®l|g §, ^. ^tU pkarg ^nrtij daroltna ^tate College infii""!!!!!!""' :ioN. |lJiLH|,.illil^XiiA- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES ll|||{|lll||l|ll|||l|lf|||l|||l|l||| S01018021 D Date Due iN0V9'2>' C0V23y / Dec 1 8 '31 Mai:^ l ^W7& V-'r'A 1£& 0iul'4gX t}i,a.'=7ll<^^sT ?^-H, J Q * ^^^"L^ir/ mh Jt * . ,• .kK ^ y * -< WILLAED'S |}t^»ttial "^^mtt |W^t A COMPLETE TREATISE ON BUTTER-MAKING AT FACTORIES AND FARM DAIRIES, INCLUDING THE SELECTION, FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF STOCK FOR BUTTER DAIRYING- WITH PLANS FOR DAIRY ROOMS AND CREAMERIES, DAIRY FIXTURES, UTENSILS, ETC. BY X. A. WILLARD, M.A., AUTHOR or "PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY," "ESSAYS ON AGRICUL- TURE," "MILK CONDENSING FACTORIES," EDITOR OF DAIRY DEPARTMENT OP MOORE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER- PRESIDENT N. Y. STATE DAIRYMEN'S ASSO., ETC. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. NEW YORK: EXCELSIOR PUBLISHINa HOUSE 29 AND 31 BEEKMAN STREET. :#^- Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by THE RURAL PUBLISHING CO., In the oflBce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. FREF^CE ■:o:- BuTTER dairying is a specialty of such large and growing im- portance that a treatise wholly devoted to that interest, it would seem, is very widely demanded. I have endeavored to meet this general want by supplying full information concerning the latest improvements in creamery practice, and by furnishing a work that is a safe, practical and comprehensive butter manual. The work has been freshly written, and gives the result not only of my owa experience, and extensive personal observation, but the most ap- proved practice of the best butter-makers at home and abroad. In the matter illustrating the secretion of milk and mammary gland, I am indebted mainly to the writings of Prof. Simonds, the distinguished Veterinary Surgeon to the Royal Agricultural Society, of England. Among the new topics of interest, and which heretofore have not been presented to the dairy pubhc are : Prof. Wilkinson's plan for controlling temperature in dairy rooms ; the Swedish Sys- tem of setting milk for cream in ice water ; the new practice adopted at the Ridge Mills Creamery, and the recent method for improving skimmed milk in skimmed-cheese manufacture. These are very fully discussed, and will be found suggestive to practical and progressive butter-makers. That the work may prove useful to the large class for which it is intended, is the sincere wish of the author. X. A. W. Little Falls, N. Y. T IS"DEX OF ILLUSTEATIOXS. Aerator 66 Boiler, Anderson 122 " andEngine 118 " Iron Slave 119 '« Roe's 120 Butter Box, with ice-chamber Ill " Factory, ground plan of 123 '* Factory, original, ground plan of 93 «' Pail, Wescott s Return lOS " Pail, enameled 145 " Pail, metalic 146 '' Package, White's 110 '• Worker, Champion 105 " Worker, Eureka 65 " Worker, Orange County 104 Cans, Wickoflf's Ventilating lit Churn, Barrel 101 " Blanchard 100 " dasher 97 " Tornado .^. &3 " -with walking beam 98 " Whipple's Rectangular 64 Coecal Extremities, view of 39 Colostrum, Microscopical appearance of 37 Cover, for cooling vat 164 Cream Dipper and Pail 95 " Strainer, Baker's 62 Creamery, ground plan of for large i)ans 128 " interior view of 165 " Ridge Mills, elevation 166 " Ridge Mills, gi-ound plan l(>i ••' Plan of for pail and pool 115 " Sectional view of 164 " Union, plan of 112 Daii-y Room, ground plan of Gulf Stream 82-83 Gang Press, Frazer's , 160 Milk Cellar. Crozier's 74 '' GlobiUes, Microscopical appearance of 36 " Pan, Iron Clad 77 '' Pan, Cowles 127 ^' Pan, Jewett 126 •' Pan, Orange County 126 " Secreting Follicles, an-angement of 40 *' Vault and Churn Room 73 Pail, butter, Philadelphia 71 " Iron Clad 62 Scales, Jones' Factory 117 Steamer and Caldron 121 Vdder of Cow 41 Vat and Portable Heater, Millar's 158 " and Heater, Roe's 159 " »' " 157 IMPORTANCE OF BUTTER DAIRYING. THE BUTTER CROP. The annual butter crop of the United States has been variously estimated at from 700,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 of pounds. But enormous as these figures are, the lead- ing butter merchants of New York believe the product to be larger. During the summer of 1864 the New York Butter and Cheese Exchange appointed a committee of emi- nent merchants to consider the subject of classifying and grading butter, in order to facilitate trade in this import- ant staple. The committee, in its report, states that the census re- turns of dairy products are incomplete and defective ; and it is affirmed, furtheiv that the latest, the most analytical and reasonable estimate in regard to the present butter crop of the country is the following, Avhich was prepared by an experienced and careful statistician, who estimates the annual product to be over 1,400,000,000 pounds. If the average price be put at 30c. per pound— a sum which would not be considered excessive for a fine quality of butter— we find the total value of the product to be $420,000,000. The quantity, in my opinion, is estimated at too high a figure ; yet it is believed by many persons who are well acquainted with the trade, to be much nearer the truth than the census returns. Mr. Fairfield, President of the Butter and Cheese Exchange, in a recent statement in regard to the statis- tics of American dairy products, puts the consumption of butter in the United States at 1,040,000,000 pounds per annum for table use alone, and says it is estimated that one-third more may be added for culinary purposes, mak- ing a total consumption of about 1,387,000,000 pounds. The exports from the United States and Canada are about 15,000,000 pounds, making an annual product of 1,402,- 000,000 pounds. Mr. Fairfield also calls attention to iy»i^^ r> Q WILLAED'S PRACTICAL the incompleteness and uselessness of the statistics of the Census Bureau, and suggests the establishment of a Bu- reau of Statistics at Washington, which shall furnish complete and trustworthy figures bearing upon all agri- cultural products. THE BATE OP BUTTER CONSUMPTIOX. Nor does the quantity seem so extravagant when the estimates of consumption are given in detail, especially when it is considered that Americans are excessively fond of this article of food. The report referred to estimates that out of our population, 5,000,000 consume one pound of butter each per week ; 10,000,000 consume three-fourths of a pound each per week; 10,000,000 consume one-half pound each per week and 10,000,000 consume one-quarter pound each per Aveek. At this rate, 35,000,000 would consume 1,040,000,000 pounds per annum for table use and one-third as much as the above for culinary purposes. This leaves a popula- tion of 9,000,000 not included as consumers. In addition, the exports from the United States and Canada are esti- mated at upwards of 15,000,000 pounds, making the product aggregate as before stated — 1,400,000,000 of pounds. NUMBER OF COWS REQUIRED FOR THE BUTTER CROP. Now, from statistics in regard to the distribution of the entire milk product of the countiy, it is estimated that at least 54 per cent, is employed for butter-making. Then, if 200 pounds ot butter per annum to the cow be taken as an average, it would require 7,200,000 cows to make the annual yield of 1,440,000,000 pounds. This would make the number of milch cows in the United States at the present time to be a little over 13,000,000 — a number which many believe is not far out of the way, as would be shown if the census were accurately taken to-day, enumerating all the cows — the family cow as well as those employed in the various branches of dairying. CONSUMPTION INCREASES AS QUALITY IMPROVES. It has been observed — and indeed, the fact seems to be beyond question — that as we improve the quality of our dairy products, the consumption per capita increases; BUTTER BOOK. /^ and this has been especially so in regard to butter since the improvement in its quality on account of the introduc- tion of the creamery system. A well-known dealer of ray acquaintance illustrates this by a conversation which took place during the past sum- mer between him and one of his customers. The dealer had been supplying his customer with fresh creamery butter of the finest quality. One day the customer came into the store and the dealer inquired as to the quality of the last tub of butter furnished. The customer said there could be no fault found with the quality, but that he should be obliged to discontinue its use, as a dollar per pound for butter was more than he could well afford. This statement very much disconcerted the dealer, as he thought that some of his clerks, perhaps, had carelessly sent up an erroneous and outrageous bill, and he hastened to assure his customer that there must be some mistake, as there was no intention of charging more than the market price, which was then some 33c. per pound. " And," said he, " I asked my book-keeper, with considerable trepida- tion, to turn back to the account and correct the error that had been made." But on referring to the books, it appeared that only the regular market price had been charged and credited ; and on announcing this to the cus- tomer, he acknowledged that indeed he had paid no more than the sum stated, but that the consumption of the creamery butter had been three times greater per day, by his family, than when supplied with the ordinary butter obtained of the grocer — and thus the cost might be said to average a dollar per pound. "In other words," said he, " your creamery butter is so delicious, that my family never seem to get enough to satisfy them, and a tub of butter vanishes like the dew." PKICE OF BUTTER ADVANCING ABROAD. Another feature of importance in regard to butter may be mentioned in this connection : the price — though at times liable to fluctuate like that for other commodities- appears on the whole to be gradually rising. The En- glish markets have shown this for several years past. Daring the last two years, and especially during 1874, the trade in London has complained of the scarcity of a good article. Butter imported into England from the g WILLARD S PRACTICAL continent of Europe has been quoted as high as 168 shil- lings sterling per cwt. That is to say about 36 cents, gold, per pound. High prices in England have a ten- dency to maintain good prices on this side. But in addition to this outlet the time is close at hand when the entire demand for dairy products in the West Indies and South America will be supplied from the United States, and will become an important trade. Increased transportation facilities, the use of metalic packages, and improved methods of putting down butter, so that it will remain unimpaired during the sea voyage, together with the best methods of manufacture, must add greatly to the prosperity and permanency of this branch of dairying. The estimates presented will be sufficient for dairymen to fully appreciate the situation. THE BUTTER COW-ITS MANAGEMENT, ETC., The limit assigned for this book will not permit me to enter upon an elaborate treatise in regard to the different breeds of milch stock. Nor can any one breed be recom- mended for all situations, or to best suit the wants of all persons engaged in butter dairying. Farms differ widely in their character. Some lands have a level surface, others are rolling or gently undulating, while others yet are hilly and broken. Soils, too, vary from the richest to the poorest. Again, one farmer desires to make butter and cheese ; another wants to get the best returns from his animals in butter, cheese and beef, or in butter and beef,. while a third is looking simply for the best butter yield alone. It is evident no one breed will fulfill all these conditions at once and at the same time. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that good butter can be produced from any breed, and not unfrequently a BUTTER BOOK. 9 common cow, with no renowned blood in her veins to boast of, will yield as much and as good butter as the boasted cow that has a long record in the herd book. As a rule, it may be said that the small breeds give the richest milk. The Jersey, the Devon and the Kerry are j^erhaps the most noted in this regard. They do not yield so large a quantity as some other breeds ; nor does it always follow that a cow giving very rich milk will be the most profitable for butter-making, because a cow yielding a larger quantity of average good milk may make better returns in butter. The Ayrshire is con- ceded to give a large quantity of milk of average good quality, but inferior in richness to that of the Jersey or Devon, and on some farms she may be the best butter cow. The same may be said of the Short Horn and other breeds. The Jersey cow has some characteristics not common with other breeds. She yields not only a very rich milk, but it is" of a deep, yellow color, and the butter is of a harder and more waxy texture than that from other breeds. Among butter dairymen tlie pure-bred Jersey, or a dash of Jersey blood, is very mucli esteemed. Some have claimed tliat the butter from Jersey cows, on ac- count of tlie peculiarities named, lias a superiority which will command a better price than other butter. This, however, may be considered a doubtful claim. At least it is not made good in the London market, where con- siderable quantities of Jersey butter are sold, which al- ways brings a lower price than several other kinds. But whether this be due to peculiarities in flavor and texture, or to a less skillful method of manufacturing, is a ques- tion also of consideration. Mr. Charles L. Flint, Sec- retary of the Massachusetts Board of Agi-iculture, affirms that Jersey butter has a peculiar flavor, which is not fancied in Boston. On the other hand, much of the high- priced butter of Philadelphia is made from Jersey cows. Hence we do not regard the claim of superiority or in- feriority, on account of the breed, of much account, be- lieving that fine butter, by proper manufacture, can be made from different breeds. The dairyman should have a clear understanding as to his situation, the character of his lands, and what he is seeking to realize from his stock, and then choose that 10 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL breed which is best adapted to his purpose. But in say- ing this it must not be inferred that we regard a thor- ough-bred herd as indispensable ; on the other hand, the cheapest and perhaps the most practical course to be adopted will be to select the best common cows that are to be had, and cross them with a thorough-bred bnll of the breed best adapted to his purpose. Breeding in this way, from year to year, he will be likely to obtain a herd that will yield him the most profit, and at the least ex- pense. THE MILK OP EACH ANIMAL SHOULD BE TESTED. In choosing stock for the butter dairy, each cow should be tested separately as to the quantity and quality of milk she is capable of yielding. The milk should be accurately weighed or measured and then set aside to cream, and the percentage of cream determined. But this will not be sufficient, for some cows will give a large percentage of cream, yielding a comparatively small quan- tity of butter. The cream, therefore, must be churned and the percentage of butter obtained. In this way the dairy- man will be able to form a true estimate of the amount of butter in each cowl's milk, and from such estimate he will learn what animals in his herd are best adapted to butter-dairying, and those that should be discarded as not fitted for his business. Large losses are often sustained by keeping inferior stock. Many dairymen can give no accurate account of the value of any cow's milk in the herd. They know^ at the end of the year the quantity of butter that has been produced from the whole herd ; but if it falls below w^hat would be considered an average product they are unable to point to the true cause of the deficiency. Not unfre- quently the cow that gives a large mess of milk is cred- ited much higher than the one yielding a moderate quan- tity, and yet the latter, on account of its superior rich- ness, may be altogether the best butter co^y. Some dairymen are under the impression that exceedingly rich milk is made by excessive feeding, ignoring the fact that the real butter cows must be sought for in particular ani- mals or breeds noted for this peculiarity. Every cow has a structural limit in the richness of milk whicli she will yield, and beyond this standard of richness no amount of BUTTER BOOK. U feeding will increase. Batter dairymen, therefore, should be careful to test the capacity of each cow in this regard, and they should enter her record on a book kept for the purpose,* so that they may know what animals are yield- ing a profit and those that are not paying the expenses of their keep. THE PER CENT. CREAM GAUGE. A vessel for obtaining the percentage of cream can be readily made on the plan suggested by Mr. Douglass, of Vermont. He takes one of the common cans or pails used in the pool system — a can, say 20 inches deep by 8 inches in diameter. Then by cutting out a slot in the can and inserting a strip of glass in grooves, the edges cemented with white lead, so as to be water-tight, a con- venient per cent, cream gauge may be had. Now graduate the vessel, placing the marks on the tin alongside of the glass strip, and the work is done. By setting the milk in this vessel and allowing the cream to rise, its percent- age may be seen through the glass, and read on the scale. THE AVERAGE BUTTER PRODUCT OF COWS. The average annual product of good cows, say in moderate sized herds of from 15 to 25 animals, in good dairy districts, is about 200 pounds. Extra herds not imfrequently make an average of 250 to 300 pounds to each cow, while individual cows, as it is well known, are often reported as yielding a much larger product. The quantity of milk required to make a pound of butter ranges from eight to twenty quarts. The dairyman, there- fore, a-^ we have remarked, should satisfy himself by re- peats d experiments on individual cows, whether those that yield most milk are, after all, the most profitable for liis particular purpose. A writer in " Morton's Cyclope- dia" obtained the following results in experiments on a small dairy of 5 cows ; the object being to determine the exact quantities of butter and cheese in the milk of each : A weighed quantity of milk was taken from the noon's milking of each, and allowed to stand in separate glass vessels for forty-five hours. A portion of the " strip- pings'''' of all the cows, mixed, was also set apart, to de- termine the amount of butter and cheese in the last 12 WILLAED'S PEACnOAL drawn milk. When the cream had completely separated from the milk, a fine-pointed glass syphon — sufficiently wide in the bore to allow the milk to run through it, but not the cream — was introduced into the vessel, and nearly touching the bottom. The air was then exhausted from the syphon, and the milk withdrawn into another vessel. The cream was then weiglied and agitated in a glass tube, until the butter came, which was then well washed with pure water and repeated decantings until the water ran off colorless. The weight of the butter was then care- fully ascertained, and the difference between it and the cream gave the weight of the buttermilk. The butter was then put in a minim tube, and melted at a low tem- perature by immersing the tube in warm water. The re- maining buttermilk and cheesy matter sunk to the bottom on cooling, and the proportion, by bulk, noted down. The skimmed milk was gently warmed to 90 degrees after adding a little acetic acid to make it curdle. The whey was separated from the curd by filtration and washing, and the latter dried at a heat not exceeding 212 degrees, until it ceased to lose weight. The weight of the dried curd (pure caseine) when deducted from that of the milk, left as a remainder the weight of the whey. The following table shows the relative quantities of butter, caseine, (cheese) and whey, the latter includes the buttermilk also : No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. S-S ?'"'=! ?, : m cr_2. J?" -To* PmCmra, 5-5 S m 11 III 1 3 o it: : 5.^ \ii ? : ^ No. 3- 9ti Quarts. No. 4-10% No. 4—75 Quarts. No. 5-lOK Ne. 5-72 If we take the weight of an imperial gallon of milk at ten pounds three ounces, the weekly yield per cow of butter, cheese (caseine) and whey would be as follows : Prod'e per cow inqts, .-ind lbs. Butter ... Caseine .. Whey, &c. Total.. No. 1 68qts, 173 3-10 1 I No. Z I 89 qts. . 22K% lbs. Lbs. 7.- 97 5,225 160.496 T73.20t. lbs. 9.540 7,734 209.476 226.750 No. 3 96 qts. 244>i lbs. Lbs. 7.C9 6 89 230.52 2U.m No, 4 75 qts. ]91 lbs. Lbs. 5.8S1 6.473 178.t;46 72 qts. 183?^ lbs. Lbs. 8,620 5.885 168.895 191.000 183.400 Of course the caseine in this table does not represent the whole of the cheese which the milk contained, because the process employed to extract it separated tlie butter entirely from it, besides the cheesy matter Mas dried to the consistency of horn before being weighed. Common milk-cheese, however poor, and as it is usually made, not only contains a little butter, but also a large proportion of water or wheyey matter. On the other hand, the quantity of butter given above is no doubt larger than could have been obtained by com- mon churning. Still, the table will seive to show cor- rectly the comparative as well as absolute amount of pure butter and caseine contained in the milk of each cow. The reader will see from these tables that the cow No. 3, although giving six gallons of milk more than No. 5, and seven gallons more than No. 1, per week, is under both of them in butter, and were it not that the quantity of buttermilk is great, she would fall below them in profit too. Her milk is poor in butter and cheese, and there is reason to suspect that the quality of both is inferior also. To the inland daii-y faj-mer it'is of the greatest conse- quence to get cows that yield rich milk, even though the quantity should not be so very great, for this reason that the refuse either of cheese or butter making can be turned to little account in such localities. 14 WILLARD S PRAOTICAL CAKE. The success of butter dairying depends so much upon the care and feeding of the stock that no manual on but- ter making would be complete without touching upon this branch of the business. It is really astonishing what a large difference in the yield of milk it makes by attend- ing properly to a number of small things in the manage- ment of stock — things which would seem to many quite too insignificant to be worth observing. The dairyman should have a genuine, hearty love for the animals under his control, attending to every detail for their comfort, providing wholesome, nutritious food, pure water and pure air — everything of this kind in abundance — keeping the animals properly sheltered from storms ; feeding always with great regularity ; paying the most marked attention to the time and manner ot milking, and withal, preserving a uniform kindness and gentleness of treat- ment throughout every operation, a gentleness extending even to the tones ol the voice. Generally speaking, that cow will do her best that is loved the best and petted the most by those who have her in charge. If you wish a cow to do her best you must cultivate her acquaintance intimately, and be unsparing in little acts of kindness. You may whip and torture a cow into submission, but she will strike the balance against you i.i the milk pail. One of the greatest faults among dairy finners to-day is lack of kindness and con- sideration to domestic aninj^als. Cows should be petted daily, and be made to feel that man is a friend and pro- tector. All pain, fright and uneasiness checks the secre- tion of milk, and the man Avho is passionate and abusive to his herd never did and never can realise a full yield of milk from it. I think that any one who has the charge of animals should study their character and disposition. It is an interesting study, and, under the law of kindness, you will not unfrequently bring out wonderful traits and exhibitions of affection, which will show aforethought and design, which may well be ranked with the higher intel- ligence of reasonable beings. QUESTIONS FOR DAIRYMEN. . Every dairyman should have a printed list of questions posted in some suitable place on liis premises where his BUTTER BOOK. 15 family and those in his employ, as well as his visitors, will have opportunity to read frequently. We give some of them, but the list can be extended : Do your cows feed in swamps and on boggy lands ? Have you good, sweet running water convenient for stock, and is it abundant and permanent in hot, dry weather ? Have you shade trees in your pasture, or do you think that cows make better milk while lying down to rest in discomfort in the hot broiling sun ? Do you use dogs and stones to hurry up the cows from pasture at milking time, thus overheating their blood and bruising their udders ? Do you cleanse the udders of cows before milking by washing their teats with their own milk, and practice further economy by allowing the droppings to go into the milk pail ? Do you enjoin upon your milkers to wash their hands thoroughly before sitting down to milk, or do you think that uncleanliness in this respect is not important for milk that is to be treated for butter-making ? When a cow makes a misstep while being milked, do you allow your milkers to kick her with heavy boots, or to pound her over the back and sides with a heavy stool, accompanied by sundry profane remarks addressed to the cow to teach her manners? Is the air about your " milk barn " or milk house reek- ing with the foul emanations of the pig sty, the manure heap, or other pestiferous odors ? Good, fresh, clean water, and in abundance,, is one of the most important requisites for milch cows, and it should be in convenient places, where stock will not be required to travel long distances to slake their thirst. If springs and running streams cannot be had in pastures, a good well, with windmill and pump, makes an efficient substitute, and the Avaste water may, if necessary, be conducted back into the well, so as to keep up a constant supply of good, fresh water. BRIEF SUMMARY OF ITEMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MILCH cows. The following summary of items, written recently by Mr. A. L. Fish of Herkimer County, widely known as IQ WILLARDS PRACTICAL one of the most successful practical dairymen of New York, gives the result of the experience of his life in the treatment of dairy stock. They will be found of value : THE " MILKING-HABIT " EDUCATED. All profits obtainable from tlie cow in milk depend upon her constitution and physical economy in appropri- ating a portion of her food to thrift and milk. Her fac- ulty of appropriation is developed and fixed in the con- stitution by usage and habit. In her wild, uncultivated state she yields a small amount of milk to sustain her calf till its second and third stomachs are sufticiently devel- oped to digest plant food, when she weans it by instinct, and her milk ceases to flow. Any deviation from that habit must be developed by incessant milking and proper adaptation of food to make a supply of milk proportion- ate to the demand. Thus it is upon the principle of de- mand and supply that her faculties are educated to a high degree of fluency in milk. If cows are milked in cold weather, they should be housed and kept comfortably warm, that their vital forces may be employed to convert food into milk rich in cream, instead of the fatty portions being used up by combustion to keep the animal heat of the body at the required temperature (98 degrees), the point fixed in her physical organism for health. If she is unaccustomed to higher feed than hay, a change must be carefully made with light feeding, gradu- ally increasing as the system becomes inured to it. Her digestive organs require systematic training like the mus- cles of the pugilist or race-horse. A proper adaptation of food to the lacteal system is first in tlie order of training. Succulent food is better adapted to lactescencethan grain. If grain is fed in the milk season, it should be cooked and made into thin slop or porridge, that it may readily as- similate wnth the lacteal fluids of the system. So suscep- tible are the lacteal faculties of cultivation, that heifers from deep-milking mothers have been brought to a good flow of milk under two years old, without impregnation, by continued usage of the