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PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY 
 
 PART I 
 
 Field and Laboratory Guide 
 
 BY 
 
 L. S. DAUGHERTY. M.S., Ph. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO. 
 
 AND 
 
 M. C. DAUGHERTY 
 
 AUTHOR WITH JACKSON OF "AGRICULTURE THROWJH THE LABORATORY 
 AND SCHOOL GARDEN" 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
 
 W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 
 
 1912 
 
Copyright, 1912, by W. B. Saunders Company 
 
 PRINTED IN AMERICA 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
PREFACE 
 
 A SATISFACTORY course in Zoology requires field, laboratory, 
 and text-book work on a series of typical animals. This 
 method will bring the student into contact with the animal 
 world in its manifold relations. 
 
 The teacher may follow any order which he prefers, but the 
 studies in this guide are arranged with a view to seasonal 
 supply. Insects are plentiful and easily obtained by the 
 class in the fall, while fishes, frogs, and turtles may be kept 
 in aquaria or purchased at any time from dealers in zoologic 
 supplies. Also, the dissection of the vertebrate forms is less 
 unpleasant in the winter. Earthworms and lower forms may 
 be obtained in the spring. 
 
 Zoology is a study of animals and not information about 
 animals. As Ruskin says, '' the greatest thing in the world is 
 for a man to see something and to tell clearly what he saw." 
 It is intended that the student find his answers in the animal 
 before him. 
 
 Things he cannot get from the animal in the laboratory he 
 should get from the study of the animal in the field, or, where 
 this is impossible, from descriptive zoologies. ''Principles of 
 Economic Zoology," Part II, is intended to supply this need. 
 
 In the preparation of these studies, helpful suggestions have 
 been used from time to time from various authors, but they 
 are largely the result of many years' teaching of Zoology, of 
 personal investigation, of travel and observation from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific, and in the best schools of Europe. 
 
 The Authors. 
 
 IviRKSViLLE, Mo., November, 1912. 
 
 a^^\h^ 
 
 
 T 
 
 19663 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 To THE Teacher 1 
 
 To THE Student 2 
 
 The Laboratory 3 
 
 Plan for Using Laboratory Studies of Typic Animals 5 
 
 Laboratory Studies Upon Typic Animals G 
 
 General Preliminary Study, 0. — Ecologie or Environment 
 Study, S. — Animal Behavior, 12. — Morphologic Study, IS. — 
 Classification or Systematic Study, IS. — Final Oral or Written 
 Study. IS. 
 
 Crustacea 2S 
 
 Study of Live Crayfish, 2S. — Morphophysiologic Study of the 
 Crayfish, 32. — Mounting a Crayfish, 44. 
 
 Arachnida (the Spider") 4S 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study oi the Spider, 4S. 
 
 Insecta o2 
 
 Collection of Insects Required of Each Student, 52. — Life- 
 history, 62. — Spraj's and Spraying, 66. Insect Studies: The 
 Grasshopper, 70.— The Butterfly. S6.— The Honey Bee or the 
 Bumble Bee, 90.— The House Fly. 02. Hemiptera: The Squash 
 Bug or the Cicada. 96.— The Beetle. 9S.— Systematic Study for 
 Branch Arthropoda. 104. — Systematic Study for the Classes of 
 Arthropoda. 104.— Ordinal Study for Class Insecta, 106.— Com- 
 parative Systematic Study, lOS. 
 
 Pisces (the Fish) 112 
 
 Study of a Live Fish, 112.— The Sunfish, 116. 
 
 V 
 
VI CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Study of Chordate Branch Characteristics 128 
 
 Study of Chordate Class Characteristics, 128. 
 
 Amphibia (the Frog) 132 
 
 Study of the Live Frog, 132. 
 
 Reptilia (the Turtle) 152 
 
 Study of the Live Turtle, 152. 
 
 Ayes (the Bird) 174 
 
 Study of Live Birds, 174. 
 
 Mammalia (the Rabbit) 200 
 
 Study of a Live Rabbit, 200. — Systematic Study of the Rabbit, 
 218. 
 
 Man 222 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study, 222. 
 
 Protozoa 226 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study, 226. 
 
 PORIFERA 230 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study, 230. 
 
 CCELENTERATA 234 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study, 234. — Systematic Study, 238. 
 
 Echinodermata (the Starfish) 240 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study, 240. — Systematic Study, 246. 
 
 Annulata 248 
 
 Study of Live Earthworms, 248. — Morphophysiologic Study, 
 252. 
 
 MOLLUSCA 260 
 
 Study of a Live Fresh-water Clam or Mussel, 260. — Morpho- 
 physiologic Study of the Clam, 262. — Study of the Snail Shell, 
 270. — Systematic Study for Branch Mollusca, 270.— Systematic 
 Study for Classes of Mollusca, 272. 
 
 Index 273 
 
PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY 
 
 PART 1 
 
 FIELD AND LABORATORY GUIDE 
 
 TO THE TEACHER 
 
 The purpose of these studies is not to obtain a few facts 
 about the structure and hfe-history of animals, but to lead the 
 student to discover the principles which underlie these facts 
 and to bring him to see that the same fundamental principles 
 apply to all animal life, including man. 
 
 The teacher is entreated not to fail to use the General 
 Studies as indicated, especially upon the forms from Arthro- 
 poda up, and not to be worried because of the repetition of the 
 same questions for different animals. Study to see how these 
 questions may or may not be applied, and why. Remember, 
 we are after principles. The study of the live animal, both in 
 the field and laboratory, will be found to give a new and vital 
 interest to the subject. If you will persevere in the use of 
 these studies as they have been planned, Zoology will grow to 
 have a fascination for you and your students which mere facts, 
 however abundant and accurate, can never give. 
 
 It is not expected that all of these animals will be studied 
 every year. Each teacher must determine the kind and 
 amount of work he can undertake with his classes. He must 
 find out what he can best use and what he can most easily 
 obtain. One year some material may not be obtainable, and 
 another year, easily obtainable; or lack of time or oppor- 
 tunity may necessitate the omission of a certain suggested 
 study. However, these changes will make the work new each 
 year, and students cannot copy from the note-books of the 
 previous year. 
 
 1 
 
 .«i<ar 
 
TO THE STUDENT 
 
 The study of animals is a fascinating subject, but, remember, 
 you must study the animals. A machine is interesting to you 
 if you can experiment with it, just to see what you can do with 
 it or make it do for you. Just so with animals, you must 
 study the animal "machine," living and dead, to understand 
 something of what it can do and the why of its existence. 
 Everything about a machine is there for some purpose. So 
 in an animal, everything you see has or has had a use. You 
 may not be able to determine what it is, but you can try to 
 find out in the same spirit you try to find out the use of the 
 parts of a machine. In your study of the animal machine 
 you must use your mind and some .tools to enable you to find 
 out the wonderful make-up of it, for it is far more wonderful 
 than any other machine you ever worked with. 
 
 The dissection may not be pleasant to some of you, but all 
 things worth while cost something. Forget the odors and 
 ''ask the animal" what you want to know. Look and think 
 of what you are trying to find and of its use to the animal. 
 Look even further, for the principles which underlie its struc- 
 ture and use. Finally, you will see that you have much in 
 common with the animals about you. You are influenced by 
 your environment and heredity much as they are. You will 
 see also that you are dependent upon them for many things 
 necessary to your daily existence and comfort. Get your eyes 
 open while you are alive. See and enjoy the beautiful, won- 
 derful world in which you live. 
 2 
 
THE LABORATORY 
 
 The equipment for good work will depend very largely on 
 the energy, initiative ability, enthusiasm, and tact of the 
 teacher. A live animal, a live pupil, and a live teacher would 
 constitute a live and interesting class with no other equip- 
 ment, while, without these, an expensive equipment will arouse 
 little or no interest. The following equipment will be found 
 very helpful: 
 
 (1) Magnifying glasses of ten and twenty magnification 
 power are found to be the most satisfactory for class use. 
 
 (2) Compound microscopes. One for two students gives 
 good results, but one for each student is the ideal plan. 
 
 (3) Dissecting instruments. These may be purchased for 
 $1 per set and kept in stock for class use, or each student 
 may use his own set. 
 
 (4) Tables with lockers in which students may leave their 
 notes and instruments from day to day are essential. 
 
 (5) Insect net. (See under Insects, p. 56.) 
 
 (6) Cyanid bottle. (See p. 54.) 
 
 (7) Material: (a) Marine material may be purchased of 
 the Marine Biological Laboratory, Wood's Holl, Massachu- 
 setts. 
 
 (b) Inland forms may be obtained from Alfred W. Jones, 
 Salina, Kansas, or from N. O. Lawson, Geneva, Illinois. 
 
 (c) Local material should be collected by the teacher and 
 class as field exercises. It may also be purchased inexpen- 
 sively from small boys, who are ever ready to earn a few pen- 
 nies. 
 
 (d) Stock material may be kept in from 2 to 5 per cent, 
 formaldehyd or formalin. 
 
 Fish, frogs, and such forms should have a few cuts in the 
 body to admit the preserving fluid to the internal organs. 
 
 Take 1 part, by measure, of formahn and 19 parts, by 
 measure, of water for preserving insects for class use. 
 
 3 
 
4: THE LABORATORY 
 
 For temporary use, small vertebrate forms may be kept 
 in a strong solution of common salt. This draws out the 
 blood and, if poured out and renewed occasionally, gives ex- 
 cellent satisfaction. 
 
 For class use it is an excellent plan to have each student 
 keep his specimen in a glass fruit-jar, labeled with his own 
 name. 
 
 Reading List. — The teacher should make a hst of avail- 
 able books on animals for the students' use. Give the author 
 and page of the book where the desired information is to be 
 found. This reading list is very helpful for points which are 
 hard to get from the animal. 
 
 ''The Teaching of Biology/' by Lloyd and Bigelow (Long- 
 mans, Green and Co., N. Y., SL50), is very helpful to the 
 teacher. It contains scores of references to biologic subjects. 
 
PLAN FOR USING LABORATORY STUDIES OF 
 TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 The authors have found by experience that the following 
 order of studies is a good plan for each type: 
 Study of the Live Animal. 
 
 I. General Preliminary Study. The student should learn 
 to take such points as he can answer from the animal, omit- 
 ting only such as do not apply to the animal under considera- 
 tion. "Ask the animal, do not ask the teacher." 
 
 II. Ecologic or Environment Study. All points which 
 apply to the animal under consideration, numbering your 
 answers accordingly. 
 
 III. Study of Animal Behavior. 
 
 IV. Special Morphophysiologic Study. 
 
 V. Systematic Study of the branch, class, and order to 
 which the animal belongs. 
 
 VL Final Study, which should be preceded by the study of 
 the descriptive text. 
 
 These studies give the student a formula to follow in study- 
 ing animals from different viewpoints, and fix the facts and 
 principles in his mind. 
 
 Each teacher w\\\ observe that the Studies I, II, and III do 
 not require dissection, but are intended to give the student a 
 preliminary view of the live animal, if possible, but in any 
 case, with the animal before the student. Then follows the 
 Morphophysiologic Study, or the dissection, for which a 
 separate study is provided for each animal type. 
 
LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS^ 
 I. GENERAL PRELIMINARY STUDY 
 
 1. General characteristics of this animal as to — 
 
 (1) Head, 
 
 (2) Body, 
 
 (3) Appendages, 
 
 (4) Mouth, 
 
 (5) Ears, 
 
 (6) Eyes, or as many of these as you can identify and 
 
 describe briefly. 
 
 2. Symmetry. Is this animal asymmetric, radial, or bi- 
 lateral? 
 
 3. Habitat. Is this animal aerial, aquatic, terrestrial, or 
 subterranean? 
 
 4. Food. 
 
 (1) Is this animal carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous? 
 
 (2) How does it obtain its food? 
 
 (3) Is there anything about the structure of this animal 
 
 to suggest how it gets its food? To suggest the 
 character of its food? 
 
 5. Locomotion. 
 
 (1) How many appendages or limbs has this animal? 
 
 (2) Is it fixed or free? What effect does this have upon 
 
 its development and movements? 
 
 (3) Is its locomotion affected by body movement, by limb 
 
 movement, or by l^oth? 
 
 (4) Upon what part of the body, limb, or foot does it 
 
 move from place to place? 
 
 (5) What is its locomotion called? 
 
 (6) Rate of locomotion as compared with that of man? 
 
 6. Self defense. 
 
 (1) Name its direct means of defense. 
 
 (2) Name its indirect means. 
 
 1 See Plan for using these studies, p. 5. 
 6 
 
8 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 7. Rivalry. 
 
 (1) By battle? If so, how? 
 
 (2) By song? 
 
 (3) By color or by what means? Describe accurately. 
 
 (4) Adaptations for rivalry. Spurs, horns, quills, bill, 
 
 fine feathers, or what means? 
 
 8. Covering. 
 
 (1) Consists of scales, fur, shell, or what? 
 
 (2) Variations of the covering on various parts of the body 
 
 ■or appendages? 
 
 9. Color. 
 
 (1) General color of this animal? 
 
 (2) Color of its head? 
 
 (3) Color of its tail? 
 
 (4) Color dorsally? 
 
 (5) Color ventrally? 
 
 (6) Color laterally? 
 
 (7) Color of hmbs or appendages? 
 
 (8) Describe color patterns accurately. 
 
 10. Resemblances. 
 
 (1) Any protective resemblance? If so, what? 
 
 (2) Why? 
 
 (3) Does the attitude of this animal affect this resem- 
 
 blance? If so, how? 
 
 11. Parasites. 
 
 (1) Is this specimen a parasite? If so, upon what? 
 
 (2) Effect of this parasitism upon the parasite? 
 
 (3) Effect upon the host? 
 
 (4) Is this animal a host for a parasite? If so, for 
 
 what? 
 
 (5) Effect upon the host? 
 
 12. Sketch. Make a sketch of this animal and name the 
 external parts. If the animal is small, make the sketch life 
 size or larger. 
 
 II. ECOLOGIC OR ENVIRONMENT STUDY 
 
 Environment is considered as everything outside the animal 
 which may affect it. 
 
10 LABORATOKY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 1. Is the environment of this animal — 
 
 (1) Aquatic, 
 
 (2) Terrestrial, 
 
 (3) Subterranean, 
 
 (4) Arboreal, 
 
 (5) Aerial, or 
 
 (6) Some combination of these? 
 
 2. Change its environment from to 
 
 How would this change affect its — 
 
 (1) Structure, 
 
 (2) Food, 
 
 (3) Enemies, 
 
 (4) Dispersal, 
 
 (5) Barriers, 
 
 (6) Locomotion, and 
 
 (7) Covering? 
 
 3. Organic Forces (animals and plants). 
 
 (1) What influence upon this animal has a scanty vege- 
 
 tation? An abundant vegetation? 
 
 (2) What influences have animals of the same kind? Of 
 
 different kinds? 
 
 4. Aqueous Forces. Influence upon this animal of rain, 
 snow, sleet, hail, or ice? 
 
 5. Atmospheric Forces. Influences of the direction and 
 velocity of winds? 
 
 6. Igneous Forces. Influences of the varying temperature 
 from day to day and from month to month? During what 
 months is this animal most active? Least active? 
 
 7. Weather. Influence of such weather as to-day on this 
 animal? 
 
 8. Climate. Influence of this temperate climate on this 
 animal? 
 
 9. Make a Hst— 
 
 (1) Of all the environment factors that favor this 
 
 animal. 
 
 (2) Of those that are unfavorable to it. 
 
 10. State briefly your estimate of the influence of environ- 
 ment, past and present, on this animal. 
 
12 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 ni. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 
 
 Teacher, designate such of the following as you wish to con- 
 sider for the animal you are studying. Student, do not guess 
 your answers. Find out by observation, experiment on the 
 animal, and by reading in advanced zoologies. 
 
 1. Irritability. How shown? Why shown? Use? 
 
 2. Reflexes. 
 
 (1) Automatic actions. Name those of this animal? Why 
 
 automatic? 
 
 (2) Reflex actions. How, when, and why shown by this 
 
 animal? Are these conscious or unconscious? 
 
 3. Sensation. 
 
 (1) Sense of touch. 
 
 (a) Strong or weak? Why? 
 
 (b) Relied upon for what information by this animal? 
 
 (2) Taste. 
 
 (a) Evidences of this sense? 
 
 (b) Well or poorly developed? Why? 
 
 (c) Relied upon for what information? 
 
 (d) Organs of taste? Their location? 
 
 (3) Smell. 
 
 (a) Is this sense of smell well or poorly developed? 
 Why? 
 
 (b) Evidences of the sense of smell? 
 
 (c) Relied upon for what? Used at long or close range? 
 
 (d) Any motion of the organs? 
 
 (4) Sight. 
 
 (a) Describe the organs of sight. Their location. 
 
 (b) Relied upon for what? 
 
 (c) Used at long or close range? 
 
 (d) What portion of a circle, of which this animal is the 
 center, can it see without turning its head? With- 
 out turning its body? How? 
 
 (5) Hearing. 
 
 (a) Location of organs? 
 
 (b) Are they well or poorly developed? 
 
 (c) Consist of what? 
 
 (d) Relied upon for what? 
 
14 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 (e) Used at Ions or close range? 
 
 (f) Their motions, if any? Purpose of these motions? 
 4. Instincts. 
 
 (1) Egoistic Instincts. 
 
 (a) Feeding. 
 
 (1) What particular food-securing instincts has this 
 
 animal? How shown? 
 
 (2) Adaptation for securing food? 
 
 (b) Self-preservation. 
 
 (1) What instincts of self-preservation has this animal? 
 
 Defense, concealment, flight, feigning death, or 
 what? 
 
 (2) What are its adaptations for self-preservation? 
 
 (c) Environment Instincts. 
 
 (1) Climatic instincts. Name them. 
 
 (2) Atmospheric, those induced by the weather. 
 
 Name, if any. 
 
 (3) Aquatic. If the animal lives in the water, sub- 
 
 stitute number (3) for number (2), and name 
 the instincts induced by the water in which the 
 animal lives. 
 
 (d) Instinct of sleep. 
 
 (1) When shown? 
 
 (2) Purpose? 
 
 (e) Play. Has this animal any instinct of play? If so, 
 
 what? 
 
 (1) Is it social or solitary? 
 
 (2) Purpose of play to this animal? 
 
 (f) Strife. 
 
 (1) When shown? 
 
 (2) Why shown? 
 
 (g) Hunting. 
 
 (1) Adaptations for? 
 
 (2) Purpose? 
 
 (2) Altruistic Instincts. 
 
 (a) Courtship. By male or female? 
 
 (b) Reproduction. Sexual, asexual, or both? 
 
 (c) Home making. By male or female? 
 
 (d) Care of young. How? 
 
16 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 5. Emotions. 
 
 (1) Which of the following emotions have you seen this 
 
 animal show? Surprise, fear, parental affection, 
 pugnacity, industry, curiosity, jealousy, anger, 
 emulation, pride, love of ornament, grief, hate, 
 cruelty, revenge, shame, deceit. 
 
 (2) Which of the above-named emotions do you infer 
 
 that it has? Why? 
 
 6. Voice or Sound (if any). 
 
 (1) How, when, where, and why made? 
 
 (2) Called what? 
 
 (3) Made by the male, the female, or both? 
 
 (4) Organ, or organs of voice? 
 
 (5) Location of sound-making apparatus? 
 
 (6) Range of voice or sound? 
 
 (7) Make a list of the sounds made by this animal. 
 
 (8) Significance of each sound made? 
 
 (9) Can this animal communicate with its own kind? If 
 
 so, how? 
 
 7. Memory. 
 
 (1) State your proof for or against this animal's having 
 
 memory. 
 
 (2) Of its own young? Instances. 
 
 (3) Of its own species? Instances. 
 
 (4) Of different species? Instances. 
 
 (5) Of direction? Instances, if any. 
 
 (6) Of place? Instances. 
 
 (7) Of past experiences? Instances. 
 
 (8) Of man? Instances, if any. 
 
 8. Reason. 
 
 (1) Does this animal learn from past experiences? Prove 
 
 your position on this point. 
 
 (2) Does it have the power of adaptive choice? Prove 
 
 statement by examples observed. 
 
 (3) Does it have the power of abstract thought? 
 
 9. Intelligence. Is this animal high, medium, or low in 
 the scale of intelligence? Upon what do you base this 
 statement? 
 
18 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 IV. MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY OF THIS ANIMAL 
 V. CLASSIFICATION OR SYSTEMATIC STUDY ^ 
 
 1. This animal belongs to Branch because it has 
 
 these branch characteristics: (Student name them.) 
 
 2. To Class It has these class characteristics : 
 
 3. To Order It has these ordinal characteristics : . . . 
 
 Advanced Study — 
 
 4. To Family It has these family characteristics: . . . . 
 
 5. To Genus . .It has these generic characteristics:. . . 
 
 6. To Species It has these specific characteristics:. . . 
 
 7. Scientific Name: 
 
 8. Common Name : 
 
 Remark. — The student will discover these characteristics 
 from the animal and from consulting advanced works on 
 zoology. Endeavor to get a correct idea of what scientists 
 mean by branch, class, or ordinal characteristics. Get the 
 Principles of Classification. 
 
 VI. FINAL ORAL OR WRITTEN STUDY 
 
 Note. — This study is intended to be taken after the ex- 
 amination and the dissection of the animal has been completed, 
 and the test has been carefully studied upon the type consid- 
 ered. The answers, then, may be based upon the student's 
 own observations or upon his study of the text and reference 
 books. Some of the general headings have been repeated here, 
 but nearly all of the questions under them are new, and such 
 as were purposely omitted from the other studies in order that 
 the animal might be gotten through with as quickly as possible, 
 and thus all unpleasant odors avoided. 
 
 1. Skeleton. 
 
 (1) Use of this skeleton to the animal? 
 
 (2) Use of this skeleton to man? 
 
 2. Size. Do male and female differ in size? If so, how? 
 Why? 
 
 ^This study should be taken after the Morphophysiologic Study of This 
 Animal. 
 
20 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 3. Struggle for existence. Give reasons for the threefold 
 struggle for existence among animals. 
 
 4. Digestion. What advancement or degeneration is there 
 in the organs of digestion of this animal compared with those 
 of the last animal studied? 
 
 5. Circulation. What advancement or degeneration in the 
 circulatory organs as compared with those of the last animal 
 studied? 
 
 6. Respiration. W^hat advancement or degeneration, if 
 any, in the organs of respiration of this animal as compared 
 with those of the last animal studied? 
 
 Any difference in the respiratory organs of the young from 
 those of the adult animal? 
 
 7. Nervous System. What advancement or degeneration 
 in the nervous system of this animal, as compared with that 
 of the last animal studied? 
 
 8. What organ, if any, appears here for the first time in the 
 animal kingdom? 
 
 9. Any metamorphosis? If so, name the animal in each 
 stage of its development. 
 
 10. Home. 
 
 (1) Its home is called nest, den, or what? 
 
 (2) Location of home? 
 
 (3) Materials used? 
 
 (4) Tools used in making the home? How is the home 
 
 made? 
 
 (5) Purpose of the home? 
 
 11. Food. 
 
 (1) Food of the young? 
 
 (2) Food of the adult? 
 
 (3) Food in summer? Does it vary from that of winter? 
 
 How? 
 
 (4) How does this animal obtain its food? 
 
 (5) Where does it obtain it? 
 
 (6) When does it obtain it? 
 
 (7) Does this animal injure man's crops? If so, how? 
 
 Remedy? 
 
 (8) Is it in any way beneficial to man's crops? How? 
 
22 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 12. Enemies. 
 
 (1) What is this animal's particular mode of defense 
 
 against them? 
 
 (2) Does it have any peculiar mode of attacking them? 
 
 If so, what? 
 
 (3) Name its means of defense. 
 
 (4) What are the enemies of the young? 
 
 (5) Does the male or the female defend the young? 
 
 (6) Is the young able to defend itself? If so, how? 
 
 13. Covering. 
 
 (1) Does the covering of the young differ from that of the 
 
 adult? If so, how? Does it ever change in thick- 
 ness from environment causes? 
 
 (2) Uses of this covering to the animal? 
 
 (3) Use to man? 
 
 (4) What inferences as to the habits and habitat of this 
 
 animal do you draw from its covering? 
 
 (5) Does this animal have an ecdysis? Describe. 
 
 14. Color. 
 
 (1) What gives this animal its color? 
 
 (2) Significance of its color and color patterns? 
 
 (3) Does the color of the young differ from that of the 
 
 adult? If so, how? Why? 
 
 (4) Does the color of the male differ from that of the 
 
 female? If so, how? Why? When? 
 
 (5) Does the color of different individuals of the same sex 
 
 vary? If so, how? Why? 
 
 (6) Does the color of the same individual vary at different 
 
 seasons or under different environment conditions? 
 If so, how? Why? 
 
 15. Resemblances. 
 
 (1) Any special protective resemblance? (S. P. R.) 
 
 (a) If so, what does it resemble? 
 
 (b) How? 
 
 (c) Why? 
 
 (2) Any variable protective resemblance? (V. P. R.) 
 
 Describe. Cause? 
 
 (3) Any aggressive resemblance? (A. R.) If so, what 
 
 does it resemble? 
 
24 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 (a) How? 
 
 (b) Why? 
 (4) Mimicry. 
 
 (a) What does it mimic? 
 
 (b) Just how does it resemble the mimicked species and 
 A^, ^ how does it differ from it? 
 
 &^^ (c) What advantage does it gain by this mimicry? 
 Sf ^ (d) Is this animal conscious of its mimicry? Is the 
 
 # 
 
 «■ 
 
 \J mimicry voluntary 
 
 ^ hJ* (5) Attitude. Does this animal assume any particular 
 '^jg attitude for protection? If so, how does this atti- 
 
 ^ tude affect its protective resemblance? 
 
 ^ 16. Warning Colors. If any, describe accurately the color 
 ^ and color patterns. 
 ' (1) Of what use are these colors to the animal? 
 
 (2) Of what do they warn the enemy? 
 
 (3) How do the habits of animals having warning colors 
 
 differ from those of animals having protective re- 
 semblance? 
 
 17. Alluring Colors. 
 
 (1) If any, describe them minutely, and tell how they are 
 
 used to allure, and why? 
 
 (2) What difference, if any, between the alluring colors 
 
 of the male and those of the female? 
 
