthollet, with his rigid analysis and materialism. A great part of Napoleon's time was passed in his cabin, lying on a swing-bed to avoid sea-sickness, and at these periods Bourrienne read to him. The great object of solicitude was to elude the English fleet. The French vessels were encumbered with civil and military baggage, provisions, stores, &c, and densely crowded with troops. An encounter with Nelson was dreaded by Napoleon, as tending to the frustration of his plans ; and Admiral Brueys con- templated the possibility of it with feelings of fear, which he freely expressed. " God grant," he would say, with a sigh, " that we may pass the English without meeting them." The matter was frequently discussed between him and Napoleon, who carefully inquired into all the manoeuvres of the ships, and all the plans to be pursued in case of being forced into an action. The best place for stowing the hammocks (as beds to catch bullets) was one of his inquiries ; but as to all the vast mass of baggage and stores which he had provided with such elaborate care, he decided that the whole of it should be thrown overboard if the English squadron hove in sight. The English could never have boarded the French vessels with twenty-five thousand finely-appointed troops to oppose them ; the conflict must have been decided entirely by tactics. Napoleon contrived to avoid the encounter in a very skilful manner. When Nelson returned to Toulon and found the French fleet was gone, he Poetry. — Ossian, 1 vol. ; Tasso, 6 vols. ; Ariosto, 6 vols. ; Homer, 6 vols. ; Virgil, 4 vols. ; The Henriade, 1 vol. ; Telemachus, 2 vols. ; Les Jardins, 1 vol. ; The Chefs-d'lEuvres of the French Theatre, 20 vols. ; Select Poetry, 20 vols. ; La Fontaine's Poems. Romance. — Voltaire, 4 vols. ; Heloise, 4 vols. ; Werter, 1 vol. ; Marmontel, 4 vols. ; English Novels, 40 vols. ; Le Sage, 10 vols. ; Prevost, 10 vols. Politics. — The Bible ; The New Testament ; The Koran ; The Veda ; Mythology ; Montesquieu's L' Esprit des Lois. It will be seen by the last item that Napoleon classed the books which contain the principles and histories of different forms of religion under the head of " Politics ;" a word he always understood in the most comprehensive sense. 86 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. followed to the southward. At Naples he heard of their landing in Malta and their destination for Egypt. He arrived at Malta just after they had left the island, and missed them by the accident of their having run upon the coast of Candia to take in water and fresh provisions. During a hazy night, on which they lay off Candia, the French were alarmed by the report of guns on their starboard, and it afterwards proved that those were signals between the ships of Nelson's fleet ; so close were the two hostile squadrons to each other without being aware of it. Napoleon, receiving positive information of this proximity in the morning, ordered Brueys to steer — not for Alexandria but for Cape Aza, twenty-five leagues distant from that city. This precaution foiled Nelson, who crowded sail for Alexandria ; but not finding the enemy there, our lion of the seas went " roaring forth " again in quest of him towards Rhodes and Syracuse. A continuance of thick misty weather screened the French fleet from Nelson, and obliged their convoys to keep very close together, which diminished the chance of discovery, especially as the English admiral had no frigates. Denon says that Nelson's fleet was actually seen by the French on the 26th standing to the westward, although the haze concealed the latter from the English. During the voyage several men accidentally fell overboard. The value of human life was little estimated by Napoleon when the success of his designs required the sacrifice, and he was now proceeding on an expedition in which thousands of lives were certain to be lost ; yet in the mere prospect of losing a single man by these accidents, he manifested the greatest excitement, never relax- ing in the most vigorous personal exertions. One dark night the alarm was given that a man had fallen overboard. Napoleon instantly ordered the ship to lay to — the boats to be lowered. When they picked up the " unfortunate object," it turned out to be a quarter of a bullock, whose loud splash in falling had occasioned the mistake. Napoleon as usual rewarded all who had been foremost ; he said, ""It might have been a sailor." On the morning of the 1st of July, as the tops of the minarets of Alexandria announced to Napoleon that his point was gained — at the very moment all danger seemed over — a signal was made that a strange sail was in sight. Apprehension instantly converted it into an English frigate, the precursor of Nelson's dreadful fleet. " Fortune ! " cried Napoleon, " wilt thou abandon me ? I ask but six hours." It was only a French frigate which rejoined them. Napoleon ordered the immediate disembarkation of the troops, notwithstand- ing the request of Brueys for a little delay, as the wind blew almost a hurricane. Napoleon, aware that Nelson's promptitude and daring resembled his own, and having an apprehension of his coming down upon them while disordered by their preparations to land, would not wait an instant. A few soldiers missed their footing or were pushed overboard in the crowd, and drowned. At one o'clock in the morning of the 2nd of July Napoleon himself landed on the soil of Egypt, at Marabout, three leagues westward of Alexandria, and by three in the morning he commenced his march upon Alexandria with three divisions of his army. The " Notes on Egypt " made by Napoleon, and given at length by Bourrienne, contain a wonderful variety of information. He had made himself acquainted with the nature of the soil and productions, the coast and harbours, the customs of the people, their Government, their religion and laws, the amount of the popu- lation and of the revenue. He was impressed with the vast capabilities of the country, and their wretched misapplication and destruction. Every detail is accompanied by his own projects of improvement. He describes Egypt as fertile and luxuriant. Cultivation only extends so far as the annual inundation of the Nile, conducted by canals, can reach, depositing there the rich slime brought down from the Abyssinian mountains. The greatest width of the valley of the Nile, from its entrance into Egypt to Cairo, is four leagues ; the smallest, about one league. North of Cairo the river divides into two branches, forming the 1798.] NOTES ON EGYPT. 87 GENERAL DESAIX. Delta. All beyond is sandy desert, relieved only by a few bushes on which camels can subsist ; uninhabitable by man, excepting at intervals, where small spots of verdure (caused by springs of water), bearing tall palm-trees, afford delicious shade and rest to the parched and weary traveller. Wandering Arabs from Asia or other parts of Africa traverse the desert and occasionally, mounted on their fleet and beautiful horses, make incursions into the cultivated country. Well-armed Arabs were stationed along the frontiers, and held their lands on the tenure of protecting the country from the ravages of wandering tribes ; but they often made common cause with the spoilers. When the French invasion took place, Egypt was nominally a province of the Porte, and governed by a Turkish pasha ; but he was utterly powerless ; and the Turkish army, consisting of only about a thousand old and infirm men, soon joined the ranks of the French. The real rulers of Egypt were the twenty-four beys, or chiefs of the body of military slaves called Mamelukes, once the servants 88 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. of the Porte, but now masters of its province. These men were all, as their beys - once had been, Georgian or Circassian slaves, bought in childhood, and trained from the earliest age to war. There were about eight thousand in all, splendidly mounted, exercised, and armed, and of great courage. The villages of Egypt were all fiefs belonging to the beys, who were frequently at war amongst themselves, and oppressed the inhabitants by every species of tyranny and extortion. The people had, besides, to pay a small tribute to the Porte. The population was two million five hundred thousand, the bulk of which was composed, as now, of the descendants of the Arab conquerors of Egypt, the followers of Mahommed ; with the addition of the Copts, the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mostly Christians ; Jews, Turks, and Christians from other countries. The mass of the population was sunk in extreme ignorance and poverty. The Turks attempted an ill-conducted resistance from the ruinous walls of Alexandria, and the French army lost nearly two hundred men in making the assault ; after which they discovered, to their astonishment, that the great gate leading to Damanhour was open and unguarded, and they quickly made their entrance. General Kleber was wounded on this occasion. The city yielded instantly, and the army left Alexandria the same night. Napoleon remained some days in Alexandria, establishing order in the city and province, and directing the arrangements for an immediate advance on Cairo. General Desaix was sent forward with four thousand five hundred men to Beda. All the vessels of the convoy were brought into port and the stores and baggage landed. A flotilla of light vessels was organized, and the ammunition and provisions necessary for the troops were put on board. They sailed for the mouth of the Nile, with orders to ascend the river, keeping abreast of the army. The squadron (viz., the men-of-war) was directed to come into harbour instantly, or, should there be any difficulty, to proceed to Corfu. Admiral Brueys, unfortunately for the expedition, delayed obeying this order, and came to anchor at the point of Aboukir, conceiving that there he should be able to assist the army in case of a disaster. The commission of learned men remained at Alexandria until Napoleon should reach Cairo ; with the exception of Monge and Berthollet, who accompanied him. The command of Alexandria was entrusted to Kleber. On the 7 th of July Napoleon set forward with the rest of the army, and entered upon the painful march across the desert, towards Damanhour. The sufferings endured in this march were excessive. The burning rays of a vertical sun, un- dimmed by a single cloud ; the absence of any shade in the sandy waste ; the myriads of tormenting insects ; the scarcity of water, only to be found in the wells which occurred at distant intervals (and these often brackish, dirty, or purposely choked with sand by the Arabs) ; the piercing cold of the nights ; and the frequent harassing attacks of the wandering tribes of the desert, — altogether produced an accumulation of ills which called for a fortitude far beyond that possessed by the army so lately accustomed to the beautiful climate and other luxuries of Italy. The illusion called the mirage, which presents to the eye the appearance of a vast sheet of water, and when approached vanishes leaving nothing real but the eternal scorching sand, seemed to mock the torments of the soldiers, who were half delirious with disgust and despair, frequently and openly murmuring; some of the generals even losing all command of themselves. Lannes and Murat, in a fit of rage, dashed their laced hats on the sands, and trampled upon them in the presence of the soldiers. Napoleon, on one occasion, losing temper in his turn, threw himself into the midst of a group of discontented general officers, and singling out the most prominent among them, exclaimed with vehemence, " You have used mutinous language ! Take care that I do not fulfil my duty. It is not your being six feet high that should save you from being shot in a couple of hours ! " Nothing but the extraordinary influence he possessed over the army could have held it together. His iron constitution and energy of purpose enabled him to go through hardships under which others were sinking. He encountered 1798.] CROSSING THE DESERT. 8 9 ■every danger and evil with the men, by day and by night ; wore his uniform beneath the beating rays of this terrible sun, as though in Paris ; and finally suc- ceeded in effecting a rapid march across the desert. The soldiers, with native lightness of heart, now began to vent their spleen in sarcastic jokes. Looking round at the boundless ocean of sand, they remarked to one another upon the moderation of their general in promising them only " seven acres." " The rogue," said they, " might with safety have promised us as much as we pleased ; we should not abuse his good-nature ! " They, however, bore a grudge against Caffarelli, who they thought had advised the expedition, and used to say, as he hobbled past with his wooden leg, " He does not care what happens ; he is sure to have napoleon's army crossing the desert. one foot in France ! " The learned commission who accompanied the expedition came in for their share of gibes, and the men used to call the asses (which are very numerous in Egypt, and of which the savans all possessed one or two) the " demi-sccvans." On the 10th of July the army reached the Nile at Rahmanie. Soldiers, officers, all rushed into the river, regardless whether it was sufficiently shallow to afford security from danger, and only seeking to quench their burning thirst. Not a single soldier had stopped to throw off his knapsack or even lay down his musket. The whole mass of men had hurried on, insensible to all around them, in the one absorbing desire for water; but now, having time to look about them, they found themselves in the midst of fields full of melons and all kinds of fruit, delicious shade and verdure, and saw the flotilla, which had left Alexandria, at anchor in the flowing river. There was now abundance of food within every one's reach.* The men com- * General Foy says that a French soldier on a march consumes two pounds of bread per day. 9o THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. plained, notwithstanding. Neither wine nor bread was to be had ; severe priva- tions to French soldiers. " We encamped," says Napoleon, " on immense quantities of wheat, but there was neither mill nor oven in the country." The men bruised the grain between stones, and baked it in the ashes, or parched and boiled it ; still it was not bread. The utmost order was observed, and no pillage whatever was permitted. There was no difficulty in making bargains. The harvest of every village was piled up in one heap for general use outside the village ; corn- lofts and granaries were unknown ; and the men found out that the simple and ignorant people were more pleased to receive their buttons in exchange than money. MOURAD BEY. When the army reached Damanhour, the head-quarters of Napoleon were established at the house of a sheik. A large body of Mamelukes was assembled at Chebreissa to dispute Napoleon's farther progress. General Desaix's division, which formed the advanced guard, had encountered a party during the march, but Napoleon had not yet fallen in with them. The army was ordered to advance in squares, as the best means of defence against the attacks of the Arabs. The men were unable to leave the ranks for an instant, without certain death from the spears or scimitars of these 1798.] BATTLE OF CHEBRE1SSA. 91 matchless horsemen ; and therefore, although so near the Nile, several fell dead from thirst. But the ferment of their minds was their worst evil. They began to say there was no great city of Cairo ; that they expected it would prove only a collection of wretched huts. Two dragoons, mad with intolerable heat, thirst, and despair, rushed out of the ranks and drowned themselves in the Nile. On the 13th the French army came up with the Mamelukes, who were drawn out in battle array at Chebreissa, under Mourad Bey, one of their most powerful chiefs. When the battle commenced the French flotilla was vigorously attacked by Turkish vessels. Each Mameluke, feeling in himself the valour of a host, rushed against the opposing mass, and with repeated charges endeavoured to break the solid squares of the French army. Even when stabbed or shot down, the wounded Mamelukes dragged their dying bodies with bloody trail along the ground, and swept their scimitars across the knees of the foremost French ranks. They were at length beaten back, with the loss of about three hundred, and the Turkish flotilla retreated. Monge, Berthollet, and Bourrienne were on board the French vessels during the action. After the action of Chebreissa the French army continued to advance during eight days without opposition, except from hovering Arabs who lay in wait for every straggler from the main column. Berthier was passionately in love with an Italian lady of rank, and had with the greatest difficulty torn himself from her to join the expedition to Egypt. But now that he was actually engaged in the undertaking, and under such trying endurances, his soul was still pursuing its former object. On every march he had, adjoining his own tent, another prepared, which was furnished with all the elegance of a lady's boudoir, and consecrated to the portrait of his mistress. He even burnt incense before it ! Napoleon, while he humoured this absorbing passion, regarded it as a proof of weakness of mind, and could not understand his own incapacity to detach Berthier from its influence. The order of march towards Cairo was systematically arranged. Each division of the army moved forward in squares six men deep on each side ; the artillery was at the angles ; and in the centre the ammunition, the baggage, and the small body of cavalry still remaining. Great losses had been sustained among the horses. Napoleon himself almost always made use of a dromedary, though he at first suffered a sensation resembling sea-sickness from its peculiar motion. A considerable portion of the baggage was also carried by dromedaries and camels. CHAPTER XIV. BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS — ENTRANCE INTO CAIRO — BATTLE OF THE NILE — CHANGE IN THE PROSPECTS OF THE EXPEDITION — NAPOLEON'S ARRANGEMENTS — REVOLT AT CAIRO — NAPO- LEON AT SUEZ. ON the 19th of July the army first saw the summits of the pyramids on the distant horizon. It was a sublime sight — these en- during monuments of the death of ages, with all their men and kings ! Still advancing towards Cairo, the distant pyramids swelling upon the eye at every step, the army reached Embabe on the the 21st, and there found the Mamelukes in battle array to dispute their farther progress. Em- babe is a village on the Nile, opposite Boulac, one of the suburbs of Cairo. Mourad Bey's cavalry, consisting of eight thousand men, was supported on the right by the Nile, on the banks of which he had constructed a large entrenched camp, defended by forty pieces of cannon and a body of infantry hastily levied from the Janissaries, Spahis, and militia of Cairo, twenty thousand in number, but ill armed and undisciplined. The left of the Mamelukes stretched across the road to Gizeh ; two or three thousand Arabs occupying the space between their extreme left and the pyramids. The French army advanced in five grand squares. Their left rested on the Nile ; their right fronted the Mameluke left. Napoleon headed the centre square. Before the battle commenced, he raised his hand with an air of inspiration : " Soldiers ! " he said, " from the summit of those pyramids forty centuries look down upon you." 92 1793.] THE MAMELUKES' ATTACK AT G1ZEH. 93 NAPOLEON AT THE PYRAMIDS. The first manoeuvre of the French army disconcerted the plans of the Mame- lukes. Napoleon had discovered that their cannon were immovable, being iron pieces taken from the Turkish flotilla which had retreated at Chebreissa. He therefore ordered a movement of his whole army to the right, thus passing out of the range of the enemy's guns, and rendering their infantry, which would not venture beyond the camp unsupported by artillery, nearly useless. Mourad Bey, who foresaw, with the quick instinct of an experienced leader, the fatal conse- quences to himself, instantly led an impetuous attack upon the French. The Mamelukes rushed at full speed upon the immovable squares, and perished in heaps around them as though under the walls of so many fortresses. The places of the dead and dying were instantly supplied by new warriors, who fell in their turn. Still the Mamelukes continued to charge. They daringly penetrated even between the spaces occupied by the squares commanded by Regnier and Desaix (which, owing to the rapidity of the attack, had not been able to complete their manoeuvres, and " masked " one another to the extent of several yards), so that the. desperate horsemen were exposed to the incessant fire of both faces of the divisions at the distance of fifty paces. Rendered furious at being unable to break the ranks on either side, they hurled their pistols and carbines into the soldiers' faces. Many of the French fell from each other's fire in the resistance to this act of desperation. The Turkish cavaliers turned to the right-about, and reining 94 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. back their horses, actually flung themselves backwards with them upon the French bayonets, to force a passage ; throwing away their lives with utter indifference ; while the survivors, becoming frantic by their ineffectual efforts, began to yell out that the French soldiers were tied together. Napoleon now charged the main body and divided one part from the other. Mourad Bey, forced to abandon the field, retreated in the direction of Gizeh, followed by about two thousand of his Mamelukes, — all that escaped out of the matchless body of men who, in such superb array, bade defiance to the European invaders only a few hours before. The Turkish camp was immediately stormed and taken by the French, with great slaughter. The Mamelukes attempted to rejoin their chief on the Gizeh road, and he made many efforts to open a passage for them, but in vain. Their floating bodies carried the news of their disaster to Rosetta, Damietta, and all the places on the banks of the Nile. Thus was almost entirely destroyed a body of men who would have been the finest of cavalry had their discipline equalled their individual prowess. " Could I have united the Mameluke horse to the French infantry," Napoleon used to say, " I should have reckoned myself master of the world." The promiscuous rabble of rnfantry fled in disorder, and many of them reached Cairo, where they spread accounts of the invincible power of Napoleon and his army. In this battle the French took a thousand prisoners ; the whole of the enemy's artillery, pontoons, and baggage ; many hundred camels and horses ; and all the rich spoils of the camp. About ten thousand had perished on the field. This action, known as the Battle of the Pyramids, decided the conquest of the country. Ibrahim, the rival of Mourad Bey, fled from Cairo during the following night, having set fire to sixty vessels on the Nile, in which all the remaining riches of the Mamelukes had been deposited. The conflagration lighted up the country for leagues around. The French army, which had assembled at Gizeh, after the pursuit of Mourad Bey from the bloody scene of the conflict, distinctly saw by its glare the minarets of Cairo, and of the great place of burial called the " City of the Dead." The pyramids caught the reflection and were visible through the darkness. By dawn Napoleon prepared to take forcible possession of Cairo, but was spared all difficulties by its unconditional surrender. A deputation of the sheiks and chief inhabitants waited upon him at Gizeh, where he had taken up his quarters in the country house of Mourad Bey, to implore his clemency and sub- mit to his power. He received them with the greatest kindness, informing them that his hostility was entirely confined to the Mamelukes. He wrote to the Turkish pacha, assuring him of the friendly disposition of France towards him. " I beg you to assure the Porte," he concluded, " that she shall sustain no sort of loss, and that I will secure to her the continuance of the tribute hitherto paid." Cairo and its citadel were immediately occupied by the French troops. On the 24th of July Napoleon made his public entry into the capital, amidst a great con- course of people, who looked upon him with awe as the conqueror of the terrible rulers whom they had considered invincible. The rolling fire of the infantry, by which he had achieved the victory, gained him among these Eastern imaginations the appellation of Sultan Kebir, or King of Fire.' Napoleon lost no time in commencing the civil and military organization of the country. The strictest discipline was enforced. The mosques, the civil and re- ligious institutions, and the harems were scrupulously respected. The wives of the Mamelukes had all remained in Cairo while their husbands were engaged in the war, and were now treated with the utmost consideration. Napoleon sent Eugene Beauharnais to assure the wife of Mourad Bey of his protection, and granted several requests she made to him through his envoy, scrupulously pre- serving her villages for her. She entertained Eugene with all possible honours, and presented him with a valuable ring at his departure. In a few days the French soldiers were to be seen sociably smoking their pipes in the shops of Cairo, or 179S.J THE BATTLE OF THE NILE. 95 playing with the children. A note which Napoleon dispatched, the day after his arrival, to his brother Joseph, announced an intention of visiting France in two months, and remaining there during the winter. It was followed by another a few days afterwards, enumerating the troops and warlike stores he wished to have sent to him in Egypt. His second note ends with the following list of suggested " im- portations " for his new conquest : — "First, a company of actors; secondly, a company of dancers; thirdly, some dealers in toys, at least three or four ; fourthly, a hundred women ; fifthly, the wives of all the men employed in the corps; sixthly, twenty surgeons, thirty apothecaries, and ten physicians ; seventhly, some founders ; eighthly, some dis- tillers and dealers in liquor ; ninthly, fifty gardeners, with their families, and the seeds of every kind of vegetable ; tenthly, each party to bring with them two hundred thousand quarts of brandy ; eleventhly, thirty thousand ells of blue and scarlet cloth ; twelfthly, a supply of soap and oil." The French flotilla had come up in safety, and was moored before Gizeh. A fortnight had been sufficient to complete the arrangements necessary for the tran- quillity of the country. Kleber remained at Alexandria ; the various divisions of the army were so disposed as to protect the whole of Lower Egypt, now entirely in the possession of the French. Napoleon then, leaving Desaix at Cairo until his return, marched in pursuit of Ibrahim Bey, with the intention of driving him into Syria, and defending the entrance into Egypt in that direction. He overtook the Mameluke chief at Salahie, and after a sharp action compelled him to retreat, and thus accomplished the object of the pursuit. Ibrahim ceased to molest the French from this time. On his return from Salahie to Cairo, Napoleon was met by a messenger who informed him of the destruction of the French fleet by Nelson in the roads of Aboukir ; best known in England as the Battle of the Nile. The news fell upon Napoleon like a thunderbolt. He had been so anxious about the fleet as to write twice to Admiral Brueys to repeat the order that he should enter the harbour of Alexandria, or sail for Corfu ; he had also, previous to leaving Cairo, dispatched Julien, his aide-de-camp, to enforce the order ; but this unfortunate officer was surrounded and killed, with his escort, at a village on the Nile where he had landed to obtain provisions. Admiral Brueys was still at his moorings near the point of Aboukir when, on the i st of August, the British fleet appeared in sight. Nelson reconnoitred the position of the French fleet, and immediately resolved upon his plan of action. The squadrons were nearly equal in numbers. There were thirteen ships of the line on both sides ; but the French had four frigates ; the English only one fifty- gun ship and no frigates. Three of the French ships carried eighty guns, and the admiral's ship L? Orient was a splendid vessel of one hundred and twenty guns ; while the English ships were all seventy-fours. The French had therefore the advantage in force. Their ships were arranged in a semicircular compact line of battle, and so close to the shore that Brueys had supposed it was impossible to get between them and the land ; but his daring enemy, who well knew all the soundings, soon convinced him of his mistake. The van of the English fleet, six in number, successfully rounded the French line, and dropping anchor between it and the shore, opened their fire ; while Nelson with his other ships ranged along it on the outer side, placing the French between two fires. The battle raged furiously, and lasted even after the darkness of night had fallen upon the scene. Admiral Brueys was wounded early in the action, but continued to command. Towards eight o'clock in the evening he fell, mortally wounded, but would not suffer himself to be carried below. " A French admiral ought to die on his quarter-deck," he replied to the entreaties of his friend Gantheaume, who suc- ceeded him in command. All this time five of the French ships, under Admiral Villeneuve, remained totally inactive, being placed beyond the range of battle by the plan of attack adopted by Nelson. A dreadful conflagration soon supplied 96 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the place of the light of day. L Orient was discovered to be on fire about nine o'clock, and the flames, soon enveloping the immense fabric, ascended to the summit of the masts. It burned like a volcano in the midst of the combat, and at length blew up with an explosion so tremendous that it silenced the hostile fire on both sides, producing for a short period an awful pause in the raging tumult. The battle was quickly resumed : the French fought desperately ; but one after another their vessels were taken or destroyed. Amongst other instances of deter- mined courage, the death of Du Petit Thouars, Captain of the Tonnatit, is re- corded. Both his thighs were carried away by a cannon-ball, yet he still remained at his post. Another ball took off one of his arms. In this state of frightful mutilation he exclaimed, "Crew of the Tonnant! never strike; nail the colours to the mast ! " and while his orders were obeyed he died, only desiring that he should be thrown overboard should the ship be taken. When the English boarded the Tonnant the body of its brave commander was nowhere to be seen. It was not until two o'clock on the 2nd of August that the great victory achieved by the British was complete. Two only of the French ships and two frigates escaped, under the command of Villeneuve, who put to sea. The want of frigates or small craft prevented Nelson from pushing his advantage much further, by the destruction of the French store ships and transports in harbour. The effects, nevertheless, of the battle of the Nile were sufficiently disastrous to the French, not only in Egypt but in preventing further schemes of conquest. The army was cut off from communication with France ; their hope of receiving supplies was rendered doubtful and precarious ; their battering train was destroyed ; and, what was more important than all, the impression they had created by their continual success was at once annihilated. The Porte very soon afterwards declared war against France. The disaster was understood in its full extent and consequences by Napoleon. He bore it, however, with great firmness, merely observing that " to the army of France was decreed the victories of the land ; to England the sovereignty of the seas." Napoleon soon recovered the fortitude and presence of mind which had been for a moment shaken by the news from Aboukir. He however sometimes re- peated, in a tone which it would be difficult to describe, " Unfortunate Brueys, what have you done ! " The loss of the fleet had in some measure the effect of calming the irritation which had prevailed among the troops ever since their first march through the desert. Their situation had become serious, and they were anxious, for their own sakes, to avoid any counteraction to the plans of their general, in whom their confidence remained unshaken. General Desaix was dispatched with his division to drive Mourad Bey from Upper Egypt. In all quarters the highest discipline was preserved, and Napoleon exerted all the energy of his nature to increase the resources which remained to him, and to preserve and organize Egypt as a province. The commission of scientific men had now been removed to Cairo, and each of its members was named chief of some establishment and entrusted with its management. After the battle of the Nile Nelson had landed at Alexandria all the crews and soldiers of the captured French vessels, to the number of seven or eight thousand men, probably believing that he thereby only added embarrassments to their commander-in-chief, who was believed to be without any resources. The artificers of all kinds amongst them formed a valuable auxiliary to the works that were going on ; some of the men were added to the different corps. The old sailors were constructing and manning a flotilla on the Nile. Mills and ovens were now plentiful. Foundries and powder-mills were erected. Armourers, locksmiths, carpenters, ropemakers, and workers in various trades were in full employment. A French and Arabic printing press was set to work. The army was newly clothed in thin blue cotton clothes and black morocco caps, each man having a cloak of 1798.] LIFE AT CAIRO. 97 the substantial flannel of the country for night covering. Napoleon alone appeared in his European uniform, buttoned up as he wore it in France ; and even under such disadvantages, while every one else was nearly fainting from the heat, he always looked as cool and fresh as when he was at Paris. His mind was strung to a pitch of energy well seconded by the marvellous constitution of his body. " We will remain here," he had said, after the disappointment of his first projects, "or we will leave the country great, like the ancients." On the 21st of August (only a week after he learned the destruction of the fleet) he founded an Institute in Cairo on the model of that learned society in Paris. Monge was the president; Napoleon vice-president. The Institute was established in one of the palaces of the beys. The grand hall of the harem was the place of meeting ; the rest of the building served as a place of habitation for the members. The scientific instruments of all kinds brought from France were deposited in the different rooms, which also became a museum of all the curiosities of the country. The garden was converted into a botanical garden. Berthollet had a laboratory, and his chemical experiments were largely attended by the officers and constantly by Napoleon. Two newspapers, one devoted to literature and the other to politics, were printed at Cairo. News from France was earnestly desired, but the numerous English and Turkish cruisers rendered all communication impracticable. Impatience at this privation, added to the disappointment of his extensive schemes, made con- tinual occupation essential to Napoleon : the government of his new conquest, extensive and difficult as it was, did not supply sufficient food for his inexhaustible activity. He would sometimes spend hours in the course of the day lying flat on the floor, upon large maps of Asia, over which he traced his projected route east- ward, though compelled to own that his resources were unequal to the under- taking. When the heat was not too great he rode on horseback ; when confined to the house he read and made notes, and occasionally fell into reveries. On one of these occasions, after long silence, he suddenly said to Bourrienne, " I don't know that I shall ever see France again; but if I do, my only ambition is to make a glorious campaign in Germany, in the plains of Bavaria, there to gain a great battle and to avenge France for the defeat of Hochstadt. After that I would retire into the country and live quietly." He was accustomed to go to bed early. " I used to read to him every night," says the secretary : " when I read poetry, he would fall asleep ; but when he asked for the ' Life of Cromwell,' I counted on sitting up pretty late." It being an essential point of his policy to conciliate the inhabitants, he lost no opportunity of encouraging their friendly feelings towards the French. Imme- diately after his return from the pursuit of Ibrahim Bey, he attended the super- stitious ceremony of opening the dyke of the canal of Cairo which receives the waters of the Nile when the inundation has reached a certain height. A few days afterwards Napoleon was present, by invitation of a principal sheik, at the anniversary festival of the birth of the prophet. These circumstances, and the respect he showed to all the rites of the established religion of the country, have led to the belief that he actually became a Mussulman. The truth is, he regarded forms of religion as the ordinances of men, and considered them simply as political engines, to be encouraged or not according to expediency. Consistently with this view of established forms, he held many conferences with the Imaums, or priests of Cairo, well knowing the importance of making them believe he might possibly become a convert ; and they offered up prayers for him in the mosques in consequence. As to his Turkish dress, on which so much has been " em- broidered," he only wore it once, among his officers, as a joke. He made his appearance one morning among them at breakfast in full Oriental costume, with an imperturbable air of somniferous gravity, and was received with a burst of laughter ; but he never resumed it. On the 22nd of September, 1798, the festival celebrating the anniversary of the 7 98 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. foundation of the French Republic was kept at every point occupied by the French in Egypt, but with more magnificence at Cairo than elsewhere. The commander-in-chief gave a splendid banquet to nearly two hundred guests, inha- bitants of Cairo as well as Frenchmen, in a circular building erected for the purpose and adorned with columns and standards. The French and Turkish (lags waved side by side. An obelisk in the centre was covered with appropriate inscriptions, and seven altars bore the names of those who had died in battle. A grand review of the troops completed the festivities of the day, and the French general roused the enthusiasm of his soldiers by one of his usual addresses. " Soldiers!" he said, " we are celebrating the first day of the seventh year of the Republic. Five years ago the independence of the French people was threatened, but you took Toulon, which was the presage of the ruin of our enemies. A year afterwards you beat the Austrians at Dego; the next year you were on the summit of the Alps ; you besieged Mantua two years ago, and gained the cele- brated victory of Saint George. Last year you were at the sources of the Drave and the Isonzo, returning from Germany. Who would then have thought that you would now be on the banks of the Nile, in the centre of the ancient con- tinent? From the Briton, celebrated in arts and commerce, to the ferocious Bedouin, you fix the attention of all mankind." In the midst of this apparent security Ibrahim and Mourad Bey were con- tinually inciting the people to revolt. The former frequently addressed the fierce assemblage of Arabs in tones and gestures of wild eloquence and energy, followed by yelling plaudits. An order had been issued by Napoleon, on his first arrival at Cairo, to watch the criers of the mosques, who at certain hours of the night offer up prayers from the tops of the minarets. He foresaw in them prodigious means of excite- ment ; his directions, however, were gradually neglected as the appearance of danger vanished The priests, perceiving this, substituted inflammatory hymns and cries of revolt for their usual prayers, and by these means, and by secret emissaries, roused the people from one end of Egypt to the other. Early on the morning of the 21st of October Napoleon was startled from sleep by the news that Cairo was in a state of open rebellion. General Dupuy, who held the post of commandant of the city, had fallen among the first victims to the fury of the populace, and a general massacre of the French commenced. Napoleon was on horseback in an instant, and, accompanied by thirty Guides, repaired to every threatened point and restored confidence among the soldiers. The armed inha- bitants of Cairo, repulsed in all directions, took refuge in the great mosque, which was speedily surrounded by French cannon and taken. A scene of carnage ensued which struck terror into the breasts of all the mal- contents in Egypt, and made tenfold atonement for the French blood already spilt. The Arabs attempted a hostile entrance into Cairo on the same morning, but were driven back ; not, however, without some difficulty and loss. Sulkowsky, the aide-de-camp of Napoleon, and much beloved by him, fell on this occasion. Tranquillity was completely restored in three days, but during that interval deadly severities were practised by Napoleon. Numerous prisoners were conducted to the citadel, of whom twelve were singled out for execution nightly. Many women were included among these victims, for what especial reason is nowhere related. The twelve principal chiefs of Cairo, who expected an inevitable death and awaited it with apparent indifference, were only detained as hostages by Napoleon. Mortars were ranged on all the heights commanding the city, which was placed under military government, and a heavy contribution levied on the inhabitants. The Arabs were terrified into quietude by the miserable fate of one of their tribes on whom military execution had fallen, and the French became once more masters of Egypt. Napoleon had need for vigilance. The hostility of the Porte, encouraged and assisted by England, implied impending danger on two points, — the approach of I798-] CROSSING THE RED SEA. 99 KEVOLT IN CAIRO. a Turkish army by Syria, and the landing of another on the coast of the Mediter- ranean, under the protection of British ships. The necessity of forestalling their designs by an expedition into Syria was becoming apparent to Napoleon. In the month of December he visited Suez, partly with a view to the necessary prepara- tions for such an undertaking, partly from curiosity to explore the remains of the canal which is said to have united the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. He was accompanied by his aides-de-camp and by Caffarelli, Monge, and Berthollet. A squadron of Guides formed his only guards. The party rapidly crossed the desert, a distance of five-and-twenty leagues. They passed over the Red Sea at the same point at which Moses conducted the Hebrews out of the "land of bondage," carefully choosing the time when the ebb tide left it almost dry. Leaving his guards on the Asiatic shore of the sea, Napoleon and his companions rested by the springs called the " Wells of Moses," and visited the Cenobites of Mount Sinai, who obtained from the French general exemption from duties for their caravans in trading with Egypt. The party returned to the shore the same evening, and undertook the passage of the sea towards Suez. Night was coming on and the tide about to rise, so that there was not a moment to lose ; but at this perilous juncture they lost their way, and in the increasing darkness were uncertain whether they were advancing towards Asia, Africa, or the open sea. The waves were rising, and the foremost riders cried out that their horses were swimming. Napo- leon averted this imminent danger by one of those promptly conceived expedients for which he was, remarkable. He made himself the centre of a circle, ranging the rest of the party around him in several radii, each man at the distance of ten paces from the man behind him, until the circle was complete. He then ordered them all to move forward, each man moving in a straight line from the point at which he himself remained fixed. When the leading horseman of any of these 7 — 2 100 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. lines lost footing and his horse began to swim, Napoleon made him and his whole line of followers return towards the centre, and move on in the direction of another column, the leader of which was still on firm ground, until that line only remained which advanced in the direction where the water became shallower. They gained Suez at two in the morning, the water being already at the poitrels of their horses, for the tide rises twenty-two feet on this part of the coast. Napoleon made no claim to the sovereignty of Egypt, continually declaring that he had only rescued it from the Mameluke usurpers. " He lightened the impost," says Mr. Lockhart, " by introducing as far as he could the fairness and exactness of a civilized Power in the method of levying it. He laboured to make the laws respected, and this so earnestly and rigidly, that no small wonder was excited among all classes of a population so long accustomed to the license of a barbarian horde of spoilers. One of the Ulemahs could not help smiling at the zeal which he manifested for tracing borne the murder of an obscure peasant to the perpetrator. A Mussulman asked if the dead man was anywise related to the blood of the Sultan Kebir. 'No,' answered Napoleon sternly; 'but he was more than that : he was one of a people whose government it has pleased Providence to place in my hands.' " NAPOLEON CROSSING THE RED SEA. ^0- ST. JEAN D ACRE. CHAPTER XV. NAPOLEON'S EXPEDITION INTO SYRIA — BERTHIER — MARCH ACROSS THE DESERT — PAULINE EL-ARISCH, GAZA, RAMEH, AND JAFFA TAKEN — TURKISH GARRISON PUT TO DEATH — SIEGE OF ST. JEAN D'ACRE — SIR SYDNEY SMITH — NAPOLEONS RETREAT — STORY OF POISONING THE SICK — ARRIVAL AT CAIRO — THE BATTLE OF ABOUKIR — NAPOLEON DEPARTS FROM EGYPT. NAPOLEON passed the rest of the year 1798 at Cairo. Positive reports reached him before its close that Turkey was mak- ing active preparations for hostilities against him. In January, 1799, two Turkish armies were assembled — one at Rhodes, the other in Syria. The former was intended to make a descent upon the coast of Egypt at Aboukir as soon as the season permitted ; the latter had already pushed forward its advanced guard to El-Arisch, a fort within the Egyptian territory ; had established large magazines at Gaza, and landed at Jaffa a train of artillery of forty guns, served by twelve hundred can- noniers in the European manner. The Pasha of Syria, surnamed Djezzar, or "The Butcher," from his horrible cruelties, was at the head of this army. Napoleon did not wait to be attacked on both points at the same time, but, according to his usual custom, determined to set forward and encounter his enemies in detail. He resolved on an immediate expedition into Syria. He addressed two letters to Djezzar, offering him friendship and alliance; but the Pasha observed a contemptuous silence as to the first communication, and replied to the second in his favourite fashion ; that is to say, he seized the messenger and chopped off his head. Napoleon well knew that the inhabitants of Syria were groaning under the yoke of their tyrant, and counted upon their flocking in crowds to his standard if he should succeed in conquering this Pasha. To menace Constantinople with an army swelled to hundreds of thousands of men, establish a peace with the Porte, march upon the Indus, and conquer India, were the visions which now filled his hours of silent abstraction. He wrote a letter to Tippoo Saib, which bears the date of the 25th of January, 1799. It was was as follows : — " You are of course already informed of my arrival on the banks 101 102 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. of the Red Sea with a numerous and invincible army. Eager to deliver you from the iron yoke of England, I hasten to request that you will send me, by the way of Marcate or Mokha, an account of the political situation in Avhich you are. I also wish that you would send to Suez or Grand Cairo some able man in your confidence with whom I may confer." The fall of the Mysore in less than three months after this letter was written probably prevented its being received. The army was put in motion early in February, immediately after the celebra- tion of the " Feast of the Ramadan " at Cairo, in which Napoleon joined with great pomp. He left strong garrisons in all the fortified towns of Egypt, a move- able corps of fifteen hundred men round Cairo, and General Desaix's division in Upper Egypt. The army he led into Syria consisted of about fifteen thousand men : it presented one grotesque novelty, — a regiment mounted on dromedaries. Kleber, Bessieres, Caffarelli, Murat, Lannes, Junot, and Berthier accompanied him. Berthier had just before this new expedition obtained permission to return to France. Napoleon granted it, being no longer able to endure the sight of his sufferings : he was ill, and appeared to be dying from the effects of the climate and his passionate love. A frigate was prepared for him at Alexandria, and it was believed he was already on his way there, w.ien he suddenly presented him- self before Napoleon, who had been sincerely hurt at the separation. He came to tell his general that he would not leave him ; that he voluntarily renounced all idea of returning to France, not being able to forsake him at a moment when he was about to encounter new dangers. The sacred tent traversed the deserts of Syria with the devoted Berthier, and the homage to the picture was never omitted. The great desert which divides Egypt from Syria is seventy-five leagues across. El-Arisch, the first point of attack, is six leagues within the Egyptian frontier. The march was made rapidly and in good order, the men encountering their fatigues and privations with fortitude. Napoleon had, since the month of September, formed a connection with Madame Foures, better known by her name of "Pauline," the wife of one of his lieutenants, a lady of very great beauty, with whom he fell violently in love from seeing her once in the neighbourhood of Cairo. Her husband, who was much older than herself, and with whom she had only made one of those marriages " de convenance'" so common in France, had been put aside by sending him to France with despatches. He chanced, however, to be taken by the English, who found out the cause of his mission, and with a humorous sense of mischief they liberated him and sent him back to Egypt. The joke was apparent, and produced both rage and laughter. It does not appear, however, that the lieutenant raised any obstacles in the way of his wife's promotion to be " Queen of the East," as she was styled by the army. Napoleon placed great confidence in her, and continued to live with her during the whole period of his stay in Egypt ; but after his return, absorbed in important State affairs, he forgot her, and she had great difficulty in getting a letter pre- sented to him during the Consulate by means of Duroc, and thus awaking suffi- cient memory in Napoleon to obtain a subsistence. The French army reached El-Arisch on the 17th of February, and driving the Turks out of the village, forced them all to take refuge in the fort before which the trenches were immediately opened. Meantime General Regnier attacked the Pasha's cavalry, about a league off, surrounded and seized their camps and bag- gage, and made many prisoners. El-Arisch surrendered the following day. Three hundred horses and a quantity^ provisions were found in the place; a body of five hundred Maugrabins, taken prisoners, entered the French service as an auxiliary corps ; the rest of the garrison, amounting to about seven hundred men, were dismissed on giving their promise to repair to Bagdad and abstain from serving against the French for a year. The vanguard lost its way in the desert on leaving El-Arisch, and suffered severely from want of provisions and water. On the 24th they passed the pillars I799-] INVASION OF PALESTINE. 103 NAPOLEON CROSSING THE DESERT. marking the boundaries of Africa and Asia. The following day they advanced upon Gaza, and encountered a body of three or four thousand of Djezzar's horse drawn up to oppose them. Murat with the cavalry, and the divisions of Lannes and Kleber, quickly put them to flight. Gaza yielded and its valuable stores be- came the prize of the victors. On the 28th the green and fertile plains of Syria were first seen by the soldiers. They slept that night at Eswod, the ancient Azoth, and the next at Rameh, the ancient Arimathea, which had been evacuated by the enemy. Here they again found valuable stores of provisions. They were now within six leagues of Jerusalem, but passed it unvisited. Jaffa (the Joppa of Scripture) was invested on the 4th of March, and taken by storm on the 6th. The town was given up to pillage for four-and-twenty hours, and all the horrors of war in their most revolting shape took place. Still the garrison refused to yield, beheaded the messenger who was sent to them, and elevated his head on a pole in sight of the French army. When they were finally compelled to surrender, either all or the greater part of them were shot by order of Napoleon. Their numbers are variously stated from one thousand or twelve hundred men to four thousand. The reason Napoleon ordered these men to be shot was that amongst them were a number of the Turkish troops taken at El-Arisch who had given their word not to serve against him for a year. " Now," said Napoleon to O'Meara at St. Helena, " if I had spared them again, and sent them away on their parole, they would directly have gone to St. Jean d'Acre, wher£ they would have played the same trick that they had done at Jaffa. In justice to the lives of my soldiers, since every general ought to consider himself as their father, I could not allow this. To leave as a guard a portion of my army, already small and reduced in number, in consequence of the breach of faith of those wretches, was impossible. I there- fore, availing myself of the rights of war, which authorize putting to death prisoners taken under such circumstances — independent of the right given me by having 104 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. taken the city by assault, and that of retaliation on the Turks for having slaughtered my messenger — ordered that the prisoners taken at El-Arisch who in defiance of their capitulation had been found bearing arms against me, should be singled out and shot. I would do the same thing again to-morrow, and so would any general commanding an army under such circumstances." Bourrienne's account, which partly contradicts that of Napoleon, is as follows : — When the pillage of the town began the massacre was horrible. Napoleon sent his aides-de-camp Beauharnais and Croisier to appease the fury of the troops as much as possible. They found a great part of the garrison shut up in some large caravanseras. These men cried from the windows that they would surrender upon an assurance that they should be exempted from the massacre to which the town was doomed. The two officers thought they ought to grant these conditions, and brought the men prisoners to the camp in two divisions, — one of about two thousand five hundred, the other of about fifteen hundred. " I was walking with General Bonaparte," proceeds the secretary, " in front of his tent, when he saw this multitude of men approaching ; and before he even saw his aides-de-camp,. he said in a tone of profound sorrow, ' What do they wish me to do with these men ? Have I food for them ? — ships to convey them to Egypt or France ? Why, in the devil's name, have they served me thus ? ' The aides-de-camp de- fended themselves by referring to their mission to restrain the carnage. ' Yes/ replied Napoleon, 'as to women, children, and old men; but not with respect to armed soldiers. It was your duty to die rather than bring these unfortunate creatures to me. What do you want me to do with them ? ' " The wretched prisoners were sitting in front of the tents, their hands tied behind them, sombre rage depicted in their faces. Scanty rations of biscuits were grudgingly dealt out to them by the soldiers, themselves already on short allowance, and murmurs at these useless encumbrances grew louder and louder. For three days some measure was anxiously sought to save their lives ; searching looks were cast over the ocean to discover some friendly vessel which would carry them away. At length the order for their execution was reluctantly given and unhesitatingly obeyed. They were led out to the sands, fired upon, and all perished. The horrible and remorseless manner in which the soldiers "did their duty" is thus related by an eye-witness : — " Many of the unfortunate creatures composing the smaller division, which was fired on close to the sea-coast at some distance from the other column, succeeded in swimming to some reefs of rocks out of the reach of musket-shot. The soldiers rested their muskets on the sand, and, to induce the prisoners to return, em- ployed the Egyptian signs of reconciliation in use in the country. They came back ; but as they advanced they were killed and disappeared among the waves. It was requisite to be on the spot in order to understand the horrible necessity which existed," continues Bourrienne. " For my own part, I have a perfect con- viction that Bonaparte could not do otherwise than yield to the dire necessity of the case. It was the advice of the council, whose opinion was unanimous in favour of the execution, that governed him. Indeed, I ought in truth to say that he yielded only in the last extremity, and was one of those, perhaps, who beheld the massacre with the deepest pain." The French army advanced from Jaffa to form the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, a far more arduous undertaking than any they had yet encountered in Syria. Sir Sydney Smith, with two ships of war, was cruising before the fort, and the garrison was assisted by European science. Phelippeaux, an old schoolfellow of Napoleon at Brienne, directed their artillery. To add to the difficulties which threatened Napoleon, his battering train, sent forward by sea, was taken by the English, and now turned against him from the walls. The siege commenced on the 18th of March. Napoleon was obliged to hasten with General Bon's division to extricate Kleber from a difficult position at Mount Tabor, where he had been sent to dispute the passage of a Turkish army coming from Damascus. Napoleon, from the 1 799-] SIEGE OF ST. JEAN If ACRE. 105 NAPOLEON AT MOUNT TABOR. heights which command the plain, discovered his division of two thousand men established among some ruins, and maintaining their ground against twenty thousand of the enemy, who surrounded them. He instantly dispatched Murat to gain the Jordan with the cavalry, Vial and Rampon to march upon Naplous, while he placed himself between the enemy and their magazines : by these move- ments he had enclosed the Turks within a triangle. He advanced in silence until, ordering a gun to be fired, he showed himself on the field. " It is Bonaparte ! " exclaimed the soldiers. Kleber, who had fought against these fearful odds from six in the morning till one, now assumed the offensive. The Turks were com- pletely routed, with the loss of five thousand men, their tents, provisions, and camels. Napoleon returned to Acre with all possible dispatch. Accustomed to the easy victories which he had obtained on every encounter with the Turkish forces in Syria, he was not prepared to expect the determined resistance by which his pro- gress was now arrested. Acre is surrounded by a wall flanked with towers, and was further defended by a broad and deep ditch with strong works. Napoleon having no regular siege train, for a whole month conducted his operations with field artillery ; but what baffled him were European skill and courage. The inex- haustible activity and energy of Sir Sydney Smith and the talents of Phelippeaux so directed the defence as to defeat every effort he could make, and foil every stratagem. Ammunition was scarce in the French army ; they contrived, however, by a ludicrous ruse de guerre, to make Sir Sydney Smith supply them with balls. A few horsemen or waggons were ordered from time to time to make some demonstration of activity on the beach ; upon which the English commodore, who was always on the alert, approached and fired a terrible broadside. The French soldiers, who took care to keep out of danger, then ran forward on the 106 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. beach amidst shouts of laughter and picked up the balls, for which they received five sous each. In the middle of April Admiral Perree succeeded in avoiding the English, and landing unobserved two mortars and six eighteen-pounders at Jaffa, which enabled Napoleon to carry on the siege with greater vigour ; but at the same time a re- inforcement of three thousand men was thrown into the place under the protection of the British ships. A succession of furious sorties by the garrison, occasionally headed by British marines, and equally furious assaults by the French, now alternated. The slaughter was horrible. The combatants in the trenches, sur- rounded by putrefying corpses and poisonous stench, sometimes went mad as they fought, being suddenly smitten by the plague under the burning sun. Breaches were more than once made in the walls ; a tower was gained by the French ; but no progress was made towards subduing the place. General Caffarelli was mortally wounded early in April, but lingered for eighteen days. Sir Sydney Smith, in addition to the active hostilities which he directed against Napoleon, dispersed proclamations among the French troops with a view to shake their faith in him. Napoleon, upon this, published an order from which it might be inferred that, owing to the heat of the climate and the excitement of war, the British commodore had gone mad, and all communication with him was therefore prohibited ! Some days afterwards a lieutenant or midshipman, with a flag of truce, brought a challenge from Sir Sydney Smith to Napoleon, appointing a place of meeting to fight a duel. " I laughed at this," says Napoleon to O'Meara, " and sent him back an intimation that when he brought Marlborough to fight me I would meet him. Notwithstanding, I like the character of the man." The siege continued, and Napoleon, who at this time knew nothing about reverses and failures, would not brook the idea of abandoning it. He made a desperate assault on the 8th of May. Among the officers and men who fell on this day was Croisier the aide-de-camp, who had never recovered the fatal affair of Jaffa. Napoleon had been violently irritated against him for some seeming neglect at Cairo, and the word " coward " had escaped him. The feelings of Croisier, then deeply affected, had become insupportable since the events at Jaffa, and he sought death at every opportunity. On the 8th of May Napoleon observed the tall figure of his unfortunate aide-de-camp mounted on a battery exposed to the thickest of the enemy's fire, and called loudly and imperatively, " Croisier, come down! — you have no business there." Croisier neither replied nor moved,, and the next instant received his death wound. While this obstinate contest was raging in Syria, occasional insurrections had taken place in Egypt ; but they were not of any consequence, and were easily quelled. General Desaix was still in Upper Egypt, engaged in perpetual conflicts with Mourad Bey, who with undaunted courage rallied his followers after every defeat. He made a desperate stand at Sediman, and it was only by the deter- mined bravery of Desaix, who himself led on his soldiers with the cry of "Victory or death ! " that he was driven back on this occasion. One more defeat forced Mourad to evacuate Upper Egypt. Together with the despatches which apprised Napoleon of this victory, he received intelligence of the loss of a very fine and large dejerme (boat of the Nile), named Lltalie, which was carrying French troops and provisions. It had run aground, and been attacked by the Arabs, who killed all the prisoners. They were tied to trees, and the military band which accompanied them was compelled to play while their comrades died under tortures ; after which the band was mutilated in the same way. The commander of the vessel blew it up and perished with it. This made an unusual impression upon the French general's mind, and one of those strange feelings he called his " presentiments " came over him. " France has lost Italy," he said to Bourrienne. " It is all over : my forebodings never deceive me." It was of no avail that his secretary represented the want of I799-J HORRORS OF THE FRENCH RETREAT FROM ACRE. W7 connection between the boat on the Nile and the beautiful country he had con- quered. Nothing could remove his impression, which was singularly verified. The situation of the French army now became critical. Its losses had been heavy ; provisions began to fail, and the plague was in the hospitals. The in- habitants of the country constantly repaired to the camp, and on their knees offered up prayers for the success of the French and their own release from their cruel Pasha. The people of Damascus offered their keys to Napoleon. It was, however, impossible to overcome the garrison. Fully appreciating the importance of that which he relinquished, Napoleon raised the siege. The sick and wounded had already been removed and sent in the direction of Jaffa, towards which place the "whole army commenced a retreat on the night of the 20th of May. " The fate of the East lay in that small town," said Napoleon, in relating these events at St. Helena. " Had St. Jean d'Acre fallen, I should have changed the face of the world." He had no alternative but to return to Egypt with all pos- sible dispatch. His career in the East was effectually stopped, and this is mainly to be attributed to the great skill of Phelippeaux and the indefatigable energies of Sir Sydney Smith. The French army left a wilderness of conflagration in its track. The brilliancy of an Oriental sun was obscured by the smoke of burning towns and villages, with all their rich crops destroyed to retard pursuit. A stifling and smouldering atmosphere added to the fierce heat. The scorching soil was strewed at intervals with the dead or dying from the detachment sent on before. Those who still retained life implored assistance. " I am not infected, I am only wounded," they would cry, and then show their wounds or tear them open afresh in their desperation. Misery had made every one remorselessly selfish. The whole army passed on, with only here and there a withering remark, such as " It is all over with him ! " Oppressed with the sight of so much suffering, Napoleon issued an order at the first halting-place that every horse, mule, and camel in the army should be given to the sick wounded and infected, whom they had now overtaken. In the excited state of his feelings he violently struck his equerry, who came with a tone of remonstrance to ask " What horse was to be reserved for the general-in- chief ? " " Every one must go on foot, you rascal ! " he exclaimed, in a tone of mingled rage and anguish, " I the first." On the march between Cassarea and Jaffa Napoleon very narrowly escaped death. Many officers had regained their horses by the death of the wretched objects who had been mounted upon them. Napoleon as he rode was so ex- hausted that he had fallen asleep. A little before daybreak a Naplousian, con- cealed among the bushes close to the roadside, took aim at his head and fired. The ball missed : the man was pursued, caught, and ordered to be instantly shot. Four Guides drew their triggers, but all their carbines hung fire, owing to the ex- treme humidity of the night. The Syrian leaped into the sea, which was close to the road, swam to a ridge of rocks, which he mounted, and there stood undaunted and untouched by the shots of the whole troop who fired at him as they passed. Napoleon left Bourrienne behind to wait for Kleber, who formed the rear guard, and to order him "not to forget the Naplousian." This was revolting and little- minded. It is not certain that the man was shot at last, and we may therefore hope he escaped the intended vengeance. Jaffa was now destined to be the scene of another of those dreadful expediencies of war which have been made a subject for dark accusation against Napoleon. The French army reached Jaffa on the 24th of May, and remained there until the 28th, when it became imperatively necessary to continue the retreat. During the siege of Acre the military hospitals had been established at Jaffa. It was now requisite to remove all the patients. Napoleon exerted himself to encourage the unfortunate sufferers to endure this agonizing necessity. He even touched the plague patients to lessen the dread of contagion. The painful task of emptying a hospital of its patients was at length accom- io8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. BATTLE OF ABOUKIR. plished, and all the sick were sent forward, with the exception of about a dozen men in the last stage of the plague, whose death was inevitable. What to do with these wretched men was a dreadful difficulty. To carry them away could only give them the misery of removal for no object, and expose the whole army to infection. To leave them behind would be to leave them to the probable chance of dying in torments inflicted by the Turks, who were supposed to be only a few hours in the rear. The expedient of accelerating their death by opium was gravely deliberated. With whom the idea originated is uncertain. It is generally ascribed to Napoleon, but he himself stated that it was Larrey, one of the medical staff, who proposed it. It is certain that it was not executed; from the want of a sufficient quantity of opium, — occasioned by the nefarious conduct of the apothecary entrusted with the charge of providing the medicines, who had loaded the camel appropriated for their conveyance with provisions and different articles by which he expected to make a profit. Thus the opium, among other drugs, was extremely scarce. Napoleon distinctly avowed the intention and the wish, and thus justified himself to O'Meara : '" Not that I think it would have been a crime had opium been administered ; on the contrary, I think it would have been a virtue. You have been among the Turks and know what they are ; I ask you now to place yourself in the situation of one of those sick men, and suppose that you were asked which you should prefer, to be left to suffer the tor tures of those miscreants or to have opium administered to you ? ' I replied I 1799-] RESOLVES TO LEAVE EGYPT. 109 should prefer the latter. ' Certainly, so would any man/ answered Napoleon : ' if my own son (and I believe I love my son as well as any father does his child) were in a similar situation with those men, I would advise it to be done ; and if so situated myself, I would insist upon it if I had sense enough and strength enough left to demand it.' " Sir Sydney Smith found seven alive in the hospitals when he came up. Napoleon says that a rear guard remained to protect them ; if so, they had gallopped off before the English entered the place. The French army re-entered Cairo on the 14th of June, and enjoyed for a short period the luxury of repose. The administration of affairs had been so able that the whole country was found in a state of perfect tranquillity, although the news of the unsuccessful campaign had preceded the army. In three weeks the calm was broken by an irruption of Mourad Bey, with his remaining Mamelukes ; but he retreated with rapidity before Murat, who was sent against him. The French soldiers called this the encounter of the "two Murats." After this occur- rence Napoleon visited the pyramids, and made preparations for advancing to Thebes; but he was not destined to accomplish this earnestly-desired journey, being overtaken by urgent despatches from General Marmont, who commanded at Alexandria, informing him that a fleet of Turkish transports and vessels of war, carrying troops, had appeared off Aboukir, under the protection of two British ships commanded by Sir Sydney Smith. This news required instant action. Napoleon retired to his tent and employed the remainder of the day and the whole of the night in making arrangements and sending off couriers. By four the following morning he was on horseback, and with his whole army in full march towards Aboukir. He arrived at midnight on the 23rd of July, and was occupied till morning in making preparations for battle. Meantime the Turkish troops, to the number of eighteen thousand men, had effected a landing ; taken possession of the fort of Aboukir, and of a redoubt situated behind the village ; and slaughtered almost to a man the small French garrisons which occupied these posts; both of which ought to have been more strongly defended, but General Marmont had been obliged to concentrate his forces to defend the important city of Alexandria. The battle of Aboukir began early on the morning of the 24th. At the first charge of the French cavalry, headed by Murat, the whole line of the Turkish army, which had been drawn up in battle array on the field, struck with a sudden panic, rushed headlong into the sea. They strove in vain, encumbered as they were in wide and heavy garments and trappings, to reach the ships. Nearly the whole of them, amounting probably to twelve thousand men, were drowned. The sea at first appeared literally covered with turbans. The village of Aboukir, with the redoubt in its rear, was next attacked by the French. The Turks scarcely made any stand, but fled in confusion during the first charge, and the village was carried with dreadful slaughter. Three thousand of the Turks shut up in the fort, who surrendered two days afterwards, were all who escaped with life. The Turkish fleet instantly set sail for Constantinople, and no enemy remained to dispute possession of Egypt with Napoleon. He now sent a flag of truce to Sir Sydney Smith, and an interchange of civilities commenced between the English and the French. This circumstance led to important consequences. Among other things, a copy of a French journal, dated the 10th of June, 1799, was sent ashore by Sir Sydney Smith. No news from France had reached Egypt since the end of June, 1798. Napoleon seized the journal with eagerness, and its contents verified his worst fear. " My God ! " he exclaimed, " the imbeciles have lost Italy. All the fruits of our victories are gone ! I must leave Egypt ! " He spent the whole night reading a file of English newspapers. Here he found the accounts of -Suwarrow's victories over the French in Italy, and of the disastrous internal state of France. In the morning Admiral Gantheaume received orders to prepare the two frigates, Muiron and Carrere, and two corvettes, for sea, with the utmost no THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. secresy and dispatch, furnishing them with two months' supply of provisions for five hundred men. Having made these arrangements, which he confided to no one but his secretary and Berthier, whose joy at the prospect of accompanying him insured his throwing no obstacle in the way, Napoleon returned to Cairo on the ioth of August. tr/utdet COMBAT IN THE FORT AT ABOUKIR. Here he made every preparation for departure, giving out that his purpose was to visit the Delta, to observe and reform the condition of the people. He selected Berthier, Murat, Lannes, Marmont, and Andreossy, with five hundred picked men, to accompany him ; Monge also, and Denon, were ordered to proceed to Alex- andria without delay. . . . On the 1 8th a courier from Gantheaume brought information to Cairo that Sir Sydney Smith had left the coast to take in water at Cyprus. This was the signal for Napoleon's departure. He reached Alexandria on the 22nd, and Gantheaume 1 799-] K LEBER APPOINTED COMMA NDER-h\ r -CHIEF. Ill immediately left the harbour, and stationed his small squadron in the creek of Marabout, where, on the 2nd of July of the preceding year, Napoleon had first landed in Egypt ; and where he now fixed a day and hour for the ships' boats to take him and his suite on board. He had appointed Kleber and Menou to meet him, but the latter only was able to arrive in time to receive his instructions. To Menou, who had become a Mussulman, he confided his orders and despatches. FRANCO-EGYPTIAN WIT. He appointed Kleber to the chief command, and transmitted a long letter to him, containing a clear statement of their condition and prospects in Egypt, and minute details of the plans he wished to have pursued. His proclamation to the army was as follows : — " The news from Europe has determined me to proceed to France. I entrust the command of the army to General Kleber. The army shall hear from me forthwith. At present I can say no more. It costs me much pain to quit troops to whom I am so strongly attached. But my absence will be but temporary, and the general I leave in command has the confidence of the Govern- ment as well as mine." A letter to General Desaix, then in Upper Egypt, where 112 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. his wise administration had procured him the title of" The Just Sultan," informed him that Napoleon hoped to meet him in Italy or France in a month. All things being now in readiness, every one who was intended to sail with Napoleon was informed of his destination for France. This news spread joy and satisfaction through the whole party. The decisive victory of Aboukir, the subsequent tranquillity of the whole country, and the good order and regularity preserved in the administration of its civil and military affairs made Napoleon's presence comparatively unimportant, while his personal influence in France might procure for it such aid as was impe- ratively requisite. A treaty of peace between Turkey and France was already on foot. Meantime the position of Kleber in his new command was most arduous and precarious, because, in addition to the want of supplies, the army was blockaded by the English fleet in the Mediterranean. France, on the other hand, was unsettled in all her affairs. The peace which had existed before the departure of Napoleon had been quickly broken, and a new coalition, aided by the for- midable power of Russia, had been raised against the Republic. The newly- formed Governments in Italy had been overturned, and a series of victories gained over the French in that country by the genius of Suwarrow. The Archduke Charles had compelled Jourdan to re-cross the Rhine, and the French frontier was being threatened by the expected junction of the Russians and Austrians in Switzerland. Two divisions of the Dutch fleet had been delivered up to the English. Internal division added danger to all these reverses. The Chouans of Bretagne were again in the field to the threatening number of forty thousand, and, worse than all, the Directory, the executive Government, was disliked and despised by nearly every party in the country, and full of dissension within itself. To meet the exigences of the times they had levied a forced loan on the wealthy, which gave alarm to holders of property, and a conscription of two hundred thousand men, which pressed heavily on the country at large. To avert the danger arising from Royalist insurrections, they had passed the " law of hostages," by which the unoffending relatives of emigrants or Royalists supposed to be in arms were thrown into prison. This unjust law of course filled the prisons with women, children, and old men, and the country with panic and discontent. It was evident that the French Government could no longer exist in its present form, and that the glory if not the very existence of the Republic was threatened. Napoleon felt within himself the energy to redeem the losses which the country had sustained; and there is no doubt that schemes of personal ambition associated themselves with this sense of power, and began to assume that form which they afterwards 'presented, and to deceive him into the belief that his single will, un- controlled by any other, would best guide France to the pinnacle of glory and prosperity which he coveted for her and for himself. The conference with General Menou occupied the last minutes that Napoleon remained in Egypt. He embarked on the 23rd of August, late in the evening. The discovery of his departure in Alexandria, where the most perfect ignorance as to the recent events still prevailed, is thus described by Savary : — " The horses of the escort had been left to run loose on the beach, and all was perfect stillness in Alexandria, when the advanced posts of the town were alarmed by the wild gallop- ing of horses, which, from a natural instinct, were returning to Alexandria through the desert. The picket ran to arms on seeing horses ready saddled and bridled which belonged to the regiment of Guides. They at first thought that some mis- fortune had happened to a detachment in its pursuit of the Arabs. With these horses came also those of the generals who had embarked with General Bona- parte ; so that Alexandria for a time was in considerable alarm. The cavalry was ordered to proceed in all haste in the direction whence the horses came, and every one was giving himself up to the most gloomy conjectures, when the cavalry returned to the city with the Turkish groom, who was bringing back General Bonaparte's horse to Alexandria." The truth, which now became noised abroad, and the 1 799-] PERILOUS VOYAGE FROM EGYPT. 1 13 confirmation of it by the proclamation to the army and the despatches confided to General Menou, produced at first a kind of stupor and then much discontent ; but a week had not elapsed before men's minds settled into quiet acquiescence with that which was inevitable, and Kleber assumed his command without opposi- tion. He however complained bitterly of the hasty manner in which so important and responsible a situation was thrust upon him, and in a letter to the Directory did not scruple to insinuate that Napoleon purposely avoided an interview with him before leaving Egypt. The fate of this letter was singular. It was dark when Napoleon and his suite embarked on board the Mulron, but by the light of the stars they were able to discover a sight of evil augury, — a cor- vette which appeared to be observing them. They got under weigh, however, before morning, unmolested. Napoleon left no responsibility upon the admiral. " As if," says Bourrienne, " any one could command when Bonaparte was present !" The squadron, instead of taking the ordinary course, kept close to the African coast, in the direction of the southern point of Sardinia. Should the English fleet appear, he was determined to run ashore, make way with the little army under his command to Oran, Tunis, or some other port, and thence get to France. For twenty-one days adverse winds, blowing from west or north-west, continually drove the squadron on the Syrian coast or back towards Alexandria. It was once pro- posed that they should again put into that port, but Napoleon would not hear of it, declaring he would rather brave any danger. Napoleon remained chiefly on deck. To pass away the time he often played vingt-et-un with the officers, at which he took great pleasure in cheating. He never appropriated the fruits of his winnings — they were equally divided ; but he expected fortune would favour him on all occasions, small as well as great, and if disappointed he wished no one to know it. At length the wind changed, and the vessels made a prosperous voyage along the west coast of Sardinia ; but after passing the island, it again blew violently from the west and obliged them to enter the port of Ajaccio. Here they were forced to remain from the 1st to the 7th of October, a delay that increased the impatience of Napoleon to the highest pitch. " What will become of me," he said, " if the English, who are cruising here- about, should learn that I have landed at Corsica ? I shall be forced to stay here. That I could never endure. I have a torrent of relations pouring upon me." This exclamation was made after visits, congratulations, and endless requests with which he was assailed. " His brilliant reputation," says Bourrienne, " had prodigiously augmented his family connections, and from the great number of his pretended godchildren it might have been thought he had held one-fourth of the children of Ajaccio at the baptismal font." He took much pleasure in walking in the neighbourhood of the town and pointing out the little domains of his ancestors. It was during his stay in Corsica, that Napoleon first learned the loss of the battle of Novi by the French army, and the death of Joubert. " But for that confounded quarantine," exclaimed he, " I would hasten ashore and place myself at the head of the army of Italy. All is not over, and I am sure that there is not a general who would refuse me the command. The news of a victory gained by me would reach Paris as soon as the battle of Aboukir : that, indeed, would be excellent ! " He passed much of this anxious period in reading the Bible, Homer, and the Koran, conversing with the savans on Oriental antiquities, and working problems in geometry, just as he had done during his recent perilous passage from Egypt. After leaving Ajaccio, the voyage was made without obstruction. On the second day, however, an English squadron of fourteen sail hove in sight. The French frigates, evidently observed, were suffered to pass on, and night favoured their escape. The signals of the English fleet were heard throughout the night. The anxiety on board the Muiron was of course excessive; Gantheaume lost all presence of mind, and was in a most painful state of agitation : he wished to return to Corsica. " No, no ! " cried Napoleon imperiously. " No ! spread all sail. Every man at his post! To the north-west!. To the north-west!" He continued 8 114 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. throughout the night giving orders and directing the course. He kept a long-boat in readiness, which he had purchased at Ajaccio, and was resolutely determined to escape in this if possible, should the English give chase. He had fixed on the persons whom he destined to share his fate, and packed up the papers which were most important. The first rays of the sun, however, discovered the English fleet steering to the north-east, and the Muiron and her consorts, now relieved from -all apprehension, immediately shaped their course for the wished-for coast of France. This escape of the renowned French general, just when it appeared certain that he must be tak^n, produced great excitement in England, where the popular anger vented itself in a ludicrous caricature of Nelson in the act of assisting at the toilette of Lady Hamilton, while the Muiron and Carrere were passing in full sail between his legs. On the 8th of October the frigates entered the roads of Frejus. Not knowing how to answer the signals, the code of which had been altered, they were fired on by the batteries ; but their bold entry, the crowd on their decks, and their signs of joy soon banished distrust, and no sooner was it known that Napoleon was on board than the sea was covered with boats. Sounds of enthusiastic welcome filled the air ; the quarantine regulations were disregarded ; and Napoleon once more landed on the shores of France, crowds pressing towards him from all quarters, with shouts of " We prefer the plague to the Austrians ! " - ^^t^^c*^^:- ^ -■** ^sSS WELCOME IN PARIS. CHAPTER XVI. NAPOLEON'S RETURN TO PARIS — JOSEPHINE — THE DIRECTORY — STATE OF PARTIES — SlfeYES — BERNADOTTE — MOREAL' — REVOLUTION OF THE l8TH AND igTH BRUMAIRE — NAPOLEON FIRST CONSUL. yHE shout of welcome with which Napoleon was hailed on landing was echoed by the whole population of France. A telegraphic despatch gave notice in Paris of his arrival at Fre'jus, and the news spread with rapidity through the capital, where it created a sensation similar to that produced by a great victory gained. It was announced at the Council of Five Hundred and at the theatres, and soon formed the subject of universal conversation, and nearly as universal congratulation. Baud in, the Deputy from the Ardennes, who had grieved over the late disasters of the country, died of joy when he heard that Napo- leon had returned. All this clearly proves the want of confidence in the Government which then pervaded the public mind in France. Napoleon was regarded as the champion of liberty as well as the successful military leader. In the course of the rapid journey which he made from Frejus to Paris, he was greeted with raptures of joy. Bells were rung in the villages, flags hoisted from the steeples, and the towns were illuminated. This enthusiastic spirit was mani- fested strongly at Lyons, where Napoleon had always been extremely popular. The accounts of his victory at Aboukir had immediately preceded him, and this brilliant success obliterated all memory of his utter discomfiture at Acre. He entered Paris without being known, and alighted quietly at his own house in the Rue de la Victoire on the 16th of October. Josephine had hurried off to meet him the moment that the telegraphic despatch announced his landing, had missed 115 8-2 116 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. him on the road in consequence of his suddenly changing his route, and had not yet returned. On her arrival he received her with studied coldness, and continued for three days to treat her with outward indifference, while ideas of divorce were working in his mind. The interval, exquisitely painful as it must have been to Josephine, terminated in an entire reconciliation. Napoleon's interview with the Directors at the Luxembourg on the day after his arrival was cold, and chiefly occupied in explanations as to the condition and prospects of the army in Egypt, and his own reason for returning to France. Having suddenly learned the losses and disasters which had befallen the country, he had hastened to its defence. The Directors were able to assume a more advantageous position in the conference than they would have been at an earlier period. On the very eve of Napoleon's return the succession of misfortunes which had attended the French armies in Holland and on the Rhine had been checked. General Brune had compelled the Anglo-Russian army to evacuate Holland, and Massena had gained an important victory over the Russians under Korsakow on the Limmat, Suwarrow having been forced in consequence to retreat before General Lecourbe. The Directors finished the conference by offer- ing Napoleon the choice of any army he would command. He pleaded the necessity of a short interval of leisure for the recovery of his health, and speedily withdrew in order to avoid any more such embarrassing offers. He had by this time a very clear perception of the course before him, and had made up his mind to place himself in circumstances to confer high offices and commands instead of accepting them. While maturing his plans he lived in the same retired manner which had marked his residence in Paris after the Italian campaign. A grand public dinner was given in his honour by the Council of Five Hundred, which he attended, but retired very early. He gave one toast in the course of the evening, sufficiently ominous, though not noticed at the time : — " The union of all parties." Considerable changes had taken place in the state of parties during the year that Napoleon was absent. Of the Directory, which then consisted of Barras, Rewbell, Treilhard, Merlin, and Reveilliere Lepaux, only Barras continued in office. Rewbell had been succeeded by the Abbe Sieyes ; Treilhard had been displaced on account of informality in his election ; the two others, menaced with impeachments for peculation and misgovernment, had resigned their offices. Their places were supplied by Roger Ducos, Gohier, and Moulins. The Directory as it now existed was weak from the divisions among its members, and from the character of each. Barras was profligate and extravagant, and fearful of being called to a severe account for his peculations and extortions. Ducos was half a Royalist, but always followed Sieyes. Gohier and Moulins were devoted Repub- licans, but men of very moderate abilities. Sieyes, the most talented of all, had accepted a place in the Directory chiefly in order to overturn its constitution altogether and establish his own favourite theory of government. Sieyes had been well known in France at the time of the Revolution. He was then a violent Re- publican, and wrote a pamphlet explaining the nature of " The Third Estate," which created a great sensation. It was he who had the merit of introducing the measure for dividing France into departments, by which the mischievous distinc- tions and unequal privileges of provinces were abolished. He was not at all pro- minent during the Reign of Terror, and came in with the moderate party after the death of Robespierre. Having established a character for metaphysical subtlety and political skill, he was appointed one of the Committee of Eleven to whom was confided the charge of framing the new Constitution. Sieyes accordingly com- posed a complete system of government which he proposed for adoption, con- sisting of a Grand Elector ; two Consuls, one for peace, the other for war ; a legislative body; a Council of State, to discuss and propose measures on the part of the Government ; and a Tribunate, to perform the same functions on the part of the people. The power of each of these offices was so nicely adjusted that it is most likely the whole would have proved a body incapable of moving in 1 799-] STATE OF PARTIES IN THE DIRECTORY. 117 any one direction. To insure the continuance of this Constitution, a Conservative Senate was to be appointed. Its members had no power of action or legislation, but were to call in to their own body any individual who appeared likely to endanger the Constitution, thus rendering him powerless for good or evil. The plan was rejected, and the Directorial Government, or Constitution of the Year Three, was established. Sieyes accepted the post of ambassador to Prussia upon the rejection of his scheme, but returned to Paris in 1799, and obtained a place in the Directory, full of hope that the time was nearly ripe for the establishment of his favourite system. The two Republican Directors were supported by a majority in the Council of Five Hundred and by all the democratic party, which was now called the " Manege," from their club of that name. Jourdan, Augereau, and Bernadotte were its leaders. Sieyes was at the head of the " Moderes," who formed the majority of the Council of Ancients, and Ducos followed his move- ments. Barras had no party or adherents, but wavered, and was even suspected of tampering with the Royalists. This was the state of parties into the midst of which Napoleon suddenly threw himself. He quickly resolved to overturn the Directorial Government and establish another, wherein he should possess the power towards which he aimed. His intentions were no sooner suspected than he was surrounded by all who were discontented with the established Government, and who found in him such a leader as they had long looked for. He had to choose with whom to unite him- self. He balanced between Sieyes and Barras for a short time, being determined to win over one or other of them. Sieyes and himself entertained a mutual dis- like ; and this had grown on his part from hatred of all " men of systems." He made no secret of his antipathy ; so that Sieyes, on one occasion of marked dis- respect shown towards him by Napoleon, exclaimed to some one near him, " See how that little insolent fellow behaves to the member of a Government which would do well to order him to be shot." These private piques, however, gave way before the evident expediency of a junction with Sieyes. Barras had no power or influence to compare with that possessed by Sieyes ; besides, he impru- dently betrayed to Napoleon that he had personally ambitious views. Sieyes had none ; he simply wished to establish his " system." This is a kind of ambition much more easily regulated than the desire for power, and Napoleon did not fear that he should find the means of keeping it in abeyance ; particularly as the Abbe was fond of money, and might be quieted by a handsome provision. He com- manded a majority in the Council of Ancients ; was at the head of that large party known by the name of " Modere's ;" and Ducos was sure to follow in his track. These considerations determined Napoleon. He opened a negotiation with Sieyes, and had no sooner convinced him that the project of overturning the Directorial Government was his object, than he was regarded as the instrument destined to give to France that " systematic " Constitution so long desired. His overtures were cordially met, and Sieyes gave all the weight of his influence to the impending revolution. Talleyrand, who had been recently deposed from a place in the Ministry, and Fouche, Minister of Police, were added to the number of his adherents. He had no faith in the latter, and used him without giving him his confidence. Lucien Bonaparte held the important post of President of the Council of Five Hundred, a circumstance highly advantageous to his brother at this juncture. A large portion of the army was certain to side with Napoleon, whose house was the resort of all the generals and men of note who had served under him in his campaigns of Italy and Egypt. Bernadotte alone stood aloof. His staunch Republicanism was startled by the growth of power and ambition which he saw in his former general-in-chief, and he mixed little in his society. Josephine had occasion more than once to exert that grace and address for which, she was so celebrated to prevent open quarrels. Bernadotte had lately resigned the office of Minister of War to Dubois de Crance, a man of less force of character,, and had he still held that situation he would have been a formidable antagonist Il8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Moreau's ambition was not political but military, and might therefore be satisfied without danger. A meeting took place between Napoleon and Sieyes on the 6th of November, in which it was determined that the revolution should be attempted on the 9th. This day, called in the history of the period the 18th Brumaire, was exactly one month from the day of Napoleon's landing at Frejus. The Council of Ancients, taking advantage of an article in the Constitution, were to decree the removal of the legislative bodies to St. Cloud. They were next to appoint Napoleon com- mander-in-chief of their own guard, of the troops of the military division of Paris, and of the National Guard. These decrees were to be passed at seven in the morning, at eight Napoleon was to go to the Tuileries, where the troops should be assembled, and there assume the command of the capital. When Napoleon first arrived in Paris some regiments of dragoons had begged the honour of being reviewed by him. The request was granted, but the day not fixed. Thirty or forty adjutants of the National Guard, together with the officers of the garrison and many others, had made similar requests, and the same day was named for all. On the 17 th Napoleon sent to all the officers of the forces about to be placed under his command, inviting them to a meeting at his house in the Rue de la Victoire at six o'clock the following morning and appointing a grand review of the troops in the Champs Elysees at seven ; accounting for these early hours by feign- ing that he was about to set off on a journey. Early on the morning of the 18th Brumaire the house of Napoleon was crowded with officers ; many were in the courtyard and entrances. Most of these were devoted to him ; a few were in the secret ; and all began to suspect that some- thing extraordinary was going forward. Bernadotte alone appeared in plain clothes. " How is this ? you are not in uniform ! " Napoleon said, hastily. " I never am on a morning when I am not on duty," replied Bernadotte. " You will be on duty presently," rejoined Napoleon. " I have not heard a word of it : I should have received my orders sooner," answered the impracticable Republican. Napoleon now drew him aside, frankly disclosed his views, invited him to take part with the new movement, and follow to the Tuileries with the rest. Bernadotte answered that " he would not take part in a rebellion," and with some difficulty made a half promise of neutrality. Napoleon now only waited for the decrees of the Council of Ancients. The moment they were brought to him he came forward to the steps in front of his house, read the documents which announced the removal of the legislative body in order to deliberate with greater security on the important measures required by the state of the country, and his own nomination to the command of the troops. He then invited all to follow him to the Tuileries. General Lefevre, the Commandant of Paris, showed signs of disapprobation ; but Napoleon suddenly turned towards him, demanding whether he would follow him or return to the " lawyers ; " and the appeal was instantly successful. The whole assemblage held themselves in readiness to follow, with the exception of Berna- dotte, who, as the others passed him in succession, quietly took his leave. Napoleon now dispatched the officers of the National Guard to beat the generate and proclaim the new decrees in all the quarters of Paris \ and then mounting his horse, proceeded, in company with Bournonville, Moreau, Macdonald, and all the other generals and officers, to the Tuileries, where ten thousand men under arms awaited his arrival. On his way he attended at the bar of the Council of Ancients, and, surrounded by his numerous staff, promised to enforce the decrees just announced to him. After a brilliant review, Napoleon delivered the following address to the troops : — " Soldiers ! the extraordinary decree of the Council of Ancients, which is conform- able to Articles Nos. 102 and 103 of the Constitution, has appointed me to the command of the city and army. I accept that appointment with the view of seconding the measures which the Council is about to adopt, and which are en- 179?-] DISSOLUTION OF THE DIRECTORY. 1 19 tirely favourable to the people. The Republic has been badly governed for two years past. You hoped that my return would put an end to the evil. You have celebrated that return in a way which imposes on me duties that I am ready to perform. You will also perform your duty, and second your General with the energy, firmness, and confidence you have always manifested. Liberty, victory, and peace will restore the French Republic to the rank it has occupied in Europe, and which it could have lost only by folly and treason ! " This harangue was received with acclamations. General proclamations addressed to the citizens were posted in various quarters of Paris, where they produced excitement and discussion. The friends of liberty began to fear that their favourite general was about to play the part of Caesar or Cromwell. Napoleon had been prepared for this, and with the proclamations a dialogue on the affairs of the day was also placarded at the doors of the Councils, and distributed in different reading-rooms. In this dialogue the parts played by those illustrious usurpers of former times were designated as " bad parts, parts worn out, unworthy of a man of sense, even if they were not so of a man of honour. It would be nothing less," continued this specious discourse, " than a sacrilegious ambition to make any attempt against a Representative Government in the present age of knowledge and liberty. He would be a mere fool who would wantonly stake the Republic against European royalty, after having contended for it with so much glory and peril." The message of the Council of Ancients, intimating the removal of the legisla- tive bodies to St. Cloud, was received with considerable surprise in the Council of Five Hundred. They had no choice, however, but to comply with the laws, and adjourned till next day amidst shouts of " Long live the Republic and the Con- stitution ! " The galleries echoed the cry, and the zealous adherents of democracy who were accustomed to attend the debates determined to transfer themselves also to St. Cloud. It was evident that the revolution would meet with a determined opposition in this Council. Sieyes and Ducos were already at the Tuileries, ready to take part in the move- ment. Barras waited at the Luxembourg to receive Napoleon, and his anxiety and fears increased as it began to grow evident that his expected guest did not intend to appear. He had laughed at the awkward appearance of Sieyes as he passed on horseback to the Tuileries, little suspecting his errand ; but now, seriously alarmed, he dispatched Bottot his secretary to Napoleon, to expostulate with him. The messenger found Napoleon at the Tuileries, surrounded by a large group of officers and soldiers, before whom Barras, or rather the Directory in his person, was haughtily upbraided by the successful general. "What have you done," said Napoleon, " for that France which I left you so flourishing ? I left you peace, I have found war ; I left you victories, I have found defeats ; I left you the wealth of Italy, I have found spoliation and penury. What have you done with a hundred thousand Frenchmen whom I knew, all my companions in glory ? They are dead ! This state of things cannot last ! Before the end of three years it would lead us to despotism. According to some we shall all be shortly enemies to the Republic, we who have preserved it by our efforts and our courage ! We have no occasion for better patriots than the brave men who have shed their blood in its defence." Barras instantly resigned his office, the reports of his secretary, aided by the advice of Talleyrand, having assured him he had no other course. He was sent to his country seat with a military guard* Gohier and Moulins waited at their posts in the Luxembourg, where their very respect for the Constitution disabled them from moving in its defence. By one of its fundamental laws, less than three Directors were forbidden to deliberate ; they therefore continued inactive until they found themselves prisoners in their own apartments, under a guard commanded by Moreau, whom Napoleon had appointed his aide-de-camp. The two Directors made, however, one faint effort by writing to the Council of Ancients : — " Citizens Representatives ! A great aggression has been committed, which doubtless is only the prelude to still greater offences. The Directorial palace has been taken posses- 120 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. sion of by an armed force ! It is necessary to proclaim the Republic in danger ! Whatever may be the fate reserved for us, we swear fidelity to the Constitution of the Year Three. May our oaths not prove to be the last cries of expiring liberty!" Signed, " The two Directors, Moulins and Gohier, prisoners in their palace." This letter fell into the hands of Napoleon, and the two Directors, finding their cause hopeless, sent in their resignations as Sieyes and Ducos had already done. The Directory was thus finally dissolved. A more arduous undertaking awaited Napoleon on the 19th, when it was necessary he should prepare for the result of the meeting of the two Councils. Sieyes had recommended that forty leaders of the Opposition should be arrested, but Napoleon would not consent, believing himself strong enough to carry his point without resorting to so obnoxious a measure. He had, however, sent a large armed force to St. Cloud under the command of Murat, and about one o'clock on the 19th he repaired thither himself, attended by Berthier, Lefevre, Lannes, and all the generals most in his confidence. Upon his arrival he learned that a hot debate had commenced in the Council of Ancients on the subject of the resignation of the Directors and the immediate election of others. Napoleon hastily and somewhat angrily entered the hall, accompanied only by Berthier and by Bourrienne, who attended as his secretary. He walked rapidly up the narrow passage which led to the centre of the hall, and fronted Lemercier the President. Napoleon had now to endure a series of rapid interrogations from the President, relating to the proceedings of the previous day and the present position of affairs, which betrayed suspicions of the use he was about to make of the important military command with which the assembly had invested him. His answers were irritable, ambiguous, and confused ; much to the following effect : — " You are placed upon a volcano ; let me tell you the truth with the frankness of a soldier. Citizens ! I was living tranquil with my family when the commands of the Council of Ancients called me to arms. I collected my brave military companions : we are rewarded with calumny : they compare me to Cromwell — to Caesar ! I have had opportunities of usurping the supreme authority before now, had I desired it. I swear to you the country has not a more disinterested patriot. We are surrounded by dangers and by civil war. Let us not hazard the loss of those advantages for which we have made such sacrifices — liberty and equality ! " A member named Linglet interrupted him at these words by exclaiming, " You forget the Constitution ! " This elicited from Napoleon a more connected and more sincere avowal of his intentions than any which he had yet given. " The Constitu- tion ! " he answered ; "it was violated on the 18th Fructidor, on the 22nd Floreal, on the 30th Prairial. All parties have invoked it, all have disregarded it in turn. It can be no longer a means of safety to any one, since it obtains the respect of no one ! " Raising his voice, he then hinted at a conspiracy against liberty in which he had been invited to join. A great tumult arose in the hall at these words, and he was called upon to "name the conspirators." When his voice could be again heard, he was making fresh accusations. "The Council of Five Hundred," he said, "wished for scaffolds, revolutionary committees, and a complete overthrow of everything." In the midst of the violent excitement which he thus produced, and the fierce disapprobation and contests which were now growing louder in the hall, he abruptly walked away. Rallying at the uproar which pursued him, he turned round at the door, and called upon the Council to assist him in saving the country, and with the words " Let those who love me follow me !" passed quickly out, reached the courtyard, where he showed the soldiers the order from the Council of Ancients, and then leaped on his horse, shouts of " Vive Bonaparte!" resounding on all sides. That he had made a wretched figure before the chief legislative assembly of his country is evident, and it is plain that the power of oratory which Napoleon possessed was limited to his position of command. In exhortation, denunciation, accusation, and attack, he was hardly to be surpassed or withstood ; but when I799-J THE NINETEENTH BRUM AIRE. I2T fifeo-nti NAPOLEON AT ST. CLOUD. denounced himself, his faculties were confused and his eloquence deserted him. The reason of this is to be found not in any want of courage, but in that want of self-control engendered by habitual authority, and in the secretive character of his mind, to which sudden interrogations seemed an outrage, because the answers might involve the disclosure of designs which he wished to conceal. The session of the Five Hundred, under the presidency of Lucien Bonaparte, had commenced with demonstrations of hostility to Napoleon which made counter measures on his part imperatively necessary. The members were kept waiting for some time, while the Orangery of the palace, destined for their hall of debate, was prepared for them by workmen. The circumstance reminded them of a famous incident in the Revolution, when the National Assembly, expelled from Versailles, took refuge in the royal tennis-court. The reminiscence inflamed all the Republicans present, and they entered in a humour which boded ill to the innovators. The proceedings were opened by a speech from Gaudin (a member of the moderate party, in the interest of Sieves and Napoleon), who moved that a committee of seven should be appointed to report upon the state of the Re- public, and that a communication should be opened with the Council of Ancients. Exclamations arose on every side. " The Constitution or death ! — Down with the dictatorship ! " seemed to proceed from every mouth. Gaudin was dragged from the tribune, Lucien in vain endeavouring to preserve order. A member proposed that all present should swear to preserve the Constitution of the Year Three. Amidst acclamations which silenced resistance every member present was forced to take the oath. The moderates, even Lucien himself, were hurried on without the power of refusal. In the midst of the excitement which followed Lucien read aloud a letter from Barras resigning his office. The resignation was received with contempt, as the act of a soldier deserting his post at the moment of danger ; and the following passage renewed the violence which had in some degree abated: — " The glory which accompanies the return of the illustrious warrior to whom I had the honour of opening the path of glory; the striking marks of confidence 122 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. given him by the Legislative Body, and the decree of the Council of Ancients, con- vince me that, to whatever post he may be called, all dangers to liberty will be averted, and the interests of the army insured." The tumult occasioned by these words was hushed by the clash of arms ; bayonets, drawn swords, plumed hats, and bearskin caps were seen without ; and Napoleon entered, attended by four grenadiers of the Constitutional Guard of the Councils. The soldiers remained near the door, while he walked with deliberate steps and uncovered up the hall. He had not advanced above one-third of its length when all the Deputies rose. " Down with the tyrant ! — down with the Dictator ! — the sanctuary of the laws is violated ! " resounded from all sides ; several members rushed towards Napoleon. He attempted to speak, but his voice was drowned by cries of " The Republic for ever ! — the Constitution for ever ! — Outlaw the Dictator ! " He was seized by the collar. At this sight the grenadiers hurried forward exclaiming, " Let us save our general ! " and bore him from the assembly almost insensible. Napoleon, when in the midst of his soldiers, found ready ears and enthusiastic spirits to listen to his excited words. Augereau, however, whose faith began to waver, said, " A fine situation you have brought yourself into ! " Upon which Napoleon answered, " Things were worse at Areola. Take my advice, Augereau, remain quiet; in a short time all this will change." Meanwhile the commotion in the Council rose to the highest pitch, and Lucien was called upon to put the outlawry of his brother to the vote. Unable to obtain a hearing, he threw on his desk his President's hat and scarf, and amidst a storm of contention declared the sitting at an end, and renounced his seat. At this moment a party of six grena- diers, sent by Napoleon, entered the hall, surrounded Lucien, and carried him off into the midst of the soldiers. He mounted a horse, and raising his powerful voice, addressed the troops as President of the Council of Five Hundred in a speech far more remarkable for its dexterity than its truth : — ■ " Citizens, General Bonaparte, and Soldiers ! " he said, " the President of the Council of Five Hundred declares to you that the majority of that Council is held in terror by a few who are armed with stilettoes, and who surround the tribune, threatening their colleagues with death and maintaining atrocious discussions ! I declare to you that these brigands, who are doubtless in the pay of England, have rebelled against the Council of Ancients, and dared to talk of outlawing the general who is charged with the execution of its decree, as if the word ' outlaw ' was still to be regarded as the death-warrant of persons most beloved by their country. I declare to you that these madmen have outlawed themselves by their attempts upon the liberty of the Council. In the name of that people which for so many years has been the sport of terrorism, I consign to you the task of rescu- ing the majority of their representatives ; so that, delivered from stilettoes, they may deliberate on the fate of the Republic. General ! and you, soldiers ! and you, citizens ! you will not acknowledge as legislators of France any but those who rally round me. As for those remaining in the Orangery, let force expel them ; they are not the representatives of the people, but the representatives of the poniard ! " The soldiers received this harangue with shouts of " Long live Bonaparte ! " Still they hesitated to act against the representatives of the people, till Lucien drew his sword and vehemently exclaimed, " I swear that I will stab my ovn brother to the heart if he ever attempt anything against the liberty of Frenchmen !" This dramatic effect kindled the enthusiasm of the excitable people before whom it was acted. They were ready to obey any order from Napoleon ; and at a signal from him, Murat, at the head of a body of grenadiers, entered the Orangery. The Deputies were debating in a state of wild indecision and anxiety when the soldiers appeared. Murat, as they moved slowly forward, notified to the Council the order for its dispersion. A few of the members retired, but the majority remained firm ; and one or two, amongst whom was General Jourdan, reminded the troops of the enormity of their present proceeding. They appeared to waver for a moment, 1 799-] TRIPLE CONSULATE. 