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 5000 4-2-17 
 
SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK 
 OF ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND 
 AGRICULTURAL SHORT COURSES 
 
 BY 
 E. DWIGHT SANDERSON 
 
 AND 
 
 L. M. PEAIRS 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 
 
 London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
 1917 
 
Copyright, 1917 
 
 BY 
 
 E. DWIGHT SANDERSON and L. M. PEAIRS 
 
 PRESS or 
 
 BRAUNWORTH Ii CO. 
 
 BOOK MANUFACTURERS 
 
 BROOKLYN. N. Y. 
 
INTRODITCTION 
 
 Entomology is briefly defined as the study of insects 
 in all their relations and activities. Its importance is due 
 to the numbers of species and the abundance of individ- 
 uals in the insect group. In both these respects insects 
 form by far the greater portion of our land fauna. Vari- 
 ous estimates place the number of species of insects at 
 from one to ten millions and the number of individuals 
 is far beyond calculation. Of these species nearly a half 
 milHon have been named and described. 
 
 The range of insects is almost universal on land, but 
 only a few forms are marine in habitat. Intensively speak- 
 ing, their range is equally great. In any given locality 
 insects may be found inhabiting every conceivable situ- 
 ation and living on the greatest variety of foods. 
 
 When we consider the vast numbers of insect forms 
 and their wide distribution and range in food habits it 
 seems inevitable that many of these forms should clash 
 with man, and this is indeed the case. Many of the 
 earth's products which are most useful and highly desira- 
 ble to man are attractive to insects as well. Man, in his 
 assumed character of the dominant animal, claims prior 
 right and such insects as affect his welfare or comfort are 
 Usted as pests. 
 
 Less account is taken by man of his insect allies, those 
 forms which minister directly to his needs, or those which, 
 in a roundabout way, add to his pleasure or his revenues. 
 
 ill 
 
iv INTRODUCTION 
 
 The extent of insect injuries in the United States has 
 been carefully estimated by experts in the U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture and these estimates place the total annual 
 loss at not far from the stupendous sum of one billion 
 dollars. This estimated loss is divided among various 
 classes of products. Of these, grain and forage crops are 
 the heaviest sufferers, bearing about one-third of the total; 
 the live stock industry assumes another third; truck 
 crops stand one-sixth the total loss. After these come, 
 with smaller totals, cotton, fruit, tobacco, forests and mis- 
 cellaneous products. 
 
 In addition to the tangible monetary losses occasioned 
 by the activities of the insects which attack crops, must 
 be considered the less definite, but none the less real, im- 
 portance which is based on their disease-carrying faculties, 
 the study and knowledge of which has been confined to 
 the more recent years. 
 
 No one can estimate the actual importance of the mos- 
 quitoes in terms of dollars. The money loss to the nation 
 in any year from malaria is undoubtedly great, but the 
 importance of the insects which transmit it from one 
 person to another would not be based on the consideration 
 of money at all. Nor is the comfort of the inhabitants 
 of the mosquito-ridden lands a financial problem, primar- 
 ily, although land values undoubtedly increase rapidly 
 when the mosquito-breeding places are destroyed. 
 
 The house-fly, carrier of filth as it has long been known 
 to be, and carrier of disease from a more recent convic- 
 tion, likewise is not a problem of the pocketbook. Both 
 are, in the larger sense, problems of the higher civihza- 
 tion, and both add to the importance of the study of 
 insects and present this in an entirely different light than 
 the one of the billion dollar annual loss. 
 
INTRODUCTION V 
 
 On the other hand are the beneficial forms. Those 
 that operate directly are familiar to all, the producers of 
 honey and of silk being the best known. Of far more 
 value even than these are the ones which fertilize the 
 flowers and make possible the production of seeds and 
 fruit. Take away the insects and a large part of our flora 
 would disappear through inability to propagate itself 
 without the aid of insects. 
 
 But the student of entomology does not necessarily 
 make the economic importance of the subject his prime 
 motive for taking up the study. To many the charm of 
 the subject Ues, not in the consideration of the hundreds 
 of forms that have a direct bearing on the welfare of man, 
 but rather, in the thousands and thousands whose claim 
 to interest lies in the fact that they are a part of the 
 great scheme of nature and that the study of them will, 
 hke few other studies, bring one into close touch with 
 nature. The economic phases of the subject are acquired 
 in a perfectly natural and logical manner through the 
 study of the life histories of the most common forms, 
 since many of these are at the same time the most in- 
 jurious. 
 
 To inculcate in the young student a love of nature and 
 to stimulate the faculties to observe what is going on in 
 the great world of nature, nothing is better than the 
 study of insects. This forces the student to take an in- 
 terest also in the kindred subject of botany, since there 
 are few plants that are not directly affected by insects 
 and which will not be involved in the studies of the biol- 
 ogy of the many forms. 
 
 Entomology may be studied to the best advantage in 
 the spring, summer and fall, but the subject is by no 
 means closed during the winter months, as there are many 
 
VI INTKODUCTION 
 
 insects whose entire life histories cannot be studied with- 
 out continuation of the observations throughout the year. 
 
 This work aims to present the subject in a simple 
 fashion so that the student of the secondary schools can 
 use all that is given. It attempts to make the student 
 acquainted with only the more important groups and does 
 not go as deeply into the scientific phases of classification 
 and structure as a work intended for more advanced stu- 
 dents should. 
 
 Neither does it give as much attention to details of 
 description of species as a work of larger scope could. 
 The aim is rather to present the general idea of the sub- 
 ject so that it can be covered in the time that the schools 
 may reasonably be expected to allot to it. Brevity is 
 secured rather by omission than by any lack of accuracy 
 in the statements included. The classification employed 
 is the one in general use and the one best known to the 
 greater number of entomological students who will be 
 likely to use the work for a text. Its greater simphcity 
 warrants its use rather than the more scientific arrange- 
 ments and nomenclatures employed by the most modern 
 writers. 
 
 The chapters on economic entomology are presented 
 with the same object: to give as concise an idea of the 
 more common injurious forms as is possible in a Hmited 
 space. Here again, brevity is secured by the omission of 
 the less important and less generally distributed species 
 rather than by slighting those that are considered. 
 
 The junior author is responsible for the preparation of 
 Part I, and the senior author for Part II. 
 
 E. D. S. 
 
 L. M. P. 
 
 June, 1916. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction iii 
 
 PART I 
 GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. Definition of the Subject 1 
 
 II. Insect Structures 4 
 
 III. Insects and their Near Relatives 19 
 
 IV. The Development of Insects 28 
 
 V. The Lower Orders 34 
 
 VI. Neuropteroid Orders 41 
 
 VII. Orthoptera 48 
 
 VIII. Hemiptera 56 
 
 IX. Lepidoptera 72 
 
 X. Coleoptera 107 
 
 XI. Diptera 131 
 
 XII. Hymenoptera 142 
 
 XIII. The Insect Collection 163 
 
 PART II 
 
 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 XIV. Insects Affecting Man and Domestic Animals 175 
 
 XV. Insects Affecting Household Goods and Stored Food 
 
 Products 214 
 
 XVI. Field Crop Insects 236 
 
 XVII. Garden Insects 266 
 
 XVIII. Orchard Insects 287 
 
 XIX Insect Control 323 
 
 Appendix 339 
 
 Index 345 
 
 vii 
 
SCHOOL ENTOAfOLOGY 
 
 PART I— GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT 
 
 1. Entomology Defined. Entomology is the study of 
 insects and may properly include facts of any kind what- 
 soever that pertain to insects or anj^ of their activities. 
 
 2. Insect Characteristics. Insects are animals belong- 
 ing to a branch of the animal kingdom known as the 
 Arthropoda. These animals all have, in their perfect state, 
 bodies made up of ringlike plates called segments, and they 
 have, on some of these segments, jointed legs. In some 
 members of the branch the segments are so nearly grown 
 together that they are not distinguishable. In some stages 
 of others, the legs are lacking, but all members of the 
 branch have, at some stage of their existence, at least, 
 traces of both these characteristics. The branch includes, 
 besides the insects, spiders and their relatives, centipedes 
 and millipedes, and crayfish and lobsters and their rela- 
 tives, of which there are many varied forms. 
 
 3. Classification. Each one of these groups forms 
 what is known in Zoology (Zoology^ is the study of all 
 
2 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 animals and includes Entomology) as a class. The mem- 
 bers of any class that are alike in their general form and 
 structure are placed together in the first sub-division of 
 any class and constitute what we call an order. Those 
 forms in any order that show close resemblance group to- 
 gether and form a family and the members of a family 
 that are even more similar form a genus (plural genera). 
 The last division in animal, or plant, classification is the 
 species. Members of any genus which are exactly alike 
 or as nearly alike as the offspring from a single parent 
 form, constitute a species. An additional character of a 
 species which is, by the way, difficult to define exactly, is 
 that members of the same species will interbreed and pro- 
 duce young like unto themselves which will, in turn, breed 
 and produce fertile young. Some species will show varia- 
 tion on account of climate, of their food, or from some 
 other external cause, but still retain their power to inter- 
 breed and produce like young. Such differences are rec- 
 ognized under the name of varieties. In Zoological class- 
 ification we have, first, the 
 Animal Kingdom, divided into 
 Branches, composed of 
 
 Classes, each embracing one to several 
 Orders, in which are varying numbers of 
 Families, which contain 
 Genera, and finally the 
 Species. 
 4. Names. The classification of any animal shows 
 all the above divisions. The scientific name, which is 
 always Latin in form for the sake of uniformity, is com- 
 posed of the name of the genus, capitahzed, followed by 
 the name of the species, not capitahzed, and then the 
 name of the man who first described and named the ani- 
 
DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT 3 
 
 mal. This last is frequently omitted as it serves no pur- 
 pose except for the student of classification. Names of all 
 the various sub-divisions are Latin in form. Family names 
 always have the termination -ida; and may be so recog- 
 nized as no other scientific names are given that ending. 
 Super-family names end in ~ina, or -oidce, but are not so 
 distinctive, since other names may be found with similar 
 termination. Sub-family names end in -ince. Generic, 
 specific and order names may have any accepted Latin 
 termination. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 INSECT STRUCTURES 
 
 5. Definition for an Insect. The characters of the 
 branch to which insects belong have been given. The 
 characters which are possessed by all insects are embraced 
 in the definition for an insect which is as follows: 
 
 An insect is an Arthropod which has three distinct regions 
 to the body, the head, the thorax and the abdomen. It 
 bears, on the head, one pair of antennce or feelers, on the 
 
 thorax, three pairs of legs, and, 
 usually, one or two pairs of 
 wings. 
 
 6. The Head. The insect 
 body is made up of a variable 
 number of segments, but this 
 variation is always in the third 
 region or abdomen. The head 
 consists always of a single seg- 
 ment. This is made up of a 
 skull-like single piece to which 
 are attached the antennae and 
 the mouth parts and in which 
 are found the eyes. This skull 
 is called the epicranium. The 
 antennce are extremely varia- 
 ble. They are jointed but the number of joints ranges 
 from a single one to several hundred. They may be almost 
 too small to be seen or several times as long as the body. 
 
 4 
 
 Fig. 1. — Head of Grasshop- 
 per, Front View. 
 
 a, vertex; 6, compound eye; c, 
 ocellus; d, front; e, cheeks or 
 genae; /, clypeus; g, labrum; h, 
 edges of maxillae and labium; i, 
 mandibles. 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 
 
 Their purpose is primarily for feeling, but many forms 
 have organs of smell located in the antennae. Male mos- 
 quitoes hear with the antennse and the sense of taste, 
 being closely related to smell, may be found in some, 
 although this is by no means certain. 
 
 The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple and com- 
 pound. Some forms have both, some only the one or the 
 other and some have neither, being entirely blind. The 
 compound eyes are borne by all the common insects. 
 They consist of a great number of separate lens-like struc- 
 tures crowded together to make one eye. Each one of 
 these has its own field of vision, the object as seen by the 
 insect consisting of a great number of separate parts 
 thrown on its retina and forming a mosaic showing the 
 shape of the object. There may be from a veiy few, fif- 
 teen, to as many as fifty thou- ^ 
 sand separate lenses or facets 
 to the compound eye. In many 
 insects the eyes take up the 
 greater part of the head. The 
 simple eyes, more frequently 
 called ocelli, vaiy in number 
 from one to several. They are 
 small and their uses are not 
 certainly known. 
 
 On the lower or anterior 
 edge of the epicrannmi are 
 attached the mouth -parts. 
 These are, in the typical in- 
 sect, an upper Hp or lahrum, 
 a lower Hp or labium, a pair of jaws or mandibles, one 
 on each side just below the labrum, and just below 
 these, a pair of supplementary jaws or maxilloe. On each 
 
 Fig. 2. — Mouth-parts of Chew- 
 ing Insect (Grasshopper). 
 
 a, labrum; l.clypeus; 2, labrum, 
 proper ; b, mandibles; c, labium; 
 1, submentum; 2, mentum; 3,ligula; 
 4, palpiger; 5, palpus; d, maxillse; 
 1, cardo; 2, stipes; 3, palpifer; 4, 
 palpus; 5, lacinia; 6, galea; e, hypo- 
 pharynx. 
 
SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 maxilla is a finger-like structure called a palpus. The 
 labium bears a similar pair of palpi. In the insect which 
 has its mouth-parts modified for sucking these parts will 
 
 not be so readily recognized 
 and some of them may be ab- 
 sent. Most of them may be 
 identified by their relative posi- 
 tion at the point of attachment 
 to the head, as this never varies. 
 The part of the epicranium 
 that lies between the eyes and 
 the base of the labrum is de- 
 signated as the front. To either 
 side of the front are the cheeks 
 or gence. The highest point of 
 the epicranium, just at the limit 
 of the front, is the vertex. Back 
 of the vertex, eyes and cheeks 
 lies the occiput. This fits into the front or anterior margin 
 of the thorax. 
 
 7. The Thorax. The thorax of an insect is composed, 
 always, of three segments. The first of these is the pro- 
 thorax, the middle one is the mesothorax, and the last 
 or posterior segment, is the metathorax. Each of these 
 bears one pair of legs (in the perfect insect or adult). 
 The front wings, where there are two pairs, are borne on 
 the mesothorax, and the second pair of wings is attached 
 to the metathorax. Where one pair of wings only is pres- 
 ent it is the front pair. 
 
 The top of a thoracic segment is called the notum of 
 that segment, the side is the pleuron and the bottom plate 
 the sternum. 
 
 An insect's leg is composed of several joints or seg- 
 
 FiG. 3. — Mouth-parts of 
 Sucking Insect, (true bug). 
 
 a, labrum; 6, labium; c, man- 
 dibles; d, maxillae. 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 7 
 
 ments. The first one, joiiimg the body, is tlie coxa. This 
 is usually small and rounded. Next to the coxa is a small, 
 sometimes indistinct but sometimes two-jointed, part 
 called the trochanter. The firet large joint is the tliigh or 
 femur. Then comes the tibia, usually long and slender, 
 then the tarsus or foot. The tarsus has several joints 
 
 -ant. 
 
 Ms. s. 
 
 m.p. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Grasshopper, from Side, Showing Main Parts of Skeleton of 
 
 Typical Insect. 
 
 A., head; e.e., compound eye; oc, ocellus; ani., antenna; m.p., mouth-parts; 
 B., thorax; P.N., pronotum; p.stl., prosternellum; Ms. s., mesosternum; Mt. s., 
 metasternum; Cx. c, coxal cavity; Ms. es., meso-episternum; Ms. e., nieso- 
 epimeron; Mt. es., nieta-episternuni; Mt. e., nieta-epimeron; sp., spiracle; C, 
 abdomen; (segments numbered) ; 2"., tergite, S., sternite; Ty., tympanum or ear; 
 sp., spiracles. 
 
 and usually ends in a claw of one or two parts. Between 
 the two parts of the claw there is often fomid a small, 
 pad-like affair, the empodium. 
 
 The wings are, tj^pically, flattened sacks with very 
 thin walls, strengthened with tubes or veins between 
 the walls. The veins form important characters in the 
 study of some groups and are given names. The margins 
 
SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and angles of the wings are also named. Fig. 5 shows 
 r,o ? a typical wing with the names 
 oi the vems, margms and 
 angles. 
 
 8. The Abdomen. The 
 abdomen of an insect consists 
 of several segments which 
 are generally more typically 
 ring-like than in the rest of 
 the body. At the tip of the 
 abdomen, and formed by 
 modifications of some of the 
 segments, is the egg-laying 
 organ, ovipositor, of the fe- 
 males and the external gener- 
 ative organs of the males. 
 These may be so retracted 
 within the body as to be not 
 prominent. With few excep- 
 tions, there are no other 
 appendages on the abdomen 
 of adult insects. 
 Along the sides of the segments of the thorax and 
 abdomen are small holes, called spiracles. They are the 
 external openings of the breathing tubes which will be 
 described in the discussion of the internal anatomy. 
 
 In any part of an insect's body, where two plates or 
 segments come together and make a flexible union, the 
 union is called a joint. If the plates have grown firmly 
 together the line of union is a suture. 
 
 9. The Body Wall. The body wall of insects is 
 hardened with a substance called chitin. This serves to 
 give it stability of form and protects the insect. This 
 
 Fig. 5. — Wings of Butterfly 
 Showing Veins and Margins. 
 
 1, costal margin; 2, humeral angle; 
 3, apical angle or apex ; 4, outer 
 margin; 5, inner angle; 5a, anal 
 angle (hind wing) ; 6, inner margin ; 
 6a, anal margin (hind wing). C, costal 
 vein; Sc, sub-costal vein; R., radial 
 vein (and branches) ; M., median vein; 
 Cu., cubital vein; A., anal veins. 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 9 
 
 body wall is not only the covering of the insect but also 
 the skeleton, there being no hardened framework inside 
 the body as is the case with the higher animals. An ex- 
 ternal skeleton like this is an exoskeleton. From this exo- 
 skeleton there are inward projections which serve as at- 
 tachments for the muscles and other internal organs. The 
 possession of the exoskeleton enables the insects to keep 
 their form after death and rendei-s preservatives unneces- 
 sary for any but the softest bodied species. 
 
 10. Internal Organs. Internally insects differ widely 
 from the higher animals. Yet they have organs and sys- 
 tems of organs constructed for the performance of similar 
 fmictions. The names appHed to these organs are, as a 
 rule, the same as for the organs in the higher animals 
 having similar uses. 
 
 The systems of mternal organs in an insect as well as 
 in other animals, are grouped accorchng to function. The 
 more important of these groups are: Digestive, Circula- 
 tory, Respiratory, Nervous, Reproductive and Muscular. 
 The Excretory system is distinguished by some writers. 
 In addition, there are the fat-bodies, certain connective 
 tissues and special organs. 
 
 11. The Digestive Tract. Young insects, and many 
 adults, have the interior of the body almost completely 
 taken up by the digestive tract. This is, primarily, a tube 
 running the length of the body. As the tube is often 
 longer than the body it is found to be more or less con- 
 voluted. Different parts of this tube are modified and 
 are given names according to their uses. The anterior 
 end forms the mouth and the back part of the mouth cav- 
 ity is the pharynx. Mouth and pharynx are for reception 
 of food and serve the same purposes as in higher animals. 
 SaUvary glands are found in msects. These are usually 
 
10 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 slender tubes opening into the mouth cavity. The phar- 
 ynx narrows rapidly and merges into the oesophagus or 
 gullet. This corresponds exactly to the oesophagus in 
 vertebrates, and is merely a passageway for the food on its 
 way to the stomach. In the thoracic region the oesophagus 
 
 Fig. 6. — Internal Structure of a Caterpillar. 
 
 1. Dorsal view with upper wall removed, showing organs in plaee. ph, pharynx. 
 
 2. Inner surface of upper wall showing organs of the circulatory system. A, 
 aorta; h, heart or dorsal-vessel; H.M., heart muscles or "Wings of the Heart." 
 
 3. Digestive organs removed, exposing organs of nervous and respiratory 
 systems. Br., brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion; s.g., salivary gland; gl., 
 ganglion; Tr., Trachea; n.c, nerve cord; or central nervous system; sp., spiracles; 
 R., rectum or posterior part of the intestine. 
 
 4. Silk gland removed. The location of the gland may be seen in the upper 
 figure. 
 
 5. The alimentary canal, removed, oes., QSsophagus ; M.T., Malpighian 
 tubules; Mid-int., mid-intestine From photographs of an " Azoux model " of 
 the silk-worm. 
 
 widens out into a pouch-like structure called the crop 
 which is followed by the proventriculus. Following the 
 proventriculus is the stomach proper or ventriculus. Here 
 the food is digested, much of the digestive fluid being 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 
 
 11 
 
 secreted by the glandular walls of the stomach. Most 
 insects have several pouches opening into the stomach 
 near its union with the proventriculus and pouring into 
 it some of the digestive juices. After the stomach comes 
 the intestine. In some forms it is merely 
 a straight tube, but in others it is very- 
 much curved and convoluted. Gene- 
 rally it is divided into more or less 
 distinct regions which are termed the 
 mid-intestine, the ileum, the colon, and 
 the rectum. Some absorption takes place 
 through the walls of the mid-intestine, 
 but this process is started and largely 
 completed in the stomach. At the point 
 of union between the intestine and the 
 stomach arise a great number of very 
 fine, convoluted tubes. These are the 
 kidney-tubules or Malpighian tubes. They 
 are supposed to function as kidneys and 
 to be excretory. They, with the intes- 
 tine, form the excretory system, such as 
 it is, of insects. 
 
 12. The Circulatory System. The 
 circulatory system differs greatly from 
 that of vertebrates. There is a so-called 
 heart which consists of a long tube 
 lying just beneath the dorsal wall 
 or back of the insect. The front end of this tube 
 is called the aorta and is the only blood vessel in 
 the body. Blood is drawn into the heart from the 
 body cavity, where it fills all space not taken up by 
 the organs, through valves along the side of the heart. 
 A system of muscles causes an alternate contraction 
 
 Fig. 7. — Digestive 
 System of an 
 Insect. 
 
 ph., pharynx; oe., 
 oesophagus; s.g., sali- 
 vary gland; g.c, gastric 
 coeca; g., gizzard or 
 pro-ventriculus ; St., 
 stomach or ventric- 
 ulus; m.p., Malpighian 
 tubules; f.i. , fore- 
 intestine; m.i., mid- 
 intestine; h.i., hind- 
 intestine; a., anus. 
 
12 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and expansion in the heart by means of which the blood 
 is forced forward through the aorta and a sluggish cir- 
 culation is kept up. The blood bathes all the tissues of 
 the body and carries food to them. This is its sole func- 
 tion except that it may take up some of the waste prod- 
 ucts. These are, in turn, taken from the blood by the 
 kidney-tubules and carried out of the body through the 
 intestine. The blood does not carry oxygen to the tissues 
 as it does in the vertebrates. For this reason the slow 
 circulation found in insects suffices, even for those forms 
 that are most active, where it would not do for the active 
 vertebrates. 
 
 13. Respiratory System. Respiration is the function 
 of insects which is most different from the same function 
 in other animals. The respiratory system consists of 
 tubes, opening through holes in the sides of the thoracic 
 and abdominal segments, and branching and subdividing 
 into tubes that ramify throughout the body after the 
 fashion of capillaries. These carry the oxygen to all the 
 tissues and from them carry off the carbon-dioxide and 
 other gaseous wastes. The breathing tubes are called 
 trachece, and their external openings spiracles. There 
 are generally large tracheal tubes along each side of the 
 body and branches are given off in each segment. The 
 small tracheal tubes end in thin walled sacks in the tis- 
 sues and through these the gases are exchanged by os- 
 mosis. The blood receives only such oxygen as is re- 
 quired for its own purification. The air is forced from the 
 trachese by muscular contraction. The tracheal tubes 
 themselves are lined with elastic coiled threads and when 
 the pressure from this contraction is relieved the elasticity 
 of the walls causes the tubes to regain their normal shape, 
 thus drawing more air into the body. 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 13 
 
 14. Nervous System. The central nervous system 
 consists of two nerve cords running the length of the body 
 and resting on the ventral or lower wall. Typically, there 
 is an enlargement of these cords in each segment. These 
 enlargements are called ganglia. Each ganglion gives off 
 nerves which supply the motor impulses and receive the 
 sensations for that segment. In the head the two cords 
 separate, one running on each side of the oesophagus. 
 Above the oesophagus they unite again and form what is 
 usually the largest ganglion of the body and is called the 
 brain. From this ganglion nerve fibers go to the com- 
 poimd eyes, the ocelli and the antennae and the labrum. 
 There is a separate fiber for each facet of the compound 
 eyes which, as we have seen, might require as high as 
 fifty thousand for each compound eye and this will ex- 
 plain the larger size of the ganglion. There is, in the 
 head, a second ganghon below the oesophagus which ener- 
 vates the mouth-parts. This is the suh-cesophageal gan- 
 glion while the so-called brain is the supra-oesophageal 
 ganglion. From the latter arises also the sympathetic 
 nervous sj^stem which consists of a few fibers running pos- 
 teriorly along the top of the alimentary canal and carry- 
 ing the impulses incident to digestion. 
 
 15. Reproductive System. The reproductive system is 
 similar in its organization to that of the vertebrate ani- 
 mals. It consists primarily of two sets of fine tubes com- 
 municating with the outside of the body through passages 
 at first distinct but later united. In the females each one 
 of these sets of tubes forms what is called an ovary. Eggs 
 develop in each tube and, when fully grown, pass out into 
 the oviduct, a passageway into which all the egg-tubes 
 open. From the oviduct, the egg is carried to the vagina, 
 which is formed by the union of the oviducts from both 
 
14 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ovaries and which leads to the ovipositor or external ter- 
 mination of the female reproductive organs. Somewhere 
 in the vagina is a sort of sac or pouch in which the fer- 
 tilizing element, received from the males during copulation, 
 is stored. This sac is the spermatheca. As the egg passes 
 over the opening of the spermatheca it receives, through 
 minute holes in one end, called the micropyle, the sperm 
 cells by which it is fertilized. Parthenogenetic individuals 
 lack the spermatheca. 
 
 The reproductive organs of the male are similar to 
 those of the female but are much smaller because the 
 sperm cells are very much smaller than the ova or egg 
 cells. The collections of tubes forming, in the females, the 
 ovaries, are called, in the males, testes. In these the sperm 
 cells are formed. The seminal tubes, as the separate ele- 
 ments of the testicle are called, open into a duct called the 
 vas deferens. The two vasa deferentia unite to form the 
 ejaculatory duct paralleling the vagina as the vasa defer- 
 entia parallel the oviducts. There is in the walls of this 
 duct, usually, a pouch formed by the invagination of the 
 wall and used for the storage of the seminal fluid until 
 needed. This is named the seminal vesicle and corre- 
 sponds to the spermatheca in the female. The external 
 organ through which the male reproductive organs open 
 is the penis. There may be specially developed claspers or 
 other structures used in copulation. They are homologous 
 with the modifications of the ovipositor for boring, etc. 
 
 Ovipositors show the most varied forms. They are 
 adapted for depositing the eggs in every possible situation. 
 The eggs, too, are of many different kinds. Stinging 
 organs are modifications of the ovipositor and usually are 
 connected with specially developed poison sacs which add 
 to their efficiency. They are adapted for two purposes, 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 15 
 
 protection and overcoming other insects which serve as 
 food for the larvae. 
 
 16. The Muscular System. Insects have a wonder- 
 fully developed system of muscles. As many as two 
 thousand separate muscles have been identified in certain 
 larv2e. The muscle tissue is soft and watery in appear- 
 ance m the living insect and is made up of striated fibers 
 ending in tendon-like cords which are attached to the dif- 
 ferent organs and to the hardened processes projecting in- 
 ward from the skeleton for this purpose. The strength 
 of these muscles seems to be much greater in proportion 
 to their size than is the case in other animals and many 
 wonderful tales are told of the muscular power of insects. 
 Some of these may easily be verified by original observa- 
 tion. 
 
 17. The Fat-Body. Much of the space in the body 
 cavity of some forms of insects is taken up by the fat- 
 hody. This is tissue similar to the fatty tissue of the ver- 
 tebrates and serves much the same purposes, namely, 
 storage of food and, to a degree, support for the more del- 
 icate organs. The fat-body consists of cells of rather large 
 size, arranged in masses wliich are usually distinct in the 
 different segments. 
 
 18. Special Organs and Adaptations. There are spe- 
 ciahzations, external and internal, of the most varied na- 
 ture, which are usually directly connected with the func- 
 tions of one or other of the above-mentioned systems of 
 organs. Among these there are few that are more striking 
 than those of the respiratory apparatus. These are fre- 
 quently adaptations for an aquatic habitat. The most 
 simple of the arrangements by means of which an insect 
 is enabled to obtain air while beneath the surface is that 
 by means of which the msect can carry a bubble of air 
 
16 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 down with itself and remain submerged until the supply 
 is exhausted. This is usually accomplished by means of 
 hairs on the under side of the body which retain the air 
 bubble. The air supply is sometimes imprisoned under- 
 neath the wings. Next to this in simplicity is the tube 
 which reaches to the surface of the water and into which 
 the tracheae open. The insect can remain under water 
 indefinitely at the depth which corresponds to the length 
 of this tube. Mosquito larvse and pupae and water- 
 scorpions are so equipped. 
 
 Insects that are most truly aquatic are provided with 
 tracheal gills, structures which can take up from the 
 water the oxygen necessaiy for the insect. These dif- 
 fer from the true gills of fish and crayfishes in that the 
 oxygen thus secured is carried to the tissues through 
 tracheal systems exactly similar to those of ordinary in- 
 sects while in the case of the true gills the blood is carried 
 to the gills as it would be to lungs. 
 
 Tracheal gills show many forms. Dragon-fly nymphs 
 have gills that consist of a large number of tracheal tubes 
 in the lining of the rectum. Water is drawn into this, the 
 air taken up and the water expelled, often with some force 
 so that it serves generally as a means of propulsion. 
 Damsel fly nymphs have gills in the leaf-like plates at the 
 tip of the abdomen. Other forms, notably the hel- 
 gramite or larva of Corydalis, have tracheal gills consist- 
 ing of tufts of hair-hke tracheae projecting from the body, 
 the location varying with the insect. 
 
 Organs of special sense have many special structures. 
 The sense of feeling is often dependent upon hairs con- 
 necting with nerve fibers at different places on the body. 
 The antennae are, primarily, the main organs of feeling. 
 The sense of taste has organs located partly within the 
 
INSECT STRUCTURES 17 
 
 mouth as with the vertebrates, and frequently accom- 
 panied by specialized hairs which may be found on the 
 palpi, outside the mouth cavity. The hypopharynx is the 
 main organ for the sense of taste. 
 
 The sense of smell is known to be located in the an- 
 tennae of many species. In others its organs are not cer- 
 tainly identified. Hearing organs occur in highly unex- 
 pected places. Male mosquitoes hear with the antennae. 
 An ear drum or tympanum is located on the first segment 
 of the abdomen in grasshoppers, while it is found on the 
 tibia of some crickets. In some insects the location of 
 the sense of hearing is not known, but it seems certain 
 that all forms are able to perceive sound. Of all the 
 special senses smell is usually most highly developed. 
 
 Many forms of body covering are noted. These are 
 largely protective. The body hairs of some insects are con- 
 nected with poison glands or are barbed or covered with 
 some ii'ritating substance. The larvae of the Brown-tail 
 moth have barbed hairs which cause an itch or rash on 
 the human skin and so render them a great nuisance. 
 
 Scent glands are often present. These may be pro- 
 tective or they may serve to attract the mates. The 
 latter is the case in certain moths while in many bugs 
 and some beetles and butterflies the scents secreted pro- 
 tect from natural enemies by making the insects dis- 
 tasteful. 
 
 A special structure of much interest is the silk-pro- 
 ducing apparatus. This consists of a pair of silk glands 
 opening through little holes just beneath the mouth. 
 These glands resemble the salivaiy glands but are larger. 
 Other glands secrete such substances as the honey-dew 
 of Aphids and related insects, the wax covering of the 
 scale insects and Lac, also a product of scale insects. 
 
18 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Light-produciiig or luminescent insects have special 
 structures for the production of light which are not well 
 understood. The light is thought to be the result of a 
 very finely developed process of oxidation whereby prac- 
 tically all the energy from the oxidation is made into Ught 
 instead of into heat. These structures are closely con- 
 nected with the respiratory system. 
 
 External projections from the skeleton are frequent and 
 do not usually appear to serve any useful purpose. They 
 may be either ornamental or merely vestiges of structures 
 that were, formerly, of use to the species. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 mSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 
 
 The Branch Arthropoda includes, besides insects, sev- 
 eral related groups which are usually considered with the 
 insects and which should be familiar to the student of 
 insects for the purposes of comparison if for no other 
 reason. 
 
 19. Crustacea. The Crustacea are forms wliich are 
 usually aquatic, breathe by means of true gills as do the 
 fishes, and have at least five pairs of jointed legs, the 
 anterior or front pair, m most common forms, bearing 
 pincer-like claws and being used as weapons rather than 
 as feet. Their bodies are made up of only two main parts 
 as the head and the thorax are grown together and form 
 what is known as a cephalothorax. 
 
 OtU" best known Crustaceans are the crayfish, or "craw- 
 fish," the lobster, crabs, shrimps and the terrestrial form 
 called sow-bug or pill-bug. Their economic unportance is 
 not great. Sow-bugs injure greenhouse crops at times and 
 in the Southern States the crayfish is mjiu"ious to agri 
 culture in the marshy districts. These injuries are coun- 
 terbalanced b}' the importance of the class as food for man. 
 Lobsters and crabs are highly prized in America while 
 crayfish and shrimps are also used for food and many forms 
 are important as food for fishes. 
 
 20. Myriapoda. Myriapoda are the Arthropods with 
 the greatest number of feet. They are commonly called 
 
 19 
 
20 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 "hundred-legged worms" and '' thousand-legged worms" 
 or centipedes and millipedes. 
 
 The centipedes have one pair of legs to each segment, 
 
 are generally flattened 
 and have the legs at- 
 tached near the edges 
 of the segments. Mil- 
 lipedes are oval or cylin- 
 drical, have two pairs of 
 legs per segment and 
 have these attached near 
 the median line of the 
 segments on the under 
 side. Both forms have 
 one pair of antennae and 
 have bodies composed of 
 head and an unspecial- 
 ized chain of segments 
 representing thorax and 
 abdomen, 
 
 Myriapoda are of 
 slight economic impor- 
 tance. Millipedes some- 
 times feed on vegetation 
 extensively enough to 
 be injurious, while cen- 
 tipedes are predaceous 
 and feed mostly upon 
 insects. Some forms of 
 centipedes, especially in 
 tropical and subtropical 
 countries, are provided with poison glands and may injure 
 man seriously by their bites. 
 
 Fig. 8. — Some Relatives of Insects. 
 Reduced. 
 
 a, the tailed Whip-scorpion (class Arach- 
 nida, order Pedipalpi) ; b, Harvestnian 
 (Arachnida, Phalangidea) ; c. Spider (Arach' 
 nida, Araneida) ; d, Centipede (Myriapoda, 
 Chilopoda) ; e, Sow-bug or Pill-bug (Crustacea) ; 
 /, Millipede (Myriapoda, Chilognatha) ; g, 
 Cray-fish (Crustacea). 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 
 
 21 
 
 21. Arachnida. Arachnida is the most important of the 
 Arthropod classes excepting the insects. The class includes 
 Spiders, Mites and Ticks, 
 Harvestmen or "daddy-long- 
 legs," Scorpions and many 
 other less common forms. 
 
 Arachnids have four pairs 
 of legs, no antennae and only 
 two body regions, the head 
 and thorax being combined 
 as in the Crustacea. They 
 are typically land animals. 
 
 The Spiders (order Ara~ 
 neida) spin webs of silk which <- ^-^ss 11111.1 jiiiimiIMiiii a 
 
 has been used commercially Fig. 9.-A Tarantula {Arachnida, 
 to a very limited extent. Araneida). Greatly reduced. 
 They are predaceous and feed on insects. Except for 
 occasional bites which they inflict upon 
 man, they may be considered bene- 
 ficial. 
 
 Mites and Ticks (Acarina) are of 
 considerable importance. Mites are 
 usually very small and feed on both 
 plants and animals. They cause gall- 
 like growths in plant tissues and may 
 do great damage. The pear-leaf blis- 
 ter-mite is possibly the most important 
 example in the eastern United States. 
 Many mites are parasites on domes- 
 tic animals. The mites on poultry 
 are the best known forms with this 
 habit. Others cause sheep-scab* and other diseases of 
 * See page 203 Part II. 
 
 Fig. 10. — Scorpion 
 (Class Arachnida, 
 order Scorpionida). 
 
22 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 11. — The Pear-leaf Blister-mite 
 (Arachnida, Acarina). Highly mag- 
 nified. After Parrott, 
 
 domestic animals. Ticks, which are merely large mites, 
 are external parasites on many animals. One species, the 
 Texas-fever Tick, carries the organism causing Texas fever 
 
 in cattle from animal 
 to animal and is a 
 serious hindrance to 
 the stock-raising in- 
 dustry in the Southern 
 States. Other forms 
 transmit the Rocky 
 Mountain Spotted- 
 fever, which is a serious, and often fatal, disease of man. 
 Still others have similar and equally serious habits in 
 other parts of the world. (See page 209.) 
 Some forms of mites are beneficial 
 as parasites of injurious insects. 
 
 Harvestmen are the long-legged forms 
 commonly known as '' daddy-long-legs " 
 and found in the woods and fields all 
 over the country. Their economic im- 
 portance is extremely slight. 
 
 Scorpions are found in the more 
 southern portions of the United States, 
 but occur as far north as northern Kansas. They have 
 the posterior part of the abdomen narrowed into a tail- 
 like appendage terminated with a sting with which they 
 can inflict more or less painful wounds. 
 
 Other Arachnids are Pseudo-scorpions, found in moist 
 situations, frequently under bark, small in size and very 
 inconspicuous; Jointed-spiders,iound only in the Southwest, 
 and a few others which are still more rare in our fauna. 
 
 It is not advisable to take up here the further classi- 
 fication of the Arthropods, other than insects, into orders 
 
 Fig. 12.— a Tick 
 (Class A rack n ida , 
 order Acarina). 
 Enlarged. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 23 
 
 and families, although the differences between the members 
 of the several classes are often very striking. 
 
 22. Hexapoda. The class Hexapoda, or the insects, is 
 by far the most important group in the branch, and as it 
 is the one which claims the major part of our atten- 
 tion, a discussion of the characters upon which their 
 arrangement into orders and families is based is here 
 given. 
 
 The grouping of insects into orders is based largely 
 upon variations in three characters namely, those of the 
 wings, of the mouth parts and of the metamorphosis. A 
 combination of the description of the wings, the type of 
 mouth and the nature of the development, whether direct 
 or indirect, will place any insect in its proper order. 
 Tables for the identification of adult insects may employ 
 certain other characters on account of the fact that the 
 nature of the transformations cannot be determined from 
 a specimen in the cabinet. 
 
 Families are identified by means of characters that 
 vary within each order. In some cases the only characters 
 that can be used appear to be those of the wing-venation. 
 Since these present difficulties that are too great for the 
 beginner they will be omitted. In other orders, families 
 are distinguished by characters of the antennae, of the 
 tarsi and of various parts of the head and thorax. Greater 
 refinements of these same characters serve to define the 
 genera and to some extent the various species. Species 
 may be separated in many cases by differences in color 
 and size, these characters being not available for use in 
 the case of the larger groups because the color and size in a 
 genus, for instance, may vary as greatly as it does in the 
 entire family. No attempt is made here to separate the 
 insects into their natural groupings lower than families 
 
24 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and in many cases the orders will not even be divided 
 into the families. 
 
 The number of orders of insects recognized by the 
 various authorities ranges from seven, in the earlier class- 
 ifications, to over twenty, in the latest works. We recog- 
 nize here twenty, that number being chosen because it 
 seems to suit the needs of the present occasion better than 
 the greater number of the most modern authorities, even 
 though the latter schemes are doubtless much more nearly 
 scientifically correct. The names employed are those in 
 most general use. The table appended will enable the 
 student to identify to the order any of the common insects. 
 
 Of the twenty orders here mentioned, six may be con- 
 sidered as major orders, the others being less important 
 because of fewer species and less economic importance. 
 The major groups are the Orthoptera, the Hemiptera, the 
 Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera, the Diptera and the Hymen- 
 optera. Any attempt to rank these according to their 
 degree of importance would be futile, although the Cole- 
 optera includes the greatest number of species. 
 
 The complete Hst of orders is as follows: 
 
 Thysanura Orthoptera 
 
 Ephemerida Hemiptera 
 
 Odonata Neuroptera 
 
 Plecoptera Mecoptera 
 
 Isoptera Trichoptera 
 
 Corrodentia Siphonaptera 
 
 Mallophaga Lepidoptera 
 
 Euplexoptera Coleoptera 
 
 Siphunculata Diptera 
 
 Physopoda Hymenoptera 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 25 
 
 Table for Separating the Orders of Insects 
 
 A. Wingless Insects. 
 
 B. With biting mouth-parts. 
 
 C. Mouth-parts poorly developed. Thysanura. 
 CC. Mouth-parts well developed. 
 
 D. Parasitic on warm-blooded animals. Bird lice. 
 Mallophaga. 
 DD. Not parasitic. 
 
 E. Ant-like in general appearance. 
 
 F. White, soft bodied, colonial. Termites. 
 
 Isoptera. 
 FF. Darker in color, bodies firm, in colonies or 
 soUtary. Ants and some wasps — Hymenoptera. 
 EE. Not ant-like in form. 
 F. Very small, light in color, frequenting old 
 books and dry vegetable matter. Book lice. 
 Corrodentia. 
 FF. Larger species not occurring as above. 
 
 G. Head prolonged into a beak. Boreus. 
 Mecoptera. 
 GG. Head not prolonged into beak. 
 
 H. Hind legs fitted for jumping. Wing- 
 less grasshoppers, etc. Orthoptera. 
 HH. Hind legs not fitted for jumping. 
 
 I. Bodies and legs very long and 
 slender. 
 Walking sticks. Orthoptera: 
 II. Bodies not elongated. 
 
 J. Bodies flattened. Lobes at tip 
 of abdomen. Roaches. Orthop- 
 tera. 
 JJ. Bodies variable but without lobes 
 at tip of abdomen. Coleoptera. 
 BB. With sucking mouth-parts. 
 
 C. Bodies covered with scale-like hairs. Wingless moths. 
 Lepidoptera. 
 CC. Bodies not covered with hairs. 
 
26 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 D, Parasitic upon man or warm-blooded animals. 
 
 E. Hind legs fitted for jumping. Fleas. Siphonap- 
 tera. 
 EE. Hind legs not fitted for jumping. 
 
 F. Beak, fleshy, unjointed. True lice. Siphun- 
 culata. 
 FF. Beak jointed. 
 
 G. Tick-like forms, parasitic. Sheep tick, 
 etc. Diptera. 
 GG. Not tick-like. Bedbugs. Hemiptera. 
 DD. Not parasitic; generally found on living plants. 
 Plant lice, scale insects, etc. Hemiptera (Homop- 
 tera) . 
 AA. Winged insects. 
 
 B. With two wings. 
 
 C. With sucking mouth-parts. Diptera. 
 CC. Mouth-parts not for sucking. 
 D. Rudimentary mouth-parts. 
 
 E. Size almost microscopic, halteres present. 
 Males of Coccidoe. Hemiptera. 
 EE. Size larger, no halteres. Ephemerida. 
 DD. Biting mouth-parts. 
 
 E. Wings hard and horny. Coleoptera. 
 EE. Wings flexible, many veins. Orthoptera. 
 BB. With four wings. 
 
 C. Mouth-parts for sucking. 
 
 D. Wings covered with scale-like hairs. Lepidop- 
 tera. 
 DD. Wings not covered with scale-like hairs. Hem- 
 iptera. 
 CC. Mouth-parts not for sucking. 
 D. Wings equal. 
 
 E. Bodies very long and slender. Wings narrow. 
 F Antennse inconspicuous. Dragon-flies, etc. 
 Odoyiata. 
 FF. Antennse prominent. Ant-lions, etc. Neu- 
 
 roptera. 
 EE. Bodies shorter. 
 
 F. Wings with few veins. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 27 
 
 G. Wings fringed with long hairs. Size 
 usually less than one-eighth inch in 
 length. Mouth-parts indeterminate in 
 type. Thrips. P/rysopoda. 
 GG. Wings without fringes. Very easily 
 broken off or shed by the insect. Ter- 
 mites. Isoptera. 
 FF. Wing veins more numerous. 
 
 G. Finely netted ^vings. Neuroptera. 
 GG. Wings with fewer cross veins. Head 
 prolonged into a beak. Scorpion-flies, 
 etc. Mecoptera. 
 DD. Wings unequal in size. 
 
 F. Wings entirely membranous. 
 
 G. Front wings longer than the liind 
 wings. 
 
 H. Wings finely netted. Abdomen 
 with long tail-like filaments. Eph- 
 emerida. 
 HH. Wings with fewer cross veins. 
 
 I. Hind tarsi with two or three 
 segments. Psocids. Corrodentia. 
 II. Hind tarsi with four or five seg- 
 ments. Hymenoptera. 
 GG. Hind wings broader than front wings. 
 H. Wing veins with hair-like scales. 
 Trichoptera. 
 HH. Wings without scales along veins. 
 Hind A\angs folded. Plecoptera. 
 FF. Front wings leathery or hardened. 
 
 G. Front wings leathery but flexible and 
 usually partially transparent. Orthoptera. 
 GG. Front wings hardened, seldom flexible. 
 Coleoptera. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 
 
 23. Metamorphosis. The changes which an insect 
 undergoes during its progress from the newly hatched 
 form to the adult vary in degrees of complexity and are 
 commonly grouped into two types. The more simple type 
 is spoken of as incomplete metamorphosis or direct develop- 
 ment. The word metamorphosis signifies change in form. 
 Therefore, the correct inference is that the change in form 
 in this type of development is not complete. 
 
 The second and more complex type of development is 
 that known as complete metamorphosis or indirect develop- 
 ment. In this case there is a complete change in form and 
 appearance between the earlier stages and the adult. 
 
 24. Direct Development. A description of the devel- 
 opment of the grasshopper is commonly given to illustrate 
 the direct type. Here, as in practically all insects, the 
 first stage is the egg. From the egg hatches a form which 
 may easily be recognized as a young grasshopper, even 
 though the proportions are distorted and there are no 
 wings. The form just hatched is known in this case as a 
 nymph, and the same term is applied to all the succeeding 
 stages of the insect before it reaches the final or adult 
 stage and becomes what is called an imago. 
 
 Each succeeding nymphal stage resembles the adult 
 form more than did the one preceding it. In one of 
 the earHer stages the wings make their appearance in 
 the form of small pads on the thorax. These become 
 
 28 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 
 
 29 
 
 more and more prominent in each succeeding stage, but 
 are never used until the adult stage. The possession of 
 power of flight is a certain proof that any insect is an 
 adult. 
 
 The different n3anphal stages are separated or limited 
 by moults which occm' at more or less definite intervals. 
 
 These moults consist ^ 
 
 of the casting of the 
 skins. The skin of 
 a newly hatched or 
 freshly moulted in- 
 sect possesses a cer- 
 tain amount of elas- 
 ticity, but does not 
 grow. When the 
 growth of the insect 
 has about taken up 
 all the stretching 
 power of the skin, 
 a new skin forms 
 beneath the old one, 
 the old one bursts 
 and the insect makes 
 its way out. The cast skin is called the exuvia. The more 
 striking changes in the appearance which occur during the 
 course of development come with these moults. The final 
 moult Uberates the adult form which does not moult and 
 does not grow. Many of the adults do not even feed 
 
 25. Indirect Development. Where the development is 
 indirect there is a great difference in the process. The 
 form which is hatched from the egg bears, in most cases, 
 not the sMghtest resemblance to the parent form. There 
 would be no reason to suspect that the two belonged even 
 
 Fig. 13. — Metamorphosis of a Moth {Samia 
 cecropia), showing Larva, Pupa, Cocoon 
 and Adult. Much reduced. 
 
30 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 to the same class of animals and the young must, in 
 each case, be connected with their parents by observa- 
 tions of their Hfe histories. 
 
 The familiar form illustrating the indirect development 
 
 is the common house-fly 
 or any butterfly. Here 
 the newly hatched young 
 is worm-like and in one 
 case entirely footless 
 and more or less helpless. 
 These young are called 
 larvce. The larvae grow 
 and moult from time to 
 time as do nymphs, but 
 they show Uttle change 
 in form. Their colors may 
 change and there is often 
 some change in the cover- 
 ing of the body. 
 
 After a larva has com- 
 pleted its growth it 
 changes into an inactive 
 object called a pupa. 
 This may be of various 
 forms. It may be naked 
 and exposed or enclosed 
 in some sort of cocoon or 
 case or buried in the earth. 
 It may be protected by 
 its own body wall, hard- 
 less oval, shape, 
 the changes between the 
 form are accomplished. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Early Stages of Insects. 
 Reduced. 
 
 1, Helgrammite or Dobson-fly larva 
 (Neuroptera) ; 2, Pupa of the Spotted Pelid- 
 nota (Scarabceidce) ; 3, Cutworm (Noctuidce) ; 
 4, Slug-caterpillar (Eucleidoe) ; 5, Corn ear- 
 worm {NoctuidoB) ; 6, Pupa of round-headed 
 wood-borer (Ceramhycidce); 7, Chestnut 
 worm (Curculionidw); 8, Larva of Rose- 
 ehafcr (Scarab (eidcE); 9, Larva of Colorado 
 potato-beetle (Chrysomelidce) ; 10, 11, Larvae 
 of Click-beetles (Elateridae) ; 12, Pupa of 
 Click-beetle; 13, Larva of Flesh-fly (.Mus- 
 ciiia); 14, Imported Currant Saw-fly larva 
 (Tenthredinidcr); 15, Red-humped Apple- 
 caterpillar (Notodontidw); 16, Maggot of 
 Drone-fly (S2/rp/ttd(E) ; 17, Larva oi Papilio 
 philenor (Papilionidce) ; 18, Giant Root- 
 borer (fierambycida;). 
 
 ened, smooth, and of a more or 
 
 Within the pupa-case all 
 larval form and the adult 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 
 
 3i 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Typical Pupa of a Sphinx 
 Moth. 
 
 The casting of the pupal skin and the emergence of the 
 adult constitutes the final moult in the cycle where the 
 
 development is indi- 
 
 rect. The life cycle is 
 completed with the 
 laying of eggs by these 
 adults. 
 
 26. The Purpose 
 of Metamorphosis. 
 The purpose of meta- 
 morphosis, especially the complete type, is explained as 
 are other speciaHzations. It seems to be to the advan- 
 tage of the insects to have the different vital functions 
 performed at 
 different pe- 
 riods of the 
 Hfe of the in- 
 sects instead 
 of all at the 
 same time. 
 The larval 
 stage is de- 
 voted to 
 feeding and 
 growth and 
 the storage of 
 
 food material for the adult stage. The pupal stage is solely 
 for change in form and structure to adapt the insect for 
 the functions of the adult which are reproduction and 
 spread. 
 
 There are intermediate forms of metamorphosis. In 
 these the nymph may not resemble the adult even to 
 such a degree that it may be recognized. However, 
 
 Fig. 16. — Larva of Imperial Moth 
 
32 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 when there is no sharply defined resting stage, as the 
 pupal stage, the development is still said to be direct. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Chrysalids of Butterflies. 
 
 1, 2, PapilionidcB] 3, Pieridce; 4, N ymphalidm.^ 
 
 In almost all cases where the development is direct the 
 young forms have compound eyes, but larvae, properly 
 
 Fig. 18. — Larvae of the House-fly. Enlarged. 
 
 speaking, never have more than ocelli and are often en- 
 tirely blind. This will ordinarily serve as a distinctive 
 point in cases of doubt. 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 
 
 33 
 
 Larvce are of the most varied forms. Butterfly or 
 moth larvae are called caterpillars and have false legs on 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 19. — Pupae of the House-fly. Slightly enlarged. 
 
 the abdomen. Fly larvae, larvae of snout-beetles and most 
 Hymenopterous larvae are footless. Ordinary beetle larvae 
 have usually the three pairs of true legs. 
 
 Fig. 20. — Larvse of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly. 
 
 Many larvae will not be identified, even to the order, 
 by the beginning student, but close observation will soon 
 enable one to recognize the more common forms. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE LOWER ORDERS 
 
 Under the general heading of the lower orders may be 
 considered all the less important forms which do not have 
 apparently close relationships. They are widely different 
 in structure and habits and are so grouped for the sake 
 of convenience only. 
 
 27. Thysanura. Thysanura are the most primitive of 
 insects. They have no wings and their mouth-parts are 
 of very rudimentary nature, adapted only for chewing soft 
 substances or for feeding superficially on dried matter. 
 They have no compound eyes. On the tip of the ab- 
 domen are appendages of some sort, either filaments or 
 modifications of the same which enable the insects to 
 leap considerable distances. Those with the filaments are 
 known as Bristle-tails')tf^hi\e the others are called Spring- 
 tails. They may have, also, rudimentary appendages on 
 nearly all the segments of the abdomen. The most com- 
 mon of the bristle-tails is called the Fish-moth or silver- 
 fish. (Fig. 21, 1.) It is found in houses, in the pantries or 
 bathrooms or in rooms where the wall paper is loose. 
 It feeds on starchy material such as the dried paste be- 
 neath the paper and on some foods, and may be listed 
 as a minor household pest. This insect is of a silvery 
 color and is covered with minute scales. 
 
 Several spring-tails are common, but, on account of 
 their small size, are not noticed. One of these may be 
 found, especially in the early spring, beneath the loose 
 
 34 
 
THE LOWER ORDERS 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 I ^ 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 I 
 
 4. 
 
 bark scales of old apple trees where there is plenty of 
 moisture. Others may be found during the summer on de- 
 caying wood. 
 
 Still others are ' 'WM 
 
 classed as injur- 
 ious and attack 
 certain of our 
 garden crops. 
 Their injury is 
 rarely serious. 
 One form, called 
 the Snow- flea, is 
 found in the 
 early spring on 
 the surface of 
 patches of snow. 
 28. Corro- 
 dentia. Certain 
 small insects 
 called Book lice 
 and Psocids form 
 this order, which 
 is of slight im- 
 portance. The 
 book-lice are mi- 
 nute and may 
 be found on 
 books, mainly in 
 dark places and 
 
 where the books are not frequently used. The Psocids 
 (Fig. 21, 4) are winged and hve on plants. They resemble 
 large plant-lice more than any other common insects, but 
 have biting mouth-parts, while the plant lice suck sap. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 21. Slightly reduced. 
 
 Fish-moths (Thysanura) ; 2, Mayflies (Ephem- 
 3, Earwig {Euplexoptera); 4, Psocid (Corrorfen- 
 tia) ; 5, Stone-flies with nymph {Plecoptera) ; 6, Ter- 
 mites or white-ants (Isoptera), 
 
 erida) ; 
 
36 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 29. Isoptera. The Termites or White ants (Fig. 21, 6) 
 form this order. They live in the central and southern 
 parts of the United States but are more at home in the 
 tropics, where there are many spe- 
 cies. Only one or two species are 
 found in this country. They are 
 not ants, nor are they structurally 
 related to them, but get their 
 common name from a certain su- 
 perficial resemblance in form and 
 from their habits. Colonies may 
 be found in dead and decaying 
 trees and in stumps, fence posts 
 and logs. They attack growing 
 plants at times and are often in- 
 jurious, especially to apple seedHngs. 
 Termites frequently eat into the 
 foundations and at times go on up 
 into the superstructures of houses 
 where they mine and do great 
 damage. They are wingless during 
 the greater part of the year and 
 are of a dead white color, except 
 their jaws and a part of their heads. 
 There are different classes of indi- 
 viduals, males and females, work- 
 ers and soldiers, in the colony. 
 The true males and females, or 
 kings and queens, appear in the spring. They are dark 
 colored and fly from the nest in great swarms, mating 
 and forming new colonies. They have at first, four 
 long, narrow and delicate wings, poorly attached to 
 the bodies. After the flight the wings fall off or are 
 
 Fig. 22.— Work of Ter- 
 mites in Root of Cherry 
 Seedling, 
 
THE LOWER ORDERS 
 
 37 
 
 gnawed off. The function of these individuals is repro- 
 duction only. 
 
 The workers are of both sexes but are not fully devel- 
 oped sexually. They do all the work pertaining to the 
 colony and are blind and avoid the light. They are 
 wingless. Soldiers are like the workers but have ex- 
 traordinarily large heads. Their function is said to be the 
 defense of the colony, but there is considerable doubt as 
 to their efficiency. 
 
 30. Mallophaga.* The members of this order are called 
 Bird-lice or Biting-lice, but are found as often on various 
 species of mammals as on birds. 
 They are wingless, have biting 
 mouth-parts and rather slender, 
 flattened bodies. They feed on 
 feathers, hair and scales of the 
 epidermis. They injure their 
 hosts rather by irritating them 
 than in any other way. Different 
 kinds may be found on poultry 
 and on most of the domestic 
 animals, as well as on many 
 kinds of wild birds and mam- 
 mals. 
 
 31. Siphunculata.f This group is composed of the 
 True lice or the Sucking-lice. They resemble the bird lice 
 superficially but are usually broader and more flattened 
 and have short fleshy beaks by means of which they suck 
 blood from their hosts, which are mammals. Three spe- 
 cies attack man and some others are known to attack 
 marine mammals, thus invading a field in which insects 
 
 * See Fig. 142, page 200, Part II. 
 
 t See Figs. 140 and 141, pages 198, 199, Part II. 
 
 Fig. 23.— a Bird-louse (Mal- 
 lophaga). Highly magnified. 
 
38 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 24. — True Louse 
 {Siphunculata). 
 
 are rare, the ocean. This order is usually classed as a 
 sub-order of the Hemiptera under the name Parasitica, 
 but it seems more logical to place 
 it separately, as it has Uttle in com- 
 mon with the other Hemiptera. 
 
 32. Euplexoptera. The Earwigs 
 (Fig. 21, 3), as members of this order 
 are commonly called, are compar- 
 atively rare and of small size and 
 importance. They resemble certain 
 beetles, but may be identified by 
 the possession of a pair of pincer- 
 like appendages at the tip of the 
 abdomen. There are four wings, 
 the front pair thickened and very 
 short and the hind pair large, but 
 folded in a very complex fashion under the front pair 
 where they are completely concealed. The common name 
 is derived from an old English superstition that they got 
 into people's ears and injured them. 
 
 33. Siphonaptera. The Fleas are probably more nearly 
 
 allied to the true flies than to any 
 
 other group of insects. They are 
 
 wingless, compressed laterally so that 
 
 they stand "on edge," so to speak, 
 
 and have strongly developed hind 
 
 legs which enable them to leap great 
 
 distances. They feed through a 
 
 sucking tube and are parasitic, most 
 
 species attacking mammals, although 
 
 there is one species that attacks hens. Unlike all the 
 
 other orders in this group, the fleas develop indirectly. 
 
 Their larvae are footless and worm-like and are not well 
 
 Fig. 
 
 25. — A Flea {Si- 
 ■phonaptera) . 
 
THE LOWER ORDERS 
 
 39 
 
 known. Those of the common species that attack man 
 and domestic animals arc known to feed on minute par- 
 ticles of organic matter in the dust in the cracks in floors 
 and in other similar situations, even in the dust on the 
 ground, where it is protected from moisture. Fleas have 
 recently been proven to be active agents in the spread 
 of diseases, notably the Bubonic plague, which is carried 
 by the rat-flea. 
 
 34. Physopoda. Thrips. Many writers give the namo 
 Thysanoptera to this order, but we prefer the name used 
 
 Fig. 26. — Tobacco Thrips, Adult and Nymphs (Physopoda). After 
 Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. Highly magnified. 
 
 here because of the confusion that may result from the 
 use of a name so much like Thysanura. 
 
 The Thrips are very small insects with narrow wings 
 fringed with long hairs. The 
 mouth-parts are not strongly 
 developed, but are fitted for 
 chewing the softer plant tis- 
 sues, and, to a certain extent, 
 for sucking the sap from them. 
 The development is direct. 
 These insects are usually not 
 numerous and even when abundant are not often ob- 
 served on account of their very small size, most forms 
 
 Fig. 27.— Rose Thrips (Physo- 
 poda). Greatly enlarged. 
 
40 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 being less than an eighth of an inch in length and quite 
 slender. There are several injurious species. Most of 
 these are found in the tropical or sub-tropical countries. 
 Citrus fruits, in Florida and California, often suffer from 
 their work. We have also one species that attacks pears, 
 others in greenhouses, on carnations, one on onions and 
 one attacking roses, spoihng the appearance of the blossom. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 NEUROPTEROm ORDERS 
 
 Older writers on entomology placed several groups of 
 insects which we now class as separate orders together in 
 the old order Neuroptera. About the only character com- 
 mon to all the members of the group was the possession 
 of membranous wings with many veins. Even this char- 
 acter was by no means absolute. Later writers divided 
 the group into Neuroptera, proper, and Pseudo-Neurop- 
 tera* the former including those groups which developed 
 indirectly and the latter those with direct development. 
 Both divisions normally have biting mouth-parts, although 
 in each group some are found with mouth-parts obsolete 
 or rudimentary. 
 