 18. Recognition of its Own or Different Species. 
 
 (1) By color. If the recognition is by color, state color, 
 
 and accurately describe color patterns. 
 
 (2) By sound. If by sound, what is the sound called? 
 
 (3) By odor. If so, how and when is it used? Upon 
 
 what part of the body is the odor secreted? 
 
 (4) By shape, by contact, or by what means? 
 
 (5) When, how, and why does this animal make use of its 
 
 means of recognition? 
 
 19. Terrifying Appearance or Attitude. If any, how, when, 
 and why shown? 
 
 20. Relations with Other Animals. 
 
 (1) Is this animal solitary, social, or gregarious? Why? 
 
 (2) What is a number of these animals together called — 
 
 a herd, a swarm, or what? 
 
26 LABORATORY STUDIES UPON TYPIC ANIMALS 
 
 (3) Anj^ commensalism or symbiosis? 
 
 (a) With what animal? 
 
 (b) Effect upon each? 
 
 (4) Is this animal diurnal, crepuscular, or nocturnal in 
 
 its activities? Why? 
 
 21. MultipHcation. 
 
 (1) Is this animal hermaphroditic? 
 
 (2) Is it dimorphic, trimorphic, or polymorphic? 
 
 (3) Does it have alternation of generations? 
 
 (4) Is its multiplication sexual, asexual, or both? 
 
 22. The Young. 
 
 (1) Number in a brood? 
 
 (2) Number of broods in a year? 
 
 (3) Are the young precocial or altricial? 
 
 (4) Time required to reach growth or maturity? 
 
 (5) Average length of life of this species? What relation 
 
 between the growing period and the length of life? 
 
 23. Activities Due to Environment. 
 
 (1) Does this animal migrate, hibernate, or remain active 
 
 in winter? 
 
 (2) If it hibernates, how or in what does it hibernate? 
 
 (3) If it migrates, to what place or conditions does it go? 
 
 (4) Does it go singly, or with others of its kind? 
 
 (5) Does it migrate, estivate, or remain active in summer? 
 
 If it migrates, to what place does it go? Why? 
 When does it go? When return? 
 
 24. Geographic Distribution. 1 State as accurately as possible 
 the geographic distribution of this family or species of animals. 
 
 (1) Do any of its habits or features of structure vary in 
 
 different localities? How? Why? Examples. 
 
 (2) Name some of the means of dispersal of this animal. 
 
 (3) Name the barriers to dispersal. Why are these con- 
 
 ditions barriers to the dispersal of this particular 
 animal? 
 
 25. Geologic Distribution.^ 
 
 (1) In what era did its Branch and Class appear? 
 
 (2) Are the individuals of this class more numerous than in 
 
 former geologic eras? 
 
 (3) Are they more or less highly developed? 
 
 ^See Daugherty's "Economic Zoology." ^See a good geology. 
 
CRUSTACEA^ 
 STUDY OF LIVE CRAYFISH 
 
 1. Collecting. 
 
 (1) Day Field Trip. 
 
 (a) Look along the edges of shallow ponds and streams. 
 
 (b) Look under stones in the shallow rapids of small 
 
 streams. 
 
 (c) What means have the crayfish of evading or escap- 
 
 ing you? 
 
 (d) Where do you find the crayfish holes most numerous? 
 
 (1) Note their depth. 
 
 (2) Do the holes all have chimneys? 
 
 (3) Did you ever find the chimney stopped up with 
 
 mud? What kind of weather was it? 
 
 (4) Do the crayfish live singly or in pairs? 
 
 (2) Evening Field Trip. Try agpn at night, by placing 
 
 a bright light where it will shine down into the 
 water. Crayfish will be attracted by the light and 
 may be captured with the net,^ which, for use in the 
 water, should be of strong, open-meshed goods like 
 seine cloth. 
 
 (a) Do you find crayfish active in the daytime or at 
 night? 
 
 (b) Are they solitary or gregarious? 
 
 2. Aquarium. 
 
 The habits and activities of crayfish may be advantageously 
 studied in a tank or any sort of an aquarium where the water 
 may be changed occasionally. 
 
 (1) Do they seek the light or the sheltered places? 
 
 (2) Find out, by trying various kinds of food, whether they 
 
 are herbivorous, carnivorous, or omnivorous. 
 
 (3) Watch them feed and describe their feeding habits. 
 
 (4) Find out all their kinds of locomotion. 
 
 (5) What means of concealment have they? 
 
 1 The study of Insecta may precede that of Crustacea in order to obtain 
 live insects. 
 
 2 See " Insect net." 
 
 28 
 
30 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (6) Means of defense — which do thej^ do first, flee or 
 
 fight? 
 
 (7) In flight, what kind of locomotion do they use? Just 
 
 how is it performed? 
 
 (a) Give two reasons why they go backward. 
 
 (b) Molest one from behind. What does it do? Wh}^? 
 
 (8) Try experiments to discover their range of sight. 
 
 (a) What part of a circle can a crayfish see, since it can- 
 
 not turn its head? How? 
 
 (b) Can it see if there are any obstacles in its way when 
 
 it darts backward? 
 
 (9) Find out if the surface of the body is sensitive to the 
 
 touch. 
 
 (10) See if you can find any reason for two pairs of antennae. 
 
 (11) Find out if the crayfish can hear, smell, or taste. 
 
 (12) Determine the direction of the gill-currents by placing 
 
 a drop of ink near the anterior edge and one at the 
 
 posterior edge of the carapace. 
 3. Development. 
 
 In early spring females with large, berry-like clusters of eggs, 
 under the abdomen, will be found. 
 
 (1) To what are the eggs fastened? How? 
 
 (2) Take these female specimens to your aquarium and 
 
 watch the eggs till they are hatched. 
 
 (3) The young. 
 
 (a) Do they differ from the adults? If so, how? 
 
 (b) Are they freed or attached to the mother? If at- 
 
 tached, how? 
 
 (c) Do they feed themselves, or are they fed by the 
 
 mother at first? 
 
 (d) What is their food? 
 
 (4) Molting. 
 
 (a) Watch carefully for the process of molting. 
 
 (b) How does the crayfish get out of its shell? 
 
 (c) Did any accident happen to it while it w^as getting 
 
 out? If so, what? 
 
 (d) In what condition is the body when the shell is first 
 removed? 
 
 (e) W^here does the newly molted crayfish stay? 
 
32 CRUSTACEA 
 
 I Take Preliminary Study. 
 II. Take Environment Study. 
 
 III, Take Animal Behavior. 
 
 IV. Take Morphophysiologic Study. 
 
 V. Take Systematic Studies for Branch and Class. 
 VI. Mount a crayfish. 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE CRAYFISH 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 I. General Observations. 
 
 1. Number of Segments. Zoologists claim that the crayfish 
 is composed of twenty segments. Begin with the last seg- 
 ment of the abdomen and see how many segments you can find. 
 Each pair of appendages is attached to a different segment. 
 
 2. Length — from tip of rostrum (between the eyes) to the 
 end of last segment. 
 
 3. Covering — the carapace. Its composition? 
 
 4. Cervical Groove — which shows where the head and 
 thorax unite in the cephalothorax. 
 
 II. Body Divisions. 
 
 1. The Cephalothorax (head and thorax united). 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Length to abdomen? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) The Eyes. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Kind (simple or compound)? 
 
 (c) Sessile or stalked? 
 
 (d) Location? 
 
 (e) Motion? 
 
 (f) Protection? 
 
 (g) Color? 
 
 (h) Use? 
 
 (i) Sketch, much enlarged. 
 
 (5) The Antennae. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
34 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (c) Location? 
 
 (d) Number of segments? 
 
 (e) Covering? 
 
 (f) Parts. (Take out one, sketch it, see Huxley or other 
 
 large zoology, and name all the parts present.) 
 
 (g) Use? 
 
 (6) The Antennules. (a)-(g) as for antennse. 
 
 (7) The Mandibles, or Jaws. A pair of hard toothed ap- 
 
 pendages. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Motion? Horizontal or vertical? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (e) Mandibular palpi. Number to each mandible? 
 
 (f) Metastoma, a leaf-like structure posterior to each 
 
 mandible. 
 
 (8) The MaxillaB — two pairs of thin appendages just poste- 
 
 rior to the m.andibles. With your forceps carefully 
 remove them from one side. Be careful not to in- 
 jure them. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (c) Sketch each, much enlarged. 
 
 (9) The Maxillipeds — three pairs of similar appendages be- 
 
 tween the maxillae and the large legs. 
 
 (a) With forceps carefullj^ remove the maxillipeds from 
 
 one side. Sketch each one, much enlarged. 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (10) The Legs. Five pairs. 
 
 (a) Remove the large leg on the right side and sketch it. 
 
 (b) How many segments has it? 
 
 (c) Sketch shapes into which you can arrange this 
 
 ''toggle-jointed" appendage. 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (e) Compare it with the second pair of legs, noting 
 
 points of similarity and difference. 
 
 (f) Compare with the third pair. 
 
 (g) Compare with the fourth pair, 
 (h) Compare with the fifth pair. 
 
36 CRUSTACEA 
 
 2. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Number of segments? 
 
 (3) Number of appendages (swimmerets) ? 
 
 (4) The telson, last segment, has no appendages. 
 
 (5) The Swimmerets. 
 
 (a) Remxove and sketch the pair from the third abdom- 
 
 inal segment. Note that it has a main stalk and 
 two branches. 
 
 (b) Compare it with the first pair, noting similarities 
 
 and differences, or sketch both to show comparison. 
 
 (c) Compare with second pair. 
 
 (d) Compare with fourth pair. 
 
 (e) Compare with fifth pair. 
 
 (f) Compare with sixth pair. 
 
 (g) Use of the swimmerets? 
 
 (h) Compare with thoracic legs, 
 (i) Compare with maxillipeds. 
 (i) Compare with maxillse. 
 (k) Compare with mandibles. 
 (1) Compare with antennae . 
 (m) Compare with antennules. 
 (n) Compare with eyes. 
 
 (o) Conclusion. — Appendages of the same essential plan 
 or not? 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 Follow the same plan for dissection as in insect studies. 
 Chloroform a fresh specimen or kill it by warm water, as directed 
 for the clam. 
 
 1. The Circulatory System. Carefully remove, wdth scissors 
 and forceps, the dorsal portion of the abdomen and about one- 
 half inch of the carapace, and expose the heart, which is a whit- 
 ish, oblong organ. 
 
 (1) Pericardial cavity in which the heart is located. Use? 
 
 (2) The heart. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
38 
 
 CRUSTACEA 
 
 Xt'-J 
 
 Fig. 1. — Astacus fluviatilis. A male specimen, with the roof of the cara- 
 pace and the terga of the abdominal somites removed to show the viscera 
 (natural size) : aa, Antennary artery ; ag, anterior gastric muscles ; amm, 
 adductor muscles of the mandibles ; cs, cardiac portion of the stomach ; 
 gg, green glands; h, heart; hg, hind gut, or large intestine ; Lr, liver ;_oa, 
 ophthalmic artery; pg, posterior gastric muscles; saa, superior abdominal 
 artery; t, testis; vd, vas deferens. (Huxley.) 
 
 (c) Openings — how many? Use? 
 
 (d) Trace small white tubes, arteries, to different parts 
 
 of the body. 
 
40 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (3) Plan of circulation of blood of the era} fish. From heart 
 
 to From to From 
 
 to the heart. 
 
 (a) Any veins? Any capillaries?^ 
 
 (b) How is the circulation kept up? 
 
 (c) Why is the circulation kept up? 
 
 2. The Respiratory System. 
 
 (1) The Gills. With sharp scissors cut away the cara- 
 
 pace from one side of the cephalothorax, exposing 
 the white, feathery gills. Dissect under water. 
 
 (a) Number of gills attached to the base of each leg? 
 
 Remove each leg with your forceps and see. 
 
 (b) Number attached to body wall? 
 
 (c) Total number on one side? 
 
 (d) Total number on both sides? 
 
 (e) What does Huxley's ''Crayfish" say as to the number 
 
 of gills in the Enghsh crayfish (genus Astacus)? 
 
 (f) Does our crayfish (Cambarus) have the same number 
 
 of gills as the Enghsh crayfish? 
 
 (g) Use of the gills? 
 
 (h) Do you see that they are really on the outside of the 
 body wall, i. e., are external organs? 
 
 (2) Plan of the respiratory system. 
 
 (a) How connected with the circulatory system? 
 
 (b) Why connected with the circulatory system? 
 
 3. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) Mouth-parts. (Mandibles, etc.) 
 
 (a) Name parts concerned in prehension. 
 
 (2) The Mouth. Find it with your probe. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Location? 
 
 (3) The Gullet. Find this short tube leading into the 
 
 wide stomach. Use? 
 
 (4) The Stomach. With scalpel very carefully cut away 
 
 the top of the head and expose the large, thin-walled 
 stomach. 
 (a) Color? 
 
 iSee Huxley's "Crayfish," pp. 69-74. 
 
42 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Contents? Open it and see. 
 
 (d) Use of the stomach? 
 
 (5) The Liver — large masses of reddish or brownish mate- 
 
 rial posterior to the stomach. 
 
 (a) Number of lobes? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (6) The Intestines. Trace them from the stomach to 
 
 the vent, in the last segment of the abdomen. 
 
 (a) Straight or coiled? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (7) Diagram or sketch the digestive organs and name them. 
 
 4. The Muscular System. (The Muscles.) 
 
 (1) The white meat. Where do you find it? 
 
 (2) Use to the crayfish? 
 
 (3) Use to man? 
 
 5. The Nervous System. Look for a white cord along the 
 floor of the abdomen. 
 
 (1) Is the cord single or double? 
 
 (2) How many ganglia to a segment? 
 
 (3) How many ganglia in the abdomen? 
 
 (4) How many ganglia in the thorax? 
 
 (5) How many ganglia in all? 
 
 (6) Esophageal ganglia. Trace the nerve cord forward 
 
 until it ends in a larger ganglion about the gullet. 
 To what organs can you trace nerves? 
 
 (7) Sketch plan of nervous sj^stem. 
 
 6. The Special Senses. 
 
 (1) The Eyes. How protected? 
 
 (2) The Ears. 
 
 (a) Ear-sacs. Look for them at the base of the anten- 
 
 nules. 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Contents? 
 • (d) Use? 
 
 (3) The Tongue. 
 
 (a) Any present in the mouth? 
 
 (b) Has the crayfish taste?^ 
 
 1 Huxley, p. 115. 
 
44 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (4) Organs of Sensation (Feeling). 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Consist of what? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (5) Upon what sense does the crayfish most rely? Why? 
 For comparison, make a study of any other crustaceans 
 
 available, using the General Studies and the Morphophysio- 
 logic Study for the crayfish, making any necessary changes or 
 omissions. 
 
 MOUNTING A CRAYFISH 
 
 Take a smooth pine board about 6x8 inches or larger, as 
 the size of specimen requires. (Heavy cardboard, as suggested 
 by Colton, will answer if boards are not available.) Bore a 
 small hole in the center of one end of the board if you wish to 
 hang up your specimen when mounted. 
 
 1. Draw a line the length of your crayfish down the center 
 of the board. 
 
 2. Take a moist (not wet) crayfish, and very carefully 
 remove and arrange in their natural order the following ap- 
 pendages from one side of the crayfish: One antennule, one 
 antenna, one mandible, one metastoma, two maxillse, three 
 maxillipeds, five legs, and six swimmerets. 
 
 3. Temporarily pin your specimen so that the center of it 
 from beak to telson will be over the line drawn in the center of 
 the board, and so that the appendages not yet removed will lie 
 in their natural position. 
 
 Now take the appendages you have removed, one at a time, 
 beginning anteriorly, and with a small amount of Major's 
 white cement stick each one to the board so that it lies as 
 nearly as possible in the same position as the one not yet 
 removed, except that instead of overlapping, the mouth-parts 
 should lie one in front of another so as to show all the parts, 
 and the legs and swimmerets should have their bases along the 
 sides of the body and not under it. 
 
 When these are securely fastened down to the board, unpin 
 the crayfish and remove the appendages from the other side, 
 arranging them similarly on the other side of the central line 
 and at the same distance from it. 
 
46 CRUSTACEA 
 
 4. Now disjoint the abdomen from the cephalothorax and 
 with a scalpel clean out the soft parts from the interior of both. 
 Put them together again with the median line above the line 
 drawn in the center of the board, placing a bridge of cork or 
 paper under the junction of the cephalothorax and the abdo- 
 men, to raise the crayfish to its natural curvature, and glue 
 them in place. 
 
ARACHNIDA (The Spicier) 
 
 Take Morphophysiologic Study of the spider. 
 Take Systematic Study for Branch Arthropoda. 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE SPIDER. 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. The Cephalothorax (head and thorax united). 
 
 (1) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) Attachment to thorax? 
 
 (5) Its one marked pecuharity? 
 
 (6) Appendages. 
 
 (a) Antennae present or absent? 
 
 (b) Compound eyes present or absent? 
 
 (c) Simple eyes present or absent? 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Location? Show by sketch. 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) Shape? 
 
 (5) Use? 
 
 (d) Mandibles or jaws (chelicerae). 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Number of segments? 
 
 (3) Number of fangs? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (e) Pedipalpi, palpi, maxillae, or second pair of jaws 
 
 present? 
 
 (f) Mouth-parts for biting or sucking? 
 
 (g) The legs. 
 
 (1) Number of pairs? 
 
 (2) Of same size, or do they vary? 
 
 48 
 
50 ARACHNIDA (tHE SPIDER) 
 
 (3) Number of segments to each leg? 
 
 (4) Number of clawed legs? 
 
 (5) Sketch a leg and name parts present. 
 
 (6) In what order do the legs move in locomotion? 
 
 Watch a live spider and see. 
 
 (7) Covering of the legs? 
 (7) The Special Senses. 
 
 (a) Sight. Organs of? 
 
 (b) Touch. Organs of? 
 
 (c) Smell. Organs of? 
 
 (d) Hearing. Organs of? 
 
 (e) Taste. Organs of? 
 
 (f) Name any other senses present. Organs of? 
 2. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (2) Covering? 
 
 (3) Color above? 
 
 (4) Color below? 
 
 (5) The Spinnerets. (Use magnifying glass.) 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (6) The Lung Sacs. (Use magnifying glass.) 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (7) Trache2e. (Use magnifying glass.) Look just in 
 
 front of the spinnerets. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
INSECTA 
 COLLECTION OF INSECTS REQUIRED OF EACH STUDENT 
 
 Arrange your collection in groups to represent the follow- 
 ing characteristics: 
 
 1. As to Mouth-parts. 
 
 (1) Five insects having biting mouth-parts. 
 
 (2) Five insects having sucking mouth-parts. 
 
 (3) Three insects having mouth-parts adapted for both 
 
 biting and sucking. 
 
 (4) At least one insect having mouth-parts for lapping. 
 
 2. As to Protective Resemblance. 
 
 (1) Five insects having general protective resemblance. 
 
 (2) Six insects having special protective resemblance — 
 
 by color, by shape, by attitude, or by any or all of 
 these combined. 
 
 3. Mimicry. Two genuine cases of mimicry, presenting 
 in each case both the mimic and the mimicked. 
 
 4. As to Activities. 
 
 (1) Five crepuscular or nocturnal insects. 
 
 (2) Five diurnal insects. 
 
 5. As to Economic Value. 
 
 (1) Five insects which are useful to man. 
 
 (2) Five insects which are harmful to man. 
 
 (3) At least three specimens of insects' architecture or 
 
 industry. 
 
 Temporary Insect Case. — A cigar-box with a sheet of cork 
 or a couple of layers of coarse white blotting-paper in the bot- 
 tom will serve very well for a temporary insect case for each 
 student. 
 
 Put a few drops of turpentine or formaldehyd in one corner 
 to keep out hve insect pests. Use regular insect pins. Klaeger's 
 Nos. 3 and 4 are perhaps the most useful sizes. They may be 
 obtained from dealers in naturalists' supplies. 
 
 52 
 
54 INSECTA 
 
 The pin, except in the case of beetles, should be passed 
 through the thorax of the insect, one-third of ttie pin extending 
 above the body. On the pin, about half-waj^ between the in- 
 sect and the cork, place a paper label giving date and locality 
 of capture, and the name of the insect or the principle which it 
 illustrates. Beetles should have the pin thrust through the 
 right wing cover near the middle of the body. 
 
 Make out a ''box-scheme" showing what each of your insects 
 represents, remembering that the same specimen may belong to 
 several of the above-mentioned groups. Write this scheme 
 in ink on white paper and paste it on the inside of the lid before 
 handing in your collection. 
 
 Collecting. 
 
 1. Equipment. 
 (1) Killing Bottle or Cyanid Jar. 
 
 (a) Preparation. Put about a teaspoonful of potassium 
 
 cyanid, broken into bits, into a wide-mouthed 
 bottle or a pint fruit-jar. Do not handle the 
 cyanid with the fingers, nor breathe its fumes, as it 
 is extremely poisonous. Pour in just enough 
 water to cover the cyanid, then carefully pour 
 in enough plaster-of-Paris to take up the water. 
 Set the bottle, uncorked, on the outside window 
 ledge over night. Carefully drain off any surplus 
 water, leave it exposed to the air for a short time, 
 and cover the plaster-of-Paris with a piece of 
 cotton batting or a disk of paper cut to fit the 
 jar. Cover and keep tightly closed when not in 
 use. Label the jar 'Toison." 
 
 (b) Use. When an insect is caught in the net, uncover 
 
 the cyanid jar and with one hand carefully slip 
 it into the net and place the mouth of the jar 
 over the insect, then, with the other hand, place 
 the lid of the jar on the outside of the net directly 
 under the mouth of the jar and quickly turn the 
 jar right side up, keeping the Ud over the mouth 
 until the insect is slightly stupified, then slip the 
 lid on the jar inside the net. 
 Many times an insect at rest on stem or flower 
 
56 INSECTA 
 
 can be readily caught in the jar by sHpping the 
 open jar below the insect and quickly knocking 
 it into the jar with the lid. 
 
 (2) Net. 
 
 (a) Making. ''For a handle to the net an old broom- 
 
 stick may be used. Bend a No. 3 galvanized 
 wire into a circle about a foot in diameter, turn- 
 ing the ends of the wire out. A hole should be 
 made in the end of the handle by burning it with 
 a red hot iron, or by boring it with a small bit. 
 Now fasten the ends of the wire firmly into this 
 with pegs or nails. Make a cheesecloth sack a 
 yard long, round off one corner of the bottom, 
 and firmly sew the open end to the wire."^ 
 
 (b) Using. In using, give the net a light, quick swing. 
 
 When an insect is caught, throw the net over to 
 one side so the insect cannot escape at the top. 
 
 Sweep the net along over the grass or the tops of 
 bushes as you pass, and insects trying to escape 
 will fly into the net. Instead of chasing a butterfly, 
 follow it cautiously till it lights and quickly 
 throw the net over it. 
 
 As to the manner of taking the insects from the net, 
 see cyanid jar (1) (b). 
 
 (3) Care of Specimens while collecting. 
 
 If only a few insects are caught, they may be carried 
 home in the cyanid jar, and even allowed to remain 
 in it over night, but if very many are captured, 
 some will be damaged by crowding, or by the 
 struggles of those afterward put into the jar. 
 (a) A deep cigar-box may be used to good advantage 
 for carrying home the insects. In the bottom of 
 the box put a layer of sheet wadding, then a 
 layer of glazed or tissue paper, then a layer of 
 insects. Follow this by alternate laj^ers of wad- 
 ding and paper, and insects as needed, putting the 
 glazed paper next to the insects. 
 
 ^ Jackson and Daugherty's " Agriculture Through the Laboratory and 
 School Garden." 
 
68 INSECTA 
 
 (b) For butterflies and other insects with large and 
 beautiful wings, use separate papers as follows: 
 Let the wings of the butterfly be folded over its 
 back. Lay it on its side on a rectangular piece of 
 paper. Fold the paper down over the butterfly, 
 forming a triangle, and turn the margins over to 
 keep the paper closed. 
 (4) Breeding Jar. Prepare several breeding jars for rear- 
 ing insects from the eggs or larvse. Place a couple 
 of inches of sand or soil in the bottom of a quart 
 fruit-jar, cover the jar with a piece of cheese-cloth, 
 securing it in place by a small rubber band. 
 When insect eggs or larvse are found, place them, 
 together with a portion of the plant on which they 
 are found, in the jar. Moisten the sand, but do 
 not make it too wet, and renew the food every day. 
 If the plant food is too far away, or if it will be less 
 trouble, place a small bottle of water in the bottom 
 of the breeding jar, and keep a branch of the food- 
 plant in it. Renew this as needed, for caterpillars 
 are greedy, and you will need to keep a good supply 
 of food for them. 
 2. Field Trip. 
 (1) Habitat. 
 
 (a) Look in the grass and wxeds, under stones and 
 
 boards and logs, and in old rotten stumps, on the 
 bark of trees, in galls and rolled-up leaves, and 
 especially upon any plants having leaves full of 
 holes or with ragged edges. 
 
 (b) Look on the surface of the water of a pond or slow 
 
 stream. Look in the mud along the edge, or 
 carry som.e of the muddy water back in a breed- 
 ing jar and let it stand for a few days. Examine 
 to see if it contains any insect life. 
 
 (c) Look flying about in the air. 
 
 (d) What three kinds of habitats do you find occupied 
 
 by insects? Why do you find certain kinds of 
 insects in one place, and certain others in different 
 kinds of habitats? 
 
60 TNSECTA 
 
 (2) Adaptations. What special adaptations to environ- 
 
 ment do you find? 
 
 (a) Are some kinds of insects harder to find than others? 
 
 Why? 
 
 (b) Are some harder to capture than others? Why? 
 
 (3) Food. 
 
 (a) Notice carefully upon what plant, and what part 
 
 of the plant, each kind of insect is feeding when 
 found. 
 
 (b) Notice whether there are any holes in the leaves or 
 
 stem of the plant, or how the plant has been 
 affected by the insect. 
 
 (4) Effects upon Vegetation. 
 
 (a) If there are any holes in the plant, how were they 
 
 made? 
 
 (b) In what stage of the development of the insect was 
 
 the damage done? 
 
 (c) How would you get rid of these insects, if injuri- 
 
 ous?^ 
 
 (d) Did you find any beneficial insects? If so, what were 
 
 they, and how are they beneficial? 
 