123 \ 1 1 NAPOLEON BEFORE THE COL when a reinforcement entered in close column, headed by General Leclerc, who said loudly, " In the name of General Bonaparte the Legislative Corps is dissolved ; let all good citizens retire. Grenadiers, forward ! " The members' indignant cries were drowned by the beating of drums. The grenadiers advanced at the charge, with fixed bayonets, extending across the whole width of the Orangery, and drove the legislative body before them : the members fled on all sides, many jumping from the windows, and leaving behind their official caps, scarves, and gowns. In a few minutes not one remained. Lucien, in his character of President of the Five Hundred, repaired to the Council of Ancients who were still sitting, and made plausible explanations of the recent scenes of violence. The Council adjourned till eleven at night. The in- terval was passed by Napoleon in consultation with Talleyrand and Sieves, who were at St. Cloud ; and by Lucien in endeavouring to collect a few members of the Council of Five Hundred, to legalize the decrees he intended should be passed. About thirty members were all that could be got together. This shadow of the younger Legislative Assembly, with the Council of Ancients, commenced their nocturnal sitting at the appointed hour. Thanks were voted to Napoleon and the troops, so docile had the assemblies become. A decree was passed dissolving the Directory, and declaring that sixty one individuals were no longer members of the national representation, for having been guilty of excesses and illegal acts ; and, finally, Sieyes, Ducos, and Napoleon, as Provisional Consuls, were charged with the executive power; while two committees, of five-and-twenty members, were chosen from the two legislative bodies to prepare the new Constitution with the Consuls. While these measures were passing, Napoleon was dictating to his secretary an elaborate proclamation to the citizens of Paris. He adopted in it the tone of Lucien's speech, enlarging on attempted assassination and illegal violence, and declaring without any regard to truth that " twenty assassins " 124 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. rushed upon him and aimed at his breast. " The Grenadiers of the Legislative Body," he continued, " whom I had left at the door of the hall, ran forward, and placed themselves between me and the assassins. One of these brave grenadiers (Thome) had his clothes pierced by a stiletto." The whole statement was an out- rageous exaggeration. At two o'clock in the morning of the 20th Brumaire the Provisional First Consul appeared before the two Councils to take the oath of " fidelity to the sovereignty of the people ; to the French Republic o?ie and indi- visible; to liberty, equality, and the representative system." The assemblies then separated, having adjourned for three months; tranquillity prevailed at St. Cloud; and Fouche was charged to prevent the entrance of any of the late members of the Council into Paris. Napoleon entered his carriage to return to Paris at three o'clock in the morn- ing. " He was absorbed in thought," says the secretary, " and did not utter a word during the journey. But when he arrived at his house in the Rue de la Victoire, and had reassured Josephine, who was in a state of great anxiety on account of his long absence, he remarked, ' Bourrienne, I said many ridiculous things.' ' Not so very bad, General.' ' I like better to speak to soldiers than to lawyers. Those fellows confused me. I have not been used to public assem- blies ; but that will come in time.' Then he told Josephine all the events of the day, speculating on things and people. Josephine spoke of the interest she felt in Gohier the ex-Director, and his family. ' What would you have, my dear ? ' said Napoleon ; ' I cannot avert his misfortunes ; he is a respectable simpleton : I ought, perhaps, to have him banished.' Bernadotte, Moreau, and others came under discussion, the First Consul amusing himself with his dexterous manage- ment of Moreau ; at last ending abruptly with ' Good night, Bourrienne. By the way, we will sleep in the Luxembourg to-morrow.' " The three Consuls met in the morning. Sieyes, who had up to this moment conceived himself to be the head and the others but the arms of the new Con- stitution, asked, as a form of politeness, " Which of us is to preside ? " " Do you not see," answered Ducos, " that the General presides ? " Napoleon did preside, not only over the councils of his colleagues, but over France. He had thoroughly overturned the Constitutional forms of liberty, for which enthusiastic and devoted men had contended for so many years. Sieyes was so astonished at the knowledge displayed by Napoleon in questions of administration, even to the minutest details in every department, that when their first conference was concluded, he hurried to Talleyrand, Cabanis, and other counsellors assembled at St. Cloud, exclaiming, " Gentlemen, you have now a master. He knows everything, arranges everything, and can accomplish every- thing." THE GENERAL PRESIDES. FIRST CONSULAR MEETING AT THE LUXEMBOURG. CHAPTER XVII. FORMATION OF THE MINISTRY— DEBATES ON THE NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT— SlfeYES AND DUCOS RETIRE— DECLARATION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE YEAR EIGHT— BONAPARTE, CAMBACEReS, AND LEBRUN, CONSULS — LETTER TO THE KING OF ENGLAND— NAPOLEON RESIDES IN THE TUILERIES — FUNERAL HONOURS TO WASHINGTON. THHE three Provisional Consuls held their second sitting at the Luxem- bourg on the following day. Gohier and Moulins having received a noti- fication that they were at liberty, left the seat of Government vacant for the new rulers. The Revolution was effected without any effusion of blood, and clemency was shown to all sup- posed opponents. Sixty individuals " were sentenced to deportation ; but this severe decree was altered into a command that they should repair to certain communes of France, and there remain until further orders. In whatever light we view this coup d'etat, all must admit that it contrasts most favourably with the bloodshed, midnight arrests, deportations, and long confinements in felons' gaols by which the Republic was overthrown and France fettered fifty years subsequently. The affairs of the country were in a wretched condition; every department required to be reformed. The treasury was nearly empty. On the second day of the Consulate there were not twelve hundred francs to give to a courier whom it was requisite to dispatch on matters of State. The Minister at war was unable to produce any returns of the pay, clothing, or victualling of the army; which was in general suffering great privation, and in a state of insubordination, — the divisions which were abroad being dependent for all their supplies on forced requisitions from foreign countries, while those at home levied contributions on the treasury by means of threats. This condition of affairs could be tolerated no longer; Napoleon therefore called upon M. Collot, who had served under him in Italy, to assist the Govern- 125 126 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. ment in its financial embarrassment. He supplied the treasury with five hundred thousand francs in gold. 4 The next business of the Consuls was to re-model the Ministry. Napoleon, completely disregarding party prejudices, sought earnestly for talent. The office of Minister of Finance was entrusted to Gaudin, afterwards Duke of Gaeta, who had long been employed in that department. He began his difficult task with integrity and zeal, resting neither night nor day until he had devised a plan to reform the glaring abuses he discovered. He suppressed the compulsory loan,* and by other wise measures placed the finances in the flourishing condition they preserved during the fifteen years of his administration. Berthier was made Minister at War. Cambace'res, who was an able lawyer and had been a man of the Revolution, though of a noble family of Languedoc, retained the post of Minister of Justice. Reinhard, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, was soon afterwards suc- ceeded by Talleyrand. Forfait, who had a great reputation as a naval architect, was put at the head of the Admiralty. He did not realize expectation; but causes beyond the power of any single man kept down the French navy. La Place was made Minister of the Interior ; but this great astronomer and mathematician proving incompetent to discharge the duties of his office, soon returned to his high place in the scientific world, and was succeeded by Lucien Bonaparte. Monge was entrusted with the chief direction of the Polytechnic, which became under him one of the most celebrated schools in the world. These appointments were unanimously agreed to by the three Consuls, but a serious difference occurred on the subject of the Minister of Police. Napoleon determined to continue Fouche in that office. He admitted that Fouche was venal, sanguinary, insincere, yet contended that his abilities made him too valuable to be dispensed with at this period. Sieves considered the Government insecure so long as such a man was at the head of the police, but the will of Napoleon prevailed and Fouche continued in office. Without delay several popular measures were passed by the Consuls. By the first of these the Law of Hostages was repealed, and imprisoned relations of sus- pected emigrants were at once released. The next measure was based on the principle that " conscience is not amenable to the law, and that the right of the sovereign power extends no further than exaction of political obedience and fidelity." It was therefore decreed that every priest who had been banished or imprisoned, and would take an oath of fidelity to the Government, should be set at liberty, irrespective of his religious opinions. More than twenty thousand individuals— some of whom had been jn banishment in the isle of Rhe or Guiana, others in prison — were thus restored to their families. In conformity with the spirit of this decree the churches were again opened for public worship, and Christians of every denomination were permitted to observe Sunday as they liked. The universal enforcement of the law of decades, which divided time by ten days instead of seven, was therefore repealed. In the same spirit of respect to the outward forms of Christian worship the customary honours were ordered to be paid to the remains of Pope Pius VI., who during life had been stripped of nearly all his dominions by Napoleon, and owed to his conqueror the empty acknow- ledgment of his spiritual supremacy. He died at Valence, where he had retired when the Directory decreed the overthrow of the Papal power, and established for a short time a shadow of the old Roman Constitution. The names of all members of the Constituent Assembly who had formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the people but had been forced to leave France in the stormy times of the Revolu- tion were struck off the list of emigrants. La Fayette and his companions in captivity were restored to France. Their property had never been alienated. Nine emigrants, some of them belonging to the oldest families of France, who had been wrecked on the coast several years previously and had been detained in * See page 112. I799-] CONSTITUTION OF THE YEAR EIGHT. 127 prison ever since, were permitted to leave the country by a special act which originated with Napoleon. The popularity of these measures spread even to departments where civil war was raging. The chiefs of the Chouans, perceiving a vigorous hand at the helm of the State, meditated laying down their arms and made overtures to the Govern- ment. The three Consuls and two committees sat nightly from nine o'clock, and generally until three in the morning, in Napoleon's apartment at the Luxembourg. The Constitutional theory of the Abbe Sieyes was taken as the basis of their plans, and at every sitting he expounded it. When he arrived at the summit of the fabric, viz., the Grand Elector, Napoleon rose. " The Grand Elector," he said, " if he confine himself strictly to the functions you assign him, will be but the shadow of a Roi faineant. And how do you think it possible that any man will submit to the situation of a fatted hog in a stye, with some millions a year at his disposal ? If he should choose to abuse his prerogative, you give him absolute power. If, for example, I became Grand Elector, when I appointed the Consuls for War and Peace I should say to them, 'If you nominate a single Minister, if you sign a single act without my previous approbation, I will remove you.' But you reply, ' The Senate in its turn will merge the Grand Elector.' That is worst of all ; nobody at this rate has any guarantee. In another point of view what will be the situation of these two Prime Ministers ? One will have the Ministers of Justice, of the Interior, of Police, of Finance under his control ; the other those of the Marine, of War, of External Relations. The first will be surrounded only by judges, ad- ministrators, financiers, men of the long robe ; the other only by epaulettes and military men, The one will be wanting money and recruits for his armies, the other will not furnish any. Such a Government would be a monstrous chimera, composed of heterogenous parts and presenting nothing rational. It is a great mistake to suppose that the shadow of a thing can be of the same use as the thino- itself." It was in vain to oppose an opinion so confidently expressed by the man who had all the power in his own hands. That it had been the intention of the Abbe to appropriate the office of Grand Elector, making Napoleon his Consul for War, or to endeavour to " absorb " the dangerous ambition of Napoleon in the powerless dignity of that " Roi faineant" while he himself fulfilled the duties of Consul for Peace, is very probable. It became very clear to him now, however, that he had no chance of power under any form. After the first sitting of the Consuls at the Luxembourg, he determined to retire from public life altogether, and refused to accept any situation in the Government. Napoleon endowed him with most of the private treasure amassed by the ex-Directors, amounting to twenty-four thousand pounds, and designated by Sieyes as a trifle for an emergency (Une poire pour la soif). But the addition of the beautiful estate of Crosne quite satisfied him. In order to save his delicacy a decree was passed forcing him to accept this mark of the public gratitude. The office of Senator, with a salary of twenty-five thousand francs annexed, were added after the new Constitution was formed. Roger Ducos followed Sieyes' example, though his retirement was not attended with the same munificent rewards. Thus was Napoleon left in sole power. By the new Constitution as definitively settled the whole executive power was placed in the hands of three Consuls, who were elected for ten years and declared eligible for re-election at the expiration of that time. The First Consul alone had the right of nominating to all offices, civil and military. He was to propose all new laws and originate all measures for the internal and external defence of the country. He was commander of all the forces ; to superintend all the international relations, and to coin the public money. The two supplementary Consuls were to be the indispensable councillors of the First Consul ; but he was recognized as independent of them, irresponsible, and his person inviolable. ' For the old system of two Chambers, the new Constitution substituted four 128 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. political bodies, viz., the Council of State, the Tribunate, the Legislative Body, and the Senate, (i.) The duty of the Council of State was to communicate any proposed law to the Legislative Body, and there to justify the proposal in the name of the Government. (2.) The Tribunate was to support the popular interests. (3.) The business of the Legislative Body was to hear and decide. Finally (4), the Senate was required to interpose when the Tribunate declared that the Con- stitution was violated. The people were divided into three classes, which should each declare a certain number of persons eligible to certain gradations of the State. Out of the three lists of names thus chosen the various functionaries were to be appointed : the members of the Senate by the First Consul, the members of the Legislative Body and of the Tribunate by the Senate. The number of the senators was not to exceed eighty ; their office was for life, with a high salary ; they became in- capable for ever of any other public duty ; their sittings were not public ; and after their first appointment the people were to interfere no further in their election. They were to supply vacancies in their own assembly by choosing the future senator from a list of three persons to be named by the First Consul, the Legis- lative Body, and the Tribunate. The number of the Legislative Body was to be three hundred, and of the Tribunate one hundred. The Council of State was nominated by the First Consul, and its members held office durante bene placito. This form of Government, known as the " Constitution of the Year Eight," was submitted to the people on the 13th of December, 1799, and received the sanction of three millions eleven thousand and seven votes, a number more than doubling those given for the Constitution of 1792 and of the Year Three, though small in comparison with modern plebiscites. Napoleon assumed the post of First Consul without question. For coadjutors he named Cambaceres, the late Minister of Justice, and Lebrun, a man who, though sincerely attached to the Revolution, had influence with the Royalist party, having been connected with State affairs under Chancellor Maupeou. Without waiting for the formation of the lists by popular choice, Napoleon appointed sixty Senators, these sixty nominated the three hundred members of the Legislative Body, and the one hundred members of the Tribunate. The Council of State and the Ministry were also chosen by Napoleon. Every department of the Govern- ment, therefore, emanated from the executive power, the people having no voice in the matter. Notwithstanding this violation of both spirit and letter of the new Constitution, the new Government was far more popular than any of those which had been established since the Revolution. The people were dazzled with Napoleon's glory and contented under his vigorous administration. All parties found their condition improved, while the conviction that victory would return to the nation, now her successful general was at the head of affairs, was sufficient to reconcile France to the thorough demolition of Republican principles of Government and to the loss of individual liberty. The army exulted at the position of the leader who was identified with its greatest victories. The First Consul frequently reviewed the troops. He traversed the ranks, now on horseback, now on foot, entering into the minutest details con- cerning the wants of the men, and dispensing, in the name of the nation, dis- tinctions and rewards. A hundred soldiers who had signalized themselves in action each received from his hand a handsome sabre on one of these brilliant occasions. Napoleon's first measure was to direct Talleyrand, Minister for Foreign Affairs, to open negotiations with the Court of St. James's for peace, remarking : " You see I have two great enemies. I will conclude peace with the one I find most easy to deal with : that will enable me immediately to assail the other. I frankly confess that I should like best to be at peace with England. Nothing would then be more easy than to crush Austria. She has no money except what she gets I799-] LETTER TO GEORGE III. 129 IKESENTATKIN OF SAI1UES. through England." In accordance with these expressions Napoleon wrote the following letter to George III. : — "Bonaparte, First Consul of the Republic, to his Majesty the King of Great Britain and Ireland. " Called by the wishes of the French nation to occupy the first magistracy of the Republic, I have thought proper, in commencing the discharge of the duties of this office, to communicate the event directly to your Majesty. " Must the war which for eight years has ravaged the four quarters of the world be eternal ? Is there no room for accommodation ? " How can the two most enlightened nations in Europe, stronger and more powerful than is necessary for their safety and independence, sacrifice commercial advantages, internal prosperity, and domestic happiness, to vain ideas of grandeur? Whence is it that they do not feel peace to be the first of wants as well as the first of glories ? " These sentiments cannot be new to the heart of your Majesty, who rule over a free nation with no other view than to render it happy. " Your Majesty will see in this overture only my sincere desire to contribute effectually, for the second time, to a general pacification by a prompt step taken in confidence, and freed from those forms which, however necessary to disguise the apprehensions of feeble States, only serve to discover in those that are power- ful a mutual wish to deceive. " France and England may, by the abuse of their strength, long defer the period of its utter exhaustion, unhappily for all nations. But I will venture to say that the fate of all civilized nations is concerned in the termination of a war the flames of which are raging throughout the whole world. " I have the honour to be, &c, " Bonaparte." Doubtless Napoleon was perfectly sincere in this negotiation. The Government 9 130 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. of which he was head required time to consolidate itself; France was at war with all Europe and had lost Italy. While these negotiations were pending, the letter of Kleber,* full of complaints against Napoleon, reached Paris. It was dated from Cairo, and addressed to the Directorial Government. Napoleon was " the Government," and received it in due course. He replied in a letter of commendation and encouragement to the soldiers of the East, concluding, " Place in Kleber the boundless confidence which you reposed in me : he deserves it." Unfortunately the lustre of the early measures of the Consulate was tarnished by a decree published on the 27th Nivose, restricting the liberty of the press : — " The Consuls of the Republic, considering that some of the journals printed at Paris are instruments in the hands of the enemies of the Republic, over the safety of which the Government is specially entrusted by the people of France to watch, decree that the Minister of Police shall, during the continuance of the war, allow only the following journals to be printed and published." Twelve journals were then named, together with " La Decade Philosophique, and those papers which are exclusively devoted to science, art, literature, commerce, and advertisements." The decree went on to declare that if any of the licenced journals should insert articles "against the sovereignty of the people " they should be suppressed. Na- poleon also lowered the character of his Government by organizing a secret police. Duroc and De Moncey were at first the directors of this system of espionage, which was intended to countermine that of Fouche. The craft of the latter, however, was not to be eluded, and he soon found out the whole institution, knew the names of the agents and all their proceedings. This secret police embittered Napo- leon's life, and often exasperated him unjustly with his wife, relations, and friends. The reply of the British Cabinet to the overtures of peace arrived early in January. It was couched in the usual diplomatic form, being addressed by Lord Grenville, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to the Minister of Foreign Rela- tions at Paris, and contained a refusal on the part of his Britannic Majesty to treat with the Consular Government of France. England had joined other Euro- pean Governments in making war against France, in order to restore its legitimate Sovereign, contrary to the will of the French people, and equally contrary to the principles which had placed the House of Brunswick on the English throne to the exclusion of the Stuarts,t and they intended to continue it for the same purpose. Lord Grenville declared that there existed " no sufficient evidence of the prin- ciples by which the new Government of France would be directed ; no reasonable ground by which to judge of its stability ; " therefore, although his Majesty dis- claimed any wish to meddle with the internal polity of France, it could " for the prese?it only remain for his Majesty to pursue, in conjunction with other Powers, those exertions of just and defensive war, which his regard to the happiness of his subjects will never permit him either to continue beyond the necessity in which they originate, or to terminate on any other grounds than such as may best con- tribute to the secure enjoyment of their tranquillity, their constitution, and their independence.''^ Napoleon in reply prepared for war. On the 7th of January, 1800, three days after the date of Lord Grenville's despatch, a Consular decree ordered the forma- * See page 113. t A letter, pretending to come from the last descendant of the Stuart family, shortly afterwards appeared in the Moniteur, congratulating the King of Great Britairron his accession to the doctrine of Legitimacy, and summoning him to make good his principles by abdicating his crown in favour of the lineal heir. X The majority for war in the House of Lords was 79 ; minority, 6 ; the majority in the House of Commons was 260 ; minority, 64. Speeches in favour of peace were made by the Duke of Bedford, in the Lords ; and by Fox, Whitbread, and Erskine, in the Commons. Mr. Whitbread maintained that, "had it not been for the interference, the folly, and the ambition of the other Powers of Europe, the French Revolution would at this time have borne a very different complexion ; none of that pernicious rage for glory and conquest, so much deprecated in the French nation, would have existed." iSoo.] CORRESPONDENCE WITH LOUIS XVIII. 131 tion of an army of reserve, to be composed of all the veteran soldiers then unem- ployed; and a levy of thirty thousand recruits, or conscripts as they were termed. But before the First Consul put his army in motion he received an overture from the House of Bourbon in the shape of the following letter from Louis XVIII. , then in exile. " 20th February, 1800. " Sir, — Whatever may be their apparent conduct, men like you never inspire alarm. You have accepted an eminent station, and I thank you for having done so. You know better than any one how much strength and power are requisite to secure the happiness of a great nation. Save France from her own violence, and you will fulfil the first wish of my heart. Restore her King to her, and future generations will bless your memory. You will always be too necessary to the State for me ever to be able to discharge by important appointments the debt of my family and myself. " Louis." This letter, entirely in the handwriting of the Bourbon Prince, produced some agitation in the mind of Napoleon, though he never for a moment entertained the idea of acting the part of Monk in restoring the legitimate Sovereign. He hesi- tated to reply, and the pressure of business prolonged his delays. Meanwhile Josephine and her daughter Hortense urged him to " hold out hope to the King without pledging himself." Josephine was anxious that her husband should treat with Louis XVIII., in order to banish from his mind the thought of making him- self King, a prospect that always alarmed her. Napoleon returning no answer to the King's letter, he, after a lapse of several months, received another, to which he did reply. He had abolished the oath of" hatred to Royalty," together with the celebration of the 21st of January, the anniversary of the death of Louis XVI., and it is not improbable that this circumstance had raised the hopes of the Bourbons. It is only fair to Napoleon to say that the abolition of this oath was not an act dictated by policy alone. It is well known that he strongly sympathized with Louis XVI. during his trial ; and in writing to his friend " Dangeais," in 1792, he said, " I pity the monarch and do justice to his virtues. I wish he possessed energy, firmness, and even insensibility, a quality he certainly needs at present in order to repress the unwarrantable audacity of some of his subjects. ' In 17S9 he had counselled vigour in these words : — " An act of determined boldness, supported by strenuous military preparations and a few executions, would stop the evil at its very source; but the virtuous Louis XVI. wishes to be a father rather than a King; yet at this present moment he ought to show that he is a King if he wishes to be a father ! " It is not so generally known, however, that in 1792 he wrote " A Statement of the Dangers that threaten the Throne and the Sovereign, together with the only means of preserving both," which he addressed to Montmorin, Minister of State, proposing an elaborate scheme for the liberation of the King, Queen, and Dauphin. His antipathy to the Bourbons was never very deep-rooted nor of long duration, and was entirely created by Royalist plots against his own life. The marriage of Murat to Bonaparte's sister Caroline was celebrated at the Luxembourg. - Napoleon was at first very much averse to this alliance, thinking that his sister might command a higher position, and made a vulgar-minded allu- sion to Murat's parentage ; but he eventually yielded to the solicitations of Josephine, who favoured the match. He was perhaps the more ready to comply with his wife's wishes as he had been excessively jealous of Murat (among others), whose handsome person and almost reckless courage had obtained the title of " Le beau sabreur." Napoleon being scarce of money, only gave his sister a dowry of twelve hundred pounds, adding, as a marriage present, a diamond necklace which belonged to Josephine, who, however, was not at all pleased by this transfer. The loss of one necklace made Josephine desire another, and being aware that a jeweller in Paris had in his hands a splendid collection of pearls which had 132 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. belonged to the late unfortunate Queen of France, she wished to possess it. The price demanded was upwards of ^10,000. To raise this sum she applied to Berthier, who handed to her a portion of the money he had obtained from the contractors for military hospitals, whose nefarious claims he allowed for the sake of a bribe. Berthier was covetous, and it is very likely that the discovery or sus- picion of such dealings as these was one cause of his being ultimately superseded, as Minister of War, by the rigid Republican Carnot. A greater difficulty, however, remained for Josephine. She had got the pearls, but how was she to wear them without being questioned by Napoleon, who knew all her jewels ? Having endured the delay of a whole fortnight before she took them from their casket, she could refrain no longer, and appeared in them at a large party, engaging Bourrienne, of whom she had made a confidant, to help her through the difficulty. " Everything happened," says Bourrienne, " as Josephine feared and hoped. Bonaparte, on seeing the pearls, said to Madame, ' What have you got there ? How fine you are to-day ! Where did you get these pearls ? I think I never saw them before.' ' Oh, mon Dieu ! ' was the reply, ' you have seen them a dozen times ! It is the necklace which the Cisalpine Republic gave me, and which I now wear in my hair.' 'But I think' — Napoleon began. 'Stay!' exclaimed the lady; 'ask Bour- rienne, he will tell you.' " The secretary, thus called upon, boldly said, " Yes, General, I recollect very well seeing it before," whereupon Napoleon walked away satisfied. Bourrienne quiets his conscience as to his own answer by observing : " It was not strictly untrue, as Madame Bonaparte had previously shown me the pearls ; " but observes on " the readiness with which well-bred ladies can tell false- hoods without seeming to do so." Josephine's conduct m the whole transaction is painfully dishonest ; and the unscrupulous manner in which she sent to another man, without her husband's knowledge, for such a sum of money as ^10,000, can only be regarded with disgust even by those who most appreciate her many estimable qualities. She had, moreover, contracted large debts while Napoleon was in Egypt ; had bought the estate of Malmaison ; had beautified it exceedingly, and lived in great elegance and splendour. Her creditors were beginning to murmur ; but dreading Napoleon's violence of temper, which she knew would be justly excited, she dared not tell him of her embarrassment, especially as he had returned from Egypt poorer than he went. Talleyrand at length broke the subject to him, and Bourrienne was commissioned to ascertain from Josephine the extent of her debts. This he found very difficult ; but she confessed that she believed she owed ,£50,000, adding that only half the sum must be mentioned to Napo- leon. In vain Bourrienne urged her to tell the truth, reminding her that, as he had not the least idea the whole of her debts amounted to anything like even half the sum named, she would have to undergo the same reproaches for it as for the whole. She rejected the secretary's advice, protesting that she would contract no more debts, but pay the rest out of her savings, concluding with "I can never tell him, Bourrienne ; I know him ; I cannot support his violence." Napoleon supplied the ^25,000, and with this sum Bourrienne contrived to liquidate the entire debt, most of the tradespeople readily taking half their claims, so exorbitant had been their overcharges. Her milliner's bill contained a charge for thirty-eight expensive hats supplied in one month. Josephine, unable to profit by experience, soon indulged in the same extravagance and fell into similar embarrassments, which continued to embitter happiness that might otherwise have been unclouded between her and Napoleon. The annual salary of Napoleon as First Consul was about ,£20,000 : we cannot, therefore, be much surprised by his irritation at the profusion of his consort. The Luxembourg did not satisfy the ambition of Napoleon. On the 19th of February, 1800, he took up his residence in the Tuileries, the ancient palace of the Kings of France, which he called the " Palace of the Government." A certain portion of it was allotted to Lebrun the Third Consul. Great crowds collected to greet Napoleon. He went in procession, but with no great splendour. iSoo.j OCCUPATION OF THE TUILERIES. 133 The fine regiment of the Guides led the way. The Ministers alone, with the ex- ception of the Consuls, appeared in private carriages, for in those Republican days no others were seen in Paris. The remaining vehicles in the procession were all hackney coaches, the numbers being covered with paper. Napoleon, accompanied by his two colleagues, was in a carriage drawn by the six white horses presented to him by the Emperor of Austria. Enthusiastic acclamations and cries of "Long live the First Consul ! " were uttered as he entered the gates of the palace. Directly he arrived, he sprang upon his horse and held a grand review of the troops. As the 96th, 43rd, and 50th demi-brigades defiled before him, with their colours torn to shreds with balls and blackened with smoke, he saluted them by taking off his hat and inclining his head. Afterwards, in company with the other Consuls, he received the members of the diplomatic body. On this occasion something like the ceremonies of a Court were for the first time introduced, and, in imitation of the ancient custom of waiting on the Queen after presentation to the King, official persons were presented to Josephine. Amongst the foreign ambassadors the plenipotentiaries of the United States of America were distinguished. The Consular Government had just placed the relations between America and France on a footing of diplomatic and commercial amity. On the eve of taking possession of the Tuileries the First Consul had assisted at a ceremony of a very different character. News of the death of George Washington had just reached France. He died on the 14th of December, a private citizen of the Great Republic, the liberties of which he had secured by his abilities as a general and had assisted to maintain by his talents as a legislator and magistrate. Napoleon paid public homage to the virtue which neither his character, his inclinations, nor his circumstances enabled him to emulate. He celebrated a grand funeral service to the memory of Washington in the council hall of the Invalides. The last standards taken in Egypt were presented at the same time. All the Ministers, Councillors of State, and generals were present. The pillars and roof were hung with the trophies of the Italian campaign. The bust of Washington was placed under the trophy comprising the flags taken at Aboukir. A general order was issued that crape should be suspended for ten days from all the flags and standards of the Republic ; and thus, in awarding funeral honours to the memory of a pure patriot, did ambition bury its own conscience, and the memory of that higher glory which outlasts the blaze of the diadem and the trophies of victorious fields. SfMiLUtWiJilawtti iiau ^ \1 «3 1 A" I ill §| iHSEHESSg FUNERAL HONOURS TO WASHINGTON. NAPOLEON S TRIUMPHANT ENTRY INTO MILAN. CHAPTER XVIII. NEW COALITION — RUSSIA DESERTS IT — THE EMPEROR PAUL — NAPOLEON PREPARES FOR WAR — MASSeNA IN GENOA — NAPOLEON IN ITALY — PASSAGE OF THE ALPS — HE ENTERS MILAN — PASSES THE ADDA — TAKES BERGAMO AND CREMONA — GENOA CAPITULATES TO AUSTRIA — BATTLE OF MONTEBELLO — DESAIX JOINS THE ARMY — AFFAIRS OF EGYPT — BATTLE OF MARENGO— ARMISTICE — RESTORATION OF THE CISALPINE REPUBLIC — VICTORIES OF MOREAU — NAPOLEON RETURNS TO PARIS. N the beginning of the year 1800 a new coalition against France was formed by England, Austria, and Russia, who were speedily joined by Bavaria, Swe- den, Denmark, and Turkey. England blockaded Malta, and assembled an army at Minorca, under General Sir Ralph Abercromby, ready to act with the Austrians in Italy. Melas, a veteran officer of high reputation, com- manded the Austrian army of over one hundred thousand men. With this force, supported by the English fleet under Lord Keith, it was proposed to reduce Genoa, cross the Var, and invade France by Provence, where a large body of Royalists was ready to take up arms and act in concert with the English and Austrians. General Willot an emigrant, and Pichegru who had escaped from Guiana, were to head this insurrection. The armies only awaited the approach of spring to commence operations. The French army of Italy occupied the country between Genoa and Var. It was in so disorganized a condition that its numbers cannot be estimated : accounts vary from five-and-twenty thousand to forty thousand men. It was suffering great privations, being quartered in a poor country, the coast of which was strictly blockaded by the English fleet. General Kray and the Archduke Ferdinand commanded the Austrian army on the Rhine. This army was not so strong in point of numbers as the force in Italy, for it was in the latter country that Austria meditated the decisive blow against France. Discovering that a coolness existed between Austria and Russia (in consequence of some events in the last campaign), and that a misunderstanding had at the same time sprung up between England and Russia, Napoleon adroitly seized the oppor- tunity to detach the great northern Power from the coalition. Russia was go- verned by the Emperor Paul, a man of eccentric and somewhat chivalrous turn of 134 iFoo.] LIFE AT MALMAISON. 135 mind, who had been offended by the refusal of England to include seven thou- sand Russians in a cartel for the exchange of prisoners with France. These men, taken prisoners of war in Holland when acting in concert with the English army, had been all suddenly set at liberty by Napoleon and sent back to their own country, the officers having their swords returned and the men receiving new uniforms. Paul was delighted with this generosity. Shortly afterwards Na- poleon made him a present of the sword which Pope Leo X. had given to L'lle- Adam for having defended Rhodes against the infidels. Letters now passed between the Emperor and the First Consul. Paul's first letter is very cha- racteristic : — " Citizen First Consul, I do not write to you to discuss the rights of men or citizens ; every country governs itself as it pleases. Wherever I see at the head of a nation a man who knows how to rule and how to fight, my heart is attracted towards him. I write to acquaint you with my dissatisfaction with Eng- land, who violates every article of the law of nations, and has no guide but her egotism and her interest. I wish to unite with you to put an end to the unjust proceedings of that Government." The Emperor Paul's enthusiastic admiration of the First Consul increased, and their correspondence was carried on almost daily. They consulted each other on the most important affairs and concerted their measures in confidence. Paul dismissed Lord Whitworth, the English Am- bassador in Russia, seized the English ships in his ports, and prevailed on Prussia to menace Hanover with his army. His hatred soon grew to so extravagant and ridiculous a pitch that he defied to single combat every King who would not declare war against England. This challenge was inserted, by authority, in the St. Petersburg Court Gazette. Paul at first intended to print it on vellum, and send it to every King in Europe. The challenge, however, was sufficiently original in those days to find its own way with speed to the royal parties in ques- tion, who all said that the eccentric Emperor was mad. Under these favourable auspices, a successful negotiation was opened with Russia, in consequence of which she influenced the Courts of Sweden and Denmark to observe a strict neutrality. The morale of the French army of Italy was restored by a single proclamation of the First Consul, who called on the soldiers to remember the confidence he had once placed in them. Massena was dispatched to take the command. In the interval between the declaration of war and the opening of the campaign the first report of the Council of State on the civil code was presented to the legis- lature, and the Bank of France was founded. With a view to the final pacification of La Vendee, the chiefs of the Royalist party were summoned to Paris. Georges Cadoudal, the famous Chouan leader, was admitted to a private interview with the First Consul ; but nothing could shake the attachment of Cadoudal to the cause he had adopted, and he was dismissed with a safe conduct to his own country. All the other chiefs tendered their submission, and La Vendee, which had required the presence of an army of eighty thousand veteran soldiers, came peaceably under the laws of France. Napoleon, who was immersed in business throughout the week, left the Tuileries for Malmaison every Saturday evening, and enjoyed complete relaxation during his Sundays. A select set of friends formed his society. A graceful ease characterized these meetings, heightened by the beauty of the place and the elegance of all the arrangements under the exquisite taste of Josephine. Napoleon was no longer taciturn or reserved. However he might " play a part " in public, in private he was simple and unaffected, and his conversation possessed the charm of originality and sincerity. He sometimes joined in the country dances at the little balls given on these Sundays at Malmaison ; but though he always called for the easiest figures possible, he continually put everybody out. He took great pleasure in walking about the grounds and superintending the improvements. When the bells of the little church at Ruel could be heard, Napoleon would cease his most serious con- versation, and listen with attention, stopping lest the noise of his footsteps should drown the sound. " They remind me," said he to Bourrienne, with emotion, " of 136 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the first years I spent at Brienne ; I was then happy ! " Another great pleasure he experienced was the sight of a tall slender woman, dressed in white, walking beneath an alley of shady trees. He could not endure coloured dresses, especially dark ones, and frequently criticised the taste of the ladies of the party, often giving Tosephine directions about her toilet. He liked to have Monge, Berthollet, Lace- pede, La Place, or Chaptal for his companions ; conversations on science being a relief from the eternal round of politics in which he was engaged at Paris. He had no ear for the rhythm of poetry, but he could appreciate great poetic ideas. He almost worshipped Corneille, and used to declare that if that poet were then alive, he would make him Prime Minister ; adding, " It is not his poetry that I most admire ; it is his powerful understanding, his vast knowledge of the human heart, and his profound policy." When at Paris, he took pleasure in walking out late in the evenings, going into the shops of the Rue St. Honore, buying trifles, and engaging people in talk upon the affairs of the day, while they served him in complete ignorance of the rank of their customer. " Well, madame," he would say, pulling up the corners of his collar, and affecting dandy airs, " is there any- thin^ new to-day? What do people say of that buffoon, Bonaparte?" Once he was obliged to get out of a shop as fast as possible, to avoid an attack brought upon himself by the irreverent tone in which he spoke of the First Consul. His secre- tary awoke him every morning at seven. Sometimes, if very sleepy, he would turn round, and say, " Ah, Bourrienne, let me sleep a little longer," But he generally rose at that hour, sleeping about seven hours out of the twenty-four, besides a short nap in the afternoon. Another charge given to his secretary was to awake him in the night whenever it was necessary. " If you have good news to com- municate," he said, "with that there is no hurry; but when you bring bad news, rouse me instantly, for then there is not a moment to be lost." Preparations for the new campaign in spring were completed. Moreau was made commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine, one hundred and fifty thou- sand strong. The plan of the campaign was concerted between the First Consul and Carnot, who had superseded Berthier as Minister at War. The operations were conducted with the utmost secresy. Napoleon had determined to strike the decisive blow against Austria in Italy, and to command there in person. By an article in the Constitution the First Consul was forbidden to take command of an army. To this interdiction he cheerfully assented ; but he evaded it, as soon as the occasion was ripe, by giving the nominal command of the army of Italy to Berthier. He began to collect troops at Dijon, which were, he publicly announced, intended to advance upon Italy. They consisted chiefly of conscripts and invalids, with a numerous staff, and were called " the army of reserve." Meantime, while caricatures of some ancient men with wooden legs and little boys of twelve years old, entitled " Bonaparte's Army of Reserve," were amusing the Austrian public, the real army of Italy was formed in the heart of France, and was marching by various roads towards Switzerland. The troops withdrawn from La Vendee, the regiments lately quartered in Paris, and the Consular Guard formed the nucleus of this army ; the rest were conscripts, but they were commanded by officers of proved ability. The artillery was sent piecemeal from different arsenals ; the pro- visions necessary to an army about to cross barren mountains were forwarded to Geneva, embarked on the lake, and landed at Villeneuve, near the entrance to the valley of the Simplon. The situation of the French army in Italy had become critical. Massena had thrown himself into Genoa with twelve thousand men, and was enduring all the rigours of a siege, pressed by thirty thousand Austrians under General Ott, seconded by the British fleet. Suchet, with the remainder of the French army, about ten thousand strong, completely cut off from communication with Massena, had concentrated his forces on the Var, was maintaining an unequal contest with Melas, the Austrian commander-in-chief, and strenuously defending the French frontier. Napoleon's plan was to transport his army across the Alps, plant himself in the rear of the Austrians, intercept their communications, then i8oo.J IN SWITZERLAND. 137 x,— NAPOLEON CROSSING THE ALPS. manoeuvre so as to place his own army and that of Massena on the Austrian right and left flanks respectively, cut off their retreat, and finally give them battle at the decisive moment. While all Europe imagined that the multifarious concerns of the Government held the First Consul at Paris, he was travelling at a rapid rate towards Geneva, accompanied only by his secretary. He left Paris on the 6th of May, at two in the morning, leaving Cambaceres to preside until his return, and ordering Fouche to announce that he was about to review the army at Dijon, and might possibly go as far as Geneva, but would return in a fortnight. " Should anything happen," he significantly added, " I shall be back like a thunderbolt." On the 8th, the First Consul arrived at Geneva, where he had an interview with the celebrated Necker. Madame de Stael says that on this occasion Napoleon made a very favourable impression on her father by the confidence with which he spoke of his future projects. The impression was not mutual, for Napoleon afterwards de- clared that this interview confirmed his opinion that the talents of Necker by no means accorded with his celebrity. On the 13th the First Consul reviewed the vanguard of his army, commanded by General Lannes, at Lausanne. The whole army consisted of nearly seventy thousand men. Two columns, each of about six thousand men, were put in motion, one under Tureau, the other under Chabran, to take the routes of Mont Cenis and the Little St. Bernard. A division consisting of fifteen thousand men, under Moncey, detached from the army of the Rhine, was to march by St. Gothard. Moreau kept the Austrian army of the Rhine, under General Kray, on the defen- 138 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. sive before Ulm, and held himself in readiness to cover the operations of the First Consul in Italy. The main body of the French army, in numbers about forty thousand, nominally commanded by Berthier but in fact by the First Consul him- self, marched on the 15th from Lausanne to the village of St. Pierre, at the foot of the Great St. Bernard, at which all trace of a practicable road entirely ceased. General Marescot, the engineer who had been sent forward from Geneva to recon- noitre, reported the paths to be "barely passable." " Set forward immediately!" wrote Napoleon. Field forges were established at St. Pierre to dismount the guns, the carriages and wheels were slung on poles, and the ammunition-boxes carried by mules. A number of trees were felled, then hollowed out, and the pieces being jammed into these rough cases, a hundred soldiers were attached to each and ordered to drag them up the steeps. The view of the valley, emphatically called " of Desolation," where nothing is to be seen but snow and sky, had no terrors for the First Consul and his army. They- advanced up paths hitherto only traversed by hunters, or here and there a hardy pedestrian, the infantry loaded with their arms and in full military equip- ment, the cavalry leading their horses. The bands played from time to time at the head of the regiments, and in places of unusual difficulty the drums beat a charge, as if to encourage the soldiers to encounter the opposition of Nature her- self. While one-half of the soldiers were bringing forward the guns, the others carried the muskets, cartridge-boxes, knapsacks, and provisions of their comrades. Each man, thus loaded, was computed to carry from sixty to seventy pounds weight up icy precipices which a man without encumbrance could ascend but slowly. The most arduous task fell upon those who brought up the rear. The men in front durst not halt to breathe, because the least stoppage might have thrown the column behind into confusion on the brink of deadly precipices, and those in the rear had to flounder knee-deep through snow and ice trampled into sludge by the previous divisions. The whole army had passed the summit by the 20th of May. Napoleon remained behind until the whole had set forward ; he then began the ascent, accompanied only by Bourrienne and his guide. He maintained during the whole time that air of calm self-possession for which he was remarkable under all circumstances of difficulty. He either walked or rode a mule, wearing his grey great coat and three-cornered hat, and carrying his riding- whip in his hand. He was occasionally stopped by some temporary halt of the artillery or baggage. He gave his commands peremptorily on these occasions and was instantly obeyed, his look seeming sufficient to remove every objection. On the Great St. Bernard, amidst the "everlasting snows," stands the well- known Hospice which affords succour to travellers in those pathless wastes. Na- poleon had taken the precaution to send forward large supplies to the monks and warn them of the approach of his army. The soldiers on their arrival found tables ready spread in front of the convent, and each man received as he passed a glass of wine and some bread and cheese, the good fathers serving the provisions with assiduity. The troops, who had tasted no refreshment except biscuit dipped in the snow since they began the march, found this aid most acceptable. Napoleon rested and took a frugal repast at the convent, after which he visited the chapel and the three little libraries, lingering a short time to read a few pages of some old book. He performed the descent on a sledge down a glacier of nearly a hundred yards, almost perpendicular. His guide was a robust young man of two-and-twenty, who confided to him, in answer to his questions, all his troubles, anxieties, and wishes. On parting, Napoleon gave him a note to carry to the superiors of the convent, and the next day the man was surprised to find himself the possessor of a house, a piece of ground, and everything for which he had wished. Napoleon was liberal to his first guide also, to whom, when shaking the rain-water from his hat, he exclaimed, "There ! see what I have done in your mountains — spoiled my new hat ! Well, I will find another on the other side." This was the only specimen of his conversation remembered by his guide. iSoo.] TURNING FORT BARD. 139 NAPOLEON S DESCENT OF THE ALPS. The whole army effected the passage of the Great St. Bernard in three days. A small party of Austrians were beaten back at Chatillon by Lannes, who led the vanguard. So utterly unexpected was this sudden apparition of the First Consul and his army, that no precautions had been taken and no enemy appeared capable of disputing his march towards the valley of Aosta. A serious difficulty, however, awaited him at this point. The entrance to the valley is extremely nar- row, two lofty mountains rising, one on each side, about fifty yards apart, while in the midst of this narrow opening stands a conical rock, crowned by a fortress, at that time garrisoned by Austrian troops. The small walled town of Bard, lying at the foot of the rock, occupied the whole of the pass. While waiting for the re- duction of this fort, the First Consul remained in the convent of Martigny, to whose gloomy walls, situated in a deep valley, the sun scarcely ever penetrates. The strength of the place enabled the town to hold out against the assaults, and a sort of panic spreading among the soldiers at finding their course impeded in such a desolate place, Lannes stopped the progress of the artillery. The First Consul was quickly on the spot, surveyed the localities, scaled the height of the Albaredo, which overlooked the fort, and determined that the army should follow that route. He caused a gun to be hoisted up and planted on the summit, and the moment his troops began the ascent under the enemy's fire he directed this gun upon the fort with such fatal precision that he effectually silenced the chief battery. The troops then moved in single file along the edge of the heights, passing the First 140 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Consul in their way, who was so fatigued with his efforts that he had fallen fast asleep upon the top of the rock. The town was carried, but the strength of the position baffled every effort to take the fort, and the progress of the main army was effectually stopped. At length Napoleon's patience was exhausted, and he left a party of conscripts, under General Chabran, to maintain the siege of this small place, the strength of which had been underrated in the accounts he had received. The whole of the cavalry and infantry he had directed to follow the steep goat-tracks of the Albaredo ; but for the artillery such a road was im- practicable. The Commandant of Bard sent couriers to Melas announcing the unlooked-for transit of a large army by the goat-tracks, but asserting that no artillery could possibly pass. He was mistaken. The following night all the wheels of the gun-carriages and waggons were bound with hay-bands, the road- way covered with straw, and the pieces, hidden under branches of trees, were dragged along by the soldiers in profound silence. By these means the whole artillery was safely conveyed through the town under the guns of the fort, despite an occasional discharge from the ramparts wounding many and killing some of the gunners. The French army advanced unopposed down the valley to Ivrea, which being without a garrison was easily occupied on the 23rd, while Lannes entered Romano. Although the roads to Turin and Milan were open to Napoleon, he halted at Ivrea four days. Meanwhile Tureau, advancing by Mont Cenis, had taken the forts of Susa and La Brunetta. Confounded by this sudden irruption of the French, and incredulous of the report that they were commanded by the First Consul in person, Melas was irresolute what course to adopt. His artillery, equipage, and provisions were all at the mercy of this unexpected invader, who must have brought sufficient forces to destroy the troops left to guard the frontier. Melas, however, knew these to be both weak and divided, and, persisting in his belief that the advancing army was only about twenty thousand strong, and that the object of its leader was the relief of Genoa, he, instead of concentrating his forces, left Ott before Genoa. Conceiving afterwards, from the advance of Tureau by Susa and La Brunetta, that Turin would be the point of attack, he removed his head-quarters to that city. Napoleon straightway took the road to Milan. The Sesia was crossed without opposition ; the passage of the Ticino was effected after a sharp conflict with a body of Austrian cavalry, who were put to flight ; and on the 2nd of June the First Consul entered Milan, amidst the enthusiastic acclama- tions of the people, who had been taught to believe that he died in Egypt. He was conducted in triumph to the ducal palace, where he took up his residence. His first act was to proclaim the re-establishment of the Cisalpine Republic. The first news Napoleon received at Milan was of the capture of Fort Bard. Without a moment's delay he blockaded the citadel of Milan, occupied Placenza, and crossing the Adda, took Bergamo and Cremona. He remained six days at Milan, impatiently expecting the arrival of Moncey with his division, receiv- ing deputations from the various public bodies and reorganizing the affairs of the Republic. The Austrian plan of operations was thwarted by the conquests already made, and all the despatches between the Court of Vienna and Melas fell into the First Consul's hands. He learnt the extent of the Austrian reinforcements on their way to Italy, the position and state of all the Austrian depots, field equipages, and parks of artillery, and the amount and distribution of the whole Austrian force. He learnt also that Massena still held Genoa, though reduced to great extremities. Finally, he perceived that Melas continued in complete ignorance of the strength and destination of the French army. Possessed of all this valuable information, Napoleon took his measures with precision, and Moncey having brought up his division, he made instant preparations to relieve Genoa. He was too late, however, to accomplish this object. After an heroic and pro- tracted defence. Massena had been obliged to yield to the cry of the Genoese for a surrender. The scarcity in the city had obliged the inhabitants to feed on dogs iSoo.] THE FRENCH CROSS THE PO. 1 41 and garbage; the soldiers of the garrison had little food, and the Austrian prisoners, amounting to eight thousand, still less. Even shoes and knapsacks were eaten. Massena held out as long as there was any hope that the First Consul would reach him ; but waiting in vain for tidings of his approach, he made a desperate but unsuccessful attack on the besieging force. On the 5th of July he signed a con- vention with the Austrians, on terms so liberal that it is surprising he did not suspect the truth. He and his whole garrison were permitted to march out of Genoa with their arms and all the honours of war. If he had delayed the surrender a few hours, he would have been saved the vexation of such an event. A staff officer from Melas had actually arrived with urgent orders to General Ott to raise the siege, and fall back on Milan to withstand the First Consul, who was approaching that city in unexpected strength. The eyes of Melas were at length opened, and he was preparing to meet the emergency with all the energy that the orders from Vienna and his great age (of eighty years) permitted ; but delay had rendered his situation critical. His communications with the north bank of the Po were cut off, and the French occupied a line stretching from Fort Bard to Placenza while he was confined to Piedmont. Strategically he was all but lost. His army was cut in two, one portion being under Ott, near Genoa (observed on its right by Suchet, momentarily expecting to be reinforced by Massena and his garrison) ; the other under his own command at Turin. The greatest risk existed that the First Consul would attack and destroy one division before the other could form a junction with it. To prevent such a disaster, Ott received orders to march forward on the Ticino ; while Melas, moving rapidly towards Alessandria, hoped to establish communication with that division of his army. If this could be accomplished his position would be less critical, and, with moderate skill and vigour, some advantage might be regained. The First Consul was prevented from marching on Genoa by the despatches of an intercepted courier from General Ott, announcing the surrender of*Massena. Bourrienne took the despatch to him at three o'clock in the morning. Napoleon was asleep, and was with difficulty aroused. He was so confounded by the in- telligence of Massena's surrender that he doubted the accuracy of his secretary's translation. "Bah I" he said, "you do not understand German." In less than four hours orders were on the road countermanding the march of the troops on the Scrivia, and the same day Napoleon advanced to Stradella, where he fixed head-quarters. The pontoon train belonging to the Austrians was seized at Pavia, and the French army passed the Po at that place. General Ott advanced, and strongly occupied the villages of Casteggio and Montebello. On the 9th of June Lannes, who continued to lead the vanguard of the French army, was attacked by this Austrian division in superior numbers. The battle ended in the complete repulse of the Austrians, who lost three thousand killed and five thousand prisoners. General Ott retreated to Tortona, where he rallied the broken remains of his army. In this fierce engagement there was but little opportunity for skill or manoeuvre; the fields being covered with full-grown crops of rye, the hostile parties were seldom aware of each other's presence till within a {ew paces. The battle of Montebello was therefore won by sheer hard hand-to-hand fighting. Lannes was subsequently created Duke of Montebello. Napoleon remained for three days at Stradella, where he hoped Melas would give him battle. He was unwilling to descend into the plain of Marengo, where the Austrian cavalry, which was greatly superior in numbers to his own, would have an advantage. Meanwhile he dispatched an order to Suchet to move on the river Scrivia and place himself in the enemy's rear. General Desaix joined the French army at Stradella. Returning from Egypt, he had landed in France almost on the very day the First Consul left Paris, and had immediately received a summons to repair to head-quarters of the army of Italy, wherever they might be situated. Napoleon and Desaix were warmly 142 THE HISTORY OF -NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. attached to each other, and their meeting was a mutual pleasure. They were closeted together for three hours, Desaix relating all the details of the affairs of Egypt since the command had been entrusted to Kleber. That general had no faith in the possibility of maintaining Egypt as a province, and his first object was to convey the army safely back to France. This spirit was rapidly caught by the greater part of his troops. When news arrived that the Grand Vizier, was approaching the frontier with a fresh army, Kleber opened negotiations with him, the avowed basis of which was the evacuation of Egypt by the French ; Sir Sydney Smith, who was still off the coast with the Tiger and T/ieseiis, acting as mediator. A treaty to this effect was. signed at El-Arisch, the return of the French home unmolested by the English fleet being one of the stipulations. Desaix and Davoust, discontented with the conduct of Kleber, obtained permission to return to France at once. Affairs in Egypt, however, took a turn after their departure. The English Government refused to ratify the treaty of El-Arisch, and would make no other terms than that the French should become prisoners of war, Lord Keith being at the same time ordered to prevent their return to France. Sir Sydney Smith informed Kleber without delay of the refusal. Had he concealed it, the French would have given up all their fortified places, and placed themselves in the power of their enemies. News of the events of the 18th Brumaire reached Egypt at this crisis, and the army became conscious that they would have to account for their conduct not to the Directory but to Napoleon. Kleber placed himself in a posture of defence, and, on the invasion of Egypt by the Grand Vizier, defeated him in a sanguinary battle in the vicinity of Cairo. He then began a vigorous administration of affairs, and directed all his efforts to correct his former mistakes. Such was the state of Egypt when Desaix arrived in Italy. Desaix was appointed to the command of a division which the death of General Boudet had left vacant. After taking possession of Genoa, Melas brought his army under the ramparts of Alessandria ; where he learnt the destruction of Ott's division, and remained during the nth, 12th, and 13th of June. Desaix was sent with his division to reconnoitre the high road to Novi, and Lapoype was ordered to fall back on the Ticino to frustrate any attempt in that direction. Napoleon crossed the Scrivia on the morning of the 13th, and marched to St. Juliano, in the midst of the great plain of Marengo. By thus dividing his army, Napoleon placed himself within an ace of defeat in the subsequent action. He moreover either neglected or mis- understood a report made to him by one of his aides-de-camp, whom he sent with pressing orders to destroy the lower bridge over the Bormida, held by the Aus- trians. The attempt failed after a whole day's hard fighting; but Napoleon acted as though his orders had been carried out, and left his army in a position which enabled the enemy by means of that bridge to menace his whole force. Melas passed the night of the 12th in council. His situation was critical. The army of the First Consul was before him ; Suchet in his rear ; Massena likely to be in action soon ; and General Ott's division destroyed. On the other hand, the Austrians possessed all the fortified places in the north of Italy, and an English contingent was expected at Genoa. It was determined to give battle to the French, the chances of victory being in favour of the Austrians. Their infantry was superior in force, and their cavalry nearly three times more numerous than that of the French. The Austrians were upwards of forty thousand strong ; while, in the absence of Desaix and the reserve, the French could scarcely count twenty- six thousand sabres and bayonets. The Austrian army took up a strong position behind the Bormida on the night of the 13th. The advanced guard of the French, commanded by Gardanne, occupied the hamlet of Padre Bona, which fronted Marengo at a short distance. Victor was stationed at Marengo, with the main body of the first line, the right of which extended to Castel Ceriola, nearly parallel with Marengo ; a body of cavalry under Kellermann supporting him at a little distance to the rear. The second line, com- i8oo.] FRENCH CENTRE PENETRATED AT MARENGO. 1 43 THE BATTLE OF MARENGO. manded by Lannes, and supported by the cavalry of Champeaux, was posted in rear of the first ; while the third, comprising the Consular Guard and the division of St. Cyr, and stationed behind Lannes and Champeaux, was commanded by Napoleon in person. The Austrians advanced to the attack in two lines of heavy infantry, the first led by General Haddick, the second by Melas and Zach. The cavalry, under General Elsnitz, was sent to turn Castel Ceriola. The battle commenced at break of day on the 14th of June. The van under Gardanne was obliged to fall back upon Victor. Victor held his position during two hours against heavy odds. He was obliged to evacuate Marengo, but retook it twice or thrice. Napoleon ordered Lannes to the supp ort of Victor, but after a long and obstinate contest the cavalry of Elsnitz suddenly outflanked the right of Lannes. and both lines were compelled to retreat. The Austrians fought ad- mirably. Their infantry opened an attack on every point of the French line simul- taneously, while the cavalry, debouching across the bridge which the French had failed to destroy, assailed the right of the Consular army with such fury and rapidity that it was thrown into complete disorder. The Austrians were successful everywhere : the French centre was penetrated, the left routed, and another well- executed cavalry charge would have terminated the battle. The order for this was not given; nevertheless the retreating French were still in utmost peril. Napo- leon, who had been collecting reserves between Garafolo and M arengo, sent orders for a general retreat upon these reserves, and to rally round his guard, which he massed in rear of the village of Marengo, placing himself at their head. The soldiers, who could see the First Consul with his staff surrounded by two hundred Grenadiers of the Guard in the midst of the immense plain, were encouraged — their hopes revived. The right wing under Lannes quickly rallied ; the centre, reinforced by such scattered troops of the left as could be collected, recovered its strength ; but the left wing no longer existed — its remains were flying in disorder pursued by the Austrians. The main body of the French army, which still kept 144 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. battle array, was continually though very slowly retreating. The First Consul dispatched his aide-de-camp Bruyere to Desaix with an urgent message to hasten to the field of battle. Desaix had arrested his march upon Novi on hearing the repeated discharges of distant artillery. Halting, he, according to the orders of the First Consul, dispatched his aide-de-camp Savary with fifty horse to ascertain at Novi the state of affairs, while he kept his division fresh and ready for action. Savary found all quiet at Novi, and returning to Desaix in about two hours with this intelligence was next sent to the First Consul at Marengo. He spurred his horse across country in the direction of the fire and smoke, and fortunately met Bruyere, who was taking the same short cut to Desaix. Giving Bruyere the necessary directions, Savary hastened to the First Consul. He found him in the midst of his guard, who stood their ground on the field of battle, forming a solid body in face of the enemy's fire, the grenadiers in front, the place of each man who fell being supplied from the ranks behind. Maps were spread open before Napoleon : he was planning the movement which decided the action. Savary made his report, and told him of Desaix's position. " At what hour did you leave him ? " said the First Consul, pulling out his watch. Having been informed he continued, "Well, he cannot be far off; go and tell him to form there" (pointing with his hand to a particular spot) : "let him quit the main road and make way for all those wounded men, who would only embarrass him and perhaps draw his own soldiers after them." It was three o'clock in the afternoon. The aged Melas, overcome with fatigue and supposing victory won, had retired from the field, leaving General Zach to follow up the pursuit. Desaix was quickly on the field with his division, which he formed up to the left of the centre. Approaching the First Consul, the latter explained to him the manoeuvre he was about to effect. Desaix apprehended, and gave the necessary orders. The whole army changed front, its left centre bringing its right wing forward at the double. By this evolution Napoleon turned all the enemy's troops who were pursuing the broken left wing, and removed his own right out of cannon range from the bridge which had been so fatal to him in the morning. The Artillery of the Guard was reinforced by that of Desaix's division and formed an overwhelming battery in the centre. The Austrians made no effort to prevent this decisive movement : they supposed the First Consul was only covering his retreat. Their infantry in close deep columns advanced rapidly, but when at a distance of a hundred paces they halted on per- ceiving Desaix's division of six thousand fresh troops facing them. At this moment Desaix sent an urgent request to the First Consul to charge with infantry and cavalry. Napoleon rode up to give him the order to attack, having dispatched Savary with a command to Kellermann, who was at the head of about six hundred heavy cavalry, to charge the Austrian column in flank while Desaix charged it in front. Both generals effected the movement rapidly and successfully. The Austrian columns were utterly broken, dispersed, and pursued to the Bormida. Desaix fell mortally wounded as he gave the word of command. The large masses of Austrian cavalry who were pursuing the fugitives of the French left wing no sooner witnessed the defeat of their infantry than they fled in disorder towards the bridge opposite Alessandria. The divisions of Lannes and Victor pressed forward to intercept them, but St. Cyr's division being nearer the bridge than the Austrians the carnage was dreadful. Thus in a moment as it were the Austrian army was thrown into irretrievable confusion, and the victory which seemed their own at three o'clock was won by the French at six. The pursuit continued far into the night, the fighting and slaughter upon the dark bridges being one confused and crowded horror, while all the Austrians who remained on the left bank were either taken prisoners or driven headlong into the Bormida. The waters were red with the blood of horses and men, presenting next day in some parts a clotted surface of mangled remains. Several entire battalions, however, surrendered at discretion, and General Zach and all his staff were made prisoners. The triumph of this decisive victory was dearly purchased by the death of iSoo. DEATH OF DESA1X AT MARENGO. 145 ^^•'•' •' THE WALL OF GRANITE. Desaix, who was only thirty-three, and in whom France lost a general of great promise. Savary, who was much attached to him, sought for his body, and found it completely stripped of clothing lying among others in the same condition. He wrapped him in a cloak, and with the assistance of a hussar laid him across a horse, which was led to Garafolo. Napoleon ordered the body to be carried to Milan for the purpose of being embalmed. On the following morning Melas sent a flag of truce to the First Consul while he was preparing to pass the Bormida. The same evening a convention was signed at Alessandria, by which Genoa and all the fortified places in Piedmont, Lombardy and the Legations were given up to the French, and the Austrian army obtained leave to retire behind Mantua. France thus regained by one battle everything that had been lost since the last peace, with the single exception of Mantua. Marengo has been extolled as one of Napoleon's greatest victories ; he himself was proud of it, and undoubtedly if his tactics were faulty and endangered defeat, it is equally certain that his splendid strategy and skilful combinations insured victory. Admitting his strategical ability and tactical promptitude, it is but fair to assume that if Savary and Bruyere had not met in their sort of steeple-chase across country, the reserve of Desaix would not have been on the field till Napo- leon had lost the battle. At this time Napoleon was perhaps the most lucky man in existence. He believed in " luck," and there is no doubt that up to a certain point in his career good luck invariably attended his presence of mind and readi- ness of resource in emergencies. But after all luck must be evoked by genius, otherwise, as in Napoleon's case, it deserts its old favourites. The First Consul returned to Milan on the night of the 17th. He found the city illuminated, and the roads and streets lined with people who greeted him with shouts of welcome. Draperies were hung from the windows, crowded by women of the first rank, who threw flowers into his carriage as he passed. He set off for Paris on the 24th of June, leaving Massena commander-in-chief of the army of Italy. 10 146 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The Parisians were scarcely able to credit the victory of Marengo. Rumours of a defeat first arrived, and the contrast produced a kind of delirium. The First Consul was regarded with sensations approaching to worship. Paris was illumi- nated, and the people waited his return with the utmost impatience. He travelled by Mont Cenis. As he approached Lyons, the roads were lined with the in- habitants of the surrounding districts. His carriage passed between miles of enthu- siastic people. The citizens of Lyons crowded to the hotel where he alighted to breakfast, forced the gates, and compelled him to show himself on the balcony. At Dijon there were also immense crowds to welcome him, and when he reached his apartments he found them thronged with all the youngest and handsomest women of the place. He held a review of the troops here, and this self-appointed guard of young girls accompanied him, loaded with flowers, myrtle, and laurel branches, which they strewed at his horse's feet. They crowded so closely round him, that, fearful of some accident, he would not return into the town, but had his carriage brought to the ground, and went on from thence. He never forgot this enthusiastic reception, although it was a bitter recollection to him as he passed through the same district fourteen years later on his way to exile. The First Consul travelled so fast that he found the preparations to welcome him at Sens only half completed. He entered under a triumphal arch on which the painter was employed in tracing the words, " Veni, Vidi, Vici." The post- master of Montereau, in his zeal, insisted upon driving the First Consul's carriage himself; but not being as expert as zealous, he overturned it : no one, however, was hurt. Napoleon entered Paris on the 6th of July. The crowds who had been waiting for him all day in the Faubourg St. Antoine assembled there again early in the morning, but learning that he had arrived in the night they repaired to the gardens of the Tuileries, which were thronged the whole day. The Parisians by a concurrent impulse left their occupations, and shouts of welcome from the gardens, the courts, and the quays all day long, and an universal illumination at night, testified the joy of the whole city at the conqueror's return. r-^SiS^S^ DEATH OF DESAIX. CONSI'IRATOKS RENDEZVOUS. CHAPTER XIX. PLOTS AGAINST THE LIFE OF THE FIRST CONSUL — DEATH OF KLEBER — ENGLAND GRANTS TO AUSTRIA A LOAN OF TWO MILLIONS — AUSTRIA REJECTS THE TREATY WITH FRANCE — MALTA SURRENDERS TO ENGLAND — SECOND LETTER OF LOUIS XVIII. TO THE FIRST CONSUL — HIS REPLY — HOSTILITIES RENEWED — BATTLE OF HOHENLINDEN — ARMISTICE WITH AUSTRIA — INFERNAL MACHINE — ARBITRARY MEASURES OF THE FIRST CONSUL — CONFEDERATION CF THE NORTH — TREATY OF LUNEVILLE. THE rumours of defeat which had pre- ceded the news of the victory of Marengo excited hopes in the secret enemies of the First Consul, which continued to exert their influence even after the subsequent triumph. Two parties in France aimed at his downfall. These were the Jacobins and the Royalists, who, opposed as they were in political principles, agreed on this common ground. The remains of the old Republican party, who submitted to rather than approved the Consular Government, would scarcely have regretted the defeat of the French arms if it had been accompanied with the ruin of the man whose despotism they dreaded. Among these, Carnot, though Minister of War, is said to have circulated, with ill- concealed satisfaction, the first erroneous rumours of a disaster at Marengo ; a circumstance which Napoleon discovered and never forgot. The members of the two hostile parties did not confine themselves to mere wishes and opinions, they formed schemes to get rid by assassination of the man whose power seemed too firmly established to be shaken by other means. The first attempt was made by some discontented Italian patriots, one of whom was Arena, the brother of that Deputy who was said to have aimed a dagger at Napoleon in the Council of Five Hundred. Another of them, a sculptor, who had been a passionate admirer of Napoleon and had made a statue of him, asked permission to model him, with the intention of stabbing him in the course of his work ; but his heart failed when the time came. They next plotted to assassinate him at the opera, but were discovered by the police, and two of them 147 10 — 2 148 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. were seized behind the scenes armed with concealed daggers. Chevalier and Veycer, men formerly belonging to the Terrorist faction, next contrived a machine, consisting of a barrel of gunpowder stuck round with grape-shot and pieces of old iron and so constructed as to explode, by means of a slow match, at the moment the First Consul was passing through the streets. But they were so extremely "scientific" in their scheme as to make a preliminary experiment in the outskirts of Paris. The explosion led to suspicions and the arrest of the plotters, so that this plan came to nothing ; but it gave a hint to others. Napoleon made light of all these conspiracies, and their suspected authors were merely detained in prison, without any further proceedings. The 14th of July was celebrated this year in the Champ de Mars with unusual magnificence, and attended by an immense concourse of people. The First Consul appeared on the ground on horseback, and the enthusiasm with which he was received by the people was roused to the highest pitch by the arrival of the Consular Guard from Marengo immediately after him. They joined the multi- tude assembled to celebrate the great national festival, after a march of nine-and- twenty days, dusty and fatigued, and with equipments shattered by the terrible conflict they had sustained, having left the field of Marengo the day following the battle. The unexpected intelligence of the death of Kleber reached Paris at this period. He had been stabbed to the heart by a Syrian /#?<*/arta7>e//es." The Treaty of Luneville, between Austria and France, was signed and ratified in February, 1801. The news reached Paris on the 14th, at a time when the people were all assembled at the carnival. The popular amusements were for- gotten in the joy excited by the auspicious event : splendid fetes were given by eminent individuals in Paris, amongst whom Talleyrand particularly distinguished himself, while the people crowded the gardens of the Tuileries, with shouts of " Long live Bonaparte ! " and gave way to their national gaiety in dances under his windows, the band of the Consular Guard acting as orchestra. THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. Hl'SSARS ON THE MAKCH. CHAPTER XX. WAR WITH ENGLAND— BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN — DEATH OF PAUL I. — PREPARATIONS TO INVADE ENGLAND — FULTON'S STEAMBOAT — INVASION OF PORTUGAL — BATTLE OF ALEXANDRIA — CAPITULATION OF MENOU — THE CONCORDAT — RETURN OF THE EMIGRANTS — MR. PITT SUC- CEEDED BY MR. ADDINGTON — PRELIMINARIES OF PEACE WITH ENGLAND — VIGOROUS AND BENEFICENT INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE — PEACE OF AMIENS — LEGION OF HONOUR — NAPOLEON CONSUL FOR LIFE. .. p£Y the Treaty of Luneville Napoleon temporarily &L. -L' effected the pacification of the continent. Of the coalition which threatened France in 1800, England alone (if we except Turkey, with which no arrangement could be made until the affairs of Egypt were settled) continued hostile in i8ot. The English ships scoured the seas, defying the nation which their Government would not recognize ; enforcing that " right of search" which they claimed as exclusively their own ; always ready to attack every weak point or distant settlement of their great enemy; and maintaining unchecked the sovereignty of the ocean. All the northern coast of Europe bristled with batteries; troops were marched to different stations to observe these formid- able antagonists ; and every height which com- manded the ocean was put in a state of defence. Russia possessed eighty-seven ships of the line and forty frigates ; France, besides her own navy, consisting of upwards of fifty ships of the line and forty frigates, held the Dutch, Spanish, and Neapolitan fleets at her disposal. Immense preparations were made by the other Powers to reinforce their marine. England was menaced therefore by a formidable array of enemies ; but by the promptitude of her administration, seconded by the skill and courage of their unrivalled admiral, she began the attack without waiting till her enemies had time to assemble. Nelson passed the Sound on the morning of the 30th of March, and anchored before Copenhagen in the evening with twenty ships. The Swedish fleet was expected the next day ; but the Danish Govern- 154 Lft,T- iSoi.] PROJECTED INVASION OF ENGLAND. 155 ment, totally without succour at the moment, had to depend on their own fleet and the batteries of the city, all of which prepared for a strenuous defence. Terme were offered by Nelson, but they were too humiliating to be accepted. A desperate battle ensued, which lasted for four hours and ended in the destruction of the Danish fleet and loss of two thousand lives. The English lost nearly a thousand men ; but the victory was sufficiently decisive to force Denmark to solicit an armistice of a hundred days. One of the northern Powers was thus detached from the confederation against England. A far more important event had however occurred, which by its consequences broke up the coalition of the North and saved Great Britain from whatever peril threatened her at that period. On the night of the 23rd of March the Emperor Paul was assassinated in his own palace. The politics of the north of Europe were thus entirely changed. The Emperor Alexander, who succeeded to the throne, concluded a treaty of peace with England, and Denmark and Sweden were com- pelled to follow in his track. The First Consul had planned, in conjunction with Russia, an expedition against the English possessions in India. A passionate exclamation of " My God ! " most unusual with him, escaped his lips at the announcement of the Emperor's death. Fouche asked with great indifference, ''Why say so much about it? It is a mode of getting rid of a Sovereign quite appropriate to that country." Napoleon in disgust made no response. The political aspect of Europe being materially changed and the First Consul's system of combination against the naval supremacy of England thwarted, he, by assembling a vast number of flat-bottomed boats at Boulogne and the marching of troops to the coast, showed that the invasion of England was his object. The threatened attack was met by a correspondingly vigorous resistance, while the great objects of Napoleon's policy were obstructed by one enemy alone who, secure in an insular position and an unconquerable navy, resolutely resisted him at every point. It is curious to observe that he had within his grasp the means of neutralizing all those advantages, for at this very moment Fulton, the inventor of steamboats, communicated his discovery to the First Consul. The steam- engine would have more than supplied in many ways the loss of the expected junction of the immense navy of Russia, and, had he used it, the invasion of Eng- land would have followed. A vast and not easily definable field of operation both at home and abroad was thus opened to him. Let the conduct on this occasion of one of the greatest practical men that ever lived be a salutary warning to all. Scarcely deigning to bestow a thought upon the subject, the First Consul treated the inventor as a "visionary." Simultaneously with the extensive preparations for invasion on the northern coast of France, a French army crossed the Pyrenees to co-operate with Spain in an attack on Portugal, the ancient ally of England. Lucien Bonaparte had been previously dispatched to Lisbon with propositions of peace, on condition that Portugal should abandon the alliance of England ; but the offer was rejected. Spain, governed nominally by Charles IV., a lineal descendant of the branch of the house of Bourbon established there by Louis XIV., was really ruled by Godoy, known generally by his title of " Prince of the Peace." Godoy was the Queen's lover and the King's favourite, and he maintained these seemingly incom- patible relations to the end of their reign ; whether he held any direct office in the Ministry or not, he ruled all its counsels. Notwithstanding his well-known and undisguised profligacy, which might have been naturally expected to offend his royal mistress, he was married to the King's niece. Godoy had been raised to this pitch of power from the rank of a mere life-guardsman. He had a handsome person, a fine voice, and a talent for playing on the flute, but was not troubled with any prejudices about the honour of nations or the divine right of Kings. He simply desired to maintain his own power that he might enjoy his riches and his pleasures. He therefore carefully courted the alliance of that nation which 156 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. sagacity taught him was in the ascendant. Despite the horror with which the Spaniards regarded the execution of Louis XVI., and the enthusiasm with which they flew to arms to avenge what they considered the sacrilegious murder of the head of their own royal house, a peace was concluded with the Directory of France, after a very brief struggle, in the year 1795, under the auspices of Godoy. This peace, whence he derived his title, he maintained; and after the 18th Brumaire the amicable relations of France and Spain became firmer than ever. He was generalissimo of the army which, in 1801, prepared to invade Portugal, in con- junction with the French troops under General Leclerc. Mary Queen of Portugal was insane, and the country had been governed for some years by her nephew Don John, Prince of Brazil, as Regent. The Regent was remarkable for his passion for religious ceremonies. He frequently changed his confessor and his counsels varied according to their influence. When the peace of 1795 between France and Spain was announced, and Portugal was left alone to sustain the enmity of the new Republic, apprehensions at the prospect induced a disposition to desert the long-established alliance with England. This alliance was cemented by reciprocal commercial interests, and was important to Portugal on account of the incapacity of that country to maintain possession of the Brazils without the friendship of the great naval power. Nevertheless in 1797 a treaty of peace was arranged between Portugal and France ; but before it was ratified an army of eight thousand emigrants in British pay was landed in Portugal, a subsidy of two hundred thousand pounds was voted by the English Parliament for its assistance, and the treaty with France was broken off. This decisive policy called for vigorous warlike preparations, and unusual efforts were made to put the country in a state of defence and to recruit the army. The former was easily effected, for the mountainous nature of the country and the spirit of its inhabitants only required energy on the part of the Government to turn these natural capabilities to good account. When, however, the declaration of war by France and Spain was followed by the invasion of 180 1, the resistance of Portugal was speedily overcome. No help was given by England, the remains of the emigrant regiments being all the foreign force in the country. The Spanish army amounted to forty thousand men, the French to fifteen thousand, but the latter remained on the frontier. The Duke de Lafoes, the Prime Minister of Portugal and Commander-in-Chief of the army, was a gay veteran of eighty-two, who saw very clearly the uselessness of the contest, and having travelled a great deal had got rid of most of his national pre- judices. He waited philosophically at head-quarters for the approach of the Spanish army, which on its part advanced with nearly equal aversion to hostile measures, and probably would have avoided fighting altogether had not Godoy happened to feel a sudden inclination to distinguish himself by some feat of arms. The Regent of Portugal was married to the daughter of the King of Spain, who had no desire to see his son-in-law stripped of his dominions. There was a little fighting, much in the spirit recommended by the old Duke de Lafoes to one of the principal Spanish officers : " Why should we fight ? " said he ; " Portugal and Spain are sumpter mules. England urges us on, France spurs you. Let us frisk about, let us jingle our bells if needful, but for God's sake let us not harm one another. They would only laugh at our expense." After some military operations conducted in the most polite manner, a peace was concluded in June, 1801, between Spain and Portugal, under the auspices of Lucien Bonaparte, by which Portugal renounced the English alliance, shut her ports against English ships, and sacrificed part of her territory to Spain. Lucien and Godoy shared a large bribe between them on this occasion. The First Consul was dissatisfied with the treaty, refused to ratify it, and announced that a second French army of thirty thousand men under St. Cyr would cross the Pyrenees. The Court of Lisbon in alarm dispatched a plenipotentiary to France to treat on new bases, and deprived the Duke de Lafoes of his post and all his dignities. A jocular proclamation was thereupon posted about the streets of Lisbon to this effect : — " Lost, between i8oi.] QUARRELS WITH LUCIEN. 157 Pontalegre and Abrantes, a boy about eighty-two years of age, with black velvet boots !" (the Duke wore velvet gaiters on account of the gout). "Whoever may find him is requested to bring him to the office for advertisements." The Portuguese plenipotentiary was not allowed to land in France ; but negotiations were carried on at Madrid under the mediation of the King of Spain, and a peace between France and Portugal was signed in September, 1801. The Portuguese Govern- ment by a secret article agreed to pay a million sterling to France, to shut their ports against England, to cede a portion of their American territories to France, and to admit French woollen cloths into their country. The King of Spain was rewarded for his good offices by the nomination of his son-in-law Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Parma, to a throne specially erected by Napoleon. Tuscany was made a kingdom, and the Duke of Parma appointed its Sovereign with the title of King of Etruria. He visited Paris with the Princess of Spain, his consort, and lived at the Tuileries and Malmaison through a great part of the summer of 180 1. He was a very weak Prince, and the Tuscans had no cause to thank the First Consul for his gift. He reconciled the matter to his conscience by saying, " Policy requires it ; besides, the young man is not worse than the common run of kings." The " young man," however, was so very deficient in intellect that the aides-de-camp, who continually had his society imposed on them whilst Napoleon was engaged from morning till night in business, at last gave him children's playthings and engaged him in hide-and-seek and leap-frog, being unable to amuse him by other means. Cambace'res once observed to the First Consul, " It is alleged that you wish to disgust the French people with royalty by showing them this fine specimen of a king." " Not at all, not at all," replied he : "I have no desire to excite a distaste for royalty ; but the presence of his Majesty the King of Etruria will vex a good many worthy folks who are striving hard to revive a taste for the Bourbons." The vanity of the Parisians was much flattered by the affair. They loudly cheered the First Consul^ at the theatre when at the representation of " (Edipus " the following expression occurred : — " I have made kings, but I would not be one." Lucien Bonaparte continued ambassador at the Court of Spain till 1802, but re- turned to France shortly after Easter. The frequent recurrence of violent disputes between him and the First Consul was the real cause of his mission. Talleyrand and Fouche undertook the task of effecting his resignation of the Home Depart- ment, for the sake of decorum and the avoidance of public scandal. It is said that these quarrels originated in the publication of a tract called "Parallel between Caesar, Cromwell, Monk, and Bonaparte," in which the principles of Monarchy were openly advocated. This tract made a great noise at the time, and all Napo- leon's confidential friends assured him it would do him serious injury. Upon this Napoleon sent for Fouche, and reproached him for suffering it to appear. The Minister of Police replied that he had not thought proper to interfere because he had traced the manuscript to the office of Lucien. "And why not denounce Lucien ? " cried Napoleon : " the author of this tract ought to have been arrested and sent to the Temple." The First Consul quitted the room as he spoke. Fouche smiled and whispered to Bourrienne, " Confine the author in the Temple ! ■ — that would not be so easy. Lucien showed me the manuscript, and it was full of corrections in the handwriting of the First Consul ! " Lucien complained bitterly that he had been made a puppet of and abandoned. " The fault is your own," replied Napoleon ; " it was your business not to be detected." Quarrels between Lucien and the First Consul were frequent. During one of them Lucien violently flung his portfolio as Minister on his brother's desk, exclaiming " that he the more readily resigned his public character as he had suffered nothing but torment from subjection to such a despot ; " and was in consequence ordered to leave the apartment under the charge of the aides-de-camp on duty. On another i 5 8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. occasion he flung his watch on the floor in presence of the First Consul, exclaiming,. " You will one day be smashed to pieces like that ! " England was pursuing the war with the same determination as ever, and though no demonstration was made by the English arms in favour of Portugal, she had carried a very important point against France. On the 8th of March, 1 80 1, a British army of seventeen thousand men landed in Egypt, under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby. The French were ill prepared for such an attack ; the incapacity of Menou having shown itself in dispersing his troops over the country, while his indecision when the danger occurred increased this evil- The English army landed through the heavy surf, formed on the beach, and advanced upon the enemy. On the 21st the English obtained a decisive victory, and drove Menou with great loss within the walls of Alexandria. Sir Ralph Abercromby fell mortally wounded in the course of the battle. General Hutchin- son, on whom the command devolved, conducted the campaign to a successful termination. Menou was blockaded in Alexandria, and a small body of English troops sufficed to keep him there, for their engineers had discovered the means of nearly surrounding the city with water, by cutting a sluice from the Lake of Aboukir into the bed of the ancient Lake Mareotis. General Hutchinson then marched upon Cairo, where General Belliard had been left with a small body of French troops. Cut off from all communication with Menou, and without the means of defence, Belliard capitulated, on condition of being taken back to France with all his troops and their arms and baggage. The English army then marched back to the coast, escorting the French, and arrived just in time to receive the sub- mission of Menou, to whom they granted the same terms. An army of seven thou- sand men, detached from the English army in India, two thousand of whom were Sepoys or native troops, was landed at Cosseir, on the Red Sea, simultaneously with the capitulation of Menou. It came to support the objects of the expedition, which had, however, been concluded. Thus ended the conquest of Egypt by Napoleon. i8oi.] PRINCIPLES OF THE CONCORDAT. 1 59 Nothing remains of all his efforts of genius in that country : his victories, his vast projects have left no traces, except a great work of science compiled by the learned men who accompanied him, and the mouldering bones of the Mamelukes bleaching on the sands of the desert. The French admiral, Gantheaume, had long been making fruitless efforts to land reinforcements in Egypt, but had been unable to elude the British ships. He returned to Toulon, where preparations were made to receive the French army on their disembarkation from the British ships. Napoleon's displeasure at what had taken place, and in particular at the conduct of several general officers of the army of Egypt after his departure, was great ; but not an expression of ill- humour escaped him against any one, nor did he make inquiry into the conduct of a single individual. He showed at all times a marked preference for those who formed a part of that army, whether in the distribution of favours or in the nomi- nation to lucrative employments. Two measures of great importance were originated this spring, and carried through before the autumn. The first was the Concordat with the Pope, by which the Roman Catholic faith was recognized as the established religion of France. At the very commencement of the Consulate it was decreed that "Con- science is not amenable to the law, and that the right of the sovereign power extends no further than to the exaction of political obedience and fidelity." The Concordat resulted from the practical working of the former Consular decree,* while departing from its principle. It was found that the priests who had returned to France were more lastingly imbued with the sense of the injuries than of the benefits which they had received. The one act which had permitted their return to their country and friends was past and forgotten ; regrets for former riches and power were always present. The priests accordingly proved, in general, so many enemies. They became emissaries in the hands of the emigrant bishops, who spread disaffection among the mass of the people, over whose associations they maintained a powerful influence. A conversation held by Napoleon on this subject with one of the Councillors of State as they walked together after dinner in the park at Malmaison explains his motives and shows the nature of the treaty. After combating different systems of philosophers on modes of worship, natural religion, &c, all of which he desig- nated as ideology, the First Consul thus expressed his own views :-=— " I was here last Sunday walking out in this solitude in the silence of nature. The sound of the bells of the church at Ruel suddenly struck my ear. I was affected ; so great is the power of early habit and of education ! I said to myself, ' Then, what an impression must it not make on simple and credulous minds!' It will be said I am a Papist. I am nothing. I was a Mahometan in Egypt ; I will be a Catholic here, for the good of the people. I do not belong to any religion. But the idea of a God ! ' lifting his hands towards the heavens, which were covered with stars : ' who is it that has made all that ? Let your philosophers, your metaphysicians, reply as they may : a religion is necessary for the people. It is also necessary that this religion should be in the hands of the Government. Fifty emigrant bishops in the interest of the Bourbons at present govern the French clergy as they please. It is necessary to "destroy this influence ; the authority of the Pope is required for the purpose. He displaces them or makes them give in their resignation. It is declared that the Catholic religion being that of the majority of Frenchmen, it is proper to regulate the exercise of it. The First Consul nominates fifty bishops, the Pope inducts them. They name the curates, the State pays their salaries. They take the oath ; those who do not are banished. Such of them as preach against the Government are denounced to their superiors to be punished. The Pope confirms the sale of the goods of the clergy : he consecrates the Republic. They will then chaunt ' Salvamfac ran Gallicam?" * See page 126. 160 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. These words sufficiently explain the object and nature of the Concordat. It was simply a political arrangement to make use of the Papal See as an engine of power, and to restore internal quietude. The treaty was managed by Joseph Bonaparte and three colleagues, who held conferences with the plenipotentiaries of Pope Pius VII., and the articles ratified on both sides on the 18th of Sep- tember were as follow : — The Catholic religion was established in France, subject only to such regulations of police as the French Government thought necessary. The Pope, in concert with the French Government, was to make a new division of dioceses. The sees were to be filled up by the Pope, on nominations proceeding from the French Government. The new bishops were to take an oath of fidelity to the Govern- ment and to ordain a form of prayer for the Consuls. The church livings were to undergo a new division, and the bishops were to nominate to them only such persons as were approved by the Government. The Government was to make a suitable provision for the national clergy, while the Pope renounced all right for himself and his successors to challenge or dispute the sales of church property made since the Revolution. While the Catholic religion was established as the religion of the State, every other form of worship was allowed full liberty of exercise, and its ministers were paid. Civil rights were accorded to the Jews, and all barriers between them and other citizens removed. By the articles enumerated the Church of Rome yielded its supremacy in spiritual matters to the power of the French Republic. The First Consul brought the negotiation to so satisfactory a conclusion, according to his views, that he afterwards declared that if there had not been a Pope he would have made one for the occasion. A grand religous ceremony took place at Notre Dame to cele- brate the proclamation of the Concordat, at which the First Consul presided in great pomp, attended by all the Ministers and principal general officers then in Paris. An immense crowd filled the cathedral. The Archbishop of Aix, the same prelate who had presided at the coronation of Louis XVI., preached the sermon. It required considerable management to obtain the attendance of some of the Re- publican generals, who were little used to pay any reverence to such pageants. They were invited to breakfast with Berthier, and after attending the First Con- sul's levee, acccompanied him without understanding where they were going; but on making the discovery, Lannes and Augereau wished to get out of the carriage, and were only prevented by an especial order. Augereau is said to have remarked that the ceremony was all very fine, and that nothing was wanting " except the million of men who had perished in pulling down what was now being set up." The second measure was the decree permitting the return of the emigrants, pro- vided they returned and took the oath to the Government within a certain time. There were five classes of exceptions to this amnesty : — i. Those who had been chiefs of bodies of armed Royalists. 2. Those who had held rank in the allied armies against France. 3. Those who had belonged to the household of the Princes of the Blood. 4. Those who had been agents or encouragers of foreign or domestic war. 5. The generals, admirals, and repre- sentatives of the people who had been guilty of treason against the Republic, together with the prelates who refused the terms of the Concordat. It was de- clared that not more than five hundred in all should be excluded from the amnesty. It is estimated that a hundred thousand emigrants returned to their country. To those whose property had not been sold it was returned ; but the First Consul made no attempt to compromise the Revolution by alienating any of the lands which had become national property. While these measures evinced a desire for peace, the preparations for invading England continued unabated. England replied to them by placing Nelson in command of the sea from Orfordness to Beachy Head. Nelson was not satisfied with defensive operations; but, appearing before Boulogne, he bombarded the iSoi.J TREATS WITH ENGLAND FOR PEACE. l6l lliSSBillliiilll /t* NAPOLEON AT NOTRE DAME. French fleet, and after destroying some small craft and gun-boats, proceeded to attack the flotilla with the boats of his squadron. The French made a desperate defence ; their vessels, moored close to the shore, were chained together and filled with soldiers, and Nelson was obliged to make sail without effecting anything. Meantime Mr. Pitt went out of office in the course of the summer, and was succeeded by Mr. Addington. afterwards Lord Sidmouth. No change of political principles was indicated by this measure, but Mr. Pitt had so identified himself with the war that his very name seemed a bar to its conclusion, and it was not esteemed possible that peace could be concluded under his auspices. The " gold of Pitt," and war, were almost synonymous ideas in France. The two nations had now arrived at a relative position which seemed very like a drawn game ; France being as supreme on the continent as England was unconquerable on the ocean. Since the Treaty of Luneville, M. Otto had been kept in England by the French Government, ostensibly as agent in behalf of the prisoners of war ; but, in conformity with his instructions, he had watched for opportunities of opening a pacific negotiation with the English Ministry. The battle of Copenhagen and the death of Paul seemed to overthrow all the chances of peace by suddenly elevating the position of English affairs. The conquest of Portugal by France restored the equilibrium. The news of the battle of Alexandria lowered the demands of France. Malta now became the grand point of dispute : England insisting upon retaining it, to which France would not consent. At length the First Consul empowered M. Otto to offer conditions which, after some alterations, were accepted as the foundation of a treaty. England relinquished all her colonial conquests, with the exception of the important islands of Ceylon and Trinidad ; thus yielding up, at the conclusion of the war, most of those possessions upon the acquisition of which the national force had been frittered away. Malta was also relinquished by England; but its independence was stipulated, and a neutral 11 1 62 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Power was to garrison the island. France agreed to restore Egypt to the Porte ; but, as the First Consul had already received the news of the capitulation of Menou, little sacrifice was made here. France also recognized the Republic of the Ionian Islands, and gave up the ports of Naples and Rome occupied by French troops to their respective Governments. Portugal, it was agreed, should be maintained in its integrity. The people of France and England watched these proceedings with great anxiety. The messengers who carried the despatches were adorned with ribbons, and fetes and illuminations marked their course. The preliminaries were ratified between the two countries on the ioth of October, 1 80 1. The intelligence was communicated to Paris by the firing of cannon, and caused general rejoicing. General Lauriston carried the ratified treaty from Paris to London, where the horses were taken from his carriage and he was drawn to his house by the people. The sentiments of the higher classes were much divided. A small party, led by Mr. Wyndham, following Burke, considered the fact of treating with a regicide Government as a dereliction from the principles of legitimacy, on which the social compact ought to rest. More moderate Tories conceived that Britain was not bound to sacrifice herself entirely for these prin- ciples, while they much regretted they had not triumphed. Mr. Pitt belonged to this party. The members of the opposition, who had all along predicted the non-success of the war, rejoiced that peace was obtained on any terms. Sheridan very truly characterized the general feeling by saying " it was a peace which all men were glad of, and no man could be proud of." Amiens was appointed as the place of meeting for the commissioners to settle the definitive treaty, which was not finally arranged till five months afterwards. Joseph Bonaparte was appointed to represent his brother. The favourable moment afforded by the cessation of war was devoted by the First Consul, with all the energy of his character, to the organization of the Government of France in every department. " One of the most laborious periods of the Council of State," says Baron Pelet de la Lozere " was during the Consulate. Then were framed the codes, the laws, the decrees, and the regulations which constituted the new administration of the country, and under which we still (1837) live. The Council of State was divided into various sections or committees : one for the navy, another for the army, for the finances, for public justice, for home affairs, and so on. Each section was composed of those members supposed to be best versed in the matters submitted to their consideration. The subjects were discussed before these committees respectively, and afterwards reconsidered by all the committees assembled. Na- poleon, when First Consul, presided sometimes at the meetings of the sections from ten o'clock in the evening till five in the morning ; he then took a bath, after which he was soon ready to recommence work. In speaking of this practice, he said, ' One hour in the bath is worth four hours of sleep to me/ " The restless activity which he exhibited in his own person he exacted from all those whom he called to his aid. When a report was to be drawn, it was ordered for next day ; or if one of his Council was charged with the duty of pro- posing a law to the Legislative Body, he had often not a couple of hours to pre- pare the whole matter, besides getting his speech ready. Such time was quite enough for Napoleon himself, for he dictated with such rapidity that there generally remained several pages of matter to be written after he had done speaking ; and yet, on the revision, it was rare to discover anything requiring to be altered. Both before and after these meetings Napoleon frequently presided at other councils, where in concert with professional men he regulated the details of each depart- ment, such as that of the public works, the war office, and so on, his mind passing with wonderful facility from one topic to another. "The discussions which took place respecting the various decrees were invariably preceded by a report explanatory of their objects; and Napoleon always required the decree to be read before the report, asserting that such was the mathematical i8oi-2.] LEGION OF HONOUR INSTITUTED. 