 35. Pseudo-Neuroptera. Three orders of insects having 
 membranous wings, direct development, biting mouth- 
 parts and aquatic nymphs are included here. 
 
 Plecoptera. Insects with four wings, the front pair 
 rather narrow, the hind pair broader and folded length- 
 wise, hidden, while at rest, beneath the front pair. The 
 mouth-parts usually well developed but sometimes nearly 
 obsolete and the nymphs Hving under stones in running 
 water which habit gives the adults the common name of 
 Stone-flies. Adults may be found in spring and early 
 summer about the streams in the evening and are fre- 
 
 * Some groups at times placed with the Pseudo-Neuroptera we 
 prefer to consider elsewhere. These are the Termites and the Book- 
 Uce and their relatives. 
 
 41 
 
42 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 quently attracted to lights in considerable numbers. 
 Nymphs may be secured by lifting flat stones from run- 
 ning streams and examining the under sides of these where 
 they will be found clinging closely. Common stoneflies 
 belong to the family Perlidce. 
 
 Ephemerida. The May-flies are delicate insects with 
 four wings which have finely netted veins. The front 
 wings are large and the angles are considerably produced. 
 The hind wings are small and sometimes disappear en- 
 tirely. In the adults the mouth-parts are rudimentary. 
 At the tip of the abdomen are two or three thread-like 
 tails as long as, or longer than, the entire body. The 
 nymphs are soft bodied and live on the bottoms of streams, 
 usually where the current is sluggish. The adults live 
 only a short time. They may be found along streams 
 clinging back downward to leaves and twigs and are 
 attracted in immense numbers to electric lights. Floors 
 of bridges are often covered to a depth of an inch or 
 more with these insects on warm nights in early summer. 
 They are called also Shad-flies and Day-flies. The family 
 name is Ephemeridse and both it and the order name are 
 suggested by the short life of the insect. 
 
 Odonata. Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies. The members 
 of this order are better known than the other Pseudo- 
 Neuroptera as they fly by day and are numerous wherever 
 there is water. They have long narrow wings, finely 
 netted veined, and slender bodies. The nymphs live in 
 the water on the bottoms of ponds and in sluggish streams. 
 The Dragon-flies (Anisoptera) , are the larger members of 
 the order. Their wings are nearly the same width from 
 base to tip and they have very powerful flight. They are 
 variously called Mosquito-hawks, Snake-doctors, Snake- 
 feeders, Mule-killers and DeviVs darni tig-needles. 
 
NEUROPTEROID ORDERS 
 
 43 
 
 Dragon-fly nymphs are rather stout-bodied and live 
 near the bottoms of ponds or streams, and are, at times, 
 
 Fig. 28. — Types of Odonata. Above, Dragon-flies with nymphs; 
 below, Damsel-flies. Reduced one-third. 
 
 found buried in the mud. They swim by forcing water 
 from the anal tube, in the walls of which are located the 
 
44 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 trachea by means of which they breathe. They feed on 
 other small animals in the water. These nymphs have very 
 curiously constructed mouths. The lower lip is prolonged 
 and hollowed out so that the rest of the mouth-parts and 
 the lower part of the head fit into it. Food is captured in 
 this "soup-bowl" and carried to the jaws. (See Fig. 28.) 
 
 Damsel-flies (Zygoptera), are smaller than the dragon- 
 flies and have the abdomen much more slender. They have 
 the wings suddenly narrowed at about one-fourth of the 
 distance from the base to the tip so that they seem to be 
 stalked. When at rest they hold their wings in a vertical 
 position, slanting backward over the back while the 
 dragon-flies hold theirs spread out horizontally. 
 
 Damsel-fly nymphs are also more slender than the 
 dragon-fly nymphs. They have three long and narrow, 
 oval, leaf-like tracheal gills. 
 
 Nymphs of both the above groups are easy to obtain 
 and make excellent aquarium material. 
 
 36. Neuroptera Proper. Three orders may be in- 
 cluded in this group. All have membranous wings, some 
 with netted veined wings, others with the veins mostly 
 longitudinal. The mouth-parts are typically biting. The 
 development is indirect and the larvae have various forms 
 and food habits, some being aquatic and some terrestrial. 
 
 The order Neuroptera in the strict sense includes the 
 largest and most numerous members of the group. They 
 have finely netted wings usually long and rather narrow. 
 The largest form is the Corydalis or Dobson-fly. This in- 
 sect has a wing expanse of five inches or more. The 
 females have strong jaws but in the males these are 
 greatly prolonged and shaped hke a very slender cow- 
 horn. They are not dangerous and their pinch is scarcely 
 painful. Larvae of the Corydalis live under stones in 
 
NEUROPTEROID ORDERS 
 
 45 
 
 swiftly running water and 
 Fishermen prize them 
 for bass bait. As it 
 takes them three years 
 to mature they may be 
 found at all seasons of 
 the year, either in the 
 water or under stones 
 near the water's edge. 
 The adults are attracted 
 to the lights during June 
 and July. 
 
 Several other species 
 of this family (Sialidoe), 
 are aquatic, but most of 
 the remaining Neurop- 
 tera are found on land 
 in all their stages. 
 
 The Ant-lion {Myr- 
 7neleonidce) , or more pop- 
 ularly the "Doodle- 
 bug," makes small fun- 
 nel-shaped pits in sand or 
 dry, powdery, decaying 
 wood. Small insects fall 
 into these pits, aided by 
 slides on the steep sides, 
 and are captured and 
 eaten. The ant-lion has 
 strong curved jaws 
 through which it sucks 
 the blood from its vic- 
 tims. Its body is stout 
 
 are known as " helgrammites." 
 
 Fig. 29. — Neuropterous Insects. 
 Reduced. 
 
 a, Dobson-fly, Corydalis cornuta (Neurop' 
 tera); b. Ant-lion, adult; c, Ant-lion, cocoon 
 and larva {Xeuroptera) ; d, d, Caddice-flies 
 (Trichoptera) ; c. Aphis-lion or lace-wing fly 
 (Xeuroptera); f, Bittacus sp., and g. Scor- 
 pion-flies, Panorpa sp. (Mecoptera). 
 
46 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and oval, being mostly abdomen. It digs its pits by 
 getting the sand on its head and flipping it sharply 
 backward, turning slightly after each "flip." The adults 
 resemble the damsel-flies, but have larger antennae and 
 fold their wings roof-Uke. The wings are not so distinctly 
 stalked. 
 
 Aphis-lions or lace-wing flies (Chnjsopidce) have very 
 thin, lacy wings and are usually green in color. They 
 may be found flying in shrubbery throughout the summer. 
 The eggs are laid on long slender stalks fastened to leaves 
 or branches so that the hungry young first hatching may 
 not destroy those as yet unhatched. The larvae resemble 
 the ant-lions but are more slender and have usually some 
 yellow or red markings. They may be found in colonies 
 of plant-lice on which they feed, thus earning the name 
 of aphis-lions. The adults are also called "golden-eyes," 
 from the brilliant golden color of the eyes. 
 
 Mecoptera are given the name of Scorpion-flies. They 
 have narrow wings with few cross veins. The head is 
 somewhat prolonged, forming a beak on which the mouth 
 is situated. The abdomen is slender and in the males of 
 some species is so formed at the tip as to resemble the 
 sting of the scorpion. The larvae are not often encoun- 
 tered and are caterpillar-like, having at least eight pairs 
 of pro-legs on the abdomen. Two groups in this order 
 are common, one the true scorpion-fly, another (Bittacus), 
 which has no distinctive common name but which super- 
 ficially resembles the crane flies. 
 
 Trichoptera, or Caddice-flies are usually small, moth- 
 like insects with long antennae and wings sparsely clothed 
 with hairs, which adds to their moth-like appearance. 
 The wings have few cross veins. The mouth-parts are 
 rudimentary in the adults. 
 
NEUROPTEROID ORDERS 47 
 
 The larvae are aquatic and are called Caddice-worms. 
 They live in running water and form cocoons of various 
 materials, twigs, sand, pebbles and silk, which they spin 
 as do caterpillars. These are often attached to the under 
 sides of stones. The larvae are caterpillar-like, but may be 
 recognized by their habitat and by the absence of the pro- 
 legs. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 ORTHOPTERA 
 
 Nearly all the groups of insects classed as Orthoptera 
 are well known. Tliis is probably more true of this order 
 than of any other. Included here are the Grasshoppers 
 or Locusts, the Katydids, the Crickets and the Roaches. Less 
 common are the Walking-sticks and Praying mantids or 
 Rear-horses. 
 
 37. General Characteristics. Some species and indi- 
 viduals of other species are wingless, but there are typi- 
 ically four wings. Of these, the front pair is narrow and 
 leathery and the hind pair broad, folded fan-like and con- 
 cealed and protected by the front pair when at rest. The 
 mouth-parts are well developed and formed for chewing, 
 grasshoppers having been accused, with some truth, of 
 attacking pitch-fork handles and the edges of scythes.* 
 Orthoptera develop directly and as a rule the young re- 
 semble the adults in form and habits. 
 
 38. Acrididae. The grasshoppers, or true locusts, in- 
 clude the worst insect pests the world has known. Records 
 of them appear in the earliest history and their ravages 
 are recorded from all parts of the world. No insects have 
 ever produced such wide-spread desolation and misery as 
 the various migratory forms of these insects. Just here 
 it may be noted that the terms grasshopper and locust 
 
 * The author can vouch for the fork handle but not for the 
 scythe, although farmers have told him in good faith that grass- 
 hoppers dulled their scythes by gnawing the edges. 
 
 48 
 
ORTHOPTERA 
 
 49 
 
 Fig. 30. — Types of Orthopiera. Reduced about one-half. 
 
 1. Walking-stick (Phasmidce); 2, Praying-mantis (MantidcF); 3, Cave cricket 
 (,Locustid(F) ; 4, right, egg mass of Praying-mantis; left, eggs of Katydid on twig; 
 center and 5, Katydids (Locustida) ; 6, Long-horned grasshopper {Locustidcej. 
 
50 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 are synonymous, in spite of the fact that in the United 
 States the term locust has been apphed to an entirely 
 different insect, the Cicada. This misapplication of the 
 term results in confusion, because in the literature of the 
 
 Fig. 31. — Types of Orthoptera. Grasshoppers (Acndidoe). 
 
 world the term locust signifies grasshopper. Grasshoppers 
 scarcely need characterization. The fact that they have 
 antennae shorter than the body will suffice to separate 
 them from the family Locustidce. 
 
ORTHOPTERA 
 
 51 
 
 Locusts are mentioned in the the book of Exodus 
 as the eighth plague of Egypt and at various other places 
 in the Bible and in secular Hterature, The forms that 
 attract the most notice are the migratory ones. One mi- 
 gratory species in the United States has done enormous 
 damage in times past and is still occasionally injurious, 
 and other species have the migratory habit to a degree. 
 The chief one is the Rocky Mountain Locust. In its flights 
 it spread from the Rocky Mountain region 
 eastward almost entirely covering the plains 
 regions to the Mississippi. It also invaded 
 the agricultural sections of Idaho, Utah and 
 Nevada. Non-migratory species are injur- 
 ious every year, but their damage is not 
 so universal as was that of the migratory 
 kind. They are successfully combated by 
 the use of poisoned bran-mash where they 
 occur in great numbers. Grasshopper eggs 
 are laid in masses in the soil and the winter 
 is usually passed by this stage. Some hatch 
 in the fall and pass the winter as young 
 nymphs which may be seen hopping about on warm 
 days in winter and in early spring. Common species are 
 the American Acridium, the Carolina locust, and the Dif- 
 ferential locust or Alfalfa grasshopper.* 
 
 39. Locustidae. This family is rather unfortunately 
 named, as it includes the katydids and long-horned grass- 
 hoppers, not the locusts. Its members are grasshopper- 
 like in form but are in general more delicate and have 
 antennae longer than the body. Some kinds are wingless, 
 but ordinarily the wings are longer than is usually the 
 
 * See page 241, Part II, for detailed descriptions of injurious 
 species. 
 
 Fig. 32.— a 
 
 'Grouse-locust" 
 
 (Acridid(p). 
 
52 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 case with the grasshoppers. The best-known species are 
 the common Katydids, which have wings broad at the base, 
 giving them a hump-backed appearance, and are green in 
 color. They Uve mostly in trees, where they eat foliage. 
 Eggs of katydids are also placed on twigs. They are a 
 blue-gray in color and are a flat oval, about one-eighth 
 inch long. They are laid in a row on a twig and overlap 
 shghtly. There are usually about a dozen in a row. 
 These eggs are sometimas mistaken for scale insects al- 
 though there is no real similarity. Some of the meadow- 
 grasshoppers resemble katydids, but are not hump-backed. 
 Others are brownish in color and still others have very 
 peculiar pointed heads. Most of these live on grasses and 
 weeds. Some cricket-like forms, living in cellars and caves, 
 called Cave Crickets, are yellowish-brown in color and wing- 
 less, and belong to this family. 
 
 40. Gryllidae. Crickets are of various forms, but differ 
 from the Orthoptera so far considered in that they are 
 flattened on top and hold their wings flat on the body 
 rather than roof-like. They are usually stout bodied, but 
 not necessarily so. Many are wingless. 
 
 The common Black Crickets found in houses, in fields, 
 under stones and rotting logs, are well known to all. The 
 Tree Crickets, slender, light in color, rather small in size, and 
 with long wings, are not so well known. Neither are the 
 Mole Crickets, curious forms with front feet resembling 
 those of a mole, which burrow in the ground after the 
 fashion of their namesake. Fig. 31 illustrates these forms 
 well enough to identify them. 
 
 41. Blattidae. (See Page 214, Part II.) Roaches are 
 the scourge of many households and it is as household 
 pests that they are best known, although many are found 
 in the woods, in decaying logs, and under stones, where they 
 
ORTHOPTERA 
 
 53 
 
 are harmless. Roaches in a house do Httle real destruction, 
 but spoil food by running over it and eating parts of it. 
 They often seriously injure 
 book-bindings by gnawing 
 them. They hide in cracks 
 and crevices and in holes 
 made for plumbing. In old 
 houses it is next to impos- 
 sible to be entirely rid of 
 them. Many roach destroy- 
 ers, usually in the form 
 of powders, are sold and 
 some are said to be effi- 
 cient. Old houses, even if 
 entirely freed from roaches, 
 will always be likely to be 
 soon reinfested from neigh- 
 boring houses. 
 
 There are several spe- 
 cies of roaches but all that 
 Uve in houses are similar 
 in habits and appearance. 
 Both winged and wingless 
 forms may always be found. 
 
 42. Ph as mid £6 and 
 Mantidae. Two very pe- 
 cuharly formed groups of 
 insects are the Phasmids 
 or " Walking-sticks " and 
 the Mantids or "Rear-horses." The former are elongated, 
 have very long and slender legs and antennae and are 
 wingless.* They are usually green or brown in color and 
 * Many tropical species have wings. 
 
 Fig. 33.— Types of Ortlwpkni 
 
 1, 2, 3, and 4, Roaches (Blatiidm) ; 
 Sand 6, Tree-crickets; 7, Mole-cricket; 
 8, 9, Ground-crickets (all Gryllidae). 
 
54 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 when at rest on a twig or grass stem look so much Hke 
 the plant that they are very difficult to detect. They are 
 plant eaters, but rarely do much damage. 
 
 The Mantis, or Praying Mantis has a long slender 
 thorax, an abdomen which becomes, when full of food, or 
 eggs, very much distended and broadly oval, but is at other 
 times rather slender, and short wings. It captures and 
 kills other insects. The front legs are fitted for grasping 
 the victims and the thorax is carried nearly erect with the 
 front feet in a "prayerful" attitude. This position gives 
 rise to the common name. Eggs of this insect are placed 
 in masses on twigs of trees and cemented together, the 
 masses being over a half inch long and about one-quarter 
 inch high. They are more frequently observed than the 
 eggs of most other Orthoptera as they are more conspic- 
 uous. 
 
 Table for the Determination of the Families of 
 
 ORTHOPTERA 
 
 A. Legs fitted for jumping. 
 
 B. Antennse shorter than the body. 
 
 Grasshoppers. Acrididce. 
 
 BB. Antennae longer than ])ody. 
 
 C. Wings carried, when at rest, in a vertical or roof- 
 shaped position. 0\dpositors sword-shaped, curved 
 upward or straight. 
 
 Katydids, etc. Locustidce. 
 
 CC. Wings in a position approximately horizontal, flat 
 on the back. Ovipositors slender, spear-shaped. 
 
 Crickets. Gryllidce. 
 
 AA. Legs not fitted for jumping. 
 
 B. Bodies flattened and oval. Roaches. Blattidce. 
 
ORTHOPTERA 55 
 
 BB. Bodies elongated. 
 C. Front legs fitted for grasping prey. Prothorax car- 
 ried somewhat erect. 
 
 Praying Mantids. MantidcB. 
 
 CC. Front legs not fitted for grasping. Body and legs 
 very long and slender. Wingless. 
 
 Walking-sticks. Phasmidoe. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 HEMIPTERA 
 
 The order Hemiptera is made up of insects having 
 sucking mouth-parts and direct development. They have, 
 typically, four wings but many kinds are wingless and the 
 males in one group have two wings only. The order is made 
 up of two sub-orders that are so dissimilar in appearance, 
 structure and habits, that they may be considered sep- 
 arately. 
 
 43. Heteroptera. The members of this sub-order are 
 the true bugs and are the only insects to which the name 
 hug, not in combination with some other word, is properly 
 applied. Most bugs are winged. The front wings are 
 thick and narrow at the base and are broader and thinner 
 and overlap at the tips. They are usually carried rather 
 flat on the back, though some forms have strongly arched 
 backs. The beak is strong and arises from the front part 
 of the head. The habits are varied. Some bugs are 
 predaceous, some are plant-eaters and seriously injurious. 
 Several families, which we shall consider together as the 
 "Aquatic Bugs," live in or about the water. 
 
 Aquatic Bugs. Several families, which need not be 
 considered in detail, are aquatic. The largest of our bugs 
 are those known as the Giajit Water-hugs or, sometimes, 
 as the "electric-light bugs." These are about three inches 
 long by one inch broad, flattened, brownish in color, with 
 legs fitted for swimming. They are frequently attracted 
 to the electric lights and may also be found swimming near 
 
 56 
 
HEMIPTERA 
 
 57 
 
 the bottoms of pools. There is a smaller species which is 
 less abundant. 
 
 On the surface of the water of quiet pools and even 
 
 Fig. 34. — Types of True Bugs (Heteroptera). Slightly reduced. 
 
 1. Giant water-bug {BeJmftomidce); 2, Back-swimmers (NotoneclidcF); 3, Thread- 
 legged bug {Emesidce); 4, Water-boatman (Corisidce); 5, Water-scorpion (Nepidte); 
 6, Bclostomidce; 7, Water-strider {Hydrobatidce); 8, Marsh-treader (Limnohatida:); 
 9, Toad-shaped bug {Galgulidw). 
 
 on running streams may frequently be seen numbers of 
 spider-like creatures with slender bodies and long legs. 
 
58 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 These are the Water-striders (HijdrobatidcB). They may be 
 either winged or wingless. Among the local names for 
 these bugs may be mentioned "Water-spiders," "Water- 
 skippers" and "Skaters." 
 
 Two families of medium to small insects, generally 
 found swimming below the surface of the water, are the 
 Water-boatmen (Corisidce), and the Back-swimmers (No- 
 tonedidw) . Both have oar-like legs and powerful beaks 
 capable of inflicting painful stings. The boatmen are 
 flattened while the back-swimmers have "V "-shaped 
 backs and swim upside down, the angle of the back mak- 
 ing a sort of keel. Both these families are generally dis- 
 tributed in ponds and are easily recognized. Still another 
 water-bug is the Water-scor-pion (Nepidce). The more com- 
 mon species of this family has a very slender body, long legs 
 and a long breathing tube projecting from the tip of the 
 abdomen. When at rest, a water-scorpion hangs head 
 downward in the water with the breathing tube just reach- 
 ing the surface. The common form is more than three 
 inches long, including the tail. Several other families of 
 water bugs are less numerous and less conspicuous. 
 
 Land Bugs. The land bugs are of the most varied 
 shapes and habits. The most numerous and widely dis- 
 tributed are the so-called Leaf -bugs (Capsidce). Sweep 
 through the grass with an insect net in midsummer and 
 you will find in the net a large number of small insects. 
 Many of these will easily be seen to be true bugs of which 
 the great majority are leaf-bugs. They are generally small 
 and usually green or brownish in color. Seme are of eco- 
 nomic importance, but no one form is especially injurious. 
 The Tarnished Plant-bug is widely distributed and injures 
 fruits of various sorts, especially pears. 
 
 Probably the best known of the bugs are the Stink- 
 
HEMIPTERA 
 
 59 
 
 bugs (Pentatomidce) . They may be recognized by their 
 form and also by their pe- 
 culiar and unpleasant odors. 
 IMany of us, unfortunately, 
 know them also by their taste, 
 as they frequently get on 
 berries. In form they are 
 rather short and broad with 
 moderately arched backs. 
 They are of medium to large 
 size and in color usually vary 
 from green to many shades 
 of brown. In this family 
 again, we have many forms 
 that are somewhat injurious, 
 but few that are notably so. 
 The brightly colored Harle- 
 quin Cabbage-hug is often a 
 serious pest in the South. It 
 is recognized by its red, black 
 and yellow colors. Many spe- 
 cies in this family, known 
 as Soldier-bugs, are preda- 
 ceous and destroy injurious 
 larvae. Most common among 
 these are the green soldier-l^ug 
 and the spined soldier-bug. 
 
 The Squash-bug family 
 (Coreidoe) takes its common 
 name from the well-known 
 garden pest, the squash-bug. 
 Members of this family are rather longer and narrower 
 than the stink-bugs and are small to medium in size with 
 
 Fig. 85. — T^^ses of True Bugs 
 {Heteroptera). Slightly re- 
 duced. 
 
 1. The Wheel-bug (ffe^umtfffi); 
 
 2, ReduiiidcE; 3, Cureidw, 4, Cap- 
 sidcE ; 5, Phymatidce ; 6, Stilt-bug 
 {Berytidw); 7, Negro-bug (Corime- 
 l(tiiidce)\ 8, Burrower bug (Cj/dwtdce); 
 9, Stink-bugs {Pentatomidce). 
 
60 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 FF 
 
 3.^ 
 
 I 
 
 5 I 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 36.— TjTDes 
 of True Bugs 
 (Heteroplera). 
 Enlarged. 
 
 1 . Lac e-b u g 
 (Tingitidw); 2, 
 Negro-bug (Cori- 
 melaenidce) ; 3, Bed- 
 bug {Acanthiidoe) ; 
 4, Flat-bug Ara- 
 didce) ; 5, Chinch- 
 bug (LygcExdae) ; 6, 
 7, Lygcndce; 8, 9, 
 Leaf-bugs (Capsi- 
 dce); 10, Stilt-bug 
 (Merytidce) . 
 
 a few large species included in the family. 
 Many have the powerful odor found in 
 the preceding group and are, on this ac- 
 count, often mistaken for them. The box- 
 elder bug of the Middle West and the leaf- 
 footed bugs of the South are members of 
 this family. 
 
 The Assassin-hiigs {Reduviidce) are, in 
 general shape, much like the squash-bugs, 
 but give the impression of being softer 
 and more delicate. Their legs are longer 
 and more slender and heads and beaks 
 are also often more slender, although the 
 beaks may be short and powerful. Assas- 
 sin-bugs are, as their name implies, pre- 
 daceous, and capture and eat large numbers 
 of other insects. Some forms get in houses 
 and even attack man. They may be 
 considered, in general, as beneficial insects. 
 
 One of the most serious pests the grain 
 grower of the Middle States has to fight is 
 the Chinch-hug. (See page 238, Part II.) 
 This insect is one of the smaller members 
 of a family (Lygceidce) which takes its com- 
 mon name from this species. Lygaeids are 
 intermediate between the squash-bugs and 
 the assassin bugs in form. They range 
 from very small to medium in size and 
 are usually of dark colors. They are gen- 
 erally plant eaters but, with the one ex- 
 ception, are not serious pests. 
 
 Still another well-known bug is the 
 common Bed-bug {Acanthiidce) . It is less 
 
HEMIPTERA 61 
 
 than one-quarter inch in length, very much flattened, 
 wingless, and dark brown in color. It feeds, as is well 
 known, on human blood. The individual unfortunate 
 enough to encounter it will recognize it without trouble. 
 
 Two very peculiarly shaped bugs are the representa- 
 tives of families known commonly as Thread-legged bugs 
 {EmesidcB) and Stilt-hugs (Berytidw). Both have very 
 slender bodies and long, slender legs. The common stilt- 
 bug has a body about three-eighths inch in length while 
 the thread-legged bug is much larger. Its body is more 
 than an inch long and its legs are much longer. The 
 stilt-bugs may be found rather commonly in grass and 
 on shrubs but the thread-legged bugs are rare and more 
 frequently found in old barns and other open buildings. 
 
 44. Homoptera. The second sub-order of the Hcmip- 
 tera is different in many ways from the true bugs. Here 
 the wings are either membranous or thickened, but in 
 either case are the same throughout. The beak is at- 
 tached to the back margin of the under side of the head 
 and often seems to arise from just between the forelegs. 
 The backs are typically "V "-shaped or rounded and the 
 wings do not overlap as in the bugs. There are some 
 highly specialized forms in the group which will not 
 be recognized by the characters given above, but rather 
 by their own peculiarities. 
 
 Cicadas. The Cicadidce or the Cicadas, sometimes 
 called Harvest-flies or Jar-flies, are the largest of the 
 Homoptera. To this family belongs the Periodical Cicada, 
 better known as the seventeen-year locust. So much has 
 been written regarding this insect that a description of its 
 appearance or habits would seem superfluous. The species 
 that appear every year are larger and take only two 
 years to develop. As there are two broods, we have 
 
62 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 37. — Types of Homoptera. Slightly redumi. 
 
 a. Periodical Cicada; b. Harvest-flies with nymph (Cicadidce); c, rree-hoppers, 
 (Mvmbracidae) ; d. Leaf-hoppers (Jassida;); e, /, Frog-hoppers (Cercopidoe); g, h. 
 Fulgoridw; i, Lecanium acale (Coccidw), 
 
HEMIPTERA 63 
 
 some members of the species with us every g J 
 
 summer. The males in this family pos- f ■, 
 
 sess, at the base of the abdomen, two 
 
 drum-like organs with which they produce 2. fll 
 
 their characteristic song or " shrill." 
 
 Cicadas are, as a rule, harmless, but the 1 
 
 periodical cicada does great injury to fruit 9 
 
 trees by splitting the twigs to deposit its 
 
 eggs. Fortunately it does not come often ^^ 
 
 enough to be a serious menace to the ^' W 
 
 fruit industry. 
 
 Plant-hoppers. Several families of ho- 
 mopterous insects constitute a group gen- 
 erally spoken of collectively as the plant- 
 hoppers. Broadl}' speaking, we may in- 
 clude in this group the Spittle insectP{Cer- 
 copidoe), forms which, in young stages, live 
 concealed in a frothy secretion which 
 resembles spittle, and are found on several 
 common weeds; the Lantern-flies {Fulgori- 
 dce), among which are a few moth-like 
 forms and, in the tropics, some others 
 that are luminescent, but which do not 
 include our fire-flies; and the more impor- 
 tant and numerous Leaf-hoppers (J ass i da), 
 and Tree-hopper kxMembracidce) . All of these 
 famihes have the power of leaping but 
 
 they are otherwise sufficiently distinct for ', „ ' , 
 "^ ^ oi Homoptera. 
 
 easy recognition. The Jassidm are slender. Slightly en- 
 small, and have pointed heads. The tree- larged. 
 hoppers are stouter bodied, larger and have pers'(iosJ<L);°2, 
 heads nearly concealed beneath the protho- Tree -hoppers 
 
 (M embracidcg) ; 5, 9, 
 
 rax when seen from above, and usually cut Fuigoridw:7,v\ant- 
 
 '' louse (Aphididoe). 
 
64 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 off squarely or rounded, not pointed. They have also very 
 strange growths on the prothorax which almost entirely 
 covers the head and projects backward and covers the 
 greater part of the wings and the abdomen. Its varied 
 shapes are often ludicrous and laughable and give the 
 insects the locally common name "Brownie-bugs." Both 
 
 famihes of hoppers 
 are plant eaters and 
 attack many eco- 
 nomic plants. Possibly 
 the worst common 
 forms are the leaf- 
 hoppers on the grape 
 and the apple and the 
 tree-hopper, known as 
 the "Buffalo tree- 
 hopper." Many tree- 
 hoppers are injurious 
 from their egg-laying 
 habits, damaging 
 twigs in this way, 
 but are harmless so 
 far as their feeding 
 is concerned. Leaf- 
 hoppers, on the other hand, feed like the plant lice 
 and are even more difficult to control because they are 
 much more active. 
 
 By far the most important of the Homoptera and, in- 
 deed, among the most important of all insects are the 
 two families known as Scale-insects iCoccidoe), and plant- 
 lice or Aphids (Aphididce). 
 
 Scale Insects will not be at first recognized as insects 
 or even as living animals by the amateur. They are ap- 
 
 FiG. 39. — Different Stages of a Scale- 
 insect. After Howard, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr. Highly magnified. 
 
 a. Adult male; c. Young nymph ; e. Adult fe- 
 male from beneath. 
 
HEMIPTERA 
 
 65 
 
 parently, for the greater part of their hves, inanimate 
 objects on the bark of trees. They are usually less than 
 one-eighth of an inch in diam- 
 eter, oval or circular in outline, 
 and more or less flattened. The 
 3^oung and the adult males have 
 eyes and appendages and move 
 about. Other stages fasten them- 
 selves to the host-plant by means 
 of their beaks and also by a 
 waxy secretion. They are pro- 
 tected either by a separate scale 
 which is formed over them from 
 secretions of their bodies, but 
 not attached to them, or by a 
 hardening of the body wall it- 
 self. Scales in the latter group 
 are known as unarmored scales 
 while the others are called ar- 
 mored scales. Scale insects feed for the most part on 
 shrubs and woody plants, but some are found on grasses 
 
 Fig. 40. — San Jose Scale on 
 Apple Bark 
 
 Fig. 41.— The Tulip Scale, 
 
 and on ferns and other greenhouse plants. Mealy hugs, 
 which are also Coccids, feed on herbaceous plants. Some 
 
66 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 of the worst pests of the fruit-growing industry are to 
 be found in this family. In the armored group we have 
 
 the San Jose Scale, the Oyster- 
 shell Scale, the Rose Scale and a 
 host of others. (See page 287, Part 
 II.) Among the unarmored forms 
 are the Cottony-cushion Scale, the 
 Terrapin Scale or Peach Lecanium 
 and others. There is scarcely a 
 woody plant that is not subject 
 to the attacks of one or more 
 species of scale insects. Fortu- 
 nately, fairly effective means 
 have been devised for the con- 
 trol of these insects. 
 
 Plant-lice are small in size, 
 
 oval or egg-shaped, winged or 
 
 wingless. They live in colonies and are often found in 
 
 enormous numbers on plants. They often kill the leaves 
 
 Fig. 42.— Cottony Maple- 
 scale on Leaves of Soft 
 Maple. 
 
 Fig. 43. — A Winged Plant-louse (Aphididce) . Greatly enlarged. 
 
 and may do great damage. Some species live on the 
 roots of plants for at least a part of their life-cycle. They 
 
HEMIPTERA 
 
 67 
 
 are remarkable for the numbers of the plants they attack, 
 few groups of plants being entirely immune, and for 
 their methods of reproduction and their fecundity. In 
 this group is illustrated the phenomenon of partheno- 
 genesis or reproduction by the 
 females without the intervention 
 of males. Accompanying this 
 phenomenon is another, alter- 
 nation of generations. In brief, 
 a typical life cycle for an aphid 
 is as follows: In the autumn 
 or at some other time during 
 the year, true males and females 
 appear. These mate and the 
 females produce true eggs, just 
 as do insects of other groups. 
 These eggs, when they hatch, 
 usually in the spring, i^roduce 
 wingless females which in turn, 
 without the intervention of 
 males, give birth to living young. 
 These, upon becoming grown, 
 produce other living young, all 
 females, and either winged or 
 not. These forms are spoken of 
 as the agamic females. During 
 the smiimer the sexual individ- 
 uals appear as noted above. The males are either winged 
 or not, but the true females, which produce the winter 
 eggs, never have wings. There may be more than a dozen 
 generations in a year without any of the sexual individuals 
 and in some species the sexual forms have never been 
 found. The number of progeny which might, theoretically, 
 
 Fig. 44. — Woolly-aphis on 
 Apple Seedling. (Photo 
 by W. E. Rumsey.) 
 
68 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 W' l W H i i f 
 
 ■>^tj^u»-,l'M- i' 
 
 be descended from one of the winter eggs if all survived 
 and reproduced, would, at the end of the season be 
 beyond human comprehension. They are rivaled in fecun- 
 dity only by some of the 
 scales and by other insects, 
 notably the May-flies. 
 Aphids secrete from the 
 abdomen through the in- 
 testine, a sweet sugary 
 substance called honey- 
 dew. This honey-dew is 
 a favorite food of ants and 
 any plant infested by 
 aphids will be found to be 
 frequented by ants which 
 are at times accused of 
 doing the damage which is 
 actually caused by the 
 plant-lice. The ants do 
 sometimes injure us indi- 
 rectly on account of their 
 fondness for the honey- 
 dew. One species, for example, cares for the eggs of the 
 corn-root aphis during the winter and in the spring places 
 them on the roots of suitable food plants. Many re- 
 markable and often fanciful tales are told of the care 
 exercised by ants over their little green "cattle" as some 
 people are pleased to term the aphids. 
 
 For further discussion of some species and the reme- 
 dies used, see pages 295, 302, Part II. 
 
 Fig. 45. — Gall Formed by Plant Lice 
 
 (Pemphigus sp.), on Leaf Stem 
 of Cottonwood. 
 
HEMIPTERA 69 
 
 Table for the Determination of Common Families of 
 
 HEMIPTERA. 
 
 A. Front wings thicker at the base than at the tip; beak at- 
 tached to the front of the head. True bugs. Sub-order. 
 Heteroptera. 
 
 B. AntennjB very short, usuall}- concealed beneath the 
 head. 
 C. Legs oar-hke, fitted for swimming. 
 
 D. Back somewhat V-shaped, hght in color. Back- 
 swimmers. Notonectidoe. 
 DD. Back more flattened; color darker. 
 
 E. Size usually larger than medium. One-half 
 inch to over two inches. Giant Water Bu^s. 
 Belostomidoe. 
 EE. Length less than one-half inch. Water Boat- 
 men. CorisidxB. 
 CC. Legs not oar -like but very long and slender; ab- 
 domen fitted with a long breathing tube at the tip. 
 Water Scorpions. Nepidcp. 
 BB. Antennse longer than head. 
 
 C. Bodies very slender or linear. 
 D. All legs long and slender. 
 
 E. Last joint of antenna? enlarged. Stilt-bugs. 
 Benjtidce. 
 EE. Last joint of antennae slender. 
 
 F. Length about one-half inch. About water. 
 Marsh-treaders. Limnohalidce. 
 FF. Length one inch or more. Not aquatic. 
 Thread-legged bugs. Emesidoe. 
 DD. Front-legs not used for walking and shorter than the 
 others. Aquatic, found running on surface of water, 
 Water-striders. Hydrobatidce. 
 CC. Bodies of broader shape, not linear. 
 D. Antennae four-jointed. 
 
 E. Wing-covers lace-like, size small. 
 
 Lace-bugs. Tingitidce. 
 
70 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 EE. Wing covers variable or absent. 
 F. Beak three-jointed. 
 
 G. Common forms wingless. Bedbugs. 
 AcanthiulcE. 
 GG. Generally winged. Not resembling bed- 
 bugs. 
 
 H. Front femora greatly thickened. 
 Ambush-bugs. Phymatidce. 
 HH. Front femora not thickened. As- 
 sassin-bugs. Redumidce. 
 FF. Beak four-jointed. 
 
 G. Front legs fitted for grasping. Wings 
 rudimentary. Nabidce. 
 GG. Front legs fitted for walking. 
 
 H. Membrane of wings without cells 
 but with a large number of more or 
 less interwoven veins. Coreidce. 
 HH. Membrane with few veins and usu- 
 ally with one or more closed cells 
 at the base. 
 
 I. Membrane with four or five sim- 
 ple veins and sometimes with 
 one cell. Lygceidce. 
 II. Membrane with two or three 
 cells. Otherwise without veins. 
 Leaf-bugs. Capsidce. 
 DD. Antennse five-jointed. 
 
 Stink-bugs. Pentatornidoe. 
 (Several other minor families having five-jointed antennae will 
 not be mcluded here.) 
 
 AA. Front wings of similar texture throughout. Sub-order 
 Homoptera. 
 
 B. Size large; length greater than one-half inch. Cicadidae. 
 BB. Size smaller. 
 
 C. Front wings slightly thickened or covered with a 
 waxy secretion. 
 
 D. Prothorax projecting backward over the wings. 
 Tree-hoppers. Membracidce, ^ 
 
HEMIPTERA 71 
 
 DD. Prothorax normal. Leaf-hoppers. Jassidee. 
 CC. Wings entirel.y membranous or lacking. 
 
 D. Wingless or with only one pair of wings. Wing- 
 less forms scale-like and, except in the very early 
 stages, without power of motion. Scale insects. 
 Coccidoe. 
 DD. Wingless or with two pairs of wings. All stages 
 active. Plant-lice. Aphididoe. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 LEPmOPTERA 
 
 45. General Characteristics. The order Lepidoptera 
 includes those insects which are commonly known as 
 moths, millers and butterflies. They are recognized by 
 their four wings, usually rather broad, which are covered 
 with very fine powdery scales. These scales also cover 
 the bodies of the moths and, in part, the butterflies. 
 Moths and butterflies have indirect development, the 
 young forms being known as caterpillars. Caterpillars, 
 like other larvae, are worm-like, but may be distinguished 
 from all other common larvae by the fact that they pos- 
 sess three pairs of true legs on the thoracic segments, and, 
 in addition to these, at least one pair and usually as 
 many as five pairs of pro-legs. The only other common 
 insects which have pro-legs are the larvae of the sawflies 
 and these always have more than five pairs. (From 
 six to eight pairs. See Sawflies, page 154.) 
 
 46. Moths and Butterflies distinguished. Moths and 
 butterflies are easily distinguished from each other by sev- 
 eral characters. The most constant of these is the form 
 of the antennae. In the butterflies these are always en- 
 larged at the tips or clubbed. In the moths they are 
 never clubbed, although they may have various forms, 
 some being thread-like, and some feathery. 
 
 There are no characters by means of which the larvae 
 of the two groups may readily be separated, but the pupae 
 are quite different. Pupae of moths are generally smooth 
 
 72 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 73 
 
 Fig. 46. — Early Stages of Lepidoptera. Two-thirds natural size. 
 
 1, Larva of Imperial moth; 2, Half-grown larva of Regal moth; 3, larva of the 
 Eyed Tiger-moth; 4, larva and pupa of a .Sphinx moth; 5, Tussock-moth larva; 
 6, small Cutworm; 7, Bagworm coooon; 8, Cocoon of Regal moth; 9, Chrysalis 
 of a Papilio; 10, Cocoon of Cecropia moth. 
 
74 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and are usually enclosed in some kind of cocoon or, at 
 
 «$<^ 
 
 Fig. 47.— Sphinx Moth with 
 Mouth-parts Extended. 
 
 least, in an earthen cell. 
 Those of butterflies are either 
 angular or smooth, but are 
 never enclosed in cocoons. 
 They are generally suspended 
 by a button of silk at the 
 tip end of the abdomen and 
 a silken girdle about the 
 middle of the body or by 
 the button alone, from some 
 twig, branch, or weed. Some 
 forms seek protection from 
 the weather and may be found 
 mider trash in the winter, 
 but many are in exposed sit- 
 uations. 
 
 Adults in this order have 
 sucking mouth-parts, often 
 poorly developed, formed 
 from the maxillae, which are 
 elongated and grooved on the 
 inner faces which join and 
 form the sucking tube. In 
 some moths this sucking tube 
 is much longer than the in- 
 sect itself. It is usually not 
 adapted to piercing but is used 
 to suck up Hquids hke the 
 nectar from flowers, the juice 
 from rotting fruits or from 
 even less attractive substances. 
 The larvse have chewing 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 75 
 
 uiouth-parts and are voracious 
 feeders. They attack a great va- 
 riety of substances ranging from, 
 the most succulent foUagc to dried 
 grains and wood of trees. Many 
 are of great importance to farm- 
 ing and to other industries. The 
 adults are rarely of direct impor- 
 tance but are of great popular in- 
 terest. 
 
 47. Micro-Lepidoptera. Three 
 extensive super-families of moths 
 are commonly grouped together 
 under this heading on account of 
 their general similarity and small 
 size. In contra-distinction to these 
 all other Lepidoptera are called 
 the "Macro-Lepidoptera." 
 
 The famihes or super-families 
 comprising this group all contain 
 species of considerable importance. 
 Some of these may be used to 
 illustrate the families. The first 
 of the groups is the Pyralidina. 
 The moths in this group are often 
 fairly large for "Micros." Their 
 wings are usually rather regular 
 in outline and often folded or 
 rolled about the body when at 
 rest. The larvae have a great diver- 
 sity of food habits. Many of them 
 
 Fig. 48. — Types of Moths. Micro-Lepi- 
 doptera. Natural size. 
 
76 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 feed on leaves and roll or fold the leaves for protection, thus 
 acquiring the name Leaf-rollers, which is sometimes applied 
 to the family as a whole. Others feed on leaves without 
 rolUng them and still others feed on fruits or vegetables. 
 Several species feed on stored grains and their products 
 and are among the most serious of the pests attacking 
 
 these substances. 
 
 ; Among the more im- 
 
 f' portant Pyralids are 
 
 / the Mediterranean 
 
 ^Pl^^^^""--^ '' i^^^^l^P Flour-moth,* which 
 
 ^1^ Z!IPI^|^Bb||P5^.:4|^ feeds mainly in wheat 
 
 ^ ^t s *fr' j^ products in flouring 
 
 ^V>. m - ^n ^^ mills; the Indian 
 
 meal-moth,* of habits 
 somewhat similar to 
 the preceding species; 
 
 Fig. 49.— Melon-worm moth. One of the the Meal Snout-moth, 
 Larger Pyralidina. Enlarged. larger than the others 
 
 and feeding on a 
 greater variety of products; the clover-hay worm, which 
 injures old clover hay in mows or in the bottoms of 
 stacks; the melon-worm and the pickle-worm, two rather 
 large and strikingly colored species which attack melons 
 and other plants in the same family; the Grape Leaf- 
 folder; the bee-moth; Case Bearers and many species of 
 leaf-rollers. 
 
 The Tortricina are uniformly small, having wings 
 usually cut off more squarely at the ends than the other 
 "Micros" and frequently having the wing margins scal- 
 loped. When at rest they show an outline more nearly 
 rectangular than the other families in the group. Among 
 * See page 230, Part IL 
 
 A\ 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 50.— The Codling Moth, a Type of 
 Tortricina Greatly Enlarged. 
 
 the Tortricids are some species even more important than 
 in the foregoing family. The most widely known of these 
 is the Codling-moth or the apple-worm. (See page 319, 
 Part II.) 
 
 Other Tortricids are the Bud-moth, which injures the 
 early shoots of the apple in the spring; the Strawberry 
 Leaf -roller and 
 other, so-called 
 leaf-folders and 
 leaf-crumplers. 
 
 The Tineina 
 are the smallest 
 of the Lepidop- 
 tera. They may 
 be recognized by 
 their narrow 
 w.'ngs fringed 
 with long hairs. Most of the plant eaters in this 
 family are leaf-miners, feeding between the two epi- 
 dermal layers of the leaf and forming mines of various 
 shapes, often characteristic of the species. Very few 
 common plants are not subject to the attacks of at least 
 one species of leaf-miners, although not many are seri- 
 ously injured by such attacks. The Tineids which prob- 
 ably attract the most notice are the common Clothes Moths. * 
 There are several species of these, but they are similar in 
 their general appearance. They may be best controlled 
 by placing all clothing made of woolens, silk, feathers and 
 fur, in a large goods box with a tight lid, preferably on 
 a back porch and fumigating with carbon bi-sulphide 
 at the rate of one-half pound to the hundred cubic 
 feet of space. Leave the clothes in the box for twenty- 
 * See page 220, Part II. 
 
78 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 -/•f\ -' 
 
 four hours, air 
 them and replace 
 in the closets, which 
 should have been 
 cleaned and sprin- 
 kled with benzine 
 in the meantime. 
 Repeat this opera- 
 tion twice, at in- 
 tervals of three 
 weeks, and clothes 
 moth work will be 
 eliminated. Car- 
 bon bisulphide is 
 explosive but is safe 
 if handled Uke gas- 
 oUne. 
 
 The Angoumois 
 Grain-moth is a Tin- 
 eid and works in 
 grain, both stored 
 and in the field. 
 In stored grain it, 
 as well as the other 
 moths mentioned, 
 may be destroyed 
 
 Fig. 51. — Types of 
 Moths. Reduced. 
 
 1, Eyed-Tiger-moth 
 {ArctiidfE) ; 2, 3, Carpenter- 
 moths (Cossidce); 4, Siug- 
 caterpillar moth (Eudei- 
 dce) ; 5, Tent-caterpillar 
 moth (Lasiocampidce) , 6 • 
 7, 8, Clear-wing moths, 
 (Sesiidm). 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 79 
 
 by fumigation as for the clothes moth. (See page 231, 
 Part II). 
 
 48. Sesiidae and Cossidae. Two families of moths have 
 wood-boring larvae ])ut are otherwise distinct. The Ses- 
 iids are rather small, have very slender bodies and narrow 
 wings often almost entirely free from scales for which 
 reason the moths are commonly called the clear-wings; 
 many of them look much like wasps. The ever-present 
 and destructive Peach-tree Borer* is the most common mem- 
 ber of this family. Others are the Squash-vine Borer, the 
 Currant-borer, the Lilac-borer, a small species on maple, and 
 many others. There is no good remedy for these insects 
 when they are numerous. 
 
 CossidcB are commonly called Carpenter Moths on ac- 
 count of the habits of the larvae. They are large, stout- 
 bodied, have rather long and narrow fore-wings and small 
 hind-wings. There are few species and they bore mostly 
 in locust and other shade and forest trees. 
 
 The larvae in both the above families are typical cater- 
 pillars, usually white in color. The Cossid larvae are 
 sometimes somewhat hairy while the Sesiids are rarely 
 noticeably so. 
 
 49. Noctuidae. This family is the largest in the order, 
 not in size of the individual but in the number of species 
 and of individuals. It also contains a greater number of 
 destructive forms than any other family. A few species 
 are quite large; others are as small as some of the "Mi- 
 cros," but the great majority are of medium size. A few 
 are brightly colored and striking in appearance but many 
 more are of dull, inconspicuous colors. The great major- 
 ity of the moths, which are attracted to light and, under 
 the appellation of millers, invite our commiseration for 
 
 * See page 297, Part II, peach-tree borers. 
 
80 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 
 their singed wings and suggest one of our most time- 
 honored metaphors of the candle and the moth, are Noctuids. 
 
 On a window in a dark night 
 their eyes appear luminous 
 from the Hghted room. This 
 gives rise to a name frequently 
 used, " Fiery-eyes." Others 
 call them "Owlet-moths," but 
 it is simpler to speak of them 
 as Noctuids and thus to elim- 
 inate an unnecessary name 
 which adds Httle to the de- 
 scription. If the adults in 
 this family are familiar objects, 
 the larvae are no less so. 
 Among the common ones may 
 be listed the various species of 
 cutworms. (See page 286, Part 
 II.) The Army-worms so 
 called because of their habit 
 of traveling, when numer- 
 ous, from field to field in 
 large bodies, Hke armies; the 
 Corn Earworm (see page 253, 
 Part II), known to every cook 
 that ever prepared "roasting 
 ears," except in the far north, 
 and known on other plants 
 under different names such 
 as the "cotton boll-worm," 
 Fig. 62.-Types of Lepidoptera the " tomato fruit-worm," 
 Moths. Reduced one-third. " tobacco bud-worm," etc.; 
 Noluidi^^'''^' ^°^°'^°''^''^'^'' °'^"'' the Cotton-worm (see page 257, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 81 
 
 Part II), injurious to cotton in the South, but in the 
 adult stage more or less familiar to the people of the 
 North, whither it migrates in countless numbers in the 
 fall of the year. One of the cabbage worms, the Cabbage 
 looper* is a Noctuid, and to complete the list would 
 require the mention of a large proportion of the two 
 thousand species which exist 
 in our fauna. 
 
 Larvae of NoctuidiE may be 
 for the most part very well 
 illustrated by the common cut- 
 worms, dull colored, smooth or 
 even greasy in appearance, an 
 inch or more long and nearly 
 as thick as a lead pencil, vora- 
 cious feeders appearing mostly 
 at night and remaining con- 
 cealed during the day. 
 
 A few species in this group 
 are larger and of rather striking 
 appearance. Notable among 
 these are the Catocalas. These 
 expand from two to three 
 inches, have dull-colored fore- 
 wings which are often almost 
 indistinguishable from the bark upon which they usually 
 rest, and brilliantly marked hind wings, different shades of 
 red and yellow bands alternating with black or gray. 
 
 50. Arctiidae. The Tiger-moths are not so abundant 
 
 as the Noctuids, there being comparatively few species, 
 
 but they are likely to attract nearly as much attention on 
 
 account of the more striking appearance of both adults 
 
 * See page 284, Part II, cabbage caterpillars. 
 
 Fig. 53. — Underwiiig Moths 
 {Noctuidce). Reauced one 
 half. 
 
82 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and larvae. The adults are moderate sized moths with 
 the wings rather narrower and more 
 pointed than those of the Noc- 
 tuids. Otherwise they are similar 
 in the conformation of the bodies. 
 In color the tiger-moths are either 
 light or strongly marked. Some 
 are pure white, some white with 
 yellow, black or red markings; 
 some, the typical tiger-moths, are 
 black, marked with red or orange 
 bands and spots. 
 
 Larvae of Ardiidce are hairy 
 caterpillars which have colors of 
 about the same range as those 
 shown by the adults. Few species 
 are injurious. The most important 
 one is the Fall Weh-worm which 
 feeds on foliage of shade and fruit 
 trees in late summer and early fall 
 and forms unsightly webs over the 
 ends of branches, the worms living 
 in colonies within these webs. 
 Ij^*^^^*^,,,,-'"**'''^ The most commonly noticed 
 
 '"^ of the Arctiid larvae is the larva 
 
 of the Isabslla Tiger-moth. This is 
 a red and black, hairy caterpillar 
 about an inch and a half in length 
 which is seen in the fall hurrying 
 about from place to place. It is so 
 common that it has given rise to the 
 saying "Hurrying like a caterpillar in the fall." It is also 
 supposed by many people to foretell the nature of the 
 
 Fig. 54.— Types of Moths 
 
 {Arfiiidce). Reduced. 
 
 1, Isabella Tiger-moth; 2, 
 the Tiger-moth; 3, the Acraea 
 moth; 4, the Tessellated 
 Tiger-moth; 5, the Clymene 
 moth. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 83 
 
 approaching winter, the varying amount and distribution 
 of the black color indicating a mild winter or the reverse. 
 Other tiger-moth larvae are 
 common at the same season 
 but they are found on the 
 foliage of several weeds. 
 
 51. Notodontidae. The 
 members of this family also 
 
 
 Fig. 55. — Larva of the Isabella 
 Tiger-moth. 
 
 common among 
 the genus Da- 
 
 in many ways resemble the 
 Noctuids. The number of 
 species is comparatively 
 small and few are injurious. The most 
 the Notodontids are the members of 
 tana, of which there are 
 several species. They are 
 noticed in the larval stage 
 when they are variously 
 called " walnut-worms," 
 "maple-worms" and "yel- 
 low-necked apple-caterpil- 
 lars.'.' It is just as easy and 
 much more distinctive to 
 speak of them as D at anas 
 and the generic name is 
 quite widely used as a com- 
 mon name. Datana moths 
 are of moderate size, and 
 of light-brown color, marked 
 with narrow bands of 
 
 darker brown. Their wings have scalloped outer margins. 
 The larvae, when full grown, are dark in color but are 
 marked with several narrow yellow stripes running the length 
 of the body, and with a patch of yellow just back of the head. 
 
 Fir,. 56. — Larvae of a Datana Moth 
 (Yellow-necked Apple-caterpillars). 
 
84 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Still more distinctive as 
 the resting position. 
 Both ends of the body 
 are raised so that the 
 side view of the insect 
 presents an outline al- 
 most semicircular, which 
 renders it very easy 
 to recognize. These 
 larvse may often be found 
 in great clusters in the 
 forks of branches where 
 they go to moult. They 
 are most abundant in 
 late summer and occa- 
 sionally are seriously 
 injurious. (See page 315, 
 Part II, for further de- 
 scription.) 
 
 52. Liparidae. Stu- 
 dents will generally en- 
 counter only one or two 
 members of this family. 
 These are the Tussock- 
 moths. The more com- 
 mon species is the White- 
 marked Tussock-moth. Its 
 
 Fig. 57.— Types of Moths. 
 Slightly reduced. 
 
 1, 2, and 3, Notodontidoe; 4, 
 Eight-spotted forester {Agaris- 
 tidce); 5, Beautiful wood nymph 
 (Agaristidce) ; 6, Tussock-moth 
 (Liparidce); 7, Lithosiidm. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 85 
 
 most conspicuous period is during the larval stage. The 
 larva feeds on several common shade trees as well as on 
 some fruit trees. It is light in color and bears several 
 characteristic tufts of hair. One row of these, down the 
 middle of the back, is composed of short white hairs growing 
 in dense tufts. Just back of the head is a pair of long 
 pencils of blackish hairs while at the posterior end of the 
 body a single similar pencil is found. Other scattered 
 hairs are all over the body. Just back of the head, between 
 the base, of the black pencils, is a bright red band and 
 the head itself is reddish in color. These larvse make 
 cocoons composed partly of their own hairs and attached 
 to leaves. The females are wingless and deposit their eggs 
 in masses on the outside of the cocoons where they may 
 be found during the winter and spring. 
 
 In the New England states the two worst insect pests, 
 the Gypsy moth and the Brown-tail moth, are the common 
 representatives of this family. They are so well known, 
 where they occur, that they do not need description here. 
 They are not native American insects, but were brought 
 over from Europe and were accidentally liberated. 
 
 53. Agaristidae and Lithosiidae. The Agaristidce and 
 the Lithosiidce are two families which compare in gen- 
 eral outline and proportions with the Noctuids. There 
 are few species, not of great importance, which may 
 attract the attention of the beginner on account of the 
 striking beautj^ of their forms. Among these, in the first 
 family, are the Eight-spotted Forester, black, with eight yel 
 low spots on the wings, below medium size and feeding, 
 in the larval stage, on various vines, as grape and Virginia 
 creeper; and the Beautiful Wood-Jiymph, a still more 
 striking species, which may be recognized from the figure. 
 (See Fig. 57, 4 and 5, page 84.) 
 
86 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The f amil}' Lithosiidce will 
 probably be encountered in 
 the form of one small spe- 
 cies, which is colored a deli- 
 cate, though somewhat faded, 
 pinkish red, and striped with 
 black. There is no really- 
 appropriate common name 
 for this insect. 
 
 54. Geometridse. This 
 family is well known to all. 
 The larvse, variously called 
 "span-worms," "inch- 
 worms " and " measuring- 
 worms," were among the 
 earliest of our insect friends. 
 Their presence upon our 
 clothing was welcomed as 
 presaging new clothes and 
 we were not even squeamish 
 about letting them crawl on 
 our fingers. They lack the 
 three pairs of pro-legs in 
 the middle of the body and 
 so must travel by looping 
 themselves along, hence, 
 another common name the 
 "loopers." They are the most 
 glender of the caterpillars, 
 are frequently green, but 
 
 Fig. 58.— Types of Moths {Geo- 
 metrina). Slightly reduced. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 87 
 
 often striped and sometimes colored to imitate twigs or 
 stems where they rest, so that they appear, when stand- 
 ing straight out from the resting place, as is their habit, 
 like little spurs from the twigs. 
 
 There are many species of the loopers and several are 
 distinctly injurious. The adults have slender bodies and 
 usually rather broad and very thin wings, the appearance 
 indicating delicacy and frailness quite different from the 
 more robust Noctuid-hke forms in the preceding families. 
 Their colors are usually sober but not dark. The light 
 grays predominate but not a few are green. The fore- 
 wings are frequently scalloped. 
 
 Important species are the Canker-worms * injurious on 
 orchard and shade trees, and loopers which feed on cur- 
 rants, gooseberries, raspberries and many other plants and 
 quite frequently are named for the plants on which they 
 feed, 
 
 Bagworms (Psychidce) are represented by one or two 
 common species only. The most common one of these is 
 the Evergreen Bagworm which feeds on apple, and on 
 junipers, maples, locusts, and many other shade trees. 
 The males are small, clear-winged moths which are seldom 
 seen. The insect will be identified by the bag which it 
 makes and in which the greater part of the life is spent. 
 The females never leave the bags but deposit their eggs 
 within them and die. Young larvae make small cone- 
 shaped bags, which they "wear" all the time, enlarging 
 them as they grow, finally attaching them to twigs and 
 pupating within them. The figure will enable the reader 
 to recognize the insect. This species is often seriously 
 injurious. A smaller species feeds on maples and is less 
 conspicuous and troublesome. 
 
 *See page 311, Part II. 
 
88 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Slug-caterpillars {Euclei- 
 dce) represent another rather 
 small family which is known 
 much better through its 
 larvae than through the 
 moths. The moths are usu- 
 ally dark colored, though 
 some species are marked 
 with rich greens and are 
 very beautiful. The larvae 
 are not like ordinary cater- 
 pillars, but the legs are 
 reduced in size so much 
 that the insect crawls on 
 the under surface of its 
 Fig. 59.-Cocoons of the Bag-worm ^^^ ^^^^i Hke the common 
 Moth {Psychida-). . ^ ^^ rj.. 
 
 slug or a snail. ihese 
 
 slug-caterpillars are usually 
 brightly colored and take 
 the most bizarre shapes. 
 All are small. One species 
 is clothed with spines that 
 are slightly poisonous and 
 irritating. This is the "sad- 
 dle-back," so-called from 
 the marking on the back 
 which suggests a green sad- 
 dle on a rich, dark reddish 
 saddle-cloth. It feeds mainly 
 on apple and some orna- 
 mental shrubs. 
 Fig. 60. — Nest of Tent-caterpil- m ^ ^ -n /t • 
 
 1 ,r . .,s p, „^^ Tent-catermUars (Lasio- 
 
 lars {Lastocmnptdce) . Compare ^ ^ 
 
 with Fig. 61. Reduced. campidce) are represented by 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 89 
 
 one or two species and may be injurious. A description of 
 the most important species will be found on page 313, 
 Part II. 
 
 55. Sphingidae. The Sphingidm are commonlj^ called 
 sphinx moths, hawk-moths, and humming-bird moths. 
 The first name, as also the family name, is sug- 
 
 ^^- 
 
 Fig. 61.— Nest of Fall-web- 
 worms in Small Apple Tree 
 {Arctiidcp) . Reduced. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Larvae of the Catalpa 
 Sphinx. Reduced. 
 
 gested bj' the fancied resemblance of the larvae of this 
 family, in their characteristic resting position, to the Eygp- 
 tian sphinx. The adults are large, have stout bodies of 
 regular shape, the abdomen resembling a long and sharply 
 pointed bullet, and have wings which are long, narrow 
 and powerful. The general appearance and graceful flight 
 
90 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 gives rise to the name Hawk-moth. From their feeding 
 habits comes the name Humming-bird moth. They have 
 extremely long tongues, adapted for sucking nectar from 
 the deepest flowers, like honeysuckles and morning-glories. 
 As the weight of these moths' bodies would not be sup- 
 ported by the flowers it is necessary for them to hover 
 or poise in the air over the flowers while they feed. They 
 may be seen at twilight on any summer evening and are 
 also attracted to the electric lights. The larvae are large, 
 
 Fig. 63. — The Tomato-worm Sphinx Larvae. Greatly reduced. 
 
 have stout fleshy bodies and usually have a backward 
 projecting horn at the posterior end of the body. They 
 are sometimes called Horn-worms. At rest they hold the 
 front end of the body up almost at right angles to the ab- 
 domen and remain motionless for long periods. The most 
 common examples are the Horn-worms which attack to- 
 matoes and tobacco.* The White-lined Sphinx and the 
 Clear-wing Sphinx are also abundant. 
 