 (5) Enemies. 
 
 (a) Did you observe any enemies of any insect? If so, 
 
 what? Why is it an enemy? 
 
 (b) How does the insect escape or combat these enemies? 
 
 (6) What examples of insect architecture or industry did 
 
 you find? 
 
 (7) Relationships. 
 
 (a) Did you see, on your trip, any case of symbiosus 
 
 among insects, or among insects and plants? If 
 so, explain. 
 
 (b) Did you observe any social life among insects? If 
 
 so, describe. 
 
 (8) Description of the Trip. 
 
 After reaching home, write in ink a brief description 
 of this trip, covering the points mentioned, and 
 hand to the teacher. 
 
 ^See "Insecticides," Jackson and Daugherty's " Agriculture Through 
 the Laboratory and School Garden." 
 
62 INSECTA 
 
 3. Evening Trip. 
 
 (1) Make a trip to the electric lights in the evening and 
 
 you will find many beetles, moths, and bugs; or 
 watch for the ^'hawk-moths" about the phlox and 
 nasturtium beds. 
 
 (2) Spread for bait a thick syrup of brown sugar upon the 
 
 bark of tree trunks, at night. Carry a lantern and 
 go from one tree to another, looking carefully for 
 the moths. Quickly put the mouth of the cyanid 
 jar over the moth while it is feeding. 
 Care of the Specimens. — 1. Spreading Board. The wings 
 of the larger specimens will need to be spread before they dry 
 out. For this purpose, take a soft pine board, cover it with 
 a coarse blotting-paper or a sheet of cork. In each side of the 
 center of the board tack four or five thicknesses of blotting- 
 paper, leaving a space of about one-half inch in the center of 
 the board as a groove for the body of the insect. 
 
 Thrust an insect pin through the thorax and pin the body in 
 this groove. By pushing against a strong vein with a pin 
 (not with the fingers or you will spoil the beauty of the speci- 
 men) arrange the wings so that the posterior margins are at 
 right angles to the body, and the anterior margins of the poste- 
 rior wings barely touching them. Fasten them down by pin- 
 ning narrow strips of paper over them near the body and allow 
 them to remain so for a few days. 
 
 2. Moistening Jar. If the specimens get dry before you have 
 mounted them, do not attempt to mount them until they have 
 been relaxed by placing them for a clay or two in a closed glass 
 jar with a layer of wet sand covered with a dry paper in the 
 bottom. 
 
 3. The Permanent Insect Case must be very tight fitting 
 and covered with glass. A sheet of cork should line the bottom, 
 and the appearance is greatly improved by covering this cork 
 with w^hite paper. 
 
 LIFE-HISTORY 
 
 Suggestion. — To make sure of an entire life-history of an 
 insect, if the time is short, place a "blue-bottle" or "blow-fly" 
 in a breeding jar with a piece of meat on which to lay its eggs. 
 Watch closely as soon as the eggs are laid. The complete 
 
64 INSECTA 
 
 development from egg to adult requires only about two weeks, 
 and for this reason the fly makes a good study. 
 
 Plant-feeding caterpillars are less repulsive, and the cabbage 
 butterfly develops in a few weeks and makes an interesting 
 study; but try any and everything you find. 
 
 1. Development. 
 
 (1) Watch the development of the eggs or larvae in the 
 
 breeding jar from day to day, and make note of every 
 change. 
 
 (2) If you can get them, save a specimen in each stage 
 
 of the development for your collection. (Place the 
 larvae in a solution of formaldehyd.) 
 
 (3) What is the duration of each stage of development? 
 
 What is the name of each stage? 
 
 (4) Sketch each stage in your notebook. 
 
 2. Activities. 
 
 (1) Observe and describe the following activities: 
 
 (a) Eating. 
 
 (b) Crawling or walking. 
 
 (c) Molting of the larvae. 
 
 (d) The spinning of a cocoon, or the forming of a pupa- 
 
 case. 
 
 (2) Questions. 
 
 (a) Is the insect herbivorous or carnivorous? 
 
 (b) How does it obtain its food in each stage of its ex- 
 
 istence — by biting, sucking, or lapping? 
 
 (c) Does it avoid or choose the light? 
 
 3. Economic Importance. 
 
 (1) In what stage, if any, is it injurious to vegetation? 
 
 (2) How would you get rid of it if injurious? 
 
 (3) Does it prey upon any other insects in any stage of its 
 
 development? Is it preyed upon by any other insect? 
 
 4. Intelligence. 
 
 (1) State at least three instincts v/hich you have seen dis- 
 
 played by this insect. 
 
 (2) Have you seen any intelligent action? If so, what? 
 
 (3) Try an original experiment to see if you can make 
 
 this insect choose to act in a way different from the 
 usual one. Record your results. 
 
66 INSECTA 
 
 SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 
 
 There are three classes of pests which may be combated by 
 spraying: fungi, sucking insects, and biting insects. For 
 spraying fungi, Bordeaux mixture has long been used with suc- 
 cess. The only objection to it is on account of its tendency to 
 injure tender foliage and the delicate skin of young fruit. On 
 account of this, lime sulphur is often used as a fungicide in spray- 
 ing. After July 1 the skin of apples is smoother and firmer and 
 not so easil}^ injured by the Bordeaux. Bordeaux is recom- 
 mended also for apple scab, the spray to be applied just before 
 the blossoms open. Bordeaux is a fungicide only, having no 
 effect upon insects, while lime sulphur acts as both a fungicide 
 and a contact insecticide. 
 
 Insects having sucking mouth-parts are not affected by ar- 
 senic sprays, since poison placed upon the surface of the plant 
 is not taken into the stomach with the food. These insects 
 must be killed by contact insecticides. 
 
 Biting insects may be poisoned by arsenic sprays, since they 
 chew and swallow the food. 
 
 Formulas for Spraying Mixtures 
 
 Fungicides. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture: 
 
 Quick lime, 3 to 6 pounds. . 
 Copper sulphate, 3 to 6 pounds. 
 Water, 50 gallons. 
 Dissolve the copper sulphate in water in an earthen jar or 
 wooden pail and dilute to about thirty gallons. Slake the lime, 
 which must not be partially air-slaked, and add to it twenty 
 gallons of water. Now mix the two solutions thoroughly and 
 strain through a A\dre-cloth strainer into the spray tank. Two 
 pounds of arsenate of lead may be added to this mixture if 
 wanted for an insecticide. 
 
 Lime sulphur (for spraying against San Jose scale) : 
 Commercial lime sulphur, 1 gal. 
 Water, 8 to 12 gal. 
 For summer spraying of apples: 
 Lime sulphur, 1 gal. 
 Water, 30 to 40 gal. 
 
68 INSECT A 
 
 Contact insecticides. 
 Kerosene emulsion: 
 Soap, I pound. 
 Kerosene, 2 gal. 
 Rain water, 1 gal. 
 Shave the soap and dissolve it by boiling in water. Pour 
 the soap solution, while boiling hot, into the kerosene and churn 
 vigorously by pumping the liquid back and forth with a force 
 pump until it looks like buttermilk. Keep this stock solution 
 tightly sealed. Before using dilute with from ten to twenty 
 parts of water. 
 
 Nicotin sulphate or blackleaf 40: 
 Blackleaf 40, | pt. 
 Soap, 3 lbs. 
 Water, 100 gal. 
 This solution will be found valuable for spraying plant lice 
 or other soft-bodied insects. The soap may be omitted and then 
 the spray may be used with lime sulphur or with Bordeaux 
 mixture. 
 
 Insecticides for biting insects. 
 Paris green: 
 
 Paris green, 1 lb. 
 Quick lime, 2 lbs. 
 Water, 100 to 300 gal. 
 Paris green may be combined with Bordeaux mixture, but 
 never with lime sulphur. It should never be used on peach 
 foliage. Paris green may be applied also as a dust, mixing one 
 pound of poison to twenty pounds of cheap flour. 
 Arsenate of lead: 
 
 Arsenate of lead, 2 lbs. 
 Water, 50 gal. 
 In spraying for Curculio on apple or plum, just after the 
 blossoms fall, use three pounds to fifty gallons of water. 
 Hellebore : 
 
 Hellebore, 1 lb. 
 Water, 25 gal. 
 This spray is especially useful when the fruit — cherry, 
 gooseberry, or currant — is ripening, since it soon loses its poi- 
 
70 INSECTA 
 
 sonous character when exposed to the air. For this reason care 
 should be taken to get it fresh or it will have no effect. 
 
 Spraying Exercise. — Compute the proportions required for 
 one gallon of an arsenic spray and of one contact insecticide. 
 Carefully prepare each. Spray any plants you find infested 
 by insects with the kind which the condition of the plants leads 
 you to think is required. Examine these plants in a day or two 
 and record results. Also place a sprig of the plant sprayed with 
 each insecticide in separate breeding jars. Label each and com- 
 pare results. 
 
 Insect Studies 
 
 Note. — For a first morphologic study, use large grasshoppers 
 and take all of the External and Internal Morphology. Then 
 follow this with the Systematic Study for Arthropod Branch 
 Characteristics; follow this with the Class and the Ordinal 
 Study. The grasshopper belongs to Branch, Arthropoda; 
 Class, Insecta; Order, Orthoptera. 
 
 For other insects, follow the same plan as for the grasshopper, 
 omitting any questions which do not apply to the insect in 
 hand. The Internal Morphology may also be omitted. This 
 plan will give a comparative study of insects, showing their 
 morphology, and bringing out the principles of classification for 
 the branch, class, and orders to which the insects belong. 
 
 The student will notice that all insects belong to the same 
 branch and class, but to different orders. Notice carefully the 
 branch characteristics and then the class characteristics. 
 Upon what is the classification based? Is it structure? Is 
 it plan of structure? Is it development? 
 
 THE GRASSHOPPER 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 I. The Skeleton. 
 
 1. Is the skeleton external or internal? 
 
 2. Character or composition? 
 
 3. Uses? 
 
72 INSECTA 
 
 II. Body Divisions. 
 
 The Head. 
 
 (1) Its shape? 
 
 (2) Its size compared with the body? 
 
 (3) Its color? 
 
 (4) Its mode of attachment to the thorax? 
 
 (5) Its one marked pecuUarity? 
 
 (6) The Antennae, or Feelers. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Location on the head? 
 
 (d) Number of segments? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (7) The Compound Eyes. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Sessile or stalked? 
 
 (d) Location on head? 
 
 (f) Color? 
 
 (g) Use? 
 
 (8) The Simple Eyes. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Location on head? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (9) The Labrum, or Upper Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Motion? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (10) The Mandibles are just below the labrum, 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
74 
 
 INSECTA 
 
 (11) The Maxillae, or little jaws, are just below the man- 
 dibles. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 Tarsus 
 Tibi 
 
 
 ,^^^ohmm{j 
 
 Fig. 2. — External anatomy of Calopetnus spretus, the head and thorax 
 disjointed: up, Uropatagium ; /, furcula; c, cercus. (Drawn by J. S. Ivings- 
 ley.) (From Packard's Zoology.) 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (12) The Maxillary Palpi, 
 (a) Number on each side? 
 
76 INSECTA 
 
 (b) Number of segments to each palpus? 
 
 (c) Motion? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (13) The Labium, or Lower Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Motion? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (14) The Labial Palpi. 
 
 (a) Number on each side? 
 
 (b) Number of segments to each palpus? 
 
 (c) Motion? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (15) Sketch front or side view of the head, much enlarged. 
 
 Show all the parts you can. 
 
 (16) Mouth-parts. Remove the mouth-parts from one side 
 
 and sketch. 
 
 (a) Mouth-parts adapted for (1) sucking or (2) biting? 
 
 (b) Mouth-parts united into tube or free? 
 
 (c) Why so many or so few parts, as the case may be? 
 2. The Thorax. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size compared with the head? 
 
 (3) Size compared with the abdomen? 
 
 (4) Number of spiracles? 
 
 (5) Covering? 
 
 (6) Divisions. In the grasshopper the thorax has three 
 
 divisions. 
 
 (a) The Prothorax or cape, as seen in the grasshopper, 
 
 just back of the head. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 (3) Number of appendages, as legs or wings? 
 
 (4) Number of spiracles, if any? 
 
 (b) The Mesothorax just posterior to the prothorax. 
 
 Same questions as for prothorax. 
 
 (c) The Metathorax. 
 
 Same questions as for the prothorax. 
 
78 INSECTA 
 
 (7) The Legs. 
 
 (a) Number of pairs? 
 
 (b) Are they of the same size, or do they vary? 
 
 (c) The segments in order, beginning at the body of the 
 
 grasshopper, are: coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, 
 tarsus of foot. Sketch one leg, much enlarged, 
 and name the parts present. 
 
 (d) Compare first pair of legs with second pair, segment 
 
 for segment, noting similarities and differences. 
 
 (e) Compare second and third pairs. 
 
 (8) The Wings. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Color above? 
 
 (d) Color below? 
 
 (e) Covering scaly, smooth, or hairy? 
 
 (f) Anterior and posterior wings equal in size? 
 
 (g) Anterior and posterior wings of same thickness? 
 (h) How folded when at rest? When in motion? 
 
 (i) Wings analogous or homologous to the wings of a 
 bird? 
 
 (j) Sketch the wings extended, putting in all the mark- 
 ings. 
 3. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size compared with the thorax? 
 
 (3) Covering? 
 
 (4) Number of segments? 
 
 (5) Ovipositor present or absent? 
 
 (6) The Sting present or absent? 
 
 (a) Why? 
 
 (b) Why not found in all insects? 
 
 (7) Tympana, on first abdominal segment of the grass- 
 
 hopper. If your specimen is not a grasshopper, you 
 may have to look elsewhere for them. If you do not 
 find them, consult a large work on insects (Kellogg 
 or Comstock). 
 
 (a) Size of tympana? 
 
 (b) Number? 
 
80 INSECTA 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Color? 
 
 (8) The Spiracles. 
 
 (a) Number to each segment? 
 
 (b) Total number? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (9) Sketch the abdomen, much enlarged. Name the parts 
 
 present. 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 Pin a large female insect down in a wax-bottomed pan or on a 
 soft pine board, dorsal side up. Dissect under water. With 
 sharp scissors carefully cut through the body wall of the 
 abdomen and expose the internal organs by removing the upper 
 portion of the body wall. Use a fresh specimen. 
 
 1. The Circulatory System. Cut forward along the dorsal 
 side and find small tubular organ called the heart. 
 
 (1) Trace it. 
 
 (2) Sketch it. 
 
 (3) Plan of grasshopper's circulatory system. 
 
 (a) Any arteries, veins, capillaries? 
 
 (b) Closed or open circulation? 
 
 2. The Respiratory System. 
 
 (1) The air-sacs in grasshoppers are tiny white sacs along 
 
 the sides of the abdomen. 
 
 (a) How many to each segment? Remove the dorsal 
 
 wall and see. 
 
 (b) How many in all? 
 
 (c) Uses? 
 
 (2) The tracheae are white branching tubes. 
 
 (a) How are they connected with the air-sacs? 
 
 (b) Uses? 
 
 (3) Plan of respiratory system. 
 
 (a) Is it connected with the circulatory system? 
 
 (b) If so, how? 
 
 (c) If so, why? 
 
 3. The Reproductive System. 
 
 (1) In a female specimen you will generally find the yellow 
 eggs in rows on each side. 
 
82 
 
 INSECTA 
 
 (a) How many rows? 
 
 (b) How many eggs (ova) in one row? 
 
 (c) How many ova in all? 
 
 (d) If each ovum had matured into a grasshopper, how 
 
 manj'^ individuals would have descended from this 
 insect in five years, barring accidents to the ova 
 or to the young? 
 (2) Trace oviduct to ovipositor. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Internal anatomy of Caloptenus femur-rubrum: at, antenna and 
 nerve leading to it from the "brain" or supra-esophageal ganglion (sp); 
 oc, ocelli, anterior and vertical ones, with ocellar nerves leading to them 
 from the "brain "; ob, esophagus; m, mouth; lb, labium or under lip; if, 
 infra-esophageal ganglion, sending three pairs of nerves to the mandibles, 
 maxillae, and labium respectively (not clearly shown in the engraving); 
 sm, sympathetic or vagus nerve, starting from a ganglion resting above 
 the esophagus, and connecting with another ganglion {sg) near the hinder 
 end of the crop; sal, salivary glands (the termination of the salivary duct 
 not clearly shown by the engraver) ; nv, nervous cord and ganglia ; ov, 
 ovary; ur, urinary tubes (cut off, leaving the stumps); ovt, oviduct; sb, 
 sebaceous gland; be, bursa copulatrix; ovt', site of opening of the oviduct 
 (the left o\aduct cut away) ; 1-10, abdominal segments. The other organs 
 labeled in full. (Drawn from his original dissections by Mr, Edward Bur- 
 .) (From Packard's Zoology.) 
 
 The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) The Mouth. 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Mouth-parts present? 
 
 (2) The Tongue. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
84 INSECTA 
 
 (3) The Esophagus, a short tube leading into the crop. 
 
 Use? 
 
 (4) The Crop. Note where the esophagus begins to en- 
 
 large. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (5) The Salivary Glands, grape-like or mulberry-like clus- 
 
 ters about the crop. 
 Use? 
 
 (6) The Gastric Ceca (in the grasshopper) are small worm- 
 
 like appendages back of the crop. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) To what attached? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (7) The Stomach. Just back of the gastric cseca the ali- 
 
 mentary canal enlarges into the true stomach. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (8) The Malpighian Tubes are long, small, tubular organs 
 
 at the posterior end of the stomach. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Shape? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (9) The Intestines. 
 
 (a) Straight or coiled? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (c) In what segment do they terminate? 
 
 (10) Diagram or sketch the alimentary tube of the grass- 
 hopper, and name its parts in order from the mouth 
 to the vent. 
 5. The Nervous System. Look for a white cord along the 
 floor of the abdomen. 
 
 (1) Is the cord single or double? 
 
 (2) How many ganglia to a segment? 
 
 (3) How many ganglia in all? 
 
 (4) Trace nerves to the legs. 
 
86 INSECTA 
 
 (5) Trace nerves to the wings. 
 
 (6) Trace nerves to the eyes. 
 
 (7) The Special Senses. 
 
 (a) The eyes. 
 
 (1) Kind? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (b) The ears. 
 
 Location? 
 
 (c) The tongue. 
 
 Taste dull or acute? 
 
 (d) Organs of smell. 
 
 Location? 
 
 THE BUTTERFLY 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 1. Skeleton. 
 
 (1) External or internal? 
 
 (2) Character? 
 
 (3) Outgrowths or covering. 
 
 (a) Of the body? 
 
 (b) Of the wings? 
 
 2. The Head. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Antennae. 
 
 (a) Shape? How do they differ from those of the moth? 
 
 (b) Location on head? 
 
 (c) Number of segments? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (3) Compound Eyes. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Sessile or stalked? 
 
 (d) Location on the head? 
 
 (e) Color? 
 
 (f) Use? 
 
 (4) Mouth-parts. The mouth-parts are rather difficult for 
 
 the beginner to identify, 
 (a) The proboscis, or sucking organ, is a long coiled tube 
 composed of the modified maxillae. 
 
88 INSECTA 
 
 (b) Labial palpi. Look on each side of the sucking tube 
 for the jointed appendage. 
 
 (1) How many segments? 
 
 (2) Are the palpi naked or hairy? 
 3. The Thorax. 
 
 (1) How does it differ from the thorax of the grasshopper? 
 
 Fig. 4. — Ideal transverse section of an insect : h, Dorsal vessel ; i, intes- 
 tine; n, ventral nerve-cord; 1 1, stigmata leading into the branched tracheal 
 tubes; ww, wings; a, coxa of one leg; b, trochanter; c, femur; d, tibia; e, 
 tarsus. (After Packard.) 
 
 (2) The Wings. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Color above? Below? 
 
 (d) Any differences between anterior and posterior wings? 
 
 If so, what? 
 
 (e) How folded when at rest? 
 
 (f) Covered with scales, naked, or hairy? Place a por- 
 
 tion of a wing under the microscope, and draw 
 several scales. Do you find any transparent spots 
 where the scales have rubbed off? 
 
90 INSECTA 
 
 (3) The Legs. 
 
 (a) Number of pairs? 
 
 (b) Size. Are they equal in size, or do they vary? 
 
 (e) Compare the first pair with the second and third 
 pairs, segment for segment. 
 
 4. Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape and size as compared with that of the grasshop- 
 
 per? As compared with that of the moth? 
 
 (2) Covering? 
 
 (3) Number of segments? 
 
 (4) Ovipositor present or absent? 
 
 (5) Sting present or absent? Why? 
 
 5. Metamorphosis. 
 
 (1) Complete or incomplete? 
 
 (2) Larvae called what? 
 
 THE HONEY-BEE OR THE BUMBLE BEE 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 1. Covering. 
 
 What is the character of the covering of the head and 
 thorax? 
 
 2. Antennae. 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (3) Is there any peculiarity about the antennae? If so, 
 
 what? 
 
 3. Compound Eyes. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 4. Simple Eyes. 
 
 (1) Locate the three simple eyes. 
 
 (2) How are they arranged? 
 
 5. Mouth-parts. 
 
 (1) Mandibles. 
 
 (a) Are they adapted for digging or for molding wax? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (2) Proboscis. Pick apart the proboscis and identify, 
 (a) The elongated labium. 
 
92 INSECTA 
 
 (b) The maxillae, the two blades above the tongue. 
 
 (c) The slender labial palpi below the tongue. 
 
 6. The Wings. 
 
 (1) Are the posterior and anterior pairs equal in size? 
 
 (2) How are the wings arranged when at rest? When in 
 
 motion? 
 
 (3) What peculiarities about them? 
 
 (4) Are the wings thick and opaque or membranous and 
 
 transparent? 
 
 7. The Legs. 
 
 (1) Are the legs alike? 
 
 (2) Compare the posterior legs, segment for segment, with 
 
 those of the grasshopper. 
 
 (3) What special adaptation do you find in the tibise? 
 
 (4) How do the basal joints of the tarsi differ from those of 
 
 the other legs? 
 
 (5) For what are the cutting edges between the two large 
 
 segments adapted? 
 
 8. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Segments? 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) What is the peculiarity of the anterior segment? 
 
 (c) Of the second anterior segment? 
 
 (d) Can the abdomen be bent under the thorax? If so, 
 
 purpose? 
 
 (3) The Sting. If your specimen is a female, examine and 
 
 describe the sting. 
 Why has the male no sting? 
 
 THE HOUSE FLY 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 In this study a good magnifying glass or dissecting microscope 
 will be needed. 
 
 1. How are the head and thorax united? The thorax and the 
 abdomen? 
 
 2. With what is the body covered? 
 
94 INSECTA 
 
 3. Head. 
 
 (1) Antennae. 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Number of segments? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (2) Compound Eyes. 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Shape of facets? 
 
 (3) Simple Eyes. 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Number? 
 
 (4) Mouth-parts. Straighten out the proboscis which is 
 
 bent back under the head, and examine it with a good 
 dissecting microscope or with the low power of a 
 compound microscope. 
 
 (a) The tongue is the labium modified or the under lip, 
 
 and the divisions at its end are the labial palpi. 
 Are they smooth or rough? 
 
 (b) Mandibles. On the head near the base of the tongue 
 
 look for the slender, rudimentary mandibles. 
 
 (c) Maxillary Palpi. On the shaft of the tongue find 
 
 the hairy, segmented maxillary palpi. 
 
 (d) Sketch the mouth-parts as you see them. Compare 
 
 with a good cut and name the parts shown in your 
 figure. 
 
 (e) Are the mouth-parts adapted for biting, sucking, or 
 
 lapping? 
 
 4. Thorax. 
 (1) Wings. 
 
 (a) How many developed wings? 
 
 (b) How are they arranged when at rest? Show by 
 
 sketch. 
 
 (c) Look behind the wings for a pair of scales or mem- 
 
 branes — the alulets. 
 
 (d) Under the alulets look for a pair of pin-like append- 
 
 ages ending in a knob. These are called ''balan- 
 cers," and it is believed that their function is sen- 
 sory. 
 
96 INSECTA 
 
 (1) What organs in man are the ''balancers" or the 
 
 organs of the sense of equihbrium? 
 
 (2) Sketch the alulets and the ''balancers" as you see 
 
 them. 
 
 (2) The Legs. 
 
 (a) Are they alike? 
 
 (b) Are they fitted for running or for jumping? 
 
 (c) Are there any hooks or pads on the feet? If so, of 
 
 what use are the pads? 
 
 (d) How does the fly walk on the ceiling? Can the 
 
 grasshopper, beetle, or crayfish walk on the ceil- 
 ing? 
 5. Abdomen. 
 (1) Shape? 
 . (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Number of segments? 
 
 (4) Ovipositor or sting present? 
 
 HEMIPTERA 
 
 The Squash Bug, or the Cicada 
 
 The bugs, cicadas, squash bugs, plant lice, etc., have a sucking 
 beak. The mandibles and maxillae appear as slender, bristle- 
 like organs, for which the lower lip forms a sheath. 
 
 1. The Sucking Beak. Look on the ventral side for the 
 beak. Examine it with a glass and make out the following 
 parts : 
 
 (1) Sheath formed of lower lip. 
 
 (2) Mandibles and maxillae, four slender bristle-like organs 
 
 within the sheath. 
 
 2. Wings. Do you find half of the anterior wings hardened, 
 as the name (hemi, half, pteron, wing) indicates? 
 
 3. Insecticide. The aphides, or plant lice, and the scale 
 insects belong to this order. Would you exterminate them 
 by poison insecticide, contact insecticide, or by a "smudge"? 
 
 Prepare several spraying solutions (see pages 66 and 68) 
 and experiment with them upon plants infested with plant 
 lice or squash bugs. Be careful not to have the solutions too 
 strong. Record and explain results. 
 
98 
 
 INSECTA 
 
 THE BEETLE 1 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 External Morphology 
 
 I. The Skeleton. 
 
 1 Is the skeleton external or internal? 
 
 2. Character or composition? 
 
 3. Uses? 
 
 II. Body Divisions. 
 1. The Head. 
 
 (1) Its shape? 
 
 (2) Its size compared with the body? 
 
 (3) Its color? 
 
 (4) Its mode of attachment to the thorax? 
 