udder and teats like milking hab- its. It should be kept in mind that feeding more than is appropriated to the object desired goes to w^aste by pass- ing off imperfectly-digested or being taken up by other than the lacteal functions. It, therefore, behooves all who BUTTER BOOK. 17 keep cows for dairy or family use to closely observe the effect of various kinds of food, as some will appropriate to a different purpose than others, by force of habit. DOCILITY OF TEMPER HOW ACQUIRED. Docility of temper, like lactescence, may be cultivated and established constitutionally, and is as surely transmis- sible to posterity as color, size, shape, &c. Uniform kind- ness in handling, in care and general treatment, with easy access to good water, good feed and good fences, are es- sential to confirm docile habits. Adversely will detesta- able habits be confirmed. Harsh, scarey treatment in handling, hurrying them out of narrow stanchions, to pinch and bruise their ears, tear off a horn or break a neck (each of which I have had done), poor feed, poor fences, scanty water, and poor milkers, are appliances to fit a cow to graduate, Avhere she may be turned into a drove and sold among strangers. JERKING OUT OF THE STANCHION. To prevent cows from acquiring a habit of jerking back out of the stanchion (by which they are liable to be seri- ously injured), set them on a slant toward the falling sides, so they will fall back quickly from their neck by their own gravity as the latch is raised to release them, and let the drop bar fall back wide enough that the horns will not catch on backing out. WATER NEEDED AFTER SALTING. Care should be taken that they have salt twice a week, and that they have access to water soon after taking the salt, because salt in its crude state is poisonous and will create a high fever in the stomach, unless diluted by water, which relieves the animal from burning thirst. BREATHING FOUL AIR. It is becoming a universal custom to milk, through the season in wintering stables that are constructed to econo- mize room and keep the inmates warm. That is all right in economy if not carried too far. If too many are crowded into illy-ventilated apartments the air becomes vitiated and unfit for respiration, because it is breathed over and over again after it has passed through the Inngs and been robbed of its vital power. Food once taken into the stomach and passed through the digestive organs is •18 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL repugnant to all animals, and if forced into the stomach will cause disease and death. It is a fact not to be ig- nored that animals and insects whose life is sustained by inhaling the common atmosphere, must have a change of air or death ensues. If stables are not tight enough to cause immediate death, they may weaken tlie vital forces of the inmates and thus predispose them to disease. RESULT OF CROWDIXG TOO CLOSE IN THE STABLE. If COWS are packed too closely in stanchions they will lie against each other and get too warm ; then when turned out in very cold weather the change is too great, and Avhen lying down to rest the center cow (of three) is often compelled to stand till others rise, and they are irritated by each others' horns. All these are annoyances that tell upon their constitution, but they may be avoided by giving each cow four feet wide standing room, and addmuch to convenience in milking. VENTILATION. Proper ventilation is indispensable to health of cows both summer and winter, and to cleanliness in milking. If stables are without ample openings over the cows' heads, the pressure of air from without drives the noxious odors from their voidings, and the venomous exhalation, perhaps from old stale urine under loose, squashy floors, forward to their heads, where they are compelled to inhale them. Such stables are unfit to milk in because the milk while milking w' ill imbibe those odors and unfit it for good cheese or butter. From my observations in searching for causes of the ailments that cows are liable to, I have come to the conclusion that more disease is generated by veno- mous atmosphere in damp, ill-ventilated stables than all other causes. As a preventive I would advise that the floor of the stable be laid upon a solid bed of earth and gravel, with a fall of six inches in twelve feet from the stanchions, with the same ratio of descent, to a point for outlet of liquids, with a platform raised six inches for cows to stand and lie on. The floor and platform plank should be bedded in water-lime mortar, so there shall be no soaking dow^n nor hiding-place for stale urine to deposit and generate venomous odors. Openings in the sides of stables are useful in warm, still weather, and to dry and cleanse them, but should not BUTTER BOOK. 19 be relied on for breathing air, for they should be closed in severe weather to prevent currents of air striking the in- mates, which should always be avoided. An opening forward and over their heads large enough to fodder through the whole length ot the stable is little room enough for circulation ot breathing air, and would not draw through in currents unless the siding is open below and too airy above. WATER. Cows will drink twice a day and oftener if an oppor- tunity is offered, and it is better than to drink a large amount at once. If cows in milk have water but once, they should be slopped morning and evening to increase the flow of milk. FIRST TURNING TO GRASS. Cows should not be allowed a full range of pasture till there is a supply of grass, because they will acquire a rov- ing habit, and their unnecessary travel will pack the soil and destroy much grass. When first turned to grass they should be allowed only a limited range between the usual hours of feeding hay. This hay feed, of the first quality, should be continued till they refuse to eat it. This keeps- up their strength and avoids too sudden change in the habits of digestion. CLEANSING THE BLOOD. After parturition, one table spoon full of sulphur should be given to each cow twice a week, to cleanse the blood of any impurities that may he larking in the system which are liable to settle upon different organs, causing garget, horn-ail, hoof-ail, or a morbid condition of the generative organs, by reason of which many cows go far- row, or are predisposed to abortion. SALTPETER FOR GARGET. If symptoms ot garget appear, one tea spoon of salt- peter once a week is good. When the season arrives for turning with the bull, this should be discontinued. Salt three mornings and skip three for two weeks. COMING IN MILK. To bring them into milk nearly the same time the next season, cows should not be alloAved to worry with other cattle after being turned with the bull. 2Q WILLARD S PRACTICAL GRAIN FEEDING AND GRASS. No profit will accrue from grain feed in flush of grass feed. When it dinnnishes, its equivalent should be kept up by soiling or otherwise, for if the flow of milk is al- lowed to decrease to a great extent, extra feed late in the season will be appropriated to flesh instead of milk. If cows are to be turned into clover, it should be done after the sun has aided the plant to elaborate the gases of night-fall. REMEDY FOR HOVEN. In case of hoven, a quarter of a pound of sod'a dis- solved in a gallon of water, and poured down is an ef- fectual remedy. Shoifld the case be severe and require instant relief, plunge a butcher knife into the paunch on the left side behind the last rib near the back, at the point where the paunch adheres to the back and ribs. There is no danger in opening the paunch there, because it would not let its contents out into the body. Keep the hole open with an alder, quill, or hollow stick, secured from dropping into the paunch, till the medicine in the stomach takes effect. Hoven is often mistaken for chok- ing. If a choke can not be felt in the meat pipe, it may be determined by crowding a "tarred" rope, one and a half inch in diameter, down the creature's throat. Such a rope, four feet long, with a sailor's wall knot on each end to crowd against the obstacle in the throat, should be pos- sessed by every farmer owning a herd of cattle. Any vegetable that a creature can swallow into the meat pipe may be pushed into the stomach with such a rope with safety, after pouring down a pint of soft soap. In closing my remarks on the care and treatment of milch stock I cannot do better than present some facts in regard to — THE EFFECTS PRODUCED ON THE MILK FROM ILL-TREATMENT OF COWS. It is only quite recently that the subject of milk poison lias begun to claim attention. Farmers and dairymen are for the most part incredulous concerning changes liable to be wrought in milk, as a consequence of the manner in which stock is treated. If a farmer beats or otherwise maltreats his cows, he may perhaps admit, BUTTER BOOK. 21 when his passion has become sobered, that the animals, under bad treatment, will yield a diminished quantity of milk ; but that the milk from this cause is rendered less nutritious, or is so changed as not to be a healthful ar- ticle of human food, is regarded as preposterous. No greater service, it seems to me, can be done for the dairy public, or for the community at large, than to dis- seminate correct information in regard to the various causes affecting the healthfulness of milk. And I am glad to see that the subject is arresting the attention of medical men, because when they give the result of their investi- gation on questions of this character it carries with it the weight of authority and is more readily believed than when it originates from other sources. We cannot expect a change of practice or reform unless men are convinced of their errors. A mere statement of facts, if they do not carry conviction to the mind, will effect but little ; hence, in presenting the following account of the diseases resulting from the use of imperfect milk and the causes which led to its imperfection, I am glad to present the subject from a medical stand-point, or as com- ing under the experience of a well known practitioner of medicine. The facts given I have condensed from an article in a late number or the " Medical and Surgical Reporter," by Dr. T. D. Crothers of Albany, N. Y. The latter part of October, 1874, and since the publi- cation of the article referred to, I had an interview with Dr. Crothers and obtained from him many of the cir- cumstances connected Avith his investigations, and I am of the opinion that the conclusions arrived at by him are substantially correct. Indeed, they correspond with facts coming under my own observation and exi)erience. DISEASED MILK CAUSED BY FILTHY STABLES AND ROTTEN VEGETABLES. Referring to the almost universal use of milk as a diet, and the many cases reported during the last year, which give strong evidence that milk is an agent of far greater danger and more widely diffused as a source of disease than we are aware of. Dr. Crothers describes a severe case of diarrhea occurring in a healthy family and living in good hygienic surroundings. Called to prescribe for the sufferers, he found that the family had never suffered 22 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL from this disease before, and it seemed more violent among the younger members than in those grown up. A careful inquiry into the habits of this family indicated nothing miusual, except the free use of milk as an article of food. Sunday, milk was made a prominent dish at dinner, and it Avas noticed that the days following the disease was increased unless checked by medicines. The milk came from one cow kept in the neighborhood. Suspecting the milk was not all right, Dr. C. found on visiting the stable that the cow was a small, ill-conditioned animal, standing in a close, filthy stable, ill-ventilated and containing hardly room enough to turn about. Tlie food of this cow was garbage from the street, consisting of vegetables in all degrees of decomposition, cooked and raw, alternated with brewers' grains once per day. Water was given in the food, but occasionally, depending on chance, a pail was brought in. The stable was cleaned once or twice a week, and the doors were closed to keep in some hens. The walls of the building were brick, and the ventilation or renewal of the air must come from the open seams in the door and window. In this place for over three months this cow had been confined, her body was filthy and her hair stood up in all directions. That the milk was impure and the cause of the diarrhea was j^roven by the complete disappearance of the disease when the family stopped using the milk. THE NATURE OP THE POISON UNCERTAIN. Dr. Crothers thinks the nature of the poison is uncer- tain, and he refers to the investigations of Dr. Chandler of New York, who failed to find any specific poison in milk known to be impure. In this case the impure milk acted as an irritant, causing a low grade of inflammation — a certain forerunner of other lesions. DEATH PROM USING IMPURE MILK. This was the case of an elderly gentleman, previously well and strong, who, while convalescing from a severe at- tack of intermittent fever was ordered to use milk freely by his physician. Four days after lie began to use milk as a medicine, he was attacked with exhaustive diarrhea, re- sisting all medicines and terminating fatally in six days. The familv of the owner of the cow from which the milk BUTTER BOOK. 23 was furnished likewise suffered from diarrhea. The cow was kept in a similar way to that first described ; and when this cow was turned out in the yard and received better food and more cleanly surroundings, the diarrhea in the family disappeared. Another severe case of the same complaint was noticed in a middle-aged man using the milk of swill-fed cows. The disease terminated in death after four weeks. INFLUENCE OF INSUFFICIENT FOOD ON MILK. Some remarkable experiments on this subject were con- ducted by M. Decaisne of Paris, during the siege of 1871, and detailed in a paper before the French Academy, prefacing his paper with observations of Dumas, Payen and BoussiNGAULT, in which were shown the fact that a cow gave healthy milk in exact proportion to the surplus of food beyond what was necessary for its own maintain- ance. If the animal was kept upon food barely sufficient for proper nourishment, the milk produced must be at a loss of animal tissue, with general deterioration of the milk and also of the cow. Milk formed at an expense of the nutrients and tissues of the body has less caseine, but- ter, sugar and salts, while the albumen will be increased. It follows that the value of milk must dej^end upon the excess of food beyond what is required by nature to keep up the normal vigor of the body. Decaisne shows that nearly an analogous condition exists in women, which he demonstrated by experiments during the siege of 1871, in 43 cases of nursing women. These cases were in private families and suffered from the want of insufficient nourishment. Some of the results of his observations are stated thus : Insufficient food always produces a diminution in the normal quality of the milk, also a variation of its chemical constituents, such as an increase of albumen and diminu- tion of caseine, butter and sugar. The proportion of albumen, in such cases, is generally in inverse ratio to that of caseine. The health of the mother declined with this variation in the quality of milk, depending upon age, hygienic conditions, constitutional vigor, &c., until the milk became minimum in quantity and quality. Also, that these effects are seen in four or five days from the time of using an insufficient diet. 24 WILLARD'S PHACTICAL TYPHOID FEVER GERMS COMMUNICATED THROUGH MILK. An epidemic of typhoid fever which occurred near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1872-3, indicated the prevalence of this fever in 32 out of 39 families which were supplied with milk from one dairyman. Families supplied by other milkmen were singularly exempt. The family of the dairyman were also attacked, particularly those who had used the largest amount of milk. The fever germs were supposed to have been propagated through adulter- ating the milk w^ith bad water, and probably by allowing or forcing the cows to slake thirst from impure water. Again, in one of the healthiest suburban sections of London, 500 cases of typhoid fever were found distributed in 104 families, 96 of w^hich were supplied with milk from one dairy. The contagion was traced directly to the water used for \vashing the milk cans and retained in the milk, the w^ater being previously polluted by sewer drainage. MILK POISONED BY ANIMALCULE. Cases marked by violent cramping and purging have been traced to the milk used, w^hich was found to contain animalcule, supposed to be taken up in the drinking water and developed in the system. Dr. Brown, of Gault, Ontario, reports in the Canada Lancet two very striking oases of this kind. Yogle, years ago, showed that vibri- ones in human milk arose from a condition of mal-nutri- tion. Dr. Gibbs found two genera of animalculfe present in milk, when the health of the mother was disordered by prolonged lactation. Other authorities have shown that milk may contain animalculse as w^ell as poisonous germs equally dangerous. MILK POISONED FROM VIOLENT EMOTIONS OR SHOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. A familiar illustration is that of milk, when the mother is violently agitated, causing convulsions and death in the child. The text books give particular caution on this point ; yet an hour after, when the emotions have sub- sided, the peril seems to have passed away. We are yet ignorant of the nature of this poison, which seems to have such a peculiar action on tbe nervous function. Dr. Cro- THERS instances a case at a late clinic at the Albany Hos- BUTTER BOOK. 25 pital, of a child six years old suffering from epilepsy. The history indicated that the chikl was in health up to a cer- tain, time when the motiier, laboring under intense excite- ment, put the cliild to her breast ; soon after the con- vulsions came on, which developed into a full case of epilepsy. A case of chorea recently, under Dr. C/s care, he says can be traced back to nursing the child when the mother was violently excited. Other cases have b^en noted of feeble and broken-down nervous systems in children, Avhich were referred back to the same cause. HOW BRUTAL TREATMENT OF COWS AFFECTS THE MILK. A gentleman of Albany was advised to secure the milk of a young, blooded cow for his infant child. A cow whose first calf was running by her side was purchased, and the calf taken away, and liis servant was ordered to milk her, bringing the milk direct to his house. Two months later this child, who was previously healthy, was broken out over the body with a strange, undelinable rash, which finally developed into pustules, called by the physician scrofula. Following this came a fever, which seemed to affect the brain and nervous system. In the meantime, the bowels suffered from intestinal irritation, alternately constipated and relaxed. The child, for a year or more, while using the milk, was under the con- stant care of physicians, and after the second year had a weak, broken-down nervous system, with frequent pus- tular eruptions over the body. Subsequently it was ascertained that this cow was driven into a close stall, and whipped into subjection, to allow the milking to go on, and, for the entire season, this process w^as one of force and more or less brutality. Under these circumstances the milk was made poisonous by the nervous condition of the cow. Another instance came under the observation of Dr. Crothers. It was that of a farmer who, by the advice of his physician, procured the milk of an Alderney cow, on account of its supposed richness. This cow, from her vicious habits, had been considered unfit for the dairy. The milking was attended with much excitement, and the child to whom the milk was given suffered from gastro- intestinal irritation and what were called scrofulous ulcers. 2(5 WILLARD S PRACTICAL during all the time of using the milk. Two years later this child was presented at the Albany Hospital clinic with symptoms of chorea, a weak nervous system, and low tone of physical vigor — an exception to other chil- dren of tlie same family. Other cases are given of seri- ous diseases arising from the use of milk from cows brutally treated. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIOXS IN THE CARE OF STOCK. Dr. Crothers, from all the facts observed, comes to a series of conclusions, some of which we give as follows : 1. Milk coming from ill-nourished, half-fed cows, having no surplus of food beyond minimum requirements of nature, is injurious, and may be a source of disease. 2. Cows deprived of abundance of good water, ventilation and exercise, secrete impure and dangerous milk, which may be loaded with gases, animalcul^e and fever germs. 3. The milk from old, debilitated cows fed on grains or over-stimulating food is also imperfect and unhealthy to a variable degree. 4. The nervous condition of the cow at the time of milking determines the purity of the milk. If this is neglected, the milk is an active source of dis- ease, positively dangerous and fatal. In conclusion, he says that facts show that milk is the prolific source of many diseases now obscure, and unless careful inquiry is made into the condition and surround- ings from which we receive our supply, we neglect a sanitary measure of great importance. I should be glad to have every dairyman in the land read this statement and consider how lar the facts herein given will apply, to cases coming under his observation or experience. The questions presented, it seems to me, are of grave importance. FEEDING. Different kinds of food have more or less influence on the flavor of milk. Some kinds are much more eflicient than others, not only in promoting good flavor in the milk, but in maintaining health and thrift in the animal. For butter-making it is essential that the cows have an abundance of rich and nutritious food. Cows giving milk require more food than when not in milk. A certain amount of food is needed to support the animal, and a BUTTER BOOK. 27 surplus above that must be consumed and assimilated to make milk. P'ood should be abundant and easy of ac- cess because much traveling or exercise in obtaining it checks the milk secretion, tlie food going to supply the waste of tissue lost in extra labor rather than for milk. Cows should always be kept in good flesh and condition, because, if from inclement weather or other causes there be a slight interruption in the usual quantity of food, the good-conditioned cow has a store of fat laid up in the system that will bridge over these short periods without feeling the loss so sensibly as the cow thin in Hesli, which has no surplus fat to spare. I know of no better food for milch cows than rich, old upland pastures, where there is a variety of grasses, and the turf is tliickly set with grass, showing no intervening spaces. Ricli old pastures, clear of weeds, where the herbage is thick, sweet and nutritious — where a cow can get her fill without much labor — where good, sweet water is convenient — where there is shade under which she can rest and ruminate these, in my opinion, will be about the best conditions in which t'he animal can be placed for yielding much and very fine butter. Under such circumstances I do not think any profit will be real- ized by feeding ground grain, or meal of any kind, as a supplementary food. There is a great difference in pas- turage, and the trouble with dairymen is, that they do not discrhninate closely enough as to the quality of the grasses that make up the pastures on different farms. The coarse, sour herbage of low lands or swales — pastures foul with weeds or abounding in grasses having a large percentage of woody fiber are not calculated to give satisfactory returns. And in all cases where pastures have depreciated, and afford a scanty supply of nutriment, they should be supplemented by giving the cows a daily ration of bran, ground oats, or some other food, to sup- ply the deficiency. VARIETIES ESTEEMED FOR BUTTE R-DAIRYIXG. On the old pastures of the best butter districts there are several varieties of grasses that spring up spontane- ously, and are much esteemed as affording sweet and nutritious feed, and from which the best qualities of milk and butter are produced. They embrace the June or 28 WILLARDS PRACTICAL Kentircky blue grass {poa 2)yatensls), the foul meadow grass, {2)oa serotlna), meadow fescue {festuca pratensis)^ red top (agrostis vulgaris), the Avire grass [pjoa com- pressa), the sweet-scented vernal and v.-inilla grass, or- chard grass (dactylis glomerata), together Mith timothy, clover, and other forage plants. The June grass is regai-ded as very valuable ; it throws out a dense mass of leaves, is higidy relished by cattle, and produces milk from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found grooving throughout the butter districts of the country. The Wire grass is deemed one of the most nutritious of the grasses, is very hardy, eagerly sought after by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fiittening. Cows feeding upon it yield milk of the I'ichest quality, from which the nicest butter is made. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in shady places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. The Meadow fescue is common in old grass lands where the sod is thick, and grasses of different varieties are mingled together. It starts up early in the spring, is relished by stock and furnishes good, early feed. The milk farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of life and not running out like timothy or clover. The white clo^'er springs up spontaneously in the old pastures, and is esteemed as giving flavor and quality to butter. The sweet-scented vernal grass groMs best upon moist soil of old meadows. It starts very early :md gives oft* an agreeable odor. Orchard grass is one of the earliest as well as most nutritious and productive grasses. It is exceedingly palatable to stock of all kinds, and bears cropping close. It is a most valuable grass, and should enter largely into all mixtures intended for permanent pasture. Mr. Daniel Bachelor of Utica, X. Y., Avho has had con- siderable experience in introducing the best mixtures of grasses, both for pasture and meadow, says of the sev- eral pasture grasses for our climate : '^ I know of nothing better than our native June and orchard grasses mixed with bent grass, ci'ested dog's-tail-and meadow fescue; 1 1— ".-1t^ "-.