 * See page 278, Part IL 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 91 
 
 56. Saturniina. This super-family includes the largest 
 of the coninion moths. There are several families. The 
 Bombycidce includes the 
 Mulberry Silk-ivorm, 
 which has been domestic- 
 ated and furnishes the silk 
 of connncrce. The insect 
 is no longer found in the 
 wild state. It is reared 
 in China and Japan, in 
 India and in the Medi- 
 terranean countries, no- 
 tably France and Italy. 
 The silk industry has 
 been started in the 
 United States, but has 
 not proven profitable, 
 largely on account of the 
 high cost of labor, the 
 worms requiring con- 
 stant care. 
 
 Several of our most 
 showy moths belong to 
 the Saturniidce, or giant - 
 silk-worm family. 
 Among these are the 
 Cecropia, the Polyphe- 
 mus, the Promethea, the 
 /o, the smallest of the 
 common species, and the 
 Luna. The latter is of 
 a delicate green color, large size, and possesses on 
 the hind wings long and graceful^ curved tails which 
 
 Fig. 64. — Types of Moths (Sphingidce). 
 Reduced. 
 
 1, The Modest sphinx; 2, Achemon sphinx; 
 3, Pandorus sphinx; 4, Tomato-worm moth; 
 6, the Lined sphinx; 6, Tersa sphinx. 
 
92 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 make it easily the most striking of the moths in ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The Ceratocampidce are called the Royal Moths and 
 
 include the Regal moth, 
 probably the largest of 
 the whole group, the larvae 
 of whichis called theTraZ- 
 nut-worm or the "hickory 
 horned-devil," and the 
 Imperial-moth. Th^Regal 
 is of a rich, reddish brown 
 color, splotched with yel- 
 low, while the imperial is 
 yellow with variable pur- 
 plish-brown shadings. 
 Both have rather nar- 
 rower fore-wings than 
 the Saturniids. Smaller 
 species of this family are 
 the Rosy Dryocampa and 
 the Senator. 
 
 With the exception 
 of the Rosy Dryocampa 
 and the Cecropia, which 
 are sometimes injurious 
 to shade trees, none of 
 these species can be con- 
 sidered of economic im- 
 portance, but the family 
 will, nevertheless, remain 
 
 Fig. 65.-Types of Moths {Salurmida'). One most generally inter- 
 Reduced, esting on account of the 
 8. pVomeTh?irmaie°' ^' ^^^^P^'^^^'^ *' ^'""^= large sizc of its members. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 93 
 
 57. Butterflies. Butterflies comprise two super-famil- 
 ies, the Papilionina or true Butterflies and the Hesperiina 
 or Skippers. They differ from moths in the antennal 
 characters ah-eady mentioned, in the fashion of holding 
 the wings while at rest and in the fact that they fly ex- 
 clusively in daytime while moths usually fly at night. 
 
 Fig. 66. — Larva of Polyphemus 
 Moth. Reduced. 
 
 Fig. 67. — Stages of the Mulberry 
 Silk-worm Moth. Reduced. 
 
 Other characters are less tangible but are, to the expert, 
 no less distinctive. Skippers usually have the antennal 
 club ending in a hook. They have an erratic, jerky 
 method of flight and when at rest usually hold the hind 
 wings horizontal while the front wings are held ver- 
 tical, like the wings of the true butterflies, and the bod- 
 ies give the impression of being stouter and more hairy. 
 
94 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Their larvse may be recognized by the fact that tlie 
 bodies are very much constricted behind the head and so 
 have distinct necks. 
 
 Fig. 68. — Types of Moths (CitheroniidcE) . Reduced. 
 
 a. Regal; b. Imperial; c, Honey-locust Moth; d. Stigma Moth; e, Rosy Maple- 
 moth. 
 
 58. Papilionidae. The Swallow-tails comprise, with a less 
 common group Parnassians, the family Papilionidce. They 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 95 
 
 may easily be recognized, as they are the largest of our lout- 
 terflies, and have tail-like projections on the hind wings. 
 The larvae have scent organs on the first thoracic seg- 
 ment. These are two orange-red, horn-shaped, extrusible 
 structures which are 
 thrust out when the 
 insect is disturbed. They 
 give off a strong and un- 
 usual, but not exactly 
 unpleasant, odor. Swal- 
 low-tail pupse or chrys- 
 ahds are supported Ijy 
 the button of silk at the 
 tail end and by the gir- 
 dle around the middle. 
 They are angular and 
 have two short projec- 
 tions at the front end 
 of the body. Swallow- 
 tail larvae are rarely nu- 
 merous enough to be in- 
 jurious. 
 
 The species common 
 over the greater part of 
 the eastern United States 
 are few in number. 
 The Black Swallow-tail 
 is probably the most 
 common and is the 
 
 smallest. Its larvae feed on celery, rue, parsley and sim- 
 ilar plants. The ground color is black and on the hind 
 wings are numerous yellow spots and some shading with 
 light metallic blue. The Tiger Swallow-tail or Turnus is 
 
 Fig. 69. — Larvse of the Rosy Maple- 
 moth. Reduced. 
 
96 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the largest common 
 species. The color 
 is yellow with black 
 markings except in 
 certain females, 
 which may be black. 
 They are distin- 
 guishable from the 
 ''Black Swallow- 
 tail" by their larger 
 size. Ajax or the 
 Zebra is a showy 
 species with white 
 wings striped with 
 black and marked 
 with red. The tails 
 are longer and nar- 
 rower in this species 
 than in the others 
 and it is otherwise 
 unmistakable. The 
 larvae feed on paw- 
 paw. 
 
 Troilus is black 
 with olive green 
 shading on the hind 
 wings. It has no 
 pure yellow markings 
 
 Fig. 70.— Types of But- 
 terflies (Papilionidoe) . 
 Reduced one-half. 
 
 a, Papilio philenor; b, P. 
 turnus; c, P. ajax; d, Par- 
 nassius sp. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 97 
 
 above. The tails are 
 more rounded in this 
 species than in the 
 others. 
 
 Philenor is black on 
 the fore wings but the 
 hinds wings are the color 
 of green "changeable" 
 silk above and of green- 
 ish-blue silk spotted with 
 large orange-red spots 
 below. It also is un- 
 mistakable. 
 
 Cresphontes is com- 
 mon in the more south- 
 ern portions of the 
 country. It is the largest 
 of our butterflies and is, 
 in general, black with 
 conspicuous yellow 
 markings above, while 
 it is yellow with black 
 markings beneath. It 
 is a very handsome and 
 show}^ insect. Its larva 
 feeds on citrus trees in the 
 South, where it is called 
 the "orange puppy," 
 
 Fig. 71.— Types of Butter- 
 flies. {Pajpilionidis) . Re- 
 duced one-half. 
 
 a, Papilio turnus glaucus: b, 
 P. troilus; c, d, P. polyxenes; e, 
 P. cresphontes. 
 
98 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 In the northern part of its range it feeds on prickly 
 ash {Xanthoxylon) . 
 
 59. Pieridae. This group includes all our common yel- 
 low and white butterflies. They are mostly of medium 
 
 to small size and may at 
 times be injurious. There are 
 many species, but only a few 
 which are important. The 
 larvse are usually green and 
 are not conspicuous. The pupae 
 resemble those of the Papilios, 
 but have only one pointed 
 projection from the anterior 
 end of the body and are, of 
 course, smaller. The best- 
 known species is the ''imported 
 cabbage-worm" or Cabbage 
 Butterfly* There are other 
 native and imported species 
 which closely resemble this 
 one in general appearance and 
 habits. 
 
 The more common yellows 
 are the Clover Butterflies or 
 " sulphurs " of which there are 
 many species. Their larvse may 
 be found in clover fields and one species seems to be 
 becoming a pest in alfalfa fields. Several kinds, smaller 
 than the ordinary clover butterflies may be noted. Among 
 these will be the Dainty Sulphur. The largest of our Pierids 
 is a beautiful insect with wings of pure unmarked sulphur 
 yellow, It is called the Cloudless sulphur. Another 
 * See page 282, Part II. 
 
 Fig 72. — Larva of Papilio 
 cresphontes. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 99 
 
 species common on the hills of the INIicklle West is the 
 Dogs-head, a form shghtly larger than the common sul- 
 phur but with the black markings 
 
 """""''SI 
 
 so arranged as to picture a dog's f-^ ^ ^ '[ 
 
 head in profile on each front wing, ' ^ ; J 
 
 though some imagination may be ■ -''^^IP 
 
 necessary to see the picture. ^F^^k^^^Wr 
 
 A group of whites which have ^I^BV^^^^ 
 
 the tips of the front wings suffused ^HFT^^P 
 
 with orange is known as the ^^^ ^^ -fn 
 
 orange-tips and forms the third • ' ^X ■ • 
 
 group of Pierids. They are less « T *" 
 
 common than the whites and yellows. ^^ 
 
 60 Lycaenidae. The Gossamer- WT^ y^*lm 
 
 wings are the smallest and most ^ -m 
 
 delicate of the butterflies. Included C ' ' ^ 
 
 here are the "blues," the "cop- * * 
 
 pers" and the "hair-streaks." ^^^^^0 
 
 The larvse are small and slug-like. ^^r^^P 
 
 The chrysalids are supported like ^^^^0 
 
 those of the two families already ^^^^F 
 
 described, but they are never an- ^^ ^^ ' 
 
 gular in outUne. The early stages ^Bfl^v 
 
 in this family are seldom seen. ^ ▼ 
 
 There are several species of the blues ^^^;^ ^0i| 
 that are familiar objects. They 
 
 frequent moist places and often are Fig. 73.— Types of But- 
 found about the culverts in a country terflies. First four, 
 1 rr-i 11 n • Pieridce; last four, Ly- 
 road. i hey may also be seen tlving ^ -r, j i 
 
 "^ "^ .- o cremacE. Reduced one- 
 
 over any meadow. Some of the blues half. 
 
 have very delicate tails on the 
 
 hind wings. This is true also of several 'hair-streaks." 
 
 Their larvse feed largely on plants in the pea family. 
 
100 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The " hair-streaks " 
 may Ije bluish or slaty 
 black above, but are 
 lighter beneath and are 
 marked with dehcate lines 
 of white or red on the 
 under side. There are 
 manj^ species, but few are 
 common. They are usu- 
 ally shghtly larger than 
 the blues. 
 
 The ' ' coppers ' ' may 
 be dull colored, black, 
 Ijrown or tan, but gen- 
 erally have some portion 
 of the wings coppery with 
 metallic luster. There are 
 but two or three species 
 which we may consider 
 common. They are less 
 delicate than the other 
 groups of the family, but 
 are by no means robust. 
 
 61. Nymphalidae. With 
 the exception of a few 
 subtropical forms which 
 occur in the Far South, 
 
 Fig. 74.— Types of Butterflies 
 
 (NymphaHd/p) . Reduced 
 
 about one-half. 
 
 o, a Fritillary; h, the Thistle 
 butterfly; c, the Red Admiral; d, 
 the Mourning-cloak ; e, the Red- 
 spotted Purple ; /, the Viceroy; g, 
 the Monarch; h, the Regal Fritillary, 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 101 
 
 all the remaining species of butterflies may be ascribed 
 to this group, which is by far the most extensive of the 
 butterfly families. It is divided into several sub-families, 
 which are widely distributed. 
 
 The hirvse have varied shapes and habits. Many are 
 clothed with spines or fleshy filaments, others are of un- 
 usual and irregular shapes; few are difficult to recognize, 
 although it is hard to characterize them as a group. 
 The pupae or chrysalids also vary in shape but they 
 always hang from the tip of the abdomen and lack the 
 girdle. Not many species in the family have economic 
 importance. The large reddish-brown Imtterfly with black 
 markings, abundant everywhere throughout the summer, 
 IS the " monarch." It is the only common representative 
 we have of one sub-family (Euploeince). It is found 
 practically all over the habitable world, but survives the 
 winter only in the warmer portions of tliis country, mi- 
 grating northward in the spring and early summer. The 
 larva feeds on milkweed. It is a smooth, greenish- 
 yellow caterpillar with narrow black markings and has 
 a pair of long, fleshy filaments at each end of the 
 body. 
 
 Another cosmopolitan species in a different sub-family 
 IS the Thistle-butterfly. This is of medium size, of brown 
 color with markings of black, white and red, lighter, 
 and marked with bluish, eye-like circles beneath. Its larva 
 is a spiny caterpillar which feeds on thistles. The Red- 
 admiral, nearly related to the preceding, is distinguished 
 by the red bar across the angle of the fore wing, and the 
 mourning cloak, another relative, by its larger size, bluish- 
 purple color and golden margin of the wings. The Fritil- 
 laries, Silver-spots, or Argynnids, include many forms vary- 
 ing in size from small to quite large, but all resembling 
 
102 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 each other in general color, brown with black markings 
 above and with silver spots on the under side of the 
 hind wings, and all having wings of regular outHne. 
 Our largest common ones are Cyhele and Idalia, the latter 
 having the hind wings nearly all black. The Angle-wings 
 include several more common species and the name itself 
 briefly describes them. 
 
 The Wood-nymphs are dull brown in color, frail in ap- 
 pearance and faintly marked with round black spots or 
 
 with circles. The Meadow- 
 ' browns are similar but deeper 
 
 colored and marked on the angle 
 of the fore wings with yellow 
 circles or spots. 
 
 The "purple emperors" are 
 moderately large and are nor- 
 mally purplish black with white 
 markings. The common one is 
 Astyanax. This is almost entirely 
 purple, but has small wliite 
 and reddish markings near the 
 angles of the wings. Another 
 one just as common is the Vice- 
 roy, so called because it departs 
 from the color of its nearest 
 relatives and has acquired almost 
 exactly the coloration of the monarch. This is expl^ned 
 as a process of natural selection due to the fact that 
 the monarch is distasteful to birds while the group to 
 which the viceroy belongs is not. By acquiring the color 
 of the monarch the viceroy acquires also a certain de- 
 gree of immunity from bird attack. This selective process 
 is termed mimicry. 
 
 Fig. 75.-^Larva of Viceroy- 
 Butterfly Preparing to 
 Form Chrysalis. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 
 
 103 
 
 62. Hesperiina. The skippers have been sufficiently 
 described ah-each\ While our species are rather numerous 
 they are difficult, for the most part, to separate. The 
 larvae have been mentioned but the chrysahds or, rather, 
 pupae, differ from those of other butterffies in that they 
 
 Fig. 76. — Viceroy Butterfly Emerging from Chrysalis. Slightly en- 
 larged. 
 
 are enclosed in poorly constructed, flimsj^ silken cocoons. 
 Most skippers are of brownish or brownish-black color. 
 A few are nearly white or silvery. Many have extensive 
 markings of a yellow tan color. Our largest skipper is 
 the Silver-spot. This insect expands more than two inches, 
 
104 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 is of dark brown color and has a conspicuous silvery spot 
 on the under side of the hind wing where it furnishes a 
 
 Fig. 77. — Types of Lepidoptera. Skippers (Hesperiina). Reduced 
 about one-third. 
 
 means of ready recognition for the insect at rest. The 
 beginning student will know the rest of the skippers 
 as a group rather than individually. 
 
LEPIDOPTERA 105 
 
 Table for the Separation of Some of the More Im- 
 portant Groups of 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 (On account of tlie wing-venation characters involved in the 
 determination of some famiUes, no attempt will be made to 
 make this table complete.) 
 
 A. Antenna; with a knob or club at the tip. Butterflies and 
 Skippers. 
 
 B. Club with a recurved hook. Skippers. Hesperiina. 
 BB. Antennal club without hook. ]\Iostly Butterflies. Pa- 
 pilionino. 
 
 C. Size large, hind wings with tail-like projections. 
 Swallow-tails. Papilionidce. 
 CC. Size variable. Hind wings without the tails, except 
 in smaller forms. 
 
 D. Colors white or j'ellow with or without black 
 markings. Pierids. Pierldce. 
 DD. Colors not white or yellow. 
 
 E. Size small; colors usually blue or bluish; or 
 coppery with metallic reflections. JNIany forms 
 with very delicate tails on hind wings. Wings 
 very tliin and delicate. Gossamer-wings. Lrj- 
 coenidce. 
 EE. Size and color variable but never as de- 
 scribed above. Usually medium to large 
 forms. Front legs abortive, not fitted for 
 walking. NymphaUdce. 
 AA. Antennae without knob at tip. Moths, 
 
 B. INIoths with a frenulum, Bristle or bristles at base of hind 
 wing, overlapping base of front wing. 
 C. Wings more or less transparent. 
 
 D. Size small; body dark in color, short and stout. 
 Wings transparent, short and rounded. Front 
 wmgs noticeably larger. Larvae forming bag-like 
 cocoons. Bag-warm moths. Psychidoe. 
 DD. Bodies slender. Wings long and narrow, of more 
 nearly equal length. Hind wings or both fore 
 
106 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and hind wings, clear. Clear-wing moths. Se- 
 siidce. 
 CC. Wings entirely clothed with scales. 
 
 D. Size uniformly small to very small. Wings usu- 
 ally narrowed; hind wings nearly as large as the 
 fore wings. Micro-Lepidoptera. 
 E. Wings fringed with delicate hairs. Size usu- 
 ally very small. Tineina. 
 EE. Wings not fringed. Size usually larger. Tor- 
 tricina and Pyralidina. 
 DD. Size usually larger than the Micros. 
 
 E. Size larger than medium; body stout. Front 
 wings long and rather narrow; hind wings 
 small. 
 
 F. Outer margin of front wings long. Car- 
 penter moths. Cossidoe. 
 FF. Outer margin of front wings short. Hawk- 
 moths. Sphingidce. 
 EE. Moths with size variable but usually medium. 
 Wings usually of normal proportions. 
 
 Several common and important families 
 belong here. These can be distinguished 
 further only by wing- venation. 
 
 Notodontidw. 
 Arctiidoe. 
 Noduidce. 
 Liparidce. 
 Agaristidce, etc. 
 BB. Moths without a frenulum on the hind wings. 
 
 C. Size medium to very large. Wings usually rather 
 broad. Giant silk- worms, etc. Saturniina. 
 CC. Size smaller. Bodies stout and hairy. Tent-cater- 
 pillar, etc. Lasiocampidoe. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 COLEOPTERA 
 
 Children and adults alike are attracted by the beau- 
 tiful colors of the Ijutterflies and moths; farmers notice 
 and take an interest in any insect forms that threaten 
 their crops; philosophers have for ages past studied the 
 social insects; we are all forced to give a certain amount 
 of attention to flies and mosquitoes and to other forms 
 that disturb our comfort, and medical science is taking an 
 interest in the same forms, of late years, for rather differ- 
 ent reasons; but entomologists have, almost since the be- 
 ginning of the science, shown a decided preference for the 
 beetles. This is because of the number of species, the 
 order including more forms than any other one order, their 
 ease of collection, their universal distribution, and because 
 of their hard body covering which renders them easy to 
 mount and permanent in collections. The order has 
 been better classified than any other of the large orders 
 and is easier to study. 
 
 63. General Characteristics. Beetles have four wings, 
 the front pair hardened and forming a shield-like covering 
 for the membranous hind wings. They have biting 
 mouth-parts and develop from grubs, indirectly. Their 
 entire body covering is, like their wing-covers, or "elytra," 
 hardened rather more than is the case in other insects. 
 
 There are two sub-orders; the first, called Coleopfera 
 Genuina, Genuina, or merely Coleoptera, includes all the 
 species which do not have snouts; the second, Rhyn- 
 
 107 
 
108 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 chophora, includes the snout beetles. Larvae of Cole- 
 optera are typically six-footed, with sometimes a sort of 
 pro-leg at the tip of the abdomen. Some of the borers 
 have lost their feet through disuse. The larvse of snout 
 beetles are entirely footless. They are stout bodied, usu- 
 ally slightly curved beneath and humpbacked. They are 
 distinguished from some Hymenopterous larvse mainly by 
 their more distinct heads and stouter jaws. Larvse of 
 Genuina have many forms, some fleshy and cylindrical, 
 others hardened like the adults and of dark colors and 
 still others intermediate between these two types. 
 
 64. Food Habits. Adults and larvse of some beetles are 
 plant eaters, and are, many of them, among our most 
 important insect enemies. Many beetles are scavengers, 
 feeding on decaying animal and plant substances. One 
 is parasitic on beavers, but animal parasites are rare 
 among the beetles. Many beetles bore in solid wood, 
 both dead and alive, and many burrow in the ground 
 and live on the roots of plants. 
 
 As might be expected from the number of species 
 there are many families, and a considerable proportion of 
 these may be recognized from a few simple characters. 
 Space will not i^ermit the mention of all, even of the 
 common forms, but those families having the greatest 
 number of important species will be briefly described. 
 
 65. Cincindelidae. The Tiger-beetles are usually of me- 
 dium size and somewhat flattened in form, with the 
 elytra broader than the pro-thorax and head. AU species 
 have fairly long legs and bright colors. The common 
 species exhibit almost no variation in form and little in 
 size, the easily noted differences being in color. They 
 are encountered in warm, sunny situations, along paths, 
 dusty roads and railroad tracks, where they fly up and 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 109 
 
 alight again some ten or fifteen yards 
 ahead of, but always facing the disturber. 
 The larvae are fleshy, white and cyl- 
 indrical. They Kve in holes in the 
 ground, and from the mouths of these 
 burrows capture other insects. They 
 are held in the holes by a forward pro- 
 jecting hook on the abdomen near the 
 posterior end. Tiger-beetle holes may 
 be found in great numbers in banks 
 or even in level ground. The adults 
 are also predaceous and capture other 
 insects. Tiger beetles have five-jointed 
 tarsi on all legs and thread-like antennae. 
 66. Carabidse. Ground-beetles have 
 also five-jointed tarsi and thread-Uke 
 antennse. They are, in a very general 
 way, flattened and have long legs, Uke 
 the tiger-beetles. No one acquainted 
 with the tiger-beetle form will mistake 
 them for ground-beetles and other fam- 
 ihes are easy to distinguish from these 
 two. Ground-beetles are generally black, 
 but some are bright colored, metalhc 
 green and some shades of red and yel- 
 low being present in many species. 
 They range from small to very large. 
 As the name implies, they are found on 
 the ground, under logs, stones and 
 trash piles. They are attracted to lights 
 
 Fig. 78. — Types of Beetles. Ground-beetles 
 {Carabidce). Reduced one-third. 
 
110 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 in great numbers. 
 Some of the ground- 
 beetles are distinctly 
 valuable as destroyers 
 of injurious caterpil- 
 lars, notably, those of 
 the gypsy-moth. In 
 numbers of species the 
 ground-beetles are near 
 the head of the list, 
 there being about a 
 thousand from the 
 United States. 
 
 67. Aquatic Beetles. 
 There are three com- 
 mon families of beetles 
 that are aquatic in 
 habit. They may be 
 recognized by their 
 regular oval outlines, 
 their legs fitted for 
 swimming, and the 
 uniformly dark colors, 
 as well as by the habi- 
 tat. The Whirligig- 
 beetles (Gyrinidce), are 
 
 Fig. 79.— Types of Beetles. 
 Slightly reduced. 
 
 Upper row , Tiger-beetlea 
 (Cicindelidoe) ; next two rows, 
 Aquatic forms (Hydrophilidce, 
 Gyrinidm, and Dytiscidce) ; fourth 
 row, Carrion beetles, (Silphidce) ; 
 fifth row, StaphylinidcE; sixth 
 row, Lady-bug beetles and larva 
 iCoccinellidee); lower row, left, 
 Plinidoe; center, Erotylidce; right, 
 Larder beetle (Dermestidm). 
 
COLEOPTERA 111 
 
 the small beetles that are seen swhnming in numbers on the 
 surface of the water, the common name coming from the 
 habit of swimming rapidly in circles. The scientific name 
 for the family is also suggestive of this habit. They do 
 not exceed three-eighths of an inch in length and some 
 common forms are not more than half that long. They 
 are called "money-bugs" and ''sweet-bugs" by children. 
 
 Larger, usually, than the whirligig-beetles are the 
 Water-scavengers or Hydrophilidce. They are pointed oval 
 in shape, both ends of the body being narrowed in about 
 the same degree. On the under side of the thorax is a 
 long spine-like process that serves as a keel. They live 
 mostly under the surface of the water and fly to the 
 lights at night. One of the largest species may, in some 
 localities and at certain times, be collected by the hun- 
 dreds under a single electric light near the water. The 
 common form is more than an inch long and shining black 
 in color. 
 
 Predaceous diving-beetles {Dytiscidoe) rival the Hydro- 
 philids in size but are flatter and have the heads more 
 squarely cut off. They also lack the keel. The larger 
 species are of a dull olive-green color, marked with 
 yellow and smaller ones are black and yellow, sometimes 
 being mostly yellow. They also may be attracted to 
 lights. Their larvae are called Water-tigers. They are 
 long and slender, pointed at the rear end, and have power- 
 ful jaws. They are, without exception, the fiercest ani- 
 mals that live in the water. The larva of the largest 
 common diver is three inches in length. 
 
 68. Scavenger Beetles. Several families of beetles, 
 not typically scavengers, include species that feed on re- 
 fuse and carrion. In two famihes, however, almost all 
 forms feed on decaying organic matter. These are the 
 
112 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Carrion-heetles (Silphidce), and the Short-winged Scavengers 
 {Staphylinidce) . Carrion-beetles are stout bodied or broad 
 and flattened and have clubbed antennae. Their elytra 
 and body walls are not so hard as in most beetles. They 
 feed, as larvse and as adults, on decaying flesh. The 
 stout-bodied forms have wing covers shortened but not 
 to the same degree as in the next family. The stout- 
 bodied carrion beetles are called burying-beetles. They 
 take the bodies of small animals such as mice and roll or 
 drag them to suitable places, where they bury them and 
 in them deposit their eggs, thus providing food for their 
 young. The more flattened species work their way under 
 the bodies of heavier animals where they feed and lay their 
 eggs, both adults and larvse frequently being found in the 
 same animal. 
 
 The Staphylinids, sometimes called rove-beetles, have 
 very slender bodies and extremely short wing covers. 
 These characters alone will distinguish them. They resem- 
 ble earwigs but do not have the forceps-like appendage of 
 the earwigs. In habit they vary. The majority feed on 
 decaying vegetable matter, but many others eat carrion 
 and are found with the carrion-beetles. 
 
 69. Coccinellidae. The Lady-bugs get their scientific 
 name from the food habit of a large number of the spe- 
 cies. These prey upon scale insects or Coccids and the 
 name for this family signifies Coccid-killers. Many of 
 them prey also upon aphids and other small insects. 
 They have almost hemispherical, usually brightly colored 
 bodies, the colors predominating being orange, yellow and 
 red with black dots. Some species are pure black, others 
 have only a few orange or red spots on a black ground 
 color. All are small and many are among our best-known 
 beetles. They, like the measuring worms, are among the 
 
COLEOPTERA 113 
 
 few insects of early memory with which we were on 
 friendly terms. Many harmless superstitions and rhymes 
 describing them, some dating back hundreds of years 
 and originating in widely different localities, are connected 
 with the lady-bugs.* 
 
 Lady-bug larvae are soft-bodied, dull-colored with 
 brighter spots, rather stout and with pointed abdomens. 
 They are found in colonies of aphids and scales, often with 
 the adults. Eggs and pupae may be found in the same 
 situations. Some few species of lady-bugs feed on foliage. 
 One attacks beans, another squash vines. They are not 
 important as pests of these plants and ordinary control 
 measures easily keep them in check. 
 
 Cucujidce and Dermestidce are of interest mainly as 
 destroyers of stored products of various kinds. The 
 former are slender, very much flattened species, and the 
 common pests belonging to the family are of very small 
 size. The Saw-toothed Grain-beetle is the most abundant 
 and destructive species. It attacks stored grain and grain 
 products, and also such foods as dried raisins and cur- 
 rants. The Dermestids are small, stout-bodied insects 
 of dark colors or checkered with red, white and l:)lack. 
 The Buffalo-moth, attacking carpets and other products of 
 wool, feathers and fur, is the larva of one of these beetles 
 {Anthrenus scrophidarice) , and another member of the same 
 genus attacks insects in collections and other museum 
 
 *"Maikatt 
 Flug weg 
 Stuff weg 
 Bring me morgen goet wedder med." 
 Folk rhyme from the Netherlands. Thorpe, "Northern Myth- 
 ology." 
 
 "May-cat, fly away, hasten away, 
 Bring me to-morrow good weather with you." 
 
SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 80.— Types of Beetles. 
 
 1, Fireflies (Lampyridw); 2, Me- 
 tallic wood-borers (Buprestidce); 3, 
 Click-beetles {Elateridx) ; 4, Larva of 
 click beetle or wireworm. 
 
 specimens. A larger species, 
 black, with shoulders of a 
 dull yellow, is the Larder-beetle 
 and destroys or spoils food- 
 stuffs, mostly animal products. 
 They will also, Uke other 
 members of the family, act 
 at times as scavengers, eating 
 dead and decaying animals. 
 
 70. The CUck-beetles {Ela- 
 teridce), are well known and 
 are remembered with the 
 lady-bugs, as friends of early 
 days when they bore the name 
 of "Snapping" or "Flopover" 
 bugs. They are extremely 
 hard-shelled, even for bee- 
 tles, and have the joint 
 between the prothorax and 
 the rest of the body flexible 
 and fitted internally with a 
 sort of spring, by means of 
 which they are enabled to 
 spring, when resting upon 
 their backs, some distance in 
 the air and, sometimes after 
 repeated trials, to come down 
 right side up and ready to 
 travel. They are of dark 
 colors, black and olive-brown 
 predominating. The largest 
 common species is the Eyed 
 Elater. black with gray mark- 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 ing and with two large, velvety, eye-like spots on the 
 pro-thorax. Some shin'ng black species rival this in size 
 and are frequently seen. 
 
 Larvse of click-beetles are slender, cylindrical, hard- 
 bodied and waxy yellow in color. 
 They are called wire-worms and 
 live in the soil and in decaying 
 wood. Some species injure the 
 roots of plants and destroy sprout- 
 ing seeds. 
 
 71. The Metallic Wood-Borers 
 {Buprestidcr), also have a very hard 
 body covering. They are generally 
 heavier-bodied than the click- 
 beetles, although some forms are 
 very slender, and have the pro- 
 thorax slightly narrower than the 
 base of the wing-covers. The adults 
 are sometimes found on flowers 
 and on the sunny side of tree- 
 trunks. Larvae of Buprestids are 
 wood-borers and are called, on 
 account of the fact that the tho- 
 racic segments are very broad while 
 the rest of the body is slender 
 and cylindrical, Flat-headed borers. 
 This designation separates them 
 from other beetle larvae which bore 
 in wood. Some important orchard 
 and forest-tree insects belong 
 here. Among these may be men- 
 tioned the Flat-headed Borer and the Red-necked Cane- 
 borer. (See page 294, Part II.) 
 
 Fig. 81. -The "EyedElater" 
 {Alaus oculatus) . (After 
 W. E. Rumsey.) Reduced 
 one-half. 
 
 Fig. 82.— Flat-headed 
 Wood-borers, Larvae 
 of Bupreslidce. 
 
116 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 83.— Types of Beetles 
 (ScaraboBidoe). 
 
 72. The Fireflies, Lightning- 
 bugs or Lantern-bugs {Lam- 
 pyridcB), differ from the other 
 families in the group in that 
 they are soft bodied and have 
 soft elytra. The under side of 
 the posterior abdominal segments 
 of some species is luminescent 
 and gives off flashes of light 
 when the insect flies or even 
 when it is at rest. As they fly 
 at night they are quite conspic- 
 uous and attract attention. 
 They form the basis for many 
 superstitions. In the tropics are 
 found many luminous species of 
 this family as well as some 
 Homopterous insects which have 
 similar hght-giving properties. 
 There are many Lampyrids 
 which are day fliers and not 
 luminous. Among these are the 
 soldier-beetles, slender, yellow 
 beetles, marked with black, 
 about five-eighths of an inch 
 long, which are extremely abun- 
 dant on goldenrod and other late 
 summer flowers. 
 
 73. Lamellicorn Beetles. 
 Two families called lamellicorn 
 beetles have antennae with 
 clubs formed of thin, plate-Uke 
 structures or lamellae; hence the 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 117 
 
 name. The two families agree in being composed of large- 
 sized beetles with stout bodies. There are, however, many 
 quite small species. 
 
 Scarabceidce. Most of the lamellicorn beetles belong 
 to this family. The best-known species are large, but 
 many more are small. Their stout, oval bodies and their 
 antennse, on which the plates forming the club fit close 
 together hke one piece, distinguish them from other beetles. 
 
 Fig. 84. — Rose-chafers {Scarabwidcp) , on Apple-Leaves. Reduced 
 one-half, 
 
 The number of species is large and their activities varied. 
 The larvae are fleshy, white, strongly curved grubs and 
 live, for the most part, in the soil. 
 
 The group of Scarabseids embraces species which are 
 scavengers. Some of these feed on annual matter, but 
 the more common ones live in or about decaying vege- 
 table matter and the excrement of domestic animals. 
 
 The most interesting of these scavengers are the Tumr 
 
118 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 hle-bugs. These form balls 
 of manure in which they 
 lay their eggs, and which 
 they roll off to some safe 
 place and conceal in the 
 earth. Related species 
 make holes in the ground 
 under a pile of manure 
 and fill these holes with 
 manure in which they lay 
 their eggs. The tumble- 
 bugs are typical Scara- 
 bseids and one of them was 
 the sacred beetle or Scarab 
 of the ancient Egyptians. 
 Quite a complex system of 
 mythology was built up 
 about the habits of this 
 insect. The student will 
 find it interesting to con- 
 sult some standard ency- 
 clopcsdia and there get 
 additional information re - 
 garding these myths. 
 
 There are no beetles of 
 large size more abundant 
 than those known as June- 
 hugs or May-beetles. They 
 represent a second group of 
 
 Fig. 85.— Types of Beetles. 
 Three-fourths natural size. 
 
 o, Rhinoceros-beetle (Scarabcndce): 
 remaining figures, stag-beetles (Luca- 
 nidce) . 
 
COLEOPTERA 119 
 
 Scarabceidce. These common beetles are brown in color, 
 oval in shape and from one-half to three-quarters inch 
 in length. They appear in early spring and fly to the 
 lights in great nmnbers. They do considerable harm to 
 vegetation by eating fohage, m the adult stage, but it 
 is as larvse that they are the greatest nuisances. The 
 common wliite-grub or "rnully-grub" is the larval form 
 of these insects. (See page 236, Part II.) 
 
 Rose-chafers or Rose-bugs are among the smaller Scar- 
 abseids. They are rather slender for this family and have 
 comparatively long legs armed with many stout spines. 
 Their larvae resemble white grubs, but are smaller and 
 flatter, although similarly curved. These larvae Hve in the 
 soil, where they do some damage, but the species com- 
 mits the most of its depredations in the adult stage. The 
 beetles appear about the time the roses bloom and injure 
 them by eating both leaves and flowers. They are also 
 pests of the grape, of apple and of a large number of our 
 cultivated plants, mostly trees and shrubs, and will even 
 eat the leaves of sassafras, which is generally avoided by 
 insects. Rose-chafers are hard to kill, as arsenicals act on 
 them slowly, and they may do most of their damage be- 
 fore the poisons cause their death. No remedy, other 
 than spraying, has proven satisfactory. 
 
 Related to the rose-chafers are several species of Floiver- 
 beetles. One of these is green and brown in color and is 
 called, in many parts of the South, the June-bug. It 
 may more properly be termed the Southern June-bug. 
 The flower beetles are more flattened than the other spe- 
 cies we have considered. They are pointed toward the 
 head and bluntly rounded at the posterior end. They 
 frequent flowers and some of them fly with a loud buzzing 
 noise and are so called Bwnhle-beetles. Another com- 
 
120 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 mon leaf- eater is the Spotted Pelidnota. This is of a hght 
 brown color with a few round black dots on the wing- 
 covers. It has much the shape of the June-bugs but is 
 larger. It sometimes injures grapes by eating the foliage. 
 Some very large beetles belong with the Scarabceidce. 
 Our largest species is the Rhinoceros Beetle. It is two 
 inches long, very stout bodied, olive-green and black. 
 
 Two large horns are 
 borne by the males, one 
 on the head and one on 
 the thorax, and these 
 give the insect the ap- 
 . ^j^ '"V^^B pearance of a miniature 
 
 SF-jTt ^I^ rhinoceros. Related 
 
 ^^jB '^"'" species in the West In- 
 
 dies are six inches in 
 length. 
 
 Lucanidce. The Stag- 
 heetles compose the 
 second family of the 
 lamellicorns. They are a little more elongate and flat- 
 tened than most of the Scarabseids and their an- 
 tennal clubs are less compact. Their larvae are similar, 
 though usually larger, and are found in rotting wood. 
 Males of some species have very strongly developed man- 
 dibles and are often called Pinching-bugs. There are few 
 species and these are not important. 
 
 74. Cerambycidae. These insects are called, as adults, 
 the Long-horned Wood-borers and as larvae, the Round-headed 
 Borers. The adults are slender, elongate beetles with an- 
 tennae unusually long, sometimes several times as long as 
 the bodies. They are among the most graceful and at- 
 tractive of the beetles. They have tarsi that are ap- 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 86.— Typical " Lamellicom " 
 Larva {Lucanidue), 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 121 
 
 parently four-jointed, the third joint 
 being bilobed and the fourth joint 
 ahnost concealed at the base of the 
 lobes, and the fifth joint, which is 
 longer, appearing to be the fourth. 
 This character will not often be 
 needed to identify members of this 
 family. The larva bore in the solid 
 wood of many trees and are often 
 destructive. The Round-headed Apple- 
 tree Borer and the Locust-borer l^elong 
 here. (See page 292, Part II, and Fig. 
 211, page 293.) 
 
 75. Chrysomelidae. The Leaf-beetles, 
 as these insects are called, include 
 many species, among which are a 
 great number of the most destructive 
 insects. They are small, usually 
 rounded beetles. Some of them may 
 be mistaken for lady-bugs, but the tarsi 
 will distinguish them, as the tarsi in 
 this family are the same as in the 
 one preceding. The larvae vary greatly 
 in form. Some feed on the foliage 
 of plants with the adults, others live 
 in the soil and attack roots. The 
 Colorado Potato-beetle is the best known 
 and one of the largest of the Chry- 
 somelids. (See page 276, Part II.) 
 Many leaf-beetles have the hind legs 
 strongly developed and are able to 
 leap actively. These are the Flea- 
 beetles. Different flea-beetles attack 
 
 Fig. 87.— Types of 
 Beetles. Long-horned 
 Wood-borers (Ceram- 
 bycida). 
 
122 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ^ M 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fig. 88. — Round-headed Wood- 
 borers, Larvae of Cerambycidw. 
 
 Fig. 89.— Types of Beetles. 
 Leaf -beetles {Chrysomelidce) . 
 
 many crops. The small beetles 
 attacking cucumbers (see 
 page 272, Part II), and 
 the one that works on aspa- 
 ragus are Chrysomelids. So 
 is the Ehn Leaf-beetle. One 
 species works in the spring on 
 apple foliage and later in the 
 season on locust. Its larvae 
 mine in the leaves of the locust 
 and the insect is called the 
 Locust Leaf-beetle. It is brown 
 with a black band down the 
 middle of the back and is 
 flatter than most of the leaf 
 beetles, and somewhat wedge- 
 shaped. 
 
 Bruchidce include a few 
 small species with tarsi like 
 the Cerambycidce and with 
 stout bodies and shortened 
 w i n g - c o V e r s . Their larvae 
 feed within the seeds of peas, 
 beans and other legumes. 
 They will be recognized usu- 
 ally by their habitat. They 
 are known as Bean- and Pea- 
 weevils. * 
 
 76. Meloidae. The Blister- 
 beetles are soft bodied, elon- 
 gate, cylindrical beetles with 
 constricted prothorax and slug- 
 * See page 224, Part 11. 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 123 
 
 gish movenont. Some forms will blister the skin if 
 crushed on it and this fact makes them of some value for 
 medicinal purposes. These species supply the Cantharides 
 or "Spanish-fly" of conunerce. They feed on plants. The 
 old-fasliioned potato beetles are bhster-beetles. Some kinds 
 feed on clover and alfalfa, at times to such an extent as 
 to be pests. Larvae of bhster-beetles have a curious and 
 very complex development. First they are active and 
 
 Fig. 90. — Asparagus Beei le, 
 type of C hrysonielidie. 
 Enlarged greatly. 
 
 Fig. 91. — A Blister-beetle or 
 Oil-beetle, Meloe, sp. {Me- 
 loitUr). Twice natural size. 
 
 move about to search for the insect eggs upon which they' 
 feed. Later they attack different kinds of insects and 
 become parasitic. They then become fleshy and sluggish. 
 Some of them are of importance because they destroy 
 grasshopper egg masses. 
 
 77. Tenebrionidae. Tliis family includes a considerable 
 number of species, few of wliich are either important or 
 conspicuous. The common name Darkling-beetles has 
 been given to the family. The larger members resemble 
 superficially the ground beetles, but have antennae larger 
 at the tip than at the base and have only four joints on 
 
124 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 iw%ii 
 
 the hind tarsi. Most of 
 these are found about 
 decaying wood and under 
 bark. Many species feed 
 on fungous growths. A 
 few Tenebrionids infest 
 stored grains and grain 
 products. The largest of 
 these is the Meal-worm. 
 It is nearly an inch long, 
 slender and parallel sided 
 and somewhat flattened. 
 The meal worms them- 
 selves resemble wire- 
 worms but are shorter and 
 stouter and flattened on 
 the under surface. They 
 may be found in old feed 
 bins where masses of part- 
 ly spoiled grain have been 
 left undisturbed. Some 
 of the other grain beetles 
 of this family are much 
 smaller, about an eighth 
 of an inch long, and are 
 found in company with 
 the saw-toothed grain 
 beetle. 
 
 Fig. 92.— Types of Beetles. 
 Natural size. 
 
 1, 2, 3, and 4, Tenebrionidoe 5, 
 6, and 7, IJlister-beetles (Meloidw); 
 8, MelandryidcB ; 9, r.ruchidce ; 10, 
 PyrochroidcB ; 11, yipoiidylidce ; 12, 
 Histeridce ; 13, Irogositidoe ; 14, 
 Cucujid(e. 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 125 
 
 Several minor families of beetles, especially the smaller 
 forms, are related to the Tenebrionids and may be found 
 with them about fungi. 
 
 78. Rhynchophora. This suborder of beetles contains, 
 as stated before, the Snout-beetles. 
 These insects have the heads pro- 
 longed into more or less slender beaks 
 on the tip of which are located the 
 mouth-parts. The antennae are fre- 
 quently elbowed and are attached 
 to the snouts. The have other more 
 obscure points of difference from the 
 other beetles. Several famihes of 
 snout-beetles are recognized. Of these 
 we will mention only the more im- 
 portant. 
 
 Curculionidce. Most of the insects 
 known as Weevils belong here, although 
 the term weevil may be applied to 
 certain others without impropriety. 
 A better common name is Curculios. 
 The curculios have snouts which are 
 mostly long and slender but may be 
 short. It is difficult to describe them 
 SD that the beginner may recognize 
 them, although the family is of the 
 greatest economic importance. 
 
 The Plum-curculio (see page 299, 
 Part II), one of the worst insects that 
 attacks fruits, the Nut-weevils, several 
 species of which, belonging to the genus 
 Balaninus,^re found in chestnuts, hick- 
 ory nuts, acorns and other native nuts, 
 
 Fig. 93.— Types of 
 Snout-beetles (/?/!yn- 
 chophora) . Slightly 
 enlarged. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Cur- 
 culionidce; 6, Calandridce; 
 7, BrenthidcF; 8, fthynchi' 
 tidce; 9, Scolytoidea. 
 
126 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the Apple-weevil, the Apple-cur culio, the Strawberry -Weevil, 
 the Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil, see page 259, Part II, an in- 
 sect that invaded the Southern States by way of Mexico 
 and has injured the cotton-growing industry of that region 
 more than any other one factor, and the Alfalfa-weevil, 
 also an' importation, at present confined to some of the 
 Rocky Mountain States, but a menace to the alfalfa crops 
 of the country in future years, are all Curculionidce and 
 
 Fig. 94. — The Apple Curculio, Showing Different Stages {Curculioni- 
 dve). Enlarged. (After Riley.) 
 
 will serve to suggest the extent of the ravages of this 
 family. 
 
 Calandridce. The Bill-bugs, as the Calandrids are com- 
 monly named, include fewer species than the preceding 
 family, but some are quite important. The most famihar 
 examples are the common Granary-weevils, small, slender, 
 brown beetles with rather prominent snouts curving for- 
 ward and downward from the heads. These are every- 
 where found in stored grains. There are two species, one 
 being called the Rice-weevil, but they are similar in ap- 
 pearance and habits. 
 
COLEOPTERA 
 
 127 
 
 In the Middle West, espe- 
 cially in muck lands, larger 
 bill-bugs injure corn. They 
 are nearly a half inch long 
 and rather stout bodied, and 
 are commonly called Corn- 
 Bill-bugs. 
 
 Scohjtoidea. This super- 
 family, formerly classed as a 
 family, includes a great 
 number of species of small 
 insects that attack and destroy 
 shade, forest and fruit trees 
 by boring between the bark 
 and the wood. They are 
 called the engraver-beetles 
 because of the patterns on 
 the wood made by their 
 galleries. These can easily be 
 seen by removing the bark 
 from an infested branch. 
 Another common name is 
 the bark-beetles. The Fruit- 
 tree Bark-beetle (page 291, Part 
 II), is the best-known ex- 
 ample. On account of the 
 numerous small round holes 
 which the emerging beetles 
 make in the bark of an in- 
 fested tree this insect is 
 better known as the Shot-hole 
 Borer. The group is, without 
 doubt, the most important 
 
 * I t I # 
 
 Fig. 95. — Engraver Beetles 
 (Scolytoidea) . Work of these 
 forms is shown in Fig. 96. 
 Enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 96.— Work of Engraver- 
 beetle {Scohjtoidea). 
 
128 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 of all insects from the standpoint of the timber industry. 
 Some members of the bark-beetle family have other habits, 
 as one which lives on the roots of clover. 
 
 Table for the Identification of the more Common 
 Families of Beetles 
 
 COLEOPTERA 
 
 A. Heads prolonged into distinct snouts bearing the mouth- 
 parts on the tips. Snout Beetles. Rhynchophora. 
 AA. Heads not prolonged into snouts. 
 
 B. Aquatic beetles, legs fitted for swimming. 
 
 C. Palpi longer than the antennse; a keel-like structure 
 frequently found on under side. Hydrophilidoe. 
 CC. Palpi not longer than the antennse. 
 
 D. Ej^es divided into two parts. Gyrinidce. 
 DD. Ej^es not divided. Dytiscidoe. 
 BB. Not aquatic in habit. 
 
 C. Found mostly on the ground, concealed under rub- 
 bish or running in the open. 
 D. Legs slender, antennse thread-like. 
 
 E. Front vertical, mandibles pointing down- 
 ward. Cicindelidce. 
 EE. Front horizontal, mandibles pointing forward. 
 Carabidcc. 
 DD. Legs usually shorter and stouter, antenna? not 
 thread-like. 
 
 E. Scavenger beetles, found about decaying ani- 
 mal or vegetable matter. 
 
 F. Bodies slender, wing-covers very short. 
 Staphylinidce. 
 FF. Bodies stouter, wing-covers medium to 
 long. 
 
 G. Antennae gradually enlarged into a 
 club or with sharply rounded, compact 
 knob. Silphidce. 
 
COLEOPTERA 129 
 
 GG. Antennre with club made of flattened 
 plates, lamellate. 
 
 H. Plates of antennal club separated. 
 Lucanidcc. 
 HH. Plates of antennal club appearing 
 as one piece. Scarabceidce. 
 EE. Not scavengers. Feeding usually on vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 F. Antennsp lamellate. Lucanidoe and Scar- 
 abceidce, as above. 
 FF. Antennae not lamellate. 
 
 G. Antennae saw-like. Bodies usually slen- 
 der oval. 
 
 H. Body rather soft. Lampyridw. 
 HH. Body extremely hard. 
 
 I. Pro-thorax with angles projecting 
 backward and with process on 
 prosternum projecting backward 
 into groove on mesosternum. 
 . Elateridce. 
 II. Pro-thorax generally narrowed 
 slightly; surface of body less 
 even than in previous family. 
 BuprestidcE. 
 GG. Antennae not saw-like. 
 
 H. Tarsi with three joints easily seen. 
 Small, oval, nearly hemispherical, 
 black or yellow, red and orange mix- 
 tures. Coccinellidoe. 
 HH. Tarsi with more than three visible 
 joints. 
 
 I. Tarsi with four visible joints. 
 J. Antennae usually longer than 
 body. Medium to large in 
 size, slender. Wood borers. 
 Cerambycidce. 
 JJ. Antennae of normal length. 
 K. Short, oval, seed-infest- 
 ing species, usually found 
 
130 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 in beans and peas. (Wing- 
 covers short.) BruchUce. 
 KK. Usually small, oval or 
 more slender. On foliage 
 of plants. ChrysomelidoB. 
 II. Hind tarsi with four joints; 
 front tarsi with five. 
 J. Bodies soft, cylindrical; pro- 
 thorax narrowed. Meloidce. 
 JJ. More flattened, harder bod- 
 ies; dark colors; found on 
 ground and in fungi. Tene- 
 brionidcB. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 DIPTERA 
 
 79. General Characteristics. The flies (Dzptero), consti- 
 tute one of the six major orders. They have two wings, and 
 sucking mouth-parts and they develop indirectly. The larvae 
 of most flies are called maggots. Flies have, in the place 
 of hind wings, a pair of more or less conspicuous knobbed 
 threads or balancers called halteres. Different common 
 names are applied to many flies and groups of flies. Mos- 
 quitoes, gnats, midges, etc., are among these names. 
 Many groups of flies have mouth-parts capable of piercing 
 or "biting" the skin of animals. Mosquitoes and horse- 
 flies are notable examples. Many other forms can eat 
 only exposed liquid food, the sucking tube ending in soft 
 flaps. Few adult flies attack vegetation but many feed 
 on the nectar of flowers. 
 
 80. Importance to Man. Flies are important to man 
 in a rather different way than most other insect pests. 
 While many species attack growing crops and various food 
 products, usually in the larval stage, their greatest im- 
 portance comes from the fact that they attack man and 
 domestic animals directly in the adult stage. In this way 
 they cause not only great annoyance and economic loss, 
 by rendering certain regions p actically uninhabitable for 
 civilized people, but even greater loss by carrying the 
 organisms, which cause certain diseases. Some are parasitic 
 on domestic animals and inflict much injury in this way. 
 The discovery of the disease-carrying powers of many species 
 
 131 
 
132 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ^5^=>, 
 
 that were previously considered as merely annoying pests 
 has opened up a new field in the study of insects 
 
 known as Medical En- 
 tomology. 
 
 81. Fly Larvae. Fly 
 larvae are footless and 
 sightless but fairly act- 
 ive in spite of these 
 handicaps. They feed 
 to some extent on grow- 
 ing plants, either on or 
 in the roots, foliage, or 
 fruit, but by far the 
 larger number of them 
 are scavengers, feeding 
 on decaying animal and 
 vegetable matter of 
 every description. Some 
 fly larvae grow with ex- 
 traordinary rapidity. 
 This is especially true of 
 the forms that feed on 
 dead animals, probably 
 because the decaying flesh remains in a condition fit for 
 food for a limited time only. 
 
 82. Classification. The classification of the Diptera is 
 difficult for the beginner. This is largely because a use 
 of most of the descriptions and tables for the order, in- 
 volves wing-venation characters which are usually rather 
 compUcated and will not be considered here. It is some- 
 what difficult to characterize even the more common 
 families so that the beginner can easily distinguish 
 them. For this reason no attempt will be made to de- 
 
 FiG. 97. — House-fly (above) and Stable 
 Fly, Showing Lapping Mouth-parts 
 and Piercing Beak. Enlarged. 
 
DIPTERA 
 
 133 
 
 scribe any but the most common and easily recognized 
 forms. 
 
 83. Culicidae. The Mosquitoes, which form this family, 
 may be recognized by 
 their slender bodies, 
 long legs and by the 
 fringes of scales which 
 occur on the margins 
 of the wings and on 
 the wing veins. They 
 are rather below the 
 medium size although 
 there are many flies 
 which are much smaller. 
 The habits of the com- 
 mon forms are well 
 known. One species is 
 directly and solely re- 
 sponsible for the trans- 
 mission of yellow fever from one person to another, and 
 the members of the genus Anopheles are responsible for 
 the spread of malarial fever. Other species have to do 
 with the transmission of sev- 
 eral tropical diseases of man 
 and animals. 
 
 Mosquito larvae may be 
 found in the water, usuallj^ 
 but not always, in stagnant 
 water. They are commonly 
 called wrigglers and may breed in any stagnant water, 
 even in what may be caught by an empty tin can in a 
 back yard. (See page 183, Part II, for a further discus- 
 sion of mosquitoes.) 
 
 Fig. 98. — The Yellow-fever Mosquito 
 iCulicidce). (After Howard, U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) Greatly magnified. 
 
 Fig. 99. — Mosquito Larva or 
 " Wriggle-tail " {Culicidce). 
 
134 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 84. Gnats and Midges. Several families of mosquito- 
 like flies are variously spoken of as Gnats and Midges. 
 
 They are usually 
 smaller than the 
 mosquitoes and lack 
 the fringes on the 
 wings. Some of 
 these are fungus 
 eaters and are 
 known as Fungus- 
 gnats (Mycetophi- 
 lidce) ; others are 
 largely plant eaters 
 in the larval stage 
 and form swellings 
 or galls in the stems 
 of their food plants. 
 These are called 
 gall-gnats. 
 
 Cecidomyiidce. 
 To this family be- 
 longs the Hessian- 
 fly (see page 250, 
 Part II). Other 
 families of gnats 
 and midges include 
 forms that attack 
 man and domestic 
 animals and are 
 serious pest at 
 certain seasons in some localities, particularly the far North. 
 
 85. Tipulidae. The Crane-flies are not of great importance 
 but deserve mention on account of their abundance, their 
 
 Fig. 100.— Types of Flies (Diptera). 
 
 1, A mosquito (Cxdicidm); 2, Crane-flies (Tipu- 
 lidoe); 3, Horse-flies {Tabanidce). 
 
DIPTERA 
 
 135 
 
 large size, and their peculiar form. The larger species 
 are unmistakable. They have bodies resembling those 
 of mosquitoes but with abdomen less regular in shape 
 and they have extremely long legs. They fly over mead- 
 ows and through underbrush in partially wooded tracts 
 and are most nu- 
 merous in the warm 
 days of late fall. 
 It is next to im- 
 possible to secure 
 specimens with the 
 full complement of 
 legs, since they are 
 so loosely attached 
 that the least touch 
 serves to detach 
 them. Crane-fly 
 larvae live in the 
 soil and are said 
 to be injurious to 
 the roots of plants 
 in the Western 
 States. 
 
 86. Asilidae. 
 This is another 
 family which in- 
 cludes many large 
 species. The common name for them is Rohher-flics. They 
 have slender, tapering, humpl)acked bodies and rather 
 short and stout legs. They are predaceous and capture 
 and kill other insects of many kinds, frequently over- 
 powering and eating grasshoppers twice their size. The 
 beginner may not distinguish robber-flies from certain 
 
 Fig. 101. — Types of Flies. Above, a Midas- 
 fly (Midaidce) . Lower figures, robber-flies 
 (AsilidcB). Slightly reduced. 
 
136 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 other large flies, the Midas-flies (Midaidce), which are, 
 however, less numerous in species and individuals. 
 
 87. The Horse-flies. Tabanidce. The mosquito form 
 and its modifications may be taken as the type of one 
 group of fly families. The other type is represented by 
 the horse-flies. They have broad, short and rather flat 
 bodies and short legs. They are medium to large in size 
 and have exceedingly powerful flight. They may often- 
 times be noticed circling easily around a horse in full 
 gallop. While few definite characters other than those of 
 wing venation can be cited to identify the horse flies, it 
 may still be noted that they give the impression of having 
 firm bodies of regular outline, the abdomens taper usually to a 
 blunt but definite point, and the hind angles of the large com- 
 pound eyes are usually slightly produced backward forming 
 an angle and giving the hind margin of the head a strongly 
 concave shape. The larvae live in wet soil or in the water. 
 
 Many species are annoying to horses * and cattle and 
 even to man. Some are called Ear-flies, some Gad-flies, 
 this name being applied also to some of the bot-flies, 
 mentioned later, and one small species with banded wings 
 is called the Shad-fly, or the Deer-fly, and frequently an- 
 noys man in low, wooded regions near the water. 
 
 88. The Black-flies, so-called (SimuUidoE), are inter- 
 mediate in form between the mosqui'o-like type and the 
 house-fly type, having fairly slender bodies and short 
 legs. The family includes several species which attack 
 man and may be very annoying, and also some species 
 that attack domestic animals and poultry. The Buffalo- 
 gnat and the Turkey-gnat, both well known in the South 
 in the regions which they infest, are examples of forms 
 having the latter habit. They inflict severe losses in the 
 * See page 200, Part II. 
 
DIPTERA 
 
 137 
 
 infested regions, 
 to beginners rather 
 by habits than by 
 structures. 
 
 89. Bee-flies 
 {BomhyUida:), and 
 the Soldier-flies 
 (Stratiomyiidoe), 
 frequent flowers. 
 The latter are not 
 always abundant, 
 but are often notice- 
 able on account of 
 their bright color 
 markings. Yellow 
 and green bands 
 and stripes are 
 common in this 
 family. The sol- 
 dier-flies are of 
 small to medium 
 size. Their larvae 
 are usually aquatic. 
 The bee-flies pre- 
 sent many varia- 
 tions. Some species 
 are quite hairy, 
 many have very 
 long beaks and feed 
 on nectar. Banded 
 wings are also char- 
 acteristic of many 
 bee-flies. The habit 
 
 Members of this family will be known 
 
 Fig. 102.— Types of Flies (Diplera). Natural 
 size. 
 
 a, Syrphidae; h, Tachinid(r; c, Puparium of Ta- 
 china-fly: d. Bee-flies (Bombyliidce); e, Musctdoe; f, 
 Snipe-flies (Leptida); g, House-fly, and h, Stable-fly 
 (^M uscidce) . 
 
138 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 of hovering or remaining poised in the air is well devel- 
 oped here but should not lead one to mistake bee-flies, for 
 some of the Syrphidce which have a similar habit. Bee- 
 flies, and certain syrphus-flies as well, mimic some of 
 the bees and wasps. 
 
 90. Snipe-flies (Leptidce), are not of great importance, 
 but may be mentioned because of a few of the more 
 abundant forms. These have bodies shaped hke those of 
 mosquitoes but much larger and heavier. The legs are 
 relatively short and the wings, while narrow, are power- 
 ful. One species which is usually common has the top of 
 the thorax clothed with thick orange yellow or golden hairs. 
 
 91. The Syrphus-flies {Syrphidce), as these are com- 
 monly called, are very nimierous and have many different 
 forms. They present a greater number of bee-Hke forms 
 than do the bee-flies themselves. Some resemble bumblebees 
 very closely; others look more hke the honey-bee, one species 
 being known as the Drone-fly, on account of the simi- 
 larity. The typical members of the family are of small to 
 medium, or even large size, have flattened and rather broad 
 bodies, and colors usually, at least in part, yellow or green 
 or both. They hover or poise in the air, sometimes over 
 flowers or other food, more often apparently over noth- 
 ing in particular. Some species bite animals and man and 
 are called Sweat-flies. They are often confused with sweat- 
 bees, wliich are, properly, true bees and sting, while the 
 sweat-flies pierce the skin with their mouth-parts. The 
 wound from the fly bleeds shghtly, while the bee sting 
 does not. Larvae of syrphus-flies are, many of them, 
 predaceous, feeding on plant lice. These larvse have bodies 
 tapering toward the heads, shghtly flattened and scalloped 
 along the margins. They may be green with yellow mark- 
 ings. Other syrphus-fly larvae are entirely different. The 
 
DIPTERA 
 
 139 
 
 / 
 
 larva of the drone-fly is aquatic and is known as the 
 " Rat-tailed IVIaggot," on account of the long, tail-like 
 breathing tube. They niaj' be found in masses in stag- 
 nant water. The family, as a whole, may he considered 
 as beneficial. 
 
 92. Bot-flies, Warbles, Gad-flies or Heel-flies as the 
 (Esirida are variously called, 
 are parasites of domestic 
 and wild mammals. The 
 adults are usually hairy and 
 somew^hat bee-like. The best- 
 known adult is probably 
 that of the Horse-hot, which 
 lays its eggs on horses in 
 late summer and always 
 causes the animals attacked 
 to become excited. Other 
 species attack sheep and cat- 
 tle. (See page 191, Part II.) 
 This family includes most 
 of the insects which are in- 
 ternal parasites of the higher 
 animals. 
 
 HippohoscidcB. These insects are external parasites, 
 in the adult stage, upon mammals and birds. They are 
 either winged or wingless, usually the latter, and have 
 flattened, louse-like, bodies. The larval stages are passed 
 within the bodies of the adult females and emerge from 
 them only when fully grown and ready to transform to 
 the pupa. The so-called Sheep-tick (page 202, Part II), is 
 our most common member of this group. 
 