 (5) Its one marked peculiarity? 
 
 (6) The Antennse, or Feelers. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Location on the head? 
 
 (d) Number of segments? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (7) The Compound Eyes. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Sessile or stalked? 
 
 (d) Location on head? 
 
 (f) Color? 
 
 (g) Use? 
 
 (8) The Simple Eyes, if present. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Location on head? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (9) The Labrum, or Upper Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 iSee Fig. 119 of Part II, " Principles of Economic Zoology. 
 
100 INSECTA 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Motion? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (10) The Mandibles. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (11) The Maxillae. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (12) The Maxillary Palpi. 
 
 (a) Number on each side? 
 
 (b) Number of segments to each palpus? 
 
 (c) Motion? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (13) The Labium, or Lower Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Motion? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (14) The Labial Palpi. 
 
 (a) Number on each side? 
 
 (b) Number of segments to each palpus? 
 
 (c) Motion? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (15) Sketch front or side view of the head, much enlarged. 
 
 Show all the parts you can. 
 
 (16) Mouth-parts. Remove the mouth-parts from one side 
 
 and sketch. 
 
 (a) Mouth-parts adapted for (1) sucking or (2) biting? 
 
 (b) Mouth-parts united into tube or free? 
 
 (c) Why so many or so few parts, as the case may 
 
 be? 
 
102 INSECTA 
 
 2. The Thorax. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size compared with the head? 
 
 (3) Size compared with the abdomen? 
 
 (4) Covering? 
 
 (5) Divisions. In the grasshopper the thorax has three 
 
 divisions. Has this insect's thorax three divisions? 
 
 (6) The Legs. 
 
 (a) Number of pairs? 
 
 (b) Are they of the same size, or do they vary? 
 
 (c) The segments in order, beginning at the body are: 
 
 coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, tarsus, or foot. 
 Sketch one leg, much enlarged, and name the parts 
 present. 
 
 (d) Compare first pair of legs with second pair, segment 
 
 for segment, noting similarities and differences. 
 
 (e) Compare second and third pairs. 
 
 (7) The Wings. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Location? 
 
 (c) Color above? 
 
 (d) Color below? 
 
 (e) Covering scaly, smooth, or hairy? 
 
 (f) Anterior and posterior wings equal in size? 
 
 (g) Anterior and posterior wings of same thickness? 
 (h) How folded when at rest? When in motion? 
 
 (i) Wings analogous or homologous to the wings of a 
 bird? 
 
 (j) Sketch the wings extended, putting in all the mark- 
 ings. 
 
 3. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size compared with the thorax? 
 
 (3) Covering? 
 
 (4) Number of segments? 
 
 (5) Ovipositor present or absent? 
 
 (6) Sting present or absent? 
 
 (a) Why? 
 
 (b) Why not found in all insects? 
 
104 INSECTA 
 
 (7) Sketch the abdomen, much enlarged. Name the parts 
 
 present. 
 
 (8) Metamorphosis complete or incomplete? Stages 
 
 called 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR BRANCH ARTHROPODA 
 
 Use many different arthropoda for this study. 
 
 1. The Body. 
 
 (1) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (2) Symmetry? 
 
 (3) Body cavities. One, the haemal. What systems does 
 
 it contain? 
 
 (4) The external skeleton (exoskeleton) . 
 
 (a) Of what does it consist? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 2. The Appendages or Limbs. 
 
 (1) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (2) Number? 
 
 (3) Called what? 
 
 (4) Position on the body? 
 
 (5) Use? 
 
 3. It belongs to Branch Arthropoda because it has the fol- 
 lowing Arthropod branch characteristics : (Name the character- 
 istics you have discovered and compare with those given in the 
 text.) 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR THE CLASSES OF ARTHROPODA 
 
 (Use a crayfish, an insect, a spider, and a ''thousand-legs.") 
 
 1. Shape of each? 
 
 2. Number of segments in each? 
 
 3. Body divisions. 
 
 (1) Do they show any body divisions? 
 
 (2) If so, are they divided into head, thorax, and abdomen, 
 
 or into cephalothorax and abdomen? 
 
 4. Covering of each. 
 
 If any, called what? 
 
 5. Antennae wanting, or one or two pairs? 
 
 6. Eyes. Compound, simple, or both? 
 
106 INSECTA 
 
 7. Appendages. 
 
 (1) How many, and what? 
 
 (2) If there are body divisions, how many appendages are 
 
 there — 
 
 (a) On the thorax or cephalothorax? 
 
 (b) On the abdomen? 
 
 8. Respiration. By means of what? 
 
 9. This arthropod has the following class characteristics: 
 (Name the characteristics you have discovered and compare 
 with those given in the text.) Hence, it belongs to Class 
 
 ORDINAL STUDY FOR CLASS INSECTA 
 
 Use insects of different orders for this study. 
 
 1. Mouth-parts. 
 
 Are they adapted for biting, sucking, or lapping, or for 
 any two of these processes? 
 
 2. Thorax. 
 
 (1) Are the divisions prothorax, mesothorax, and meta- 
 
 thorax distinct? 
 
 (2) If not, how do you account for differences discovered? 
 
 (3) Wings. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Membranous, thick, or scaly? 
 
 (d) Similarity. 
 
 (1) If there are two pairs, are the anterior and posterior 
 
 pairs equal in size? 
 
 (2) Are they of the same thickness? 
 
 (e) Covering. Naked or covered with hairs or scales? 
 
 (f) Position. 
 
 (1) Folded when at rest? If so, how? 
 
 (2) Folded when in motion? 
 
 (g) Any other ordinal characteristics of wings? 
 
 (4) The Legs. 
 
 (a) Strong or weak? Why? 
 
 (b) Similarity. 
 
 (1) Are the legs alike in shape and size? 
 
 (2) Any adaptations? 
 
 (c) Feet. Clawed? Padded? 
 
108 INSECTA 
 
 3. The Abdomen. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Number of segments or somites? 
 
 (3) Any appendages of the abdomen, as the ovipositor, 
 
 sting, or some other appendages peculiar to this 
 order? 
 
 (4) Any other ordinal peculiarity? 
 
 4. Metamorphosis. 
 
 (1) Complete or incomplete? 
 
 (2) Larval stage called what? 
 
 5. Odor. Any distinctive odor? 
 
 6. This insect has the following ordinal characteristics: 
 (Name those you have discovered — see text for ordinal charac- 
 teristics.) Hence, it belongs to Order 
 
 See descriptive zoologies for the Orders of Insects. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SYSTEMATIC STUDY 
 
 (See page 110.) 
 
 For this study the teacher should select a dozen or more differ- 
 ent insects representing a number of orders, but he should have 
 several insects belonging to each order represented, such as 
 grasshoppers, crickets, and walking-sticks; butterflies and 
 moths; giant water-bugs, chinch-bugs, and cicadas; fire-flies, 
 June-bugs, and lady-beetles; wasps, honey-bees, and bumble- 
 bees. 
 
 Let the student write a brief description of each insect, 
 placing each characteristic in the column designated on 
 page 110. 
 
 When this is completed, check thus (*) all the points in the 
 description which are the same for all insects, and compare 
 them with the class characteristics given in the text or in some 
 good work on insects. 
 
 Check thus ( t) all points which agree for several insects, and 
 thus (t) those which are alike for several others, and thus (x) 
 for those of others. 
 
 Compare those points in which all the insects in each small 
 group agree with the ordinal characteristics given in some work 
 on insects, or in the text, for the orders represented. 
 

 II 
 
 By what? 
 
 
 
 
 
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 :3 
 
 Is 
 
 <5I 
 
 
 
 
 
 ill 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 < 
 
 .Is"- 
 
 l| 1-2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Number 7 
 Location 7 
 Character 7 
 
 How folded or 
 arranged? 
 
 Anterior and 
 posterior 
 
 pairs similar? 
 Covering? 
 
 j 
 
 
 p 
 
 1 
 
 Hooked or 
 Padded 7 
 Largo or 
 small 7 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 
 Number 7 
 
 Location 7 
 
 Similarity? 
 
 Strong or 
 
 Weak 7 
 
 Special 
 
 Adaptions 7 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 £5 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 Adapted for 
 biting, suck- 
 ing, or lap- 
 ping? 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 lis 
 
 11! 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 n 
 
 t 2 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 il 
 
 z 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 110 
 
PISCES (THE FISH) 
 
 Take the Study of a Live Fish. 
 
 Take all applicable points of General Studies, I, II, III. 
 
 Take Special Morphophysiologic Study. 
 
 Take Systematic Study for Branch Chordata and Class 
 Pisces. See p. 128. 
 
 Take Final Study. 
 
 Give your best definition of a fish. 
 
 Make an oral recitation of ten minutes on fishes. 
 
 Write a theme on the fish, using, in connected form, the facts 
 you have gathered in your studies. Illustrate with good 
 sketches. 
 
 STUDY OF A LIVE FISH 
 
 1. Collecting. If fishes are studied in a suitable season, each 
 student should be required to capture and bring to the labora- 
 tory at least one live fish, reporting on the following outline : 
 
 (1) Habits and habitat. 
 
 (a) Does the kind of fish you caught live in shallow or 
 
 deep water? Why? 
 
 (b) Does it live in still or running water? Why? 
 
 (c) In clear or muddy water? Why? 
 
 (d) Does it live near the surface, or at the bottom of the 
 
 stream? 
 
 (e) Does it move slowly or swiftly? 
 
 (f) Is it a "game" fish or is it easy to capture? 
 
 (g) Did you fish with pole or with trot-line? In the 
 
 daytime or at night? 
 (h) Is this fish solitary or gregarious? 
 (i) What is a company of fishes called-? 
 
 (2) Food. Use various kinds of bait. 
 
 (a) What kinds of fish did you catch with each kind of 
 
 bait? 
 
 (b) Is this fish carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous? 
 112 
 
114 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 (c) Does this fish feed in the daytime or in the evening 
 and at night? 
 
 (3) Concealment. 
 
 (a) Where does this fish hide? 
 
 (b) For what purpose or purposes does it hide? 
 
 (c) Has it an}^ natural means of concealment? If so, what? 
 
 (4) Senses. 
 
 (a) What evidences have you as to whether or not fishes 
 
 can hear? 
 
 (b) Evidences that they can smell? 
 
 (c) Evidences that they see? 
 2. Laboratory Study. 
 
 (1) Locomotion. 
 
 (a) Just how is locomotion accomplished by this fish? 
 
 What fin or fins are most used in locomotion? 
 
 (b) Experiment and find out the use of the paired fins. 
 
 (1) Keeping the fish under the water, pass a rubber 
 
 band over the pectoral fins so as to hold them 
 close against the body.^ What effect does this 
 '*' have upon the position of the body? 
 
 (2) Same as (1) for the ventral fins. 
 
 (2) Respiration. 
 
 (a) Watch the movements of the mouth and gill covers. 
 
 (b) Experiment and find out whether the water moves 
 
 over the gills and out through the mouth, or in 
 at the mouth and out over the gills. 
 
 (3) Feeding. Try several kinds of food. 
 
 (a) Does it have any choice? If so, by what sense does 
 
 it choose its food? 
 
 (b) Feed it at various times in the day or night. Results? 
 
 (c) How does it take its food? 
 
 (4) Senses. 
 
 (a) Experiment and find out whether it sees or hears 
 
 you first. Which of these senses is of the greatest 
 value in warning it of danger? 
 
 (b) What is its range of sight? 
 
 (c) Does it ever close its eyes or wink? Why? 
 
 (d) Has it any voice or song? Why? 
 
 ^Colton's "Practical Zoology." 
 
116 PISCES (THE fish) 
 
 (e) Have you found any evidence that the fish can taste? 
 
 (f) Where is the fish most sensitive to touch? Is it sen- 
 
 sitive to a jarring or stirring of the water if there 
 is no sound? 
 
 (5) What means of defense has this fish? 
 
 (6) Do fishes ever play? 
 
 (7) Do they ever sleep? 
 
 THE SUNFISH 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Shape? Use of this particular shape to the sunfish? 
 
 2. Length of sunfish from tip of nose to caudal fin? 
 
 3. Thickness. 
 
 (1) Laterally? 
 
 (2) Dorsoventrally? 
 
 (3) Is it compressed or flattened? 
 
 4. Covering. Naked, ctenoid scales, or cycloid scales? 
 
 5. Dorsal surface. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 6. Ventral Surface. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? Why this difference in color? 
 
 7. The Fins. 
 
 (1) Paired Fins. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (2) Unpaired Fins. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (3) Caudal Fin. Is it homocercaP or heterocercaP ? 
 
 8. Nostrils. 
 
 (1) How many nostrils has the sunfish? 
 
 (2) Do they open into the mouth? (Thrust a tipped bris- 
 
 tle or a flexible probe into the nostrils and see.) 
 
 (3) Use of the nostrils to the fish? 
 
 1 See Glossary, Part II, " Economic Zoology." 
 
118 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 9. The Eyes. 
 
 (1) How many? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (3) Parts of eye present as compared with your own? 
 
 (4) Parts wanting as compared with your own? 
 
 (5) Why these differences? 
 
 10. The Ears. 
 
 (1) Do you find any evidences of external ears? 
 
 (2) If not, why not? 
 
 (3) Does the fish hear? State your proof. 
 
 11. The Mouth. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Position? 
 
 12. The Gill Covers. 
 
 (1) Position? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 13. The Gill Openings. 
 
 (1) Position? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 (3) Number? 
 
 14. The Scales. 
 
 (1) Number of rows from dorsal to ventral edge? 
 
 (2) Number in one row from side of head to caudal fin? 
 
 (3) Estimate the total number of scales on the entire fish. 
 
 (4) How are the scales fastened into the skin? 
 
 (5) Are the scales naked or covered with a membrane? 
 
 (6) Is the pigment in spots or is it uniformly distributed? 
 
 Use of the pigment? 
 
 (7) Are the scales ctenoid or cycloid^ ? 
 
 (8) Examine a scale with hand lens or microscope. Sketch 
 
 one (enlarged five or ten times) to show its structure. 
 
 15. The Lateral Line. 
 
 (1) How do the scales of the lateral line differ from those 
 
 of other parts of the body? 
 
 (2) Use of lateral line? 
 
 16. Sketch. Turn the specimen with its unmutilated side 
 toward you and sketch a side view of it, locating the mouth, 
 
 iSee Part II, "Economic Zoology," Figs. 173, 174. 
 
120 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 nostrils, ear, eye, gills, fins, lateral line, and vent. Number 
 these points in your sketch and write these numbers and the 
 names below it. 
 
 17. The Skin. With sharp scissors cut through the skin, 
 and with forceps peel off a portion of it so as to expose the flesh 
 or muscles. 
 
 (1) Is the skin thick or thin? 
 
 (2) How is it fastened to the flesh? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 18. The Muscles. 
 
 (1) How are they arranged on the body? 
 
 (2) Estimate what proportion of the whole fish is muscle. 
 
 (3) Why so much muscle? 
 
 (4) Are there any nerves in the muscles? Use? 
 
 (5) Do you see any blood-vessels in the muscles? Use? 
 
 19. The Respiratory Organs. 
 
 (1) Raise the gill cover and count the gills. How many? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 (3) How are the gills connected with the mouth? 
 
 (4) How many gill arches? 
 
 (5) How many gill filaments on one arch? How many in 
 
 all? Use? 
 
 (6) What does the fish breathe? How does it obtain it? 
 
 (7) How does the water, with the air mechanically mixed 
 
 with it, pass over the gifls; from the mouth back 
 over the gills, or through the gill openings forward 
 and out at the mouth? 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 1. The Digestive Organs. Cut forward from the vent to 
 the gills and remove the muscles from one side of the body, 
 exposing the internal organs. Is the body-cavity large or 
 small? 
 
 (1) Peritoneum. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Surface rough or smooth? Why? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
122 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 (2) The Liver. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Position? 
 
 (d) Number of lobes? 
 
 (e) Gall-bladder. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 (f) Use? 
 
 (3) The Mouth. 
 
 (a) Size? Large or small? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Teeth. 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Arrangement? 
 
 (3) Position? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (d) The Tongue. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Relation to gills and other parts? 
 
 (4) The Gullet, a short, wide tube leading to the stomach. 
 
 Thrust a probe down the throat of the fish about two 
 inches. 
 
 (a) Are there any teeth in the gullet? 
 
 (b) Are there any openings to or from the gullet? 
 
 (5) The Stomach. 
 
 (a) Position. 
 
 (1) Is it in front or behind the gills? 
 
 (2) Position with reference to dorsal fins? 
 
 (3) With reference to pectoral fins? 
 
 (4) To ventral fins? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Shape? 
 
 (6) The Caeca are small, worm-like projections at the junc- 
 
 tion of the stomach and the small intestine. They 
 are not present in all species of fishes, 
 (a) Size? 
 
124 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (7) The Intestines. 
 
 (a) Are they straight or coiled? 
 
 (b) If coiled, unravel them and compare their length 
 
 with that of the whole fish. 
 
 (8) The Spleen. 
 
 (a) Location? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 2. The Swimming Bladder — dorsal to the intestines. Use? 
 
 3. The Excretory Organs — the kidneys. 
 
 (1) Location? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 4. The Circulatory Organs.^ 
 
 (1) The Heart. (Note its pericardial cavity.) 
 
 (a) Sinus venosus. Use? 
 
 (b) Auricle. Use? 
 
 (c) Ventricle. Use? 
 
 (d) Bulbous arteriosus. Use? 
 
 (2) The Arteries. Traced to what organs? Function? 
 
 (3) The Veins. Traced to what organs? Function? 
 
 (4) Use of pericardial cavity? 
 
 (5) Make a diagram showing the principal parts of the cir-. 
 
 culatory system. 
 
 5. The Nervous System. 
 
 (1) Dissect away the muscles and bones along the dorsal 
 
 side, and expose the brain,^ spinal cord, and main 
 nerves. 
 
 (2) Special Senses. 
 
 (a) How many senses has the fish? 
 
 (b) Name them. 
 
 (c) Name those of man. 
 
 ^See Fig. 160, "Principles of Economic Zoology." 
 2 See Fig. 161, " Principles of Economic Zoology." 
 
126 PISCES (the fish) 
 
 C. Summary 
 
 1. Skeleton (osseous or bony system). 
 
 (1) Composition? 
 
 (2) Use. 
 
 (a) To the fish? 
 
 (b) To man? 
 
 (3) Compared with man's skeleton, what parts do you find 
 
 lacking? Why lacking? 
 
 2. Muscular System. 
 
 (1) Uses to the fish? 
 
 (2) Uses to man? 
 
 3. The Skin. 
 
 (1) Uses to the fish? 
 
 (2) Uses to man? 
 
 4. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) Organs in man are 
 
 (2) Organs in the fish are 
 
 5. The Circulatory System. 
 
 (1) Organs in man? 
 
 (2) Organs in the fish? 
 
 6. The Respiratory System. Compare with that of man. 
 
 7. The Excretory System. Compare with that of man. 
 
 8. The Nervous System. Compare with man's. 
 
 9. Special Senses. Compare with man's. 
 
 10. Why does the fish have these different systems? 
 
 11. Why is the fish more complex than the Amoeba? 
 
 12. Why is the fish aquatic, while the bird is aerial? 
 
STUDY OF CHORDATE BRANCH CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 For guidance in arriving at a correct answer, ask yourself 
 this question, ''Does this answer apply to all chordates?" If 
 it does apply, then you have a branch characteristic. 
 
 1. The Skeleton. Of what does the endoskeleton consist? 
 
 2. The Body. 
 
 (1) Two Body-cavities. 
 
 (a) The upper one, or the neural cavity, contains what 
 
 system? 
 
 (b) The lower one, or the hemal cavity, contains what 
 
 systems of organs? 
 
 3. The Paired Limbs. How many? 
 
 4. The Notochord. Is it present in the larval or in the adult 
 stage, or in both? If it is not present in the adult stage, what has 
 become of it? Its use? 
 
 5. The Gill-slits. When are they present, in the larval or in 
 the adult stage, or in both? If they are not present in the adult 
 stage, what has become of them? Their use? 
 
 6. The Nervous System. 
 
 (1) Its position in the body? 
 
 (2) Consists of what organs? 
 
 7. This animal belongs to Branch because it has the 
 
 following characteristics of that branch. (Student name them.) 
 
 STUDY OF CHORDATE CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 1. General shape of the body of this animal? 
 
 2. Exoskeleton or External Skeleton. Scales, feathers, hair, 
 fur, none, or what? 
 
 3. Endoskeleton or Internal Skeleton. 
 
 (1) Occipital Condyles — one or two? 
 
 (2) Appendages. 
 
 (a) Called what? 
 
 (b) Clawed or not clawed? 
 
 128 
 
130 STUDY OF CHORDATP] BRANCH CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 (c) Position on body? 
 
 (d) Number? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 4. Respiration, by means of 
 
 5. Circulation. 
 
 (1) Single or double? 
 
 (2) Of how many chambers does the heart consist? Name 
 
 them. 
 
 (3) Is the animal poikilothermal or homoiothermal? 
 
 6. Digestion. What digestive organs found in this animal 
 are peculiar to its class? 
 
 7. This animal belongs to Class because it has 
 
 the following characteristics of that class. (Student name 
 them.) 
 
 8. Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes. 
 
AMPHIBIA (THE FROG) 
 
 (1) Follow suggested plan for the study of the fish, p. 112. 
 
 (2) Then compare the fish and the frog, thus: The fish 
 
 is covered with scales. The frog's skin is naked. 
 Make your comparison tell what both animals pos- 
 sess. Don't say the fish is covered with scales while 
 the frog is not. You might infer that the frog was 
 covered with feathers or fur. Make twenty compar- 
 isons. 
 
 (3) Define a frog. 
 
 (4) Compare your definitions of fish and frog. What do 
 
 you find they have in common? 
 
 STUDY OF THE LIVE FROG 
 1. Collecting. 
 
 Wear rubbers or rubber boots, and walk along the edge of a 
 pond or stream where you have heard the croaking of frogs. 
 
 (1) Do all of them croak? 
 
 (2) Look for small ones in the grass and weeds along the 
 
 bank. Catch them by sweeping the net along over 
 the vegetation, and carry them back to the laboratory 
 for the tank. 
 
 (3) Observations. 
 
 (a) What does the frog do which results in a ''splash" 
 
 into the water? 
 
 (b) How do they strike the water? 
 
 (c) Do they stay near the surface all the time. If not, 
 
 how often do they come to the surface and for 
 what purpose? 
 
 (d) How do boys get a chance to shoot frogs? 
 
 (e) When a frog floats in the water, how much of it can 
 
 you see? 
 
 (f) Color. 
 
 (1) How does the color of its upper surface compare 
 with that of its surroundings? Purpose of this 
 color? From what enemies does it protect it? 
 
 132 
 
134 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (2) What color is the frog as seen by animals below it? 
 Purpose of this color? 
 (g) Eggs. Look among the leaves and trash in the edge 
 of the water for the egg masses or spawn — lumps 
 of jelly-like material containing the eggs. Take 
 these to the laboratorj^, place them in water where 
 there is no danger of their being eaten, and watch 
 their development. 
 (h) Take also large frog's, which may be captured with 
 the hook if they cannot be gotten with the net. 
 2. Laboratory Study. 
 
 Place a number of frogs in a tank or tub covered with a heavy 
 wire screen, and containing an inch or two of water. 
 
 (1) Try various kinds of food, as live insects, bits of meat, 
 
 tadpoles, bread, grass, etc. 
 
 (a) Which kind of food does the frog prefer? 
 
 (b) How does it take its food? 
 
 (c) Has it any special adaptation for catching insects? 
 
 If so, what? 
 
 (2) Observe its methods of locomotion. 
 
 (a) In shallow water or in no water. 
 
 (b) In deep water. 
 
 (c) Can a frog walk? 
 
 (d) How far can it jump? 
 
 (e) What adaptations has it for jumping? 
 
 (3) What is the position of a frog at rest? 
 
 (4) How does it breathe? 
 
 (5) Notice the pulsations of the ''lymph hearts" on each 
 
 side near the end of the backbone. 
 
 (6) What means of defense or escape has the frog? 
 
 (a) Molest it from the front. What does it do? 
 
 (b) Molest it from behind. What does it do? 
 
 (7) Eyes. 
 
 (a) Are there eyelids? If so, are the upper and lower 
 
 lids alike? 
 
 (b) Observe and describe the movements of the eyelid. 
 
 (8) Voice. 
 
 (a) Do the different species have different voices or calls? 
 
 (b) Do they cry out in fright? In pain? 
 
136 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (9) Color. 
 
 (a) Keep one frog in the light, and another in the dark 
 
 for several hours, and compare their colors. 
 
 (b) Experiment and find out if changing the color of the 
 
 surroundings affects the color. If possible, repeat 
 this experiment with a little tree toad. 
 
 (10) Wrap a wet towel about a frog and pour chloroform 
 
 over it above the nostrils. Now spread the web of 
 the foot out on a glass slide and study the circula- 
 tion under the low power of the microscope. 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Size? Length in inches? 
 
 2. Shape. 
 
 (1) Stout or slender? 
 
 (2) Body divisions present? 
 
 3. The Head. 
 
 (1) Size. Small, medium, large, or very large? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Movement of lower jaw — vertical or horizontal? 
 
 (4) The Eyes. 
 
 (a) Position on head? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Number of eyelids? 
 
 (e) Color of iris? 
 
 (5) The Ears. Back of the eyes find the tympanum. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? Larger or smaller than the eyes? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Pass a needle through the tympanum into the mouth 
 
 and trace the course of the Eustachian tube. 
 
 (e) Why has the frog no external ear? 
 
 (6) The Nostrils. 
 
 (a) Where located on the head? 
 
 (b) Are they near together or far apart? 
 
138 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (c) Do they open into the mouth? Probe with a bristle 
 
 and see. 
 
 (d) Does the frog breathe through the nostrils, or does 
 
 it swallow air, or does it do both? 
 
 (e) Are the nostrils organs of smell only, or does the frog 
 
 both smell with and breathe through its nostrils? 
 
 4. The Limbs. 
 
 (1) The Anterior Limbs. 
 
 (a) Number of digits? 
 
 (b) Webbed or free? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (2) The Posterior Limbs. Same questions as for anterior 
 
 hmbs. 
 
 (3) Compare the anterior with the posterior limbs. In 
 
 what respects do they resemble each other? In 
 what do they differ? Why? 
 