^.:^f^t; that we Avant, and BUTTER BOOE. 29 called which are cultivated in England, and used like the grasses, there are many kinds— annual, biennial and per- ennial, legumes and brassica, some of which are not hardv enough for our climate. Lotus, sainfoin, parsley, saradella and yarrow cannot be successfully grown here. Rape, mustard, lucerne and vetches can be grown here as easily as clover. But at the head of all leguminous plants stands the alfalfa or lu-jerne, which is destined, 1 believe, to greater success in this country than the red clover, es- pecially in the hot, dry soils of the West and Southwest; as it will withstand drouth and heat, look fresh and green Avhen all other forage plants arc dry and droopins:. Lu- cerne has been known to old world agriculture for the last two tliousand years, and perhaps longer than that. It is a hardy, herbaceous pei-ennial, and will send down its long roots into mellow subsoil to a depth of ten or twelve feet. It is very tenacious and will take possession of the soil to the exclusion of all the grasses and herbaceous plants. Notwithstanding the large amount of forage it produces, the lucerne does not exhaust but improves the soil, for tlie legummosce draw almost their entire nutri- tion from the atmosphere, and the lucerne produces ten times more roots than any of the clovers. Vast masses of these roots decay in the soil every season, thereby en- riching the land. The plant, too, is so dense that it shades the soil. That lucerne will flourish in this region (Central New York) is proved by the fact that Messrs. Walcott & Campbell have grown it for many seasons and prefer it to any other forage plant. '' I take theliberty, in conclusion, to say that no matter what seed is sown, miless the soil be kept in good heart both pasture and meadow will fail. Johnston shows that for every tonof liay carried off the farm, there goes with it not less than one hundred and forty pounds of silicates, phosphates and potash. Now, if these ingredients are not returned in some shape to the land, the crops will fail ; moss, sorrel and wireweeds will usurp the ground, and barrenness take the place of fertility." THE GRASSES ARE SOCIAL. The grasses, so to speak, are social in their character, and thrive best when different kinds are grown together in the same sod. The practical farmer, then, should un- 30 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL derstaiul this fuct and take advantage of it in laying down grass lands if he is seeking for the largest product ; as it is well known that individual plants of the same species will not grow close to each other for any length of time ; for, however thickly planted from seed, in one or two sea- sons intermediate plants decay and leave vacant spaces Avhich are soon tilled up with spurious grasses, weeds or moss. But when a variety of different species adapted to the soil are mixed together they grow close, form a dense bottom and continue permanent. A DIFFEKEXT ORDER OF SEEDS FOR PASTURES THAN MEADOAVS. In seeding for pastures a different order of seeds should be used than for meadows. In pastures we seek to have those varieties that spring up in succession, so that a good, fresh bite may be had from spring to fall. For meadows, on the other hand, we seek plants that will come to maturity at about the same time, otherwise a portion of the plants are cut too early or too late, and thus loss is entailed. OVER-STOCKING. Many dairymen habitually over-stock their j^astures, thus not only doing great injury to the grasses, but the cows, from an msufficient quantity of food in a given space, are required to travel long distances in quest of food, and thus the yield of milk is dimhiished. By this practice the roots of the grasses and the whole plants are kept so small that their growth is feeble, and not one- half the feed is afforded that the land would produce if stocked properly and the grass allowed to get a good, thrifty start. But tliis is not tlie only disadvantage to the pasture from over-stocking, Tlie feeble growth of the grasses allows other plants to creep in, and the ground soon becomes overrun with weeds, which, on account of their not being cropped by stock, grow in great luxuri- ance, maturing their seed and thus impoverishing the soil. The curse of American dairying to-day is Aveeds. When once they get full possession they become so formidable that the farmer is often disheartened and gives up their eradication. It is always advisable to pull up or exter- minate bad Aveeds on their first appearance in pastures, and not allow thcni to spread. There are many Aveeds BUTTER BOOK. 31 that cows, will eat during a dearth of nutritious food, that give a taint to tlie milk, and thus are prejudicial to a fine quality of buttei-. ^yhen pastures are over-stocked, QV when they are not yielding a sufficient supply of good, sweet, nutritious feed, additional rations should be al- lowed the cows, such as bran, ground oats, shorts or mill feed, corn fodder, cut grass, or some other forage plant. Some butter dairymen are strong advocates of corn meal as a supplementary feed in summer. Corn meal being of a heating nature, we do not regard it as the best selec- tion in hot weather, and if on account of its low price it is deemed advisable to use it- at such times, it should be mingled Avitli twice or thrice its bulk of bran. In this way the elements of milk are supplied in better propor- tion, while the animals will maintain better health. In cold Aveather corn meal can often be fed with advantage. In winter and spring roots are exceedingly valuable in keeping up a flow of milk and in maintaining the health of the animal, a point of very great importance, and which must not be overlooked by the practical dairyman who is seeking the best returns from his herd. cows SHOULD BE FULL FED. What we especially desire to urge in this connection is, that cows should at all times be full fed with sweet and nutritious food. AYe do not believe in over-feeding, and particularly with rich grains or highly-concentrated food. Dairy stock is often very much injured by injudicious feeding with this kind of food. Besides, it is a great waste to push the animal to consume a large quantity of expensive concentrated food which cannot be assimilated but must be cast oifin the excrements. Nothing will be gained in the quality or richness of milk from such over- feeding, since every animal has a structural limit to her milk in this regard which no excess of feedins^ will im- prove. It is true, by over-feeding the richness and value of the manure are increased ; but as the same elements can be furnished at much cheaper rates from other sources than in the undigested or unassimilated meal and other highly-concentrated food, it would be very poor economy on this score. But when we bring into account the dan- ger of doing injury to the cow, it will be evident that such a course is not to be recommended. The tendency of 32 WILLARDS PRACTICAL over-feediug is, liowever, not so great in summer as in spring, or at sucli times as when the animals deprived of pasturage are upon a stable diet. In summer the main fault among dairymen is under-feeding, from a misappre- hension of the capacity of pasture hinds, and, in conse- quence, over-stocking. A pasture tliat is over-stocked with but one or two animals, if no additional food is given to the herd to counterbalance the excess of stock, will de- crease the yiekl of milk much more than the average quantity obtained from the excess of stock. In other words, the dairyman, under such circumstances, would have increased liis profits had he in s])ring selected out from the herd two of the poorest cows and given their milk to some neighbor for their pasturage. But the true course in such cases is to supplement the feed, making up the deficiency occasioned by over-stocking. WINTER DAIRYING. Somewhat recently the plan of winter dairying has been suggested, and is strongly advocated by a few persons who claim to have thoroughly tested tlie matter ; and prominent among these is Mr. Boies of Marengo, 111., who has a herd of about 130 cows employed in butter dairying. The plan is to have the cows "come in milk" during the fall, to feed high during winter and then in spring, when the animals naturally begin to fall off in milk, the May and June pastures send them up to nearly their full yield again. Later, as the summer drouth occurs, or as grass begins to deteriorate, the cows are " dried off" and take their rest preparatory for the next calving. It is claimed for this system tliat cool weather is more favorable for the manufacture of butter than the heat of summer; and as the butter market is generally belter in winter than in summer, together with less risk to butter in the transportation, tliese considerations have weight in favor of the system. On the other hand special provision, it would seem, must be made for keeping the cows in warm quarters, well ventilated, together with an ample supply of succulent food, roots, 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 No. 3, in the first table, represents the composition of milk of average good quality. Generally speaking, milk is i-icher in the fall and poorer in the spring. The quality of cow's milk is not only affected by the age of the animal, but by the dis- tance from the time of calving. Climate also affects the quality of milk in a remarkable degree. In moist and temperate seasons we obtain a larger quantity, though generally a poorer quality of milk than in dry, warm sea- sons. The race and breed and size of animals have also an important influence on the quality of milk. According to Voelckee, good milk of average quality contains from 10|^ to 11 per cent, of dry matter and about 2i per cent, of pure fat. It yields from 9 to 10 per cent. of cream. Milk which contains more than 90 per cent, of water and less than two per cent, of pure fat, is natu- rally very poor or has been adulterated. When milk contains from 12 to 12^ per cent, of solid matters and from 3 to 3| per cent, of pure fatty sub- stances, it is considered rich. And if it contains more than 12^ per cent, of dry matter and 4 per cent, or more of pure fat, it is of extra rich quality. Such milk throws up from 11 to 12 per cent, of cream in bulk on standing for 24 hours at 62 degrees Fahr. COMPOSITION OF CREAM. Cream varies in composition according to tlie circum- stances under which it is produced, and as a consequence of these differences in the composition of cream variable quantities of butter are produced from a given bulk of cream. The value of milk, then, for butter-making can- not be determined simply from the percentage of "cream thrown up. The butter value must be obtained by churn- ing the cream. 48 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL VoELCKER anulyzed tour different samples of crenm, wliich gave the following results: Water.... TJutter (pure fatty inattei). *Ca seine -Milk sugar Mineral matters (asli) 74 46 18.18 2.69 4.08 5;> 2. 5(i.50 31.57 |8..4;. 3.4<1 4. 64 80 25.40 ■^'2';9^" fil.67 33.43 2.62 l.ri". 0.72 ♦Containing nitroeren 100. CO 4.'^ 100.00 100.00 .42 Dr. Sturtevant gives the following authorities on the analvses of cream : Water. Solid.s. 40.75 51,00 6:^.60 25.5 1 35,20 43.50 38.a3 36.72 Butter. 35.00 42.00 56.R0 18.18 25.40 3157 33.43 29.40 Caseine. 1 Sugar. 2.20 1 3.05 4.20 ' 3.80 3.80 i 2.80 2.69 1 4.08 Ash. .50 .60 .20 .59 2.19 3.49 .72 .40 Etc, Mixed cream (1) Country cream (2)... .lersev cream (3) No. 1 (4) 59 25 49.00 36.40 74 46 64 80 56.50 fil.67 6!.28 No. 2 No. 3 7.61 844 No. 4 2.62 1 1.56 4.22 1 2.08 Cream (5) .56 (1) Prof, :M:ueiei ai quoted, Trans. Vt. Dairymen's Ass'n, 1872. p. 150. (2 and 3) Dr. Percy-Trans. Med. Soc. State of N. Y.. 1860. p. 47. (4) D'. Voelcker-Journal U. A. S., XXIV. p. 298. (5) Dr. Haiinenburg quoted— Ag. of O. 1858, p. 282. And he says, " We find from these analyses that some creams may yield three times as much butter as other creams. In other words, that milk yielding 10 per cent, of cream may furnish more hutter than another milk in- dicating 30 per cent, of cream," and he concludes further, "that there is not necessarily any connection between the cream percentages and the butter yield." The modest cow with a small percentage, mai/ make more butter than the vaunted cow which is supposed to average 25 to 30 per cent, of cream." European authorities all say that cream is slightly den.'^er than pure water, and that consequently it sinks in distilled water. Yoelcker found the specific gravity of cream at a temperature of 62 degrees Fahr. to range from 1,0194 to 1,0129, the milk having been skimmed after standing fifteen to forty-eight hours, respectively.. Dr. Stitrtevaxt, in a recent paper before the American Dairymen's Association, says, in his own experiment using cream from the top of a cream jar, he had obtained a specific gravity of 983 by weight, and, on the other hand, lie has found cream that wouhl sink in water. He gives also different authoi'ities, in regard to the specific gravity BUTTER BOOK. 49 of cream, thus Lethe rby finds it to be 1024,4 ; Pr. Han- NEBEiia of Stockholm, 1004,9, and 1005,05. These differ- ences may, perhaps, be explained, in part, at least, from the foct that the first portions of milk which rise, are al- ways thin but rich in fat. During milking and the sub- sequent agitation to which milk is exposed, a portion of the milk globules get broken, in consequence of which their fatty contents, liberated from the denser caseine- shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and then occupy less room than the unbroken milk globules, which on account of their greater specific gravity, are more slug- gish in rising. Hence it must be observed that care must be taken that the cream be properly mingled together, before attempting to get the specific gravity. And when this is done, we shall, I think, generally find that cream is slightly denser than pure water, and this agrees with my own observations. CEEAM OF FIKST DRAWN MILK OF POORER QUALITY THAX LAST DRAWN. Of the milk drawn from any cow at one time, that part which comes oft' first is always thinner, and of a much worse quality for making butter, than that obtained during the latter half of the milking. From an analysis of specimens of milk, from eight dif- ferent cows, as given in the London Lancet, the percent- age of cream in the first drawn and second drawn milk, was as follows : -FIEIST-DRAWX MILk- Specific Cows, gntvity. Cream. 10-.'7 10?6 1027 1029 1030 1030 1029 1031 9 13 8 7 11 8 61« -SECOND-DRAWN 5IILK — , Specific gravity. Cream. 1023 25 1023 22 1025 10 1024 15 1024 tjO 10>2 25 1026 7K 1030 5 141K Thus, Avldle the cream of the whole eight samples of the first drawn milk, amounted to 61^, that of the last drawn amounted to 14H, or more than double the quantity of cream. The specific gravity of the last drawn milk, it will be observed, is also lower than of that first drawn. o 50 WILLARDS PHACTIOAL "When milk is set aijicle for cream, the portion of creaoL which first rises to the surface is richer in quality, and equal in quantity to that which rises in a seconcl equal space of time, and the cream which rises in a second in- terval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality, that which rises in a third equal space of time. That of the third is greater than that of the fourth, and so of the rest; the cream that rises continuing progressively to de- crease in quantity and quality so long as any rises to the surface. The cream then rises in layers, each of which must make a different quality of butter. Tliick milk throws up a much smaller proportion of the cream which it actually contains, than milk that is thinner, but the cream is of richer quality. Hence, if water be added to the thick milk it is found in practice to afford a consider- ably greater quantity of cream, and consequently more butter than it would have done if allowed to remain pure, but its quality at the same time is deteriorated. Some of the fat globules of milk are so minute, that they do not rise to the surface in cream, the amount of fat remaining being greater or less, according to the character of the milk. VoELCKER analyzed two samples of skimmed milk, and found the butter left in it to be about f of i per cent, is the composition: COMPOSITIOX OP SKIMMED MILK, The following Water No. 1 89.65 .79 3.01 5.72 .as 100 00 .48 No. 2. 89 40 76 2.94 Mil k Sugii r 6.05 Mineral Matter (asli) ♦Containing Nitrosen .85 100.00 .47 The following table presents a view of the composition of milk, cream, butter and American cheese. Milk. Cream. Butter. Ara.Cheese. Fat 4.00 3.25 4 ni) a5.oi 2.20 .s a*; 85.00 ..51 .70 .12 13.67 34.41 (^aseine 25.87 SuRur 5.01 Ash Water .75 .50 87.50 59.25 5.93 30.81 100 00 100.00 loo.no 102.00 MDKE BUTTER OBTAINED BY MIXING MILK OF DIFFKRFNT COW^S. The question has been started recently in regard to the BUTTER BOOK. 5j variation in the size of the fat globules in the milk of cows of different breeds, and it has been asserted that by mingling a large globuled milk with a small globuled milk a loss would result in butter making. The Practi- cal Farmer, (Philadelj^hia), makes record of an experi- ment touching the question. It says the experimental farm, (Penn.) made an experiment to test the gain or loss from keeping the milk of each cow separate, or mixing, as is usually done. The experiment began January 13, and continued one week. The milk of each cow was ac- curately weighed, and one-half of it put in a common milk pan and skimmed in thirty-six hours. The other half thoroughly mixed with half the milk from the other cows, and all treated alike as near as possible. The tem- perature of the milk room was kept at 58 degrees as near as possible. No souring used in the milk. The cows Avere fed each morning with 10 pounds of corn fodder, 8 pounds of sugar beets, and i^ quarts of corn meal and wheat bran, equal parts. At noon, Avith one-third sheaf of corn fodder ; in the evening, with the same quantity of meal to each, 3 pounds of cut hay and 7 pounds of uncut hay, all fed dry. The temperature of the atmosphere was noted night and morning. Result of experiment as follows : i% ^ :^ i ^xJ a . o a . 2^ Whole N of milh each CO i! pq |35 lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Julia gave in seven days 227 1 8 12 4 1 8 2 27 9 Beauty " 203 2 fi 3 2 10 5 4 Flora " •' 164 U 8 9 S 8 7 23 5 Bloss " '* 153 15 7 3 3 8 7 21 9 Mixed Milk 374 31 1 16 6 22 8 Whole yield of butter from the four cows, when the milk was kept lbs. oz. separate 13 n Whole yield from mixed milk .'.."'. i6 6 Loss by keeping separate 2 11 The cows came in fresh as follows : Julia Decemberll, 1874. Benuty " 16. •' Flora '• 15, •» Bloss November 18. •' Tlie cream from the separated lots took more churning to break and gather. The superintendent added the following comments: 52 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL Although the experiment did not have much practical bearing — for no dairyman would want to keep his milk separated in this way — yet it is a satisfaction to feel the most convenient way in this case is also the best. I am sorry we cannot give any satisfactory explanation for the above results. We guess, however, that there are two reasons why the mixture of poor and rich milk contains more caseine, is heavier, and offers more resistance to the passage of the butter globules to the surface. The globules in the poor milk are also smaller, and from this cause are thrown up with more difficulty. The addition of richer milk helps in both these respects. Again, after the " breaking " of the butter, as it is called, the smaller globules in the poor milk " gather " with difficulty ; but in the " mixed " milk, the larger globules aid in forming proper milk for the " gathering " process. At any rate the evident difficulty in gathering the butter from poor milk, indicates this as a plausible solution. If these conclusions are correct, there would be an ad- vantage in adding the milk of the Jersey cow to that from the common cow or other breeds, because the milk globules of the Jersey are considerably larger than those in the milk of other breeds. UNIFORMITY IN THE COMPOSITION OF MILK. • Prof. S. W. Johnson of Yale College, in referring to the researches of Prof. Alexander Muller and others, in Sweden, says : Analyses were made of the mixed milk of fifteen cows (five Ayrshire, five Pembrokeshire, and five Swedish cows), which were highly fed and milked at 6^ — 7-^ A. M., and 4^ — 6^ o'clock, P. M. These extending throughout a whole year, gave the following average result : — One hundred parts of milk gave Dry matter 12.81 Water 87.19 "lOO.OO The above dry matter consisted of Fiit(butter) 4.05 Albuminoids (caseine, etc.) 3.32 Sugar of milk 4.71 Various Salts , 0.73 12.81 BUTTER BOOK. 53 The fluctuations during the entire period were remark- ably small. The lowest percentage of water observed was 85.92, and the highest 88.35. In but four instances did the water fall below 86.6, and in but four did it rise above 88. The composition of the milk of uniformly well-fed cows is therefore very uniform, and scarcely va- ries throughout the year whatever may be the change in temperature, weather, &g. Morning and evening milk exhibit a constant, though slight difference in composition, which consists simply in containing half of one per cent, more fat at night than in the morning. In the morning milk this fat is replaced by almost precisely the same quantity of water. THE LESS SPACE OF TIME INTERVENING BETWEEN MILK- ING THE MORE FAT. Further investigation showed that the proportion of fat is less in proportion as the time is longer between the milkings. Thus, milk taken after an interval of 10 hours, contained 4.36 percent, of fat. 11 " " ;4.31 " 12 " •' 3.97 " 13 • " 3.97 " 14 '• •' 3.51 " Taking into account the greater quantity of milk ob- tained in the morning, the actual amount of fat yielded by the cow is rather more at morning than at night. PERCENTAGR OF CREAM AND BUTTER IN MILK. In making butter, 100 parts of milk yield, on the aver- age, in round numbers, the following proportions of cream, butter, etc., provided the cream rises in a cool apartment, so that no sensible evaporation of water takes place : Cream 10 Skimmed mUk 90 100 milk. The ten parts of cream consist of Buttermilk 6.0 Butter 3.9) Calculated Water removed from butter by salting 0.1) witliout salt. 10.0 cream. 54 WILLARDS PRACTICAL The average percentage composition of these products is given in the subjoined table : New milk. Skimmed milk. Cream. Butter- milk. Buttertl Brine* Fat (butter) Albuminoids* 4.00 !S 0.75 87.50 0.55 3.37 463 0.78 90.64 35.00 2.20 3.05 0.50 59.25 1.67 3.^ 4.61 0.77 89.62 85.00 0.51 0.70 0.12 13.67 0.00 39 Milk sugar Various salts Water 3.81 0.86 ^.91 Tot?l 100.00 100.00 100.0 100.00 100.00 100.00 * Caseine and albumen. + Unsalted. * Brine that separates on working after salting, salt not included. Butter is produced by the coalescence of the small par- ticles of oil which are suspended in milk, and partially separated in the cream. Chemically considered, it is a mixture of oleine and palmitin, with a trace of phos- phate and other salts, and certain odoriferous fats or oils, from which it derives its flavor, THEORY OF SOURING. He remarks further, that stirring of the cream — as for instance, in the cream pot — does not promote souring but rather hinders it, by increasing access of air. The cir- cumstances that influence the rapidity of souring are chiefly temperature and access of air. When milk sours it is because of the formation of lactic acid from the milk sugar. This chemical change is the result of the growth of a microscopic vegetable organism which, according to Hallier's last investigations, is of the same origin as common 3^east. Like common yeast, this plant requires oxygen for its development. This it gathers from the air, if the latter have access ; but in comparative absence of air — as w^hen growing in milk — it decomposes, the lat- ter (its sugar) and the lactic acid is a chief result of this metamorphosis. If milk which, by exposure to the air, has had the croscopic germs of the ferment plant sown in it be then excluded from the air as much as possible, the fer- ment in its growth is necessitated to decompose the milk sugar, and hence the milk rapidly sours. On the other hand, exposure to the air supplies the ferment partially with free oxygen and the milk remains sweet for a longer period. Such is the theory of the change. And this is in accordance with the experience of dairymen, and ex- plains why milk is often found loppered at the bottom of BUTTER BCOE. 55 a pan, while at the top there is no appearance of coagu- lation. RUTTER. We may now pass on to the consideration of butter and note some of the characteristic difterences which this substance has in its relation with other animal fats. If we consider how extensively butter is consumed ; how highly it is relished by all classes in the civilized world ; how nearly it meets the taste of mankind, even from childliood onward to old age — we might naturally infer that there is something in the constitution of butter which particularly adapts it as an important element of our food ; that it is, so to speak, more highly organized, more delicately flavored, and thus in better form to meet the requirements of digestion and assimilation than any other fat which has been separated from the relative con- dition it originally occuj^ied in the animal economy. By churning, as is well known, the caseine shells are broken and the contents of the milk globules are made into butter. Butter, according to Voelcker, consist mainly of a mixture of several fats, amongst Avhich pal- mit in, asolid,crystillizable substance is the most important. Palmitin, with a little stearine, constitutes about 68 per cent, of pure butter. Mixed with these solid fats are about 30 per cent, of oleine (a liquid, fatty matter) and aboiit two per cent, of odoriferous oils. The peculiar flavor and odor of butter are owing to the presence of this small proportion of these peculiar oils, namely — buty- rine, caproine and capryline. In butter as it comes to the table we find, besides these fatty matters, about 16 to 18 per cent, of water, one to two per cent, of salt and small, variable quantities of caseine shells. The more perfectly butter is washed and freed of its buttermilk, the better' the butter keeps ; for caseine, on exposure to air in a moist stite (especially in warm weather) becomes rapidly changed into a ferment, which, acting on the volatile, fatty matters of butter, re- solves them into glycerine and butyric acid, caproic acid and caprylic acid. The occurrence of these volatile, uncombined, fatty acids in rancid butter, not only spoils the flavor, but ren- ders it more or less unwholesome. ^Q WILLARD'S PRACTICAL COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. Cows' butter, according to Bromeis, has the following composition : Margarate of glycerine [Margarine] 68 Hutyroleate of glycerine I Oleine] dO ButyratefButyriiie], Caproate. [Capruine] and Caprate of glyce- rine. [Caprine] 2 Butter 100 The same authority gives the following as the formula for the fatty acids of butter : COMPOSITION OF THE FATTY ACIDS OF BUTTER. Margaricacid C34, H3.3. 03. Butyrolic acid 034, H30, 04. Butyric acid C8. H6, 03, Caproicacid 012, H 9. oa. Capric acid 018, H14. 03. The marrow of large bones, says Berzelius, is abso- lutely of the same nature as the other fat of the same animal. The difference of flavor which exists between the marrow of boiled bones and ordinary melted fat de- pends on foreign matters derived from the liquids in the cellular tissue by which the fat is surrounded, and espe- cially by the extractiform substance, which is insoluble in alcohol. COMPOSITION OF LIQUID FAT UST MARROW. The proportion of liquid fats contained in marrow, ac- cording to Bracoxnot, is as follows : SOMB Fat. Liquid Fat. (Stearine.) (oleine.) Beef-marrow 76 24 Mutton-marrow 26 74 Mutton fat, as is w^ell known, is softer than fat from beef, and the larger proportion cf oleine in its composi- tion readily explains the reason. By subjecting animal fats to pressure, Braconxot procured the following proportions of stearine and ole- ine from the fats named below : In 100 parts. Solid Fat. Liquid Fat. (Ste:irine,) (Oleixe) Hogs' lard 38 ffl Goosefat 3i fe Duckfat 28 72 Turkeyfat 20 74 Hogs' lard contains, besides stearine and oleine, some margarine. Mutton suet consists of stearine, margarine, oleine, hircine and hircic acids. Like butter, the pecu- liar flavor of their fats is due to the volatile oils. Butter BUTTER BOOK. 5^ varies in its proportion of margarine and oleine according to the nature of the food and the period of the year. It will be noticed that stearine is a leading constituent in the animal fats which have been named. This ingre- dient is in very small proportion in butter, the palmitine, or, according to some authors, margarine, taking its place. Thus, in beefs marrow we have 76 per cent, of stearine, and in butter 68 per cent, of palmitine, with a little stear- ine. The oleine in butter is 30 per cent.; in beef fat, 24 per cent. The same remarkable difference will be noticed in the other fats when compared with butter. In the so-called " oleomargarine," or beef suet butter, the stearine is expelled under great pressure, while, in order to get flavor from the volatile oils, the " oleomar- garine " is mingled with milk or buttermilk and churned in the ordinary way. I have referred to the proportion of water and other substances not fat found in ordinary butter and which are not expelled in the process of washing and working out the buttermilk. These ingredients, the water, the cheese or caseine, and the sugar of milk, altogether amount to from 10 to 16 per cent, in ordinary butter. It is very difficult to get rid of all the cheesy matter, as it is now in an insoluble state ; but it may be removed to a very great extent by washing the butter in repeated potions of water or in saturated brine, thus decanting off the parti- cles of caseine. In the best kinds of butter the cheesy matter rarely amounts to more than one per cent. In the inferior varieties it not unfrequently averages from six to seven per cent. EXPLANATION" OF RAXCIDITY IN BUTTEK. Now, as a general rule, we know that the more caseine that is left in butter the more apt it is to become rancid. " To render this intelligible," says a writer in Morton's Cyclopedia, " attention must be given to the normal in- gredients of pure butter. Margarine and oleine consists of margaric and oleic acids united to an organic base called oxide of lipyle. Margaric acid consists of 34 equivalents of carbon; 33 equivalents of hydrogen, and 3 equivalents of oxygen, while oleic acid is constituted of 36 equivalents of carbon ; 33 equivalents of hydrogen, and 3 equivalents of oxygen." 