1 63 order of things, which required the enunciation of a proposition before the demon- stration. Whoever wished to speak had only to say so, and Napoleon often urged those persons to speak whose opinions he desired to learn. Not only was every description of knowledge represented in the Council of i~tate, but every different epoch. Napoleon's principle, was not merely to draw into it men possessed of all kinds of information, but persons of all different shades of politics. He called to his assistance not only those men of the Revolution who had most distinguished themselves in the preceding assemblies, but those who, though not hostile to the Revolution, had been expatriated by its early political storms, such as Malouet, Mounier, Segur, and others. In this way the Council exhibited all the different parties of the State, fused, as it were, into one mass." Among the important measures originated during the short Peace of Amiens were the admirable system of communal regulations, extending over the whole of France; the adjustment of the financial department, called the Council of Liquida- tion, which continued its labours until 18 10, when it had completed its task by clearing off the debts of the Revolution ; the rural code, for the improvement of agriculture; the institution of chambers of commerce in all the principal cities of the Republic, in communication with a central chamber in Paris ; and the regulation of national education, beginning at the point at which the National Convention had stopped. The schools were divided into three classes : — primary or municipal schools, twenty-three thousand of which were formed ; secondary schools, or com- munal colleges ; lyceums and special schools, supported at the expense of the Treasury. The Institute formed the summit of the whole edifice. Three com- missions of learned men were sent in different directions to travel through France, in order to organize the lyceums. La Place, Monge, and Lacroix were employed to prepare elementary works on mathematics for the schools; Dumenil, Brogniard, Adet, Biot, and Haiiy to compose the works upon natural history, mineralogy, chemistry, astronomy, and physics. The college of St. Cyr, a free school for the sons of soldiers killed on the field of battle, was reorganized, and the School of Fontainebleau was created. To these may be added two naval schools, one at Toulon, the other at Brest. A more complete system of education was put in operation at a subsequent period by Napoleon, who was duly impressed with the importance of this part of the duty of a Government. " There never can be," he said, " a fixed political state until there exists a body of men teaching on fixed principles." In addition to these legislative enactments, bridges were constructed, roads and canals made, harbours secured, forests planted, new productions in cultivation imported, the breed of cattle improved. The great roads over Mont Cenis and the Simplon were projected and commenced, and public monuments and buildings began to rise in every part of France. The institution of the Legion of Honour shortly followed. It was powerfully combated in the Council of State and in the Tribunate, a large minority voting against its adoption in that assembly as well as in the Legislative Body. Its pur- pose was to confer an honorary distinction, accompanied by a pension, upon in- dividuals of distinguished merit both civil and military. It consisted of a Council of Administration, composed of the the three Consuls and a member of each of the assemblies. It was divided into fifteen cohorts, every cohort consisting of seven grand officers, twenty commanders, thirty subaltern officers, and three hundred and fifty legionaries. The First Consul was, in right of his office, Captain-General of the Legion and President of the Council of Administration. The nomination of members was for life. The grand officers were endowed with a yearly pension of upwards of two hundred pounds. Pensions, decreasing in amount, were affixed to the subordinate degrees of rank in the order. All mem- bers were required to swear upon their honour to defend the Government of France and maintain the inviolability of her empire, to combat by every lawful means the re-establishment of feudal institutions, and to assist in maintaining the principles of liberty and equality. Notwithstanding the wording of this oath the friends of liberty 11 — 2 1 64 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. naturally dreaded in the establishment of distinctions among the citizens of France a return to the ancient system of castes. They considered that the Legion of Honour contained within itself all the elements on which hereditary nobility is founded, that it was likely to revive prejudices rife in all other nations of Europe and only half extinguished in France, and that it was contrary to the spirit of the Republic and the letter of the Constitution. The First Consul defended it as a project de- signed to give consistency to the system of rewards already in operation in the army, and to extend that system to civil services. "All has been overturned,"' he said : " we want at present to build up again. There is a Government with certain powers; as to all the rest of the nation, what is it but loose grains of sand ? We have in the midst of us the remains of the old privileged classes connected by principles and interests, and knowing well what it is they want. I can count our enemies ; but as to ourselves, we are scattered — without system, without union, without contact. As long as I remain I can answer for the Republic; but we must provide for the future. Do you suppose we can reckon upon the people ? The French character has not been changed by ten years of revolutions ; they are still what their ancestors the Gauls were — vain and light. They are susceptible but of one sentiment, honour; it is right then to afford nourishment to this sentiment and to allow of distinctions. Berthier talks of the Romans having no system of honorary rewards : the Romans had patricians, knights, and slaves ; for each class different dresses and different manners; honorary recompenses for every species of merit — mural crowns, civic crowns, ovations, triumphs, titles. When the patricians lost their influence Rome fell to pieces. The people were rabble. It was then that you saw the fury of Marius, the proscriptions of Scylla, and afterwards of the Emperors. In like manner Brutus is talked of as the enemy of tyrants : he was an aristocrat who stabbed Caesar because Caesar wished to lower the authority of the noble Senate. You call these ribbons and crosses children's rattles : be it so ! It is with children's rattles that men are led. I would not say that to a tribune, but in a council of wise men and statesmen one ought to speak out. Observe how the people bow before the decorations of foreigners. Voltaire calls the private soldiers 'Alexanders at five sous a day.' He was right — it is just so. Do you imagine that you can make men fight by reasoning ? Never. You must bribe them with glory, distinctions, rewards." The order of the Legion of Honour was conferred without any distinction of ranks, and Napoleon wished to place the institution on a much broader and more liberal scale than he was permitted to do by the spirit of the time. Had it been approved by public opinion he would have given it to Talma, Elleviou, and other celebrated actors and public performers ; he refrained out of consideration for the weakness and prejudices of the age, and he was wrong. The Legion of Honour was the reversion of every one who was an honour to his country, who stood at the head of his profession, and contributed to the national prosperity and glory. The treaty of peace between England and France was signed at Amiens on the 25th of March, 1802. The island of Malta was to be garrisoned by Neapolitan troops, and all the great Powers of Europe guaranteed its neutrality, the Knights of St. John being once more nominated as its sovereigns. The English Govern- ment refused to recognize the Italian Republics and the new kingdom of Etruria ; but the French plenipotentiaries did not insist upon this condition, and it was omitted in the articles. France was now at peace with all Europe, and the posi- tion and prospects of the country were brilliant beyond those of any period since the Revolution. By the Peace of Amiens Napoleon had achieved the important and once seemingly impracticable measure of bringing England diplomatically to acknowledge the French Republic. The English crowded to Paris, full of curiosity after so many years of exclusion, to see a capital which had been the scene of unnumbered events, and to catch a glimpse of the extraordinary man who had raised himself to a height from which he controlled the affairs of all Europe. i8o2.] MR. FOX AT THE TUILERIES. I6 5 Mr. Fox visited Paris soon after the treaty of peace. He was received with enthusiasm. He spent much of his time at the Tuileries on terms of great con- fidence and intimacy, and inspired Napoleon with feelings of friendship. Napoleon, when at St. Helena, said, " I soon found that Fox possessed a noble character, a good heart, liberal, generous, and enlightened views. I considered him an orna- ment to mankind, and was very much attached to him. We often conversed together upon various topics without the least prejudice : when I wished to engage in a little controversy I turned the conversation upon the infernal machine, and told him that his Ministers had attempted to murder me. He would then oppose my opinion with warmth, and invariably ended the conversation by saying, in his bad French, ' First Consul, pray take that out of your head.'" During this summer the question of extending the term of Napoleon's Con- sulate was agitated. The Senate, in conformity with the popular wish and with the concurrence of Napoleon, decreed an extension of ten years. The First Consul accepted the offered prolongation on condition that the opinion of the people should be consulted. The question put to the people was more complete. Cambaceres and Lebrun framed the matter for decision in the following words : — " Napoleon Bonaparte — shall he be Consul for life ? " Registers were opened in all the municipalities, and the answer of the people qualified to vote was de- cisive. Upwards of three million five hundred thousand voted for the proposal ; eight thousand three hundred against it. The name of Carnot was among the dissentients, and La Fayette made his vote dependent on a declaration from the First Consul that political liberty and the liberty of the press should be granted to the nation. As Napoleon did not answer this requisition, La Fayette was in the list of opponents. In the month of August Napoleon was declared Consul for life. A decree of the Senate immediately afterwards consolidated his power by per- mitting him to appoint his successor. M/MRIE. VOTING FOR THE LIFE CONSULATE. BRITISH SQUADRON ROUNDING CAPE FRAN9AIS. CHAPTER XXL EXPEDITION TO ST. DOMINGO — TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE — CONQUEST BY THE FRENCH — THE YELLOW FEVER ATTACKS THE FRENCH ARMY — TOUSSAINT SEIZED AND SENT TO FRANCE — REVOLT OF THE NEGROES — DEATH OF GENERAL LECLERC — BARBARITIES OF ROCHAMBEAU — DEATH OF TOUSSAINT — THE FRENCH FLEET AND ARMY OF ST. DOMINGO SURRENDER TO ENGLAND. 'AR had ceased to torture humanity in the ancient world ; but a ferocious and san- guinary conflict raged in another hemi- sphere. Napoleon was the aggressor in this fresh struggle ; which, begun in contempt of justice, carried on with cruelty and treachery, and ending in signal defeat, has left one of the darkest stains upon his memory. No sooner did the suspension of hostilities clear the ocean of English ships than a French and Spanish squadron, bearing a power- ful French army, left the harbour of Brest bound for St. Domingo, with orders to reduce that island to the con- dition of a colony of France. According to the terms of the Treaty of Luneville the First Consul was about to resume possession of the greater part of his colonies which had been seized by England. But St. Domingo did not belong to England ; the negroes, once the slaves, were now the masters in that beautiful island. " Why, whilst England was renouncing the other islands, should a set of miserable blacks be suffered to retain possession of the richest among them all ? Why, whilst the landholders of other colonies were on the point of quietly resuming their property, and once more enjoying their rich revenues, must the planters of St. Domingo alone put up with their losses ? A multitude of families had been utterly ruined. Why should their rich island, alone free in the midst of slavery, be left exposed to the possible alliance of England ? France would thus not only lose its chief colony, but actually see it fall into the power of England." These were the reasonings by which Napoleon suffered his better feelings to be smothered. He was upwards of a month engaged in collecting information respecting the island, from all who had resided in the Antilles ; all who could throw some light on the subject were sent to him at Malmaison. He would be closeted for hours with inferior clerks in the Marine Department who had been pointed out to him as possessed of information respecting St. Domingo. 166 1794- i8o2.] ST. DOMINGO. 167 Jealousy of England at length turned the scale. St. Domingo, originally called Hayti (which name it has now resumed) when first discovered by Columbus was chiefly peopled by a gentle and timid race of Red Indians. These aborigines were nearly exterminated by the Spanish adventurers who swarmed to the newly-found regions in search of gold. The Indians, unused to toil in their rich and lovely island, perished under the ruthless hands of their civilized tormentors. African negroes, a hardier race, were next imported as slaves, to do the work of the European lords of the soil. At the period of the French Revolution St.. Domingo belonged by right of conquest partly to Spain and partly to France. It was peopled by whites who possessed all the power ; by mulattoes who were free, but considered an inferior race ; and by negro slaves. The numbers of whites and mulattoes were about equal ; but both races put together were outnumbered as eight to one by the negroes. When news of the Revolution in the mother country reached the French portion of the island, the mulattoes demanded social equality. This being refused *>v the whites, a civil war commenced, in which the mulattoes were put down ; but before the conquerors had time for self-gratulation they were astounded by a general insurrection of their slaves. The proprietors of the Spanish part of the island, being Royalists and supported by English troops, fomented the revolt against the French proprietors, who now belonged to a Revolutionary Government. Among the slaves of an estate called Breda was one named Toussaint, about forty years of age. He had originally tended cattle, but had been raised from this employment to be coachman to the bailiff. He had by some means learned to read and write, and was chiefly remarkable for thoughtfulness and a religious tendency. He joined the black general, Jean Francois, and soon rose to be aide- de-camp and colonel. In this war of the long-oppressed against their oppressors, horrors were abundantly perpetrated ; Toussaint, however, obtained influence rather by the natural vigour of his mind than by violence. On the 4th of February, 1794, the National Convention of France decreed the liberty of all slaves and declared St. Domingo an integral part of France. Toussaint marched from his Spanish quarters to join the French Republican commander, who made him general of brigade. The Spanish posts fell one after another under the victorious attacks of Toussaint. The French commissioners said, "This man makes an opening {V onverture) everywhere." From this saying he acquired his name of Toussaint l'Ouverture. The war soon ended. The Spanish planters laid down their arms and the blacks were free. Toussaint saved the French general from an insurrec- tion of the mulattoes and was appointed Lieutenant of St. Domingo. The English abandoned the island in 1798, tired of a war in which the diseases of the climate destroyed their troops. The English commander, accompanied only by three attendants, held a conference with Toussaint in the midst of his armed blacks, so great was the confidence he had inspired, and a treaty was concluded between them. Toussaint next conquered the mulattoes, and then admitted them to a treaty of peace and equal rights. He was now absolute ruler of the island, to the internal improvement of which he began to devote himself. He sent his two sons to be educated in France, writing to the Directory in these terms : — " I guarantee, under my personal responsibility, the submission of my black brethren to order, and their fidelity to France." His administration was vigorous, and as watchful as might be expected from a man who had been a slave and ruled over a nation lately slaves. He never permitted the same secretary to commence and conclude a despatch : after dictating a certain portion, he always sent away the person he had employed, to wait his orders at some sixty or a hundred miles distance. The secretaries were also forbidden, under pain of death, to divulge what he had dictated, while numerous spies enabled him to detect disobedience. Toussaint adopted the wise policy of encouraging both whites and mulattoes to remain in the island by carefully protecting their persons and property. The blacks, now free labourers, continued to cultivate the plantations ; but the pro- 168 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. TOUSSAINT L OUVEKTUKE DICTATING DESPATCHES. duce was divided in certain proportions between the proprietor and the culti- vators. Order and industry took the place of anarchy and licentiousness. The waste lands were soon in full cultivation, and abundance and confidence restored. Toussaint maintained the laws with unrelenting rigour. On one occasion a white female, the owner of a plantation, had been murdered by the negro labourers who had formerly been her slaves. Toussaint marched to the spot at the head of a party of his horse-guards, collected the negroes belonging to the plantation, and surrounding them with his black cavalry, after a brief inquiry gave orders to charge and cut them to pieces. Napoleon as First Consul, in 1799, confirmed Toussaint's Dictatorship. Spain ceded her portion of St. Domingo to France by the Treaty of Bale. This cession was enforced by Toussaint, whose power extended over the whole island. The negro Dictator now gave a Constitution to his subjects, on the model of the Con- sular Government of France, under which he was proclaimed Governor for life, with power to name his successor. He sent Colonel Vincent, an engineer officer, to France, to obtain the approbation of the First Consul ; but did not wait for a reply before he put all the machinery of his Government in operation. It worked well : commerce and trade revived, and the treasury filled. Toussaint kept a splendid Court, and preserved great order and decorum. He was also inde- fatigable in business, able to ride a hundred and fifty miles without rest, and re- sume active exertions after only two hours' sleep. Colonel Vincent, who had been the friend and adviser of Toussaint, actively exerted himself at Paris on his behalf; but other counsels prevailed. Napoleon resolved to reduce the island to a condition resembling that of the other West India colonies ; Colonel Vincent continuing to the last strongly to reprobate the attempt and to point out its difficulties. The troops for the expedition were chosen by Napoleon chiefly from the army of the Rhine, and therefore some of the finest soldiers of France. They amounted l802.] DEFEAT OF TOUSSAINT BY LECLERC. 169 to about twenty thousand men. General Leclerc, the husband of Pauline Bona- parte, was appointed to the command and named Captain-General of St. Domingo. Pauline was by command of the First Consul unwillingly forced to accompany him. The fleet which conveyed the armament set sail on the 14th of December, 1S01, and reached Cape Francais in St. Domingo on the 29th of January, 1802, its progress being jealously watched the whole way by an English squadron. Toussaint, warned of this hostile approach, had ordered every post it was possible to maintain to be defended to the last, and all others to be burnt. The French signals to surrender were unanswered, and a cutter carrying a letter for Toussaint from the First Consul appointing him lieutenant to the captain-general was fired upon with red-hot shot. Leclerc next attempted to seduce from his allegiance THE MAROONS OF ST. DOMINGO. Christophe (afterwards Emperor of Hayti), Commander at Cape Francais, but met with a positive refusal. In default of a pilot through the dangerous rocks and shoals which surround St. Domingo, the French seized the mulatto captain com- manding the port, and tried by every means to make him direct their course, but in vain. They offered him upwards of two thousand pounds ; they drew a cord round his neck ; still he resolutely refused. This circumstance affords a proof of the extraordinary ascendancy of Toussaint over his people. The French army succeeded in landing west of Cape Francais. Christophe instantly fired the town and fort, which were consumed with all the magazines and stores. The whole island now became a scene of carnage and conflagration. The First Consul had sent back with the expedition the two sons of Toussaint, with the principal of the college in which they had been educated. They were dispatched by Leclerc with the letter before mentioned to their father, who embraced his children, and sent them back with a request for four days' delay ; but when they went again for his answer they returned no more to the French. The war therefore continued, but the troops of Toussaint were unable to resist the discipline and courage of the French. Dessalines, one of Toussaint's generals, notorious for his cruelty in this 1JO THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. ferocious struggle, was at last shut up in the fort of Crete a Pierrot, which was. taken by the French after a long siege ; but Dessalines and many of his men cut their way through the French ranks and escaped. One post after another sur- rendered, one chief after another submitted, till at length Toussaint could hold out no longer. He repaired to head-quarters with his staff and company of Guides, a fine body of black troops who remained faithful to him to the last, and tendered his submission. He replied by denials or by silence to all the reproaches of Leclerc on his " revolt," and proudly refused the rank of general in the French army which was offered him, but requested permission to retire to one of his estates in the interior, which was granted under certain restrictions. The island, now subdued, wore the appearance of calm, little more than a fort- night having been occupied in the contest. Leclerc was afraid to attempt the re-establishment of slavery, and continued the same regulations as to labour which had been instituted by Toussaint. He suffered himself to believe in the apparent acquiescence of the black chiefs to his Government, and neglected to follow the secret instructions of Napoleon, which desired him to send them all over to France as soon as possible and to cultivate the friendship of the mulattoes. As the hot season approached, bringing with it that fatal scourge of Europeans the yellow fever, a change was observed in the manners of the blacks. Toussaint had been heard to say, "I trust to Providence:" the great hospital of Cape Francais bore this title. Parties of negroes who acquired the name of Maroons collected in bands on the heights, whence they watched the movements of the French. As the season advanced and fever rapidly thinned the French ranks these alarming symptoms increased. Desertions from the black regiments, many of which had been formed by General Leclerc, became of daily occurrence. The mountains had become depots of arms and provisions, where multitudes of negroes lay concealed. Toussaint was an object of suspicion to the French at this crisis. He was directed by Leclerc to go in person and allay the ferment among his countrymen, but instead of complying he armed the negro cultivators of his own estate, in order as he said to provide for his safety. He was seized by order of Leclerc and carried on board a French ship. The excitement among the negroes was increased tenfold by the sudden disappearance of their famous chief. The standard of revolt was openly raised, and Christophe, Dessalines, and all the principal leaders of the blacks placed themselves at their head. The negro popula- tion was computed at four hundred thousand ; the French army was reduced by war and disease to eight thousand. As the season advanced the ravages of the pestilence increased. New detachments sent out from France were mown down and reduced to mere skeletons. As a last misfortune General Leclerc himself was smitten by the infection and died on the ist of November. General Rochambeau, who succeeded to the command, adopted a line of policy infinitely more harsh and severe than that of his predecessor. Surrounded by a crowd of proprietors of different estates exasperated at the destruction of their wealth, he conceived the monstrous idea of exterminating the whole black popula- tion, and carried on a wholesale system of murder. Hordes of unfortunate negroes were seized, carried off to sea, and drowned in the darkness of night. Bloodhounds hunted those who fled into the woods, and the poor wretches, driven from their shelter, were shot down without pity. Here the French soldiers checked the barbarity of their commanders. They mutinied, and declared they would not accept packs of hounds for auxiliaries, and that if such savage acts were renewed they would inflict summary vengeance on the perpetrators. The negroes in turn tortured and murdered all the whites who fell into their hands. In this manner the winter passed. Private letters giving accounts of these horrors began to startle the inhabitants of Paris. Napoleon refused to credit them. " He wondered," says Savary, "at not receiving reports from those whose duty it was to make them, and often repeated that if those atrocious executions were true he discarded the colony for ever ; that he never would have directed its occupation could he have i8o2-3-] TOUSSAINT'S FATE. 171 foreseen the guilty excesses which had arisen out of the expedition." Napoleon was, however, at that very moment perpetrating an act as atrocious in its way as any of those he condemned. About the time he was invested with the title of Consul for life the noble-minded Toussaint l'Ouverture was brought a prisoner into France. He was committed first to the Temple and then to the fortress of Joux, near Besancon in Normandy. In a damp dungeon of this northern climate did Napoleon suffer a man of whose fellowship he might have been proud, to linger out the whole winter of 1802 and 1803, Toussaint dying after about ten months' imprisonment. Dark rumours of poison were afloat, but of such aid there was no need. Cold, damp, inaction and mental suffering were quite sufficient to extinguish the life of a native of a tropical climate, whose bodily and mental r m '^9m sgff/fcgW; Og| gl[pH| §J_ DEATH OF GENERAL LECLERC. energies had been for years indefatigably employed, and who had seen the work of his life apparently dashed into ruins. The oppressor and the oppressed now sleep in the grave. In their fate was a wonderful similarity ; and, looking at the results of the actions of each, we may say with truth that " his works survive him ; " more directly, however, in the case of Toussaint than of Napoleon, since the liberty which the former achieved for his people has never been interrupted, and his native island remains among the nations an integral State, entire as he organized and established it. It is not to be expected that Napoleon should ever see his conduct to Toussaint in its true light. He did however perceive by the event that he had made a mis- take, and confessed it when at St. Helena with some marks of regret. " I have to reproach myself," he said to Las Cases, " with the attempt made upon St. Domingo during the Consulate. The design of reducing it by force was a great error. I ought to have been satisfied with governing it through the medium of Toussaint." When in the spring of 1803 the short-lived Peace of Amiens came to an end, a 172 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. British squadron immediately appeared before Cape Francais, and besieged the remains of the French army confined within the walls of the town. Rochambeau surrendered at discretion ; and the English carried off the French fleet, the miser- able remnant of their fine army, and all the white inhabitants of the island, which was entirely left to the negroes. General Noailles, however, Commandant of the Mole St. Nicholas, contrived to elude the English ships, and with his whole garrison and seven vessels escaped into a port in the island of Cuba. Attempting after this to reach Havanna on board an armed brig, he encountered an English corvette, which he took after a desperate fight, and carried under French colours into Havanna, where, however, he only arrived in time to die of his wounds. "The national glory," says Norvins, "hastened to gather up the last exploit, which escaped from the great shipwreck of one of the bravest armies that the Republic ever assembled under her flag." CAPTURE OF L COVERTURE. WATCHING THE ENGLISH FLEET FROM BOULOGNE. CHAPTER XXII. ATTITUDE OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND — ENGLAND RETAINS MALTA — AFFAIRS OF ITALY, GERMANY, AND SWITZERLAND — SPLENDOUR OF PARIS, AND INCREASING STATE ASSUMED BY THE FIRST CONSUL — NEWSPAPER WARS — NAPOLEON AND LORD WHITWORTH — ENGLAND BEGINS HOS- TILITIES — NAPOLEON IMPRISONS ALL THE ENGLISH RESIDENTS IN FRANCE — SEIZES HANOVER — OCCUPIES NAPLES — FORTIFIES TUSCANY AND ELBA — PREPARATIONS IN ENGLAND AGAINST INVASION. HTOWARDS the close of the year 1802 it became evident that the Peace of Amiens was destined at no distant period to be broken. The joy with which the people of England and France had wel- comed the news that war had ceased was fast changing into mutual distrust, and open recrim- ination followed. England had tardily given up possession of the Cape and the other Batavian set- tlements, but continued to retain Malta. The French Government expostulated in vain, and the Eng- lish Administration finally avowed its determination not to relinquish that island. The English Government justified this determination by asserting that although the First Consul had virtually kept his part of the treaty to the letter he was pur- suing a svstem of aggrandizement which violated it in the spirit, and threatened altogether to overturn the balance of power in Europe ; that England, as guardian of the liberty of Europe from military despotism, ought to retain possession of so important a stronghold as Malta, until the head of the French Government should manifest a greater degree of moderation. The alarms of the English Ministry on the subject of French aggrandizement were not without foundation. The First Consul, aided by the talents of Talleyrand, had turned the conclusion of the war to the best advantage by a series of success- ful negotiations. The first of these related to Italy. Very shortly after the peace the 173 174 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Italian Republics had adopted a Consular form of Government after the French model, in accordance with the expressed wish of the First Consul, who would have gone to Italy in person to preside over the formation of the new Constitution had he not been prevented by affairs in France. He, however, met at Lyons a large assembly of deputies from the Italian cities and departments, and attended their deliberations. He was offered, by unanimous consent, the Presidency of their Republic, and he accepted the dignity, at the same time appointing Melzi Vice-President. Melzi will be remembered as one of the two Italians to whom Napoleon accorded the name of " men," after his first Italian campaign. The direct influence thus acquired in Italy by the First Consul, and the alteration of the name Cisalpine into Italian Republic, caused great jealousy to the English Government. The refusal of England to acknowledge the new Italian Republic afforded Napoleon a pretext to establish his influence over it as protector. By a secret treaty with Portugal he acquired the province of Guiana ; by another with Spain all the Spanish part of Louisiana, and the reversion of the Duchy of Parma and the island of Elba. The Treaty of Luneville had secured the recognition of the Rhine as the boundary of the French territory on the side of Germany. In the Diet for settling the indemnities to be granted to the various Princes of the German empire who had sustained loss in consequence, the influence of France predominated to such an extent as almost to threaten the entire destruction of the Germanic Confederation. Prussia, as well as those smaller Princes of the empire who had observed neutrality during the war, received ample compensation, while the pertinacious opposition of Austria caused a very limited consideration of any claims she could bring forward. To these advantages for France was added an armed interference with the affairs of Switzerland, which gave the First Consul complete ascendancy over that country, and did him more injury in the opinions of the liberal party in Europe than any other act of his political life. The Treaty of Luneville had guaranteed the independence of the Helvetic Re- public (as Switzerland was then called), with the right to settle its own Constitu- tion. The form of Government was analogous to the Directorial Government of France, and a French army occupied the country. A Constitution resembling the Consular model was established, and Napoleon withdrew his troops, leaving the Swiss entirely to themselves. It soon appeared that a majority of the people re- gretted their Federal Constitution. Their ancient laws had been suited to the character and habits of their people, who now rose in arms to restore them, headed by Aloys Reding, renowned among his countrymen for courage and wis- dom. A civil war burst forth, but it was checked by the entrance at all points of a French army under Ney, and a manifesto from the First Consul to the effect that he had taken upon himself the mediation of their differences. Aloys Reding was imprisoned, having first disbanded his troops, who were utterly unable to contend with the overwhelming French force. Switzerland was settled as a Republic on the French Consular model, and the title of Grand Mediator of the Helvetic Republic was assumed by Napoleon. The cantons agreed to refuse all passage through the country to the enemies of France, and to maintain an army of a few thousand men as a guarantee. They also fur- nished a contingent of sixteen thousand men to France, to be maintained at ,the expense of the French Government. Switzerland, like Lombardy and Piedmont, had become a dependency of France. The increasing dominion of Napoleon in Europe was accompanied by a corre- sponding assumption of outward dignity. The First Consul occupied St. Cloud in addition to the Tuileries, Malmaison remaining his peaceful retreat from the cares of Government. Something of the external forms, habits, and etiquette of sovereignty was perceptible in his household. " Men," said he, " well deserve the contempt with which they inspire me. I have only to put some gold lace on the coats of my virtuous Republicans, and they immediately become just what I wish them." The Parisians flocked to the brilliant reviews at the Carrousel, and 1802-3.] JOSEPHINE'S EEARS. IJ$ saw with admiration the rich liveries and emblazoned carriages of the English and Russians. Luxury rapidly advanced among all the wealthy inhabitants ; the theatres were crowded, splendid fetes were frequent, the Republican appellations of Citoyen and Citoyenne were giving place to Monsieur and Madame. The gallery of the Louvre, enriched with the choicest works of art in the world, was open to every one without reserve. An air of prosperity was everywhere visible; the public funds, which had been doubled in value at the 18th Brumaire, were now worth more than triple what they had been even at that period. Napoleon delighted in observing the prosperity of which it was his glory to consider him- self the sole author. All the acts of the Government were simply signed by M. Maret, Secretary of State ; the First Consul of France was in fact an absolute Sovereign. The public tranquillity was so completely assured, that the Ministry of Police was discontinued and Fouche received the dignity of a Senator. The change was, however, bitterly deprecated by the ex-Minister himself, who foretold extensive evils from it. While the steady increase of Napoleon's power and influence inspired his ene- mies with jealousy and distrust, there was one person whom his rapid approaches to sovereignty had always filled with the most bitter dread. Josephine rightly associated his assumption of the crown with a probable wish for lineal descendants, and nervously listened to every report of his intentions, expecting a divorce from him as the consequence of the realization of her fears. " One day," says Bour- rienne, " Josephine entered the cabinet without being announced, approached Napoleon softly, seated herself on his knee, passed her hand gently through his hair and over his face, and thinking the moment favourable, said to him, with a burst of tenderness, ' I entreat of you, Bonaparte, do not make yourself a King ! It is Lucien who urges you to it. Do not listen to him.' Napoleon replied with- out anger, and even smiling, as he pronounced the last words : 'You are mad, my ' poor Josephine : it is your old dowagers of the Faubourg Saint - Germain, your Rochefoucaulds, who tell you all these fables ! Come, now, you interrupt me — leave me alone.' " To gain a friend among the brothers of Napoleon, Josephine forced her daughter Hortense into an unwilling marriage with Louis Bonaparte. It took place in January, 1803. "The bride and bridegroom," says Constant, "were exceedingly dull, and Mademoiselle Hortense wept during the whole of the ceremony. Josephine knowing that this union which commenced so inauspi- ciously was her own work, anxiously endeavoured to establish a more cordial feel- ing between her daughter and son-in-law. But all her efforts were vain, and the marriage proved a very unhappy one." Hortense was much attached to Duroc, and Napoleon wished her to marry him. Napoleon expressed a singular presentiment at this period, which was realized subsequently. He frequently used to say, " I fear that when I am forty I shall become a great eater: I have a foreboding that I shall grow very corpulent." "This fear of obesity," says Bourrienne, " though it annoyed him very much, did not appear to have the least foundation, judging from his habitual temperance and spare habit of body." It was now too that he felt the first approaches of the disease which ultimately destroyed his life. He was frequently attacked with severe pains in his right side. He consulted Corvisart, who was afterwards appointed his first physician, and appeared to derive great benefit from his pre- scriptions. The mutual grievances of which the English and French complained, increased as the winter of 1802-3 drew to a close. It was the wish of the First Consul to negotiate a commercial treaty with the English Government ; and being unsuc- cessful he suffered various petty and vexatious regulations to be enforced against British merchant vessels — perhaps with a view to forward a treaty, but their actual operation irritated the English public. He was virulently attacked by the English press ; and a paper called L Ambigu, edited by Peltier, a French emigrant, was published in London, the express purpose of which was to ridicule 176 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the First Consul and his Government. Napoleon read all the English newspapers, and he was exasperated by their attacks. Counter-accusations — occasionally, it is said, from his own pen — continually appeared in The Moniteur; and this paper war greatly increased the bad feeling which had already spread among the people of both countries. At length the First Consul made a formal complaint to the English Government, demanding their interference to put a stop to the abuse published by the press ; requiring that the Princes of the House of Bourbon, and the whole class of emigrants exempted by him from the general amnesty and re- sident in England, should be ordered to leave that country, on the ground that he had cause to suspect them of hatching plots against his life and Government, and that Georges Cadoudal should be transported to Canada. A reply in the negative was returned to these requisitions by Lord Hawkesbury, Minister for Foreign Affairs ; the First Consul being reminded that the English Ministry could not exercise a control over the press, but, if what was published was libellous, the printers and publishers were open to punishment. With regard to the emigrants, Lord Hawkesbury disclaimed all knowledge of or belief in any evil designs en- tertained by them against the head of the French Government. As a measure of conciliation, Peltier was brought to trial for a libel against the First Consul, at the instance of the Attorney-General. He was defended with great eloquence by Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Mackintosh, but was found guilty. The arguments of the counsel, and the public feeling in his favour, gave him the appearance of a triumph, and he was never brought up to receive sentence, the quarrel with France soon coming to an open rupture. The " damages," and the " costs," how- ever, were severely felt by both parties. In February, 1803, Napoleon, irritated beyond further endurance by the pro- tracted negotiations which only left things as they were, resolved to enter person- ally into conference with the British Ambassador, Lord Whitworth. In the course of their interview the First Consul openly stated his various causes of complaint, and ended by peremptorily demanding the full execution of the Treaty of Amiens ; war being the alternative. The result was a message from the King of England to the House of Commons, stating that he had occasion for additional aid to enable him to defend his dominions in case of an encroachment on the part of France, of which the great naval preparations in the ports of France gave reason to entertain apprehension. The cause of apprehension assigned in his Majesty's message exacerbated feeling on both sides, and was cleverly refuted in a note by Talleyrand. Mr. Fox espoused the cause of the First Consul in the House of Commons in the debate on the King's message. The Ministry was, however, supported by large majorities, and events manifestly tended towards the renewal of hostilities. If war was inevitable it was Napoleon's interest to commence it at once. His language in the interview he held with the English Ambassador was sufficiently plain. "No consideration on earth," he said, "shall make me consent to your retention of Malta. I would as soon agree to put you in possession of the Fau- bourg St. Antoine. Every wind that blows from England brings nothing but hatred and hostility towards me. An invasion is the only measure of offence that I can take against her, and I am determined to put myself at the head of the ex- pedition. There are a hundred chances to one against my success ; but I am not the less determined to attempt the descent if war must be the consequence of the present discussion." He attacked Lord Whitworth in vehement and excited lan- guage at a diplomatic meeting at the Tuileries on the 13th of March. "You are then determined on war?" said the First Consul in considerable agitation. The English Ambassador in the courteous forms of diplomacy disclaimed the accusa- tion, but the First Consul would not hear his reply. " We have been at war for fifteen years," said he, interrupting the ambassador: "you are determined on hostility for fifteen years more, and you force me to it." He then turned to the Russian ambassador, and continued : " The English wish for war \ but if they i8o 3 .] RUPTURE OF THE TREATY OF AMIENS. 177 draw the sword first I will be the last to return it to the scabbard. They do not respect treaties, which henceforth we must cover with black crape." He then again addressed Lord Whitworth : "To what purpose are these armaments? Against whom do you take these measures of precaution ? I have not a single ship of the line in any port in France. But if you arm, I too will take up arms ; if you fight I will fight : you may destroy France but you cannot intimidate her." Lord Whitworth, preserving his calmness, replied, "We desire neither the one nor the other, we desire to live with her on terms of good understanding." " You must respect treaties then," said Napoleon sternly : " woe to those by whom they are - ■ [ « ^ N.-vFOLEON AND THE AMBASSADORS. not respected ! They will be accountable for the consequences to all Europe." Repeating the last words he rose and abruptly retired, leaving all present in a state of considerable consternation. In England resentment against the First Consul was raised to a high pitch by this insult offered to its ambassador, and the Ministerial press did not fail to fan the flame by bringing forward other causes of grievance. The mission of General Sebastiani to the Court of Constantinople and the ports of the Adriatic gave reason to fear further designs on Egypt ; the obstinate resistance to the English retention of Malta looked like a prospective intention of making that island a stepping-stone to India. Whether there existed real ground of apprehension as to these measures or not, there can be no doubt that they contributed to hurry on the Avar. Some faint efforts at negotiation, however, were still made. The English Ministry offered to lower their claim upon Malta — to an acknowledgment of their right to hold possession of the island for ten years instead of in perpetuity. The First Consul resolutely continued to demand the fulfilment of the treaty, propos- ing, however, that since a Neapolitan garrison was considered objectionable, a Rus- sian or Austrian should be substituted ; but to this the British Ministry would not listen. Lord Whitworth left Paris and Great Britain declared war against France on the 1 8th of May. Before the formal declaration of hostilities, the English 12 I78 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. seized on all the French shipping in their ports and took two French ships of war. This proceeding is in accordance with " universal custom " in such cases. The First Consul nevertheless was so irritated by it that he retaliated by seizing all the English who were resident or travelling in France in the faith of peace and treated them as prisoners of war. The amount of misery created, while for twelve years these unfortunate " detenus" lingered in exile, is fearful to reflect upon, and adds a melancholy item to the established horrors of war. Napoleon, so far from ex- pressing any remorse, appears rather to have felt concern at not having rendered their captivity more rigorous, as England degraded the French prisoners of war by placing them on board the hulks. Napoleon's arbitrary and inhuman conduct in this matter is happily unparalleled. When war was declared the French army was on a peace establishment. Num- bers of troops had been disbanded and the parks of artillery broken up. New plans for re-casting the artillery having been proposed, the cannon were destroyed and thrown into the furnaces. The navy was in a still less serviceable condition. The utmost energy was requisite to meet the emergency. The communications which had passed between the two Governments were laid before the Legislative Body, and the Senate received a Consular message declaring that the Government had only refused further concessions at that line which its principles and duties dictated. " The negotiations are interrupted and we are attacked," continued the address. " Let us at least fight to maintain the faith of treaties and the honour of the French name." The nation responded with enthusiasm. Sums of money were voted by the large towns for building ships. The army was rapidly recruited. By the law of the conscription passed by the Directory in 1798, every young man between the age of twenty and twenty-five years was required to be attached to some military corps. They were sent to the nearest depot to be taught the art of war and became liable to be summoned to four years' active service, according to the necessities of the country, but had the power of finding substitutes. Under a despotic Government such an institution was liable to abuse, and before the termination of the long struggle which now began France groaned under the in- fliction. The first hostile movement of Napoleon was upon the continental dominions of George III. General Mortier invaded the Electorate of Hanover with fifteen thousand men. He was opposed by a considerable force under the Duke of Cambridge and General Walmoden, which withdrew at the approach of the French. The invasion of the Electorate was a violation of the Germanic Constitution, but the continental Powers were too much overawed to interfere, and Hanover left to its own resources was unable to resist France. The Duke of Cambridge threw up his command and returned home, the Hanoverian army laid down their arms and were disbanded, and the Electorate was occupied by the French, into whose hands fell all the strongholds, depots of arms and ammunition, and revenues of the State ; and its fine breed of horses supplied their cavalry. General Mortier noticed with considerable feeling the emotion of the Hanoverian Guards at delivering over their horses to his army. Heavy contributions were levied by the French on Hamburg, Bremen, and others of the Hanse Towns. The Prince Royal of Den- mark was the only continental Sovereign who attempted to resist the First Consul's proceedings. He raised an army of thirty thousand men to oppose them ; but, finding himself unsupported, resumed a pacific attitude. The second movement of the First Consul was the occupation of Naples, pre- ceded by the following proclamation : — ■" The King of England has refused to execute the Treaty of Amiens. The French army is obliged to occupy the posi- tions which it quitted in virtue of that treaty — positions which we will maintain so long as England shall persist in retaining Malta." No resistance was attempted, and Tarentum was strongly fortified and garrisoned by French troops, as were at the same time the island of Elba and the coast of Tuscany. These measures, besides enabling the First Consul to maintain his army by levies on the foreign i8o 3 .J GAME OF"AfY FLAG AND YOUR FLAG.'" 129 States he occupied, crippled the commerce of England by shutting up all com- munication with many of the best markets on the continent. The First Consul, accompanied by Josephine, proceeded through the Nether- lands to the northern coast, where he made observations and gave orders respect- ing the fortifications. He visited Montreuil, Etaples, Boulogne, Ambleteuse, Vimereux, Calais, and Dunkirk, and thence proceeded to Antwerp, where he ordered the commencement of those extensive works by which he converted that mercantile port into a strong military position. The English were now excluded from every port under French influence, and every port in that wide range was NAPOLEON AT BOULOGNE. blockaded by English ships. None shall come in— none shall come out ; no im- ports— no exports ; no fresh provisions -no news ! Such was the position in which two Governments placed two great nations ; a position which would be identical with the children's game of " my flag and your flag ! " but for the consequent bloodshed and devastation. These measures were all preparatory to Napoleon's determined plan to attempt the invasion of England. He decided that as he had no means of grappling with her power at sea, and as his fleet of men-of-war afforded no chance ot success, he would construct some thousands of gun-boats, flat-bottomed boats, and other small craft as transports. The larger towns had voted money for building men-of-war, the less wealthy now voted it for these smaller vessels. They were built on the banks of the navigable rivers ; floated down to the sea between Harfleur and Flushing ; and then, collected in little squadrons, they crept close along shore, protected from the English ships by the batteries, to the place of rendezvous at Boulogne. Meanwhile six divisions, numbering one hundred and sixty thousand men, assembled as the army of England in camps which extended from Utrecht to the mouth of the Somme, under Marmont, Mortier, Soult, Davoust, ^ey, and Junot. Augereau was placed at the head of another army at Bayonne, destined to advance upon Portugal, if that country did not renounce the English alliance. 12 — 2 l8o THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE Napoleon took a house near Boulogne, called the Pont de Brique, where he usually arrived when least expected, mounted his horse, rode through the camps, reviewed the troops or visited the harbour, — inspecting the works, and generally- taking home the principal officers and engineers to dinner ; thus acquiring, before night, a far more accurate knowledge of all that was done than if he had read page after page of reports ; after which, while he seemed still among the troops, he was back again at St. Cloud. Great works, important not only in war but in peace, were accomplished by this army of England while encamped. The soldiers were employed, after the manner of the ancient Romans, in executing the projects con- ceived by the engineers. By these means the harbour of Boulogne was scooped out, a basin capable of containing two thousand vessels of the flotilla was formed, and a bridge and pier were constructed. A fine harbour was also constructed at Vimereux. At Ambleteuse the pestilent marshes were drained by means of a great sluice, which, restricting the waters to the proper channel of the river, gave several thousand acres of valuable land to agriculture, and made the country healthy. Great magazines of arms and provisions were formed, cannon founded, sails and cordage made by the soldiers. Various manoeuvres were practised by night to avoid the observation of the English ships. These hostile preparations produced in England a spirit of unbounded energy. All our fleets were put into requisition from the Baltic to the Tagus, from the Tagus to the coasts of Sicily. Not a fishing-boat but seemed to prepare for the conflict. Five hundred ships of war, of various descriptions and sizes, scoured the ocean in different directions. English squadrons blockaded every port in the Channel or Mediterranean, and our cruisers were seen scudding over the waters like sea-gulls dallying with their native element, or stood in and insulted the enemy on his own shores, cutting out his vessels, or dismantling his forts. By land Britain armed from one end to the other to repel the threatened invasion. Every hill had its horseman, every bush its sharpshooter. Petitions were put into our liturgy to deliver us from an insolent and merciless foe, who " was about to swallow us up quick ;" nor was there a church door in the remotest corner of Great Britain on which was not posted a call on high and low, rich and poor, to bestir them- selves in the common defence, which roused the hopes and fears of even the meanest rustic into a flame of martial enthusiasm. Camps formed on the English shore opposite France were frequently visited by the King in person. The regular army amounted to one hundred thousand, the militia to eighty thousand, and three hundred and fifty thousand volunteers were under arms. The courage and resolution of these newly-formed soldiers was put to the proof on several occasions by the energy with which they marched to the supposed point of attack, when the beacons on different hills were lighted under a false alarm. Had Napoleon effected a landing he would have met with an opposition far exceeding anything he anticipated- A. ('■•' 1 I 1 N&# \ m '."-' dttrUiSi? 1Mb JJKAGOONS ON THE MARCH. CHAPTER XXIII. CONSPIRACY OF GEORGES CADOUDAL— PICHEGRU AND MOREAU— CONSPIRATORS ARRESTED— THE DUKE D'ENGHIEN SEIZED, TRIED, AND EXECUTED— DEATH OF PICHEGRU— CAPTAIN WRIGHT — HIS DEATH — TRIAL OF GEORGES AND MOREAU — EXECUTION OF GEORGES — MOREAU BANISHED — PROTESTS OF FOREIGN COURTS. THE beginning of 1804 was a period of dark intrigues against the life and Go- vernment of the First Consul, which he unravelled more after the manner of an inquisitor than the head of a great country; leaving his name sullied with treachery and cruelty. When the Ministry of Police was suppressed after the Peace of Amiens M. Real, a councillor of state, had the superintendence of everything connected with the general system of surveillance in concert with the grand judge. Fouche, however, had not laid aside his occupation, though it was offi- cially taken from him ; and he, aware of the intrigues of 1804, was among the first to fill the mind of the First Consul with exaggerated suspicions. Intercepted let- ters, hinting at a speedy change in the Government, and reports of apparent disaffection in La Vendee, occasioned the mission to that province of Savarv, who held the post of colonel of the legion called gendarmes d'elite, or chosen body of military police. He put himself in communication with a former Vendean chief, and observing that the country people were in an excited state, ready for a fresh revolt, and fully expecting the return of Georges Cadoudal, Savary returned to Paris. Napoleon had examined the lists of suspected persons kept by the police, had caused several arrests, and brought some to trial who had been detained in prison for months. Two of these were executed, but would confess nothing. A clue was next obtained to the existence of danger in another direction. A party of emigrants had lately settled in the territory of Baden. It was ascertained that Mr. Drake and Mr. Spencer Smith, the British residents at the Courts of Munich and Stuttgard, maintained a correspondence with these persons. The French Government employed a spy named Mehee de la Touche, who returned with certain sums ot money given to him by the credulous Englishmen to forward the Royalist cause, and with the 181 1 82 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. information that they kept up a correspondence with the emigrants of Baden, as well as those of the interior, in the hope of fomenting a Royalist insurrection, having for an auxiliary the Baroness Von Reich, long known as an active promoter of anti-revolutionary plots. It is certain, however, that no plans of assassination were entertained by these gentlemen. Napoleon selected for trial Querel, formerly a surgeon in the rebel army, and arrested two months before. This man on being led to execution declared he had confessions to make which concerned the life of the First Consul. Being promised a pardon, he declared that he had been in Paris six months ; that he had come from England with Georges Cadoudal and six other persons ; that they were landed at the cliff of Beville, near Dieppe, by a cutter of the British navy ; that they had been since joined by fourteen more, all landed in the same way; and, finally, that another landing was shortly to take place at the same spot. He described the man who received them on landing, the farmhouses at which they lodged, and declared that all his companions in the adventure were now in Paris. The whole of the party were under the direction and ready to obey the orders of Georges Cadoudal. Paris was surrounded by a cordon of troops, and the barriers were shut night and day. The lists of suspected persons in the vicinity of Dieppe were consulted. The son of a watchmaker, named Troche, was arrested, brought to Paris, and con- fronted with Querel, who recognized him as an agent in the disembarkations, and he was -easily induced to turn traitor and act as guide to the police. Savary, accompanied by Troche, was dispatched to Dieppe with a party of gendarmes all disguised. Inquiring upon his arrival for the signals of the coast, he was informed that an English cutter was off Treport. Guided by Troche, he went to the cot- tages at which the conspirators had been received, where he found provisions made ready for the expected landing. About dusk the cutter stood in towards shore, so as to be able with a single tack to reach sufficiently near to send a boat to the foot of the cliff. Troche declared it to be the same cutter which had already landed three parties. At nightfall Savary posted himself with his gendarmes at the outlet of a deep ravine, near the foot of the cliff of Beville, which rises abruptly from the sea to the height of two hundred and fifty feet. The weather was stormy and the ground covered with snow. At the extremity of the cliff was an apparatus for smuggling, into all the secrets of which Savary was now initiated by his perfidious guide. It consisted of a rope about the thickness of a merchant- man's cable, fixed perpendicularly against the cliff, and fastened to stout stakes driven in for the purpose. The man who ascended last always coiled it up and deposited it in its appropriate place. It was an ancient establishment. The country people religiously kept the secret of its existence. It had its regular super- intendents, and the smugglers punctually paid the charge imposed upon them for its use. By this rope Georges and all those concerned in his undertaking had entered France. The landing, however, could not this time be effected. Savary watched six or seven nights, during which time the sea continued too rough to allow the attempt, and the cutter sailed off, probably warned of the impending danger. The country people had no idea that those who had landed were other than smugglers, and they evinced far more concern at the loss of their rope than at learning that Georges had been introduced into the country. Meanwhile fresh discoveries had been made in Paris. An emigrant named Bouvet de Lozier having been arrested, attempted suicide in prison, and in the struggles of returning consciousness uttered exclamations in the hearing of his gaolers which implicated Pichegru (who was supposed to be in England) in the conspiracy, and raised suspicions against Moreau. The latter general had held himself aloof from the First Consul since the 18th Brumaire. His former posi- sition of general of the army of the Rhine had placed him in rivalry with the general of the army of Italy ; and this feeling., which Moreau appears to have en- couraged, had never been forgotten, and had spread widely among all the soldiers he had commanded, with whom he was very popular. He had taken no part in 1804.] ROYALIST AND CHOUAN PLOTS. I«5 public affairs, but was regarded as a Republican. The soundness of his principles, however, had been doubted since Pichegru's defection in 1797, when he con- cealed his knowledge for several months of the treachery that general had medi- tated. He had besides married a Royalist lady of an intriguing disposition. Foi all these reasons he was suspected, and arrested on his way from his country house to Paris. Pichegru, betrayed for a large sum of money by the pretended friend at whose "house he lay concealed, was seized in the night while in bed, but not without a desperate resistance. All the rest of the persons implicated, to the number of forty, were taken soon afterwards. Amongst them were the Marquess de Polignac and M. Jules de Polignac (the confidant of the Count d'Artois), Charles de Riviere, and other Royalists of distinction. Georges Cadoudal was stopped in a cabriolet on the 9th of March by two agents of the police, one of whom he shot dead, and wounded the other, but was overpowered by the crowd before he could escape. He had been traversing Paris in this manner for several days, afraid to enter any house. A large sum of money was found in his possession. ARREST OF GEORGES CADOUDAL. Finding resistance vain, he openly boasted of the purpose for which he had come to Paris. By the confessions of Georges' attendants it appeared that this despe- rate Chouan had actually made more than one attempt to assassinate Napoleon, having on one occasion penetrated into the Tuileries disguised as a domestic. This plot against the First Consul excited indignation throughout France. Ad- dresses poured in from every department and almost every town throughout the Republic, congratulating him and themselves on his escape, and invoking the ven- geance of the law on the conspirators. The spirit of the army was roused to the highest pitch of enthusiasm for their chief. Had Moreau been brought before a council of war at this moment, all his former reputation would not have saved his life. Napoleon, deeply affected at the demonstrations of affection he received, still felt he had not unravelled the whole scheme. For whom was Georges act- ing ? Who, supposing the attempt at assassination had succeeded, was intended to come forward and step into the vacant seat of power ? An expectation that one of the Bourbon Princes was yet to be landed at Beville was hinted at by some of the prisoners. Others described a person of distinction who appeared every ten or twelve days at the lodgings of Georges, to whom all present, includ- ing the Polignacs and De Riviere, showed extraordinary respect. The only Bour- bon Prince known to be in the neighbourhood of France was the Duke d'Enghien, 1 84 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. who then resided at Ettenheim, in the territory of Baden, on the right bank of" the Rhine. He was the son of the Duke of Bourbon, grandson of the Prince of Conde, and the last of his house ; was known to be brave and resolute, having led the van of the emigrant army, and fought with the greatest valour on every occasion. The intrigues of the English residents at Munich and Stuttgard added their weight to the present suspicions. It was determined to dispatch an emissary to observe the motions of the Duke d'Enghien. The British Government resolved to avail themselves of the state of public feel- ing in France, and engage the partisans of Royalty in a fresh attack upon the Consular Government. Little success was to be hoped for unless Moreau could be brought to join the conspiracy. This was esteemed possible; and notwithstand- ing the disagreement, personal as well as political, which had subsisted betwixt nim and Pichegru, the latter undertook to become the medium of communication betwixt Moreau and the Royalists. Escaped from the deserts of Cayenne, to which he had been exiled, Pichegru had for some time found refuge and support in London, and there openly professed his Royalist principles. A scheme was in agitation for raising the Royalists in the west, and the Duke de Berri was to make a descent on the coast of Picardy to favour the insurrection. The Duke d'Enghien fixed his residence, under the protection of the Margrave of Baden, at the chateau of Ettenheim, with the purpose of being ready to put him- self at the head of the Royalists in the east of" France, or, if occasion should offer, in Paris itself. Captain Wright, the commander of a British brig of war, put Pichegru and some of his companions ashore on the coast of Morbihan. Georges saw the greatest obstacle to their enterprise in the existence of Bonaparte, and resolved to commence by his assassination. Pichegru was constantly in company with Georges, and could not be ignorant of this purpose, although better befitting the fierce chief of a band of Chouans than the conqueror of Holland. Napoleon had retired to Malmaison when he received the report returned by the emissary who had been dispatched to Ettenheim It stated that the Duke d'Enghien was frequently visited by the emigrants of Baden, one of whom was believed to be General Dumouriez, and that he was known to give them money. It stated further that he went almost every week to the theatre at Strasburg, that he was frequently absent eight, ten, or twelve days without any one knowing where he was. He had a passion for hunting, and these long absences might be spent in the Black Forest to follow this favourite pastime ; but it was also a plausible supposition that they were occasioned by secret visits to Paris, and that the person described as visiting Georges from time to time, who was treated with extraordinary marks of respect, was no other than this Prince. It had been asserted that he ventured to Paris in the time of the Directory, when the affairs of the Republic seemed desperate, and that Bernadotte, then Minister at War, warned him to make his escape. The whole train of circumstances determined Napoleon to a course of action which, having once begun, he pursued to its consequences. He called a council, consisting of the two Consuls, the Grand Judge, Talleyrand and Fouche> in which the seizure of the Duke d'Enghien by force was discussed. Cambaceres alone opposed this measure, but was overruled by Talleyrand. The First Consul having collected the voices which supported the proposition, went to his cabinet to dictate the order for the arrest of the Duke d'Enghien. It was dated the ioth of March, 1804, and directed General Ordener to go secretly to Strasburg, to trans- port three hundred dragoons and three or four brigades of gendarmerie across the Rhine at Rheinau, to proceed to the residence of the Duke d'Enghien, take him prisoner and bring him to Paris. The order also directed the seizure of all the papers belonging to the Duke, and the arrest of the supposed General Dumouriez. The commands of Napoleon were expeditiously obeyed. The Duke Avas seized in his bed on the morning of the 15th of March, and, together with seven of his friends and three domestics, was carried to Strasburg, where he remained three days. It was here ascertained that the supposed Dumouriez was in fact General i8o4.] ARREST OF THE DUKE D'ENGHIEN. I8 5 NAPOLEON READING ORDENER'S REPORT AT MALMAISON. Thumery. The Duke was now removed from all his companions with the excep- tion of his aide-de-camp the Baron St. Jaques. Early in the morning of the 18th he was ordered to prepare for a journey. The linen he was permitted to take amounted to two shirts only — an ominous circumstance. He was conveyed with secresy and speed to Paris, where he arrived on the 20th, and was committed for a few hours to the Temple ; but before nightfall he was transferred to the castle of Vincennes, an ancient Gothic fortress about a mile beyond the walls of the city. A Consular decree dated the same day ordered that " the heretofore Duke d'Enghien, accused of having borne arms against the Republic and of having been and still being in the pay of England, for taking part in the plots contrived by that Power against the internal and external safety of the Republic, is to be brought before a court - martial composed of seven members appointed by the Governor of Paris, which court will assemble at Vincennes." The Grand Judge Regnier, Talleyrand as Minister at War, and Murat then Governor of Paris, were charged with the execution of this decree. The military commission, composed of seven colonels of the army, reached Vincennes about five in the evening. General Hullin, Governor of Vincennes, was president. Shortly afterwards Savary with a brigade of infantry marched into the castle, which had been already garrisoned by the gendarmerie d' elite and a detachment of cavalry The Duke d'Enghien, overcome with fatigue, retired to bed on his arrival at Vincennes, and was roused at midnight to reply to the interrogatories of a military commission. The Duke avowed his name and rank, that he had quitted France in 1789, and named the various countries in which he had since resided; he avowed also that he had served against France in the emigrant army of his grand- father the Prince of Conde from its formation until it was disbanded ; admitted that he received a pension from England, which was all he had to live on ; said that he had resided at Ettenheim for two years and a half, having official permis- sion from the Elector of Baden ; that he remained there only because the Emperor 186 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. allowed him the privilege of hunting, a diversion of which he was very fond ; but he requested to add that as the reasons which induced him to remain at Etten- heim no longer existed, he had proposed to remove to Fribourg in Bresgau, a much more agreeable town ; admitted that he had, as was natural, corresponded with his grandfather and his father ; also with certain friends in the interior of the Re- public who had formerly served with him, but only on private business ; denied having ever to his knowledge seen General Pichegru • knew that Pichegru had wished to see him, but was glad he never had if the reports of his accession to the odious measures in contemplation by the conspirators in Paris were true ; denied having ever seen Dumouriez. Above the signature of his name to the minutes of the foregoing interrogatories are the following words in the handwriting of the Duke :— " Before I sign the present minute I earnestly request to have a private audience with the First Consul. My name, my rank, my manner of thinking, and the horror of my situation induce me to hope that he will not refuse my request." At two o'clock in the morning the Duke was summoned to appear before the court-martial. The questions addressed to him, and his answers, were the same in import as those at the previous interrogatories, the only difference being a degree of haughty defiance in the answers of the Duke, arising probably from the neglect of the request he had made, and a perception that his fate was sealed. To his declaration that he had served against France he now added " that he was ready to take the field, and wished to serve in the new war of England against France." To his avowal that he received a pension from England he added the amount, — " one hundred and fifty guineas a month," and omitted the explanation that he depended on this allowance to defray private expenses. Being asked if he had anything to add to his grounds of defence, he replied "that he had nothing more to say." The president now desired the prisoner to be removed, and the court deliberated with closed doors. The following is a copy, both of the words and blank spaces, of the judgment recorded in their minutes : — - " The court, by an unanimity of voices, declared the prisoner guilty, and applied to him article of the law of the to this effect — — -, and in consequence condemned him to suffer the pain of death. Orders that the present judgment shall be executed forthwith, by the care of the captain-reporter, after causing it to be read to the prisoner in the presence of the different detachments of the corps of the garrison. "Done, closed and determined, without adjourning, at Vincennes the day, month, and year as above, and signed by us." Here follow the names of all the members of the court-martial, that of the secre- tary, Molin, being alone omitted, apparently by inadvertence. The document bears date 30th of Ventose, Year Twelve (21st of March, 1804). The official report of the sentence, which appeared the following day in the Moniteur differed from this, although it purported to be a copy. It was much longer ; the blanks were filled up by references to different laws, which were made to bear on the case as well as might be, and the name of the secretary was inserted. Two hours after the conclusion of the trial the Duke d' Enghien was summoned to follow the Commandant of Vincennes, M. Harel, and conducted by him down the winding stairs which led to the subterraneous part of the castle. As the cold and damp air met him in his descent, the Duke, pressing the arm of Harel, said, " Am I to be immured in a dungeon ? " Harel was much affected by the appeal, but answered nothing. The descent terminated at a postern which opened into the wide and spacious ditch of the fortress. The troops were drawn up under arms ; a party of gendarmes d' elite, under the command of Savary, being stationed as the executioners. It was now six o'clock in the morning, and the sun had risen, but as a heavy mist lay on the ground the yellow light of torches was mingled with the grey and gloomy atmosphere. The grave was already dug : the sentence was now read to the victim. He demanded a priest and was refused, upon which he 1804.] EXECUTION OF THE DUKE D'ENGHIEN. 1 87 knelt for a few minutes absorbed in prayer, and then rising, quickly took his station. He would not permit his eyes to be bandaged : the word was given, the soldiers fired, and he fell. The body in its clothes was hastily buried, the earth was closed over it, the crowd of living men who had assembled to compass the death of one bent their way into the world again, and silence settled over the ancient fortress and its new-made grave. The gloom which already pervaded the capital was increased by this sudden and seemingly mysterious transaction. The name of the Duke d'Enghien had not been heard among the long list of suspected persons when the news of his violent death spread abroad. Whatever were the First Consul's private feelings, he ob- served a profound silence, making no attempt to justify the deed, and after the official report which appeared in the Moniteur the Government never recurred to the subject. The Court of St. Petersburg went into mourning for the Prince, and entered a protest against the violation of the territory of Baden, as did the Swedish Government, which only elicited laconic replies from Talleyrand denying their right to interfere. None of the other continental Powers ventured to make any remonstrance. Josephine was deeply afflicted by the event, which she had used her influence to avert. All harsh and cruel measures were revolting to her nature ; her sympathies were aristocratic, and she had many friends in the emigrant party, amongst whom the transaction was of course regarded with horror. The Duke had confided to her care by the hands of Savary his portrait and a lock of his hair, '' to transmit to a lady who was dear to him," with whom he had lived at Ettenheim.* The Government was still collecting evidence for the trial of Georges and his accomplices, and the inquiries rendered it clear that the stranger whom the ser- vants of Georges had described as visiting their master at intervals, and whom the First Consul had suspected to be the Duke d'Enghien, was General Pichegru. There is no likelihood that the discovery of this fact at an earlier stage of the pro- ceedings would have averted the catastrophe at Vincennes, for it was only con- sidered as one circumstance among many. Still the First Consul experienced a shock when he learnt the truth. The interviews between Pichegru and Moreau were also proved ; but it appeared that Moreau would not listen to plans of assas- sination nor conform to Royalist principles, having on the contrary views of attain- ing to the Consular dignity himself, and preserving the Republic. Georges there- fore delayed his blow from the fear lest he might only dispatch the First Consul for the benefit of General Moreau. General Pichegru was found dead in his prison on the morning of the 7 th of April. His black silk cravat was tightly twisted round his throat, and to increase the tightness a small piece of wood about the length of a finger, which had been broken from a fagot still in his fireplace, had been slipped between his neck and cravat, and twisted round to act as a mechanical power, until reason forsook him. His head falling back had compressed the stick and prevented the cravat from untwisting. The enemies of the First Consul accused him of having caused the assassination of Pichegru, but there is no direct evidence in support of it ; and at St. Helena Napoleon indignantly denied the accusation, and showed how useless the death of Pichegru was to him. Had it been Moreau the motives would have * Napoleon at St. Helena said to Las Cases : — " Undoubtedly if I had been informed in time of certain circumstances respecting the opinions of the Prince and his disposition ; if above all I had seen the letter, which he wrote to me, and which, God knows for what reason, was only delivered to me after his death, I should certainly have forgiven him." " I asked," says Mr. O'Meara, "if it were true that Talleyrand had retained a letter written by the Duke d'Enghien to him until two days after the execu- tion? Napoleon's reply was, ' It is true. The Duke had written a letter offering his services and asking a command in the army from me, which Talleyrand did not make known until two days after his execution.' " Napoleon's will, however, records his later feelings: — "I caused the Duke d'Enghien to be arrested and tried because that step was essential to the safety, interest, and honour of the French people, when the Count d'Artois was maintaining by his own confession sixty assassins at Paris. Under similar circumstances I would again act in the same way." 1 88 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. been obvious. The conviction of Pichegru was certain, and his death prevented the proofs of Moreau's guilt from being completely established. Another death which happened in the following year has also been ascribed to Napoleon. Captain Wright, the commander of the English cutter who had put the conspirators ashore, was by a strange fatality wrecked on the coast of France and made prisoner. He was examined with the other prisoners, but refused to answer any questions w'lich might implicate his Government. He remained in the Temple as a prisoner of war, and towards the end of 1805 was found dead in his cell with his throat cut from ear to ear. Napoleon was then in Austria. The trial of Georges Cadoudal, General Moreau, and the other prisoners to the number of forty-nine, commenced on the 28th of May, and created a great ferment in Paris. It lasted for twelve days. Georges appeared with a miniature of Louis XVI. hung round his neck, openly avowed that he had come to Paris to assassinate Napoleon, and regretted his captivity because it had prevented his purpose. One of his judges who had been an old Jacobin and whose name was Teuriot, Georges called Tue-roi (Kill-king), and would sometimes call for brandy to wash his mouth after pronouncing the name or answering questions. Appearing one day without the picture of the King, Georges was asked by the judge what he had done with it, on which he replied, " And you, what have you done with the original ? " He was of course found guilty, and was condemned to death together with nineteen of his associates, amongst whom were the Marquess de Polignac and M. de Riviere. Moreau was found guilty and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, which was changed by Napoleon on the same night for permission to retire to America. Great interest was exerted by the families of the Polignacs and Rivieres to save the lives of their relations : at length Josephine introduced Madame de Polignac at St. Cloud, who, throwing herself at the feet of Napoleon, obtained his pardon for both. He did not confine his clemency to these great families. A poor girl who contrived to reach his presence gained for her brother the same grace which had been ex- tended to the beautiful Marchioness for her husband. Six more of the conspirators obtained a commutation of their sentence for exile or varying terms of imprison- ment. Georges and all the rest were executed on the 25th of June, and died with the utmost courage and without the slightest signs of contrition. The Royalist party were silenced by the issue of this conspiracy, which assisted to establish the power of Napoleon. THE DUKE DENGHIENS GRAVE. EXCELSIOR ! CHAPTER XXIV. NAPOLEON EMPEROR — THE IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION — PROTEST OF LOUIS XVIII. — THE EMPEROR AT THE CAMP OF BOULOGNE — NAPOLEON'S NEW TITLE RECOGNIZED BY THE EUROPEAN POWERS; ENGLAND, RUSSIA, AND SWEDEN, EXCEPTED — ARRIVAL OF POPE PIUS VII. AT PARIS — NAPOLEON'S CORONATION. 'HE title of First Consul, by which Napo- leon had been distinguished for more than four years, was exchanged, in May, 1804, for that of Emperor. This change made no alteration in the actual power he possessed, nor did it affect his habits, manners, or modes of thinking. The observance of some additional forms and ceremonies excepted, the Emperor Napoleon differed in no respect from the First Consul. The creation of the empire was, however, an event of import- ance to France. The imperial dignity was declared hereditary in the Bonaparte family ; certain high functionaries were declared necessary appendages to the throne, and, under various titles of distinction, were to be nominated by the Sovereign. With the creation of the empire, therefore, a civil order in possession of peculiar privileges, and the here- ditary system, were, by a gross abuse of power, violation of principle, and be- trayal of public confidence, once more introduced in France ; declared moreover to be established for the sake and by the will of the people. That the idea originated with Napoleon himself, and that the number of votes in favour of it, however great, represented only a small part of the nation, are important facts. The recognition of the right possessed by the people of altering their form of 1S9 190 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Government was, it is true, ostensibly maintained, and Napo'eon uniformly made it his boast that he derived his power from the people. Whether the establish- ment of the empire was a splendid error on the part of Napoleon or an act of wise policy, there was much in it of proud defiance to the scornful enemies who held him at nought, and more of deliberate conviction that it was essential to the safety and glory of France. The new order of things was in accordance with the policy which dictated the concordat, and was another manifestation of a tendency to work upon the existing tone of public feeling instead of labouring to raise public feeling to a higher standard. The re-establishment of the hereditary principle must be judged with reference to the peculiar circumstances of France at the moment. Fouche said "that the Republic could not exist in France: the ques- tion, therefore, was to insure the perpetual removal of the Bourbons ; and the only means for so doing was to transfer the hereditary succession of their throne to another family. Had I remained in office it is probable I might have prevented the conspiracy of Georges and Pichegru ; but Bonaparte would still have had to fear the rivalry of Moreau." The idea of the empire was first publicly broached in the Senate. On the occa- sion of framing the address of congratulation to the First Consul on his escape from the late conspiracy, Fouche rose and said, " that, in order to destroy the hopes of the conspirators, and to secure the permanent existence of the Govern- ment after the death of the reigning chief, other institutions were indispensable." The motion was seconded and inserted in the address. Napoleon answered the deputation by saying, " that the subject they had suggested required the greatest consideration; that for himself he wanted nothing; but that it was his duty to consider the lot of France, and what the future was likely to produce; and, finally, that he would accept no new title without submitting it to the sanction of the people." Numerous addresses were presented from all parts of the country, and from the army, echoing the suggestion of the Senate. Napoleon now proposed the three following questions to the Council of State for discussion in his absence : — " Is the hereditary form of Government preferable to the elective form ? Is it expedient to establish the hereditary form at this par- ticular juncture ? In what manner ought the hereditary form of Government to be established ? " A very long and sharp discussion, evincing great diversity of opinion, ensued. A report was at length drawn up, declaring — " That the prin- ciple of an hereditary chief magistrate is consonant with the manners of the nation, suitable to the population, and consistent with the extent of its dominions. That the proper moment for framing such an institution is when great dangers threaten the country, menacing the person of the First Consul by assassins armed against his life ; and when various other evils, springing out of the dangers of war, expose the head of the State to imminent risk. That the nation accordingly are ready to declare for the hereditary system, and at the same time to enter into a guarantee for the security of all those institutions and rights for which their armies have fought." So many amendments to the report were proposed that the council withdrew it, and each member presented his own separate answer direct to the First Consul. The Senate and the Tribunate were called upon by Napoleon to give their opinions, the legislative body not being then in session. Whilst the debates were thus protracted in the political bodies of the State, so great was the impatience of the military, that the garrison of Paris resolved to proclaim their chief as Em- peror at the first review ; and Murat, governor of the city, was obliged to assemble the officers at his house and bind them by a promise to restrain the troops. The spirit of the army at Boulogne was manifested by their voting the erection of a colossal statue of Napoleon, in bronze, to be placed in the midst of the camp. Every soldier subscribed a portion of his pay for the purpose ; but there was a want of bronze. Soult, who presided over the completion of the undertaking, went, at the head of a deputation, to Napoleon, and said, " Sire, lend me the iSo+] " I 7 VE L 'EMPEKE I r R .' " 191 bronze, and I will repay it in enemy's cannon at the first battle ; " and he kept his word. The motion " that the First Consul be invested with the hereditary power, under the title of Emperor," was brought forward in the Tribunate by M. Curee. It was combated by five or six members, Carnot in particular making an eloquent speech against it, concluding, " though he opposed, on grounds of conscience, the alteration of Government which had been proposed, he would nevertheless give it his unlimited obedience should it be adopted by the nation." The measure met with little opposition in the Senate. Volney, Gregoire, Sieyes, and Lanjuinais voted against it ; Cabanis and Praslin, with a few others, declined voting. An address was accordingly drawn up beseeching the First Consul to yield to the wishes of the nation. Registers for the reception of votes were opened in every parish, and NAPOLEON S RECEPTION OF SOULT AT BUULOGN1 a return of upwards of three million five hundred thousand for the measure, and about two thousand against it, showed that public opinion was in its favour. On the 1 8th of May the members of the Senate went in a body from Paris to St. Cloud to present their address. Cambaceres, as President of the Senate, read the speech and declared the number of votes registered by the people. Having concluded, he proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte Emperor of the French, the assembled Senators responding with a simultaneous shout of "Vive VEmpereur!" Napoleon replied in a few words, that " he accepted the Empire in order that he might labour for the happiness of the French." The Senate then proceeded to the apartments of Josephine to congratulate her on her new dignity. She was surrounded by the sisters of Napoleon, whose looks were expressive of satisfaction, mixed with some embarrassment, at their sudden elevation to royal rank. The natural grace and dignity of Josephine never failed her on any occasion, and they now effectually concealed the sad forebodings of an aching heart. The sound of cannon announced the news to the city of Paris. It created little sensation : there were some illuminations, some cavils, some caricatures and lampoons, but nothing 192 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. was materially altered by what had happened, and the Parisians were tired of discussing abstract principles. The constitution of the Empire was as follows : — The imperial power was declared hereditary in the person of Napoleon and the male line of his direct descendants. Failing these, Napoleon might adopt the sons or grandsons of his brothers in such order as he chose. In default of these, Joseph and Louis Bonaparte were declared lawful heirs of the empire, Lucien and Jerome being excluded because they had married contrary to the wish of Napoleon. The members of the Bonaparte family were declared Princes of the Blood. The imperial was the sole hereditary power in France ; all other offices in the State were elective or accorded to merit. There were two chambers — the Senate and the Legislative Body. The Tribunate was suppressed. The constitution of the Council of State remained the same as under the Consulate, and that constitution supplied, as far as such a void can be supplied, the want of a popular assembly. The Council of State was, as before, nominated by the Emperor. The system of election had been remodelled during the Con- sulate, and was continued in the Empire. Assemblies of cantons had been insti- tuted, composed of all the domiciliated citizens in each canton. These assemblies nominated the members of the electoral colleges, from amongst whom the members of the Legislative Body and the Senate were to be chosen. To be eligible as a member of the electoral college of either degree the pos- session of property or the fact of being a member of the Legion of Honour was requisite. At every vacancy the colleges chose two candidates for the vacant office, whether Legislator or Senator. One of these two candidates was finally chosen by the head of the State. The Grand Council was an appointment of the empire. It consisted of Joseph Bonaparte, who was named Grand Elector; Louis Bonaparte, High Constable ; Cambace'res, Arch-Chancellor ; and Lebrun, Arch-Treasurer. Eighteen generals were raised to the rank of marshals of the empire : they were Berthier, Murat, Moncey, Jourdan, Massena, Augereau, Ber- nadotte, Soult, Brune, Lannes, Mortier, Ney, Davoust, Bessieres, Kellermann, Lefevre, Perignon, and Serrurier. Duroc was named Grand Marshal of the Palace; Caulaincourt, Master of the Horse; Berthier, Grand Huntsman; and the Count Segur, a nobleman of the old Court, Master of the Ceremonies. M. Maret was continued in his office of Secretary. Bouirienne had been dismissed before Napoleon became Consul for life. The cause of his disgrace seems to have been some money transaction, which excited in Napoleon's mind the suspicion that his secretary took advantage of his situation to produce variations in the funds. Napoleon, however, shortly after the establishment of the Empire, had a long and friendly interview with him. On the 27th of May Napoleon received the oath of the Senate, the constituted bodies, the learned corporations, and the troops of the garrison of Paris. Louis XVIII. addressed a protest to all the Sovereigns of Europe against the usurpation of Napoleon. Fouche, who first heard of this document, communicated the intelligence to the Emper jr with a view to prepare him for giving timely orders to prevent its circulation, but great was his surprise on receiving directions to have it inserted in the Moniteur of the following morning. This was all the notice taken of the matter by Napoleon. The 14th of July was celebrated this year by a splendid ceremony. The members of the Legion of Honour took the oath prescribed by the new Constitution, and the first distribution of the crosses of the order was made on that day in the Hotel of the Invalides, the Emperor and Empress appearing in public for the first time in regal pomp. Two days afterwards the Emperor left Paris for Boulogne to preside over the same ceremony in the army. The Emperor's tent was pitched on a rising ground in the midst of a large plain, where a hundred thousand men were drawn up. The standards taken at Lodi, Areola, Rivoli, the Pyramids, Aboukir, and Marengo formed the background of the tent ; an immense crown of laurels surmounted it. 1804. ADVENTURE OF TWO ENGLISH SAILORS. 193 NAPOLEON DISTRIBUTING CROSSES OP THE LEGION OF HONOUR AT THE CAMP OF BOULOGNE. When Napoleon appeared two thousand drums beat the charge. He pronounced the words of the oath in a loud voice, and was answered by a simultaneous and deafening burst of acclamations from the assembled multitude. The distribution of the crosses then took place. Many favourable omens were also found or fancied by the soldiers. The remains of a Roman encampment were discovered on the spot whence the Emperor had addressed them. Some medals of William the Conqueror were also dug up, presaging a certain conquest of England. At this period an adventure of two English sailors became the universal talk of the camp. The poor fellows had made their escape from the depot for English prisoners of war at Verdun, and had contrived to subsist at Boulogne till they had constructed a raft of small pieces of wood, put together as well as they could manage with their knives. It was about four feet wide, very little longer, and 13 194 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. covered with sail-cloth. Seeing an English frigate off the coast, they had perched themselves on their frail float and put to sea, though nearly certain of being shot if they were taken or of being drowned if they got off. They had hardly gone a couple of furlongs when they were perceived by the custom house officers, who brought them back. The Emperor hearing of this extraordinary attempt, ordered the men and their boat-raft to be brought before him. " Is it possible," said he, looking at the sort of nut-shell to which they had trusted their lives, " that you meant to cross the sea in that?" "If your Majesty doesn't believe it," said one of them, " only give us leave, and you shall soon see us afloat." " I will," said the Emperor. " You are bold, enterprising men. I admire courage wherever I meet with it. But you shall not risk your lives. You are at liberty, and I will have you conveyed on board an English ship. When you return to London say how 1 esteem brave men, even when they are my enemies." Napoleon not only kept his word, but sent them off with several pieces of gold in their pockets. Rapp and the aides-de-camp standing round were not a little astonished at the interest excited by two sailors, who would otherwise have been shot as spies. It was believed at Paris that the Emperor's visit to Boulogne was only a pretext, and that the invasion of England was to be immediately attempted. The same idea had spread through the army ; but the scheme was farther than ever from its accomplishment. The flat-bottomed squadrons of the flotilla were sufficient to transport an immense force, and the army was in the finest condition ; but the difficulty of bringing round the ships of war to cover the landing was more and more apparent as the unconquerable power of the English navy became more unequi- vocal, and as the keen foresight of Napoleon perceived signs of an approaching continental war. He had, however, attained two objects by the accumulation of power on the coast. He had kept England in perpetual alarm, and thus occupied a portion of the energies that would otherwise have been employed mischievously, and he had concentrated, without exciting suspicion, an immense army, ready to act wherever he might choose, in the event of hostilities being renewed. Napoleon, while he remained at Boulogne, arranged* a new form of discipline for the Polytechnic School, which he now placed entirely under military regula- tions — a doubtful improvement, though the school maintains its reputation to the present day. He also instituted the decennial prizes, nine in number, of the value of four hundred pounds each, to be given every ten years, dating from the i8th Brumaire of the year 1799. All works of science, literature, and the arts, all useful inventions, all establishments devoted to the progress of agriculture or manufactures, published, known, or formed in the interval between each term, might contend for these prizes. It was arranged that Josephine should meet the Emperor in Belgium, and pro- ceed with him on a tour to the principal cities of that part of the empire. She joined him at the castle of Lacken, which had been repaired and newly furnished with great magnificence. They proceeded to Aix-la-Chapelle, where they received the congratulations of the ambassadors of Austria, Portugal, and Naples, on behalf of their respective Sovereigns. Spain had already sent an embassy. The various princes of the German empire paid their court in person. England, Russia, and Sweden stood aloof. During this journey Napoleon read Madame de Stael's " Delphine," just pub- lished. The work gave him fresh offence, and was the cause of her continued exile from Paris, probably on account of its attacks, open or implied, on the Catholic religion. " I do not like women who make men of themselves," said he, " any more than I like effeminate men. There is a proper part for every one to play in the world. What does all this vagrancy of imagination mean ? What is the result of it ? Nothing. It is all sentimental metaphysics and disorder of the mind." Not satisfied with placing himself on a par with the legitimate Sovereigns of Europe in titles and dignities, Napoleon resolved to outstrip them all in the 1804.] IMPERIAL ETIQUETTE. 195 •solemnity of his coronation. He determined that no less a dignitary than the Pope himself should crown him ; and instead of preparing to set off for Rome for the purpose, as Charlemagne in his day had done, he invited Pius VII. to visit Paris. The embassy was dispatched from Mayence to negotiate this affair. The Pope had no choice but to comply ; and being a finished gentleman, he complied with the best grace. The Emperor returned to Paris in October, after an absence of three months. 1"A mM& pi ■ ■ypw mm 1 .NAFOI.EON RECEIVING PIUS VII. The Pope left Rome in the beginning of November. He was received every- where on his journey with the greatest veneration. The precipices of the Alps had been secured by parapets, at the express orders of the Emperor, wherever they could expose the venerable pontiff to danger. On the 25th of November he reached Fontainebleau, where he was met by the Emperor, who, to avoid the ceremony of a formal reception of his Holiness, had contrived a hunting party in the forest, and accidentally came upon the road on horseback with his retinue at the moment the Pope's carriage was arriving. The Emperor dismounted, and, uncovering his head, received his Holiness, who immediately alighted with every mark of respect. They then proceeded to the palace of Fontainebleau in the Emperor's carriage. The manoeuvre by which Napoleon got over the difficult point of precedence is thus given by Savary : — " The Pope had got out at the left door in his white costume. The ground was dirty : . he did not like to step upon it with his white silk shoes, but was obliged to do so at last. The Emperor's car- riage, which had been purposely driven up, was advanced a few paces, as if from the carelessness of the driver ; but men were posted to hold the two doors open. After the meeting had taken place the Emperor took the right door, and an officer of the Court handed the Pope to the left ; so that they entered the carriage by the two doors at the same time. The Emperor naturally seated himself'on the right ; and this first step decided without negotiation the etiquette to be observed during the whole time that the Pope was to remain at Paris." Apartments were appropriated to his Holiness in the Tuileries. and the bed- chamber prepared for him was fitted up precisely in the same manner as his own 13 — 2 196 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. in the palace of Monte-Cavallo at Rome. The Parisians treated their unaccus- tomed guest with every possible consideration ; and his countenance, figure, and manner, were calculated to increase their good feeling towards him. On the 1 st of December the lists of votes in favour of the establishment of the hereditary succession of the empire were publicly presented by the Senate to Na- poleon. On the following day (2nd December, 1804) his coronation took place in the cathedral of Notre Dame. The capital was thronged with crowds of visitors from every part of France. The people were represented at the ceremony by deputations of the presidents of the cantons, the presidents of the electoral col- leges, and the whole corps of the Legislative Body, which had been convoked in the month of October ; the army by deputations from every regiment. By all these, increased to a vast multitude of spectators of the highest station in the country, the walls of the splendid old cathedral were clothed with what a spectator has described as " living tapestry," galleries having been erected almost to the roof. The Pope first left the Tuileries, and went in procession to the cathedral, pre- ceded, according to established custom, by his chamberlain on a mule, which novel sight excited the risibility of the Parisians. The Emperor and Empress, in an open carriage, traversed Paris through a great crowd of spectators, who looked on the procession rather coldly. They first seated themselves with their backs to the horses by mistake, and though the error was instantly rectified, it was observed, and said to be " an evil omen." They and their whole retinue arrayed themselves in splendid robes in the Archbishop's palace, and with the long and gorgeous line of courtiers, marshals, and dignitaries, in gold and rich colours and waving plumes, gained the cathedral by a long gallery erected for the purpose. At the moment the Emperor appeared in the cathedral there was one simultaneous shout of " Vive I'Empereiir!" Mass was said and the crown blessed by the Pope ; but not even the supreme pontiff was permitted to place it upon the head of Napoleon. It was placed there by his own hand ; immediately removed ; and again by his own hand placed on the head of Josephine ; then laid on the cushion where it had rested before. This action, however extraordinary, is intelligible and characteristic. Napoleon had accomplished everything by inherent power ; and that the trembling hand of an individual — an aged Ceremony — who had not assisted his rise, could not destroy his position, and whom he had caused to journey from a throne of spiritual do- minion to " swell the scene " of his ascendancy, should confer even the symbol of his authority, seemed intolerable to him. His act was a direct negation of " divine right " and " legitimacy." The act is not likely to have been one of mo- mentary impulse or impatience, as some writers aver ; we should rather conjecture that — as in the case of his first interview with the Pope — the movements of the whole scene had been pre-arranged. The Emperor took his coronation oath with his hand on the Scriptures. Te Deum was sung. The heralds proclaimed that " the thrice glorious and thrice august Napoleon, Emperor of the French, was crowned and installed ; " and so ended the pageant. On the same day Louis XVIII., then living at Calmar, drew up a declaration to the French people in which he swore "never to break the sacred bond which united his destiny to theirs; never to renounce the inheritance of his ancestors or to relinquish his rights." A singular incident occurred just before the coronation. It proves that some of the earlier scenes of Napoleon's life were then in his memory, excited probably by the sight of Josephine, the object of the ardent passion of his youth, now beside him in the robes of an Empress. When Josephine accepted him as her husband he was very poor, neither indeed was rich enough to keep a carriage, and they frequently walked out together. They went one day to the house of M. Raguideau, a lawyer in whom Josephine placed great confidence, to acquaint him of her in- tention to marry the young general of artillery, Napoleon waiting for her in an outer room. The lawyer strongly dissuaded Madame de Beauharnais from her i8o 4 .] AFTER THE CORONATION. 197 imprudent marriage. "You are going to take a very wrong step," said he, "and you will be sorry for it. Can you be so mad as to marry a young man who has nothing but his cloak and his sword?" The door of the anteroom was imperfectly closed and the words reached Napoleon, who never told Josephine that he had heard this advice given her ; nor did she ever mention it to him. Her astonish- ment was therefore great when, after putting on the imperial robes, as they were on the point of leaving the Archbishop's palace to proceed in state to the cathedral to assume the crown, Napoleon desired that M. Raguideau should be sent for. Still more was she surprised when the low-bowing lawyer appeared, and the Emperor addressing him with humorous gravity said, "Well, Raguideau, have I nothing but my cloak and my sword now ? " The grand ceremony of distributing to the army the imperial eagles in lieu of the national colours took place the day after the coronation on the Champ de Mars, where Napoleon was seated on a throne erected in front of the military school, the scene of his boyhood. At a signal the columns closed and approached him. He then rose, gave orders for the distribution of the eagles, and then ad- dressed the troops : — " Soldiers, behold your colours ! these eagles will always be your rallying-point. They will always be where your Emperor may think them necessary for the defence of his throne and his people. Swear to sacrifice your lives to defend them, and by your courage to keep them constantly in the path of victory, — swear ! " On that day Mr. Pitt signed the Treaty of Stockholm and paid a subsidy to Sweden to commence hostilities against France. This was the first step of a new continental war. The Emperor foreseeing his own absence from Paris in the impending war, and thinking it necessary to preserve the public tranquillity and detect any cabals in favour of the Bourbons, re-established the Ministry of Police, Fouche again receiving the appointment. The year 1804 terminated with the opening of the Legislative Body; the Em- peror presided and was warmly applauded when he energetically declared, " My object is not to extend the territory of France, but to maintain that territory in- violate." NAPOLEON IN THE TRIBUNE. CHAPTER XXV. RUSSIA S HOSTILE ATTITUDE TOWARDS FRANCE — LETTER OF NAPOLEON TO GEORGE III. — COM- PLETION OF THE CIVIL CODE — NAPOLEON CROWNED AT MILAN AS KING OF ITALY — THIRD COALITION AGAINST FRANCE — FRENCH ARMY ADVANCES ON AUSTRIA — CAPITULATION OF ULM — NAPOLEON ENTERS VIENNA — BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ — RETREAT OF THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER — NAPOLEON GRANTS AN ARMISTICE TO AUSTRIA. IN January 1805 the Emperor Alexander plainly showed that his refusal to recognize the new title of Napo- leon was to be followed by active hostilities against France. Rus- sian ships menaced Italy, landed troops on the Ionian Islands, and appeared to be acting in concert with the English ; others passed the Sound and the Dardanelles. Sweden had already manifested ill-will towards Napoleon ; Tur- key, influenced by Russia, also refused to acknowledge him. The French ambassadors were recalled from the Courts of Constantinople and St. Petersburg. While enemies thus surrounded France, Great Britain irritated Spain by aggressions against its commerce and shipping. The Spanish Government in consequence declared war against England and became the active ally of Napoleon, engaging to aid him with thirty ships of war and five thousand men. At this moment, when the coming storm darkened over Europe, Napoleon addressed the King of England in a letter proposing peace. The time he chose was so far favourable to the chance of success, that in consequence of the Spanish alliance his navy was greatly increased, and with it the probability of attempting the long-meditated invasion of England ; a peace therefore which would have relieved England from the necessity of standing perpetually on its guard, might under ordinary circumstances have appeared desirable. But it is scarcely possible 198 i8o 5 .] 