 93. Muscina. The largest and by far the most im- 
 portant group of flies includes those that wore formerly 
 
 ^^1^ 
 
 "^f 
 
 Fig. 103. — Above, Larva of the 
 Ox-warble ; below, Horse 
 Bot-fly. Slightly enlarged. 
 
140 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 1. 
 
 w 
 
 all classed as one family, the Muscidce, of which the 
 House-fly is typical. This family is now considered as a 
 super-family and has been divided into several families. 
 Some of these it will be well to consider separately. 
 
 The Tachina-flies (Tachinidce), are, for most part, para- 
 sitic on other insects. Their larvse attack grasshoppers, 
 many kinds of caterpillars and other 
 insect forms. The adults are like the 
 house-fly in general shape, but may 
 be stouter bodied, are often con- 
 siderably larger, and are usually 
 clothed with short, stout bristles, 
 especially prominent on the abdomen. 
 As a whole this group is beneficial. 
 
 Flesh-flies (Sarcophagidce), may be, 
 as larvse, either parasites or scaven- 
 gers. Many have habits similar to 
 the Tachinids while others feed on 
 decaying animal matter. Flesh-fly 
 eggs are often hatched within the 
 bodies of the females, 
 larvse being born alive, 
 may be small, but are 
 medium size or larger. 
 
 Anthomyiids {Anthomyiidce), are 
 flies smaller in size than the average 
 for the super-family. They resemble 
 the common house-fly in conformation but may be more slen- 
 der and bristly. The maggots feed on decaying or living 
 vegetable matter. The ones attacking the roots of cab- 
 bage, onions, radishes and related crops are the most im- 
 portant forms. Dull colors prevail in this group. 
 
 The Fruit-flies (Trypetidce) include numerous species 
 
 Fig. 104. — Parasitic 
 Diptera. Enlarged. 
 
 1, Sheep bot-fly (CEstri- 
 dce) ; 2, Louse-fly from hawk 
 (Hippoboscidw) ; 3, "Sheep- 
 tick " (Hippuboscidw) ; 4, 
 Pupa of " Sheep-tick." 
 
 the young 
 
 Flesh-flies 
 
 usually of 
 
DIPTERA 141 
 
 of small flies. They may be -brightly colored and many 
 of them have wings banded and spotted in a very at- 
 tractive manner. Their bodies are slender and their 
 logs incHned to be long. The larvae feed on decaying 
 or fresh fruit and some species are serious pests. Es- 
 pecially is this true of one called the Mediterranean Fruit- 
 fly, which attacks certain sub-tropical fruits. Consider- 
 able sums of money are being expended to keep this fly 
 from becoming established in the state of California. 
 
 Muscida. The typical Muscids are included in this 
 family which is represented by the common House-fly, 
 (see page 175, Part II), the Stable-fly the Blow-fly, Horn- 
 fly, and many other common species. Larvse of this 
 group are the familiar maggots which may be found in 
 decaying animal or vegetable matter of any description. 
 They are white, taper to a point at the head end, and, 
 though footless, are quite active. The pupae are smooth, 
 oval, or cylindrical with rounded ends. The family is 
 important on account of the numbers of species and of 
 individuals and the annoyance they cause man and ani- 
 mals, as well as for its part in the spread of many diseases. 
 Some forms, notably the Screw-worm Fly larvae, get into 
 flesh wounds of animals and cause serious inflammation 
 and even death. This insect is most abundant in the 
 Gulf States. 
 
 [Diptcra. On account of the great difficulty of identifying, with 
 any degree of certainty, even the more important groups of flies 
 without the use of minute characters of the antennae and difficult 
 structures of the wings, no attempt will here be made to formulate 
 a table for the use of the beginning student. He will have to iden- 
 tify the more common forms by means of the descriptions and the 
 figures accompanying them.] 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 HYMENOPTERA 
 
 The bees, the wasps, the ants and a host of other 
 smaller insects comprise this order. It ranks second to 
 none in its biologic and economic importance. In its 
 
 economic status it is rather 
 beneficial than otherwise, 
 which will be brought out 
 later in the discussion of 
 the different groups. 
 
 94. General Character- 
 istics. Hymenoptera have 
 four wings, membranous 
 throughout, which usually 
 have few veins. With few 
 exceptions the front wings 
 are the larger. A row of 
 hooks on the hind wing, 
 which fasten in a fold in 
 the front wing, hold the two 
 together so firmly that the 
 beginner may easily mis- 
 take them for one wing. 
 The mouth-parts of Hymen- 
 optera are formed typically for biting. In many in- 
 stances there is also a modification of some parts of the 
 mouth to form a sucking tube. Many of the best-known 
 members of the group have this adaptation. Development 
 
 142 
 
 Fig. 105.— Swann (»i Ik'os Clus- 
 tered in Grape-vine. 
 
HYMENOPTERA 
 
 143 
 
 is indirect. The larvie of all but two groups of Hymen- 
 optera are footless, usually fleshy, white, grub-Hke, crea- 
 tures. Some of the exceptions are caterpiUar-like, but 
 may be known by the fact that they have more than 
 five pairs of pro-legs. Where the larvae are helpless they 
 are either cared for by the adults until they are fully 
 
 Fig. 106. — A Modem Bee-hive Supported on Hollow Tiles. 
 
 grown or the eggs are placed in or on the food, and 
 left there. 
 
 95. Sub-Orders. There are two sub-orders. In one, the 
 females have the ovipositor modified into a stinging organ. 
 In the other, the ovipositor is fitted for boring plant tis- 
 sues to deposit the eggs and is not used as a weapon. 
 The one sub-order is called the Stinging-Hymenoptera or 
 Aculeata; the other, the Boring-Hijmenoptera or Tere- 
 hrantia. 
 
 96. The Stinging Hjntnenoptera. All the commonly ob- 
 served members of the order are classified in this sub- 
 order. While they are all properly called stinging Hy- 
 
144 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 menoptera it must be understood that there are man} 
 forms in the group which do not sting or possess stinging 
 organs. All the members of this division, except two little 
 known and rather rare families, are placed in four super- 
 families, each one including several families. They will be 
 considered here under the super-family headings. 
 
 GT.Apoidea. This 
 
 r-^ — ^-. " ' - ^<.' group includes all the 
 tj -^ ,.j£.j;jei^^ _ "t. Bees. There are sev- 
 eral families, but they 
 have many charac- 
 ters in common. Bees 
 may almost always be 
 recognized as such, 
 even by the beginner, 
 by the conformation 
 of the body. In ad- 
 dition to this, most 
 of them have the basal 
 segment of the hind 
 tarsus flattened and armed with hairs and bristles, 
 and adapted for carrying pollen. Bees are generally 
 stouter bodied than the wasps and are frequently hairy. 
 The bodies are commonly more flattened than is the 
 case with the wasps. The habits of bees vary consider- 
 ably. Many are social, but a much larger number of 
 species is solitary in habit. Most bees feed on pollen 
 and nectar secured from flowers, and on such other sweet 
 substances as they may find. 
 
 The most common of the social bees is the hive-bee 
 or Honey-bee {Apis melUfera), which occurs throughout the 
 civilized world in a domesticated condition. Its habits 
 and social organization have been more widely studied 
 
 Fig. 107. — Cocoons of the Bee-moth in 
 the Top of a Hive {Lepidoplera, Pyra- 
 lidina). 
 
HYMENOPTERA 
 
 145 
 
 than those of any other insect and vokimes have been 
 written concerning it. There are three different classes 
 of individuals in a bee colony; the true males, called 
 
 drones, the fully devel- 
 
 oped females or queens, 
 and the workers, which are 
 females not fully devel- 
 oped sexually. In a col- 
 ony there is one queen, a 
 varying number of drones, 
 and in a strong swarm, 
 many thousand workers. 
 The drones serve no pur- 
 pose aside from the fer- 
 tilization of the queens 
 and they are produced 
 in numbers far in excess 
 of the needs for this func- 
 tion. The queens lay the 
 eggs for the production of 
 workers and other queens 
 while unfertilized queens 
 and workers produce 
 eggs which develop into 
 drones. 
 
 The workers do all 
 the work of the colony, 
 build comb, gather nec- 
 tar, pollen and certain 
 
 other substances used in the hive, and care for the larvae 
 or brood. They keep the hive clean and also regulate 
 the temperature somewhat by ''fanning" with their wings. 
 From the nectar they manufacture honey and wax. 
 
 Fig. 1U8. — Types of Hymciioplera 
 
 Bees (Apoidea). Enlarged. 
 
 1, Carpenter-bee ; 2, 3, 4, Bumble< 
 bees; 5, 7, Honey-bee, queens; 6, Drone- 
 bee ; 8, 9, 10, workers; 11-15, Solitary- 
 bees. 
 
146 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Queens are produced from eggs which are just the same 
 as those which normally produce workers. The larvae 
 destined to form queens are fed with a specially prepared food 
 called "royal jelly" and the cells in which they develop 
 are altered to suit the needs of the larger individual. 
 When a new queen emerges in a hive she may be killed 
 by the old queen or may herself kill the old queen. Fre- 
 
 
 Fig. 109. — A Cut Bee-tree, Showing Coinlw in the Cavity. 
 
 quently, however, neither is killed but the old queen 
 leaves the hive and takes with her a large number of the 
 workers. These find a suitable situation and form a new 
 colony. The division of a colony in this manner is called 
 swarming. Queen raising, swarming and other operations 
 of the colony are done artificially by the modern bee 
 raiser or apiculturist. 
 
 Bees, especially honey-bees, are important not only for 
 
HYMENOPTERA 147 
 
 the commercial products, honey and beeswax, which they 
 furnish, but, to a much greater extent, because of the part 
 they play in the fertilization of flowers. Many of the 
 valuable cultivated plants do not set fruit or produce seed 
 properly where there are not enough bees to provide for 
 their fertilization. Many flowers have remarkable adap- 
 tations of structure to insure pollination by the bees. 
 Honey-bees are found wild in all the countries where the 
 domestic bees have been carried, as escaping swarms hve 
 in hollow trees or caves. In South America there are 
 found honey-producing bees which do not sting. This 
 apparent advantage is minimized by the fact that they 
 defend themselves by biting. 
 
 Bumble-bees or "Humble-bees" are larger and more 
 hairy than the honey-bees and differ somewhat in their 
 social organization. Only the queens live through the 
 winter. They start the new colonies in the spring and 
 do all the work of the colony until such time as the 
 workers develop. Their nests are usually built on the 
 ground or under stones and are concealed with grass and 
 weeds. Their honey is stored in small oval sacks and is 
 not used commercially. There are workers and males 
 and, at times, several queens in one nest. The queens are 
 the largest individuals in the nests and are much more 
 active than the honey-bee queens. The over-wintering 
 females are fertilized in the fall. 
 
 Bumble-bees are able to cross-fertilize certain plants 
 whose flowers are too deep for the shorter tongues of the 
 honey-bees to reach. A common plant of this type is the 
 red clover. 
 
 Some bees bore in solid wood and make their nests in 
 the galleries which they construct. These are solitary. 
 One borer (Fig. 108, 1), or Carpenter-bee, resembles the 
 
148 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 bumble-bees in size and general appearance. Other bees 
 dig burrows in the ground, mainly in the sides of steep 
 banks. Such bees are solitary, in the strict sense of the 
 term, but frequently a bank will contain the burrows of 
 hundreds of these bees. Some of the miners form colo- 
 nies, all members of which use one entrance to the nests, 
 the nests being separate for each individual. Professor 
 Comstock likens the abodes of the two classes of miners 
 here mentioned to villages of many separate houses and 
 to city apartment houses with many dwellings in one 
 house. There are bees which have a semi-parasitic habit, 
 the females laying their eggs in the nests of other bees 
 and leaving them to be cared for by the ''hosts." These 
 are termed ''guest-bees" or inquilines. 
 
 Wliile we are accustomed to consider the economic 
 status of insects from the standpoint of the damage they 
 may do, the consideration of the fact that the bees are 
 indispensable to the production of many of our most val- 
 uable crops, should show us that insects, as a whole, are 
 indispensable and make us more tolerant of the injurious 
 species, if it be necessary that we have both kinds to have 
 the beneficial ones. 
 
 98. True Wasps. Wasps {Vespoidea) are distinguished 
 from bees by the tarsi, which are not fitted for carrying 
 pollen, and by the more slender forms of most of the spe- 
 cies. They are separated from the next group (digger-wasps) 
 by the resting position of the wings. In the true wasps 
 the front wings at rest have one longitudinal fan-Hke fold; 
 in the digger-wasps the front wings are not folded. 
 
 Some of the true wasps are social and resemble the 
 bumble-bees almost exactly in their social organization. 
 All the insects commonly called Hornets and Yellow- 
 jackets are true wasps. 
 
HYMENOPTEKA 
 
 149 
 
 The social wasps make nests 
 sembling paper which is 
 formed from wood pulp as is 
 paper. These nests may be of 
 many forms and may be found 
 in different situations. The 
 most common ones are found 
 about houses. They are 
 roughly circular, consist of a 
 single layer of cells opening 
 downward and are attached 
 to a ceiling, or to some over- 
 hanging structure that will 
 afford a degree of protec- 
 tion, by a single stalk. The 
 wasps that make these nests 
 are brown in color, more than 
 an inch long and of rather slen- 
 der and very elegant form. 
 They belong to the genus 
 Polistes. Other social wasps 
 make nests composed of sev- 
 eral layers of cells, all enclosed 
 by an outer wall, the whole 
 structure being oval in form 
 and gray in color. Some of 
 these nests, made by the 
 insects best known as yellow- 
 jackets, are found in the 
 woods, attached to limbs of 
 trees. Others, made by hor- 
 nets, may be found either on 
 trees or on the ground, or 
 
 of a substance closely re- 
 
 FiG. 110. — Types of Hymenop- 
 tera. Three lower figures, 
 Ants (Formicoidea) ; others, 
 True wasps (Vespoidea). 
 Shghtly reduced. 
 
150 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 even under stones or in cavities in the ground. Hornets 
 and yellow-jackets are well known for the fighting pro- 
 pensities they display when their nests are disturbed and 
 for the effectiveness of their stings. They belong to the 
 genus Vespa. 
 
 Solitary wasps belonging to this family have many 
 forms of nests. Some of the most interesting of these are 
 
 Fig. 111. — Underground Nest of Hornet (Vespa). 
 
 made of mud and atattached to twigs and to stems of 
 plants. They are shaped like miniature jugs and often 
 are almost perfect in their molding. Each contains a 
 single larva. Still other wasps have nesting hal)its like 
 some of the solitary bees, being miners, wood-borers or 
 carpenters, making nests of bits of vegetation and pieces 
 cut from leaves. Most solitary wasps feed on nectar 
 and pollen, but provision their nests with insects or feed 
 the young directly with other insects. The same is true 
 of the social wasps. 
 
HYMENOPTERA 151 
 
 99. Sphecoidea. The Digger-wasps include a considerable 
 number of families. They have similar food and nesting 
 habits. All are solitary, most forms are miners and con- 
 struct their nests in the ground but some live in the stems 
 of plants. 
 
 Nests of digger-wasps are provisioned with insects or with 
 spiders, which have been stung by the wasps until they 
 
 Fig. 112. — Hornets and their Nest. 
 
 are in a comatose condition. They live until the larvae 
 are ready to use them as food. In this manner fresh 
 food is provided. One family of these wasps preys almost 
 exclusively on spiders; others prefer different kinds of 
 insects; one large species captures cicadas or harvest-flies 
 and is known as the cicada-killer. 
 
 To the digger-wasp family belong the Mud-daubers or 
 Mud-wasps and the Thread-w aisled Wasps, also usually 
 mud-masons. Their nests, in and near houses, especially in 
 chimneys, are well known to all. 
 
SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 113. — Types of Hymenoptera. 
 Digger-wasps (Sphecoidea). 
 Slightly reduced. 
 
 100. Ants. (Formicoidea.) 
 The ants are best known as 
 wingless creatures because it 
 is only at certain times in 
 the year that the winged 
 individuals appear. These 
 winged forms are the true 
 males and females. They 
 mate, found new colonies 
 and either die or lose their 
 wings. In spite of the fact 
 that ants are almost invari- 
 ably small insects, and, while 
 numerous, not more so than 
 many other forms of equal size 
 that escape attention almost 
 entirely, they are, on the 
 contrary, among the best 
 known of insects and have 
 received much more study 
 than any other forms except, 
 perhaps, the bees. The 
 reason for the existing general 
 interests in ants is, without 
 doubt, their social habit and 
 communal organization. Of 
 nearly three thousand de- 
 scribed species, none is known 
 to be solitary. 
 
 In the ant colony are 
 found several kinds of individ- 
 uals; the males and females, 
 the workers and the soldiers. 
 
HYMENOPTERA 153 
 
 Workers are infertile females not fully developed. There 
 may be different sizes of workers, the soldiers themselves 
 being workers with greatly developed heads and jaws. Ants 
 have a wide variety of food habits and live in greatly different 
 situations. Some burrow in the ground, others in wood; some 
 construct nests on the stems of plants. Many ants are 
 almost omnivorous, but most species have a weakness for 
 sweets of all sorts. This fact often renders them very 
 annoying and destructive in dwellings. Some ants are 
 farmers or harvesters. They are often called agricul- 
 tural ants and are popularly, but erroneously, supposed 
 to plant the crops which furnish their food. Several ants 
 have the habit of making slaves of the workers of other 
 species. In some the slave-making habit is of such long 
 standing that they have forgotten how to care for their 
 own nests, and when they cannot obtain slaves they perish. 
 Much has been written about the communal organiza- 
 tion found in ant colonies and many writers ascribe to 
 ants intelligence of a human order and altruism of an 
 even higher degree. Undoubtedly, ants do possess very 
 highly developed instincts; their colonies are well organized 
 and their daily functions are performed in a most efficient 
 manner. At the same time there is, in the mind of the 
 writer, ample proof that the first gleams of anything that 
 may be called intelligence has yet to appear in any insect 
 type. The basis for the assumption that ants possess 
 intelligence has been the difficulty of explaining certain of 
 their actions on the ground of instinct alone. There are 
 other actions that are even more difficult to reconcile with 
 the idea that these insects have the slightest intelligence, 
 and added to that is the physiological reason of the lack 
 of a structure comparable to the brain of the thinking 
 animal. 
 
154 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Ants have, aside from their philosophical interest, a 
 considerable importance as economic insects. Some are 
 destructive to vegetation, others are indirectly injurious 
 because of their assistance to plant-injuring aphids, still 
 others are household pests and are injurious to foods and 
 stored products. The injurious species are most promi- 
 nent in tropical and sub-tropical countries, where it is 
 often almost impossible to protect stored products from 
 their attacks. Ant colonies, in houses, may be destroyed 
 by the use of a poisoned syrup and they may be kept 
 from tables and cupboards by so-called ''Ant tape." (See 
 page 219, Part II.) 
 
 101. Terebrantia. The Boring Hymenoptera may be 
 known by the possession of two-jointed trochanters on 
 the hind legs as well as by the lack of the sting in the 
 females. They embrace many forms and their food habits 
 are even more variable than their structures. They 
 are roughly classed as plant eaters and as parasitic 
 insects, but this classification is not entirely satis- 
 factory, because some members of the parasitic groups 
 attack plants. The plant-eaters include the Horn-tails or 
 Wood wasps (Siricidw), the Saw-flies {Tenthredinoidea) , 
 the Gall-flies (Cynipoidea), and in part the Chalcis-flies. 
 (Chalcidoidea) . The parasitic forms are grouped as the 
 Chalcis-flies, the Ichneumon-flies (Ichneumonoidea) , and 
 the Proctotrypids (Proctotrypoidea) . Many members of 
 these groups last mentioned are very difficult for anyone 
 but a pecialist to recognize. 
 
 102. Horn-tails and Saw-flies. The Siricidce or Horn- 
 tails are named from the peculiar short, stout and 
 proniinent boring organ borne by the females. They are 
 comparatively large in size, and have no constriction 
 between the thorax and al^domen. The latter character 
 
HYMENOPTERA 
 
 155 
 
 separates tliein fi'oiii all 
 saw-flies, and these do 
 not have the boring or- 
 gan. The larvae are white 
 and grub-like and bore 
 in the solid wood of 
 tlifferent trees, notably 
 hickory, locust and the 
 coffee bean. Not many 
 species occur and these 
 may easily be known 
 by the description here 
 given. 
 
 Tenthredinoidea. The 
 Saw-flies have, at the 
 most, a very slight con- 
 striction between the 
 thorax and the abdomen. 
 They have also rather 
 flat backs and broad 
 hind wings. The fe- 
 males have a short saw- 
 like organ used to form 
 a cavity for the recep- 
 tion of the eggs which 
 are placed most within 
 leaves or in growing 
 stems. Saw-flies are 
 variable in size, ranging 
 from one-fourth inch 
 to over one inch in 
 length. The larvae of 
 saw-flies are caterpillar-like 
 
 other Hijmenoptera except the 
 
 Fig. 114. — Types of Hymenop'e.a. 
 Slightly reduced. 
 
 1, PeJrcinus polyturator (Pelecintdw); 2, 
 3, and 4, Saw-flies (Tcnthredinida:); 5, Horn- 
 tail or Pigeon Treniex (Siriciflw); 6, 6, and 
 7, Gall-flies (Cynipulcr) ; 8, Cuckoo-fly (Chrys- 
 ididw) ; 9, Gouty-gall on blackberry, formed 
 by gall-fly (7). 
 
 or slug-like. The slug-like forms 
 
156 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 usually become more like caterpillars at their last molt. 
 They have six to eight pairs of pro-legs. Their food is 
 the foliage of plants. The slug-like forms have very short 
 legs and are covered with a slimy substance. They are 
 usually larger through the thoracic region and taper to- 
 ward the tip of the abdomen. Many saw-fly larvse have 
 the curious habit of curling the tip of the abdomen 
 forward and downward, often looping it partly around the 
 twig or the edge of the leaf upon which they rest. 
 
 Important species of saw-flies are the Imported Cur- 
 rant-worm; the Pear-slug (see page 316, Part II), which 
 attacks pears and cherries, and skeletonizes their leaves, 
 causing them to turn brown and fall off; the Rose-slug, 
 similar to the pear-slug but smaller, and many species 
 attacking shade and forest trees. Slugs may easily be 
 killed with arsenate of lead or by dusting them with 
 almost any dust. 
 
 103. Gall-flies. The gall-flies, Cynipoidea, form another 
 of the highly specialized and unusually interesting groups 
 which are found so frequently in this order. The adults are 
 almost all small, often with metallic colors. They have 
 the abdomen compressed laterally and somewhat tele- 
 scoped. It is not by the adults, which are at best in- 
 conspicuous, nor even by the larvse, but by the abnormal 
 growths which the larvae produce on plants, that our at- 
 attention is attracted to this group of insects. Many 
 dwellings are produced on plants by insects of other orders 
 and all are known as galls. Some are caused by Diptera, 
 the gall-gnats, some by small moths and many others 
 by plant lice, but the great majority of galls are pro- 
 duced by members of this family. They are found 
 on stems and leaves of oak, on hickory leaves, on rose 
 twigs, on blackberry canes and on other plants. In form 
 
HYMENOPTERA 157 
 
 they are extremely diverse. Some are globular, others 
 cone-shaped and others irregular in shape. Eggs are laid 
 by the female under the bark or in the leaf and the 
 gall growths are induced, no one knows just how, b}^ the 
 presence of the young larvse feeding in the plant tissues. 
 Some gall-flies are parthenogenetic ; that is, reproduce 
 without males for one or more generations, and, in fact, 
 there are species that are not known ever to produce 
 males. Others exhibit a peculiar phenomenon called 
 alteration of generations. First there will be produced 
 a generation of both males and females. The young 
 from these develop into forms that are all females and 
 resemble in no way either of the parent forms. They 
 may also produce galls in different plants and of widely 
 different appearance. The appearance of the galls and 
 the insects which form them sometimes deceives stu- 
 dents of these forms and causes them to be classified in 
 different genera from their parents. The next generation 
 will, however, be composed of both males and females 
 identical with the first individuals, their grandparents. 
 
 104. The Parasitic Hymenoptera or Parasitica. The 
 remaining groups of Hymenoptera, while containing some 
 non-parasitic forms, may best be studied as the so-called 
 Parasitica, they being, for the most part, parasitic on other 
 insects. They vary from large size, one species with its 
 ovipositor being more than six inches long, to the small- 
 est of insects, some being almost too small to be seen 
 with the naked eye and developing within the eggs of in- 
 sects which are, in the adult stage, themselves considered 
 as very small species. 
 
 The larger Parasitica belong to the family Ichneu- 
 monidce. These may be wasp-like in shape and size; 
 they may have abdomens very much compressed later- 
 
158 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 t- 
 
 ally and have very long, thread-like ovipositors. The 
 larger forms parasitize caterpillars and other larvae and pupae. 
 
 One, possibly the most 
 remarkable form in 
 the group, has an ovi- 
 positor several inches 
 in length with which 
 it bores through solid 
 wood to deposit its 
 eggs in the galleries 
 of the horn tail-larvse 
 (page 154), which it 
 parasitizes and kills. 
 Members of the fam- 
 ily BraconidiB may 
 attack caterpillars 
 and, when full grown, 
 
 )x form small silken co- 
 
 \ coons on the outside 
 
 \ of the body of the 
 
 host. Others in the 
 <*^ same family pupate 
 
 within the host. One 
 sub-family confines its 
 attention almost ex- 
 clusively to the plant- 
 lice and scarcely a spe- 
 cies of these insects 
 has not one or more parasites belonging to this sub-family. 
 
 In the super-family Proctrypoidea, we find the smallest 
 of the parasites and among the smallest of insects. Here 
 are found the egg parasites and some of numerous parasites 
 of the scale insects. 
 
 ••«*5% 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 115. — Parasitic Hymerwp'era. Note 
 parasitized cocoon and mass of pupae. 
 Reduced about one-half. 
 
HYMENOPTERA 159 
 
 Chalcis-jlies (super-family Chalcidoidea), may parasitize 
 species in many different groups, mainly of the smaller in- 
 sects. They may infest scale insects and many egg para- 
 sites belong to this division. 
 
 Parasitic Hijmenoptera of many of these groups may 
 attack other parasites. In such case they are called 
 secondary parasites. Secondary parasites may in turn 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 116. — Sphinx Larva Parasitized by Braconids. 
 Pupae attached. 
 
 be parasitized and their parasites are called tertiary par- 
 asites. It is thought that there are even quaternary par- 
 asites or forms that attack the tertiary parasites.* 
 
 In addition to the parasitic forms, there are some 
 plant-infesting species belonging to the Chalcis-flies. These 
 may be both beneficial and harmful. The Wheat Joint- 
 
 * "Big fleas have httle fleas to bite 'em, 
 
 Little fleas have lesser ones, and so ad infinitum.'" 
 
 "So naturahsts observe, a flea 
 
 Has smaUer fleas that on him prey; 
 And these have smaUer still to bite 'em, 
 And so proceed ad infinitum.'' 
 
 Swift. " A Rhapsody." 
 
 " Great fleas have little fleas on their backs to bite 'em, 
 And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum, 
 And the great fleas themselves, in turn, have greater fleas to go on; 
 While these again have greater still, and greater still, and so on." 
 DeMorgan, " A Budget of Paradoxes," p. 377. 
 
160 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 worm (Isosoma tritici), and the Wheat Straw-worm (/. 
 grande) are both more or less serious pests to the 
 wheat crop. Other species feed on seeds of plants before 
 they ripen. One Chalcidid is beneficial because of its 
 habit of feeding on figs of certain sorts. The structure of 
 the fig is such that for cross-fertilization the presence of 
 this insect (Blastophaga grossorum), is necessary. The 
 females of the insect carry pollen from fertile blossoms of 
 the " caprifig " to the infertile blossoms of the valuable 
 Smyrna fig. The insects breed in the " caprifigs " and 
 
 Fig. 117. — Wing of Hymenopterous Insect. Letters indicate names 
 of the cells and of the veins on the anterior margins of the cells. 
 
 c, costa; Sc, sub-costa ; R, radius; M, median ; Cu, cubitus; 1"A, first anal; 
 2"A, second anal; 3"A, third anal; s, stigma. 
 
 merely visit the Smyrna figs while in search of suitable 
 places for egg laying, but, as they often, in mixed groves, 
 come from the pollen-bearing flowers, they carry pollen 
 with them and in their activities within the infertile sorts, 
 dust this into their flowers. The process is called "cap- 
 rification." The discovery of the above facts and the 
 importation and colonization of the Blastophaga in south- 
 ern Cahfornia has enabled growers there to produce 
 Smyrna figs of the best quality where they were formerly 
 unable to compete with the imported product. It serves 
 as an example of the extremely varied problems connected 
 with the science of entomology. 
 
HYMENOPTERA 161 
 
 Chalcis-flies in plants often produce swellings and ab- 
 normal growths called galls, but these are not to be con- 
 fused with the true Cynipid galls. 
 
 Table for the Determination of the More Impor- 
 tant Groups of 
 
 HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 A. Abdomen of female provided with an organ for boring or 
 sawing. Trochanters of the hind legs with two segments. 
 Sub-order Terebrantia. 
 
 B. Abdomen not at all or slightly constricted where it 
 joins the thorax. 
 
 C. Abdomen of female furnished with a prominent 
 boring organ. Mostly larger species. Horn-tails. 
 Siricidce. 
 CC. Abdomen of females furnished with less prominent 
 sawing organ. Usually smaller. Saw-flies. Ten- 
 thredinidce. 
 BB. Abdomen constricted at the union with the thorax. 
 
 C. Wings almost entirely without veins in many species. 
 Size small, colors often metallic; abdomen short. 
 Chalcidoidea. 
 CC. Wings with more distinct venation. Size variable. 
 
 D. Abdomen very much compressed laterally seg- 
 ments usually appearing as if telescoped to- 
 gether. Gall-flies. Cijnipidce. 
 DD. Abdomens more slender; fore wings without a 
 stigma. * Ichneumonoidea. 
 AA. Trochanters of the hind legs consisting of a single segment. 
 Females often with a stinging organ. 
 
 B. With what appears to be a knot or hump on the peti- 
 ole or stem connecting the thorax and the abdomen. 
 True Ants. Formicoidea. 
 
 *See Fig. 117. 
 
162 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 BB. Without the knot-hke structure on the petiole. 
 
 C. First segment of the posterior tarsi hairy and adapted 
 for carrying pollen. Bodies frequently liairy and 
 rather stout. Bees. Apoidea. 
 CC. First segment of posterior tarsi not adapted for car- 
 rying pollen. Usually naked forms or with few- 
 hairs. (Exceptions are not rare.) 
 D. With the fore wings having a single longituchnal 
 fold or pleat when at rest. True Wasps. Ves- 
 poidea. 
 DD. Front wings not folded when at rest. Digger- 
 wasps. Sphecoidea. 
 
CHAPTER XTII 
 THE INSECT COLLECTION 
 
 For the beginner as well as for the older student of 
 entomology, the collection of insects is the most fascinat- 
 ing phase of the work. It necessitates getting out into 
 the open. It develops the powers of observation and 
 affords at the same time a profitable study and a never- 
 failing source of amusement. And it need not be con- 
 fined to the warm months. The winter insect fauna is 
 extensive enough to furnish the excuse for many rambles 
 over the snowclad landscape. Winter studies of insects 
 are not only possible, but extremely necessary for the 
 person who wishes to learn of insects not only in their 
 active stages, but throughout their entire lives. 
 
 105. Collector's Outfit. The collectors outfit may be 
 simple or elaborate. The one who learns to take and 
 care for specimens with the simplest possible apparatus 
 will be least likely to lose desirable specimens on ac- 
 count of lack of equipment. The first necessity is the 
 killing-bottle. The standard killing-bottle is made of any 
 wide-mouthed bottle into which is put a little pure po- 
 tassium cyanide. This substance is a deadly poison, but no 
 danger attends its use if its nature is borne in mind and 
 the simplest care is exercised. 
 
 To make up a four-ounce cyanide bottle, pour a 
 scant teaspoonful of small lumps of the cyanide into 
 the bottle. Next, mix some plaster of Paris with water 
 until it is just thin enough to pour readily. Cover the 
 
 163 
 
164 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 cyanide in the bottom of the bottle with this. Allow the 
 plaster to set and to dry thoroughly, place some absorbent 
 paper loosely in the bottle and keep tightly corked to pre- 
 vent its losing strength. This bottle will be effective for 
 an entire season and cannot harm one who handles it 
 unless it is broken. Discarded bottles should be buried. 
 
 In addition to the cyanide bottle one should have 
 small boxes or tobacco tins for living specimens, others for 
 the specimen taken out of the cyanide bottle, where they 
 should be left only until they are certainly dead, and 
 some tubes of alcohol or formalin in which to place speci- 
 mens which are to be preserved in liquid. All larvae 
 should be taken alive or placed in the liquid, never in the 
 cyanide jars. There should be several cyanide jars for 
 the different types of insects. Moths and butterflies 
 should be kept separated from other insects in the jars 
 and not more than one or two specimens of these should 
 go into the same jar at one time. 
 
 Any bag or knapsack in which a sufficient quantity of 
 these materials can be carried safely is a good collecting 
 bag. 
 
 Many collectors, especially beginners, think of the net 
 as a most necessary part of the equipment. The experi- 
 enced collector uses a net for comparatively few of his 
 captures. Specimens which can be taken without the 
 net are likely to be taken in better condition if it 
 is not used. Experience alone will teach where it must 
 be used. Satisfactory nets can now be purchased very 
 cheaply, or they can be made at home. The requisites 
 are: a bag of any light but strong m^aterial, from eight 
 to twelve inches in diameter and from twelve to twenty 
 inches deep; a strong metal ring firmly attached to a 
 light handle not more than three feet long. Special nets 
 
THE INSECT COLLECTION 
 
 165 
 
 may be desired with longer handles. A large and strong 
 clasp knife or, better, a sheath knife, may well complete 
 the outfit for ordinary general collecting. 
 
 Experience, again, must teach where the insects are to 
 be found. It should be borne in mind that there are few 
 situations where some sort of insect hfe does not exist. 
 Special equipment for collecting aquatic forms is required. 
 This can always be improvised and no collection should be 
 
 Fig. 118. — Design for Insect-net Frame. 
 
 1, Heavy spring-wire ring; 2, detail of end of handle; a, groove into which 
 the wire at o, on figure of ring fits; b, clamp; c, holes into which ends of the 
 wire at c on the ring fit. 
 
 considered representative which does not include the in- 
 sect life of the near-by waters. 
 
 Electric lights are quite a prolific source of specimens 
 for the collector, but they teach nothing of the habits of 
 the insects except that they are attracted to lights and 
 are night flyers. 
 
 106. Mounting Specimens. The equipment for mount- 
 ing and preserving the specimens may, like the collectors 
 outfit, be either simple or elaborate. For adult specimens 
 pins are usually considered necessary, and a place to keep 
 the pinned specimens is no less so. Insect pins must be 
 
166 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 purchased but are fairly cheap and within the reach of 
 all. Never try to mount specimens with ordinary pins. 
 Aside from the pins nothing needs be purchased. Cigar 
 boxes, lined with pith or corrugated pasteboard, make 
 very satisfactory storage places for the beginner's collec- 
 tion and not a few insects in the larger collections are 
 stored in such receptacles. From these one may go up 
 the scale through the homema,de boxes with either glass 
 
 Fig. 119. — Details of the Frame Work for an Exibition Case to be Made 
 at Home or in the School Laboratory. 
 
 or wooden cover, the homemade or purchased cabinet, 
 with drawers for the specimens, the specially made box 
 of the "Schmitt" type to the most modern metal boxes in 
 metal cabinets. Very cheap and serviceable exhibition 
 cases with glass tops, suitable for home use or for the 
 rural or even the city school, may be made at home or 
 by the local carpenter. Get at any planing mill some 
 strips of "nosing" about two and three-quarters inches 
 
THE INSECT COLLECTION 167 
 
 wide by three-quarters thick. Have a groove one-eighth 
 inch wide and three-eighths deep, cut two and three- 
 eighths inches from the flat edge. Cut these strips in a 
 mitre box into lengths suitable for the size cases desired, 
 twelve inches by sixteen or eighteen is a good size. Var- 
 nish outside and paint white inside. Now, for bottoms, 
 take two thicknesses of corrugated pasteboard, such as is 
 used for packing. Cut these to the size of the inside of 
 the frame. Tack or glue them to a board cut just the 
 size of the outside of the frame. Paste clear white paper 
 over the pasteboard and a very neat pinning surface is 
 secured. Glass may be secured cut so that it will just 
 fit in the grooves already cut in the frame pieces. The 
 frame is completed by nailing the corners together with 
 small finish nails. This should be done before the varnish- 
 ing of the outside. The inner surfaces should be painted 
 before the nailing is done. The bottom may be fastened 
 with brads or with small hooks. The specimens are 
 pinned in the desired order on the bottom and the frame 
 then placed over them. Thej^ are then in good shape for 
 preservation and may be placed on the wall for an exhibit. 
 
 A box as described may be made in the manual training 
 department of any school, and makes an excellent exercise 
 for the members of the class. The cost for materials should 
 be less than twenty-five cents per box. 
 
 These boxes are suitable mostly for adult insects, but 
 some of the other stages may be kept in them also. Some 
 forms will have to be kept in liquid. These are not usu- 
 ally so suitable for exhibition purposes and may be stored 
 as convenient. Vials with specimens in liquid are fre- 
 quently pinned right in the boxes with the adults and 
 should be so kept where they are in such condition as 
 to show anything of the original form and color. 
 
168 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 .#> 
 
 107. Method of Pinning Insects. 
 
 The preparation of the specimens 
 for the cabinet or exhibition case 
 requires some care, lots of patience, 
 and as much practice as one can 
 get. Beetles should be pinned 
 through the right wing cover, 
 near the base. So should grass- 
 hoppers and their relatives. All 
 other insects should be pinned 
 through the middle of the thorax 
 between the bases of the front 
 wings. The pin should be so placed 
 as to have the head of the insect 
 slightly higher than the opposite 
 end, and about one-fourth or one- 
 fifth of the length of the pin 
 should be allowed to project above 
 the body of the insect. 
 
 Different sizes of pins are made 
 so that the different insects may 
 be accommodated. Nevertheless, 
 there are many kinds that are 
 too small to be pinned without 
 serious damage. These may be 
 mounted on points. Points are 
 made usually of stiff paper or light 
 cardboard cut into "points" one- 
 fourth inch long and about one- 
 
 FiG. 120. — Methods of Pinning Insects. 
 
 1, Beetle, showing slant of body on pin; 2, 
 beetle showing where pin is inserted ; 3, grass- 
 hopper, showing where pin is inserted; 4, true 
 bug, showing where pin is inserted ; 5, pointed 
 insect, showing method of pointing. 
 
THE INSECT COLLECTION 
 
 169 
 
 sixteenth inch wide at the base and tapering to a point, the 
 width of the point depending to some extent on the size of 
 the insect to be mounted. These points are pinned, the pin 
 being placed as near to the base as possible. The insect 
 is glued to the other end of the point, glue, shellac or 
 Canada balsam being used for the sticking material. The 
 point is so arranged 
 that it reaches only to 
 the middle of the 
 under side of the in- 
 sect, the insect being 
 in such a position that 
 the head points forward 
 while the insect is to 
 the left of the pin. 
 
 Still smaller insects 
 may be mounted in 
 Canada balsam or gly- 
 cerine on glass slides 
 for study under the 
 microscope. 
 
 All insects collected 
 should be labeled. For 
 pinned insects this is 
 accomphshed by pin- 
 ning small slips of paper 
 
 with the desired data on the pin just beneath the insect. 
 Several such slips may be used. The data placed on the 
 slips should include the date, the locality and the name 
 of the collector, the latter being the least important. In 
 many cases the name of the plant upon which the insect 
 was found is added. Notebook data may be and should 
 be more extensive. It is a good plan to have accession 
 
 Fig. 121. — Insect Collection Arranged 
 in Home-made Exhibition Cases. 
 
17Q SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 numbers pinned on each specimen, these numbers refer- 
 ring to similar numbers in the notebook under which all the 
 data are recorded. For reared specimens this is the only 
 way to keep full accounts of the Hfe histories of the specimen. 
 Card note systems are much more convenient than the 
 older notebooks, but the collector will make his own 
 choice in this. 
 
 108. Spreading Board. Moths and butterflies must be 
 spread on a spreading board which is another requisite 
 
 for the outfit. The spread- 
 ing board consists essen- 
 tially of two smooth pieces 
 of board, which must be of 
 some softwood, wide enough 
 to accommodate the wings 
 
 of the specimens, placed 
 Fig. 122. — Spreading; Board Show- .,, . , 
 
 T./, f T31 ■ +u o With a groove between 
 
 ing Manner of Placing the Spec- ° 
 
 imen for Drying. them for the body of the 
 
 insect. Below this groove 
 must be some soft material for the pin to stick in and 
 support the insect. The boards must be arranged so 
 that the insect's wings will slant upward from the body 
 very slightly. These parts are mounted so that they 
 will be firm. The figure accompanying the description 
 will suggest the details of construction. 
 
 Insects placed on the spreading board should be pinned 
 so that the bases of the wings are at exactly the same 
 height as the edges of the boards. The front wings are 
 laid flat on the board and pinned with their hind margins 
 at right angles to the body, and the hind wings are then 
 drawn forward so that their front margins are concealed 
 beneath the front wings. Next a strip of blotting paper or 
 other material is pinned over the wings, care being taken 
 
THE INSECT COLLECTION 171 
 
 to see that no pin goes through the wing tissue. The 
 original temporary pins are taken from the wings and the 
 specimen is allowed to dry for several days. When thor- 
 oughly dry the wings will remain in position. Specimens 
 must be spread before they dry out and the wings "set." 
 Otherwise they must be relaxed and this is never a satisfac- 
 tory operation. Grasshoppers and other insects are some- 
 times placed on the spreader and have only the wings on 
 one side spread, but generally the only insects spread are 
 the Lepidoptera and some Neuropterous forms. 
 
 109. Breeding-cage. Life-history collections are of the 
 greatest value and students should be encouraged to get 
 all stages of as many insects as possible. This is some- 
 times easiest done by getting eggs or larvse and keeping 
 them in breeding cages while they undergo their trans- 
 formations. Many things may serve as such breeding 
 cages. The qualities required are some ventilation and 
 proper moisture and temperature, as well as regular feed- 
 ing. A simple breeding-cage for small insects is a lan- 
 tern globe set on a flowerpot filled with soil and having 
 a piece of cheesecloth tied over the top. Food may be 
 given day by daj^ or may be furnished by plants grown 
 in the pot. 
 
 Larger cases may be made specially. A very satis- 
 factory one is figured. It is merely a box made to fit a 
 window. The outer side is enclosed with wire screen, 
 while the doors are of glass. There may be two or more 
 compartments in such a cage. It is better to have gal- 
 vanized iron pans made to fit the bottom. These may 
 be filled with sand or soil or they may contain water. 
 In the latter case the breeding-cage makes an excellent 
 aquarium for aquatic forms. Local conditions will gov- 
 ern the form of breeding-cage most used. The main 
 
172 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 thing is not the cage but the careful attention given the 
 insects. Without this care and the observation it in- 
 volves the greater part of the value of rearing insects will 
 be lost. 
 
 Much more might be said on the subject of rearing 
 insects as well as about the apparatus for the collector 
 and the equipment in the laboratory. Just as good re- 
 sults may be expected, however, from allowing the stu- 
 
 ■tjaar tt^'j^ -^"^ ' "^^^^^ 
 
 pr j 
 
 
 1 \ jBnf' ^l^ 
 
 nf^mgm 
 
 ^^^^^^^^K^^^^<^ 
 
 Fig. 123. — Window Breeding-cage. 
 
 dent to work out his own methods, merely being careful 
 to see that the conventional methods of mounting are fol- 
 lowed so that the specimens will not lose their value for 
 exchange with other collections. While all the equipment 
 here described is simple and inexpensive and it is not 
 necessary to have anything more elaborate, it does add to 
 the satisfaction of the work if some of the materials can 
 be purchased from the manufacturers of entomological 
 supplies, as these are in better position to make goods 
 
THE INSECT COLLECTION 
 
 173 
 
 exactly adapted to the needs of the subject than the ama- 
 teur can be. 
 
 110. Protection from Injury. The collection, after it is 
 completed is sul)jcct to the attacks of many pests and 
 may also be injured by dust, mold, rusting of pins and a 
 variety of causes. 
 
 Boxes with tightly fitting lids are the best protection 
 against the insect pests but even these will not entirely 
 prevent injury, as the insects will steal into the boxes while 
 
 Fig. 124. — A Group of Butterflies Arranged in a " Riker Mount " 
 on Cotton for Decorative Purposes. 
 
 they are opened for study. These pests are most abun- 
 dant and destructive in warm weather but work to some 
 extent throughout the year, especially in warm rooms. 
 
 To free the collect'on from pests requires a consider- 
 able amount of care. If the boxes are not tightly closed, 
 cigar boxes for instance, they may all be placed in a large, 
 paper-lined goods box for which a tight lid has been made, 
 and fumigated. The best substance for this fumigation 
 is carbon bisulphide. This will be still more effective 
 if the boxes are opened slightly before they are placed in 
 
174 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the fumigating box. Place the carbon bisulphide in an 
 open dish near the top of the box. Use at the rate of 
 about one ounce to ten cubic feet of space. Be sure to 
 have the temperature at least 65° to 70° F. Keep fire 
 away as the material is explosive. Repeat the fumigation 
 once every month or six weeks during the warm weather, 
 or whenever any signs of the injurious insects appear. 
 
 As protection against mold and similar troubles be sure 
 to have the insects reasonably dry before they are closed 
 up tightly and permanently, then keep the collection in a 
 dry place. Insect boxes must be handled with care at 
 all times to avoid breaking legs, antennae and other deli- 
 cate structures from the specimens by jarring. 
 
 111. Microscopes. In addition to the equipment neces- 
 sary for collecting and mounting insects a little more is 
 required for their study. Of this, the most important 
 part is the microscope or lens. The most useful lens will 
 be a hand lens magnifying about twenty diameters. Pro- 
 vided with such a lens the student will seldom need a 
 compound microscope. A good plan for a beginning 
 course in entomology is for the class to be furnished with 
 two or three compound microscopes and for each mem- 
 ber of the class to have his own hand lens. 
 
PART II— ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS 
 
 112. House Flies (26).* The house fly is too well known 
 to need description. It will hardly be confused with any 
 other species except, possibly, the stable fly (p. 180), from 
 which it may be distinguished by the absence of the strong 
 piercing mouth-parts — which enable the latter species to 
 bite— and by the six dark lines on the thorax. Smaller flies 
 belong to other species, contrary to the popular notion that 
 little flies grow larger as the season advances. Careful 
 counts have shown that practically 99 per cent of the flies 
 found in dining-rooms are house flies. 
 
 "Musca domestica commonly lays its eggs on horse 
 manure. This substance seems to be its favorite larval 
 food. It will oviposit on cow manure, but we have not been 
 able to rear it in this substance. It will also breed in human 
 excrement, and from this habit it becomes very dangerous 
 to the health of human beings, carrying, as it does, the germs 
 of intestinal diseases such as typhoid fever and cholera 
 from excreta to food supplies. It will also lay its eggs on 
 other decaying vegetable and animal material, but of the 
 
 *Musca domestica Linn. Family Muscidoe, see page 14L Numbers 
 in parentheses refer to publications cited in Appendix A, which 
 should be consulted for more detailed information. 
 
 175 
 
176 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 flies that Infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on farms, 
 a vast proportion come from horse manure." (Howard.) 
 Where horse manure is not available it commonly breeds in 
 other manure or in fermenting vegetable material or slops. 
 The eggs hatch in about twenty-four hours, the larvae 
 or maggots become grown in from five to seven days, and 
 the pupal stage lasts about the same time, so that a complete 
 generation may develop in from ten days to two weeks, de- 
 pending upon the temperature. Each female lays about 
 
 Fig. 125. — The common house fly {Musca domestica). (After Howard, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 Puparium at left; adult next; larva and enlarged parts at right. All enlarged. 
 
 120 eggs in a batch and may lay four times, so that it is 
 evident that the species multiplies with extreme rapidity. 
 The adult flies hibernate over winter in attics, barns, etc., 
 and the pupae may hibernate in the soil or under manure or 
 straw. It is evident, therefore, that the first flies which 
 appear in the spring should be vigorously combated so as 
 to prevent the countless numbers to which they will give 
 rise later. 
 
 "In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public 
 works, bringing together large numbers of men for a longer 
 or shorter time, there is seldom the proper care of excreta, 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 177 
 
 and the carriage of typhoid germs from the latrines and 
 privies to food by flies is common and often results in epi- 
 demics of typhoid fever. ... In farmhouses in small com- 
 munities and even in the badly cared-for portions of large 
 cities typhoid germs are carried from excrement to food by 
 
 Fig. 126. — Window fly trap showing bait tray removed. 
 
 flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breed- 
 ing places of the house fly become most important elements 
 in the prevention of typhoid. 
 
 "In the same way other intestinal germ diseases are 
 carried by flies. The Asiatic cholera, dysentery, and in- 
 fantile diarrhea are also carried. . . . There is strong cir- 
 
178 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 cumstantial evidence that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, oph- 
 thalmia, small-pox, tropical sore, and parasitic worms may 
 be, and are, so carried. Actual laboratory proof exists in 
 the cases of a number of these diseases, and where lacking, is 
 replaced by circumstantial evidence amounting almost to 
 certainty." (Howard.) 
 
 The screening of windows and doors and the use of sticky 
 fly-papers are preventive measures known to all. A two 
 per cent solution of formaldehyde will destroy the flies and 
 may be placed in shallow saucers to which they will be at- 
 tracted. Adding milk or syrup and dropping in a piece of 
 bread will make it more attractive. Where flies or mos- 
 quitoes become too numerous they may be destroyed by 
 fumigating with pyrethrum powder. About one pound 
 should be used for every 1000 cubic feet of space. Place 
 the powder on pans, dampening with a little kerosene into 
 cone shapes, to facilitate burning. Make all windows and 
 doors as tight as possible, light the cones, and leave over 
 night. The fumes are not poisonous to persons and will not 
 injure furnishings. The chief effort in the control of house 
 flies should be directed toward preventing their breeding in 
 horse manure, for a single stable will supply flies for a whole 
 neighborhood. As far as possible manure should be kept 
 in a tight box or pit which can be properly screened where 
 necessary. Recent experiments * of the U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture (26) have shown that the eggs and maggots in 
 the manure may be destroyed by the use of borax or calcined 
 colemanite. Ten ounces of borax or 12 ounces of calcined 
 colemanite should be used for every 10 cubic feet (8 bushels), 
 of manure immediately upon its removal from the barn. 
 Apply the borax with a flour sifter or any fine sieve, particu- 
 larly around the edges of the pile, for there is where most of 
 * Bulletin 118, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 179 
 
 Fig. 127. — Top of garbage can with small balloon fly trap of the 
 Hodge type attached. (After Bishopp, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 
 ^--\ 
 
 Fig. 128.- 
 
 -Conical hoop fly trap; side view. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
 (After Bishopp, U. S. 
 
 .4, hoops forming frame at bottom; B, hoops forming frame at top; C, top 
 of trap made of barrel head; D, strips around door ; E, door frame ; F, screen on 
 door; G, buttons holding door; //, screen on outside of trap; /, strips on side of 
 trap between hoops; J, tips of these strips projecting to form legs; K, cone; L, 
 united edges of screen forming cone; .1/, aperture at apex of cone. 
 
180 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the eggs are laid and where the maggots congregate, and 
 sprinkle two or three gallons of water over the treated 
 manure. Such treatment should be given with each addi- 
 tion of fresh manure to the pile, but where it is kept in 
 closed boxes, less frequent treatment will be required. This 
 treatment is cheap and is well worth while. A maggot-trap 
 has also been devised (see 26), for the treatment of horse 
 manure, by which the maggots may be easily and cheaply 
 removed from horse manure. 
 
 Sanitary privies are absolutely necessary for the pre- 
 vention of the spread of disease by flies in country districts 
 (39). These should be required in all public places such as 
 schools, railway stations, etc., and private owners should 
 install their own in self-defense. The "wet system" should 
 be used so that the surface may be kept covered with kero- 
 sene and all possibility of fly-contamination be thus pre- 
 vented. Fly traps (see 40c) should be used on garbage 
 cans, and can be bought at most hardware stores. These 
 will catch quantities of flies and similar home-made traps 
 placed in barn windows, in barns, and wherever flies 
 assemble, will very materially aid in reducing their numbers. 
 
 113. The Stable Fly (27).* The stable fly is so called on 
 account of its habitual presence in stables, where it becomes 
 a serious nuisance by biting cattle and horses. It closely 
 resembles the common house fly, but may be distinguished 
 by its strong mouth-parts, which enable it to make a sharp 
 "bite," and by the black spots on the abdomen (Fig. 129). 
 On this account stable flies are sometimes called "biting 
 house flies" by those who do not distinguish them, and the 
 saying has come that "flies bite before a storm," because 
 the stable flies enter houses and are more annoying just be- 
 fore a storm. The stable fly has recently come into prom- 
 * Stomoxys calcitrans Linn. Family il/MSCidoe, see page 14L 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 
 
 181 
 
 inence as the possible means of the transmission of infantile 
 paralysis, though this indictment now seems unsubstanti- 
 ated, and probably is the means of transmitting other 
 diseases. 
 
 The life history is much the same as that of the house 
 fly, but development takes place more slowly, the complete 
 life cycle requiring three or foiu' weeks under favoraljle con- 
 ditions. Although the larvae live in horse manure they have 
 
 Fig. 129. — The stable fly or biting house fly {Stomoxys calcilrans). 
 Adult, larva, puparium, and details. All enlarged. (After 
 Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 been found much more abundant in straw, particularly 
 oat straw, and in manure where straw has been used 
 liberally. 
 
 The same methods of control as advocated for the house 
 fly are advisable around stables, and the leaving of strawy 
 manure in piles and allowing the barnyard to become knee 
 deep in it, furnish the best conditions for the development 
 of these flies. In the grain belt, where large loose stacks of 
 straw are scattered over the fields, heavy summer and fall 
 
182 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 rains will make them ideal breeding places for the stable fly. 
 Animals scatter the straw and add manure, which makes 
 conditions more favorable. It is important, therefore, that 
 straw which is to be fed be stacked with the sides nearly- 
 vertical and the tops rounding, so as to shed rain. All straw 
 not required for feed should be burned or, better, scattered 
 
 .,^i 
 
 Fig. 130. — Hodge type window trap. At left, trap with end removed 
 to show construction; at right, cross-section of trap placed in a 
 window. (After Bishopp, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 A, end of trap; B, upper side of folds in screen; C, lower side of folds in screen; 
 D, portion of end of trap sawed out and returned after attaching screen; E, holes 
 along apex of folds; F, door for removing dead flies; G, window sill; H, upper 
 window sash; /, inside entrance for flies; O, outside entrances. 
 
 over the fields and plowed under. Stacks not used during 
 the winter should be destroyed in the spring, before the 
 flies commence to multiply rapidly. In portions of a stack 
 of straw in Gainesville, Texas, in March, 1913, as many as 
 300 pupae were found in a single cubic foot of straw. 
 
 The flies may be caught as they enter or leave the stable 
 by means of traps built in the window frames, as devised by 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 183 
 
 Prof. C. F. Hodge (see 40c). They should be placed in 
 windows on the brightest side of the barn and near to the 
 cows or horses within. Other windows should be darkened 
 by hanging canvas or sacks over them, so as not to interfere 
 with ventilation, but so as to drive the flies to the lighter 
 window. Fig. 130 shows the construction of the trap. At 
 the bottom a space about one-fourth of an inch wide, running 
 entirely across the window, is left on both sides of the frame. 
 Above this is placed a roof or ridge of screen wire having 
 holes large enough for the flies to pass through punched 
 through its top at two-inch intervals. To capture the house 
 flies suitable bait is placed in the pans beneath this ridge. 
 The flies ascend through the holes and are then unable to 
 escape. The sides of the trap are also made of wire screen- 
 ing bent inward and upward in two horizontal folds across 
 the window, one toward the bottom and one toward the top. 
 The ends of the screen are tacked tight and a series of small 
 holes are punched along the inner edge of each of the folds. 
 The angles of these folds should not be too sharp and less 
 than 45° or the flies will not go up the angle. In trying to 
 go in and out of the window the flies enter the holes at the 
 apex of the fold, but are then unable to escape, as on the in- 
 side the holes are on the projecting ridge and are not found 
 by the flies, which seek the light. Portable traps made on 
 much the same plan may be used within the stable. 
 
 114. Mosquitoes (28, 34, 38, 46, 57).* Formerly mos- 
 quitoes were regarded merely as aggravating nuisances, but 
 in recent years we have come to learn that certain species 
 are among the most important carriers of disease, so that 
 the whole problem of mosquito control has assumed new 
 interest. The common house mosquito f (46), is entirely 
 innocent of carrying disease, so far as we know, but about 
 * Family Culicidw, see page 133. f Culex pipiens. 
 
184 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 fifteen years ago it was demonstrated that nearly related 
 species of the genus Anopheles are responsible for the trans- 
 mission of malarial fever and that the dreaded yellow fever 
 is spread by the yellow-fever mosquito.* Indeed, these 
 diseases are spread entirely by mosquitoes. As a result 
 of this knowledge Havana and Panama have been prac- 
 tically freed from yellow fever, and large areas of country, 
 formerly almost uninhabitable on account of malaria, have 
 been reclaimed. The yellow-fever mosquito is strictly a 
 southern species, but different species of the malarial mos- 
 quitoes are found in all sections of the country. The latter 
 (Anopheles) may be distinguished from the common mos- 
 quitoes by the fact that their wings are marked with black- 
 ish spots, the palpi of the females are as long as the pro- 
 boscis or beak, and when they rest on a wall or ceiling the 
 body is held at an angle from the surface, while those of the 
 common species are parallel to it. 
 
 Mosquitoes usually hibernate as adults in houses, barns, 
 or whatever retreats they can find. With the first warm 
 days of spring the females lay their eggs on the nearest per- 
 manent pools and then die. The larvse of different species 
 have quite different food habits and hence are found in 
 different places, but practically all live in stagnant water, 
 and do not develop in damp grass or vegetation as commonly 
 supposed. The common house mosquito breeds in rain 
 barrels, open tanks or cisterns, in puddles, ditches, tin cans, 
 ponds, etc. Occasionally a clogged eaves trough will harbor 
 enough water to allow a generation to mature in the water 
 collected. The eggs are laid on the surface of the water and 
 hatch in a day or two. The larvsB are the well-known 
 "wrigglers," and feed on small animals and vegetable life 
 in the water. Those of the house mosquito may be seen 
 * ^des calopMS Meig. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 185 
 
 hanging from the surface of the water, through which they 
 breathe by means of a long air-tube attached to the tip of 
 abdomen, while those of the malarial mosquitoes lie parallel 
 
 Fig. 131. — A malaria mosquito {Anopheles quadrimaculatus) . 
 Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) All greatly enlarged, 
 o, eggs; fc, larva; c, pupa; d, male, and e, female adulta. 
 
 (After 
 
 to the surface and do not have the air-tube. When grown 
 the larvae change to the curiously shaped pupae (Fig. 131), 
 •which have breathing tubes attached to the thorax. In hot 
 
186 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 weather the complete hfe cycle may be completed in two 
 weeks and as each egg-mass contains from 75 to 200 eggs, 
 mosquitoes multiply very rapidly. It is only the females 
 which have piercing mouth-parts enabling them to "bite," 
 the mouth-parts of the males being more feeble and being 
 used for sucking vegetable juices, which are, doubtless, the 
 natural food of both sexes. The males may be distinguished 
 from the females by their feathery antennae. 
 
 The best means of mosquito control is to prevent the 
 development of the larvse, which may be done by abolishing 
 their breeding places or so treating them as to kill the larvse. 
 In many sections where mosquitoes have been a plague, 
 notably in New Jersey, large areas have been drained or 
 filled at public expense for this purpose. Usually many 
 breeding places may be found which can very easily be 
 eradicated. The introduction of fish will aid in ridding 
 ponds of mosquitoes. Where this is not possible breeding 
 places should be treated with low-grade kerosene, fuel-oil, or 
 some larvacide, which will destroy the larvse and pupae 
 through their breathing tubes. Use twelve ounces of kero- 
 sene to fifteen square feet of surface, or one-half cupful for a 
 barrel. Houses should, of course, be screened and in some 
 places it will be necessary to screen verandas with fine-meshed 
 screening. Rain-barrels, cisterns and other water receptacles 
 should be screened. Possibly the best repellent for mos- 
 quitoes is oil of citronella and for their bites nothing is better 
 than ammonia. Where they have become over-numerous 
 in a room they may be destroyed by burning pyrethrum 
 powder (page 178). Rooms and cellars may also be fumi- 
 gated with "cuhcide" (38) or by burning sulphur (page 336). 
 