58 WILLARDS PRACTICAL It is known that the latter acid absorbs oxygen from the air with great avidity, producing peculiar compounds, among which, however, margaricacid has not been recog- nized ; still the abstraction of two equivalents of carbor, in the form of carbonic acid, would be sufficient for its conversion, and this formation is so simple and common an occurrence in the organism of animals that oleic acid raay be transferred into margaric acid during the forma- tion of milk, thus producing more of the solid fat at one time than at another, and causing the variations in the firmness of the latter made from it. It is, however, quite gratuitous to suppose, Avith some authors, that this trans- formation takes place during the process of churning. When oleic acid absorbs oxygen from the air it acquires a very rancid smell, which is one of the causes of rancidity in butter. But the main cause is the production of butyric, capric, caproic and caprylic acids. These acids are prob- ably not present in any quantity in perfectly fresh butter, out they are quickly formed by the cheese left in it acting on the sugar of milk. Butyric acid has an odor of human excrement ; caproi« acid of sweat; capric acid has a rank smell, resembling a goat, while caprylic acid is the only one which is not ob- noxious to the senses. These acids are volatile and soluble in water, and as rancidity of butter depends in a great degree upon their being present in appreciable quantity, a knowledge of this fact may be employed in depriving butter of its rancidity. HOTV RAXCID BUTTER MAT BE PURIFIED. For this purpose it should be melted in twice its weight of boiling water and well shaken with it. By this means the acids are dissolved and partly volatilized, the rancidity being thus removed. At all times butter may be purified by repeated melting, with fresh portions of water, the pure oil rising to the surface, leaving the impurities in the water. The butter loses its consistence by this operation, but that may be restored to it, at least to a great extent, by pouring it, when melted, into a large quantity of ice- cold water. A process for purifying rancid butter was invented a few years ago, which consisted in cutting th^e butter into small lumps and spreading them out in a large vat. Then BUTTER BOOK. 59 hot water is thrown down in a shower from a considerable distance upon the mass. The melted butter rises to the surface and the impurities are drawn oif Avith the water. Then the butter is subjected to a shower of cold water, and in this way, by repeated washings, according to the rancidity of the butter, it is freed from the objectionable taste a!id odor, and finally it is again worked and salted. As the formation of the badly-smelling volatile acids depends upon the presence of caseine, this mode of purifi- cation removes the injurious ingredient. It must be remarked, however, that the butter becomes less pleasant to the taste, the water having taken up the small quantity of foreign substances which give to fresh butter its fra- grance and agreeable taste. Some of the compounds of caprylic acid have a fragrant odor like that of the pine- apple, but the smell of capryline itself is little known. PROF. Caldwell's views on- the composition of butter. Prof Caldavell, in an address at Utica, N. Y., says : Cow butter, in the pure state, is a yellowish, slightly acid lat, which melts at about 70 degrees Fahr. It is com- posed, for the main part, of the three glycerides — oleine, palmatine and stearine — but further than that its compo- sition is more complicated than that of any other animal fat ; and in fact the exact composition of the small residue that remains after taking out the three glycerides named seems to be hardly settled. According to most authori- ties it is a mixture of butyriiie, caproine and caprine, and further, Chevreul, who is one of the best authorities on the subject of the composition of fats, maintains that there is in the butter a peculiar combination between a part of the butyi-ine and the stearine, forming what he calls butyroleine. SUPPOSED COMPOSITION OF MARGARINE. On the other hand Haitz, who has worked up the com- position of the fats almost as extensively as Chevreul, and who was the first to maintain that the so-called mar- garine is only a mixture of stearine and palmitine, has found in butter still two other substances — butyrine and myrstrine. VACciNic acid. Another chemist has found in certain instances, in the QQ WILLARD'S PRACTICAL place of butyric and caproic acids, the acids of butyrine and caproine, another acid which he called vaccinic acid. CAUSE OF KANCIDITY. The rancidity of butter is due, as in the case of the rancidity of other fats, to the decomposition of the gly- cerides, setting the acid of the glyceride free ; in butter it is the butyrine and perhaps the odoriferons glycerides which suffer this change most readily. THE GLYCERIDES. Again he says : — " From what I have given as the re- sults of the examination of butter by various chemists, it Avould appear that it is distinguished from all the other animal fats by the great number of glycerides of which it is composed. The complete separation of these glycer- ides from one another is about impossible, so that we can form at the most only an approximate estimate of their relative proportions in the various fats. VoELCKER estimates that palmatine, together with a little stearine, makes up 68 per cent, of the fats of butter, 30 per cent, is oleine and two per cent, is composed of the odoriferous fats, butyrine and its companions. MORE OLEIXE IX SUMMER BUTTER. As every one knows, the proportion of liquid and solid fat varies, according to the season. Boussingault found that summer butter contained about 60 per cent, of oleine, while winter butter contained only about 35 per cent. The oils and fats are composed essentially and mainly of the three glycerides — oleine, palmatine and stearine; or of four — if there is such a glyceridc as margarine — and when all these are taken out there is a small residue remaining, concerning the composition of w^hich we are yet to some extent uncertain and to which the character- istic flavor and odor of each fat is due. The oils and fats contain when first extracted, several impurities, such as albuminous matters, coloring matters, mucus, &c. ARTIFICIAL BUTTER. I have now presented the more recent views of scien- tists in regard to the fat found in milk, as compared with other animal fats, and a brief allusion maybe made to the question of converting these latter into a form which may resemble butter so "^s to be substituted for it. BUTTER BOOK. «, We have our oleomargarine factories, in which oleo- margarine, or artificial butter, is manufactured in lai-o-e quantities : but as the product is devoid of that peculiar aroma and delicate flavor which belongs to genuine but- ter, I doubt whether it ever can be made a complete and successful substitute. In other words, genuine dairy but- ter of fine quality must always be in demand and find a ready sale. Prof. Caldwell says : " To any one who understands the true nature of the fats, the prejudice against oleomargarine butter, or a cheese containing fat fi-om the caul of an ox, instead of the bag of the cow, because it is supposed not to be so clean and wholesome, appears somewhat nonsensical." Oleo-margarine however, should go into the market under its own name, and if it is to obtain favor, it should be on its own merits and not under the name of genuine butter. • ^ FARM DAIRIES. The great bulk of poor butter comes from the farm dairies. The causes are various ; the most important of which are lack of cleanliness, the want of proper dairy utensils, the need of a good dairy room, or place for setting the milk, neglect in manipulating the cream at the right time, unskilful working, packing and storing the butter, and finally lack of knowledge in a part or the whole of the process required for making a prime article. Farm dairies have this advantage over the cream- eries, there is no hauling of the milk required and its condition can be watched^ and kept under the immediate control of the manufacturer from the time it is drawn from the cow until the butter is obtained. With this advantage we might naturally expect, with all needful appliances, and skill in manufacturing, the best butter could be made at the farm dairies. And, such indeed, is 62 WILLARD S PRACTICAL often the fact, and when poor butter is the rule we must look for the cause in some defect connected with the dairy and its management. We have alluded to a number of the leading requisites for the production of good milk, the importance of clean- liness in the stable and in the drawing of the milk from the udder, and a word may now be added in regard to dairying utensils. PAILS. Wooden pails are largely in use, and they are a nuisance in a well regulated dairy on account of the dif- ficulty of keeping them sweet and clean. Milk pails should always be of tin, and in cleansing dairy utensils after thorough Avashing, hoilirig hot water should be used or wh'at is better, if it can be had, a jet of hot steam thrown into all the parts which have come in contact with milk, for in this way the Pig. a germs of ferment are destroyed. Fig. 6 illustrates a pail of the Iron Clad Company of New York City. These pails are made of iron and tinned after they are put together. Very heavy mate- rial is used in them and they are substantial and strong. THE CREAM STRAINER. The cream strainer is often found useful in farm dairies. When milk is set in shallow pans in the old way, portions of the cream get thick and are mingled with hard dry particles, or " cream skins " and the butter in consequence is liable to contain " white ca])s" or be flecked. The cream strainer in such cases is of advantage, as it reduces the cream to a uniform consistency in all its parts, breaking down the skins and preparing the cream, so that in Fig. 7. churning the butter will come evenly. In Fig. 7 is an illustration of Baker's Excelsior Cream Strainer, the best we have seen for the purpose. BUTTER BOOK. 63 CHUKNS. There is no implement of the dairy which has occupied the attention of inventors so much as the churn. The number of patents issued on this article may be well ex- pressed under the name of legion, and yet it is the almost universal expression among the but- ter makers that nothing has been in- vented that will make any better but- ter than the old-fashioned dash churn. The objection to the dash churn is that it requires a considerable amount of power to keep it in motion, and various plans have been devised to lessen the labor of its operation wiien worked by hand. In Fig. 8 is an illustration of a churn used for small quantities of cream, a gearing being attached by which th(i labor of working by hand is lessened. In using the dash churn the dasher should fill about three-fourths of the section of the churn, as the cream m| will be subjected to a yielding pres- sure at each stroke, the butter glob- ules being thus divested of the mem- brane that surrounds them,by pressure rather than by wear- ing or friction. Among the churns that have acquired noto- riety for their excellence and which may be recoinmended in farm dairies not only on account of their making good butter, but for the ease with wliich they may be worked and kept clean, the most prominent perhaps* is the Blan- CEiARD Chur^, manufactured bv P. Bj.anchard's Soxs, Concord, N. H. It has been long before the public and IS universally esteemed. It is arrancred so as to Avork the butter free from buttermilk without change of dasher, I he manufacturers furnish a pullv for power, which can be applied to any sized churn, *in the same place and manner as tb' crank. Whipple's Rectaxgulap. Churn, manufactured by CoRxisH & Curtis, Fort Atkinson, Wis., of which we give an illustration in Fig. 9, is of recent invention' and 64 WILLARDS PRACTICAL well adapted to farm dairies. It is simply a cubical box, and hangs suspended on gudgeons from the two diagonal corners of the cube. As the box is revolved the cream constantly falls from corner to corner, thus giving a more diversified agitation than when in the box churn as ordi- narily arranged. It is more easily operated than the ordinary re- volving box churn, and the butter forms in coarse grains, its opera- tions in this respect being superior for a first-class product. CHURX POWERS. In small dairies a dog or sheep power is ft often found very ser- I viceable for doing the churning. There are a number of different de- vices for the purpose, but one of the best is a machine constructed on the railway principle. It is very much liked by many, and is a cheap and efficient power. Where large quantities of cream are required to be churned, horse power will be employed and the most economical perhaps is the sweep, through the railway principle is often used. BUTTER AVORKERS. Quite a number of butter workers have been intrO' duced from time to time, some of them useful and other? liable to injure the ijrain of the butter from their pecu- liar construction. The Eureka Butter Worker in- vented a few years since by J. P. Corbin of Whitney's Point, N. Y., will be found, on many accounts, conven- ient for farm dairies. The illustration, Fig. 10, shows its construction. Rubber mops for cleansing floors of dairy rooms, to- gether with soap, brushes, and " sal-soda," for keeping dairy utensils sweet und clean will be found exceedingly Fig. 9. BUTTER BOOK. useful and I might say almost indispensable for good dairy management. FIG. 10. FARM DAIRY MILK-HOUSE. Immense quantities of poor butter result from the milk being set in improper places. The kitchen pantry, the living room and the cellar used to store vegetables and other family supplies, will impart peculiar taints to the milk and cream, in such a degree as to be destructive to flavor, even though the butter, in other respects be skil- fully handled. Dairy rooms so situated as to catch the odor from the pig-sty, the cess-pool, or other decomposing filth, cannot be used for making good butter. There should be a freedom from hlth and impurities of every description about the milk-house, and the milk should be delivered by the milkers in an ante-room or some point outside the milk room, and from thence conveyed to the place where it is to be set for cream, and in this way the fumes and the litter from the stable may be kept from the milk room. When milkers are allowed to come di- rectly from the stable to the milk room it will be impos- sible to keep the latter place sweet and clean for the times being. There are hundreds of butter makers, we are aware, to whom the importance of this single point cannot be too strongly urged, since they often con- 66 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL sider many little things of tliis kind, in regard to dairy management too insigniiicant to merit attention. But in batter making the observance of little things is often the great secret of success. ^RATIOX. Milk is undoubtedly, improved by aeration, the animal odors in this way passing off as the warm milk is exposed to the air. But it should be observed that when aeration is applied, the surrounding atmosphere should be sweet, and free from offensive odors. Milk aerated in an atmos- phere loaded with the emanations of putrid matter — vegetable or animal — would be likely to absorb odors, and hence caution should be taken that the jeration be not made in the stable or other places where the air is tainted with disagreeable odors. There had been a num- ber of devices for aerating milk, but perhaps the simplest and most easily applied, is Bussey's "Deodorising Straixer and Cooler." It is simply a strainer pail, raised about two feet above the can and arranged so that the milk falls in a spray into the can. FORCING AIR INTO THE MILK. Jones & Faulkner of Utiea, N. Y., have brought out a handy device for terating milk by forcing air into it. We give an illustra- tion showing the manner in which this is effected in Fig. 11. Either of the a3ra- tors here described, will be found ex- ceedingly useful at farm dairies and they are of very great ad- vantage in preparing milk at the farm in order that it may be delivered sound and FTG. n. in good condition at the factory BUTTER BOOK. 67 CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE IN DAIRY ROOMS. But, however well we may have guarded all the con- ditions for getting milk in good order to the dairy room, there must be some means of controlling its temperature or the highest success cannot be obtained in butter making. Among American butter makers the best temperature for holding the milk while the cream is rising is found to be from t56 degrees to 60 degrees, Fahr. The range of temperature should go no higher than 65 degrees. In a climate so variable as ours, it is evident some attention must be given to the construction of the milk room or the manner of setting the milk, in order to maintain a uniform temperature, as above named ; otherwise, we shall be liable to have a constant change going on in the milk, the temperature rising or falling, often many degrees from day to day. The old method of setting milk in pans and in an ordinary room, has always been found objectionable during hot weather and to be the source of serious trouble and loss, simply on account of the difficulty of maintaining a suitable temperature. The employment of the house-cellar was perhaps the earliest improvement on the old plan of setting milk. THE SPRING HOUSE. The first introduction of the water system for control- ing the temperature of milk, dates a long away back in the spring house. These I have found existing in the older States, many of tliem built by the early settlers of the country, who often located their dwellings near a good, flowing spring, and not unfrequently erecting a sub- stantial and elaborate stone or brick structure over the spring. In some of the older settled parts of Virginia the spring house is a distinguished feature. It is a well- built structure, (usually of stone,) immediately over or in close proximity to, a large spring of living water. The spring liouses are for the most part well arranged, and some of them quite elaborate. The earth is excavated at the bottom and a wall built up on the inside, so as to form a vat between it and the outer wall or side of the building. Not unfrequently these vats are on two sides of the structure, or there may be a partition wall, so as to form two or three vats for the reception of water, and the arrangement is such that by closing the outlet in part, QQ WILLARD'S PRACTICAL the water may be raised in tlie vats a foot or more, as desired. The floor of tlie spring house is usually of stone flagging, either cemented or laid in mortar so as to be dry and easily kept clean. Sometimes the entrance is on a level with the ground, and sometimes there is a flight of steps, according to the nature of the location. The spring house is generally surrounded with trees which protect the structure from the sun's rays, thus serv- ing to maintain a tolerably uniform and much lower tem- perature in the milk room during hot weather than that of the surrounding atmosphere. The milk is set in pans holding from eight to twelve quarts, the pans usually being deeper and not so broad as the old-fashioned pans, and they are provided with a bail so as to be more conven- iently handled in lowering the milk to the water pool or raising it therefrom. With a good, cool spring, and a properly constructed spring house, fine butter can be pro- duced. PENNSYLVANIA SPKING HOUSE AND PHILADELPHIA BUTTER. The celebrated Philadelphia butter comes mainly from Chester, Lancaster and Delaware Counties, Pennsylvania. The milk is set on the same principle as that above des- scribed, but the dairy structures are neater and more carefully built. The spring-house is about 18 feet by 24 feet, built of stone, with its foundation set deeply in the hill-side, the floor being about four feet below the level of the ground at the down hill-side. The floor is of oak, laid on sand or gravel ; this is flowed with spring water to the depth of three inches, and at this hight the flowing water passes out into a tank at the lower side of the spring-house. The milk, when drawn from the cow, is strained into deep pans which are set in the water upon the oaken floor. Raised platforms or walks are provided in the room for con- venience in handling the milk. The walls of the spring- house are about ten feet high, and at the top on each side are windows covered with wire-cloth for ventilation. The depth of the milk in the pans is about three inches, and the flowing water which surrounds the pans maintains a temperature of about 58 degrees Fahrenheit. The milk is skimmed after standing 24 hours, and the BUTTER BOOK. gg cream is put into deep vessels having a capacity of about 12 gallons. It is kept at a temperature of 58 degrees to 59 degrees, until it acquires a slightly acid taste, when it goes to the churn. The churn is a barrel revolving on a journal in each head, and driven by horse-power. The churning occupies about an hour, and after the butter- milk is drawn off cold water is added and a few turns given the churn, and the water then drawn off. This is repeated until the water as it is drawn off is nearly free from milkiness. The butter is worked with butter-work- ers, a dampened cloth meanwhile being pressed upon it to absorb the moisture and free it of buttermilk. The cloth is frequently dipped in cold water and wrung dry during the process of " wiping the butter." It is next salted at the rate of an ounce of salt to three pounds of butter, thoroughly and evenly incorporated by means of the butter- worker. It is then removed to a table, where it is weighed out and put into pound prints. After this it goes into large, tin trays and is set in the water to harden, remaining until next morning, when it is wrapped in damp cloths and placed upon shelves, one above another, in the tin-lined cedar tubs, with ice in the com- partments at the ends, and then goes immediately to market. Matting is drawn over the tub, and it is sur- rounded again by oilcloth so as to keep out the hot air and dust, and the butter arrives in prime condition, com- manding from seventy-five cents to one dollar per pound. Mr. Isaac A. Calvert, Avho markets his butter at these high prices at Philadelphia, attributes his success to three points : — 1. The food of his cows ; 2. Temperature ; 3. Neatness and dainty refinement at every step, from the moment the milk flows from the udder till the dollar in currency is paid for the pound of butter. He says : — " I have found that I make my best butter when I feed on white clover and early-mown meadow hay* I cut fine, moisten, and mix in both corn meal and wheaten shorts. Next to meal I regard shorts, and prefer to mix them together. I feed often, and not much at a time. I do not use roots, unless it be carrots. My pastures and meadows are quite free from weeds. I cannot make this grade of butter from foid pastures or low-grade hay. " Temperature. — -This I regard as a matter of prime importance in making butter that commands a high price. 4 IJQ WILLARD S PRACTICAL Summer and winter I do not permit my milk-room to vary much from 58 degrees. In summer I secure the requisite coolness by spring-Avater of the temperature of 55 degrees Fahrenheit, flowing over stone or gravel floor in the milk- house. This can be accomplished without water in a shaded cellar ten feet deep. As good butter can be made without Avater as with, but the milk and cream must be kept at all times a little below 60 degrees. " We skim very clean, stir the cream-pot whenever a skimming is poured in, and churn but once a week, sum- mer and winter. Just before the butter gathers we throw into the churn a bucket of ice-cold water. This hardens the butter in small particles and makes a finer grain. In the hot months this practice is unvarying. " In working we get out all the buttermilk, but do not apply the hand. A better way is to absorb the drops with a linen cloth wrung from cold water. The first Avorking takes out all the milk ; at the second we handle delicately, with fingers as cool as may be. The salt is less than an ounce to a pound, but not generally much less. The balls each weigh one pound, and receive a uni- form stamp. On packing for market, each ball is wrapped in a linen cloth, w4th the name and stall of the marketman written upon it. Our tubs are made of cedar-plank l|^to 2 inches thick and lined with tin. On the inner face are little projections, on which the shelves rest. The balls are not bruised or pressed at all, and pass into the hands of the consumer as firm, as perfect in outline, and as spotless as when tliey left the spring-house. "We find uniformity to be a prime virtue in the but- ter-maker. We produce the same article whether the cows stand knee-deep in white clover-blooms or sun them- selves on the lee side of the barn in February. " There is a small ice-chamber at the end of the oblong butter tub (see Fig. 13) which we use in summer, so that in dog-days the heat within the tub does not get higher than 60 degrees Fahrenheit. I need not add that we ob- serve a scrupulous, a religious neatness in every act and in every utensil of the dairy. Milk which upon leaving the udder passes through an atmosphere loaded with stable fumes will never make butter for which we can get a dollar per j^ound. No milk sours upon the floor of the milk-room ; none is permitted to decompose in the BUTTER BOOK. ^J crevices of the milk-pans ; the churn is scoured and scalded till no smell can be detected but the smell of white cedar. " Our customers take the napkins with the prints, wash, iron, and return them when they come to the stand on market days. These are generally Wednesdays and Sat- urdays. With these prices we have no difficulty in making a cow pay for herself twice a year ; if she cost $60, we sell 1120 worth of butter from her in twelve months." It may be remarked that the sour milk is employed by the Philanelphia butter-makers as a feed for swine. It is estimated that such milk Avill make 100 lbs. of pork per cow. The cows in the district where the Philadelphia butter is made are well sprinkled with the Jersey or Alderney blood, and about a pound per day from each cow is con- sidered a fair average for the best dairies. PHILADELPHIA BUTTER PAIL. The following cuts will illustrate the butter pail and manner of packing for market : Pig. 13. Fig. 13. Fig. 12 shows the general form of the tub, the top or cover opening in halves. Fig. 13 is a perpendicular sec- tion, showing the ice-chamber and ice at the sides and the shelves of butter one above the other in the center. THE DRY VAULT SYSTEM. That good butter can be made on the " dry vault sys- tem" there can be no doubt. Indeed, I have tested butter made on this system in numerous instances and found it excellent. What we seek in a good method for setting the milk for cream is an arrangement whereby a low, even temperature of milk may be maintained. There must be crood ventilation in order that the animal odor 72 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL or Other odors in milk prejudicial to its flavor, may be free to pass oflT and be wafted away from the milk room. These can be secured in a properly constructed vault ; and although the pool and water vat have in our opinion important advantages over the dry vault, they must not be considered as wholly indispensable to the manufacture of first-class butter. Upon farms therefore, w^here water cannot conveniently be had for pools or for the supply of water vats and large 2^ans, the dry vault may be substi- tuted with reasonable prospect that good butter may result from this plan of setting the milk. And in many parts of the West where running water is scarce, or upon farms that cannot have the proper supply of water near the farm buildings where it is desirable to locate the dairy house, the dry vault may be commended and will be found serviceable for butter manufacture. ITS LOCATION, ETC. The best location for the dry vault is upon a rolling or slightly elevated surface, or where there is sufficient des- cent to insure good drainage. Some soils are gravelly and afford a good, natural drainage, and in such we have seen good, dry vaults erected upon a level surface, a dry ■well being made outside and a drain carried from the vault to the well. The churn-room may be wholly on the surface, as well as the ice-house, which, when convenient, should be in connection with or a part of the establish- ment. The size of the vault when the churn-room is on the surface will depend of course upon the size of the dairy. In my tour through Maryland I saw a number of dry vaults in successful operation, and the following de- scription of one where the cliurn-room is partly below the surface of the ground is given. It was deemed amply suflicient for a small number of cows, say from fifteen to twenty. There was a well of good water near the vault, and pipes were arranged for conducting w^ater into the vault or churn-room, as desired, though no water was employed about the the pans in setting the milk. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VAULT. The milk vault is 11x13 feet and 7 feet high to the top of the arch. The ground is excavated 11 feet, and by roundiniT up the earth 4 feet more the arch is 8 feet un- der o-round. This gives a low temperature, and with the BUTTER BOOK V3 use of an air tube coininuiiicatiiig with the ice liouse, an even temperature of 00 degrees may be maintained. There is a chimney 18 inclies square running from the back end of the arch, and thi^, with an oj^eningat tlie bot- tom leading out tlirougii a drain, gives ventilation, so that the atmosphere is kept sweet and j^ure. The drain also serves for the escape of water. There is a pipe also to let in Avater communicating with the well outside. On the sides of the milk vault there is a raised platform with trough, all of solid masonry, for the purpose of holding the pans of milk which are set for cream. The pans used are about a foot in diameter, and the space in the trough is Avide enough for two pans. The pans hold about six quarts each, and the milk is set six inches deep. The churn-room is several feet higher than the milk-room, a wide stairway leading from one room to the other. It is 9x12 feet, and has windows which are protected Avith Avire gauze to keep out flies and vermin. The Avhole struc- ture is built of stone and every part of the room plastered Avith cement, so as to be impervious to Avater and to ver- min. The subjoined rough draft (Fig. 14)Avill illustrated the ground plan of the structure. The cream is churned in summer at a temperature of about 60 degrees Fahr. MILK VAULT AND CHUHN KOOM. ©@©@ooooi MILK (CELLAR WITH ICE HOUSE ATTACHMENT. Another milk cellar Avell adajjted to farm dairies is that arranged on the plan of ^Ir. William Crozieii of Xorth- port, N. Y. In a report by a connn it- tee from the Ameri- can Institute, the following descrip- tion is given of this structure : The AA^alls are thirty six by eighteen feet, and it is divided into ice house, milk- room and butter @@(g)00000 ©©©QOQO' c ] 8 Fig. U. a.a.a. Pnns in trougb, B. ("liimney. C. Stairwiij- leading from churn room down to milk viinlt. D. Stairway to the churn room, kitchen, as in this plan. Two tubes or conductors go doAvn from the upper part of the 74 WILLARDS PRACTICAL ice house. They are made of boards eight inches wide and an inch tliick, Mith holes bored in them. The holes allow the cold air to enter from the ice, and it pours in a stream from the mouth of the tube into the milk-room The temperature of the air as it comes out at the mouth ot the tubes is about 35 degrees. As the milk- room has thick walls and the whidows are hioh, tliis flood of air at 35 degrees is able to lower the mercury to 62 degrees, and even lower, in July. Sometimes he closes one tube to keep the room from growing too cold. The draft is the strongest in the hottest weather In spring and fall there is little current, and in winter, when the fire in the stove is constantly burninanying engravings are copied from draw- ings furnished by the inventor, and the reference descrip- tions are prepared by him : Fig. 1 represents a ground-floor plan of the " Gulf Stream Refrigerated Dairy Room," with an Ice House contiguous. REFERENCES. A, stairs leading to scullery, D; B, the dairy room; C, the floor of the ice-house, on which the ice rests ; a, that portion of the gulf stream, water bath of which is in the floor of the dairy; J, the portion of the bath which is in a cold air chamber, beneath the ice, and the bounds of it are denoted by the figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 ; the dimen- sion figures denote the superficies cf the bath. A row of cans in the batli is shown by the circles, and one can 82 WILLARDS PRACTICAL FIG l.-GULF STREAM DAIRY ROOM-GROUND FLOOR PLAN. BUTTER BOOK. 82 84 WILLAEDS PRACTICAL marked 5, is set to receive strained miik from the strain- ing can, 6. By using cans eight inclies in diameter and twenty inches in depth, the capacity of the bath is 500 gallons ; c, the super-cooled brancli of the summer supply duct, with a valve at d ; e, the main summer supply duct, with its drip well /", its perpendicular part tained, rather than the thick, leathery masses skimmed from milk set in pans, renders it more evenly churned, and thus secures a better product. It is partly on this account, also, that it is preferred to have the churning occupy from half to threequarters of an hour, since it has been found that when the butter comes too quickly it is more or less injured. In warm weather ice is sometimes broken up and put in tl)e churn to reduce the temperature of the cream; but it is deemed better to churn without ice, if the cream does not rise above 64 deg. F. in the process of churning, as butter made with ice is believed to be nu) e sensitive to heat. It is, however, a less evil to use ice than to have the butter oome from the churn white and soft. In cJiurning^ the dasJters are so arranged as so fjo dowmcard lolthin a quarter of an inch of ■^QQ WILLARDS PRACTICAL the bottom of the cJiirni^ cntd to rise above the cream in their upward stroke. The temperature of the cream Avhile being churned, should be kept below 65 deg. ; for if at the close of the churinng the buttermilk should be at that tem- perature or above it, the flavor and color of the butter will be injured. In cold weather, the temperature of Fig. 22. the cream, when ready for churning, is a little higher than in warm weather,* about 02 deg. being considered the right point. Facloryi^icn i«refer tliat the churning BUTTER BOOK. 101 should occupy on au average about forty-five minutes ; a half-hour being the shortest space of time, and an liour the longest, that sliould be employed in tnis oper- ation. When the butter begins to come, the churn is rinsed down with cold spring water. Tlie butter should come of a firm or solid consistency and of a rich yellow color. OTHER FACTORY CHURNS. Recently the Messrs. Blanchards of Concord, N. H., have introduced a factory churn that has superior merits, and is coming rapidly into use. The illustration, Fig. 22, on page 100, shows its general form. The dasher shaft is of iron, and upon the end which projects outside the churn, is an iron driving puUy, which should make twenty-five or thirty revolutions per minute. The speed may be regulated according to the judgment of the operator. An ingenious arrangement allows the shaft to be withdrawn through the box near the driving pully, leaving the dasher free to be lifted out as in their smaller churns. This gives the greatest possible facility for handling the butter, that the progress of the churning can be seen, without stopping the motion of the daslier, or lifting the cover. In some factories the re- volving barrel churn is used and gives satis- ^ faction. I give an illus- tration of the form usually employed in Fig. 23. The churning is some- times done by horse- power. There are a variety of powers, but that most commonly used at the old factories in Orange County is simply a large, circular platform or wooden wheel, built about an u])right shaft, the end of which turns in a socket. Tlie wheel sets upon an incline, so that the liorse, by walking constantly on one side, keeps it in mo- tion. At the upper end of the shaft, gearing is arranged 102 WILLARD'S FHACTICAL SO as to give molioii to the cliurns. More recently a small engine in connection with the heating arrangement for the skim-cheet^e department has been used to supply power for driving the churns. I shall refer to these with illus- trations in another place. EXPELLING THE BUTTERMILK AND SALTING. The bntter is now removed from the churns, and care is taken never to touch it more than is necessary with the hands. It is lifted with the ladle into elliptical Avooden trays, and the buttermilk is rinsed out with cold spring water. In this proceeding the ladle is used lightly, while the water being turned over the butter is allowed to pass off at one end of the tray. This process is repeated two or three times, when nearly all the buttermilk will have been rinsed away. Some use a sprinkler for washing the butter. The batch of butter, or the " churning," say of twenty to twenty-five pounds in weight, is laid upon the butter- worker, and Avater applied from a sprinkler or small w^atering pot. It is provided with a rose nozzle so as to distribute the Avater over the mass in numberless small streams. The Avatering-pot is lield Avith the left hand, and the butter Avorked Avith the right hand at the same time, by applying the lever, going rapidly over from one side of the mass to the other. The butter being on the inclined slab or bed-piece of the butter-Avorker, the buttermilk floAvs off readily, and by a few movements of the lever the buttermilk is ex- pelled. When the Avater floAvs from the mass Avithout being discolored the process of w\ashing is completed. The sprinkler should be of small size, or no larger than can be conveniently handled Avith the left hand in the manner above described. The Avater, falling in a spray over the Avhole surface of the butter, cools it and giA^es the proper degree of hardness for working Avith the lever, a point of considerable importance, especially in hot Aveather. When the butter-milk has been expelled, the butter is ready for salting, and the butter-worker is used for incorporating the salt evenly thi-ough the mass. Salt is noAv added, and AVorked through the butter Avith the butter-Avorker, at the rate of 18 ounces for 22 pounds of butter. Great care is taken that the salt be pure, and of those brands that are BUTTER BOOK. 103 known to be free from the cliloride ot'ciilciiim, as a trace of this impurity gives a bitter taste to the butter. For butter tiiat is designed to be kept over for the winter markets, a little more salt is sometimes used, often as high as an ounce of salt to a pound of butter. Not unfrequently a teaspoonful of saltpeter and a tablespoonful of Avhite sugar are added, at the last working, for 22 pounds of b; letter. Considerable discussion has recently arisen about the use of saltpeter in butter, some holding that it cannot be healthful even though employed in small quantities, that it adds nothing to the flavor or quality of the butter, that it has no preserving properties, and hence should be ban- ished from the dairy by all good butter-makers. With- out entering upon an elaborate discussion of this question it will snflice, perhaps, to say that saltpeter has been used from time immemorial in curing meats, and of the thou- sands who thus annually employ it, I have yet to hear of a single authenticated case where it. has proved injurious. The butter-makers of Orange County claim that, by the use of saltpeter, butter will retain its flavor, and keep sound longer in hot weather than when it is not used. They* say that many direct experiments have been made to test this j^oint, and in every instance the samples of butter cured with saltpetre, kept sweet longer and were better saved than those samples where it was not used. For curing butter made in summer, there- fore, the following mixture is often used, viz: For every 22 pounds of butter 16 ounces of salt, 1 teaspoonful of saltpetre, and a table-spoonful of the best powdered Avhite sugar. In preparing this mixture, Ashton salt or best Onondaga factory filled, is crushed under a roller to free it from all lumps; it is then run through a sieve, and then saltpetre, after being reduced to a powder, is evenly mingled with the sugar through the salt. In the matter of salt, however, the factories adapt the quantity to suit the taste of their customers, or for difler- ent markets. Of late years, light-salted butter sells best, and the rate of salting varies from one-half to three- fourths of an ounce of salt to the pound of butter. The butter, after having been salted and worked, is allowed to stand until evening and is then worked a second time 104 WILLARDS PRACTICAL and packed. In liot weatlier, as soon as tlie butter is salted and worked over, it is taken to the pools and im- mersed in water, wliere it remains mitil evening, when il is taken out, worked over and packed. For this purpose a separate pool is provided, wliich is used only for butter ; it is called the "butter pool," and fresh spring water constantly flows in and out of it, as in the pools "for set- ting the milk. WORKING THE BUTTER. In working^ the butter, considerable skill and experience are required that the grain of the butter shall not be in- jured. The butter must have a peculiar firmness and fine- ness of texture and a wax-like appearance when fractured, which an improper handling, in expelling the buttermilk and working, will destroy. Care is taken, therefore, not to overwork it nor subject it to a grinding manipulation like tempering mortar, as this spoils the grain and renders the butter of a greasy or salve-like texture. The butter is worked with butter-workers. The one in most common use =*5:^ consists of an inclined slab standing upon legs, and with beveled ^^ sides about three "^^' inches high (see Fiu. 24). The slab is four feet long by two feet FIG. 24. wide at the upper end and tapering down four inches at the lower end, where there is a cross-piece, with a slot for the reception of the end of the lever. There is also an opening at this end for the escape of the butter- milk into a pail below. The lever is made either with four or eight sides and the end fits loosely in the slot, so as to be Avorked in any direction. It is quite simple, but does good execution and is much liked at the butter factories. The Champiox Butter-Worker (Fig. 25) is a but- ter-worker, weigher and salt -crusher combined. The operation of this worker is on the same principle of a hand and ladle, Avhile the scales are so nicely arranged that any one can do the weighing without lifting. This machine is furnished by Whitman & Burrell, Little Falls, X. Y. BUTTER BOOK. 105 CHAMPION BUrXEK-WORKER. After the butter has been washed, a batch weighing 22 lbs. is laid upon the inclined slab, or butter-worker, first described, and then spread oat with the ladle. Pure Ashton or Onondaga salt, made fine by rolling, is now sprinkled over the mass and the lever applied, first be- FIG. 25. ginning at one side until the whole is gone ovc". Only a few manipulations of this kind are required to work in the salt and complete this part of the process. As it is important that the buttermilk should be com- pletely removed, this is facilitated during the working process by applying a slightly-dampened napkin to the surface, or by the use of a damp sponge covered with a napkin for the purpose. ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS IN WASHING, WORKING AND SALTING BUTTER. Mr. S. E. Lewis of Oxford, N. Y., has some very good RuofQ-estions in rei^ard to treatino: the butter after churn- ing: IQQ WILLARDS PRACTICAL " When the butter comes," he says, " and as soon as the dash churns clean, take off the churn ; do not gather the butter with the dasher in the churn (as is usually done) ; do not gather it at all, but have a hair sieve, which first wet in hot and then in cold water, so that the butter wnll not stick to it. Then have a piece of a board that will fit inside of the churn to hold the butter back ; turn the buttermilk from the churn through the sieve. When the buttermilk is drained out, let the butter remain in the churn ; then take your water, holding it up high as your head, and pour it upon the butter in a stream sufficiently large so that it will force its way through the butter ; keep the stream moving about upon the butter. This will separate the little balls of butter; fill up the churn with w\ater until what little buttermilk there was in the butter is diluted to that extent that there will be no ne- cessity of changing the w^ater, and the result will be that your butter is washed or the buttack- ages, or tubs, are provided with a cover which fistens with a clasp. They are very neatly made of oak and hooped with brass oV galvanized iron, whichgives them a handsome appearance. They are, when filled, packed in cases, twelve packages in' a case, in two tiers, one above another. Aboard is placed between tlie upper and lower tiers and is secured in the following maimer: Fig. 2G. . BUTTER BOOK. IO9 There is a cleat runiung roiiiul tlie box on the inside about the higlit of the packages, so that when the flrst six packages are arranged in place the division -board goes down upon tlie cleat covering ihe lower packages, and upon this board the upper tier of packages is placed. The lid of the case is then brought down and fastened with a clasp, and the packages go safely to market with- out shaking or moving. The butter in each package is stamped with a mold, so as to leave the imprint of the maker's name under a rose. Kecently, Mr. Chaeles H. White of White Station, Michigan, has invented a method for keeping butter sweet for long periods, Avhicli proves to be excellent and worthy of general adoption. His plan is to have tight and strongly hooped tubs of oak, with heads at both ends. The tubs are 14 inches in diameter at top and 9 inches at bottom, Tind about 16 inches high. Fig. 27 will illustrate their gen- oral form. A sack of Avhite cotton is made to fit the tub for the reception of the butter. It is placed in the tub as it stands on the small end (Fig, 27), the sides of the sack being long enough to extend over the top of the tub. The butter is packed iirmly in this sack until within an inch and three-eighths of the toj) of the tub, when a cir- cular piece of cloth is laid on the top of the butter, and the sides of the sack are brought over and nicely plaited down over the circular cover. A layer of fine salt is now laid on the top, the head is put in, and the hoops are driven so as to make a perfectly tight fit that Avill admit of no leakage. Tlie tub is then turned upon the large head and the butter in the sack drops down upon the larger end, leaving a space between it i.nd the sides and top of the tub, as will be seen by Fig. 28, representing a section of the tub filled with butter and standing on the large end. Strong brine is then poured into the tub at cir, till it fills the intervening space c c c c between the tub and the butter, when the hole is closed perfectly tight with a cork. The brine floats the butter so that it is completely surrounded with, the liquid, and thus it is efl*ectually excluded from the air. Butter packed in this way, and placed in a cool, clean, well-ventilated cellar, keeps sweet and sound for long periods, and will go to market in prime condition. When the butter is to be used the tub is turned on the ;^;^Q WILLARDS PRACTICAL small end, the hoops are started, and the large head is taken off, when the V)utter may be lifted entirely out of the tub by taking hold of the ends of the sack. It may be placed upon a platter or large e'arthern dish, the cloth removed from the top, and the butter cut in desirable shapes for the table or for sale. If any portion remains or is not wanted for immediate use, it may be returned to the tub, and in this way it can be preserved for future use. Butter for the winter market is often packed in firkins holding from 60 to 80 lbs. The firkins are made strong Fig. 27— Package for keeping Butter fur lung periods. Fig. 28— Section of Package for keep- ing Butter for long periods. Fig. 28. and tight, are provided with heads, and when filled are headed up and brine poured through a hole in the top head, so as to fill all intervening spaces. In packing bnt- ter for market, it is important to have a neat and well- made package. If due attention has been given to the manufacture and to the packages, and if the butter has been preserved sweet and soimd, there will be no trouble in marketing it at a good price. PACKAGE FOR BUTTER PRINTS. During the summer of 1874 I. was in Virginia and vis- ited the butter factory of Edward J. Smith, near Lin- coln, Loudoun County. At this factory, which is on the pool system, the butter is accurately weighed in half- pound lumps and then pressed in a mold, receiving a neat stamp. The prints are oval in shape, about 2^by3| inches and 2 inches thick, and after stamping, each print is wrapped in white muslin, the cloth being cut in small BUTTER BOOK. Ill squares, the print laid upon it and tlie corners of the cloth coming up on the sides of the print. This gives it a very nice appearance. The butter is made for the Washington Market and is shipped in boxes, having an ice chamber in the center. Tiie boxes are 31 ^ by 16^ inches and > CiL 15 inches deep. See Fig. 29. The ice chest is of tin, placed in the cen- ter of the box, and is 16^ by 5 inches, 15 inches deep. At the bottom there is a hole, ^ which extends al- = so through the box = for the escape of water from the ^ ice as it melts. Movable shelves, with cleats on the edges, are fitted on each side of the ice chest, the one above the other, for holding the prints. . The box holds 10 shelves, 5 on each side of the ice chamber, and the shelves, when in place, leave a space between each of 2^ inches, or just sufficient to clear the tops of the prints. Each shelf holds 20 prints or 10 pounds of butter, and consequently, the box holds just 100 pounds. The whole package when filled, and the chamber packed aiid closed,, weighs 224 pounds. Fig. 29. CREAMERY FOR A SMALL NUMBER OF COWS. In the accompanying cut. Fig. 30, I give an illustration' of the Union Creamery in Madison County, New York,, which is designed to take the milk from 150 to 200 cows. I visited this factory during the latter part of 1874.. Skimmed cheese is not made at the establishment, the- skimmed milk beingtaken away by patrons and fed tO' swine and calves. The milk is kept longer in the pools^ than at creameries where skim-cheese is made in connec- tion with butter manufacture. 112 WILLARD-S PRACTICAL The building is in the sliape of an L, the main struc- ture being 36 feet long by 16 feet broad. One side sets against a bank, the earth being excavated or cut down below the surface from three to four feet. The pool, P.R. as will be seen from the cut, is 13x21 feet and is reached from the delivery Avindow by the passage way or walk P. W., which is three feet wide. Stout planks are thrown r^ across the pool at such ^-^\ p ^ points as are desired ' ' ' A A. A A., in order J ""]. Fig. to facilitate the hand- ling of the milk. The principal objection to this arrangement is, that the temperature of the milk in the pool can not be kept uni- form ; for as the warm milk is delivered morn- ing and evening, the water in the pool must be raised in temperature more or less, according to the quantity of warm milk added. We think it would have been better to have separated the pool into parts or di- A'isions. The churn-room, C. K., is 12x18 feet, and in the wall between it and the engine-room there is a large wooden tank, T, about 2^ to 3 feet high, with hinged covers, one in each room, so that the water may be supplied in both apartments from the same tank. The water in the tank is heated from the boiler, E, in the engine-room, E.R., by means of pipes. This arrangement is very convenient. D is tlie delivery window and C is the churn. TREATMENT OF THE MILK. The milk, as it is received, is placed in pails, eight inches in diameter by twenty inches long, and these are immediately plunged in the water. The water in the pool is about eighteen inches deep and its temperature at the spring is from 49 to 50 degrees Fahr. About 650 pails are required for setting the milk, which is held in the pools from three to four days before skimming. The BUTTER BOOK. J ;[ 3 milk is kept this lengtli of time in il.o |;ool nirder tlie im- pression that more cream will he ohtaiiied than when the milk sets only 48 hours. The manufacturer, Mr. J. S. Dakt, in experimenting with milk set at different lengths of time finds that when it has set 48 liours and is then skimmed and the pails returned to the pool, enough more cream will rise to pay for keeping in the pool for the time named. After the cream is removed the skimmed milk goes to the patrons of the factory and is used for feeding calves and hogs. CHUKNIXG AND WASHING. The churn used is the revolving barrel churn known as the Philadelphia. The churn holds 90 gallons, but only about 70 gallons of cream can be churned at a time. Tlie cream is left in the pool until it becomes slightly acid, wdien from 50 to 60 gallons are placed in the churn, the temperature of the cream in summer being about 58 Fahr. and in cool weather from 60 to 62 Fahr. The churn is regulated so as to make about 40 revolutions in a minute, and so soon as the cream begins to swell the vent is opened to let out the gas. The churning occu- pies from an hour to an hour and one-half, when the but- ter should come in grains from the size of a wheat kernel to that of a pea. The buttermilk is then di-awn oif and the butter w^ashed in the churn by pouring in cold water and allowing it to revolve for about one minute. WORKING AND SALTING. The butter now goes into the salting tray, wdiich is 38 inches long by 20 inches broad and 6 inches high. This is placed on the floor under the churn, and the churn being opened the butter falls into the tray. For the New York market, three-fourths of an ounce of salt to the pound of butter is used, but for the home market one ounce of salt is employed. The Ashton salt is preferred, and it is w^orked through the butter as evenly as possible, a thin paddle, having a blade 7 inches long by five wide, being used for the purpose. The butter is Avorked as little as possible in salting, and is then thrown loosely into tubs wdiich are immediately immersed in the pool and remain there until next day, when the butter is taken out and worked on a butter-worker. When the 114 WILLATvD G PRACTICAL working 48 completed, as above described, the butter is packed in "return butter pails" and goes to New York City, the price paid at the factory being within two cents per pound of the best quotations for fancy butter in the city. RESULTS. During the month of June, 25 pounds of milk on an average yielded one pound of butter. In August, 24 pounds of milk made a pound of butter, and during September and up to tlie day of our visit the average was a pound of butter from 23 pounds of milk. The factory is a new one, costing about one thousand dol- lars PLAX FOE A LARGE CREAMERY. Factories on the pool system are arranged in different ways, but one of the most complete and convenient is shown in the accompanying figure. The plan was drawn on a large scale by H. Cooley Greene, Esq., of Penn- sylvania, and was used in the illustration of his address before the American Dairymen's Association in 1872. In the cut. Fig. 31, the size is very much reduced, but will be readily understood IVom the description of the parts. Upright, 40x60 feet ; wings, each 24x40 ; ground des- cends toward the right and rear ; A A receiving room, 3|- feet above the floor of main building ; P P P pool in three apartments, separated by 3-inch plank, which are tied by a cross plank 10 inches wide. The milk room opens by sliding doors to the vat room, VR which is open to press-room and churn-room, C. B is walking beam with arms for attaching 16 churns, moti\ e power in engine house. E D is curing room for new made cheese ; S store-room ; O office ; W Avash-room ; 5, sink on casters ; V veranda, Avith pail racks ; p p steam jets for scalding pails, churns, tfcc. ; 1 1 Mater