1 ETTER TO THE KING OF ENGLAND. I99 i'APOLEON 1MPERAT0R. that after all the events of the last war and the short peace Napoleon expected any amicable result from the overture. He must have learned before this period that the Sovereigns of Europe warred against him for a principle which they would never relinquish while the power to contend for it remained. Probably the chief object of this letter was to display before the world the true cause of the renewal of war. He commenced, " Sir, my brother ; " a salutation sufficient of itself to irritate a King who had refused to acknowledge his title. " France and England," he continued, " abuse their prosperity. They may struggle for ages. But will their Governments thus fulfil the most sacred of their duties? And so much blood uselessly spilt, will it not rise up in accusation against them ? I attach no dis- honour to taking the first step in this matter. I have sufficiently, I think, proved to the world that I fear none of the chances of war." He concluded with, "May your Majesty believe in the sincerity of the sentiments I have expressed and my desire to give proofs of this sincerity." He was answered by an official despatch from Lord Mulgrave, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to Talleyrand, acknow- ledging the receipt by his Majesty of a letter addressed to him by the " head of the French Government." and declaring that Great Britain could not make a pre- cise reply to the proposal of peace intimated in Napoleon's letter without a previous 200 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. communication with her allies, and in particular the Emperor of Russia. War was therefore at hand. Lord Mulgrave's letter was dated the 14th of January. Five days afterwards the treaty between England and Russia was completed, in which they bound themselves to co-operate in forming a league on the continent to reduce France to the limits of 1792, by forcing its Government to relinquish all the conquests and acquisitions made since that period. A secret assurance was given by Russia that Austria would join this league, and both Powers knew well that the neutrality of Prussia depended on the events of the war, and would be turned into hostility against France should evil fortune attend its arms. Count Cobentzel, Minister for Austria, meanwhile remained at Paris, and no outward demonstration of ani- mosity took place ; but the proceedings of the French Emperor, and more par- ticularly his increasing ascendancy in Italy, were jealously watched. When the English Ministry asked Parliament for "a sum not exceeding three million five hundred thousand pounds, to enable his Majesty to enter into such engagements and take such measures as the exigences of affairs demand," mem- bers of the Opposition questioned the grounds on which a continuance of hostilities and of such consequent heavy expenditure were justified. Mr. Fox said that " instead of declining to treat, we should have offered to France reasonable terms of peace ;" while Mr. Grey (afterwards Lord Grey) reminded the House that thirty millions had already been added to the capital of our debt since the com- mencement of the war. Loud complaints were also made against the sudden attack upon Spain, by which the Ministry had given England an open enemy and presented France with an ally. The Ministers urged in their defence that Spain while pretending neutrality furnished arms and money to Napoleon. Simultaneously with these events a well-deserved public honour was rendered to Napoleon in commemoration of the completion of his great Civil Code. His statue, executed by Chaudet, was placed in the hall of the Legislative Body on the 14th of January with circumstances of great magnificence and solemnity, at which he was himself present, together with the Empress, the Imperial Family, and all the dignitaries of the State. "The good produced by the introduction of the 'Code Napoleon' is well known," savs Prince Napoleon Louis Bonaparte (the late Emperor Napoleon III.) in his " Idees Napoleoniennes " ; " it had placed many parts of the legislation in har- mony with the principles of the Revolution, and considerably diminished the number of lawsuits by simplifying causes. But this code did not satisfy the desire of the Emperor; he projected an universal one which should include all the laws of the country within itself, and which would enable him to proclaim once for all as null and void every law which was not inscribed in that single code. ' For,' added he, when talking on this subject, 'by means of some old edicts of Chilperic or Pharamond, disinterred for the occasion, there is no one who is able to say that he is perfectly secure against being duly and lawfully hanged.'" This further work his wars did not give him time to accomplish. A superb banquet and ball, given in honour of the Empress, at which the Em- peror was also present, followed the ceremony in the hall of the Legislative Body. Napoleon continued to be remarkable for aiduous attention to business. M. de Bausset, then Prefect of the Palace, tells us that every morning at nine o'clock the Emperor came out of his apartments dressed for the day. The officers of the household were the first admitted, and received his different orders. Immediately afterwards the grandes entrees we're introduced, consisting of persons of the highest rank, who were entitled to this privilege either by their functions or by special favour. Napoleon addressed each person in turn, and listened good-naturedly to all that was said to him ; the round being made, he bowed, and every one with- drew. Sometimes those who had any particular request to make remained alone with him a few minutes. At half-past nine breakfast was served. The Prefect of the Palace went before him into the saloon where he was to breakfast, and there i8o 5 .] IMPERIAL COURT LIFE. 201 IMPERIAL BALL AT THE TUILERIES. waited on him, assisted by the first maitre the general for orders. Presently the terrible signal, " In the name of the Holy Trinity cut all loose!" was heard. Huge rocks and trunks of trees, laid in heaps- for the purpose, descended rapidly in every direction, while the deadly fire of the Tyrolese, who never throw away a shot, opened from every bush, crag, or corner of rock which could afford cover. As this attack was made on the whole line at once, two-thirds of the enemy were instantly destroyed, while the Tyrolese, rushing from their shelter with swords, spears, axes, scythes, clubs, and all rustic imple- ments which could be converted into weapons, routed the remainder. Peace put an end to this fierce struggle. Austria, failing to secure the Tyro- lese by treaty, exhorted them to lay down their arms, and as they were unable to contend singly against France, they obeyed. Hofer and about thirty leaders in the war were put to death on the submission of the country to Bavaria. It is diffi- cult to decide whether the heartless inaction of the Emperor Francis or the tyran- nous revenge of the Emperor Napoleon in this transaction is the more execrable. English Ministers displayed another instance of their customary spirit of pro- crastination. Exactly eight days after the armistice of Znaim, which assured them that Austria was no longer in a position to profit by or co-operate with their pro- ceedings, they sent more than eighty thousand fighting men, under the command of Lord Chatham, to besiege Antwerp. The troops disembarked on the islands of South Beveland and Walcheren. Flushing surrendered on the 15th of August, but here the success of the expedition terminated. Bernadotte had been sent to defend Antwerp. Fouche, who acted as Minister of the Interior in Napoleon's absence, conferred this appointment, which displeased the Emperor. Bernadotte put Antwerp in a complete state of defence, assembled thirty thousand men within its walls, inundated the country by opening the sluices, and erected strong bat- teries on both sides of the Scheldt. The passage of the river was thus rendered nearly impossible. The British naval and military officers disagreed as to the management of their forces ; the original objects of the expedition were aban- doned ; the navy returned to England ; while the military, concentrated for no conceivable purpose in the island of VValcheren, perished by thousands, of malig- nant fever. At length, after the loss of more lives than might have been sacrificed in three battles, the fortifications of Flushing were blown up, and a miserable rem- nant of the British forces returned ingloriously to their own country. Operations against Naples proved equally abortive, owing rather to delay and incapacity in the mode of conducting them than to any skill or energy on the part of Murat. In Spain alone English arms were successful. Sir Arthur Wellesley won the battle of Talavera on the 28th of July. His victory was, however, almost neutralized by the bad conduct of the Spaniards and the scanty supply of money afforded him. The French troops assembling from all quarters, left him no alter- native but a retreat on Portugal, and for want of means of transport, which the Spaniards ought to have provided, he was obliged to leave behind fifteen hundred of his wounded. They met with care and attention from Soult, but the circum- stance is sufficient to show the extent of Spanish ingratitude. Had even a part of the men and material wasted on the two unfortunate expeditions to the Scheldt and Italy been placed under Sir Arthur's command, the long-protracted war in the Peninsula might have been brought to a speedy close. After the battle of Tala- vera Wellesley was elevated to the peerage, with the title of Lord Wellington. At Schonbrunn Napoleon attended to the Papal affairs. The Emperor having by decree stripped the Pope of his temporal sovereignty, Imperial agents seized the Government despite the bull of excommunication issued against them and their master. The Pope barricaded himself in the Quirinal. French soldiers were insulted in the streets, and a popular commotion endangered the public peace. General Miollis, who had repeatedly urged his Holiness to submit to the Em- I809.J SEIZURE OF POPE PIUS VII. 297 KlDiNAPPING THE POPE. peror, adopted a measure only carried out under stress of circumstances. General Radet forcibly entered the Quirinal on the night of the 5th of July (the eve of the battle of Wagram), and seizing the Pope, conveyed him to Florence, and thence across the Alps to Grenoble. The people of the north of Italy did not see un- moved the head of the Church travelling as a State prisoner under a guard of soldiers. Crowds prostrated themselves to implore his benediction as he passed. Whether the Emperor would have ordered this step is doubtful ; it is certain that he sanctioned it, and subsequently brought Pius VII. to Fontainebleau. To unite the whole peninsula of Italy into one State, of which Rome should be the capital, its ancient monuments preserved and restored to their former splendour, had long been a favourite dream with Napoleon, and the removal of the Pope seemed to bring its accomplishment nearer. While negotiations for peace lingered Napoleon covered Vienna with a large entrenched camp on the left bank of the Danube. He reviewed the corps of Davoust on the field of Austerlitz, and went over all the localities of the remark- able events of that battle.' Shortly after returning to Schonbrunn, towards the end of September, while reviewing some regiments of the line in the court of the palace, Napoleon was addressed in broken French by a young man who sprang from the crowd. Not understanding what had been said, the Emperor referred him to General Rapp, who desired the gendarmes to remove him. This inter- ruption had been forgotten when, at another point of his progress along the line, Napoleon was confronted by the youth, who now held his right hand in his breast, as if to draw out a petition, again uttering a few broken sentences. " I cannot comprehend what you say," replied the Emperor; "speak to General Rapp." Berthier seized the youth by the arm, saying, "You are importunate, sir; you have been referred to General Rapp." The hand which held the supposed peti- tion was removed from its position by Berthier's grasp, and the handle of a large kitchen knife became visible. On being drawn out by a gendarme, the blade was found enclosed in a scabbard made of brown paper, sewed together with coarse thread. The bearer of this weapon was removed to the quarters of Savary. He was about eighteen, with a feminine cast of countenance, and stated that he was the son of a Protestant minister at Erfurt, named Staps. He openly avowed his determination to kill Napoleon, in order to restore peace to his country. On leaving Erfurt, he wrote to his father saying he had undertaken a journey, and something would shortly be heard of him. He had been two days in Vienna, to obtain information respecting the Emperor's habits, and was at parade on a former 298 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. occasion to fix on the spot for the deed. He then purchased from a cutler the knife found, and returned to the parade for the purpose of accomplishing his design. Asked what had been the nature of his studies, he replied, " History ; and nothing has so much excited my emulation as the life of the Maid of Orleans, because she freed France from its enemies, and I felt a desire to follow her example." Napoleon asked to see the intended assassin, and was so surprised at his youth and gentle appearance, that he exclaimed in a tone of compassion, " The thing is quite impossible ! this is but a lad." He then asked him if he knew the Emperor. " Yes, sire," replied the stranger, with the utmost composure. "Napoleon. — Where have you seen me before? " Staps. — At Erfurt, sire, last spring. IN THE MARCHFELD. "Napoleon. — Why did you wish to assassinate me? " Staps. — Because, sire, your genius soars far above that of your enemies, and has rendered you the scourge of our country. "Napoleon. — But I did not begin the war : why do you not kill the aggressor? There would be less injustice in your doing so. "Staps. — I admit that your Majesty is not the author of the war; but it was much easier to kill you than your enemies, who exceed you in numbers, though individually they are less to be feared. Besides, if I had killed any of them, others would have taken their places, but it would not be easy to find another like you. " Napoleon. — How would you have tried to kill me ? " Staps. — I intended to ask if we should soon have peace ; and if you had not answered my question, I should have plunged the knife in your heart. "Napoleon. — But the officers who surround me would have arrested your arm before you could have struck me, and they would have torn you to pieces. .] SIGNATURE OF PEACE AT VIENNA. 299 " Staps. — I was aware of that, but was prepared to die in the attempt. " Napoleon. — If I were to order you to be set at liberty, would you return to your parents, and abandon your project ? " Staps. — Yes, sire, if we had peace ; but if the war continued I should carry it into effect." This startling answer induced the Emperor to summon Corvisart and desire him to feel the pulse of the young man, under the idea that his brain was disordered. Corvisart declared that the pulse was only quickened by nervous emotion. Staps was accordingly removed, and as the treaty of peace was very shortly signed, Napo- leon departed for France, leaving him still in prison. He was tried before a mili- tary commission, and condemned to be shot. His conduct was marked by the STAPS LED TO EXECUTION. same resolution which he had displayed on his first examination. He refused all nourishment, saying that "he had strength enough to go to his death." When informed at the place of execution that peace was signed, he exclaimed enthusi- astically, " Liberty and Germany ! " These were his last words. Tyrannicides are perhaps the least culpable among shedders of human blood, and certainly this misguided youth should have been pardoned by Napoleon. If the Emperor did not mean to spare he should not have seen and conversed with him. Magna- nimity was not one of Napoleon's characteristics. Great general though he un- doubtedly was, he was not equally great as a man. A treaty of peace between France and Austria was signed on the 14th of Octo- ber at Vienna. The Emperor of Austria ceded Salzburg and a part of Upper Austria to the Confederation of the Rhine ; part of Bohemia, Cracow, and Western Galicia to the King of Saxony as Grand Duke of Warsaw ; part of Eastern Galicia to the Emperor of Russia ; and Trieste, Carniola, Friuli, Villach, and some part of Croatia and Dalmatia to France : thus connecting the kingdom of Italy with Napoleon's Illyrian possessions, making him master of the entire coast of the 300 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Adriatic, and depriving Austria of its last seaport. It was computed that the Emperor Francis gave up territory to the amount of forty-five thousand square miles, with a population of nearly four millions. He also paid a large contribution in money. Napoleon left Vienna the day after signing this treaty, having directed Berthier to blow up the ramparts of Vienna and the fortifications of Brunn, Raab, and Gratz. MASS few A. FRENCH BIVOUAC IN SPAIN. CHAPTER XXXIII. NAPOLEON'S DIVORCE FROM JOSEPHINE AND HIS MARRIAGE WITH THE ARCHDUCHESS MARIA lOUISA OF AUSTRIA — DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NAPOLEON AND LOUIS BONAPARTE — HOLLAND INCORPORATED WITH FRANCE — BERNADOTTE ELECTED CROWN PRINCE OF SWEDEN — SUC- CESSFUL CAMPAIGN OF LORD WELLINGTON IN PORTUGAL — BIRTH OF A SON TO NAPOLEON VICTORIES OF THE FRENCH IN SPAIN — THE GUERILLA SYSTEM — CONSCRIPTION OF ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND MEN. NAPOLEON was joined by Josephine at Fontainebleau on his way to Paris from the campaign of Wagram. She had left St. Cloud with her usual eagerness to welcome him, but perceived embarrass- ment in his manner towards her, and found the doors of communication be- tween their apartments closed. These were the first intimations of an event which had long haunted her imagina- tion. A splendid Court was assembled at Fontainebleau, but between the two principal personages in the brilliant fes- tivities there was reserve and distrust. No explanation took place until they reached Paris in November, and even then Napo- leon shrank from the task of confirming the fears of Josephine. He entrusted the communication of his intended divorce to her son, Eugene Beauharnais. The attendants of the Emperor and Empress observed that on the 30th of November Josephine wore a large hat, so arranged as to conceal traces of weeping, and that neither uttered a word during dinner. When they were left alone the prefect of the palace was recalled by Napoleon, who said eagerly, " Come in, Bausset : close the door." The Empress lay on the floor uttering pitiable cries and exclaiming, "No! I shall never survive it ! " Napoleon said, " Are you strong enough to convey Josephine to her apartment, where she may have the attention her situation requires ? " De Bausset raised Josephine in his arms, Napoleon leading the way with a lamp through a passage opening on the private staircase. Josephine had fainted, and to convey her safely, Napoleon, giving the lamp to an attendant, took hold of her feet. In this manner she was carried into her room and attended by Corvisart, her daughter Hortense, Cambaceres, and Fouche. She never again yielded to any outward demonstration 301 302 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. of violent grief on this subject. Relating to Bourrienne a year afterwards the circumstances that led to this scene, she said, " As soon as Bonaparte had taken his coffee he dismissed the attendants, and I remained alone with him. I saw in his countenance what was passing in his mind, and I knew that my hour was- come. He stepped up to me, took my hand, pressed it to his heart, and after gazing at me for a few moments in silence, uttered these fatal words: 'Josephine! my dear Josephine ! you know how I have loved you ! To you, to you alone, I owe the only moments of happiness I have tasted in this world. But, Josephine, my destiny is not to be controlled by my will. My dearest affections must yield to the interests of France.' ' Say no more,' I exclaimed ; ' I understand you : I expected this, but the blow is not the less severe.' I know not what happened after ; I seemed to lose my reason and became insensible." The Imperial Constitution permitted Napoleon to name his successor, and he intended to choose the eldest son of his brother Louis. It is not easy to con- jecture why the death of that child, in 1807, should make him feel as though he had no heir, because the second son, Prince Napoleon Louis, born in 1804, was a favourite with the Emperor. Probably Napoleon feared that jealousies among his other relations, who had sons, might destroy the unanimity which could alone secure the empire. Doubtless the desire, common to all men, of leaving a son of his own to inherit his power and acquisitions mingled strongly with Napoleon's solicitude for the " interests of France." His opinion that a royal alliance would insure stability to his empire was current throughout Europe. Even Bourrienne, who always anticipated the return of the Bourbons, confesses that he began to think the event would be rendered doubtful by such an alliance. When the pro- jected divorce became publicly known, Josephine ceased to appear as Empress, and Madame Mere did the honours. It was officially announced by the Emperor on the 15th of December at the Tuileries, in the presence of Cambaceres, as Arch- Chancellor of the empire ; Count Regnault, as Secretary ; and all the members of the Imperial Family. Napoleon explained his intentions and motives with unusual emotion. Josephine then in a few words, interrupted by audible sobs, declared her acquiescence in the Emperor's will. The Senate was apprised of the divorce on the following day, when Prince Eugene spoke as follows : " When my mother was crowned by the hands of her august husband she contracted the obli- gation to sacrifice all her affections to the interests of France : she has fulfilled this first of duties with noble courage and dignity. The tears which this resolution has cost the Emperor are a sufficient tribute to the honour of my mother." The spiritual ceremony took place on the 12th of January, though there existed no necessity for it, as Napoleon and Josephine had been married according to the civil form prescribed by the new Constitution of France without any religious rite. The public proclamation was couched in terms borrowed from the Council of Trent : " That every marriage is null which is not made in presence of the curate of one or other of the contracting parties or his vicar, assisted by two witnesses," so that in order to accomplish what he wished, without any Church difficulties or delays, Napoleon heartlessly suffered the assertion to be made that he had never been married to Josephine at all ; and, to complete the farce, he gravely paid a fine of six francs to the poor for having neglected his religious duty. The Emperor then retired for a few days to Trianon, and Josephine went to Malmaison, where she fixed her residence, with the rank of Empress during life and a dowry of two millions of francs (upwards of eighty thousand pounds), to which Napoleon afterwards added a third more, that she might experience no in- convenience from the expensive habits which had become necessary to her. It does honour both to her and the courtiers of Paris to record that for some time the road to Malmaison presented the appearance of a procession, all whose rank authorized their visiting her conceiving it a duty to present themselves there at least once a week. In the days of her power her very enemies had found in her a protectress, and she placed many families in a state of comparative independence. l8io.] THE EMPRESS MARIA LOUISA. 303 He Napoleon once said, "I gain only battles, while Josephine gains hearts." never ceased to regard her with affection, and frequently visited her. On the 1st of February, 18 10, a grand council assembled to assist the Emperor in the selection of a new consort, but the intervening six weeks had not been lost. Napoleon had transmitted to St. Petersburg a proposal for the hand of the Grand Duchess Anne Paulowna, sister to the Emperor Alexander, then sixteen years old, but the Czar did not covet the alliance. The choice of the council falling on an Austrian Princess, Prince Eugene was commissioned to propose to the ambassador from Vienna a marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. The offer was accepted and adjusted between plenipoten- tiaries within twenty-four hours. The ceremony took place by proxy at Vienna on the nth of March, Berthier representing the Emperor Napoleon, while the Archduke Charles, who had so often been opposed to Napoleon in the field, officiated for the Emperor Francis, and gave away his niece. e*3* MARIA LOUISA EN ROUTE FOR FRANCE. The new Empress departed from Vienna two days afterwards, accompanied by a numerous train of courtiers and attendants, and travelled to Braunau, a town situ- ated on the frontiers of Austria and Bavaria. Here a building of wood had been erected by the orders of Napoleon and splendidly fitted up for the purpose of per- forming the ceremony of transferring his bride to her new empire. The Queen of Naples (Caroline Bonaparte) with a numerous escort of the highest rank in France, awaited their new Sovereign. The building was divided into three compartments — one for the Austrian Court, another for the French, while the middle remained neutral as the scene of the ceremony. Every detail of the proceedings was dictated by Napoleon. One extract from this document will show its almost incredible frivolity. " The French commissioner alone, accompanied by the Austrian and French masters of the ceremonies, shall advance towards the Empress, and after having made three reverences, shall address a complimentary speech to her Ma- jesty, explaining the object of his mission. After her Majesty's reply, the Austrian master of the ceremonies shall point out to the French commissioner the Austrian commissioner; the two commissioners shall then salute and compliment each other : the first compliment shall be paid by the Austrian commissioner." Possibly, attention to such pantomimes was a relief to Napoleon from the pressure of his ordinary business. The young Empress was just eighteen; her person tall and graceful, rather inclining to embonpoint; her hair flaxen; her eyes blue; and her countenance expressive of good-nature. She took leave of her Court and attendants after the 304 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. ceremony, and changed her German dress for one entirely in the French fashion. With highflown gallantry Napoleon ordered that the chevalier of honour, whose duty it was to wait on the Empress, should never touch her hand, even in ascend- ing or descending a flight of steps ; but this precaution was frustrated, for the whole of her German escort, from the highest to the lowest, kissed this jealously- guarded hand on taking leave. She travelled to France by Munich, accompanied by the Queen of Naples. At every resting-place she found a courier awaiting her with a letter from the Emperor. At Strasburg she received from him a present of the choicest flowers of the season, and some pheasants of his own shooting. He waited her arrival at Compiegne, where a splendid Court was assembled, and had arranged that she should halt on the last night at Soissons ; but his impatience disconcerted all his own arrangements. Instead of waiting for the ceremony of MEETING OF NAPOLEON AND MARIA LOUISA. the next day, at which he was to meet her at an appointed spot, — when " the Empress should prepare to kneel, and the Emperor should raise her, embrace, and seat her beside him," — he ordered the escort to Compiegne that night, and stealing out of the palace, accompanied only by the King of Naples, set off in a plain carriage to meet her. He passed through Soissons and alighted at the little village of Courcelles, where the carriage of the Empress was to change horses. Here he anxiously watched for her arrival under the porch of the village church, where he took shelter from the pouring rain. When her carriage drew up, he rushed to the door, opened it himself, and without further ceremony stepped in ; the Queen of Naples exclaiming, " It is the Emperor ! " with a view to calm the surprise of the Empress at this abrupt entrance of an apparent stranger. They reached Compiegne at ten o'clock, made their public entry into Paris two days after, and were received by an immense concourse of the population with transports of enthusiasm. The religious marriage was conducted with gorgeous magnificence. The procession passed from St. Cloud to the Tuileries amidst the population of Paris and the adjacent country, and through the great gallery of the Louvre, which was lined on each side by a triple row of ladies. The saloon at the termination of the gallery was converted into a chapel, and here another triple row of ladies of i8io.] LOUIS ABDICATES THE THRONE OF HOLLAND. 305 distinguished rank and fashion was stationed round the walls in richly ornamented stalls. The ceremony was performed by Cardinal Fesch, in presence of all the chiefs of the army, and dignitaries of the State and Church of France. The cardinals alone (with the exception of two) absented themselves from the marriage of an excommunicated Emperor, for which insult they were banished fifty leagues from the capital. Josephine had left Malmaison : that residence was too near during these events, — she found the very atmosphere intolerable. The Emperor having presented her with a splendid estate in Navarre, she retired there for a while, beautifying and improving not only the place itself but all the country round. Napoleon found much satisfaction in his new domestic relations. Maria Louisa was of a gentle, complying, and artless nature, and anxious to please him. He used, in comparing his two wives, to call the first " Grace," and the second " Innocence." The simplicity and affability of Maria Louisa rendered her very popular, though she did not excite such strong attachments as had been inspired by Josephine. Nothing was heard of now but fetes and rejoicing. Even Ferdinand of Spain, in his splendid prison of Valencay, drank at a banquet "to the health of Napoleon the Great, and his august spouse Maria Louisa ! " In April the Emperor and Empress set off on a tour to the northern depart- ments, visiting Antwerp and the chief cities of Belgium. Received everywhere with acclamations, the journey appeared a continued procession. At one small hamlet they passed under a triumphal arch, on which was inscribed "Pater Noster," and on the reverse side " Ave Maria, plena gratia ! " The only adverse incident connected with these festivities was a fire which occurred at the house of Prince Schwartzenburg, the Austrian ambassador, when a grand ball was given soon after the imperial pair returned to Paris. Napoleon carried the Empress from the ball- room in his arms, and having placed her in her carriage, returned to the scene of confusion, where his prompt directions saved one or two lives. Many of the guests were seriously injured, and the Princess Schwartzenburg perished in the flames. It was remarked as an evil omen that an accident of the same kind happened soon after the marriage of Louis XVI. with another Austrian Princess, the unhappy Marie Antoinette. When, some years afterwards, Moreau was killed in the battle of Dresden, the false report that it was Prince Schwartzenburg who had fallen spread around: Napoleon was presently heard to say, "Then the omen pointed at him, not at me," as if glad to transfer the presage from himself to another. The war in Spain smouldered on ; the Emperor of Russia looked coldly and suspiciously at Napoleon's proceedings, and said, when he heard of the marriage, "Then the next task will be to drive me back to my forests." The "continental system " was creating widespread discontent ; and a quarrel between Napoleon and his brother Louis, King of Holland, occurred about this time. Commerce, an object of importance to every State, was the very life of Holland, and Louis saw that he must ruin the people over whom he was placed if he enforced the Emperor's prohibitory decree. Napoleon considered that the first duty of Louis, as a King of Holland nominated by himself, was towards France ; Louis thought his first duty was towards Holland : hence arose many complaints, and at last harshness on the part of Napoleon towards Louis, whose nature was gentle, and who desired to do right, and was much beloved by his subjects. Napoleon, in adopting the "continental system " as a principle, would not per- mit it to be modified by any local considerations. He demanded the co-operation of Louis in terms of increasing severity, and seized the maritime provinces, includ- ing the mouths of the Rhine and the Scheldt, marching an army of twenty thousand men into the country to enforce obedience to his decrees. Louis, unable to dis- pute the iron will of his brother, abdicated in favour of his son on the 3rd of July. Napoleon, who was deeply offended at this act, totally disregarded the provision in favour of his nephew, and annexed Holland to France by an imperial decree on the 9th of the same month. This measure created a great sensation 20 3°6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. throughout Europe, and Napoleon affirmed at St. Helena that " it contributed not a little to lay the foundation of his misfortunes." The Emperor proclaimed that public considerations alone had swayed him in refusing the kingdom of Holland to the son of Louis. At a grand court held at St. Cloud on the 20th of July, he placed the youne; Prince Napoleon Louis on his knee, and addressing him with considerable emotion, said, — " Come to me, my son, I will be your father ; you shall not be a loser. The conduct of your father afflicts my heart. When you are a man never forget, in whatever position my politics and the interest of my empire may place you, that your first duties are towards me ; your second towards France ; all your other duties, even towards the people that I may confide to you, must come after these." Louis retired to the baths of Toeplitz in Bohemia, and THE EMPEROR AND HIS NEPHEW. afterwards to Gratz in Styria. Inexorable as Napoleon was with all other people on the subject of English intercourse, he was obliged indirectly to sanction it, by the pressing necessity for certain commodities in his empire. He, for large sums of money, granted licences by which trading vessels were permitted to import a certain quantity of colonial produce on condition of exporting an equal propor- tion of French manufactures. The working of this system was curious. So high a duty was laid in England on the French manufactures thus exchanged that they were generally unsaleable, and frequently thrown into the s_a ; the prime cost was therefore laid on the colonial produce imported into France, and whatever profit the French manufacturers received, was paid, not by the English market, but by the French consumers of sugar, rum, and coffee. This case illustrates the real effects of all restrictions on the freedom of trade. Smuggling also was carried on to an extraordinary extent. Bourrienne, relating some stratagems discovered at Hamburg, where the preventive duty was strictly enforced, says that "between Hamburg and Altona there were some sand-pits. It was proposed to repair a great street of Hamburg : the smugglers overnight filled one of the sand-pits with brown sugar, and the little carts which usually conveyed the sand into Hamburg were filled with sugar, care being taken to cover it with a layer of sand about an inch thick. This trick was carried on for some time, but no progress was made i8io.] WELLINGTON'S OPERATIONS IN PORTUGAL. 307 in repairing the street. The officers of the customs perceiving this, one fine morn- ing seized the sugar carts." On another occasion an extraordinary number of funeral processions proceeded from a certain suburb to the cemetery of Hamburg. The suspicions of the custom-house officers being aroused by this sudden mor- tality, they opened one of the hearses, and found it filled with sugar, coffee, indigo, &c. After the deposition of the rash and unfortunate Gustavus IV. of Sweden, in 1809, the uncle of the dethroned Sovereign was elected King, with the title of Charles XIII., and the dignity of Crown Prince of Sweden conferred on a Prince of the house of Holstein. The new Government of Sweden signed a treaty of peace with France, promising to adhere to the " continental system." On the 1 8th of May, 18 10, the Crown Prince died suddenly. This event once more obliged the Swedes to make choice of their future Sovereign. The King of Den- mark, the Duke of Oldenburg, and the son of Gustavus IV., all became com- petitors. But the Swedes resolved to take the best measures towards strengthening their alliance with the Emperor of France by electing some member of his family. Bernadotte, Prince of Porte-Corvo, was allied to the imperial house, having married the Queen of Spain's sister. He had acquired a high reputation in the north of Europe as Governor of Hamburg and Administrator of Swedish Pomerania, and the Swedish people accordingly invited him to accept the dignity of Crown Prince. They were not aware of the jealousy and distrust which had existed between him and Napoleon since the 18th Brumaire. Bernadotte was a republican in theory: he had determined to govern Sweden on Swedish, not on French principles, and conceived the " continental system " to be injurious to the interests of Sweden. Napoleon, though aware of this, did not oppose the election ; and when Bernadotte asked his consent before accepting the offered honour, he replied that " he should never oppose an election made by a free people," adding that the present received his assent, although a presentiment rendered it painful to him. At their last in- terview Bernadotte desired to be released from his oath of allegiance as a French subject, to which the Emperor agreed, but made a slight effort to induce him to take a pledge never to bear arms against him. He did not, however, insist on so impossible a condition from an independent Sovereign, but said in a low and agitated tone of voice, " Go, — our destinies will soon be accomplished." Bernadotte, who had become a Protestant, took the oaths as Crown Prince of Sweden on the 1st of November. Lord Wellington, it will be remembered, retreated into Portugal after the battle of Talavera on the the 28th of July, 1809. In the month of November following the province of Andalusia was opened to the French by the victory of Ocaha, gained by Soult over the Spanish army. Soult occupied successively Baylen, Jaen, and Cordova. Sebastiani defeated the Spaniards under the walls of Grenada on the 7th of January, 1810, and entered the city; Malaga fell on the 9th; and Seville surrendered to Soult on the 1st of February. The Supreme Junta then fled to Cadiz, which contained a garrison of twenty thousand English, Spaniards, and Portuguese, under the command of General Graham ; and Soult laid siege to this important place. Meanwhile Lord Wellington had fortified himself at Torres Vedras. His army consisted of twenty-five thousand men, with an auxiliary force of thirty thousand Portuguese, admirably trained under Marshal Beresford. In May Napoleon ordered Massena to invade Portugal with upwards of eighty thou- sand men headed by Ney, Junot, and General Reynier. The frontier strongholds of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida surrendered to the French in July and August ; and Massena advanced upon Lisbon, Wellington, who had advanced to the frontier, slowly retreating before him. The English commander's design was to draw him from his supplies. Massena followed boldly, trusting to former good fortune, and to precipitate the English retreat made a sudden attack upon them at Busaco on the 27 th of September. He was completely defeated, with the loss of nearly three thousand killed and a large number of wounded. Coimbra, containing his 20 — 2 ?oS THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. hospitals and stores, also fell into the hands of the British. Wellington then re- commenced his steady retreat towards Lisbon, the French army iollowing. The English retreat ended at Torres Vedras, which had been rendered almost impreg- nable. These lines secured more than five hundred square miles of mountainous country lying between the Tagus and the ocean, by means of entrenchments, inundations, and redoubts. Massena found himself checked by an army greatly inferior in number, but which effectually barred his approach to Lisbon. He lay for four months before the English lines, trying by various feints to draw Welling- ton from his place of advantage. At length it became necessary, if he desired to- FRENCH CRUELTIES IN PORTUGAL. save the remains of his army, diminished by sickness and hunger, to retreat. He began this movement on the 4th of March, 181 1, pursued in turn by Wellington. The operations of both generals are celebrated in the annals of war for the extra- ordinary skill displayed by the vanquished in effecting his escape, and the con- queror in closely and unremittingly pursuing ; while the unfortunate inhabitants of the country through which they passed long remembered the horrors perpetrated by an army enraged by defeat, hunger, fatigue, and incessant marching. The district of Beirawas purposely laid waste, the Portuguese auxiliaries being employed to enforce the orders of the Regency that all its inhabitants should retire to the capital. The peasants, whose attachment to their homes made them resist the order to burn their dwellings and devastate their fertile fields, were pitilessly hanged or shot down. The French, by these means and by British valour, were driven out of Portugal, retaining only the fortress of Almeida, which Wellington invested. Massena obtained reinforcements, and, attempting to relieve it, brought on the action of Fuentes d'Onoro, where he was worsted. He then ordered the Commandant of Almeida to evacuate the place and blow up the fortifications. i8n.] BIRTH OF A SON. 309 " IT IS A KING OK ROME ! While bad fortune attended the French army in this quarter, an event had occurred which filled France with joy, and made Napoleon for the time forget every care. The Empress Maria Louisa gave birth to a son on the 19th of March. The birth was attended with so much danger that Dubois, the medical attendant,, warned the Emperor that it might be necessary to sacrifice either the child or the mother. Napoleon replied without hesitation, "Save the mother, certainly — it is her right : forget that she is an Empress, and act as you would towards the wife of a shopkeeper in the Rue St. Denis." He accompanied Dubois to the bedside, encouraged and soothed the Empress, holding her in moments of the greatest pain. The child appeared dead when he was born, and nearly ten minutes elapsed before all the means that could be devised produced any effect. When, after intense dread, Napoleon saw his child living before his eyes, he was unable to- restrain himself: he snatched it up, and rushing into the apartment where the whole Court were assembled, he exclaimed aloud, " It is a King of Rome ! " and was answered by a burst of congratulation. Twenty-one guns were to be fired for the birth of a daughter : one hundred for that of a son. At the sound of the first gun all Paris was astir : the public walks, the parks, the streets were crowded ; but at the discharge of the twenty-second the air was rent with loud acclamations. Most of the European Powers sent ambassadors to compliment Napoleon, among others the Emperor Alexander. The old King and Queen of Spain made a. journey to Paris to offer their congratulations. 3io THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The campaigns of 1810 and 181 1 in Spain left nearly every city and fortress in the power of the French. Soult had taken Tortosa, Olivenza, and Badajos ; but the last city was retaken by Beresford, who gained the hard-fought battle of Albuera to protect his conquest. Badajos was, however, again abandoned to the French after the junction of Soult and Marmont. Cadiz alone resisted every attempt of the French. On the eastern side of the Peninsula Suchet had stormed Tarragona; won the battles of Saguntum and Murviedro, over Blake and O'Donnell ; made himself master of Barcelona and Saragossa ; and, finally, had taken Valencia, where Blake and the remainder of his army surrendered prisoners of war. The close of the year 181 1, therefore, left Napoleon in military possession of Spain; but Portugal had been wrested from him, and was protected by Wellington, who lay on the frontier ready to assume the offensive at the first favourable oppor- tunity. Spain, though ostensibly in Napoleon's power, was throughout armed against him. If the Spaniards had lost their fortresses, they still had their moun- tains, forests, and deserts, their loyalty, superstition, and fierce revenge : they were led. by guerilla chiefs of skill and courage, among whom Mina and tne Empe- cinado will be long remembered, — as well as the ingratitude with which their heroism was rewarded. Some chiefs led flying parties of one or two thousand men ; others of ten or twenty. If a weak French detachment moved from one place to another, it was cut off; if a small garrison were left in a fortress, it was overpowered'; a courier could not move without a large escort ; even King Joseph could not hunt in the neighbourhood of his capital without a guard of fifteen hundred soldiers. Pursuit of the guerillas was vain, and the places of the killed were immediately supplied. The French generals attempted to check their hydra foe by severity ; but the horrible retaliations practised made them glad to resort to the ordinary rules of war. This state of the country induced Joseph to entreat Napoleon to place the crown of Spain on another head. The attention of the Em- peror was, however, turned to objects so important that he postponed the con- sideration of his brother's request. The close of the year 1810 had been marked by a conscription of one hundred thousand men ; the year 181 1 ended with the same demand upon the people of France ; and many anxious speculations arose as to the purpose for which these vast armaments were necessary. ONE OF THE KESULTS OF WAR. ■'S^ssr-^fe? FRENCH REQUISITIONS. CHAPTER XXXIV. CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN WAR — ALLIANCE OF AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA WITH FRANCE, AND OF SWEDEN AND TURKEY WITH RUSSIA — NAPOLEON AT DRESDEN — THE FRENCH ARMY ENTERS POLAND — PASSAGE OF THE NIEMEN — ENTRY INTO SMOLENSKO — BATTLE OF BORODINO — NAPOLEON AT MOSCOW — THE BURNING OF MOSCOW — RETREAT — NAPOLEON DESERTS THE ARMY AND RETURNS TO FRANCE. ]\J APOLEON'S " continental system " had be- come the pivot of his policy. It had occasioned the first invasion of the Pe- ninsula, and was about to lead to the invasion of Russia; for the Emperor Alexander finding the observance of this " system " too oppressive to be en- dured, determined to break the Treaty of Tilsit. The erection of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, to which Alexander had sub- mitted in a moment of defeat, was a source of hostile feeling towards the Emperor of France, as showing an in- tention to restore Polish independence. In the interval between the Treaty of Tilsit and 1812 the Emperor of Russia gave France the following causes of complaint. First, the inefficient assist- ance rendered by the Russian army in the campaign of Wagram. Secondly, the ukase of January, 181 1, which opened the ports of Russia to English commerce, and thus deserted the "continental system ; " and the great augmentation of his military force, as if to defend the proceeding. Alexander having forbidden the introduction of French wines and silks into his empire, Napoleon annexed the Hanse Towns and Oldenburg to the French empire, to prevent their becoming emporiums of English commerce. Thirdly, assembling armies on the frontiers of Lithuania, and threatening to seize the Grand Duchy of Warsaw as indemnification for Oldenburg, which, if the in- tentions of Russia had been friendly, should have been made the subject of negotiation. In short, Alexander was unable or disinclined to keep the engage- ments he had entered into at Tilsit and Erfurt as the penalty of defeat and the price of peace. He had also accepted Finland as an equivalent, and had leave to march upon Turkey unmolested. It was of course ridiculous to prevent fifty millions of people from trading with England at the bidding of a single individual. 311 312 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. A prohibition so arbitrary and so strictly enforced reflected on the independence of the country and bore hard upon its interests. But England would not make peace with France, and there was no mode of compelling her to a course she abhorred but by excluding her commerce from the continent. By assuming this attitude of defiance and interminable war, she virtually outlawed France ; and Napoleon and his allies adhered in their turn to the " continental system." Napoleon began to see the error of his policy, and to admit that the indepen- dence of Poland ought to be secured, and that Europe had no secure frontier on the Asiatic side so long as this object was not attained. The Czar then pressed for a declaration that the kingdom of Poland should never be re-established ; this Napoleon refused, though he offered to promise neutrality in any attempt to con- summate that act of justice. While thus virtually yielding the great point as to Poland, he demanded the repeal of the obnoxious ukase of January, 1811. Un- successful in this demand, he marched large masses of troops across Germany, still protesting his desire for peace. Alexander also prepared for war, while still proclaiming pacific intentions. A letter from Napoleon, expressing a desire to accommodate matters, at length drew forth Alexander's ultimatum. He required, in addition to his former demands, that France should yield up Dantzic, and said that to arrive at a solid peace it was necessary there should lie between the French and Russian empires neutral territory, not occupied by the forces of either country, and that the first basis of negotiations must therefore be a complete evacuation of the Prussian States and of Swedish Pomerania, with all their strong places. To strengthen his hands, he brought up from the Danube five veteran corps, set free by the treaty with Turkey. Napoleon considered this equivalent to a decla- ration of war, and prepared for war accordingly. The vast resources of France blinded Napoleon to the real extent of the diffi- culties of his new undertaking. The French army alone amounted to eight hundred and fifty thousand men, and the army of Italy to fifty thousand. France could reckon among its dependencies and allies the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, with an army of sixty thousand men ; Bavaria, of forty thousand ; Saxony, of thirty thousand ; Westphalia, fifteen thousand ; Baden, nine thousand ; the Princes of the Confederation of the Rhine, twenty-three thousand ; Naples, thirty thou- sand. The King of Prussia, unwillingly subjected to France, furnished twenty thousand men ; the Emperor of Austria, united to Napoleon by the new tie of marriage in addition to that of conquest, furnished thirty thousand. These forces amount to one million one hundred and eighty-seven thousand men ; and deduct- ing about three hundred and eighty-seven thousand in hospitals, on furlough, or otherwise deficient, the overwhelming number of eight hundred thousand efficient men is left at the disposal of Napoleon. To counterbalance the advantages of so mighty a power towards the success of a new war, Napoleon should have remem- bered that he could not direct it all on one point. The struggle in Spain employed upwards of two hundred thousand of his best troops. The German contingents also, with the exception of the Saxons, were not to be depended on in case of disaster, and Napoleon had yet to learn that Austria ought to be reckoned in the list of hollow friends. Moreover, France must not be left in danger of attack from England during the absence of the Emperor and his army. Napoleon pro- vided for this danger by a levy of national guards in three divisions, to be called the "ban," the "second ban," and the "arriere ban." The first was to contain all men from twenty to twenty-six years of age ; the second, all capable of bearing arms from twenty-six to forty ; the third, all able-bodied men from forty to sixty. These levies, amounting to one hundred thousand men, were not to be sent out of the country, but were to be embodied at the most vulnerable points. A last attempt at obtaining peace from England was made by Napoleon in a letter to Lord Castlereagh ; but England would not desert the cause of Ferdinand VII. Important advantages which an alliance with the frontier nations of Sweden, Turkey, and Poland would have conferred on Napoleon, were lost to him by i8i2.] PREPARATIONS FOR THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 313 various causes. Bernadotte took possession of his new kingdom with feelings adverse to the "continental system." As Crown Prince of Sweden, he exercised the royal authority in that country, and his dislike to the prohibitions on com- merce increased as he became conversant with their ruinous consequences to his subjects. He consequently inclined, both on public and private grounds, to an alliance with England, and his negotiations with Napoleon assumed an unfriendly aspect. Bernadotte demanded the annexation of Norway to Sweden, which implied the wresting of great part of his dominions from the King of Denmark, the faithful ally of France. Napoleon replied in a haughty strain, forgetting that his former marshal was an independent Prince. A French army was ordered to occupy Swedish Pomerania in January, 181 2 ; and Sweden, unable to obtain any reparation from France, signed a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, with Russia, and delared war against France in March. At Constantinople the diplo- matists of France were outwitted by those of England, and, contrary to all expec- tation, Turkey made peace with Russia at Bucharest in May. The great mistake which Napoleon committed in omitting to encourage the enthusiastic longing of the Poles for liberty, is not ascribable to any stipulations made by Austria. He had expressly provided that Austria should receive the Illyrian provinces in return for that territory which would be lost to it in case of the kingdom of Poland being restored. Hazlitt says that " Napoleon did not choose to avail himself of Polish enthusiasm, as he was not fond of giving loose to elements of power which he could not control. In making war on serfs, he should have raised up a nation of free men ; and instead of considering the liberation of Poland as the consequence, have made it the instrument and the pledge of his success in Russia." He sent the Abbe de Pradt as his ambassador to Warsaw, to give the Poles words instead of liberty. It was not without many remonstrances that Napoleon commenced the Russian war. Fouche, though in honourable exile, ventured to write an able memorial exposing the hazards of the undertaking, and presented it himself at the Tuileries. He had laboured at this work in perfect secrecy (as he supposed), and expected it to make a great impression ; he was not a little disappointed when the Emperor, with an air of easy indifference, began the audience by saying, "I am no stranger, Monsieur le Due, to your errand. You have a memorial to present to me ; I will read it, though I know its contents. The Russian war is not more agreeable to you than that with Spain." Replying to the remonstrances of the Dukes of Frioul and Vicenza, and Count Segur, who represented the danger to his own life, he said, "Do you dread the war as endangering my life? It was thus that, in the times of conspiracy, attempts were made to frighten me about Georges : he was everywhere to be found upon my track ; that wretched being was sure to fire at me. Well, suppose he had ! he might have killed my aide-de-camp ; but to kill me was impossible ! Had I accomplished the decrees of fate ? I feel myself impelled towards a goal of which I am ignorant. As soon as I shall have reached it, so soon shall I no longer be of service — an atom will then suffice to put me down ; but till then, all human efforts can avail nothing against me. Whether I am in Paris or with the army is therefore quite indifferent. When my hour is come, a fever, or a fall from my horse in hunting, will kill me as effectually as a bullet : our days are registered." His uncle, Cardinal Fesch, one day made a strong appeal to him on the affairs of the Pope, who had been brought to Fon- tainebleau. Napoleon led the Cardinal to the window and inquired, " Do you see that star above us?" "No, sire." "Look again." "Sire, I do not see it." " Very well ; / see it ! " said Napoleon. His auditors scarcely knew how to under- stand his words. They seem, however, clearly enough to imply, " the glare of day, that prevents you from seeing the star, which nevertheless is there, does not hide it from me ; my imagination can realize its presence." When all was ready for the campaign, Napoleon had his infant son christened in March, in the church of Notre Dame, with extraordinary splendour. The 3*4 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. young Napoleon was now thirteen months old, and a beautiful and promising child. His title of King of Rome has been said to afford proof that Napoleon had abandoned his intention of giving Italy independent existence ; but no infe- rence of this kind can be fairly made. Napoleon intended Italy to fall to his second son, if he had one ; and in any case, succession to the French empire would not have implied succession to the kingdom of Italy for his eldest son. Napoleon's ambition was to realize the "Great Design" of Henry IV., or failing that, to revive the empire of Charlemagne in his own person. In either case his son's sovereignty of Rome would not have been inconsistent. But Napoleon's mind was so unstable, and his projects so much affected by momentary caprice, that it is almost impossible to state what his intentions were, especially as he rarely knew them himself ! THJS IMPERIAL ANTECHAMBER AT DRESDEN. Bonaparte left Paris on the 9th of May ; the Russian ambassador took his departure a few days after. The French Emperor, instead of joining his armies with his usual rapidity, made splendid preparations, as though by ostentatious displays he would give ocular proof of his being a king of kings. Dresden was the rendezvous for all the Kings, Princes, and Dukes who were subordinate to Napo- leon, or hoped for good or evil at his hands. The King of Prussia was present, and the Emperor of Austria, with his Empress, met his son-in-law there. Amidst all these potentates no one interested the public so much as he by whom the assembly was collected — the wonderful being who could have governed the world but could not rule his own restless mind. All the banquets, balls, fetes, and theatrical amusements were at the expense of the French Emperor, and conducted upon a scale of lavish magnificence. The young Empress made a prominent figure. " The reign of Maria Louisa," said Napoleon at Elba, " has been very short, but it was full of enjoyment ; she had the world at her feet." While French armies were marching through Germany, Napoleon ordered General Narbonne to proceed to the head-quarters of the Emperor Alexander, and assure him of the pacific wishes of France. Narbonne stated on his return that "he had found the Russians neither depressed nor boasting; that the result I8l2.] PROPHETS OF EVIL. 315 of all the replies of the Emperor wa's, that they preferred war to a disgraceful peace ; that they would take special care not to risk a battle with an adversary so formidable ; and finally, that they were determined to make every sacrifice to pro- tract the war and drive back the invader." Napoleon hastened to the shores of the Niemen, passing through Prague, where he took leave of the Empress. He then visited Konigsberg and Dantzic, where Rapp held command. Perceiving signs of discontent among some of his chief officers with regard to the Russian expedition, Napoleon asked Rapp, "What is the matter with Murat? Is he ill?" " Sire," replied Rapp, " he is not ill, but melancholy." "Why so?" asked Napo- leon ; " is not he content with my having made him a King ? " " Sire," rejoined Rapp, "he says he is ?wt altogether a King." " 'T is his own fault," said Napoleon. " Why is he so much of a Neapolitan ? why is he not wholly French ? When he is in his kingdom he commits nothing but follies; he permits trading with England : I will not endure that." Next day, Napoleon invited Berthier, Murat, and Rapp to supper. The three generals sat with grave reserve. "I see very clearly, gentle- BERTHTER, RAPP, NAPOLEON, AND MURAT. men," said Napoleon, " that you are no longer desirous of war. Murat would prefer never to leave the fine climate of his kingdom, Berthier wants to hunt over his estates at Grosbois, and Rapp is impatient to return to his hotel in Paris." It was true, and Rapp honestly confessed the fact ; and well would it have been for Napoleon if he had been swayed by such considerations, since nothing could be gained by success in the coming war, and all might be lost by failure. Indeed, to the Russian campaign may be directly traced Napoleon's downfall. The Spanish " ulcer " might have been healed ; but the Russian disasters paralysed France and prostrated Napoleon's empire. Extensive preparations for the expedition had been completed. At Konigsberg were collected stores of provisions, enormous as the enterprise for which they were designed. Napoleon was wholly intent on this important part of the expedition. By day he dictated instructions on the subject ; at night he rose to repeat them. One general, in a single journey, received six despatches from him. In one he says : — " The result of all my movements will be the concentration of four hundred thousand men upon one point ; nothing can then be expected from the country, and consequently we must carry everything with us." On his way from Konigsberg to Gumbinnen, Napoleon reviewed several of his armies, talking to the men with gaiety and soldier-like bluntness as he walked along the ranks. He knew the wars in which every regiment had been engaged. He 3l6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. stopped for a few moments before some of the oldest soldiers ; to one he recalled the battle of the Pyramids, to another that of Marengo, Austerlitz, Jena, or Fried- land, by a single familiar word. The veterans thus recognized by the Emperor felt elated before their junior comrades, who looked up to them with envy. Napo- leon showed an interest in all that concerned the young, and was well acquainted with their smallest wants. This individual attention charmed the soldiers, whom he thus attached to war, to glory, and to himself. The army proceeded from the Vistula to the Niemen. That river, from Grodno as far as Kowno, flows parallel with the Vistula. The Pregel was covered with boats and provisions. The army amounted to upwards of five hundred thousand men, — French, Austrians, Prus- sians, Poles, Saxons, Westphalians, Wirtemburgers, Dutch, Confederate Princes of the Rhine, Swiss, Italians, and Neapolitans. The French artillery alone reckoned twenty thousand draught horses, and the cavalry upwards of a hundred thousand. The army crossed the Vistula in the following order : — the Prussians, commanded by Macdonald ; the Bavarians and three French divisions, under Marshal Oudinot and General St. Cyr ; Italians, under Eugene Beauharnais ; two French corps d'armee, under Ney and Davoust ; the Wirtemburgers and Westphalians, under Jerome their King, and Junot ; the Poles, under Poniatowski ; the Saxons, under General Reynier ; the Austrians, under Prince Schwartzenburg ; the cavalry, under Murat ; the Infantry of the Guard, under Lefebvre ; the Cavalry of the Guard, under Bessieres. Victor was organizing a corps of reserve in the rear. Six bridge equipments, a siege train, some thousands of provision waggons, innumerable herds of oxen, thirteen hundred and sixty-two pieces of cannon, and thousands of artillery and hospital waggons, were attached to the expedition. While this pro- digious host was approaching the Russian empire, Augereau remained in Germany to secure tranquillity. Great as were the preparations made by Napoleon for supplying this vast army, they proved inadequate. It was found impossible to discipline carters and waggon drivers, and when bad roads were blocked by dead horses and broken carriages, confusion and delays occurred. Numbers of the heavy waggons never reached the Vistula, and fewer reached the Niemen. At the outset, therefore, the soldiers commenced that systematic plunder so familiar to French armies, under the name of "laying contributions on the inhabitants." This was a matter of no great diffi- culty during the march from the Vistula to the Niemen ; but Lithuania had been wasted by the Russians that it might afford no subsistence to the French army. The Lithuanians, in common with the people of all the provinces wrested from Poland by Russia, regarded the French as deliverers, and secretly rejoiced at their approach. But the progress across their territory of such a host exasperated them by its oppressions and exactions. Napoleon ought to have paused until his con- voys came up. That he did not was doubtless owing to his expectation that the Russians would give him battle, and that he should conclude the war at one blow. In this spirit he thus harangued his troops : — " Soldiers," said he, " the second Polish war is commenced. At Tilsit, Russia swore eternal alliance with France and war against England. She has violated her oath ; she refuses to give an explanation of her conduct till the French eagles shall have repassed the Rhine. Russia is driven onwards by fatality ; her destinies are about to be accomplished. Does she believe we have degenerated ? Should we be no longer the soldiers of Austerlitz ? She has placed us between disgrace and war : the choice cannot for an instant be doubtful ! Let us then cross the Niemen, and carry war into her territories. The second Polish war will be glorious to the French arms like the first ; and the peace which we shall conclude will put an end to the fatal influence which for the last fifty years Russia has had on the affairs of Europe." The campaign was planned on Napoleon's usual system. His first object was to accumulate a great force on the Russian centre, to break it, and destroy its sundered divisions in detail ; to possess himself of some of the large towns of the I8I2.] THE RUSSIAN POSITION. 3'7 PASSAGE OF THE NIEMEN. empire — if possible of St. Petersburg or Moscow — and there to dictate peace. The plan of defence adopted by Alexander's generalissimo, Barclay de Tolly, was skil- fully adapted to foil Napoleon, namely, to attempt no defence of the frontier ; to avoid a general action, and confine his operations to partial skirmishes at favour- able opportunities ; to retreat until the French lines of communication were so attenuated as to render them liable to be broken, and fatigue, loss of numbers, and want of supplies had deprived the invaders of their original strength and spirit. The delay would prove as advantageous to Alexander as it was disastrous to Napoleon, giving him time to recruit his army and settle terms of peace with Turkey. The Russian forces in the field amounted to nearly three hundred thousand men. The centre, commanded by Barclay, extended from Wilna and Kowno to Lida and Grodno, resting its right on Vilia and its left on the Niemen. To the south of Grodno was Prince Bagration with the second division, to which Hetman Platoff, with twelve thousand Cossacks, was attached. The presence of this army kept the ancient Polish provinces of Volhynia, Lithuania, Courland, and Livonia in check, otherwise they would have joined the French. A reserve, com- manded by Tormazoff, was destined to oppose the Austrians ; but Alexander apprehended no very formidable attack from them. A vast entrenched camp for the protection of St. Petersburg was established at Drissa. The Emperor Alex- ander's head-quarters were at Wilna, the capital of Lithuania. Napoleon con- sidered that the Russian position was neither well chosen for attack nor for defence, nor even for retreat. The army extended over a line of sixty leagues, 3lS THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. and was therefore open to be surprised ; Bagration being separated from the main body forty leagues to the right. From Wilna Alexander published a proclamation to his troops, in which he enlarged on the efforts he had made to maintain peace, and concluded as follows: — "It now only remains, after invoking the Almighty Being who is the witness and defender of the true cause, to oppose our forces to those of the enemy. It is unnecessary to recall to generals, officers, and soldiers what is expected from their loyalty and courage : the blood of the ancient Scla- vonians circulates in their veins. Soldiers, you fight for your religion, your liberty, and your native land. Your Emperor is amongst you, and God is the enemy of the aggressor." On the 23rd of June Napoleon rode forwards to reconnoitre, and when he neared the Niemen his horse fell and threw him on the sand. Upon this accident some one exclaimed, " That is a bad omen : a Roman would go back ! " Accom- panied only by General Haxo, he surveyed the ground, wearing a Polish cloak and cap. After a careful examination he fixed upon a spot near the village of Poniemen, above Kowno, for the passage of the army. He ordered three bridges to be thrown across the same evening, and passed the rest of the day in his tent, motionless and oppressed with the heat. A party of sappers in a boat crossed the Niemen first. All was silent on the foreign soil, and no enemy opposed them. A single Cossack patrol drily asked, with an appearance of grave surprise, who they were and what they wanted. The imperturbable behaviour of this one man in the face of an advancing army of four hundred thousand enemies was ominous of the events which ensued. The sappers replied, " Frenchmen ! " and one of them briskly added, " Come to make war upon you ; to take Wilna ; to deliver Poland." The Cossack withdrew, and three French soldiers discharged their pieces into the gloomy depths of the woods where he disappeared. Their fire was not returned, and no other sound announced the coming struggle. That first signal of war, feeble as it was, roused Napoleon. Three hundred voltigeurs were sent across to protect the erection of the bridges. Dense masses of the French columns issued from the valleys and forests, and approached the river under cover of the darkness, in readiness to cross at dawn. Fires were for- bidden and perfect silence was enjoined. The men slept arms in hand on the green corn, which served them for beds and their horses for provender. The watch read the Erryaeror's proclamation and speculated on the prospect which daylight would disclose. The night was cold and pitch dark. Sunrise showed nothing but dry and desert sand and dark silent forests. On their own side of the river, men horses and glittering arms covered every spot of ground within range of the eye, and the Emperor's tent in their midst stood on an elevation. At a signal the immense mass defiled in three columns towards the bridges. Two divisions of the advanced guard, in their ardour for the precedence, nearly came to blows. Napoleon crossed among the first, and stationed himself near the bridges to encourage the men, who saluted him with acclamations. He seemed depressed by the desolation which met his forces where he had expected a mortal foe. With fierce impatience he set spurs to his horse and dashed into the forest which bordered the river ; " as if," says Segur, " he were on fire to come in contact with the enemy alone." He rode for more than a league, strangely impressed by the solitude. He then returned to the vicinity of the bridges, and led the army into the country, while a menacing sky hung black overhead. Distant thunder began to roar, and a storm descended ; lightning flamed across the expanse, the roads were inundated, and the oppressive heat was suddenly changed to a bitter chill. Thousands of horses perished on the march and in the bivouacs, many equipages were abandoned on the sands, and many men fell sick and died. A terrible prelude to greater disasters ! Napoleon found shelter in a convent from the fury of the tempest, and then departed for Kowno, where disorder prevailed. Oudinot's passage had been im- peded by the bridge across the Vilia having been broken down by Cossacks. I8l2.] THE FRENCH OCCUPY W1LNA. 319 Napoleon treated this circumstance with contempt, and ordered a squadron of the Polish Guard to swim across the flood. This fine picked troop proceeded at first in good order, and soon reached the centre of the river ; but here the current was so strong that their ranks were broken. They redoubled their exertions, but the horses became frightened and unmanageable. They no longer swam, but floundered about in scattered groups, rising and sinking, while some went down. At length the men, finding destruction inevitable, ceased their struggles, and as they were sinking, turned their faces towards Napoleon, and cried, " Vive PEm- pereur 1" The army was dumb with mingled horror and admiration. Napoleon watched the scene unmoved, but gave every order he could devise for the purpose of saving as many men as possible, though with little effect. fallllilllillilliAliLJillLllll'i NAPOLEON RECEIVING THE POLISH DEPUTATION. Oudinot with the second corps crossed the Vilia by a bridge at Keydani ; the rest of the army were three whole days in crossing the Niemen. Napoleon pressed forwards with the guard and reached the plain of Wilna in two days : to his surprise the city was undefended. He moved onwards, thoughtful and gloomy, and accused his generals of having permitted the Russians to escape. As he approached Wilna, he surrounded himself with the Polish regiments, and was received in the city with joyful acclamations ; but he was too much occupied with the Russian retreat to attend to them, and hurried on to the positions occupied by the Russian army. He found them deserted, the bridges and magazines burnt, and it appeared that Alexander was retreating upon his entrenched camp at Drissa. A fine detachment of French hussars, quite unsupported, had come up with the rear of the Russians in a wood, and had been cut to pieces. Napoleon sent for- ward Murat with his cavalry to follow in the Russian track ; threw Ney upon his left to support Oudinot, who had driven back the Russian lines to Wilkomir ; and then returned to occupy Alexander's palace at Wilna. Enthusiastic joy spread throughout the province. An immense concourse assembled round national banners ; the windows were crowded with spectators ; the old men appeared in their national costume ; the people embraced and congratulated each other on the public roads. Their oppressors had fled, and Napoleon with his liberating army 320 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. had taken their place. The Diet declared the kingdom of Poland re-established, summoned all the Poles in the Russian army to quit Russia, established order, caused itself to be represented by a General Council, and finally sent a deputation to the King of Saxony and an address to Napoleon, which the Senator Wibicki presented at Wilna. "The Poles," it declared, "had neither been subjected by peace nor by war, but by treason ; they were therefore free in their own right before God and man ; being so now de facto, their right became a duty : they claimed the independence of their brethren the Lithuanians ; they offered them- selves to the Polish nation as the centre of a general union ; to him who prescribed its history to the age, in whom resided the force of Providence, they looked to support their efforts ; on this account they came to solicit Napoleon the Great to pronounce the words, ' Let the kingdom of Poland exist ! ' and it would exist. All the Poles would devote themselves to the fourth French dynasty, to whom ages were but as a moment, and space no more than a point." " Gentlemen," Napoleon replied, " Deputies of the Confederation of Poland, I have listened with deep interest to you. Were I a Pole, I should think and act like you ; I should have voted with you in the Assembly of Warsaw. Patriotism is the first duty of civilized man. I have many interests to reconcile and many duties to fulfil. Had I reigned during the first, second, or third partition of Poland, I would have armed my people in her defence. When victory supplied me with the means of re-estab- lishing your ancient laws in your capital and a portion of your provinces, I did so. I love your nation. For sixteen years I have found your soldiers at my side on the plains of Italy and Spain. I applaud what you have done ; I authorize your future efforts ; I will do all I can to second your resolutions ; but in countries so distant and extensive it must be on the exertions of the population that you can justly ground hopes of success. From the moment of my entering Poland I have used the same language. It is my duty to add, that having guaranteed to the Emperor of Austria the integrity of his dominions, I cannot sanction any movement tending to disturb his possession of certain Polish provinces. Only provide that Lithuania, Samogitia, Witepsk, Polotsk, Mohilef, Volhynia, the Ukraine, Podolia, be animated by the same spirit which I have witnessed in Greater Poland, and Providence will crown the good cause with success. I will recompense that devotion which displays so many titles to my esteem and pro- tection." Napoleon thus for the second time threw away the proffered devotion of a people ! His coldness surprised the deputies, and the effects were soon apparent. The Poles had been on the point of a perilous enterprise ; this language chilled the enthusiasm which could alone have carried them through it. In vain did he constitute a Provisional Government in Lithuania : only a few thousands out of four millions seconded him ; and out of a hundred thousand men capable of bearing arms only three generals followed him. These disheartening events made no change in the sentiments of Poniatowski. He had been disinterested enough to deprecate the Russian expedition, though its success would have given him the throne of Poland ; he was always among the foremost and bravest throughout the campaign. Napoleon remained twenty days at Wilna, directing the movements of his generals ; from this central point, with his maps before him, he watched the motions of the Russian army, now divided into two unequal masses. The first, commanded by Alexander and Barclay, was in full retreat towards the camp at Drissa, pursued by Murat at the head of the cavalry of the advanced guard, seconded by Oudinot and Ney with the second and third corps. The smaller division, under Prince Bagration, was still on the Niemen, and consequently in danger of being cut off from the main body. Napoleon perceived that Bagration would attempt a junction by the narrow interval between the Dwina and Dnieper (or Boristhenes), where the bifurcation of these two rivers forms the boundary of Lithuania. To prevent this movement, Napoleon dispatched Davoust to occupy i8i2.] FIRST COMBAT. 32 1 Minsk with two divisions of infantry, the cuirassiers of Valence, and several brigades of light cavalry, while the King of Westphalia, with his army, had orders to press Bagration in front and throw him upon Davoust, who was to attack his flank and rear. Davoust executed his manoeuvres with skill and energy, and the Russian division, amounting to forty thousand men, was in the utmost danger of being enclosed in the marshy denies of the Beresina ; but owing to the incapacity of King Jerome, the plan failed. Bagration conducted his retreat in a masterly manner, crossing the Dnieper at Nevoi-Bikoff, and escaping into Old Russia, where he waited an opportunity to rejoin the main army. While the success of his plan was doubtful, N apoleon resolved to press forward on Witepsk with the guard, the army of Italy, and the Bavarians, thus advancing the two great lines of operation. Its failure, therefore, irritated him excessively, and he sent Jerome back to his dominions in disgrace without a single guard. He himself left Wilna on the 16th of July, to join his army on the banks of the Dwina, keeping Barclay in his en- trenched camp at Drissa. His long stay at Wilna is unaccountable and has been justly censured ; to it much of the disaster which befell the French is due. Alex- ander sent a flag of truce to Wilna, offering to treat if Napoleon would repass the Niemen, but this offer was rejected. On the 1 8th, Napoleon reached Klubokoe, and was informed that Barclay, who had abandoned the camp at Drissa, was marching on Witepski : Napoleon ordered all corps upon Beszenkowiczi ; and so precise were his combinations that every man reached that place in one day. Segur has graphically described the columns of infantry, cavalry, and artillery presenting themselves on every side ; the rush, the crossing, the jostling ; the contention for quarters, forage, and provisions ; aides-de-camp bearing important orders vainly struggling to open a passage. Before midnight, however, order had taken the place of apparent anarchy, and silence succeeded tumult. The Russian army having got the start of Napoleon, occupied Witepsk. The first combat took place at Ostrowno on the 25th of July. The Russian infantry, protected by a wood, fiercely contested the ground, but were beaten back at every point by Murat, seconded by the 8th regiment of infantry and the divisions Bruyeres and St. Germains ; and the Delzons' division coming up completed the victory. On the 26th the Russians, reinforced, occupied a strong position and seemed disposed to renew the struggle. Barclay had thrown forward this portion of his force to retard the French advance, while he daily looked for the junction of Bagration. Prince Eugene with the Italian division joined the French van in the night. The numbers and position of the Russians gave them superiority in the beginning of the day. They attacked with fury, issuing from their woods with deafening shouts. The French regiments opposed to this onset were mown down and in danger of an irretrievable rout, when at the critical moment Murat, placing himself at the head of the Polish lancers, incited them to an energetic charge. Inspired with rage at the sight of their oppressors, they obeyed with impetuosity. His object had been to launch them against the enemy, not to mingle personally in the fight, which would disqualify him for the command; but with lances couched they filed behind him, occupying the whole width of the ground, and hurrying him forward at full speed he was compelled to charge at their head, as eye-witnesses affirm, " with an admirable grace," his plumed hat and splendid uniform giving him the air of a knight of romance. This charge was seconded by other French leaders — Eugene, Girardin, and Pire — attacking at the head of their columns, and the wood was gained. The Russians disappeared in a forest two leagues in depth, whose recesses even Murat hesitated to penetrate : this was the last obstacle that hid Witepsk from them. Napoleon appeared with the main body and all uncertainties vanished. After hearing the report of the two Princes he went to the highest point of ground within reach, where he carefully observed the nature of the position and calculated the movements of his enemies ; he then ordered an advance. The whole army, traversing the forest, debouched upon the plain of Witepsk before 21 222 THE HISTORY OE NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. nightfall. Approaching darkness, the multitude of Russian watch-fires which covered the open ground, and the time requisite to extricate several divisions from the defiles of the forest, compelled Napoleon to halt at this point. He repaired to his outposts before daybreak on the 27th, and the first rays of the sun snowed him Barclay's forces encamped on an elevated position commanding the avenues of Witepsk. The deep channel of the river Lucszissa marked the foot of this position, and ten thousand cavalry and a body of infantry were thrown across the river to dispute its passage : the main body of the Russian infantry was in the centre on the high road ; its left on woody eminences ; its right, supported by cavalry, rested on the Dwina. Napoleon took his station on a hill in view of both armies. Here, surrounded by a circle of chasseurs of his guard, he directed the movements of his troops as they successively deployed into line of battle. Two hundred Parisian voltigeurs of the 9th regiment of the line first debouched, and were ranged on the left front of the Russian cavalry, resting on the Dwina; they were followed by the 16th chasseurs and some artillery. The Russians, looking on stolidly, offered no opposition. This inaction was suddenly interrupted by Murat. Intoxicated at the brilliant assemblage of so many thousands of spectators, he precipitated the French chasseurs upon the Russian cavalry. They were met as gallantly, broken, put to flight, and the foremost cut to pieces. The King of Naples, stung to the quick at this result, threw himself into the thickest of the rout, sword in hand. A furious blow was just descending on his head, when it was averted by the orderly who attended him, and whose sabre cut off the assailant's arm. The success of the Russian cavalry led them nearly as far as the hill on which Napo- leon was posted, and his guard with difficulty drove them back by repeated volleys from their carbines. The two hundred Parisian voltigeurs, left in an isolated position by the disorder into which the chasseurs had been thrown, were in im- minent peril. The Russian cavalry in returning to the main body attacked and enveloped the voltigeurs. To the amazement of French and Russians, this handful of apparent victims emerged unhurt from the dense cloud of assailants, who with- drew to their own position. The voltigeurs had thrown themselves into square on a woody and broken space of ground, close to the river. Here the Russian cavalry could not act, while the steady fusilade of the voltigeurs made their assailants glad to leave them as they found them. Napoleon sent the cross of the Legion of Honour to every voltigeur on the spot. That evening Napoleon took leave of Murat with the words, " To-morrow you will see the sun of Austerhtz ; " but the King of Naples shook his head, saying, " Barclay only assumed that posture of defiance the better to insure his retreat;" then, with temerity verging on the ludicrous, ordered his tent to be pitched on the banks of Lucszissa, nearly in the midst of the enemy, that he might be the first to catch the sounds of their departure. The Emperor was wrong. A courier arrived at Barclay's head-quarters that night with intelligence that Bagration was in full march upon Smolensko. The order to break up the camp was given, and before daybreak Murat sent to inform Napoleon that he was " off in pursuit of the Russians, who were no longer within sight." Napoleon could with difficulty be convinced of the fact, but it was soon placed beyond doubt. The Russian retreat had been accomplished with such celerity and order, that a prisoner, found asleep in a thicket, was the sole trophy of a day from which so much had been expected. Utter uncertainty prevailed as to Barclay's route, until a band of marauding Cossacks determined the French pursuit in the direction of Smolensko. They marched for about six leagues in suffocating heat through deep sand. The Emperor then held a council of war, which ordered the army into cantonments on the banks of the Dnieper and the Dwina, while the Emperor returned to Witepsk. Here he wasted a fortnight. The risks of a further advance made Napoleon hesitate, and he frequently reverted to the expedition of Charles XII., though still expecting propositions of peace from Alexander. His army had left i8i2.] "THE UNIVERSAL TYRANT' CONTINUES TO ADVANCE. 323 a long line of stragglers and sick in its track. His column of attack consisted of not more than half the vast army which had entered Russia on the 23rd of June. The great tract of country already passed was occupied by his army, and neces- sarily diminished his effective strength by nearly eighty thousand men, besides which he had lost fully eighty thousand more by desertion, wounds, or death, from fatigue or disease, or in battle. Numbers of his ambulances, pontoons, and pro- vision waggons were far in the rear. A prudent general, under circumstances which so early in the enterprise presaged only fatal disaster in the end, would have come to almost any terms with his opponent while still strong enough to enforce those terms ; but all these grave considerations, which no one felt more keenly than Napoleon himself, gave way to an ardent desire to hurry on to Moscow. Several actions occurred between Napoleon's generals and divisions of the a- - ; ' v k\ \ life &^^S KEPULSE OF THE COSSACKS. Russian army whilst his head-quarters were at Witepsk. Schwartzenburg defeated Tormazoff at Gorodeczna ; Barclay retreated before Ney at Krasnoi ; and Oudinot routed Witgenstein near Polotsk, in a second combat, the first in which they en- countered having been indecisive. News of the conclusion of peace between Russia and Turkey more than counterbalanced these successes. Some of the Russian proclamations also fell into Napoleon's hands, calling upon the population to rise against "the universal tyrant— the Moloch," coming "with treachery in his heart and honour on his lips to reduce you to slavery by means of his myriads of slaves." " Let us drive out this race of grasshoppers ! Let us bear the cross in our hearts and the sword in our hands. Let us draw the teeth out of this lion's head, and overthrow the tyrant who wishes to devastate the whole earth." During the first week of August, intelligence reached Witepsk that Prince Eugene with the advanced guard had obtained some advantages near Suraij, but that in the centre, at Tukowo near the Dnieper, Sebastiani had been surprised by superior numbers and defeated with heavy loss. This information, and that Barclay was marching on Rudnia, decided Napoleon. He conjectured that the Russian army was united between the Dwina and the Dnieper, and would attack his canton- ments. The Russian commander-in-chief, conceiving that the French army at 21 — 2 324 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Witepsk lay dispersed and "at ease," resolved to attempt a surprise. But the utmost activity pervaded head-quarters. On the ioth of August, Napoleon wrote eight letters to Davoust and nearly as many to each of his commanders. " If the enemy defends Smolensko," he said in one of his letters to Davoust, " we shall have a decisive engagement there, and we cannot have too large a force. Orcha will become the central point of the army. Everything induces me to believe that there will be a great battle at Smolensko." Napoleon, by a clever manceuvre, succeeded in all but turning the tables on Barclay. Under cover of skirmishing at the advanced posts, he changed his whole front, and by a flank attack turned the left of the Russians instead of their right, as was expected by Barclay, gained their rear, and endeavouring to occupy Smolensko, threatened their communications with Moscow. To effect this he had withdrawn two corps d'armce from Witepsk and the line of the Dwina, and throwing four bridges across the Dnieper, made a passage for Ney, Eugene Beauharnais, and Davoust, with Murat at the head of two large bodies of cavalry. Supported by Poniatowski and Junot advancing in different routes, the attack was led by Ney and Murat, who bore down all opposition till they reached Krasnoi, where a battle was fought on the 14th of August. He thus in the face of an active enemy suddenly changed his line of operations from the Dwina to the Dnieper, and the manceuvre has been much admired by French and Russian tacticians. General Newerowskoi, who commanded at Krasnoi, finding himself attacked by a body of infantry stronger than his own, and two large bodies of cavalry, retreated upon the Smolensko road : this being favourable for cavalry, he was hotly pressed by Murat, who led the pursuit with reckless valour, having dispatched some light squadrons to harass the front of the retreating corps, while he made furious onsets upon its flank and rear. Newerowskoi, however, effected a skilful and gallant retreat, availing himself of a double row of trees on the Smolensko road to evade the charges of the cavalry and to pour a heavy fire into them. He reached Smolensko with the loss of four hundred men. The combat at Krasnoi was fought on the Emperor's birthday, which there was no intention of keeping in those solitudes and under circumstances of peril and anxiety. Murat and Ney, on reporting their success, could not refrain from complimenting the Emperor on the anniversary. A salute from a hundred guns, fired by their orders, was heard. Napoleon observing that in Russia it was important to be economical of French powder, was informed in reply that it was Russian powder which had been taken the night before. The idea of celebrating his birthday at the expense of the Russians made Napoleon smile. Prince Eugene also complimented the Emperor on this occasion, but was cut short by Napoleon saying, "Everything is preparing for a battle ; I will gain that and then we will see Moscow." Segur says that Eugene remarked on leaving the imperial tent, " Moscow will destroy us." When Barclay and Bagration learnt the situation of Newerowskoi, the question of forcing the French lines was superseded by the necessity of relieving Smolensko. Murat had begun an attack on the city ; Ney attempted to carry the citadel by a coup de main, but was repulsed with the loss of two or three hundred men. He withdrew to an eminence on the river's bank to examine the position, when he thought he could discern on the other side of the Dnieper large masses of troops in motion. He informed Napoleon, who hastened to the spot, and distinguished amidst clouds of dust long dark columns which seemed electric with the intermit- tent glancing of innumerable arms. These masses were Barclay and Bagration, at the head of a hundred and twenty thousand men. At this sight Napoleon clapped his hands for joy, exclaiming, " At last I have them ! " He then passed along the line and assigned to each commander his station, leaving unoccupied in front, between himself and the Dnieper, an extensive plain : this he offered to the enemy as a field of battle. The French army was backed by defiles and precipices; but Napoleon had no anxiety about retreat. Instead of accepting the challenge, Barclay and Bagration were seen next l8l2.] CAPTURE AND CONFLAGRATION OF SMOLENSKO. 325 morning in full retreat towards Elnia — a movement which bitterly disappointed Napoleon. He instantly ordered the storming of Smolensko, determining to force his way through it to Moscow. Murat was anxious to dissuade him from this attempt, but finding his efforts fail, was so exasperated that he rode in front of the Russian batteries while in full play, and having dismounted, stood immov- able while balls were cutting down men on all sides. The operations proceeded with success, except in Ney's attack on the citadel, which was again repulsed. A battalion accidentally presenting its flank to the Russian batteries, lost an entire file by a single ball, which killed twenty-two men instantaneously. The main army, on an amphitheatre of hills, surveyed with anxiety the struggles of their comrades, and occasionally applauded them with loud clapping of hands as in a theatre, while they dashed through a hail of balls and grape-shot which darkened the air. As night came on the troops were drawn off, and Napoleon retired to his tent. Count Lobau, having won the glacis and gained possession of the ditch, ordered RUSSIAN LANCEKS. shells to be thrown into the city to dislodge the enemy. Immediately thick black columns of smoke with occasional gleams of light were seen, then sparks and burning flakes, and at length pyramids of flame, which ascended from every quarter. These fires soon became united in one vast conflagration which rose in destruc- tive grandeur, hung over nearly the whole of Smolensko, and consumed it amidst awful crashes. This disaster threw Lobau into great consternation. Napoleon, seated in front of his tent, viewed the terrific spectacle in silence. The night was passed under arms. About three in the morning a subaltern officer belonging to Davoust ventured to the foot of the wall and scaled it without giving alarm. Em- boldened by the silence which reigned around, he made his way into the city, when suddenly hearing a number of voices speaking with the Sclavonian accent, he gave himself up for lost. But the rays of the sun discovered to him the Poles of Poni- atowski, who had penetrated the city just as Barclay abandoned it to the flames. Smolensko having been reconnoitred, the army entered, passing over the smoking and bloody debris in martial order, with all the pomp of military music and dis- played banners, triumphant over deserted ruins— a spectacle without spectators; a victory fruitless ; a glory steeped in blood, and of which the smoke that sur- rounded them was the most characteristic emblem. Here Napoleon found, as at the Niemen, at Wilna, and at Witepsk, that phantcm of victory which had decoyed him onward had again eluded him, and with mute 326 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. THE OCCUPATION OF SM0LEN6KO. rage he walked over heaps of smoking ruins and the naked bodies of the slain. He sat down on a mat at the door of a cottage, and held forth for an hour on the cowardice of Barclay, while bullets from the citadel walls were whizzing about his head. At length he remounted his horse. One of his marshals remarked as soon as he was out of hearing, that " if Barclay had been so very wrong in refusing battle, the Emperor would not have taken so much time to convince us of it." The truth was, he had no patience with the Russians for not staying — to be beaten. The Russians still held the suburb of Smolensko on the bank of the Dnieper. During the night Napoleon caused the bridges to be repaired and a heavy can- nonade to be kept up, and by morning the suburb was deserted after being set on fire. Ney and Junot pressed through the burning labyrinth, and halted where the roads to St. Petersburg and Moscow diverge. French scouts brought information that Barclay had retreated on Moscow, taking a circuitous route through marshy and woody defiles. Ney came up with the Russian rear guard at Stubna, where he dislodged it from a strong position, and next at Valoutina, where a desperate combat took place, in which thirty thousand men were engaged on each side. Encumbered by artillery and baggage and hard pressed by Ney, Barclay nearly lost his whole army, but was saved by the unaccountable remissness of Junot, who, although in his rear, did not attack. Junot, though a favourite with Napoleon, lost his command for this indecision. It was transferred to Rapp, who had just joined the army. The action had been sanguinary, and the French general, Gudin, was mortally wounded. Napoleon visited the field of battle. Dead bodies of French and Russians covered the ground ; the ghastly nature of their wounds and the wrenched and twisted bayonets scattered about bearing witness to the violence of the conflict. Napoleon suppressed his chagrin at the indecisive character of the victory, and declared this battle the most brilliant exploit in their military history. In his rewards he was munificent : the division of Gudin alone received eighty-seven decorations and promotions. He secured the wounded, and left the field, amidst the acclamations ol his soldiers, for Smolensko, his carriage jolt- ing over the grisly ruins of the fight, and his eyes meeting on every side all that is 1812.J ON THE GREAT ROAD TO MOSCOW. 327 odious and horrible in fields of battle. Long lines of wounded were dragging themselves or being borne along when he entered the ruined city, carts were conveying out of sight the streaming heap of amputated limbs. Smolensko seemed one vast hospital. Disastrous apprehensions crowded upon Napoleon's mind : the burning of Smolensko was undoubtedly part of a deep-laid design. The bitter hatred of the people against their invaders was evident. The wasting of the country and conflagration of the towns were attributed to the French. The com- monest utensils which the soldiers had used were all broken, burned, or appro- priated to the use of animals by the Russians, so great was their abhorrence of the French. Offers were made by a few enlightened individuals, at the commencement of the campaign, to detach the serf from the proprietor and the soil, but Napoleon neglected them at the time, and when he would have used such means afterwards they were no longer possible. His selfish policy punished him even here, for, says Hazlitt, "he was fonder of power than of liberty." Even the most sanguine and enterprising of his generals openly expressed their misgivings. He was leading his army through pathless deserts, or over ruined fields or towns laid in ashes ; fatigue, famine, and war were reducing his numbers, and he was at every step increasing the distance from his resources, while his enemies were in the heart of their own country. At Wilna a deficiency had been discovered in the hospital department ; the evil increased at Witepsk. At Smolensko fifteen large brick buildings, saved from the flames, had been set apart for hospitals, and there was plenty of wine, brandy, and medicines, but a dearth of dressings for wounds. The surgeons had used all that cou!d be procured, had torn up their own linen, and at length were obliged to substitute the paper found in the city archives. One hospital, containing a hundred wounded men, was forgotten for the space of three days, and was accidentally discovered by Rapp. Napoleon sent them his own stock of wine and many gratuities. The army at Smolensko might be computed at about one hundred and ninety thousand men, part of the deficiency being caused by the occupation of additional territory, the rest by desertion, wounds, sickness, or death. Napoleon entertained thoughts of establishing winter quarters at Smolensko ; and in this central point, commanding the roads to both the capitals of Russia, waiting proposals of peace, or preparing for a fresh campaign in the spring. But the danger of so long an absence from France, the difficulty of keep- ing together an army composed of many different nations, the news of fresh successes achieved by his generals in different directions, above all the impetuosity of his own temperament, decided him to pursue the enemy at all costs. By the 24th of August all the French army was again in full march. Napoleon still expected a decisive battle if he followed the Russians. He called their circumspection, pusillanimity; their retreat, flight; and his heedlessness in pursuit increased with their caution in retiring. Barclay had retreated to Dorogo- bouje without attempting any resistance. Here he was joined by Bagration ; and Murat, wishing to reconnoitre a small wood, met with a vigorous attack, and pressing forward, found himself in front of the whole Russian army. He sent word to Napoleon, who was in the rear. Davoust also, while disapproving Murat 's dispositions, wrote to hasten the Emperor's advance, " if he did not wish Mura: to engage without him." Napoleon received the news with transport, and, with his guard, marched twelve leagues without stopping ; but the evening before he arrived the enemy disappeared. The French army continued to advance, march- ing three columns abreast — the Emperor, Murat, Davoust, and Ney in the centre — along the great road to Moscow ; Poniatowski on the right, and the army of Italy on the left. It was not likely that the centre column could obtain supplies where the ad- vanced guard had found nothing but the leavings of the Russians ; nor dare they in so rapid a march deviate from the direct route ; besides which, the columns on their right and left were devouring all they could find. Their subsistence was a prodigy. With the French and Polish corps the difficulties were not so great, 328 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. owing to the excellent packing of their knapsacks, and every regiment having attached to it a number of draught-horses, carts, and a drove of oxen. But with the other chiefs in command the case was different. They only existed by the aid of marauding detachments, who devoured their fill and then returned to their respective bodies with whatever — if any — remained. Great distress and disorderly conduct occurred, particularly at Slawokowo. But Napoleon was possessed by the sole idea of Moscow and victory. He took great pleasure in dating decrees and despatches from the middle of Old Russia, which he knew would find their way into even the smallest hamlets of France. Davoust had been placed under Murat ; but the latter having brought the troops into great peril by his headstrong valour and love of personal display, Davoust showed an unwillingness to support him. This led to an altercation ia presence of the Emperor. Murat upbraided Davoust with dilatory circumspection and with personal hostility towards himself. He became more vehement as he proceeded, and finally challenged the Prince of Eckmuhl, who said it was high time the Emperor should be made acquainted with what passed every day in the management of his advanced guard. He showed that Murat wasted lives by use- less attacks upon the Russians, that he was in the habit of losing men in the front to no purpose, after which he would think of the propriety of reconnoitring; that he kept the whole of the advanced guard in a state of causeless activity during sixteen hours out of twenty-four, and then chose the worst quarters for the night; so that the soldiers instead of taking food and rest were groping about for pro- visions and forage, and calling to each other in the dark in order to find their way back to their bivouacs; and that the King did nothing but storm and rage through the ranks and then ride close to the enemy's lines in all directions. Napoleon listened to the whole of this in silence, pushing a Russian bullet backwards and forwards under the sole of his foot. When they were both quite out of breath, he mildly told them that under present circumstances he preferred impetuosity to caution ; that it was impossible for one man to combine all descriptions of merit ; and enjoining them to be friends, dismissed them. On the 28th of August, the army traversed the great plains of Wiazma, several regiments abreast. The high road was given up to the artillery and hospital "waggons. The Emperor appeared among them in all directions, calculating as he went along how many thousands of cannon-balls would be required to destroy the Russian army. He ordered all private carriages to be broken up, as they might impede progress. The carriage of his aide-de-camp, General Narbonne, was the first demolished. The baggage of all the corps was collected in the rear, comprised of a long train of bat-horses, and of carriages called kibics drawn by rope traces. These were loaded with provisions, plunder, military stores, sick soldiers, their arms and those of the drivers and guards. In this heterogeneous column were seen tall cuirassiers mounted on horses not much larger than asses. The fatigue of the army and the quarrels among the chiefs filled the mind of Napoleon with apprehension. He caused Berthier to write to Barclay, conclud- ing thus :— " The Emperor commands me to entreat you to present his compli- ments to the Emperor Alexander, and to say to him that neither the vicissitudes of war, nor any other circumstance, can ever impair the friendship which he feels for him." No answer was returned. On the day the letter was sent the French vanguard drove the Russians into Wiazma. The army was so exhausted by fatigue, heat, and thirst, that the soldiers fought among themselves for water from some muddy pools. Even Napoleon was glad to allay his thirst with a little of this thick puddle. In the course of the night the Russians destroyed the bridges of the Wiazma, set fire to the town and decamped. Murat and Davoust, however, succeeded in making an entrance and extinguishing the flames. Entering Wiazma, Napoleon found a few resources had been left in the town, but that his soldiers had wasted them by pillage. This so exasperated him that he rode among them and threw down several. Seeing a suttler who had been very busy in this waste- I8l2.] A PIOUS SUBTERFUGE. 329 MURAT. KING OF NAPLES. ful disorder, he ordered him to be shot. But Napoleon's fits of passion were generally of short duration. Those, therefore, who heard this order, placed the suttler a few minutes afterwards where the Emperor would have to pass ; and making the man kneel, they got a woman and several children to kneel beside him as his wife and family. Napoleon inquiring what they wanted, pardoned the offender. Belliard, at this time the head of Murat's staff, reported that the enemy had shown himself in full force in an advantageous position beyond the Wiazma; that the cavalry on both sides had come to action ; and that infantry being necessary, 33° THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the King of Naples had placed himself at the head of one of Davoust's divisions and ordered the advance, when Davoust, hastening to the spot, had commanded them to halt, as he considered the intended manoeuvre absurd and ruinous. Murat therefore sent to the Emperor, declaring he would no longer hold a dis- puted command. Napoleon, enraged at this renewal of the quarrel at such a moment, sent off Berthier to place under Murat's command the division he had intended to lead. But the contest was over, and Murat reverting to the conduct of Davoust was boiling with indignation. He asked of what use was his royal rank ? It could neither obtain obedience nor protect him from insult. But as his sword had made him a King, to that alone would he appeal. With great difficulty was he restrained from attacking Davoust. He then cursed his crown and shed a torrent of tears. Davoust did not attempt to excuse the insubordina- tion of his conduct, but persisted that Murat had been misled by his temerity, and that the Emperor had been misinformed as to the whole affair. Napoleon re-entered Wiazma, where intelligence was brought him that the Russian Government had Te Deum repeatedly celebrated at St. Petersburg for the Russian "victories" of Witepsk and Smolensko ! u Te Deum!" ejaculated Napo- leon in amazement, — " then they dare to tell lies not only to man but to God ! " He also learnt that while their towns were in flames there was nothing but ringing of bells in St. Petersburg, hymns of gratitude, and publications of the triumph of the Russian arms. The advanced guard pursued the Russians to Gjatz, finding in the villages forage, grain, ovens, and shelter. The French took possession of Gjatz, the Russians having set fire to the town and disappeared behind the flames. One of the in- habitants who exclaimed with transport that he was a Frenchman, said that a total change had been made in the Russian army. The troops as well as the whole of Moscow raised a violent clamour against Barclay for what they termed his base desertion of their cities. They declared that Russia could be saved by a Russian only, and called for Kutusoff, an old rival of Suwarrow, to take the place of Barclay and give battle to the invaders. Alexander accordingly made Kutusoff commander-in-chief. Barclay persevered to the latest possible moment, in opposition to the whole Russian army and- nation, in that plan of retreat which five years previously he had declared to one of the French generals would be the only means of saving Russia. Notwithstanding the horrible disasters it brought upon the French, they admired the firmness and masterly skill with which Barclay carried it out. When superseded by Kutusoff he manifested no indignation, but obeyed with the same steadiness as he had commanded. The Russian general halted and formed entrenchments in the plain of Borodino. Napoleon announced to his army an approaching battle, allowing them two days to rest, prepare their arms, and collect provisions. On the 4th of September the French left Gjatz. The heads of their columns were more than ever annoyed by the Cossacks, and the frequent necessity of de- ploying his cavalry so provoked Murat that he once clapped spurs to his horse, and dashing alone to the front of their line, halted within a few paces, and waving his sabre, commanded them to withdraw. The sudden apparition of this splendid figure, with the air of one who could annihilate them with a blow, so took the Cossacks by surprise that they mechanically obeyed. They however returned, and were charged by the Italian chasseurs. Platoff relates that in this affair a Russian officer who had brought a sorcerer with him was wounded, whereupon he ordered the sorcerer to be soundly drubbed on the spot, as he had expressly directed him by conjurations to turn aside all the balls. Napoleon surveyed the whole country from an eminence. Seeing vast numbers of troops posted in front of the enemy's left, he concluded that this must be the point where their ground was most accessible, as they had there constructed a formidable redoubt. It was therefore necessary to carry this. The attack was general, and the Russian rear guards were driven back upon Borodino. The i8i2.] KUTUSOFF MAKES A STAND. 