 (4) Name the three modes of locomotion of the frog. 
 
 How is each performed? When? Why? 
 
 5. The Skin. 
 
 (1) Smooth or rough? 
 
 (2) Why so loose on the body? 
 
 (3) Remove the skin from the body. 
 
 (a) Is it thick or thin? 
 
 (b) Hold it up to the light. What do you observe con- 
 cerning its color or color spots? Its blood-vessels? 
 
 6. The Muscles. 
 
 (1) Determine the origin, insertion, and specific use of the 
 
 muscles. 
 
 (2) What do you observe concerning the muscles of the 
 
 posterior limbs? What is the reason for this? 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 1. Digestive Organs. Pin the frog, on its back with the 
 limbs fully extended, in a wax-bottomed pan or on a soft pine 
 board. Slit open the body-cavity from the posterior end of 
 the abdomen to the breast bone, using great care not to injure 
 the internal organs. On each side of the posterior end of this 
 slit make another short one at right angles to it. Now pin back 
 
140 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 the flaps of the body walls, exposing the viscera. Insert a blow- 
 pipe in the glottis and inflate the lungs, then tie a string tightly 
 around the trachea to keep them inflated. Dissect under 
 water, 
 
 (1) The Mouth. 
 
 (a) The Teeth. Open the mouth wide. Ascertain — 
 
 (1) The number of the teeth. 
 
 (2) Their arrangement. 
 
 (3) Their location. 
 
 (b) The Tongue. 
 
 (1) Is it long or short? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Where attached? Why? 
 
 (4) Is the free end entire, slightly nicked, heart 
 
 shaped, or deeply notched? 
 
 (5) How and when is the food captured? 
 
 (c) The Glottis. Find a longitudinal slit in the back 
 
 of the floor of the mouth. Into what does it 
 open? 
 
 (d) The Pharynx. The posterior portion of the mouth 
 
 may be considered as the pharynx, which opens 
 into the esophagus, leading to the stomach. 
 Thrust a probe down the esophagus to the 
 stomach. 
 
 (2) The Stomach. 
 
 (a) Identify and describe it. 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Color? 
 
 (e) Location? 
 
 (3) The Liver is reddish brown and lies upon the stomach. 
 
 (a) How many lobes? 
 
 (b) Find the gall-bladder. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 (4) The Pancreas is in the first fold of the intestine. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
142 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (5) The Mesentery is a thin membrane which holds the 
 
 intestines in place. 
 
 (a) Does it contain any blood-vessels? 
 
 (b) From what source do they come? 
 
 (c) To what do they lead? 
 
 (6) The Spleen is a small round red body in the mesentery. 
 
 (a) Find and identify it. 
 
 (b) Use in man? 
 
 (c) Use in the frog? 
 
 (7) The Intestines pass from the stomach to the vent. 
 
 (a) Carefully cut the mesentery and unravel the intes- 
 
 tines. Are they coiled or straight? 
 
 (b) Are they of the same diameter, or do they vary 
 
 in different portions? Where, and how much? 
 
 (c) Length as compared with that of the body? 
 
 (8) The Cloaca. This is the enlargement of the intestine 
 
 just before it reaches the vent. The intestines, 
 kidneys, and reproductive organs open into it. 
 
 (9) Sketch the alimentary canal from the mouth to the 
 
 vent, properly locating and naming all its parts or 
 organs. 
 
 2. The Respiratory Organs. 
 
 (1) The lungs. How much of the body-cavity do the lungs 
 
 fill when inflated? When not inflated? 
 
 (2) The Trachea. Find the trachea and trace it to its 
 
 branches, the bronchi, which lead to the lungs. 
 
 (3) Sketch the respiratory organs and name all parts. 
 
 3. The Circulatory Organs. 
 
 (1) The Pericardium, around the heart. Its use? Care- 
 
 fully cut through the pericardium and find the heart. 
 
 (2) The Heart. 
 
 (a) The Ventricle. The pointed posterior portion of the 
 heart is the ventricle. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 (3) Size? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
144 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (b) The Auricles. At the anterior and dorsal end of the 
 
 heart, find the two auricles. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) Are the walls thick or thin as compared to the ven- 
 
 tricle? 
 
 (5) Use? 
 
 (c) Conus Arteriosus. The conus arteriosus originates 
 
 from the right side of the base of the ventricle, 
 soon divides into two branches. Each divides 
 into three, the posterior uniting in the dorsal aorta. 
 
 (d) Dorsal Aorta. Trace the principal branches. 
 
 (1) What organs or parts of the body do they supply? 
 
 (2) Notice that these arteries are firm, elastic blood- 
 
 vessels. 
 
 (e) Veins. The flabby blood-vessels are veins. As you 
 
 traced the arteries from the heart, now trace the 
 flabby veins to the heart. 
 
 (1) From what organs or parts of the body do they 
 
 originate? 
 
 (2) Where do they unite? 
 
 (3) Where do they empty into the heart? 
 
 (f) Sketch or make diagram of the circulatory organs, 
 
 showing pericardium, ventricle, auricles, conus 
 arteriosus, and the principal arteries and veins. 
 Indicate upon each artery the organ supplied, and 
 upon each vein the organ from which the vein 
 comes. 
 4. Reproductive and Excretory Organs. 
 
 (1) The Reproductive Organs. If the specimen is a female, 
 
 the reproductive organs will appear as long coiled 
 tubes, filled with eggs in the breeding season. If a 
 male, the reproductive organs will appear as a pair 
 of yellowish bodies just below the kidneys. Do 
 not confuse the reproductive organs with the slender 
 branched fatty bodies which are generally present. 
 
 (2) The Excretory Organs. The kidneys are two flat 
 
 bodies along the back-bone. 
 
146 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Length? 
 
 (c) Trace the ureter from each kidney to the cloaca. 
 
 (d) Sketch the kidneys, the ureters, and the openings 
 
 into the cloaca. 
 5. The Endoskeleton. Carefully dissect off all the flesh and 
 viscera and have the bony skeleton entire and uninjured. 
 
 (1) The Skull. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) How many bones in the lower jaw? 
 
 (d) How many occipital condyles, one or two? 
 
 (2) The Spinal Column. 
 
 (a) Number of vertebrae? 
 
 (b) What vertebral processes are longest? Why? 
 
 (c) Why has the frog no ribs? How does it breathe 
 
 without either ribs or diaphragm? 
 
 (d) Urostyle, the long bone at the posterior end of the 
 
 spinal column. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Is it segmented? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 (3) Bones of the Anterior Limbs. In man they are 1 hu- 
 
 merus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, and 
 14 phalanges, or 30 bones in all. Compare the bones 
 of the frog's anterior limb with those of man. 
 
 (a) What ones are lacking, if any? 
 
 (b) How many in the entire limb? 
 
 (c) Any peculiarity of any bone? 
 
 (4) Bones of the Posterior Limbs. 
 
 (a) Name in order the bones in man's leg. 
 
 (b) Name those in the frog's leg. 
 
 (c) How do they agree? 
 
 (d) How do they differ? 
 
 (e) How do the bones of the posterior limb differ from 
 those of the anterior limb in this specimen? Why? 
 
 (5) The Pectoral or Shoulder Girdle. 
 
 (a) Of how many parts does it consist? 
 
 (b) Is it entirely of bone or partly of cartilage? 
 
148 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (c) How many bones enter into the articulation at the 
 shoulder-joint? 
 (6) The Pelvic Girdle. Notice the two long bones (iha) 
 one on either side of the urostjde. 
 
 (a) To what is the anterior end attached? 
 
 (b) What makes the "hump" on the frog's back? Of 
 
 what use is this arrangement? 
 
 (c) At the posterior end of the urostyle notice a wedge 
 
 or disk-shaped body, partly bone and partly 
 cartilage. This disk is formed by the union of the 
 posterior extremities of the ilia and the fusing 
 together of the two pubes and the two ischia. 
 
 (d) For what bones do they form sockets (acetabula)? 
 
 Are these acetabula far apart or very close to- 
 gether? Why? 
 
 (e) How close are the articulations of the thigh bone to 
 
 the posterior end of the body? Why? 
 
 (f) Mount this skeleton on a heavy card or a nicely 
 
 planed pine board and save it for further refer- 
 ence in the systematic studies. 
 6. The Nervous System. If it is desired to work out the 
 nervous system, chloroform the specimen, slit open the abdomen 
 and the skin along the dorsal side, and put it into 70 per cent, 
 alcohol, or 2 to 4 per cent, formalin for about a week, then dis- 
 sect out the nervous system. 
 
 (1) Carefully remove the muscles and bones from the 
 
 dorsal surface of the cranium and backbone with 
 knife, bone-forceps, or strong forceps, bit by bit, 
 until the brain and spinal cord are exposed, but left 
 intact. Man's brain has three coverings: dura 
 mater, pia mater, and arachnoid. Can you identif}^ 
 these coverings on the frog's brain and spinal cord? 
 
 (2) The Brain.i 
 
 (a) The Cerebrum. Identify it with its two hemispheres 
 between the eves. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Is it convoluted or smooth? 
 
 (4) Function? 
 
 ^See Fig. 185, "Principles of Economic Zoology." 
 
150 AMPHIBIA (the frog) 
 
 (b) The Optic Lobes lie just posterior to the cerebrum. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Function? 
 
 (c) The Cerebellum is posterior to the optic lobes. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Is it convoluted, smooth, or ridged? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (d) The Medulla Oblongata lies posterior to the cere- 
 
 bellum. It is widest anteriorly and gradually 
 merges into the spinal cord. 
 
 (e) For ventral view of the brain consult some good 
 
 figure and identify the cerebral nerves. In a man 
 there are twelve pairs. How many pairs in the 
 frog? Name the pairs of cranial nerves in man 
 and state their destination and use. Same for 
 those of the frog. 
 
 (3) The Spinal Cord. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Length? 
 
 (4) The Spinal Nerves. Place the frog ventral side up 
 
 and carefully remove the viscera. In man there are 
 thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. How many can 
 you identify coming from the spinal cord in the frog? 
 
 (a) Are all these nerves of the same size when they leave 
 
 the cord? 
 
 (b) With what does the second pair (counting from the 
 
 anterior end of the cord) unite? 
 
 (1) What does this union then form? 
 
 (2) What muscles does it supply? 
 
 (c) What four other spinal nerves unite? 
 
 (1) Do they subdivide? 
 
 (2) Trace them down to their union in one large nerve, 
 
 the sciatic. What muscles does it supply? 
 
 (5) The Sympathetic Nerves. A small knotted nerve 
 
 cord may be found along the side of the dorsal aorta. 
 
 (a) Trace each nerve. 
 
 (b) How many knots or ganglia do you find? 
 
 (c) Use of the sympathetic nervous system? 
 
REPTILIA (THE TURTLE) 
 
 (1) Follow plan of study for the fish, p. 112. 
 
 (2) Compare the turtle and the frog. 
 
 (3) How do you account for the turtle's carapace and plas- 
 tron? 
 
 (4) How do you account for the absence of limbs in the snake? 
 Did they ever have limbs? Were snakes larger formerly than 
 now? See your Geology on reptiles. 
 
 (5) How do you account for the classification of snakes, 
 turtles, aUigators, and crocodiles as Reptilia? 
 
 STUDY OF THE LIVE TURTLE 
 
 1. Field Study. 
 
 Protected by rubbers or rubber boots, go very cautiously 
 along the banks of a secluded pond or stream. 
 
 (1) Look upon fallen tree trunks or stumps for turtles 
 
 basking in the sunshine. 
 
 (a) What do they do if they become aware of your 
 
 presence? 
 
 (b) How do they become aware of it? 
 
 (c) How do they get back into the water? 
 
 (d) Wait quietly to see if they will return. 
 
 (2) Fish for turtles with a hook and stout line. For bait 
 
 use a short piece of fresh meat. 
 
 (3) When one is caught, put it in the mud outside of the 
 
 stream and watch it. 
 
 (a) If it walks away, does it carry its body above the 
 
 ground or does it creep along with its body dragging 
 on the ground? 
 
 (b) What does it do with the head and neck when walk- 
 
 ing? 
 
 152 
 
154 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (c) Follow it very cautiousl}^ not losing sight of it until 
 
 it stops. 
 
 (d) How does it conceal itself in the mud? 
 
 (e) Is its color of use to it in its natural environment? 
 
 If so, of what use? 
 2. Laboratory Study. 
 Place the turtle in the tank with about an inch of water. 
 
 (1) Watch it, to see how it breathes. 
 
 (2) Experiment with various kinds of foods, leaving them 
 
 overnight in the tank. What kind or kinds does the 
 turtle eat? 
 
 (3) Leave it several days without food. Then offer it 
 
 fresh meat. 
 
 (a) How does it take its food? 
 
 (b) Does it chew its food? Does it swallow it whole? 
 
 (c) Of what use is its beak? 
 
 (4) Neck. 
 
 (a) Why is the neck so long? 
 
 (b) Turn it over on its back. How does it turn over? 
 
 (5) Locomotion. 
 
 (a) Put the turtle on the ground or floor. Does it lift 
 
 or drag the body when walking? 
 
 (b) Put it in deep water. 
 
 (1) Watch it swim. Describe. 
 
 (2) What adaptations has it for swimming? 
 
 (3) Can it dive? 
 
 (6) Protection. 
 
 (a) Can it withdraw its head and limbs into the shell? 
 
 (b) What does it do with its tail? 
 
 (c) Compare with a box-turtle, if you can get one. 
 
 (7) Has it any means of defense aside from its shell? If 
 
 so, what? 
 
 (8) Eyelids. 
 
 (a) How many? 
 
 (b) Movements? 
 
 (9) Voice. 
 
 (a) Does it make say sound? If so, how? 
 
 (b) For what purpose? 
 
156 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Size. With the animal lying on its back and extended, 
 what is the length from the tip of its nose to the end of its tail? 
 
 2. Shape of the Body. 
 
 (1) Stout or slender? 
 
 (2) Body divisions present? 
 
 3. The Head. 
 
 (1) Size. Small, medium, large, or very large? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Measurements. 
 
 (a) Length? 
 
 (b) Width? 
 
 (c) Depth? 
 
 (4) Lower Jaw Movement. Vertical or horizontal? 
 
 (5) Color? 
 
 (6) Eyes. 
 
 (a) Position on head? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Number of eyelids? 
 
 (d) Color of iris? 
 
 (7) Ears. 
 
 (a) Can the turtle hear? 
 
 (b) Is there any external evidence of ears? 
 
 (c) Why is this so? 
 
 (8) Nostrils. 
 
 (a) Where are they located on the head? 
 
 (b) Are they near together or far apart? 
 
 4. The Neck. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Length? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) PecuHarity? 
 
 5. The Limbs. 
 
 (1) The Anterior Limbs. 
 
 (a) Number of digits? 
 
 (b) Are they webbed or free? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
158 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (2) The Posterior Limbs. 
 
 (a) Number of digits? 
 
 (b) Are they webbed or free? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (3) Compare the anterior with the posterior Hmbs. 
 
 (a) In what respects are they ahke? 
 
 (b) In what respects do they differ? 
 
 (c) Give reasons for these resemblances and differ- 
 
 ences. 
 
 6. The Skin. 
 
 (1) Smooth or rough? 
 
 (2) Thick or thin? 
 
 (3) Where thickest? Where thinnest? AVhy? 
 
 (4) Loose, hke the frog's skin, or tight? 
 
 (5) Color? " 
 
 7. The Shell. The upper portion is the carapace, the lower 
 portion is the plastron. 
 
 (1) The Carapace. 
 
 (a) Sketch it — one-half natural size. 
 
 (b) How many marginal epidermal plates? Letter 
 
 each of these in your sketch (a). 
 
 (c) How many dorsal plates? Letter each (b). 
 
 (d) How many costal plates (between marginal and dor- 
 
 sal)? Letter (c). 
 
 (e) Now write a brief description of these epidermal 
 
 plates, stating the total number, and the shape, 
 size, color, use, and arrangement of the different 
 kinds. 
 
 (2) The Plastron. 
 
 (a) Sketch it. 
 
 (b) Of how many epidermal plates is it composed? 
 
 (c) What is their size, shape, color, and arrangement? 
 
 (d) Compare plastron with carapace as to shape, size, 
 
 and relation to other parts. 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 1. Preliminary Work. 
 
 (1) Killing the turtle. Take a firm hold of its head and 
 open its mouth. Insert a blow-pipe into the glottis 
 
160 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 at the base of the tongue. Put about a tablespoon- 
 ful of chloroform into the blowpipe and blow it into 
 the lungs. Now tie a string tightly around the neck 
 to keep the air out of the trachea, and let the turtle 
 lie fifteen or twenty minutes. Another method of 
 killing preferred by some is simply to place the tur- 
 tle on its back in the ^'killing box." Wrap a cloth 
 well saturated with chloroform about its head. Close 
 the lid tightly and allow the turtle to remain about 
 twenty minutes, then tie a string very tightly around 
 its neck. 
 
 (2) Slit open the skin of the ventral side of the neck and 
 
 expose the trachea, esophagus, and the strong mus- 
 cles of the neck. 
 
 (3) Remove the plastron by cutting through the skin along 
 
 its margin and sawing or cutting through the plas- 
 tron where it joins the carapace. With a sharp scal- 
 pel dissect away the muscles from the inner surface 
 of the plastron, cutting very close to it, so as to leave 
 the internal organs uninjured and in place. 
 
 (4) Cut away the pericardium, the semitransparent 
 
 membrane covering the heart, taking care not to cut 
 the blood-vessels. Observe the beating of the heart. 
 What is the order of contraction — auricles and ven- 
 tricle — or the reverse? 
 
 (5) With a sharp scalpel cut the peritoneum along the 
 
 middle line, beginning just posterior to the heart and 
 continuing posteriorly. In doing this, place the 
 point of the scalpel edge up under the membrane and 
 cut outward, taking great care not to injure amj under- 
 lying organs. 
 
 (6) Cut the string about the neck. Insert a blowpipe in 
 
 the glottis and inflate the lungs, and quickly tie a 
 string tightly around the trachea to keep them in- 
 flated. Now you are ready to begin the study of 
 the internal organs. 
 
 (7) First note their position in the body-cavity. 
 
 (a) Where is the heart situated with reference to the di- 
 gestive organs? 
 
162 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (b) What is the position of the lungs with reference to the 
 
 heart and stomach? 
 
 (c) Note the position of the large liver and make a study 
 
 of it in its place. 
 
 (1) Color? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (3) Number of lobes? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (5) Identify and locate the gall-bladder? Use? 
 
 (6) Trace the bile-ducts to the duodenum or anterior 
 
 loop of the intestine. 
 2. The Circulatory System. 
 
 (1) The Heart. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Parts present? 
 
 (d) Pericardium. Use? 
 
 (e) Ventricle. The pointed posterior portion of the 
 
 heart is the ventricle. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Color? 
 
 (3) Size? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (f) The Auricles. At the anterior and dorsal end of the 
 
 heart find the two auricles. 
 
 (1) Are their walls thick or thin as compared with 
 
 those of the ventricle? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Size? 
 
 (4) Color? 
 
 (5) Use? 
 
 (2) Arteries. 
 
 (a) Trace the two aortse from the heart to their 
 
 union. 
 
 (b) Trace arteries to the stomach and to other principal 
 
 organs. 
 
 (3) The Veins. The flabby blood-vessels are veins. As 
 
 you traced the arteries from the heart, now trace the 
 veins to the heart. 
 
164 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (a) From what organs or parts of the body do they 
 
 originate? 
 
 (b) Where do they unite? 
 
 (c) Where do they empt}' into the heart? 
 
 (4) Make a diagram of the circulatory organs, showing the 
 
 pericardium, ventricles, auricles, and principal 
 arteries and veins. Indicate upon each artery the 
 organ supplied, and upon each vein the organ from 
 which it comes. 
 3. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) The Mouth. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Position, terminal or ventral? 
 
 (d) How wide does the mouth of your specimen open? 
 
 (1) How does it open so wide? 
 
 (2) When? 
 
 (3) Why? 
 
 (2) The Teeth. 
 
 What does the turtle have instead of teeth? Why? 
 
 (3) The Tongue. 
 
 (a) Is it long or short? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Where attached? 
 
 (d) Rough or smooth? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (1) The Mandibles, or Jaws. 
 
 (a) Size and strength? 
 
 (b) Are the edges smooth or serrated? 
 
 (c) Do they overlap, or do they close against each other? 
 
 Why? 
 
 (d) Use of the mandibles? 
 
 (5) The Esophagus or Gullet. 
 
 (a) Is it flabby and collapsed, or a rigid and open tube 
 
 like the trachea? 
 
 (b) Of what kind of tissue is it composed? 
 
 (c) Thrust a probe down the gullet and ascertain its 
 
 diameter. 
 
 (d) Ascertain its length to the stomach. Why so long? 
 
166 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (6) The Stomach. Locate and describe, giving its shape, 
 
 size, and color. 
 
 (7) The Liver has been studied. (See (7) (c), p. 162.) 
 
 (8) The Pancreas is in the first fold of the intestine. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (9) The Mesentery is a thin membrane which suspends the 
 
 intestines. 
 
 (a) Does it contain any blood-vessels? 
 
 (b) From what source do they come? 
 
 (c) To what do they lead? 
 
 (10) The Spleen is a small dark red body in the mesentery. 
 
 (a) Locate it. 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (11) The Intestines pass from the stomach to the vent. 
 
 (a) Carefully cut the mesentery and unravel them. Are 
 
 they coiled or straight? 
 
 (b) Do they vary in diameter in different places? If so, 
 
 where, and how much? 
 
 (c) Length of turtle's intestines as compared with the 
 
 length of its body? 
 
 (12) The Cloaca. This is the enlargement of the intestine 
 
 just before it reaches the vent. The intestines, kid- 
 neys, and reproductive organs open into it. 
 
 (13) Sketch the entire alimentary canal from the mouth 
 
 to the vent, placing the various organs in their proper 
 order and naming each of them. 
 4. The Respiratory Sj^stem. 
 
 (1) The Nostrils. 
 
 (a) Do they open into the mouth? Probe with a bristle 
 
 and see. 
 
 (b) Does the turtle l)reathe through its nostrils only, or 
 
 does it swallow air also? 
 
 (c) Does the turtle both breathe through and smell 
 
 with its nostrils? 
 
 (2) The Glottis. Find an opening in the base of the 
 
 tongue leading to the trachea. 
 
168 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (3) The Trachea. Trace it to its branches, the bronchi, 
 
 which lead to the lungs. 
 
 (a) Is it long or short? Why? 
 
 (b) Is it an open rigid tube or a flabby collapsed one? 
 
 Why? 
 
 (c) Of what kind or kinds of tissue is it composed? 
 
 (4) The Lungs. 
 
 (a) How much of the body-cavity do they fill when in- 
 
 flated? 
 
 (b) Estimate approximately their capacity in cubic 
 
 inches. 
 
 (5) Make a diagram of the respiratory organs and name 
 
 each. 
 
 5. The Reproductive and Excretory Systems. 
 
 (1) The Reproductive Organs. 
 
 (a) If the specimen is a female, the reproductive organs 
 
 will appear as long coiled tubes filled with eggs 
 in the breeding season. 
 
 (b) If a male, the reproductive organs will appear as a 
 
 pair of yellowish bodies just below the kidneys. 
 Do not confuse the reproductive organs with the 
 slender branched fatt}^ bodies generally present. 
 
 (2) The Kidneys are two flat bodies along the backbone. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Length? 
 
 (c) Trace the ureter from each kidney to the cloaca. 
 
 (d) Sketch the kidneys, ureters, and openings into the 
 
 cloaca. 
 
 6. The Nervous System. Follow the directions given for the 
 nervous system of the frog. 
 
 How do the parts of the turtle's brain compare with the 
 frog's as to size, shape, and appearance? 
 
 7. The Muscular System. 
 
 (1) Find the origin and insertion of the muscles that pro- 
 
 tract and retract the neck. What wonderful adap- 
 tations for a specific purpose do you discover? 
 
 (2) Dissect off all the muscles from the bones, leaving 
 
 enough ligaments to hold the bones in their proper 
 places. 
 
170 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 8. The Skeleton, or Osseous System. 
 
 (1) The Head. Sketch it, naming the principal bones in it. 
 
 (2) The Neck. 
 
 (a) Number of vertebrae? 
 
 (b) Shape of each? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (3) The Pectoral Girdle. Sketch the girdle, locating and 
 
 naming the coracoid, precoracoid, scapula, and a 
 ligament connecting the distal portions of the cora- 
 coid and the precoracoid. This ligament represents 
 the epicoracoid of some reptiles. 
 
 (4) The Front Limb. 
 
 (a) Sketch, showing humerus, radius, ulna, the carpal 
 
 and metacarpal bones, the phalanges, and the 
 claws. 
 
 (b) Why is the front limb so stout and paddle-like? 
 
 (5) The Vertebral Column, from head to tail. 
 
 (a) Of what does it consist? 
 
 (b) Number of vertebrae? 
 
 (c) Its- special modifications? 
 
 (6) The Pelvic Girdle. Sketch the girdle, locating and 
 
 naming the ilium, ischium, and the pubes. 
 
 (7) The Hind Limb. 
 
 (a) Sketch, locating and naming all the bones of the leg 
 
 and foot, from the femur to the claws. 
 
 (b) Use of web? 
 
 (c) Use of long claws? 
 
 (d) Compare the hind limb with the front limb as to 
 
 shape, size, length, and use. 
 
 (8) The Tail. 
 
 (a) Number of vertebrae in the turtle's tail? 
 
 (b) Use to the turtle? 
 
 (c) Its pecuharity? 
 
 (9) Remove the epidermal plates from one half of the shell. 
 
 (a) Sketch the bony plates from the dorsal side of the 
 
 carapace. 
 
 (b) Sketch the bony plates from the ventral side of the 
 
 carapace. 
 
 (c) How many do you find? 
 
172 REPTILIA (the turtle) 
 
 (d) How many ribs? 
 
 (e) How many ribs and bony plates united? Why? 
 
 (f) How do the bony plates compare with the epidermal 
 
 plates in size, shape, number, and arrangement? 
 
 (g) Of what does the carapace consist? 
 (h) Use of this complicated structure? 
 (i) The Plastron. 
 
 (1) Sketch it. 
 