tanks, lower one for cold and npper one for hot Avater, with faucets in either roon\ ; T trap for elevating bntter from cellar, Avhich is under left Aving ; a a a are traps to drains for slops ; I is drain for Avheyand buttermilk. All liquids carried beneath the floor. O P open platform for airing churns, &q. Second floor devoted to curing-rooms, sep- arated by rolling doors at each side. BUTTER BOOK. 115 THE CREAM VAT. Among the new features of this factory is the cream vat. It is constructed on the same principle as the re- gular cheese vat, and hokls about 200 gallons. Into this the cream is poured, thoroughly mixed and warmed or cooled, as required, by the steam and water connec- tions. In describing the advantage of this vat Mr. Greene says : " The process of skim- ming milk at most creameries is this — the pails hav- ing been immersed in water with- in an inch of the top and about an inch above the milk, are lifted out and set for a short time upon benches one foot high at the head of the curd vats, where the skim- is done. At many cream- eries the benches are not used, but the skimming is done on the floor. This is needlessly tiresome. The skimmer is a cup in the form of a cone, with a flat handle simi- lar to an ordinary skimmer handle, and contains nearly a quart. It is immersed in the milk, the cream flowing into it, and is thus dipped oflT. This operation is repeated till there is no cream seen upon the surface of the milk. IIG V/ILLARDS PRACTICAL Tlio j^rocess is, of course, somewliat imperfect, as there is some milk taken witli the cream. Tlie milk is now turned into tlie vat for curds, and the pails are carried to the wash-room. The cream is poured into the cream vat through a strainer of finely-perforated tin, which not only thoroughly mixes it, but separates from it any flies or other foreign substances which one Avouid not like to see in his butter. In this vat the cream remains till next day, when it is churned. Meantime, if the weather be cold, steam is applied to slowly warm the cream. If the weather be very warm, it is surrounded with cold water, that it may neither become too Avarni nor too sour. It is covered with a close-fitting frame, upon which is stretched a piece of muslin to exclude dust, heat and flies. In most creameries cream is kept in pails and set into Avater, but in the absence of the cream-vat there is no adequate means for warming the cream when too cold. Its advantages are : — First, Cheapness. It costs less than pails of the same capacity. Second, Economy of labor and time in handling cream. Third, It enables one to control the temperature of his cream more perfectly, and to give it uniformity of character. Fourth, It admits of straining the cream conveniently, while sweet and thin, and keeping it neatly thereafter." VENTILATED CARRYING CANS. There are quite a number of patterns of carrying cans, all very similar in construction to that made by the Iron Clad Can Co., New York City, which is one of the strong- est and best in use. Milk cans should have a ventilating cover. One of the best arrangements of the kind is a recent invention by Messrs. Dunlap & Bissowett, of Jericho, Yt. It con- sists in a ventilating chamber, on the under-side of the can cover, about 4 inches in diameter and 2^ inches deep, and liaving a gauze wire cover Avhich can easily be re- moved for cleaning, &c. In the center of the chamber is the tube passing through the cover. Holes are cut on the rim of the chamber. By this arrangement the ven- tilation of the milk is secured while being carted from the farm to the factory, and all slopping avoided. Wickoff's Yentilated Milk Can is furnished by BUTTER BOOK. " \\^ Whitman & Burrell, Little Falls, N, Y. The nature of this iniprovenient consists in the construction of the can with a cover, that will allow the free escape of the lieat and animal odor of the milk, while the slopi)ing and injurious agitation are prevent- ed ; which is attained by the formation of one or more air-cham- bers and vent in the cover. The operation is as follows : If the can is filled, or supplied with milk, say to dot- ted line I, the air in the chamber H becomes conipressed, and this prevents the cover from sinking, and also pre- Aents the milk from in- jurious agitation in its transit from the yard to the point of delivery; and the ventE admits of the free escape of heat and animal odor, wliile the slopping of milk is prevented during its transit in the can. SCALES. The most convenient fac- tory scales are those recently invented by Edward F. Jones, of the Jones Scale Works, Binghamton, N. Y. By an ingenious arranpement of tlie revolving bars and slides, the milk of several J patrons can be weighed with- =1^ out dumping the niilk at each weighing. These scales are very accurate, substantial, and not liable to get out of ordei-. Tlie cut. Fig. 38, gives an illustration of one. FIG. 33. 118 WILLARD S PRACTICAIi MEANS EMPLOYED FOR UETECTIXG DILUTED MILK. The most uiiplGasant feature of the factory system ap- pears when dishonest patrons attempt to rob the associa- tion by the delivery of watered milk. The laws of New York are very severe on i)ersons found guilty of this mis- demeanor, punishing thenx with heavy lines and imprison- ja?nt. Tlie factory manager keeps watch over the milk as it is delivered, setting aside small quantities from time to time for observation and experiment with the hydro- meter. Each factory is also provided with a set of small glass tubes, upon which numbers corresponding with the names of the patrons are pasted, As milk is de- livered, a small sample is placed in the different tubes corresponding with the name of the patron, and set aside. If the milk is not all right, the hydrometer and these samples give warning ; the milk is then subjected to a more cai-eful test, by the use of the cream gauges and per cent, glass. Although there may 1)6 considerable Aaria- tion in the specific gravity of milk from different cows, it has been found that when the milk of several cows is mingled to- gether, and when the milk of different herds of a neigliborhood is compared, there is but little differ- ence in the specific gravity of the several samples. These tests have been effectual in bringing offenders to justice, and with the very strict law on the subject, but little trouble is now had on account of adulterated milk. Wl lere BOILER AXD EXGIXE. considerable quantities of cream arc to be BUTTED. i:00K. 119 churned and the skimmed milk is to be manufiictiired into skim-cheese, a boiler and engine will be found most convenient and in the end the cheapest. We give in the cuts Kos. 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37, illustrations of several of these which have been approved and are in use at the butter factories. In Fig. 33 on page 118, we have a representation of boiler and engine manufactured by Jones, Faulknek & Co., Utica, N. Y., which is largely in use. Fig. 34. THE IRON SLAVE. In Fig. 34 WG have a cut of the portable steam 120 WILLAHD S PRACTICAL boiler and engine furnished ])v Chas. Millak & Son, Utica, X. Y. ANOTHER PORTABLE BOILER. Fig. o5. 11. H. KoE & Co., of Madison, Ohio, furnish a hori- zontal return flue tubular boiler which is shown in Fig. Ho. The r-anie House also furnish engines adapted to lliese boilers. eutteh book. 121 TIIi: EAGLE l.TEAMEU AND CALDKOX. This appai-atiis is niamifactured by E. E. Sill, of Rochester, X. Y.. caldron combined. and is a steam generator and jacketed It can be employed both as a gen- no. 3n. erator of steam and an open caldron at the same time, or as a generator or caldron, and no detachment of parts is required to change from one to the other. This apr paratus is designed especially for cooking food for stock, and is admirably adapted to the purpose. The cut, Fig. 36, shows its general form. THE AXDEKSON BOILER. WHiTAfAx- L'j BuRRELL, of Little Falls, ^N". Y., are 122 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL manufacturers of Anderson's Patent Boiler and Tanks which they have introduced hirgely in factories and farm dairies. They furnish in connection with it, Kipp's new engines ; the boiler and engine are rej^resented in Fig. 37. Fig. 37: PLAX FOR A BUTTER FACTORY OR CHEESE FACTORY COMBINED. In concluding our remarks on creameries where deep setting is practiced we introduce the subjoined cut, Fig. 38, sliowing ground plan of a butter factory erected by Gardner B. Weeks, of Syracuse, N. Y. Referring to the ground plan, Fig. 38, it will be seen that in the ar- rangement the factory is quite as well adapted to cheese making alone, as to butter and skim-cheese manufacture. The advantage of sucli an arrangement is that the factory may be turned at once to the making of whole-milk cheese or to butter and skim-cheese, as one or the other system may happen to be most profitable. BUTTER BOOK. 123 The ground plan explains itself and needs no descrip- tion. The upper story of the factory is for a cheese- curing room and may be divided off for other purposes as well if desired. It is regarded by many as a con- venient butter factory as adapted to the " pail and pool system." ^^ciifma.iriimoiti ?IG. 38. 124 WILL ARC'S PilACTICAL CREAMERY PRACTICE-LiRGE PA^TS SYSTEM. For farm dairies where cold spring water is convenient and plentiful, where only cheap dairy structures can be afforded, the large pan system presents many advantages. The pans, as is well known, are each made of a suitable size to take the entire mess of milk of the dairy at one milkino-. Avhether the number of cows be 5, or 100, and four pans complete the set or all that will be required to hold the milk until it is 36 hours old. It is claimed by some that if tlie temperature of the milk be kept at about 60 deg. Fahr. that the atmosphere of the milk- room may be allowed to go several degrees above that temperature without injury, and indeed, with advantage in the rising of the cream. Be this as it may, much better results are obtained in an ordinary milk-room by setting the milk in large pans surrounded with cold water than by the old plan in small pans standing in the open air. In Franklin County, X. Y., where the large pan sys- tem has been largely introduced for factories, the aver- aije quantity of milk required for a pound of butter, taking the season together, has been from 20f to 25^ pounds. Thus the Keeler factory of Franklin County re- ported in 1871 a pound of butter from 20 VO-100 of milk; the Union factory, a pound of butter from 244 pounds of milk; the Cold Spring, a pound of butter from 22.31 pounds milk; the Berry, 25.10 pounds; Moria, 23.12; and the Bailey Spring 22.55 pounds of milk for a pounds of butter. In 1872 a pound of butter was made at the Union, from 23.3 pounds milk; Barley Spring, 22.61 pounds; Beny, 24.26 pounds; Moria, 22.37 pound. In 1873 the quantity required for a pound of butter was at the Union, 23.9 pounds milk; Barley Spring, 24.28 ; Cold Spring, 22.47. These are generally better averages than are made under the process of the " pail ancl pool," but it must be remarked that under the latter plan it is not desired to take all the butter from BUTTER BOOK. 125 the milk, as the skimmed milk is to be turned into skim- med cheese. But where the hirge pan system is prac- ticed the skimmed milk is usually employed for feeding do- mestic animals, and all the butter is taken out that can be. The first invention of the large pans was made by the late Dr. Jennings, of Fredonia, N. Y., and consisted simply of a shallow vat of tin placed in a wooden vat with space between the two for the reception of cold water. I tested this pan on its first introduction, and from experiments, then made was highly pleased with the principle. Various improvements have been jnade in the construction of the pans so as to make them more efficient and convenient, and I give illustrations of some of the most approved patterns now before the public. Usually, one surface foot of pan bottom will be sufficient for two cows ; so that any one may calculate pretty accurately what will be needed for his dairy. The sides of the pan are about five inches high. The way to use them is to put one milking of the entire dairy into one pan, adjusting the faucet in the supply pipe so as to use just water enough to extract the animal heat from the milk, and keep it at the desired temperature while the cream is rising — say from 60 to 62 deg. At the time the fourth pan is wanted for use, the first will be ready to skim ; then stop the water from running into the pan that a sufficient quantity of water may run out while the milk is skimmed, and run off to enable the milk-maid to clean the pan. THE JEWETT PAN. As given in the engraving, Fig. 39, one of the series of pans, is represented as broken away to show the in- ternal arrangement. These pans are provided with a space, between their top and bottom walls. Within this space are a number of compartments communica- ting with each other at alternate ends, in such a man- ner as to form one continuous channel, zigzag in its course, having an inlet at through which warm or cold water, as needed, is received ; such water, after flowing through the tortuous channel formed by the partitions, being discharged at the outlet. A fiiucet is shown through which all the water in the channel can be drawn off. 126 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL Wlien the cream lias raised and has been skimmed, the milk is then run off through the pipe cZ, which communi- cates with the main discharge pipe, F, which may be placed under the floor or not, as circumstances will per- ' ; or if desired the milk can be conveyed in movable mit Fig. 39. horizontal pipes from the pans into an adjoining room on the same floor. The pipe seen attached to the side of the room and above the row of pans is the source of supply from Avhich water is conducted to the base of the pans. For cooling, the water is received from a spring or re- servoir ; but for warming, from boilers or other appro- priate apparatus. These pans are manufactured by L. R. Towxsend, of Malone, N. Y. THE ORAXGE COUNTY MILK PAN. This is manufactured by the Orange County JMilk Pan Company, of Franklin, Delaware County, and is highly WILLARDS PRACTICAL .^y^ approved by many. They are ai-i'aiiged in four, single, or two double racks, whichever best suit tlie size of the dairy-room. I give a cut of tlie double rack arrange- ment in Fig. 40. When arranged in double racks, the upper pan is reached by means of a moveable platform, which is kept under the rack, and when wanted is drawn out. By use of the double rack a set for thirty cows can be used in a room 8x10. It has an arrangement for cooling with ice, having space at each end of the Pan in the \at, where ice may be stored, and, as it melts, the water passes off down through the Regulator Pipe. COWLES' MILK PAN. Is the invention of Seth F. Cowles of Coventry, Vt., and furnished by W. R. Colby, of Stan- stead, Canada. The distinguished fea- ture of this arrange- ment, see Fig. 41, is the manner in which the milk is removed from the pan. It is the only pan that empties over the top and thereby avoids the use of corks, which sometimes prove troublesome in getting sour and allowing the milk to leak. PLAN OF BUTTER FACrORY OX THE LARGE PAN, OR " SIIALLOIV SETTING " SYSTEM. The factories on the shallow setting system are usually less elaborate than those where pools and pails are in use. In Fig. 42 is an illustration of the general features found in these establishments. For the milk of 100 cows only four pans would be required. The pans occupy more space than on the pool system, but less water is needed to do the same work. The plan of the factory, P'ig. 42 will be readily under- 128 WILLARDS PRACTICAL Stood. The main Luildinc: i* 60x30 feet and the winjy 10x14 feet. W is the work-room, 14x22 feet, and S the sink; R is the churn-room, 8x14 feet, and C the chm-n ; E is the engine-room, 10x14 feet, and B the boiler and engine. Tliere are 12 pans, set op])osite to each otlier, six on a side, which will accon\modate the milk of 300 cows. The pans are 130x57 inches, and are set not quite two feet apart and with one end nearly or quite against the wall, as represented in Fig. 1. T is a tank for sour X 2 „ 2 ^ Q. Q. a CL ^ = ^ Fig. 42. milk; D delivery window. There is a track for a hand car running through the center of the building betAveen the pans. Underneath the structure is the butter cellar. In this arrangement there is no provision for making "skim-cheese," though of course when it is desired the building may be extended in leugth, and thus room made for the manufacturing department. FACTORY BUTTER BOX. Mr. Lewis of Chenango Co., suggests that in case there is not a very good butter room in a factory, a long box, tight at the *^ bottom, wnth a cover to it, should be made. ^ Place a rack in the bottom, some three inches from the bottom of the box. Then in warm weather put your butter in the box, and have water running into one end of the box and out of the other, under the butter. BUTTER BOOK. 129 This will keep it cool and liard until it can be worked and packed. MAKING PREMIUM BUTTER ON THE SHALLOW SETTING SYSTEM. At tlie Central New York Fair, Utica, in 1874, the first preniium on creamery butter was awarded to the Cold Spring Creamery, East Hamilton, Madison County, N. Y. About the middle of September I visited the Cold Spring factory and obtained from the manufacturer the process of manufacturing at this factory, where shallow setting is practiced and it may be of interest in this connection. The factory is a small one, 20x30 feet, taking the milk of only 00 cows. Tliere are nine patrons and milk is delivered morning and evening, the most dis- tant patron living .'ibout one-half mile from the factory. PLAN OF SETTING THE MILK* The Jewett pans are used at the Cold Spring Creamery. The size of the i)ans is 11x4 feet, six inches deep, and four pans complete the set. The pans are of the ordi- nary size for 150 cows, but the manager of the Cold Spring f ictory thinks they are none too large for 100 cows. The milk is set four inches deep in the |)aiis.. The milk during summer i.-> held in the paub until it is 24 to 36 hours old, and is generally allowed to sour. AVhen the milk begins to lopper at the bottom and the cream is wrinkled it is skinnned. The i)ans stand with one end butted against the wall, and at this end are the pipes for admitting the flow of water under the milk. The te;u- ])erature of the water in the spring is 56 degrees, and it is desired to keep the milk at about 60 degrees while the cream is rising. In the spring and fall, or during cool weather, a coal stove in the room regulates the tempera- ture so that the milk stands veiy uniformly at 60 degrees. CHURNING. The churning is done every morning, Sundays ex- cepted, the Saturday's cream being churned Saturday night. The dash churn is used, barrel and a half size, and it is operated by horse power. Mr. Holmes think no (5hurn equal to the dash for making a nice grained butter. During the hottest weather the cream in the churn is tempered to 58 deg., but at the time of our visit, the 130 WILLARDS PRACTICAL l^th of September, the temperature of the cream when the churns are started is 60 deg. About an hour is oc- cupied in churning and when tlie butter begins to come the motion is deadened or made slower and four quarts of cold spring water are added to each churn. Enough water is added so as to raise the liquid mass to cover the dash to prevent it striking the cream. Then just so soon as the butter is formed the churns are detached from the power and the butter gathered by hand. The buttermilk is now drained off and the butter thrown into a large tub with cold spring water, where it is washed by working it gently with the ladle. Washing in two waters thoroughly expels the buttermilk, when it is immediately salted at the rate of three-quarters of an ounce of salt to the pound of butter. THE SALT WEIGHER. Mr. Holmes has a very handy implement for butter makers, which may be denominated the "butter and salt scales." It is simply a pair of scales so arranged that by placing the butter in a bowl on a standard and by adding salt to the dish on the end of the scale yard until the scales are balanced, you get the exact quantity of salt required for the lump of butter. It is arranged so that the scales may be set for salting at the rate of from a quarter ounce to 1^ ounces of salt to the pound of but- ter. It is a simple and cheap affair, and should be in the hands of every butter maker, as it saves time and trouble in weighing and calculating the amount of salt for a o^iven weisfht of butter. The salt is worked through the butter while in the washing tub, the ladle being used for that purpose, when the butter is removed to the cooling vat or where the vessel holding it may be surrounded with cold spring water and it remains tliere until next morning, when it is thrown upon the butter worker and worked over and then goes to the packages. The butter is put up in Wescott return butter pails and goes to New York City, and the price received at the factory is two cents less per pound than the highest quotations for fancy butter in that city. BUTTER FROM A GIYEX QUANTITY OF MILK. During the summer, under this system as above des- cribed, 100 pounds of milk yield four pounds of butter; BUTTER BOOK. 131 but as the season advances a pound of butter is obtained from a less quantity of milk. At the time of our visit the ratio was one pound of butter from 23 of milk. CRKAMEKY KEPOETS. The following reports from creameries- where skim- cheese is made in connection with butter manufacture, and where only butter is made will be of interest in this connection. These reports show the advantages of the respective systems: HEPORT op 1873 AND 1873. — BUTTER AND SKIM-CHEESE. Creameries. ! 1 1872 -Edmeston, Otsego Co-.N.Y. Crvstal. New Bremen. Lewis C.>..N.Y •• AV.W.&A. D.Vorce, DenniarK, Lewis Co.. N. Y Copeiihafreii. Lewis to,, N.Y. West Miirtinaburfi, *' E. G. Dodpo. Miirtinsb'gh, ^ Lowville, LowvilU', South Harrisburph, 1873-Oiiennta, N. Y •••;:••• Avilleof Conenango, N. \... Datiin • „ 2,392J 707,' 705 623,' 1,213, I 732, 1,881, 582, 57fi, 2,017, .1.562, 181,528: 55,334 236,862! $35,089 14' 68.692' 873' 69,565 8,242 70 69,583, 59.900 125 054 ',5.158 193,7;W f 0.021 34,784 167,736 i;«,329 1,954 1,107 2.75^ 2.363 2,912 1.121 20,448 530.004 26,374 ,537 9 ,007 1 7, ,7&')' 15, ,521 ! 9. ,550 24, ,742 7, ,09158 12 .53S87I 12 .647 58] 12 ,910 761 12 ,337 87 ,916 13 *3 < 10.10 10.16 9.87 10.22 9.96 9.45 9. .7 9.43 11 201 REPORT OP 1873.— BUTTER. STATEMENT OP STX BUTTER FACTORIES USING THE LARGE MiLK PANS FOR THE SEASON OP 1873, AND THEIR POST OFPICE ADDRESS. c « o 050 » < (1 Spn_., N. Y., Wni. ],yttle, Proprietor. Baiiey Spring Factory. Clmtuautrua, Franklin Co. N.Y. Ira Bennett. Proprietor Union Factrrv. Banpcor, Franklin Co., N. i ,, Stock Co. R. Roice. Sec'y. Belmont Factory. Belmont. Franklin Co., iN. Y. Kirbv & Adams. Proprietors... ...... • Cold Spring Kaotorv. Last Hamilton. Marli- son Co.. N. Y. Usher Br..s., Proprietors. Woodburr.e Factory, Wooriburne, Hnlhvan Co., N. Y. Wm. Bernard. Proprietor... . Average Number ... 34,011 27,847 17,765 s32 O PQ 22 47rl00 24 28-100 23 6-lCO 21,142! 22 36-100 23 6-10 24 2-5 11,466 5,731 33 53-100 SOX 33 27-100 34 2.759,68; 118 462 0-, 750.5.5 '•"*1184«? 32 132 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL THE DAKE SYSTEM FOK IMPROVING FARM AND DAIRY BUTTER. About eighteen years ago a plan for manufacturing cheese on a large scale Mas inaugurated in Ohio. Its general features were as follows : — The milk was con- verted into curds at the farm dairies in the usual manner, and then each dairyman took the fresh curds daily to a central factory, where the\- were weighed and credited at a certain rate per pound. The central iactory then min- gled the diflerent curds together, salting and pressing them into cheese of uniform size and weight, when they went to the curing room, and from thence to the markets. This plan was adopted previous to the establishment of our present factory system, and high hopes were enter- tained as to the ultimate success of the movement. The practical Avorking, however, ])roved defective. The curds furnished by the different dairymen were not alike, but varied in texture and quality, some being too soft, others too hard scalded, to say nothing of those more or less sour and otherwise imperfect. Under these conditions the fer- mentation of the cheese during the curing process was not uniform through the mass, and the result of the whole procedure was that an inferior product was turned out, which of course went at low price. Mean- while the present factory system began to spread throughout New York and to take root in Ohio, and the manufacture of cheese from curds collected together, as referred to, was abandoned for the more rational plan of that now in general use. A somewhat similar plan to the above has been recently inagurated in Wisconsin and other parts of the West for the manufacture of butter. The milk is set for cream at the farm dairies, and after being churned is taken to the factory, where it is weighed and each mess properly cred- ited at a certain price per pound, and the different parcels are then mingled together, to go through the sevei\al manipulations of working, salting and packing. THE DAKE PROCESS. The originator of this system is Daniel W. Dake of Belolt, Wis., and his butter factory and its machinery are I'epresented to be entirely different from anything hereto- fore known in this line of the dairy. As soon as the BUTTER BOOK. ] 33 butter arrives fresh from tlie farmers' churns, four or five hundred to one thousand pounds are put in a vat, which is about eight feet long by two feet broad and eight inches deep. Here the butter is cut with a wooden hidle into small pieces, and moderately cold water poured over the mass until covered. A wooden hoe is then taken and the butter hoed from one end of the vat to the other twice, by which time the water has tempered it to a con- sistency for easy working through the machines. These machines are described in the Milwaukee Journal of Commerce as follows: The first machine used is simply a wire screen covering the bottom of a hopper, and through which the butter is rapidly forced by a hand lever or crank. A thousand pounds of butter can be run through this nuichine in from three to four minutes, and it comes out of an exact con- sistency — hard lumps all cut up and thoroughly prepared for the next process. If the butter is white, as in win- ter, it is given a little color, then salted, and afterwards })ut twice through machine luimber two. This second machine thoroughly and evenly distributes the salt and the color, if any is used, and at the same time extracts all the brine and buttermilk. By this process it is said that two men can prepare, handle, salt, color and pack away in tubs from three to five thousand pounds per day. Again, it is claimed that the butter ])repared comes out imiform in color and texture, although it is made from the cream of fifty different herds and on as many differ- ent farms. And it is claimed that Eastern butter dealers who have handled the Dake butter for an entire season, speak of it as a decided improvement over farm dairy butter as usually made at the West. rHILOSOPHY OF BUTTEll MAKIX!