331 division of Compans attacked the redoubt, and the 6ist regiment took it at the point of the bayonet. Bagration sent reinforcements, and it was retaken. It was taken and lost by the 6ist three times, till finally, after sacrificing half the regi- ment, it remained in possession of the French. But a neighbouring wood was swarming with Russian riflemen, and it required the efforts of Morand, Ponia- towski, and Murat to make good the conquest. A languid firing, nevertheless, continued till nightfall. Not a prisoner had been taken. When Napoleon heard this, he asked impatiently, "Were the Russians determined to conquer or die?" He was answered that the priests and chiefs had wrought them up to such a love for their country and abhorrence of its invaders that they refused quarter at their hands. The Emperor at this concluded that a battle of artillery would be the only efficient mode to adopt. That night a thin cold rain began to fall, accom- panied by violent gusts of wind. On the 6th of September the two armies were visible to each other, in the same position as before. The Emperor rode forth at dawn and surveyed the enemy, passing along a succession of eminences that rose between the antagonists. The Russians were in possession of all the heights, ranging on a semicircle of two leagues extent, from the Mosqua to the old Moscow road. Sixteen thousand re- cruits and many peasants had joined the ranks. Their centre, commanded by Barclay, formed a salient angle in their line, protected by the Kalogha, by a ravine, and by two strong redoubts at its extremities. The right and left receded, the former resting on the precipitous and rocky bank of the Kalogha, and defended by deep and muddy hollows. A strong redoubt also crowned the height, which was armed with eighty pieces of cannon. Bagration commanded the left on a less elevated crest than the centre ; and this, having lost the protection of its great redoubt, was the weakest point. Two small hiils crowned with redoubts protected its front ; flanked by a wood, beyond which, on the extreme left, was a corps under Tutchkoff; which took up a position a cheval on the old Smolensko road, but at a sufficient distance to permit the possibility of manoeuvring on the intervening ground. Having concluded his observation, Napoleon said, "Eugene shall be the pivot: the battle must begin by our right. As soon as the right, advancing under pro- tection of the wood, shall have carried the redoubts on the Russian left, it must wheel to the left, attack the Russian flank, and roll it back upon their right wing, driving both into the Kalogha." The two armies were nearly equal, — about a hundred and twenty thousand men, with six hundred pieces of cannon on the Russian side, and one hundred and forty thousand on the French. The Russians had the better position, with the additional advantages of speaking the same language, wearing the same uniform, and fighting for a common cause, of being near their resources, and in their own country. Napoleon's army had just completed a long and harassing march, was made up of many nations, and in the midst of a hostile people. The proclamation issued by Napoleon was suited to the men and the circumstances. " Soldiers," said he, " you have now before you the battle which you have so long desired. From this moment the victory depends upon yourselves. It is necessary for us; it will bring us abundance, good winter quarters, and a speedy return to our country." The Emperor had that day received the portrait of his son from Paris, and exhibited the picture in front of his tent. Kutusoff induced the chief priests of the Greek Church, dressed in their richest robes, to walk in procession before his army. They carried the symbols of their religion, and foremost of all a sacred image of the Virgin, withdrawn from Smo- lensko by a miracle. The ceremony roused the soldiers to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. During the night the French army was stationed in order of battle, and three batteries of sixty pieces each were opposed to the Russian redoubts. Poniatowski commanded the right wing, destined to commence the attack on the Russian left. 332 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. FRENCH SOLDIERS AND THE PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON S SON. The whole of the artillery were to support his attack. Davoust and Ney, sup- ported by Junot with the Westphalians, and Murat with the cavalry, were in the centre, ready to precipitate themselves upon the Russians after the opening of the battle by Poniatowski. Prince Eugene, with the army of Italy and the Bavarian cavalry, formed the left. The Emperor held his guard in reserve. He appeared very unwell — oppressed with fever and excessive thirst, the result of over- fatigue and anxiety. The news of the defeat of his troops at Salamanca had just been brought by Fabvier, an aide-de-camp of Marmont. He asked Rapp whether he thought they should gain a victory. " Undoubtedly," answered Rapp ; " but it will be a bloody one ! " On which Napoleon replied, " I know it ; but I have over one hundred thousand men. I shall lose twenty thousand of them, and with the rest I shall enter Moscow. The stragglers will rejoin us there, and afterwards the battalions of recruits now on their march, and we shall be stronger than before the battle." Before daybreak one of Ney's officers announced that the marshal had the Russians still in view, and asked leave to attack. Napoleon rose, sum- moned his officers, and leaving his tent, exclaimed, " At last we have them ! March ! — We will to-day open the gates of Moscow ! " At half-past five in the morning Napoleon took his station near the great redoubt which had been captured on the 5th. As the sun rose he pointed to the east, saying, " Behold the sun of Austerlitz ! " But it was literally and politically on the side of the Russians ! The batteries, which had been placed too far back, were pushed forward ; the Russians making no opposition : they seemed as if afraid to break the awful silence. The French columns advanced in echelon, full of ardour. While waiting for the sound of Poniatowski's fire on the right, Napo- leon ordered Eugene to take the village of Borodino, on the left. The 106th regiment accordingly opened the attack ; gained the village ; rushed across the bridge ; and would have been cut off, had not the 92nd come up to its relief. Sounds on the right announcing that Poniatowski had commenced his attack, Napoleon gave the signal of battle. Then suddenly from the peaceful plain and silent hills burst forth flashes of fire and clouds of smoke, followed by a multitude of explosions and the whizzing of bullets on every side. In the midst of this i8i2.J BATTLE OF BORODINO. 333 thunder, Davoust, with the divisions of Compans and Desaix and thirty cannon, advanced rapidly upon the first Russian redoubt. The fusilade of the Russians began, and was answered by the French cannon. The French infantry advanced at the double without firing ; but Compans, who headed the column, fell wounded, and his men halted under the shower of balls. Rapp, taking the post of Compans, urged the troops forward at a running pace with fixed bayonets, when he also fell with his twenty-second wound. He was conveyed to the Emperor, who exclaimed, " What ! Rapp ! always wounded ! but how are they going on above there ? " The aide-de-camp replied that the guard was wanted to finish the business. " No," said Napoleon, " I will take good care of that ; I will not have that destroyed. I will gain the battle without it." A third general who succeeded Rapp also fell, and Davoust himself was struck. At this moment Ney, with ten thousand men, threw himself into the plain to support Davoust, and the Russian fire was divided. Ney rushed on ; Davoust's columns continued their advance ; and almost at the same time both the French divisions scaled the heights, overthrew or bayonetted their defenders, and obtained possession of both the redoubts on the Russian left. Napoleon then ordered Murat to charge and complete the victory. The King obeyed ; but the Russians, reinforced by their second line, advanced with rapidity to regain their redoubts. The French, taken by surprise in the first disorder of success, retreated. Murat, endeavouring to rally the troops, found himself alone amidst the enemy's cavalry. They were even stretching out their arms to take him prisoner, when he escaped by throwing himself into a redoubt. There he found only a few panicstruck soldiers running backwards and forwards upon the parapet in consternation ; but seizing the first weapon he could find, he fought with one hand, while he waved his plumed hat with the other. His presence soon restored the courage of the men. Ney re-formed his divisions ; his fire threw the Russians into disorder. Murat was extricated and the heights re-conquered. Murat furiously charged the enemy at the head of the French cavalry, and in another hour the Russian left wing was totally defeated. Meantime a dreadful conflict raged on the French left. After Eugene had taken the village of Borodino he passed the Kalogha, and stormed the great redoubt, lined with eighty pieces of cannon and protected by a ravine. General Bonnamy, at the head of eighteen hundred men of the 30th regiment, had carried this posi- tion by a sudden charge at six o'clock in the morning. But the Russians, re- covering from their panic and rallying before their assailants could be supported, headed by Kutusoff and Yermdof in person, became assailants in their turn. Bon- namy's regiment was driven from the redoubt with the loss of its commander and one-third of its strength. Eugene maintained himself on the slopes for four hours under a terrific fire, until relieved by the tide of battle, when Kutusoff was obliged to defend his left centre, now exposed in consequence of the defeat of his left wing by the divisions of Ney, Davoust, and Murat. Kutusoff, pouring a destructive fire into the troops of Ney and Murat from the heights of the ruined village of Semenowska, it became necessary to carry that position. Maubourg swept its front with his cavalry ; Friant and Dufour, with their infantry, mounted the acclivity, dislodged the Russians, and secured the position. The Russians had thus lost all their entrenchments except the great redoubt, which Prince Eugene was attacking. He had sent to Napoleon for assistance, but was answered that "he could have no relief; all depended on him alone, the battle being concen- trated on that point." Murat and Ney, exhausted with their efforts, likewise sent for reinforcements ; but Napoleon, though concluding that Friant's and Mau- bourg's divisions on the heights would maintain them, saw that the battle was not yet won. Notwithstanding this and repeated urgent messages, he steadily refused to compromise his reserves. The Russians now rallied en masse. Kutusoff's reserves and even the Russian £uard were brought up to the assistance of his uncovered left. Infantry, artillery, and cavalry, all advanced for one grand effort. Ney and Murat sustained with 334 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. intrepidity the rushing tempest. It was no time to think of following up previous successes ; all available strength was required to maintain them. Whole ranks of Friant's soldiers, in front of the armed heights of Semenowska, were swept off by- grape-shot. The survivors were dismayed, and one of their commanders sounded the retreat ; when Murat rode up to him, and, seizing him by the collar, exclaimed, "What are you doing?" The colonel, pointing to the ground on which half his men lay dead or wounded, replied, " We can stay here no longer ! " Murat rejoined, "I can stay here very well myself!" The colonel, looking steadily at him, calmly replied, " It is right. Soldiers ! face to the enemy — to be slain! " Murat again sent Borelli to Napoleon for assistance, which was given promptly and efficiently. The Artillery of the Guard advanced. Eighty pieces of cannon quickly crowned the heights and opened fire. The Russian cavalry, having in. vain charged this tremendous battery, retired in confusion to escape destruction. The infantry and their leaders exhibited a spectacle of stolid indifference to death and devotion to their country unparalleled in the history of war. " The infantry," says Segur, " advanced in thick masses, in which our balls from the first made wide chasms ; yet they came on nearer and nearer, when the French batteries, redoubling the rapidity of their fire, mowed them down with grape-shot. Whole platoons fell at once. Their soldiers struggled to preserve their compactness under this terrible fire ; and, separated every instant by dead bodies, they still closed their ranks over them, treading them underfoot. At last they halted, not daring to advance farther, and yet resolved not to give way. Ba<*ration, mortally wounded, was unable to change their position, consequently these heavy masses stood to be destroyed in detail for two entire hours, without any other movement than that of falling men. It was a frightful massacre, and our artillerymen admired the firm, resigned, but infatuated courage of their enemies." Scott, describing the same scene, says : — " Regiments of peasants, who till that day had never seen war, and who had no other uniform than their grey jackets, formed with the steadiness of veterans, crossed their brows, and having uttered their national exclamation, ' Gospodee pomiloiii nasi' (God have mercy upon us), rushed into the thickest of the battle, where the survivors, without fear or astonish- ment, closed their ranks over their comrades as they fell." Whether that mass of men would have stood to be utterly destroyed to the last individual by artillery was not tested, for a movement in the French army, bring- ing a new peril, put them to flight. Ney extended his right, pushed it rapidly forward, and, seconded by Davoust and Murat, turned and routed the left of the Russian centre. The battle still raged on the Russian right, — where Barclay, in the great redoubt, obstinately withstood Prince Eugene, — and on their extreme left, where Poniatowski had as yet failed to master the great Moscow road. When another pressing demand for " the guard, to complete the destruction of the Russian army," was brought to Napoleon from Ney and Murat, who burned to follow up the retreat of the defeated infantry, he pointed in silence to those two conflicting bodies. Count Daru, at the solicitation of Berthier, repeated the re- quest, and said in a low tone, "that on all sides the cry now was that the moment for the guard to act was come." But Napoleon replied, " And if there should be a second battle to-morrow, what shall I have to fight with ? " For the third time Kutusoff rallied, resting his right on the great redoubt, and attacked Ney and Murat ; but it was a last effort. General Caulaincourt, at the head of the 5th French cuirassiers, desperately charged the rear of the redoubt, while Eugene maintained his ground in the front. Caulaincourt, as he left Murat to open the attack, said, " You shall see me there immediately, dead or alive ! " At the head of his regiment he overthrew all opposition, and was the first man who penetrated into the redoubt, where at that instant he fell mortally wounded ; but that decisive charge determined the victory. Prince Eugene was pressing onwards, and had nearly reached the muzzles of the guns, when suddenly their fire was silenced, its smoke lifted, and above the parapet appeared the polished brass 1812.] A DEARLY-BOUGHT VICTORY. 335 J*-*: SB BATTLE OF BORODINO. breastplates of the French cuirassiers. The Russians had been driven from their last entrenchment, but they made one more desperate effort to retake the position, as if determined to die rather than lose it. Their column advanced to the very embrasures of the fort, when, at a terrible discharge of thirty pieces of artillery, directed against them point blank, they wavered, were literally whirled round by the shock, and being unable to deploy, retired. Poniatowski, supported by Se- bastiani, had overcome all resistance on the left, after a desperate hand-to-hand struggle. The Russian fire became weaker and less frequent, for Barclay had retreated to a new position, where he appeared to be entrenching himself. The day was drawing to a close, and the battle ended, — both sides being utterly ex- hausted. Throughout the battle Napoleon had been seated on the edge of a trench, or walking backwards and forwards on an elevated platform. He now mounted his horse, and slowly passed amidst the heaps of dead and wounded till he reached the heights of Semenowska. He said little, but what he said implied that victory had cost him too dear. He then repaired to his tent to write the bulletin of the battle, announcing to France that neither himself nor his reserves had been in the least danger, — thus manifesting the confidence he felt in the opinion entertained of him by the French ; and informing Europe that although surrounded by enemies in a hostile country, he was safe and powerful. The battle of Borodino (sometimes called Mosqua, or Moscowa) was one of the most important of Na- 336 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. poleon's battles. A different result would have influenced his subsequent career to an incalculable extent. His reason for refusing to send his reserve into action has been explained by his own words. Judging from the event, it would seem that he won just enough to show his enemies that he could beat them under all disadvantages, and therefore to warn them against hazarding a second great battle, while it was most probable they could eventually beat him by other means than fighting ; but he failed to win a decisive victory, and thus to terminate the contest in his favour, although he had the power of doing this if he had used all his resources. Suppose, however, that he had sent all his reserve into the field and destroyed the Russian army ? Would this have prevented the firing of Moscow ? Would Napoleon have retreated,, or would he have pushed on direct to St. Peters- burg? Would the whole population have risen against him, or would Alexander have been anxious to make any terms he might please to dictate? The exhausted condition of the French, the want of supplies, the probable burning of all the villages near which they would have to pass, and the rapid approach of winter, are, we think, sufficient answers to these speculations. The French retreat, if BURYING THE DEAD AFTER BORODINO. necessary, would certainly have been far less disastrous than it was ; but little other good can be predicated as certain to have resulted from the destruction of the Russian army at Borodino. On the whole Napoleon was right in withholding his reserve under the reasonable expectation of a great battle before the walls of Moscow, for the destruction of one Russian army would not have spared him the irresistible disasters of a flaming capital, and to Moscow Napoleon had deter- mined to march under any circumstances. "About nine o'clock in the evening," says Count Matthieu Dumas in his "Me- moirs," " Count Daru and I were summoned to the Emperor. His bivouac was in the middle of the square battalion of his guard, a little behind the redoubt. His supper had just been served; he was alone, and made us sit down on his right and left hand. After having heard the account of the measures taken for the relief of the wounded, etc., he spoke of the battle; a moment afterwards he fell asleep for about twenty minutes ; then suddenly waking, he continued : ' People will be astonished that I did not bring up my reserves to obtain more decisive results ; but it was necessary to keep them in order to strike a decisive blow in the great battle which the enemy will offer us before Moscow : the success of the day was secured ; I had to think of the success of the campaign, and it is for that I keep my reserves.' " Borodino was, however, the battle for Moscow, its results involving the fate of that city and of the French army. i8i2.] HORRORS OF THE BATTLE-FIELD. 337 Next morning there was an alarm, even in the Emperor's tent, which compelled the Old Guard to resort to arms. This was mortifying and even insulting after victory. The French army continued inactive till noon. Ten thousand had been killed, and the wounded amounted to doubre that number. Forty-three generals were killed or wounded. Among the Russians there had been twenty thousand slain, including the gallant Prince Bagration, and thirty thousand wounded. The French carried their wounded to the large monastery of Kolotskoi, two leagues in the rear. Chief-Surgeon Larrey had taken assistants from all the other regiments, and the hospital waggons had arrived ; but all that could be done for the con- veyance was miserably inefficient, and no sufficient troop was left him to obtain the necessary articles from the surrounding villages. When the Emperor inspected the field of battle, a gloomy sky, cold rain, a violent wind, habitations in ashes, a plain absolutely torn up and covered with fragments and ruins, rendered the scene of carnage yet more appalling. Soldiers were roam- ing like wild beasts among the bodies of their dead comrades, and emptying their knapsacks to procure subsistence. The wounds of the slain were of the most hideous description, occasioned by the large bullets used by the Russians. At the bivouacs were no songs of triumph, no lively narrations, — all men were dreary and silent. Around the eagles were the officers and subalterns, and a k\v soldiers, — barely sufficient to guard the colours. Their clothes were torn by the violence of the conflict, blackened with powder, and stained with blood ; yet even amidst their rags, misery, and destitution they welcomed Napoleon with acclamations. Many wounded were found in ravines, where the French troops had been pre- cipitated, or had dragged themselves for shelter from the enemy or the storm. Some of the younger soldiers in sighs and groans were calling upon the name of their country or their mother ; but most of the veterans awaited death either with an impassive or a sardonic air. The anguish of some of the wounded made them beg their comrades in mercy to kill them. Many of the enormous number of Russian wounded were seen with bloody trail dragging themselves along the ground to find shelter among a heap of dead bodies. Napoleon's horse chancing to tread upon the body of one apparently dead, a cry of anguish startled him and excited his compassion. Somebody remarking that " it was only a Russian," Napoleon angrily observed that " after a battle there were no enemies, — all were men." Between seven and eight hundred prisoners and a score of unserviceable cannon were the sole trophies of this sanguinary and imperfect victory. At Mojaisk the sick and wounded were so numerous that the Russians in passing through had not set fire to the houses ; they, however, fired shells upon the French directly they entered the town, which was quickly in flames, and numbers of their wounded fellow-countrymen were burned. The Russian army disappeared from the heights as the French advanced. After the battle of Borodino two divisions from Smolensko came up to reinforce Napoleon, so that his army, notwithstand- ing all his losses, still comprised more than one hundred and twenty thousand men. It was conjectured that the Russians had taken the road to Moscow ; and Murat and Mortier pursued in that direction. The Russians appeared on the nth of September near Krymskoie, established in a very strong position. In spite of the remonstrances of Mortier and other generals, Murat resolved on an immediate attack, and on this occasion two thousand of the reserve were lost. Mortier, in a state bordering on frenzy, wrote to the Emperor declaring he would never in future obey the King of Naples. The thoughts, however, of Napoleon were now bent solely on Moscow, and he hurried forward on the 12th to join the vanguard. Moscow was an immense assemblage of two hundred and ninety-five churches, and fifteen hundred splendid habitations, with their gardens and offices. These palaces, built of brick, with the grounds attached to them, intermingled with wooden houses and cottages, were scattered over several square leagues of irregular ground, and grouped around a lofty triangular fortress, one of whose vast double en- closures included several palaces and churches, and uncultivated rocky spots ; the 22 338 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. other a vast bazaar — a city of merchants — exhibiting the opulence of the four quarters of the world. These buildings, shops as well as palaces, were covered with polished and painted iron. The churches were each surmounted by a terrace, and by several steeples terminating in gilded globes, the crescent and the cross recalling to mind the history of the people. They represented Asia and her reli- gion — first triumphant, then subdued — and finally the crescent of Mahomet under the dominion of the cross of Christ. A single sunbeam made this superb city glitter with a thousand varied colours, and the enchanted traveller halted in ecstacy at the sight.* The nobility of Moscow prided themselves on their antiquity, numbers, and general relationship formed during the seven centuries for which that capital had existed. The land of almost the whole of Moscow belonged to them, and they reigned over a million serfs. Those who left the city for a career of politics 01 glory generally returned to close their lives there. The Princes of the Empire had a repugnance to Moscow, feeling these nobles to be an aristocracy beyond their power, and whom it was necessary to humour. The habits, manners, dress, and language of the nobility resembled those of modern Europe, while the wealthy merchants displayed Asiatic pomp and luxury. The people were frequently seen in the Grecian costume, with flowing beards. The crowd of slaves and retainers, and the mixture of squalor and ignorance with grandeur and refinement, gave Moscow a peculiar air of semi-civilization. The Emperor Alexander repaired to Moscow after leaving his army. He met the nobility in full assembly, and addressing them set forth the dangers of the State. He was received with enthusiasm, and a simultaneous exclamation burst from every side : — "'Sire, ask all ! we offer all, accept all !" A grant of one serf out of every ten, fully armed, equipped, and supplied with three months' pro- visions, was unanimously voted. The merchants, whom he next addressed, laid themselves under a voluntary contribution amounting, it is said, to two millions of roubles. The president of the meeting put down his name for fifty thousand roubles, which was half his fortune. Count Rostopchin remained Governor of Moscow after the departure of Alexander. As the French army approached the capital, terror prevailed among the inhabi- tants, and after the taking of Smolensko many of the wealthy classes, removing their most valuable effects, left the city. The Governor secretly encouraged this emigration, though he ostensibly maintained complete confidence in the success of the Russian cause. Among other contrivances he constructed an immense balloon, out of which he made the people believe he would pour a shower of fire upon the French army. Under this pretence he collected a quantity of com- bustibles destined for a widely different purpose. The panic at Moscow became so general, that not only the nobility and higher classes, but tradesmen, mechanics, and even the poor, left it by thousands. The public archives and treasures were removed, the magazines emptied as far as time permitted. The roads were covered with carriages of every description and crowds of fugitives on foot, the priests leading the way laden with the symbols of their religion, and singing mournful hymns. After the fight at Borodino, Kutusoff promulgated reports of a great victory to the Russian arms ; they reached St. Petersburg on the Emperor's birthday, and obtained rewards and honours for Kutusoff, which were not afterwards cancelled. The delusion was of short duration at Moscow. A long convoy of wounded, uttering groans of anguish — powerful lords being mutilated and overthrown like the meanest in the ranks — filled the city with consternation. Rostopchin found it difficult to maintain order. He addressed the populace, declaring that he was about to repair to the camp, and was ready " to defend Moscow to the last drop of his blood." Kutusoff with his retreating army now appeared outside the walls, * Sesrur. I8l2.] MO 'SCO IV. 339 and strongly entrenched himself at Fili. He had ninety thousand men under his command, of whom six thousand were Cossacks, large numbers of recruits having been added to his force since the great battle ; but his intention of defending the capital was speedily relinquished. On the 14th of September he broke up his camp, and his army passing through Moscow continued its retreat, leaving the capital to its fate. The troops marched along the deserted streets with furled banners and silent drums, and out at the Kalomna gate. Some of the officers shed tears of rage and shame. With an army of ninety thousand men, in their own country, and with the power of retreating upon their resources, it is no wonder that the braver Russians deeply felt this humiliation. The long columns were followed by the garrison and the remaining population, with the exception of one class, — left there for a special purpose. Before depart- ing Rostopchin opened the prisons and let loose three or four hundred of their THE FIRST SIGHT OF MOSCOW. miserable and degraded inmates, having given them a secret task to perform. The pumps of the city were removed or destroyed, and torches and other com- bustibles in great quantities collected. The last act of the governor was to hold a court of justice, at which two criminals were arraigned. One a Russian, accused of exciting the people to revolt, and of belonging to a sect of German illuminati :■ the other a Frenchman, who, emboldened by the approach of his countrymen, had made a dangerous political harangue. The father of the Russian arrived while the trial was proceeding, and every one expected him to intercede for the criminal, but he loudly demanded his execution. The governor, however, allowed him a few moments to speak with his son and to give him his blessing. " I bless the traitor!" exclaimed this Russian father; and then turning to his son he cursed him with a horrible tone and gestures. The savage words were the signal of execution. The victim was struck by a sabre ; but the blow only staggering him, the infuriated multitude rushed upon him and tore him to pieces. The French- man stood by almost petrified with horror ; but the governor, satisfied with the tragedy already enacted, dismissed him with calm hauteur, saying, " As for you, it was natural for you to desire the arrival of the French : you are therefore dis- 22 — 2 340 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. charged; forget not, however, to tell your countrymen that Russia had but one traitor, and he has met with his deserts." It is said that a hundred thousand inhabitants, forced to fly from Moscow, perished in the neighbouring woods for want of food and shelter. In their de- spair, at the very last the multitude were roused to hope and confidence by the sight of a vulture caught in the chains which supported the cross of the principal church. This they hailed as an omen that God was about to deliver Napoleon into their hands. On the same day that the Russian army retreated through Moscow, and even before their rear guard had cleared the city, Murat penetrated the suburbs, and Eugene and Poniatowski attacked the gates. About two o'clock in the afternoon Napoleon with his guard gained the summit of the " Mount of Salvation," the last height which hid his long-desired conquest from view, and looked down upon the immense city glittering with a thousand colours in the sun, — a strange and mag- nificent sight in the midst of the desert. The troops, struck with admiration, halted involuntarily and exclaimed, " Moscow ! Moscow ! " in a transport of joy. The marshals crowded with congratulations around the Emperor. His first ex- clamation was, " There at last then is that famous city ! " — presently adding, " It was high time ! " A flag of truce from Miloradowitch, who commanded the Russian rear guard, here met the Emperor. He came to announce that his guard would set fire to Moscow if he were not allowed time to evacuate it. An armistice of two hours was granted him. Napoleon's eager eye was fixed on the city as on a vision he was just about to realize. He expected every moment to see a deputation issue from the gates to lay its wealth, its population, its Senate, and its nobility at his feet. The troops of the two nations were for a few minutes intermingled. Murat was soon surrounded by a crowd of Cossacks, extolling his personal prowess by signs and gesticulations, and intoxicating him with their admiration. He dis- tributed the watches of his officers among these barbarians, one of whom deno- minated him his " Hetman." For two hours Napoleon indulged in dreams of success and glory. But day was drawing to a close, and Moscow remained sad, silent, and death-like. Napoleon became anxious, the soldiers impatient. A few officers penetrated into the city, and a rumour began to spread that " Moscow was deserted ! " Napoleon descended the hill and advanced towards the Doro- gomilow gate. Here he again halted : all remained motionless. Murat urged him to enter the city. At last he gave the order, " Enter then, since they will have it so ! " Calling Daru to his side, he said aloud, " Moscow deserted ! a most unlikely event ! We must enter it and ascertain the fact. Go and bring the boyards (landed proprietors) before me." Daru went, and returned. Not a single Muscovite was to be found. " No smoke," says Segur, "was seen ascend- ing from the meanest hearth ; nor was the slightest noise to be heard, the three hundred thousand inhabitants of Moscow seeming dumb and motionless as by enchantment." Another officer appeared, driving before him five or six of those miserable beings who had been freed from prison and left in Moscow. Then Napoleon ceased to doubt. Murat with his cavalry had entered the city upwards of an hour since. Awed by the silence of this immense solitude, the troops passed on- wards without uttering a word, listening to the hollow sound of their horses' feet re-echoed from the walls of these deserted palaces. Suddenly the report of small arms was heard. The column halted. The discharge had been made from the walls of the Kremlin, the gates of which were closed. It was defended by a squalid rout of men and women in a state of bestial drunkenness, uttering savage yells and imprecations. As they would listen to no terms, the gates were forced and the miscreants driven away. Five hundred recruits were left behind in the Kremlin, but they offered no resistance, and dispersed when summoned. Several thousand stragglers and deserters also surrendered to the advanced guard. Murat I8l2.] AT THE KREMLIN! 341 lliifettM " ' %%& ARREST OF THE IN'CENDIARIES. scarcely delayed a moment in the Kremlin. After marching over nine hundred leagues and fighting sixty battles to reach Moscow, he passed through that magni- ficent city without once halting, and dashed forwards into the road toVoladimir, along which thousands of Cossacks were retreating, upon whom Murat ordered a discharge of carbines. Napoleon appointed Mortier governor of the city, but did not enter Moscow before night. " Above all," said" he, " no pillage." Reports were brought him of the intended burning of the capital, which he would not credit. He was, how- ever, unable to sleep, and continually called his attendants to repeat what they had heard. About two o'clock in the morning he was apprised that flames had broken out at the exchange in the centre of the city. At daylight he hurried to Mortier, who showed him houses covered with iron roofs, and shut up, from which smoke was issuing. As they had not been broken into, they were evidently fired from within. Napoleon entered the Kremlin thoughtful and melancholy; yet on beholding the stupendous palace of the Emperors of Russia his ambition was gratified, and he murmured, " I am at length in Moscow ! — in the ancient city of the Czars ! — in the Kremlin !" Thence he wrote a pacific overture to the Emperor Alexander, and dispatched it by a Russian officer who had been dis- covered in the great hospital. The flames were temporarily checked by the ex- ertions of the Duke of Treviso. The incendiaries kept so well concealed that their existence was doubted. Regulations were issued, order established, and 34 2 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. officers and men proceeded to take possession of some convenient house, wherein to rest after so many dangers and privations. Two officers, however, having taken up their quarters in the Kremlin, were awoke about midnight by an overpowering glare of light. Starting up, they looked out and saw palaces in flames, which the wind was driving towards the Kremlin. Three times the wind changed, and three times did new flames burst out from different quarters of the city and blaze towards the Kremlin. The guards, overpowered by wine and want of rest, had left a whole park of artillery under the Emperor's windows. The flames presently darted against the palace from all points, and the air was thick with flakes of fire. The chiefs, including Mortier, overcome by vain exertions to check the conflagration, returned to the Kremlin, and fell down in utter exhaustion and despair. At first it was thought the disaster had occurred through the intoxication of French soldiers, but reports from all quarters placed the cause beyond doubt. The malefactors whom Rostopchin had let loose from the prisons had been commissioned to execute this tremendous deed as the price of their pardon. Thoroughly did they fulfil their task, and becoming delirious with intoxication, with excitement and success, no longer concealing themselves, they ran to and fro with diabolical yells, waving lighted brands round their heads. The French could not make them drop their torches except by slashing their naked arms with sabres. Orders were given to shoot every incendiary on the spot. The army was drawn out. The Old Guard, which had been quartered in the Kremlin, took their arms, horses, and baggage, and filled the courts. Though masters of Moscow, they were obliged to bivouac outside its gates. Perceiving that the city was on fire in almost every quarter, Napoleon yielded to the inevitable ; but his agitation was excessive. Ke sat down and then abruptly started up, restlessly traversing his apartments. He began to transact the most urgent business, yet every now and then he ran to the windows, uttering short and broken exclamations as he traced the progress of the flames : " What a frightful spectacle ! To have done it themselves ! Such a number of palaces ! What men ! What extraordinary resolution ! " Segur says that so grand a resolution could have been conceived only by patriotism, and executed only by guilt. Several Russian prisoners affirmed, and certain writings attested, that the Kremlin was undermined. Some of the attendants lost their senses with terror ; the military awaited with firmness whatever Napoleon and destiny should decide. The conflagration raged with increasing violence, and all began to inhale smoke and ashes ; still Napoleon would not depart. Night again approached. The flames became more brilliant as the shades closed round, and he saw the devouring element seizing the bridges and all accesses to the fortress which enclosed him, while the equinoctial wind blew with redoubled violence. At this crisis, Prince Eugene and Murat arrived in breathless haste, and earnestly, even on their knees, besought Napoleon to leave the palace. All their efforts were in vain. Suddenly a cry was heard, " The Kremlin is on fire!" The Emperor left his apartment that he might judge of the danger. A Russian soldier of police had been detected in the act : the exaspe- rated grenadiers put an end to him with their bayonets. It was evident that there had been an organized plan to burn even the Kremlin. This incident decided Napoleon, and he descended the northern staircase. A guide was called to conduct Napoleon and his attendants through the Kremlin and out of the city. Segur says an ocean of flames enveloped all the gates of the citadel. After an exciting search, a postern-gate across the rocks, opening towards the Mosqua, was discovered : through this narrow way they made their escape. They were now nearer to the flames of the city than before, and could neither retreat nor advance through this sea of fire. Even those who had recently passed through to the Kremlin were now so bewildered by the wind and blinded by the ashes that they were unable to recollect the direction of the streets which remained. The roaring of the flames increased every moment. Napoleon led the way. A single narrow street, crooked, and in every part on fire, seemed, as i8i2.] BURNING OF MOSCOW. 343 •one of the party afterwards said, " more like an avenue to the hell before them than a way to escape from it." Into tins terrible pass Napoleon darted on foot, followed by his officers and guards. He advanced over scorching and crackling cinders, amidst the dividing roofs, falling beams, and domes covered with red-hot iron, which came thundering clown and scattered ruin on every side. The flames, consuming with tempestuous violence the houses between which he proceeded, after reaching their summits were turned back by the wind in arches of fire over- head. They were walking on a soil of fire, under a sky of fire, and between walls of fire. Their hands were burned in endeavouring to protect their faces from the intolerable heat, and their bodies from the falling embers which continually burnt their clothes. They were nearly choked with ashes and suffocated with smoke. Segur's circumstantial account, which has been followed by Scott and others, we believe to be incorrect ; for we are enabled to state on the authority of an officer of rank who was attached to Napoleon, and who attended him on the occasion, that the Emperor left Moscow without difficulty. He was not guilty of such infatuation as to wait until flames, falling beams, and red-hot iron should impede him ; on the contrary, he proceeded slowly and calmly to the outer circuit of the city and took up his quarters at the imperial castle of Petrowsky, situated about a league on the road to St. Petersburg. Though Count Dumas, who remained on duty within the walls till nightfall, says that he and Daru " left Moscow under a real rain of fire," he mentions nothing of the Emperor's perils, neither is there any allusion to them in the conversations concerning the conflagration given by Las Cases and O'Meara. On the morning of the 17th of September the Emperor looked towards Moscow, hoping to find the fire subdued ; but the whole city now seemed " one vast fire- spout, ascending in awful whirls towards the sky." He was long absorbed in the contemplation of this scene of horror and ruin. Moscow had been the centre of all his projects in Russia. At length he broke his melancholy silence by observing, "This forebodes us no common calamities." On the 20th of September the fire slackened. All the city, save the greater part of the Kremlin, a few palaces, and all the churches built of stone, was laid in ruins : the destruction of property was enormous. The flight of the nobility had been so sudden that the French officers on their entrance found even the jewels of the ladies left behind. Dumas states that six thousand wounded Russians in the hospitals perished in the flames. Napoleon returned to the Kremlin on the 20th. He passed through the army, which exhibited a very singular appearance. " It was situated," says Segur, " in the midst of fields, in a thick and cold mire, and immense fires were fed by rich mahogany furniture, gilded sashes, and doors. Around these fires, with a litter of damp straw, sheltered only by a few miserable planks fastened together, soldiers with their officers were to be seen, splashed with dirt and stained with smoke, seated upon superb arm-chairs or reclining on sofas covered with silk. At their feet, carelessly opened or thrown in heaps, lay Cashmere shawls, the finest furs of Siberia, the gold stuffs of Persia, and plates of solid silver, from which they had nothing to eat but a black dough baked in ashes, and half-broiled and bloody steaks of horse-flesh." The camps and city swarmed with marauders. On his way through the ruined streets Napoleon passed heaps of furniture piled up for removal, and stalls where soldiers were exchanging showy and valuable commodi- ties for common necessaries, and the richest wines, liqueurs, and bales of costly merchandise for a loaf of bread. He permitted this license at first, but hearing that the excesses increased, and that the peasantry who formerly brought provisions were prevented by fear, he issued severe orders, and commanded his guard to keep to their quarters. He was obeyed, and though plundering continued, it was con- ducted regularly, every effort being made to protect the peasants. Kutusoff, closely followed by Murat, had retreated towards Kolomna, as far as the spot where the Mosqua divides the road. Here, under cover of the night, he 344 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. suddenly turned to the south, and marched circuitously with Moscow as the cenire, in order to place himself between that city and Kalouga, where great magazines had been collected. From this position he could operate upon the French lines of communication with Smolensko and Poland. The night march of his troops had been lighted by the flames of Moscow, and their gloom was kindled into fury at the sight of a calamity which they believed to be the savage work of the French. Murat came up with them at Czerikowo and again at Winkowo, and sharp skirmishes occurred at both places, but to little advantage, as Kutusoff continued his march and took up a strong position at Torontino, covering Kalouga. Murat followed the Russian camp to observe its motions. On his way he passed the domains of Count Rostopchin, which had been desolated and the splendid palace reduced to ashes. A letter was sent to Murat from Rostopchin : " Frenchmen, for eight years it has been my pleasure to embellish my favourite residence. The inhabitants, seventeen hundred in number, will leave it as you approach, and it will be reduced to ashes that not one of you may pollute it by your presence. I have left you two palaces in Moscow, with their furniture, worth half a million of roubles ; here you will only find ashes." The same bitter hatred possessed the peasantry. They fired the hamlets that they might not afford shelter to the in- vaders ; but the huts built of logs, with scarcely any furniture, were of little value to their inmates, who possessed no property of their own, and had no domestic associations. The proclamation that every one furnishing food to the invaders should be punished with death, gave strong evidence of abhorrence of the French, who branded some of their Russian prisoners on the hand with the letter " N," as a sign that they were the serfs of Napoleon and must labour in his service. One of them laid his branded hand on a log of wood and struck it off with an axe. Free corps, like the guerillas of Spain, were organized, and became of import- ance in the war. Of these bands, Colonel Davidoff, known among the French as le Capitaine Noir, was a formidable commarfder. The main portion of the Kremlin had been saved from the conflagration, and Napoleon was there apparently regulating measures for establishing his winter quarters at Moscow. An intendant and municipality were appointed, and orders issued to lay in provisions. A theatre was formed in the midst of the blackened ruins, and the principal actors of Paris, with an Italian singer, were sent for to per- form, as in the Tuileries. The month of September passed and no answer had been received from Alexander. On the 3rd of October the French marshals were informed by the Emperor that he had resolved to march on St. Petersburg. Their blank countenances and hesitation disclosed their disapprobation. Eugene alone encouraged the enterprise. It was soon, however, abandoned, and Napoleon resolved to send proposals of peace to Alexander. An armistice was proclaimed and Lauriston repaired to the head-quarters of Kutusoff, who informed him that he could not proceed to Alexander, but that the letter would be forwarded. The coquetting between Murat and the Cossacks was resumed during this cessation of arms, and in this prospect of peace they even talked of " making him their King ! " While, however, outward courtesy was observed, an ominous undertone among the Russian officers was observable. Alluding to the severity of their winter, they said, " Within a fortnight your nails will fall off, and your weapons drop from your benumbed hands." The Cossacks asked the French "if they had not corn, and air, and graves enough to enable them to live and die in their own country ? If so, why did they rove so far from home, and come to fatten a foreign soil with their blood ? " Napoleon, informed of these threats, became uneasy and impatient. Alexander's silence astonished him. He, however, confided his presentiments to no one but Count Daru, and collected all the trophies which could be found in Moscow. The gigantic cross on the Tower of the Great Ivan, to the possession of which a Russian superstition attached the salvation of the empire, was taken down, a vast flight of ravens hovering over it during the operation. The army still pre- I8l2.] EVACUATION OF MOSCOW. 345 sented an imposing appearance and kept up their spirits; but it is said that, at this period, " Napoleon grew pale with suppressed anxiety, even while amusin°- himself in discussing the merits of some verses just arrived from Paris, or in com- pleting regulations for the Comedie Francaise." Snow fell on the 13th of October. It was the presage of an early winter. Napoleon, from this moment, thought only of retreat ; but without uttering the obnoxious word, he said that " the army must be in winter quarters in twenty days; that he intended to march upon Kutusoff, to crush or remove him ; and then turn suddenly to Smolensko, by the rich and unwasted country in the route of Kalouga, Medyn, Inkowo, and Elnia." He also urged the removal of the wounded. Count Daru counselled him to remain in Moscow. "The army," he said, "could be quartered in the cellars of the houses ; the horses killed and salted, and other provisions obtained by foraging; in the spring they could complete their conquest." Napoleon replied that " this was the counsel of a lion : but what would Paris say ? XTzwt j& IN MOSCOW. What might be going on there, while intercourse was barred for six months ? " All hesitation was concluded by the Russians breaking the truce on the 18th of October. A Cossack firing upon Murat was the signal for an attack from Kutusoff. The French, taken by surprise, were defeated, and Murat wounded. A multitude of orders burst rapidly from Napoleon's lips, and before night the army was moving. The Emperor quitted Moscow on the 19th of October. Pointing to the sky still without a cloud, he asked " whether in that brilliant sun they did not recognize his protecting planet ? " He had left Mortier with eight thousand men to defend the Kremlin, cover the retreat, and blow up the palace. On the 22nd a terrible explosion was heard at many leagues distance. The Kremlin had been blown to atoms, and Mortier precipitately joined the army. This numbered over one hundred thousand effective men, with their arms and knapsacks, above five hundred and fifty field-pieces, and two thousand artillery waggons. In the rear came a crowd of camp followers ; French families, formerly residents, flying from the rage of the Russians ; a few Russian girls, — voluntary captives ; all imaginable kinds of carriages conveying the baggage of the soldiers or the spoils of Moscow ; and prisoners, some of them driving wheelbarrows, others dragging carts full of pillage. Napoleon advanced by the old road to Kalouga, where Kutusoff lay encamped at Torontino. On the second day he turned into the western or new road, his 346 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. intention being to pass the Russians on the right, regain the old road in their rear, and get possession of Borowsk and Malo-Jaroslavetz in the south. While Kutusoff believed that Napoleon meditated an attack on his front, the latter with the main body of the French army reached Borowsk on the 23rd ; and on the same day Delzons, with the vanguard, occupied Malo-Jaroslavetz. On the 24th the Emperor heard that Kutusoff was advancing towards Malo-Jaroslavetz. At this intelligence he hurried forwards. Prince Eugene with the Italian division was far in advance, supporting Delzons. When the sounds of the engagement reached Napoleon's ear he appeared agitated, hastily rode up a heighs, and listened. An aide-de-camp from Eugene met him, and he was sent back with orders to the Viceroy to main- tain the ground whatever it might cost. Napoleon came up too late to afford assistance in the battle. The French and Italian divisions engaged amounted to only twenty thousand men, who in the bottom of a ravine had gained a dearly- bought victory over fifty thousand Russians ranged upon an eminence. Delzons, whose bivouacs had been surprised by Kutusoff, was killed, and was succeeded by General Guilleminot. Eugene led the last desperate charge in person, and finally drove the Russians from the burning town, which had been five times lost and taken during the conflict. But Kutusoff retreated to a position of immense strength commanding the road to Kalouga. The object of Napoleon's march was therefore lost, and his intended line of retreat could only be gained by forcing a passage through the whole Russian army. The Emperor received reports of this battle in the squalid chamber of a weaver's hut, where he had taken up his quarters for the night. He waited Bessieres' return from examining the Russian position in suppressed anxiety. Bessieres reported the position unassailable. " Are you sure ? " exclaimed the Emperor : " will you answer for this ? " About four in the morning Prince d'Aremberg came to warn him that some Cossacks were gliding between his quarters and the advanced posts. At sunrise he mounted his horse, and, accompanied by Rapp, Berthier, and Caulaincourt, with about twenty officers and chasseurs, reconnoitred the scene of action. In crossing the plain towards Malo-Jaroslavetz a confused clamour arose, which was mistaken for cries of " Vive V Empereur ! n Suddenly Platoff, with his Cossacks, rushed among the baggage, yelling "twurrdl" Rapp exclaimed, "It is they ! turn back ! " and seizing the bridle of the Emperor's horse, urged him to retire. Napoleon refused, and drew his sword : his companions did the same, and placed themselves on the left of a wood, waiting the approach of the fierce horde. When only forty paces distant, Rapp turned and faced them, and the fore- most plunged a lance into Rapp's horse's chest with such violence that he was thrown to the ground. The other aides-de-camp and some horsemen of the guard rescued Rapp. His gallant action, and the courage of the rest of the party, but above all the avidity of the Cossacks for plunder, saved the Emperor. Little knowing the prize they missed, these wild horsemen swept onwards towards the baggage, overthrowing and seizing carriages, men, and whatever came in their way. But some Cavalry of the Guard coming up put them to flight. When the plain was cleared the Emperor proceeded to Malo-Jaroslavetz. He had seen the road to Kalouga closed against him by Kutusoff with a hundred and twenty thousand men, in a position of immense strength ; and that which led to Medyn by Platoff, with ten thousand horse. Napoleon sate before a table, his features concealed in his hands. Murat, Prince Eugene, Berthier, Davoust, and Bessieres accompanied him to deliberate on the fate of the army. The question arose — Whether to force a passage through the Russian army, and continue the route to Smolensko by the southern provinces, or to retreat by the old road to Mojaisk? Murat, proclaiming his contempt for the Russians, warmly advocated the former plan. Davoust re- commended the route to Medyn, upon which a violent altercation commenced between him and Murat. They were silenced by the Emperor, who exclaimed, " It is well, sirs : I will decide." His decision was to regain the old road ; and with profound grief he gave the order to retreat. In thus sacrificing his feelings I8l2.] BEGINNING OF THE RETREAT. 347 to judgment he made a fatal mistake. At the very moment that the French army commenced its retrograde march towards Borowsk, Kutusoff broke up his en- campment and retreated in the opposite direction, so that the two armies actually turned their backs on each other. Sir Robert Wilson, who was with Kutusoff, in vain urged him to stand his ground. The retreat of the French to Mojaisk commenced on the 26th of October. Napoleon, in gloomy silence, was measuring his line of communication with the fortresses on the Vistula, from which two hundred and fifty leagues separated him. At Smolensko and Minsk he had established immense magazines ; but the Russian General Witgenstein, at Polotsk, threatened the former, while the latter was ob- served by Tchitchakoff, who had with fifty-five thousand men returned from Mol- davia since the peace with Turkey. A more terrible enemy was also at hand — the Russian winter, which spreads a sea of snow six feet in depth. Napoleon had EUGENES AIDE-DE-CAMP APPLIES FOR SUCCOUK, consulted the almanacs for forty years back, and according to a reasonable cal- culation he had plenty of time before him. He reckoned on thirty-six thousand fresh troops at Smolensko, and on the divisions of St. Cyr and Macdonald, to keep Witgenstein in check until he recovered his positions on the Dwina and Dnieper. Dombrowski with a Polish division, and Schwartzenburg at the head of fifty thou- sand Austrians, would protect Minsk and maintain his communications with France. Moreover, his ranks would be replenished by the convalescent sick and wounded, by returning stragglers, and by the detachments left in the depots. Mortier joined the main army at Vereia, bringing with him Count Winzingerode, with his aide-de-camp, Count Nariskchin, who, at the head of a band of Cossacks, had been surrounded and taken in the Kremlin. Borowsk and Vereia were burnt by Napoleon's order as his army passed. His last effort to induce Kutusoff to carry on the war on a less savage plan, " and to spare the towns," was answered that the commander-in-chief " could not restrain the patriotism of the Russians." Napoleon therefore practised this terrible retaliation throughout his retreat. The French reached Mojaisk on the 28th. Some of the wounded were carried away ; others left, as at Moscow, to the generosity of the Russians. After ten 3 4 8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. •days ' marching and a tremendous battle, Napoleon was still only three days' march from Moscow. The army had brought away fifteen rations of meal per man. The provision waggons, which the horses could drag no farther, had been burnt on the -26th. Still, Napoleon's spirits revived at finding himself on a well-known road; but in tne evening he received intelligence which redoubled his anxiety. Ku- tusofif had discovered the new route of the French, and was in full march for Wiazma by way of Medyn. The Emperor ordered the guard to secure Gjatz, and hurried the advance of the whole army. In their progress they arrived at Borodino, and passed some broken hillocks strewed with blackened fragments of armour and drums, half-devoured bodies, and ghastly skeletons. It was the terrible redoubt where so many brave men had fallen. The soldiers hurried on, scarcely venturing to cast a glance at the appalling spectacle. Arriving at the hospital of Kolotskoi, many of the wretched inmates, hearing that the army was passing, crawled to the threshold and held out their arms in agonizing supplication. The Emperor gave orders that every carriage, of whatever kind, should carry one of those wounded sufferers. The suttlers, whose carts received a number of them, loitered behind and threw them alive into the ditches. One of them, a general officer, survived till the next column came up, when he told the horrible story and expired. As ■the imperial column approached Gjatz they found the road strewed with the bodies of Russian prisoners, who had been placed under the guard of some Portuguese and Poles, and murdered. At Wiazma Napoleon halted for the arrival of Eugene and Davoust. After waiting thirty-six hours he again set forward, leaving Ney to relieve Davoust, whose delay was attributable to the extreme difficulty of getting the artillery and waggons out of the ravines and up the opposite icy slopes. Nevertheless, both Davoust and Eugene arrived within two leagues of Wiazma on the 2nd of November. The first dawn of the 3rd showed the advanced guard of the Russians, under Milo- radowitch, posted on the left of the road, having turned their bivouacs in the night. Eugene's rear guard was cut off, and Ney, unable to come to his assistance, was fighting in his own defence in the direction of Wiazma. Eugene extended his troops in line along the road, and kept the enemy in check till Ney brought up one of his regiments in rear of the Russians and compelled them to change their form of attack. Meantime Davoust placed himself between the Russians and Wiazma. The French amounted to thirty thousand, but were in great disorder; the Russians had a larger force, in fine condition, and their cavalry charging sabred hundreds of their discomfited invaders. Davoust and his generals, many of whom had their arms in slings or their heads bandaged from recent wounds, stood their ground and encouraged the soldiers with the utmost gallantry. Milo- rado witch sent to Kutusoff for aid, lest his prey should escape him. The old general laughingly intimated that he preferred leaving them to the frost. Night approached ; the battle ceased, the French retired, and reached Wiazma, though not without a galling pursuit. Up to this time they had been cheered by the light if not the warmth of the sun ; but on the 6th of November the snow came, and everything underwent a total change. The troops marched on without seeing any object along the bleak expanse but the black trunks of a few pine-trees. Whirlwinds of sleet beat in their faces, and the weakest among those who fell were quickly covered with the snow, and rose no more. The enormous train of artillery which Napoleon had insisted on bringing away from Moscow was rapidly diminished, and the roads were soon blocked up with the spoils of the city. The horses, ill fed for months, and unable to resist the cold and fatigue, sank down by thousands. The starving soldiery killed many in the best condition, that they might drink their warm blood and wrap themselves in their yet reeking skins. The clothing of the soldiers was totally unfitted for the period of the year, even had it not been in a tattered state. Their breath congealed and hung in icicles from their beards. Their wet clothes froze upon them, and a cutting and violent wind at times stopped their respira- I8l2.] "LE BON GENERAL JANVIER." 349 tion. The wretched men crawled on, with trembling limbs and chattering teeth, till the snow, collecting round their feet in hard lumps like stones, made them stagger and fall. Their cries for assistance were in vain : the snow covered them, and small hillocks or undulations marked the places where they lay, — a white and silent burying-place, which their shuddering comrades left behind with ghastly anticipations of their own doom. The most intrepid or obdurate were affected, and hurried on with closed eyes or averted heads. Before them and around them all was snow. " The horizon seemed one vast winding-sheet, in which Nature was enveloping the whole army." Even the weapons of the soldiers were a weight almost insupportable, and often slipped out of their hands and were lost in the snow. Many had their fingers frozen to their muskets. Some of the troops broke up into parties, and wandered away to forage alone. The same plan was adopted IN REAR OF THE GRAND AR.MV by families who had followed with the baggage. Most of them were seized by the Cossacks, stripped naked, and left to expire in the snow. Their bivouacs were a scene of distress, famine, and horror. A fire was scarcely possible from the damp- ness of the hard pine-boughs and the driving of the sleet, so that they were obliged to eat horse-flesh nearly raw. Circles of stiffened corpses marked where bivouacs had been, and the carcasses of hundreds of horses were strewn in an outer circle around them. Henceforth disorder and distrust prevailed. During Napoleon's march with the imperial column the spoils of Moscow were thrown into the Lake of Gemlewo. Cannon, Gothic armour, the ornaments of the Kremlin, and the Cross of the Great Ivan, all sank at once. Napoleon stopped at Slawkow on the 3rd and 4th of November ; on the 5th he slept at Dorogobouje ; and on the 6th, when the snow was just beginning to fall, he received news from Paris of a conspiracy to dethrone him. Mallet, with a few accomplices, had spread the report that Napoleon was dead, and that it was time to proclaim a Republic. Napoleon heard this with an unmoved countenance. His only words to Count 350 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Daru were, "Well, if we had stayed at Moscow?" He then retired to an inner room, and gave vent to his emotions in the presence of those most devoted to him. Next day one of the Emperor's aides-de-camp arrived with news of the horrible disasters which had befallen the troops in the rear. Napoleon knew it all from the deserters who were continually passing, and stopped the aide-de-camp at the outset with ' Colonel, I don't ask you for these details." Napoleon's deportment was grave, silent, resigned ; and he continued in the same mood throughout the whole retreat. General Charpentier sent him some waggons loaded with pro- visions from Smolensko. Bessieres was about to appropriate them for the guard ; but the Emperor sent them on immediately to Ney, saying that "those who fought should eat before the rest." At the same time he begged Ney to defend the passage long enough to allow the army to get food, rest, and be reorganized at Smolensko. Ney gallantly accomplished this, fighting the whole way, and often on foot with a musket in his hand. He entered Smolensko on the 13th, with Prince Eugene. Napoleon had reached it on the 9th. He found, instead of plenty, famine ; instead of shelter, ruins. His last hope was turned to despair. The soldiers refused to carry to their regiments such provisions as were given out; but, darting upon the sacks, and snatching a few hands-full of flour, ran to devour it in a corner. It was the same with the brandy. They would share nothing and obey no orders. Next day the houses were filled with dead bodies. Napoleon, who had reckoned upon finding fifteen days' provisions for an army of a hundred thousand men, did not find enough for half that number, and it consisted solely of flour, rice, and brandy ; there was no meat of any kind. He was heard furiously upbraiding one of the commissioners, who only saved his life by a iong entreaty on his knees. The stragglers had consumed all that could be seized, droves of cattle had died on the road, and the Russians had captured a number of convoys. Tidings reached Napoleon at Smolensko that Polotsk had been taken by Wit- genstein in October, and that St. Cyr, after doing all that became an able general, had retreated by Smoliany. Witepsk and the Dvvina were thus lost. Baraguay d'Hilliers had been routed near Elnia, had suffered the Brigade Augereau to be taken prisoners, and lost several magazines and the command of the Elnia road. At the same time Schwartzenburg wrote to inform the Emperor that he was cover- ing Warsaw, which implied that he had left uncovered the great magazines at Minsk and Borizoff. The whole line of retreat was in imminent danger of being cut off. The circumstances surrounding Napoleon and in his rear were equally adverse. The army of Italy had been half destroyed in crossing the Wop ; the draught horses collected at Smolensko were devoured by the soldiers ; dreadful diseases had broken out ; the returns of the state of the corps were so many bills of mortality. Amidst this storm of calamities Napoleon's expression of countenance was un- altered, and he changed nothing in his habits nor in the form of his orders. Pre- parations for continuing the retreat occupied all his time. He placed the whole of the remaining cavalry under Latour-Maubourg : out of thirty-seven thousand horsemen that crossed the Niemen, fifteen hundred only remained mounted. The artillery and baggage which could not be removed were destroyed. A number of men, overcome by weakness and hardships, many women, and some thousands of sick and wounded, were abandoned. The grand army, which had left Moscow over one hundred and twenty thousand strong, now mustered only forty-six thousand effective men. The Emperor, with his guard, quitted Smolensko on the 14th of November at four in the morning. The march of the imperial column was " silent and solemn as night." Eugene, Davoust, and Ney had orders to march in succession; the latter to remain until the 16th or 17th, and to blow up the towers of the city walls and destroy all the ammunition before his departure. The first day's march brought Napoleon to Korythnia, a distance of five leagues. Kutusoff was advancing along a parallel road leading to Krasnoe by Elnia, and i8i2.] GALLANT ESCAPE OF PRINCE EUGENE. 35 1 his detachmenls occupied Krasnoe, Lyadi, and Nikoulina, in advance of Napoleon. The Emperor, apparently unconscious that ninety thousand men threatened his line of retreat, slept tranquilly in a wretched habitation in the ruined village of Korythnia on the night of the 14th. Beginning his march at daylight, his advanced guard of Westphalians, commanded by Junot, was suddenly stopped by a file of Cossacks across the road. These enemies were speedily dispersed ; but scarcely had they disappeared, when a battery opened fire from some heights on the left, and at the same moment thirty squadrons of horse, commanded by Miloradowitch, menaced them on the same side. Junot lost his presence of mind, his voice failed him, and he made no disposition to receive the attack. In the emergency, Excel- mans, a young officer, stepped forward and performed at once the part of com- mander, soldier, and even cannonier; for he seized a piece which had been abandoned by the corps, and pointed it against the Russians. The soldiers and even their chief obeyed him. The Russians did not venture from their heights, so the column passed on, leaving its enemies behind. The grenadiers of the Old Guard next came under fire, with Napoleon in their midst. They closed in, proud of their privilege of protecting him. At the most imminent crisis the band played the air " Ou pent on etre mieux qifau sein de sa famillel" ("Where can be found greater safety than in the bosom of one's family?") But Napoleon, stopping them, said, "Rather play ' Veillons au salut de V Empire 1 " (" Let us watch over the safety of the empire"). The column passed on, followed by Mortier with the Young Guard. Miloradowitch, though from his impetuous courage he had acquired the appellation of " the Russian Murat," merely insulted the Emperor in his retreat ; but as soon as the Imperial Guard vvas out of sight, he descended from the heights and threw twenty thousand men across the road, thus separating the corps of Eugene, Davoust, and Ney from the Emperor. Sebastiani, preceding the imperial column, drove a Russian detachment out of Krasnoe, and two hours afterwards Napoleon entered it. Napoleon halted at Krasnoe, anxiously expecting during the whole of the 16th the appearance of Eugene and the army of Italy. Distant firing was heard, and it increased his impatience. Night came, but no signs of Eugene's approach. Napoleon called together Berthier, Bessieres, Mortier, and Lefebvre, and intimated his determination to return and extricate the lagging divisions or perish with them : nevertheless although he knew that Kutusoff was advancing to capture him in Krasnoe, he remained there throughout the night. A battalion of Russian infantry had taken possession of a village in his left rear. He ordered Rapp to dislodge them; then calling back his aide-de-camp, he said, "No. Let Roguet and his division go alone. Do you stay here ; I shall want you at Dantzic." Rapp left him, filled with astonishment that his Emperor, surrounded as he was by eighty thousand enemies, should be calculating his proceedings at Dantzic, a city from which winter, two hostile armies, famine, and a hundred and eighty leagues divided him. Roguet surprised the Russian infantry, who fled in disorder, having set fire to their camp. This encounter checked the Russian advance and enabled Napo- leon to stay at Krasnoe another day. During the night of the 17th Prince Eugene, with the remains of his army, made his appearance, and was welcomed with joy. Eugene left Smolensko on the 15th and advanced within two leagues of Krasnoe, when, on the morning of the 17th he was suddenly summoned to surrender by Miloradowitch. He had six thousand men in a deplorable state of weakness opposed to twenty thousand troops in fine order. The summons was, notwith- standing, answered by a burst of indignation. His small but resolute band with- stood the Russians for five hours, the latter continuing to fire from their heights, whence they had but to descend to crush the Italians. At length night came to the relief of these brave men, reduced to one-half their original number. Eugene withdrew his forces across the fields, and turning the Russian position, left fires behind him to deceive Miloradowitch. As the worn and shattered column passed stealthily along the flank of the Russian army, the moon suddenly burst from 352 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. behind a cloud and shone with all her lustre. A Russian sentinel ordered them to halt. Klisby, a Pole, with admirable presence of mind, answered in the Russian language and in a low voice, " Hist, fool ! do you not see that we belong to the corps of Owaroff, and that we are going upon a secret expedition ?" The Russian, deceived, let the column pass on, and at length, harassed only by some squadrons of Cossacks, reached Krasnoe in safety. The joy which their presence excited in Napoleon gave way to apprehension concerning the fate of Davoust and Ney. In the morning, before daybreak, he went out on foot, placed himself at the head of the Old Guard, and put them in motion, — not towards France, but back into the midst of his enemies. Grasping his sword, he exclaimed, " I have acted the Emperor long enough ; it is time for me to act the general." As day broke, the Russian battalions and batteries lined the horizon on the right, in front, and in rear. On the left Napoleon advanced with six thousand guards, Mortier, with five thousand men, marching a few paces in advance of him. A battalion of chasseurs of the Old Guard supported the left of Mortier's corps. On their right the cavalry, under Latour-Maubourg, the remaining Cavalry of the Guard under Nansouty, and a few cannon occupied the snowy plain. The Emperor's object was to defend the right flank of the high road from Krasnoe as far as the great ravine in the direction of Stachowa. Claparede was left in Krasnoe to protect the wounded and the baggage. Eugene continued his retreat towards Lyadi. His divisions could scarcely drag them- selves along to die. Roguet, with the Young Guard, now appeared on the field of battle. The Russians extended themselves beyond the right of the French with a view to envelope and crush them. The Russian batteries began their thunder, and made wide breaches in the French ranks, but exhibited the same immobility which had saved Eugene. Their advance would have destroyed Napoleon's feeble army ; yet, with a superstitious belief that against that " column of granite," as its chief termed the Old Guard, men were powerless and cannon only could be effective, the Russian artillery remained at long range. The French held their ground for three hours in the midst of a storm of balls, every moment weakening them and adding strength to their enemies. Claparede had just sent intelligence from Krasnoe that Benigsen was getting possession of the high road to Lyadi ; the fire of the Russians was flashing in the east, the south, and the west ; one way only was open, — that towards the Dnieper, in the north. A cloud of Cossacks appeared on the plain, driven along the Moscow road by Davoust in his hasty advance. This corps was saved ; Ney only was missing. There was little time left to welcome the newcomers. Claparede sent for assist- ance ; he could not maintain himself in Krasnoe. Napoleon, calling for Mortier, grasped his hand with evident anguish of mind, and said, " Let not an instant be lost ; we are assailed on all sides, and must hasten with the Old Guard to secure the passage of the Dnieper." Then exhorting Mortier and Davoust to hold Krasnoe till night, he left the field, passed through Krasnoe, and though harassed by Ojarowski with six guns, gained Lyadi. Davoust's division, fatigued by their late march, took shelter in Krasnoe. Mortier remained on the field with three thousand men, retreating at last as coolly as if he had been manoeuvring at parade. " Do you hear, soldiers ? " said General Laborde, " the Marshal orders the ordinary time ! Ordinary time, soldiers ! " The retreat of the Grand Army was continued next day. Napoleon marched on foot with his Old Guard, baton in hand. He halted every quarter of an hour, as if unable to tear himself away from Old Russia, and he frequently men- tioned Ney with agitation. During the march a Polish officer brought intelli- gence that Tchitchakoff had occupied Minsk on the 17th. Napoleon was at first speechless at this information; but recovering, he said coolly, "Well, we have nothing to do now but make our way with the bayonet." He dispatched orders to Dombrowski and Victor to secure the passage of the Beresina at Borizoff, and to i Si 2.] "A MARSHAL OF FRANCE NEVER SURRENDERS!" 353 the Duke of Belluno to cover his march on the right. While he was drawing near his reserves two great armies were intercepting his progress, and Kutusotf pursued him. The weather was milder, and at Orcha he found abundance of provisions, but the army was virtually destroyed. He entered Orcha with six thousand men, Eugene with eighteen hundred, Davoust with four thousand. That marshal was emaciated with famine and had lost everything. He eagerly seized a loaf which was offered him, and devoured it with voracity, saying, as he wiped the rime off his face with a handkerchief presented to him by a soldier, " None but men of steel could go through such trials as these." The firmness of Napoleon seemed to increase with the danger. In this town he burnt all his effects which might serve as trophies should he fall into the hands of the Russians. Among these were the papers lie had collected for writing the history of his own life during the long halt on the Dwina and Dnieper, which he had contemplated as possible at the beginning of the campaign. He left Orcha unwillingly on the 20th. His thoughts still clung round Ney, as did those of the whole army. They accused each other of having deserted him. The retreat continued, and at nightfall the army bivouacked. Suddenly the rapid advance of horsemen was heard, and the joyful exclamation — " Marshal Ney is saved ! he will be here in a few moments ! here are his Polish horsemen ! " The report was correct : Ney was descending the right bank of the Dnieper. Six or seven thousand men, exhausted as they were, left their bivouacs and the food they had just cooked, and following Prince Eugene, marched two leagues in darkness. When the two corps recognized each other they no longer kept their ranks, but ran forward and mingled. Eugene and Ney fell into each other's arms. Eugene wept, but Ney dropped some expressions indicative of anger. He was agitated by recent danger and toil, and irritated against Davoust, whom he accused of having abandoned him. When, some hours afterwards, Davoust attempted to vindicate his conduct, Ney replied with a stern look, " I have no reproaches to make against you, Marshal; God sees us both, and let Him be your judge." When Napoleon, two leagues in advance, was apprised of Ney's reappearance, he shouted for joy, exclaiming in tones of transport, " I have saved my eagles, then ! I would willingly have given all the wealth in my treasury to redeem such a man as that from destruction !" Ney left Smolensko on the 17 th, followed the track of the army and its wrecks unassailed, till, at the spot where Eugene had been attacked, a Russian officer summoned him to surrender. Ney answered, "A marshal of France never surrenders." In an instant those cold and silent hills became so many volcanoes belching fire. Kutusoff and Miloradowitch, with eighty thousand men in double line, well supplied with provisions — with numerous cavalry and avast artillery, — were ranged against nine thousand soldiers, in strag- gling column, worn out with marching, with incomplete arms, and suffering every deprivation. Yet Ney thought neither of surrendering nor dying, but of cutting his way through the opposing mass. He launched Ricard with fifteen hundred men against the enemy's centre, and ordered five hundred Illyrians to assail his left ; then, with the remaining seven thousand, he followed the attack of Ricard, which had been repulsed ; he broke through the first line, but was assailed by a tremendous fire from the second. His column reeled, its ranks seemed to wither away ; the remnant tottered and retreated, hurrying off Ney himself in the flight. He had attempted an impossibility, and left three thousand dead. He rallied his four thousand remaining soldiers on the summit of the opposite side of the ravine, where the Russians dared not follow him. He answered the discharges of one hundred pieces of cannon with six ; while the Russians, at the word of command, remained fixed to the spot on which they stood. Friendly night came to Ney's assistance : he then gave the order to retreat to Smolensko. His men obeyed in perfect confidence. He proceeded till he reached a small stream, broke the ice to see which way the current ran, and then exclaiming, " This stream flows into the Dnieper ; this is our guide ! " followed its course for about a league, and 23 354 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. reached the Dnieper. He here resolved to cross the river. The ice was already- affected by the milder weather which had commenced, yet Ney halted for three hours to permit the stragglers and the wounded to join. These three hours he passed in calm and profound sleep, wrapped in his cloak, on the river's brink. It was still dark, but the passage began. The motion of the ice, the crashes heard from time to time as it split in long cracks, compelled them to cross in single file. The whole of the baggage was abandoned, but a desperate effort was made to save the sick and wounded. The carriages containing these unfortunate beings reached the middle of the river. Then the ice gave way. Heartrending screams were heard, then short and stifled groans. An awful silence followed. All had dis- appeared. Ney fixed his appalled looks on the dismal gulf, and thought he distinguished, through the darkness, a living man. It was a wounded officer %amed Brigueville, who had escaped on a large flat of ice and was approaching the bank on his hands and knees. Ney himself saved him. The Dnieper now divided the French from the Russians, but they were soon surrounded by hordes of Cossacks. Nevertheless, through these and all other difficulties, Ney brought fifteen hundred men in safety to Orcha. His retreat is allowed to have scarcely a parallel in military history. The unanimous voice of the army echoed the name which Napoleon gave him, — "The bravest of the brave !" All the wrecks of the Grand Army were now united. Scarcely twelve thousand men kept their ranks, and there were about thirty thousand unarmed stragglers, among whom it was astonishing to find many women and children. These stragglers added nothing to the strength of the French, but plundered the unfor- tunate peasantry through whose villages they passed. At this crisis Napoleon received intelligence that Victor and Oudinot had quarrelled as to the manner in which Witgenstein should be attacked, and had therefore left him without mo- lestation. The news that Borizoff was also lost and Dombrowski defeated under its walls next reached him. " Is it, then, written," he cried, striking the earth with his cane, " that we shall commit nothing but errors ? " In studying the map to determine the spot for passing the Beresina, he put his finger on the country of the Cossacks, and he was heard to murmer, "Ah ! Charles XI L — Pultawa!" One night, Napoleon having retired to repose, Duroc and Daru, who remained in his chamber, believed him to be asleep and gave vent in low whispers to their fore- bodings. He heard them, and the words " Prisoner of state " reaching his ear, "What !" said he, "do you suppose they would dare?" Daru was taken by sur- prise, but replied that, "if forced to surrender, they must expect the worst." "But France," replied the Emperor, "what will she say?" "As for France," continued Daru, "we can none of us tell what would happen there." He then added that " it would be well if, through the air, or any other medium, since the passage of the earth seemed shut against them, the Emperor could reach France, where he could save them much better than by remaining with them." " I only embarrass you, then," replied Napoleon, smiling. "Yes, site." After a long silence Napo- leon asked " if all the reports of the Ministers had been destroyed ? " He was answered in the negative. "Well," he replied, "go and destroy them, for it must be acknowledged we are in a calamitous situation." At Studzianka the Beresina was only fifty-five fathoms across and six feet deep. The opposite ground was an extensive marsh with the heights beyond occupied by Tchitchakoff ; but this route was the sole one left. Napoleon's first step was to have all the eagles burned. He ordered half the waggons, together with the unserviceable horses, to be destroyed, and all the remaining horses and draught oxen to be applied for the artillery and ammunition. The cavalry under Latour- Maubourg was reduced to one hundred and fifty. All the officers who yet retained horses, about five hundred, were formed into a body called the Sacred Squadron, to attend the Emperor's person. They were commanded by Grouchy and Sebas- tiani ; but want and fatigue soon dismounted the majority. Eighteen hundred of the dismounted guard were formed into two battalions, well armed. These pre- I8I2.J JUNCTION WITH VICTOR AND OUDINOT. 555 NAPOLEON LEADING THE OLD GUARD. parations being made, Napoleon plunged into the forest of Minsk, which he tra- versed by forced marches, the crowd of stragglers keeping up with the main column as well as they could. The marches began before break of day and con- tinued till nightfall. In the twofold obscurity of the forest and the night the remnants of the corps became completely disorganized. As they approached the borders of the forest in this last state of weakness loud shouts reached their ears. An attack was apprehended for an instant, but the mistake was soon dis- covered. The armies of Victor and Oudinot were waiting for Napoleon at this spot. They were still unbroken in numbers and spirit, and at the sight of the Emperor marching in front they burst into enthusiastic acclamations : the disas- ters had been concealed from them. When, therefore, instead of the grand column which was to achieve the conquest of Moscow they perceived behind Napoleon only a band of spectres covered with rags, women's pelisses, bits of carpet, or dirty cloaks scorched by the fire of the bivouacs, and almost barefoot, they were struck with consternation, and looked with horror upon the emaciated soldiers, unarmed, marching without order, and fixing their eyes on the earth in silence. Tears were shed over their unfortunate comrades, and food and clothing dis- tributed to them. Napoleon was still in the midst of his army, like hope in the heart of man. Some crawled to fall and die at his feet, and even in the ravings of delirium they implored but never reproached. Of all their misfortunes the .greatest was still that of displeasing him. 23 — 2 356 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The reinforcements enabled the French to advance to the Beresina with some show of strength. Oudinot, with five thousand men, led the vanguard ; Victor was in the rear with fifteen thousand ; the Emperor midway between them with seven thousand effective men, forty thousand stragglers, and a great mass of bag- gage, chiefly belonging to the second and ninth corps. Napoleon endeavoured to deceive Tchitchakoff into the belief that he meant to attempt the passage below Borizoff, while, on the contrary, he kept to his purpose of crossing at Studzianka. On the 25th the French pontooneers worked all night at the latter place con- structing a bridge, up to their chins in water, struggling with floating pieces of ice, and absolutely within range of the enemy's fire. A Russian division occupied the heights dominating the opposite bank, and so hopeless were Napoleon's officers, that even Murat declared it was time to relinquish all thoughts but of saving the CROSSING THE BERESINA. Emperor ; and a band of Poles offered themselves as his guides, pledging them- selves for his safety. Napoleon, however, rejected the suggestion, refusing to desert his army. At the same time materials for making a bridge below Borizoff were being collected with as much noise as possible. A division of cuirassiers occupied the place ; some Jews were questioned as to the ford, and, to insure their treachery, made to swear to meet the army on the opposite side and give information of the Russian movements. The feint was successful. On the morn- ing of the 26th the Russians were seen in full retreat from Studzianka, leaving the French to proceed undisturbed. When this report was brought to Napoleon the bridge was only half finished, but, eager to be on the other side, he pointed out the bank to his cavalry. A French and a Lithuanian officer plunged into the stream and gained the opposite shore. They were followed by a squadron of horse, each man carrying an infantry soldier behind him. Two rafts also trans- ported four hundred men in successive passages. The bridge was completed by midday. A division of infantry crossed with loud shouts of " Vive i'Empereur /"" The Emperor with his guards and Ney's corps passed at two o'clock. On reach- ing the shore he exclaimed, " My star still shines ! " At the same moment a Lithuanian general, disguised as a peasant, brought intelligence that Schwartzen- i8i2.] CROSSING THE BE RE SIX A AT STUDZIANKA. 357 PASSAGE OF THE BERESINA. burg had defeated the Russians at Sacken. Napoleon proclaimed the victory, adding gratuitously that " Schwartzenburg was hastening to their assistance." Victor's division took up the position which the French guard had just quitted on the heights of Studzianka. The Emperor with Ney and Oudinot defended the opposite bridge-head. A second bridge for the transport of the artillery was completed by night, and the greater part of the guns saved, although the bridge twice gave way under their enormous weight. Had Victor been able to instil order into the confused mass which remained on the bank of the river, all might have effected their escape during the night of the 26th ; but they lingered, hoping to save their baggage or plunder, and the crowd impeded the progress of those who went forward. On the morning of the 27th every one rushed with headlong impulse to cross, besieging the narrow passage to the bridges. A dense mass of men, horses, and waggons choked the way ; the weakest were trodden underfoot or precipitated into the ice. Frantic yells, the shrieks of women and children, groans and imprecations were heard on all sides. At night, a wild crowd dispersed among the villages in search of plunder. On the morning of the 28th the Russian cannon was heard. Tchitcha- koff had discovered his mistake and with Tchaplitz was attacking the divisions which had crossed, while Witgenstein assailed Victor. The battle raged for two days on both sides of the river — the miserable multitude struggling to escape across the narrow bridges, victims to their own violence and the enemy's cannon. At 35 8 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. four o'clock in the afternoon the artillery bridge gave way with its load of human misery with one dreadful crash, followed by cries of anguish, which were soon stitied by death. The remaining crowd now struggled and reeled towards the first bridge, terrorstruck and despairing. Night brought no relief. The dark mass, contrasted with the snow, guided the Russian fire. Napoleon remained on these dismal banks, without shelter, on an elevated spot whence he could survey the whole scene and direct the movements of the different corps. During the day his guards were drawn up in order of battle ; at night they bivouacked in square, with him in the centre. Throughout the hours of darkness they were employed keeping up their fires, or dozing with their elbows on their knees and their heads on their hands, thus doubled up to preserve what heat they could, and as much as possible to avoid the pangs of hunger. The weather was tempestuous, and the sites of the bivouacs were indicated every morning by circles of dead. Notwithstanding all these disadvantages the French held the Russians at bay until the morning of the 29th. Tchitchakoff was actually beaten by Ney, and the ground was clear for the resumption of the retreat. On the evening of the 28th Victor's corps was ordered to pass the river— on their way crushing and overthrowing the wretched beings they had hitherto defended. Victor left a rear guard at Studzianka during the night. Trusting to this defence, multitudes lingered round their baggage, refusing to leave it and take advantage of the darkness to make their escape. When morning came, the rear guard passed on, and burned the bridge behind them. Thousands were then seen wandering in desolate groups on the bank : some, roused too late, threw themselves into the river and were lost amidst the ice; others rushed upon the flames of the bridge, which gave way under them ; the rest in despair waited the coming up of the Russians. Napoleon remained at his post till this dismal catastrophe, and then made for Zembin with the remains of his army. The amount of his loss at this fatal spot has never been distinctly stated ; but the Russian report states that upwards of thirty-six thousand bodies were found in the Beresina and burnt after the thaw. The surrounding country was a vast morass. The French traversed it by three successive bridges constructed of wood. The Russians had most unaccountably neglected to burn these bridges, but Napoleon had them fired after his troops had passed. Kutusoff was still on the Dnieper while his prey was thus escaping. The old Russian replied to the remonstrances against his inactivity, that the "Beresina marshes would complete Napoleon's destruction;" but he did not know the energy of his adversary. One division only was compelled to surren- der, though hardships and struggles nearly completed the disorganization of the French. Little order was observed in the march. They huddled forward in a shapeless mass, officers and men intermingled. Prince Eugene led them; Ney's perilous post was in the rear. He was supported by a fresh division under Maisons, which had been dispatched to the Beresina from Wilna, and marched, fighting at every step with Tchaplitz. Napoleon led the main body. He con- tinued to order his marshals to take up positions along the road, just as if they had corps under their command. One of them making bitter complaints to him on the subject, and enumerating his losses, Napoleon interrupted him with — " Why do you seek to rob me of my serenity?" And when the marshal persisted, he stopped him by repeating in a tone of reproach, " I beg to know, sir, why you try to rob me of my serenity ? " — which showed the deportment he wished to maintain in his adversity and required from others. Napoleon, no longer harassed by enemies except clouds of Cossacks, who dis- persed on being attacked, and the weather being temperate, reached Pleszczentczy on the 30th and Maladeczno on the the 3rd of December. Here he found forty couriers awaiting him. He halted, ordering the Poles to Warsaw by way of Olita ; and the dismounted cavalry to the Niemen by way of Merecz. Hence he dis- patched his Twenty-ninth Bulletin, which filled Paris with mourning. Nothing had been heard there of the Grand Army for one-and-twenty days, when this dreadful i8i2.] DESERTS THE ARMY AT SMORGONI. 359 document disclosed in concise and simple terms the disastrous history of the retreat : the truth could in fact be concealed no longer. Napoleon resolved, however, not to let it work its effect on all Europe while he was struggling through the dreary tracts of Lithuania and Poland. Accordingly he announced to Duroc and Dam his resolution to set off for Paris immediately. "I must return to France," he said, " to quiet apprehensions there ; to raise new troops to keep my German subjects to their allegiance. To accomplish this I must traverse four hundred leagues of allied territory alone ; and to do so without danger, my resolution must be unexpected, my route unknown, and the report of my reverses uncertain. I must be beforehand with the news, and the effect it may produce and the defec- tions it might occasion." His advisers had no reply to reasons so cogent, and doubtless sufficient to justify him in leaving the army when it was extricated from its most pressing dangers, was near its resources, and when its chief enemy was the rigour of the season. Caulaincourt, Duroc, and Lobau received secret orders to prepare for departure. The place fixed was Smorgoni ; the time, the night of the 5th of December. The winter became more terrific than ever at the moment of this decision. The severity of the season saved the French to some exent from the attacks of the Russians, who also perished by thousands. Napoleon reached his last head-quarters amidst a group of dying men, but no complaints were heard. He summoned Ney to Smorgoni, leaving the rear guard to Victor. All the chiefs were invited to sup with the Emperor. As they entered, he told each privately his resolution to depart for France that night, and by arguments or address conquered all objections. His manner was affectionate to all, but especially to Davoust, with whom some coolness had existed. Seating them at his table, he praised their noble courage and endurance. When supper was ended, Eugene read the bulletin aloud ; after which Napoleon declared to the whole party the resolution he had expressed to each in private, adding that he had left the command of the army to the King of Naples. " I hope you will obey him as myself," said he, "and that the most perfect harmony will reign among you." At ten o'clock Napoleon set off. He and Caulaincourt were shut up in a carriage, of which his Mameluke Rustan, and Wukasowich a captain of his guard, occupied the box ; Duroc and Lobau followed in a sledge. Napoleon afterwards changed his carriage for a sledge. The Cossacks surprised a hamlet which lay in his route that very night, but abandoned the place an hour before he reached it. He had an interview with Maret, Duke of Bassano, at Miedniki : he passed by the suburbs of Wilna, and reached Warsaw on the 10th. The Abbe de Pradt, then Minister of France to the Diet of Poland, was endeavouring to reconcile the various rumours which poured in from every quarter when a figure like a spectre, wrapped in furs stiffened by hoar frost, stalked into his apartments, supported by a domestic, who was with difficulty recognized by the ambassador as the Duke of Vicenza. "You here, Caulaincourt!" said the astonished prelate; "and where is the Emperor?" "At the Hotel d'Angleterre, waiting for you." "Why not stop at the palace?" "He travels incognito." "Do you need anything?" "Son^e Burgundy or Malaga." " All is at your service ; but whither are you travelling ? " "To Paris." "To Paris ! — but where is the army?" "It exists no longer," said Caulaincourt. "And the victory of the Beresina, and the six thousand prisoners ?" " We got across, that is all ; the prisoners were a few hundred men who have escaped." The Abbe hastened to the hotel : in the yard stood three sledges in a dilapidated condition. He was introduced with some mystery into a room where a servant- girl was blowing a fire made of green wood : here was the Emperor, whom the Abbe' had last seen monarch of the Sovereigns at Dresden. He was dressed in a green pelisse covered with lace and lined with furs, and was walking briskly about the apartment. He saluted " Monsieur TAmbassadeur " with gaiety. Napoleon had come on foot from the bridge of Prague. He frequently repeated the sentence, " There is but one step from the sublime to the ridiculous." The fire went out, 360 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. and though the Abbe complains of having been half frozen, Napoleon felt no cold,, he was kept warm by constant movement and his own energies. After a hasty- dinner he hurried the preparations for continuing his route. " I addressed him," says the Abbe, "in affectionate and respectful terms, wishing him health and a prosperous journey. ' I have never been better in my life : if I had the devil at my back I should only be the better for it.' These were his last words: he jumped into the humble sledge, the horses sprang forward, and he disappeared in the dark- ness. A violent shock was near overturning the sledge as it passed through the gateway." Napoleon reached Dresden on the 14th, and had a private interview with the King of Saxony at the hotel where he alighted. Passing through Hanau and Mayence he reached Paris late on the 19th of December, the fatal bulletin having been published on the 17th. He and his attendant had difficulty in procuring admittance to the Tuileries at so late an hour. The Empress had retired to her own apartment, when two figures muffled in furs entered the anteroom, one of whom walked quickly towards the door of her bed-room. The lady in waiting tried to stop the intruder, but recognizing the Emperor, shrieked aloud and alarmed Maria Louisa, who hastily entered the anteroom. Their meeting was very affec- tionate. At Smorgoni the officers derived hope from the Emperor's departure; yet his absence completed the disorganization which had nearly reached its climax before. Fortunately, a reinforcement commanded by Loison met the army at Smorgoni, and formed a fresh rear guard under Ney. Three thousand men of the Old and Young Guard were still under arms : but these veterans, refusing to obey any com- mander but their Emperor, soon fell into disorder. Murat proved incompetent, and the chiefs quarrelled among themselves. The thermometer fell considerably lower than usual even in Russia. The air was filled with small particles of ice, and the birds fell frozen to the earth. The atmosphere was still as death. The straggling mass of men moved on without order : their heavy footfalls and the feeble groans of the dying were the only sounds. If they lay down for a moment from exhaustion, their blood froze in their veins : they endeavoured to rise, but soon fell on their knees, then sunk on their hands, a few agonized sounds escaped them, they fell on the snow, and a stream of dark and livid corpses marked the line of retreat. Their companions passed on indifferent, fearful of being also left behind. If a horse fell, they rushed upon the carcase like a pack of famished hounds. The nights were still more horrible. Those who could find wood kindled fires, by which they remained all night upright like statues. They dared not lie down, for if they yielded to fatigue they never rose again, but were found in the morning with their hair frozen to the ground and their feet burnt off. Wretched figures, like wandering phantoms, approached the fires, but were driven away by the first comers ; these miserable creatures wandered from one bivouac to another, and at length lay down behind a circle of soldiers crowded round the gloomy blaze, and died. Some attempted to set fire to the lofty pines of the forest as they stood, and fell lifeless during their hopeless task. The great sheds found by the roadside were filled in an instant, soldiers and officers rushing for- ward and throwing themselves in heaps upon each other. The dead and dying formed a horrible bed for the survivors, who crawled out in the morning from the layer of corpses. Fresh parties besieged these buildings and sometimes pulled down the walls, or set them on fire by using them as shelter for their bivouacs, and those within, already half dead with cold, were roasted. Segur asserts that many threw themselves into the burning houses of a village they had set on fire, and so perished ; and that some of their companions drew out the half-broiled bodies and allayed their hunger with the revolting food. The haggard survivors of this horrible march came in sight of Wilna on the 9th of December. Forty days' provisions for a hundred thousand men were collected in that city ; but the same lamentable scenes took place which had occurred at I8I2.J HORRORS ENDURED AT W1LNA. 36l mmW Smolensko. Napoleon did not dare prepare the authorities for the disastrous con- dition of his troops. They expected a regular army to enter in order, and when a wretched mass of famished men rushed headlong into the streets, filling the air with groans and lamentations, they feared to distribute the stores for which they were responsible. Multitudes perished at the doors, mad with rage and despair ; at length Davoust, Eugene, and other chiefs obtained the requisite aid, and got the men into quarters. Scarcely had they tasted the inexpressible luxury of rest, 362 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. of eating leavened bread, of finding themselves in human habitations, when the Russian cannon were heard. The advanced guards of Kutusoff and Tchaplitz were attacking Loison and Ney, who guarded the city in the rear. The generale was beat in the streets, but in vain ; the soldiers would not leave their quarters. But the distant hourra! and cry of "Cossacks! Cossacks!" roused them. Murat abandoned the city, leaving Ney behind. On the following day Ney withdrew with the rear guard, consisting of three thousand men. Wilna contained, besides the magazines, a great deposit of wealth and property. As much of this as could be collected in the confusion was carried off. A catastrophe which occurred on the road to Kowno broke up the rear guard, which alone maintained its order up to this point. The carriages and waggons were stopped by a wooded acclivity ; men and horses fell dead with the effort to get them farther. At this crisis one of the money waggons burst open, and the soldiers of the rear guard, throwing away their arms, loaded themselves with spoil. A few hundred only held their ranks, and with these Ney continued to cover the retreat. In the midst of this disorder the Count de Turenne confided Napoleon's private treasure to the guards within reach, and every man who survived the retreat delivered up the share entrusted to him. The French crossed the Niemen on the ice on the 13th of December, defended still by Ney, who fought at Kowno at the head of only thirty men, and was the last individual of the French army to quit Russian territory. The Cossacks relaxed their pursuit, and the Russian regulars hesitated on the frontier. Murat reached Gumbinnen on the 14th. "I put up," says Dumas, "at the house of a physician. Some coffee had just been brought us for breakfast, when a man in a brown great coat entered. He had a long beard, his face was blackened, and looked as if it were burnt ; his eyes were red and glaring. ' At length I am here,' said he. ' Why, General Dumas, don't you know me ? ' ' No ! Who are you ? ' 'I am the rear guard of the Grand Army : I have fired the last musket-shot on the bridge of Kowno. I have thrown the last of our arms into the Niemen, and have come hither through the woods. I am Marshal Ney.'" At Gumbinnen the marshals called a council, when Murat's language showed how unequal he was to contend with adversity, notwithstanding his brilliant courage. He designated Napoleon a "madman," and blamed himself for rejecting the proposals of the English, which would have made him a great King like the Sovereigns of Austria and Russia. "Those Kings," answered Davoust indignantly, " are monarchs by the grace of God and by the sanction of time ; but you are King only by the grace of Napoleon and of French blood. You are blinded by ingratitude." This first spark of Murat's treason was extinguished for the moment, and he continued the retreat towards the Vistula. Disastrous tidings came in from the two wings of the Grand Army. The Prussian Generals D'Yorck and Mas- senbach (under the orders of Marshal Macdonald, who commanded the left wing in Courland from Mittau to Memel), having concluded a treaty with the Russians and abandoned the French cause on the 30th of December, with upwards of eighteen thousand men, Macdonald was forced to retreat from Tilsit to Konigs- berg, with nine thousand men. (Riga having been threatened by the Duke of Tarento, the Emperor Alexander, fearing for St. Petersburg, sent his entire fleet to take refuge in English ports.) At the same time Schwartzenburg, at the head of the Austrians, disconnected himself from the French right wing, and leaving Regnier exposed to the attack of the Russians at Khalitsh, that General was obliged to retreat into Austrian territory. Murat could no longer hold the line of the Vistula, but junction with Macdonald enabled him to assume an attitude of defence. He removed his head-quarters to Warsaw ; then to Posen, where, on receiving some despatches from his Queen which roused his jealousy of her political power, he, on the 16th of January, 1813, abandoned the army and returned to Naples. Eugene assumed the command in his place. Though the King of Prussia had not yet declared war, a hostile feeling towards the French was i8i 3 .] A WASTED HALF-MILLION. o"j evinced by his people. Several thousand French sick and wounded perished at Wilna in the convent of St. Basil, for want of food and attendance. The Russians arrived on the Vistula on the 22nd and 23rd of January, but the Emperor Alexander stopped their march at Khalitsh. The total loss sustained by the French Grand Army in the Russian campaign is thus stated by Boutourlin : — -" Slain in battle, one hundred and twenty-five thou- sand ; died from fatigue, hunger, and cold, one hundred and thirty-two thousand; prisoners (comprehending forty-eight generals, three thousand officers, and upwards of one hundred and ninety thousand men), one hundred and ninety-three thousand ; total, four hundred and fifty thousand ; " — exclusive of thousands of non-com- batants. Eugene retreated in good order on the Elbe, and threw six thousand men into Thorn ; eight thousand into Modlin ; four thousand into Zamosc ; and nearly thirty thousand into Dantzic. All the horses, artillery, and baggage were lost, and the Russians, notwithstanding all the efforts made to destroy these trophies, took seventy-five eagles and upwards of nine hundred pieces of cannon. The melting of the snow gave horrible evidence of the sacrifice of life. The route of the army might then be traced by the multitude of disfigured, bloated corpses. The total number of the French and allied troops who escaped may be estimated at sixty- five thousand. But of these eighteen thousand were the Prussians who deserted the standard of Macdonald, and twenty thousand were Austrians, under Schwart- zenburg, who retired from the struggle in December. Of the remaining twenty- seven thousand, whose strength or good fortune enabled them to reach various places of safety, comparatively few had been at Moscow. The greater number belonged to the reinforcements which joined the army in its retreat through Lithuania, and even of these many died in tne hospitals of disease induced by the hardships they had undergone. m NEY DEFENDING KOWNO. LANCERS OF THE GUARD. CHAPTER XXXV. NAPOLEON AT PARIS— A NEW ARMY RAISED — THE POPE — AFFAIRS OF SPAIN — STORMING OF BADAJOZ — BATTLE OF SALAMANCA — LORD WELLINGTON ENTERS MADRID — PRUSSIA DECLARES WAR AGAINST FRANCE — RAPID MOVEMENTS OF THE RUSSIAN AND PRUSSIAN ARMIES — MARIA LOUISA REGENT — NAPOLEON LEAVES PARIS FOR MAYENCE — COMBATS OF WEISSENFELS AND POSERN — DEATH OF BESSIERES — BATTLE OF LUTZEN — NAPOLEON AT DRESDEN — AUSTRIA MEDIATES— BATTLE OF BAUTZEN — DEATH OF DUROC — ARMISTICE GRANTED BY NAPOLEON. NEWS of the Emperor's return spread like lightning through the capital. On the 20th of December his saloons were thronged, and he received his Ministers in rotation. When he presented himself to the people he was greeted with acclamations. Public confidence, which had received a violent shock from the disastrous contents of the Twenty-ninth Bulletin, revived with cer- tainty of his safety, and the conviction that his energy would repair the misfor- tunes of the war. Even the mourners' grief was not mixed with complaint or disaffection. But a great crisis had occurred in the history of Napoleon. His vast designs had been overthrown. He had allied himself with Sovereigns in order to make them the instruments of his purposes. "I should have had my Congress and my Holy Alliance," said he, at St. Helena, when talking over these events. But the Sovereigns, his unwilling allies, became his enemies at the first reverse. When, at the commencement of his Russian expedition, he rejected the proffered devo- tion of the Poles, he displayed want of reliance on his natural allies — the people. The result was the destruction of his retreating army, which had to fall back on an apathetic, oppressed, and ravaged province, instead of an organized and friendly nation. Napoleon had no longer to form combinations and fight for the accom- plishment of his own preconceived purposes, but for existence as a Sovereign. The Emperor convoked the Council of State, and laid before them the events of the campaign. He made also minute inquiries concerning the singular con- spiracy of Mallet, intelligence of which had reached him in Russia. The par- ticulars of this conspiracy show how insecure was Napoleon's tenure of power. Early on the morning of the 23rd of October, three ex-generals, Mallet, Lahorie, and 364 eSs^SB^^^f I8I3-] WELLINGTON'S PENINSULAR VICTORIES. 