 115. Fleas. The fleas (29, 51) most commonly annoying 
 in houses are the common cat or dog flea.* The adults are 
 
 * Ctenocephalus canis Curt. Order Siphnnaptera, see page 38. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 
 
 187 
 
 wingless have the body strongly compressed laterally, are 
 provided with sucking mouth-parts, and have strong hmd 
 legs which enable them to jump considerable distances. 
 The female lays her eggs in the hair of the dog or cat, from 
 which they become scattered, and the young develop m 
 cracks of the floor, under carpets, in rubbish, etc. In such 
 
 Fjg. 132.— Cat and dog flea {Ctenocephalus canis). (After U. S. Dept. 
 
 Agr.) 
 
 J orliiU- p mmith-Darts of same from 
 enlarged. 
 
 situations the larv^ feed on either animal or vegetable mat- 
 ter The larvse are slender, worm-like creatures, scarcely 
 an eighth of an inch long, are quite active, and become grown 
 in about two weeks. They then spin delicate, silken co- 
 coons, in which they transform to pup^ and from which the 
 adults emerge in a few days. In warm, damp weather a 
 whole generation may develop in a fortnight, although or- 
 
188 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 dinarily about a month is required. Often when a house 
 in which a cat or dog has been kept is closed up for the sum- 
 mer, the fleas will multiply rapidly and the house will be 
 found alive with them when opened. 
 
 Where cats or dogs are kept they should be provided 
 with a rug on which to sleep and this should be given a fre- 
 quent shaking and brushing. Dusting the hair of a dog or 
 cat copiously with pyrethrum powder over a paper will cause 
 many of the fleas to fall off partly stupefied and they may 
 be destroyed. The best means to rid these animals of fleas 
 is to dip them in a tepid bath containing creolin or carbolic 
 solution. Where houses become infested they should be 
 thoroughly cleaned and gasoline or benzine should be in- 
 jected into the floor cracks. Badly infested houses may be 
 rid of fleas by fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas (see 
 page 336). 
 
 116. Bedbugs. Probably no other insect is so thoroughly 
 detested as the bedbug * (32) by the good housewife, who 
 ofttimes considers herself disgraced by its mere presence. 
 Such a feeling is hardly warranted, for they are often intro- 
 duced by servants or are brought in after traveling, but 
 failure to get rid of them as soon as possible certainly is dis- 
 graceful. The full-grown adult is about one-fourth of an 
 inch long by half as wide, of an oval shape, reddish-brown in 
 color, wingless, and has a very characteristic, disagreeable 
 odor. Bedbugs are mostly nocturnal in their habits, and 
 after feeding upon the sleeping individual will again conceal 
 themselves in crevices. Partial relief from them may some- 
 times be secured by keeping a light burning. The small 
 whitish eggs are laid in masses in the hiding places and from 
 them the small whitish young emerge in a week or two. The 
 length of time for the development of the adult depends 
 * Cimex lectularius Linn. Family Acanthiidce, see page 60. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 189 
 
 upon the food supply, as they are able to go for long periods 
 without food. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 S 2 
 
 sJ 
 
 3 — ca 
 
 £ ^ 
 
 3ja 
 
 03 3 
 
 The best remedy under ordinary circumstances is gaso- 
 line or kerosene. Every crevice in and about beds, and in 
 
190 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 adjacent woodwork should be liberally treated. Another 
 application should be made in about two weeks. Unless 
 the walls and woodwork have become very badly infested, 
 thorough and persistent treatment will be effective, but in 
 such a case the building should be fumigated with hydro- 
 cyanic acid gas (see page 336). 
 
 117. Horse Bots.* Horses running in pasture are com- 
 monly infected with bots. The}^ are the maggots of a large, 
 brown, hairy fly, looking much like a bee, with a wing ex- 
 panse of about three-fourths of an inch. Horses instinct- 
 ively become nervous upon the approach of these flies, 
 which lay their small yellowish eggs, sometimes called "nits," 
 on the hair of the fore legs, shoulders and flanks. When the 
 horse licks these parts the eggs hatch and the little maggots 
 attach themselves to the tongue and then work their way 
 down the alimentary canal to the stomach. Here they 
 attach themselves to the walls, often occurring in such num- 
 bers as to form large patches. They continue growth during 
 the winter and the next spring they pass out through the in- 
 testines with the excrement and burrow into the ground, 
 where the pupal stage is passed. The adult flies emerge 
 a month or so later, there being but one generation a year. 
 The exact amount of damage which the bots do is a matter 
 of some dispute, but it is evident that when present in 
 large numbers they must irritate the lining of the stomach 
 and must absorb considerable nutriment both from the 
 stomach wall and the food in it. Cases have been observed 
 in which they have penetrated the wall of the stomach 
 and caused death. 
 
 During late summer horses kept in pasture should be 
 examined every two weeks and the eggs destroyed or re- 
 moved. This may be effected by washing the eggs with 
 * Gastrophilus equi Fab. Family (Estrid'je. See page 139. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 191 
 
 dilute carbolic acid, one part to thirty of water, by rubbing 
 the eggs over lightly with kerosene, or by clipping the hair 
 or shaving the eggs off with a sharp razor. Farmers some- 
 
 FlG. 134. — Portion of stomach wall showing points of attachment of 
 bots. (After Osborn, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 times hang a piece of fraj^ed rope from the throat-latch of a 
 horse in pasture, and claim that the flies will deposit most of 
 their eggs on it, and thus do no harm to the horse. If there 
 are indications of the bots doing 
 such serious injury as to require 
 internal treatment a veterinarian 
 should be consulted. 
 
 118. The Sheep Bot-fly or Head 
 Maggot.* The sheep bot-fly looks 
 something like an overgrown house 
 fly, the upper part of the head and thorax being dull yellow, 
 covered with small specks so as to give it a brown aj^pearance, 
 * CEstrus ovis Linn. Family (Estridw. See page 139. 
 
 Tig. 135.— Horse bot-fly. 
 
192 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and the abdomen is velvety dark brown variegated with straw 
 color. The fly has no mouth-parts and so takes no food. 
 The female lays the young maggots (the eggs having been 
 hatched in the body of the parent), in the nostrils of the 
 sheep. The attacks of the flies make the sheep frantic and 
 they will lie down and bury their noses in the dust, throw 
 dust in the air, and huddle together to try and ward off the 
 attack. The young larva works its way upward into the 
 frontal sinuses, the cavities between the plates of bone over 
 
 the eyes. It requires 
 about ten months for 
 the larva to become 
 mature, when it crawls 
 back into the nose 
 and is sneezed out. 
 Going an inch or two 
 below the surface of 
 the soil it transforms 
 to the pupa, from 
 which the adult fly 
 emerges in from four 
 to six weeks. When 
 the grubs become 
 numerous in the frontal sinuses they often cause very serious 
 injury, animals so affected losing their appetite, becoming 
 emaciated, discharging thick mucus from the nose, etc. 
 
 No entirely satisfactory method of control is known. 
 The best means is to smear coal-tar on the sheep's noses. If 
 one has but a few sheep this can be done now and then by 
 hand. Otherwise, place logs in which holes are bored with 
 a two-inch augur here and there in the pasture. Keep these 
 holes about half full of salt and the edges smeared with coal- 
 tar, so that it will get on the sheep's noses. Plowing a deep 
 
 Fig. 136. — Sheep bot-fly {(Eslrus ovis). 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 1, 2, flies; 3, pupa; 4, full-grown larva. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 193 
 
 furrow across the pasture so that the sheep may stick their 
 noses in the dust when they are attacked is recommended. 
 Inasmuch as the flies are abroad only in the sunshine and 
 in the heat of the day, any kind of cheap shelter which will 
 afford shade and into which the sheep may run will prove a 
 welcome refuge for them from the flies. Four posts with 
 any sort of a roof and bagging hanging loose down the sides 
 will be sufficient. When the maggots become established 
 in the head there is practically nothing which can be done 
 to remove them except an operation — trephining — which 
 must be done by a skillful veterinary surgeon and will only 
 be practicable for valuable breeding stock. 
 
 119. The Ox Warble.* The ox warble (21), also known 
 as "bot-fly" or "heel-fly," is the cause of "grubby" hides 
 of cattle and in the grazing regions of the West and South- 
 west is the cause of considerable loss to both hides and beef. 
 Cattle allowed to run in pasture for the summer are always 
 more or less affected with the grubs, particularly if the owner 
 is not careful to destroy them. The holes in the hides, and 
 the loss in weight and quality, make the warble one of the 
 worst insect pests of cattle. 
 
 The adult fly is about the same size and of much the same 
 appearance as the honey-bee. It is about a half inch long, 
 blackish, and clothed with hairs. The edge of the head and 
 thorax and the base of the abdomen are covered with whitish 
 hairs. The upper part of the head and thorax and the 
 middle of the abdomen and legs are blackish-brown. The 
 tip of the body is reddish-brown. The flies lay their eggs 
 on cattle, not infrequently on the flanks and elsewhere, but 
 mostly just above the hoof, which latter habit has given 
 them the name "heel-fly." The presence of one of the flies 
 causes intense excitement among the cattle, often stampeding 
 * Hypoderma lineata Villers. Family (Estridce, see page 139. 
 
194 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 them through shrubbery or water to escape. As the fly 
 causes no pain it is evident that this fright is instinctive. 
 When the animal hcks the parts on which the eggs are laid, 
 the eggs hatch and the young larvae are taken to the mouth, 
 as in the case of the horse bot. They then penetrate the 
 walls of the oesophagus and migrate through the connective 
 tissues of the body for several months, working their way to 
 
 beneath the skin on the neck 
 and then backward until they 
 become lodged beneath the 
 skin in the region of the 
 back. The larva now makes 
 a hole through the skin so as 
 to secure air for breathing. 
 It develops rapidly, subsist- 
 ing on pus and serum which 
 its presence induces, and 
 causes a characteristic swell- 
 ing or tumor. When full 
 grown it is an inch or more 
 long so that it may cause 
 considerable irritation. It 
 then works its way out 
 through the hole which it 
 had made, drops to the ground, which it may enter, or it 
 may change to the pupa on the surface. The final trans- 
 formation to the adult fly takes place from three to six 
 weeks later, there being but one generation a year. 
 
 Various oils and repellent substances have been recom- 
 mended for smearing on cattle to prevent the attacks of 
 the flies, but it seems that there is no very conclusive evi- 
 dence of their efficacy, and it is certain that the applications 
 must be made every few days, so that such treatment is 
 
 Fig. 137. — Ox warble (Hypoderma 
 lineata), female, natural size 
 indicated by side line. (From 
 "Insect Life.") 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 195 
 
 entirely impracticable for cattle in a large pasture. The 
 best means of control is to examine the cattle carefully in 
 the winter and spring and to remove the maggots from be- 
 neath the skin as soon as they are in evidence. This can 
 be done by exerting a gentle pressure with the fingers on 
 either side of the hole and thus squeezing the maggot out. 
 A cheap pair of tweezers will aid in removing the younger 
 
 C^.( 'T^.^' 
 
 YB^ 
 
 Fig. 138. — Ox warble {Hypoderma lineata). (From "Insect Life.") 
 
 a. second stag? of larva from back; b and c, enlargement of extremities; d, 
 ventral view of third stage with details of extremities at e and /; g, dorsal view of 
 mature larva witli enlargement of anal spiracles at h; i, the same, lateral view; 
 natural size indicated by side lines. 
 
 ones. Inject a few drops of cresol or carbolic solution in 
 the wound after removing the maggot. It is sometimes 
 recommended to kill the maggots by applying grease and 
 other substances which will stop up the breathing hole and 
 kill them beneath the hide, but this is liable to cause festering. 
 
 120. The Horn Fly.* The little horn flies (23), which 
 cluster upon the horns of cattle, are among their most 
 
 * Hrcmatohia serrata Rob.-Desv. Family Muscidoe. See page 14L 
 
196 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 troublesome enemies. The horn fly resembles a very small 
 house fly, but like the stable fly (page 180), it has piercing 
 mouth-parts which enable it to pierce the skin and suck out 
 the blood, which forms its normal food. When the horn flies 
 assemble in large numbers on the shoulders and elsewhere 
 out of reach of the head or tail, they cause great annoyance, 
 
 Fig. 139. — Horn-fly (HcEmatobia serrata). Much enlarged. (After 
 Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, egg; b, larva; c, puparium; d, adult in resting position. 
 
 and have been thought to reduce the milk flow materially 
 and in many cases to cause loss of weight. 
 
 The flies lay their eggs upon freshly dropped cow dung. 
 The eggs hatch in about a day and the little white maggots 
 feed in the dung and become grown in a week or ten days. 
 They then change to pupae just at or below the surface of 
 the ground, and the adult flies emerge a few days later, the 
 whole life cycle requiring about two weeks. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 197 
 
 Various proprietary repellent solutions are in common use 
 for protecting cattle from flies. The principal objection to 
 them is that repeated applications are necessary to be ef- 
 fectual. If it is desired to use such sprays, a home-made 
 solution will be cheaper and equally effective. Use either 
 one part of pine tar with three parts of crude cottonseed oil 
 or fish oil, or three parts of crude carbolic acid to one hun- 
 dred parts of either of these oils. Cottonseed oil is less 
 offensive than fish oil, and cheaper. These may be applied 
 with a hand atomizer or sponge, but an atomizer or small 
 spray pump will use less material and apply it more evenly. 
 By having a man stand on either side of the door to spray 
 the cows as they enter the barn, dairy cows may be quickly 
 treated and the flies kept out of the barn. There seems to 
 be some question, however, as to the real efficacy of these 
 repellents, and whether they are really worth the cost. 
 Such experiments as have been carefully conducted are 
 rather inconclusive (24) on this point, but indicate that 
 whether the fly-sprays are profitable or not remains to be 
 determined. Undoubtedly they afford some relief for a 
 day or two. 
 
 Preventive measures seem more promising. If the de- 
 velopment of the maggots in the cow manure can be pre- 
 vented, no flies will occur. In small pastures where the 
 manure is often dropped in particular places, it is entirely 
 feasible to send a Ijoy around the field every few days and 
 let him spread out each dropping with a shovel, so that it 
 will dry out quickly in the sun. This is more necessary in 
 wet weather. At the barn, sprinkle lime or land plaster 
 over the manure every day or two, which will aid in pre- 
 venting the development of the maggots. Probably the 
 borax treatment advised for the house fly (page 178) will 
 be found even more elective. 
 
198 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 121. Cattle Lice. Two or three species of lice commonly 
 affect neglected cattle and one inhabits hogs. Of these the 
 first three belong to the true lice.* The most common is the 
 so-called Short-nosed Ox Louse.] It is a bluish or dark gray 
 color, about one-sixth of an inch long, and of the general 
 shape shown in Fig. 140. These lice frequent the neck and 
 shoulders of cattle, which sometimes become badly rubbed 
 
 Fig. 140. — Short-nosed ox-louse (Hcematopinus eurysternus) . (U. S. 
 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, female; 6, rostrum; c, ventral surface of the last segments of male; d, same 
 of female; e, egg; /, surface of same greatly enlarged. 
 
 by their efforts to be rid of them. The eggs are laid upon 
 the hair near the skin, and the young resemble the adults 
 in both structure and habits. Tho Lonj-nosed Ox Louse | is 
 very similar, except that the snout is more prolonged, but 
 it does not seem to be so injurious. Another somewhat 
 larger species of the same genus affects hogs.§ It is about 
 
 * Siphunculala, see page 37. 
 
 t Hcematopinus eurysternus Nitzsch. 
 
 I Hcematopinus vituli Linn. 
 
 § Hcematopinus urius Nitzsch. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 199 
 
 They are more common 
 
 one-fourth of an inch long, or a gray color, the body broadly 
 oval and the head narrow. 
 
 The Biting Cattle Louse * is so called because its 
 mouth-parts are fitted for biting instead of sucking, it be- 
 longing to the same order as the common hen louse. They 
 are recognized as " little red lice " b}^ cattle men, in con- 
 trast to the bluish sucking species 
 in spring, but are not injurious 
 unless occurring in very large 
 numbers. 
 
 Spraying the affected animal 
 with kerosene emulsion diluted 
 ten times, or with tobacco ex- 
 tract (Black-leaf 40, 1 part to 
 800), or rubbing the affected 
 parts with sulphur, lard and 
 sulphur, or lard and kerosene, 
 will destro}^ these lice. Usually 
 these parasites are introduced 
 into a herd on animals which 
 have been neglected, which should 
 be treated at once so as to pre- 
 vent further spread. Recent ex- 
 periments at the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
 tion indicate that one of the best means of eradicating these 
 lice is by the use of blue ointment. On cattle the hair should 
 be clipped close to the skin on a space half the size of one's 
 hand. On hogs appl}^ about two square inches, using only 
 enough to smear over the skin and rub on with the finger. 
 Apply the ointment in the crotches, back of the ears, be- 
 hind the shoulders or any place where the animal cannot lick 
 it. The ointment is a mercury preparation which can be 
 
 * Trichodectes scalaris Nitzsch. Order M:.llophaga. See page 37. 
 
 Fig. 141. — Long-no.sed ox- 
 louse {Hcemalopinus i^iluli.) 
 (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 Female, under surface of last 
 segments of abdomen of same, 
 showing brushlike organs, 
 larged. 
 
 En- 
 
200 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 secured cheaply at any drug store. Its exact effect on the 
 parasites is not known, but it has proven effective in ridding 
 animals of them and when used as directed there have been 
 absolutely no symptoms of any injury to the animals. 
 
 122. Horse Flies.* 
 The large black horse 
 flies or gad-flies (48) 
 are well-known pests 
 of both horses and 
 cattle, which they 
 torture with their 
 bites. Only the fe- 
 males, having piercing 
 mouth-parts, are 
 bloodsuckers, the 
 males feeding on the 
 pollen of flowers. The 
 large Black Horse Fly\ 
 is about one inch long 
 and has a wing expanse 
 of two inche?. It has 
 a short broad head, 
 large eyes, a thick 
 body, a short oval 
 abdomen and large 
 powerful wings, which enable it to keep up with the swiftest 
 horse. Particularly along shady roads in woodlands these 
 flies are often so abundant as to make driving difficult. 
 The smaller Greenheads,X so called from their large green 
 eyes, are more common near the water and are well known 
 
 * Family Tabanidce. See page 136. 
 t Tabanus atratus Fab. 
 X Tabanus lineola Fab. 
 
 Fig. 142.— The biting cattle-louse {Tri- 
 chodedcs scalaris), enlarged. (U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 201 
 
 to every bo}^ who has been swimming. Not only are the 
 attacks of these flies annoying to animals, but it is quite 
 probable that such diseases as anthrax may be carried by 
 blood-sucking flies from infected to healthy animals. 
 
 The larviE are long, pointed maggots, most of them living 
 in water or in swampy places or along the edges of streams 
 
 Fig. 143. — The black gadfly {Tabanus alratus). (After Garman.) 
 a, Male, b, larva — both twice natural size. 
 
 or ponds, and are carnivorous. In some parts of the coun- 
 try w^here there are large swamp areas, as along the Gulf 
 Coast, in Louisiana and Texas, these flies appear in such 
 numbers as to make it impossible to keep cattle at certain 
 seasons. 
 
 Nets or light covers and ear-nets will be appreciated by 
 
202 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 horses where these flies are abundant. Various repulsive 
 ointments have been suggested, but are of doubtful value. 
 In sections where the flies are particularly troublesome, the 
 draining of marshy lands may remove their breeding places 
 as well as those of mosquitoes. 
 
 123. The Sheep Tick.* The sheep tick is one of the best- 
 known pests of the sheep. It is not really a tick, but a wing- 
 less fly. It is about one-fourth of an inch long when grown, 
 
 and of a reddish-brown color. 
 The head is small and sunken 
 into the thorax. The middle of the 
 thorax is rather slender and the 
 abdomen is broad. This species 
 is distributed over the world and 
 lives only on sheep. These insects 
 are peculiar in that the eggs hatch 
 and the larvae develop within the 
 body of the female, which gives 
 birth to pupae, from which the 
 adults soon emerge. When the 
 old sheep are sheared the ticks 
 usually migrate to the unsheared 
 lambs. They may cause con- 
 siderable damage to sheep if abundant, which is often indi- 
 cated by the lack of growth and poor condition, and when 
 they mass on lambs their injury is often very serious. 
 
 The only satisfactory method of control is to dip the 
 sheep just before shearing and again in the fall before going 
 into winter quarters. Any of the cresol or creosote dips, 
 lime-and-sulphur, or the tobacco dips, whose labels state 
 that they are approved by the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, may be used as directed by the manufacturer. 
 * Melophagus ovinus Linn. Family Hippoboscidce. See page 139. 
 
 Fig. 144. — The sheep tick. 
 (Ky. Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 Greatly enlarged. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 203 
 
 Sheep should sta}' in the dip at least two minutes, so as to 
 get thoroughly wet, and the head should be ducked under. 
 Sheep introduced into the flock should be dipped so as to 
 prevent the introduction of ticks and other insect pests. 
 Spraying the pens or enclosures with zenoleum, cresol, or 
 any similar creosote preparation, or with kerosene emulsion, 
 will kill all wandering ticks and scab mites and is, therefore, 
 a good practice. 
 
 124. The Sheep Scab Mite.* The little mites (35, 49) 
 which cause sheep scab are not true insects, but belong to 
 the same class as spiders and all true mites. However, they 
 are commonly considered among the insect parasites of sheep, 
 of which they are probably the most important. The mite 
 is so small as to be scarcely recognizable without a magnify- 
 ing glass, the females being about one-fortieth of an inch 
 long and the males about one-sixtieth or about the size 
 of this period (.). They are light gray in color and resemble 
 minute spiders in shape, and have four pairs of legs, to the 
 third pair of which are attached some long thread-like 
 appendages. A female lays from 10 to 20 eggs which hatch 
 in from four to ten days. A new generation appears about 
 every two weeks so that the pest increases with enormous 
 rapidity and a sheep will soon become badly infested. Sheep 
 are the only animals affected. 
 
 The first symptom which will indicate the need of exam- 
 ination for scab mites, is the rubbing of the back, sides, or 
 tail of the sheep against some object, or its biting at these 
 parts, due to the itching caused by the mites. The infected 
 spot may at first be very small, so as almost to escape atten- 
 tion, consisting first of a yellowish, dandruff-like substance, 
 but if it is scratched the sheep will respond with a nibbling 
 motion of the mouth. Large patches are soon formed if the 
 * Psoroptes communis Furst. Class Arachnida. See page 21. 
 
204 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 animal is not treated. The innumerable little mites sucking 
 from the skin cause an intense irritation and a consequent 
 secretion of a large amount of serum. This forms at first a 
 dandruff and later a thick scab. As this goes on the wool 
 drops off, the sheep loses flesh, and presents a very unkempt 
 appearance. If badly infected and untreated, sheep may 
 be killed by the injury. The only sure diagnosis of the 
 
 
 i,' ,. 
 
 ^U 
 
 
 Fig. 145. — The sheep scab mite {Psoroples ovis). (After Good, Ky. 
 
 Agr. Exp. Sta.) 
 
 a, female; h, male — both very greatly enlarged. 
 
 scab is to find the mites. This can be done by placing some 
 of the suspected scabby material on a black background in 
 a warm place, when the small mites may be detected crawl- 
 ing around, the more readily by the aid of a magnifier. The 
 scab mites are spread from one animal to another by con- 
 tact and by the sheep coming in contact with sides of cars, 
 fences, or other objects against which scabby sheep have 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 
 
 205 
 
 rubbed. The most common source of infection is securing 
 sheep from stock yards. It is well, therefore, always to dip 
 sheep as soon as received. 
 
 The same dips as recommended for the sheep ticks will be 
 satisfactory if used according to directions, and one dipping 
 will kill both, as well as sheep lice. The tobacco dip should 
 contain at least seven one-hundredths of 1 per cent of 
 
 Fig. 146. — The sheep in the middle of the group is affected with a 
 shghtly advanced case of sheep scab, as is seen by the tufted wool 
 and bare spots on fore flank and crops. The other two sheep 
 represent advanced stages of the disease. (Ky. Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 nicotine when used. A nicotine-and-sulphur dip containing 
 not less than 5 100 of 1 per cent nicotine and 2 per cent 
 sulphur has been proven satisfactory in extensive tests. 
 The dipping should be repeated in ten or twelve days to 
 kill the mites hatched since the first dipping. It is best to 
 have the dip warm, about 100 to 105° Fahrenheit. If 
 scabby sheep are taken from buildings, the buildings should 
 be disinfected before returning healthy sheep to them. Pas- 
 
206 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 tures kept free from sheep and exposed to sunlight do not 
 remain infectious for more than thirty to sixty days. 
 
 125. Poultry Lice. Several species of biting-lice are 
 common upon poultry, but the most common is the Hen- 
 louse * (25). It is about one-twentieth of an inch long, pale 
 dull yellow with darker marks on each side of the body, 
 though often reddish or pinkish in color after feeding. The 
 small eggs or "nits" are attached 
 to the feathers near the quill and 
 may hatch in about eight days, or 
 under unfavorable conditions, may 
 lie dormant for several months. The 
 young lice are much the same as 
 when full grown. All of these biting 
 lice bite off the scales of the skin 
 and the edges of the feathers, but 
 do not suck the blood. The claws 
 of their feet are sometimes very 
 sharp, however, and by continual 
 scratching may draw blood which 
 is readily eaten by the lice and 
 accounts for their occasional reddish 
 color. They are quite hardy and may 
 live a long time without food. They 
 spread rapidly from one hen to 
 another on the roosts, from the nests, and from a hen to her 
 chicks, a setting hen in a foul nest furnishing them ideal food. 
 Little chicks are most susceptible and may die from their 
 attacks. The species on pigeons and geese are different, 
 as the species of bird lice usually have but one host. 
 
 To kill the lice on young chicks rub a pinch of lard under 
 the wings and a little on top of the head. A dust made of 
 * Menopon pallidum Nitzsch. Order Mallophaga, see page 37. 
 
 Fig. 147. — The common 
 hen -louse {Menopon 
 pallidum ). Greatly 
 enlarged. (U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 207 
 
 ten pounds of sulphur to a half bushel of air slaked lime, 
 mixed together, should be used for dusting the hens and 
 nests and be mixed with the dust bath. A thorough spray- 
 ing of the house with kerosene emulsion as advised for mites 
 will also be valuable. In a recent circular Dr. C. A. Lueder 
 (50) states that the lice may be killed by treatment with 
 blue ointment according to the following directions: "Re- 
 move some feathers from the back part of the body near the 
 vent. Take a pinch of ointment a little larger than a pea 
 and thoroughly' rub a portion of it where the feathers were 
 removed. Distribute tho balance evenly on the shanks 
 of the legs and the lice will disappear. Blue ointment should 
 be applied during the month of December and again about 
 one month before brooding . season. Blue ointment is a 
 medical preparation containing mercur}^, which is poisonous 
 when taken into the system by the mouth or absorbed through 
 the skin in large quantities. Young animals are very suscept- 
 ible to mercury, therefore none should be used on young 
 chickens. Healthy fowls six months old may be treated." 
 126. Poultry Mites. The Chicken Mite* (25) is the most 
 common mite affecting poultry and belongs to the same order 
 of mites as that causing the sheep scab (p. 203). It is an 
 oval, flattened mite about one-twentieth of an inch long, of 
 a pale gray color with darker spots, unless it has been feed- 
 ing, when it is more or less reddish with blood. The eggs are 
 laid in cracks and crevices where there is some manure or 
 filth and the young mites feed largely, if not entirely, on 
 filth. They become grown in about ten days and, therefore, 
 increase rapidly. The mites remain on the poultry only 
 while feeding and then retire into crevices, being most active 
 at night. Dark, damp houses are much worse infested than 
 those with good ventilation and plenty of sunlight. 
 
 * Dermanyssus gallinm Redi. Class Arachnida, see page 21. 
 
208 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The walls and roof of the poultry house should be brushed 
 clean of all dust and filth. The litter and nests should be 
 kept clean and fresh. Clean the house, scraping the roosts, 
 dropping boards and floors clean, and then spray with 10 
 per cent kerosene emulsion, lime-sulphur mixture or with a 
 whitewash made as follows: Take six pounds of powdered 
 sulphur and eight pounds of lump lime and place in a 
 
 Fig. 148. — The chicken mite {Dermanyssus gallince). (U. S. Dept. 
 
 Agr.) 
 
 a, adult; 6, tarsus; c, mouth-parts; d and e, young — all enlarged. 
 
 wooden tub. Add enough boiling water to slake and keep 
 the lime from burning and stir continually until cool. 
 Add more boiling water to make a whitewash. To every 
 gallon of whitewash add one pound of table salt and four 
 ounces of creohn. Another apphcation should be made in 
 four or five days to kill any mites which may hatch. 
 
 Another common mite is the one which causes "scaly 
 leg" and which attacks the feet, legs, comb and neck of 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 209 
 
 poultr}^, and is often known as the Itch Mite. This is a 
 much smaller species, which burrows beneath the skin and . 
 causes scales as does the sheep scab mite (p. 203). Under 
 these scales the mites live and multiply. 
 
 Wash the legs of affected fowls with warm soapsuds for 
 twenty minutes so as to soften the scales so that they may 
 be gently rubbed off without bleeding. Then apply lard 
 and kerosene, sulphur ointment, or an ointment made of 
 naphthalene crystals (moth balls), powdered and mixed 
 with nine parts of lard. An application of coal tar to the 
 scales on the legs has caused them to drop off without bleed- 
 ing and seems to be effective. Blue ointment has also 
 been used as described for hen lice (p. 206), with excellent 
 effect. 
 
 127. The Cattle Tick.* The cattle tick (22) is best 
 known as being the carrier of Texas or tick fever. This 
 disease is the most serious obstacle to the cattle industry in 
 the South and, therefore, to a better general agriculture. 
 The U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry (22) states "that the 
 Texas-fever tick is responsible for about $40,000,000 of loss 
 annually to the people of the infested country, and that it 
 lowers the assets of the South by an additional $23,500,000." 
 It is confined to the Southern States, and as shown in 
 Fig. 150, its range has been materially restricted by an 
 active campaign carried on by the Federal and State Gov- 
 ernments for its eradication. 
 
 The fully grown adult ticks may be a half inch long and 
 are oval in shape. The head is much smaller than that of 
 other ticks found on cattle, and is reddish-brown or chest- 
 nut in color. The body color varies from dull j^ellow to an 
 olive brown; often being mottled with yellow or brown or 
 streaked with wavy lines of these colors. There is a groove 
 
 * Margaropus annulatus Say. Class Arachnida, see page 21. 
 
210 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 on either side at the front and three grooves toward the rear 
 of the body. 
 
 The adult female when gorged with blood and eggs, drops 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Fig. 149. — The cattle tick {Margaropus annulatus). (TJ. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 3, mature female with eggs; 4, hide covered with ticks; ,5, blood cells con- 
 taining Texas fever protozoa; 10, various stages of cattle ticks — natural size, except 
 5, which is enlarged 1000 times. 
 
 to the ground and there lays her eggs to the number of 1500 
 to 3000. From these light-brown eggs small larvae or seed 
 ticks hatch in from two to six weeks, depending on tempera- 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 211 
 
212 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ture and moisture conditions. The young seed ticks crawl 
 around on grass, weeds, etc., waiting for a chance to attach 
 themselves to an animal; failing in which they die. They 
 are, however, exceedingly resistant and may live for three 
 or four months in summer or from September to April in an 
 open winter. When cattle are found they attach them- 
 selves to the soft skin inside the thighs or flanks, and on 
 other tender and protected parts of the body. They obtain 
 their nourishment by sucking the blood and though so small 
 as to be scarcely visible, may transmit the fever at this stage. 
 The complete life cycle requires from six to ten weeks in 
 warm weather and much longer during the cold seasons. 
 The fever is caused by a small protozoan organism which 
 lives in the red blood corpuscles of the affected animal, 
 breaking them down and causing a high fever. These mi- 
 croscopic organisms are transmitted by the female ticks 
 through their eggs to the young ticks, which then infect the 
 cattle to which they become attached. 
 
 The ticks may be eradicated (see 36), either from the 
 pastures or from the cattle. Possibly the greatest advances 
 in tick-eradication have been made in recent years by means 
 of cleaning the pastures of them. Pastures may be freed by 
 excluding all cattle, horses, and mules until the young ticks 
 have died of starvation, or the animals may be left on the 
 pasture and then treated at regular intervals so as to de- 
 stroy the ticks and thus prevent the engorged females from 
 dropping to the ground and reinfesting the pastures. Ticks 
 which get on the animals will be destroyed by the treatment 
 and those which fail to do so will die in the pasture. On the 
 other hand, animals may be freed from ticks by treating 
 them with a substance which will destroy the ticks or they 
 may be rotated on fields free from ticks until all the ticks 
 have dropped. The methods of rotating pastures and the 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 213 
 
 time for starving out the young ticks in different latitudes 
 and at different seasons have been quite carefully deter- 
 mined, so that it is possible to proceed to eradicate the ticks 
 from large areas at very small cost (see 36). For destroy- 
 ing the ticks the cattle are washed, sprayed or dipped in 
 crude oil emulsion or arsenical dip. Dipping is much the 
 most satisfactory and is the method usually adopted for 
 herds of any size. The crude oil emulsion is made like kero - 
 sene emulsion, using one piund of hard soap, one gallon of 
 soft water and four gallons of crude Beaumont petroleum for 
 making the stock solution and then diluting it to make an 
 emulsion containing 20 or 25 per cent of oil. The arsenical 
 dip is made by the following formula: 
 
 Sodium carbonate (sal soda) 24 pounds 
 
 Arsenic trioxide (white arsenic) .... 8 " 
 
 Pine tar 1 gallon 
 
 Water sufficient to make 500 gallons. 
 
 For further necessary details of dipping see reference 36 
 (p. 340) 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS AND 
 STORED FOOD PRODUCTS 
 
 128. Cockroaches (31).* Roaches are undoubtedly 
 among the most offensive of all household pests and are usu- 
 ally present only in old houses or where cleanliness has been 
 neglected. In restaurants, boarding houses and on ship- 
 board they often become very serious pests. They are so 
 
 Fig. 151. — The German roach {Blatella germanica). (From Riley.) 
 
 a, first stage; b, second stage; c, third stage; d, fourth stage; e, adult; /, adult 
 female with egg case; g, egg case, enlarged; h, adult with wings spread. All natural 
 size except g. 
 
 well known as hardly to need description, but there are 
 three species which may be distinguished. The German 
 Roach or Croton Bug f is so-called because it was imported 
 into New York City about the time of the installation of 
 the Croton water system and, as the roaches crawl through 
 the holes made in floors for water pipes, they spread more 
 * Family Blattidce, see page 52. f Ectobia germanica Linn. 
 
 214 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 215 
 
 rapidl}' and were also often known as "water-bugs." This 
 species is a light-brown color with dark, brownish-black 
 markings as shown in Fig. 157, and is somewhat less than 
 an inch long when full grown. The Oriental Roach * is a 
 black species, an inch or more long. The female has only 
 rudiments of wings and the wings of the male extend from 
 one-half to three-quarters to the tip of the abdomen. The 
 American Cockroach f is a native species, about one and one- 
 half inches long. It is reddish-brown and the wings extend 
 beyond the end of the abdomen. The Australian Roach | 
 is much like the last species, but smaller, and has a l^righter 
 and better defined band of yellow on the prothorax, and a 
 3'ellow dash on the sides of the upper wings. It is the most 
 abundant species in Florida and some of the Southern 
 States. 
 
 Roaches are fond of warm places and, therefore, frequent 
 kitchens and pantries. They are largely nocturnal in habits 
 and hide in cracks, back of wainscoting, etc., in the day. 
 They feed on all sorts of materials, attacking all kinds of 
 food products, and often do serious damage to bookbindings. 
 Otherwise, the real damage they do is not so serious as the 
 disagreeable roachy odor they leave and the presence of their 
 excrement and cast skins wherever the}' have l^een. 
 
 ''One of the most effective simple means of ridding 
 premises of roaches is dusting with commercial sodium fluorid, 
 either pure or diluted one-half with some inert substance 
 such ^s powdered gypsum or flour. With the use of some 
 dust gun or l)lower the sodium fluoric! can be thoroughly 
 dusted over the shelves, tables, floors and runways and hid- 
 ing places of the roaches." — jNIarlatt (31). 
 
 * Periplaneta orientalis Linn, 
 t Periplaneta americana Linn 
 t Periplaneta australasice. 
 
216 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Equal parts of chocolate and borax scattered in the 
 haunts of the roaches is claimed to be one of the best means of 
 destroying them. Badly infested buildings should be fumi 
 gated with hydrocyanic acid gas (see p. 336). Much may 
 be done by a thorough cleaning of the premises and then stop 
 ping up all cracks and crevices which furnish them shelter. 
 Rooms may also be fumigated bj^ burning pj'^rethrum powder 
 powder as suggested for flies and mosquitoes (p. 178). An 
 ingenious method of destroying roaches used in Australia 
 is by placing a saucer of flour 3 or 4 parts, and plaster of 
 Paris, 1 part, where the roaches may feed on it and near by 
 a saucer of water, both being supplied with bridges of card- 
 board or sticks to give easy access. The roaches feed on the 
 mixture and when they become thirsty and drink the plas- 
 ter sets in the intestines and causes death. Phosphorus 
 paste, obtainable at drug stores, if spread thinly on bits of 
 card or paper and placed in the runways of the roaches will 
 destroy many of them, but should not be left where domestic 
 animals or children may be affected. 
 
 129. House Ants * (33). Several species of ants are 
 common household pests, where they are usually more of a 
 nuisance than the cause of much real damage. They are 
 all social species with the general habits described on 
 page 152. 
 
 The Little Red Ant f is the most common species and is 
 practically cosmopolitan in its distribution. It very com- 
 monly makes its nests in the walls of houses or beneath the 
 floors where they are difficult to eradicate. Owing to its 
 small size, being only about one-twelfth of an inch long, it 
 is able to go through very small openings, but only by fol- 
 lowing the workers may the nests be located and if perma- 
 nent relief is to be secured the nests must be destroyed. 
 
 * Family FormicidoE, see page 152. f Monomorium pharaonis Linn. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 217 
 
 The Little Black Ant * is 3/16 of an inch long. It very 
 frequently occurs indoors, where it often is as troublesome 
 as the last species, but it ordinarily makes its nests under 
 stones in the yard or in the field. It may be recognized 
 by the little pyramids of fine grains of soil which surround 
 its entrances. By tracing the ants to the outdoor col- 
 onies they may be readily destroyed. 
 
 Another much larger species which sometimes invades 
 the house is the Black Pavement Ant,ii a species quite com- 
 
 FiG. 152. — The little red ant {Monomorium -pharaonis) . Enlarged. 
 
 (From Riley.) 
 
 a, female; 6, worker. 
 
 mon in Eastern cities. These ants are about one-half inch 
 long and commonly make their nests under sidewalk pave- 
 ments and stones where they are hard to reach. 
 
 In recent years the Argentine Ant X has been introduced 
 into Louisiana and has spread to parts of Mississippi, Ala- 
 bama, Texas and California. It threatens to become one of 
 our w^orst insect pests over a large section of the country, for 
 
 *Monomorium minimum Buckley. 
 t Tetramorium coespitum Linn. 
 % Iridom-yrmex humilis Mayr. 
 
21S 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 although it is most troublesome in the house it attacks vari- 
 ous crops. It is a small species, about one-tenth of an inch 
 long, of a uniform brown color. The nests are built beneath 
 and in the walls of houses, under stones, in hollow trees, and 
 
 Fig. 153. — The little black ant (Monomorium minutum). (After 
 Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, female; b, same with wings; c, male; d, workers; e, pupa; /, larva; g, egg 
 of worker — all enlarged. 
 
 in various other places. These ants occur in enormous num- 
 bers and swarm into houses and over everything. They are 
 not only practically omnivorous, but do not hesitate to 
 attack a person, and although their bite is not severe, scores 
 of them soon make themselves decidedly disagreeable and 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 219 
 
 may be positively dangerous to infants. Wherever this pest 
 appears it should be vigorously combated. 
 
 One of the best means of controlling the last species, 
 which should be equally effective for others, is by means of a 
 poisoned syrup. Dissolve 125 grains of arsenate of soda 
 in a little water and add it to a syrup made of one pound 
 of sugar dissolved in a quart of water. After boiling the 
 solution saturate a sponge with it and place it in a glass 
 jar with a perforated cover. This enables the ants to reach 
 it, but it is not open to animals or children. The ants will 
 enter the jar and feed on the syrup and even carry it to 
 their nests. 
 
 A method of destroying colonies of ants in their nests is 
 to saturate the upper surface of the nest with a solution of 
 cyanide of potassium made at the rate of one ounce to a 
 gallon of water, but this does not seem to be effective against 
 the Argentine ant. Injecting carbon bisulphide into the 
 nests is even more effective where the nests can be found 
 and it can be used. In many cases kerosene, crude petro- 
 leum or boiling hot water poured on the nest will destroy the 
 colony. A favorite way of ridding pantries of ants is to 
 trap them on a sponge saturated with syrup or sugar water. 
 The ants will swarm through it, and when it is well covered 
 drop the sponge into boiling water; then wash it thoroughly 
 of dead ants and repeat. Where this is kept up, they will 
 soon leave. To prevent ants from crawling up table legs and 
 into refrigerators, place the legs in small dishes of kerosene, 
 being sure that the article does not touch anything else. 
 Corrosive sublimate seems to be very offensive to ants and 
 throughout the South "ant-tape" is sold, which is placed 
 around the legs of tables or around anything to be protected 
 from ants. It is merely tape soaked in a saturated solution 
 of corrosive sublimate. It may be made by heating an 
 
220 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 excess of crystals of corrosive sublimate in water in a granite 
 or porcelain vessel (not iron), then cooling and filtering 
 through cotton. Soak cotton tape or heavy cotton string 
 in this for several hours and then dry. It must not come in 
 contact with any iron, tin or aluminum. Corrosive subli- 
 mate is poison and should be handled with care. Naphtha- 
 lene, gum camphor, carbolic acid, and gasoline are also said 
 to be objectionable to ants and when sprinkled about their 
 haunts will help drive them away. 
 
 130. The Clothes Moths. The little yellowish moths 
 which sometimes flit about a light at night will quickly set 
 
 Fig, 154. — The clothes moth {Tinea pelKonella) . Enlarged. (From 
 
 Riley). 
 
 Above, adult; at right, larva; at left, larva in case. 
 
 the good housekeeper to looking over her furs and woolen 
 clothing for the presence of clothes moths (30) . The moths 
 themselves are entirely harmless, but she has learned from 
 experience that where they occur some injury is probably 
 being done, and that if they are not destroyed, they will give 
 rise to further trouble. Other moths are frequently con- 
 fused with clothes moths but usually the latter may be 
 distinguished by the fringe of long hair on the hind wings, 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 221 
 
 characteristic of the family to which they belong. The 
 most common species is the Case-making Clothes Moth,* 
 whose larva constructs a portable case for its protection. 
 The adult moth expands about half an inch, its head and 
 fore wings are grayish-yellow, with darker spots in the mid- 
 dle, and the hind wings are white or grayish. The larva is a 
 dull white caterpillar about three-eighths of an inch long 
 when grown, and lives within a tube-like case made from the 
 material on which it feeds, and lined with silk. The larvae 
 feed on woolens, carpets, furs, feathers, etc. There is but 
 one generation a year, the moths appearing in July and 
 August. The Webbing or Southern Clothes Moth f is the 
 more common species in the latitude of Washington, D. C, 
 and southward. It is about the size of the preceding species, 
 but the fore wings are uniformly pale yellowish without 
 darker spots. Its larva does not construct a case, but spins 
 a silky web wherever it goes. When grown it makes a 
 cocoon of silk with bits of wool intermixed, within which the 
 pupal stage is passed. This species has two generations, 
 the first moths appearing in June and the second generation 
 in August and September. The Tapestry Moth | is a much 
 rarer species in this country. It is larger, expanding three- 
 fourths of an inch, and is easily distinguished by its more 
 striking coloration. The head is white, the bases of the 
 fore wings are black, and the remainder a creamy-white 
 more or less obscured with gray. This species is more com- 
 mon on heavier cloths, carpets, horse blankets, tapestries, 
 etc., but also affects feltings, furs, skins, and the woolen 
 upholstering of carriages. Its larva eats into the material 
 which it infests, lining its burrows with silk. 
 
 * Tinea pellionella Linn. Superfamily Tineina, see page 77. 
 t Tinea biselliella Hummel. 
 J Trichophaga tapetzella Linn. 
 
222 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Clothes moths are usually injurious only when articles 
 are put away and left for some time. Articles in use are 
 rarely attacked. Exposing stored articles to air and sun- 
 light, with a vigorous brushing and shaking are old methods 
 of moth control. Moth balls, naphthalene, cedar chips, 
 and other repellents are often used and are more or less 
 effective if the materials are free from the moths when 
 stored. The best means of preventing injury is to see that 
 articles to be stored are placed in tight receptacles which are 
 "moth-proof." The heavy paper bags sold by clothiers 
 for this purpose are satisfactory. Large, heavy, paste- 
 board boxes may be secured very cheaply and after packing 
 away the winter clothing in them, the cracks may be sealed 
 by gumming a strip of wrapping paper over them, thus 
 making the boxes moth-tight. Infested articles which must 
 be returned to storage may be fumigated with carbon bisul- 
 phide, by placing them in a trunk, and trunks or closets 
 harboring the moths should be fumigated with the same 
 material. For the protection of valuable furs and woolens, 
 furriers are now making use of cold-storage, which entirely 
 prevents the development of insect pests. 
 
 131. The Carpet Beetle.* The adult carpet beetle is a 
 small, oval, l)lackish beetle, about one-eighth of an inch 
 long, mottled with grayish-white, having the inner margin 
 of each wing-cover, where the wing-covers meet on the back, 
 marked with a narrow red line from which three short pro- 
 jections extend laterally. The beetles are most commonly 
 noticed in the spring, when they will fly to the windows if 
 they have developed in the house. Out of doors they are 
 found on the blossoms of spiraea and other plants, where 
 they feed upon the pollen. The small whitish eggs are laid 
 upon the cloth or other material upon which the larvae will 
 
 * Anthrenus scrophularice Linn. Family Dermestidoe, see page 113. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 223 
 
 feed. The larvae are about one-fifth inch long when grown 
 and are covered with thick tufts of coarse brown hairs, 
 longer at the sides and at the two ends, which have probably 
 given the insect its common name of Buffalo Moth. They 
 feed on furs and feathers, but preferably on woolens, and 
 frequently on the under sides of woolen carpets, especially 
 where they can conceal themselves in floor cracks. 
 
 Where rugs can be substituted for carpets there is much 
 less liability of injurj^ by this pest, as well as by fleas. Infested 
 
 Fig. 155. — The carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophularice) . 
 
 a, larva, dorsal view; h, pupa within larval skin; c, pupa, ventral view 
 adult. AH enlarged. 
 
 (From Riley.) 
 d. 
 
 carpets should be steam-cleaned wherever possible so as to 
 destroy the eggs. If this is not possible, heating the carpet 
 to 125° will probably be fatal to all eggs and larvse. 
 Cracks should be soaked with gasoline and then filled with 
 a crack-filler. The same methods of control and prevention 
 as advised for clothes moths (page 222), will also prove 
 effective. 
 
 A nearly related species known as the Black Carpet 
 Beetle* has very similar habits. It is a black or rusty-black, 
 slightly downy, oval beetle about 3/16 of an inch long and 
 * Attagenus piceiis Oliv. Family Dermestidce. 
 
224 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 half as wide. The larvse are about 5/16 inch long when full 
 grown, are reddish-brown, taper somewhat posteriorly, and 
 bear a tail-like brush of brown hairs half as long as the body. 
 132. The Pea-Weevil.* The common pea-weevil occurs 
 wherever peas are grown throughout the world and is the 
 cause of "buggy" peas. It does but httle damage in the 
 more northern latitudes and seedsmen secure their seed from 
 Canada and northern Michigan and Wisconsin. The 
 weevil is of an oval shape, about one-fifth inch long and half 
 as wide, of a blackish ground color, variegated with black 
 
 ha c 
 
 Fig. 156. — The pea-weevil (Bruchus pisorum L.) (From Chittenden, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, adult beetle; b, larva; c, pupa — all enlarged. 
 
 and white markings as shown in Fig. 156. The abdomen 
 projects beyond the wing-covers and is marked with two 
 black spots at the tip. The weevils appear in the fields 
 when the peas are in bloom and lay the eggs on the surfaces 
 of the young pods. The young larva bores through the pod 
 into the seed, in which it grows rapidly. When grown it is 
 about one-fourth of an inch long and half as wide, is a fleshy, 
 nearly cylindrical, strongly wrinkled, white grub, with a 
 brown head and very short stubby legs. It makes a round 
 hole in the pea, leaving the thin surface membrane as a 
 covering and then transforms to the pupa within the pea. 
 * Bruchus pisorum Linn. Family Bruchidce, see page 122. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 225 
 
 The adult weevils may emerge in from nine to seventeen 
 days. In more southern latitudes the weevils leave the seed 
 in August, but in the North they remain in the seed over 
 winter and are in it when planted. There is only one gener- 
 ation a year and this species does not reproduce in dry peas. 
 
 One of the best means of destroying the weevils, where it 
 can be done, is simply to hold the peas over for a year, so 
 that the weevils will emerge in the bags and finally die. A 
 remedy which many Canadian farmers have used success- 
 fully is to drench the seed with kerosene, using about half a 
 gallon to five bushels of peas. It is applied by placing the 
 peas on a floor where they can be shoveled over to insure 
 even treatment of all. When seed to be used for planting is 
 found infested with live weevils they may be destroyed by 
 pouring the peas into a pot of scalding hot water. The 
 water should be drained off at once and the peas cooled im- 
 mediately by pouring into cold water. The same result 
 may be secured by heating the seed to 145° Fahrenheit 
 and then cooling. Probably the best remedy is fumigation 
 with carbon bisulphide, using one pound to 100 bushels of 
 seed, or one ounce to 100 pounds. A kerosene barrel is a 
 convenient receptacle in which to fumigate small quantities, 
 requiring about three ounces of bisulphide. For further 
 directions for use, see page 335. 
 
 133. The Common Bean- weevil. * The common bean- 
 weevil is the principal pest of the bean in the United States. 
 The adult weevil is about one-eighth of an inch long and is 
 covered with a fine gray-brown or olive pubescence, and the 
 wing-covers are mottled, as shown in Fig. 157. It may 
 be distinguished from the pea-weevil by the larger thorax 
 and by the two small teeth next to the large tooth at the tip 
 of the hind thighs. The eggs are inserted in the bean-pods 
 * Bruchus obtectus Say. Family Bruchidoe, see page 122. 
 
226 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 by the females through any openings caused by drying and 
 sphtting, or are laid loosely among the shelled beans. The 
 larva feeds within the bean and becomes a fat footless grub 
 as shown in the illustration. The pupal stage is also passed 
 within the bean. Experiments have shown that the com- 
 plete life cycle may require from twenty-one to eighty days, 
 according to the temperature. Probably about six genera- 
 tions occur annually in the latitude of the District of Colum- 
 bia, and fewer farther north. A number of weevils may 
 
 Fig. 157. — The common bean-weevil {Bruchus ohtedus Say). 
 Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, beetle; 6, larva; c, pupa — all greatly enlarged. 
 
 (After 
 
 infest a single bean. Weevily seed should never be planted 
 as but a small percentage will germinate. Infested seed 
 may be thrown lightly into water, when that badly infested 
 will float and can be destroyed. 
 
 Either heat or fumigation as advised for the pea-weevil 
 will be effective, except that it is useless to hold the seeds 
 over, as this species breeds in the stored seed. 
 
 134. Grain-weevils and Grain-beetles (45). The term 
 "weevil" is commonly applied to almost any insect affecting 
 stored grain, but it should be used only for the true snout- 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 227 
 
 beetles, of which the Granary-iveevil * and the Rice-weevil f 
 are the most common. They 
 are small, brown, wingless 
 beetles, from one-eighth to 
 one-sixth of an inch in length, 
 with long snouts which are of 
 great service in boring into 
 the kernels of grain. By- 
 means of them the females 
 puncture the grain and then 
 insert an egg in the cavity. 
 The larva hatching from this 
 is without legs, somewhat 
 shorter than the adult, white 
 in color, and of a very robust 
 build, being almost as broad 
 as long. It soon devours 
 the soft interior of the kernel 
 and then changes to a pupa, 
 from which the adult beetle 
 emerges in about six weeks 
 from the time the egg was 
 laid. 
 
 Only a single larva in- 
 habits a kernel of wheat, but 
 several will often be found in 
 that of corn. Not only do 
 the larvae injure the grain, 
 but the beetles feed upon it, 
 and then hollow out a shelter 
 for themselves within the hull. 
 
 Fig. 158.— The grain-weevil (Ca- 
 landra grmiaria). (After Chit- 
 tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, beetle; h, larva; c, pupa; rf, the rice 
 weevil (C. oryza) : beetle — all enlarged. 
 
 * Calandra granaria Linn. 
 
 t Calandra oryzm Linn. Family Calandridce, 
 
228 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The beetles are quite long-lived, and thus do considerable 
 damage. As there are three or four broods in the North and 
 six or more in the South, it has been estimated that the 
 progeny of one pair would amount to 6000 insects in a single 
 season. 
 
 Another beetle very common in the granary, but of quite 
 different appearance, is the Saw-toothed Grain-beetle * (Fig. 
 159). It is a cosmopolitan pest and is nearly omnivor 
 
 Fig. 159. — The saw-toothed grain-beetle {Silvanus surinamensis). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, adult beetle; 6, pupa; c, larva — all enlarged; d, the red or square-necked 
 grain-beetle (Cathartus gemellatus). 
 
 ous. The beetle is only about one-tenth of an inch long, 
 very much flattened, of a dark-brown color, and may be 
 easily recognized by the six saw-like teeth on each side of the 
 thorax. The larva is of a dirty-white color, and quite dis- 
 similar from that of the granary weevil. Having six legs to 
 carry it about, it is not satisfied with a single seed, but runs 
 about here and there, nibbling at several. When full grown 
 the larva glues together several grains or fragments into a 
 * Silvanus surinamensis Linn. Family Cucujidoe. 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 229 
 
 little case, and inside of this transforms to the pupa and 
 then to the beetle. There are from three to six or more 
 generations during a season, according to the latitude. 
 
 The Red or Square-necked Grain-beetle * is about the same 
 size as the last species, but is a reddish-brown color, and the 
 thorax is almost square, nearly as broad as the abdomen and 
 not notched at the sides. It breeds in corn in both the 
 field and granary, first destroying the germ, so that it is 
 particularly injurious to seed corn. 
 
 The Cadelle f also has the bad habit of first attacking 
 the germ of the kernel, and going from one kernel to another 
 destroys a large number for use as seed. It has the good 
 trait, however, of feeding on other injurious grain insects. 
 The beetle is about one-third of an inch long, oblong, flat, 
 and nearly black. The larva is a fleshy, whitish grub, 
 nearly three-fourths of an inch long when grown, with a 
 brown head, the thoracic segments marked with brown and 
 the abdomen ending in two dark horny processes. 
 
 The larvae of two species of beetles | are very common 
 in bran and meal, as well as other grain products, and are 
 commonly known as meal worms. They are used for bird 
 food and are grown in quantity by bird stores. The beetles 
 are about one-half inch long, T. molitor, being a shining black 
 and somewhat lighter than T. obscurus, which is a dull 
 black. Running lengthwise of the wing-covers are sixteen 
 furrows. The larvae, or meal-worms, are about one inch 
 long, yellowish in color, cylindrical, and have a hard, shiny 
 skin. At the tip of the abdomen are two small dark-colored 
 spines. They grow rather slowly and may live for a long 
 
 * Cathartus gemellatus Duv. Family, 
 t Tenebriodes mauritanicus Linn. Family Trogositidce. 
 t Tenebrio obscurus and Tenebrio molitor Linn. Family Tenebri- 
 onidoe, see page 123. 
 
230 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 time without food and in very dry material. There seems 
 to be but a single generation in a year. 
 
 135. Flour and Meal-moths (37). The larvae of several 
 small moths sometimes infest grain in store, but usually pre- 
 fer flour, meal and food products. The most destructive 
 of these is the Mediterranean Flour Moth* It was imported 
 from Europe in the '70's and has now become generally dis- 
 tributed over the United States. The adult moth expands 
 about an inch, the fore wings are a lead-gray color with 
 transverse blackish markings, and the hind wings are dirty 
 
 Fig. 160. — The Mediterranean flour-moth (Ephestia kuehniella). (After 
 
 Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, moth; 6, same from side, resting, c, larva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal 
 joint of larva — more enlarged. 
 
 whitish with a darker border. The caterpillars feed in cylin- 
 drical silken tubes which makes them a great nuisance in 
 mills, where the machinery becomes clogged with the felted 
 flour. The life cycle ordinarily occupies about two months, 
 but may be completed in thirty-eight days. 
 ^^ The Indian Meal-moth f (Fig. 161) larvae, like the grain- 
 beetles, have a special liking for the germ of wheat grains. 
 They spin a fine silken web as they go from seed to seed, to 
 which the seed becomes attached and to which the excre- 
 * Ephestia kuehniella Zell. Family Pyralidce. See page 75. - * 
 I Plodia interpunctella Hbn. Family Pyralidce. . . 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 231 
 
 Fig. 161. — The Indian meal-moth (Plodia 
 inter pundella). (After Chittenden, U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 a, moth; b, pupa; c, caterpillar — enlarged. 
 
 ment also clings, so that much more grain is spoiled for food 
 than is really injured. The moth expands about three- 
 fourths of an inch, the inner third of the fore wings being 
 a light grayish and 
 the outer portion a 
 reddish-brown with 
 a coppery luster. 
 
 The Meal Snout- 
 moth * (Fig. 162), is 
 of a light brown 
 color, the thorax, 
 base, and tips of the 
 fore wings being 
 darker brown. The 
 "%ings expand nearly 
 an inch and are other- 
 wise marked with whitish lines as shown in the figure. It is 
 very similar to the last-mentioned species in its habits, con- 
 structing long tubes with silk 
 and particles of the food in 
 which it is living. The life- 
 history is completed in about 
 eight weeks, and four genera- 
 tions may occur in a year. The 
 moisture of "heated" grain is 
 most favorable for the devel- 
 opment of this pest, and it 
 need not be feared if grain 
 is kept in a clean, dry place. 
 
 The worst pest of stored 
 grain in the South is the Angoumois Grain Moth.'\ 
 
 Fig. 162. — The meal snout-moth 
 {Py r a I i s farinali s) — twice 
 natural size. (After Chit- 
 tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 It 
 
 * Pyralis Jarinalis Linn. Family Pyralidcp, see page 78. 
 t Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. Family Gelechiidae. 
 
232 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 receives its name from a province in France where it 
 wrought havoc in 1760. It occurs throughout the South 
 and as far north as Pennsylvania and Ohio. Wheat, corn, 
 oats, rye, barley, sorghum-seed, and even cow-peas are 
 injured. The moths quite closely resemble clothes moths 
 (page 220), expanding nearly three-fourths of an inch, 
 being of a yellowish-buff color, marked with black, and 
 with the same broad fringe on the hind wings. The moths 
 
 Fig. 163. — The Angoumois grain-moth (Sitotroga cerealella). (After 
 Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, eggs; b, larva at work; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, same, side 
 
 emerge from infested grain in late May or June, when 
 they fly to the growing grain, on which each female lays 
 from 60 to 90 eggs. The young caterpillars bore into the 
 kernels, where they feed and become full grown in about 
 three weeks. Full grown caterpillars are about one-fifth 
 of an inch long, white in color, with a yellowish head, and 
 have four pairs of soft prolegs on the middle of the abdomen. 
 The second brood of moths appears about harvest time. 
 They lay their eggs in July, depositing them on the wheat in 
 the stack. The caterpillars hatching from these eggs may 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 233 
 
 remain in the grain over winter, but in warm seasons a 
 third brood of moths may be developed by early September. 
 This species continues to breed within doors all winter, al- 
 though feeding stops in very cold weather. The number of 
 generations depends entirely upon latitude and weather. 
 In the South there may be as many as eight in a year. 
 
 Corn is frequently attacked, but not until it is ripe and 
 husked, and then but rarely when husked in October and 
 November and stored outdoors in slatted cribs. Seed-corn 
 stored in barns, and in the South in almost any situation, is 
 often badly injvu'cd. 
 
 Aside from the loss in weight, grain when badly infested 
 becomes unfit for milling purposes, and will even be refused 
 by cattle and horses, which should not be urged to eat it, 
 though hogs and fowls will readily consume it. 
 
 Grain should be threshed as soon after harvest as pos- 
 sible and placed in tight bins or sacks. Infested grain 
 should be fumigated with carbon bisulphide as soon as 
 threshed. Sacked grain will not heat if infested, and the 
 moths cannot get out and are stifled. If placed in bins, 
 they should be made tight and if the grain heats perceptibly, 
 it should at once be fumigated with carbon bisulphide. 
 Corn should be husked before storing. Barns and store- 
 houses should be cleaned up from scattered grain before 
 April first, and infested grain should be kept tightly 
 covered in the spring so that no moths will spread to the 
 field. 
 