} AXD BUTTER KEEPIXG. CAUSES THAT DELAY BUTTER FROM COMING. Difficulty is sometimes experienced late in the fall on account of the churning occupying an unreasonable time. Some of the causes which delay the butter from coming 134 WILLARDS PRACTICAL are as follows : The milk nijiy have been kept at un- even temperatures and the cream may have been held too long from souring. Sour and sweet cream may have been mixed and not properly stirred so as to be of the same condition as to acidity throughout. The cream from farrow cows may have been mixed with cream from tliose that are not farrow. The milk may have stood too long before skimming. The cream may not have been sufficiently warmed, or the cows may have lacked salt while being fed on diy food. One or more cows may have been indisposed and the milk in conse- quence be imperfect or feverish. Some of the coavs may be near the point of drying off and the milk is not good, and should not have been saved, and especially should not have been a^Jded to the milk of others which is good. Poor keep, neglect and cruel treatment of cows also have their influence on the quality of cream and affect its churning. In the first place milk, when set aside for cream, should be kept at a pretty uniform temperature, say at about 60 deg. Fahr. It milk be constantly changing from one temperature to another, according to the variable change of the atmosphere, or if cream be raised on one portion of the milk at one temperature and on another portion of the milk at a difterent temperature, the churning is liable to be more or less affected. Again, the temperature of the cream, when it goes to the churn, should be ]-egulated by an accurate thermometer, say at about 58 deg. to 60 deg. Fahr. It is important to have an accurate ther- mometer. Some instruments are worthless on account of imperfect graduation. I liave seen thermometers hanging side by side in the same temperature showing a variation of from 8 deg. to 10 deg. It is needless, per- liaps, to say that a thermometer varying 10 deg. from the true graduation would be likely to cause trouble in churning, it the cream was tempered according to the instrument, because cream that goes to the churn too cold or too hot will not readily be converted into butter ; and when the butter does come it will, from too long churning, be of inferior quality. Again, if cream is al- lowed to get too sour there is liable to be trouble in churning. If the cream be taken oft' from milk at difterent times, or several messes added together to make a churn- BUTTER BOOK. 135 ing, tlie cream slioulcl be well stirred in tlie cream pot at every addition, in order to mingle the messes thoroughly. Then, when the mass has acquired a slight acid condition, it should go to the churn. Cream is sometimes refractory in churning on account of the bad condition of water with Avhich the cows are supplied. This is apt to occur in hot weather, when w^ater is scanty and cows are compelled to slake thirst from stagnant pools or from sloughs and mud holes, where the water is filthy. I have known cases to occur where great difficulty was had in making butter on ac- count of bad water, but wliich was removed by changing the pasture or giving them a range where good, sweet run- ning water Avas obtained. In one instance coming under my observation, there was great trouble in churning during hot weather, while the cows were drinking from filthy pools ; but on the dairyman's sinking a well and pumping water for his herd the trouble ceased altoge- ther. In order to test the matter and sec if the bad water was the cause of the difficulty, he withheld the well water from liis cows, and the trouble with the cream returned. I liave seen cases where the cream would not readily churn when the cows were raced from the pasture and overdriven by dogs during hot weather. The milk at such times becomes feverish, and the cream undergoes a change which is prejudicial to the butter forming pro- perly. If attention is given to the kind treatment of cows, if tliey have an abundance of nutritious feed, plenty of good, clean water, regularly salted, and the milk kept at a uniform temperatui-e of about 60 deg. while the cream is rising — in fine, if the cream goes to the churn at the right temperature, the butter ought to come in the chum in from thirty to forty-five minutes, according as the floats are rotated. We do not believe in very quick churning — from a half to three-quarters of an hour is soon enouGjh for the makinjx of extra fine butter. CHURXIXG THE MILK. It is claimed by some, that churning the whole milk makes more and better butter than to set the milk and churn the cream. A good many experiments have been made in Germany, to test this qiiestion, and Petersen- says if the process bo properly conducted, butter made 136 WILLARDS PRACTICAL by churning the whole milk is of infinitely finer flavor than that made from churning cream alone, and this he affirms is the universal verdict whenever both systems have met with fair trial. He gives the average amount of milk required to make a pound of butter by both svs- tems, thus showing that when the cream is churned alone it takes from 16 to 17 litres of milk to make a pound of butter, but when the whole milk is churned about 14 litres is suffiicient. A litre is a little over If pints. In 1869, Mr. James Zoller of Oswegatchie, X. Y., was requested by a committee of the New York State Agricultural Society, to make experiments to test the quantity of milk required to make a pound of butter when only the cream Avas cliurned, as compared with the whole milk churning, and he gave as the result, the fol- lowing : When the milk was strained in pans and the cream churned, 208 quarts of milk yielded 17^ pounds of butter ready for packing, and when the whole milk was churned the same quantity of milk made 19^ pounds of butter ready for packing, being a gain of about 10 per cent, over churning the cream. The milk was allowed to sour but not loppered Avhen it was churned. A tempera- ture of about 65 degrees is said to be the best for churn- ing whole milk if sweet, but the usual temperature em- ployed is lower, from 60 to 63 degrees Fahr. In the Dutch process the milk is put into deep jars in a cool place, each mess or portion milked at one time being kept separate. As soon as there is the least ap- pearance of acidity, the Avhole is placed in an upright churn to be churned. When the butter begins to form in small kernels, the contents of the churn are emp- tied into a sieve that lets the buttermilk pass through ; the butter is then formed into a mass. In the Scotch method the milk is allowed to stand undisturbed until it has soured and become loppered, and when it has arrived at this state it is fit to be churned. It is put in the churn and agitated a few minutes merely to break the coagulum, and is then brought to a temperature of about 70 degrees and churned. In some sections tbe milk is churned sweet, either a few hours after milking, or the night's and morning's mess of milk mingled together and churned in the afternoon. It is so much more work to churn the BUTTER BOOK. . ];37 milk than the cream tliat whole milk ehiiruing is not very widely practiced. THE BEST TEMPERATURE FOR CHURNII^G CREA.M Is from 55 degrees to 60 degrees Fahr. Some years ago a series of carefully conducted experiments Avere made in Scotland, to determine the temperature hest adapted for making butter, the cream being churned at various temperatures, ranging from 57 to 70 degrees. When the ci-eam was churned at 57 degrees and not higher than 60 degrees, the butter was of the very best quality, rich, firm and Avell tasted. From 62 degrees to 70 degrees the butter was more soft and spongy, and at the highest temperature it was decidedly inferior in every respect to butter made in churning at the lower tempera- tures. The experimenters thence concluded that the best temperature to commence the operation of churning is about 55 degrees, and at no time in the operation ought it to exceed 65 degrees, while on the contrary if at any time the cream should be under 50 degrees, the labor will be much increased w^ithout any proportionate advan- tage being obtained. This agrees with the American practice, "it must be observed however that THE AGITATION OF THE CREAM IN CHURNING should be regular, neither too quick nor too slow. If the agitation is too quick the butter will make and unmake ittelf before the churner is aware of it, as too rapid motion induces fermentation, Avhich, when it has reached a certain point, is entirely destructive of anything like the possibility of making even moderately good or well- tasted butter. If, on the other hand, the motion be too slow, the agitators in the churn fail to produce the de- sired separation of the component parts of the cream, and the consequence is that after a good deal of time spent in lazy action, the churner is just as far from his butter as he was at the beginning of his labors. AVUAT SHOULD BE THE APPEARANCE OF THE BUTTER. It has been well remarked by Mr. Stephens that when butter is properly churned, both as to time and tempera- ture, it becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious, but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily molded in any shape, and may be drawn 138 WILLARDS PRACTICAL out a considerable length without breaking. It is only in this state that butter possesses that rich, nutty flavor and smell which impart so liigli a degree of pleasure in eating it and which enhances its value manifold. It is not always necessary to taste butter in judging of it; the smooth, unctuous feel in rubbing a little between the finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of quality; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste, and the bright, glistening, cream-colored surface shows its high state of cleanliness. WASHING THE BUTTEK. In the matter of w^ashing and salting butter. Prof. S. W. JoHNSOX of Sheffield Scientific School, Yale College, lias made some very useful i-emarks, M'hich we quote. He says : " To prepare butter for keeping, "without danger of rancidity and loss of its agreeable flavor, great pains is needful to remove the buttermilk as completely as pos- sible. This is very imperfectly accomplished by simply Avorking or kneading. As the analyses before quoted show, salting removes but little besides water and small quantities of sugar. Caseine, which appears to spoil the butter for keeping, is scarcely diminished by these means. Washing w^ith water is indispensable for its removal. In Holland and parts of Holstein, it is the custom to mix a considerable amount of water with the cream in churning. The butter is thus washed as it " comes." In Holland it is usual to wash the butter copiously Avith water besides. The finished article is more remarkal)le for its keeping qualities than for fineness of flavor when new. The Hol- stein butter, which is made without washing, has at first a more delicious aroma, but appears not to keep so well as washed butter. Swedish butter made by Gussander's metliod, in which the cream rises completely in 24 hom-s, the milk being maintained at a temperature of 60 de- grees to 70 degrees Fahr. is when prepared without water, the sweetest of all. If, however, it is to be kept a length of time, it must be thoroughly washed before salting." PHILOSOPHY OF SALTING. " Immediately after churning the mass consists of a mix- ture of butter, Avith more or less cream. In case very rich cream (from milk kept warm) is employed, as much BUTTER BOOK. 139 as one-third of the mass may be cream. The process of working completes the union of the still unadhering fat globules and has, besides, the object of removing the but- termilk as much as jiossihle. The buttermilk — the pres- ence of which is objectionable hi new butter by impairing the taste, and which speedily occasions rancidity in butter that is kept — cannot be removed by working alone. Washing, as already described, aids materially in dispos- ing of the buttermilk, but there is a limit to its use, since if applied too copiously, the flavor of the butter is impaired. After Avorking and washing there remains in the butter a quantity of buttermilk or water which must be removed if the butter is to admit of preservation for any considera- ble time. To accomplish this r.s far as possible, salting is employed. The best butter makers, after kneading out the buttermilk as far as possible, avoiding too much working so as not to injure the consistency or " gram " of the butter, mix with it about three per cent of salt, which is worked in layers and then left standing for from 12 to 24 hours. At the expiration of this time the butter is again worked, and still another interval of standing, with a subsequent working, is allowed in case the butter is intended for long keeping. Finally, when put down, additional salt (one-half per cent.) is mixed at the time of packinjr in the tubs or crocks." The action of salt is osmotic. It attracts Avatei* from the buttermilk that it comes in contact with, and also takes up the milk sugar. It eftects thus a partial separation of the constituents of buttermilk. At the same time it penetrates the latter and converts it into strong brine, which renders decom- position and rancidity difiicult or impossible. Sugar has the same eflTect as salt, but is more costly and no better in any respect. Independent of its effect as a condiment salt has two distinct offices to serve in butter making, viz :— First, to remove buttermilk as far as possible from the pores of the butter, and, second, to render innocuous what cannot be thus extracted." CONCERNING THE MANNER OF WORKING BUTTER. When the grain of butter is injured the butter spreads like ells all ihe choice brands brought into the London market, whether of home- or foreign make, 148 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL will be to most minds sufficient proof that the Swedish process is not without merit. I know from personal ob- servation and experience how fastidious the better classes of London are in regard to their selection of fine grades of butter, and American dealers know, to their cost, how difficult it is to realize high prices on butter in England Avithout it possesses the highest excellence in attributes that go to make up fine quality. Swedish butter has been quoted in the London market during the past year (1874) from 160 to 170 shillings sterling, and upward, per cwt., Avhile the best American and Canadian in that market has brought only from 90 to 110 shillings. SWEDISH METHOD OF TRKATING THE MILK. Experience has proved that cream cannot generally be kept longer than 50 hours in the summer and from 70 to 80 hours in the winter, without affecting the quality of the butter. The milk is carried to the factories every night and morning immediately after the milking, from the farmers not more than 1^ English miles distant. It is measured by the womixU in charge of the place, who en- ters the quantity delivered. According to her book, the farmers receive payment at the end of every month for the quantity of milk delivered during the previous month. COOLING TAXKS. For cooling the milk square cisterns or oval tanks are used, both being 24 inches in depth. Their other dimen- sions depend upon the quantity of jnilk to be strained at one time, and upon other circumstances. Cisterns, manufactured at the carpenter shop of the company, are made of })lank two inches thick, and inside nine feet long, and three feet wide. Such a cistern is large enough for cooling about 11') 2-10 imperial gallons of milk. A loose grate, provided with a three to four inch wooden wedge is fastened to the bottom, inside the cistern. The pails for setting the milk are placed upon the grate, thus allowing the ice water perfect access under the pails. PAILS FOR SET-riNG THE MILK. The luiik pails or tubs are made of iron and steel plate, and thoroughly and carefully tinned inside and out. OriGfinallv, when the milk was cooled bv water BUTTER BOOK. J49 from the wells, tliese pails had a diameter of 18 inches and a depth of 24 inches. QUICKER THE MILK IS COOLED THE MORE CREAM. By long and careful experiments it has been ascertained, that the more speedily the milk is cooled doion^ the more completely is the cream separated from it. The consequence is, tliat not only is much colder water now used for cooling the milk, but the pails for setting it have also been reduced to the smallest diameter con- sistent with the other management of the milk, namely, about 9 inches, with a depth of 20 inches, holding about 3 5-14 imperial gallons. OVAL SHAPED PAILS. In order to be able to use the original pails, their bot- toms have been taken away, and their sides pressed to- gether, giving the pails an oval shape, with a small diameter of 7 inches and providing them witli new bot- toms. The cooling power of these pails has thus been greatly increased, and many farmers prefer them to the smaller cylindrical ones, as being comparatively cheaper and the milk in them more easily skimmed. ICE WATER METHOD. Besides changing the form of the pails in which the milk is set and cooled, other attempts have been made to quicken the cooling by using iced water instead of w^ell- water. The temperature of the well water is not lower than that of the soil, or from 42 deg. to 44 deg. Fahr. whereas the temperature of water in which ice chopped in small pieces is permitted to melt, may easily be reduced to 35 deg. or 36 deg. Fahr. Cold wells are not always to be found, but on the contrary are very rare in some districts, whereas ice maybe had in this northern country at a very small expense. The ice water method is there- fore now used at all the milk-houses as well as by nearly all the farmers who furnish the company with cream. While constant change of the well w\ater, where such is used, is required in order to retain a low temperature, the ice water does not require to be changed more than a few times every year. The surplus water arising from melting of the ice. is let out by a small pipe placed at the upper edge of the tank. 150 WILLARDS PRACTICAL THE QUANTITY OF ICE REQUIRED. At the milk-liouses, it is calcul.-ited to be equal in meas- urement to the quantity of milk tor the cooling of which it is intended ; but with proper management two-thirds ought to be sufficient. Tlie ice intended for the cooling cisterns is chopped in pieces of about three to four inches square, whereby its cooling power is greatly increased. THE MORE THE ORIGINAL HEAT IS RETAINED WHILE BEING DELIVERED, THE MORE CREAM. The milk should be delivered as soon as possible after the milking is done, and carefully transported, and it has hitherto been considered advantageous to cool the milk during the pr^^cess of milking, and before being delivered. However, it has recently been stated that the more the original heat is retained until the milk reaches the factory, the more cream will the milk yield, as the cream begins to rise as soon as the milk begins to get cold, and the straining and transportation of the cool milk causes a very injurious interruption in the rising of the cream, which consequently will be imperfect. This seems very probable, but can only be proved by careful experiments. It is, however, a fact, that the shorter distance the ndlk is transported the more cream does it yield ; other circumstances, as quality, treatment, etc., being the same. HIGHT OF THE ICE WATER. As soon as the milk is strained into the pails, they are placed in the ice water cisterns at a distance of about three inches from each other. Experiments have been made to ascertain the proper hight of the ice water, but have not led to any positive results. It may, however, be stated, that during the summer season and when the temperature of the milk-room is comparatively high, the surface of ihe milk should be on a level with the surface of the water, the upper layer of cream being thus kept as cool as possible ; whereas during the winter season, or wlien the temperature of the cooling-room is low, the sur- iace of the milk should be a few inches above that of the water. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COOLING-ROOM ought to be kept as low as possible during the summer BUTTER BOOK. 151 seasoii, but if possible never below aO degrees P\'xhr. diir- "iiig the wintei". THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE CREAM TO RISE dei>eiids principally upon bow soon the milk is cooled, but also upon the temperatui-e of the milk as well as upon that of the ice water and of the room. If a milk pail (say of three gallons) be placed in the ice water cistern immediately after the milking and t!ie temperature of the water does not exceed 35 degrees F'ahr., the milk may usually be skimmed after a lapse of 10 or 13 hours; but it is better and safer to permit the milk to stand from 18 to 24 hours. At this low temperature the cream rises very suddenly, but is at first very thin, and requires a longer time to become firm. TREATMENT OF CREAM. The cream which is not sent to the butter factory im- mediately after being skimmed off, ought to be put into the ice-water bath without delay. It ought not to be kept more than two days during the warmer season arid three days during the winter before being churned, as otherwise it will become bitter or acquire a bad taste easily detected in the butter. It may be considered as a fact that the fresJier and absolutely sweeter the cream is, the better will be the butter. THE CREAM OBTAINED FROM ISflLK COOLED BY ICE-WATER is, as above stated, thin, and generally not as settled as that which rises from milk set in bowls or flat vessels, and kept in a comparatively warm room ; and as a smaller quantity of butter is obtained from thin cream than from thick, the opinion is often expressed that the first-named method gives a less satisfactory result than the latter. It will be easily understood, liowever, that this is not the case, if the merit of one or the other method is estimated by tlie quantity of butter obtained from a certain quantity of milk instead of cream. Nevertheless, it is true that the thin cream obtained by the ice method will give more buttermilk, as well as somewhat less skimmed milk, than that obtained by the well waie.- method, the ci-e; m- et- ting in both cases being equally as perfect; but the loss, in itself insignificant, is more than covered by the finer 152 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL quality of the butter, the better skini-milk, and the smaller expense for vessels and buildings required for the keeping of the milk during cream-setting, besides the other ad- vantages of the ice- water method. SWEDISH BUTTER MAKING. A temperature of the cream of 57 deg. to 60 deg. Fahr. has been found the most suitable for making butter, but it depends somewhat upon the quality of the cream, the nature of the season, and the temperature of the air, &o. The churns, which are best adapted for working by steam or water power, consist of a barrel somewhat conical at top, resting on a frame, and vertically moveable on trunnions. In this barrel a churn-staif, provided with two wings, rotates at a speed of 120 to 180 revolutions per minute, depending upon the size of the churn, which generally contains from 17 to 60 gallons, according to the quantity of cream to be churned. The butter is obtained in about 45 minutes. It is separated from the buttermilk by means of a strainer, then placed in a tub of tin and carried to the next room, where it is further prepared. The butter obtained from each separate quantity of cream is then worked by hand in a beechwood trough of oval form, in order to separate the buttermilk. It is then tested by the managing dairymaid and classified accord- ing to its taste and other qualities in three classes, and afterwards weighed, the weight and quality being noted in the factory journal. Before churning tlie creain, fluid annatto is added in quantities suitable to the different seasons, giving the butter the color which is required for different markets. SALTING AND PACKING. The assorted lumps of butter are separately and care- fully worked together, during which operation a certain quantity of salt, varying from 2 to 5 per cent, is added. The salt used is refined in Sweden, and is as pure and dry as possible ; one quarter to one-half per cent of sugar is also added. AVhen the butter is ready it ought to ?ossess a waxy firmness, perfectly uniform in appearance, t is then packed in casks of beechwood, previously well saturated with brine, and containing from 60 to 100 pounds of butter each. Before closing the casks the name of the dairv where it has been manufactured is BUTTER BOOK. I53 pressed in the butter, and finally the butter is covered by a piece of gauze, and thereupon a little salt. The mark of the company and the net weight in English pounds are painted on the cover if the butter is of the first quality. The casks containing second class butter are only marked with the initials of the dairy, and third class butter is sold on the spot or returned to the respective deliverers of the cream. The butter is sent at least once a week to the market it is intended for. KEEPING QUALITY OF SWEDISH BUTTER. During the summer butter was placed for some time in a dry, cool cellar, and after two months it brought the same price in London as fresh butter sent at the same time. PARISIAN BUTTER. For the Russian market, as well as for some home de- mand, what is called Parisian butter has been manufac- tured. Perfectly sweet cream, which is heated to from 176 deg. to 194 deg. Fahr., and tlien permitted to cool again to the usual temperature before being churned is used for this kind of butter, which is otherwise made in the usual manner, lint without adding ainiatto or salt. By the iieating of the cream, the butter obtains a slight almond taste and seems also to keep longer. BUTTER-MAKING AT THE. CHEESE FACTORIES. Within the last three or four years a good quality of butter has been made at some of the cheese fiictories. The plan adopted is to spread out the night's milk in the vats used for making cheese, allowing a stream of water to flow under the inner vat, or to fill the space between the inner and outer vats. The milk is by this means re- duced to about 60. degrees, and what cream rises during the night is skimmed oflT in the morning and made into butter. The morning's milk is then added to the skimmed milk as it comes to the factory, and is made .into cheese by the lo4 WILLARDS PRACTICAL usual process, except thnt a lower heat and less salt is used than for the whole-railk cheese. By careful manipulation and skill, very nearly as good a product of cheese is made as at the factories making whole-milk cheese ; at least, with good milk and high skill, experts are unable to detect the difference. At one of these factories, which I visited in 1874, the delivery of milk for the day amounted to 6,839 lbs. The cream taken from the night's mess of milk made 87 lbs. of butter, and when the morning's jnilk was added to the skimmed milk it made nine cheeses of 72 lbs. each. In some factories, in order that the night's milk may not be massed together in too large quantities, resort is had to a large, shallow pan set in a wooden vat with space between the two for water. The milk is set in these pans from two to three inches deep, and a stream of coid Avater kept flowing in the space between the pan and the vat during the night. WHEY BUTTER. At the whole-milk cheese factories a process has been adopted for taking the butter out of whey and preparing it for table use. Whey butter is not equal in flavor or texture to the product manufactured at the butter factor- ies. Still, by this process, whey butter may be made quite palatable, and, when fresh, it commands a fair price. I have seen whey butter side by side in the markets with that made from cream in the usual way at farm dairies, and dealers have selected the former in preference to the latter, not for a moment suspecting its origin. Indeed, so fine have been some of the samples, and so neatly were they put up, that it has been sold when quite fresh at the Little Falls market for the same price as ordinary brands of butter made in the flirm dairieF. Whey butter soon deteriorates in flavor, and should be consumed when freshly made. We give description of apparatus and process of making as follows : Apparatus. — The apparatus is a copper-bottomed vat 12 feet long by 3 feet wide and 20 inches deep. These dimensions maybe varied to accommodate the size of the dairy. The vat sets over a brick or stone arch, and is accommodated to the use of 18 or 20-inch wood. The floor is a slightly inclined plane toward the back of the BUTTER BOOK. 15.