365 Guidal, said to be members of the Republican party, having framed a fictitious senatus consultum, went to the barracks occupied by the first division of the National Guards and the dragoons of Paris, and having read a proclamation in- forming them of the death of the Emperor, ordered the troops, in the name of the Regent, to follow them to different posts where they relieved guard. The con- spirators then arrested the Minister and Prefect of Police, whom they sent to prison under an escort of three hundred men. Meanwhile another division marched to the house of Hullin, Commandant of Paris, whom Mallet shot in the neck on his hesitating to resign his authority. Mallet then attempted to seize the chief of the Etat-Major, but several officers who were with him captured Mallet, convinced the troops that followed him of the Emperor's being alive, and induced them to lay down their arms All the conspirators (about twenty -five) being then imprisoned, Paris became tranquil. A military commission tried the culprits, sentencing fourteen of them to death. They were executed on the Plain of Grenelle, — a piece of severity which Napoleon reprehended. Overjoyed at the Emperor's safe return, Paris and the principal towns poured in addresses expressive of the highest loyalty. The national feeling was enthusi- astic, and patriotic contributions were largely made towards repairing the losses of the country. The Emperor had to replace the whole of the artillery with its trains, to remount all his cavalry, and renew half his infantry. He employed day and night in reading returns and reports, and then set vigorously to work to collect the materials of a new army. A decree of the Senate empowered him to anticipate the conscription of 18 14. Forty thousand seamen, in seaport towns, were formed into corps of artillerymen. Large drafts of men were drawn from Spain. Napoleon drew freely on his private treasure, and, notwithstanding his great expenses of the preceding year, provided twelve millions without any addi- tion to the national burdens. Horses were purchased in every quarter. The arsenals were in fine condition and furnished abundance of artillery. In the month of April, he had increased his army by three hundred and fifty thousand men, fully equipped, besides the large garrisons in Dantzic, Thorn, Custrin, &c, aug- mented by the remains of his Grand Army. He was, in fact, at the head of a force little inferior to that with which he undertook the invasion of Russia. Napoleon at this time made a last effort to settle his differences with the Pope. On the 19th of January he left St. Cloud under the pretext of hunting, and presented himself,at Fontainebleau, employing all his powers to induce Pius VII. to concur with his views. He succeeded so well that eleven articles were agreed upon and signed before the close of the interview ; but no sooner was the influ- ence of the Emperor's presence removed than the Pope repented his concessions, and took umbrage at the insertion of the articles of agreement in the Moniteur. He declared that the articles were only preliminaries to a Concordat, and refused to abide by them. Ecclesiastical differences therefore commenced with greater bitterness than ever. Meanwhile the storm was gathering over Europe. But before describing the coalition of 18 13 against Napoleon, it is necessary to mention the chief events of the Peninsular campaign. In January, 18 12, Lord Wellington issued from the lines of Torres Vedras, and took Ciudad Rodrigo by storm. He followed up this success by investing Badajoz in March. This city was skilfully defended by the French, but taken by Wellington on the 6th of April. The sanguinary triumph, and the subsequent horrors perpetrated for two days and nights on the wretched inhabitants, are indescribable, and indelibly stain British valour. Five thousand British soldiers and officers fell during this siege. The conquest was, however, important, for Badajoz was the key to all offensive operations of the allied armies of Spain, Portugal, and England. The victory of Salamanca on the 22nd of July opened to Wellington the road to Madrid, which he entered in August, while King Joseph retired to Valencia. The Spanish Government failed to support Wel- lington at this juncture. He was repulsed before Burgos, which he invested in 2,66 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. September. Soult threatened his communications with Portugal, and he had once more to retreat into the latter country. The state of Spain, therefore, in the beginning of 1813, was favourable to Napoleon ; the retreat of the English army permitting him to withdraw from the Peninsula four regiments of his guards, and one hundred and fifty skeletons of battalions which he used to discipline his " conscripts." A treaty offensive and defensive was signed between the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Russia, who met on the 15th of March at Breslau. Scott informs us that the King of Prussia began to weep, and Alexander, en- deavouring to console him, said, " Courage, my brother ! these are the last tears Napoleon shall make you shed." On the following day Prussia declared war against France. Napoleon received the declaration with calmness. "It was better," he said, " to have a declared enemy than a doubtful ally." The command of the Prussian army was conferred upon Blucher. The whole nation was eager for the war. Students of the universities formed themselves into battalions. The Russians had not only taken Warsaw and overrun Prussian Poland, but, relying on the friendly disposition of Prussia, had passed the fortresses containing French garrisons and advanced towards the Oder and the Elbe. Bernadotte, Crown Prince of Sweden, marched with thirty-five thousand men to the seat of war, and awaited the junction of the Russian and German corps before assuming the offensive, menacing Napoleon's left flank, while the armies of Russia and Prussia assailed him in front. Three Russian flying corps spread along both banks of the Elbe. The French concentrated under the walls of Magdeburg and other fortified places, which they still held. Hamburg, Lubeck, and other towns declaring for the allies, received their troops. General Morand made a bold effort to stop the defection, and with four thousand men occupied Luneburg, which had joined the allies ; but his corps was surprised by the Russians and killed or taken prisoners on the 2nd of April. Prince Eugene in like manner marched suddenly from Magdeburg, intending to surprise Berlin, which had been evacuated by the French, but he was driven back and blockaded in Magdeburg. Even the King of Denmark, the friend of Napoleon, showed signs of wavering. The King of Saxony, unable to cope with the surrounding host of enemies, retired to a place of safety in Fran- conia, and his army, separated from the French, threw themselves into Torgau, and offered to stipulate for neutrality. Davoust retreated from Dresden after blowing up the fine bridge. The French garrisons in Thorn, Spandau, and Crenz- tochau surrendered to the allies. The Emperor of Austria, who had deserted Napoleon during the Russian retreat, now assumed the semblance of friendship ; but Napoleon well knew that the alliance of his imperial father-in-law would depend on his own victories. Meanwhile, con- ciliatory language was held towards him by the Austrian Court ; but M. de Met- ternich declared that Austria would neither unite with Napoleon in fighting for the Poles nor in preserving to him his title of Head of the Confederation of the Rhine. The English Government made new efforts in the Peninsula, and English gold supported the war throughout Europe. The progress of the allies hastened Napoleon's preparations. He had meditated the coronation of Maria Louisa as Empress and of his infant son as King of Rome, but the pressure of events pre- vented it. From motives of policy, and as a precaution suggested by Mallet's conspiracy, he, on the 30th of March, solemnly proclaimed the Empress Regent during his absence. On the 14th of April he gave a friendly audience to Prince Schwartzenburg, the Austrian ambassador, and on the following day, the 15th of April, he left Paris for Mayence, where he arrived at midnight on the 16th. The progress of the Russian and Prussian armies was arrested by the approach of Napoleon, who spent eight days at Mayence in organizing his young conscripts, and then advanced by rapid marches on Dresden. On the 25th of April his head-quarters were at Auerstadt ; on the 29th he left Erfurt at the head of eighty thousand men. Forty thousand more under Prince Eugene were marching from i8i 3 .] BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 367 Magdeburg to join him. The allies collected towards Leipsic, occupying the direct route of Napoleon's advance. The numbers on both sides were nearly equal, but Napoleon was inferior in cavalry. The command of the Russian army had been conferred on Witgenstein, in place of the veteran Kutusoff, who had died. At Weissenfels and Posern sharp actions occurred on the 29th of April and the 1st of May. The French had the advantage in both, but their success was dearly bought in the latter instance. The first cannon-shot struck Marshal Bessieres as he reconnoitred : he died almost instantly. The catastrophe was concealed as long as possible from the "Guides," whom he had commanded from their first formation, and by whom he was much beloved. The Emperor lost in him an early and faithful follower and a matchless commander of cavalry. On the 2nd of May the Imperial Guard was joined at Lutzen by the army of the Viceroy. The Emperor snd his adopted son had not met since the 5th of December, when Napoleon took leave of his assembled generals at Smorgoni. At Lutzen, the Imperial Guard with NAPOLEON ARRIVING AT MAYENCE. its fine artillery supported the centre of the French army, posted at the village of Kaya under Ney. The left wing extended from Kaya to the Elster, the right to the defile of Posern. Napoleon, with Eugene, advanced both his wings on Leipsic, in rear of which city he expected to see the allies; but the latter, encouraged by the presence of the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia, had ap- proached in the night and crossed the Elster in the morning. The French wings advanced in column, and Napoleon followed them at the head of the guard. It was nine o'clock on the morning of the 2nd of May when he left Lutzen ; about eleven he dismounted to consult his maps, and was startled by the sound of a tremendous cannonade in the direction of Kaya. An aide-de-camp from Ney afterwards galloped up and informed him that the centre was attacked by the whole allied army. Napoleon ordered both wings to halt. These troops were marching in column towards Leipsic, but by a rapid wheel to their right they reached the scene of conflict in the centre. Three hours were necessary to complete the move- ment. Urgent orders to sustain the contest were dispatched to Ney, and Napoleon with the Old and Young Guard hurried to his support. The attack of the allies had been made by their choicest troops, led by Blucher, who took the village of Kaya. The conflict was desperate, the carnage horrible, and it was doubtful for several hours whether the allies would break the French centre, or whether Napo- leon's manoeuvre would be completed in time to prevent their success. At length discharges of musketry were heard on the right and left, rapidly converging to the centre. It was the fire of Macdonald and Bertrand, who commanded the two wings. Napoleon by a resolute charge recovered the village of Kaya in the centre. 368 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The fate of the battle was decided : the allies retreated without any further attempt, leading back their exhausted troops from between the " forceps," as Scott aptly designates the closing wings of Napoleon's army. The French Emperor, whose generalship was never more apparent than on this occasion, had turned disadvan- tage into a means of success, but his want of cavalry prevented pursuit ; he made no prisoners, and the sole trophies of his victory were twenty thousand dead. Among these were the Prussian general, Scharnhorst, one of the best staff officers in Europe, Prince Leopold of Hesse Homburg, and the Prince of Mecklenburg- Strehtz. The French loss was also very severe. A great moral effect was produced REPULSE OF THE PRUSSIAN LANCERS. by the battle. Napoleon, who had been regarded as vanquished, was again vic- torious. He sent despatches announcing the event to every friendly Court, even to Constantinople. As a great part of the allied army moved off in unbroken order, he commanded his troops to pass the night on the field in squares by divi- sions. He visited the advanced posts at nightfall to observe the execution of his orders. His foresight saved the Young Guard from a surprise. They were sud- denly attacked by the Prussian lancers during the darkness, but repelled the charge by a murderous fire. The allied Sovereigns fell back on the Mulda by the route of Borna and Dresden, followed by the French army. Napoleon entered Dresden a few days after the battle, and on the 12th of May the King of Saxony returned to his capital, once more re-established in authority by Napoleon. During the short residence of Napoleon at Dresden the Emperor of Austria dispatched M. de Bubna as envoy, to assure him of his pacific intentions ; but the tone assumed by the Austrian Court as mediator, and its hints of claims on Illyria, Poland, and even Bavaria, evinced a disposition the reverse of friendly. The battle of Lutzen forced the allies to abandon the line of the Elbe. Davoust i8i 3 .] AT BAUTZEN. ;69 \ 4* : I ' "161 [ -A BATTLE OF LUTZEN. was ordered to occupy Hamburg. He attacked the city on the 9th of May at the head of five or six thousand men, and it must have yielded had not the Danish Government (the ally of Napoleon) dispatched a squadron of gun-boats and artillery to its support, to the surprise of both parties. Some negotiation pending between the King of Denmark and the enemies of the Emperor of France the Danish monarch hoped to turn to his own advantage; but being disappointed, dis- covering that the allies insisted on his ceding Norway to Bernadotte, and hearing that Napoleon had gained the victory at Lutzen, the King withdrew his forces on the 1 2th, and left the citizens of Hamburg to their fate, while he returned to his league offensive and defensive with France. The Crown Prince of Sweden was at Stralsund with a considerable army, but refusing to divide his forces, which he destined for the main purposes of the campaign, Hamburg was unsuccoured, and Davoust entered it on the 30th of May. Order was observed, but heavy contribu- tions were laid on the inhabitants. Napoleon left Dresden on the 18th and arrived at Bautzen on the 21st of May. His army had been reinforced by eighteen thousand Saxons, a large proportion of whom were cavalry, and he now com- manded one hundred and fifty thousand men ; the allies had one hundred and sixty thousand and a strong position. Their right wing rested upon the fortified heights of Klein, their left on wooded eminences ; their centre was rendered impregnable by well-armed batteries. The officers of engineers who reconnoitred the position reminded Napoleon that " it was the same which Frederick the Great had once occupied. - ' " That may be," 24 370 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. answered the Emperor, " but Frederick is not there now." He saw that the posi- tion could not be stormed in front, and on the morning of the 20th he ordered Ney, with three corps amounting to sixty thousand men, to make a detour by the extreme right of the allies' camp and attack in reverse. Oudinot and Soult were to advance upon the left and right wings of the allied army. The French attacked impetuously, took possession of Bautzen, crossed the river Spree, and engaged in a desperate conflict at all points. Blucher, with the Prussians, maintained the entrenchments on the right. The struggle was long and sanguinary, but when the Prussians were beginning to give way the sixty thousand French troops commanded by Ney appeared in their rear and decided their defeat. Blucher made a gallant retreat under a heavy cross fire, and the French took possession of the heights he quitted. The attack of Oudinot on the left was not equally successful. The Russians, commanded by Miloradowitch, held their ground, when nightfall stopped the battle. The French army bivouacked in square on the field. Prince Eugene was on his march to Italy, whither he had been dispatched by Napoleon to adopt precautions against Austria. On the following day Napoleon by a skilful manoeuvre contrived to deceive Miloradowitch as to his point of attack. The contest was, notwithstanding, desperate and doubtful. Napoleon brought up all his reserves before he carried the Russian entrenchments ; but by three o'clock victory was in his hands, and the forces of Witgenstein and Milora- dowitch, driven from their positions on the centre and left, were in full retreat by the foot of the Bohemian mountains, the roads to Silesia being cut off by Napo- leon, whose divisions pressed onwards to occupy the important points. Twelve thousand French were killed in this hard-fought battle, and as many of the allied army were left dead on the ground ; — some authorities say sixteen, and some eighteen thousand. The want of cavalry again prevented Napoleon from improv- ing his success. The allies retreated in good order, frequently bringing their guns to bear on the French, who suffered greatly in the pursuit. Very few prisoners were taken and not a single gun. Napoleon, at the head of the cavalry of the guard, urged the pursuit thoughout the ensuing day. Towards evening the Russian rear guard made a stand at the heights of Reichembach. While the French Cuirassiers of the Guard forced the pass, General Bruyeres was killed by a bullet. Shortly afterwards a ball killed a trooper who stood by the Emperor, upon which he said, turning to the Grand Marshal, " Duroc, fortune has a spite at us to-day." After the Russians had been dislodged, as the Emperor with his suite rode along the hollow way, three guns were fired by the retreating army, a ball from which shattered a tree close to Napoleon, and rebounding, killed General Kirchener and mortally wounded Duroc. A halt was instantly ordered. The dying man was carried to a neighbouring house and attended by the surgeons Larrey and Ivan. His bowels were torn by the shot, and no aid could be given to him ; but he preserved his accustomed calmness. Napoleon hastened to him, accompanied by Soult and Caulaincourt, and bent over him absorbed in grief. Duroc took the hand of the master he had so long and faithfully served, and raised it to his lips. " All my life," he said, " has been devoted to your service, and I only regret its loss because it might still have been useful to you." He spoke of France, and recommended his daughter to the Emperor's care. He several times repeated that he had nothing to fear from the judgment of God or man. Napoleon, uncontrollably affected, could not remain long in the harrowing scene. During the remainder of the day he paced hurriedly up and down before his tent, sur- rounded by his guard, who pitied him as though he had lost one of his children. When at last a question was put to him concerning an important order to the artillery, his reply was " Everything to-morrow." On no other occasion was he known to yield to his feelings so much as to postpone military business. He ordered the body of the deceased to be carried to Paris, and interred in the Hospital of the Invalides. He placed two hundred napoleons in the hands of the pastor of the village close to which this event had happened, in order to erect and i8i 3 .] THREE MONTHS 1 ARMISTICE. 371 DEATH OF Dl'ROC. preserve a monument to the memory of his friend in the house to which he had "been carried, and on the spot where his bed had stood ; directing that the follow- ing inscription should be engraved on it : — " Here General Duroc, Duke of Frioul, Grand Marshal of the Palace of the Emperor Napoleon, wounded by a cannon- ball, died in the arms of his Emperor and his friend." The march of the allied army to the frontier of Bohemia virtually abandoned Prussia to Napoleon. The movement afforded another proof of their good under- standing with Austria, which was not unobserved by Napoleon. He occupied Breslau and relieved the blockade of Glogau ; Berlin, defended only by a single corps, was open to him ; Hamburg was also in his power ; and his communica- tions with Custrin, Warsaw, and Dantzic were again free. Under this new aspect of affairs the allied Powers changed their tone and solicited an armistice to discuss preliminaries of peace, in which Austria should act as mediator. The proposal was enforced in a letter from Count Stadion to Talleyrand, who, as well as Fouche, had been summoned by Napoleon to the seat of war. Desiring peace, he relin- quished a great part of his newly-acquired advantages, granting the armistice proposed, and at the same time renounced the possession of Breslau and Lower Silesia, thus enabling the allied army to regain communication with Berlin. 2 \ 2 WELLINGTON S QUARTERS AT VITTORIA. CHAPTER XXXVI. NAPOLEON AT DRESDEN — CONGRESS OF PRAGUE — STATE OF SPAIN — ADVANCE OF LORD WELLING- TON — THE BATTLE OF VITTORIA — THE FRENCH ARMY RETREATS UPON BAYONNE — LORD WELLINGTON ON THE PYRENEES— NAPOLEON REFUSES THE CONDITIONS OF THE ALLIED SOVEREIGNS — HOSTILITIES RECOMMENCE — AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR AGAINST FRANCE. |N the 5 th of June, 1813, the day succeeding the ratification of the armistice, Napo- leon returned to Dresden. He sent for French actors from Paris, and was observed to have changed his taste in dramatic representations, and to prefer comedy to tragedy. The greater part of his time was devoted to the organi- zation of the army, for, from the be- ginning of the armistice, symptoms threatened a renewal of the war. Owing to the delays of the Austrian Court, June elapsed before the con- ferences were opened. Lord Aberdeen, Minister Plenipotentiary from England, did not arrive at Prague till the business was over, as was doubtless intended by the English Government, for Lord Aberdeen had also a mission to the Emperor of Austria. Caulaincourt, Duke of Vicenza, was envoy for the Emperor Napoleon. The Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia established themselves at Trachemberg, on the banks of the Oder. The Emperor of Austria remained at Gitschin, in the vicinity of Prague. The armistice was prolonged to the 10th of August. The Emperor Francis undertook the office of mediator, though in fact the ally of Russia and Prussia from the beginning. Napoleon suspected this, but could not divest himself of the belief that his matrimonial alliance would be a safe- guard in that quarter. But the Emperor of Austria had plans far dearer to him than the preservation of an imperial crown to his daughter. He had always been foremost among the enemies of revolutionary France, till, by repeated defeats, he had been forced to ally himself by treaty, and even by marriage, with Napoleon. By his great failure in Russia Napoleon was placed within the power of these 372 i8i3.] CRITICAL POSITION OF JOSEPH. . 373 enemies, — his enemies always, whether openly arrayed against him, or his allies by necessity. It was now their purpose to force him to relinquish the countries he had wrested from them. France, reduced to the limits of 1793, would in his opinion be again assailable. Napoleon's circumstances were inherently difficult, and he made them worse by reposing faith in the Austrian Court. Under this delusion he granted the armistice after Bautzen, and gave his defeated enemies breathing-time. The first convic- tion of his mistake came to him in an interview with Metternich, at Dresden, on the 2Sth of June. Napoleon addressed the Minister abruptly: "Ah, Metternich!" said he, " I guess the purpose of your Cabinet. You wish to profit by my embar- rassments, and seize the favourable moment to regain as much as you can of what I have taken from you. Well, let us drive a bargain : how much is it you want ? Will it suit you to accept Illyria and remain neutral ? I can deal with the Rus- sians and Prussians with my own army." " Ah, Sire," said Metternich, " it depends solely on your Majesty to unite all our forces with yours. But the truth must be told. Austria cannot remain neutral. We must be with you or against you." The Emperor then retired with the Austrian statesman into a cabinet apart from the secretaries, where it is supposed that the conditions to be proposed were declared by the latter, for Napoleon's voice was heard in loud passion ; and it is. reported that he enraged the diplomatist in his turn, by coolly asking, " What has England given you to induce you to make war on me ? " The conferences at Prague still lingered when news arrived from Spain which materially influenced the parties concerned. After Soult had been recalled from that country the French army had been divided in a manner which manifested the want of an able military director. The situation of Joseph was extremely complicated. His communications with France were frequently interrupted by the Spaniards ; the northern provinces were in rebellion ; his troops, and even his Court, wanted provisions; all his efforts to rule his subjects beneficially were frus- trated by their antipathy ; and he was not the man to maintain the throne as a conqueror. Napoleon saw matters clearly, and gave Joseph explicit orders. " Hold Madrid," said he, in his despatches, " only as a point of observation ; fix your quarters not as monarch, but as general of the French forces, at Valla- dolid ; concentrate the armies of the south, of the centre, and of Portugal, around you. It is your business to free the communication with France, and to re-esta- blish a good base of operations before the commencement of another campaign, that the French army may be in condition to fight the English and Portuguese forces if the latter advance towards France." Joseph would not agree to this plan. He contended that the violence of the French troops was the cause of the pro- tracted hatred of the Spaniards. "My revenue," said he, "is seized by the generals for the supply of their troops, and I cannot, as a King of Spain, partake of resources torn by rapine from my. subjects, whom I have sworn to protect. I cannot be at once King of Spain and general of the French : let me resign both and live peaceably in France." Napoleon's orders were thus neglected, and no unanimity existed between Joseph and the generals. Suchet returned to Cata- lonia ; Marmont employed two divisions in pursuit of the guerillas ; the King con- tinued to hold Madrid ; and the troops recently arrived from Andalusia alone remained combined as army corps. Wellington prepared to take advantage of the mistakes of the French. He had received reinforcements from England, had organized the Portuguese and Spanish armies, and provided all the equipments of a great invading force. A British fleet commanded the coast. Napier reckons the aggregate of the Anglo- Peninsular armies at two hundred thousand men in the spring of 1813, and that of the French at one hundred and eighty thousand. But of the British forces, com- posed of Portuguese, Spaniards, and Germans, only about one-half could be relied upon as efficient in the field. The rest were utilized in blockading fortresses, guarding convoys, foraging, and maintaining communications. Wellington re- 374 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. solved to attack the great line of communication with France in the northern pro- vinces of Spain, while Sir John Murray on the Ebro, and Sir Thomas Graham in the south, held Suchet in check, and prevented his assisting the King. Wellington began his advance about the middle of May with ninety thousand men. His design was to drive the French beyond the Pyrenees, and so confident was he of success that as he passed the river which marks the frontiers of Spain, he rose in his stirrups, and waving his hand, cried, " Farewell, Portugal ! " When the intentions of the British commander-in-chief became apparent, Joseph, with all his artillery, army stores, an immense train of baggage, and a host of non-combatants and families who had been attached to the Court or the French interests, retreated behind the Ebro, and stationed his army in the plain of Vit- toria. The artillery depots of Madrid, Valladolid, and Burgos, and the baggage THE CONFEREiNCE AT f'RAGUE. and stores of many armies, and numbers of fugitive families, were concentrated there, and a convoy of treasure arrived from Bayonne. Joseph sent urgent de- spatches to Suchet, Foy, and Clausel to join him ; but the first was engaged with active enemies, and the others could not arrive in time. Wellington had followed close, fighting his way, and by the 19th of June, says Napier, "his rough veteran infantry, swelled by the junction of Longa's division, and all the smaller bands which came trickling from the mountains, burst like raging streams from every defile, and went foaming into the basin of Vittoria." The French troops are estimated at about seventy thousand, the British and Portuguese at upwards of eighty thousand ; but far more fatal to the French was their want of an able commander. The battle of Vittoria was fought on the 21st of June, and never was victory more complete. The loss of men was about six thousand and several hundred prisoners on the side of the French, and upwards of five thousand on the side of the allies. But the French also lost one hundred and forty-three pieces of brass cannon, one hundred of which were captured in the fight ; all the parks and depots of Madrid, Valladolid, and Burgos ; all their carriages, ammunition, and treasure ; Marshal Jourdan's baton of command ; all their official and private papers, and a stand of colours. They fled througli Navarre, carrying with them one gun and not a single waggon. After nightfall they rallied and took the road to France by Pampeluna. General Clausel, who was in Arragon, marching to join King Joseph, took a few English prisoners on the high road from Miranda to Vittoria, and they apprised him of this disastrous defeat. He consequently descended the Ebro to open communications with Suchet, and then followed the fugitive army into France by Jaca and Yverdun. 1813.] AUSTRIAN DIPLOMACY. 375 Foy also crossed the Bidassoa on the 1st of July. Joseph attempted to hold pos- session of the valley of Bastan, but General Hill made a clean sweep of all before him with a loss of only one hundred and twenty men. " The whole line of the Spanish frontier," says Napier, " from Roncesvalles to the Bidassoa river was thus occupied by the victorious allies, and Pampeluna and St. Sebastian were invested. Joseph's reign was over ; and, after years of toil and combats, which had been rather admired than understood, the English general, emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular struggle, stood on the summit of the Pyrenees a recognized con- queror." When the news of these events reached Napoleon at Dresden, his first care was to dispatch Soult to rally the defeated army at Bayonne and defend the southern frontier of France, threatened with invasion by Wellington. He next took measures for another campaign in Saxony, which he now considered inevitable. He fortified Dresden strongly, determining to make it his centre of operations. He summoned the Empress to Mayence, met her there, and returned to Dresden by the 3rd of August. The Parisians augured a continuance of the war from this circumstance, which plainly indicated that the Emperor did not expect speedily to return to Paris. Many conjectures were also set afloat by the arrival of General Moreau at the head-quarters of the Emperor Alexander. On the '7th of August the Austrian Cabinet put forth their plan of pacification, the conditions of which were as follow: — First, the dissolution of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which was to be divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Second, the re-establishment of the Hanseatic Towns in their former indepen- dence. Third, the reconstruction of Prussia, with a frontier on the Elbe. Fourth, the restoration to Austria of the maritime town of Trieste, with the Illyrian provinces. The cession of Holland, a matter in which England took chief interest, was reserved as an article to be considered at a general peace. Welling- ton had settled the question of Spain. Continuance of war was deprecated by the French nation, which was exhausted with the struggle, and Napoleon had scarcely one adviser, civil or military, who did not urge him to yield. Talleyrand and Fouche earnestly recommended peace. Savary (opposed to their opinion on nearly every other point) laments that he was not permitted to leave Paris at the moment to unite his voice with theirs. " At that crisis," says he, " the only good policy was to yield, because the physical strength that might be lost by war was nothing in comparison with the moral power that would be recovered by peace." Berthier, with Rogniat, had drawn up a plan for removing the army, reinforced by all the French garrisons in Ger- many, from the line of the Elbe to that of the Rhine. Napoleon alone revolted at the idea of such a dear-bought peace. " Good God ! " he exclaimed, " ten lost battles could not bring me so low as you would have me stoop ; and that, too, when I command so many strong places on the Elbe and Oder. The enemy cannot force me back on the Rhine till they have gained ten battles ; but allow me only one victory, and I will march on their capitals of Berlin and Breslau, re- lieve my garrisons on the Vistula and Oder, and force the allies to such a peace as shall leave my glory untarnished." When Napoleon rejected Austria's proposals he should have carried on that war firmly and vigorously, not resting until he had forced the allies to make an equit- able peace, which should leave him Sovereign of the French empire. Sorely in need of peace, he trusted Austria against all experience, and paused in his pro- gress at the very moment he should have pursued the war to the last extremity ; and when proof was brought that the Emperor of Austria was false to him, — that the armistice and offered mediation were mere pretexts to gain time, and that the military power of Austria was to be thrown into the scale against him, — he pre- ferred war to a peace so purchased. Having brought himself into these difficult circumstances, and exposed France to fearful odds, he should have submitted and obtained peace on the best terms possible. But it is only fair to remember that 37 6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Napoleon had great resources, and as it was ran his opponents very hard ; indeed, had he displayed as much political sagacity as military skill he would have come out of the contest handsomely. On the 7th of August the ultimatum of Austria was delivered to Napoleon. He returned for answer his own conditions, which in deference to the opinion of his councillors ceded some of the points demanded. First, he (selfishly) agreed to give up the Grand Duchy of Warsaw ; but stipu- lated that Dantzic, with its fortifications demolished, should remain a free town ; and that Saxony should be indemnified for the cession of the duchy at the expense of Prussia and Austria. Second, he ceded the Illyrian provinces to Austria, but retained Trieste. Third, he stipulated that the Confederation of the Rhine should extend to the Oder. Fourth, he required that Norway should be gua- ranteed to Denmark. Without answering this contre projct, the allies recommenced hostilities on the 10th of August, the day fixed for the termination of the armistice; and on the 15th Austria declared war against France, and passed its army of two hundred thousand men into the ranks of the allies. THE FLAG OF TRUCE. PALISADES AT DRESDEN. CHAPTER XXXVII. STRENGTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARMIES — BATTLE OF DRESDEN — DEATH OF MOREAU — BATTLES OF CULM, GROSS-BEEREN, KATZBACH, AND DENNEWITZ — NAPOLEON ABANDONS THE RIGHT BANK OF THE ELBE — RETREATS FROM DRESDEN — BATTLE OF LEIPSIC — DEFECTION OF THE TROOPS OF SAXONY, WURTEMBERG, AND BADEN — DEATH OF PONIATOWSKI — NAPO- LEON RETREATS UPON THE RHINE — DEFECTION OF BAVARIA — BATTLE OF HANAU — THE ALLIES OX THE RHINE. J^RESDEN, during the armistice, had been converted by Napoleon into such a place of strength that it might be called one citadel. All the trees in the neighbour- hood, as well as those which had formed the ornament of the public gardens and walks of that beau- tiful capital, were cut down and converted into abattis and pali- sades ; redoubts, field-works, and fosses had been constructed. The chain of fortresses garrisoned by French troops secured to Napo- leon the rich valley of the Elbe. Hamburg, Dantzic, and many strong places on the Oder and Vistula were in his possession. He had an entrenched camp at the celebrated position of Pima, and had constructed a bridge of boats over the Elbe at Konigstein to maintain communication with the fort of Stolpen. His army assembled at the seat of war amounted to nearly three hundred thousand men, including the Bavarian reserve of twenty-five thousand under General Wrede, and he had greatly increased his cavalry. This powerful force was divided into eleven army corps, commanded by Vandamme, Victor, Bertrand, Ney, Lauriston, Mar- mont, Reynier, Poniatowski, Macdonald, Oudinot, and St. Cyr. Murat, who, roused by the news of the victories of Lutzen and Bautzen, had left his capital, was made commander-in-chief of all the cavalry ; Latour-Maubourg, Sebastiani, Arrighi, and Kellermann being at the head of its different divisions. Mortier commanded the infantry of the guards, Nansouty the cavalry. Davoust held Hamburg with twenty thousand men. Augereau with twenty-four thousand ■occupied Bavaria. The armies of the allies were computed at nearly four hundred thousand men, 377 37^ THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. including the divisions destined to invade Italy. Those ready for action at the seat of war in Germany were divided into three great masses, — the army of Bohemia, consisting mainly of Austrians commanded by Prince Schwartzenburg ; the army of Silesia, commanded by Blucher ; and the troops under the command of Berna- dotte, stationed near Berlin. These immense hosts were strong in cavalry and artillery, and in discipline and experience far exceeded the French soldiers, who were nearly all young conscripts. Two Frenchmen of eminence were leaders in the ranks of the enemies of France, — Bernadotte and Moreau ; Jomini, late chief of the engineer department in Napoleon's army, was a Swiss. These three men, well instructed by the great master of the art of war, directed the counsels of the allied Sovereigns and taught them how to conquer. Bernadotte pointed out that Napoleon lay in Dresden with his guard of five-and-twenty thousand men, while his marshals were stationed in various strong positions on the frontiers of Saxony. The moment a French corps d'armee was attacked Napoleon would spring from his central point upon the flank of the assailants, and as such a blow would be irresistible he would thus beat the allied armies in detail. To obviate this danger Bernadotte recommended that the first general who attacked a French division and brought Napoleon into the field should retreat, luring the Emperor onward in pursuit, when the other bodies of allied troops simultaneously closing upon his rear should surround him and cut him off from his base. This plan was followed : Blucher advanced from Silesia, menacing the armies of Macdonald and Ney, and Napoleon, with the activity expected, issued from Dresden on the 15th of August, rapidly reached the point of danger, and assumed the offensive. But he was un- able to bring the Prussian general to a decisive action, for Blucher, continuing to retreat before him, the pursuit was only arrested by an estafette reporting on the 23rd that the main body of the allies threatened Dresden. On the 25th, at four in the afternoon, two hundred thousand allied troops led by Schwartzenburg ap- peared before that city. St. Cyr, who had been left to observe the passes of the Bohemian mountains with twenty thousand men, retreated before the irresistible torrent and threw himself into the Saxon capital, which he prepared to defend with his own forces and the garrison left by the Emperor. It was a service of the last importance. With Dresden Napoleon would lose his recruiting depot and supplies of every kind. The peculiarity of the relative positions of the opposing forces was that, as at Valmy and Gravelotte, the French were fighting with their faces to France, while the allies stood between them and Paris, blocking the road to that capital ; so that in the event of defeat the French would have to retreat upon an unfriendly population, and only reach their base by describing a half-circle through Prussian territory. The loss of Dresden, therefore, would be ruin. The Austrian commander-in-chief deferred the attack till the following dav, replying to the expostulations of Jomini that Napoleon was engaged in the Silesian passes. Early on the morning of the 26th the allies advanced to the assault in six columns, under cover of a tremendous artillery fire. They carried one great redoubt, then another, and closed with the defenders of the city at every point, shells and balls falling thick on the houses, many of which were on fire. St. Cyr conducted the defence with heroism ; but before midday a surrender was talked of. The scanty numbers within the walls were insufficient to repel so extensive an attack. Suddenly, from the opposite bank of the Elbe columns of soldiers were seen hastening towards the city. They pressed across the bridges, swept through the streets, and with loud shouts demanded to be led into battle, although thev had made forced marches from the frontiers of Silesia. Napoleon, with the Old Guard and cuirassiers, was in the midst of them. His enemies had calculated on only half his energy and rapidity, and had forgotten that he could return as quickly as he left. The Prussians had penetrated the Grosse Garten on the French left, and so close was the Russian fire that Witgenstein's guns enfiladed the road by which 1813.J DEATH OF KORNER AND MOREAU. S79 Napoleon had to pass ; consequently, to reach the city in safety he was compelled to dismount at the most exposed part, and, according to Baron Odeleben (one of his aides-de-camp), creep along on his hands and knees {ventre a terre). Napoleon halted at the palace to reassure the King of Saxony, and then joined his troops who were already at the gates. Sallies were made by Ney and Mortier under his direction. The astonished assailants were driven back. The Young Guard recaptured the redoubts, and the French army deployed on the plateau lately in possession of their enemies. "The Emperor is in Dresden," exclaimed Schwartzenburg, at this extraordinary change of affairs : " it is impossible to doubt it ! " The fury of the fight gradually slackened, and the armies took up their positions for the night. The French wings bivouacked to the right and left of the city, which itself formed Napoleon's centre. The allies were ranged in a semicircle cresting the heights, from Strahlen on their right to Plauen in the centre, on the Wesseritz river, which flows through a suburb of Dresden into the Elbe above Neustadt, to Burgstadt on their left. The Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia were present. They had not greatly the advantage in numbers, for Klenau's division never came up ; and Napoleon, now that Victor and Marmont's corps had arrived, concentrated nearly two hundred thousand men. Among those killed on the morning of the 26th was the celebrated poet and patriot Korner "of the lyre and sword." A bullet passing through the neck of his horse without killing it, entered his chest and shattered his spine. He was buried with Count Har- denberg, who was struck down by the same volley, under an old oak near the spot, and Komer's name is engraved on the bole of the tree. Korner had written his famous lyric that morning. The next day broke in a tempest of wind and rain. At six o'clock Napoleon was on horseback, and ordered his columns to advance. Their order of battle has been aptly compared to " a fan when it ex- pands." Their position could scarcely have been worse. They had a large river in their rear, crossed by only three bridges within the town, and their right centre was divided by a deep and rapid tributary of the Elbe. In these days of rifled guns and breech-loaders Dresden would be untenable, and is therefore an open town, dominated like Sedan by surrounding heights. Knowing that in case of disaster retreat would be almost an impossibility, Napoleon began an attack on both flanks of the allied army, certain that their defeat would demoralize the centre, which he could overwhelm by a simultaneous concentric attack, supported by the fire of one hundred guns. The stormy weather which concealed their movements favoured them ; and Murat turning and breaking the Austrian left, and Ney completely rolling up the Austrian right, the result was a decisive victory. By three in the afternoon of the 27th the battle was concluded, and the allies were in full retreat, pursued by the French. The roads to Bohemia and those to the south were barred by Murat's and Vandamme's corps, and the allied Sovereigns were obliged to take such country paths and byways as they could find, — which had been rendered almost impassable by the heavy rain. They lost twenty-five thousand prisoners, forty standards, sixty pieces of cannon, and many waggons. The killed and wounded amounted on each side to seven or eight thousand. The first cannon-shot fired by the guard under the direction of Napo- leon mortally wounded Moreau while talking to the Emperor Alexander. Strik- ing one leg, it passed through his horse and shattered the other, so that both had to be amputated. During the operation, which was skilfully performed, he tran- quilly smoked a cigar; but he gradually sank, and died five days afterwards. In a letter to his wife, written from Laun just before his death, he said,- — "J'ateu les deux jambes emportees d'un boulet de avion. Ce coqiun de Bonaparte est toujours Aeureux." Moreau lay in state at Prague and was buried in the Champ de Mars at St. Petersburg. Thiers says that when the bullets which struck Moreau fell into the midst of the Emperor Alexander's staff, Napoleon saw from the splendour of the uniforms that some one of distinction had fallen, and throughout the day kept asking, " Who is it, then, whom we have killed ? " "The question," continues 3^o THE HISTORY OF N At O LEON BONAPARTE. BEFORE DRESDEN. Thiers, " was answered in a singular manner. A dog belonging to the illustrious man who had been wounded remained in the cottage to which his master was taken to die, and the dog was afterwards carried to Napoleon, wearing a collar inscribed, — ' I belong to General Moreau.' Thus Napoleon learnt his rival's presence and death in the allied army." Napoleon gave quite a different version of the incident to O'Meara. He said, " One of Moreau's feet, which- the surgeon had thrown upon the ground, was brought to the King of Saxony, with information that some great officer had been struck by a cannon-shot. The King, conceiving that the name might be discovered by the boot, sent it to me, but all that could be ascertained was that the boot was neither of English nor of French manufacture. The next day we were informed that it was the leg of Moreau." Such was the fate of the conqueror of Hohen- linden — fighting against his countrymen.* Napoleon remained on the field till victory was no longer doubtful, and then * Moreau's death was the more remarkable because he had strongly opposed the attack on Dresden, having at the Council of War said that the time for success had passed. Much was anticipated by the coalition from his advent, as he was one of the first strategists of his day, second only to Napoleon ; and it was intended that he should form into a corps d'armie the one hundred thousand French soldiers abandoned in the retreat from Moscow, who had been taken prisoners by the Russians, and who were very irate against Napoleon ; that they should be transported by English ships from St. Petersburg, landed in Picardy, and marched on Paris to overthrow the imperial throne. The scheme was plausible, but it of course died with Moreau. The Emperor Alexander pensioned his widow. — Ed. 1 8 1 3 .] FRENCH DISASTERS ON THE ELBE AND KA TZBA CH. 3 8 1 returned to Dresden on horseback, his weather-worn chapeau bras streaming with water, and his whole appearance forming a singular contrast to that of Murat, who rode by his side in all his accustomed splendour : he had especially distinguished himself during the action. ^ The venerable King of Saxony received Napoleon as his deliverer. The Emperor remunerated the citizens for losses sustained in the cannonade, and caused great care to be taken of the wounded and prisoners belonging to the allies. Ambulances, which were always in the rear during a battle, removed every man who fell, and thus mitigated much horrible suffering. Notwithstanding a short but severe.attack of fever, the consequence of the fatigue Napoleon had under- gone and the drenching rain to which he had been exposed throughout the 27th, he as usual visited the field of battle next morning. The French left wing, com- posed of the three corps of Vandamme, St. Cyr, and Marmont, were ordered to march by their left along the Pirna road in pursuit of the foe, who was retreating into Bohemia in three columns, and had traversed the gorges of the Hartz Moun- tains in safety, though much baggage, several ammunition waggons, and two thousand prisoners fell into the hands of the French. The Russians, under Ostermann, halted on the plain of Culm for the arrival of Kleist's Prussians; the Austrians hurried along the Prague route. Vandamme marched boldly on' neglecting even the precaution of guarding the defile of Peterswald in his rear.' Trusting to the rapid advance of the other French corps, he was lured on by the hope of capturing the allied Sovereigns in their head-quarters at Toplitz. Barclay de Tolly having executed a rapid detour from left to right, brought the bulk of his Russian forces to bear on Vandamme, who on reaching Culm was attacked in front and rear, surprised and taken, losing the whole of his artillery and between seven and eight thousand prisoners ; the rest of his corps escaped and rejoined the army. This disaster totally deranged Napoleon's plans, which would have led him to follow up the pursuit towards Bohemia in person. Oudinot was ordered to march against Billow's corps at Berlin and the Swedes commanded by Berna- dotte, taking with him the divisions of Bertrand and Reynier — a force of eighty thousand men. Reynier, who marched in advance, fell in with the allies at Gross- Beeren, attacked them precipitately and suffered severely, his division, chiefly com- posed of Saxons, taking flight. Oudinot also sustained considerable losses, and retreated to Torgau on the Elbe. Girard sallying out of Magdeburg with five or six thousand men was defeated near Leibnitz, with the loss of a thousand men and some cannon and baggage. Macdonald encountered Blucher in the plains between Wahlstadt and the Katzbach under disadvantageous circumstances, and was obliged to retire in disorder after considerable loss in men and guns. Napoleon reorganized Oudinot's corps, added to it some of the troops posted near Wittenberg, and gave the command to Ney with orders to advance upon Berlin, while he moved towards the Bober to execute the manoeuvre in which Macdonald had failed. But the intelligence that Ney's line had been broken by the flight of the Saxon corps, and that after an obstinate encounter at Denniwitz Ney and Bertrand had been driven back on the Elbe, obliged the Emperor to relinquish operations on the right bank of that river and return to Dresden, which he re-entered on the 12th of September. After various skirmishes he abandoned the whole right bank of the Elbe to the allies, and by the 24th of September con- centrated his army on the left bank. Augereau's corps, consisting of two small divisions, was recalled from Bavaria. Napoleon was now compelled either to abandon Germany at once or to fight another great battle. Had he chosen the former alternative he would have withdrawn all his garrisons from the fortresses which he held on the Elbe, abandoned Dresden, and immediately lost all his German allies, who must in self-defence have joined the allied Powers. A great victory would, he conceived, retain the allegiance of the German Princes and re- gain the north as far as Dantzic. Had he possessed correct information of their disposition he would scarcely have decided on risking a battle in order to preserve 382 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. their alliance. Bavaria, after considerable vacillation, had abandoned the Rhenish Confederation and entered into a treaty with Austria, when Augereau's division evacuated the country; and the other German States only waited a favourable opportunity to desert him. Napoleon did not know that though the King of Saxony was his firm friend, the Saxons in his army had been tampered with by his enemies; that Murat had opened negotiations with Austria to secure his kingdom as the price of his treachery ; and that the brave Poles alone were faithful to him — but they no longer had a country. The state of the Grand Army in Dresden was deplorable. All the surrounding villages were exhausted by pillage, quartering, and requisitions, all the forage was consumed, rickyards emptied, and houses burnt, the woodwork being used for bivouac fires, for which purpose also the very graves were rifled and the coffins' ghastly contents scattered about to rot in the open air. The privations suffered by the soldiers brought on terrible diseases, so that Dresden became one huge hospital, and Napoleon determined to change the theatre of war, since to remain another month in the Saxon capital would have been more disas- trous to him than the loss of two battles. The allies, augmented by sixty thousand Russians, issued a second time from Bohemia, and advancing through Saxony, threatened the French positions be- tween Dresden and the Saale and Leipsic, at the same time extending their left to co-operate with Bernadotte. To counteract this movement, Napoleon, recog- nizing the fact that Dresden, famine-struck and reeking with contagion, was no longer a fit pivot of operations nor depot of resources, left that city in October, accompanied by the Royal Family of Saxony, and most unwisely leaving thirty thousand men in Dresden, the same number in Hamburg, and strong garrisons in Torgau, Wittenberg, and Magdeburg, he gathered all his remaining available forces and fell back upon a position before Leipsic, with the Elster in his rear, while the allies, crossing the Elbe on their centre and right, encircled him. On the 15th of October the heads of the columns of the allies' combined army were descried advancing, and Napoleon prepared his order of battle. His forces amounted to something under one hundred and ninety thousand men, including the guard, which numbered about thirty-five thousand sabres and muskets. He had over seven hundred guns. The allies when joined by Blucher and Berna- dotte on the 16th and 17th numbered two hundred and thirty thousand men, with nearly one thousand guns. At midnight on the 15th two white rockets shot up into the air from the allied lines on the south, and were answered by two of blue and one of red on the north, — signals that told the assembled hosts that Blucher and Bernadotte were at hand to take part in the fight next day. Napo- leon visited the posts of his army before nightfall, gave his last orders, and dis- tributed eagles to the hero levies. The soldiers in the usual form swore never to abandon their standards. At the conclusion of the ceremony the Emperor, rais- ing his voice so as to be heard by his assembled battalions, said, "Yonder lies the enemy; swear that you will rather die than permit France to be dishonoured." The ready response, " We swear it ! " and the accustomed shouts of "Vive FEm- pereur /" filled the air. The Emperor remained throughout the night at the village of Probstheyda, behind which were encamped his guards, in rear of the centre of his line of battle, on the south of Leipsic. Augereau, supported by Sebastiani on his left, and Lauriston established at Holzhausen ; Macdonald, still farther to his left, held the heights of Heiterblick, commanding the road to Worzen. On Napoleon's right, crowning the Galgenberg, was posted Victor, strengthened by eighty guns, facing the allied artillery on the ridge commanding Wachau. In support of Victor was Murat, who had been driven from Magde- burg on the preceding day, and behind them was Kellermann with three thousand superb cavalry. Poniatowski prolonged the right to the old Pleisse river, all the villages on the eastern bank of which he occupied with tirailleurs, planting bat- teries of artillery on the Borna road j while Bertrand, across the Elster on the south-west of Leipsic, was at Lindenau, a chroal on the road which forms the sole- i8i 3 .J THE POSITION OF LEIPSIC. 3*3 communication between Leipsic and the banks of the Rnine. Ney, Marmont, and Arrighi were on the north-west of the city, in which quarter the approach of Blucher with the army of Silesia was expected. The reserve, consisting of the Old and Young Guard with their cavalry, was commanded respectively by Mortier, Oudinot, and Nansouty. The Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia were with the army of Bohemia, and the sentinels of both camps were in some places within musket-shot of each other. Bad as Napoleon's position was at Dresden, it was infinitely worse at Leipsic, where he made his stand because compelled to do so. The fact of being once more on the road to the Rhine cheered every French heart, and victory over the allies was regarded as certain, notwithstanding the great disproportion of num- bers. Napoleon felt that his dominion in Germany, if not his imperial crown, was at stake, and thoughtful men regarded it as ominous that he did not, as usual, issue one of his eloquent and victory-inspiring proclamations. Leipsic as a fortress was of little value ; the ramparts were old, and the suburbs too extensive ALLIED ENTRENCHMENTS BEFORE LEIPSIC. to fortify. The vice of Napoleon's position was that he had in his rear two rivers, the Pleisse and the Elster, which could be crossed only by one bridge, reached by a long narrow street through the town. Leipsic stands as it were on the apex of a triangle formed by the confluence of the Partha and the Pleisse, which skirt the northern and western suburbs, abend in the Elster forming the apex of a reverse angle, one side of which runs to Halle, and the other from Pegau. The Pleisse and Elster are crossed successively by a stone bridge, a morass about two miles in extent lying between the two rivers, and traversed by a raised causeway connecting the two bridges and forming the high road to France. Everything depended on keeping open this road, in case of disaster. A central position in the hands of an energetic skilful general should go far to counterbalance inferiority of numbers ; but Napoleon's advantage in this respect was neutralized at Leipsic by his inevitable separation from Ney and Marmont, who were on the north of the Partha. The allies also were divided, the Pleisse and Elster cutting the army of Bohemia into three distinct bodies, which Napo- leon hoped to defeat in detail. The army of Silesia under Blucher, and the Swedes under Bernadotte, though en rapport, were some miles to the north, and unable to join hands with Guilay in the west. Thus the allied circle was broken where it should have been strong; and through this gap Napoleon's escape was practicable in the event of his defeat. At nine o'clock on the 16th the battle began with a tremendous attack upon 3^4 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the whole line of the French position, received with a fierceness which rendered vain every effort to dislodge a single division. Six desperate assaults had been made by the allies before noon. It was now Napoleon's turn. He assumed the offensive, and was successful at every point. First Macdonald by an oblique movement took Klenau in flank and routed him ; then the centre of the allied army was broken ; the strong positions of Gossa and the redoubt called the Swedish Camp were taken ; and Murat, with Latour-Maubourg and Kellermann thundering through the gap at the head of the whole body of the French cavalry, bore down the grenadiers of the reserve and captured six-and-twenty guns. They pierced the position so far that the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia were forced to mount their horses and fly. At this crisis, when the King of Saxony had set all the bells in Leipsic ringing at the tidings sent to him by Na- poleon, the Emperor Alexander remembering Napoleon's example of coolness in the cemetery of Eylau, saved the day for the allied army. He ordered the Cossacks of his guard in immediate attendance on his person to charge the French cavalry. They obeyed with the utmost fury ; retook the cannon which the French had just seized, bore back the cavalry which had so nearly decided the action, and whose horses were blown and their ranks broken by the swampy nature of the ground in which they were struggling, and gave time for the Austrian reserves to come up. "The allies had such vast numbers," says Las Cases, "that when their troops were fatigued they were regularly relieved as at parade." In the meantime Blucher had come into action on the north. Some French troops in that quarter having been withdrawn to support the centre, Ney and Marmont were outnumbered as three to one. Blucher took the village of Mackern, twenty pieces of cannon and two thousand prisoners, and drove the discomfited French under the walls of Leipsic. When darkness obliged the combatants to desist, the French had not relinquished in this quarter one foot of their original position, though they had been driven back from the posts they had at one time seized. Poniatowski had maintained his ground against every attack, and Bertrand had preserved his post at Lindenau. But Napoleon had achieved no victory : still before him lay the dark masses of his enemies. Their losses had indeed been prodigious; but in that great host fifty thousand lives might be extinguished with- out causing anxiety to their leaders, — the necessary preponderance over him would still be maintained. Napoleon saw that the struggle was over, and that an honourable defence terminated by a retreat was all that lay before him. He had received intelligence from an Austrian prisoner, General Merhfeldt, that the Bavarian army under General Wrede, lately fighting under the French standard, was now ready to intercept his return to the Rhine. Merhfeldt had been em- ployed to solicit an armistice from General Bonaparte in 1797, when the victorious army of Italy was approaching the gates of Vienna, and had returned with a favourable answer. During the night of the 16th Merhfeldt was summoned by Napoleon, and charged with a message to his imperial master soliciting a suspen- sion of arms. Napoleon offered to give up Poland and Illyria ; consented to the independence of the Hanse Towns and Holland ; and renounced any further attempts on Spain. He proposed that Italy should be considered one inde- pendent country. Lastly, he was willing to evacuate Germany and retreat to- wards the Rhine. " Adieu, General Merhfeldt," said he, as he dismissed his prisoner : " when, on my part, you name the word armistice to the Emperor, I doubt not that the voice which strikes his ear will awaken many recollections." No answer was returned by the Sovereigns. A dead calm lasted throughout the 17th, during which the allies prepared for a renewed attack, and Napoleon for defence and for retreat. While commending the heroic deeds of his army, to Prince Poniatowski he presented the baton of a marshal of France. At eight o'clock on the morning of the 18th the allies, in- creased by Bernadotte and his army, renewed the attack. The French line of defence was drawn nearer to Leipsic, Napoleon and his guard being stationed on i Si 3-] SAXON TREACHERY. an eminence immediately behind Probstheyda. Along the whole line a tremendous fire continued for many hours; nor could the inhabitants of Leipsic, who were appalled spectators from the walls and steeples of the city, perceive that either army recoiled or advanced. The slaughter was enormous, but greater among the allied army than in that of the French, because the latter fought under shelter. About two o'clock a furious onset of the Prussians forced the central position of Probstheyda, and the din and confusion of flight began to be heard. Napoleon placed his reserve of the Old Guard in order, led them in person to the point in danger, recovered the ground, and then resumed his station. His military genius was never more apparent than now, when he fought against insuperable difficulties. At length the allies drawing back their troops brought forward their artillery, and maintained an incessant shower of balls and shells, to which the French replied. Meanwhile Ney and Marmont had contended with overwhelming numbers on the northern side of the city. They had been obliged to concentrate their lines nearer the walls, but had preserved their order, and resisted every furious onset of their enemies to force their new positions, when, at a critical moment of the attack, the Saxon brigades of ten thousand men deserted their lines, marched forward to meet the Russians with colours of truce displayed, and suddenly facing about, turned their artillery upon the ranks which they had just left. " Having," says Scott, "expended one-half of their ammunition on the allies, they now bestowed the other half upon the French army." This piece of shameless treachery incapaci- tated the French marshals from maintaining their ground before Bernadotte, who pressed hard upon them and forced them close under the walls of Leipsic. The Wurtemberg cavalry followed the example of the Saxons and deserted to the allies. As night approached the battle once more ceased at all points. Napoleon had maintained the day on the southern line of attack ; the Saxon treachery had decided the advantage for the allies on the northern side. During the night Napoleon prepared for immediate retreat. His ammunition was falling short : according to Baron Fain, the extraordinary number of two hundred and fifty thousand cannon-balls had been expended by the French during the four preceding days. Provisions were also scarce, and the Bavarians in arms, ready to intercept the communications with France. Leipsic was no longer tenable by Napoleon. The retreat was extremely difficult. About one hundred thousand men, confined in a narrow space by surrounding enemies, had to debouch from a single gate, cross two rivers, and traverse a tract of marshy land. To crown the difficulty, only one temporary bridge in addition to the stone bridges already existing had been constructed by the French engineers. Victor and Augereau first defiled across the bridges ; Marmont, Reynier, and Ney were ordered to maintain their positions in the city until the two former divisions had effected their passage ; Lauriston, Macdonald, and Poniatowski with the rear guard were charged to protect the avenues to the Elster until all the other troops had passed. " Prince," said the Emperor, " you will defend the southern faubourg." " I have but few soldiers left," Poniatowski answered. " Defend the post with what force you have." "Do not doubt, Sire, that we will maintain our ground. We are all ready to die for your Majesty ! " was the prompt reply. With dawn the allied columns advanced upon the city, but their progress was arrested by the obstinate resistance of the French rear guard. While the sounds of attack and defence filled the city, Napoleon bade farewell to the venerable King of Saxony. He formally released the King from his alliance, discharged his Saxon body guard, and expressed the grief he felt at leaving the Royal Family. They would have followed him in his retreat, but he refused to suffer them to lose their last chance of making terms with the allies. They then pressed him to linger no longer in Leipsic. "You have done enough," said the King; "and now you push your generosity to too great an extreme in risking your person to remain a few moments longer in consoling us." Napoleon yielded to their entreaties. " I did not mean to leave you," he said, " till the enemy was in the city, and I owe 386 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. DEATH OF PONiATOWSKI you that proof of devotion. But I see that my presence only increases your fears. I insist no longer. Receive my 'Adieu.' Whatever happens, France will pay my debt of friendship." Napoleon, passing safely through the gates with his guard, gained the bridge of Lindenau. The King of Saxony, the magistrates, and some of the French generals sent proposals to the conquerors for a truce under which the retreating army might march out of the city unmolested, in mercy to the unfortunate inhabitants, but they paid no heed to the proposal. " Napoleon," says Scott, "was urged to set fire to the suburbs to check the pressure of the allies on his rearguard. As this, however, must have occasioned extensive misery, he refused." The brave rear guard, yielding foot by foot before overwhelming numbers, were at length forced into the city. Fighting at every step as they retreated, they approached the bridge of the Elster. All the divisions had crossed, and they drew nearer to their means of escape, for the bridge was mined, and orders were given for its destruction as soon as they had passed. The inhabitants began to fire on them from the roofs, the enemy pressed closer in their rear, — when a dreadful explosion made the fierce din pause for an instant. The bridge had prematurely blown up, and left the devoted rear guard without retreat. Numbers threw themselves into the river, and some escaped. Among these was Macdonald, who swam across the Elster. Reynier and Lauriston disappeared. Poniatowski, seeing the enemy's forces thronging around, drew his sword, and said to his suite and a few Polish iSi 3 .] DEATH OF PRINCE PONIATOWSKI. 3 8/ •cuirassiers who followed him, " Gentlemen, it is better to fall with honour than to surrender." He charged accordingly, and dashing through the troops opposed to him, received a musket-shot in the arm : other enemies appeared ; through them he also made his way, but was again wounded through the cross of his decoration. He then plunged into the Pleisse, and got across that river with the help of his staff officers, though much exhausted. Then, seeing the enemy's riflemen already on the banks of the Elster, he urged his horse into that deep and marshy river, and rose no more. " Five days afterwards," says Bourrienne, " a fisherman drew the body of the Prince out of the water. On the 26th of October it was tem- porarily interred at Leipsic with all the honours due to the illustrious deceased. A modest stone marks the spot where the body of the Prince was dragged from the river." The Poles wished to erect a monument to the memory of their country- man in the garden of M. Reichembach, on the bank of the Elster at the spot where the Prince was drowned ; but that gentleman did it at his own expense. The monument consists of a beautiful sarcophagus surrounded by weeping willows. The body of the Prince, after being embalmed, was sent to Warsaw ; and in 1816 it was deposited in the cathedral among the remains of the Kings and great men of Poland. The celebrated Thorwaldsen was commissioned to execute a monument for his tomb. Nearly twenty thousand men either perished or were made prisoners, and two hundred pieces of cannon and an immense quantity of baggage were taken in consequence of this fatal mistake at the bridge. It is said that the sapper whose duty it was to fire the train thought the rear guard had already passed, and the officer left in charge was absent from his post ; but in the confusion no distinct explanation was elicited. The carnage at the battle of Leipsic is variously given. French writers allow that forty thousand of their own army were missing, of whom twenty thousand were killed, and that twenty-two thousand wounded were left in the hospitals of the city. Seventeen French generals were taken, and upwards of two hundred guns. The King of Saxony was also made prisoner and sent into Prussia under a guard of Cossacks. The loss, in killed and wounded, on the part of the allies, is allowed on all sides to have been much heavier than on that of the French. But the triumph of the allied monarchs was complete. The Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia, and the Crown Prince of Sweden, at the head of their victorious forces, greeted each other in the great square of the city, where they were joined by the Emperor of Austria. Napoleon, meanwhile, with Ins beaten army, pursued his retreat towards the Rhine by the route of Lutzen, Erfurt, Gotha, Fulda, and Hanau. Provisions were scarce, and his troops committed excesses and fell into disorder. At Erfurt he left a garrison to check the pursuit. Scarcely a single soldier belonging to the confederate German States was now under his standard. Westphalia had shaken off the Government of Jerome Bonaparte, who had retired into France with his Queen. At Erfurt Murat proposed to push forward and bring up forces from the French frontier ; he passed rapidly on to Eisenach, where he was met by the Duke of Rocca-Romana, the grand equerry of the Neapolitan Court, and started with this nobleman for Italy, where he shortly afterwards commenced hostilities against the French. When he took leave Napoleon embraced him repeatedly, as though under the presentiment that they should never meet again. When Napoleon gave to such of the Poles as had only taken up arms in the Russian campaign for the purpose of delivering Poland the choice of abandoning his fortunes, they unanimously agreed to remain with him until he was safely beyond the Rhine. Only a portion of them left him even then. The Polish corps had served so long under him that his camp had become their native country. Napoleon left Erfurt on the 25th of October, and passed the Fulda on the 28th. Few enemies harassed his march beyond this river, excepting some Cossacks. But upon entering the forest of Hanau on the 28th he found fifty-six thousand Bavarians, under General Wrede, drawn up to oppose his passage. Napoleon, 25 — 2 38S THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. who was still eighty thousand strong, attacked them without hesitation, his light troops disputing the ground from tree to tree ; and after a combat of several hours the Bavarians were driven behind the river Kintzig, and took refuge in the town of Hanau. Napoleon, with the advance guard, pushed on to Williamstadt, leaving Marmont with three corps of infantry to support the rear guard under Mortier, and keep the Bavarians in check. During three days the fight continued to rage between these French corps and the Bavarian army, ending in the latter maintaining their position, but with the loss of ten thousand men. General AVrede was dangerously wounded, and his son-in-law, Prince Oettingen, killed. The French lost five thousand men taken prisoners on the 31st; but Marmont' s object was gained — by his stand he enabled Napoleon with the vanguard to retreat to the Rhine without further molestation. A Bavarian miller performed a signal service to his countrymen on this occasion. Seeing a corps of their infantry hard pressed by the French cavalry, he suddenly let the water into his mill-stream when the fugitives had passed, and so interposed an obstacle between them and their pursuers. He was rewarded with a pension by the King of Bavaria. The whole of the French army passed through Frankfort, and entered Mayence on the 1st and 2nd of November. The left bank of the Rhine was soon after lined with the encampments of the allied Sovereigns, who, once more, after the lapse of twenty years, threatened the frontier of France. NAPOLEON IN THE FOREST 01- HANAU. SPANISH REVENG CHAPTER XXXVIII. AFFAIRS OF SPAIN TO THE CLOSE OF 1813 — NAPOLEON AT PARIS — DECLARATION OF FRANKFORT — SURRENDER OF THE FRENCH GARRISONS IN GERMANY AND PRUSSIA — TREATY OF VALENCAY — NEW CONSCRIPTION OF THREE HUNDRED THOUSAND MEN — CONVOCATION OF THE SENATE, LEGISLATIVE BODY, AND COUNCIL OF STATE. T \ J HILE the disastrous events of 1 8 1 3. • * decided the fortunes of Napoleon in Germany, war still raged in the Peninsula. The battle of Vit- toria had been fought on the 21st of June. On the 12th of July, Marshal Soult, travelling from Dresden, assumed the command of the army of Spain at Bayonne. Reinforcements from the interior, and the addition of some German and Italian battalions, gave him upwards of seventy thousand men, exclusive of the French garrisons in various parts of the country. The first operations of Wellington after his victory of the 21st were to blockade Pampeluna and form the siege of San Sebastian. Both places made a long and heroic defence. Meanwhile Suchet, who had obtained some success over Sir John Murray in the south-east of Spain, assembled twenty thousand good troops on the Ebro in July. Foy, Clausel, Abbe, Reille, Rey, Conroux, and Drouet battled among savage mountain passes, but with little result. San Sebastian did not surrender until the 9th of September. Pampeluna held out till the end of October. The English Ministry urged Wellington to invade France in Sep- tember, declaring that the Duke de Berri should there join him at the head of twenty thousand men, to assist in restoring the Bourbons. Wellington, however, declined to co-operate in this scheme, unless the allied Sovereigns in Germany would openly avow their intention to dethrone Napoleon. But the successes of the allies and the retreat of Napoleon from Dresden overcame the. caution of the English commander-in-chief. He passed the Bidassoa on the 7th of October, opposed at every step by Soult, — one French garrison after another surrendering,, 389 39° THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. until, at the close of the year, Santona alone remained in the possession of the French. Napoleon returned to Paris on the 9th of November, for the second time to confirm the news of an army destroyed and enterprises baffled, and to meet, be- sides, the murmurs of those who asked " why they heard rumours of Russians, Austrians, and Prussians on the east, and of English, Spanish, and Portuguese on the south, approaching the frontiers of France ? " Continual wars and the hos- tility of all Europe had severely tried the patience of the people. The conscrip tion was a heavy burden ; their bravest sons had been killed or maimed in battle, and their best generals were no longer alive to lead on their ranks. For the change in public spirit and feeling Napoleon himself was answerable, through his imperial state, his royal marriage, his splendid Court, his titled and luxurious mar- shals, and his aggressive foreign policy, — based on expediency and opposed to the great principles of justice and liberty. Of the universal defection of his allies, as well as much disaffection among his own subjects, his "continental system " was one great cause. Yet it is a mistake to regard the French people as wholly apathetic at this crisis. Whatever might be true of the legislators, statesmen, and upper classes, the people of France were never backward in resisting their common enemies when means or opportunity were open to them ; and Napoleon himself shrank from arousing the dormant spirit of democracy, and chose rather to trust to the regular means of defence. The late disastrous wars had so crippled the resources of the State that arms were wanting for any extensive levy of the people. Savary declares that muskets were applied for in vain from one end of the country to the other. Napier, paying a high tribute to Napoleon as an administrator, says : — " The annual expenditure of France was scarcely half that of England, and Napoleon rejected public loans, which are the very life-blood of State corruption. He left no debt. Under him no man devoured the public substance in idleness ; the State servants were largely paid, but were made to labour effectually for the State. His system of public accounts, remarkable for its exactness, simplicity, and com- prehensiveness, was vitally opposed to public fraud. Napoleon's power was sup- ported in France by that deep sense of his goodness as a Sovereign, and that admiration for his genius which pervaded the poorer and middle classes of the people ; by the love which they bore towards him for his incessant activity in the public service, his freedom from all private vices, and because his public works, wondrous for their number, their utility, and grandeur, never stood still ; under him the poor man never wanted work. To France he gave noble institutions and a comparatively just code of laws." Napoleon's first measure on returning from Leipsic to Paris was to convoke the Senate and Legislative Body. The Empress, as Regent, had met the Senate before the conclusion of the campaign, and at the express desire of the Emperor had obtained another conscription of two hundred and eighty thousand men ; but the disasters of the retreat to Mayence rendered necessary a further demand on the country. The Ministers of die allied Powers assembled at Frankfort transmitted to Napoleon a declaration of their desire for a general peace. They proposed that " France should be reduced within her natural limits of the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees," and that the countries lately under her influence should resume their independence. Lord Aberdeen, on the part of England, declared that "his Government would make the greatest sacrifices to secure a peace founded on these bases, and would recognize the freedom of trade and navigation which France is entitled to demand." The protocol agreed to, but which Lord Aberdeen did not sign, concluded with a proposal that " after the Emperor of France had acceded to these bases, a town situated on the right bank of the Rhine should be nomi- nated for the opening of the conferences, the progress of the events of the war not being suspended by the negotiations." This document was transmitted to Napoleon on the 15th of November. The Duke of Bassano, on the part of Napoleon, re- 1813.] BASES OF FRANKFORT REJECTED. 391 plied on the 16th that "a peace founded on the independence of all nations in the continental point of view, as well as in that of maritime trade, had always been the object of the Emperor's wishes;" and that he consented to the nomination of Manheim as the place of meeting for the plenipotentiaries. On the 2nd of December Napoleon replied to the official communication of Prince Metternich, that he acceded to the general and summary bases proposed. "They will entail," concludes the despatch, "great sacrifices on France; but his Majesty will submit to them without hesitation if England will thereupon furnish the means of obtain- ing a general peace honourable to all parties, which your Excellency affirms is the wish not only of the coalesced Powers but of England." Lord Castlereagh now arrived at Frankfort to represent Great Britain in the Congress. The Count d'Artois followed in the route of Lord Castlereagh, and remained in Franche- Comte. The Duke d'Angouleme proceeded by sea to the head-quarters of Wel- lington near Bayonne, and the Duke de Berri settled in Jersey. Napoleon was well aware of the important place the Royalists would assume at his first reverse of fortune, though their very existence had been forgotten by his marshals and courtiers. " I thought him mad," said Ney (whose head, according to Fouche, could not embrace two political ideas), "when, taking leave of the army at Smorgoni, he said, 'the Bourbons will make their own of this.'" The famous "Declaration of Frankfort" appeared on the 1st of December, in which the allied Powers, taking umbrage at the active preparations for war which Napoleon was carrying on while negotiations for peace were pending, addressed the French people in a manifesto, separating the cause of the nation from that of Napoleon. "The allied Powers," said the manifesto, " do not wage war against France, but against that preponderance which has been so loudly proclaimed, and which, to the mis- fortune of Europe and of France, the Emperor Napoleon has too long exercised beyond the limits of his empire." Napoleon had understood the nature of his position for some time. " The allies have appointed my grave as their place of rendezvous," said he, "but none of them will venture to come first. They think the lion dead, and the question is who will give the ass's kick. If France abandon me I can do nothing, but she will soon repent of doing so." Half a million enemies ■were arrayed against the sovereignty of Napoleon. France did not rise en masse to defend its Emperor, neither did its population shake off their allegiance and reject him. Even when a new conscription of three hundred thousand men (the third within the year) was voted, and when, by the confession of Savary, the necessity of supplying horses gave rise to the most oppressive measures in the country, the people endured in silence. A Royalist conspiracy had existed since the month of March, but made little progress except in La Vendee and at Bour- deaux, where the " continental system " pressed especially hard on the mercantile classes. But the legitimate Kings were in league against him with irresistible forces, and therefore it remains a question whether he would not have acted a worthier part in an immediate abdication than in disputing the point to the last gasp. He could do no more for France than deluge its soil with blood. His garrisons, shut up in German and Prussian fortresses, began to suffer all the hardships attendant on a long blockade. Those which had received the wrecks of the Russian retreat were visited in addition with the scourge of a pestilential fever. Marshal St. Cyr held Dresden till the nth of November, when he capitu- lated " on the terms granted by Napoleon to Marshal Wurmser at Mantua in 1797/' marching out with his garrison of thirty thousand men with the honours of war ; but when some leagues on his way to France he was stopped by authority of the allied Sovereigns, who had refused to ratify the capitulation, but gave the marshal permission to return to Dresden with his garrison, where he would find everything replaced as it was before. This proposal was rejected by St. Cyr : he made a protest against what he called " so flagrant a breach of faith," and resigned himself and his troops prisoners of war. Stettin surrendered on the 21st. On the 14th a rising of the Dutch effected a bloodless revolution and restored their ancient 392 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. FRENCH I'RISONERS OF WAR IN GERMANY. government. 'The Orange flag was hoisted at Amsterdam and the Hague ; the French authorities were permitted to retire ; and the French troops threw them- selves into two or three forts at the approach of the Russians and a body of six thousand English under General Graham. Utrecht surrendered to the allies on the 2nd of December ; Lubeck, Breda, and Williamstadt shortly afterwards. Da- voust still occupied Hamburg, and the strong fortress of Torgau held out under Narbonne, though his garrison was a prey to pestilence and famine, and the waters of the Elbe were now frozen over and covered by the troops of their besiegers. In December Murat, openly joining the English and Austrians, marched upon Upper Italy. Eugene had hitherto carried on a successful campaign against the Austrians, and Napoleon had meditated uniting the army of Italy with that of Naples, and directing the combined forces upon Vienna, when this defection and the insurrection of the Tyrolese, who returned to their ancient allegiance to the house of Austria, overturned his design. Eugene retired behind the Adige. "When informed," says Bourrienne, "of Murat's treason by the viceroy, the Em- peror refused to believe it. 'No,' he exclaimed to those about him, 'it cannot be ! Murat — to whom I have given my sister ! Murat — to whom I have given a throne ! Eugene must be misinformed ! It is impossible that Murat has de- clared against me ! ' " Towards the close of 1813 Napoleon came to the resolution of restoring Fer- dinand VII. Savary affirms that Joseph Bonaparte made some objections to an unconditional renunciation of the crown. If so, he must have wished to make conditions for the protection of his late subjects, as he had more than once offered to abdicate. In the discussion between the brothers, Napoleon, irritated at any opposition, exclaimed, " One would really suppose that I was robbing you of your portion of the inheritance of the late King our father ! " A treaty was con- cluded at Valencay between Ferdinand and Napoleon on the nth of December,. i8i 4 .] PROTEST OF THE LEGISLATIVE BODY. 393 by which Ferdinand undertook that the English should evacuate Spain, and re- newed the ancient alliance with France. He was released from confinement, and returned to his dominions early in 1814, but the Cortes naturally refused to ratify the treaty. Napoleon had then ceased to reign. A decree of the Senate granted the new conscription of three hundred thousand men, and the taxes paid by the people were increased by one-half. Napoleon also again drew upon his private treasure to the extent of a million sterling, which was applied to the public service. Caulaincourt, Duke of Vicenza, became Minister for Foreign Affairs, and Maret, Duke of Bassano, resumed his old office of Secretary of State. The Legislative Body met on the 20th of December, and having been hitherto the mute instrument of the Emperor's will, they chose this moment, when perfect unanimity in the Government was essential, to institute an inquiry into the state of the nation. Five of the members drew up a report, con- taining a strong recommendation to the Emperor to obtain peace by renouncing all schemes of foreign aggrandizement, and to restore to his subjects some degree of political liberty. Napoleon immediately dissolved the Legislative Body and ordered all the copies of their report to be seized. In a meeting of the Council of State he gave the following explanation of his conduct. " You are acquainted,* said he, "with the situation of affairs and the dangers of the country. I considered it my duty to communicate these circumstances to the Legislative Body, but they have converted this act of confidence into a # weapon of offence against me, — that is to say, against the country. The members have betrayed their duty: I fulfil mine; I dismiss them." The more moderate of Napoleon's councillors deeply regretted the schism between him and that public body which alone retained some shadow of political liberty. But since Napoleon had resolved on resistance to the allied monarchs, he was determined also to keep his actions unfettered. A deputa- tion, consisting of MM. Laine, Raynouard, Maine de Biran, and Flaugergue, waited upon the Emperor to take leave on the 1st of January, 18 14, when he descended from the platform on which the throne was placed, and addressed them in the following severe terms : — " I have suppressed the printed impression of your address : it is seditious. Eleven parts of the Legislative Body are com- posed of good citizens, but the twelfth is full of the factious, and your commission belongs to that portion. M. Laine is a traitor who is in correspondence with the Prince Regent of England : I know it, I have the proof of it. I called you together to assist me, but you came to assist the enemy. If abuses exist, is it a time for remonstrance when two hundred thousand Cossacks are passing the frontiers ? Rather follow the example of Alsace and Franche-Comte, where the inhabitants ask for arms and leaders to drive the invaders back. You seek in 394 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. your address to separate the Sovereign from the nation. / alone am the represen- tative of the people. And which of you could sustain such a burden ? The throne is merely a piece of wood covered with velvet. If I were to follow your counsels, I should cede to the enemy more than he requires : you shall have peace in three months, or I will perish. The enemy aims at me more than at France ; but should I be permitted on that account to dismember the State ? The address was un- worthy of me and of the Legislative Body. You wished to cover me with dirt, but I am one of those men who may submit to death, but never to dishonour. Return to your homes. Even supposing that I had done wrong, you ought not to have reproached 'me before the world. Dirty linen should not be washed in public. To conclude, France has more need of me than I have of France." By day Napoleon was incessantly occupied in reviewing new troops ; by night the lights were seen late in the windows of his private apartment in the Tuileries. Very shortly invaders drove the terrified inhabitants from the frontiers towards the interior of France. The beginning of the end was at hand. 'dirty linen should not be washed in public!" COSSACKS AND CROATS. CHAPTER XXIX. NVASION OF FRANCE— CAPITULATION OF DANTZIC— NAPOLEON LEAVES PARIS FOR THE ARMY — COMBATS OF BRIENNE AND LA ROTHIERE — CONGRESS OF CHATILLON — BATTLES OF CHAMP- AUBERT AND MONTMIRAIL— BATTLE OF NANGIS— QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE — LORD WELLINGTON ENTERS BOURDEAUX— THE ALLIES MARCH ON PARIS— BATTLES OF ARCIS AND FERE-CHAMP- ENOISF. — CAPITULATION OF PARIS. ''yHE Army of Bohemia, commanded by Prince Schwartzenburg, gene- ralissimo of the allied forces, crossed the Rhine at four points. Traversing Swiss territory, they occupied Geneva, and advanced by slow marches to Langres, which surrendered on the 17th of Jan- uary, 1 8 14, and Dijon on the 19th. General Bubna summoned Lyons, but that city repulsed the invaders. The Austrian advanced posts reached Bar-sur-Aube. The army of Silesia, composed of Prus- sians and Russians, commanded by Blucher, advanced also in four great divisions, blockaded the strong frontier fortresses on the Rhine, force.i a passage through the defiles of the Vosges, and pushed forward to Joinville, Vitry, and St. Dizier. The inhabi- tants of the mountainous districts through which this army passed had been called to arms by Napoleon, and their courage was roused to desperation by the ravages of the Cossacks and Croats who accompanied the Russians. Prince Schwartz- enburg threatened with military execution every peasant taken with arms in his hands. The third allied army, called the Army of the North of Europe, was commanded by Bernadotte, and consisted of Swedes, Russians, and Germans. Either from dislike to invade his native country, or from disappointment at not being nominated successor to the throne of France, Bernadotte chose to confine his operations to Belgium, and to maintain the war against Denmark for the cession of Norway. One of his divisions besieged Hamburg ; the Saxons under his com- mand were employed in Holland, and co-operated with the English in the blockade of Antwerp ; the Russians, under Bulow and Winzingerode, invaded the northern 395 39 6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. frontier of France. Dantzic capitulated on the same terms as Dresden about this time, and the garrison, declining to sign an engagement not to serve against the allies during the war, were sent prisoners of war into Russia. Wellington was making slow but certain progress in the south against the army of Soult. The total number of these combined armies, with their reserves, is estimated at between five and six hundred thousand men ; the actual invaders of French territory, ex- clusive of those occupied in sieges, blockades, or garrisons, being computed at about two hundred thousand. The irruption of this prodigious force had pre- vented the levy of the last conscription granted by the Senate. A third of France was occupied by hostile armies before Napoleon could organize resistance. He had, however, concentrated about sixty thousand men in readiness for actual service. Augereau commanded thirty thousand at Lyons, but this division was isolated by the defection of Murat. The veteran troops of Spain, under Suchet, had received orders to evacuate that country and join Augereau. The conferences had been removed from Frankfort to Chatillon-sur-Seine in January. Tne allied Sovereigns were therefore in France, following the track of the Austrian army. Their Ministers at Chatillon consisted of Counts Razoumow- ski, Stadion, Humboldt, Lord Castlereagh, Lord Aberdeen, and Sir Charles Stewart. On the 1 8th the Duke of Vicenza, bearing the full instructions of the Emperor Napoleon, received permission from the head-quarters of the allies to proceed through their outposts, for the purpose of conducting the negotiations on the part of France. He had been detained sixteen days at Luneville, vainly protesting against the delay. His instructions, dated the 4th of January, clearly showed that Napoleon had very little hope of making peace. As every day increased the sacrifices of the allies, so their demands rose. Napoleon could not understand why they did not readily accept in France what he had refused in Germany. " I think," he says, "that both the good faith of the allies and the, wish of England to make peace are doubtful : for my part I desire peace, but it must be solid and honourable. I have accepted the bases proposed at Frankfort, yet it is more than probable the allies have other notions. These propositions are but a mask ; the negotiations are placed under the influence of the military operations, and it is easy to foresee what the consequences of such a system must be If I should be seconded by the nation, the enemy are hastening to their own ruin ; if fortune should betray me, my determination is already formed. / am not wedded to the throne. I will neither disgrace the nation nor myself by subscribing dis- honourable conditions." It could scarcely be said that the frontiers of 1793 were "dishonourable con- ditions " for France, seeing that they gave her Belgium. But unfortunately Napo- leon never accepted his enemies' terms until they were in a position to demand more. He had, it is true, accepted the Frankfort bases, but not when they were offered— not indeed until the allies were on the road to Paris, Wellington was on the Adour, and revolution rife in the capital The National Guard of Paris, to the number of thirty thousand, was enrolled, and the command conferred upon Marshal Moncey before Napoleon joined the army. Bourrienne, who was made a captain in this guard, declares that though Marshal Moncey was worthy of the highest confidence, his staff was a focus of intrigues, in which the defence of Paris was less thought of than the means of taking advantage of Napoleon's overthrow. Thus the cause of Napoleon was be- trayed by those entrusted with authority, both Royalists and Republicans desiring his downfall. The men of intrigue and ambition were tired of his supremacy. The men of pure theory seized the moment of his weakness to obtain political liberty, and, as he afterwards described it, " spent the time in discussing abstract principles of Government when the battering-ram was at the gates." Wherever his superintendence was removed, neglect and disorder crept in ; and where there was not open treachery there was generally failure and disappointment. Among those whose names should be recorded as noble examples of fidelity stands the Repub- i8i4-] COMBATS AT BRIENNE AND LA ROTHIERE. 397 lican Carnot, whose single voice had been raised against Napoleon's assumption of the imperial rank, but who now, when he saw the cause of the Revolution in danger of destruction, offered his services to the Emperor, and was entrusted by him with the defence of Antwerp. Napoleon for the moment tried to bring himself into communication and sym- pathy with the people, but the effort being contrary to the habits and prejudices of his whole life, came to nothing. On one occasion when he returned to the palace, after riding on horseback through the Faubourgs Saint- Antoine and Saint- Marceau, receiving the acclamations of the artizans and talking familiarly with them, some courtiers began to represent to him that " instead of seeking this absurd kind of popularity, it would be more advisable to rely on the nobility and the higher classes of society." " Gentlemen," replied Napoleon, " in the situation in which I stand, my only nobility is the rabble of the Faubourgs ; and I know of no rabble but the nobility whom I have created." "This," says Bourrienne, "was a strange compliment to all ranks." The officers of the National Guard were summoned to the Tuileries on the 21st of January, when Napoleon took leave of them previous to quitting Paris. " He entered," says Bourrienne, " with the Empress. He advanced with a dignified step, leading by the hand his son, who was not yet three years old. It was long since I had seen him. He had grown very corpulent, and I remarked on his pale countenance an expression of melancholy and irritability. I have rarely witnessed such profound silence in so numerous an assembly. At length Napoleon, in a voice as firm and sonorous as when he used to harangue his troops in Italy or Egypt, but without that air of confidence which then beamed on his countenance, said to the assembled officers, ' I set out this night to take the command of the army. On quitting the capital I confidently leave behind me my wife and my son, in whom so many hopes are centred.' " The strong emotion with which he was heard, and the burst of acclamations with which he was greeted when he took his son in his arms and walked round the circle of officers, were probably for the moment sincere. Napoleon then took leave of his wife and child. Sad presages are said to have haunted him, but the reality exceeded the forebodings. He was taking leave of them for ever. At midnight he set out for the head-quarters of the army at Chalons-sur-Marne, after a long consultation with Count Mole', one of his Ministers, in which he demonstrated the impossibility of overcoming the allies except by some miraculous chance ; but said he should try to do his best, as if he were secure of success, and then fell asleep, overcome by fatigue. On the 26th of January Napoleon placed himself at the head of his army of eighty thousand men and advanced upon his enemies, conducting the campaign with a degree of military skill which has never been surpassed. His first attack was directed upon Blucher. On the 27th the French army entered St. Dizier, dislodging a battalion of Russians who had been committing terrible excesses. Blucher, hearing of this vigorous stroke, concentrated his army at Brienne, and ^prepared to give battle ; but Napoleon's rapid approach outsped his expectations. While the Prussian veteran was seated at table in the chateau with his staff, the Russian cavalry, flying in disorder, announced that his outposts were surprised and that Napoleon was at hand. Blucher narrowly escaped capture, and a Prus- sian general was taken at the foot of the stairs. During the combat Napoleon was exposed to personal danger by a sudden attack of the Cossacks in the park. At the moment when he was obliged to defend himself, sword in hand, his eye chanced to fall upon a tree under which he had sat when a schoolboy and read Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered." Blucher made desperate efforts to regain the town, which was burnt in the struggle, and it was not tillmidnight that he retired with the loss of four thousand men and took up a position on the road to La Rothiere. Napoleon advancing, occupied the villages of La Rothiere and Dien- ville. Here he was attacked on the 1st of February by the united armies of Blucher and Schwartzenburg ; but after a sanguinary battle which lasted the whole 393 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON SURPRISED AT BRIENNE BY A PARTY OF COSSACKS. day, nightfall left the French in possession of their original positions. A battery of the guard had been taken, however, and Napoleon lost on this occasion seventy- three guns and several hundred prisoners, besides a heavy amount of killed and wounded. The allies now resolved to march on Paris, Blucher by the Marne and Schwart- zenburg by the Seine. Napoleon, in danger of being cut off from his capital, re- treated across the Aube, burning the bridge of l'Esmont in his rear ; occupying Troyes on the 3rd of February, and Nogent on the 7th. Here despatches from the Duke of Vicenza informed him that the " allies dissent from the bases proposed at Frankfort. To obtain the opening of negotiations for peace, France must retire within her ancient limits; the boundary of the Rhine must be relinquished." The progress of the English and Prussians in Belgium supported the increasing de- mands of the Sovereigns. Bulow had entered Brussels on the 1st of February, and Antwerp was blockaded. Napoleon shut himself up in his chamber after reading the despatches. Berthier and Maret (the Duke of Bassano) at length ventured to hint to him the necessity of yielding. He replied with a burst of pas- sionate emotion, in which he repelled with loathing the idea of leaving France less than he had found her, after all the blood shed and the victories gained. " Can I do so," he exclaimed, " without deserving to be branded as a traitor and a coward ? " He threw himself on his camp-bed, beside which the faithful Duke of Bassano sat throughout the night. The terms required by the allies were forwarded 1 8 14.] BEATING B LUC HER. 399 to Paris for the consideration of the Council of State. With the exception of Count Lacuee de Cessac, all the councillors were of opinion that they should be accepted. The Duke of Vicenza was in consequence authorized by Napoleon, on the 9th of February, to write to the commissioners of the allies, that "if an immediate armistice were entered into, the Emperor was ready to consent that France should retreat within her ancient limits, according to the basis proposed." He offered also to cede instantly (on condition of the armistice being granted) some of the fortresses in his possession. The latter clause was accompanied by secret instructions to the Duke of Vicenza, which directed that the choice of strong places so' yielded should be made dependent on the events of the Avar. This latter clause of the treaty became a source of contention afterwards. Although Napo- leon never attempted to recede from his submission to the new basis that " France should retreat within her ancient limits," he struggled to retain possession of Antwerp, Alessandria, and Mayence, and he avoided giving definitive answers, partly because he hoped that the fortune of war would aid him in procuring more favourable conditions, and partly because he hoped to detach Austria from the coalition. Moreover, he was perfectly aware that peace, even if obtained, would be nothing more than a suspension of arms, and he was tenacious of injuring his political interests by signing preliminaries that, when the military pressure was removed, his own feeling and the public opinion of France would resent. The three fortresses in question were so many posts of offence in their respective coun- tries, and those he did not mean to surrender. When Maret came back to him in the morning with his despatches for signature Napoleon was poring over his maps, tracing the route of Blucher on Paris through the Brie-Champenoise. "Oh, here you are," he exclaimed; "but I am now think- ing of something very different, — I am beating Blucher on the map. He is ad- vancing by the Montmirail road. I will set out and beat him to-morrow. I shall beat him again the day after to-morrow. Should this movement prove as success- ful as I expect, we shall then see what can be done." The answer to the allies was therefore deferred while he prepared for one of his most extraordinary manoeuvres. Leading Schwartzenburg to believe that he was about to fall on the army of Bohemia, which in consequence suspended its advance by the Seine and moved in a direction which increased its distance from Blucher, Napoleon, leaving Victor and Oudinot to keep the Austrians in check, abandoned the high road from Paris to Troyes, — traversed a most difficult country, intersected by ditches, thickets, and marshes, by crossways usually reckoned impassable in winter, — and transferred his army to the high road from Paris to Chalons. Here, on the roth of February, at Champaubert, he fell upon the flank of Blucher's army marching in three divisions towards the capital, in the idea that Schwartzenburg was grappling with Napoleon. Napoleon's first attack was directed upon Blucher's centre, consisting of Russians. Launching his battalions upon them like a battering-ram, he totally dispersed them, capturing all their artillery, their general, and two thousand prisoners; the remainder either lay dead on the field or fled into the woods. Napoleon's army now interposed between the advanced guard of the Silesian armv commanded by Sacken, and the rear commanded by Blucher. Sacken, hearing of the disaster, countermarched to support Blucher, but was attacked by Napoleon on the 12th, and put to flight after losing one-fourth of his division. The peasantry revenged themselves on the fugitives for the cruelties they had committed in their advance, and collecting the scattered arms, joined in the pur- suit. Sacken fled by Chateau-Thierry, where he was joined by D'Yorck and Prince William of Prussia ; but the utmost they could do was to secure a retreat by destroying the bridge over the Marne. Marmont had been left to keep Blucher in check. Mortier was charged with the pursuit of the fugitive corps of Sacken and D'Yorck in the direction of Soissons, while Napoleon mounted his horse at midnight on the 13th to attack Blucher. He found Marmont in the plain of 400 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Vauchamps, resisting the entrance of the Prussians into Montmirail. At eight in the morning the shouting of the soldiers announced the presence of the Emperor. Blucher was worsted, but retreated with great skill and courage. After many hours of hard fighting his retreat became a flight, and he was frequently obliged to defend himself with his sabre, surrounded by his staff, and chiefly owed his escape to the darkness of the night. The army of Silesia thus disposed of, Napoleon set forward to attack the Aus- trians. Schwartzenburg had succeeded in passing the Seine, and his divisions occupied Guignes and Nangis. Early on the 16th Napoleon quitted Meaux to reach Guignes. Victor and Oudinot maintained their ground for some hours FRENCH PEASANTRY PURSUING THE ARMY OF SILESIA. against the Austrians. The artillery advanced at full speed ; the country people lined the road with carts, in which they helped forward the infantry ; by evening the Emperor, having effected his junction with his marshals, checked the Austrians in their advance upon Guignes. A message was sent to Napoleon from the allied Sovereigns by Prince Schwartzenburg's aide-de-camp, Count Par, stating their sur- prise at his offensive movement, since they had given orders to their plenipoten- tiaries at Chatillon to sign the preliminaries of peace on the terms which had been assented to by the French envoy. Napoleon paid no attention to the message. On the 17th he marched upon Nangis, occupied by the Russian corps of Wit- genstein, and dispatched Gerard against another Russian corps stationed at Mor- mant. Both attacks were successful. The veteran cavalry just arrived from Spain contributed greatly to the victory at Nangis. The Russians were broken, their generals, officers, and some thousands of soldiers all taken; and Witgen- stein with great difficulty made his escape. He fled by Provins, where he announced the rapid advance of the French. Oudinot drove out the Austrians two hours afterwards and occupied the place, while General Gerard beat the Ba- I8i+J VICTORIES OF NANGIS AND MONTEREAU. 401 NAPOLEON AT MONTEREAU. varians at Villeneuve. Napoleon sent forward Victor to take possession of Monte- reau and intercept the defeated Austrians in their flight, and passed the night of the 17th at the castle of Nangis. But Victor being tardy, failed to fulfil this duty. When, on the morning- of the 18th, General Chateau, with the advanced guard, presented himself before Montereau, he found the place in possession of the Aus- trians. Chateau, without a thought of his inferior numbers, commenced the attack, and maintained the ground till the Emperor came up, but paid for his intrepidity with his life. The presence of Napoleon renewed the ardour of the troops. They seized the heights which command the town, — planted a battery there, and Napoleon himself pointed the guns. The soldiers murmured to see him thus expose himself, but he exclaimed, "Courage, my friends ! fear nothing; the ball that is to kill me is not yet cast." The inhabitants of the town fired from their windows on the Austrians; the National Guards of Brittany took part in the action. The Austrians were dislodged and put to flight. Napoleon praised the generals who had contributed to the victory, but was obliged to censure many who had failed. Among these was Marshal Victor, who was deprived of his command, and received "permission to retire from the army. - ' The veteran marshal repaired to head-quarters and endeavoured to explain his tardiness, reminding Napoleon of his private grief for the death of the brave General Chateau, who was his son- in-law, and exclaiming with emotion that he would never quit the army. " I can shoulder a musket," said he ; "I have not forgotten the business of a soldier. 26 402 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Victor will range himself in the ranks of the guard." These words completely- subdued Napoleon. "Well, Victor," he said, stretching out his hand, "remain with me. I have given your command to Ge'rard, but I give you two divisions of the guard ; and now let everything be forgotten between us." Schwartzenburg's army had now sustained the fate of Blucher's, and upwards of a hundred thousand men were pursued towards the Rhine by the French troops. When the Parisians saw long lines of prisoners, standards, and trophies enter their city, thanksgivings were offered up. Napoleon wrote to his Minister to assume a higher tone at the Congress, and at the same time transmitted a letter to the Emperor of Austria with fresh proposals of peace. The pursuit of the routed armies continued. On the 22nd Napoleon slept at Chartres in the shop of a blacksmith ; here he was visited by Prince Lichtenstein, who came on behalf of the Emperor of Austria with proposals for an armistice. Napoleon, consenting to open negotiations, sent Count Flahault as his envoy to Lusigny ; but the whole proposal simply originated in a desire to gain time for bringing up reinforcements. AUSTRIAN PRISONERS OF WAR. The Austrian envoy had scarcely left Napoleon when M. de St. Aignan arrived from Paris. His instructions announced that while Napoleon had been routing the Austrians, the army of the north — the third great force of the allies — had at length effected a junction with Blucher, who was threatening Paris via Chalons. They therefore urged Napoleon to accede to all the conditions demanded by the allies ; the marshals about his person urged the same ; but he would not consent to relinquish Antwerp. "If I am to be scourged," said he, "let the whip at least come on me of necessity, and not through any voluntary stooping of my own." With these words he dismissed his councillors, retaining M. de St. Aignan alone. "Sire," said he, "the speediest peace will be the best." "It will be speedy enough if it be dishonourable," replied the Emperor with displeasure. On the 23rd Napo- leon entered Troyes, the Austrians retreating before him to Langres. The Royalists, encouraged by their presence, had proclaimed the Bourbons in Troyes. The Cheva- lier Goualt, one of their principal leaders, was in consequence seized by order of Napoleon, tried by a military commission, and shot. A decree was published denouncing the penalty of death against all emigrants who joined the allies, and all Royalists who wore the Bourbon white cockade. While Napoleon thus harassed, and to a certain extent impeded, the progress of the armies of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Wellington was steadily overcoming i8i4.] QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. 