 136. Control of Grain Insects. Cleanliness is pre- 
 requisite to freedom from grain pests. Wherever dust, dirt, 
 rubbish, sweepings of grain and its products, are allowed to 
 accumulate, ideal conditions for the reproduction of grain 
 insects are afforded. It is highly desirable where grain is to 
 be stored on the farm, that a separate building be provided 
 
234 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 at some distance from other buildings. It should be con- 
 structed of matched flooring so as to be as near insect-tight 
 as possible. The doors should fit tightly, closing on a rabbet, 
 which may be covered with felt or packing. The windows 
 should be covered with fine wire screening to prevent the 
 passage of insects. The floors, walls and ceiling should be 
 made smooth, with no cracks in which insects may hide. It 
 is important that the building be dry, well ventilated and as 
 cool as possible, as reproduction is much more rapid in a 
 warm place, and infested grain will heat more quickly. It is 
 desirable to store grain in bulk, as a smaller surface is thus 
 exposed to infestation, and the moths do not penetrate far 
 beneath the surface. The best means of destroying insects 
 in the small granary is by fumigating with carbon bisulphide 
 (page 335). The room or bin in which it is to be used should 
 be made tight. Bins may be covered with blankets. The 
 liquid may be poured directly on the grain, which it will 
 not injure. Care should always be exercised that no fire 
 comes near the place fumigated, as the gas is exceedingly 
 inflammable. Mills and storehouses which are badly in- 
 fested are often fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas (page 
 336). Prof. R. I. Smith has shown that sulphur dioxid, pro- 
 duced by burning sulphur slightly dampened with alcohol, 
 will kill most grain insects, but injures the germinating power 
 of the grain. "It was found that the fumes produced by 
 burning 2| pounds of sulphur either in moist or dry atmos- 
 phere of 1000 cubic feet space, for twenty hours, would kill 
 all exposed adult insects and practically all the young stages 
 in the grain, but that this also destroyed its germinating 
 power. . . . While this treatment cannot be recommended 
 for general fumigation, there is no doubt of its being the 
 easiest and cheapest method of fumigating corn cribs, grana- 
 ries and similar places whenever they are being cleaned out 
 
INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 235 
 
 and freed of insects in preparation for the reception of mors 
 grain." 
 
 The heating of grain was one of the earhest means known 
 of combating grain insects, but has been httle used in this 
 country. Recently, however, Prof. Geo. A. Dean (52), has 
 shown that by super-heating mills they may be rid of insect 
 pests much more quickly and cheaply than by fumigation, 
 and with no risk from fire or from cyanide poisoning. His 
 experiments show that if the temperature surrounding an 
 insect be maintained above 120° F., with a normal amount 
 of moisture, that in a very few minutes it will be killed. 
 This promises to become one of the most practicable methods 
 of cleaning mills and may be used for small quantities of 
 grain, where there are facilities for heating it or placing it in 
 a superheated room. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 137. White Grubs.* The large grubs (15) with brown 
 heads and enlarged curled-up abdomens, which are thrown 
 out in plowing sod land, are commonly known as ivhite 
 grubs. Although there are numerous species, they are all 
 very similar in general color and form and are the larva? 
 of different species of the large brown May-beetles or June- 
 
 FiG. 164. — A May-beetle (Lachnosterna arcuala). (After Chittenden, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, beetle; b, pupa; e, mature larva — enlarged one-fourth. 
 
 bugs, which frequently fly to lights in late spring. White 
 grubs are most abundant in sod land and often seriously 
 injure old meadows, but their injury is most commonly 
 noticed on corn, strawberries and garden crops. 
 
 The eggs are laid one to five inches below the surface of 
 
 the soil in grass lands, though sometimes in corn land or 
 
 gardens, and hatch by midsummer. The young grubs feed 
 
 * Lachnosterna spp. Family Scaraboeidw. See page 118 
 
 236 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 237 
 
 upon the plant roots available and grow slowly, as they 
 require two years or more to become full grown. In the fall 
 they go deeper in the soil and by the first freeze they are 
 from seven to fourteen inches deep. The next year they 
 do much more serious damage and crops are often ruined 
 on sod land which has been planted to corn, strawberries or 
 garden crops. As many as thirty-four grubs have been 
 found in a single hill of corn in an Ilhnois field in sod the 
 previous year. When the grub is two or three years old it 
 forms a cell from three to ten inches below the surface and 
 there changes to the pupa during midsummer. In August 
 or September the adult beetle wriggles out of the pupal skin 
 but remains in the earthen cell until the following spring, 
 when it emerges fully hardened. Thus three full years are 
 required for the life cycle, although grubs in all stages of 
 development may be found in the soil every year. The 
 adult beetles feed at night upon the foliage of various trees 
 and hide in the soil during the day. Different species have 
 favorite food plants, but all the common decidous shade and 
 forest trees are more or less eaten, maple and poplar par- 
 ticularly. 
 
 A frequent rotation of crops, followmg sod with some 
 crop not particularly injured by the grubs, will form the most 
 important general means of control, as allowing land to 
 remain in grass for several years furnishes them ideal con- 
 ditions for multiplication. Deep plowing and thorough 
 harrowing in late fall, winter and early spring will break up 
 many of the pupal cells and destroy the tender beetles, both 
 by burying and crushing them and by exposing them to 
 abnormal conditions. Swine will gorge themselves on the 
 grubs on badly infested land and if confined so that they 
 can thoroughly root it over, will effectively clean it of them. 
 Flocks of turkeys or chickens following the plow destroy 
 
238 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 large numbers, a,s do crows and blackbirds. Lanterns hung 
 over pans or tubs of water with a surface film of kerosene, 
 placed near the trees on which the beetles feed, will catch 
 large numbers of them on warm nights. 
 
 138. The Chinch-bug * (16). Though individually in- 
 significant, when assembled in countless myriads chinch- 
 bugs have, doubtless, done greater injury to the farmers of 
 the Mississippi Valley than any other insect attacking grain 
 crops, the total damage from 1850 to 1909 being estimated at 
 
 Fig. 165. — The chinch-bug (Blissus Jeucopterus Say). (After Riley.) 
 
 Adult at left; a, b, eggs magnified and natural size; c, young nymph; e, second 
 stage of nymph; /, third stage; g, fuU-grov/n nymph or pupa; d, h, j, legs; t, 
 beak through which the bug sucks its food. 
 
 $350,000,000. The principal injury is to small grains and 
 corn in the Central and North Central States, though oc- 
 casionally injury occurs in the Eastern States, particularly 
 to old timothy meadows. The adult chinch-bug is about 
 one-fifth of an inch long with a black body. Its white wings 
 lie folded over each other on the abdomen, and are marked 
 by a small black triangle on their outer margins, while the 
 bases of the antennae and legs are red. The young bugs are 
 yellowish or bright red, marked with brownish-black, be- 
 coming darker as they grow older. 
 
 * Blissus leucopterus Say. Family Lygmdo', see page 60. 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 239 
 
 The bugs hibernate over winter in chimps of grass, in 
 the butts and in old shocks of corn, or under whatever rub- 
 bish is available. In early spring they feed upon grass and 
 small grains. The females lay their small yellowish-white 
 eggs upon the roots or l)ascs of the stalks, each laying from 
 150 to 200 eggs from the middle of April until June first. 
 The eggs hatch in about three weeks. The young bugs often 
 do serious injury to small grains and grasses and become full 
 grown about the time the former are harvested. When the 
 small grains are harvested the bugs spread to corn, but 
 curiously enough, although the adults are winged they 
 usually travel from field to field on foot. Eggs are then 
 laid on the corn, between the leaf -sheaths and the stalks, 
 and hatch in about ten days. This second brood matures 
 in August and September and hibernates over winter, 
 although where corn is not available the whole season may be 
 passed on grass. 
 
 The burning over of grass land and the grass along fences, 
 hedges and roads, as soon as it becomes dry enough in late 
 fall and early winter, is of prime importance for destroying 
 the bugs after they have gone into hibernation, and if thor- 
 oughly done by co-operative effort over large areas, will be 
 the cheapest and most effective means of control. The 
 removal of all corn stalks from the fields and plowing the 
 butts under deeply, or, where the bugs are very abundant, 
 raking out the butts and burning them, will be of importance 
 in some sections. 
 
 It is practically impossible to combat the bugs success- 
 full}' on small grains and grass, but the migration to corn may 
 be effectually checked. This may be done best by running a 
 line of thick, viscid road oil (No. 7 of the Standard Oil Co., 
 Whiting, Ind.), around the field to be protected. The soil 
 should be prepared for this oil line by plowing a back furrow 
 
240 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and packing the top with a roller or beating it hard; or a 
 strip of sod may be prepared by scraping away the grass with 
 a scraper and then smoothing with shovels or hoes ; or a dead 
 furrow may be run and the oil line run on the smooth bottom. 
 In any case it is important to have a fairly smooth, hard 
 surface for the oil line so as to conserve the oil and make an 
 effective barrier. The oil line may be run by pouring the 
 oil from a watering-can with the mouth stopped down, 
 so as to make a line about the thickness of one's finger. 
 Along the outside of this line post holes, a foot deep, should 
 be sunk every few feet. The bugs crawling along the oil 
 line, which they will not cross as long as it is intact, will fall 
 into the post holes, where they will collect and may be crushed 
 or otherwise destroyed. In place of the post holes the bugs 
 collecting along the line have sometimes been destroyed with 
 a blast torch. Coal tar may be used instead of road oil, 
 but is more expensive and must be renewed more frequently. 
 
 Where immediate action is necessary and road oil or 
 coal tar are not at hand, the corn may be protected in dry 
 weather by a dust furrow. Plow a deep furrow around the 
 field to be protected and thoroughly pulverize the soil by 
 dragging a heavy log back and forth through the furrow, 
 making the sides as steep as possible. Sink post holes every 
 few feet in the bottom. In attempting to climb this furrow 
 the bugs will slide back to the bottom and will collect in the 
 holes, where they may be killed. The dust furrow will be 
 of no value in showery v/eather and is most effective on light 
 soils in hot weather. 
 
 For destroying the bugs which pass the barriers and for 
 those which may hatch on the corn, a spray of rosin soap, 
 one pound to six gallons of water, has been found very 
 effective, and should be used on the outer rows, so as to pre- 
 vent the field from becoming generally infested. 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 241 
 
 |>A 
 
 /^ 
 
 Extensive experiments in the use of fungous diseases 
 for the control of the chinch-bug were conducted for many 
 years, but have resulted in proving the impracticabihty of 
 their artificial use. 
 
 Where chinch-bugs are abundant the farmer should pre- 
 pare to devote himself and as many hands as necessary to 
 fighting them promptly if he would check their migration and 
 save his corn crop, for delay may mean ruin. 
 
 139. Grasshoppers * (40c?). Almost every year in some 
 part of the country crops are destroyed by hordes of hungry 
 grasshoppers, or locusts, as 
 they are called in Europe. 
 In the '70's vast areas in the 
 Mississippi Valley were dev- 
 astated by the clouds of 
 Rocky Mountain Locusts 
 which migrated down from 
 the table lands of the Rocky 
 Mountain region, but in 
 recent years this species has 
 practically disappeared from 
 the United States. Several 
 species are commonly de- 
 structive throughout the country. One of the most com- 
 mon is the small Red-legged Locust,^ which is found in 
 almost every meadow. Very similar in both size and ap- 
 pearance is the Lesser Migratory Locust, t so-called on ac- 
 count of its flying in large numbers from one point to another. 
 Another similar and closely related species is the California 
 Devastating Locust,^ which has usually been the most de- 
 
 * Family Acrididce, see page 48. 
 t Mdanophis femnr-rubrum Har. 
 X Melanoplus atlanis Riley. 
 § Melanoplus devastator Scud. 
 
 Fig. 166. — Rocky Mountain locust; 
 adult and different stages of 
 growth of young. (After Riley.) 
 
242 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 structive species in that State. The Two-striped Locust * 
 is somewhat larger and is characterized by two yellowish 
 stripes extending from the eyes along the sides of the head 
 to the extremities of the wing-covers. Our largest winged 
 
 species is the Ameri- 
 can Acridium.] It 
 is a Southern spe- 
 cies, being common 
 south of the Poto- 
 mac and Ohio rivers, 
 where it has often 
 become quite de- 
 structive. 
 
 Throughout the Mississippi Valley from Illinois south- 
 ward, the Differential Locust % has become one of the most 
 common and destructive species and its habits may be de- 
 scribed to illustrate those of most of the other common 
 
 Fig. 167. — The two-striped locust {Mela 
 noplus bivittatus Scud.). (After Riley.) 
 
 Fig. 168. — The American acridium (Schistocerca americana Scud.). 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 species. The young grasshoppers hatch in late spring and 
 
 are a dusky brown color, marked with yellow, resembling 
 
 the adults in shape, but lacking wings. During their growth 
 
 * Melanoplus bivittatus Scud, 
 t Schistocerca aviericanus Scud. 
 X Melanoplus differentialis Thos. 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 243 
 
 they moult five times at intervals of ten days to two weeks 
 and are full grown by midsummer. The adults of this spe- 
 cies are li inches long with a wing-expanse of 2 2 inches and 
 a bright yellowish-green color. The head and thorax are 
 olive-brown ; the fore wings are much the same color without 
 markings but with a brownish shade at the base; the hind 
 
 Fig. 169. — The differential locust (Melanoplus differentialis Thos.). 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 wings are tinged with green; the hind thighs are bright yel- 
 low, with four black marks, and the hind shanks are yellow 
 with black spines and a ring of the same color near the base. 
 The adults at once attack whatever crops are available, 
 often finishing the destruction of those injured by them as 
 nymphs, but in a few days their appetites seem to become 
 somewhat appeased and they 
 commence to mate and wander in 
 search of suitable places for laying 
 the eggs. Relatively few eggs are 
 laid in cultivated ground, the fa 
 vorite places being neglected fields 
 grown up in grass and weeds, the 
 edges of cultivated fields, private roadways, banks of ditches 
 and small streams, and pasture lands. It is doubtless due 
 to these egg-laying habits and the abundance of food on un- 
 cultivated land that this species always increases enormously 
 on land which has been flooded and then lies idle for a year 
 or two. Most of the eggs are laid in August and early Sep- 
 
 Fig. 170. — Egg-mass of the 
 differential locust — enlarged. 
 
244 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 tember. Each female deposits a single egg mass (most other 
 species lay several egg masses), of about 100 eggs just be- 
 neath the surface of the soil. During this season the females 
 may frequently be found with the abdomens thrust deep in 
 the soil, as the process of egg-laying requires some time. 
 The eggs are yellow and arranged irregularly in a mass which 
 is coated with a gluey substance to which the earth adheres, 
 and which protects them from variable conditions of moist- 
 ure and temperature. 
 
 Deep plowing in late fall or early spring effectually 
 buries the eggs too deep for the young nymphs to emerge. 
 On alfalfa land thorough disking is often used for the same 
 purpose. Thorough harrowing in the fall so as to pulverize 
 the soil for the depth of an inch will break up many of the 
 egg masses, though it is not as sure a control as plowing them 
 under. 
 
 When the young emerge, they may sometimes be de- 
 stroyed by burning over stubble, grass and rubbish where it 
 is present in sufficient quantities, or by augmenting it with 
 straw, which may be done to advantage on cold days when 
 the nymphs are congregated in such shelter. Plowing a 
 badly infested field in a square, working toward the center so 
 as to drive the young ny:r_phs inward, will result in burying 
 many of them in the furrows, and the last may be burned or 
 trapped in holes as described below. Dust furrows may be 
 made as described for chinch-bugs and handled in the same 
 manner, the little hoppers drifting to the bottom, where they 
 are killed by the heat on a hot day or are caught in the post- 
 holes sunk every few feet in the bottom. This method may 
 be used to advantage in plots of corn, cotton, or garden truck 
 which have already become infested, by running furrows 
 around the field and occasionally through it, and then driv- 
 ing the young hoppers toward them. This may readily be 
 
-1 
 
 FIELD CROP INSECTS ^ Q 245 
 
 done by a number of children armed with branch^ ' Where 
 ditches containing water are available the young hoppers 
 may be destroyed by oiling the surface of the waier'with 
 kerosene emulsion and then driving them into the dittbes, 
 for even if they succeed in crawling out they will Succumb 
 to the oil. t*^ 
 
 Where the young hoppers have congregated in large 
 numbers on the edges of fields, in patches of weeds, etc., they 
 may be destroyed by spraying them with kerosene or crude 
 petroleum either pure or, preferably, in an emulsion, and the 
 weeds and grass along fences and in neglected fields should 
 be thoroughly treated with a strong arsenical spray or dust. 
 
 On pastures, small grains or any crops permitting their 
 use, immense numbers of nymphs may be caught by the 
 use of hopperdozers, which may be utilized where the use 
 of poisoned bran would not be possible. The hopperdozer 
 consists of a shallow pan, mounted on runners or wheels, con- 
 taining water with a surface of kerosene or crude petroleum, 
 and, if larger than about three feet square, is usually provided 
 with partitions to prevent slopping. The back and sides are 
 high and sometimes are made of canvas. "A good cheap 
 pan is made of ordinary sheet iron, eight feet long, eleven 
 inches wide at bottom, and turned up a foot high at the back 
 and an inch high in front. A runner at each end, extending 
 some distance behind, and a cord attached to each front 
 corner, complete the pan (Fig. 171). It is easily pulled by 
 two boys, and by running several together in a row, one boy 
 to each rope, and one to each contiguous pair, the best work 
 is performed with the least labor." Larger hopperdozers 
 are drawn or pushed by horses. 
 
 Poisoned bran mash has been used against both nymphs 
 and adults, using from one to two pounds of Paris green to 
 25 pounds of bran. Poisoned horse-droppings have been 
 
246 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 used very successfully, especially in the Northwest and in 
 Canada. One part of Paris green is mixed with 100 parts of 
 horse manure by measure. Enough water is added to make 
 the mass soft without being sloppy. The mixture is scat- 
 tered over the fields from a wagon or stone-boat with a 
 paddle. In Minnesota a similar mixture has been found 
 cheaper and more satisfactory. It is made of one pound of 
 arsenite of soda, 120 to 150 pounds of horse manure and one 
 
 Fig. 171 — The Price oil-pan or hopperdozer, with partitions to prevent 
 slopping. (After Riley.) 
 
 pint of cheap molasses. Dissolve the arsenite of soda in 
 
 water and then add to the manure, stirring well. 
 
 140. Grain Aphides.* The English Groin-ciphis,^ the 
 
 most common aphid affecting wheat and other small grains, 
 
 is a large green species which occasionally increases so rapidly, 
 
 just as the heads are ripening, as to injure seriously the 
 
 quality and weight of the wheat. The wingless females are 
 
 * Family Aphididce, see page 66. 
 t Macrosiphum granaria Buckton. 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 247 
 
 about one-tenth inch long, with black antenniE as long as, or 
 longer than, the body. They are a yellowish-green color and 
 the long nectaries projecting from either side of the abdomen 
 are black. The winged females are about the same length, 
 the antennjB are a third longer than the body, which is of 
 the same general coloration except that the lobes of the 
 thorax are brownish or blackish and the abdomen is marked 
 with four or five 
 transverse blackish 
 spots in front of 
 the nectaries. 
 
 The German 
 Grain-aphis* is 
 commonly associ- 
 ated with this spe- 
 cies and has very 
 similar habits. It 
 may be distin- 
 guished b)^ its lack- 
 ing the blackish 
 markings on the 
 abdominal seg- 
 ments. 
 
 These aphides 
 appear on the 
 
 young wheat in the spring and multiply rapidly on the 
 leaves until the grain commences to head, when they crowd 
 among the ripening kernels. As the small grains ripen the 
 aphides migrate to various grasses and are not in evidence 
 during summer, l^ut later migrate to volunteer oats and 
 wheat, upon which they breed until fall wheat is avail- 
 able. 
 
 * Macrosiphum cerealis Kalt. 
 
 Fig. 172. — The German grain-aphis (Macro- 
 siphum cerealis Kalt). (After Riley, U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, winged migrant; h, nymph of same; c, wing- 
 less parthenogenetic female; d, same showing exit 
 hole of parasite — enlarged. 
 
248 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The Oat Aphis (6), has been discussed (page 304), as an 
 apple pest, but should be here noted, as it is widely distrib- 
 uted on wheat and oats. The wingless females congregate 
 in the axils of the leaves, around the crown, and on the upper 
 roots, injury seeming to be worse in winter, when they often 
 cause the plants to turn yellowish. In the South this species 
 
 
 . 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 [ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' i 
 
 {B 
 
 f 
 
 Fig, 173. — "Green bugs" uii oat 
 seedling — enlarged . 
 
 Fig. 174. — Spring g r a i u-a p h i .s 
 (Toxoplera graminum). Adult 
 wingless female greatly enlarged. 
 (After S, J, Hunter.) 
 
 continues to reproduce on small grains without having an 
 alternate sexual generation on the apple. 
 
 The Spring Grain-aphis or Green Bug * (17), although 
 
 widely distributed, has been seriously injurious only from 
 
 Kansas southward, although damage has occurred in the 
 
 Carolinas and Tennessee and elsewhere. The wingless 
 
 * Toxoptera graminum Rond. 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 249 
 
 female is from one-twenty-fifth to one-fourteenth inch long, 
 yellowish-green, with a median line slightly darker, and eyes 
 and most of the antennae black. The winged female is 
 slightly larger and of the same coloration except that the 
 head is brownish-yellow and the lobes of the thorax are 
 blackish. The agamic females multiply rapidly in summer, 
 for during its life of about a month each female will give 
 birth to fifty or sixty young, which commence to reproduce in 
 the same manner when about a week old. Reproduction is 
 slower in winter, but in an open winter a few individuals will 
 soon give rise to 
 infested spots 
 from which 
 countless indi- 
 viduals will 
 spread over the 
 field and en- 
 tirely ruin it by 
 
 the middle of ^^^- 1^^- — Lysiphlebus parasite in act of depositing 
 . ., • ,1 eggs in the body of a grain-aphis — much enlarged. 
 
 Apnl m norm- ^ ^^^^^ Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 ern Texas. As 
 
 the food supply disappears almost all the young develop 
 wings and immense clouds of winged females are carried 
 northward by the winds, so that an outbreak in early 
 spring in the South leads to infestation further north. As 
 soon as they multiply they again spread northward. Pro- 
 gressing thus in 1907, they reached southern Minnesota 
 by July. 
 
 Grain aphides are prevented from becoming so over- 
 abundant as to cause frequent injury by the attacks of small 
 wasp-like parasites. These little parasites lay their eggs in 
 the aphides, which are soon killed by the growing larvae. 
 These parasites reproduce even more rapidly than the 
 
250 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 aphides, but only at a temperature some ten degrees higher 
 than that required by the green bug. In cool wet weather 
 the aphides increase rapidly and may become destructive 
 
 before warmer weather enables the 
 parasites to become sufficiently 
 numerous to check them. 
 
 All of these grain aphides multi- 
 ply in the fall on volunteer oats and 
 wheat. Their destruction in early 
 fall and the abandonment of the 
 practice of growing volunteer oats 
 in the Far South, are, therefore, of 
 prime importance for their control. 
 Where small spots of young grain 
 plants have been injured the 
 aphides may be killed by spraying 
 with a 10 per cent kerosene emul- 
 sion, soap solution one pound to 
 six gallons, or Black-leaf-40 tobacco 
 extract, one part to 900 parts of 
 water, to which should be added 
 one pound of soap to each 100 gal- 
 lons. Such spots may also be cov- 
 ered with straw and burned, or be 
 plowed under. It is of considerable 
 importance, particularly with the 
 green bug, to observe small spots 
 when injury first occurs and to 
 treat them so as to prevent further spread. 
 
 141. The Hessian Fly.* The most destructive of any 
 of the insects attacking wheat is the Hessian Fly, a small 
 midge which received its name from the fact that it was first 
 * Mayetiola destructor Say. Family Cecidomyiidae. 
 
 Fig. 176. — Dead "green 
 bugs," showing hole 
 from which the ma- 
 tured parasite of Lysi- 
 phlebus emerges. The 
 top figure shows the 
 lid still attached, but 
 pushed back; the bot- 
 tom figure shows the 
 parasite emerging. 
 Enlarged. (After 
 Webster, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 251 
 
 discovered on Long Island, in 1779, just where the Hessian 
 troops had landed three years before. It has been esti- 
 mated that it reduces the wheat crop by 10 per cent every 
 year and frequently 25 to 50 per cent is lost in restricted 
 localities. 
 
 The adult flies are small dark-colored gnats about one- 
 
 -The Hessian fly {Mayetiola destructor). (After Marlatt, 
 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, female fly; 6, flaxseed stage or pupa; c, larva; d, head and breast-bone of 
 same; e, pupa; /, puparium; g, infested wheat-stem showing emergence of pupse 
 and adults — all greatly enlarged. 
 
 tenth of an inch long, so small as commonly to escape obser- 
 vation. The females lay their small reddish eggs usually 
 on the upper surface of the leaves. The maggots hatching 
 from these in the fall burrow beneath the sheath of the leaf 
 at its base, causing a slight enlargement at the point of at- 
 tack. In the spring they usually stop at one of the lower 
 
252 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 joints, but always become fixed in the plant, absorbing its 
 sap and destroying its tissues. The dark color of the leaves, 
 the absence of central stems and the stooling out of the 
 plants are among the indications of injury in the fall or 
 winter wheat. Later many plants yellow and die. The 
 spring maggots attack the laterals, or tillers, which have 
 escaped the fall brood, so weakening thcni that the stems 
 break and fall before ripening and cannot be readily har- 
 vested. 
 
 The maggots become grown in about a month, when the 
 skin shrivels and turns brown and inside it is formed the 
 pupa. This outside case composed of the larval skin is 
 known as the "puparium," and this is commonly called the 
 "flax-seed" stage from its resemblance to that seed. The 
 winter is passed in the pupal stage and the flies emerge in 
 April or May. The summer brood remains in the "flax- 
 seed" stage in the stubble during the late summer and the 
 flies emerge when the first wheat is planted in the fall. 
 
 The principal means of control is by the late planting 
 of wheat in the fall. The flies appear within about a week 
 and then disappear and if planting be delayed so that the 
 wheat will not be up until after that time, there will be but 
 little injury. Dry weather in late summer and early fall 
 delays the appearance of the flies and the farther south, the 
 later they appear. In average seasons it will probably be 
 found safe to sow wheat in the latitude of northern 
 Michigan soon after September 1st; in southern Michigan 
 and northern Ohio about September 20th; in southern 
 Ohio after the first week in October; in Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, October 10th to 20th, and in Georgia and South 
 Carolina, October 25th to November 15th. The exact time 
 will also depend upon the altitude, every 100 feet of alti- 
 tude making the date about one day earlier. As the infesta- 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 253 
 
 tion of the fall wheat comes from the stubble it is important 
 to disk the stubble immediately after harvest and three or 
 four weeks later plow the land at least six inches deep, so 
 that all stubble and volunteer wheat will be well buried. 
 The land should then be refirmed and worked into a good 
 seed bed, keeping it mellow and free from volunteer wheat. 
 The importance of the best possible preparation of the land 
 and the destruction of volunteer wheat cannot be over- 
 emphasized. 
 
 142. The Corn Earworm or Cotton Bollworm * (18). 
 This is practically the only insect seriously injuring the ears 
 of field corn. In the South it is so abundant on sugar corn 
 as to make it very difficult to secure uninjured ears, and in 
 the Middle States it greatly reduces the profit in growing 
 corn for the cannciy. In the South it bores into the half- 
 formed cotton Ijolls, often materially reducing the crop, and 
 is, therefore, known as the Cotton Bollworm. In tomato- 
 growing sections it is called the Tomato Fruilworm, from its 
 habit of eating into the green fruits and in tobacco regions 
 it is the Tobacco Budworm on account of its injury by boring 
 into the buds and seed-pods. Numerous other crops such 
 as beans, peas, and many garden and forage crops are also 
 attacked. 
 
 The moths have a wing expanse of about If inches and 
 are quite variable in color and markings. Some are dull 
 olive-green while others are yellowish and with almost no 
 markings. Typically the wings are bordered Avith dark 
 bands, the wing-veins are black and the fore wings are 
 spotted with black. In the Gulf States the moths appear in 
 April and in the Middle States early in June. The eggs of 
 the first generation are laid on corn, peas, beans, or whatever 
 food-plants are available and hatch in from three to five 
 * Hclioihis obsoleta Fab. Family Noctuidcc. 
 
254 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 days. They are light yellowish, and prettily corrugated. 
 The caterpillars of the first generation often attack corn 
 when it is about knee-high, feeding in the axils of the tender 
 leaves so that when they unroll they bear rows of holes. 
 
 Fig. 178. — The corn ear-worm (HclioUiis obsoleta Fab). 
 
 a, eggs on corn-silk; 6, the first three larval stages; c, pupa from below; d, 
 same from above; e, adult moth — all enlarged; b. about twice natural size. 
 
 The caterpillars are also quite variable in color, ranging from 
 a light green, through rose color and brown to almost black, 
 and being either striped, spotted or perfectly plain. They 
 become grown in about two and a half weeks and are then 
 from It to 1 i inches long. The grown caterpillar burrows into 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 255 
 
 the soil for two to five inches and after making an upward 
 burrow nearly to the surface for the escape of the moth, 
 changes to a pupa at the bottom of the burrow. During 
 the summer the moths emerge in about two weeks, but the 
 last generation in the fall passes the winter in the pupal 
 stage. The second generation of moths appears about mid- 
 summer in the lati- 
 tude of Delaware and 
 Kansas. The cater- 
 pillars of the second 
 generation in the 
 South and of the 
 third farther north 
 prefer to lay their 
 eggs on corn silk and 
 tassels and do seri^ 
 ous injur}^ by eating 
 outthetipsoftheears. 
 From 2 to 3 per cent 
 of the corn crop of 
 the country, valued 
 at from $30,000,000 
 to $50,000,000, is 
 thus destroyed an- 
 nually, and the an- 
 nual damage to cot- 
 ton is estimated at 
 
 $20,000,000. In the Gulf States there are four or five gener- 
 ations, the larvae of the third and fourth generations being 
 the most injurious to cotton in August and September. This 
 is also the season when tobacco is worst injured. 
 
 Inasmuch as the pupse pass the winter in the soil, the 
 most practical means of control is to plow infested land in 
 
 Fig. 179. — BoUworm at work on cotton 
 bolls, boring into grown boll — slightly 
 reduced. (After Quaintance and Brues, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
256 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 late fall or during the winter, and to harrow thoroughly. 
 This breaks up the pupal cells, crushing some, and exposing 
 others to the elements. Field corn which is planted early 
 is much less injured than that planted later. Where the 
 caterpillars of the first generation are noticed in. the axils of 
 the young corn, they may be destroyed by sprinkling pow- 
 dered arsenate of lead in the axil. The same method should 
 
 Fig. 180, — Bollworm boring into green tomato, 
 and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 (After Quaintance 
 
 be used for destroying the worms in tobacco buds. Thor- 
 ough spraying with arsenate of lead will prevent injury to 
 tomatoes. As with corn, cotton planted early and quickly 
 matured is but little injured. Dusting cotton foliage with 
 powdered arsenate of lead will destroy the young caterpillars 
 where they are sufficiently abundant to warrant. As the 
 moths prefer to lay their eggs on corn silk, cotton may be 
 protected by the use of strips of late corn planted through 
 the fields so as to act as a trap crop. About June first plant 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 257 
 
 several alternate rows of jMcxican June corn and eow-peas, 
 in strips, through the cotton, so that the corn will be in silk 
 about the first of August when the moths of the third gener- 
 ation are laying their eggs. They will ])e attracted to lay on 
 the corn in preference to the cotton and the cow-peas will 
 furnish them both food and shelter. As soon as the worms 
 become fairly grown, the corn and cow-peas should be cut 
 and fed to stock, and the land plowed to destroy any which 
 may have pupated. Planting small areas of corn and cow- 
 peas here and there on large plantations will have much the 
 same effect. They may follow early crops such as potatoes, 
 oats or wheat. 
 )^^_l^ 143. The Cotton Worm.* The cotton worm (19) is the 
 most serious insect pest of cotton foliage and prior to the 
 advent of the boll weevil was the 
 worst enemy of the cotton plant. 
 When very abundant these hungry 
 caterpillars will strip the foliage 
 over considerable areas in a fesv 
 days and will eat the buds and 
 even attack the twigs so that only 
 prompt action will save the crop. 
 Fortunately the worst damage is 
 usually not done until early fall, 
 and inasmuch as only early cot- 
 ton can be grown wherever the 
 boll weevil occurs and no effort 
 is made to secure a late or 
 "top-crop," the real injury by 
 the cotton worms, in the l)oll 
 weevil region, is not as serious as formerly. 
 
 During the winter months the adult moths hibernate in 
 * Alabama argillacea Hubn. Family Noctuidce. 
 
 Fig. 181. — Cotton worm 
 moths, natural size. 
 (Photo by Dr. W. E. 
 Hinds.) 
 
258 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the southern portion of the cotton belt. The moth is a 
 grayish-brown color with a wing expanse of about 1^ inches. 
 The wings often have a purplish luster and are marked with 
 darker lines, as shown in Fig. 18L Early in the spring 
 they lay their eggs on volunteer cotton, as many as 500 eggs 
 being laid by one moth. The caterpillars feed greedily on 
 the tender foliage and become grown in from one to three 
 
 Fig. 182. — Cotton worms, natural size. (Photo by Dr. W. E. Hinds.) 
 
 weeks. When grown they are 1^ inches long, greenish, 
 striped with black and marked with numerous small black 
 dots. The mature caterpillar draws together the edges of a 
 leaf and within the fold spins a thin silken cocoon in which it 
 transforms to a pupa, from which the moth emerges in from 
 one to four weeks. 
 
 Like most of the Noctuids the moths fly only after sun- 
 set, but unlike others their mouth-jDarts are so formed that 
 they are adapted to piercing the skin of ripe fruits and suck- 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 259 
 
 ing their juices. They are strong fliers and the later broods 
 are often carried northward by the winds in large numbers, 
 even as far as Canada. The moths of the first generation 
 in the spring fly northward, and from eggs deposited by 
 them another generation develops in due time, which, in 
 turn, flies northward, and thus by late summer the worms 
 are found throughout the whole cotton belt. At least seven 
 generations occur along the Gulf Coast and three at the 
 northern limit of cotton growth. Considering the number 
 of eggs laid by each female, it is evident that the species will 
 multiply very rapidly, and it has been estimated that the 
 progeny of one moth, if there were no mortahty, would 
 amount to over 300,000,000,000 individuals after four gen- 
 erations, which, if Jjlaced end to end, would encircle the 
 earth at the equator over four times. 
 
 The usual remedy has been to dust the plants with Paris 
 green. Powdered arsenate of lead would, undoubtedly, be 
 as effective. Dusting machines which will cover four rows 
 at once have been in common use w^here injury is frequent. 
 It may also be applied with powder guns. It has most com- 
 monly been distributed by being shaken from bags fastened 
 at the ends of a pole and carried by a man on horseback. 
 
 144. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil * (20). Probably 
 no one insect has been so seriously and continuously injuri- 
 ous over so large a section of country as the boll weevil. As 
 its name indicates, it is a native of Mexico, whence it spread 
 into Texas about 1890. Since then it has spread steadily east- 
 w^ard until it now inhabits nearly aU of the cotton belt west of 
 Georgia, and in the course of another decade, will, doubt- 
 less, cover the Eastern Cotton States. In 1904 the writer 
 made a careful estimate of the loss caused by the boll weevil 
 in Texas, which showed that it amounted to $25,000,000 
 * Anthonomus grandis Boh. Family Curculionidw. 
 
260 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 per annum and had cost the State $100,000,000 up to 
 that time. The amount of injury has not increased in pro- 
 portion to the spread of the pest, and although no careful 
 estimates have been made recently, the total annual loss for 
 the cotton belt, as a whole, cannot be less than $50,000,000 
 
 per annum, and in some 
 years it has, doubtless, been 
 double that amount. 
 
 The boll weevil is a 
 small brownish beetle about 
 one-fourth inch long, includ- 
 ing the snout which is half 
 as long as the body. It may 
 be distinguished from nearly 
 related species and other 
 common weevils by the 
 two teeth at the tip of the 
 femora of the fore legs (Fig. 
 183). It feeds only on 
 cotton and weevils found feeding on other plants are 
 certainly of other species. 
 
 The weevils emerge from hibernation from the time 
 cotton is up until it begins to "square." During the spring 
 they feed on the foliage, particularly the tender terminals. 
 As soon as the squares are formed the females lay their eggs 
 in them, laying four or five a day, and depositing an average 
 of about 140. The egg hatches in about three days and the 
 grub feeds within the square, which usually fails to develop 
 and falls to the ground. The larva becomes grown in seven 
 to twelve days and then changes to the pupa, which lasts 
 three to five days. Thus, from egg to adult requires from 
 two to three weeks, depending upon climatic conditions, but 
 a full generation requires six weeks, and there are not over 
 
 Fig. 183.— The cotton boll weevil 
 — enlarged. . 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 261 
 
 four or five generations a year. The larva is a footless white 
 grub with a brown head and feeds entirely within the squares 
 or bolls. Many squares are destroyed by the feeding 
 punctures of the adult weevils. The squares are preferred 
 both for food and egg-laying, but in late summer and fall, 
 as they all become infested, the bolls are attacked, as many 
 as fifteen larvae having been found in a single boll. With the 
 first killing frosts the adult weevils go into hibernating 
 quarters. In seeking places for hibernation the weevils fly 
 from field to field, and it is at this season that the principal 
 migration takes place. They may hibernate in hedges. 
 
 Fig. 184. — The cotton boll weevil, natural size, showing variation in 
 size and color. 
 
 woods, corn-fields, haystacks or farm buildings, particularly 
 about seed houses or similar situations. Others crawl into 
 cracks in the soil in cotton fields, under grass, into Spanish 
 moss on trees, weeds or trash, into empty cotton ])urrs, and 
 in the more southern sections may hibernate in the injured 
 bolls. 
 
 By far the most important measure in the control of the 
 boll weevil is the destruction of the plants in the fall as soon 
 as the cotton can be picked. This both destroys the weevils 
 and prevents their increase. The stalks should be plowed 
 out and burned as soon as possible. It is well to plow out 
 all but a row here and there upon which the weevils will 
 
262 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 concentrate, then as soon as the piles are dry enough to burn, 
 cut the remaining rows and burn at once. In this way the 
 great bulk of the adult weevils and all of the immature 
 states in the squares and bolls are destroyed The few es- 
 caping weevils will be starved out before the weather becomes 
 cold enough for them to hibernate, or will be so weakened as 
 
 ■->v-- ■ 
 
 4. 
 
 ^V i 
 
 m^^^ 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 Fig. 185. — Cross-section 
 of cotton square show- 
 ing egg and opening 
 through which it was 
 laid — greatly enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 186. — Cotton squares broken open, 
 showing the boll weevil larvae within 
 — enlarged. 
 
 to die in hibernation. Thus it has been shown I)}' Professor 
 Wilmon Newell, in Louisiana, that where the weevils were 
 forced into hibernation on October 15th only 3 per cent sur- 
 vived the winter, but that when the destruction of the stalks 
 was put off until after December 15th, 43 per cent survived, 
 with proportional numbers at intervening dates. Further- 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 
 
 283 
 
 more, the developincnt of the late broods which furnish the 
 majority of the weevils which hibernate is effectually pre- 
 vented. The removal of the plants also facilitates winter 
 plowing, which aids in producing an early crop the next 
 3'ear. IMany experiments of the experience of practical 
 planters have shown that the destruction of the stalks in 
 the fall is of primary importance in the control of the 
 weevil, particularly upon bottom lands. The defoliation of 
 the plants by the cotton worms (page 257), secures much 
 
 Fig. 1S7. — Chain cultivator for use in drawing weevil-infested squares 
 to center of row. (After Hunter, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 the same result as the destruction of the stalks, by remov- 
 ing the food-supply of the weevil. Therefore, when the 
 worms appear in weevil-injured fields late in the season, 
 planters should not poison the worms, for they will aid in pre- 
 venting the increase of weevils, and no further crop can be 
 secured. 
 
 Injury may be largely avoided by making an early crop 
 before the weevils have become sufficiently abundant to 
 do serious damage. Everything possible should, therefore, 
 be done to hasten early maturity. Land should be plowed 
 in winter and a good seed bed prepared. Plant as early as 
 
2&i 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
FIELD CROP INSECTS 265 
 
 possible with safety from frost. A liberal use of commercial 
 fertilizers will hasten maturity. Only early maturing varie- 
 ties should be planted, and selected seed of open-growing 
 sorts is to be preferred. Chop out the plants as soon as 
 possible. Frequent light cultivation should be given so as 
 to keep the soil well stirred. Deep plowing and cultivating 
 close to the rows should be avoided, as it causes the dropping 
 of the squares. 
 
 When infested squares fall to the ground and lie on the 
 unshaded hot soil the larvae or pupae within them are soon 
 killed by the heat. As many as 40 per cent have been 
 found killed in some fields. The rows should, therefore, be 
 planted fairly wide apart, and varieties producing a mini- 
 mum of shade are preferable, as are those which readily 
 shed their squares when injured. As most of the squares 
 drop beneath the plants where they are shaded, any means 
 of scraping them into the centers of the rows will aid in their 
 destruction. For this purpose a chain cultivator as de- 
 scribed by Hunter (/. c.) (Fig. 187), has proven very effi- 
 cient for this purpose. The chains may be attached to 
 ordinary cultivators by special attachments. An arm or 
 projection that will brush the plant should be attached to 
 whatever cultivator is used so that the squares will be 
 knocked to the ground, as the effect of the heat is greater 
 the earlier the squares drop. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 145. Cutworms. * The larvae of several species of moths, 
 which are more or less similar in general appearance and 
 habits and which feed on low-growing vegetation, cutting 
 off the stems just at the surface of the ground, are commonly- 
 known as Cut-worms. They 
 should be distinguished from 
 the white grubs (page 236), 
 which are often wrongly 
 called cutworms on account 
 of their similar habits. Some 
 species prefer certain crops, 
 but most of them are almost 
 omnivorous, though most 
 injurious to garden crops 
 and to corn, cotton, tobacco 
 and similar crops grown in 
 hills or rows. 
 
 The adult moths have 
 dark fore wings, variously 
 marked with darker or hghter spots and narrow bands, as 
 illustrated, and expand from one to two inches. The wings 
 are folded over the back when at rest. Most of the larger, 
 dark-colored moths which fly into lights in summer, commonly 
 called "moth-millers," are cutworm moths. Like their 
 larvae they feed at night, sipping the nectar from flowers. 
 * Family Noctuidce, see page 80. 
 266 
 
 Fig. 189.— The dark -sided cut- 
 worm {Agrotismessoria) . (After 
 Riley.) 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 267 
 
 The females lay their eggs on grass land or where a crop has 
 been allowed to grow up in grass and weeds in late sammer. 
 The little larva; which hatch from these eggs in late summer 
 feed on the roots of whatever vegetation is available until 
 frost, when they go deeper in the soil and curl up snugly in 
 small earthen cells, where they hilDcrnate until spring. They 
 then attack any vegetation with surprising voracity, often 
 subsisting on grass and weeds which have been turned under 
 until a planted crop is available. They become full grown 
 by late spring or early summer and are then from 1| to 2 
 inches long, of a 
 dull brown, gray 
 or blackish color, 
 often tinged with 
 greenish, and more 
 or less marked with 
 longitudinal strips, 
 dots and oblique 
 dashes, these mark- 
 ings harmonizing in 
 color with the soil. 
 They have three 
 pairs of true legs 
 
 and five pairs of abdominal prolegs. The larvae pupate 
 in cells a few inches beneath the surface and the moths 
 emerge during midsummer in the Central and Northern 
 States and earlier farther south. There is usually only one 
 generation in the North, but there are commonly two and 
 sometimes three in the South. 
 
 It is evident from their life history that one of the best 
 means of control is thorough plowing and harrowing in late 
 fall and early spring, so as to keep the land fallow and thus 
 starve out the larvae. This is particularly true for staple 
 
 Fig. 190. — Granulated cut-worm (Agrolis 
 annexa). (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 a, larva; /, pupa; h, adult — natural size. 
 
268 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 crops, such as cotton, corn and tobacco, on which it is expen- 
 sive to use other means. Poisoned bran mash (see page 329), 
 is an effective remedy for cutworms, particularly in gardens. 
 It should be applied a few days before the plants are set or 
 before the seed plants appear. Sow the mash broadcast late 
 in the afternoon so that it will be moist when the worms feed 
 at dusk. Keep poultry away from fields so treated. Clover 
 which has been dipped in water containing one-third pound 
 of Paris green per barrel may be used in the same way, par- 
 ticularly along borders of fields next to grass. Market gar- 
 deners commonly protect plants by means of tin cans from 
 which the bottoms have been removed or by paper cylinders, 
 which are sunk into the soil around the plants. Garden 
 plants may sometimes be protected from cutworms by dip- 
 ping in arsenate of lead, three pounds to the barrel, when 
 setting them, as advised for flea beetles. 
 
 146. Plant Lice or Aphides. Almost every garden crop 
 is attacked by one or more species of plant lice, which mul- 
 tiply so rapidly that if they are not promptly controlled 
 serious injury results. 
 
 Cabbage Aphis * (44). Cabbage, turnips and other 
 cruciferous garden crops are frequently found covered with 
 disgusting gray, waxy masses of cabbage aphides. The eggs 
 of this species are laid on cabbage during October and 
 November and, in central New York, hatch the next April. 
 Herrick and Hungate observed twenty-one generations 
 from early April until December. During the summer the 
 wingless females become full grown in about two weeks 
 and live for about forty-six days, during which time they 
 will give birth to about forty young. Generations of 
 winged females appear, particularly on crowded plants, and 
 spread the pest. They live only about ten days and bear 
 * Aphis brassicoe Linn. Family Aphididop, see page 66. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 269 
 
 from seven to thirteen young. The wingless female is 
 covered with a grayish waxy coat, the body being a grayish- 
 green, marked with eight black spots down either side of the 
 back. The antennae arc green with black tips and the eyes, 
 legs, and tail are black. In the South viviparous reproduc- 
 tion continues all winter and in the North many, doubtless, 
 
 Fig. 191. — Cabbage aphis {Aphis hrassicce, Linn.). (After Herrick 
 and Hungate.) Very greatly enlarged. 
 
 survive the winter on cabbages stored in pits. The latter 
 might readily be destroyed by fumigation. 
 
 Spinach Aphis.* This species often becomes destructive 
 to spinach, celery, lettuce, cabbage and various greenhouse 
 crops. It is the same as the Green Peach Aphis, which 
 see (page 306). 
 
 Pea Aphis f (7). Large green plant-lice often become so 
 abundant on the foliage and pods of garden peas as to kill 
 * Myzus persicoe Sulz. j Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. 
 
270 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the plants. They pass the winter on clover and vetches, 
 sometimes becoming so numerous as to do serious injury. 
 The winged females migrate to the peas about the time they 
 are six to eight inches high, and give birth to young which 
 develop into wingless, viviparous females. Both wingless and 
 winged females occur throughout the season, the latter pre- 
 dominating whenever food becomes scarce. The winged 
 forms are about one-eighth of an inch long with wings ex- 
 panding two-fifths of an inch. The body 
 is a pea-green color, the eyes are red, and 
 the legs, antennae and honey-tubes are 
 yellowish tipped with black. The wing- 
 less females are similar, but somewhat 
 broader. A female becomes grown in 
 u- " /Tir ^^^' about eleven days after birth, lives about 
 
 aphis (Macrosi- 
 
 phum pisi Kalt). twenty-five days, and bears about 50 
 
 Winged and wing- young, though sometimes 100 are born, 
 
 less viviparous Sixteen generations have been observed 
 
 females and , t»t i ^oi i /-^ i ^ i • 
 
 young— enlarged, 'between March 23d and October 4th m 
 
 Central Illinois. The best means of 
 avoiding injury by this species is to grow early varieties. 
 Brushing the aphides from the vines with a pine branch and 
 following with a cultivator, will destroy many of them on a 
 hot summer day. 
 
 Melon Aphis * (8). The melon aphis may be found on 
 various weeds such as shepherd's purse and pepper grass in 
 early spring and on melons and other cucurbs soon after 
 they start growth. If allowed to multiply unchecked it will 
 often become so abundant as to ruin a crop just as the melons 
 are commencing to ripen. The wingless females are about 
 one-fifteenth of an inch long, varying in color from light yel- 
 low or tan to olive or deep green, appearing almost blackish; 
 
 * Aphis gossypii Glover. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 271 
 
 the legs and antennse are pale whitish-yellow, and the rather 
 long, tapering honey-tubes are jet black. The winged 
 female has black spots along the sides of the abdomen. In 
 the South this species is also a serious pest of young cotton. 
 No true sexual forms or eggs of this species have been ob- 
 served, but reproduction by agamic females goes on through- 
 
 FiG. 193. — The melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.). (After Chit- 
 tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, winged female; aa, enlarged antenna of same; ab, dark female, side view, 
 sucking juice from leaf; b, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged form; 
 d, wingless female — greatly enlarged. 
 
 out the summer as with other aphides, winged forms ap- 
 pearing whenever the food-plant becomes overcrowded. 
 
 Control. Much the same remedies may be used for all of 
 these species. Spraying with contact insecticides will destroy 
 most of them, but the aphides must be hit to be killed, and 
 spraying must be done while the plants are small and before 
 
272 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the foliage is curled by the aphides or it will not reach them. 
 Kerosene emulsion containing from 5 to 8 per cent of kero- 
 sene is the oldest spray, but should be used with caution on 
 melons and peas. Whale oil soap, one pound to six gallons 
 of water, is entirely safe and equally effective. " Black-leaf " 
 extract of tobacco containing 2to per cent of nicotine is 
 effective when applied one part to 65 or 70 of water. Prof. 
 FrankHn Sherman, Jr., states that any good laundry soap 
 used at the rate of one pound dissolved in three gallons of 
 water is effective against the cabbage aphis. Where water 
 under pressure is available in a small garden, many species 
 may be held in check by washing with a strong stream from a 
 garden hose. Cabbage plants infested in the seed bed 
 should be dipped in a soap solution when planted. 
 
 147. Flea-beetles.* Almost all of the common garden 
 crops are attacked by small beetles, which from their power 
 of making long, quick jumps, are 
 \ j known as flea-beetles. 
 
 ^.^^T^^Js. The Potato Flea-beetle f (45) at- 
 
 r ^^^^F X tacks potatcf and tomato plants 
 when they are but a few inches high 
 and often so riddles the foliage as to 
 cause the plants to wilt and some- 
 times to necessitate replanting toma- 
 toes. It is only one-sixteenth inch 
 long and is jet black, except the 
 yellowish antennae and legs. The 
 beetles hibernate under rubbish, 
 leaves, etc., and in the spring come 
 forth and lay their eggs on the roots of common weeds of 
 the nightshade family, such as the horse-nettle, or " Jimpson" 
 weed, etc. The larvae mine in the roots of these plants 
 * Family Chrysomelidae, see page 12L f Epitrix cucumeris Harris. 
 
 Fig. 194.— Potato flea- 
 beetle, greatly enlarged 
 (After Chittenden, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 273 
 
 and transform to pupae in earthen cells among the roots, 
 from which the beetles emerge to attack the foliage. The 
 larvae are very slender, elongate, white worms. Occasion- 
 ally they mine into the tubers, doing considerable damage 
 and causing pimply potatoes, as has been observed in New 
 York and Colorado. There are two or three generations 
 each year, but the exact life history has not been fully 
 determined. 
 
 The Tobacco Flea-beetle * (10) does similar damage to 
 the same crops throughout the South as well as to tobacco 
 and egg plant. It is a small spe- 
 cies, one-twentieth inch long, light 
 brown in color with a dark band 
 across the wing-covers. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture forms an 
 excellent repellent for these little 
 beetles. Potatoes and tomatoes 
 should be sprayed with Bordeaux 
 mixture for the control of fun- 
 gous diseases, and arsenate of 
 lead or Paris green for the Colo- 
 rado potato beetle as soon as 
 they are six inches high. The 
 spray should be applied liberally 
 so as thoroughly to coat the 
 plants. Tomatoes are more sus- 
 ceptible to injury and may well 
 be dipped in arsenate of lead, one 
 pound to ten gallons of water, when planting. The destruc- 
 tion of the weeds upon which the larvae commonly de- 
 velop is obviously important in preventing their multi- 
 plication. 
 
 * Epitrix parvu!a Fab. 
 
 Fig. 195. — Tobacco flea- 
 beetle {Epitrix parvula). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, adult beetle; b, larva, lateral 
 view; /, pupa — enlarged about 
 fifteen times. 
 
274 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Two other species with very similar habits are the Pale- 
 striped Flea-beetle * and the Banded Flea-beetle. '\ They often 
 appear in enormous numbers and seem ahnost omnivorous 
 in their food-habits, being particularly injurious to young 
 corn and tomatoes, but also attacking beans, beets, pota- 
 toes, egg plant, melons, crucifers, and almost all garden 
 crops. The pale-striped flea-beetle is about one-eighth inch 
 long, cream colored, with the wing-covers marked with 
 
 Fig. 196. — The pale-striped flea- 
 beetle {Systena blanda Mels.). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
 a, larva; b, beetle — much enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 197. — The striped turnip 
 flea-beetle (Phyllotrela vittata 
 Fab.). (After Riley, U. S. Dept. 
 
 Agr.) 
 a, larva; 6, adult — -greatly enlarged. 
 
 three stripes of light brown and the eyes and abdomen are 
 black. The banded flea-beetle is very similar, but the dark 
 stripes are expanded and darker, so that it appears to be a 
 polished black with two white stripes. Their habits and life 
 history are very similar to the preceding species so far as 
 known. They are best controlled by thoroughly spraying 
 the affected plants with Bordeaux mixture containing three 
 pounds of arsenate of lead to the barrel. Powdered arsenate 
 of lead dusted over the plants will doubtless be effective. 
 * Systena blanda Melsh f Systena tceniata Say. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 275 
 
 A number of species attack cabbage and other cruciferous 
 crops. The Striped Turnip Flea-beetle,* one of the most com- 
 mon, is polished black with each wing-cover marked with a 
 broad wav}^ band of pale yellow. The small white larvae 
 have sometimes injured the roots of cabbage and turnips, 
 but probably they usually feed on the roots of cruciferous 
 weeds. Where the plants 
 are sprayed properly for the 
 cabbage worms there will 
 usually be little trouble with 
 flea-beetles. Otherwise, 
 spray with arsenate of lead, 
 three to five pounds to the 
 barrel, or dust with pow- 
 dered arsenate of lead. 
 Where injury is anticipated 
 it will be well to dip the 
 plants, as advised above for 
 tomatoes. Where plants 
 are attacked in the seed- 
 bed, screening tightly with 
 cheesecloth is advised. By 
 thoroughly dusting the 
 plants with air-slaked lime, 
 land plaster, tobacco dust, 
 ashes, or any similar dusts, applying them in the early 
 morning while the dew is on the plants, they may be pro- 
 tected as long as they are kept thoroughly covered. 
 
 The Spinach Flea-beetle f is a larger species, one-fourth 
 inch long, and is commonly injurious to beets and spinach. 
 It is shining black with a greenish or bluish luster, the pro- 
 thorax and abdomen are red or reddish-yellow, and the legs 
 
 * Phyllotreta vittata Fab. f Disonycha xanthomeloena Dalm. 
 
 b 
 
 Fig. 198.— The spinach flea-beetle 
 (Disonycha xanthoineloEna Dalm.). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
 a, beetle; 6, egg mass; c, larva; d, pupa 
 — five times natural size. 
 
276 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and antennae are pale yellowish. The larvae feed on the 
 foliage and pupate in the earth. The second generation is 
 usually the most injurious in late summer. This species is 
 readily controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 
 
 148. Colorado Potato Beetle.* The Colorado potato 
 beetle (11), is now so well known that it hardly needs descrip- 
 tion, although in many parts of the Gulf and Pacific Coast 
 
 Fig. 199. — The Colorado potato-beetle {LeptinotarsadecemlineataSay.). 
 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 a, eggs- b, larva; c, pupa; d, beetle; e, elytra or wing-cover of beetle; /, leg 
 of beetle. 
 
 States it does little if any injury. The adult beetles pass 
 the winter in the earth, where they hibernate until spring 
 sunshine brings them forth. As soon as the young potato 
 plants appear the females deposit their yellow eggs in masses 
 on the foliage, each laying about 500 in the course of a 
 month. At the same time the beetles are doing considerable 
 damage by eating the young plants, sometimes attacking 
 both potato and tomato plants in such numbers as to destroy 
 * Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. Family Chrysomelidce. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 277 
 
 them. As a rule, tomatoes are not so much injured later in 
 the season. 
 
 The eggs hatch in from four to seven days and the young 
 grubs gorge themselves on the tender foliage, increasing in 
 size with astonishing rapidity and becoming full grown in 
 about three weeks. The grubs then enter the soil and a few 
 inches below the surface hollow out cells in which they trans- 
 form to pupae, from which the adult beetles emerge in one or 
 two weeks. Thus, in summer, the whole life cycle requires 
 from four to six weeks. After feeding a few days the new 
 beetles deposit eggs which give rise to a second generation 
 of grubs. These transform, in the same manner as de- 
 scribed, into the beetles which hibernate. Through the 
 Middle States, where most injury is done, there are two gen- 
 erations a year, but in the South there may be three genera- 
 tions and in the North there is but one. 
 
 When the young plants are attacked by the old beetles, 
 they should be sprayed with arsenate of lead 5 pounds to 50 
 gallons. Potatoes should always be sprayed about every 
 two weeks with Bordeaux mixture for the control of diseases 
 and if this is done, the potato beetle may be easily controlled 
 by adding a half pound of Paris green or three pounds of 
 arsenate of lead to each barrel, for the first two or three 
 sprayings. Paris green is often dusted on the vines, usually 
 mixed with 50 times its weight of flour, land plaster or air- 
 slaked lime, and applied while the plants are wet with dew. 
 However, dusting is more expensive and less efficient than 
 spraying, except where peculiar local conditions make spray- 
 ing impracticable, and burning of foliage often results, par- 
 ticularly when the dust is carelessly applied. 
 
 Cleaning up the vines and plowing potato land in the 
 fall as soon as the crop is dug will aid in reducing the num- 
 bers of the hibernating beetles. 
 
278 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 149. Tomato Worms. The most common caterpillars 
 injurious to tomatoes are the large Horn-worms, which also 
 affect tobacco (10). Two species * are common, one being 
 more abundant in the North and the other in the South, but 
 they are very similar both in appearance and habits. The 
 full-grown larvse are about three inches long, of a dark green 
 
 Fig. 200. — Northern tobacco-worm, or "hornworm" (Phlegethontius 
 quinquemaculata). (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 o, adult moth; b, full-grown larva; c, pupa — slightly reduced. 
 
 color with white stripes on the side of the body, those on the 
 northern species being a V-shape, while the Southern species 
 has simple oblique bands. At the tip of the abdomen is a 
 stout horn which gives them the name "horn-worms." 
 The larvae become grown in about three weeks, when they 
 
 * Phlegethontius quinquemaculata Haworth (Northern), familj* 
 Sphingidoe, see page 89 and P. sexto Johansenn (Southern). 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 279 
 
 pupate in the soil, the pupjB being commonly called ''horn- 
 blowers." The adult moths emerge about three weeks later 
 during midsummer. In the tobacco belt there are two gen- 
 erations a year, but in the North there is but a single genera- 
 tion and in the Gulf States there may be three. The adult 
 is a large gray moth, marked with black, white and yellow, 
 with a wing expanse of about five inches and may often be 
 seen gathering nectar from petunias and similar flowers. 
 From their size and flight they are often called "humming- 
 bird moths." The large caterpillars rag the foliage of toma- 
 toes or tobacco and will quickly do considerable damage. 
 When carried into the barn they sometimes injure tobacco 
 as it dries. On small patches the easiest method of control 
 is hand-picking. Tomatoes should always be sprayed with 
 Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead for diseases and other 
 insects, which treatment will also control these larvie. 
 Tobacco and tomatoes which have not been so sprayed 
 should be dusted with powdered arsenate of lead (12), diluted 
 with at least an equal bulk of dry wood ashes, applying 3j 
 to five pounds per acre. Or it may be used as a spray, two 
 pounds to the barrel. (See page 253 for Tomato Fruit- 
 worm.) 
 
 150. Striped Cucumber-beetle.* The httle yellow bee- 
 tles with black heads and three black stripes on the wing- 
 covers, which appear just as the young melon and cucumber 
 plants are up, are known to every gardener. They swarm 
 over the plants and very frequently are so numerous as to 
 necessitate replanting. 
 
 The beetles hibernate over winter and emerge two or 
 three weeks before cucurbs are up, during which time they 
 feed on various flowers. After feeding on the young melon 
 plants for a few days the females commence to deposit their 
 
 * Diabrotica vittata Fab. Family Chrysomelidoe, see page 121. 
 