^ vat. The vat and areli sliould be placed a little lower than the milk-vat, so as to enable the whey to be easily drawn off by means of a syphon. The Process. — After drawing the whey from the cnrd into the vat over the arch referred to, one gallon of acid is added to the whey for every 50 gallons of niilk, if the whey is sweet. If the whey is changed, a less quantity will be sufficient, and if the acid is not sharp, one pound of salt should be incorporated with it. The acid having been added in the above proportions, heat is immediately applied to the mass until it indicates a temperature of from 170 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. The cream now begins to rise and is skimmed off with a tin sooop ; and when it has all been removed, it is set in a cool place and left to stand for 24jiours. It is then churned at a temperature of from 56 to G8 degrees, ac- cording to the temperature of the weather, and is then worked and salted in the ordinary manner of butter- making. This process gives on an average 20 pounds of butter from 500 gallons of whey. Making the Acid. — The acid is made by taking any quantity of whey after extracting the cream, heating it to the boiling point, and adding a gallon of strictly sour whey for every 10 gallons of boiling whey, when all the caseine and albuminous matter in the whey will collect in a mass, and may be skimmed off. The whey is now left to stand for 24 or 48 hours, wdien it wdll be ready for use as acid. AXNATTO AND ANNATTOINE. The butter factories prefer to give color to their butter by having the cows well fed, and by getting up the cream as quickly as possibly after the milk is drawn. Some- times, in winter, a little coloring may be r^sed, and for this jKirpose, as well as for coloring the cheese, nothing has giving so much satisfaction as annattoine, or the dry extract of annatto. It is cut or made ready for use in the following man- ner : 1. Put two pounds of annattoine in four gallons of clear, cold water, and let it stand in this state one day, stirring thoroughly meantime, so as to perfectly dissolve the annattoine. 2. Then put two pounds strongest potash and one pound sal-soda in three gallon;? of cold water. 155 WILLARDS PRAOTIOAL When this is perfectly dissolved and settled, ponr off the clear liquor and mix the two preparations (Nos. 1 and 2) together. 3. Let this compound stand two or three days, until the annattoine is cut or dissolved perfectly by the potash, stirring occasionally meantime. 4. For cheese, vise about a teacupful for a thousand pounds of milk. Do not mix with the rennet, but put it in a little milk, and then mix in the mass of milk in the vats by stirring it in thoroughly, just before the rennet is used. If, a day or two after the preparation is made, the an- nattoine does not seem to be perfectly cut, so that specks can be seen, it is certain that the potash was not strong enough. Adding more of a stronger solution of potash Avill remedy the trouble. AVhen annattoine is used for coloring butter, a portion of the prepared liquor is added to the cream at the com- mencement of churning. It gives a very rich color, and may be used in winter-made butter with advantage. For winter butter a large tablespoonful of the preparation for five quarts of cream just before churning is the usual practice. Xichols' (English) liquid annatto is an excellent preparation for butter. THE skim-chi-:ese department. I have referred to the manufacture of "skim-cheese " as a part of the butter-factory system. I have said that the cream is dipped from the milk while it is sweet, and that the latter then goes into the milk vats for making " skim-cheese." It should be remarked that at the butter factories the quantity of milk to be manipulated is usually much smaller than at the cheese factories. In making a fancy product it is found advisable that the delivery of milk be kept within moderate bounds, say from three hundred to five hundred cows. The factory railk-vats are all essentially alike in form and size. They hold from five hundred to six hundred gallons each, BUTTER BOOK. 157 There is a great variety of heating apparatus, boilers, steamers, tanks for hot water, and what are termed " selt- heaters," that is with fire-box attached to nnd immedi- ately below the milk-vat. This kind of heater was at one time very popiUar at the small butter factories where churning is done by liorse-power, as it consumes but little fuel, is easily managed, and does as good work as the best. In the more recent practice the tendency is to lit up the factory wath a steam boiler and engine, because then an efficient and convenient power is at hand to do the churn- imr, while steam can be employed for heating the vats, for cleansing dairy utensils, for warming the apartments by means of piping, and for other purposes connected Avith creamery operations. As the "self-heaters," however, are useful in farm dairies and often may be desirable in small creameries, I give illustrations of those in popular use. As their opera- tion will be readily understood from the cuts, it will be unnecessary for me to give a description of the various parts and operations of each. Fig. 45.— Joxes & Faulkner's New SELr-HEATiNG Vat. In large creameries steam has been and will probably continue to be the most popular method of heating. I have given illustrations of the most approved engines and boilers for factory use. The vats used in connection with steam are all nearly of the same character — the outer or wooden vat of clear, well-seasoned pine, the inner vat of large tin, imported expressly for this purpose. They are of different sizes, from 12 to 16 feet long and from 3 to 3^ feet wide, 19 inches deep, and holding from 450 to 030 crallons. BUTTER BOOK. 158 GANG PRESS. The old style of press is being superseded by Fri?re's patent, which is less cumbersome, more convei.vant, doing more work with less labor, (see page 160.) In this Press one screw is made to take the place twelve to twenty, if necessary, eaeli cheese receivins- BUTTER BOOK. 159 full pou-er; the Imndage is easily and perfectly adjusted in the hoop before putting in the curd, and the hoops hay- ing bottoms, the curd is easily measured or weighed in, in even quantities, and when the hoops are prepared for press, the wliole coluinn is as quickly and more easily put to press than even one can be by the old method. All press-boards and press- cloths, with the necessary labor of cleansing, are done away with. No turning, trimming or after bandaging is required, but when once put to press they are allowed to remain under a constant pressure till finislied and ready for the shelf. SKIM-CIIEESE MAXUFACTURE. The limit assigned for this book Avill not allow a lengthy description giving all the de- tails of clieese making. This subject is very fully discussed in my large work entitled "Practical Dairy Husband- ry," to which readers seeking extended knowledge must be referred. In making cheese from skimmed milk the leading- points of diiference in the process from that employed for whole milk cheese are that the milk is set at a lower temperature and more rennet is employed. Tlie " scald- ins: " or "cooking:" of the 160 WILLARDS PRAOTIOAL curds, so called, is at a lower temperature than for whole milk cheese and the saltiiiG: is less, but in curing skimmed cheese, the temperature of the curing room may be allowed to range higher. The reason why- more rennet is required in skinmied milk than in whole milk, was first explained in my address before the Cana- dian Dairymen's Association, in which I detailed some of the investigations of Dr. Bastian. From experi- ments in this di- rection it ap- pears that the lat ,^= globules are es- pecially concern- ed in the trans- formations or changes which we wish to bring about by the addition of rennet to the milk and that if a large share of the fat globules are removed from the milk, the designed trans- formation is weakened, and Fig. 49. more of tlie fermenting liquor or rennet will be required to supply the power lost by abstracting the fatty portions of the milk. In setting skimmed milk a tem])erature of about 80 de- grees Fahr. but sometimes lower, is employed in making it ready for the rennet, of which a larger quantity should be ueed than for whole milk cheese, the proportion should be graduated according to the amount of cream which has been removed, or as the milk is more or less rich. CUTTING AND SCALDING. It is cut with the perpendicular and horizontal knives in the usual manner as for whole milk cheese, and the process of working is similar; only the scalding heat should not be allowed to go higher than 86 degrees to 90 de- grees Fahr. The crurds are allowed to take on an acid condition and are saUed at the rate of about 2|- to 2} pounds salt to the .100 pounds of curd ; though it must be BUTTER BOOK. |gl remarked the quantity of salt must be regulated accord- ing to the amount of moisture in the curds. SIZE or CHEESE. Of late years the tendency has been to make skim- cheese of smaller size than those usually made at the whole-cheese factories, because there is a demand in the market for small sized cheese which the whole-milk fac- tories do not supply, consequently a small, fancy shaped skim will not unfrequently find a readier sale and better prices simply on account of its size. I have knoM'n half skim- cheese, that is a cheese made from milk the half of which (the night's mess) was skimmed, to sell at the Little Falls market, at the same prices as those obtained for the best fancy whole-milk factories, and these rates were obtained for the whole season. The cheese was of good quality, but the rates were maintained on account of the smaller and more desirable size as compared with the fancy whole-milk cheese, offered at that market. The best temperature for curing whole-milk cheese is at about 70 deg. Fahr. For curing skim-cheese the tem- perature should be several degrees higher, in order to keep up the necessary fermentation by which the proper changes may be brought about for breaking down the caseine and effecting a more complete assimilation of the moisture, so as to make a mellow and plastic article of food. IMPROVING SKIMMED MILK FOR CHEESE MANUFACTURE. Since the wide-spread introduction of creameries, and the general tendency to increase the production of butter through the creamery system, fears have been en- tertained that skim-cheese maiuifacture would be carried to excess. Already the leading cheese merchants of the country complain that there is an over-pi'oduction of this class of goods. They say that often the markets are crowded with these inferior iroods, much to the detriment |g2 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL of wliole-iiiilk cheese, (lragi2:ing down prices. An excel- lent reputation has now l)een established for American cheese in the markets of Britain, and the demand abroad for good cheese at good prices is sufficient to meet all surphis above home wants i.i American production. But poor clioese is not wanted abroad, except at very low rates, and the liandling of such cheese is attended with great peril to dealers. They say, therefore, that an in- crease of skim-cheese manufacture must in tlie end destroy the good name of American cheese in the foreign markets, and they therefore urge that in creamery practice, butter only should be made, and the skimmed milk be sent to the farm to be used in feeding domestic animals. Mr. H. O. FiiEEir.vN of Sherburne, Chenango County, N". Y., seems to have liit upon a plan for avoiding all the difficulties named — of converting the skininied-milk into a palatable and healthful article of food, and which sells for a good, fair price, both at home and abroad. And though it miy lack the flavor and quality of our best fancy whole-milk cheese, still it is meaty and possesses none of the characteristics of the ordinary skim-cheese, but compares favorably with much of the whole-milk cheese on the market. I have been using the so-called " oleomargarine" cheese on my table and I agree with Prof Caldwell and others Avho have used it in their families during the past year, that the cheese is palatable and makes a good, healthful article of food. I am informed that dealers who have handled the so-called oleomargarine cheese during the past year, have met with good returns in its sale, both at home and abroad, and that no com- plaint has been entered against it in the markets or by consumers ; and that they have fiiith in the process, is in- dicated by their becoming stockholders in a company for prosecuting its manufacture. Oleomargarine has been for the most part employed in the manufacture of this cheese, but whey butter or any low grad3 of butter, if clean and purified of its rancidity, may also be used successfully. As much interest has been manifested concerning this mw process for improving skimmed clieese, I give an illustration, Fig. 54, of the Ridge ]Mills Creamery, uear Rome, Oneida County, N. Y., and the process of manu- BUTTER BOOK. 163 facturing. This creamery has but just been erected and goes into operation the present season, 1875, for the first. It has many improvements and may be regarded as one of the model creameries of the State. Referring to the ground plan, Fig. 50, the main structure is 75 feet by 40 feet, and the curing rooms 100 feet by 25 feet. The wing, or engine and boiler-room is 26 by 26. A is the receiving- room, and 1 the weigh- ing can ; B is the cool- ing-rooin, and 2 the cooling-vats ; C is the make room, 3 the cheese-vats and 4 the chilrd-sink; D is the press-room and 5 Fra- zer's gang presses ; E is the butter-room and 6 the cream-vats ; V the churns ; F, engine, boiler and fuel room; G, celhir under curing- room ; H, boiler ; I, engine ; J, cold Avater tank; K, hot water tank ; L, vessel to melt the oleomargarine by steam. From A, the receiv- ing-room, the milk kee|3S moving towards its destination for cheese ; and this, after being taken from the press, is readily hoisted to the curing rooms. The cream, when separated from the milk, also takes its separate course and forms a distinct manufacture from the cheese. The room B, has a raised floor of 2 feet above the make room, (see Fig, 51). So that after the 164 WILLARDS PRACTICAL cooling vats are skiintned tlie milk is readily drawn off into the clieese-vats through a faucet in the bottom of the cooling-vat, and conducted by tin conductors into the cheese-vat. The manner in which this is effected, is illus- trated in Fig. 51, which gives a sectional end view of the factory. The cooling vats are similar to a cheese-vat in con- c — ^ B \ COOLING VAT. =A \ CHEBSE Wu I = _ 1 1 ^"^==^=^l^i::=^'^l Fig. 51. struction, with the addition of a tin cover, setting on top, over which a thin layer of cool water is run and the cool temperature caused by it falling upon the milk cools the latter quite rapidly. This co^■er is lifted up by weights when the milk is to be skimmed and the vat wash- ed preparatory to receiving the fresh milk. The sub- joined cut illustrates a face Fig. 5'.'. view of the cover. Fig. 52. Tiie water runs in througa a pipe at the end, B B. the pipe being perforated, and distributes the water in a shower. The water after passing over the top, runs into the wooden vat and surrounds the tin vat on the sides and bottom, running off as fist ns it runs in over the top of tin cover. The five holes, AAA, represents five venti- lators, say two to three inches in diameter, to allow the escape of warm air. The depth of this cover is from two to three inches and, as before stated, the w^ater running ov^er it is not deep, say one-fourth of an inch. The Ridge Mills Creamery, like all those owned by the Amei-ican Dairy and Commercial Com.pany, is built on princi])les which ensure, as far as a wooden structure can. the equal temperature of the whole buil<^Vms BUTTER BOOK. 166 It is filled in on all bides with saw-dust and the top ^toiy ceiling is covered with the same to the thickness of some six inches. The curing-room is warmed by steam pipe supplied from a U-horse power boiler. Mr Ireeman Fig. 53-lTKRioii View of Kidgk Mills CreAxMery. tliinks a ureat mistake made by many factories is tlie inadequate power of the boiler, and that too many place a boy in tins department to do a man's work. Mr. Freeman gives the following details in regard to the mannfacture of oleomargarine cheese. TWO METHODS OF SETTING MILK. Wc use two methods of setting milk. First. In some of our fjictories we set in tin coolers, 9x20, placing them in pools of cool spring water from 24 to 48 hours, according to season of year and temperature of atmosi)here. Second. In other four factories we use a cooling vat holding about 8,500 pounds of milk, similar to a cheese vat, except there is a cover upon the same,over which water is run and returned under the vat. ^ In this cover there arc ventilators to enable the warm air to escape, as it is driven out of the milk. AMOUNT OE BUTTER TAKEN FROM THE MILK. Takino- the season through, we obtain fully three 166 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL BUTTER BOOK. Ig^ pounds of l)utter from eacli one liundied pounds of milk received. In some locations we can obtain more butter, but the above is a safe, estimate. At the McLean cream- ery, Tompkins Co., N. Y., tlie result for the past season of 1874, was one pound of butter from each 32 41-100 pounds of milk. MILK NOT ALLOWED TO SOUK. The cream is taken from the milk before it sours, in order to properly preserve the skimmed milk for manu- facturing into cheese. AMOUNT OF OLEOMARGARINE ADDED TO THE SKIMMED MILK. To every one thousand pounds of skimmed-milk, there is added ten pounds of oleomargarine, and the produc- tion of quality of cheece has been described. PRODUCT MADE. From one hundred pounds of pure unskimmed milk we obtain : J^irst. 3 ])Ounds of butter. Second. 6^ pounds cured cheese, to which is added, one pound oleomargarine, which weight is retained in the curing of tlie cheese. In other words, after repeated trials of making on the same dav cheese from full skimmed milk as usually prac- ticed, and cheese from full skimmed milk with oleomarga- rine added, it has been found that the latter when cured fully outweiglis the former by the amount of oleomar- garine added to the latter. A LESS WEIGHT OF MATERIAL OBTAINED THAN FRO.AI FULL :},riLK CHEESE. In making butter and cheese from the same milk, there is not so great a quantity of material obtained from, say 100 pounds of milk, as in making full cream-milk cheese, since the buttermilk contains caseine to a greater or less extent, and we do not use the buttermilk in the manufacture of cheese. SOUR CREAM MAKES MORE AND BETTER-KEEPING BUTTER. It has been found th.at soui-ing cream before churning increases the ])roduction of buttei-, and also produces a 168 WILLAHD'S PRACTICAL keeping quality of butter. The sour buttermilk may add to the quantity of cheese, but the quality is not such as commends itself to the consumer. COST OF OLEOMARGARINK. The oleomargarine costs in New York city from 14 to 15 cents per pound, and therefore, if the cheese made from skimmed milk and oleomargarine should sell for 14 or 15 cents per pound, the cost of fat, added, would amount to nothing, as it has been proved the fat increases the weight of the cheese fully as much as the quantity used. MODE OF MANUFACTLTRE. The mode of manufacture of oleomargarine cheese is very simple, and differs but slightly from the manufacture of all other cheese. The skimmed milk is placed in the usual cheese vat and heated to 92 degrees Fahrenheit, when the oil, fat, or whatevcir you may choose to add, so long as it is " fat " — having first been melted in a sepa- rate vessel, — is added to the skimmed milk and stirred from 3 to 5 minutes, or until an emulsion is effected, when rennet is added sufficient to cause coagulation in from 8 to 10 minutes, and thus the fat added is made to enter into the composition of the curds while the latter are in a nascent state. The curd is then cut and worked in the manner of all careful cheese factories, and such fat as is expelled by cutting off the curd rises on top of the whey and is skimmed off before the latter is drawn, and is used the following day. SET AT HIGHER TEMPERATURE AND COAGULATES MORE QUICKLY. You will observe that we set at a higher temperature than is usual in the factories of this country, and it is found necessary to do so in order to produce the proper emulsion of the skimmed milk and fat. We also set quicker ; but the higher temperature requires but little more rennet to accomplish the quick setting than the or- dinary heat applied to milk for slow setting. INjjEX Aeration 6(5 Annattoine 155 Annatio. Nichols' 150 Boiler, Anderson 122 and engine, Jones & B'aulk- j ner 118-119 | andenfiine, Roe'a 120 and engine, Cliarles Millar.. 119 and engine, Iron Slave 119 ( Butter 55-tiO 1 additional suggestions in worliing, washing and salting iOj | Artificial (iO ' Associated dairying 89 I Amount from given quantity I milk at Cold Spring l<'aciory.. IHO Brining , 141 Box for factory 128 I Cause of rancidity in (^1 Causes that delay coming i;>;{ Churning and washing 1|;>I Coloring lot; I (%)nHiosition ot m\ (Join i>o^ition of fatty acids of f)!! I Concerning and liow to koo|> 140 1 ComuMtiing the keeping qualities of 87 I Concerning the manner of | working 139 Consumption increases as I quality improves 6 I 'rop, numUer of cows re- quired for fi I Cop 5 1 J);jke process 132 Dake system for improving 1 farm dairy 132 Explanation of rancidity in.. 57 Factory, plan of first 93 Kactory plan of for large puns )27-13S Flavoring oils of 55 How rancid may be purified. 58 Keeping qualities of Swedish 153 Making at ilie cheese fac- tories 153 Making, Colvert's process of ttt Making, points concerning.. 8tj Making premium on Shallow Setting System 129 Making Swedish 152 milk, expelling 102 more from churning milk than cream 136 more obtained by mixing milk of di£F«;rent cows more olein in summer Parisian Philadelphia „ » Philosophy of making and keeping 133 I 60 153 Butter Preservation of, Girard'g pounds of milk required for at Factories 124 Preserving of, in France 141 Preserving, sugar and salt- peter 142 Preserving another rule 142 Preservation of 140 Preservation of, Belins' pro- cess 141 meth od 140 Preservation of. Redwood's process 141 Price of, advancing abroad.. 7 — — Prof. Caldwell's views «m the composition of 59 Kate of consumption 6 Restoring rancid 143 Salting and packing, Swedish system 152 Table, showing experiments 51 — — Saltpeter and sugar for pre- serving, in Orange Co 103 Washing the 138 What the appearance of, should be 137 Whey 154 — — Whey, process of making.... 155 White specks in 87 Working in. salt 106 Working the 104 Working and salting at Union Factory 113 Worker 104-64 Worker, Champion 105 Worker, Eureka 04-ti5 Cans, Carrying ventilated .• 116 — Wickott's ventilating 117 Churns and Churning 96 Churns 63 Cliurn, Barrel iOl Blanchard 63 Blanchard's Factory 100-101 Dash and walking-beam 98 Dasher 9T .^'actory 101 Powers 64 Tornado 63 Whipple's rectangular 64 Coecal E.xtremities or follicles o9 Colostrum or first drawn milk of the cow 37 (^)mpositio^ of 38 Composition of milk, cream and butter 54 Cows breathing foul air 17 — Brief summary of items in the care of milch 15 — Care of 14 — Coming in milk 19 — Cleansing the blood of 19 170 Index. Cows, docility of temper, how ac- quired 17 — How brutal treatment of, af- lectstlie milk 25 — Jerkiiij; out of staiKliions 17 — Jersey 9 — Number required for the but- ter crop fi — Result of crowding too close. — Should be full fed 31 — Small breed, richest milk 9 — The average butter product of 11 — The, for butter dairying 8 — The milking habit educated.. 16 — View of udder of 41 — Water after salting 17 Cheese. Skim, cutting and scalding. IGO — Skim, coloring 1.5*3 — Skim department of 156 — Skim, manufacture 159 — Skim, setting 1(J0 — Skim, sizeof Ifil — Skim, rennet for ItK) — Oleomargarine 162 — Oleomargarine, amount of milk used 107 — Oieomarggarine, butter taken from milk 1C5 — Oleomargarine, milk not al- lowed to sour for 167 — Oleomargarine, milk set at higher temperature IGS Oleom.rgarine mode of manu- facture 16S — Oleomargarine, setting the milk 169 — Oleomargarine, weight less than full milk 167 Oleomargarine, product made 167 — Press. Frazer's Gang 1.58-160 Cream, Analyses of, different au- thorities 48 — Agitation of in Churning 137 — Clotted 78 — Composition of 47 — Composition of different sam- ples of 48 — Churning, the best tempera- ture for 137 — Churning at Cold Spring Creamery 129 — Gauge per cent 11 — Obtained from milk co(tled by ice water, Swedish system... 151 — Of first drawn milk poorer than that of last drawn 49 — Percentage of. in milk 54 — More, the mbre the original heat J s retained 1.50 — Strainer t>2 — Sour, makes more and better butter 1G7 — Temperature of, when churns are started 130 — Time required to rise. Swedish system 151 — Treatment of, Swedish sys- tem 151 Creamery, Cooling Vats for 164 For a small number of cows 111-112 Interior view of K>5 Laree pan system 124 Pail and pool svstem !<2 Plan for a large 114 Ridge Mills 162 • Ridge Mills, eievati(m IGf! Ridge Mills, plan of KB — — Reports 131 Dairymen Questions for U Dairying, Winter 32 Mr. Boies', practice 33 Dairies, Farm 61 Dairv-room. Wilkinson's descrip- tion of 81-85 Dairy. Wilkinson's Gulf Stream 7g — Plan of Gulf Stream 82-83 — Wilkinson'sSuper cooling duct 81 — Wilkinson's, reversing the cir- culation 80 — Wilkinson's, action of the ducts 79 — Wilkinson's. Salubrity secured 80 Factories. Organizing 89 Factory, Butter box Ill Plan for a butter and cheese combined 122-123 Plan of butter on the large f>r shallow.setting system.. . 127 The new departure in man- agement 9ft Fat, Composition of liquid in mar- — row 56 — More the less space of time in- tervening between milking... 53 Fats. Stearine and Oleine in 5H> Feeding 26 Garget, Saltpeter for 19 Glycerides 60 Grass and grain feeding 20 Grasses are social 29 Grass, different order of seeds for pastures than meadows 30 — First turning to 19 — June, wire, meadow, fescue, and orchard 28 — Varieties esteemed for butter dairying 27 Hoven. Remedvfor 20 Ice-water, hight of, Swedish 150 — — Methoil. Swedish 149 Ice. Quantity required. Swedish 1.50 Mammary Gland, mode of action of 43 Margarine, Supposed composition of 59 Milk, Amount of butter and cheese in, tables of 12-13 — Best from young animals 46 — Butter in 64 — Cellar with ice-house attach- ment 7.?-74 — Churning the 1.35 — Milk Cellar, Crozier's 74 — Comingin 19 — Composition of new 46 — Composition of Skimmed 50 — Concerning acidity in 86. — Considered in its physiological and chemical relations 35 — Death fi-oni using impure 22 — Diseased, from tilthy stables and diseased vegetables 21 — Disoa-^cd. nature of the poison uncertain 22 — Devonshire plan of scalding... 77 — Difference in composition of in different animals 47 — Deep and shallow setting of... 88 — Fatty matter of 46 — Forcing air into 66 — Globules, largest in Jersey cows 45 — Globules, microscopical ap- pearance of 36 — How affected by brutal treat- ment of cows 20-25 — Influence of insufficient food. on 23 — Managem(^nt of, carried to the creauiery IW Index. m Milk, House, Farm dairy 65 — Manner of treating 94 — Means employed for detecting diluted 118 — Percentajje of cream and but- ter in 54 — Poisoned by animalculae 24 — poisoned by violent emotions or shocks of the nervous sys- tem 24 — Room artificial heat in. coun- teracts the influence of thunderstorms... . 75 — Quicker cooled, the more cream 149 — Room, heating the 75 — Scalding the 76 — Secreting follicles and ducts arrangement of 40 — Skimmed, amount of oleomar- garine ailJed 167 — SIcim, improving for cheese... 161 — Vats, factory 15^> — Swedish treatment of 143 — Tables of . . .12-1:^ — Testing of each animal 10 — 'I'heiM-y of Souring . 54 — Typhoid fever germs com- municated through 24 — Treatment of 1J2 — Uniformity in the composition of 52 — Pan, Cowles....; 127 — — Jewett'a 126 — — Orange Co 126 — Setting for cream at Cold Spring Creamery 129 Oleomargarine. Cost of 168 Overstocking ,30 Package. Empire butter 14(5 — — Ice lor butter prints Ill — — The metalic demanded by the trade 147 — — Metalic euameled butter... 145 — — Metalic with wooden cover 146 — — Stone's tin.,, J46 Package, Roll butter in tin cases. ... 144 — — Roll butter for market 143 — — Roll butter in jars, prepar- ing the brine, etc 144 — — Butter 107 — — White's butter 110 — — for butter prints llO-lll Pails , 62 — Butter, Philadelphia 71 — Butter, Wescott's Return...... 108 — Cleansing 62 — for setting milk, Swedish sys- tem 148 — and Cream Dipper 95 — Oval-shaped, Swedish system. 149 Pans, Bunnell & Brown's Iron Clad 76-77 — Jewett 125 Results from the Union Creamery.. 114 Salt weigher 130 Sailing after expelling butter-milk 102 — cows 17 — Philosophy of, for butter.... 138 Scales, Factory 117 Secretion 38 Spring House 67 — — Pennsylvania 68 Stock, Important considerations in the care of 26 Steamer and Caldron, Eagle 121 Tanks, Cooling, Swedish 148 Temperature of Cream for churn- ing at Cold Spring Factory 130 — — Controlling in dairy rooms 67 — — cooling room, Swedish... 150 Vaccinic Acid 59 Vat, Cream 115 — and Heater, Roe's 159 — Jones & Faulkner's 157 — Portable Heater, Millar's 158 — Self-heaters 1.57 Ventilation 18 Vault, Construction of 72 Dry system 71 Jvocation 72 Milk, and churn room 73 Water for Cows 19 ■^-.-'At^ :■ --.V \^^ ■1 ^' ; i i ; 1 ■