403 all resistance in the south of France, preserving at the same time the strictest dis- cipline, to accomplish which he sent some divisions of Spaniards back into their own country, from the impossibility of restraining their cruel excesses. At this crisis, Augereau, with the army of Lyons, should have co-operated with Napoleon ; but Murat's treachery paralysed the army of Italy, and Augereau, though reinforced by Suchet's divisions, attempted nothing. Blucher having rallied his fugitives and formed a junction with the two Russian corps cantoned on the frontier, rapidly descended both banks of the Marne and advanced on Paris with a hundred thousand fresh troops. Marmont and Mortier had retired before him to Ferte-sous-Jouarre, when the news reached Napoleon on the 26th of February at Troyes, where he was occupied with the proposal for a suspension of arms. He started in pursuit of the Prussians, leaving Oudinot and Macdonald to keep the Austrians in check. At Sezanne he learned that Marmont and Mortier had fallen back on Meaux, where they still maintained their position against Blucher. When Napoleon reached the heights which command Meaux he saw the Prussian army in full retreat. Blucher had been apprised of his approach, had recrosscd the Marne and destroyed the bridge. Napoleon issued orders for the reconstruction of the bridge, and commanded his two marshals to advance northward and form the left segment of a circle in which Blucher should be enclosed. The plain between the Marne and the Ourcq was covered with detachments of the Prussian army retreating in disorder on Soissons. Napoleon crossed the Marne on the 3rd. By this time a hard frost had rendered the roads passable and favoured the retreat of Blucher. Still, the Aisne opposed a barrier to him, and Soissons, the key of that barrier, was in possession of the French. Blucher was in imminent danger of being hemmed in between the Marne and the Aisne on his rear and front, and between Marmont and Mortier who were advancing through Villers-Cotterets and Neuilly on one flank, while Napoleon by rapid move- ments pressed on the other, marching by the route of Chateau-Thierry. At this moment, to the astonishment of both armies, the drawbridges of Soissons were lowered to receive the Prussians. Two Russian divisions had taken the place on the 2nd of March. Schwartzenburg, having discovered that the French force opposed to him was only a screen, forced Oudinot and Macdonald to retreat after a sanguinary action at Bar-sur-Aube on the 27th, and dispatched two divisions against Augereau at Lyons. An important treaty had also been ratified at Chaumont on the 1st of March between the Sovereigns of Austria, England, Russia, and Prussia, by which the four contracting Powers bound themselves each to maintain in the field an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men until the objects of the war were attained, England also engaging to furnish a, subsidy of four millions sterling. In a second clause each of the four Powers was bound never to make a separate peace. About the same time the commissioners at Lusigny broke up the negotiations for an armistice on the plea of inability to settle the line of demarcation. Napoleon detached a division to occupy Rheims, and manoeuvred to surprise the passage of the Aisne. On the 7th he fought a sanguinary battle at Craonne with the Russians and Prussians, in which he remained master of the field, but with no trophies except the enemy's dead. On the 9th he advanced upon the strong position of Laon, where Blucher, reinforced by the vanguard of Bernadotte's army, entrenched himself. Marmont, Ney, and Mortier conducted the attack; but during the night of the 9th Marmont's position was surprised and his division dispersed. On the following day Napoleon retreated from Laon, having lost several thousand men and some cannon. On the 13th he attacked the Russians who had taken Rheims, drove them out, and occupied the city. Here he halted for three days. The English army entered Bourdeaux on the 13 th of March, accompanied by the Duke dAngouleme ; the population, headed by their mayor, Count Lynch, hoisted the colours of the Bourbons, raised the cry of" Vive le Eoi!" and proclaimed Louis XVIII. Augereau, by a series of reverses, suffered Lyons to fall into the 26 — 2 404 THE HISTORY OP NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. : mw NAPOLEON TRAMPLING ON THE SHELL. power of the Austrians. The loss of this city was a serious blow to Napoleon's: cause. The conferences of Chatillon were broken up on the 20th of March. Schwartzenburg advanced upon Troyes, and took possession of that city after the battle of Bar-sur-Aube. The allies held a council at midnight, in which their future motions were discussed. The Emperor Alexander opposed the over-caution of Schwartzenburg with great steadiness, and Lord Castlereagh announced to the assembled Powers that on any retrograde movement the subsidies from England would cease to be paid. It was at length resolved to unite the armies of Bohemia and Silesia, offer battle to Napoleon at Arcis, and should he decline the engage- ment, to march boldly on Paris. Such, however, had been the anxieties and conflicting opinions of the night that Alexander declared he believed his hair had grown grey in those few hours. The Messieurs de Polignac brought information of the various intrigues which existed in Paris At the head of the plotters was Talleyrand. The Royalists supposed that he plotted for the Bourbons ; but it was very clear he would, at first, have preferred a Regency, under which he might hold a foremost place. He manoeuvred, however, so as to keep well with whatever party should be uppermost. The allies had little to fear from the constituted authorities and leading men of Paris ; the majority were employed in listening to every rumour, and providing for their own safety in all emergencies. Napoleon perceived the hesitation of Schwartzenburg, and had received rumours of the Austrians' projected retreat. Unaware of Lord Castlereagh's threat, he broke up his head-quarters at Rheims on the 17th, and advanced by Epernay to attack the rear of the Austrian army. His vanguard encountered an Austrian division at Arcis on the 20th. The engagement became fierce : the Austrians brought up fresh battalions supported by cannon ; and Napoleon found that instead of attacking a rear guard in retreat, he was in front of the main army in its advance on Paris. Napoleon's cavalry had orders to attack the Austrian light troops while his infantry debouched from Arcis ; but they were repulsed by over- 1814.] THE LION AT BAY. 405 NAPOLEON AT ARCIS-SUR-AUBE. powering numbers and driven back upon the town. In this extremity Napoleon evinced the reckless courage he had shown at Lodi and Areola. He threw him- self, sword in hand, among the broken cavalry, called on them to remember their former victories, and checked the enemy by an impetuous charge in which he and his staff officers fought hand to hand with the invaders. A Cossack's lance nearly passed through him, but the thrust was averted by his aide-de-camp Girardin. The battle raged throughout the day. Napoleon exposed himself repeatedly to danger, and on one occasion was seen to spur his horse with wilful defiance upon a shell which fell at his feet ; the missile exploded, and a cloud of smoke hid him from sight, but he emerged untouched. At the close of the day the French 406 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. remained in possession of their ground, and Macdonald, Oudinot, and Gerard brought up their forces during the night. On the 21st Napoleon retreated through difficult defiles with forty thousand men in the face of the Austrian army, and though pursued and annoyed, sustained little loss. Schwartzenburg, on the two following days, completed his junction with Blucher. The allied army then marched on the capital, driving before it the divisions of Marmont and Mortier, whose last determined stand was attempted at Fere-Champenoise on the 25th. Conquered there by irresistible numbers, blinded by a tremendous storm which beat in the faces of the French soldiers, the two marshals continued their retreat till on the 29th they halted under the walls of Paris. About the same time a convoy of provisions and ammunition, escorted by about five thousand French infantry, chiefly young conscripts, fell into the power of the allies, but not until the escort, repeatedly refusing to surrender, had been slain nearly to a man. When Napoleon retreated on Vitry-le-Frangais it was his plan to break through the circle his enemies were drawing around him, to augment his army with garri- sons from the frontier fortresses, to arouse the patriotism of the peasantry, to bring the army of Augereau into operation, and to act on the rear of the allies, and assail their communications. His success depended mainly on the power of the capital to maintain a defence for at least four days, on the caution of the allies inducing them to abandon their attempt upon Paris and follow Napoleon, and lastly on Augereau's fidelity. The allies were considerably embarrassed by Napoleon's change of plan, and entertained serious apprehensions as to its success, but on a certain despatch fall- ing into their hands they resolved to continue their march on Paris. This despatch was a letter from Napoleon to Maria Louisa, in which he so fully disclosed his plan as to enable them to counteract it. The two great armies of the allies, reinforced and reorganized, moved in columns along the three grand routes of Meaux, Lagny, and Soissons, and on the 29th of March occupied positions which threatened the north-eastern quarter of Paris. The Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia accompanied their armies, but the Emperor of Austria was sent out of the way with an escort, probably from delicacy to his paternal feelings. Singularly enough, he nearly fell into the hands of one of Napoleon's divisions, and while his brother Sovereigns were triumphing at the gates of Paris, he was forced to fly with a single gentleman and one servant in a German droschka, and take refuge in Dijon. The Sovereigns as they advanced issued proclamations announcing that they made war, not on France, but on Napoleon Bonaparte and his armies. The Parisians had been three times thrown into consternation by the threatened attack of the allied armies, and as often relieved of all apprehension by the successful movements of Napoleon ; they therefore fell into no panic when for the fourth time they heard of Cossacks at Meaux. Joseph Bonaparte, conducting the Government in the name of Maria Louisa, called a council to deliberate on the measures to be adopted at this crisis. The Empress Regent and all the members of the Government were present. The Duke of Feltre (Clarke), Minister of War, laid before them the resources and the emergencies of the capital. The question was then discussed what course to pursue for the safety of the Empress and her son. After a long debate it was re- solved that they should be removed from the scene of danger. This resolution was warmly opposed by Talleyrand, and by the Duke de Cadore and others. It was, however, carried into effect on the following day, the 29th. Maria Louisa is said to have manifested great distress of mind on this occasion ; and the young Napoleon clung to his attendants, exclaiming with cries and tears that "his papa was betrayed," and that he would not go away. The Empress, escorted by a regiment of seven hundred men, went to Blois, where she was followed by the members of the Government. Joseph remained to superintend the defence ; and Talleyrand purposely delayed his departure so long, that he was stopped at the i8i 4 .] PARIS BESIEGED. 407 «§2 COMBAT OF FHRE-CHAMPENOISE. barriers, and consequently returned to his hotel, where he held himself in readiness to direct the intrigues of the day. Paris was capable of making a formidable de- fence, from the nature of the ground on its north and east suburbs. It was defended on the south by the Seine, and it was the difficulty of effecting the pas- sage of that river which decided the allies to attack on the stronger quarter. If the siege of Paris had detained the Sovereigns several days under its walls, Napo- leon's fate might have been different; but Paris was virtually an open town, although powerful artillery was planted on the heights of Montmartre, and a strong redoubt bristling with cannon erected at the farm of Rouvroi, forming the central line of defence. The heights, extending on the right towards the Marne and on the left towards the Seine, were armed with cannon, placed with great skill, but very weak in point of numbers, though a large park of artillery was ready for use in the Champ de Mars. The National Guard was called out to the number of thirty thousand ; but the majority were not permitted to receive arms, though the arsenal was well furnished. The garrison of Paris, commanded by General Gerard, and the divisions of Marmont and Mortier, amounting to about thirty thousand men, were drawn up in order of battle, occupying a semicircular line of great strength, but opposed to upwards of one hundred and fifty thousand enemies. Two flags of truce were sent successively to summon the city to surrender, but both were refused admittance. At five o'clock on the morning of the 30th the battle began by an attack of the 408 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Russians on the whole French line. The defenders of Paris received the shock with great firmness. The pupils of the Polytechnic School, most of them youths between twelve and sixteen years of age, worked the guns with skill and courage. The French frequently rushed in columns down the heights. At length the use- less loss of life made the Russian commander draw off his forces. The Prussians and Austrians then in overpowering force attacked the line of defence at both extremities, and by noon the French had lost all their positions, with the single exception of Montmartre ; their own guns were turned upon the city, the light cavalry of the allies penetrated to the barriers, and a party of Cossacks were with difficulty repulsed from the Faubourg St. Antoine. Blucher's right wing had reached the foot of Montmartre, and Count Langeron was preparing to storm that height, when a flag of truce from Marshal Marmont, authorized by Joseph, requested a suspension of hostilities to arrange the terms on which Paris should be surrendered. The armistice was granted on condition that Montmartre be immediately given up to the allies. The terms of surrender were then speedily settled. The French regular troops were to retire from Paris unmolested, and the city was next day to be delivered up to the allied Sovereigns. Joseph left Paris at the moment that the defence ceased, and repaired to Blois. The surrender was inevitable under the circumstances, for the Emperor Alexander had intimated to Joseph that " fair terms would be allowed, provided Paris capitulated before the barriers were forced; but if the defence were prolonged beyond that period, it would not be in the power of the Emperor, the King of Prussia, or the allied generals, to prevent the total destruction of the city." Eight thousand French were killed and wounded, and the loss of the allies amounted to nearly twelve thousand. Joseph was not aware at the commencement of the action that the united armies of the allies were before Paris; he believed he had to contend with only one. The absence of Napoleon at such a crisis caused uncertainty and irre- solution, fatal to any determined course of action even among the few who re- mained true to him. " During the battle," says Lockhart, " the Boulevard des Italiens and the Cafe Tortoni were thronged with fashionable loungers of both sexes, sitting as usual on the chairs placed there, and appearing almost uninterested spectators of the number of wounded French brought in. The officers were carried on mattresses. About two o'clock a general cry of ' Sauve qui peut f was heard on the Boulevards from the Porte St. Martin to Des Italiens ; this caused a general and confused flight, which spread like the undulations of a wave, even beyond the Pont Neuf. . . . During the whole of the battle wounded soldiers crawled into the streets and lay down to die on the pavement. . . . The Moniteur of this day was a full sheet, but no notice was taken of the war or the army. Four columns were occupied by an article on the dramatic works of Denis, and three with a disserta- tion on the existence of Troy." Napoleon in his eastward march passed the night of the 21st of March at Som- mepuis; on the 23rd his head-quarters were at St. Dizier, where he was rejoined by the Duke of Vicenza, who brought him intelligence of the rupture of the con- ferences. A last attempt to conclude peace was here made by Napoleon in a letter from Caulaincourt to Metternich. Advancing to Donlevent on the 24th, Napoleon found a secret despatch from Lavalette, then head of the post-office, containing these words: "The partisans of the stranger are making head, seconded by secret intrigues. The presence of the Emperor is indispensable. There is not a moment to lose if he wishes to save the capital." On the 26th a heavy cannonade recalled Napoleon to St. Dizier. His rear guard had been attacked by superior forces, which he supposed to be the advanced guard of the allies retreating from Paris in con- sequence of his movement. He forced the attacking army to retreat on Bar-sur- Ornain and Vitry; but on the 27th he learned that the enemy in pursuit of him was only a division of thirty thousand men, commanded by Winzingerode, and detached from the main armies to mask their march upon Paris; he also received i8i 4 .] TOO LATE! 409 positive intelligence that Schwartzenburg and Blucher had effected their junction. By break of day on the 28th Napoleon commenced a forced march upon Paris, to surprise the allies by an attack in their rear. He rested at Troyes on the night of the 29th, the Imperial Guard having marched fifteen leagues in one day. Hence he dispatched General Dejean, and after him Girardin, post to Paris to announce his approach. On the 30th, after a march of some leagues with his guard, he threw himself into a post-chaise and hurried forwards, leaving the army to follow with all possible expedition. He mounted his horse at Villeneuve and rode to Fontainebleau, and there, although the night had fallen, took a carriage for Paris, accompanied by Berthier and Caulaincourt ; but on reaching an inn called " La Cour de France," a few miles from the capital, he met General Belliard with the cavalry, retreating according to a convention with the allies. Paris had fallen ! Leaping from his carriage as the words reached his ears, Napoleon walked on- wards with Belliard, asking a few hurried questions, and then calling for his car- riage, gave orders to proceed to Paris. -It required considerable expostulation from Belliard, as well as Berthier and Caulaincourt, to divert him from his reso- lution ; it was impossible for him at the moment to comprehend Belliard's astound- ing intelligence, " Paris is surrounded by a hundred and thirty thousand enemies. I have only been allowed to march out by a convention : I cannot re - enter the city." Napoleon strode on, Belliard following, for about a mile, when he met the first column of the retreating infantry. Their commander, General Curial, gave the same answers as Belliard. Perfectly composed, Napoleon gave orders that the troops should be drawn up behind the river Essonne, and dispatched the Duke of Vicenza to Paris, to ascertain if it were yet possible for him to interpose in the treaty. Having taken this measure, Napoleon waited the reply in anxious suspense, separated only by the river Seine from the outposts of the allied army, who had forced the bridge of Charenton, and spread over the plain of Villeneuve St. Georges, the light of their bivouacs being reflected on the banks of the river, near which, in a spot shrouded in profound darkness, Napoleon was standing with a few attendants. At four o'clock in the morning a courier brought him intelli- gence from the Duke of Vicenza that the capitulation had been signed at midnight, and the allies were to enter Paris in the course of the day. Napoleon returned to Fontainebleau, and alighted at the palace on the 31st of March at six o'clock. In a few hours the columns of his army came up, and the divisions of Marmont and Mortier arrived from Paris. The troops, about sixty thousand strong, were posted around Fontainebleau, and the park of artillery was sent to Orleans. NEWS OF THE CAPITULATION OF PARIS. THE ENTRY OF ALEXANDER INTO PAKIS. CHAPTER XL. THE ALLIED SOVEREIGNS ENTER PARIS— TALLEYRAND — PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT — THE SENATE PROCLAIMS THAT NAPOLEON HAS FORFEITED THE THRONE — CONFERENCE AT FONTAINEBLEAU — NAPOLEON ABDICATES IN FAVOUR OF HIS SON — DEFECTION OF MARMONT — NAPOLEON ABDI- CATES UNCONDITIONALLY — TREATY OF FONTAINEBLEAU — DEATH OF JOSEPHINE — BATTLE OF TOULOUSE — LOUIS XVIII. ENTERS PARIS — RESTORATION OF PIUS VII. — NAPOLEON LEAVES FONTAINERLEAU, AND LANDS IN ELBA. |N the 31st of March the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia, attended by Schwartzenburg and followed by fifty thousand picked troops, made their en- trance into Paris. The foreign hosts filed along the Boulevards in broad and deep columns, preceded by numerous regi- ments of cavalry, and exhibiting a forest of bayonets, interrupted at intervals by long trains of artillery. The monarchs and their troops made the circuit of half Paris, and halted in the Champs Elysees, where the Cossacks of the Guard esta- blished their bivouac. On the day of the allied Sovereigns' entrance, groups of Royalists assembled and raised the cry of "Vive le Roi /" Noblemen and ladies traversed the streets in procession, dis- tributing white cockades, and recalling The Princess of Leon and Mesdames de Chateaubriand and De Choiseul are said even to have torn their own dresses to replenish their stock of Royalist emblems. The progress of the Sovereigns was greeted at various spots by enthusiastic acclamations. At the Boulevard des Italiens they were impeded by a crowd, foremost amongst whom were ladies who pressed around them with cries of welcome as " Liberators ! " and several elegantly dressed women pressed forward for the honour of touching their clothes. Any display of patriotic indignation would have been worse than useless, and those who could not conceal such feelings kept out of the way. The Emperor Alex- ander, after reviewing his troops, made the hotel of Talleyrand his head-quarters, where the leading political intriguers of Paris awaited him. 410 the people to their ancient loyalty. 1 8 1 4.] A BDICA 770 N. 4 1 r Alexander submitted three plans for consideration. First, the maintenance of Napoleon on the throne. Secondly, the establishment of a Regency. Thirdly, the recall of the Bourbons. All present urged the adoption of the last measure, and the meeting terminated in an unanimous resolution to place the Bourbons on the throne. This was not publicly announced, but a declaration was drawn up and signed by the Emperor Alexander to the effect that " the allied Sovereigns would no longer treat with Bonaparte nor any member of his family." The docu- ment further invited the Senate to appoint a Provisional Government, and with it to prepare the Constitution which might be agreeable to the wishes of the people; adding, — "The Sovereigns will recognize and guarantee any Constitution of which the French nation may make choice." The Senate met on the ist of April under the presidency of Talleyrand. The Provisional Government consisted of Talleyrand, Bournonville, Jaucourt, Dal berg, and the Abbe' Montesquieu. Bourrienne was placed at the head of the post-office, Lavalette having left Paris. On the 3rd the Senate proclaimed " that Napoleon Bonaparte had forfeited the throne and the right of inheritance which had been established in his family," and " that the people and army of France were freed from the oath of fidelity to Napoleon and his Constitution." Eight formal inductive causes were appended, consisting of complaints against the acts of Napoleon's Government, nearly every one of which had been sanctioned by the Senate who now reprobated them. Their true motive was that, considering their master con- quered, they were ready to pay court to a new one. The Council-General of the department of the Seine gave in its adhesion to the Provisional Government, and the example was followed by the various public bodies in and around Paris, as well as by numerous individuals, most of whom had been enriched by Napoleon. Caulaincourt returned to Fontainebleau on the night of the 3rd of April. The resolution of the allies to cease negotiating with Napoleon rendered his mission to Paris merely nominal ; but the Emperor of Russia did not openly avow a deter- mination to set aside the son of Napoleon. The Duke of Vicenza was therefore ready to recommend to Napoleon a personal abdication, and to ask to be em- powered to treat for a Regency. Napoleon, at the head of sixty thousand men, was preparing to advance upon Paris, and hoped that the sound of his cannon would rouse the national spirit and insure better terms. On the 4th he reviewed his army, announcing his intention of marching on the capital, and was answered with enthusiastic shouts of "d Paris! a Paris!" After the review, however, he was followed to his apartment by his principal marshals and councillors, whose pur- pose it was to discountenance the attempt, holding out the prospect of peace on the basis of a Regency. The feeling of his old companions in arms against any warlike demonstrations decided Napoleon, who, after a severe struggle, wrote the following act of abdication : — " The allied Powers having proclaimed that the Emperor Napoleon was the only obstacle to peace in Europe, the Emperor, faithful to his oath, declares that he is ready to resign the throne, to quit France, and even to sacrifice his life for the welfare of the country, which is inseparable from the rights of his son, those of the Regency of the Empress, and the maintenance of the laws of the Empire. "Given at our palace of Fontainebleau, April 4th, 1814. " Napoleon." ■The Duke of Vicenza and Marshals Ney and Macdonald were appointed to convey this document to Paris. They inquired on what stipulations, as concerned the Emperor personally, they were to insist. " On none," he replied ; " obtain the best terms you can for France, — for myself I ask nothing." When the discussion was concluded he threw himself on a sofa and hid his face ; then starting up with that smile which had so often proved irresistible, he exclaimed, " Let us march, my comrades ; let us take the field once more." The only answer was tears from those to whom he appealed, and he dismissed the assemblage. In a few hours 412 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Napoleon received one of the severest blows he had ever sustained. Marmont had entered into a separate convention with the allies and marched his division into the Russian cantonments, leaving Fontainebleau uncovered. At this intelligence Napoleon fell back into a chair, exclaiming, " Ungrateful man ! — but he will be •more unhappy than I ! " The army had as yet remained faithful to Napoleon : besides the fifty or sixty thousand men under his immediate command, the armies of Soult and Suchet, with the corps of Augereau, composed a powerful force ; and if they had all been joined by the garrisons of the frontier towns, a hundred thousand men would have ranged under his banner. The Sovereigns hesitated to declare the restoration of the Bourbons while the army recognized Napoleon as Emperor. They had therefore made strenuous efforts to break its unanimity. The intelligence of the march of Marmont's division to Versailles was brought to them at the moment when the Duke of Vicenza and Marshals Ney and Macdonald were pleading for a Regency before the allied Sovereigns and the members of the Provisional Government. All debate was at an end. The Emperor Alexander told the commissioners, without further disguise, that the allies would not treat with Napoleon, except on the footing of unconditional abdication. With this reply, and the offer of an independent principality for their Emperor, they departed for Fontainebleau. Savary says that Marmont, who was present at this conference, exclaimed, "I would readily sacrifice an arm to avert this event!" "An arm, sir ! " replied Macdonald ; " rather say your existence ! " A mutiny occurred among the soldiers of Marmont's division when they discovered the meaning of the movement they had executed. Some Polish lancers contrived to break from their ranks, and returned to Fontainebleau ; the rest were with difficulty reduced to subordination. Marmont stipulated for the personal safety of the Emperor in case his own defection should cause him to fall into the power of the Sovereigns. Next morning Napoleon addressed the following order of the day to the army : — " Fontainebleau, April 5th, 1814. The Emperor thanks the army for the attach- ment it has evinced to him, and principally because it acknowledges that France is with him, and not with the people of the capital. It is the soldier's duty, honour, and religion, to follow the fortunes of his general. The Duke of Ragusa, instead of seeking to inspire the heart of his troops with this sentiment, has gone over to the allies. The Emperor cannot approve the condition on which he has taken this step : he cannot accept life and liberty at the mercy of a subject. The Senate has presumed to dispose of the French Government ; but it forgets that it owes to the Emperor the power which it now abuses. The Emperor saved one-half of the members of the Senate from the storms of the Revolution, and the other half he drew from obscurity, and protected against the hatred of the people. These men avail themselves of the articles of the Constitution as grounds for their subversion. A sign was a command to the Senate, which was always ready to do more than was required. So long as Fortune continued faithful to their Sovereign, these men also remained faithful to him. His dignity was conferred on him by God and the people, who alone can deprive him of it : he always considered it as a burden ; and when he accepted it, it was with the conviction that he was able adequately to sustain it. The happiness of France seemed to be connected with the fate of the Emperor : now that Fortune frowns on him, the will of the nation can alone induce him to retain possession of the throne. If he is to be considered the only obstacle to peace, he voluntarily makes the last sacrifice to France. He has, in consequence, sent the Prince of the Mosqua and the Dukes of Vicenza and Taren- tum to Paris to open the negotiation. The army may be assured that the honour of the Emperor will never be incompatible with the happiness of France." On the return of Napoleon's commissioners, his first proposals were to break off negotiations, to retreat to the Loire, and unite all his forces ; but he was answered only by silence. Another and last appeal contained a proposal more worthy of consideration. " Since I must renounce the prospect of defending France," said he, "does not Italy afford a retreat worthy of us? Will you follow me across the 1 8 14] TREATY OF FONTAINEBLEAU. 413 Alps ? " Again a profound silence was his only answer. What else could he have expected, remembering that Murat had been alienated, Suchet and Augereau were wavering, the white flag floating from every tower in the south, and that Soult was flying from Wellington, who had just defeated him at Orthez and was on the Garonne? "You wish for repose," he said; "take it, then. Alas ! you know not how many troubles and dangers await you on your beds of down. A few years of that peace which you are about to purchase so dearly will cut off more of you than the most sanguinary war would have done." Then taking his pen, he drew ■up and signed the second formula of his abdication : — " The allied Powers having proclaimed that the Emperor is the only obstacle to the re-establishment of the peace of Europe, the Emperor, faithful to his oath, renounces for himself and his heirs the thrones of France and Italy, and declares that there is no sacrifice, not even that of life, which he is not ready to make for the interests of France." The Emperor of Russia took the principal share in drawing up the articles of treaty between the allied Powers and Napoleon, on his abdication. A suspension of hostilities was proclaimed. It was agreed that Napoleon, the Empress Maria Louisa, and all the members of the Imperial Family, should retain their titles and rank ; that the island of Elba should be granted to Napoleon in full sovereignty, with a yearly revenue of two millions of francs (rather more than eighty thousand pounds sterling), one-half of which should revert to the Empress, who was also to receive in full sovereignty the Duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, with reversion to the young Napoleon. For the members of the Imperial Family, the Empress Josephine, and Prince Eugene, handsome provision was made. Gratuities were guaranteed to the generals of the guard, the Emperor's aides-de-camp, and the members of the household. Napoleon was permitted to take with him four hundred men of the Imperial Guard, and to maintain a navy of four ships of war to protect him from the Algerine pirates. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed at Paris by the Ministers of the allied Powers on the nth, and by Napoleon at Fontainebleau on the 12th of April. Lamartine has said that Napoleon had resolved to die rather than sign the treaty. During the retreat from Moscow, the Emperor had obtained a bag of opium from his surgeon Ivan, to avoid falling alive into the hands of the Russians. After the chance of this was over he still retained the opium. On the night of the 1 ith, the silence of the long corridors was suddenly broken by the sound of hurried foot- steps. Servants were running to and fro in all directions. Constant, in his " Memoirs," says that being called up to attend Napoleon, he saw the little bag which had contained the opium lying in the fireplace. The Emperor was in great pain, but eventually fell into a sound sleep. During this he experienced a copious perspiration, in which the effects of the poison evaporated. He awoke in the morning, "surprised at finding himself alive." He looked very ill, but nothing was said about the poison ; and resigning himself to the apparent decree of fate that he should not die yet, he signed the treaty. In a conversation with De Bausset, before he departed for Elba, Napoleon said, "See what a thing is destiny ! At the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube I did all I could to meet a glorious death in defending foot by foot the soil of the country. I exposed myself with- out reserve. It rained bullets around me ; my clothes were pierced ; and yet not one of them could reach me." He added with a sigh, " A death which I should owe to an act of despair would be a baseness : suicide neither accords with my principles nor with the rank which I have filled on the stage of the world. I am a man condemned to live. Besides, I do not forget my origin. I should be ashamed not to be able to bear reverses." He soon recovered firmness. " I found Napoleon," says De Bausset, " calm, tranquil, and decided. His mind was strongly tempered. Never, as I think, did he appear grander to me." Alluding to the Imperial Guard in general conversation, he said, " If I were Louis, I would not keep them up ; it should be his policy to pension them off. They are too fond of me. He should choose another guard from the army at large." He spoke 4H THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. with satisfaction of the arrival of the Count d'Artois at Paris, as it put an end to the Provisional Government. Addressing his officers, he said, " Gentlemen, when I am gone and you have another Government it will become you to attach your- selves to it frankly, and serve it as faithfully as you have served me. I request, and even command you to do this : therefore all who desire leave to go to Paris have my permission, and those who remain here will do well to send in their adhesion to the Government of the Bourbons." While Caulaincourt prepared for the departure for Elba, Napoleon busied him- self with books and maps of the island. His secretary, Maret, was as constant in his attentions as when Napoleon was a " King of kings." He was now as far as France was concerned a private individual. He expected that most of his old Ministers would come to bid him farewell, but not one appeared. The Paris journals showered abuse upon his head. Of the men whom he had raised to power, the desertion, with few exceptions, included all ranks,— from Berthier who shared his bosom councils, to Rustan the Mameluke, who slept across the door of his apartment. Savary has described the grief of the Empress as very great. Her position was sufficiently humiliating, and her own reverses were sufficiently severe, to account for this without any strong feeling for Napoleon ; but nearly all authorities represent that she conducted herself with great propriety, and as much firmness as could be expected from her youth and disposition. By the direction of Napoleon she applied for protection to the Emperor of Austria, and went from Blois to Rambouillet to meet him. Her first action was to place her son in his arms. He then explained to her that she was to be separated from her husband "for a time." The Emperor of Russia also visited her. A few days afterwards she departed for Vienna. Madame Mere, and Cardinal Fesch. Napoleon's uncle, set out for Rome ; Louis, Joseph, and Jerome were already on the road to Switzer- land. The Emperor Alexander visited Josephine and Hortense. Josephine keenly felt the misfortunes of her " Cid," as she was fond of calling Napoleon. Her dis- tress at his abdication was excessive, and she never recovered the shock, surviv- ing it only about six weeks. She died on the 29th of May at Malmaison, and was buried in the church of Ruel. Her funeral was attended by several generals of the allied armies, and marshals and generals of France. A long train of the poor of the neighbouring country also followed her to the grave : by them she was sincerely and justly regretted. Some years later the body was placed in a magni- ficent tomb of white marble, erected by her two children, with the simple inscrip- tion : " Eugene et Hortense a Josephine." The battle of Toulouse was fought on the 10th of April between the armies of Wellington and Soult, and though the conflict was so severe that both generals were glad of its termination, all the results of victory rested with the English. The French loss in killed and wounded was estimated at three thousand men. Four thousand six hundred and fifty-nine men, of whom two thousand were Spaniards, were returned as killed and wounded in Wellington's army. Thus the blood of nearly eight thousand men was shed after the abdication of Napoleon had ended the war. Wellington entered Toulouse in triumph on the 12th, Soult having eva- cuated the city and effected an orderly retreat. In the afternoon of the same day the news of Napoleon's abdication arrived, whereupon a suspension of hostilities was agreed to. All the French troops in the south gave their adhesion to the new Government ; the Spaniards and Portuguese returned home ; the British infantry embarked at Bourdeaux, and the cavalry marching through France took ship at Boulogne. The Grand-marshal Bertrand, General Drouot, General Cambrone, the Treasurer Peyrusse, the State Messengers Deschamps and Baillou, obtained permission to accompany Napoleon to Elba. When four hundred of the guard had to be selected to depart with him, almost all the corps volunteered, so that the choice was both gratifying and embarrassing to him. 1&I4-] ADIEU! 415 DEPARTURE FROM FONTAINBLEAU. On the 19th General Count Montholon offered, with the troops under his com- mand on the Upper Loire, to carry off Napoleon, and place him in the midst of eighty thousand men belonging to the armies of Soult, Augereau, and Suchet. " When I arrived at Fontainebleau," says he, " I found no one in those vast cor- ridors, formerly too small for the crowd of courtiers, except the Duke of Bassano and the aides-de-camp Bossi and Montesquieu." Napoleon declined Montholon s proffered rescue, and then saw for the first_ time the man destined to share with him six years of exile and to close his eyes in death. The commissioners of the allied Sovereigns arrived at Fontainebleau, and the departure of Napoleon was fixed for the 20th of April. About noon the Imperial Guard ranged itself in lines in the courtyard of the palace. As the Emperor passed along, he beheld the most brilliant and numerous Court in Europe reduced to about sixteen individuals, who waited to manifest their regard and respect foi 416 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. him. (Junot had died the year before, and Caulaincourt and General Flahault were absent on missions.) Napoleon shook hands with them all; then hastily passing the range of carriages, advanced towards the Imperial Guard. " Soldiers of the Old Guard ! " said he, amidst profound silence, " I bid you farewell ! During twenty years you have been my constant companions in the paths of honour and glory. In our late disasters, as well as in the days of our prosperity, you proved yourselves models of courage and fidelity. With such men as you our cause could not have been lost ; but a protracted civil war would have ensued, and the miseries of France would have been augmented. I have, there- fore, sacrificed my interests to those of the country. I depart : you, my friends, will continue to serve France, whose happiness has ever been the only object of my thoughts, and still will be the sole object of my wishes. Do not deplore my fate. If I consent to live it is that I may still contribute to your glory. I will record the great achievements we have performed together. Farewell, my com- rades ! I should wish to press you all to my bosom: let me at least embrace your standard." At these words General Petit took the eagle and came forward. Napo- leon received the general in his arms and kissed the flag. The silence was inter- rupted only by the occasional sobs of the soldiers. " Farewell, once more, my old comrades !— let this kiss be impressed on all your hearts ! " Napoleon said with great emotion ; and then, hurrying through the group that surrounded him, stepped into his carriage and drove off to Lyons. Louis XVIII. made his public entry into Paris on the 21st of April. The Count dArtois preceded him by some days. The new King was escorted by the members of the Provisional Government, the Ministers, the Senate, and the Mar- shals of France, headed by Berthier. The Duchess dAngouleme followed the King in a calash drawn by eight horses taken from the Emperor's stable, and led by men who still wore his livery. The Senate had busied themselves in framing a Constitution, which they presented to their royal master. The populace cried "Vive le Roi 7" but were disgusted at seeing the marshals of Napoleon parading themselves before the carriage of Louis ; and cries of " Go to Elba, Berthier ! " were frequently raised. While these momentous events were taking place, Pope Pius VII. was slowly wending his way to Rome, accompanied by a French escort as far as the Italian frontier. He had been released from Fontainebleau on the 23rd of January, in accordance with a convention signed by Napoleon in December, 18 13, on Murat's defection becoming known to him ; but with characteristic insincerity Napoleon had on one pretext after another detained His Holiness in French territory until the fall of Paris, when the Provisional Government gave orders for his immediate restoration with all honours. The French soldiers left him at Fiorenzuola, whence an Austrian detachment conducted him to Cesina. Here Murat received him and showed him a treasonable memorial bearing the signatures of several of his Roman subjects ; he declined to look at them, and threw the document into the fire, saying, " Let us bury our injuries in oblivion. We have all of us much need of forgiveness." Pius VII. reached Rome on the 29th of May, after a captivity of nearly five years — the Neapolitan army, with Murat at its head, evacuating the city as the Austrians marched in. To all those who, by Napoleon's orders, had violently carried off Pius in the dead of night, he formally accorded his pardon and Papal benediction. Napoleon was an object of respect and interest during the first part of his journey to Elba, but in Provence the popular manifestations changed, and the Em- peror was once or twice subjected to personal insult and danger. He adopted a disguise, even mounting the white cockade, and rode forward on horseback. At a chateau on the road he had an interview with his sister Pauline. Arrived at the place of embarkation, an English and a French vessel were waiting to receive him. He went on board the English vessel (the Undaunted') by preference, accompanied by the Austrian and English commissioners. During the passage he conversed IS 14. J AN EXILE. 417 GOING ON BOARD THE UNDAUNTED. cordially with Captain Usher, laughing at the idea of the caricatures his voyage would occasion in England. The sailors, who expected to see some hideous and deformed little figure, answering to their previous notions of " Boney," were sur- prised at his appearance and delighted with his good humour. They arrived at Porto Ferrajo, the principal town of Elba, on the 4th of May. The Emperor first landed incognito, but returned on board to breakfast. He went ashore, in form, about two o'clock. On leaving the vessel he gave the jolly tars a purse of two hundred napoleons, and the boatswain, who undertook to return thanks in the name of the crew, concluded with " wishing him his health — and better luck the next time." As he left the Undaunted the vessel fired a salute. NAPOLEON AT ELBA. Ti CHAPTER XLI. NAPOLEON IN ELBA — STATE OF FRANCE UNDER THE BOURBONS — NAPOLEON LEAVES ELBA — LANDS IN FRANCE — ADVANCES TO GRASSE — JOINED BY LAB^DOYfeRE — ENTERS GRENOBLE — LYONS — ASSUMES THE REINS OF GOVERNMENT — JOINED BY NEY — ARRIVES AT FONTAINEBLEAU — JOINED AT MELUN BY THE LAST ROYALIST ARMY — FLIGHT OF LOUIS XVIII. "C* LBA is an island near the coast of Tuscany, -*— * and not more than sixty miles in circum- ference. The air is healthy ; the produce is chiefly salt, wine, and iron ore. Napo- leon explored every corner of his little State, visiting the iron-mines, harbours, salt-marshes, fortifications, and woods, projecting novelties and improvements. He established residences at four corners of the island, and was in continual motion from one to the other. He seemed re- signed to his fate, spoke of himself as politically dead, and continued to devise more buildings, roads, and other matters than could have been accomplished in a life, notwithstanding the very limited space he possessed for his operations. Climbing a mountain above Ferrajo one day, and observing the ocean approach its base almost on every side, he said musingly, '" It must be confessed that my empire is very little." Napoleon shortly added to his " dominions " by sending two or three dozen guards to take possession of a small adjacent islet called Rianosa, which had been deserted on account of corsair incur- sions. He sketched out a plan of fortifications, and observed, " Europe will say I have already made a conquest." He planned and commenced new roads, con- trived means for conveying water from the mountains to Porto Ferrajo, designed two palaces — one for the country, another for the town ; a separate mansion for his sister Pauline, stables for a hundred and fifty horses, a lazaretto, receptacles for the tunny-fishers, and salt works on a new construction at Porto Longone. He established at his Court, as Emperor of Elba, the etiquette of the Tuileries ; re- viewed his small body of troops, and endeavoured to obtain recruits ; displayed a national flag on which were three bees; gave a new stimulus to trade, till the little 41 S 1 8 14-] A POVERTY-STRICKEN EMPEROR. 4-19 port of Ferrajo was crowded with vessels from the opposite coasts of Italy ; and such was still the influence of his name that the new flag of Elba, with the Napo- leon bees, was suffered to pass unmolested even by Moorish pirates. Baron Kohler, the Austrian, and Sir Niel Campbell, the English commissioner, remained as residents on the island; but towards the end of May the former departed. Napoleon was visited by his mother and his sister Pauline during the summer of 1814. He expected to be rejoined at this time by his wife Maria Louisa, but she was not permitted to proceed to Elba. Napoleon during the voyage had conversed on easy and friendly terms with the two commissioners, but finding Sir Niel Campbell remain after Kohler had departed, he became cool and distant towards him, under the impression that he was the English Government's spy. Winter approached, and a change was observed in the manners and habits of Napoleon. He grew grave and reserved ; he stopped his public works and im- provements, and ceased to take any interest in what he had already effected ; he became embarrassed for money, and was obliged to attempt to levy a tax upon the islanders, but they were too poor to pay it ; he was consequently compelled to lower the allowances of most of his followers, to reduce the wages of the miners, to raise money by sale of the provisions and stores laid up for the garrison, and to sell a train of brass artillery to the Duke of Tuscany ; he also disposed of some property in a barrack, and meant to have sold the town house at Porto Ferrajo. His embarrassments were attributable to the sums he had expended in improve- ments and various works all over the island, and to the dishonourable conduct of the French Government, who did not pay punctually the stipend agreed on by the Treaty of Fontainebleau. His household at this period was very meagre, and for a Sovereign almost squalid. A Scotch gentleman of rank who visited him has given the following account of the interior of " the imperial palace " * : — " Bona- parte is in perfect health, but lodged in a worse house than the worst description of dwellings appropriated to our clergy in Scotland, yet still keeping up the state of Emperor ; that is, he has certain officers with grand official names about him. We were first shown into a room where the only furniture was an old sofa and two rush-bottom chairs, and a lamp with two burners, only one of which was lighted. An aide-de-camp received us, who called a servant and said that one of the lights had gone out. The servant said it had never been lighted. The other said, ' Light it then ; ' upon which the servant begged he would excuse him as he had not received the orders of the Emperor on the subject. We were then received by Bonaparte in an inner apartment. The Emperor wore a very old French guard uniform with three orders, and had on very dirty boots, being just come in from his country house. The interview lasted two hours and a half, during which Bonaparte men- tioned many of the principal occurrences of his life, and with apparent candour stated where he had been to blame. Reverting to the situation of France, he said we should have been satisfied with forcing the French to take back the Bourbons ; that we were pressing matters too hard with respect to their boundaries on the side of Holland, and that we might depend upon it that sooner or later (like a vessel into which people attempt to force more air than it can hold) there would be a tremendous explosion ; that France was a military country ; the Bourbons had better take care what they were about; that there were still in France five hundred thousand excellent soldiers ; and then making a rapid turn he said, ' But what is all that to me ? I am to all intents and purposes dead.' The manner he assumed was that of a blunt, honest, good-hearted soldier; his smile, when he chose it, very insinuating. He never has anybody to dinner. Bertrand sometimes has, and the latter says they are in the greatest distress for money, as the French Court does not pay the stipulated salary to Bonaparte. The following day the Emperor set off for his country house. He was in an old coach with four half-starved horses; on the wheel horse sat a coachman of the ordinary size, and the bridles had the * In a private letter, with a copy of which I have been favoured. — R. H. H. (1839). 420 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. imperial eagle on them ; on the leaders there was a mere child, and the bridles had the coronet of a British viscount on them. He had General Bertrand in the carriage, and two or three officers behind on small ponies, which could not, by all the exertions of their riders, keep up with the carriage, emaciated as those poor horses were. What a contrast all this to the magnificence of the present Court of France ! We went on Sunday to see Louis XV I II. dine in public. Not to mention the magnificence of the exterior of the Tuileries — the grand flight of steps up to the Salle des Marechaux, with its full-length portraits of all Bonaparte's distin- guished marshals, not one of which is moved— we went through five great apart- ments, and at last arrived at the apartment where his Majesty was at dinner, about a hundred feet long, hung with the finest Gobelin tapestry. In the centre sat the King at a table by himself; on his right, a table with Monsieur and the Duke d'Angouleme ; on the left, another with the Duke and Duchess de Berri. All the Court in attendance in full dress; the duchesses alone permitted to sit; everything served on gold plate ; brilliantly lighted up, and a very fine concert going on all the time. Nothing can be more striking than the contrast." The state of France under the Bourbons was full of discordant elements. Louis XVIII., advanced in years, with an overweening sense of the kingly office, gross, and devoted to the luxuries of the table, was a striking contrast to the brilliant and commanding genius whom he succeeded. When he first came to Paris a caricature was circulated, representing an eagle soaring from the Tuileries, while a large hog attended by a brood of porkers was entering the gates below. Nevertheless, to a people exhausted by war he was acceptable, even termed "Louis le Desire " by them ; and, curious as it may now seem, the popularity of his brother the Comte d'Artois reflected on him and strengthened his throne. He had said, when his cause seemed most hopeless, " I shall yet be King of France, for I am stronger than Bonaparte ; I represent a principle." The Comte d'Artois' famous mot in entering Paris, "Nothing is changed — there is only one Frenchman the more," delighted the Parsians ; and the declaration of Louis to Blucher, that if the Pont de Jena were blown up as the Prussian Prince-marshal desired, having had it mined for the purpose, he would take his stand upon it and be blown up too, showed that Louis was not lacking in kingly spirit. Unfortunately he was surrounded by emigres who were intoxicated with their unexpected power. The situation would have been embarrassing to a great man, and the abilities of Louis were mediocre. The King, therefore, did not begin his fresh reign wisely or well, and the condition of affairs, especially the dissatisfaction of the army, grew worse, owing to his intolerance, his indolent confidence, and want of foresight. More- over, the new Government, feared, disliked, neglected and even in some respects wounded the susceptibilities of the army, by whom the memory of Napoleon was idolized. Their honoured chiefs who had so often led them to victory were super- annuated and their commands given to emigrant nobles as under the old regime. The colours were changed ; many of the flags which had been proudly carried into Egypt and throughout the continent of Europe were destroyed ; and the regiments and corps broken up, so that veterans who had fought shoulder to shoulder were separated and their identity lost. In fact, the army was as much as possible revolu- tionized. All these things were known to Napoleon ; and there were other reasons for alarm at his position in Elba. In vain had Sir Niel Campbell expressed his opinion to the British Cabinet that if Napoleon's stipend were not paid he would cross with his troops to Italy ; in vain had Lord Castlereagh applied to the French Govern- ment to keep their treaty with Napoleon. The Ministers at the Congress of Vienna, considering his proximity to France as a disturbing element, and that he might in a moment of just indignation at the non-fulfilment of the pecuniary clauses of the Treaty of Fontainebleau relight the torch of war throughout Europe, suggested that he should be taken to some place of greater safety, such as St. Lucie or St. Helena. Some intimation of this scheme reached Napoleon. Nor was this 1814-15.] THE LION BREAKS LOOSE. 42 1 the only cause for making him resolve to leave Elba. Well aware of the machina- tions against him, and perfectly understanding from the public papers the state of feeling in France, Napoleon determined on returning to France at all hazards. Nor could Napoleon, so far as France was concerned, have chosen a more op- portune moment. But if he had been prudent he would have waited a few months longer, — until at least the Congress of Vienna had been dissolved and common concert at an end. Talleyrand had broken up the coalition by detaching Austria and England from Russia, Prussia, and the smaller States ; but of course Napo- leon's reappearance in France reunited them and gave birth to the Holy Alliance. The state of France was most favourable to Napoleon's projects. When Louis XVIII. ascended the throne the Senate declared the legislative Constitution to consist in an hereditary Sovereign and two Houses of Assembly, confirming the rights of all who had obtained property in the Revolution and the titles and orders conferred by the Emperor Napoleon. Yet Louis, infatuated with the old doctrine of divine right, resolved to ignore all acts of the people, from the deposition and execution of Louis XVI. to the abdication of Napoleon, and insisted, like Charles II. of England — who, however, was not restored by foreign bayonets — on dating his first act in the twentieth year of his reign. Instead of accepting the Constitution which the Senate had drawn up, he gave a " charter " to the people conferring the same liberties, but proceeding solely from himself. This was by no means likely to conciliate twenty or thirty millions jealous of their political rights, and who had freely shed their blood to obtain them. The nobles returned with their old pre- judices and pretentions enhanced, regarding the people as a lower species. The emigrants, whether capable or not, were placed in office over the heads of those who had been fighting against them for twenty years. The clergy renewed their efforts to restore the ceremonies and discipline of the Roman Church, and threat- ened excommunication against those who held the national domains or Church lands. The great proprietors were brought back to the kingdom, but without a restoration of their former lordships, estates, and feudal privileges : a motion brought forward in the Chamber of Deputies by M. Ferrand gave the universal impression that an attempt would shortly be made to resume them, and eight or ten millions of people who had purchased those estates held them in distrust and irritation. The Imperial Guard was kept up, as also was the Legion of Honour ;. but the former were indignant at the appointment of a corps of noblemen as the King's body-guard; and the orders and crosses of the latter were conferred so indiscriminately as to give offence. The army was exasperated by the promotion of Chouans and Royalists, some of whom were invalids, others haughty young scions of old families who had seen no service. The King was unable to satisfy his old followers and adherents for fear of offending the marshals and new nobility,, whose only claims to distinction were treason and rebellion in his eyes ; yet in equivocal attempts to gratify both parties he satisfied neither. The finances were exhausted, public works discontinued, and restrictions placed on the public press. The Court was full of intrigues, the middle class of dissatisfaction, the mass of the people ripe for any tumult, the army gloomy and brooding over other days. Amidst all these things sat the heavy and indolent King, who never exerted him- self except to display bad judgment. Napoleon, standing watchfully on his island rock, saw all these discordant ele- ments at work in France, and resolved to return. No actual conspiracy in his behalf was necessary. Louis and his partizan Government were the most effective conspirators for Napoleon, and he took advantage of the opportunity they gave him. Had he looked across the Rhine frontier and acted with less precipitancy and more political sagacity, he might have died at the Tuileries Emperor of France. In the course of the autumn he granted furloughs to two hundred of his guard, who forthwith returned to France "to see their friends." His remaining troops did not suspect his purpose till they were about to embark. With his handful of men he set sail in a brig (the Inconstant), accompanied by five or six small craft, on Sunday,. 422 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON ON BOARD THE l.\CO.NSTANT. the 25 th of February, to regain possession of an empire containing a population of thirty millions. Sir Niel Campbell was at the time in Leghorn, but receiving information that Napoleon was about to sail for the continent, he hurried back to give chase in the Partridge sloop of war. Meantime Napoleon's little squadron was making for Provence. On the passage they had a narrow escape from a French ship of war, which hailed the brig. The captain of the latter was for fighting, but Napoleon could not spare time for an " episode," and ordered all his soldiers to lie down flat on the decks as they wore ship ; and to the question of how they had left the Emperor at Elba, himself made answer through a trumpet that " he was very well." During the voyage he dictated his intended proclamations, which were copied by almost all his soldiers and attendants. Sir Niel Campbell was just in time to obtain a distinct view of the flotilla after Bonaparte and his troops had landed, on the 1st of March, at Cannes (then a small seaport) near Frejus. A score of the guards, hurrying on to summon the neighbouring garrison of Antibes, were made prisoners. It was proposed to rescue them before proceeding . further, but Napoleon remarked that as thirty millions of people were waiting to be set free they could not delay for these few. He, however, sent the war commis- sioner to try if he could obtain their liberty, adding, " Take care you do not get yourself made prisoner too ! " At nightfall Napoleon bivouacked near the beach, in a plantation of olives, with his troops around him. His force amounted to five hundred Grenadiers of the Guard, two hundred dragoons, and a hundred Polish lancers : these latter being without horses, carried the saddles on their backs. Na- poleon's return had been expected by the soldiers, and perhaps by many others from the general aspect of affairs; nevertheless when, on the nth of March, the intelligence was brought by a courier to the representatives of the European Princes at Vienna, " no surprise was ever greater than theirs." In the morning of the 2nd of March, when the moon rose, Napoleon gave orders for proceeding to Grasse. 1815.] AT GRENOBLE. 4?3 A labourer going to work in the fields recognized the Emperor, and uttering a cry of joy, said he had served in the army of Italy and would join his ranks. " Here is a reinforcement already ! " said Napoleon. Passing through the town, he halted on a little height, where he breakfasted. Many of the population of the place sur- rounded and welcomed him. Petitions had already been drawn up, and were presented to him, just as if he had come from Paris and was making a tour through the departments. Some secretly informed him that the authorities of the town were hostile, but that the people would rid him of these enemies. " Be not too hasty," replied Napoleon : " let them have the mortification of seeing our triumph without having anything to reproach us with." At Grasse he expected to find a road he had planned during the empire ; but the Bourbons had not continued the work, and he was obliged to pass through narrow defiles filled with snow, leaving behind him his carriage and two pieces of cannon. " Victory," he said, "depends on my speed." To him France was in Grenoble; but the place was a hundred miles distant. The weather and the roads were wretchedly bad. As he advanced the population declared in his favour, but he saw no soldiers. He knew success depended upon the general feeling, and not upon any force he could bring with him. His first proclamations were made at Gap on the 5th. One was ad- dressed to the people, the other to the army. The former concluded with these words : — " Frenchmen ! in my exile I heard your complaints and your vows ; you reproached me with sacrificing the welfare of the country to my repose. I have traversed seas through perils of every kind ; I return among you to reclaim my rights, which are yours." The proclamation to the army ran thus : — " Soldiers ! we have not been conquered. Two men, sprung from our ranks, have betrayed our laurels, their country, their benefactor, and their Prince. Your General, called to the throne by the choice of the people, and raised on your shields, is restored to you. Come and join him. Mount the tricoloured cockade : you wore it in the days of your greatness. We must forget that we have been the masters of nations ; but we must not suffer any to intermeddle in our affairs. Who would pretend to be master over us? Who would have the power? Resume those eagles which you had at Ulm, at Austerlitz, at Jena, at Eylau, at Wagram, at Friedland, at Tudela, at Eckmuhl, at Essling, at Smolensk, at Mosqua, at Lutzen, at Wurtchen, at Montmirail. The veterans of the armies of the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine, of Italy, of Egypt, of the West, of the Grand Army, are humiliated : their honour- able scars are stained, their successes would be crimes, the brave would be rebels, if, as the enemies of the people pretend, the lawful Sovereigns were in the midst of foreign armies. Soldiers ! come and range yourselves under the banners of your chief: his rights are only those of the people; his interest, his honour, his glory, are yours. Victory shall march at the charging step ; the eagle, with the national colours, shall fly from steeple to steeple till it reaches the towers of Notre Dame. You will be the liberators of the country. In your old age, surrounded and looked up to by your fellow-citizens, you will each of you be able to say with pride, ' And I also made part of that Grand Army which entered twice within the walls of Vienna, which occupied Rome, Berlin, Madrid, Moscow, and which delivered Paris from the stain which treason and the presence of the enemy had imprinted on it ! ; " Between Mure and Vizele the advanced guard of forty grenadiers, commanded by Cambrone, unexpectedly met a battalion sent from Grenoble to arrest the march. Both parties halted until Napoleon came up. He dismounted and ad- vanced alone. A hundred grenadiers marched at some distance behind him with arms reversed in dead silence. Napoleon advanced steadily till within a few paces of the men ; then throwing open his old grey great coat, so as to show the star of the Legion of Honour, he exclaimed, " If there be among you a soldier who desires to kill his general — his Emperor — let him do it now. Here lam!" The old cry of " Vive VEmpereur /" burst from every lip. Napoleon ran into the ranks, and taking by the whisker a veteran private, covered with chevrons and 424 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. medals, said, " Speak honestly, old moustache : couldst thou have had the heart to kill thy Emperor?" The order to march was given by Napoleon, and both parties of soldiers marched on together. Colonel Labedoyere, a young officer of noble family and enthusiastic character, was sallying from the gates of Grenoble at the head of his regiment, the Seventh of the Line. As theyneared Napoleon's- little troop Labedoyere displayed an eagle, and breaking open a drum in which he had concealed a number of tricoloured cockades, distributed them to the men. When the Emperor came in sight Labedoyere rushed into his arms. His soldiers,, and those who were "with Napoleon, broke from their ranks, embracing each other, with shouts of " Vive F Empereur /" The peasantry of Dauphiny, the cradle of the Revolution, lined the roadside, uttering exclamations of joy and vehemently exhort- ing such of the soldiers as manifested any sign of hesitation. Napoleon said he could have taken two millions of such peasantry with him to Paris, but that he should then have been called the King of the Mob. At nightfall when the Emperor presented himself before Grenoble, the com- manding officer refused to open the gates. The garrison assembled on the ram- parts, shouting "Vive P Empereur !" while others shook hands with Napoleon's followers through the wickets below. The town batteries were manned, the cannon loaded with grape-shot and pointed at the little band, at the head of which stood Napoleon. The word was repeatedly given to fire, but the guns remained silent. In none of his battles did the Emperor imagine himself in so much danger ; never- theless, he remained calmly facing the batteries. By his direction Labe'doyere ascended a mound, and exhorted the garrison to remember their old love for him who had led them to so many victories. The soldiers responded with the cry of "Vive F Empereur !" but no one dared to open the gates. At this crisis Napoleon had two or three small guns planted under the very mouths of the artillery of the fortress, and blew down the gates. The garrison, in a transport of joy, broke their ranks, issued forth, surrounded Napoleon, carried him into the city (actually carry- ing his horse after him), and before he could well recover his breath, an incredible tumult was heard, and he found that the inhabitants of Grenoble, being unable to bring him the keys of the city, had brought him, with acclamations, the shattered gates instead. Next morning the authorities waited on Napoleon and tendered their homage. The Commandant of the city, General Marchand, who still main- tained his allegiance to Louis, was allowed to depart without molestation. The Emperor reviewed his troops, now about seven thousand in number, and on the 9th renewed his march. On the 10th Napoleon arrived within sight of Lyons. Here the Count d'Artois and Marshal Macdonald attempted to make a stand ; but all opposition vanished when the Emperor was recognized by the soldiers. Monsieur and Macdonald were forced to retreat, and Napoleon entered the second city of France in triumph. A guard of mounted gentlemen had been formed among the citizens to attend upon Monsieur; but all except one hastened to offer their services to the Emperor, who dismissed them with contempt, and sent the cross of the Legion of Honour to the one gentleman who had been faithful. During the four days the Emperor re- mained at Lyons twenty thousand people continually assembled beneath his win- dows, uttering acclamations. This revolution had been proceeding during more than a week before the gazettes of Paris ventured to allude to it. When its success was half secured, there appeared a royal ordonnance proclaiming Napoleon Bona- parte an outlaw, while the Afoniteiir announced that he was stripped of all his followers and wandering in despair among the hills. The two Chambers were convoked. The Count d'i\rtois departed for Lyons ; the Duke d'Angouleme was at Marseilles preparing to cut off Napoleon's retreat; and King Louis continued to receive loyal addresses from public bodies, marshals, and generals. But there was a strong under -current among those in Paris who wished for the return of Napoleon. Intriguers and partisans circulated any reports that suited them. While the Royalists were talking of the seizure of this " outlaw and invader," the Em- i8i 5 .] NEY'S DOUBLE DEFECTION. 425 RETUKN FROM ELBA. peror had formally resumed the functions of civil government and issued several decrees — one of which abolished the Chamber of Peers and of Deputies; another concerned the coronation of Maria Louisa and his son ; another abolished the Order of St. Louis, bestowing its revenues upon the Legion of Honour ; another ordered certain individuals into banishment. When these proclamations could no longer be concealed in Paris, the Court dropped its high tone and began to pre- pare simultaneously for defence and flight. The main hope of the Bourbons rested upon Ney, who, like the other marshals and officers, had sworn allegiance to Louis on the abdication of Napoleon. Ney left the Court with a vaunting promise to bring back Napoleon " like a wild beast in a cage." When he arrived with his army at Lons-le-Saulnier, he received a letter from Napoleon, calling him to his side. Confused between old associations and present engagements, thunderstruck by the Emperor's proclamations, his sol- diers leaving him in masses to join the ranks of their idolized commander, Ney issued his memorable order of the day declaring that the cause of the Bourbons was lost for ever. But as Ney, like most of the other marshals and officers, had only suffered himself to be borne along with the tide, he wrote to beg leave to retire from the service. Napoleon replied by desiring Ney to come to him, and he would receive him as on the day after the battle of Moscow. He came, was received by the Emperor with open arms, and his intended hostility was forgotten. 426 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Louis convoked a general council at the Tuileries on the 1 8th of March, placed all his troops still faithful to him under the command of Marshal Macdonald, and departed for Lisle. Macdonald proceeded to Melun with the King's army amount- ing to upwards of thirty thousand men. Napoleon slept once more in the Chateau of Fontainebleau on the 19th. Next day, Macdonald's Royalist troops were drawn up in three lines at Melun to oppose the Emperor and his soldiers, who were said to be coming from Fontaine- bleau. The glades of the forest, and the acclivity which leads to it, were in full view of the royal army, but in deep solitude. At length, about noon, a galloping of horses was heard, and a single open carriage, instead of a squadron of cavalry, appeared, emerging from the green shadows of the forest, followed by a few Polish lancers as attendants, with their lances reversed. In the carriage sat Napoleon in his cocked hat and grey coat. It drove at full speed towards Macdonald's army ; then Napoleon, jumping from the vehicle, rushed alone into the ranks drawn up to oppose him. Instantly arose a general shout of " Vive I 'Empereur J" while the Polish lancers, leaping from their horses, mingled with their old comrades ; and the last army of the Bourbons deserted their flag without striking a single blow. They filled the air with shouts of " Vive V Empereur ! n and trampled their white cockades in the dust. "Napoleon's march from Cannes to Paris," says Napier, "surrounded by hundreds of thousands of poor men who were not soldiers, can never be effaced or even disfigured. For six weeks, at any moment a single assassin might by a single shot have obtained vast rewards from the trembling monarchs and aristocrats of the earth, who scrupled not to instigate men to the shameful deed. Many there were base enough to undertake, but none so hardy as to execute the crime ; and Napo- leon, guarded by the people of France, passed unharmed to a throne whence it required a million of foreign bayonets to drive him again. From the throne they drove him, but not from the thoughts and hearts of men." Macdonald made his escape to Paris, but Louis XVIII. had not awaited the issue of the last stand at Melun. Escorted by his household, in the middle of the preceding night the unwieldy body of Louis was assisted to his carriage, and, de- parting from the Tuileries amidst the tears and lamentations of several courtiers, he took the road to Lisle. FLIGHT OF LOUIS LE DESIRE. • VIVE LEMPEREUR 4 " CHAPTER XLII. NAPOLEON'S ENTRANCE INTO PARIS — HIS FIRST REVIEW AND LEVEE — FIRST PUBLIC ACTS — DECLARATION OF THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA — NAPOLEON MAKES OVERTURES OF PEACE TO THE SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE — NEW COALITION OF ENGLAND, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA — MURAT — NAPOLEON'S NEW CONSTITUTION — FOUCH£ — THE CHAMP-DE-MAI — OPENING OF THE CHAMBERS — STRENGTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARMIES OF FRANCE AND OF THE ALLIES- — NAPOLEON LEAVES PARIS FOR BELGIUM. IVf APOLRON entered Paris on the evening of the 20th of March, attended by a crowd of general officers on horseback, and by a multitude of people who went to meet him on the road from Fontaine- bleau. He passed along the new Boule- vard, crossed the bridge of La Concorde, and entered the Tuileries by the postern adjoining the quay. When he entered the courtyard of the palace the crowd was so dense that the horses were unable to move a step farther. A rush was made towards the carriage ; the door was forced open ; the Emperor taken out, and borne upon the shoulders of the multitude to his own apartment. He sent for his former Ministers, and order- ing each to resume his portfolio, every- thing took its former aspect. The Em- peror dined as usual ; his apartment was prepared as usual ; "it seemed," says Savary, v as if he had merely returned from a journey." A guard of honour was formed entirely of general officers, who relieved each other as sentries outside his door. In the apartment which Louis had just left, Napoleon found a brilliant assemblage of marshals, nobles, officers, and courtiers. Nearly the whole of them had been adherents of Louis but a few days before ; their adulation was, therefore, not overrated by Napoleon. " Gen- tlemen," said he. bitterly, as he walked round the glittering circle, " it is disin- terested people who have brought me back to my capital." Next day the Emperor reviewed all the troops in Paris, and addressed them in 427 428 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. one of those stirring speeches which never failed to excite their enthusiasm. Cries of " Vive TEmperetir /" filled the air, and were redoubled when the battalion of the guard which had accompanied him to and from Elba marched on the ground. All the public bodies of the capital and its neighbourhood hastened to present loyal addresses, and his levee was crowded with men of distinction, both civil and mili- tary. The language of the Emperor breathed a spirit of liberty which inspired hope and confidence, and his first acts corresponded with his words. A decree of the 24th of March removed the restrictions on the press ; and among his first measures was the appointment of Carnot as Minister of the Interior, and of Ben- jamin Constant as a Councillor of State, — men whose names sounded to the public as guarantees that Napoleon was about to become a Constitutional Sovereign. Fouche was made Minister of Police. The Duke of Bassano returned to his old employment of Secretary of State. Davoust was Minister of War. Napoleon de- termined that his election as Emperor should be again submitted to the popular voice. Registers for the reception of votes were accordingly opened in all the communes, in the same manner as on the occasions of his assuming the consulate for life and the imperial dignity. A grand meeting of the electors of France was also convoked, under the name of the " Champ-de-Mai," in order to sanction the new Constitution. Electoral colleges in each department were convened for the election of a new Chamber of Deputies. Napoleon announced that at the "Champ- de-Mai " the coronation of the Empress and his son would take place. This was one of the means by which he sanctioned the unfounded report that Austria was about to desert the coalition and form an alliance with France. Hopes of peace flattered the people into dreams of liberty, prosperity, and tranquillity. Napoleon had the nation with him at that moment, notwithstanding that the proclamations of Louis XVIII. announced the speedy arrival of a million of foreign soldiers under the walls of Paris to replace him on his throne. Louis had retired to Ghent. The Duke of Bourbon endeavoured to raise an insurrection in La Vendee, but his attempts failed and he escaped by sea from Nantes. The Duke d'Angouleme placed himself at the head of a body of the Royalists of Provence, but was surrounded and obliged to capitulate, under condition of being allowed a free passage from France for himself and pardon for his followers. The Duchess dAngouleme was the last of the Royal Family who remained in France. She had thrown herself into Bourdeaux, trusting to the friendly feeling of the mayor and citizens. She made vain efforts to maintain the Bourbon cause, and behaved with so much spirit as to make Napoleon call her " the only man of her family." The garrison permitted her to embark on board an English frigate ; then opened the gates to General Clausel, and Bourdeaux declared for the Emperor. The Imperial Government was speedily re-established in every part of France, and the tricoloured flag waved from every tower and steeple. The Congress at Vienna was sitting when intelligence was received of Napoleon's landing in France. The assembled diplomatists immediately put forth a declara- tion in which they declared that " by breaking the convention which established him in the island of Elba, Bonaparte destroys the only legal title on which his ex- istence depended ; and, by appearing again in France, with projects of confusion and disorder, he has deprived himself of the protection of the laws, and has mani- fested to the universe that there can be neither peace nor truce with him. The Powers consequently declare that Napoleon Bonaparte has placed himself without the pale of civil and social relations, and that as an enemy and disturber of the tranquillity of the world he has rendered himself liable to public vengeance." The allied Powers prepared for war. Napoleon dispatched to every Sovereign of Europe a letter, in which he declared his resolution of maintaining the conditions of the Treaty of Paris, signed and ratified between Louis XVIII. and the allies, and invited the continuance of their friendly relations with France. The Council of State at the same time put forth a report on the declaration of the Congress, in which they reprobated its spirit in a strain of just indignation, and justified the I-8I5.J LAST EUROPEAN COALITION. 429 MARSHAL CARNOT. return of Napoleon as a measure rendered imperative by his personal danger and the evils under which France was groaning. The allied monarchs returned no answer to the overtures of Napoleon, except by a treaty between England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, renewing their league against him. Each contracting Power became bound to keep constantly in the field an army of a hundred and fifty thousand men, until the purpose of the war had been attained ; a separate article was added, authorizing England to provide money instead of men ; and another, disclaiming on the part of the Prince Regent of England the intention of forcing any especial Government on the people of France. The decree of outlawry against Napoleon was confirmed, and all the Sovereigns of Europe were invited to co-operate in the objects of the alliance. The ex-King of France was particularly urged to lend his assistance. Under these 430 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. threatening auspices Napoleon commenced that period of his Government desig- nated the " Hundred Days." Jealousies had arisen between Murat and the allied Powers soon after his un- natural treaty with them was completed, and he had reason to suspect that his crown was in danger. Under these circumstances, he no sooner heard of Napo- leon's landing in France than he was excited to a pitch of uncontrollable impatience. Without any declaration of war, he placed himself at the head of fifty thousand men, occupied Ronje, and made the Pope and cardinals fly before him. Then marching northwards, he defeated the Austrian General Bianchi, and took posses- sion of Modena and Florence, having already, on the 31st of March, addressed a proclamation to all Italians, summoning them'to rise for the liberation of their coun- try. Austria, alarmed at his prowess simultaneously with Napoleon's restoration, offered him peace, which he refused. " It was too late," he said ; " Italy deserves freedom, and she shall be free ! " Austria consequently sent large reinforcements against him, and England prepared for a descent upon Naples. Murat was defeated near Occhiobello, and retreated upon his whole line. After several combats, in which he fought with courage but no military skill, he fled to Naples, attended only by four lancers. His whole army had been dispersed or taken. He appeared be- fore his Queen, pale, dishevelled, and haggard, saying, "All is lost, Caroline, except my own life — I have been unable to find death." He was obliged to fly in dis- guise. He cut off his hair, put on a grey frock, reached first the island of Ischia, and afterwards landed in France. His Queen surrendered herself to Commodore Campbell (of the Tremendous), by whom she was carried to Austria, where she received permission to reside under the title of Countess of Lipano. Murat caused Napoleon to be informed of his arrival in France, but only received in return a recommendation from Fouche, " to remain where he was until the Emperor's pleasure with regard to him should be known." Napoleon, when informed of Murat's message, inquired with bitterness, " whether Naples and France had made peace since the war of 1814?" At St. Helena he observed, "It was Murat's fate to ruin us every way; once by declaring against us, and again by taking our part." Napoleon conceived that the last hope of an accommodation between himself and the Emperor of Austria had been destroyed by this rash aggression of Murat ; but there never was any real likelihood of such an accommodation. In the return of the Royal Family of Sicily to Naples, and the increase of Austrian influence in Italy, consisted the actual importance of the affair as far as concerned him. Murat lived in obscurity near Toulon till after the battle of Waterloo. Napoleon sub- sequently declared his belief that the presence of Murat in that battle might have altered the fortune of the day, when his impetuous charges might have succeeded in breaking some of the English squares ; adding that he had frequently thought of recalling the ex-King of Naples, but feared the soldiers would not endure the presence of one whom they regarded as a betrayer of his country. As the spring advanced, upwards of a million of men were preparing to invade France. Nothing could have preserved the empire at this crisis but unanimity between the executive and legislative bodies, and the entire confidence of the latter in the Emperor. The army and a majority of the people were devoted to him, but the leading minds of Paris were not in favour of any dynasty. They feared the return of Louis, whose short reign had disgusted every party ; but almost equally did they dread the establishment of Napoleon's power before he had been so fettered by the Constitution as to give them a guarantee for their liberties. They therefore wasted the short interval allowed for preparations of defence against a million foreigners in imposing conditions on Napoleon. He, on his part, gave them little reason for greater confidence. It was Benjamin Constant's idea that, in proposing to govern as a Constitutional Sovereign, Napoleon yielded to necessity and the temper of the times, not that he had changed his opinions. That cele- brated statesman has recorded the substance of the Emperor's conversation in one of the interviews between them at this time. "The nation," said Napoleon, "has 1815.] "CONSTITUTIONAL RULE MAY SUIT ME!" 43 1 had a respite of twelve years from every kind of political agitation, and for one year has enjoyed a respite from war. This double repose has created a craving after activity. It requires, or fancies it requires, a tribune, and popular assemblies. It did not always require them. The people threw themselves at my feet when I took the reins of the Government. You, who made a trial of opposition, ought to recollect this. Where was your support — your strength? Nowhere ! I assumed less authority than I was invited to assume. At present all is changed. A feeble Government, opposed to the national interests, has given to these interests the habit of standing on the defensive and evading authority. The taste for constitu- tions, for debates, appears to have revived. Nevertheless, it is but the minority that wishes all this. The people wish only for me. You would say so if you had seen them pressing eagerly on my steps, — calling on me, seeking me out, saluting me. On my way from Cannes hither I have not conquered, — I have administered. I am not only the Emperor of the soldiers, but of the peasants, — of the ple- beians of France. In spite of all that has happened, the people come back to me. Thereds sympathy between us. It is not as with the privileged classes. The noblesse have been in my service ; they thronged in crowds into my antechambers. There is no place that they have not solicited. I have had the Montmorencys, the Noailles, the Rohans in my train. The steed made his curvets, — he was well broken in, — but I felt him shiver under me. With the people it is another thing. The popular fibre responds to mine. I have risen from their ranks : my voice acts mechanically upon them. Look at those conscripts — the sons of peasants : I never flattered them ; I treated them roughly. They did not crowd round me the less ; they did not cease to cry, ' Vive PEmpereur /' Between them and me there is one and the same nature. They look to me as their support — their safeguard — against the nobles. I have but to make a sign, or rather to look another way, and the nobles would be massacred in all the provinces, — so well have they managed matters in the last ten months ! But I do not desire to be the king of a mob. If there are the means to govern by a Constitution, well and good. I wished for the empire of the world, and to insure it a power without bounds was necessary to me. To govern merely France, it is possible that a Constitution may be better. Who would not have wished for the empire of the world in my place ? Sovereigns and subjects alike emulously bowed the neck under my sceptre. I have seldom met with opposition in France; still I have encountered more from some obscure and unarmed Frenchmen than from all those Kings so resolute just now not to have a man of the people for their equal ! Let me know your ideas. Public discussion, free elections, responsible Ministers, the liberty of the press, — I have no objection to all that, the liberty of the press especially: to stifle it is absurd. I am convinced on this point. I am the man of the people : if the people really wish for liberty, let them have it. I have acknowledged their sovereignty ; it is just that I should lend an ear even to their caprices. I have never been disposed to oppress them for my pleasure. I entertained great designs : fate has disposed of them. I am no longer a conqueror, nor can I be one. I know what is pos- sible and what is not. I have no further object than to raise up France, and to give her a Government suitable to her. I have no hatred to liberty. I have set it aside when it obstructed my path, but I understand what it means : I was brought up in its school ; besides, the work of fifteen years is overturned, and it is not possible to recommence it. Twenty years and the lives of two million of men would require to be sacrificed to it. As for the rest, I desire peace, but I can only obtain it by means of a victory. I would not inspire you with false expecta- tions. I let it be said that there are negotiations going on ; — there are none. I foresee a hard struggle — a long war. To support it, I must be seconded by the nation ; but, in return, I believe they will expect liberty. They shall have it : — the circumstances are new. All I desire is to be informed of the truth. I am growing old ; a man is no longer at forty-five what he was at thirty. The repose enjoyed by a Constitutional King may suit me. It will still more certainly suit my son." 432 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. THE ENTENTE CORD I ALE. On the 22nd of April Napoleon published his plan of reform, under the title of "An Additional Act to the Constitutions of the Empire." Its chief provisions were: — "The legislative power resides in the Emperor and two Chambers. The Chamber of Peers is hereditary, and the Emperor names them. Their number is unlimited. The second Chamber is elected by the people, and is to consist of six hundred and twenty-nine members, — none are to be under twenty-five. The pre- sident to be appointed by the members, but approved by the Emperor. Members are to be paid at the rate settled by the Constituent Assembly. It is to be renewed every five years. . The Emperor may prorogue, adjourn, or dissolve the House of Representatives. Sittings are to be public. The electoral colleges are maintained. Taxes are to be proposed by the Chamber of Representatives. No levy of men for the army, nor any exchange of territory, but by a law. Ministers to be respon- sible. Judges to be irremovable. Juries to be established. Freedom of worship to every sect," &c. A separate article proscribed the accession of any member of the house of Bourbon to the throne of France. This act satisfied no party, and bitterly disappointed the most liberal. That it proceeded from the Emperor was of itself an objection, and it might well be disliked in some of its provisions. But that which chiefly alienated the Republicans was the creation of an hereditary peer- age. Carnot opposed the publication of this act with all his power, and there is no doubt that it exercised on public opinion a strong influence adverse to Napo- leon. Napoleon, well aware of the importance of courting popularity, ordered the Im- iSi5-] REORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL RESOURCES. 433 INSPECTING THE FEDERATES OF PARIS. perial Guard to give a grand banquet to fifteen hundred of the National Guards in the Champ de Mars. On Napoleon's return from Elba, he found the effective force of the French army to be only about ninety-three thousand men, the rest having been disbanded. He laboured unremittingly to raise the military strength of France to a height sufficient once more to repel the attack of all Europe. Men, clothing, arms, horses, and discipline, — all were wanting. The veterans recalled to the ranks came in crowds, cheerfully leaving their employments. Officers on half-pay were summoned, and eighty-thousand National Guards incorporated with the regular army. Even retired and pensioned officers and soldiers answered to the War Minister's call, and those unfit for active service did garrison duty, or brought their experience to drill the new levies. The seamen and marines were trained as engineers and artillerymen. France had possessed no navy of any consequence since the battle of Trafalgar. The imperial factories, which had been able to furnish twenty thousand stand of arms monthly, were made to pro- duce double that quantity. Cavalry and artillery horses were purchased ; clothing and all other wants supplied with the same energy, while public works were resumed all over France. Louis, in his precipitate flight, had left behind him the crown plate and the treasury chests of the departments ; large voluntary donations also were numerous ; and it was no uncommon occurrence for Napoleon to have bundles of bank-bills placed in his hands at the military parades ; but the good- will of the nation was his greatest resource. There remained at the disposal of Napoleon a vast mass of power, which, had he chosen to call it into action, would have > swelled his army to a force such as would have defied foreign hosts and made France one great camp. This power consisted of the working classes. They called for arms wherever they could make themselves heard. In Paris they paraded the streets during the "Hundred Days," frequently crowding under the windows of the Tuileries to shout " Vive V Emperear !" They understood no political theories. With them the Emperor was popular as 28 434 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the "Great Contractor," whose magnificent public works had provided them with employment, and under whom the nation had grown rich and prosperous. Napo- leon used this power timidly. He "would not be the king of the mob." He feared to touch the spring which might have brought into action undeveloped and uncon- trollable forces, inconsistent with imperial pomp, Court luxury, and absolute power. Corps of operatives under the name of Federates were, however, organized in Paris and the departments ; but they were insufficiently armed, and no regular part was alloted to them. Napoleon appointed the 14th of May for a day of procession and solemn festival of the Federates of Paris, when he rode along their ranks, received their acclamations, and harangued them in his usual strain of eloquence. Amidst all the discordant elements of the time, Fouche was engaged in in- trigues, for which his influential position of Minister of Police gave him full opportunity. He had begun to hold communications with the Austrian Govern- ment ; and in one instance Napoleon discovered the fact and nearly had him arrested, but he abstained, apparently from apprehension of the Republican party, amongst whom Fouche" was busy and influential. It is asserted that Napoleon made an attempt to have his wife and child forcibly brought to France, after it had become apparent that the Emperor of Austria was resolved to detain them in Vienna. The intention failed, and immediately after- wards Maria Louisa was obliged by command of her father to lay aside the arms and liveries of her husband and to assume those of Austria, at the same time taking the title of Duchess of Parma. The ceremony of the "Champ-de-Mai" took place on the 1st of June, in the open space facing the military school. The electors of departments, representatives of the people, and deputations from the army were assembled round the magnifi- cent throne on which the Emperor was seated, attended by his brothers Joseph, Lucien, and Jerome, his Court, and the members of the Government. The Imperial and National Guards and the troops of the line were drawn up in squares in the Champ de Mars, and an immense concourse of spectators thronged every vacant space. After a religious solemnity, a patriotic address was presented to the Emperor by the electors ; the result of the votes was then declared — being upwards of a million and a half for the new Constitution, and something over four thousand against it. The Emperor then turning to the side on which the electors were placed, pronounced these words, " Emperor, Consul, Soldier — I hold all from the people. In prosperity, in adversity, in the field of battle, in council, on the throne, in exile, France has been the sole object of all my thoughts and actions." The Emperor then proceeded to the altar and took an oath to observe the new Con- stitution, in which he was followed by the Ministers and electoral deputations. The ceremony concluded with the distribution of eagles to the troops, and with loud and repeated acclamations and cries of " Vive V Empereur f from the soldiers and the multitude assembled. On the following day the Emperor gave a grand fete in the gallery of the Louvre to the deputies of the army and the electors, on which occasion he was again greeted with manifestations of devotion and fidelity. On the 4th of June Napoleon attended in person the opening of the Chambers. The House of Peers was his own creation, and consequently he encountered no opposition there. It was composed of his most distinguished marshals, generals, and councillors. Labedoyere and Ney were among the military peers ; there were also some men of literary eminence and a few of the Republican party, such as Sieyes and Marshal Carnot, who accepted titles of nobility in order to support at this crisis the man they regarded as the champion of the Revolution. The brothers of Napoleon had seats in the Chamber of Peers. Lucien had joined Napoleon on his return from Elba after a long alienation, which, to the honour of Lucien, was forgotten in these days of difficulty, for he laboured assiduously in the imperial cause. The Chamber of Representatives was composed of more un- ruly elements. The lovers of constitutional liberty found here an opportunity to strive after a pure system of government, and used their opportunity with zeal. i8i 5 .] ACTION OF THE CHAMBERS. 435 NAPOLEON AT THE CHAMP-DE-MAI. La Fayette once more took an important part in the political world. Lanjuinais, a Republican, well known for his opposition to the Emperor, was chosen president. The address of the Emperor to both Chambers was firm, candid, and sensible. He disclaimed all pretensions to absolute power, demanded their assistance in matters of finance, and required from them an example of confidence, energy, and patriotism. The peers replied in cordial terms. The second Chamber promised unanimous support in repelling the foreign enemy ; but it also announced its intention to consider the Constitution, to point out its defects and their remedies, and concluded with a hint against the ambition of Napoleon. Amongst these men the fear was quite natural that if Napoleon were firmly reseated on his throne their opportunity might be lost for ever ; but it is impossible not to feel that by the language they used they crippled his moral power when it needed their utmost support ; frittered away time, already too short ; and encouraged the enemies of 28 — 2 43 6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. France by publicly announcing their intention of curbing Napoleon's power to retaliate upon them the aggressions now perpetrated against France. In the midst of these difficulties Napoleon made extraordinary progress in his preparations for war. By the ist of June the effective strength of the French army had been raised to three hundred and sixty-three thousand men, of whom two hundred and seventeen thousand were under arms, clothed, disciplined, and ready to take the field. They were formed into seven grand army corps, besides several corps of observation along the frontiers, which were threatened on every side. The greater portion of the regular forces were cantoned round Paris and on the frontier of Flanders, from which quarter the first attack of the allies was expected. The army extraordinary, consisting of picked battalions of the National Guard, amounted to one hundred and ninety-six thousand men, the greater part of whom garrisoned the ninety frontier fortresses belonging to France, which had been armed, palisaded, and provisioned, and were officered by experienced men. Five hundred pieces of artillery were added to the field force of the army. The Imperial Guard was increased to four regiments of the Young Guard, four of the Middle Guard, four of the Old Guard, four of cavalry — in all, forty thousand men with ninety-six guns. The contractors had provided twenty thousand horses for the cavalry and twelve thousand for the artillery, ten thousand trained horses having been furnished by the dismounted gendarmerie. The heights, redoubts, and line of defences extending round Paris were mounted with six hundred pieces of cannon, and manned by five or six thousand gunners taken from the arsenals, and by volunteers from the Polytechnic and Charenton schools, all placed under the direction of Engineer-General Haxo. Works of the same description were com- menced around Lyons under the Engineer-General Le'ry. When completed and the National Guard duly organized, the defence of Paris might have been main- tained by one hundred thousand men, independently of the troops of the line. The resources of France were of course much greater than these, but wanted time for development. " By the ist of October," says Napoleon in his " Memoirs "' dictated to Montholon, " France would have possessed an army of eight or nine hundred thousand men, thoroughly organized, armed, and equipped. The problem of her independence consisted in retarding hostilities till the ist of October. By that time the frontiers of the empire would have been walls of brass, which no- human power could have violated with impunity. . . . But time was a necessary element : it took a week to create the universe." No further time, however, was allowed Napoleon by his enemies, whose im- mense armaments were gathering on the frontiers of France in different lines and at considerable intervals. The Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia placed themselves at the head of their respective armies. The Austrians, amounting to three hundred thousand men, commanded by Schwartzenburg, were divided into two bodies, — one of which was to enter France by Switzerland, the other by the Upper Rhine. Two hundred thousand Russians were marching towards Alsace, under the Archduke Constantine. The Prussian army amounted to two hundred and thirty-six thousand, of whom one-half were already in the field. The minor States of Germany had furnished one hundred and fifty thousand ; the Netherlands fifty thousand; England eighty thousand, including the King's German Legion and other troops in British pay, under the command of the Duke of Wel- lington ; — in all one million sixteen thousand soldiers. To organize, equip, transport, and maintain this enormous mass of men, the Chancellor of the Exchequer nego- tiated a loan of thirty-six millions, upon terms surprisingly moderate ; and the command of this treasure put the troops of the coalition into the highest state of efficiency. The army commanded by the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussians under Blucher, were firs't in the field. They occupied Belgium ; but the Russians and Austrians, it was computed, could not be on the Rhine before July. Napoleon's plan of campaign was to assume the offensive by marching into Belgium and attacking the armies of Blucher and Wellington before they had com- i8i 5 .] THE CAUDINE FORKS. 437 pieted their combinations. Napoleon calculated that by the 15 th of June he could assemble an army of one hundred and forty thousand men in Belgium, the triple row of fortresses possessed by France on that frontier affording a curtain behind which he could unite and manoeuvre his forces. His numbers might be inferior, but his strategy would aim at preventing the junction of the two armies opposed to him, and beating them separately. Should he succeed, Belgium would rise and join his cause, — the fickle spirit of that country being well known to him and to the allies. Another effect of his success would be, he thought, the fall of the English Ministry; a result which might terminate the war. If, however, the other allied Powers continued to advance, ample time would be given him to march his vic- torious army on the Rhine. Lastly, the terrible evil of submitting the eastern provinces of France to the devastating invasion of a million of enemies would be avoided by an offensive campaign in the Low Countries. Napoleon therefore resolved on that plan. But his calculations were partly disturbed by an insur- rection in La Vendee, which obliged him to send twenty thousand men to quell it. The Emperor took leave of the legislature, replying thus to the address of the Deputies : — " The struggle in which we are engaged is serious. The seductions of prosperity are not the dangers which menace us at present. Foreigners wish to make us pass under the Caudine Forks, but the justice of our cause, the public spirit of the nation, and the courage of the army are strong grounds of hope. Should we encounter reverses, I should then trust to see displayed all the energy of a great people. In times of difficulty great nations, like great men, disclose their character and become objects of admiration to posterity. The Constitution is our rallying-point ; it should be our pole star in these stormy times. Every public discussion tending directly or indirectly to diminish the confidence which should be placed in its provisions, would be a misfortune to the State : we should find ourselves amidst rocks without compass or pilot. The crisis in which we are involved is arduous. Let us not imitate the example of the Lower Empire, which, pressed on all sides by barbarians, rendered itself the scoff of posterity by entering into abstract discussions when the battering-ram was at the gates of the city. In all consequences my conduct will be firm. Aid me to save the country. First representative of the people, I have contracted the obligation, which I now renew, to employ in more tranquil times all the prerogatives of the crown and the experience I have acquired to ameliorate our institutions." Napoleon left Paris for the army on the night between the nth and 12th of June. The Imperial Guard had commenced its march on the 8th.* All the army corps were moving towards Maubeuge and Philippeville. THE IMPERIAL GUARD TAKING FAREWELL OF THE PARISIANS. HIGHLAND LADDIES. CHAPTER XLIIJ FORCE AND POSITION OF THE ALLIED ARMIES — WELLINGTON — BLUCHER — NAPOLEON TAKES COMMAND OF HIS FORCES — ADDRESS TO THE SOLDIERS — DUCHESS OF RICHMOND'S BALL AT BRUSSELS — ATTACK ON CHARLEROI AND FLEURUS — BATTLES OF LIGNY AND QUATRE-BRAS — BATTLE OF WATERLOO. THE Duke of Wellington had under his supreme command about forty- three thousand British troops (in- cluding the King's German Legion) and about fifty - four thousand Hanoverians, Brunswickers (com- manded by the Duke of Bruns- wick), Nassauers, Dutch and Bel- gians (under the command of the Prince of Orange), numbering in all an effective strength of ninety- five thousand men, designated the Anglo -Belgian (or Allied) Army. His head-quarters were at Brussels. His first division (commanded by the Prince of Orange) occupied Enghien, Braine-le-Comte, and Nivelles, joining hands with the Prussian right at Charleroi. The second division (commanded by Lord Hill) was cantoned in Halle, Oudenarde, and Grammont, together with the greater part of the cavalry. The reserve (under Sir Thomas Picton) was quartered at Brussels and Ghent. Blucher's army, about one hundred and ten thousand strong, extended along the line of the Sambre and the Meuse ; occupied Charleroi, Namur, Givet, and Liege ; and communicated on their right with the left of the Anglo-Belgian army. The various divisions of the allied armies were thus cantoned over an area of fifty miles, spread out like a fan with Brussels for its centre. Napoleon left Paris in the morning of the 12th of June, X815. He arrived at Avesne on the 13th. On the night of the 14th his army encamped in three directions : — his left (upwards of forty-six thousand) at Ham-sur-Heure and Solre- sur-Sambre ; his right (about sixteen thousand) at Philippeville ; his centre (sixty •or seventy thousand of the Imperial Guard and the reserves of the cavalry) at Beaumont, his head-quarters. The camps were pitched in the rear of small hills 438 i Si 5-] BATTLE OF LIGNY. 