280 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 eggs in crevices of the soil. During a month a female will 
 lay 100 eggs, which hatch in a week to ten days. The larva 
 is a slender, white, worm-like grub about three-tenths of an 
 inch long, with a dark head and anal plate. They bore 
 into the cucurb roots, often tunneling into the base of the 
 stem, and sometimes mine into melons lying on damp soil. 
 Injury to the roots is rarely very serious, though occasionally 
 cucumber and melon vines are killed. The larvae become 
 
 Fig. 201. — The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 a, beetle; 6, larva; c, pupa; much enlarged. 
 
 full grown in about a month, when they transform to pupae 
 in small, earthen cells, from which the beetles emerge in one 
 to two weeks. In New England there is but one generation 
 a year, the new beetles appearing in early fall, but in the 
 Middle States there are two generations, the first appearing 
 about midsummer. 
 
 A few plants may be protected from the beetles by covers 
 of netting. A barrel hoop cut in two and crossed and the 
 ends fastened to another hoop makes a good frame. Cone- 
 shaped covers of wire screening may be made and kept from 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 281 
 
 year to year. Manj^ growers sow the seed in rows rather 
 thickly and then thin out to the desired distance after the 
 worst injury is over. Others make several plantings in each 
 hill at intervals of a week, but the former plan will ensure 
 earlier growth. Plants may be protected by keeping them 
 well covered with almost any sort of dust, which must be 
 applied to both the upper and lower surfaces of leaves while 
 the dew is on. This must be repeated as the dust is blown 
 or washed off and as the plant grows. Air-slaked lime mixed 
 with sulphur, and tobacco dust, have been found beneficial. 
 Bordeaux mixture repels the beetles, but seems to have a 
 stunting effect on the young plants. Thorough spraying with 
 arsenate of lead, three to five pounds per barrel, seems to repel 
 the beetles better than any other substance. Possibly dust- 
 ing with powdered arsenate of lead would be as satisfactor3^ 
 Cleaning up and destroying the vines as soon as the crop is 
 gathered will deprive the beetles of food and force them to 
 seek other hibernating places, thus increasing the mortality. 
 151. Squash Bugs.* Where leaves of squash and melon 
 vines are found to be wilting here and there just as they 
 are commencing to run, a careful examination will usually 
 reveal the presence of a slate-colored bug (13), about three- 
 fourths inch long, the common squash bug. At night or early 
 in the morning the bugs are usually found beneath rubbish 
 or clods of earth. The brownish eggs are laid in character- 
 istic masses on the under surfaces of the leaves, and hatch 
 in from one to two weeks. The young bugs are brilliantly 
 colored, the antennae and legs being bright crimson, the head 
 and anterior thorax a lighter crimson, and the posterior 
 thorax and abdomen a bright green, but in a little while the 
 crimson changes to jet black. They become full grown in 
 four or five weeks. In the North there is but a single gener- 
 * Anasa tristis DeG. Family Coreidce, see page 59. 
 
282 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ation and the adults hibernate, but in the South there are 
 two or three generations. 
 
 The eggs are readily seen and may be picked off and de- 
 stroyed. The adults are sucking insects and cannot be 
 
 killed by insecticides, but 
 may be collected in early 
 morning from beneath 
 small boards and other 
 rubbish used as traps. 
 The nymphs may be killed 
 by spraying with kerosene 
 emulsion. Cucumbers 
 and melons may be pro- 
 tected by planting early 
 squash among them, as 
 the bugs prefer the squash 
 vines and may be col- 
 lected from them. Clean- 
 ing up the vines in the 
 fall is of importance in 
 reducing the number which will hibernate. 
 
 152. Cabbage Caterpillars. Impcrted Cabbage Worm * 
 (14). One of our most common garden pests is the well- 
 known cabbage worm, whose parent is the common white 
 cabbage butterfly. It was imported from Europe into 
 Quebec about 1860, and has since spread to all parts of the 
 country. The butterflies are among the first to emerge in 
 the spring. The females may be distinguished by having 
 two black spots on each fore wing, while the males have but 
 one. Both sexes have the tips of the fore wings and a spot 
 on the front margin of the hind wings black. Eggs are laid 
 by the females as soon as the food plant is available, and 
 * Ponlia rapce Linn. P^amily Pieridoe, see page 98. 
 
 Fig. 202.— The squash-bug. (After 
 Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, mature female; 6, side view of head, 
 showing beak; c, abdominal segments of 
 male; d, same of female; o, twice natural 
 size; b, c, d, more enlarged. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 283 
 
 hatch in four to eight days. The eggs are yellowish, prom- 
 inently ridged and laid singly on end. The larvai gorge 
 themselves on the foliage and grow rapidly, becoming full 
 grown in from ten days to two weeks. When mature they 
 are about H inches long, of a velvety green color, very sim- 
 
 FiG. 203. — The cabbage butterfly {Pontia rapw). (After Chittenden, 
 
 r. S. bept. Agr.) 
 
 a, female butterfly; h, above, egg as seen from above; below, egg as seen from 
 side; c, larva in natural position on cabbage leaf; d, suspended chrysalis — o, c, 
 d, slightly enlarged; 6, more enlarged. 
 
 ilar to the foliage, with a faint yellow stripe down the middle 
 of the back and a row of 3'ellow spots on each side. The 
 chrj'salis or pupa is attached to the leaf by a strand of silk 
 and is at first greenish and then light brown in color. In 
 the smnmer the butterflies emerge from the chrysalids in 
 one to two weeks, but the chrysalids of the last generation 
 
284 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 hibernate among the old stalks and rubbish in the fields. 
 In New England there are three generations and in the 
 South probably five or six. 
 
 Southern Cabbage Butterfly.* Before the appearance of 
 the imported species this was the more common in the South 
 
 but has now been largely 
 \ / ^-.-^-^irm^ replaced. The male 
 butterfly is very similar 
 to the female of the 
 former species in gen- 
 eral appearance, but the 
 female is much more 
 heavily marked w4th 
 black. The caterpillar 
 is a greenish-blue color 
 with four longitudinal, 
 yellow stripes and cov- 
 ered with black dots. 
 The habits are very sim- 
 ilar to those of the last 
 species. 
 
 Cabbage Looker.] The 
 cabbage looper strips the 
 foliage in much the 
 same manner as the former species. It is so called on 
 account of its "looping" habit of walking, like that of a 
 measuring-worm, due to the absence of legs on the third 
 and fourth abdominal segments. The larvse are pale to dark 
 green in color, marked with several longitudinal white lines 
 and might readily be mistaken for the imported cabbage 
 worm were it not for their looping gait. Cabbage and cauli- 
 
 * Pontia protodice Boisd. Family Pieridoe, see page 98. 
 
 t Autographa brassicce Riley. Family Noctuidce, see page 8L 
 
 Fig. 204. — The Southern cabbage but- 
 terfly {Pontia protodice Boisd.). (After 
 Riley.) 
 
 a, male; 6, female. 
 
GARDEN INSECTS 
 
 285 
 
 flower are the favorite food-plants, but lettuce, peas, celery, 
 beets and various other garden crops and weeds are often 
 attacked. Injury to cabbage seems to be worse in late 
 summer. The full-grown larva spins a very thin trans- 
 parent white cocoon on 
 the leaf where it has been 
 feeding and in it trans- 
 forms to the pupa from 
 which the moth emerges 
 in from one to two weeks 
 in summer. The pupae 
 of the last generation 
 hibernate. The moth 
 has a wing expanse of 
 about Ij inches. The 
 fore wings are grayish- 
 brown mottled with white 
 and black, and just in- 
 side the center is a char- 
 acteristic white spot. A 
 prominent tuft arises 
 from the thorax when 
 the moth is at rest. 
 
 Control. Spraying or dusting with arsenate of lead is the 
 most satisfactory remedy for all of these caterpillars. This 
 should be applied as soon as the plants are set, and they 
 should be kept well covered until the heads are half formed. 
 If this is done the young larvae will be killed before they bur- 
 row into the heads and there will be but little danger from 
 them later. Plants should not be dusted with large quan- 
 tities of arsenate of lead or Paris green after the heads are 
 well formed, nor is there an}^ occasion for this. Various 
 contact insecticides will kill these caterpillars, but their use 
 
 Fig. 205. — The cabbage looper (Auto- 
 grapha brassicce Riley). (After How- 
 ard and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
 a, male moth; b, egg from above and from 
 side; c, full-grown larva in natural position 
 feeding; d, pupa in cocoon — natural size; b, 
 enlarged. 
 
286 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 necessitates hitting each one, which is often difficult, and 
 they have not been found as satisfactory as poisons. As 
 the pupae usually pass the winter on the old stumps and 
 fohage it is evident that they and all rubbish should be 
 destroyed and the field plowed as soon after the crop is 
 removed as possible. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 153. The San Jose Scale and Other Scale Insects. 
 
 Probably no one insect has clone such widespread injury to 
 orchard trees as the San Jose Scale.* (2). The injury is 
 often due to the fact that its presence is not suspected until 
 the tree is badly damaged. The trunk and branches of 
 badly affected trees have a rough grayish appearance as if 
 covered with ashes. By scraping the surface the soft, juicy, 
 yellowish insects will be revealed beneath the covering 
 scales. The scales may most readily be detected on the 
 fruit and leaves, on which a bright red ring appears around 
 each scale. If a single female insect is examined, for which 
 a magnifying glass will be needed, it is found to be covered 
 by a small grayish-black, circular scale. Beneath this scale 
 may be seen a small, soft, oval, orange-colored object, 
 looking very little like an insect, which is the female; the 
 scale being merely a waxy covering. The male scale is 
 smaller and somewhat elongated. 
 
 When the males become fully developed they transform 
 into small two-winged flies. In late spring they emerge at 
 night and fly to the females. A month later the females 
 commence to give birth to live young, which look like tiny 
 yellow mites. They crawl around for a few hours and then 
 stick their mouth-parts into the bark and their scales form 
 over them. They become full grown in about a month and 
 there are several generations in a year, so that a tree with 
 
 * Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. Family Coccida;, see page 64. 
 
 287 
 
288 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Fig. 206. — San Jose scale. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, adult female scale; h, male scale; r, youna scales; d, larva just hatched; 
 d', same, much enlarged; e, scale removed, showing body of female beneath; /, 
 body of female insect, more enlarged; g, adult male of the San Jose scale. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 289 
 
 but few scales in the spring may be covered by them in the 
 fall. Badly infested trees die in a year or two. All of our 
 common orchard trees are subject to attack. 
 
 This pest may be controlled by spraying while the trees 
 are dormant. This will be more effective if they have been 
 pruned and headed in and the rough bark scraped from 
 the trunks and limbs. 
 Every scale must be 
 hit to be killed, so 
 that every bit of the 
 tree must be thor- 
 oughly covered. 
 Lime-sulphur mixture 
 seems to be the best 
 spray, as it also de- 
 stroys various fun- 
 gous diseases and 
 some insects' eggs. 
 Miscible oils are also 
 used extensively and 
 have a certain advan- 
 tage on hairy apple 
 shoots and on badly 
 infested trees, as they 
 are more penetrating. 
 They are used diluted 
 ten or twelve times 
 for winter spraying. Kerosene or crude oil emulsion, con- 
 taining 20 to 25 per cent of oil, is also satisfactorily used. 
 The best tune to spray is just after the trees have dropped 
 their foliage in the fall and in the spring while the buds are 
 swelling, but before the foliage appears. No summer spray 
 has yet been tried which more than checks the development 
 
 a V ft h 
 
 Fig. 207. — The oyster-shell scale {Lepi- 
 dosaphes ulmi Linn.). (After Howard.) 
 
 a, female scales on twig; 6, female scale from 
 above; c, same from below showing eggs; d, male 
 scale — enlarged. 
 
290 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 of the scale, for sprays which will kill all the scales usually 
 injure the foliage. 
 
 Another scale insect very common on old apple trees and 
 also on a number of shade and forest trees, particularly 
 maple and poplar, is the Oyster-shell Scale * (3), so called 
 on account of its oyster-shell shape. The mature female 
 scale is about one-eighth inch long, of a dark brown color, 
 shaped as shown in Fig. 207. The 
 male scale is much smaller. This 
 species is not so injurious, but not 
 infrequently stunts or kills young 
 
 (.■a Jy fruit and shade trees. It is essen- 
 
 l^y^ tially different from the last species 
 
 in its life history, as the females lay 
 eggs beneath the old scales, under 
 which the eggs pass the winter. They 
 hatch in late spring or early summer 
 shortly after apple blossoms drop 
 and the subsequent development is 
 much the same, but there is only one 
 generation a season in the North 
 and two in the South. The same 
 sprays may be used against this spe- 
 cies as advised for the San Jose scale, 
 but they should be applied just before 
 the buds burst in the spring. If this 
 has been neglected, spray with kerosene emulsion contain- 
 ing 15 per cent kerosene, or miscible oils diluted 25 to 30 
 times, just as the eggs are hatching. 
 
 Another species fairly common on apple, pear, and other 
 orchard trees, but rarely doing much injury, is the Scurfy 
 Scale, t The female is a dirty-gray color shaped as shown in 
 * Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn. j Chionaspis furfura Fitch. 
 
 Tin. 208.— The scurfy 
 scale {Chinoas pis fur- 
 fura Fitch). (After 
 Howard, U. S. Dept. 
 Agr.) 
 
 a, females; b, males — 
 natural size. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 291 
 
 Fig. 208, while the male scale is much smaller, snowy 
 white, and with three distinct ridges. The life history is 
 similar to the last species and it is controlled by the same 
 means. 
 
 154. The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle.* The fruit-tree bark- 
 beetle (4, 41), is often known as the "shot-hole borer" from 
 the fact that an affected tree looks as if it had been struck 
 with a charge of bird shot. More or less gum often exudes 
 from these holes on stone fruits. Injury is largely due to 
 allowing dead and dying trees to stand in or near the orchard. 
 
 a he d 
 
 Fig. 209. — The fruit-tree bark-beetle (Scolytus rugulosus). (After 
 Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, b, beetle; c, pupa; d, larva — enlarged. 
 
 as such trees are most subject to attack, and healthy trees are 
 not usually injured in well-cared-for orchards. The holes 
 are caused by the exit of the small parent beetles and the 
 entrance of the females to lay their eggs. The beetle is 
 about one-tenth inch long, and of a black color, except the 
 tips of the wing-covers and parts of the legs, which are red. 
 The beetles emerge in the spring. Between the bark 
 and the sap-wood the females eat out small burrows along 
 the sides of which the eggs are laid. The larvae excavate 
 little side-galleries which branch out and widen as they in- 
 crease in size. They become full grown in about three 
 * Scolytus rugulosus Eatz. Family Scolytidce, see page 127. 
 
292 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 weeks, when they form cells at the end of their burrows and 
 transform to pupae, from which the adult beetles emerge 
 and eat their way out through the bark about a week later. 
 The destruction of all dead and diseased wood and the 
 burning of prunings is the most 
 important factor in the control 
 of this pest. Affected trees should 
 be liberally fertilized so that 
 they may better withstand in- 
 jury. The best means of pre- 
 venting the beetles from laying 
 their eggs seems to be to white- 
 wash the trees in early spring, 
 again in mid-summer, and again 
 in October. Use a good thick 
 whitewash and add one-fourth 
 pound of common salt or Portland 
 cement to each pailful to make 
 it more adhesive. 
 
 155. Apple-tree Borers. 
 Young apple and quince or- 
 chards are often seriously injured 
 by the Round-headed Apple-tree 
 borers * which burrow into the 
 heart wood and often girdle the 
 trees. Their presence may be 
 detected by the retarded growth 
 of the trees, a yellowing of the 
 foliage, the sawdust castings at the entrance of the bur- 
 rows, and the discolored bark over the burrows, from 
 which sap sometimes exudes. Injury is most severe in 
 
 * Saperda Candida Fab. Family Cerambyddce, see page 120 and 
 No. 40a, Appendix A. 
 
 Fig. 210.— Work of the fruit- 
 tree bark-beetle, showing 
 the main galleries, the side 
 or larval galleries, and the 
 pupal cells. (After Ratze- 
 burg.) 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 293 
 
 neglected and stunted orchards where grass and weeds are 
 allowed to grow up. 
 
 The adults are handsome beetles about three-quarters 
 of an inch long with long antennae, silvery white beneath and 
 light brown above marked with two white stripes. The 
 females emerge from late May to mid-July and lay their 
 
 Fig. 211. — The round-headed apple-tree borer {Superda Candida Fab.) 
 larva, adults, and exit hole — natural size. (After Rumsey and 
 Brooks.) 
 
 eggs in the bark of the trees. The larvse hatch out two or 
 three weeks later and feed on the sap-wood just under the 
 bark, working down toward the base of the tree. The next 
 year the larvae work in the sap-wood and the third season 
 they penetrate into the heart-wood and will often riddle a 
 small tree with their cylindrical bm-rows. The third spring 
 
294 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the larvae transform to pupse from which the beetles later 
 emerge, leaving large round holes in the bark. The full- 
 grown larva is a whitish-yellow grub about three-fourths of 
 an inch long, legless, with the body segments strongly con- 
 stricted. 
 
 The females may be prevented from egg-laying by wrap- 
 ping the trunks of the trees with wire-netting, building 
 paper, or wood veneer. Paper or wood wrappings should be 
 applied about May 1st and removed in late summer. These 
 wrappings should be tied tightly to the tree just below the 
 crotch and should extend into the soil. If wire netting is 
 used it should be held well out from the trunk by a layer of 
 cotton at the upper end. Painting the trunks with a thick 
 soap solution to every ten gallons of which has been added 
 a pint of crude carbolic acid, is said to prevent the beetles 
 from laying their eggs. Others advise a thick whitewash 
 to which a little cement has been added, or a paint made of 
 pure white lead and linseed oil. Such washes should be 
 applied by the middle of May and as often thereafter as 
 may be necessary to keep the bark well covered. Where 
 the borers have gotten into the heart of the tree it is difficult 
 to cut them out without damaging the tree, but they may 
 sometimes be reached by injecting a little carbon-bisulphide 
 into the burrow and stopping the opening with mud. Some- 
 times a girdled tree may be saved by bridge-grafting. 
 
 The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer * is more common and 
 prefers weakened or diseased trees. The larva is about one 
 inch long and the thorax is very broadly expanded so as to 
 look like the head, which gives it the name of flat-headed 
 borer. The larvae work just beneath the bark where they 
 hollow out broad fiat channels, which may be detected by 
 the discoloration of the bark. The larvae become full grown 
 
 * Chrysobothris femorata Fab. Family Buprestidce, see page 115. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 295 
 
 in a single year and leave the trees in early summer through 
 elliptical exit holes. The adult beetle is about one-half inch 
 long, of a dull metallic-brown color above, under the wing- 
 covers bright metallic greenish-blue, and the wing-covers 
 taper sharply at the tip. The beetles are active in the day 
 and may often be found on logs or trees. 
 
 Injury by this species is not so common if trees are kept 
 in a healthy condition, but where it occurs it may be com- 
 bated the same as the 
 round-headed borer ex- 
 cept that the washes 
 should be applied higher 
 on the trunks and on 
 the lower limbs as far 
 as they can be reached. 
 
 156. The Woolly 
 Apple-aphis.* The 
 woolly apple-aphis will 
 be found clustered in 
 bluish-white, cottony 
 masses, looking like 
 patches of mold, on the 
 
 smaller apple twigs, particularly water-sprouts, and around 
 wounds or scars on the trunk or limbs. Their presence 
 in these places is usually m indication that others are upon 
 the roots where they cause gall-like swelhngs so that the 
 roots soon become a mass of knots and die in a year or two 
 if the injury continues. When badly infected a tree becomes 
 sickly, the foliage turns yellow, and if not killed outright, it 
 falls an easy prey to borers and other pests. 
 
 In the spring the aphides found on the roots and under 
 bits of bark on the trunk are those which have successfully 
 
 * Eriosoma lanigera Hausm. Family Aphididos, see page 66. 
 
 Fig. 212.— The flat-headed apple-tree 
 borer {Chrysobothris femorala Fab.). 
 (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, larva; 6, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa 
 — twice natural size. 
 
296 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 hibernated there over winter. As the foliage appears the 
 root aphides migrate to the new wood and upward to the 
 foHage where they feed and rapidly multiply. During the 
 summer all are wingless, reddish-brown females which are 
 covered with a white waxy secretion which forms a cottony 
 mass over the colony. In the course of a fortnight each 
 female gives birth to about 100 young, each of which becomes 
 
 Fig. 213. — The woolly apple-aphis (Eriosoma lanigera (Hausm.). 
 (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 o, agamic female; b, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged aphis; 
 d, winged agamic female with enlarged antenna above — all greatly enlarged and 
 waxy excretion removed. 
 
 a full-grown female in eight to twenty days, and then in 
 turn gives birth to a similar number. Thus they increase 
 rapidly during the summer. Early in the fall a winged gen- 
 eration appears which migrates to elm trees. Each of these 
 winged females gives birth to from four to six wingless males 
 and females. These true sexes mate and the females each 
 lay a single egg in the crevices of the bark. The winter egg 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 297 
 
 hatches in the spring and the female attacks the opening leaf, 
 on which she gives birth to scores of young and soon causes 
 the leaf to twist up or " rosette." These young become 
 winged and migrate to the apple, where they give birth to a 
 wingless generation which lives on the twigs, and which, in 
 turn, gives rise to a fifth generation which crawls down to the 
 roots, and seems to do the most damage of any during mid- 
 summer. 
 
 The aphides may be destroyed on the foliage by spraying 
 with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion, miscible oils diluted 30 
 or 40 times, or tobacco extracts, "Black-leaf 40" being used, 
 one part in 70 of water. A strong spray must be used so as 
 to penetrate the waxy covering and wet the aphides. A 
 winter spray of miscible oil, kerosene emulsion, or lime- 
 sulphur will destroy the hibernating aphides on the trunk 
 if applied so as to go beneath loose bark. Where injury is 
 being done to the roots, the earth above them should be 
 removed for 6 or 8 inches deep and enough 10 per cent kero- 
 sene emulsion or dilute tobacco extract should be applied to 
 wet the soil thoroughly. Dilute miscible oil might be used 
 in the same way and some success has been secured with 
 lime-sulphur mixture. Where tobacco stems or dust may 
 be secured cheaply, they should be applied in the same way. 
 The surface earth should then be replaced. Nurserymen 
 commonly use tobacco dust in the trenches along the rows 
 and also destroy the aphides on the foliage by spraying. 
 Means of controlling this pest have never been satisfactorily 
 determined, but as its migration to and from the elm tree 
 has been only recently discovered, it is believed that greater 
 advance in methods of control may soon be expected. 
 
 157. The Peach-tree Borer.* (42). Possibly as many 
 peach trees are killed by borers as by any other pest. Their 
 * Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Family Sesiidoe, see page 79, 
 
298 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 presence may be detected by the mass of gummy, gelatinous 
 material, more or less mixed with soil which exudes from the 
 crown of the injured trees, and by the yellowing of the foliage. 
 The larvae feed upon the soft inner bark of the lower trunk, 
 crown, and adjacent roots, and often so girdle a tree that if 
 
 Fig. 214. — Peach tree-borer moths (Sanninoidea exitiosa Say) — natural 
 size. The upper one and the one at the right are females, the 
 other two males, (After Slingerland.) 
 
 not treated it will soon die. Such trees are also more sus- 
 ceptible to bark beetles and diseases. 
 
 The adults are clear-winged moths looking very much 
 like wasps. The females are deep steel-blue with a broad 
 orange band across the abdomen, the wings expanding about 
 11" inches. The males are smaller and the abdomen is 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 299 
 
 marked with throe or four narrow yellow stripes. They 
 emerge during the late summer, and the females lay their 
 eggs on the bark near the base of the trees, a single 
 one laying from 200 to 800. The larvaj hatch in ten days 
 and enter the soft bark in which they feed until winter. They 
 resume feeding in the spring and masses of gum exude from 
 their burrows. The full-grown borer is light yellowish, 
 about one inch long, with a brown head and legs, and five 
 pairs of pro-legs on the abdomen. The mature larva con- 
 structs a cocoon near the surface of the soil, usually on the 
 trunk near the burrow, which is composed of particles of 
 excrement and bark bound together with gum and a thin 
 lining of silk. In this it transforms to a brown pupa from 
 which the moth emerges in about three weeks. 
 
 One of the best means of control is to mound the soil 
 around the trunks of the trees in late summer, thus forcing 
 the moths to deposit their eggs well up on the trunk. In 
 the early fall level down the earth to facilitate finding the 
 larvae. This makes it much easier to find the young larvae 
 and the trees are not so badly infested when thus treated. 
 Various washes and wrappers have been recommended for 
 the peach borer, but it is yet to l^e demonstrated that any 
 are generally successful. After reducing the number by 
 mounding, the grower must dig the borers out by hand in 
 the fall and again in late spring, using a sharp knife and 
 strong wire, or a blacksmith's hoof-knife. 
 
 158. The Plum Curculic* One of the most common 
 pests of the stone and pome fruits east of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, is the Plum Curculio (1), whose larva is the common 
 whitish worm found in peaches, plums and cherries. The 
 larva is a footless gnxh (this distinguishes it from the cod- 
 
 * Cotiotrachelus nenuphar Herbst. Family Curculionidce, seepage 
 125. 
 
300 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ling moth larva), about one-third of an inch long, wliitish, 
 with a small brown head, and usually lies in a curved position. 
 The adult is a thick-set snout beetle, about one-fourth of an 
 inch long, brownish in color, marked with gray and black, 
 and with four black ridged tubercles on the wing-covers. 
 
 The beetles commence to emerge from hibernation in the 
 spring just as apple trees blossom or just as peach blossoms 
 have dropped and feed a little on the buds and unfolding 
 
 leaves and blos- 
 soms, but mostly 
 on the young 
 fruit as soon as 
 it is set. The 
 females at once 
 commence to lay 
 eggs in the 
 young fruit. The 
 female first eats 
 out a hole with 
 her snout and 
 deposits her 
 small, oval, white 
 egg in the cavity. 
 She then cuts a small segment around it so that the growth 
 of the fruit will not crush it. This gives rise to the charac- 
 teristic crescent-shaped mark, which has given the insect its 
 name of "little Turk." During her life of about two months 
 a female will lay 100 to 300 eggs and will make as many more 
 feeding punctures from which the gum will often exude on 
 stone fruits. The eggs hatch in from three to five days and 
 the larvae become grown in from two to three weeks. They 
 then enter the soil and form small cells, an inch or two below 
 the surface, in which they transform to the white pupse from 
 
 Fig. 215. — The plum curculio (Conotrachelus 
 nenuphar Herbst.). (After Chittenden, U. S. 
 Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, larva; b, beetle: c, pupa — all much enlarged. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 301 
 
 which the adult beetles emerge in three or four weeks, or 
 during late summer and early fall. 
 
 Injured peaches and plums usually drop to the ground, 
 but cherries stick to the 
 tree and are small and 
 gnarled or eaten out by 
 the larvae. In apples the 
 larviE seem to develop 
 only in those which fall 
 to the ground, the rapid 
 growth of the apples on 
 the tree probably crush- 
 ing the eggs. The egg- 
 scars and feeding-punc- 
 tures make the apples 
 gnarly, summer varieties 
 sometimes being ren- 
 dered worthless, and even 
 winter sorts are much 
 blemished by the scars. 
 Injury to peaches and 
 apples by the feeding- 
 punctures of the newly 
 emerged beetles is often 
 fully as serious. 
 
 Clean cultivation ^^ ^-.-^- „__._„„_ . , . _^.„J 
 
 during the summer will Fig. 216. — (After Chittenden, U. S 
 
 destroy many of the Dept. Agr.) 
 
 pupse in the soil. On 
 
 plmns and cherries the 
 
 beetles may be collected in early morning by spreading a 
 
 sheet (often mounted on a frame) beneath a tree and giving 
 
 the tree a quick jar, whereupon the beetles will feign death 
 
 1, young plums showing crescent-shaped egg 
 punctures of the plum curculio; 2, adult curculio 
 on young peach — four times natural size. 
 
302 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and drop to the sheet, and may be dropped in a can of water 
 and kerosene. 
 
 Chief dependence for control, however, is now placed on 
 spraying with arsenate of lead, two pounds to fifty gallons. 
 On apples the usual sprayings for the codling moth will give 
 all the benefit possible. On peaches the first spraying should 
 be given about ten days after the blossoms fall, and a second 
 spraying two weeks later, the arsenate of lead being added to 
 self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture apphed for controlling the 
 rot and similar diseases. Practically the same applications 
 as for peaches will probably be found satisfactory for plums 
 and cherries. Only neutral arsenate of lead, i.e., that having 
 little or no soluble arsenic, should be used on stone fruits, as 
 a slight amount of soluble arsenious acid will burn the foliage 
 badly. 
 
 Orchards near woodlands are always more badly injured, 
 and where weeds, grass, and trash are abundant the beetles 
 find more suitable quarters for hibernating and are more 
 abundant. Cleaning up the orchard and its surroundings is, 
 therefore, important for this and other insect pests. 
 
 159. Leaf Aphides.* Nearly every plant is attacked by 
 some species of aphis and fruit trees are no exception. The 
 rapidity with which these little plant-lice multiply has 
 already been explained (page 270) , and is the reason they 
 often become so destructive. Insignificant individually, they 
 will reproduce so rapidly that in a week or two the leaves are 
 covered with them and the growth of the tree is seriously 
 checked. The more common species may be recognized 
 by their coloration and habits, and though they differ some- 
 what in their life histories, most of them are controlled by 
 the same general methods. 
 
 Three or four species are common upon the apple. 
 * Family Aphididce, see page 66. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 303 
 
 The Apple-aphis * (5, 58), or green apple-aphis, is of a 
 bright green color with the tips of the antennae, the honey- 
 tubes, and the tail jet black. The small oval black eggs are 
 found around the buds of the trees during the winter and 
 hatch just as the leaf buds are bursting in the spring. The 
 young aphides soon cause the 
 young leaves to curl. They 
 excrete a large amount of 
 sticky honey-dew. This 
 attracts ants, which feed upon 
 it, and on it grows a sooty 
 black fungus which gives the 
 infested tree a characteristic 
 appearance. During the sum- 
 mer some of the generations 
 develop wings and spread to 
 neighboring trees, but only 
 apple, pear and quince are 
 attacked. In the fall the true 
 males and females appear, 
 each of the latter laying a 
 single winter egg. 
 
 The Rosy Apple-aphis f (5) 
 is larger than the last species, 
 and is commonly of a rosy 
 color, though the wingless fe- 
 males vary from salmon or tan 
 color to slaty-gray or purplish- 
 black. The wingless female is about one-tenth inch long, 
 the abdomen being dark reddish-brown, covered with a 
 powdery substance which gives it a deep blue color, the mid- 
 dle being lighter yellowish, and she becomes darker with age. 
 * Aphis pomi DeGeer. f Aphis sorbi Kalt. 
 
 Fig. 217. — The apple-aphis- 
 winter eggs on twig. 
 
304 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 The life history is much hke the last species, except that the 
 third generation in the spring is winged and migrates to some 
 unknown food plant, upon which it subsists during the sum- 
 mer and from which it migrates back to the apple in the fall. 
 Its injury to the apple foliage is similar to that of the last 
 species, but when over-abundant it seems to be even more 
 injurious to the young fruit. 
 
 The Oat-aphis * (6) is found on the apple, pear and 
 
 quince in the spring and 
 fall and on small grains 
 and grasses. The wing- 
 less females are distinctly 
 smaller than the previous 
 species and are of a light 
 green color, marked with 
 transverse diamond- 
 shaped bands of darker 
 green across the abdom- 
 inal segments. The 
 honey tubes are shorter, 
 and are distinctly en- 
 larged at the middle and 
 flared at the tip. The 
 winged females may be 
 distinguished from those of the other species by the very 
 short second fork of the median vein at the tip of the 
 fore wings. The second and third generations in the spring 
 are winged and migrate to small grains and grasses. In 
 the fall many of the aphides return to the apple on which 
 the winter eggs are laid, while others pass the winter at the 
 base of the grain plants, except in the far North. This spe- 
 cies does not curl the foliage of the apple so badly and seems 
 * Aphis avence Yah. 
 
 Fig. 218. — The rosy apple-aphis, 
 wingless, viviparous female — greatly 
 enlarged. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 305 
 
 to be more abundant on the flower buds and blossoms than 
 the other species. 
 
 The Black Peach-aphis * (42) attacks the roots, tender 
 shoots and foHage of the peach. Young trees suffering from 
 its attacks on the roots have a yellowish sickly foliage and 
 are often much injured before its presence is suspected. 
 Usually, however, the numerous aphides on the leaves will 
 indicate the probability of their also being on the roots. In 
 early summer the aphides 
 cluster on the tender 
 shoots at the crotch of 
 the tree and on the lower 
 limbs and soon form a 
 disgusting black mass 
 over the young leaves, 
 which are tightly curled 
 up from the injury. On 
 young trees, both in the 
 nursery and orchard, this 
 injury is sometimes so se- 
 vere as to kill or severely 
 check the growth. Injury 
 to trees seems to be worst 
 on light sandy soils. 
 
 Both winged and wingless forms are found on the foliage, 
 but only wingless ones occur on the roots. They are about 
 one-twelfth of an inch long and shining deep brown or black 
 in color when mature. The partly grown aphides, which 
 form the larger part of most colonies, are reddish-yellow or 
 amber colored. The life history of this species is not well 
 known, as neither the sexual forms nor the eggs have been 
 observed. Like the other species it appears on the foliage 
 * Aphis -persicoE-niger Er. Sm. 
 
 Fig. 219. — The oat-aphis, wingless, 
 viviparous female — greatly enlarged. 
 
306 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 as soon as the buds burst in the spring. During the mid- 
 summer the aphides are more common on the roots, partic- 
 ularly on the smaller and more tender roots. 
 
 The Green P each-aphis * is well described by its name. 
 The winter is passed in the egg stage on any of the stone 
 fruit trees. The first generation in the spring is a deep pink 
 color, but the second and third are yellowish-green. Aphides 
 of the third generation are winged and are about one- 
 
 X/.7 
 
 
 Fig. 220. — The black peach-aphis (Aphis persicce-niger Er. Sm.). 
 
 (After Gillette and Taylor.) 
 
 Winged viviparous female; young female, first instar; apterous viviparous 
 female — much enlarged. 
 
 twelfth inch long, with the head, antennse, thorax, honey- 
 tubes, a large spot on the center of the abdomen and smaller 
 spots in front of the honey-tubes, blackish. This third gen- 
 eration migrates to various common succulent vegetables 
 such as cabbage, rape, turnip, tomato, celery and a long list 
 of food plants, being troublesome in greenhouses the year 
 round. In the fall, migrants return to the peach. Injury 
 to the peach seems to have been most common in the South- 
 west, though it has been observed in other sections. 
 * Myzus persicce Sulz. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 307 
 
 The Mealy Flum-louse * is a light green species covered 
 by a bluish-white mealy powder. It has a long narrow body 
 marked with three longitudinal stripes of a darker green. 
 The honey-tubes arc short, thick, and slightly constricted at 
 the base. The aphides migrate to certain grasses upon 
 which they feed during the summer and return to the plum 
 or prune in the fall and there deposit their winter eggs. 
 
 Fig. 221.— The hop plant-louse. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 Third geneiation on plum — the generation which flies to the hop — enlarged; 
 head below at right — still more enlarged. 
 
 The Hop Plant-louse f also passes the winter in the egg 
 stage on the plum and migrates to hops, which are often 
 seriously damaged. Only rarely is it sufficiently abundant 
 to do much injury to plum foliage. The wingless forms are 
 light green or yellowish-green with no distinctive markings, 
 while the winged forms have the head, thoracic lobes and a 
 few dashes on the abdomen black. The species may be 
 readily distinguished by the prominent tubercle which pro- 
 
 * Hyalopterus arundinis Fab. f Phorodon hurnuli Schrank. 
 
308 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 jects from the head on the inside of the base, and a less 
 prominent one on the basal segment, of each antenna. 
 
 The Rusty-brown Plum-louse * is readily distinguished 
 from others common on the plum and prune by its dark 
 rusty-brown color, with the base of the antennae, tibiae and 
 tail a contrasting white. This species has done considerable 
 injury in the Southwest and also in New England, so that it 
 is evidently widely distributed. It migrates to various com- 
 mon grasses upon which it feeds during the smnmer and 
 
 Fig. 222. — The black cherry-aphis (Myzus cerasi Fab.). (After 
 
 Gillette and Taylor.) 
 
 1, apterous viviparoua female; 2, winged viviparous female — enlarged. 
 
 returns to the plum in the fall. The wingless egg-laying 
 female and the male are almost black. 
 
 The Black Cherry-louse f has long been known as a pest 
 of the cherry in all parts of the country, and seems to be 
 peculiar to this food-plant. Both the winged and wingless 
 forms are deep shining black, the body is rather broad and 
 flat and the honey-tubes are unusually long and cylindrical. 
 The habits of the species are somewhat like those of the 
 black peach aphis in the way in which the aphides cluster on 
 * Aphis setarice Thos. t Myzus cerasi Fab. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 309 
 
 the smaller sprouts near the crotch before spreading to the 
 rest of the tree, and in the disgusting black masses of curled 
 foliage, dripping with honey dew and swarming with ants, 
 which they soon cause. 
 
 Control. Most of these aphides may be controlled by 
 much the same treatment. Spraying the trees in the winter 
 with lime-sulphur wash as for the San Jose scale (page 289), 
 will kill a large percentage of the eggs and thus materially 
 reduce the numbers, though it cannot be depended upon for 
 complete eradication. With all of these aphides it is impor- 
 tant to spray them in the spring just as the buds are bursting 
 and before they become secreted in the foliage which soon 
 curls around them, and thus protects them from being hit by 
 the spray. Early and thorough spraying is essential; spray- 
 ing after the foliage is curled is of but little value. Kerosene 
 emulsion, diluted to contain 7 per cent of kerosene, dilute 
 miscible oils, whale-oil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6 gallons of water, 
 or tobacco extracts, will destroy the aphides, though the 
 exact strength must be varied with the species. The most 
 successful spray for aphides of all sorts seems to be a to- 
 bacco extract known as Black-leaf 40 or Nicotine Sulphate. 
 The spray used against aphides should be applied with some 
 force so as to penetrate the expanding buds. Where Bor- 
 deaux mixture is being applied for plant diseases, either 
 whale-oil soap or tobacco extracts may be added to it for 
 the control of aphides. Lime-sulphur solution has not 
 proven satisfactory for the destruction of aphides on foliage. 
 
 160. Orchard Caterpillars. Several hundred species of 
 caterpillars have been listed as attacking the foliage of our 
 common fruit trees, but a few are so common as to require 
 attention almost every year. 
 
 The Fall Webworm * is so-called because its webs usually 
 * Hyphantria cunea Drury. Family Ardiidce, see page 81. 
 
310 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 festoon the injured trees in August and September. All of 
 the common fruit trees, various shade trees, and even some 
 
 Fig. 223. — The fall weljworin {Ihjphmdria cunea Dru.). (After 
 
 Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, Tight form of full-grown larva; b, dark form of same; c, pupa; d, spotted 
 form of moth — all slightly enlarged. 
 
 of our garden vegetables are commonly attacked. The 
 grown caterpillars are about an inch long, covered with long 
 black and white hairs, and vary in color from yellowish with 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 311 
 
 black and yellow tubercles, to almost black. The moths 
 have a wing expanse of about li inches, and are pure wliite 
 or more or less spotted with black. In the North the moths 
 emerge late in June and lay their eggs in late July, Four 
 or five hundred eggs are laid in a patch on a leaf, and hatch 
 in about ten days. The young larvse at once spin a web 
 over the foliage on which they are feeding, which is enlarged 
 as necessary, so that before long it may cover a whole limb. 
 These webs are usually first noticed in early August in the 
 north and a month earlier in the Middle States. Within the 
 web the surfaces of the leaves are eaten off until they are left 
 dry and brown. The caterpillars then leave and form a new 
 web on a fresh branch, so that before long a tree may become 
 covered with the webs. The caterpillars become grown in 
 four to six weeks and then find secluded places under the 
 bark, in rubbish at the base of the tree, or just under the soil, 
 and there spin flimsy silken cocoons in which they transform 
 to small brown pupae, which hibernate over winter. In the 
 Middle States and farther south there are two generations 
 each year, the first generation of caterpillars appearing in 
 June and July and the second in August and September. 
 
 Orchards which are well sprayed with arsenate of lead 
 for the codhng moth will rarely be troubled with this cater- 
 pillar, but when unusually abundant it will be well to spray 
 with arsenate of lead for this and other leaf-eating cater- 
 pillars just as they are hatching from the eggs, which will be 
 about August first in the North. 
 
 The Canker Worins * (1) are also common pests of or- 
 chard and shade trees, particularly of old orchards which 
 have been in sod and have not been sprayed. They are 
 among the most common of the "loopers" or "measuring 
 
 * Paleacrita vernata Peck and Alsophila pometaria Harris. Family 
 Geometridce, see page 87. 
 
312 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 worms" and are the larvae of two nearly related species of 
 moths, very sunilar both in appearance and habits. The 
 spring canker worm is so-called because its eggs are laid by 
 the females in March and April and hatch a month later, 
 while the fall canker worms hatch about the same time from 
 
 eggs laid the previous Novem- 
 Ijcr or December. The female 
 moths are wingless and look 
 much more like spiders than 
 ordinary moths. The male 
 moths have delicate wings of 
 a dark gray color, expanding 
 about an inch. The fore 
 wings of the spring canker 
 worm male are crossed with 
 three rather indistinct darker lines, while those of the fall can- 
 ker worm are crossed by two whitish bands. The young cater- 
 pillars commence to feed on the leaves just as they are 
 expanding, and if abundant will soon devour all but the mid- 
 ribs. They have a habit of dropping from the trees and 
 
 Fig. 224. — The spring canker 
 worm {Paleacrila vernata). 
 
 a, male moth; b, female moth — • 
 both natural size. 
 
 Fig. 225. — Eggs of spring canker worm — twice natural size. 
 (After W. E. Britton.) 
 
 hanging suspended on strands of silk. They become full 
 grown in four or five weeks and are then about an inch long, 
 slender, cylindrical, varying from ash-gray to green or yellow, 
 but mostly dark greenish-olive or blackish, marked with 
 narrow pale lines down the back and a whitish stripe along 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 313 
 
 each side. The spring canker worm has but a single pair 
 of pro-legs on the middle of the abdomen, while the fall 
 canker worm has two pairs of pro-legs. The mature cater- 
 pillars enter the soil to a depth of two to five inches, where 
 they hollow out earthen cells in which they change to pupae. 
 
 In old sod orchards where the 
 canker worms are always worst, 
 their pupae may be destroyed by 
 plowing and thorough cultivation 
 during the summer. The most 
 effective means of destroying the 
 caterpillars is to spray with arsenate 
 of lead, three pounds to the barrel, 
 just as the foliage has fairly ex- 
 panded. A second spraying just 
 after the blossoms drop will com- 
 plete the control. 
 
 The Tent Caterpillar* (1,9,43), 
 is common on wayside apple and 
 cherry trees everywhere east of the 
 Rockies. The little caterpillars 
 hatch just as the leaf-buds are ex- 
 panding in the spring and they at 
 once commence their characteristic 
 tent-shaped web at the nearest 
 crotch. All the caterpillars from one 
 egg-mass co-operate in spinning the 
 tent which furnishes them a shelter 
 at night and during cold and wet 
 weather. The tent is gradually enlarged by adding new 
 layers of silk, the caterpillars hving beneath the outer layers, 
 but no foliage is included as in the webs of the fall web- 
 * Malacasoma americana Fab. Family Lasiocampidce, see page 88. 
 
 Fig. 226. — Wingless fe- 
 male moth and egg 
 mass, and winged male 
 moth of the fall canker 
 worm — t wice natural 
 size. (After W. E. 
 Britton.) 
 
314 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 worm. When several colonies occur on a tree the caterpillars 
 will soon strip it of foliage, and not infrequently neglected 
 trees will be more or less defoliated every year. The cater- 
 pillars become grown in about six weeks and are then two 
 inches long, deep black in color, with a white stripe down the 
 back, and on each side of each segment is an oval pale blue 
 
 riu. 227. — l^gg mass ot the 
 tent caterpillar. 
 
 Fig. 228. — Half-grown tent caterpillars 
 on tent — reduced in size. 
 
 spot with a broader velvety black spot immediately in front 
 of it, giving somewhat the effect of an eye-spot. Having 
 found a suitable place under loose bark or rubbish or in a 
 fence corner the caterpillar spins a thin cocoon of tough white 
 silk in which it transforms to the pupa. About three weeks 
 later the adult moths emerge and the females lay their eggs 
 on the tips of the twigs. The moths are of a brownish color, 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 315 
 
 with two nearly parallel white bands extending obliquely 
 across the fore wings. The wings of the females expand 
 about li inches, while the males are smaller and may be dis- 
 tinguished by their feathery antennae. The egg-mass is 
 from one-half to three-fourths inch long, and contains about 
 200 eggs, placed 
 together on end. It 
 is covered with a 
 glue which gives a 
 tough glistening 
 surface to the whole 
 mass, and forms a 
 knot-like band 
 around the twig. 
 
 The egg-masses 
 may be easily found 
 and pruned off 
 during the winter. 
 It is well to leave 
 them in the orchard 
 in a box covered 
 with netting so that 
 the parasites may 
 escape. Neglected 
 apple and cherry 
 trees should be de- 
 stroyed, as they merely harbor this and other pests. Spray- 
 ing with arsenate of lead just as the foliage comes out 
 will readily destro}^ the caterpillars. 
 
 The Yellow-necked Apple Caterpillar* In late summer 
 one often finds a mass of caterpillars, huddled together as 
 if confessedly guilty, on the defoliated tip of an apple 
 
 * Datana minisira Drury. Family Notodontidce, see page 83. 
 
 Fig. 229. — The tent caterpillar moth. 
 Lowe.) 
 
 (After 
 
316 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 limb. These usually belong to this species. The yellow- 
 necked apple caterpillar is about two inches long, with a 
 black head and the next segment a bright orange-yellow; 
 down the middle of the back runs a black stripe and 
 on either side of the body are three stripes of black 
 alternating with four of yellow. If the limb is jarred or 
 
 a caterpillar is touched, 
 it at once assumes a 
 characteristic position, 
 throwing the head and 
 tail into the air with a 
 jerk and clinging to the 
 limb with the pro-legs, 
 as shown in Fig. 230. 
 The caterpillars become 
 grown in four or five 
 weeks and then enter 
 the earth for from 2 
 to 4 inches, where they 
 transform to naked 
 brown pupae. The 
 moths emerge the next 
 year from May to July, 
 and the females lay 
 their eggs in masses 
 on the foliage during midsummer. The moths have a 
 wing expanse of about two inches, the fore wings being a 
 reddish-brown color crossed by three to five darker lines, 
 and the head and thorax being chestnut brown. 
 
 161. The Pear Slug* (40). The pear slug is an old 
 European pest which is now found throughout the United 
 States and in many parts of the world. Its work is usually 
 * Caliroa cerasi Linn. Family Tenthredinidx, see page 155. 
 
 Fig. 230. — -The yellow-necked apple 
 caterpillar {Datuna minislra Dru.); 
 mature laryse and moth — natural size. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 
 
 317 
 
 recognized by the browning of the leaves of pear and cherry, 
 or sometimes plum, where it has eaten off the surface of the 
 leaves. 
 
 The parent insect is a small saw-fl}', about one-fifth of an 
 inch long, glossy black, with four iridescent wings, crossed 
 by a smoky band at the middle and folded over the back 
 when at rest. The flies appear by the time the foliage is 
 well out, by mid-April in Alaryland and late May or early 
 
 Fig. 231. — The pear slug (Caliroa cerasi Linn.). (After Marlatt, 
 U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, adult female saw-fly; h, larva with slime removed; c, same in normal state; 
 d, leaves with larvae — natural size; o, b, c, much enlarged. 
 
 June in Iowa and New England. Like other saw-flies, the 
 female has a strong ovipositor with saw-like teeth at the 
 tip, with which she cuts a little blister-like cell beneath the 
 upper sm-face of the leaf, in which the egg is deposited 
 (Fig. 232). 
 
 The bodies of the half-grown larvae are dark blackish- 
 green, covered with a viscid, slimy substance which has 
 given them the name of slugs. The head is dark brown, and 
 
318 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 the anterior segments are much expanded, concealing the 
 head and legs. There are seven pairs of legs on the abdomen, 
 the usual pair at the tip being wanting, so that it is slightly 
 elevated. The slugs eat off the surface of the leaf until only 
 a network of veins, held together by the brown epidermis of 
 the lower surface, is left. Injured leaves drop and trees are 
 often nearly defoliated, thus seriously injuring the growth 
 
 and fruiting of the 
 tree. The larvae be- 
 come grown in about 
 twenty-five days and 
 are then about one- 
 half an inch long. 
 After the last moult 
 the larva becomes a 
 light orange-yellow 
 color, without the 
 slimy covering, but it 
 almost immediately 
 enters the soil where 
 it forms a small cell 
 and transforms to 
 the pupa. Some of 
 the larvae of each 
 generation and all of those of the last generation remain 
 in the soil over winter and transform to pupae the next 
 spring. In the North there are but two generations, the 
 second larvae appearing in August. In the latitude of the 
 District of Columbia, the second generation of larvae are 
 most injurious about the middle of July, and there is 
 probably a third generation later. 
 
 The best means of control is by spraying with arsenate 
 of lead, which quickly destroys the larvae. They may also 
 
 Fig. 232. — Illustrating method of oviposi- 
 tion and emergence of the pear slug. 
 (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
 
 a, cutting of cell beneath epidermis, showing 
 the tip of the ovipositor; b, the cell after the egg 
 has been deposited; c, same after escape of the 
 larva — all much enlarged. 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 319 
 
 be killed by contact insecticides. Whale-oil, or other soaps, 
 1 pound to 2 gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion con- 
 taining 10 per cent kerosene, are effective. Hellebore, 1 part 
 to 5 parts of air-slaked lime, may be used as a dust or as a 
 spray 1 pound to 50 gallons of water. In gardens where 
 water under pressure is available, the slugs may be washed 
 off by a strong jet from a hose, as they are frequently washed 
 off by heavy rains and are much less injurious in wet 
 seasons. 
 
 162. The Codling Moth.* The common apple worm (1) 
 is well-known almost everywhere apples are grown and is 
 the most serious insect enemy of our most valuable fruit. 
 Where spraying is not practiced it often destroys 25 to 50 
 per cent of the crop and in 1907 Prof. A. L. Quaintance esti- 
 mated the total loss due to this insect in the United States at 
 $12,000,000. 
 
 The adult moths are rarely seen as they fly at dusk and 
 closely resemble the bark of the apple on which they rest 
 during the day. They are small grayish moths with a wing 
 expanse of about three-fourths of an inch. The wings are 
 crossed with numerous fine lines of gray and brown, and 
 bear a large bronze-brown spot near the tip. 
 
 "VVTien the larvae leave the apples in the fall they burrow 
 into corky crevices of the bark and there spin their white 
 silken cocoons in which they hibernate over winter. In this 
 stage large numbers of them are destroyed by woodpeckers. 
 About the time apples blossom the larvae transform to 
 small brown pupae, from which the moths emerge in two or 
 three weeks. The females then lay their eggs largely on the 
 leaves. The eggs are difficult to see, being about the size of 
 a pin-head, and look like small white blisters on the leaves. 
 
 * Cydia pomonella Linn. Family Grapholithidce, super-family 
 Tortricina, see page 76. 
 
320 
 
 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 They hatch in from five to ten clays or about three to four 
 weeks after the blossoms fall. The young larva feeds a little 
 on the tender parts of a leaf, then crawls to the nearest 
 apple, which it usually enters through the blossom end, and 
 
 Fig. 233. — The codling moth {Cydia 'pomonella Linn.). 
 
 a, egg — greatly enlarged; h, young larva, hatching from egg; c, larva In winter 
 cocoon on inside of a bit of bark; d, pupa — original; e, moth — after Slingerland 
 — all much enlarged. 
 
 bores directly into the core where it devours the seeds. In 
 three or four weeks it eats its way out through the side of the 
 apple leaving its characteristic "worm-hole." The full 
 grown larva is about three-fourths of an inch long, whitish or 
 pinkish in color, with a brown head and faint tubercles over 
 
ORCHARD INSECTS 321 
 
 the body, and with three pairs of true legs on the thorax and 
 five pairs of false-legs on the abdomen. In New England 
 and the Northern States there is but a single generation 
 each year (at most only a very small second generation), but 
 in the Middle States a considerable proportion of the larvae 
 pupate at once and a second generation of moths emerges 
 in August, while farther south all transform to a second gen- 
 eration. The larvae of the second generation feed mostly 
 on the surface of the apple, thus giving entrance to diseases 
 which cause its decay. 
 
 Although scraping off the loose bark from the trunks of 
 the trees and keeping them smooth so as to give less favor- 
 able conditions for the hibernation of the larvae, and the 
 attraction of birds to the orchard during the winter, will aid 
 in subduing the codling moth, its control is now accom- 
 plished almost entirely by proper spraying with arsenicals. 
 Paris green and various other arsenites were formerly much 
 used, but arsenate of lead has now practically superseded 
 them in commercial use. In spraying for the codling moth 
 the object of the first spray is to fill the calyx cavity, through 
 which the young larva enters the apple, with the poison so 
 that it will be killed before it enters the flesh of the apple. 
 To accomplish this the trees should be sprayed just as soon 
 as the blossoms fall with arsenate of lead, using three pounds 
 of the paste to 50 gallons of water. The spray must be 
 applied with sufficient force so that it will be driven through 
 the trees and will enter the blossoms pointing inward on the 
 side of the tree away from the sprayer. A second spraying 
 should be given about three weeks later, just as the eggs are 
 hatching, to destroy the young larvae feeding on the leaves. 
 Obviously this should be applied so as thoroughly to cover 
 the leaves above and below. In the West and South, where- 
 the second generation of larvae is troublesome, a third spray- 
 
322 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ing about ten weeks after the petals fall and a fourth three 
 weeks later will be found advisable. With thorough spray- 
 ing not over 2 or 3 per cent of the picked fruit should 
 show any injury from codhng moth. Both the first and 
 second sprays are usually combined with Bordeaux mix- 
 ture or lime-sulphur solution for the control of fungous 
 diseases. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 INSECT CONTROL 
 
 When one considers the multitude of different insect 
 pests which attack all of our cultivated plants it becomes 
 self-evident that methods for their control must be almost 
 equally varied. However, there are a few fundamental 
 principles which will greatly aid in planning how to combat 
 them. 
 
 First among these is the fact that it is essential to pre- 
 vent injury rather than to destroy the insect pests after dam- 
 age has been noticed, for usually by the time they have 
 been killed they have badly injured the plant. Thus it is 
 obviously important to have a knowledge of the more com- 
 mon insect enemies of any given crop and to plan for their 
 control as a part of the culture of the crop. 
 
 In the control of insects affecting the staple crops which 
 are grown over large areas in an extensive manner, it is im- 
 practicable to use insecticides and various mechanical 
 methods which can be used profitably in the orchard or 
 garden. Staple crop insects must be controlled, if at all, 
 by general methods of farm practice which may be carried 
 out as a feature of the culture of the crop, but which will 
 fatally interfere with their development. To accomplish 
 this successfully it is necessary to know the life history of 
 each insect so as to know just when it is most vulnerable 
 and how a given procedure affects it, as may be appreciated 
 from the description in the preceding pages. 
 
 323 
 
324 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Against insects affecting orchard and garden crops which 
 have a higher value per acre, the use of insecticides and 
 mechanical devices will also prove profitable, but to deter- 
 mine which will be effective we must know somewhat of the 
 insect's anatomy and habits, for it is entirely useless to apply 
 an arsenical poison for insects whose mouth-parts are so 
 constructed as to make it impossible for them to eat it. 
 
 163. Methods of Farm Practice for Insect Control.* 
 (a) Crop Rotation. Many insects feed on only one crop. 
 Evidently, therefore, if a field be planted in a different crop, 
 they will have to migrate from it and a very considerable 
 mortality will result, while if it were left in the same crop 
 they would have ideal conditions under which to multiply. 
 Thus the western corn root-worm may be practically con- 
 trolled by not growing corn on the same land for two suc- 
 cessive years, for it feeds only on corn and is not injurious 
 where rotation is practiced. Injury by the Hessian fly to 
 wheat and by the chinch bug to corn is also very materially 
 reduced by frequent rotation. Care should be taken to 
 arrange a rotation in which plants nearly related botanically 
 do not follow each other, for they are usually attacked by 
 the same insects. Thus, white grubs, wire-worms and cut- 
 worms live in sod land, where they often become exceedingly 
 abundant. If the land be put in corn these pests will con- 
 centrate on the fewer plants and do serious injury, whereas 
 if it had been planted in some small grain, buckwheat, cow- 
 peas, potatoes or some other crop which they do not affect, 
 the land could then be safely planted in corn the next sea- 
 son. The same principle applies to various garden crops. 
 
 * See F. M. Webster, Farm Practice in the Control of Field Crop 
 Insects, Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1905, and Some 
 Things that the Grower of Cereal and Forage Crops Should Ivnow 
 About Insects, Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1908, 
 page 367. 
 
INSECT CONTROL 325 
 
 (b) Time of Planting. Earl}- planting or the use of early- 
 maturing varieties often enables the farmer to secure a crop 
 before its pests have become most al^undant. This has been 
 repeatedly demonstrated with the cotton boll weevil and the 
 cotton bollworm or corn earworm. Early cabbage plants 
 seem to be less injured by maggots and early varieties of 
 peas escape the aphis. On the contrary, late planting some- 
 times enables a crop to escape its enemies, as in the case 
 when wheat is sown too late in the fall for the Hessian fly 
 to lay its eggs on it. 
 
 (c) Weeds. In many cases immature insects feed upon 
 some common weed and the adults attack a cultivated crop, 
 or they may multiply on weeds in neglected fields and then 
 migrate to a crop. "Volunteer" plants of the host crop 
 should be considered as weeds, for they afford food to insect 
 pests in the same way. Thus the corn root-aphis lives on 
 the roots of smart weed and other weeds and grasses until 
 corn is available, and cutworms feed on whatever vegeta- 
 tion is found before corn is planted, so that these pests are 
 more or less starved out on land kept free from weeds. The 
 cotton boll weevil feeds on volunteer cotton in the early 
 spring and the Hessian fl}^ oviposits on volunteer wheat in 
 late summer and early fall. Seedling apple, peach and 
 cherry trees may also be considered as weeds from the 
 standpoint of insect control. 
 
 (f/) Fertilization and Culture. There seems to be no evi- 
 dence that any of our common fertilizers have any effect as 
 insecticides, but it is well known that plants which have 
 been weakened from an}- cause are more subject to insect 
 attack, while vigorous plants will often survive injury, so 
 that liberal fertilization is often of considerable importance, 
 particularly with insects affecting the roots or boring in the 
 stems. In the same way, thorough preparation of the soil 
 
326 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 and good culture may give a crop such favorable conditions 
 as to enable it to withstand insect injury which would be 
 fatal to plants of weaker growth. 
 
 (e) Clean Farming. The insects pecuHar to a crop often 
 feed and multiply in the refuse left on the land after the crop 
 is harvested and then hibernate over winter beneath it. All 
 remnants of a crop, such as stubble, vines, leaves or stumps, 
 should be removed from the field or turned under as soon 
 after harvest as possible. Numerous examples have been 
 cited in the preceding pages of insects which hibernate in 
 stubble or under the remains of the crop. 
 
 (/) Burning. Stubble and refuse may often be gathered 
 into piles in which the insects will congregate and then be 
 burned. The burning of grass land is often resorted to for 
 the control of army-worms, chinch-bugs, and grasshoppers, 
 but should only be practiced where they occur in sufficient 
 numbers to warrant it. Strawberry beds are sometimes 
 burned over to destroy the eggs of the root-aphis, and the 
 aphides affecting small grains may sometimes be controlled 
 when they occur in small spots by covering them with straw 
 and burning. 
 
 (g) Plowing. Deep plowing and thorough harrowing 
 are often exceedingly effective in the control of many insects 
 which pass some one stage in the soil. Late fall and winter 
 plowing is particularly beneficial, as the cells in which the 
 insects pass the winter are so broken up that they are 
 exposed to freezing and thawing and excessive moisture. 
 Thus cutworms pass the winter in the soil in the larval 
 stage; the cotton boll worm or corn earworm in the pupal 
 stage; May beetles and click beetles hibernate as newly 
 transformed beetles; and grasshoppers' eggs pass the winter 
 just under the soil; but all are largely destroyed by thorough 
 plowing and harrowing, as has been described. 
 
INSECT CONTROL 327 
 
 (h) Trap Crops. It sometimes happens that one plant 
 or variety is preferred by an insect and can be used 
 for attracting it from the plants to be protected. For in- 
 stance, the cotton bollworm prefers to lay its eggs on corn. 
 If a few rows of corn be planted here and there through the 
 cotton field so as to come into silk about the time moths 
 which normally lay on cotton are flying, the eggs will be laid 
 on the corn, which can then be cut and fed to stock, and the 
 cotton will be protected. In a similar manner radishes are 
 sometimes used as a catch crop for the maggots affecting 
 cabbage and onions, while kale makes an excellent catch 
 crop for the harlequin cabbage bug. 
 