 (2) How many epidermal plates? Color? 
 
 (3) How many bony plates? 
 
 (4) Compare the plastron with the carapace as to 
 
 shape, size, and relation to other parts. 
 
AVES (THE BIRD) 
 
 Follow the plan for Pisces, p. 112. 
 Compare birds and reptiles. 
 
 How do you account for the presence of feathers on the bird? 
 For the bird's ancestors, see your geology, Archseopteryx. 
 See Chapman's ''Bird Life" for a plan for spring or fall 
 study of birds. 
 
 STUDY OF LIVE BIRDS 
 
 A. General Study 
 
 1. Winter Birds. 
 
 (1) Make a list of all the birds which remain in your 
 
 locaUty through the winter. 
 
 (2) Are they more warmly clad than the birds which go 
 
 south in winter? 
 
 (3) Why do they not migrate? 
 
 (4) What is their food? Can they get a comfortable sup- 
 
 ply in winter? 
 
 2. Migration. 
 
 (1) What birds are the first to migrate? 
 
 (2) What ones are the last to go? 
 
 (3) What ones are the first to come back in the spring? 
 
 DonH guess. Keep a record, giving the date for the 
 first time you see each bird as it returns in the spring. 
 Make several trips to the woods and streams to in- 
 crease the list. 
 
 (4) Which birds are gregarious? 
 
 (5) Which come in pairs? 
 
 (6) Can you give any evidence from your own observation 
 
 of any birds returning to the same place to nest from 
 year to year? 
 
 3. Movements on the Ground. 
 
 (1) Make a list of the birds that hop. 
 
 (2) Make a list of those that walk. 
 
 174 
 
176 AVES (the bird) 
 
 4. Voice. 
 
 (1) Make a list of those that sing. 
 
 (2) Do you notice different calls or tones by the same 
 
 bird? 
 
 (a) Are they for different purposes? 
 
 (b) What emotions or information do birds express by 
 
 voice? 
 
 (3) Give some of the names applied to the calls of various 
 
 birds. 
 
 5. Nesting Habits. 
 
 (1) Make a list of birds which build their nests upon the 
 
 ground. 
 
 (2) Of those that build in trees. 
 
 (3) What general truth do you observe concerning the 
 
 colors of birds which stay most of the time on the 
 ground? Is this true of their color ventrally? 
 
 B. Special Study 
 Select one or two birds which you have an opportunity to 
 watch closely, and report upon the following points: 
 
 1. Nesting Habits. 
 
 (1) Which builds the nest, the male or the female? Or do 
 
 both? 
 
 (2) Does the male feed his mate or does he watch the nest 
 
 while she gets her food? 
 
 2. Food. 
 
 (1) What is their food? 
 
 (2) Which feeds the young? What does it feed them? 
 
 (3) Judging from this food, are they of use or harm to the 
 
 farmer and fruit-grower? 
 
 (4) When (what time of day or night) do they feed? 
 
 (5) How do they secure their food? 
 
 (6) What adaptations for securing food have they? 
 
 (7) Name some adaptations for securing food which you 
 
 have noticed in other birds. 
 
 (8) Does this bird ever store its food? If so, how and 
 
 where? If not, do you know of any bird which does? 
 
 (9) How does this bird drink? Do all birds drink that way? 
 
 (Watch the pigeon drink.) 
 
178 AVES (the bird) 
 
 3. The Young. 
 
 (1) How does this pair of birds defend its young? 
 
 (2) Is there any recognition of the parent by the young? 
 
 If so, by what means? 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 Note. — If the teacher can supply the feathers, it will be well 
 to take the study of a "contour" feather, and a "down" feather, 
 before killing the bird. A common pigeon makes an excellent 
 study, but an English sparrow may be used. 
 
 Kill the bird by chloroforming it in the "killing can" for ten 
 minutes. Then slit the skin of the neck and tie a string tightly 
 around the trachea close to the head. 
 
 One bird will be needed for the study of muscles, viscera, and 
 nervous system, and another for the skeleton. If it is desired 
 to mount the skeleton and material is scarce, two students may 
 work together after the internal morphology is reached, so that 
 all the material needed will be one bird for each student. 
 
 If the student does not get ready the first day for the in- 
 ternal morphology, insert a blowpipe in the bird's trachea and 
 inflate the lungs (see B, 1 and 2), or they may become fixed so 
 that they cannot be inflated. 
 
 Place specimen in "preserving fluid" after class each day. 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Size. 
 
 (1) What is the length from the tip of the bill to the end 
 
 of the tail? 
 
 (2) Weight of the bird with the feathers on? 
 
 2. Shape of its body? Why such a shape? 
 
 3. Body Divisions. Head, neck, body, tail. Length of 
 each? 
 
 4. The Head. 
 
 (1) Size. Small, medium, or large, compared with the body? 
 
 (2) Shape? Why such a shape? 
 
 (3) Covering of the head. 
 
 (a) Parts feathered? 
 
 (b) Parts naked? 
 
180 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (4) Range of motion of the head? 
 
 (5) Eyes. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Position on the head? Why so placed? 
 
 (d) EyeUds. Are there two or three to each eye? Raise 
 
 the upper Hd and look in the interior angle for the 
 nictitating membrane. How does a bird wink? 
 
 (6) Ears. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Position on the head? 
 
 (d) How protected? 
 
 (7) Beak. 
 
 (a) Length in inches? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (e) Lips. Has the bird any lips? Why is this true? 
 
 (8) Nostrils. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Position on the beak? 
 
 (c) Openings. With a probe find out where the nostrils 
 
 open into the mouth. 
 
 (9) Mouth. 
 
 (a) Tongue. Open the bird's mouth and examine the 
 
 tongue. Describe it. 
 
 (b) Glottis. Back of the tongue, find the glottis. What 
 
 is its shape? What is its character? 
 
 (c) Eustachian tubes. Pass a bristle through the tym- 
 
 panum or ear-drum and see where it enters the 
 mouth. Is there one or two openings into the 
 roof of the mouth? 
 
 5. The Neck. 
 
 (1) Length? 
 
 (2) Covering? 
 
 6. The Exoskeleton. The feathers, claws, and scales form 
 the exoskeleton. 
 
182 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (1) The Feathers. 
 
 (a) Identify (1) the contour feathers, (2) the down 
 
 feathers, (3) the pin-feathers, or undeveloped 
 feathers, and (4) the filoplumes, or hair-hke feath- 
 ers that remain on the bird after plucking. 
 
 (b) Parts of the body covered with feathers? 
 
 (c) Parts of the body not covered with feathers? 
 
 Why? 
 
 (d) Color, or color patterns, and how made? Are they 
 
 bilaterally symmetric? 
 
 (e) A Contour Feather. 
 
 (1) Identify the quill (calamus), the shaft (rachis), 
 
 and the vane, which is made up of barbs, barb- 
 ules, and barbicels. 
 
 (2) Sketch a contour feather, showing and naming 
 
 all the parts. 
 
 (f) A Down Feather. Compare with a contour feather 
 
 and state parts lacking, if any. 
 
 (g) A Filoplume. Compare with a contour feather, 
 (h) Use of each kind of feathers to the bird? 
 
 (i) Tail Feathers. 
 
 (1) How many long quill feathers on the tail? 
 
 (2) Shape of the tail when feathers are spread out? 
 
 Shape when closed? 
 
 (3) Symmetry of the vane? How do these feathers 
 
 overlap? Why? 
 
 (4) Color or color patterns when open? When 
 
 closed? Why? 
 
 (5) Number, color, and arrangement of the upper 
 
 tail coverts? Of the lower tail coverts? 
 (j) Wing Feathers. 
 
 (1) Primaries on the pinion. Usually nine or ten. 
 
 How many do you find? 
 
 (2) Tertiaries on the upper arm. How many? 
 
 (3) How many in all? How many upper coverts? 
 
 Lower coverts? 
 (k) Body Feathers. 
 
 (1) Any contour feathers? If so, how man}^? 
 
 (2) Any down feathers? Approximate number? 
 
184 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (3) Any filoplumes? 
 
 (4) How are the body feathers arranged? 
 
 (1) Of what use are feathers to the bird? To man? 
 (m) Pluck off the feathers. 
 
 (1) Where is the skin thin? Where thick? 
 
 (2) Can you find apteria, or spaces which did not bear 
 
 feathers? 
 
 (3) What difference is there in the size of the bird 
 
 before picking and after picking? 
 
 (4) Weigh the plucked bird. Compare this weight 
 
 with that first found. What is the difference 
 between these weights, or the weight of the 
 feathers? 
 
 (2) Scales. Do the scales overlap? Are the anterior and 
 
 posterior scales alike? 
 
 (3) Claws. 
 
 (a) How do they unite with the toes? 
 
 (b) How do they compare in color and texture with the 
 
 covering of the toes and legs? 
 
 (c) Use of the claws? Are they sharp and strong enough 
 
 to be successful weapons of defense? 
 7. The Muscles. Skin the bird and expose the muscles. 
 Hold the skin up to the light. Do you see any blood-vessels? 
 What is their arrangement? Their use? Demonstrate (sepa- 
 rate out) the following muscles: 
 
 (1) Those that move the wing as a whole. 
 
 (2) Those that move the parts of the wing upon each other. 
 
 (3) Those that move the neck. 
 
 (4) Those that move the leg on the body. Bend the leg 
 
 close up to the body and note the effect upon the toes. 
 What difference is there in the position of the toes 
 when the leg is straight from their position when the 
 bird is on its perch? 
 
 (5) Those that move the parts of the leg on each other. 
 
 (6) Those that move all the toes at once. 
 
 (7) Those that move each toe independently. 
 
 (8) Remove the muscles from the sternum, noting the 
 
 blood-vessels and nerves which enter them near the 
 shoulders. 
 
186 AVES (the bird) 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 1. Carefully lift the abdominal wall, and, with the scissors, 
 slit it from the posterior edge of the sternum to the anus. 
 Now, make a transverse slit on each side along the posterior 
 edge of the sternum and cut away the flaps of the abdominal 
 wall. 
 
 2. Now make a tiny opening in the trachea below the string 
 you tied about it, insert the blowpipe, and inflate the lungs and 
 air sacs. 
 
 Note (1) the paired abdominal sacs near the dorsal wall 
 anteriorly, but the ventral wall posteriorly, (2) the axillary sacs 
 under the wings, and (3) the branched interclavicular sac be- 
 neath the anterior end of the sternum and the wish-bone, or 
 clavicles. 
 
 (4) Do you find other air sacs? 
 
 (5) What part of the lung expands first in inflating? 
 
 (6) Do you notice any movement of the appendages when 
 
 you inflate the pigeon's lungs? 
 
 (7) Explain how air blown into the lungs affects the bones. 
 
 (8) Tie the trachea below the entrance of the blowpipe and 
 
 keep the lungs inflated if you can. 
 
 3. Next, disjoint the coracoid bones from the scapulae, or 
 shoulder-blades, and cut the ribs loose from the sternum. 
 Remove the coracoids, clavicles, and the sternum, thus exposing 
 the internal organs. Note the compactness with which the 
 internal organs are placed. Why? 
 
 4. The Liver. 
 
 (1) Color? 
 
 (2) Location? 
 
 (3) Number of lobes? 
 
 (4) Use? 
 
 (5) Identify and locate the gall-bladder. Use? 
 
 (6) Trace the bile-ducts to the duodenum, or anterior 
 
 loop of the intestine. 
 
 5. The Circulatory System. 
 
 (1) The Heart. Locate and identify the heart with its 
 pericardium, 
 (a) Carefully remove the pericardium. 
 
188 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (b) Identify and describe the two auricles and the two 
 
 ventricles. 
 
 (c) Snip off the apex of the heart with a pair of scissors 
 
 and observe the cavities of the two ventricles. 
 Note the difference (1) in shape, and (2) in thick- 
 ness of walls. Explain. 
 6. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) Mouth. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Beaks for teeth. Why? 
 
 (2) The Pharynx opens' into the gullet. 
 
 (3) The Gullet. 
 
 (a) Is the gullet, or esophagus, the same size all the way 
 
 to the gizzard? Can the pigeon swallow with its 
 head down? 
 
 (b) What is the first enlargement called? Of what use 
 
 is the crop? 
 
 (c) The glandular stomach is the slight enlargement near 
 
 the gizzard. What is its size compared with that 
 of the crop? If the opening into the gizzard 
 were closed, could fluids pass from the glandular 
 stomach into the intestine? 
 
 (4) The Gizzard. 
 
 (a) Of what use is the gizzard, or muscular stomach? 
 
 (b) Make a cross-section through the gizzard. 
 
 (c) Of what does it consist? 
 
 (d) Character of the lining? 
 
 (e) What does it contain? 
 
 (f) How many openings has the gizzard, and into what? 
 
 (g) Can the opening from the glandular stomach be 
 
 closed? 
 (h) Is the gizzard cecal? 
 
 (5) The Duodenum. The first loop of the intestine is 
 
 called the duodenum. 
 
 (a) How and by what is it held in position? 
 
 (b) From what is the intestine suspended? 
 
 (c) Note the veins and arteries in the mesentery. 
 
190 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (6) The Pancreas, a yellowish, slender, glandular organ, lies 
 
 within the loop of the duodenum. Find the pan- 
 creatic ducts leading to the right limb of the loop of 
 the duodenum. 
 
 (7) The Spleen, a small, flat, red body, lies to the right of the 
 
 glandular stomach. Do you find any duct leading 
 from the spleen? 
 
 (8) The Intestine continues from the duodenum, its ante- 
 
 rior part, to the cloaca, the enlargement at its poste- 
 rior end. 
 
 (a) Is it coiled, looped, or straight? 
 
 (b) Is it the same size all the way? 
 
 (9) The Rectal Ceca are two lateral sacs or branches of the 
 
 intestine at the end of the small intestine. 
 How long are they and how do they end? Use? 
 (XO) The Rectum, or large, straight intestine, leads from 
 the entrance of the ceca to the cloaca. 
 How long is the rectum? 
 
 (11) The Liver. (See B, 4.) 
 
 (12) Sketch the Alimentary Canal, name all its parts in 
 
 order, and state the use of each part in the work of 
 digestion. 
 7. The Respiratory System. 
 
 (1) The Glottis. Look at the base of the tongue for the 
 
 opening into the trachea. 
 
 (a) Does the food pass over it in entering the esophagus? 
 
 (b) If so, how is it prevented from passing into the wind- 
 
 pipe? 
 
 (2) The Trachea. Trace the trachea down to its divisions. 
 
 (a) Is it the same size all the way? 
 
 (b) The enlargement at its anterior end is the larynx 
 
 and the one at its posterior end is the syrinx, or 
 voice-box. 
 
 (3) The Bronchi are the branches, or divisions, of the 
 
 trachea. 
 Do they differ in size? 
 
 (4) Remove the alimentary canal and sketch the respira- 
 
 tory organs. 
 
192 AVES (the bird) 
 
 8. The Excretory Organs. Find two dark-colored organs, 
 the kidneys, close along the back. 
 
 Trace a ureter from each to the cloaca. 
 
 9. The Reproductive Organs, paired in the male and single 
 in the female, also open by ducts into the cloaca. 
 
 10. The Nervous System. 
 
 (1) The Brain. 
 
 (a) Carefully cut away the upper part of the skull 
 
 and expose the brain. 
 
 (b) Is it smooth or convoluted? 
 
 (c) Identify and describe the cerebrum, cerebellum, the 
 
 two olfactory lobes in front of and below the cere- 
 brum, anterior to and below the cerebellum. 
 
 (2) The Spinal Cord. 
 
 (a) Remove the bone along the cervical vertebrae and 
 
 expose the spinal cord until the brachial plexus is 
 reached. 
 
 (b) Trace nerves to the wings. 
 
 (c) Continue to expose the spinal cord until the lumbar 
 
 plexus is reached. 
 
 (d) Trace the nerves from the lumbar plexus to the 
 
 thigh, 
 /e) Continue exposing the spinal cord till the sacral 
 plexus is reached. 
 
 (f) Trace the sciatic nerves to the legs. 
 
 (g) If possible, continue exposing the spinal cord until the 
 
 plexus pudendus, which supplies the tail, is reached. 
 
 (3) Sketch the brain and spinal cord, showing the princi- 
 
 pal plexuses. State the use of each part of the 
 brain. Tell what part of the body is supplied with 
 nerves from each plexus. 
 
 C. The Endoskeleton ^ 
 
 Clean away the flesh from the bones of the unmutilated bird, 
 leaving all parts articulated. 
 
 Weigh. What per cent, of the bird is bone? Why are the 
 bones so light? 
 
 ^See Fig. 216, " Principles of Economic Zoology." 
 
194 AVEs (the bird) 
 
 1. The Skull. 
 
 (1) Note the quadrate bone, to which the lower jaw is 
 
 attached. 
 
 (2) Note the large posterior opening, the occipital foramen, 
 
 in the base of the skull. 
 
 (3) Are there one or two little knob-like projections 
 
 (occipital condyles) which fit into the atlas, or first 
 cervical vertebra? 
 
 (4) Are the bones of the skull compact and heavy, or 
 
 spongy and light? 
 
 (5) Are the bones completely ankylosed together, or can 
 
 you distinguish the sutures between them? The 
 sutures are less plainly visible in an old bird than in 
 a young one. 
 
 2. The Vertebrae. 
 
 (1) Notice how the first and second vertebrae fit together. 
 
 (2) How many vertebrae are there between the skull and 
 
 the first pair of ribs articulating with the sternum? 
 
 (3) How many vertebrae bear ribs? 
 
 (4) The Sacrum. Fourteen or fifteen vertebrae are fused 
 
 together to form the sacrum which supports the 
 pelvic girdle. Note the openings through which the 
 spinal nerves pass. 
 
 (5) How many free caudal vertebrae do you find? 
 
 (6) Note the terminal bone, the pygostyle, formed from 
 
 the fusing together of several vertebrae. 
 
 3. The Ribs. 
 
 (1) How many ribs do not articulate with the sternum? 
 
 (2) How many ribs articulate with the sternum? 
 
 (a) In what direction does the vertebral, or dorsal, por- 
 
 tion of these ribs extend? 
 
 (b) In what direction does the ventral or sternal portion 
 
 extend? 
 
 (c) How do they meet? At an angle or in a straight line? 
 
 (d) What is the advantage of this arrangement? 
 
 4. The Pectoral, or Shoulder Girdle. 
 
 (1) On each side, it consists of a scapula, or shoulder-blade, 
 a stout coracoid bone reaching from the scapula to 
 the sternum, or breast-bone, and the slender clavicle. 
 
196 AVES (the bird) 
 
 (2) The two clavicles are ankylosed together at their 
 
 ventral ends, forming the 'Vish-bone." 
 
 (3) How is this end joined to the keel of the sternum? 
 
 (4) To what do the proximal ends articulate? 
 
 5. The Sternum, or Breast-bone, is the somewhat triangular 
 bone below the body-cavit3^ 
 
 (1) What is its shape next to the viscera? Why? 
 
 (2) What is the purpose of the keel which projects on its 
 
 ventral side? 
 
 (3) What bones are attached to the sternum? 
 
 6. The Wings. 
 
 (1) Compare the bones of the wing with those of the arm 
 
 of man. 
 
 (2) Name and describe the bones of the proximal and distal 
 
 portions. 
 
 (3) In what direction from its proximal attachment does 
 
 each of these portions of the wing extend? 
 
 (4) The distal portion of the wing is made up of the bones 
 
 of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, which are 
 much modified, fused, degenerate, or lacking. 
 
 (5) Compare your specimen with some good figure of it 
 
 and find two free carpal bones, the radial and the 
 ulnar, the carpometacarpus, a long curved bone 
 formed by the fusion of the distal carpal bones with 
 the first three metacarpals, and the first three digits, 
 the third consisting of but a single bone. 
 
 7. The Pelvic Girdle consists of a right and left innominate 
 bone, each of which is formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, 
 and pubis, at the union of which is the acetabulum, or depression 
 for the head of the femur. See if you can distinguish these 
 bones. 
 
 8. The Legs. 
 
 (1) The femur, or thigh bone, fits into the acetabulum 
 
 at its upper end. 
 
 (a) What is its length? 
 
 (b) In what direction does it extend from its upper at- 
 
 tachment? 
 
 (2) The middle portion of the leg is composed of two bones; 
 
 the tibiotarsus or long bone, formed by the fusion 
 
198 AVEs (the bird) 
 
 of the tibia with the proximal tarsal bones, and the 
 fibula, a tiny, slender bone sometimes fused with the 
 large bone. 
 (3) The distal portion consists of the bones of the foot. 
 
 (a) The shaft, or tarsometatarsus, is formed by the 
 
 fusion of the distal tarsal bones and the second, 
 third, and fourth metatarsals. What direction, 
 then, does the sole of the foot take? 
 
 (b) The toes. 
 
 (1) Upon what does the pigeon walk? 
 
 (2) How many toes are present? 
 
 (3) In what direction do they extend? 
 
 (c) Make a sketch of the right leg, showing all the bones 
 
 in their natural positions when the bird is standing. 
 Name each. 
 
MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) 
 
 Follow plan suggested for the study of the fish, p. 112. 
 
 Compare the fish, frog, turtle, bird (used), and rabbit (or 
 mammal used). Make ten comparisons. 
 
 What branch (chordate) structures do you find they have in 
 common? 
 
 Library report on domesticated mammals, from reading list 
 assigned by teacher. 
 
 . Compare your definitions of a fish, a frog, a turtle, a bird, and 
 a mammal. 
 
 STUDY OF A LIVE RABBIT 
 
 Study the rabbit in the field if possible. If not, cage a wild 
 rabbit and study it in the laboratory, or visit some one's pet 
 rabbit. 
 
 If none of these are available, then study any live mammal, 
 as the cat, guinea-pig, white rat, squirrel, prairie-dog, or even 
 a horse or cow, making your own outline. 
 
 Field Study. 
 
 Go at morning, noon, and evening, cautiouslj^ and repeatedly, 
 along the hedges or neglected roadsides in the spring, and look 
 for rabbits. 
 
 (1) At what time of day do 3^ou find one at home? At 
 
 what time of day do j^ou find one feeding? 
 
 (2) What does the rabbit do when it becomes aware of 
 
 your presence? 
 
 (3) What seems to be its first impulse for protection? 
 
 (4) What are its adaptations for concealment? 
 
 (5) In what position are its ears when it is squatting? 
 
 (6) Does it change the direction of its ears when listening? 
 
 Whistle to it while you watch. 
 
 (7) Does it see or hear you first? 
 
 (8) Can it see in all directions without turning its head? 
 
 (9) Does it sleep in the daytime? 
 
 200 
 
202 MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) 
 
 (10) Do rabbits play together? When? 
 
 (11) What are its modes of locomotion? 
 
 (12) How far can it jump? 
 
 (13) How high can it jmnp? 
 
 (14) Can it swim? 
 
 (15) When chased by dogs, why does it ''circle" on its 
 
 tracks? 
 
 (16) Did you ever hear a rabbit make a cry or sound? 
 
 When? Why? 
 
 (17) What is a rabbit's food? 
 
 (18) What harm do they do? 
 
 (19) In what kind of nests do they rear their young? When? 
 
 (20) Are the young rabbits helpless, naked, and blind, or 
 
 covered with hair, active, and can see? 
 
 Morphophysiologic Study 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Size. 
 
 (a) Length in inches? (From tip of nose to tip of last 
 
 vertebra of tail.) 
 
 (b) Stout or slender in body? Diameter from side to 
 
 side? Dorsoventrally? 
 
 2. Shape of Body? 
 
 3. Head. 
 
 (1) Size. Small, medium, or large? 
 
 (2) Cause of such a shape? 
 
 (3) Eyes. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Position on head? 
 
 (d) Number of eyelids? 
 
 (4) Ears. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? Length in inches? Why so large? 
 
 (c) Position on head? 
 
 (5) Upper Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? Why such shape? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
204 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 (6) Lower Lip. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (7) The Tongue? 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Surface? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (8) The Teeth. 
 
 (a) Incisors. 
 
 (1) Number of incisors in each jaw? 
 
 (2) What is their particular shape? Why? Are they 
 
 just alike in the upper and lower jaw? 
 
 (3) What portion of these teeth is covered with 
 
 enamel? Why is not their whole surface covered? 
 
 (4) Upon what do the lower incisors fit against when 
 
 the mouth is closed? 
 
 (5) Why the space back of the incisors? 
 
 (6) What teeth are lacking? 
 
 (7) How does the rabbit obtain its food? 
 
 (8) How does the rabbit chew its food? 
 
 (9) Is the movement of the lower jaw vertical, or hori- 
 
 zontal, or both? Feed one and watch the jaws 
 move. 
 
 (b) Premolars. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Number in each jaw? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 (c) Total number of teeth? 
 
 (9) Cheeks. Hairy or smooth inside? Why? 
 (10) Vibrissse or ''Whiskers." 
 
 (a) Where situated? 
 
 (b) Number on a side? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 4. The Neck. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Length? 
 
 (a) Length compared with head? 
 
 (b) Compared with body? 
 
206 MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) 
 
 5. The Tail. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Length? 
 
 (3) Why so short? 
 
 (4) Color? 
 
 (a) Dorsally? 
 
 (b) Ventrally? 
 
 (c) Why this difference in color? 
 
 6. The Limbs. 
 
 (1) The Anterior Limbs. 
 
 (a) Length? 
 
 (b) Number of digits? 
 
 (c) Length of each digit? 
 
 (d) How many are clawed? Why clawed? 
 
 (e) Are the feet padded with hair or naked? Why? 
 
 (2) The Posterior Limbs. 
 
 (a, b, c, d, e) Same questions as for anterior limbs. 
 
 (f) How much longer are they than the anterior limbs? 
 
 Why so much longer? 
 
 (3) Locomotion. 
 
 (a) Is the rabbit digitigrade or plantigrade? Which 
 
 are you? 
 
 (b) Indicate the way a rabbit makes tracks when running. 
 
 (c) How great a distance, in feet, will, the rabbit jump 
 
 when running? How man}' feet high will it jump? 
 
 (d) Did you ever see a rabbit walk? Swim? Climb? 
 
 7. The Skin. Remove the skin from the limbs. About the 
 
 quickest way is to make a slit in the skin around the 
 center of the body and to have two persons pull the 
 skin both ways at once. 
 
 (1) Is the skin thick or thin? 
 