439 a few miles from the frontier, so that the allies could not see the fires during the night. The returns now laid before the Emperor showed that his army amounted to about one hundred and twenty-eight thousand men, with three hundred and forty pieces of cannon. Napoleon issued the following address : — " Soldiers ! this is the anniversary of Marengo and of Friedland. Then, as after Austerlitz and Wagram, we were too generous. We gave credit to the protestations and oaths of the Princes whom we suffered to remain on their thrones. Now, coalesced among themselves, they aim at the independence and most sacred rights of France. They have commenced the most unjust of aggressions. Are we not the same men? Fools that they are ! a moment of prosperity blinds them. If they enter France, they will find in it their tomb. Soldiers ! we have forced marches to make, battles to fight, perils to encounter ; but with constancy the victory will be ours. The rights — the honour — of the country will be reconquered. For every Frenchman who has a heart, the moment has arrived either to conquer or die ! " The Emperor divided his force, with the exception of a few distributed on out- posts, into two armies. The principal army (amounting to about seventy-eight thousand men and two hundred and twenty-eight guns) he directed on Fleurus, where he knew the Prussian army was assembling. The other (amounting to forty- six thousand infantry and about five thousand cavalry, with one hundred and six- teen guns) he placed under the command of Ney, who had just arrived, with orders to advance by the high road to Brussels, and make himself master of Quatre-Bras, a position from which he could prevent Wellington lending support to the Prussians. He was to march at daybreak on the 16th, occupy this position, and entrench himself. The campaign began on the 15th of June, when Napoleon's advance guard at- tacked the Prussian outposts, routed them, and captured Charleroi, which the Emperor, preceded by a body of light cavalry and at the head of the guard, entered about eleven o'clock. The Prussians slowly fell back on their supports, Zeithen fighting at every practicable point. The French followed impetuously, General Letort almost annihilating the 28th Prussian regiment, but falling himself mortally wounded. Napoleon determining to strike Blucher at Ligny on the following day, directed Vandamme against St. Arnand and Grouchy upon Sombref, and they accordingly biouacked in the woods of Fleurus that night. The Duke of Wellington received intelligence at six o'clock in the evening of the 15th that the attack had commenced, and that the outposts of the allies had been driven back. There was a ball at the Duchess of Richmond's, in Brussels, on the same night, to which the Duke and most of the principal officers went ; but a second despatch arrived at eleven o'clock, announcing that " the French had entered Charleroi that morning, and continued to march in order of battle on Brussels ; that they were one hundred and fifty thousand strong ; and that the Emperor was at their head." The Duke and his officers left the ball-room. Fully aware of his situation, he issued orders for the breaking up of his cantonments and the concentration of the forces, which were extended over a great area of country. He rode off at an early hour on the 1 6th to Quatre-Bras, to visit the position, and thence to Brie, where he had an interview with Blucher. The advanced guards met at the village of Fleurus ; and the Prussian army now appeared drawn up in battle array, — their left on Sombref, their centre on Ligny, their right on St. Amand. The reserves were on the heights of Brie. The Prussian alignment was nearly four miles in extent. The French army halted and formed. Exclusive of Ney's division it amounted to sixty-eight thousand men. The Emperor rodfc to some windmills on the chain of outposts on the heights, and reconnoitred the enemy. The Prussians were about eighty-four thousand strong, with two hundred and twenty-four guns. The division under Bulow was unable to join them that day. Their front was protected by a deep ravine, but their right was, the Emperor supposed, at the mercy of Ney's division at Quatre- Bras in their rear. But a staff officer arrived from Ney to inform Napoleon that the 440 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Marshal had not yet occupied Quatre-Bras in consequence of reports which made him apprehensive of being turned by the enemy, but that he would advance if the Emperor still required it. Napoleon censured Ney for having lost eight hours, repeated his order, and added that as soon as Ney had made good that position, he was to send a detachment by the causeway of Namur and the village of Marbais, whence it should capture the heights of Brie in the Prussian rear. Ney received this order at twelve o'clock at noon; his detachment ought to have reached Marbais by about two o'clock. At two o'clock, therefore, the Emperor ordered the attack, which extended all along the line of the enemy, whom he hoped to enclose between two fires on the arrival of the detachment from Ney's division in the Prussian rear. " The fate of the war," said Napoleon in answer to a question from Count Gerard, " may be decided in three hours. If Ney executes his' orders well, not a gun of the Prussian army will escape : it is taken in flagranti delicto." At three o'clock Grouchy drove back the Prussian left, the third corps attacked the village of St. Amand, and the fourth advanced on the village of Ligny, which was taken and retaken several times. General Gerard displayed equal skill and valour, but he fell mortally wounded in the desperate struggle which occurred at St. Amand. At half-past five, when Napoleon was directing the Imperial Guard upon Ligny in support of the advantages gained by Count Gerard, he was informed that an army of thirty thousand Prussians was advancing upon Fleurus. Napoleon suspended the movement of the guard in order to meet this new force, but the alarm was unfounded. It was D'Erlon's corps, twenty thousand strong, sent by Ney in accordance with Napoleon's order, which had, however, been counter- manded at Ney's earnest solicitation ; the estafette bearing the later despatch finding D'Erlon only just as he arrrived within view of Napoleon. D'Erlon con- sequently, without firing a shot at the Prussians, returned to Frasne — too late to save the day at Quatre-Bras for Ney. The sudden appearance and disappearance of an army corps on his left front disconcerted Napoleon, who feared a turning movement by Wellington. Learning the truth at length, and in some chagrin at the frustration of his admirably devised combination, he, after the loss of two hours, ordered the guard to resume its movement upon Ligny. The ravine was passed by General Pecheux at the head of his division, supported by cavalry, artil- lery, and Milhaud's cuirassiers. The reserves of the Prussians were driven back with the bayonet and their centre broken and routed. The French were com- pletely victorious. Blucher, however, favoured by the night and by the failure of D'Erlon to attack the Prussian rear, effected an orderly retreat. The Prussian loss amounted to nearly twelve thousand men, killed, wounded, or prisoners, twenty pieces of cannon, and eight stand of colours. Many Prussian generals were killed or wounded, and Blucher himself was overthrown, man and horse, by a charge of cuirassiers, and galloped over by friends and foes ; night was coming on, and the gallant old soldier, much battered and bruised, with difficulty escaped. He re- joined a body of his troops, and so skilfully directed the retreat upon Wavre as entirely to mystify Napoleon. Sir Henry Hardinge, attached to the Prussian head- quarters, lost an arm at Ligny, and about ten thousand Rhenish-Prussians dispersed and returned to their homes. The total loss of the French amounted to about ten thousand killed or wounded. On the same day (the 16th of June) was fought the battle of Quatre-Bras. If the waste of two hours in the movements of the battle of Ligny, occasioned by the unexpected appearance of D'Erlon's division on the left of the French, had been injurious to the operations of Napoleon, the failure of Ney on Quatre-Bras was yet more so. Ney's hesitation to advance, as previously described, lost several hours, so that the Prince of Orange occupied Quatre-Bras and had time to call up reinforcements. When Ney did advance he left more than half his force at Frasne as a reserve to retreat upon, in consequence of which he found himself not strong enough to take Quatre-Bras, although for some time he outnumbered the n8i 5 .j BATTLE OF QUATRE-BRAS. 441 MARSHAL NEY. allies. He, however, made an energetic attack, and was defeating the Prince of Orange, when the Duke of Brunswick arrived with his own and the fifth English divisions. The 49th and 42nd Highlanders, taken by surprise, had been almost cut to pieces. Ney then attempted a general charge of cavalry, and was repulsed by the British infantry and a battery of two guns. The loss, on the whole, was much the heaviest on the side of the Anglo-Belgians, in consequence of their inferiority in artillery. The Duke of Brunswick was killed. The English divisions of Alten, Halket, Maitland, Cooke, and Byng successively arrived, and the French were driven from the Bois de Bossu. Ney sent for the reserve at Frasne and pressing requests for D'Erlon's corps, then in the act of executing that unlucky movement which suspended the Emperor's operations at Ligny. D'Erlon rejoined Ney towards night, having rendered no assistance at either battle of the day. By not marching the whole of his division upon Quatre-Bras early in the morning 442 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. Ney failed to prevent the ultimate junction of the Prussian and Anglo-Allied armies, and by recalling the detachment sent to attack the Prussian rear at Ligny, it is probable that the Prussian army was saved from being wholly destroyed or made prisoners before it could receive the support promised by the Duke of Wel- lington. The latter intended to advance upon Quatre-Bras at two o'clock, and debouch on St. Amand at four. At Quatre-Bras Ney nevertheless did important service ; for the five or six divisions of the British which were sent to support the Prince of Orange must be regarded as the leading columns of the Duke of Wellington's advancing army, and as Ney gave these a desperate shock, he in effect checked the advance of the main army till the battle of Ligny was decided. Had Ney executed all his orders with his usual rapidity it is probable that the Duke of Wellington would have arrived at Ligny with seventy-five thousand fresh men about six o'clock in the evening, and that the army of Napoleon (now reduced to less than sixty thousand) would have met six-and-thirty hours earlier the fate which awaited it at Waterloo. Against this chance we have, however, to place the almost certain arrival of Ney's division of forty-six thousand fresh men. The French bivouacked, on the night of the 16th, on the field of battle at Ligny, with the exception of Grouchy 's division, which encamped at Sombref. The Duke of Wellington passed the night at Quatre-Bras ; his army gradually joining him till the morning of the 17th, when they amounted to fifty thousand men. Ney was ordered to advance on Quatre-Bras at daybreak, and attack the British rear guard, while Count Lobau was to proceed along the causeway of Namur and take the British in flank. General Pajol went in pursuit of the Prussians under Blucher : he was supported by Grouchy with Excelman's cavalry and the third and fourth corps of infantry, amounting in all to about thirty-two thousand men. Grouchy was ordered to follow Blucher, but to keep in constant communication with the main army. The Emperor having ridden over the field of battle, hurried to the support of Ney at Quatre-Bras. He now learned that Ney had not made any attack. He excused his delay by declaring that the whole British army was there. The Duke of Wellington, who intended a junction with the Prussians at Quatre-Bras, but had been frustrated by their defeat at Ligny, now ordered a retreat on Brussels, leaving the Earl of Uxbridge with his cavalry as a rear guard. Napoleon directed Count Lobau's division to advance as the British cavalry retired in battle array. The French army pursued, the Emperor leading the way. The weather was dreadful, — rain falling in torrents ; the roads were scarcely passable. Several cavalry skir- mishes occurred, but a general attack on the British rear guard was impracticable ; it was, however, much galled by the French artillery. About six o'clock the air became foggy, and further attack was relinquished for the night, the Emperor ascer- taining that the English army was encamped on the field of Waterloo. The bivouac of the French troops across the high road to Brussels was in deep mud, and fears were entertained whether, in the event of a battle next morning, the artillery would be able to manoeuvre. But everything was to be risked rather than delay. The Emperor feared lest the Duke of Wellington should retreat through the forest of Soignies in the night : Blucher, eluding Grouchy, might do the same, and unite with the Duke before Brussels. He would then be liable to their united attack, reinforced by troops just landed at Ostend. He believed that wherever Blucher was, Grouchy was at his heels, — as he ought to have been, but was not. At ten o'clock on the night of the 17th Napoleon dispatched an officer to Wavre to inform Grouchy that there would be a great battle next day ; that the Anglo-Belgian army was posted on the field of Waterloo, its left supported by the village of La Haye ; and that he must detach seven thousand men of all arms and six pieces of cannon before daybreak to St. Lambert, to be near the French right and co-operate with it ; that as soon as Blucher evacuated Wavre he should instantly march with the rest of his force and support the detachment sent to St. i8i 5 .] ON THE FIELD OF WATERLOO. 443 THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. Lambert. About an hour after this despatch was sent off the Emperor received a report from Grouchy, dated Gembloux at five o'clock, stating that " he was still at this village, and had not learned what direction Blucher had taken." At four o'clock in the morning a second officer was sent to Grouchy to repeat the orders which had been sent at ten o'clock. Another despatch soon after arrived from Grouchy (who had not at that time been found by either of the officers sent by the Emperor) stating that " he had learned that Blucher was in Wavre, and would follow him in the morning." Meantime the Duke of Wellington dispatched an officer to Wavre informing Blucher of his position, and that he would hazard a battle in the morning provided the Prince would afford him the support of two divisions of the Prussian army. The indefatigable and indomitable old man replied that " he would move to the Duke of Wellington's support, not with two divisions only, but with his whole army; and he asked no longer time to prepare for the movement than was necessary to supply food and serve out cartridges to his soldiers." His only condition was that " should the French not attack on the 18th, they should be attacked by the allies on the 19th." At one o'clock in the morning the Emperor, accompanied by the grand-marshal, visited the line of main guards. Between the showers of rain the forest of Soignies 444 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. and the sky above gleamed with the reflection of the English bivouac fires. Ex- hausted with the fatigues of th$ last two or three days, the soldiers of both armies slept profoundly. Amidst the fall of rain Napoleon thought he heard the sound of a column in retreat, and was about to order his rear guard to pursue. The rain ceased, and all again was silent. It was two o'clock in the morning, and he re- ceived reports from various officers who had been to reconnoitre that the Anglo- Belgian army was making no movement. At five o'clock some faint rays of the rising sun gradually displayed the army of the Duke of Wellington drawn up in battle array. Its position was in front of the farmhouse and village of Mont St. Jean, on a large flat from which the ground gradually sloped upwards and forwards. Nearly at the foot of the slope stood the farmhouse of La Haye Sainte. Beyond the 'slope was an undulating valley of about a mile in breadth, covered with splendid crops of wheat, rye, and barley, some of which was very tall. In the middle stood an old Flemish chateau called Hougomont, having offices, walled gardens, stabling, a farmyard, and standing in a beech wood. The Anglo-Belgian army was formed in three lines. The first line was com- posed of nearly all the British infantry, the troops of Brunswick and Nassau, several corps of Hanoverians and Belgians. The second line, deployed in a declivity behind, consisted of troops on whom the Duke could not place so much reliance, or who had suffered most at Quatre-Bras. In their rear was placed all the cavalry. The farmhouse of La Haye Sainte (which was in front of the allied centre) was strongly garrisoned. The chateau, gardens, and farmyard of Hougomont (situated near the centre of the right) were also occupied by a detachment of the English guards. Both these places formed important outworks. The reserve was at Mont St. Jean. The whole line was formed convex, retiring towards the forest at each extremity, — reaching Merke Braine on the right and Ter-la-Haye on the left. The position was intersected by two high roads (from Nivelles and Charleroi to Brussels), which greatly facilitated movements from front to rear. There were also two country roads, which ran parallel with the first and second lines, and rendered easy movements from wing to wing. Thus with the strong outposts of Hougomont, and La Haye Sainte in front, the village of Mont St. Jean and the town of Waterloo in the rear, and lastly the forest of Soignies as positions to retire or make a stand upon, or cover a retreat, more advantageous ground for receiving an attack could not easily be obtained in any open country not previously fortified. As the Emperor at sunrise contemplated the warlike host before him, he said, " I have them, then — these English." His breakfast was served at eight o'clock, and many officers of distinction were present. "The enemy," said Napoleon, "is superior to us by nearly a fourth ; there are, nevertheless, ninety chances in our favour to ten against us." Having mounted his horse, he rode forward to recon- noitre the English lines ; after which he dictated the order of battle to two generals seated on the ground, and had it promptly distributed among the different corps. The army descended the heights of La Belle Alliance in eleven columns, the trumpets playing " To the field /" and the bands striking up airs which recalled many victories. The French line of battle was formed obliquely in front of Planche- noit, with the heights of La Belle Alliance in the rear of its centre, and extending its left nearly parallel with the chain of heights on which the enemy was posted. The French were drawn up in six lines on each side of the Charleroi road, the first and second being infantry, flanked with light cavalry, and the third and fourth cuirassiers only, while the fifth and sixth lines consisted of the cavalry of the guard. The infantry of the guard was drawn up across the Genappe road, as a reserve, in rear of these six lines ; but infantry and cavalry placed in column at each wing united them with the six lines of the main force ; artillery filled the intervals between the brigades. All the troops were in their stations by half-past ten o'clock. The Emperor rode through the ranks and was received with enthusiasm ; then, having given his last orders, he galloped to the heights of Rossomme, which com- manded a complete view of both armies, with a considerable range beyond. i8i 5 .] RELATIVE STRENGTH OF THE ARMIES. 445 Napoleon's design was to divide the Anglo-Belgian army and cut off its com- munications with Brussels before Blucher arrived on the field. The Emperor pro- posed to turn the Duke's left wing, because it was the weakest, and thus intercept its junction with the Prussians by the Wavre road. This seemed the more feasible as he constantly expected to be joined by Grouchy from that side. Having effected this — making a vigorous attack on both wings to distract the Duke's attention — it was Napoleon's design to fall suddenly on the allied centre, break it, and rout the Duke's entire army in detail. Wellington's business therefore was to hold the enemy at bay until the Prussian advance should enable him to deliver a counter-attack with superior numbers. HOUGOMONT. The actual strength of each army on the morning of the 1 8th of June was as near as can be ascertained :— Anglo-Allies — Forty-nine thousand six hundred and eight infantry, twelve thousand four hundred and eight cavalry, five thousand six hundred and forty-five artillery; total, sixty-seven thousand six hundred and sixty-one men and one hundred and fifty-six guns. French — Forty-seven thou- sand five hundred and seventy-nine infantry, thirteen thousand seven hundred and ninety-two cavalry, seven thousand five hundred and twenty-nine artillery ; total, sixty-eight thousand nine hundred men and two hundred and forty-six guns.* About half-past eleven o'clock King Jerome's division opened a fire of musketry on the light troops which lined the hedges and woods of Hougomont. Rushing forwards, the French drove them through the little wood. A company of English guards instantly advanced to their assistance. Reille brought up the battery of * It will be remembered that Grouchy was at this time on the Dyle with the 21st division : infantry, twenty-five thousand five hundred and thirteen ; cavalry, five thousand six hundred and seventeen ; artillery, two thousand six hundred and thirty-five ; total, thirty-three thousand seven hundred and sixty-five men and ninety-six guns. Part of the 7th division — about three thousand men under Gerard — had been left on the field of Ligny. — Ed. 44-6 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. his second division, and Kellerman sent forward his light artillery. Amidst a fierce cannonade on both sides — Bull's howitzer battery sending shells among the enemy — the French made a gallant charge at the chateau, and were as gallantly received by the English guards. The contest was desperate and sanguinary. The English defended the chateau, the farm offices, and the garden with-determined resolution. The French renewed their efforts, precipitating themselves with reck- less valour upon sharpshooters lining the hedges, and bursting through, found a garden wall, from behind which again the English poured a steady and destructive fire, then charged and drove them out of the wood. The French were reinforced by General Foy's division, and foot by foot the English guards were beaten from their posts and the wood was again carried. A few hundreds of the English guards rallied within the chateau and farm offices. The French, being masters of the wood, masked Hougomont, and dashed forward with cavalry and artillery against the British right, but being repelled, communication was reopened with Hougomont, and the small body of English guards defending the chateau received a reinforce- ment under Colonel Hepburn. The garrison of Hougomont now made a combined charge, and after a furious struggle drove the French once more out of the wood and recovered the position. The French charged incessantly with unexhausted impetuosity, but the martial spirit of the English guards was now wrought up to the highest pitch, and all attempts to dislodge them proved unavailing. This contest lasted with little intermission until sundown. The loss in killed and wounded on both sides during the struggle for this single outpost was upwards of four thousand. The Emperor, observing the whole field from the Maison du Roi heights, ordered Hougomont to be shelled. The outhouses and barns took fire, and the remnant of English guards were compelled to retreat before the flames, over mangled heaps of dead and dying. The chateau was to them as a fort to which they retired when hard pressed, and was held throughout the day with bulldog tenacity, until indeed it was one mass of flaming ruin. The grand attack on the centre of the Anglo-Belgian army was to be conducted by Marshal Ney about three o'clock. Before giving the order to attack, Napoleon cast one more look over the field of battle and the surrounding country ; he per- ceived a dark mass in the direction of St. Lambert, where he had ordered Grouchy to send a detachment. The glasses of all the officers were turned towards the object : some thought it was only a clump of dark trees. To remove all doubts Napoleon dispatched General Domont, with three thousand light cavalry, to form a junction if they were the troops of Grouchy, or to keep them in check if they were hostile. A Prussian hussar was soon brought in prisoner, from whom it was discovered that the dark mass was the advanced guard of Bulow, who was follow- ing with thirty thousand fresh men ; that Blucher was at Wavre with his army, and that Grouchy had not appeared there. A messenger was dispatched to Grouchy to march on St. Lambert without a moment's delay and take Bulow in the rear. It was conjectured that Grouchy must be near at hand, as he had sent word that he should leave Gembloux, only three leagues' distance, in the morning. Grouchy was an officer of great experience, and the Emperor had a high opinion of his punctuality ; but where was he ? In this state of suspense Napoleon ordered Lobau to support Domont — to take up a position en potence facing the wood of Paris on the French right, where with ten thousand men he might keep Buiow in check and attack vigorously directly he found that Grouchy had arrived on the Prussian rear. The artillery fire, with hot skirmishing, had been general along the line, but there had not been as yet any regular assault, except on the left at Hougomont. Napoleon sent the order to Ney to attack, and instantly eighty pieces of artillery opened fire upon the Anglo-Belgian army, and made dreadful gaps in their left. These ghastly intervals were, however, speedily filled up by fresh men. A column of French infantry advanced, but before it could be supported a charge of English heavy cavalry broke the column, routed it, and took two eagles and several pieces i8i 5 .] SUPERIORITY OF THE BRITISH CAVALRY. 447 of cannon. While the English cavalry were wheeling off triumphantly they were met by a squadron of Milhaud's cuirassiers. A desperate conflict with sabres ensued, in which the horses seemed to be animated with the same fury as their riders. The combat lasted much beyond the usual time, the result of a meeting of cavalry being generally determined in a few minutes. The French cavalry were beaten back, and fled towards their artillery for cover. Charges of infantry and cavalry followed in rapid succession, the object of the French being to occupy the central outpost of the Anglo-Belgian army at La Haye FRENCH CUIRASSIERS. Sainte, and thence push on to Mont St. Jean. Some of the Scotch regiments made a gallant defence, but were overpowered; the fifth and sixth English divisions were nearly destroyed, and General Picton was killed. In this battle the superior strength of British cavalry horses was made apparent in the disastrous overthrow of a regiment of cuirassiers. The ioth Hussars were ordered to charge, but when it was found that their sabres flew to pieces like glass against the steel breastplates of their antagonists, and that the hussars were rapidly being hewed down, the word " Open line ! " was given, and through the interval thundered a body of Life Guards, who defeated the cuirassiers by sheer weight and strength, literally riding them down by hundreds, and finally driving a whole squadron backwards pell-mell over the edge of a sudden declivity. The cuirassiers rolled to the bottom of the hollow way in broken masses, and the struggling chaos of men and horses was soon quiet in one heap of death. The survivors, going about, shook themselves free of the British cavalry, and re-forming, dashed upon 44§ THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the allied centre, heedless of a biting fusilade and in face of a scathing artillery fire, the guns being worked in front of the British infantry, which was formed in squares and placed chequer-wise, so that two sides of each could fire a volley on the advancing cavalry. The cuirassiers rode up the slope to the cannon, cut down those artillerymen who were not quick enough in retreating behind the infantry, and dashed forward at the squares, which withheld their fire till the horsemen were within a few yards of their bayonets. These squares were formed four deep, the first and second rank firing a volley and receiving the charge ; this was made with fury, but the squares remained unbroken. The cuirassiers urged their horses on the bayonets, cutting over them with their long swords. The fire of the second and third ranks then told with dreadful effect, and the cuirassiers were eventually obliged to retire. The instant they turned, the artillerymen, rushing from within the squares, manned their guns and poured grape-shot on the retreating cavalry. The French having carried La Haye Sainte, the farm was vigorously assaulted by the English, and, with the assistance of cannon and shells, was recovered. This important post was taken and retaken several times, with an energy that never relaxed on either side, and seems to have been held finally by the French until the battle was lost. About four o'clock the Emperor received intelligence from Gembloux that, notwithstanding repeated orders, Grouchy had not left his encampment till after ten o'clock in the morning, in consequence of the state of the roads. Ten thousand men under Lobau and Domont were now engaged with the Prussians under Bulow, in the defiles of St. Lambert. For some time an artillery duel only was kept up; the Prussian centre was then attacked and beaten back, but its wings advancing, Lobau was obliged to retire. At this crisis the Emperor dispatched Dufresne with two brigades of infantry of the Young Guard and twenty -four pieces of cannon, and the Prussian advance was for the moment checked. Meantime a terrific cannonade was maintained by the French all along the line, and particularly on the Anglo-Belgian centre. It was vigorously returned ; but the effect was so destructive in the British ranks, that Wellington ordered the whole front of the centre to take up a new position on the reverse slope of the hill, along the crest of which they had been formed. Behind this slope the soldiers were ordered to lie down ventre a terre, their artillery remaining on the ridge. About five o'clock D'Erlon had taken possession of the village of Ter-la-Haye, outflank- ing the English left and Bulow's right. At six o'clock there was considerable dis- order in the Duke of Wellington's army. The ranks were thinned by the number killed and wounded and by desertions. Belgian, Hanoverian, and English soldiers "crowded to the rear" and fled in a panic from this scene of carnage. "A number of our own dismounted dragoons," says Captain Pringle, "together with a propor- tion of our infantry, were glad to escape from the field, and thronged the road leading to Brussels." He adds that " a regiment of our allied cavalry, whose uni- form resembled the French, having fled to Brussels, an alarm spread that the enemy was at the gates. Numbers of those who had quitted the field of battle, and — let the truth be spoken — Englishmen too, fled from the town and never halted until they reached Antwerp." Shouts of " Victory ! " resounded from the French ranks in different parts of the field. Napoleon observed, " It is an hour too soon ; but we must follow up what is done." A distant cannonade was now heard in the direction of Wavre. It announced the approach of Grouchy or of Blucher. At half-past twelve o'clock Grouchy was midway between Gembloux and Wavre. The tremendous cannonade at Waterloo resounded from the distance. Excelmans rode up to the marshal, and said " he was convinced the Emperor must be in action with the Anglo-Bel- gian army ; that so terrible a fire could not be an affair of outposts or skirmishing ; and that they ought to march to the scene of action, which they might reach within two hours." Grouchy paused awhile, and then reverted to his orders to follow Blucher. He ought to have done this the day before, when he would have i8i 5 .] B LUC HER OUTWITS GROUCHY. 449 discovered where Blucher really was. Count Gerard joined in the advice of Ex- celmans. Still Grouchy remained doubtful, and a report coming that the Prussians were at Wavre, he once more set out after them, instead of hurrying to join the Emperor in his great battle. Blucher had left only a rear guard at Wavre, he himself having gone to Waterloo. Grouchy after an obstinate combat took Wavre, and finding there the officer who had been dispatched from the field of battle at ten o'clock that morning, sent General Pajol with twelve thousand men to Limale, a bridge over the Dyle, about a league behind St. Lambert, where after some hours' heavy fighting they arrived at eight in the evening. Blucher was at Wavre during the night of the 17th with all his forces; and being advised that Wellington would, depending upon the co-operation of the Prussians, hazard a battle next morning, the veteran marshal detached the corps CHARGE OF CUIRASSIERS. of Bulow, with orders to march on St. Lambert. Leaving Thielman with his corps at Wavre to detain Grouchy, he himself, at the head of thirty thousand men, then marched towards Waterloo. The Duke had expected to be joined by Blucher as early as eleven o'clock ; but the roads were in such a condition that the Prussian advance was very slow. The Emperor at Waterloo had ordered a charge of three thousand cuirassiers under Kellerman, to sustain the cuirassiers of Milhaud, and the chasseurs on the plain below. Covered by a tremendous artillery fire, which played on every part of the allied right and centre, the round-shot ploughing up the ground or tear- ing through the close and serried ranks, with shells exploding in all directions, they sprang forward, shouting "Vive V Empcreitr /"and advanced grandly, though harassed by the cannonade of the Prussians, for Bulow was still pressing the French flank and rear. Other bodies of cavalry also advanced upon the centre of 29 450 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the Anglo-Belgian army. While the Emperor was watching their several charges Guyot's division of heavy cavalry was seen following the cuirassiers of Keller- man. This latter movement was without Napoleon's orders, and he sent the grand marshal to countermand it. They were in action, and to recall them would have been dangerous. This division was the reserve cavalry, and ought to have been kept well in hand. It has been said by Captain Pringle " that the Duke of Wel- lington never felt any anxiety as to the result of the battle." It is perhaps the worst compliment ever paid to that great commander. The Duke had agreed to accept a battle, on condition of being joined by Blucher at eleven a.m. Now it was past six a.m., with no certainty of his approach, and twelve thousand of the finest cavalry in the world were advancing against him instead. It would be more reasonable to believe that, in the failure of his calculation as to the time of Blucher's arrival, he had during the later hours of the afternoon stood occasion- ally, as some aver, " in a sort of stupor," with intervals of very great and manifest anxiety. It is said that during the preparation of this grand charge of the French cavalry, the Duke ran with his glass in front of his lines, amidst the hot fire of grape and musketry which preceded the charge. When reminded that he was exposing himself too much, he replied, " Yes, I know I am ; but I must see what they are doing." This seems natural under such extraordinary circumstances, not- withstanding his reliance on the firmness of British soldiers, for they had been already tried enough — " nearly eight hours," says Captain Pringle, " longer than he had calculated upon." The matchless body of twelve thousand French cavalry dashed forward in suc- cessive masses towards the Anglo-Allied lines. Heedless of the murderous can- nonade, at point-blank range, under which they rode up the slope of the allied position, they broke and overthrew the opposing cavalry, overwhelming the artillery- men at their guns : thundering on with seemingly irresistible force, they were received by the squares of British infantry first with a volley of musket-balls, and then with an immovable array of bristling bayonets. Men and horses, struggling in the agonies of violent death, bestrewed the ground. The squares remained im- pregnable. The cuirassiers wheeled about, re-formed, and again charged with tre- mendous energy and a valour that set at contemptuous defiance the iron tempest of grape-shot, balls, and musketry, which instantaneously emptied a thousand saddles. Undismayed, the survivors continued the combat until physically exhausted ; but the squares were unbroken. The French cavalry fared 'no better than the valorous Mamelukes against the French squares at the battle of the Pyramids. The British infantry withstood the fearful shocks as if rooted to the earth ; pistols were dis- charged in their faces, and swords thrust over their bayonets in vain. Napoleon had never before commanded in person against the English. He now observed their grand self-command and unflinching courage, and praised it, although it was his ruin. Yet again and again did the brilliant cavalry of the French rush forward to the charge. They even passed between the squares of the first line, amidst their united cross-fire from front and rear, and charged those of the second line, whose fire they also received. But no real advantage was gained : the assault was unsupported by infantry, and the baffled cuirassiers were compelled to retire, re- ceiving the terrific cross-fire of the squares as they repassed between them, and fol- lowed by volleys of musketry, and often by the grape-shot of such artillery as could be brought to bear. One body of cuirassiers, as if in despair of all further effect by the charge, advanced at a deliberate trot, received the usual steady fire, rode close up to the bayonets, made an attempt to sweep away one of the rounded corners of a square, then wheeled amidst all the firing, and retired. Wonderful as it may appear, this daring feat was attended with scarcely any immediate loss of life to the cuirassiers. An English officer who was present avers that only one officer and two men fell. Of course, others may have been wounded. Many deeds of gallantry were performed by officers and men on both sides. When a regiment of French and English cavalry met at full charge, the French 1815.] BLUCHER'S ARRIVAL. 45 1 -colonel rode straight at the English colonel, who, holding his reins and his hat in the same hand, was waving his men onwards. Just as they approached, the French colonel perceived that the English officer had only one arm, and instantly dropping the point of his sword with a military salute, dashed past to the next man. At the same instant the general shock took place. The combat was soon over,— the English were victorious. " Spare the colonel ! " exclaimed the Eng- lish officer. " Where is he ? " Little time was to be lost,— other bodies of cuiras- siers were advancing. "There he lies !" cried a soldier. The French colonel, covered with wounds, lay with a heap of dead around him, and was immediately rescued. The state of the battle and the relative condition of both armies at nearly seven o'clock appear to have been as follows :— The line of battle of the Anglo-Belgian army at the beginning of the engagement was convex, that is to say, a crescent the horns of which sloped backward. By this time, the Duke of Wellington having gradually advanced both wings, it presented a front concave in form, that is to say, a crescent the horns of which projected forward and threatened to outflank the enemy. Now, the question is, whether the changed shape presented by the Anglo- Belgian lines— the convex line of battle gradually becoming concave— was occa- sioned by advancing the wings or the beating back of the centre ? Repeated charges and the havoc made by the French artillery undoubtedly induced the order to retreat behind the slope of the elevation on which the Anglo-Belgian army had first been formed. The desperate assaults of the French cavalry, which Napoleon hoped would at least force if not utterly destroy the allied centre, ought to have been supported by strong bodies of infantry, which could not, however, be spared, being needed for the contest with Bulow, and to keep him in check. By seven o'clock the French did little more than maintain themselves on the plains. A fresh cannonade was opened on the British lines, after the assaults of the cuirassiers, but nothing further was done for the moment. The British were beaten to a " standstill,"— and there they stood. There was not the least attempt on the part of the Duke of Wellington to make any general advance, and as little sign of his moving a jot farther back. About twenty thousand men had been killed or otherwise lost on each side. The distant cannonade, which had been faintly heard in the direction of Wavre, opened near at hand at seven o'clock. This roar of artillery did not announce the attack of Grouchy in Bulow's rear, but the arrival of Blucher with two army corps amounting to about thirty thousand men. The distant cannonade had not been his engagement with Grouchy, as had been supposed, but only the attack made by Grouchy upon the Prussian rear guard left to keep him employed at Wavre. A junction was speedily effected between the Anglo-Belgian left and the division of Bulow. The relative strength of the two armies was now two to one against the French,— the majority on the other side being chiefly composed of fresh men. It is said that when the Duke learned that it was Blucher who had arrived, he leaped up in uncontrollable excitement, and that the Emperor, who had maintained unruffled serenity throughout the whole day, turned white as death. Howbeit, his presence of mind was never more wonderfully exhibited than now, when the fate of the most important battle he had ever fought hung in the balance. Having found it impossible to make any serious impression on the allied lines, or to break the British squares, the Emperor's staff waited impatiently for orders to employ the infantry of the guard. They were still confident of obtaining a signal victory. They were not alarmed when they saw Bulow's junction with the English, for all knew that the Imperial Guard remained intact. But when they perceived the nearer approach of Blucher's dense columns, and that several French regiments began to fall back, they were quite confounded. Napoleon instantly brought up four battalions of the infantry of the guard on the left front of La Haye Sainte. He then sent aides-de-camp along the whole line to announce the arrival of succours, and that Blucher's advance was only a 20 2 452 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. retreat before Grouchy, who was pressing on his rear. He ordered General Reille to concentrate the whole of his corps near Hougomont and attack without delay. He sent General Friant to support the cavalry on the plain with four battalions of the Middle Guard. If, by a sudden charge, they could break and rout the English centre before the columns of Blucher were able to force their way across the Lasne, a last chance of success still remained. Blucher was hurrying on to La Haye. Prussian columns had already appeared emerging from the wood of Vierere and threatening Planchenoit. There was not an instant to lose. The Emperor massed the reserved infantry of the Imperial Guard in two columns WELLINGTON S ADVANCE. of attack. He exhorted them by a hasty personal appeal, and confided their direc- tion to " the bravest of the brave." They moved forward, headed by Ney, pre- ceded by skirmishers and supported by a heavy fire of artillery. Four battalions of the Old Guard remained at La Belle Alliance. Wellington, warned of the attack, brought up fresh troops from his rear and left to receive them. The infantry were ranged four deep, Maitland's brigade of guards and Adair's brigade were flanked by two brigades of artillery, which maintained a destructive fire on the advancing columns. When they were within a short distance, Wellington cried to the Eng- lish Guards, " Up, lads, and at them ! " and the whole English line opened a fire of musketry. Then the soldiers fired independently, — loading and firing as fast as possible, — so that the hail of bullets never ceased for a single instant. Ney's cocked hat and clothes were literally riddled, though he himself remained un- touched and still led on the columns, while his men were falling in heaps on each side of him. Smitten in front and flank, but resolute to conquer or die, they con- tinued to advance till within forty or fifty yards of the British bayonets, and then attempted to open out their ranks and charge. But, unable to deploy under so terrific and unremitting afire, the movement failed, — the ranks became a confused i8i 5 .] THE BRITISH ADVANCE. 453 NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. mass, and, notwithstanding all the efforts of Ney, retreated in horrible disorder amidst a hail of balls. "All is lost !" cried the Emperor; " the Guard recoils ! ; ' Accompanied by only three or four officers, he hurried to the left of Planchenoit, on a second position, where he had placed a regiment of the guard, with two bat- teries. The routed columns were pursued by Adair's brigade of light horse. Wellington now determined to advance. The defeat of the guards created a panic amongst the French soldiers, already exhausted and maddened by the pro- longed conflict. With the advance of the British line and the sudden appearance of dark masses of fresh assailants on the French right, the cry of " Sauve qui pent!'' was raised ; the panic became general ; and the Prussian columns poured into the plain. Napoleon instantly changed the front of the guard, so as to throw its left on La Have Sainte and its right on La Belle Alliance. They then faced and charged the Prussians. The fresh brigade of English cavalry from Ohain arrived at this crisis, forcing their way between Reille's corps and the guard. They had already cut off Lobau's corps. The Emperor ordered his four reserve squadrons to charge the fresh brigade of English cavalry, but the French were hewn down by 454 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. the former, who defeated all attempts at rallying. Dismay, disorder, and frantic flight was seen in the French ranks, and the confusion was general. The four battalions of the Old Guard, under General Cambrone, still remained to protect the retreat of the French army. If they could succeed in holding the British in check and preventing their advance for half an hour, the coming shades of night would enable the army to retreat in safety, and partially recover its dis- order by next morning. The Old Guard formed in squares — flanked by a few pieces of artillery and by a brigade of red lancers. The British infantry, which had remained on the defensive all day ; which had resisted the most daring and impetuous attacks ; which had held their ground seven or eight hours beyond the time their general had calculated as necessary, were but too glad to find a vent for their long-suppressed fury. It burst forth in dreadful strength as, condensed and tremendous, they overwhelmed the remnant of veterans who during twenty years of war had never once been vanquished. Gathering round the standards of their former glory, they received the onset with souls prepared for death. Nothing could withstand the maddened energies of the British soldiers. Havoc began to thin the ranks of the Old Guard. Their general, Cambrone, was called upon to surrender by some British officers who, even amidst the fury of the fight, sought to spare such devoted valour. ( Cambrone's reply was, " The guard dies, but does not surrender ! " And, on the space which these scarred and laurelled veterans defended foot by foot, their dead bodies fell in ghastly heaps, over which the victors passed triumphant. The British troops, having accomplished the destruction of this last body, were now, from sheer exhaustion, unable to pursue the routed French. The Emperor attempted to protect the retreat, and the last discharge from his guns wounded the Earl of Uxbridge, who was at the head of the cavalry. The Emperor vainly endeavoured to rally the fugitives. It was now nearly dark, — they could not see him, and nothing could be heard amidst the uproar and hideous confusion. The Prussian cavalry, supported by some battalions of infantry and the whole of Bulow's corps, debouched on the right of Planchenoit. In a few minutes the Emperor was almost surrounded by hostile forces. He formed a regiment into square, and was still lingering, when Soult seized the bridle of his horse, and, pulling him away, the Emperor yielded. He galloped across the fields in the dark amidst the whistling of the Prussian bullets, and detachments of their cavalry scouring in all directions. Wellington and Blucher met about ten o'clock at La Belle Alliance, and it was agreed that the pursuit should entirely devolve upon the Prussian and Brunswick troops. It was a misty night, but the moon was just rising. Infantry, cavalry, artillery were all jammed together in one dreadful struggle to escape ; while am- munition and baggage-waggons, stores, hospital carts full of wounded men, plung- ing horses, and private carriages — the Emperor's among the rest — blocked roads and bridges, and filled up, with a sort of heaving wall, every available outlet ; floundering in the drizzling mist amidst corn-fields and ploughed lands, or wallow- ing in dark hollows. Everything was presently abandoned, — each man sought his individual safety, — the crushing and trampling of friends, and the sabres of countless foes, were distinguishable only by the death they dealt around. The havoc made among the French during the night was dreadful, the Prussians pur- suing in every direction, and cutting down all they overtook with merciless ferocity. Thus terminated the battle of Waterloo, — of Mont St. Jean, as it is sometimes called by the French ; of La Belle Alliance, as it is called by the Prussians. During the four days of this terrible campaign, at Fleurus, Ligny, Quatre Bras and Waterloo, including those slaughtered in the rout, the French lost forty thousand men ; the Prussians thirty-eight thousand ; the English between eleven and twelve thousand ; the Belgians, Hanoverians, Dutch, and others of the allies, about eleven thousand. This campaign, therefore, cost the lives of upwards of a hundred thousand men. i8i 5 .] "NOUS SO MAZES TRAMS/" 455 The Emperor made a brief halt at Genappe at about eleven o'clock. All attempts to rally the frantic masses were in vain. Lobau contrived to collect a few hundred horse as a rear guard, but was presently overwhelmed and made prisoner. Napoleon continued his course towards Quatre Bras, where he dis- mounted at a bivouac about one o'clock in the morning. He dispatched several officers to Grouchy to acquaint him with the loss of the battle, and to direct him to pass the Sambre at Namur, and proceed thence by Charlemont to Laon, which was to be the rendezvous of the army. The Emperor then set out for Charleroi ; soon arrived at Philippeville ; and reached Laon on the 20th, at four o'clock in the afternoon. 41 ■^ -« NAPOLEONS FLIGHT. The defeat of Waterloo was chiefly attributable to the indecisions and faults committed by Ney and Grouchy ; to certain misunderstandings, the non-reception of orders, and unauthorized movements : in short, the Emperor's good fortune had deserted him at a moment when any unlucky accident was fatal, because the ob- stinate courage of the British was unconquerable. The Emperor never attributed treachery to Ney or Grouchy. He merely said that the events of 1814 had injured the old single-minded martial character of the generals, so that their heads were confused with politics, in which "they showed themselves mere children." The French soldiers were true as ever, but they had a want of faith in their generals. The first shots had scarcely been fired when an old corporal approached the Em- peror, and said, "Sire, do not trust Marshal Soult, — he means to betray us." "Be tranquil," replied Napoleon ; " I will answer for him as for myself." During the engagement an officer came to Soult with a report that Vandamme had gone over to the enemy ; and, towards the close of the day, a dragoon galloped up to the Emperor, exclaiming, "Sire, hasten to our division, — General D'Henin harangues the men to go over to the enemy." "Did you hear him?" "No, sire; but an officer, who is now seeking your Majesty, has seen him, and charged me with the news." At this very time D'Henin was in action with his division, and fell from a cannon-shot which carried away one of his thighs. But, previous to the action, Lieutenant-Colonel Bourmont, Colonel Clouet, and the staff officer Villoutry went 456 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. over to the enemy, as did several officers who bore despatches. By these means the Duke of Wellington obtained much important information. Some veterans of the Imperial Guard, who lay wounded upon the field, killed themselves when they heard the Emperor had lost the battle. A day or two after the engagement, many who had lain as dead, when roused from their insensibility, lifted up their heads from the ghastly heap around, and cried, " Vive P Ejnpcrcur !" In the hospitals the dying men feebly shouted the same words. One of them, during an amputation, gazing steadfastly on his own blood, remarked that he would gladly give it all to serve the great Napoleon ; and another, who was under- going the extraction of a ball from his left side near the heart, exclaimed, as the probe went into the wound, " An inch deeper, and you will find the Emperor ! " EARTHWORKS OUTSIDE LAON. Entrusting the assemblage of the fugitives at Avesnes to King Jerome, assisted by General Flahault, and at Philippeville to Marshal Soult, the Emperor sent an aide-de-camp to Guise for the same purpose, and stationed another aide-de-camp at Laon to make preparations for the fresh army which he intended to assemble beneath the walls of that fortress. He then proceeded at full speed to Paris, accompanied by the Duke of Bassano, the Grand Marshal Bertrand, and his aides-de-camp Labedoyere, Bernard, Drouot, and Gourgaud. It was his intention to anticipate any political disturbances to which the sudden news of his defeat might give rise ; to arrange for the defence of the capital ; to prepare the public mind for the crisis in which the country was about to be placed by the junction of the armies of Prussia, England, Austria, and Russia on French soil ; to direct on Laon all the troops that could be safely withdrawn from the depots and fortified places, and to prepare for a grand final struggle. This resolution was fatal to his dynasty. Had he remained at the head of the army, Joseph and Lucien would have maintained their ascendancy in the two Chambers, and by assuming a threatening attitude Napoleon might have made terms for himself. Even Waterloo had not exhausted the resources of the empire. Every preparatory measure had been taken in case the attack on Belgium should fail. From twenty-five to thirty thousand men were in readiness to march from Paris. General Rapp, with twenty- i8i 5 .] DEFENSIVE RESOURCES OF THE NATION. 457 five thousand chosen troops, was expected on the Marne in the beginning of July. Paris alone had contained five hundred pieces of field artillery, of which only one hundred and seventy had been lost. The fate of Grouchy's division, amounting to nearly thirty thousand men, was uncertain at that moment; but by that marshal's skilfully conducted retreat it was brought back intact ; and Soult rallied nearly forty thousand of the fugitives from Waterloo between Laon and Paris on the 27 th. An army of one hundred and twenty thousand men, with three hundred and seventy pieces of cannon, might cover Paris early in July. That capital itself possessed thirty-six thousand of the National Guard, thirty thousand sharpshooters, six hundred battering cannon, and formidable entrenchments on the right bank of the Seine, while in a few days those of the left bank could be completed. The armies of Wellington and Blucher, diminished as they were by battle, must have waited on the Somme for the co-operation of the Austrians and Russians, none of whom could be on the Marne before the 15th of July. Paris had twenty-five days to prepare for defence, to complete its supplies, the arming of its inhabitants, its fortifications, and to draw troops from every part of France. Suchet and Le'courbe would have at the same time upwards of thirty thousand men before Lyons, inde- pendently of the garrison of that city, which was well armed, supplied with pro- visions, and protected by strong entrenchments. The defence of all the fortresses was secured ; they were commanded by chosen officers and garrisoned by faithful troops. A new levy of men must be called out ; everything might be repaired. But decision, energy, and firmness on the part of the Government, of the Cham- bers, and of the whole nation, were necessary. Such were the thoughts which filled the mind of Napoleon in his rapid course towards the capital, while the ghastly witnesses of the late deadly struggle still strewed the bloody field of Waterloo. AFTER THE BATTLE. THE FRENCH RETREAT. CHAPTER XLIV. NAPOLEON RETURNS TO PARIS— HOLDS A COUNCIL— LA FAYETTE— THE CHAMBERS DECLARE THEIR SITTINGS PERMANENT — ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON — DEMANDS FRIGATES TO CONVEY HIM TO AMERICA — RETIRES TO MALMAISON — ADVANCE OF THE ALLIES, AND PROCLAMATION OF LOUIS XVIII. — NAPOLEON DEPARTS FOR ROCHEFORT — THE PORT BLOCKADED BY BRITISH SHIPS — LETTER TO THE PRINCE REGENT — HE EMBARKS IN THE BELLEROPHON. WHICH SAILS FOR ENGLAND — HE IS NOT PERMITTED TO LAND — IS TRANSFERRED TO THE NORTHUMBERLAND — DEPARTURE FOR ST. HELENA. I ';". ' ' iih "P UMOURS of the disastrous defeat of the French army reached Paris on the 19th of June, when the public rejoicings for the victory of Ligny were scarcely con- cluded; but few had credited the evil tidings. The sudden return of Napo- leon confirmed them. He alighted at the palace of the Elysee during the night of the 20th, where he was joined by Joseph and Lucien. A letter had in- formed Joseph, who presided at the Council of Ministers, of the whole truth, recommending that the public mind should be prepared for a vigorous de- fence, and sacrifices commensurate with the danger. In this spirit Napoleon met his Ministers at the Elysee Bourbon, covered with dust, as he had left the field of Waterloo ; but unexhausted by the fatigues of three battles and the dreadful events of the flight, he gave a rapid but distinct view of the resources of the country, the strength already organized for resistance, and the far greater power capable of development. He decided that the extent of the disaster at Waterloo and the means of its reparation should be immediately laid before the houses of legislature, and their co-operation demanded ; but by whom ? Himself as he then was, or his brothers or Ministers? The opinion of his councillors in general coincided with his own, but opposed the suggested personal communica- tion. Fouche and his friends dissembled ; Lucien and the Duke of Bassano recommended the dissolution of the Chambers and the assumption of a military dictatorship by Napoleon. He, however, refused this course. He knew the spirit 458 1815.J ABOLITION OF THE EMPIRE. 459 of the Chamber of Representatives, but he hoped that the pressure of danger would induce the members to support him, from the necessity of employing his military talents. He knew that it would take the allies eight or ten days to march from Waterloo to Paris, and in that time much might be done. He ought to have followed his own impulse and gone down to the Chambers, and there proclaimed his resources, insisting on the members' hearty co-operation ; but yielding to phy- sical fatigue, he took his usual refreshment of the bath instead. From this moment his energy seemed to fail. The Chambers met at eight o'clock in the morning. Rumours of calamities even more extensive than had occurred flew from mouth to mouth, and fear of dissolution by the Emperor or dispersion by the mob became current. The Emperor's carriage still stood at the Elysee, and it was known that Joseph had recommended the sending of Fouche" to Vincennes as a traitor. While excitement was reaching its height, La Fayette rose, and after inviting the representatives of the people to rally round the ancient standard of liberty, equality, and public order, he proposed the following resolutions : — " First : The Chamber of Repre- sentatives declares that the independence of the country is menaced. Secondly : The Chamber declares itself permanent. Every attempt to dissolve it is a crime of high treason. Whoever is guilty of such an attempt is a traitor to his country, and shall instantly be condemned as such." These leading clauses were followed by others, to the effect that " the army had deserved well of the country, that the National Guard should be called out, and that the Ministers should be invited to place themselves in the bosom of the Assembly." La Fayette's, resolutions were carried with the exception of that which proposed the calling out of the National Guard, which was declared premature, though a guard under the command of Questor Lieut.-General Count Beker was appointed specially to watch over the safety of the Legislative Body. Thus the Chamber of Representatives over- turned the new Constitution and put aside Napoleon's authority. After these decisions the deputation of Ministers, accompanied by Lucien, was introduced. They laid before the Assembly the events of the battle of Waterloo, attempted to detail the resources of the country, and to demand the co-operation of the Chambers with the head of the State, but could scarcely obtain a hearing. A stormy discussion followed. It became evident that separation from the Em- peror was the only means of obtaining peace and liberty. Lucien argued in vain that it was, on the contrary, the means of delivering France to the enemies of her liberty, and that by the course which the Representatives were pursuing they were going beyond the most sanguine hopes of the allies. He could not make himself heard. Amidst considerable turmoil the article of the Constitution pro- scribing the Bourbons was confirmed, with the intention doubtless of inducing Napoleon to abdicate. The resolutions of the Lower House were immediately communicated by a message to the Chamber of Peers. No one opposed them save Joseph. The Emperor held a council in the afternoon, at which all recommended his abdication excepting the Duke of Bassano, Cambaceres, and Carnot, who argued against it. When this veteran Republican heard the abdication insisted on, and Napoleon declared the only obstacle to peace, he hid his face with his hands and shed tears. Napoleon said little, and dissolved the council without announcing his decision. " I have often asked myself," said Napoleon to Las Cases at St. Helena, " whether I have done for the French people all that they could expect of me, — for that people did much for me. Will they ever know all that I suffered during the night that preceded my final decision ? In that night I had to choose whether to endeavour to save France by violence or to yield to the general im- pulse. Friends and enemies — all were against me, and I stood alone. For a moment I was on the point of declaring myself permanently at the Tuileries, with my Ministers and Councillors of State. I thought of rallying round me the six thousand guards who were in Paris, augmenting them with the best-disposed 4^0 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. portions of the National Guard and the Federate troops of the Faubourgs, — adjourning the Chambers of Legislature to Tours or Blois, — reorganizing before Paris the wrecks of the army ; and thus exerting my efforts singly, as a dictator, for the welfare of the country. But would the Chambers have obeyed ? I might have enforced obedience, it is true, but it would have been necessary to arraign great criminals and to decree great punishments. And what scenes of horror might not have been renewed ! Should I not have drowned my memory in the deluge of blood,, crimes, and abominations of every kind with which libellers have already overwhelmed me? Should I not have seemed to justify all that they had invented ? I weighed every argument on both sides, and I at length concluded that I could not make head against the coalition without and the Royalists within; that I should be unable to oppose the numerous sects which would have been created by the violence committed on the Chambers, — to control that portion of the multitude which must be driven by force, or to resist that moral condemnation which imputes to him who is unfortunate every evil that ensues. Abdication was, therefore, the only step that I could adopt." The Emperor held a levee at nine o'clock on the morning of the 22nd. " He dismissed every one," says Savary, " but M. de Caulaincourt, Lavalette, and myself. He spoke to us on public affairs, and said that the prevailing idea that everything would be saved by his downfall was founded on error. ' If I am allowed to fall,' said he, ' the consequences are inevitable ; but I can do nothing single-handed. For my part my determination is taken : I have caused communications to be made to the Chamber. I am awaiting its reply.' " The communications he had made were further particulars of the state of the army, and were of a very gloomy cast, as no news had yet been heard of Grouch). The Chamber replied by a deputation, who submitted that " the state of war in which France was involved concerned much less the nation than himself, and that the Assembly had the means at command of putting an end to it if he would act so disinterested a part as to restore to it freedom of action according as circumstances might dictate." The Emperor replied that "when he returned to France his main object had been to restore to the nation its freedom. If the Assembly had the means of securing that object, it was far from his intention to obstruct its execution ; but he wished to know in what these means consisted. In any case he should reply to their message." The Emperor then summoned the Council of State, which he addressed as follows : — " I can do nothing unassisted. The public mind is led astray by efforts made to detach it from me. I called the Chambers together to strengthen my measures, whereas their disunion deprives me of the resources I might command. The nation has been made to believe that I am the only obstacle to amicable arrangements. The time is too short to enable me to enlighten it : its looks are now directed to another quarter. I am willing to sacrifice myself, for I have not come to France for the purpose of kindling domestic feuds. Time, which analyses everything, will prove the intentions of those who accomplish the destruction of our remaining resources." He then dictated the following reply to the message of the Chambers : — " Frenchmen ! — When I began the war to uphold national independence, I re- lied on the union of all efforts, of all wills, and on the co-operation of all national authorities. I was justified in anticipating success, and I braved all the declara- tions of the Powers against my person. Circumstances seem to be changed. I offer myself as a sacrifice to the hatred against France. May your enemies prove sincere, and may it appear that they wage war against me alone ! My political life is terminated. I proclaim my son, under the title of Napoleon II., Emperor of the French. The present Ministers will form the council of the Provisional Government. The interest which I take in my son induces me to invite the Chambers to organize a Regency without delay, by a special law. Unite for the general safety and to secure national independence. "At the palace of the Elysee, the 22nd of June, 1815. " NAPOLEON." 1815.] FINAL ABDICATION. 46 1 The Chamber awaited this reply with impatience. La Fayette even proposed the deportation of the Emperor if he longer delayed his decision. When Fouche appeared to present the act of abdication, it was received with joy and admiration " as a last act of homage to the country," and communicated to the Chamber of Peers. The succession of Napoleon II., though warmly advocated by Beranger, Manuel, and others, was shelved for the time, but a deputation ordered to convey to the Emperor the thanks of the Chambers. Napoleon received them, attired for the last time in his imperial robes, and surrounded by his state officers and guards. He looked pale but calm, and replied, — " I thank you for the senti- ments which you express. I desire that my abdication may secure the happiness of France; but I cannot hope it : the State is left by it without a chief, — without a political existence. The time lost in overturning the empire might have placed France in a position to crush the enemy. I recommend the Chamber promptly to reinforce the armies : whoever wishes for peace must be ready for war. Do not place this great nation at the mercy of strangers. Beware of being deceived in your hopes. Wherever I may be placed, I shall be satisfied if France is happy." The reign of Napoleon was over. The Council of Ministers broke up, and the palace of the Elysee soon presented the appearance of a solitude. Las Cases, who had for some time belonged to the council and the household of the Emperor, begged permission to follow him to whatever place he might choose as his future abode. Savary threw up his post of Inspector-General of Gendarmerie and attached himself entirely to Napoleon's person. Generals Bertrand, Gourgaud, Montholon, and Lallemand remained in his suite ; and among his confidential advisers were the Duke of Bassano, Lavallette, and Labedoyere. The latter had passionately maintained, in the Chamber of Peers, the right of Napoleon II. to the succession. Napoleon, anxious to remove from the troubled scene of which he had become only a spectator, sent, on the night of the 22nd, a message to the Minister of Marine, requesting that two frigates lying off Rochefort might be placed at his disposal. It was his intention to proceed to America. On the afternoon of the 22nd the Chambers decreed the appointment of a Pro- visional Government, consisting of Fouche, Carnot, Caulaincourt, and Generals Grenier and Quinette, who were installed in the Tuileries. The succession of Napoleon II. was proclaimed by the Deputies, and afterwards by the Peers. The two Chambers also accredited commissioners to the foreign Sovereigns to solicit their recognition of Napoleon II. The first public act of the "Provisional" Government — " for the word ' Regency,' had been," says Montholon, " already traitorously erased " — was to dispatch a deputation to treat for peace. Intelli- gence of the safe retreat of Grouchy had reached Paris in the course of the day, quickly followed by news that the armies of Wellington and Blucher had entered France on the 21st. Carnot laid the information before the House of Peers, and seized the opportunity to urge them to defensive measures by stating the resources of the country. His speech gave rise to a strange scene. Ney started up and contradicted Carnot with reckless desperation, declaring that the guard was anni- hilated, that everything was lost, and that there was no safety for the country but in instant propositions of peace. On General Flahault denying these statements, Ney resumed his speech with greater violence, adding, "You must recall the Bourbons ! " This topic, not yet touched upon by any one, brought down on him a storm of reproaches, to which he replied with sullen indifference, " What should I gain by the restoration of Louis, except being shot for desertion ? " The conduct of Lucien at this time was very curious. He proposed to invest himself with dictatorial authority, and invited Napoleon to accept the command of the army. " France," said Lucien, " has no longer any faith in the magic of the Empire ; it is eager for liberty even with its abuses, and prefers the charter to the greatness of your reign. With me she will consolidate the Republic, because she will believe in it. By the assistance of your sword I will save the Revolution." Napoleon smiled at this speech, and bade Carnot answer it. 4&2 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The members of the Provisional Government waited on Napoleon on the 23rd. The quiet of the Elysee was broken also by crowds who surrounded the palace with cries of "Five VEmpereur !" and who repeatedly insisted on his presenting himself to them. The rumour had spread among them that he was going to be delivered up to the enemy. Regiments of the line also, who marched past, stopped to greet him with acclamations, calling loudly upon him to place himself at their head and lead them against the enemy, and requesting to be allowed to execute justice on the traitors who wished to sell France again as they did in 18 14. He sent Montholon out to pacify them with assurances that he would not allow one drop of blood to be spilt in a cause which was now wholly personal. It was clear that discontent was spreading in the army, and murmurs of " No Emperor — no soldiers ! " were heard. Alarmed by these symptoms, the deputation from the Pro- visional Government requested the Emperor to remove from Paris. King Jerome, exhausted with fatigue and still suffering from wounds received at Waterloo, came to apprise Napoleon that he had reorganized the first, second, and sixth divisions of the army, which, united with Grouchy's forty thousand men, would amount to eighty thousand, and form the nucleus of a force which might avenge recent disasters. On hearing this, Napoleon submitted to the discussion of his Privy Council the question whether the hesitation of the Chambers to uphold the succes- sion of Napoleon II., the treachery which sent ambassadors with peace proposals to the allies, and the loudly-expressed attachment to his person of the army and the people, did not make it his duty to resume the imperial authority and save the country from a foreign yoke and a counter-revolution. Carnot supported the pro- position, saying, "You alone, Sire, can save us from the knout of the allies." Seeing his council hesitate, Bonaparte said, " No ; it would create civil war and cause the shedding of torrents of French blood. I would rather have the regrets of France than possess its crown." At nightfall on the 25th Napoleon left the Elysee for Malmaison in Las Cases' carriage, having changed his uniform of a Chasseur of the Guard for a brown coat and round hat ; otherwise the people who were shouting for him in the gardens and approaches of the palace would have recognized and detained him. When at Malmaison he, in compliance with the suggestions of some members of the Government, addressed his last proclamation to the army : — " Soldiers ! when I yield to the necessity forcing me to separate from the brave French army, I take with me the happy conviction that it will justify by eminent services the high character our enemies themselves are not able to refuse to it. Soldiers, I shall follow your steps, though absent. . . . You and I have been calumniated. Men incapable of appreciating your actions have seen, in the marks of attachment you have given me, a zeal of which I was the sole object; let your future success teach them that it was the country above all that you served in obeying me, and that if I have any part in your affection, I owe it to my ardent love for France, our common mother. Soldiers, some efforts more, and the coalition will be destroyed. Napoleon will know you by the blows that you will give to it. Save the honour, the independence of the French ; be what I have known you for twenty years, and you will be invincible ! " Napoleon gave up power without making a single condition for himself. Yet the anxiety to receive his abdication shown by the leading members of the party opposed to him is sufficient proof that they would willingly have granted anything to insure it. If he had insisted that they should give him a proper escort to the coast and a naval armament of suitable strength, so rapidly equipped as to forestal the vigilance of the British Government, there can be little doubt that he would have reached America in safety. But he sank into indifference. So little did he exert his usual vigilant foresight that he even believed he should be permitted to remain in France, and amused himself with plans of collecting a circle of private friends about him at Malmaison. He never even thought of his funds till reminded by Savary, who, after obtaining his instructions, went to the treasury of the crown on the 23rd, and drew the sum which the Emperor had at his command. He was i8i5-] LAST HOURS AT MALMA1S0N. 463 only just in time, having scarcely left the office when it was closed, and all pay- ments forbidden by order of the Provisional Government. This money and negotiable securities, together amounting to between four and five millions of francs, Napoleon entrusted to M. Lafitte. Montholon records that while at the Elyse'e two inexplicable thefts much crippled the Emperor's portable resources — a case of snuff-boxes set in diamonds sent by Cambaceres and secu- rities amounting to fifteen hundred thousand francs being abstracted from the Emperor's private cabinet, entered by only one high functionary. The mystery was never solved. 1 On the 26th General Belter arrived at Malmaison, and announced that he had orders to take the command of the troops dispatched to protect the Emperor, and to answer for his person to the Provisional Government. Napoleon was aware of the meaning of this, but received General Beker with courtesy. The Government also placed at Napoleon's disposal two frigates, the Saale and Meduse, then lying in the roads of Aix. Napoleon continued to display the same indifference to his fate which had been observable since his abdication. " His composure," says Savary, "alarmed me." " We anxiously waited the waking of the lion," says Mon- tholon ; " every piece of intelligence from the army of the Loire rekindled our hopes." Fouche provided the outfit of plate, carriage, books, &c, of which Ber- trand took possession. Notwithstanding urgent letters and decrees, Napoleon obstinately persisted in remaining at Malmaison, although in danger of being captured by the Prussians, to prevent which Davoust had the bridges of Besons and Chaton blown up. At last the Government, seriously alarmed, sent for General Beker to Paris, and ordered him to set out instantly for the isle of Aix, with Napoleon incognito, giving him a passport for himself, his secretary, and a servant, the secretary being no other than Napoleon. While Beker was absent Queen Hortense came to take farewell of Napoleon, and gave him a very valuable diamond necklace. By this untoward delay Napoleon lost all possibility of escape, for as soon as the result of Waterloo was known the coast of France was guarded by English cruisers, with strict injunctions to prevent the departure of Napoleon. The official order reached the British squadron, lying off Rochelle and Rochefort, on the 5th or 6th of July; but as early as the 30th of June an anonymous French correspondent had warned Captain Maitland, commanding the Bellerophon, off the latter port, of the probable embarkation of Napoleon. The letter was written on thin paper and enclosed in a quill. The allied armies were fast approaching Paris. They had hitherto proceeded with caution, but no sooner did they receive intelligence of the abdication of Napoleon than they advanced rapidly. The Prussians appeared on the Lower Seine on the 27th, and threatened to isolate Malmaison. On the 29th General Brayer's division from Vende'e came up, and with loud cries demanded to see Napoleon, who thereupon resolved to postpone his departure for some hours in order to send General Beker to Paris to submit to the Provisional Government the proposal that he should resume the command of the army in the name of Napoleon II. and punish the invaders' rashness. " You explain," said he to General Beker, who was the bearer of his message, " that it is not my intention to resume possession of power. My only wish is to defeat the enemy and compel him to give a favourable turn to the negotiations. As soon as this result shall have been obtained, I shall quietly proceed on my journey." Such an offer was received with terror and rejected. Napoleon, who firmly believed it would be accepted, and had made all preparations for an advance, received the reply in moody silence ; but when he heard that the Russians were already at Versailles, he said, " Give orders for our departure, and when all is ready inform me." On the 29th Napoleon left Malmaison. A small band of friends collected to bid him farewell. Labedoyere suffered himself to be persuaded to remain in France, con- trary to the warnings and remonstrances of the Emperor. The officers of the guard were admitted to take their leave. A caliche and four waited for the Em- peror, a courier riding on to secure relays of horses. Napoleon was dressed in a 464 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. green overcoat, azure blue trousers, and a round hat. With a firm step and calm countenance Napoleon came out of his private apartments and announced that he was ready to depart. He took the road to Rochefort, by Rambouillet and Tours, accompanied by Savary, and Generals Beker, Bertrand, and Gourgaud ; Montholon went in a carriage bearing the imperial arms, and containing the Em- peror's effects, by Saintes. Madame Bertrand and her children, M. de las Cases and his son, M. and Madame Montholon, Colonel de Planat, and several orderly officers who had requested leave to accompany the Emperor, travelled by the Orleans road. But for Davoust's precautionary destruction of the bridges in front of Malmaison, Napoleon would have run a risk of falling into the hands of the allies. A Prussian detachment appeared there in quest of him soon after he started. He slept at Rambouillet the first night, and at Poitiers on the 30th. At St. Maixent a serious event nearly compromised Napoleon's safety. The crowd, regarding the party with suspicion, assumed a menacing attitude, and but for General Beker's presence of mind and recognition of an officer of gendarmerie, a similar incident to that of D'Orgen on his former road to exile, when the people were nearly pulling him to pieces, would have occurred. He had to escape to Niort, where he was well received. A great crowd surrounded the hotel where he slept, but did not disturb him. The heat was intense; therefore, by way of relief, Napoleon rose at dawn, and, attired in a dressing-gown of white bombazeen, with an ill-tied handkerchief on his head, took his seat on the balcony. Here Colonel Voisin recognized him, and urged him to place himself at the head of the army of the Gironde and march on Paris. Generals Lemarque, Clausel, and Lallemand urged the same, but without effect. When getting into his carriage at the Prefecture, all cried with one voice, " Vive VEmpereur! Remain with us, Sire ! " and at last the troops so earnestly requested to be allowed to supply him with an escort, that he could not resist their entreaties, and pursued the journey to Rochefort attended by a picket of light cavalry. He reached this place on the 3rd of July. Joseph Bonaparte joined him, and the two brothers saw each other for the last time. The roadstead and harbour were found to be watched by the English men-of-war, the squadron having been doubled since the 29th. Napoleon's presence caused much excitement in Rochefort. He was popular there in consequence of the benefits he had conferred on the city, by draining the marshes and by the erection of various public works. Crowds collected under his windows, who made no secret of their attachment and regret. Here General Beker received letters from Paris peremptorily ordering the embarkation of Napo- leon, and authorizing the general to call armed force to his assistance if necessary, reminding him that had Napoleon left Malmaison earlier, the frigates placed at his disposal might have escaped the English. Heedless of the pressing orders from Paris, Napoleon lingered in the town, unaccountably delaying his departure until capture or surrender was manifestly inevitable. Montholon says that, from the words which escaped him, Napoleon undoubtedly cherished hopes to the last moment that he would be recalled to Paris, if " only as a general useful to the country." While at Rochefort, offers were made to him from the army which had retired from the capital behind the Loire, according to the Convention of the 3rd of July, but he declined them. " I saw," said he afterwards to Captain Maitland, " that there was no prospect of ultimate success, though I might have occasioned a great deal of trouble and bloodshed, which I did not choose should take place on my account individually: while the empire was at stake it was another matter." On the 8th Napoleon embarked on board the Saale frigate, without, however, any immediate prospect of getting to sea. The fate of France had been decided in this short interval. The Provisional Government failed to awaken the national spirit, to conciliate the army, or bring the English and Prussian generals to terms. The leading members of the Chambers continued to proclaim resistance to the Bourbons, but no practical measures sup- ported their denunciations. The Royalists were active; Fouche intrigued for 1815.] ESCAPE NO LONGER POSSIBLE. 465 them. Grouchy and Soult retreated under the walls of Paris, followed by Wel- lington and Blucher. A short yet brave resistance was made, but on the night of the 2nd of July an armistice was concluded, by which the capital was surrendered to the allies, and the French army was allowed to retire behind the Loire. By the 7th the last French corps evacuated Paris, and Wellington and Blucher, making their triumphant entrance at the head of their armies, occupied the city. The Provisional Government and the Chambers, who had continued their sittings up to this period, now received the final resolution of the allied Sovereigns, that "all authority emanating from the usurped power of Napoleon Bonaparte was null and void," and that Louis XVIII. , then at St. Denis, would next day enter his capital and resume his regal authority. Whilst these events occurred in the capital of France, its late Emperor remained at Rochefort, or went on board one of the French frigates, occasionally landing at the isle of Aix ; the Bcllerophon, joined by the Slaney, closely blockading the port. A council of naval and military officers was held to consider the safest course to adopt to insure the Emperor's voyage to the United States; and it being unanimously resolved that it was impossible to leave the harbour without falling into the hands of the enemy, Savary and Las Cases were dispatched on the 10th of July to Captain Maitland, under a flag of truce, to inquire whether he had any knowledge of the passports which the Emperor expected to receive from the British Government, or if it were the intention of that Government to throw any impediment in the way of his voyage to the United States. The two envoys were received on board the Bellerophon, where they remained about two hours. Captain Maitland replied that he had no knowledge concerning the passports ; that he could not say what were the intentions of his Government ; that he could not permit any ship of war to leave the port of Rochefort ; nor could he suffer any neutral vessel to pass with a personage of so much consequence. In the course of the conversation, Captain Maitland (according to his own statement) suggested, "Why not seek an asylum in England?" to which various objections were urged by Savary. Captain Maitland had already received official orders to watch for and if possible intercept Napoleon, and in case of success to take him to England. When we recollect the return from Egypt and from Elba, it is hardly possible to doubt that Napoleon could have got away from France at this period if he had exerted his natural energy. Captain Maitland's force was inadequate to guard all the ports of the neighbouring coasts from which small vessels might have put to sea. With the devotion of the seamen and troops at Rochefort, Rochelle, and the neighbouring ports, which Napoleon unquestionably possessed, he would have found means of escape but for the mental and physical prostration which had taken possession of him. It is not in human nature to work during three months fifteen hours out of every twenty-four for carrying out great designs ; to command in three hard-fought, sanguinary battles, and by the result of the last of those battles to lose all for which that time and labour had been bestowed : it is not in human nature to do and suffer all this and retain its high-wrought energy. Every description of Napoleon at this period confirms the impression that he appeared like one who has done with action and whose part it is to endure — to be guided rather than to guide. After discussing the various plans of escape (one offered by a Danish captain, another by the midshipmen of a French frigate, but all finally rejected), Napoleon once mere dispatched Las Cases, accompanied by General Lallemand, to Captain Maitland on the 14th of July, to ask whether the intentions of the British Government were yet declared as to a passport to America, or if permission for Napoleon to pass in a neutral vessel could be granted. The answer was in the negative, but Captain Maitland again suggested his embarkation on board the Bellerophon in order to be conveyed to England. The words of Captain Maitland, as quoted by himself to Lord Keith in his letter of the 8th of August, 1815, were as follows: "If he chooses to come on board the ship I command, / think, under the orders I am acting with, I may 30 466 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. venture to receive him and carry him to England." Upon this a negotiation took place which terminated in Las Cases saying, " Under all circumstances I have little doubt that you will see the Emperor on board the Bellerophon." There has been much discussion concerning this conversation. Las Cases says in his journal that Captain Maitland " declared it as his private opinion, and several captains who were present expressed themselves to the same effect, that there was not the least doubt of Napoleon's meeting with all possible respect and good treatment ; that in England neither the King nor his Ministers exercised the same arbitrary authority as those of the continent ; that the English people possessed a gene- rosity of sentiment and liberality of opinion superior to sovereignty itself." Cap- tain Maitland neither admits nor denies that he made such a statement as his private opinion, nor that Captain Sartorius (the only other captain present) did so. Captain Maitland's manly and interesting narrative shows a warm and gene- rous heart ; and it was very natural that he and other British naval officers should believe that the late Emperor of France, driven by adversity to seek a refuge in England, would there meet with " all possible respect and good treatment." Las Cases affirmed afterwards that he acted on the understanding that Captain Maitland was authorized to convey Napoleon and his suite to England, and on the assurance that the Emperor would be well received there ; while Captain Maitland explicitly declares in all his despatches written whilst the negotiation was pending, as well as in his narrative, that he repeatedly warned Las Cases that " he was not autho- rized to stipulate as to the reception which Napoleon might meet with in England." If strictly examined, the assertion of Las Cases does not amount to saying that Captain Maitland averred he had authority for stipulating as to Napoleon's recep- tion — it may only allude to a private opinion expressed; and it should be remem- bered that Las Cases was enthusiastically attached to Napoleon, to follow whom he voluntarily left his country, his wife, and children, and that he was thrown into an agony of distress at the unhappy termination of a negotiation he had com- menced. This was the explanation of the misunderstandings which occurred, given by Napoleon himself, who did not support his assertions, but on the contrary expressed his satisfaction with Captain Maitland's conduct, both public and private, and wished to present him with his portrait set in diamonds ; this, however, Cap- tain Maitland took means of informing him he could not accept, and Napoleon appreciated the propriety of the refusal. When Las Cases returned to the isle of Aix the result of his mission appeared to be that " Captain Maitland had authorized him to tell the Emperor that, if he decided upon going to England, he was authorized to receive him on board ; and he accordingly placed his ship at his disposal." Napoleon made up his mind to go on board the British ship. He directed Las Cases to announce this deter- mination to Captain Maitland, and prepare him to receive himself and his suite on the following morning. At the same time he entrusted to Gourgaud a letter to the Prince Regent, with instructions to convey it to England and put it into the hands of his Royal Highness. Much has been said about the date of this letter, which is unquestionably the 13th, although all Napoleon's followers assert that it was written in consequence of the interview between Las Cases and Captain Maitland, which took place on the 14th ; while the latter, pointing to that date, uses it as an argument that Napoleon had made up his mind before the interview took place. The whole negotiation is perfectly intelligible without supposing any dishonour- able dealing. Those who carried it on for Napoleon regarded him as a Sovereign who had abdicated his throne, and sought an asylum in a country which had been his implacable enemy, and which they conceived he honoured by his confidence. Captain Maitland, on the other hand, regarded him, as every British officer pro- bably did, as an usurper, whose passion for war and insatiable ambition had made him throughout his life the implacable enemy of Great Britain, and who, now dethroned by the lawful monarch whose place he had usurped, was rightfully ex- pelled from his country. Captain Maitland conceiving that he did great service 1815-] LETTER TO THE PRINCE REGENT. 4&7 by securing the person of his country's most dangerous enemy, doubtless did his duty as a British officer, according to the instructions of his Government, without making any conditions. Napoleon's letter to the Prince Regent was as follows : — " Your Royal Highness, — A victim to the factions which distract my country, and to the enmity of the greatest Powers of Europe, I have terminated my political career, and I come, like Themistocles, to throw myself upon the hospitality of the British people. I put myself under the protection of their laws, which I claim from your Royal Highness as the most powerful, the most constant, and the most generous of my enemies. « Napoleon." " Rochefort, 13th July, 1815. Napoleon, accompanied by the whole of his suite, embarked on the 15th of July at daybreak, on board the French brig Epervier. That morning an emissary from the Provisional Government had arrived to arrest him. He was anxiously expected in the Bellerophon. When Captain Maitland perceived the approach of the brig, he sent his barge to bring the Emperor on board. " General Bertrand first came up the ship's side," says Captain Maitland, "and said to me, 'The Emperor is in the boat.' When Napoleon came on the quarter-deck, he pulled off his hat, and, addressing me in a firm tone of voice, said, ' I am come to throw myself on the protection of your Prince and laws.' " The captain then led him into the cabin, which was given up to his use ; and afterwards, by his own request, presented all the officers to him, and he went round every part of the ship during the morning. He conversed on indifferent subjects, asking many questions, and making many remarks, " generally," says Captain Maitland, " much to the purpose, and showing that he had given naval affairs a good deal of consideration." The Admiral's ship, the Superb, which had appeared in the offing early in the morning, anchored close by at half-past ten. In the afternoon Sir Henry Hotham waited on the Emperor, and remained to dinner by his request. The dinner was served on Napoleon's gold plate, and regulated by his malt r e (V hotel ; and as while on board the Bellerophon he was uniformly treated as a royal personage, he led the way to the dining-room and seated himself in the centre of one side of the table, placing Sir Henry Hotham on his right hand. Next morning Napoleon visited the Superb. In leaving the Bellerophon he stopped in front of the guard of marines drawn up on the quarter-deck to salute him, made some observations on the fine appearance of the men, asked which had been longest in the corps, and went up and spoke to him. He then put the guard through part of their exercise. He made some remarks on the difference of their charge with the bayonet to that manoeuvre as performed by the French ; and then, to the astonishment of the English officers, advancing into the midst of the men, he took a musket from one of them and went through the exercise himself according to the French method. He was received on board the Superb with all the honours paid to royal person- ages, with the exception of firing a salute. The guard was turned out, the yards manned, and the band played while he breakfasted. He went through the ship, examining everything, and conversing with the admiral and officers. " I observed during the whole time of breakfast," says Captain Maitland, "that Count de Planat, who was much attached to hirn, and of whom Bonaparte always expressed himself in terms of affection, had tears running down his cheeks, and seemed greatly distressed at the situation of his master. I feel convinced he had a strong personal attachment to Bonaparte ; and this, indeed, as far as I could judge, was the case with all his other attendants." The party returned to the Bellerophon about noon, when the ship got under weigh and made sail for England._ The voyage was tedious. Napoleon passed much time in reading. He occasionally played vingt-et-un with all the party, frequently walked the deck, once witnessed a play performed by the midshipmen, and laughed heartily at the strapping fellows -who personated the ladies. He conversed freely with Captain Maitland, entering 30 — 2 46S THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. into various details of his history and actions, and asking many questions about English customs, saying, " I must now learn to conform myself to them, as I shall probably pass the remainder of my life in England." He is described as lethargic, going to bed early, rising late, and frequently falling asleep during the day. The ship passed Ushant on the 23rd of July. Napoleon cast many a melancholy look at the coast of France, but said nothing. At break of day on the 24th they were close to Dartmouth : Bertrand informed the Emperor, who came on deck at half-past four, and remained on the poop till the anchor was dropped in Torbay. He was much struck with the beauty of the scenery, and exclaimed, " What a beautiful country ! it very much resembles Porto Ferrajo in Elba." The ship was scarcely at anchor when official despatches arrived from Admiral Viscount Keith. The Lords of the Admiralty forbade any communication with the shore, or the admittance on board of any person except Lord Keith or Sir John Duck- worth. Gourgaud had not been permitted to land from the Slaney, and as he had refused to entrust the letter to the Prince Regent to another hand, it had not been sent. He was himself soon transferred to the Bellerophon. The gloomy forebodings which these proceedings excited in Napoleon were increased by the tone of the press, which not only contained a great deal that was personally offensive to him, but stated that he would not be permitted to land, and that St. Helena was his probable destination. No sooner was it known ashore that Napo- leon was on board the Bellerophon than the ship was surrounded by a crowd of boats filled with people who came from all quarters to see him. He frequently surveyed his visitors from the gangways and stern windows, observing to Captain Maitland that "the English appeared to have a very large portion of curiosity." Whenever he saw any well-dressed women he bowed to them. On the 26th the Bellerophon was ordered to proceed to Plymouth Sound, where, by order of the Admiralty, two frigates, the Liffey and Eurotas, anchored on each side and kept strict watch day and night. No shore boat was permitted to ap- proach within a cable's length of the ships, and as the concourse of people daily increased the boats of the frigate were continually rowed round to keep the others off. On one occasion Captain Maitland says he counted upwards of a thousand boats within view, each containing on an average eight people. As the report that Napoleon was to be treated as a prisoner became confirmed, testimonies of respect and sympathy towards him increased. When he appeared the men uncovered their heads, and frequently cheered him ; and red carnations were extensively worn as- being one of his colours. He often acknowledged the acclamations of the people by bowing and taking off his hat. He expressed admiration of the beauty of the English women, and asked Captain Maitland how he was to distinguish which were the "dames comme il faut" (ladies of condition), as all seemed equally well, dressed. Napoleon repeatedly expressed a wish to see Lord Keith ; but uncer- tainty as to the manner in which the English Government would choose the late Emperor to be treated deterring the admiral, he desired Captain Maitland to ex- press his gratitude to Napoleon for the attentions paid to Captain Elphinstone his lordship's nephew, who must have died of his wounds in the last campaign if the Emperor, before whom he was brought prisoner, had not ordered a surgeon to attend him on the spot. On the 28th Lord Keith waited on Napoleon, all diffi- culty as to form being at an end, the Government having decided that the Em- peror should be considered as a general officer only. Sir Charles Bunbury, one of the Under-Secretaries of State, together with Lord Keith, came on board on the 31st to notify to Napoleon officially the resolutions of the English Government respecting him. The commissioners were introduced into the cabin, where they were received by Napoleon, who was attended by Ber- trand. Sir Charles Bunbury read in French the following letter from the Ministers to Lord Keith :-— " As it may be convenient for General Bonaparte to learn, without further delay, the intentions of the British Government with regard to him, your Lordship wilL iSis-] PROTESTS TO LORD KEITH. 4 6 9 communicate the following information : — It would be inconsistent with our duty towards our country and the allies of his Majesty if General Bonaparte possessed the means of again disturbing the repose of Europe. It is on this account that it becomes absolutely necessary he should be restrained in his personal liberty, so far as this is required by the foregoing important object. The island of St. Helena has been chosen as his future residence : its climate is healthy, and its local position will allow of his being treated with more indulgence than could ■< be admitted in any other spot, owing to the indispensable precautions which it would be necessary to employ for the security of his person. . General Bonaparte is allowed to select amongst those persons who accompanied him to England (with the exception of Generals Savary and Lallemand) three officers, who, together with his surgeon, will have permission to accompany him to St. Helena : these indi- viduals will not be allowed to quit the island without the sanction of the British Government. Rear-Admiral Sir George Cockburn, who is named commander-in- chief at the Cape of Good Hope and seas adjacent, will convey General Bonaparte and his suite to St. Helena, and he will receive detailed instructions relative to the execution of this service. Sir George Cockburn will most probably be ready to sail in a few days, for which reason it ii. desirable that General Bonaparte should make choice of the persons who are to accompany him without delay." Napoleon, whose manner was easy and dignified, having silently heard this document to the close, was requested to state if he wished to make any reply. With great calmness he solemnly protested against the orders which had been read, declared that the British Ministry had no right to dispose of him in the way proposed, and asked to what tribunal he could appeal. " I am come," he con- tinued, "voluntarily to throw myself on the hospitality of your nation ; I am not a prisoner of war, and if I were I have a right to be treated according to the law of nations. But I am come to this country a passenger on board one of your ships after a previous negotiation with the commander. If he had told me I was to be a prisoner I would not have come. I asked him if he was willing to receive me on board and convey me to England. Captain Maitland said he was, having re- ceived special orders of Government concerning me. It was then a snare spread for me ; I came on board a British s"hip as I would have entered one of your towns, — a ship, a village, — it is the same thing. As for the island of St. Helena, it would be my sentence of death. I demand to be received as an English citizen. How many years entitle me to be domiciliated ? " Sir Henry Bunbury answered that he believed four were necessary. " Well, then," continued Napoleon, " let the Prince Regent during that time place me under any superintendence he thinks proper ; let me be placed in a country house in the centre of the island, thirty leagues from every seaport ; station a commissioned officer about me to examine my correspondence and superintend my actions, or if the Prince Regent should require my word of honour I might give it. I might then enjoy a certain degree of personal liberty, and I should have the freedom of literature." He again said that in coming on board the Bellerophon he was perfectly free in his choice, and had preferred confiding himself to the hospitality and generosity of the English nation, reminding them that he might hare gone to his father-in- law the Emperor of Austria, or to the Emperor Alexander, who had no private quarrel with him. " If your Government act thus," he said, " it will disgrace you in the eyes of Europe. Even your own people will blame it." He reminded them that the French army had not then submitted. "If I had chosen to remain in France," he continued, " what was there to prevent my remaining concealed for years amongst a people so much attached to me ? " Adverting to the title by which he was designated : " Your Government," said he, pointing to the epithet in Lord Melville's letter, " has no right to term me ' General Bonaparte.' I was. Emperor, acknowledged by all the Powers in Europe except Great Britain, and she acknowledged me as Chief Consul. I am Prince or Consul, and ought to be treated as such if treated with at all. When I was at Elba I was at least as 470 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. much a Sovereign in that island as Louis on the throne of France. We both had our respective flags, our ships, our troops. Mine, to be sure," he said with a smile, " were rather on a small scale ; I had six hundred soldiers, and he had two hundred thousand. At length I made war upon him, defeated him, and dethroned him. But there was nothing in this to deprive me of my rank as one of the Sovereigns of Europe." Lord Keith and Sir Henry Bunbury declined replying to these remonstrances, stating that they were unauthorized to enter into discussions, as their only duty was to convey the intentions of their Government to him and transmit his answer, if he charged them with any. Sir Henry Bunbury, however, suggested that St. Helena had been selected as the place of his residence because its local situation allowed freer scope for exercise and indulgence than could have been permitted in any part of Great Britain. " No, no," repeated Napoleon with animation, " I will not go there. You would not go there, sir, were it your own case, — nor, my lord, would you." Lord Keith bowed and answered " he had been already at St. Helena four times." Napoleon reiterating his protests, again said, " I will not go thither ; I am not a Hercules " (with a smile), " but you shall not conduct me to St. Helena. I prefer death in this place. You found me free, — send me back again ; replace me in the condition in which I was, or permit me to go to America." He then repeated his expectations that he should have been allowed to land, — urged the admiral to take no further steps to remove him to the Northumberland till the Government could be informed of what he had said. After the interview had terminated, and the two commissioners of Government had taken their leave, Napoleon recalled Lord Keith, from whom the expressions concerning Captain Elphinstone authorized him to expect some courtesy. Napoleon asked his lord- ship's advice under his present difficulty. Lord Keith replied that as an officer he had discharged his duty, and would leave the heads of his instructions. If Napoleon considered it necessary to renew the discussion, Sir Henry Bunbury must be called in. Napoleon said that was unnecessary, and asked, " Can you, after what has passed, detain me until I hear from London ? " Lord Keith replied this must depend on the instructions brought by the other admiral, with which he was unacquainted. " Is there any tribunal," Napoleon asked, " to which I can apply?" Lord Keith replied that he was no civilian, but he believed there was none whatever, adding, " I am satisfied there is every disposition on the part of the Government to render your situation as comfortable as prudence will permit." " How so ? " said Napoleon, lifting the paper from the table and speaking with animation. Upon Lord Keith's observing that it was surely preferable to being confined to a smaller space in England, or being sent to France, or perhaps to Russia, Napoleon exclaimed, " Russia ! God preserve me from it ! " The decision of the English Government threw all the suite of Napoleon into consternation ; but the greatest fear each entertained was that of being left behind. Madame Bertrand alone was an exception. Her horror of so dreary an exile overcame her attachment to the Emperor. In a paroxysm of grief she attempted to drown herself, and was with great difficulty saved by Montholon; and her efforts to dissuade Bertrand from accompanying the Emperor became a continual source of irritation. Savary and Lallemand were inspired with great apprehension on finding their names excluded from those permitted to proceed to St. Helena. They had been placed on the list of proscribed persons, and condemned to death by the Bourbons, to whom it appeared the British Government intended to deliver them up. Captain Maitland strongly reprobated the idea, assuring them there was no risk of such a step. He, however, wrote to Lord Melville on the subject in terms which did honour to his good feeling. Sir Samuel Romilly was also appealed to ; and that distinguished lawyer, having consulted the Lord Chancellor, ascertained that there was no such intention as that feared. Napoleon maintained perfect calmness ; and he appeared on deck and at dinner as usual on the day he received the Government notification. In conversation with Captain Maitland, i Si 5-] SECOND LETTER TO THE PRINCE REGENT. 4/1 however, he said, " The idea is a perfect horror to me. To be banished for life to an island within the tropics, at an immense distance from any land, cut off from all communication with the world and everything I hold dear in it ! It is worse than Tamerlane's iron cage. I would prefer being given up to the Bourbons. Among other insults — but that is a mere bagatelle — they style me General ! They can have no right to call me General ; they may as well call me Archbishop, for I was head of the Church as well as of the army." He refused to make choice of the individuals who should accompany him, and frequently repeated the words — " I shall not go to St. Helena." Whether he had some hope that the English Government would relent, or meditated suicide, is uncertain. " My friend," said he to Las Cases, " I have sometimes an idea of quitting you, and this would not be very difficult ; it is only necessary to create a little mental excitement, and all will be over, and you can then quietly rejoin your families. This is the more easy since my moral principles do not oppose any bar to it. I am one of those who conceive that the pains of the other world were only imagined as a counterpoise to those allurements which are also offered to us there. God can never have willed such a contradiction to His infinite goodness, for what is it after all but wishing to return to Him a little sooner ? " He listened to the arguments Las Cases brought against a voluntary death, and then said, " A man ought to fulfil his destinies ; this is my grand doctrine : let mine be accomplished." He suffered from bad health and depression for two days, and did not appear on deck or at breakfast or dinner either on the 3rd or 4th. During this period Napoleon wrote a second letter to the Prince Regent. He also prepared the following protest, copies of which were given to Captain Maitland and Lord Keith : — - " I hereby solemnly protest in the face of Heaven and mankind against the violence that is done me, and the violation of my most sacred rights, in forcibly disposing of my person and liberty. I voluntarily came, on board the Bellerophon. I am not a prisoner, I am the guest of England. I came at the instigation of the captain himself, who said he had orders from the Government to receive and convey me to England, together with my suite, if agreeable to me. I came forward with confidence to place myself under the protection of the laws of England. When once on board the Bellerophon I was entitled to the hospitality of the British people. If the Government in giving the captain of the Bellerophon orders to re- ceive me and my followers only wished to lay a snare, it has forfeited its honour and disgraced its flag. If this act be consummated it will be in vain for the English henceforth to talk of their sincerity, their laws and liberties. British faith will have been lost in the hospitality of the Belleropho7i ! " I appeal to history : it will say that an enemy who made war for twenty years against the English people came spontaneously in the hour of misfortune to seek an asylum under their laws. What more striking proof could he give of his esteem and confidence ? But how did England reply to such an act of magnanimity? It pretended to hold out a hospitable hand to this enemy, and on giving himself up with confidence he was immolated ! .. n 7, ., . r- -a > ♦ tl o - (Signed) "Napoleon." Bellerophon, at sea, Friday, August 4th, 1815. v ° ' No answer was returned by the Prince Regent to the letters of Napoleon. It is said that fears were entertained by certain councillors of his Royal Highness that he would grant an interview to Napoleon, in which case they dreaded the "well-known influence of the latter. Lord Keith expressed himself in very emphatic terms on this subject after his own visit to the Bellerophon. " D — n the fellow," he said, "if he had obtained an interview with his Royal Highness, in half an hour they would have been the best friends in England." It was reported at Plymouth on the 4th of August that a lawyer was coming there with a writ of Habeas Corpus to claim the person of Napoleon Bonaparte. This safeguard of English liberty, it appears, does not extend to prisoners of war ; but Lord Keith was not aware of this, and he no sooner heard that an individual 472 THE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. answering to the description of this dreaded lawyer was inquiring for him, than he hurriedly left Plymouth and got on board the Tonnant. Here he was followed by the individual who had alarmed him ashore ; but as this unwelcome visitor attempted to get in at one side of the ship the admiral got out at the other and rowed off at full speed. He was pursued by the supposed lawyer, whose boat, however, could not compete with the admiral's twelve-oared barge, and accord- ingly the latter escaped round the Ramehead. Meanwhile he had ordered Captain Maitland to weigh anchor and cruise off the Start. As the Bellerophon, towed by the guard-boats, was slowly getting out of the Sound against wind and tide, Captain Maitland was alarmed by the sight of a suspicious-looking person in a boat rowing towards the ship, and sent a guard-boat to keep under the stern and prevent the approach of any person whatever. The suspicious-looking indi- vidual was thus kept at bay, and he turned out to have been the same who had alarmed the admiral, and was just returned from his unsuccessful chase. On joining the Prometheus (where Lord Keith's flag was then flying) off the Rame- head in the evening, Captain Maitland received the following " note of alarm : " " I have been chased all day by a lawyer with a Habeas Corpus ; he is landed at Cawsand, and may come off in a sailing boat during the night ; of course keep all sorts of boats off, as I will do in whatever ship I may be." [No date.] " K.EITH." The fact is, a London newspaper, in ignorance (like Lord Keith) of the law,, proposed the attempt to get Napoleon ashore by the agency of a writ of Habeas Corpus ; and an individual, prosecuted for libel upon a naval officer, conceived the idea of citing Napoleon as a witness in a Court of Justice to prove the state of the French navy, which he affirmed was necessary to his defence. The writ was directed to Lord Keith, and it was the individual himself and no lawyer who was foiled in his attempt to serve it on the admiral and afterwards on Captain Maitland. Las Cases was aware of the attempt, but it does not appear that it excited any interest in Napoleon. The Northumberland, bearing the flag of Admiral Cockburn, was appointed to carry Napoleon to St. Helena, and she made her appearance on the 6th of August, accompanied by two frigates containing troops destined to form the garrison of the island. Napoleon received the intimation without further remonstrance. He finally made choice of Counts Bertrand and Montholon, and General Gourgaud, as the three officers of his suite who were to follow him into exile ; to these he was permitted to add Count las Cases, purely in a civil capacity. The Emperor's sur- geon having suffered much from sea-sickness on the way from Rochefort, dreaded another voyage ; Napoleon therefore proposed to Mr. O'Meara, the surgeon of the Bellerophon, to take his place, to which, after obtaining permission from Govern- ment, Mr. O'Meara consented, and he was transferred to the Northumberland. Bertrand was to be accompanied by his wife and three children, Montholon also by his wife and one child, Las Cases by his son. The twelve attendants selected by the Emperor were Marchand, St. Denis, and Novarrez, his valels-de-chambre ; Cipriani, mattre est), June 19th to July 18th. Fervidor or Thermidor/'A't'a'y, July 19th to August 17th. Fructidor ( Fruity ), August iSthto September 16th. The Year One of the Republic began at midnight, September 21st, 1792. Thiers says each month con- sisted of thirty days divided into three decades ; five days remained to complete the year, which were set apart as festivals, called Sansculottides, namely, Les Virtus, the Virtues, September 17th; Le Genie, Genius, September 18th ; Le Travail, Labour, September 19th ; JU Opinion, Opinion, September 20th; Les Recompenses, Rewards, September 21st. The decimal system was not only applied to money, but to the division of time, as each day consisted of ten hours, marked on a great clock in front of the Tuileries. THE CARMAGNOLE.