 164. Insecticides. Substances which destroy insects are 
 commonly called insecticides and may be divided into four 
 classes : 
 
 1. Poisons kill by being eaten and are usually composed 
 of some form of arsenic and are, therefore, called arsenicals. 
 
 2. Contact Insecticides kill either by clogging up the spir- 
 acles, the openings of the respiratory system, or by entering 
 the trachea, and thus causing suffocation, or by their cor- 
 rosive action on the skin. 
 
 3. Gases are used for fumigating buildings, stored 
 products, greenhouses and similar structures infested with 
 insects where other means are not practicable. 
 
 4. A fourth class of substances used against insects may 
 be known as repellents. They are not real insecticides, for 
 they do not kill the insects but merely prevent them from 
 attacking the plant or animal to which they are applied. 
 
 1. Poisons. Poisons are applied to the food of the insect 
 and must be eaten to be effective. It is evident, therefore, 
 that they are effective only against biting insects, or those 
 which lap up their food from the surface, and that they can 
 be of no use against the sucking insects, such as the true 
 
328 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 bugs, which suck the juices from beneath the surface. 
 Poisons may not always, however, be the most effective 
 means of combating biting insects, for some caterpillars are 
 sometimes effectually checked by use of contact insecti- 
 cides. 
 
 Paris green is a green crystalline powder composed of 
 the aceto-arsenite of copper. When properly made it 
 should contain at least 50 per cent arsenic oxid (AS2O5), and 
 there should be as little soluble arsenic as possible. Various 
 State laws require that there be not over 3i per cent soluble 
 arsenic, but even that amount often injures tender foliage. 
 Paris green is rather a coarse powder, settles readily in 
 water, and is washed off by drenching rains when used alone. 
 It is usually applied at the rate of from 3 to 8 ounces to a 50- 
 gallon barrel of water, 5 ounces to the barrel being satis- 
 factory for most purposes. If stirred up into a paste with a 
 little water it will mix more readily and uniformly. Add an 
 equal weight of quick lime, slightly more will do no harm, 
 which will help neutralize any soluble arsenic. 
 
 Arsenate of lead is sold both as a white paste and as a pow- 
 der. To be of standard grade the paste should contain at 
 least 121 per cent of arsenic oxid and not over f per cent 
 water-soluble arsenic oxid, and not over 50 per cent water. 
 Owing to the small amount of soluble arsenic it may be used 
 in much larger quantities than other arsenicals and on tender 
 foliage which others would injure. From 2 to 8 pounds of 
 the paste per 50-gallon barrel of water are used, 2 to 3 pounds 
 per barrel being sufficient for most of the pests of the orchard 
 and garden. Only about half as much of the powdered form 
 is required. Arsenate of lead remains in suspension in 
 water better than Paris green and is much more adhesive. 
 It has, therefore, very largely displaced Paris green and is 
 superior to it for most purposes. 
 
INSECT CONTROL 329 
 
 Formerly London purple, arsenite of lime, and other 
 arsenicals were much used, but the above are practically 
 the only arsenicals now having a general use. 
 
 Arsenate of Lime. Recently the U. S. Bureau of Ento- 
 mology has reported favorably upon a home-made sub- 
 stitute for arsenate of lead, made of lime and sodium arsen- 
 ate, according to the following formula: 
 
 "Stone Lime (90% CaO) 55 pounds 
 
 Sodium arsenate, fused (dry pow- 
 dered) 65% AS2O5 100 pounds 
 
 Water 26 gallons 
 
 "Place the stone lime in a wooden container and add 
 a small amount of water, just enough to start slaking. When 
 slaking is well under way, pour in the sodium arsenate, 
 which should first have been dissolved in hot water. Keep 
 stirring until the lime has thoroughly slaked. Sufficient 
 water should be added from time to time to prevent burning. 
 The resulting arsenate of calcium should contain about 18 
 per cent of arsenic oxid, or slightly more than in average 
 arsenate of lead paste. In making this compound, one 
 should know approximately the calcium oxid and arsenic 
 oxid of the materials employed and vary the formula ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 " In the experience of the Bureau of Entomology, arsenate 
 of lime, made according to the above formula, compares fa- 
 vorably with arsenate of lead in killing effect, and has not 
 caused injury to foliage of plants treated. This new in- 
 secticide, however, must still be regarded in its experimental 
 stage. Its cheapness over arsenate of lead is its principal 
 recommendation." 
 
 Poisoned Bran Mash. For combating grasshoppers and 
 cutworms arsenic is often employed mixed in a bran mash. 
 
330 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Mix one pound of Paris green or white arsenic colored with 
 a dye with 25 pounds of bran or middhngs. Stir a quart or 
 two of cheap molasses into a gallon of water and moisten 
 the bran, stirring thoroughly, until it makes a stiff mash. 
 Do not add so much water that the mash will be thin and 
 will cake when exposed. Sow broadcast on infested fields. 
 Keep poultry out of fields thus treated. 
 
 Hellebore. The powdered roots of white hellebore are 
 often used as an insecticide in place of arsenicals, especially 
 for currant worms and similar saw-fly larvae and other in- 
 sects affecting crops soon to be eaten, as the hellebore is 
 much less poisonous to man and animals. It may be applied 
 dry, diluted with 5 or 10 parts of flour, or as a spray one 
 ounce to a gallon of water. It is too expensive for use except 
 on a few plants in the yard or garden and, like pyrethrum, it 
 deteriorates with age. 
 
 When properly applied arsenical insecticides are entirely 
 harmless to man and animals. It has been shown by chem- 
 ical analysis that cabbages properly dusted with Paris green 
 contain so small an amount that one would need to eat 
 twenty-eight of them at once to be poisoned. Of course, 
 instances of poisoning are occasionally recorded, for ignorant 
 people sometimes seem to think that an extra large amount 
 of poison will kill the insects "deader" and, therefore, apply 
 an unnecessary amount, particularly when dusting. 
 
 2. Contact Insecticides. Contact insecticides are used 
 against insects with sucking mouth-parts and against soft- 
 bodied biting insects, which may be more readily destroyed 
 by them than by arsenicals. The chitinous skin of an insect 
 is not easily corroded and in many cases a substance strong 
 enough to penetrate this skin will also injure foliage; hence 
 only soft-bodied insects can be safely combated with cor- 
 rosive substances on foliage. It is absolutely essential 
 
INSECT CONTROL 331 
 
 that contact insecticides hit the insects which they are to 
 destroy, for the mere spraying of the fohage is of no value 
 whatever. 
 
 Kerosene emulsion is one of the oldest remedies for plant 
 lice and other sucking insects and is often used because it is 
 readily made and the materials can always be secured. 
 Dissolve one-half pound of hard soap (or one quart of soft 
 soap) in one gallon of boiling water. Add two gallons of 
 kerosene and churn by pumping back and forth into itself 
 for fivB or ten minutes until t-he oil is thoroughly emulsified, 
 forming a creamy mass with no drops of free oil visible. This 
 stock solution can then be diluted so that the resulting mix- 
 ture will contain the desired per cent of kerosene. Thus for 
 aphides one part of the stock solution should be diluted 
 with 10 to 15 parts of water, giving 4 to 6 per cent of kero- 
 sene in the spray, while for a winter wash for the San Jose 
 scale it should be diluted only three or four times, giving 
 16 to 22 per cent kerosene. It should be applied with a 
 nozzle throwing a fine spray. There are other formulas 
 for making the emulsion with buttermilk and it may be 
 made with crude oil instead of kerosene. 
 
 Miscible Oils are made by making petroleum soluble by 
 the addition of vegetable oils, ''cut" or saponified with an 
 alkali, and are really a sort of liquid petroleum soap which 
 will combine readily with water. They are used principally 
 as winter washes against the San Jose scale, for which they 
 are diluted 8 to 10 times. For a summer wash they have 
 been used effectively against plant lice and other insects for 
 which kerosene emulsion would be used, diluted 25 to 30 
 times. 
 
 Whale-oil mid Other Soaps. Any good laundry soap made 
 into a thick solution one-half pound per gallon is an excel- 
 lent remedy for aphides on house plants and small bushes. 
 
332 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 Whale-oil or fish-oil soap has been used extensively against 
 scale insects and plant lice, particularly by nurserymen and 
 florists. The best brands are made from caustic potash 
 rather than caustic soda and should not contain over 30 
 per cent of water. For most aphides one pound to six 
 gallons is effective. 
 
 Pyrethrum, Buhach, or Persian insect powder, is made by 
 pulverizing the petals of the pyrethrum blossom, and kills 
 insects by clogging their breathing pores. It is used chiefly 
 for household pests and in greenhouses and small gardens. 
 It deteriorates rapidly with age and should be kept in tight 
 cans. On this account large users buy directly from the 
 only American manufacturers, the Buhach Producing Co., 
 Stockton, Cal. It may be used as a dry powder, pure or 
 diluted with flour, or in water at the rate of one ounce to 
 two gallons, which should stand a day before using. For 
 immediate use it should be boiled for five or ten minutes. 
 It is often burned in rooms to destroy mosquitoes and flieS; 
 as it leaves no odor after the room has been aired. 
 
 Tobacco. A tobacco decoction may be made by steeping 
 tobacco leaves, stems, or refuse in water at the rate of 1 
 pound to 1 or 2 gallons, and then diluting for use according 
 to the strength of the tobacco and the insect to be combated. 
 Tobacco decoction is much used for dipping plants infested 
 with aphides and as a spray against aphides and similar soft- 
 bodied insects. Various extracts and solutions of tobacco 
 are now manufactured for use against plant lice, among the 
 best of which is "Black-leaf 40" or Nicotine Sulphate, and 
 are more satisfactory than home-made solutions on account 
 of their uniform strength. Tobacco dust has been widely 
 used against root-feeding aphides by removing the surface 
 soil and applying a liberal dressing and then covering. The 
 rains leaching through the tobacco carry the tobacco 
 
INSECT CONTROL 333 
 
 water to the affected roots and destroy or repel the 
 aphides. 
 
 Lime-sulphur Solution. This is now the leading remedy 
 for the San Jose scale, as well as the pear leaf blister-mite, 
 and has been found to kill a large percentage of aphis eggs. 
 It is also an excellent fungicide, and spring applications just 
 before the buds open are very effective in killing out the 
 wintering spores of various fungous diseases. 
 
 The usual formula is, unslaked stone lune, 20 pounds; 
 flowers (or flour) of sulphur, 15 pounds, water to make 50 
 gallons. Stir up enough water with the sulphur to make a 
 thick paste. Slake the lime in the vessel in which it is to be 
 cooked with a small quantity of hot water. Then add the 
 sulphur paste to the slaking lime. Add 10 or 15 gallons of 
 water and boil for forty-five minutes. The mixture may 
 then be diluted to make a barrel of 45 or 50 gallons, straining 
 it carefully into the spray barrel or tank. A large ii'on kettle 
 or hog-scalder may be used for boiling the wash, or where 
 steam can be made available a steam pipe may be run into 
 several barrels and the wash boiled in them. Such barrels 
 may well be placed upon a platform so that the wash may 
 be drawn from them directly into the spray-tank. The 
 leading manufacturers and dealers in insecticides are now 
 selling concentrated lime-sulphur solution which is all ready 
 for use by merely diluting to the desired strength. In many 
 communities a central plant makes the wash and can seU it 
 with a fair profit at a low rate. 
 
 Home-made Concentrated Lime-sulphur. In recent years 
 many large growers have been making their own concen- 
 trated lime-sulphur solution, and where the quantity to be 
 used warrants, a considerable saving may be effected. The 
 usual formula calls for 50 pounds of fresh stone lime, 100 
 pounds of commercial ground sulphur and water sufficient 
 
334 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 to make 50 gallons. In making this mixture it is important 
 that only high-grade, pure lime should be used, and lime 
 with less than 90 per cent calcium oxid (CaO) , should be dis- 
 carded. The following directions are given by the New York 
 Agricultural Experiment Station: 
 
 "In making, slake the lime in about 10 gallons of hot 
 water, adding the lumps of lime gradually to avoid too violent 
 boiling and spilling over. . . . The sulphur must be thor- 
 oughly moistened and made into an even, fluid paste without 
 lumps (before adding to the lime). . . . Pour in the sulphur 
 paste gradually during the slaking, stirring constantly to 
 prevent the formation of lumps, and when the slaking has fin- 
 ished add the full amount of water and boil gently for one 
 hour. If kettles and fire are used, more than the required 
 amount of water may be used at first, to compensate for 
 evaporation, or the volume may be kept constant by adding 
 successive small quantities to hold the mixture at the original 
 level, as shown by a notch on a stick resting on the bottom 
 of the kettle, and marked when the mixture first begins to 
 boil. When boiling with live steam the mixture will be more 
 likely to increase in volume than to decrease, so that no 
 water need be added. 
 
 " This concentrate will keep with little change, unless the 
 weather is below 5° F., if stored in filled, stoppered barrels. 
 Even in open receptacles there will be no loss if the surface be 
 covered by a layer of oil to prevent access of air. Each 
 boiling should be tested with a Baume hydrometer * and 
 its density marked on the barrels or other containers." 
 
 Below is given a table from which can be determined the 
 amount of dilution for concentrates for each degree Baum^ 
 
 * These hydrometers, made specially for testing lime-sulphur mix- 
 ture, may be obtained from the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, 
 N. Y., and other dealers in laboratory glassware. 
 
INSECT CONTROL 
 
 335 
 
 from 20 to 36, and the corresponding specific-gravity 
 reading. 
 
 Dilution table for- concentrated lime-sulphur solutions.'^ 
 
 
 
 
 Nvimber gallons concentrated lime-sulphur to 
 make 50 gallons spray solution. 
 
 Degrees 
 Baum6. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Summer 
 
 Winter or dormant strength. 
 
 
 
 or foliage 
 strength. 
 
 San Jos6 scale. 
 
 Blister mite. 
 
 36 
 
 1.330 
 
 li 
 
 5i 
 
 41 
 
 35 
 
 
 318 
 
 u 
 
 51 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 
 306 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 
 295 
 
 1^ 
 
 61 
 
 5i 
 
 32 
 
 
 283 
 
 u 
 
 6i 
 
 5^ 
 
 31 
 
 
 272 
 
 u 
 
 61 
 
 51 
 
 30 
 
 
 261 
 
 If 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 
 250 
 
 11 
 
 n 
 
 6i 
 
 28 
 
 
 239 
 
 ■■•4 
 
 n 
 
 6^ 
 
 27 
 
 
 229 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 61 
 
 26 
 
 
 218 
 
 2 
 
 8i 
 
 n 
 
 25 
 
 
 208 
 
 2 
 
 81 
 
 n 
 
 24 
 
 
 198 
 
 2i 
 
 9i 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 
 188 
 
 2\ 
 
 9f 
 
 81 
 
 22 
 
 
 179 
 
 2\ 
 
 lOi 
 
 8f 
 
 21 
 
 
 169 
 
 2h 
 
 11 
 
 9i 
 
 20 
 
 
 160 
 
 2\ 
 
 lU 
 
 91 
 
 ' From Farmers' Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 
 
 3. Gases. Carbon Bisulphide is extensively used against 
 insects affecting stored goods and grains, and for root-feeding 
 insects. It is a clear, volatile liquid giving off fumes heavier 
 than air. It may be thrown directly onto grain without 
 injury to it or placed in shallow dishes. For grain in store 
 in fairly tight rooms apply five to eight pounds to every 100 
 bushels, distributing the bisulphide over the surface or in pans 
 containing not over one-half of one pound each. Make the 
 enclosure as tight as possible, covering the grain with blankets 
 or other tight cover, if necessary, and leave for twenty-four 
 hours. Recent experiments have shown that the vapor is 
 
336 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 much less effective at low temperatures and that the dosage 
 must be greatly increased at temperatures below 60° F. 
 For fumigating buildings "there should be about one square 
 foot of evaporating surface to every twenty-five square feet 
 of floor area, and each square foot of evaporating surface 
 should receive from one-half to one pound of liquid." For 
 fumigating clothing or household goods, place them in a tight 
 trunk and place an ounce of liquid in a saucer just under the 
 cover. The gas is exceedingly explosive; allow no fire or light 
 of any kind around the building or enclosure until it has been 
 well aired. The fumes should not be inhaled, for though not 
 seriously poisonous, they have a suffocating effect and will 
 soon produce dizziness and a consequent headache. Carbon 
 tetrachloride is now used for some purposes in much the 
 same manner as carbon bisulphide, and is not so explosive. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas is used for the fumigation of nur- 
 sery trees and plants, certain greenhouse insects, pests of 
 dwelling houses, storehouses, mills, etc., and in California 
 for scale insects on fruit trees. It is made by combining 
 cyanide of potassium, sulphuric acid and water. The gas is 
 slightly lighter than air and is a most deadly poison. It 
 should be used only by thoroughly competent and careful 
 persons who are fully advised as to the method of use for 
 the particular purpose desired. Concerning its use advice 
 should be sought from the State Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station, or from the State Entomologist, or from the 
 Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agricul- 
 ture.* 
 
 Sulphur Dioxid. The fumes of burning sulphur, mostly 
 
 sulphur dioxid, have long been recognized as a standard 
 
 remedy for the fumigation of dwellings and barracks for 
 
 insect pests. Successful fumigation for the bedbug has been 
 
 * See Appendix A, No. 40. 
 
INSECT CONTROL 337 
 
 reported when stick sulphur has been bvn-necl at the rate of 
 two pounds per 1000 cubic feet of space. Tlie cliief objection 
 is the strong bleaching effect of the fumes in presence of 
 moisture and their destructive action on vegetation. The 
 germinating power of seeds is quickly destroyed, but they 
 are not injured for food. One to five per cent of the gas, 
 with an exposure of twenty-four hours, is effective for most 
 seed and grain pests. It cannot be used on vegetation or 
 for moist fruits, and tarnishes brass, nickel or gilt and may 
 bleach fabrics. 
 
 Tobacco Fumes. Tobacco is extensively used as a fumi- 
 gant for aphides in greenhouses and for certain plants, such 
 as melons, by using it under covers. Several forms are now 
 commonly used. Tobacco or nicotine extracts are sold 
 under various trade names and are volatilized by heating 
 either with a small lamp or by dropping hot irons into the 
 dishes containing the fluid. The same material may be pur- 
 chased in the more convenient form of paper which has been 
 saturated with the extract and which is burned according 
 to directions, a certain amount being sufficient for so many 
 cubic feet of space. These tobacco preparations are excel- 
 lent for the fumigation of household plants, which may be 
 placed in a closet and then fumigated according to the direc- 
 tions of the particular brand employed. ]\Ielon vines, 
 young apple trees, bush fruits, and similar outdoor crops 
 may be effectively^ rid of plant-lice by fumigating with 
 tobacco-paper under a frame covered with canvas or muslin 
 sized with glue or linseed oil. 
 
 4. Repellents include any substances which may be ap- 
 plied to a plant or animal to prevent insect attack. A pop- 
 ular notion that any vile-smelhng substance will repel insect 
 attack seems to have very little evidence for its support. 
 Tobacco dust, air-slaked lune, or even fine road dust, thor- 
 
338 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 oughly covering a plant will prevent the attack of various 
 flea-beetles and leaf-eating beetles, but to be effective the 
 plants must be frequently dusted and kept well covered. 
 Bordeaux mixture, our most widely used fungicide, when 
 liberally sprayed on potatoes and tomatoes, acts as a repel- 
 lent to keep off the little black flea-beetles which often seri- 
 ously damage the young plants. 
 
 The various fly-sprays which are used for spraying cattle 
 to prevent the annoyance of flies act merely as repellents. 
 Blue ointment is sometimes used against animal parasites, 
 evidently affecting them as a repellent. 
 
 Fruit trees are often painted with a thick soap solution 
 containing 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons as a 
 repellent for the adult borers which lay their eggs on the 
 bark. 
 
 Naphthalene or moth balls and similar substances used 
 for driving away household insects are effective as repellents. 
 
 Various proprietary insecticides are frequently offered 
 for sale with wonderful claims for their effect as repellents, 
 but only in rare cases are they of any value except for use as 
 dust as already suggested.* 
 
 * For further discussion of insecticides see Farmers' Bulletin 127> 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS 
 
 The following publications may be secured free of charge 
 by writing to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C, or to your Congressman or Senator, for those pubhshed 
 by the United States Department of Agriculture, and to the 
 several state agricultural experiment stations, whose post- 
 ofRces are given below, for those published by them. The 
 numbers are those used in parentheses ( ) in the text. 
 
 Published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 
 1. The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit 
 
 and Foliage of the Apple. Farmers' Bulletin 492. 
 
 2. The San Jose Scale and Its Control. Farmers' Bulletin 650. 
 
 3. The Oyster-shell Scale and the Scurfy Scale. Farmers' Bulle- 
 
 tin 723. 
 
 4. Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers. Farmers' Bulletin 
 
 763. 
 
 5. The Aphides Affecting the Apple. Circular 81, Bureau of 
 
 Entomology. 
 
 6. The Oat Aphis. Bulletin of the U. S. Dept. Agriculture, No. 
 
 112. 
 
 7. The Pea Aphis. Circular 43, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 8. The Melon Aphis. Circular 80, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 9. The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. Farmers' Bulletin 662. 
 
 10. The Principal Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin 120. 
 
 11. The Colorado Potato Beetle. Circular 87, Bureau of Ento- 
 
 mology. 
 
 12. Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide Against the Tobacco Horn- 
 
 worms. Farmers' Bulletin 595. 
 339 
 
340 APPENDIX A 
 
 13. The Common Squash Bug. Circular 39, Division of Ento- 
 
 mology. 
 
 14. The Imported Cabbage Worm. Circular 60, Bureau of Ento- 
 
 mology. 
 
 15. Common White Grubs. Farmers' Bulletin 543. 
 
 16. The Chinch Bug. Farmers' Bulletin 657. 
 
 17. The Spring Grain Aphis. Circular 93, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 18. The Cotton Bollworm. Farmers' Bulletin 290. 
 
 19. The Cotton Worm. Circular 153^ Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 20. The Boll Weevil Problem. Farmers' Bulletin 512. 
 
 21. The Ox Warble. Circular 25, Division of Entomology. 
 
 22. Texas or Tick Fever. Farmers' Bulletin 569. 
 
 23. The Horn Fly. Circular 115, Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 24. Repellents for Protecting Animals from the Attacks of Flies. 
 
 Bulletin 131. 
 
 25. Mites and Lice on Poultry. Circular 92, Bureau of Entomol- 
 
 ogy. 
 
 26. House Flies. Farmers' Bulletin 679. 
 
 27. The Stable Fly. Farmers' Bulletin 540. 
 
 28. The Yellow-fever Mosquito. Farmers' Bulletin 547. 
 
 29. Fleas as Pests of Man and Animals. Farmers' Bulletin 683. 
 
 30. The True Clothes Moths. Farmers' Bulletin 659. 
 
 31. Cockroaches. Farmers' Bulletin 658. 
 
 32. The Bedbug. Farmers' Bulletin 754. 
 
 33. House Ants. Farmers' Bulletin 740. 
 
 34. Some Facts About Malaria. Farmers' Bulletin 450. 
 
 35. Sheep Scab. Farmers' Bulletin 713. 
 
 36. Methods of Exterminating the Texas-fever Tick. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin 498. 
 
 37. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grains. Farmers' Bulletin 45. 
 
 38. Remedies and Preventives Against Mosquitoes. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin 444. 
 
 39. The Sanitary Privy. Farmers' Bulletin 463. 
 
 40. The Pear Slug. Circular 26, Division of Entomology. 
 
 40a. The Roundheaded Apple-tree Borer. Farmers' Bulletin 675. 
 406. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Against Household Insects. Farmers' 
 
 Bulletin 699. 
 40c. Flytraps and their Operation. Farmers' Bulletin 734. 
 40d. Grasshopper Control. Farmers' Bulletin 747. 
 
APPENDIX A 341 
 
 Published by State Agricultural Experiment Stations 
 (for addresses see below) 
 
 41. Orchard Bark Beetles and Piii Hole Borers. Bulletin 264, 
 
 Ohio Agricultural Exi)eriment Station. 
 
 42. Insects Injurious to the Peach Trees of New Jersey. Bulletin 
 
 235, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 43. The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. Bulletin 177, Connecticut 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 44. The Cabbage Aphis. Bulletin 300, Cornell University Agri- 
 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 45. Potato Flea-beetle. Bulletin 211, Maine Agricultural Experi- 
 
 ment Station. 
 
 46. The House Mosquito. Bulletin 216, New Jersey Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 47. Insect Pests of the Household. Bulletin 253, Ohio Agricul- 
 
 tural Experiment Station. 
 
 48. An Outbreak of Gadflies in Kentucky. Bulletin 151, Ken- 
 
 tucky Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 49. Sheep Scab. Bulletin 143, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment 
 
 Station. 
 
 50. Some Common Poultry Parasites. Circular, West Virginia 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 51. Insect Pests of the Household. Bulletin 253, Ohio Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 52. Mill and Stored Grain Insects. Bulletin 189, Kansas Agricul- 
 
 tural Experiment Station. 
 
 53. Making and Using Concentrated Lime-sulphur Wash. Bulle- 
 
 tins 329 and 330, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 54. The Chinch Bug. Bulletin 191, Kansas Agricultural Experi- 
 
 ment Station. 
 
 55. The Corn Earworm. Bulletin, Kentucky Agricultural Experi- 
 
 ment Station. 
 
 56. The Hessian Fly. Bulletin 188, Kansas Agricultural Experi- 
 
 ment Station. 
 
 57. The Mosquitoes of New Jersey and their Control. Bulletin 
 
 276, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 58. Plant Lice Injurious to Apple Orchards. Bulletin 415, New 
 
 York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
342 
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 Addresses of State Agricultural Experiment Stations and of 
 State Entomologists. 
 
 Teachers and Students should write to the experiment station 
 and state entomologist of their state for all available publications 
 concerning insects. 
 
 Alabama, Auburn. 
 
 Arizona, Phoenix. 
 
 Arkansas, Fayetteville. 
 
 California, Berkeley. 
 
 California State Horticultural 
 Board, at Sacramento. 
 
 Colorado, Fort Collins. 
 
 Connecticut, New Haven. 
 
 Delaware, Newark. 
 
 Florida, Gainesville. 
 
 Georgia, State Entomologist, 
 Atlanta. 
 
 Hawaii, Honolulu. 
 
 Idaho, Moscow. 
 
 Illinois, State Entomologist, Ur- 
 bana. 
 
 Indiana, Lafayette. 
 
 Indiana State Entomologist, In- 
 dianapolis. 
 
 Iowa, Ames. 
 
 Kansas, Manhattan. 
 
 Kentucky, Lexington. 
 
 Louisiana, Baton Rouge. 
 
 Maine, Orono. 
 
 Maryland, College Park. 
 
 Massachusetts, Amherst. 
 
 Michigan, East Lansing. 
 
 Minnesota, University Farm 
 St. Paul. 
 
 Mississippi, Agricultural Col- 
 lege. 
 
 Missouri, Columbia. 
 
 Montana, Bozeman. 
 
 Nebraska, Lincoln. 
 
 Nevada, Reno. 
 
 New Hampshire, Durham. 
 
 New Jersey, New Brunswick. 
 
 New Mexico, State College. 
 
 New York, Geneva. 
 
 New York Cornell University 
 Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
 tion, Ithaca. 
 
 New York State Entomologist, 
 Albany. 
 
 North Carolina, State Entomol- 
 ogist, Raleigh. 
 
 North Dakota, Agricultural Col- 
 lege. 
 
 Ohio, Wooster. 
 
 Oklahoma, Stillwater. 
 
 Oregon, Corvallis. 
 
 Pennsylvania, State Zoologist, 
 Harrisburg. 
 
 South Carolina, Clemson Col- 
 lege. 
 
 South Dakota, Brookings. 
 
 Tennessee, Knoxville. 
 
 Texas, College Station. 
 
 Utah, Logan. 
 
 Virginia, Blacksburg. 
 
 Washington, Pullman. 
 
 West Virginia, Morgantown. 
 
 Wyoming, Laramie. 
 
 Wisconsin, Madison. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 Books on Injurious Insects 
 
 Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchartl, E. Dwight Sanderson. 
 
 John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1912. 
 Insects Injurious to Vegetables, F. H. Chittenden. Orange Judd 
 
 Co., New York, 1907. 
 ^Manual of Fruit Insects, IM. V. Shngerland and C. R. Crosby. 
 
 Macmillau Co., New York, 1914. 
 Insects Injurious to the Household, Glen \V. Herrick. Macmillan 
 
 Co., New York, 1914. 
 Injurious Insects, W. C. O'Kane. Macmillan Co., New York, 
 
 1912. 
 Handbook of Medical Entomology, Riley and Johannsen, Com- 
 
 stock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y., 1914. 
 Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Herms. Macmillan. 
 
 Books Valuable for Reference Shelves in the Library of the 
 Secondary School 
 
 Manual for the Stud.y of Insects, Comstock. Comstock Publishing 
 
 Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 
 American Insects. Kellogg. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 The Insect Book, Howard. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 
 The Moth Book, Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 
 The Butterfly Book, Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co., New 
 
 York. 
 Directions for the Collection and Preservation of Insects, Banks. 
 
 U. S. National Museum, Bulletin 67, Washington, D. C. Also, 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin 606, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 Many more are valuable and desirable; the ones cited are the 
 most generall}^ useful and, with the ones mentioned in the previous 
 list, will make a very adec^uate hbrary for the ordinary school on 
 the subject of insects. 
 
 343 
 
344 APPENDIX B 
 
 Dealers in Collectors' Supplies and Laboratory Materials 
 
 Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 The Kn5'--Scheerer Co., New York. 
 
 The Simplex Net Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo, N. Y. , 
 
 Central Scientific Co., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Southern Biological Supply Co., New Orleans, La. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abdomen, 8 
 
 Acanthiiike, 60, 188 
 
 ACARINA, 21 
 
 Acrididce, 48, 241 
 
 ACXTLEATA, 143 
 
 Adaptations, 15 
 Adult, 28 
 Aedes calopus, 184 
 Agarislidoe, 85 
 Affrolis annexa, 287 
 
 messoria, 286 
 Ajax Ixitterfly, 96 
 Alabama argillacea, 257 
 Alfalfa grasshopper, 51 
 
 weevil, 126 
 Alsophila pometaria, 311 
 American Acridium, 51 
 Atiasa tristis, 281 
 Angle-wing Ijutterflies, 102 
 Agoumois grain-moth, 78, 231 
 AmsopTERA, 42 
 Anopheles, 133 
 Antennae, 4, 16 
 Anthomyiida;, 140 
 Atithonomus grandis, 259 
 Anthrenus scrophularite, 222 
 Ant-lions, 45 
 Ants, 152 
 
 Argentine, 217 
 
 black pavement, 217 
 
 house, 216, 340 
 
 little black, 217 
 
 little red, 216 
 
 Aorta, 11 
 
 Aphidid(r, 64, 246, 268, 295, 
 
 302 
 Aphids, 64 
 Aphis, apple, 303, 339, 341 
 
 black peach, 305 
 
 cabbage, 268, 341 
 
 cherry, black, 308 
 
 English grain, 246 
 
 German grain, 247 
 
 green f)each, 306 
 
 hop, 307 
 
 mealy jilum, 307 
 
 melon, 270, 339 
 
 oat, 248, 304, 339 
 
 pea, 269, 339 
 
 rosy apple, 303 
 
 rusty brown plum, 308 
 
 spinach, 269 
 
 spring grain, 248, 340 
 
 woolly apple, 295 
 Aphis avence, 304, 339 
 
 brassicoe, 268 
 
 gossypii, 270, 339 
 
 persiar-niger, 305 
 
 pomi, 303, 339 
 
 setarice, 308 
 
 sorhi, 203 
 Aphis lions, 46 
 Apis mellifera, 144 
 Apoidea, 144 
 Apple-aphis, 303, 339 
 
 woolly, 295 
 345 
 
346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Apple-caterpillar, yellow-necked , 
 
 315 
 Apple curculio, 126 
 Apple-tree borers, 292, 340 
 Apple weevil, 126 
 Aqiuitic beetles, 110 
 Aquatic bugs, 56 
 Arachnida, 21, 203, 207, 209 
 Araneida, 21 
 Arciiidce, 81, 309 
 Argynnid butterflies, 101 
 Army-worms, 80 
 Arsenate of lead, 328, 339 
 Arsenate of lime, 329 
 Arthropoda, 1, 19 
 Asilid(v, 135 
 
 Aspidiotus perniciosus, 287, 339 
 Assassin-bugs, 60 
 Astyanax butterfly, 102 
 Allagenus piceus, 223 
 Autographa brassicoe, 284 
 
 Back-swimmers, 58 
 Bag-worms, 87 
 Balaninus, 125 
 Bean-weevil, 122, 225 
 Beautiful wood-nymph, 85 
 Bed-bugs, 60, 188, 340 
 Bee-flies, 137 
 Bee-moth, 76 
 Bees, 144 
 Beetles, 107 
 Berytid(P, 61 
 Bill-bugs, 126 
 Bird-lice, 37 
 Biting cattle-louse, 199 
 Biting-lice, 37 
 Bittacus, 46 
 Black-flies, 136 
 Black swallow-tail, 95 
 Blastophaga, 160 
 Blister-beetles, 122 
 
 Blattidce, 52, 214 
 
 Blissus leucopterus, 238 
 
 BloT^-fly, 141 
 
 Blud butterflies, 99 
 
 Body-covering, 17 
 
 Boll weevil, 259, 340 
 
 Bollworm, 253, 34Tr 
 
 Bombycidce, 91 
 
 Bomhyliidw, 137 
 
 Book-lice, 35 
 
 Boring Hymenoptera, 143, 154 
 
 Bot-flies, 139 
 
 BraconidcE, 158 
 
 Brain, 13 
 
 Bran mash, poisoned, 329 
 
 Breeding cages, 171 
 
 Bristle-tails, 34 
 
 Brownie-bugs, 64 
 
 Brown-tail moth, 85 
 
 larvse, 17 
 Bruchidce, 122, 224, 225 
 Bruchus obtectus, 225 
 
 pisorum, 224 
 Bubonic plague, 39 
 Bud-moth, 77 
 Buffalo-gnat, 136 
 Buffalo-moth, 113, 223 
 Buffalo tree-hopper, 64 
 Bugs, 56 
 Buhach, 332 
 Bumble-bees, 147 
 Buml)le-beetles, 119 
 Buprestidce, 115 
 Burning, 326 
 Burying beetles, 112 
 Butterflies, 72, 93 
 
 Cabbage aphis. 268, 341 
 butterfly, 98 
 caterpillaf7^82, 340 
 looper, 81 
 worm, 282, 340 
 
INDEX 
 
 347 
 
 Caddice flies, 46 
 
 worms, 47 
 Cadellc, 229 
 Calandra yranaria, 227 
 
 oryzce, 227 
 Calandridce, 126, 227 
 Caliroa cerasi, 316 
 Canker-worms, 87, 311 
 Cantharide<, 123 
 CajM-ifigs, 160 
 Capsidce, 58 
 Carabidcr, 109 
 Care of collection, 173 
 Carolina locust, 51 
 Carpenter-bee, 147 
 Carpenter-moths, 79 
 Carpet-beetle, 222 
 Carrion Vieetles, 112 
 Case-liearers, 76 
 Caterpillars, 33, 72 
 Calhartus gemellatus, 229 
 Catocalas, 81 
 Cattle-Uce, 198 
 Cattle-tick, 209 
 Cave-crickets, 52 
 Cccidomyiidce, 134, 250 
 Cecropia, 91 
 Centipedes, 20 
 Cephalathorax, 19 
 Cerainbycidce, 120, 292 
 Ceralocampidoe, 92 
 CercopidcE, 63 
 Chalcidoidea, 154, 159 
 Chalcis-flies, 154, 159 
 Cherry, black louse, 308 
 Chinch-l)ug, 60, 238, 340, 341 
 Chionasjns furfura, 290, 339 
 Chitin, 8 
 
 Cresphontes butterfly, 97 
 Chrysalis, 32, 95 
 Chrysomelid(v, 121, 272, 276, 279 
 Chrysojyidce, 46 
 
 Cicada, 50, 61 
 Cicindelida', 108 
 Cimex lectulariu^, 188 
 Circulatory system, 11 
 Classification of animals, 1 ^^---^ 
 
 insects, 23 
 Clear-wing sphinx, 90 
 Click-beetles, 114 
 Clothes-moths, 77, 230, 340 
 Cloudless sulphur, 98 
 C'lover l)utterflies, 98 
 Clover-hay worm, 76 
 Coccidw, 64, 287, 289, 290 
 Cocdnellidoe, 112 
 Cockroaches, 214, 340 
 Cocoon, 30 
 Codhng-moth, 77, 319 
 
 COLEOPTERA, 107 
 
 Genuina, 107 
 
 table of families, 128 
 Collection, 163 
 Colon, 11 
 Colorado potato-beetle, 121, 276, 
 
 339 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar, 299 
 Copper butterflies, 99 
 Corcidcc, 59, 281 
 Corisidce, 58 
 Corn bill-bugs, 127 
 Corn earworm, 80, 253, 341 
 
 CORRODENTIA, 35 
 
 CossidcB, 79 
 
 Cotton boll weevil, 126, 259, 340 
 
 bollworm, 80, 253, 340 
 
 worm, 81, 257 
 Cottony cushion-scale, 66 
 Corydalis, 16, 44 
 Coxa, 7 
 Crabs, 19 
 Crane-flies, 134 
 Cray-fish, 19 
 Crickets, 48, 52 
 
348 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Crop, 10 
 
 Crop rotation, 324 
 Croton-bug, 214 
 Crustacea, 19 
 Ctenocephalus canis, 186 
 Cucujidce, 113, 228 
 Culex pipiens, 183 
 Culicidce, 133, 183 
 Ciirculionidce, 135, 259, 299 
 Curculios, 125 
 Currant-borer, 79 
 Cutworms, 80, 286 
 Cybele butterfly, 102 
 Cydia pomonella, 319 
 Cynipoidea, 154, 156 
 
 Daddy long-legs, 21 
 Dainty sulphur, 98 
 Damsel-flies, 42 
 Darkling beetles, 123 
 Datana, 83 
 
 ministra, 315 
 Day-flies, 42 
 Deer-fly, 136 
 Dermanyssus gallince, 207 
 Dermestidce, 113, 223, 
 Development, direct, 28 
 
 indirect, 28, 29 
 Devil's darning-needles, 42 
 Diabrotica viltala, 279 
 Differential locust, 51, 242 
 Digestive tract, 9 
 Digger-wasps, 151 
 
 DiPTERA, 131 
 
 Disonycha xanthomelana, 275 
 Dobson-fly, 44 
 Dog's-head butterfly, 99 
 Doodle-bugs, 45 
 Dragon-flies, 42 
 
 nymphs, 16 
 Drone-fly, 138 
 Drones, 145 
 
 Dryocampa, 92 
 Dytiscidae, 111 
 
 Ear-fly, 136 
 Earwigs, 38, 112 
 Ectobia germanica, 214 
 Eight-spotted forester, 85 
 Ejaculatory duct, 14 
 Elatcridce, 114 
 Electric-light Inig, 56 
 Elm-leaf beetle, 122 
 Elytra, 107 
 Emesidce, 61 
 Empodium, 7 
 Ephemerida, 42 
 Ephestia kuehniella, 230 
 Epicranium, 4 
 Epitrix cuctwieris, 272 
 
 parvula, 273 
 Eriosorna lanigera, 295 
 Eudeidce, 88 
 
 EUPLEXOPTERA, 38 
 
 Euploeinoe, 101 
 Evergreen bagworm, 87 
 Exoskeleton, 9 
 Exuvia, 29 
 Eyed Elater, 114 
 Eyes, simple, 5 
 compound, 5 
 
 Fall web-worm, 82, 309 
 
 Fat body, 15 
 
 Femur, 7 
 
 Fertilization, 325 
 
 Fiery-eyes, 80 
 
 Hgs and insects, 160 
 
 Fire-flies, 116 
 
 Fish-moth, 34 
 
 Plat-headed borers, 115, 294 
 
 Hea-beetles, 121, 272 
 
 Fleas, 38, 186, 340 
 
 Flesh-flies, 140 
 
INDEX 
 
 349 
 
 Flies, 131 
 
 classification, 132 
 
 horse, 200 
 
 house, 175 
 
 stable, 180 
 Flour-moths, 230 
 
 beetles, 119 
 Fly larvae, 132 
 Formicidce, 216 
 Fonnicoidea, 153 
 Fritillaries, 101 
 Front, 6 
 Fruit-flies, 140 
 Fruit-tree bark-beetle, 127, 291, 
 
 339, 341 
 Fulgoridce, 63 
 Fungus gnats, 134 
 
 Gad-flies, 136, 139 
 Gall-flies, 154, 156 
 Ganglia, 13 
 Gases, 335 
 
 Gastrophilus equi, 190 
 Gense, 6 
 
 Genuina, Coleoptera, 108 
 Geometridce, 86 
 Giant silk-worm, 91 
 Giant water-bug, 56 
 Golden-eyes, 46 
 Gossamer-wings, 99 
 Gnats, 131, 134 
 Grain aphides, 246 
 
 beetles, 124, 226, 228 
 
 insects, 226, 340, 341 
 
 moths, 231 
 
 weevils, 226 
 Granary weevils, 126, 227 
 Grape-leaf folder, 76 
 Grasshoppers, 48, 241, 340 
 Green-bugs, 248 
 Ground beetles, 109 
 Grul)s, 107 
 
 Gryllid(T, 52 
 Gypsy-moth, 85 
 (ri/nitido', 110 
 
 Ilwmalopinus eurysternus, 198 
 
 urius, 198 
 
 I'iluli, 198 
 Hair-streaks, 99 
 HaltereS; 131 
 
 Harlequin cabbage-bug, 59 
 Harvest-flies, 61 
 Harvestmen, 21 
 Hawk moths, 89 
 Head, 4 
 Heart, 11 
 Heel-flies, 139 
 Helgramites, 125 
 Heliolhis obsoleta, 253 
 Hellebore, 330 
 Hcematobia serrata, 125 
 Hemiptera, 38, 56 
 
 table of families, 59 
 Hen-louse, 206 
 Hesperiina, 93, 103 
 Hessian-fly, 134, 250, 341 
 Heteroptera, 56 
 Hexapoda, 23 
 Hickory horned-devil, 92 
 Hippoboscidoe, 139, 202 
 Homoptera, 61, 64 
 Honey-bee, 144 
 Honey-dew, 17 
 Hop plant-louse, 307 
 Hornets, 148 
 Horn-fly, 141, 195, 340 
 Horn-tails, 154 
 Horn-worms, 90 
 Horse-bots, 139, 190 
 Horse-flies, 136, 200, 341 
 House-fly, 140, 141, 175, 340 
 Humming-l)ird moths, 89, 90 
 Hundred-legged worms, 20 
 
350 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Hyalopterus arundinis, 307 
 Hydrohatidoe, 58 
 Hydrocyanic acid gas, 336, 340 
 Hydrophiliike, 111 
 Hymenoptera, 142 
 
 table of families, 161 
 Hyphantria cunea, 309 
 Hypoderma lineata, 193 
 Hypopharynx, 17 
 Hurnljle-bees, 147 
 
 Ichneumon flies, 154 
 Ichneumonidce, 157 
 
 ICHNEUMONOIDEA, 154, 
 
 Idalia butterfly, 102 
 Ileum, 11 
 Imago, 28 
 Imperial moth, 92 
 Imported cal)l:)agc-\vorm, 98 
 Imported currant-worm, 156 
 Inch worms, 86 
 Indian meal-moth, 76, 230 
 Insect boxes, 166 
 
 control, 323 
 
 definition, 4 
 Insecticides, 327 
 Internal organs, 9 
 Intestine, 11 
 lo moth, 91 
 
 Iridoniyrmex humilis, 217 
 Isabella tiger-moth, 82 
 
 ISOPTERA, 36 
 
 Isosoma grandi, 160 
 tritici, 160 
 
 Jar-flies, 61 
 Jassidoe, 63 
 Joint, 8 
 
 Jointed spiders, 22 
 June-bugs, 118, 236 
 
 Katydids, 48, 51, 52 
 
 Kerosene emulsion, 331 
 Kidney tubules, 11 
 Killing bottles, 163 
 
 Labium, 5 
 Labrum, 5 
 Lac, 17 
 
 Lace-wing flies, 46 
 Lachnoslerna, 236 
 Lady-bugs, 112 
 Lamellicorn beetles, 116 
 Lampyridce, 116 
 Land-bugs, 58 
 Lantern-bugs, 116 
 Lantei'n-flies, 63 
 Larder-beetles, 114 
 Larva?, 30, 33 
 Lasiocampidcp, 88, 213 
 Leaf beetles, 121 
 Leaf-bugs, 58 
 Leaf-hoppers, 63 
 Leaf-rollers, 76 
 Lepidoptera, 72 
 
 table of families, 105 
 Lepidosaphes ulmi, 290 
 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 276 
 Lice, t)ird, 37 
 
 cattle, 198 
 
 poultry, 206 
 
 true, 37 
 Leplidoe, 138 
 Life cycle, 31 
 Lightning-l)ugs, 116 
 Lilac-borer, 79 
 Lime-sulphur solution, 333 
 Liparidce, 84 . - 
 
 Lithosiidce, 85 ^--^ 
 Lolisters, 19 
 Locust-borer, 121 
 Locust leaf-beetle, 122 
 LocusHdce-, 50, 51 
 Locusts, 48, 241 
 
INDEX 
 
 351 
 
 Long-horned wood-borers, 120 
 Long-nosed ox-louse, 198 
 Loopers, S6 
 Lucanifhr, 120 
 Luminescent insects, 18 
 Luna moth, 91 
 Lyccenidcv, 99 
 Lygcpidcr, 60, 238 
 Lysiphlebus, 249 
 
 Macro-Lepidoptera, 75 
 Macrosiphum cercalis, 247 
 
 granaria, 246 
 
 pisi, 269 
 ALaggots, 131 
 
 Mniacosoma americana, 313 
 Mallophaga, 37, 199, 206 
 Malpighian tubes, 11 
 Mandibles, 5 
 Maniidcp, 53 
 Mantis, 54 
 Maple-worms, 83 
 Margaropus annulatus, 209 
 Maxillae, 5 
 
 May-beetles, 118, 236 
 Mayetiola destructor, 250 
 May-flies, 42, 68 
 Meadow-browns, 102 
 Meadow grasshoppers, 52 
 Meal-moths, 230 
 Meal snout-moths, 76, 231 
 Meal-worms, 124, 229 
 Mealy-bugs, 65 
 Measuring-worms, 86 
 Mecoptera, 46 
 Medical Entomology, 132 
 Mediterranean flour-moth, 76, 230 
 Mediterranean fruit-fly, 141 
 Melanoplus atlantis, 241 
 
 binttatiis, 242 
 
 devastator, 241 
 
 differentialis, 242 
 
 Melanoplus fcmur-riihrum, 241 
 
 Meloida-, 122 
 
 Melon aphis, 270 
 
 Melon-worm, 7<) 
 
 Mdophacins oi'inus, 202 
 
 Mcmhracidw, 63 
 
 Mcnopon pnlliduin, 206 
 
 Mesothorax, 6 
 
 Metallic wood-borers, 115 
 
 Metamorphosis, 28, 31 
 
 Metathorax, 6 
 
 Mexican cotton boll weevil, 259 
 
 Micro-Lepidoptera, 75 
 
 Micropyle, 14 
 
 Microscopes, 174 
 
 Midaida;, 136 
 
 Midas-flies, 136 
 
 Midges, 131, 134 
 
 Mid-intestine, 11 
 
 Millers, 79 
 
 MilHpedes, 20 
 
 Mimicry, 102 
 
 Mites, 21 
 
 Mole-crickets, 52 
 
 Monarch butterfly, 101 
 
 Monomorium minimum, 217 
 
 pharaonis, 216 
 Mosquitoes, 131, 133, 183,340,341 
 Mosquito hawks, 42 
 Moths, 72 
 Moulting, 29 
 Mounting insects, 165 
 Mourning-cloak, 101 
 Mouth, 9 
 Mud-daubers, 151 
 Mud-wasps, 151 
 Mule-killers, 42 
 Mully-grubs, 119 
 Musca domestka, 175 
 Muscida, 140, 141, 175, 180, 195 
 Muscina, 139 
 Muscular system, 15 
 
352 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Myceiophilidcp, 134 
 Myriapoda, 19 
 MyrmeleonidcE, 45 
 Myzus cerasi, 308 
 persicce, 269, 306 
 
 Natural selection, 102 
 
 Nepidoe, 58 
 
 Nervous system, 13 
 
 Neuroptera, 41 
 
 Nits, 163 
 
 Noctuidcp, 79, 253, 257, 266, 284 
 
 Nolodontidce, 83, 315 
 
 N otoneclidce , 58 
 
 Notum, 6 
 
 Nut-weevils, 125 
 
 Nymphs, 28 
 
 Nymphalidce, 100 
 
 Occiput, 6 
 Ocelli, 5 
 Odonata, 42 
 Q^]sophagus, 10 
 (Estridce, 139, 190, 191, 193 
 (Estris ovis, 191 
 Orange-tips, 99 
 Orchard caterpillars, 309 
 Orders of insects, 24 
 Orthoptera, 48 
 
 table of families, 54 
 Ovaries, 13 
 Oviduct, 13 
 Ovipositor, 8, 14 
 Owlet-moths, 80 
 Ox-warbles, 193, 340 
 Oyster-shell scale, 66, 289, 339 
 
 Paleacrita vernala, 311 
 Palpus, 6 
 Papilionidcn, 94 
 Papilionina, 93 
 Parasitica, 38, 157 
 
 Parasitic Hymenoptera, 157 
 Paris green, 328 
 Parnassians, 94 
 Parthenogenesis, 14, 67 
 Pea-aphis, 269 
 Pea-weevil, 122, 224 
 Peach scale, 66 
 Peach-tree borer, 79, 297, 341 
 Pear-leaf blister-mite, 21 
 Pear-slug, 156, 316, 340 
 Pentatomidre, 59 
 Periplaneta americana, 215 
 
 australasice, 215 
 
 orientalis, 215 
 Perlidce, 42 
 
 Persian insect powder, 332 
 Phasmidce, 53 
 Philenor butterfly, 97 
 Pharynx, 9 
 
 Phlegethontius quinquemaculat us, 
 278 
 
 sexta, 278 
 Phorodon humidi, 307 
 Phyllolreta vittata, 274 
 Physopoda, 39 
 Pickle-worm, 76 
 Pieridce, 98, 282, 284 
 Pill-bugs, 19 
 Pinching-bugs, 120 
 Pinning insects, 168 
 Plant galls, 156 
 Plant-hoppers, 63 
 Plant-lice (See Aphis), 64, 66 
 Planting time, 325 
 Plecoptera, 41 
 Pleuron, 6 
 
 Plodia inter punctella, 230 
 Plowing, 326 
 Plum aphis, 307 
 Plum curculio, 125, 299 
 Plum, rusty brown, aphis, 308 
 Poisons, 327 
 
INDEX 
 
 353 
 
 Polisteii, 149 
 Polyphemus moth, 91 
 Ponlia protodicc, 284 
 
 rapiF, 282 
 Potato-beetle, Colorado, 27(5, 339 
 Potato-bug, 121 
 Potato flea-beetle, 272, 341 
 Poultry-lice, 206, 340 
 Poultry mites, 207, 340 
 Prajdng mantis, 48, 54 
 Predaceous diving-beetle, 111 
 Proctotrypoidea, 154, 158 
 Promethea moth, 91 
 Pro thorax, 6 
 Proventriculus, 10 
 Pseudo-Neuroptera, 41 
 Pseudo-scorpions, 22 
 Psoroptes communis, 203 
 Psocids, 35 
 Psychidie, 87 
 Pupa, 30 
 
 Purple emperor, 102 
 Pyralidce, 230 
 Pyralidina, 75 
 Pyralis farinalis, 231 
 Pyrethrum powder, 332 
 
 Queen-bee, 145 
 
 Rat-tailed maggots, 139 
 Rear-horses, 48, 53 
 Rectum, 7 
 Red admiral, 101 
 Red-necked cane-borer, 115 
 Reduviid.b, 60 
 Regal moths, 92 
 Repellents, 337 
 Reproductive system, 13 
 Respiratory system, 12 
 Rhinoceros-beetle, 120 
 Rhynchophora, 107, 125 
 Rice-wee\'il, 126, 227 
 
 Roaches, 48, 52 
 
 Robber-flies, 135 
 
 Rocky Mountain locust, 51, 241 
 
 Rocky Mt. spotted-fever, 22 
 
 Rose-chafers, 119 
 
 Rose-scale, 66 
 
 Rose-slug, 156 
 
 Rosy Dryocampa, 92 
 
 Round-headed apple tree-borer, 
 
 121, 340 
 Round-headed Ijorers, 120 
 Rove-beetles, 112 
 Royal moths, 92 
 
 .Salivarj' glands, 17 
 
 San Jose scale, 66, 287, 339 
 
 Sanninoidea exitiosa, 297 
 
 Saperda Candida, 292 
 
 Sarcophagidce, 140 
 
 Salurniidce, 91 
 
 Saturniina, 91 
 
 Saw-flies, 154, 155 
 
 Saw-toothed grain beetles, 113, 
 
 228 
 Scale insects, 64 
 Scarabceidce, 117, 236 
 Scarabs, 118 
 Scavenger-beetles, 111 
 Scent glands, 17 
 Scent organs of butterflies, 95 
 Schistocerca americana, 242 
 Scientific names, 2 
 Scohjtidce, 291 
 Scolytoidea, 127 
 Scohjtus rugulosus, 291 
 Scorpions, 22 
 Scorjiion-flies, 46 
 Screw- worm flics, 141 
 Scurfy-scale, 290, 339 
 Seminal tubes, 14 
 Seminal vesicle, 14 
 Senator moth, 92 
 
354 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Sesiido', 79, 297 
 
 Seventeen-year locust, 61 
 
 Shad-flies, 42, 136 
 
 Sheep bot-fly, 191 
 
 Sheep scab-mite, 21, 203, 340, 
 
 341 
 Sheep-tick, 139, 202 
 Short-nosed ox-louse, 198 
 Short-winged scavengers, 112 
 Shot-hole jjorers, 127 
 Shrimps, 19 
 Sialidcp, 45 
 Silk glands, 17 
 Silkworm, 91 
 Silphidce, 112 
 Silvanus surinamensis, 228 
 Silver-fish, 34 
 Silver-spot skipper, 103 
 Silver-spots, 101 
 Simuliidoe, 136 
 
 SiPHONAPTERA, 38, 186 
 SiPHUNCULATA, 37, 198 
 
 Siricidce, 154 
 Sitotroga cerealella, 231 
 Skippers, 93, 103 
 Slug-caterpillars, 88 
 Smell, 17 
 Snake-doctors, 42 
 Snake-feeders, 42 
 Snapping-jjugs, 114 
 Snipe-flies, 138 
 Snout-beetles, 108, 125 
 Snow-flea, 35 
 Social-wasps, 149 
 Soldier-l>ugs, 59 
 Soldier-flies, 137 
 Solitary-wasps, 150 
 Sow-bugs, 19 
 Spanish-fly, 123 
 Span-worms, 86 
 Special organs, 15 
 Spermatheca, 14 
 
 Sphecoidea, 151 
 
 Sphingidce, 89, 278 
 
 Sphinx moths, 89 
 
 Spiders, 21 
 
 Spinach aphis, 269 
 
 Spinach flea-beetle, 275 
 
 Spined soldier-bug, £9 
 
 Spiracles, 8, 12 
 
 Spittle insects, 63 
 
 Spotted pclidnota, 120 
 
 Spreading-] )oard, 170 
 
 Spring-tails, 34 
 
 Squash-bugs, 59, ^^ 340 
 
 Squash-vine borer,-^9 
 
 Stable fly, 141, 180, 340 
 
 Stag-beetles, 120 
 
 Staphylinido', 112 
 
 Sternum, 6 
 
 Stilt-bugs, 61 
 
 Stinging Hymenoptera, 143 
 
 Stinging organs, 14 
 
 Stink-bugs, 58 
 
 Stomach, 15 
 
 Stomoxys calcilrans, 180 
 
 Stone-flies, 41 
 
 Stratiotmjiido', 137 
 
 Strawberry leaf-roller, 77 
 
 Strawberry-weevil, 126 
 
 Striped cucumber-l^eetle, 279 
 
 Sub-ocsophageal ganglion, 13 
 
 Sucking-Uce, 37 
 
 Sulphur butterflies, 98 
 
 Sulphur dioxide, 336 
 
 Supra-ccsophageal ganglion, 13 
 
 Suture, 8 
 
 Swallow-tail ])utterflies, 94 
 
 Swarming bees, 146 
 
 Sweat-flies, 138 
 
 Sympathetic nervous system, 13 
 
 Syrphidce, 138 
 
 Syrphus flies, 138 
 
 Systctia hlanda, 274 
 
INDEX 
 
 355 
 
 Tahanidxr, ISC), 20!) 
 Tahanus alralus, 200 
 
 lineola, 200 
 Tachina flies, 140 
 Tachinidir, 140 
 Tapestry-moth, 221 
 Tarnished i)laiit-l)Ug, 58 
 Tarsus, 7 
 Taste, 16 
 
 Tenehrionidce, 123, 229 
 Tcncbrio molilor, 229 
 
 obscurus, 229 
 Tenebroides maurilanicus, 229 
 Tent-caterpillars, SS, 313, 339, 341 
 Tenlhredinidce, 316 
 
 TiCNTHREDINOIDEA, 154, 155 
 
 Tkrebrantia, 143, 154 
 Termites, 36 
 Terrapin scale, 66 
 Testes, 14 
 
 Telramorium ccespilum, 217 
 Texas-fever tick, 22, 209, 340 
 Thistle-butterfly, 101 
 Thorax, 6 
 
 Thousand-legged worm, 20 
 Thread-legged bugs, 61 
 Thread-waisted wasps, 151 
 Thrips, 39 
 Tibia, 7 
 Ticks, 21 
 Tiger-beetles, 108 
 Tiger-moths, 81 
 Tiger swallow-tail, 95 
 Tinea bisclliella, 221 
 pelionella, 220 
 
 TiNEINA, 77 
 Tipnlidip, 134 
 Tobacco fumes, 337 
 Tobacco, insecticide, 332 
 Tobacco bud-worm, 80, 253 
 Tobacco flea-beetle, 273, 339 
 Tobacco worms, 278, 339 
 
 Tomato fruit-worm, SO, 253 
 'I'oinato worms, 278 
 TOKTRICINA, 76, 319 
 Toxoplera graminiun, 248 
 Trachea, 12 
 Tracheal gills, 16, 44 
 Trap-crojjs, 327 
 Tree-crickets, 52 
 Tree-hoppers, 63 
 Trichodectes Hcalari.'i, 109 
 Trichophaga tapetzella, 221 
 Tkichopteka, 46 
 Trochanter, 7 
 Troilus Initterfly, 90 
 True bugs, 56 
 True lice, 37 
 True wasps, 148 
 Tiiipdid<r, 140 
 Tuml)le-l)ugs, 117 
 Turkey-gnat, 136 
 Turnus butterfly, 95 
 Tussock-moths, 84 
 Tympanum, 17 
 Thysanoptera, 39 
 Thysanura, 34 
 
 Underwing moths, 81 
 
 Vagina, 13 
 Vas deferens, 14 
 Ventriculus, 10 
 Vertex, 6 
 Vespa, 150 
 Vespoidea, 148 
 Viceroy, 102 
 
 Walking-sticks, 48, 53 
 A\'alnut-worms, 83, 92 
 Warbles, 139 
 Wasps, 148 
 Water-boatmen, 58 
 Water-scavengers, 111 
 
356 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Water-scorpions, 58 
 Water-striders, 58 
 Water-tigers, 111 
 Web-worm, fall, 309 
 Weeds, 325 
 Weevils, granary, 227 
 
 rice, 227 
 Weevils, 125 
 Whale-oil soap, 321 
 Wheat joint-worm, 159 
 
 straw-worm, 160 
 Whirligig-beetles, 110 
 Whiteants, 36 
 White butterflies, 98 
 White-grubs, 119, 236, 340 
 White-lined sphinx, 90 
 White-marked tussock-moth, 84 
 
 Wings, 7 
 Wing-veins, 8 
 Wire-worms, 115 
 Wood-nymphs, 102 
 Wood- wasps, 154 
 Woolly apple-aphis, 295 
 Worker-bees, 145 
 Wrigglers, 133 
 
 Yellow butterflies, 98 
 Yellow-jackets, 148 
 Yellow-necked apple caterpillar 
 83 
 
 Zebra swallow-tail, 96 
 Zoology, 1 
 Zygoptera, 44 
 
THE WILEY TECHNICAL SEMES 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 JOSEPH M. JAMESON 
 
 A series of carefully adapted texts for use in technical, 
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