 (2) Use to the animal? To man? 
 
 8. The Muscles or lean meat. 
 
 (1) Determine the origin, insertion, and use of ten muscles. 
 
 Consult human physiology. Use of so much muscle? 
 
 (2) Demonstrate the workings of the muscles in the poste- 
 
 rior foot. 
 
208 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 In your dissections, be careful not to injure the sternum, ribs, 
 or any other bones, as you will need them in your study of the 
 skeleton. 
 
 Cut through the abdominal muscles along the median line 
 from the pelvis to the sternum. From the middle of this slit, 
 make a short one on each side at right angles to it, and turn 
 back the muscular flaps, exposing the internal organs. 
 
 How do the abdominal muscles compare in thickness with 
 those on other parts of the body? Why? 
 
 Before proceding with the dissection, or putting the specimen 
 into formaldehyd, insert the blowpipe in the trachea, inflate the 
 lungs, and tie a string tightly about the trachea below the blow- 
 pipe. 
 
 1. Peritoneum, or lining of the body cavity. Its surface and 
 appearance? 
 
 2. The Diaphragm. A muscular partition divides the body 
 into two portions, the anterior, containing the heart and lungs, 
 and the posterior, containing the abdominal viscera. 
 
 3. Note the position of the organs in the body cavity? 
 
 4. The Circulatory System. 
 
 (1) The Pericardium. 
 
 (a) Identify and describe it. 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (c) Contents? 
 
 (2) The Heart. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Number of auricles? 
 
 (1) Position? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 (e) Ventricles. 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 (3) The Arteries. (See Physiology.) Identify the firm, 
 
 elastic aorta and its branches, and trace them to the 
 organs which they supply. 
 
210 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 . (4) The Veins. (See Physiology.) Identify the flabby 
 veins and trace them from their origin in the organs 
 from which they carry the blood to the ascending 
 and descending vense cavse, and to their junction 
 with the heart. 
 (5) Trace the blood from the left ventricle to all parts of 
 the body, naming the principal branches of the aorta, 
 and the principal veins back through the lungs to the 
 starting point, the left ventricle. See some good 
 figure in physiology for the names of arteries and 
 veins. 
 
 5. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) The Mouth. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size, large or small? 
 
 (c) Contents? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (2) The Pharynx. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 The pharynx leads into a dilatable, muscular tube, the 
 esophagus. 
 
 (3) The Esophagus. Thrust a probe down the rabbit's 
 
 throat. Cut along the neck and follow the esopha- 
 gus. Note the windpipe or trachea, and its position 
 as related to the esophagus, but do not injure it. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size, length, and diameter? 
 
 (c) Opens into what? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (4) The Stomach. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? Which end is the larger? 
 
 (c) How many openings? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (5) The Liver is a large dark-colored organ. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Number of lobes? 
 
212 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 (d) Location? 
 
 (e) Use? 
 
 (f) Gall-bladder. 
 
 (1) Identify it and trace its duct to the intestine. 
 
 (2) What is the function of the bile? 
 
 (6) The Omentum. Behind the liver is a broad fold of 
 
 transparent membrane, the omentum. It is sus- 
 pended from the posterior border of the stomach and 
 contains fat. 
 
 (a) What is the use of the omentum? 
 
 (b) What lies behind it? 
 
 (7) The Small Intestine. 
 
 (a) The Duodenum. Joined to the pyloric or posterior 
 
 end of the stomach is the duodenum. 
 
 (1) The Pancreas is in the loop of the duodenum. De- 
 
 scribe it. Its use? Trace the duct or ducts. 
 Into what do they lead? 
 
 (2) The Mesentery holds the folds of the intestines in 
 
 place. Describe it, noting any blood-vessels. 
 To what is it attached? Of what is it a fold or 
 continuation? 
 
 (3) The Spleen is a small red organ in the mesentery, 
 
 near the cardiac or anterior end of the stomach. 
 Identify it. What is its use? 
 
 (b) The Ileum. From the duodenum to the entrance 
 
 of the cecum is the ileum. Cut the mesentery and 
 unravel the small intestine until you find the 
 place where it joins the large one. 
 
 (1) How many inches or feet long is it? 
 
 (2) Why so long? 
 
 (8) The Cecum is a very large portion of the intestine, 
 
 ending blindly. 
 
 (a) How long is it? 
 
 (b) Why so large? 
 
 (9) The Large Intestine. Trace it to the vent. 
 
 (a) How does it compare in size and length with the 
 
 small intestine? 
 
 (b) Total length of the alimentary canal? Why so long? 
 
 (c) Does the rabbit eat vegetable or animal food? 
 
214 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 (10) Sketch the ahmentary canal. Name in order all its 
 parts. 
 
 6. The Respiratory System. 
 
 Draw out the tongue and look behind the epiglottis, down into 
 the larynx, and find the vocal cords. The slit between them 
 forms the glottis. 
 
 (1) The Trachea. 
 
 (a) Its structure? 
 
 (b) Into what does it divide before reaching the 
 
 lungs? 
 
 (2) The Lungs. Cut through the diaphragm. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Capacity? 
 
 (3) Sketch the respiratory organs and name the parts. 
 
 7. The Excretory System. 
 
 (1) The Kidneys. Remove the digestive organs and 
 
 identify the bean-shaped kidneys. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Arrangement, alternate or opposite? Any advantage 
 from this arrangement? 
 
 (2) The Ureters. Identify the tube leacUng from each 
 
 kidney to the bladder. 
 
 8. The Reproductive Organs now remain. These may be 
 easily identified. 
 
 9. The Osseous System or Endoskeleton. 
 
 Carefully dissect off all the flesh and viscera, and leave the 
 bony skeleton entire, clean, and uninjured. By the use of 
 wires and double-pointed tacks, mount this skeleton in its 
 proper position on a nicely planed pine board. 
 
 Consult some good figures and name all the bones. 
 (1) The Skull. 
 
 (a) Are the bones distinct or fused together? 
 
 (b) Notice the edges of the contiguous bones. Are 
 
 these wavy, zigzag, or straight? 
 
 (1) What are such joints or unions called? 
 
 (2) How are the bones of the human skull united? 
 
 (See human skeleton or Physiology.) 
 
216 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 (2) The Spinal Column. 
 
 (a) Number of cervical or ribless vertebrae just posterior 
 
 to the skull? 
 
 (b) Number of thoracic or rib-bearing vertebrae? 
 
 (c) Number of lumbar vertebrae — separate vertebrae 
 
 following the ribs? 
 
 (d) Number of sacral vertebrae fused together? 
 
 (e) How many caudal (tail) vertebrae? 
 
 (f) Note the shape of the vertebrae in different regions. 
 
 What differences in the length of their spinous 
 processes? Of their transverse processes? Why 
 these differences? 
 
 (3) The Ribs. 
 
 (a) How many true ribs, that is, articulated with the 
 
 sternum? 
 
 (b) How many false ribs? 
 
 (c) Total number of ribs? How many in man? 
 
 (d) Use of the ribs? 
 
 (4) The Pectoral Girdle. 
 
 (a) Complete or incomplete? 
 
 (b) What bones present? 
 
 (5) Fore Limbs. 
 
 (a) Name the bones. 
 
 (b) Which is the longer, the humerus or the ulna? 
 
 (c) Radius. 
 
 (1) Notice its articulations. 
 
 (2) Is the proximal end internal or external to the 
 
 ulna? 
 
 (3) The distal end? 
 
 (4) Can the rabbit carry its food to its mouth as a 
 
 squirrel does? Why? 
 
 (d) The Foot. 
 
 (1) What part of the front foot rests upon the ground 
 
 in locomotion? 
 
 (2) How many carpal bones? 
 
 (3) Metacarpals? 
 
 (4) Phalanges? 
 
218 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 (6) The Pelvic Girdle. 
 
 (a) Identify the three bones, ilium, ischium, and os 
 
 pubis, in each side of the pelvic girdle. 
 
 (b) Why are these bones so firmly ankylosed together? 
 
 (c) Function of the pelvis? 
 
 (7) The Hind Limbs. 
 
 (a) Which segment is longest? 
 
 (b) How long is the tibia, compared with the fibula? 
 
 (c) How are they united? 
 
 (d) With what is the fibula united below? 
 
 (e) What part of the hind foot does the rabbit rest upon 
 
 the ground when in locomotion? 
 10. The Nervous System. If it is desired to work out the 
 nervous system, take a fresh specimen. Skin it, remove the 
 internal organs, and follow the directions under the Nervous 
 System in the study of the frog. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF THE RABBIT 
 
 For study of Branch and Class characteristics, see studies 
 of Chordate Branch and Class Characteristics, p. 128. 
 
 Study of Ordinal Characteristics 
 
 Have for reference several different species of the order to 
 which this animal Ijelongs. If not present for reference, name 
 and have in mind several different species of the order. 
 
 1. The Exoskeleton or Covering. 
 
 (1) Do you discover any ordinal modifications of the class 
 
 covering? If so, what? 
 
 (2) Of what use is it to this order of animals? 
 
 2. The Head. What ordinal peculiarities do you discover as 
 to the size, shape, or appendages (horns, tusks, etc.) of the head? 
 
 3. The Teeth. 
 
 (1) Present or absent? 
 
 (2) Kind of teeth present (incisors, canines, molars)? 
 
 (3) What does the kind of teeth indicate as to the food 
 
 and feeding habits of this order? 
 
 (4) If it has no teeth, what substitute does it possess? 
 
220 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 
 
 4. The Limbs. 
 
 (1) What modifications, if any, of the anterior Umbs? or 
 
 digits? 
 
 (a) Digits clawed or unclawed? 
 
 (b) For what are they adapted? 
 
 (2) What modifications, if any, of the posterior hmbs? For 
 
 what are they adapted? Digits? 
 
 (3) Is the animal plantigrade, or digitigrade, or neither? 
 
 5. The rabbit (or mammal used) belongs to Order 
 
 because it has the following characteristics of Order 
 
 (Student name them.) 
 
MAN 
 
 Habitat. — How does man's habitat differ from that of any 
 other animal? Why? 
 
 Food. — Take 4, General Preliminary Study. 
 
 Locomotion. — What is peculiar regarding the position and 
 locomotion of man? 
 
 What methods of moving from place to place does man have 
 which other animals cannot have except through the agency of 
 man? Why? 
 
 Self Defense. — Is man naturall}^ so well fitted for self defense 
 as some other animals? If any other animals have better adap- 
 tations, name them. Explain this. 
 
 Rivalry. — What means of rivalry has man? 
 
 Do we find any mimicry? 
 
 Are there warning or alluring colors among men and women? 
 If so, give examples. 
 
 Parasitism. — What parasites has man? 
 
 Did you ever see a parasitic man? What was the effect? 
 
 Environment. — Are man's activities influenced by the weather 
 and by climate? How? 
 
 If man's environment does not suit him, what may he do in- 
 stead of migrating or hibernating? 
 
 Name some environment influences that tend to make man 
 migrate. 
 
 Distribution. — Geographic? 
 
 Geologic? (See Geology.) 
 
 Barriers to distribution? Why so few? 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 Of what does the dermal system of man consist? 
 
 Does man molt? 
 
 How does man's locomotory system compare with that of 
 other animals? Is it surpassed by that of any other animal? 
 If so, how? 
 
224 MAN 
 
 Trace the development of the circulatory organs from Amoeba 
 to and including man. 
 
 In same manner trace the development of the digestive or- 
 gans. 
 
 Trace, likewise, the respiratory organs. 
 
 Trace the nervous system also. 
 
 Trace each sense organ from its ifirst appearance to its highest 
 stage of development. 
 
 Which of these are more highly developed in other animals 
 than in man? In what animals? 
 
 Mind. — Use the Animal Behavior Study, making necessary 
 modifications or omissions. 
 
 The Moral Nature. — Do animals have a code of morals? 
 
 Does a horse or dog ever steal, as he views it? 
 
 Classification. — Classify man, naming branch, class, order, 
 and scientific name, and giving reason for each step in the 
 classification. 
 
 Conclusion. — What do you conclude man has in common with 
 other animals? 
 
 In what is he superior? Inferior? 
 
PROTOZOA 
 
 Suggestions for Laboratory Work. — Specimens of 
 Amoebae may be found upon the slimy coating of stems which 
 have been standing for some time in water, or upon submerged 
 leaves, or "on the slimy ooze upon the mud at the bottom of 
 standing water," upon the under side of lily pads or along their 
 stems, or from the scum found on the inside of old water- 
 barrels. 
 
 The Paramsecium may be obtained by soaking in pond water, 
 for a week, in a warm place, hay which has been cut in pieces. 
 A scum will appear. With a pipette place a drop of this scum 
 under the microscope and follow the outline given below, or 
 verify the points mentioned in the text. 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 1. The Body is one-celled. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Fixed or free? 
 
 (4) Naked (as in Amoeba), or covered with cilia, or with a 
 
 shell? 
 
 2. Appendages of the body. If any, called what? 
 
 3. Motion. In the higher forms, motion is carried on by 
 means of (1) the muscular system, and (2) the skeleton. How 
 are motion and locomotion carried on by this one-celled pro- 
 tozoan? 
 
 4. Nutrition of the Body. Digestion, circulation, respiration, 
 excretion — how are these processes carried on, since this is a one- 
 celled animal and has no organs? 
 
 5. MultipHcation. Is it asexual, sexual, or does it multiply 
 both asexually and sexually? 
 
 226 
 
228 PROTOZOA 
 
 6. The Nervous System. Since it is a one-celled animal, it 
 has no differentiated nerve cells. 
 
 (1) Has it irritability? How shown? Use? 
 
 (2) Automatic actions. Name those of this animal. Why 
 
 automatic? 
 
 (3) Reflex actions. Name those of this animal. Why 
 
 reflex? 
 
 7. Sketch an Amoeba, showing its pseudopodia. 
 
 8. Classification of Amoeba. Consult descriptive zoologies 
 for the branch and class of Amoeba. 
 
PORIFERA 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 Laboratory exercise on the Bath Sponge. 
 Suggestion. — Select ^'hard head'' sponges that have been 
 mutilated as little as possible. 
 
 1 . The Body is many celled and has an inner and outer germ- 
 layer, and a middle, undifferentiated one, the mesoglea. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) Sessile or free? Can you tell from your specimen 
 
 whether or not it has been fixed to some object? 
 
 (5) Naked or covered? If covered, what is the covering 
 
 called? 
 
 (6) Skeleton. With a compound microscope, examine 
 
 some of the fibers of the sponge. Do you find any 
 spicules?^ 
 
 2. Appendages. If any, called what? 
 
 3. Motion and locomotion. The sponge is free in its larval 
 state. Hov/ is locomotion then carried on? 
 
 4. Nutrition. 
 
 (1) Cut from the osculum to the cloaca, the large interior 
 
 space, and count the canal systems. The number 
 of oscula indicates the number of individual sponges. 
 
 (2) Is there any connection between the small inhalent 
 
 pores and these canals? Why? 
 
 (3) As it has no well-defined systems, how are the processes 
 
 of digestion, circulation, respiration, and excretion 
 carried on? 
 
 (4) What is its food? How obtained?* 
 
 5. Multiplication. 
 
 (1) Asexual? If so, by what? Budding, fission, etc. 
 
 (2) Sexual? If so, are the sexes separate, or is the sponge 
 
 hermaphroditic? 
 1 See Part II, "Economic Zoology," page 11. 
 230 
 
232 PORIFERA 
 
 6. The Nervous System. It has no differentiated nerve cells. 
 
 (1) Has it irritability? How shown? Use? 
 
 (2) Automatic actions. Name those of this animal. 
 
 (3) Reflex actions. Name those it has. 
 
 7. Make a sketch of one complete canal system. 
 
 8. See text for Summary of Branch and Class characteristics 
 of Porifera. 
 
CGELENTERATA 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 Suggestion. — This study may be adapted for the study of 
 any Coelenterate by omitting some questions and enlarging upon 
 others. The Hydra is probably the most easily obtained, and 
 makes a good study of this branch. 
 
 CoUect from quiet streams or ponds, duck-weed or other water 
 plants. Place them in a large glass jar and put the jar where the 
 light will shine upon it. The hydras will collect on the hghted 
 side, as they are positively heliotropic. 
 
 Break off a tiny piece of stem or leaf supporting a hydra. 
 Place it upon a slide with a little water and watch it for several 
 minutes. Does it change its position? When it is extended, 
 touch it with a needle. What does it do? 
 
 1. The Body. 
 
 (1) Is it one celled or many celled? 
 
 (2) Size. How long is your specimen? (Length in inches 
 
 or fraction of an inch.) 
 
 (3) Shape. Is it tubular, or what shape is it? Broad or 
 
 slender? 
 
 (4) Is the body fixed or free? If fixed, by what portion of 
 
 the body? How? Is it temporarily or permanently 
 attached? Carefully push it loose with the handle 
 of your scalpel. What does it do? 
 
 (5) Closed or open? If the body is open, describe its 
 
 opening and give its position on the body. (Use 
 the hand lens for this, or, if necessary, place your 
 specimen on a slide in a drop of water, put a thread 
 or tiny broom straw on each side of the hydra, and 
 cover it with a cover-slip, resting the edges of the 
 cover upon the threads or straws to avoid injuring 
 the specimen, and continue your study under the low 
 power of the microscope.) 
 
 (6) Color. What is the color of your specimen? Is it 
 
 of uniform color on all parts of the body? 
 
 234 
 
236 CCELENTERATA 
 
 (7) Symmetry. Is this animal asymmetric, radially or 
 bilaterally symmetric, or is it both radially and 
 bilaterally symmetric? 
 
 2. The Appendages, or Tentacles. 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Are they hollow or solid? 
 
 (4) Where and how are they arranged? 
 
 3. Locomotion and Motion. In the Coelenterates there is a 
 differentiation of muscle-cells and unstriped muscle-fibers. 
 
 (1) Has this animal any locomotion? If so, how is it 
 
 accomplished? By body movement, or by move- 
 ment of appendages, or by both? Describe accu- 
 rately the successive steps in locomotion. 
 
 (2) What motions — aside from locomotion — has this 
 
 animal? 
 Place a tiny particle of meat on the tip of a tentacle. 
 What does the tentacle do? Put the meat at the 
 base of the tentacle. What happens? 
 
 (3) The skeleton is the passive system of motion and loco- 
 
 motion in the higher forms. 
 
 (a) Does this animal have a skeleton? If so, of what 
 
 does it consist? 
 
 (b) What is its purpose? 
 
 4. The Nutrition of the Animal. 
 
 (1) What is its food? How is it obtained? 
 
 (2) Is there any vestige of a tube or gullet dipping down 
 
 from the mouth into the body cavity? 
 
 (3) Are there any divisions of the gastrovascular cavity? 
 
 Do the tentacles have any communication with the 
 cavity? 
 
 (4) How and where are the processes of digestion, circula- 
 
 tion, and respiration carried on? Where is the waste 
 ejected? 
 
 (5) Is there any advancement in the work of nutrition over 
 
 that in the Amoeba and sponge? If so, what? 
 
 5. Multiphcation. 
 
 (1) The hydra is hermaphroditic. Near the tentacles, look 
 for small, conical projections. These are the sper- 
 
238 c(elentp:rata 
 
 maries. Sometimes, by careful work with the mi- 
 croscope, the sperm cells may be made out in the 
 spermary, or breaking through into the water. 
 (2) Look for buds. In what different stages do you find 
 them? Sketch. 
 
 6. The Skin or Dermal System in the higher forms. The 
 skin is an organ of respiration and excretion. 
 
 (1) Does this animal possess a skin? If so, of what use 
 
 is it to the animal? 
 
 (2) Are there any growths of the skin? (if it has a skin), 
 
 such as cilia, scales, feathers, hair, etc. 
 
 7. The Nervous System. 
 
 (1) Of what does it consist in this animal? 
 
 (2) Use to the animal? 
 
 (3) What special senses have you observed this animal use? 
 
 (4) Prove that it has a sense of touch. 
 
 (5) Prove that it has either smell or taste. 
 
 8. Organs of Defense or Offense. Look for tiny swellings of 
 the ectoderm, especially of the tentacles. These are the nema- 
 tocysts or stinging cells. Place a drop of acetic acid under the 
 cover-slip and watch these cells. What takes place? 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY 
 
 1. Body segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 2. Symmetry? 
 
 3. Plan of structure of body and appendages of this animal? 
 
 4. MultipHcation? 
 
 5. Means of defense? 
 
 6. The Coelenterate belongs to Branch Coelenterata, for it 
 has the following branch characteristics common to sea-anem- 
 one, hydra, coral, polyps, and jelly-fish: (Student fill blanks 
 1-5.) 
 
 (1) As to body, 
 
 (2) As to appendages, 
 
 (3) As to plan of structure, 
 
 (4) Multiplication, by 
 
 (5) Defense, by means of 
 
 7. Remark. — The object of this systematic study is to dis- 
 cover the Coelenterate Branch Characteristics. 
 
ECHINODERMATA (THE STARFISH) 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. General Shape? Use of this shape to the starfish? 
 
 2. Symmetry. 
 
 (1) Radial or bilateral? 
 
 (2) Advantage of this? 
 
 3. Arms or Rays. 
 
 (1) Number in your specimen? 
 ■ (2) Size? 
 
 4. Aboral Surface. The surface upon which the mouth is 
 situated is called the oral surface, and the surface opposite the 
 mouth, the aboral surface. 
 
 (1) Shape of the aboral or upper surface? Use? 
 
 (2) Aboral Spines or Projections. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Number? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (3) Madreporic Plate. Look between the bases of two of 
 
 the rays for a wart-like or sieve-like plate. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (c) Into what do its perforations lead? 
 
 (4) Pedicellarise or pinchers. These are soft, flexible 
 
 projections among the spines. Scrape off a httle of 
 the spiny mass. Mount it in water on a sUde, and 
 examine under the microscope (X 100). 
 
 (a) Estimate the number on one ray. 
 
 (b) Position? 
 
 (c) Structure? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (5) Sketch the aboral surface (1), naming all parts studied. 
 
 240 
 
242 ECHIXODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) 
 
 5. The Oral Surface. 
 
 (1) Shape of the oral surface as compared with the aboral 
 
 surface? Why this difference? 
 
 (2) Spines. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Position? 
 
 (c) Arrangement? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (3) Ambulacra, or tube feet. In the groove of each arm 
 
 or ray observe soft disk-shaped structures. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Number of rows? 
 
 (d) Number in each row? 
 
 (e) Total estimate for the entire animal? 
 
 (f) How are these tube feet used? These tube feet will 
 be further studied in the internal dissection. 
 
 6. The Nervous System. Find a whitish or yellowish cord 
 in the ambulacra! groove of each ray. 
 
 (1) Trace it to its termination distally. 
 
 (2) Trace it to its termination proximally. With what 
 
 does it here unite? 
 
 (3) Senses. Find the ' 'eye-spot" at the distal end of each 
 
 ray. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (4) Sketch plan of nervous system. 
 
 7. Skeleton. 
 
 Examine a dried specimen or, lacking that, dry a portion of 
 a ray for two or three days, then find the calcareous plates and 
 sketch the plan of structure for the skeleton. 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 Cut along both edges of each ray. Lay each flap back, or re- 
 move it, taking care not to injure the delicate organs or the 
 madreporic plate. Dissect under water. 
 1. The Digestive System. 
 
 (1) The Mouth. On the oral or under side, find the mouth, 
 (a) Size? 
 
244 ECHINODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Any teeth? 
 
 (2) The Stomach is a large sac-Uke organ filUng most of 
 
 the disk. Inflate it or fill it with water to distend it. 
 Does any part of the stomach reach out into the rays? 
 
 (3) Hepatic Ceca, digestive glands or livers. In each arm 
 
 find elongated, branched brown or green bodies or 
 organs. 
 
 (a) Size? 
 
 (b) Shape? 
 
 (c) Position? 
 
 (d) Number in each arm? 
 
 (e) Where do they unite? 
 
 (f) Into what do they empty? 
 
 (g) Use? 
 
 (4) The Mesentery. Trace it as it holds the ceca together 
 
 and suspends them from the aboral wall. 
 
 (5) The Extensor Muscles. Find them along the center of 
 
 a flap of a ray which you have turned back. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Color? 
 
 (c) Size? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (6) The Intestines are slender and short, leading from the 
 
 stomach to the vent. 
 
 (a) Why are they so short and weak? 
 
 (b) How does the starfish feed? 
 
 (c) What is its food? 
 
 2. The Reproductive System. The reproductive organs or 
 gonads are found along with the hepatic ceca in the floor of each 
 ray. They are usually smaller and more grape-like. 
 
 (1) Shape? 
 
 (2) Size? 
 
 (3) Color? 
 
 (4) Number? 
 
 (5) Where do they unite? 
 
 (6) Use? 
 
 3. Sketch the plan of the digestive and of the reproductive 
 systems. 
 
246 ECHINODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) 
 
 4. The Water Vascular or Am]:)ulacral System is the means of 
 locomotion. 
 
 (1) The Ampullae. Along the floor of each ray of an in- 
 
 jected specimen find numerous vesicles or sacs. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Color? 
 
 (d) Number of rows? Number in each row? 
 
 (e) Total number for the ray? Estimated number for 
 the starfish? Use? 
 
 (f) How are these ampullae connected with the tube feet? 
 
 (g) How are they (the ampullae) connected with each 
 other? 
 
 (2) Sketch plan of the ambulacral system. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR BRANCH ECHINODERMATA 
 
 1. Plan of Structure. Look carefully at the sea-urchin and 
 sea-cucumber and others for the plan of five in the divisions or 
 organs of the body. 
 
 2. Symmetry. Radial, or bilateral, or both? 
 
 3. Water Vascular System. Present or absent? 
 
 4. The (animals examined) have the following 
 
 branch characteristics: (Student name them.) Hence they 
 belong to Branch Echinodermata. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR THE CLASSES OF ECHINODERMATA 
 
 Use a starfish, a sea-urchin, a sea-cucumber, or good pictures 
 of the representatives of other classes. 
 
 1. Is this animal fixed or free? 
 
 2. Body with central disk and pentameral rays, globular with- 
 out rays, long and cylindric, or with an acorn-like top on a lonp; 
 flexible stalk? 
 
 3. Arms or rays. 
 
 (1) Number? 
 
 (2) Are the cecal processes contained in the arms? 
 
 4. Tentacles present or absent? 
 
 5. This animal has the following characteristics : 
 
 hence it belongs to Class 
 
 Remark. — Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes of 
 Echinodermata. 
 
ANNULATA 
 
 STUDY OF LIVE EARTHWORMS 
 1. Collecting. 
 
 (1) Habitat. Dig for earthworms in various kinds of soil — 
 
 loose and open, compact, rich, poor, wet, and dry 
 soils. 
 
 (a) In which soil are the earthworms most numerous? 
 
 (b) How do their depths in these soils vary? 
 
 (2) Homes or burrows. 
 
 (a) In what direction do the burrows extend? Is there 
 
 any connection between them? 
 
 (b) Are they lined? If so, with what? 
 
 (c) Do the earthworms stop up the entrances to their 
 
 holes? If so, with what? 
 
 (d) How large are their holes? Why are they of this 
 
 size? 
 
 (e) Is there any food stored up in these burrows? If 
 
 so, what? 
 
 (f) Carefully dig up a cubic foot of soil where you find the 
 
 earthworms numerous, let it dry thoroughly, then 
 break it in two. 
 
 (1) Trace the burrows. 
 
 (2) Sketch a section, showing several. 
 
 (3) How many openings do you find at the surface on 
 
 a square foot? How many would there be at 
 the same rate in an acre? 
 
 (3) Activities. 
 
 (a) Do you find the earthworms active in the daytime? 
 
 (b) Take a lantern and look for them at night, going very 
 
 quietly. 
 (1) Do you find them out of the burrows at night? 
 Look carefully and see if they are entirely out 
 of them. Try to pull one out. What does it 
 do? How? 
 
250 ANNULATA 
 
 (2) What are they doing outside of the burrows? 
 
 (3) Try experiments by making different kinds of 
 
 noises, such as halloaing, clapping the hands, 
 beating tin-pans, etc., to find out if they can 
 hear. Do not get so close as to jar them. 
 (c) Now try stamping the ground near them, or otherwise 
 jar them strongly. What do they do? How? 
 2. Laboratory Study. 
 
 (1) Take a wide-mouthed jar (candy, museum, or battery 
 
 jar), nearly fill it with black soil, and firm it down 
 well. Keep it cool and moist, not wet. Put thirty 
 or forty earthworms on top of the soil and watch 
 what they do. Cover the jar with fine wire screen 
 and allow it to stand undisturbed until night. 
 
 (2) Foods and Feeding. 
 
 (a) In the evening place small bits of various kinds of 
 
 vegetables, lean and fat meat, etc., on the surface 
 of the soil, to find out whether they are carnivorous, 
 herbivorous, or omnivorous. 
 
 (b) Do they choose their food by taste, smell, or feeling? 
 
 (c) Where do they feed? In or out of the burrows? 
 
 (d) When do they feed? 
 
 (3) Influence of light. Set the jar where one-half of it will 
 
 be in a bright light, and the other side in the dark, 
 or cover one side. Which side of the jar do the earth- 
 worms prefer, the light or the dark side? 
 
 (4) Locomotion. 
 
 (a) Lay the earthworm on a wet paper and note its 
 
 motions. 
 
 (b) Does it accomplish any locomotion? How? 
 
 (c) Can it move backward? If so, just how? 
 
 (d) Try (a), (b), and (c) again, this time placing the 
 
 earthworm on a clean piece of glass. Results. 
 Turn it over on its back. What does it do? How? 
 
 (5) Sensitiveness. 
 
 (a) What portion of the surface of the body is most sen- 
 
 sitive to light? 
 
 (b) Most sensitive to touch? Is any portion not sensitive 
 
 to touch? 
 
252 ANNULATA 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. Shape? Use of this shape to the animal? 
 
 2. Size. 
 
 (1) Length of earthworm when quiet? When extended? 
 
 (2) Thickness laterally? Dorsoventrally? 
 
 (3) How^ does the thickness compare with the length? 
 
 3. Covering. Is the skin naked or covered? If covered, 
 with what? 
 
 4. Surfaces. 
 
 (1) Shape and color of the dorsal surface? Use? 
 
 (2) Shape and color of vental surface? 
 
 (3) Do these surfaces differ in shape and color? If so, why? 
 
 5. Somites or Segments. 
 (1) Number? 
 
 , (2) Are they similar in different regions? Why? 
 
 6. Cingulum, Girdle, or Clitellum — a swollen region near the 
 anterior end. 
 
 (1) Over how many somites does it extend? 
 
 (2) Does it extend entirely around the body? 
 
 (3) Use to the earthworm? 
 
 7. Setse or Feet on ventral side. Use hand lens or feel them 
 along the ventral surface. 
 
 (1) How many to each somite? 
 
 (2) Upon how many somites are they found? 
 
 (3) How many rows in all? 
 
 (4) How many setae on the entire earthworm? 
 
 (5) Use of these setse? 
 
 8. Openings in the Body Wall. Identify as many as you can 
 with the hand lens. 
 
 (1) Mouth at anterior end. 
 
 (2) Vent at posterior end. 
 
 (3) Seminal receptacles. Look for them with hand lens 
 
 about the 9th-llth somites. 
 
 (4) Oviducts. Look for them about the 9th somite. 
 
 (5) Vas deferens, about the 15th somite. 
 
 (6) Dorsal pores — along the dorsal surface. 
 
 (7) Nephridial openings — one pair to each somite. 
 
254 ANN U LATA 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 1. Pin a dead worm on a wax-bottomed pan or on a sheet of 
 cork, or on a soft pine board, and sink it in the water. With 
 sharp scissors cut through the body wall along the median dorsal 
 line. Spread out and pin down the body wall, exposing the 
 internal organs. 
 
 2. Body Wall. 
 
 (1) Thickness? 
 
 (2) Of how many layers does it consist? 
 
 (3) Use of each layer? 
 
 3. Body Cavity or Coelom. Between the body wall and the 
 alimentary canal is a great cavity divided into compartments 
 by the muscular partitions. 
 
 4. Circulatory Organs. 
 
 (1) In a live specimen, find (with the hand lens) the dorsal 
 
 blood-vessel along the dorsal side. 
 
 (a) In what direction does the blood flow? 
 
 (b) Extent of this tube? 
 
 (c) Its branches— how many? These are called ''hearts'* 
 
 or aortic arches. (Segments 6-10.) 
 
 (2) Ventral blood-vessel. Below the alimentary canal, 
 
 find another vessel. How does the blood flow in this 
 blood-vessel — forward or backward? 
 
 (3) Sketch the internal organs, using red for blood-vessels, 
 
 yellow for alimentary canal, and blue for nerves. 
 Make a sketch one inch in diameter, or draw it on 
 the board. 
 
 5. Alimentary Canal, or Digestive Organs. Parts in order: 
 Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, stomach-intes- 
 tine. 
 
 (1) The mouth — in somites one and two. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Any teeth? 
 
 (2) The pharynx — in somites 2-7. (a), (b), (c) as for 
 
 mouth. 
 
 (3) The esophagus — about somites 6-15. (a), (b), (c). 
 
256 ANNULATA 
 
 (4) The crop — about somite 15. (a), (b), (c). 
 
 (5) The gizzard — about somite 17. (a), (b), (c). 
 
 (6) The stomach-intestine — from about somite 17 to end 
 
 of body. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Length? 
 
 (e) Diameter? 
 
 (f) Straight or coiled? 
 
 (g) Pouched or straight? 
 (h) Color? 
 
 (i) Contents? 
 
 (j) Typhlosole, or longitudinal ridge in the intestine 
 (a). Shape? 
 
 (7) What is the function of the alimentary canal? 
 
 (8) What is the specific function of each of its parts? Do 
 
 not say "aids digestion," but tell just what part in 
 the work of digestion each organ performs. 
 6. Respiratory System. Respiration is carried on through 
 the whole body surface. The skin is filled with a network of 
 blood-vessels. These vessels take up the necessary oxygen and 
 give off the waste matters to the air. Is the earthworm poikilo- 
 thermal or homoiothermal? Why? 
 
 ■ 7. Nervous System. Below the intestines is found the nerve 
 cord. 
 
 (1) Trace it to the posterior end of the body. 
 
 (a) Is it a double or a single cord? 
 
 (b) Do you find a ganglion to each somite? 
 
 (2) Trace it to the anterior end of the body. 
 
 (a) Do you find one or two ganglia to each somite? 
 
 (b) Does the nerve cord continue as a single cord to the 
 
 end of the body? 
 
 (c) If it divides, where? What is the destination of each 
 
 branch? 
 
 (3) Cerebral Ganglia. Look for them on the dorsal side, 
 
 about the second or third somite. Trace their 
 branches. 
 
258 ANNULATA 
 
 (4) Sketch the nervous system of the earthworm. What is 
 
 its use? 
 
 (5) Special Senses. 
 
 8. Excretory System. The Nephridia. Look for Httle white, 
 coiled tubes between the septa. 
 (1) Trace one. 
 
 (a) Where does it open? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 C. Cross-section 
 
 1. Dorsal Wall. 
 
 (1) Cuticle — thin, iridescent. 
 
 (2) Epidermis. 
 
 (3) Dermis. 
 
 (4) Circular muscles. 
 
 (5) Longitudinal muscles. 
 
 2. Coelom or Body Cavity. 
 
 3. Dorsal Blood-vessel. 
 
 4. Alimentary Canal. 
 
 5. Ventral Blood-vessel. 
 
 6. Nerve Cord. 
 
 7. Ventral Wall. 
 
 (1) Longitudinal muscles. 
 
 (2) Circular muscles. 
 
 (3) Dermis. 
 
 (4) Epidermis. 
 
 (5) Cuticle. 
 
 Sketch this cross-section and show all the parts 1-7. 
 
MOLLUSCA 
 STUDY OF A LIVE FRESH-WATER CLAM OR MUSSEL 
 
 1. Collecting. 
 
 (1) Mussels may be found in the shallow water of our ponds 
 
 and streams, where they are often partly embedded 
 in the sand or mud. 
 
 (2) They may sometimes ''be obtained by a long-handled 
 
 rake from the shore or from a boat."^ But the surest 
 plan is to don rubber boots and wade out after 
 them. 
 
 (3) As soon as they are captured place them in water and 
 
 carry them to the laboratory, and put them in the 
 tank with a few inches of sand and several inches of 
 water in the bottom. 
 
 2. Laboratory Study. 
 (1) Locomotion. 
 
 (a) Watch carefully to discover just how a clam moves 
 
 itself along. 
 
 (b) Does it leave a track? If so, describe it. 
 
 (c) What is the direction of its progression? 
 
 (d) What is the rate of its progression? 
 
 (e) Place your finger in the sand across the path in front 
 of the mussel and, by allowing it to pass over your 
 finger, find out how the "foot" is used. 
 
 (f) Quickly pick up a mussel in locomotion. Note its 
 foot. What does it do? 
 
 (g) Lay a clam on its side on a piece of glass or smooth 
 wood. 
 
 (1) What does it do? 
 
 (2) Can it resume its natural position and creep away? 
 
 Explain. 
 
 ^ Galloway's " Zoology." 
 260 
 
262 MOLLUSCA 
 
 (2) Siphons. Notice the fringes of the posterior margins 
 
 of the mantle. Place a tiny drop of ink above the 
 opening of the siphon and note the direction of the 
 current of water. 
 
 (3) Sensitiveness. 
 
 (a) Gently touch the margins of the siphons. Are they 
 
 sensitive to touch? What do they do? 
 
 (b) Find out, by experiment, if they are sensitive to light. 
 
 (c) Find out if they are sensitive to jars or to currents of 
 
 water. 
 
 MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE CLAM 
 
 A. External Morphology 
 
 1. The Shell externally. 
 
 (1) Shape? Use of this shape to the clam? 
 
 (2) Length? 
 
 (3) Depth (dorsoventrally)? 
 
 (4) Width (laterally)? 
 
 (5) Weight of clam with shell? 
 
 (6) Weight of clam without shell? 
 
 (7) Shell is what per cent, of weight of whole clam? 
 
 (8) Why so much shell? Advantage? 
 
 (9) Why so little body? Advantage? 
 
 (10) Disadvantage of so much shell? 
 
 (11) Covering of the shell. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Use? 
 
 (12) Hold the shell in your left hand with the two projec- 
 
 tions (umbones) from you. The valve in your left 
 hand is the left valve, the one in your right hand is 
 the right valve. 
 
 (a) How do the valves agree? 
 
 (b) How do they differ from each other? 
 
 (13) Concentric lines of growth about the umbones. 
 
 (a) How many? 
 
 (b) Age of your specimen? 
 
 (c) Do you find other ridges in the shell? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
264 MOLLUSCA 
 
 (14) The Hinge Ligament. The anterior end of the shell is 
 
 blunter than the posterior, the dorsal is thicker than 
 the ventral. Identify the hinge ligament dorsally 
 between the valves. 
 
 (a) Color? 
 
 (b) Structure? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (15) Sketch one valve externally and indicate all the 
 
 points so far made out. 
 2. The Shell internally. 
 
 (1) Color? 
 
 (2) Structure? 
 
 (3) Surface? 
 
 (4) Any pearls? Theory of the formation of pearls? 
 
 (5) Any lines? 
 
 (6) Teeth of the shell. 
 
 (a) How many in right valve? In left? 
 
 (b) Use of these teeth? 
 
 (7) Muscle scars. 
 
 (a) How many? 
 
 (b) Where are they found? 
 
 (c) Use? By what muscles? 
 
 (8) Sketch inside of the shell and indicate all markings. 
 
 B. Internal Morphology 
 
 Kill the clam in water gradually heated to about 140° F. The 
 muscles relax, the foot protrudes, and the clam is easily exposed 
 to view for study. The clam may be killed by inserting a strong 
 knife between the valves near the anterior end of the shell and 
 severing the muscles which hold the shell closed. 
 
 1. The Clam inside the shell. 
 
 (1) The mantle is found covering the body and adhering to 
 
 the valves of the shell. Separate the mantle from 
 one valve by inserting a scalpel between them. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Attachment? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (2) The gills are leaf-like organs under the mantle. 
 
266 MOLLUSCA 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Attachment? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (d) Young. One pair of gills may be much enlarged and 
 filled with young clams, called Glochidia. If present, 
 examine under low power of the microscope. 
 
 (3) The Labial Palpi. These are small leaf-like organs 
 
 anterior to the gills. 
 
 (a) Number? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Use? 
 
 (4) The Siphons. The mantle is modified posteriorly into 
 
 two tubes or siphons. The upper one is the excur- 
 rent and the lower is the incurrent one. A live clam 
 placed in a vessel containing sand covered with water 
 will show the incurrent and the excurrent stream of 
 water, especially if a little coloring-matter is cau- 
 tiously added. Use of these siphons? 
 
 (5) The Body. The soft body with its projecting foot is 
 
 now exposed. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Structure? 
 
 (d) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (6) The Foot. Identify it. 
 
 (a) Shape? 
 
 (b) Size? 
 
 (c) Structure? 
 
 (d) Use? 
 
 (e) How does the clam use it? 
 
 (f) Where must it live to use it? 
 2. The Internal Organs. 
 
 (1) The Digestive Organs. 
 
 (a) The mouth is between the palps. Insert a small 
 
 probe. 
 (1-) Teeth? 
 (2) Tongue? 
 
 (b) The Esophagus leads from the mouth into the 
 
 stomach. 
 
268 MOLLUSCA 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Length? 
 
 (c) The Stomach. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Shape? 
 
 (3) Use? 
 
 (d) The Intestines. Find their beginning at the poste- 
 
 rior end of the stomach, trace them through the 
 heart, thence throughout the body. Are they 
 coiled or straight? 
 
 (e) The Liver or Digestive Gland is lobed and surrounds 
 
 the stomach. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 (f) The Excretory Organs are the kidneys or organs of 
 
 Bojanus. These organs are dark colored and lie 
 near the pericardial cavity. 
 
 (1) Size? 
 
 (2) Use? 
 
 (g) Sketch and name the digestive organs. 
 
 (2) The Respiratory Organs, the gills, have been studied. 
 
 (3) The Circulatory Organs. The heart may be seen to 
 
 pulsate slowly in a specimen just opened. It is on 
 the dorsal side and may be seen through the mantle, 
 lying in the pericardial cavity. The heart consists 
 of the rather lengthy ventricle, through which runs 
 the intestine. The ventricle is joined by two lateral 
 thin-walled, triangular auricles which receive the 
 blood from the gills. The arteries carry the blood 
 to all parts of the body. 
 
 (a) Identify and show your teacher the organs of circu- 
 
 lation. 
 
 (b) Sketch and name all parts. 
 
 (4) The Nervous System is rather difficult for beginners, 
 
 but may be made out in an alcoholic specimen. 
 
 (a) Demonstrate to the teacher the following: The 
 
 cerebral ganglia. Look between the labial palpi 
 
 at their bases, identify these ganglia, and trace a 
 
 nerve to the pedal ganglia in the foot near the 
 
270 MOLLUSCA 
 
 mouth. Trace a nerve to a third center, the vis- 
 ceral or the posterior gangUa, near the posterior 
 adductor muscle, 
 (b) Sketch the plan of the nervous system of the clam. 
 (5) The Special Senses. Do you find evidence of special 
 senses? If so, of what ones? 
 
 A STUDY OF THE SNAIL SHELL 
 
 1. Is the shell univalved or bivalved? Whj^? 
 
 2. Is the shell right-handed (dextral) or left-handed (sinis- 
 tral)? 
 
 3. Is the spiral a flat one or a long narrow one? 
 
 4. Identify the apex. It is homologous with the umbo of the 
 clam. 
 
 5. Identify the lines of growth. 
 
 6. How many whorls in your shell? 
 
 7. How many sutures has your shell? 
 
 8. What gives color to the outside of the living shell? 
 
 9. Why are dead shells white? 
 
 10. Compare the shell of the clam with that of the snail, 
 giving five points of similarity and five points of difference. 
 
 11. Do you see any reason why the clam has a bivalve, the 
 snail, a univalve, and the slug, none, or merely the vestige of a 
 shell? 
 
 12. Sketch the snail shell and name all parts present. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR BRANCH MOLLUSCA 
 
 1. The Skeleton. 
 
 (1) External, internal, or none? 
 
 (2) If it has a skeleton, of what does it consist? 
 
 2. The Body. Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 3. Appendages or Limits. 
 
 (1) Segmented or unsegmented? 
 
 (2) Number? 
 
 4. This animal belongs to Branch Mollusca because it has the 
 following characteristics: (Student name them.) 
 
272 MOLLUSCA 
 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR CLASSES OF MOLLUSCA 
 
 1. Has it a distinct head? 
 
 2. If it has a shell, is it a bivalve or a univalve? 
 
 3. This animal belongs to Class because it has 
 
 the following characteristics: (Student name them.) 
 
 4. Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes of Mollusca. 
 
NDEX 
 
 Abdomen of crayfish, 36 
 
 of grasshopper, 78 
 
 of spider, 50 
 Ameba, 226 
 Amphibia, 132 
 Animal behavior, 12 
 Annulata, 248 
 Arachnida, 48 
 Aves, 174 
 
 Bee, 90 
 Beetle, 98 
 Bird, 174 
 
 air sacs of, 186 
 
 brain of, 192 
 
 ceca of, 190 
 
 circulatory organs of, 186 
 
 cloaca of, 190 
 
 crop of, 188 
 
 digestive organs of, 188 
 
 ears of, 180 
 
 endoskeleton of, 192 
 
 excretory organs of, 192 
 
 exoskeleton of, 180 
 
 eyes of, 180 
 
 feathers of, 182 
 
 field study of, 174 
 
 kidneys of, 192 
 
 legs of, 196 
 
 morphology of, 178 
 
 muscles of, 184 
 
 nervous system of, 192 
 
 reproductive organs of, 192 
 18 
 
 Bird, respiratory organs of, 190 
 
 skeleton of, 192 
 
 voice of, 176 
 
 wings of, 196 
 Bumble bee, 90 
 Butterfly, 86 
 
 Carapa("e of crayfish, 32 
 
 of turtle, 158 
 Ceca of bird, 190 
 
 of fish, 122 
 
 of grasshopper, 70 
 
 of starfish, 244 
 Cephalothorax of crayfish, 32 
 
 of spider, 4S 
 Chordate, branch, 128 
 
 class, 128 
 Cicada, 96 
 Clam, 260 
 Ctt'lenterata, 234 
 Condyles of bird, 194 
 
 of frog, 146 
 Crayfish, 28 
 
 abdomen of, 36 
 
 antennae of, 32 
 
 antcnnules of, 34 
 
 aciuarium study of, 28 
 
 arteries of, 38 
 
 body divisions of, 32 
 
 circulatory organs of, 36 
 
 collecting of, 28 
 
 development of, 30 
 
 digestive organs of, 40 
 
 27;i 
 
274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Crayfish, ears of, 42 
 eyes of, 32 
 field trip, 28 
 mounting of, 44 
 muscular system of, 42 
 nervous system of, 42 
 respiratory organs of, 40 
 sensation of, 44 
 special senses of, 42 
 
 Crustacea, 28 
 
 Dissection of bird, 178 
 of clam, 262 
 of crayfish, 32 
 of earthworm, 252 
 of fish, 116 
 of frog, 136 
 of grasshopper, 70 
 of rabbit, 202 
 of starfish, 240 
 of turtle, 156 
 
 Earthworm, 248 
 
 activities of, 248 
 
 body cavity of, 254 
 
 brain of, 256 
 
 cerebral ganglia of, 256 
 
 circulatory organs of, 254 
 
 collecting of, 248 
 
 digestive organs of, 254 
 
 excretory system of, 258 
 
 foods of, 250 
 
 girdle of, 252 
 
 kidneys of, 258 
 
 locomotion of, 250 
 
 nephridia of, 258 
 
 nervous system of, 256 
 
 oviducts of, 252 
 
 respiratory system of, 256 
 
 segments of, 252 
 
 setae of feet of, 252 
 
 typhlosole of, 256 
 Emotions, 16 
 
 Fish, 112 
 
 air bladder of, 124 
 
 arteries of, 124 
 
 brain of, 124 
 
 ceca of, 122 
 
 circulatory organs of, 124 
 
 collecting of, 112 
 
 digestive organs of, 120 
 
 ear of, 118 
 
 excretory organs of, 124 
 
 eye of, 118 
 
 fins of, 116 
 
 food of, 112 
 
 gill covers of, 118 
 
 heart of, 124 
 
 kidneys of, 124 
 
 muscles of, 120 
 
 nervous system of, 124 
 
 respiratory organs of, 120 
 
 scales of, 118 
 
 skeleton of, 126 
 
 skin of, 120 
 
 special senses of, 124 
 
 spleen of, 124 
 
 Frog, 132 
 aorta of, 144 
 arteries of, 144 
 circulatory organs of, 142 
 cloaca of, 142 
 collecting of, 132 
 digestive organs of, 138 
 ears of, 136 
 endoskeleton of, 146 
 excretory organs of, 144 
 eyes of, 136 
 heart of, 142 
 kidneys of, 144 
 limbs of, 138 
 morphology of, 136 
 muscles of, 138 
 nerves of, 150 
 nervous system of, 148 
 
INDEX 
 
 Frog, reproductive organs of, 144 
 respiratory organs of, 142 
 skeleton of, 146 
 skin of, 138 
 spinal cord of, 146 
 
 Grasshopper, 70 
 
 Heart of bird, 186 
 
 of clam, 268 
 
 of crayfish, 28 
 
 of earthworm, 254 
 
 of fish, 124 
 
 of frog, 142 
 
 of grasshopper, 80 
 
 of rabbit, 208 
 
 of turtle, 162 
 Hemiptera, 96 
 Honey bee, 90 
 House fly, 92 
 Hydra, 234 
 
 Insect case, 52 
 
 net, 56 
 Insecta, 52 
 Insecticides, 68 
 Insects, collecting, 54 
 
 field trip, 58 
 
 life-history of, 62 
 
 spraying of, 66 
 
 sprays for, 66 
 Instincts, altruistic, 14 
 
 egoistic, 14 
 
 Kidneys of bird, 192 
 
 of clam, 268 
 
 of crayfish, gg, Fig. 1, 38 
 
 of earthworm, nephridia, 258 
 
 of fish, 124 
 
 of frog, 144 
 
 of rabbit, 214 
 
 of turtle, 168 
 Killing bottle, 54 
 
 Lungs of bird, 186 
 of frog, 142 
 of rabbit, 214 
 of turtle, 168 
 
 Mammalia, 200 
 Man, 222 
 MoUusca, 260 
 Mussel, 260 
 
 Nutrition of coelenterata, 236 
 of porifera, 230 
 of protozoa, 226 
 
 Orthoptera, 70 
 
 Pisces, 112 
 Porifera, 230 
 Protozoa, 226 
 
 Rabbit, 200 
 
 arteries of, 208 
 
 circulatory organs of, 208 
 
 digestive organs of, 210 
 
 ears of, 202 
 
 excretory organs of, 214 
 
 eyes of, 202 
 
 field study of, 200 
 
 heart of, 208 
 
 kidneys of, 214 
 
 limbs of, 206 
 
 locomotion of, 20<) 
 
 mori)hology of, 202 
 
 nervous system of, 218 
 
 reproductive organs of, 214 
 
 respiratory organs of, 214 
 
 skeleton of, 214 
 
 skin of, 206 
 
 systematic study of, 21S 
 Reptilia, 152 
 
 Scales, ctenoid, 116 
 cycloid, 116 
 of bultcrflv, 88 
 
276 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Scales of fish, 116 
 
 Skeleton of bird, 192 
 of frog, 146 
 of rabbit, 214 
 of turtle, 170 
 
 Snail shell, 270 
 
 Spider, 48 
 
 Sponge, 230 
 
 Sprays, 66 
 
 Squash bug, 96 
 
 Starfish, 243 
 
 Sunfish, 116 
 
 Turtle, 152 
 arteries of, 152 
 
 Turtle, circulatory organs of, 162 
 digestive organs of, 164 
 ears of, 156 
 eyes of, 156 
 field study of, 154 
 heart of, 162 
 kidneys of, 168 
 limbs of, 156 
 morphology of, 156 
 muscular system of, 168 
 nervous system of, 168 
 reproductive system of, 168 
 respiratory system of, 166 
 shell of, 158 
 skeleton of, 170 
 
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