'S '1 *^«HMflMaflMM»<>T»nMrl«aM«MHW m D. H. HILL LIBI^;^ NORTH C4iOLm)4 ST4TE C0LLC6E ENTOMOLOaiC^L COLLECTION This book may be kept out TWO WEEKS ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FIVE CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on the day indicated below: TT^^w. t MANUAL OF INJUEIOUS INSECTS AND METHODS OF PKEVENTION. MANUAL OF INJUEIOUS INSECTS, VtlTU SIETHODS OF PEEVENTION AND KEMEDY FOR THEIR ATTACKS TO FOOD CEOPS, FOKEST TEEES, AND FEUIT, AND WITH S^ort littrobttctbn to @«tomoloc BY ELEANOE A. OEMEEOD, F.M.S., &c., AUTHOR OF THE 'C0BH4.JI JOURNALS,' 'REPORTS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS,' ETC. LONDON: W. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & ALLEN, PATERNOSTER SQUARE. EDESIBURGH: J. MENZIES & CO., HANOVER STREET. lAll rights reserved.'] LONDON : PRINTED I!Y WEST, NEWMAN AND CO.. HATTON GARDEN, E.G. LANDOWNEES, FAEMEKS, FOEESTEES, AND GAEDENEES, OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, AND ESPECIALLY TO THOSE WHO HAVE ASSISTED IN THE WOEK, IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR OBEDIENT SERVANT, THE WRITER. Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/manualofinjurioOOorme PEEFACE. Before entering on this volume I wish to express the obligations I am under to the many contributors who have helped me to form it, and to thank them not only for the information which they have allowed me to publish, but also for the invariable kind courtesy with which my applications have been received. A work of this kind, involving measures of treatment of the most varied nature, must necessarily be a compilation from many som-ces, and these I have acknowledged as far as possible throughout, either by appending initials, the name being given in full in the list of contributors ; or by the title of the publication from which the information was taken, and by reference to which the various points may be verified. Some of the assistance, however, has been so continuous throughout the work that I cannot thus fully acknowledge it, and I wish especially to express my thanks to Mr. Malcolm Dunn, of Dalkeith, first, for aiding me in forming the plan of the volume, and for much valuable Vlll PREFACE. information and suggestion; as well as for the intro- ductions, by means of which much excellent contribution has been obtained. To Mr. George Brown, jun., Watten, Caithness, I offer my thanks for advice and assistance throughout the progress of the work, and especially for his valuable help and information regarding points of agricultural treatment entered on in the part regarding " Food Crops," for which I am much indebted. To Mr. Charles Whitehead I am greatly obliged for information regarding insect-prevention in the Hop- grounds ; and I desire also to acknowledge with thanks the courteous offers of assistance, and valuable donations of books on the subject of Economic Entomology received from various members of the Entomological Department of the Government of the United States of America. I should wish to add the name of my sister and constant assistant. Miss G. Ormerod, to those who have aided me in this work. Many of the illustrations are reproductions from the beautiful figures drawn from life by John Curtis for his ' Farm Insects,' for the use of which I am indebted to the kind courtesy of Messrs. Blackie & Son, Glasgow ; and I am under obligation to the proprietors of the PREFACE. IX ' Gardeners' Chronicle ' for extended permission to avail myself in this volume of the electros of which use was originally kindly allowed for my Reports ; these are partly from the pencil of John Curtis, partly from that of Prof. Westwood. I am also indebted to Mr. John Kirchner for the care and skill with which he has engraved the figures placed in his hands for this volume. In offering this work I am only too well aware how imperfect it is, partly from the need that exists of more information regarding habits of insects (especially forest pests), together with methods of prevention recorded from observations in this country ; partly from my own inability to perform the task as such a work should be done. I have earnestly endeavoured to form a volume that might, happily, be of some service in this important field ; but to do this work thoroughly requnes great powers, and it is only throuoh the kind assistance afforded me that I have O been able to do anything towards it ; and it is not without uneasiness that I venture to lay my attempts before readers well able to form a hotter judgment than myself on some, perhaps many, of the points wli..h have been entered on. 6 X PREFACE. Any information that ma}^ kindly be forwarded by those practically acquainted with the subject towards supplying points that are deficient would be gladly received, either for addition or correction, should the work pass to a second edition; or for insertion in the * Yearly Eeports on Injurious Insects.' Eleanor A. Ormerod. Dunster Lodge, near Isleworth, May 24th, 1881. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction --------- xiii Introduction to Entomology xvii PAKT I. Food Crops and the Insects that injure thf.m - - 1 PART II. Forest Trees and the Insects that injure them - 173 PART III. Fruit Crops and the Insects that injure them - - 247 Glossary - . - . 315 INTKODUCTION. The object of the present volume is to give in as concise a form as possible some account of the insects that are commonly injurious to om- food crops, forest trees, and fruit, together with methods of treatment that have been found serviceable in preventing attacks, or in averting serious damage. It is not possible, in the limits of a Manual intended to be really a "handy book," to offer anything like complete details of the life-histories of the insects, but it has been endeavoured to notice such of the more important points in their appearance, their methods of attack, and the various transformations they undergo in the different stages of their existence, as with the help of the figure may enable the reader to ascertain which of the insects that are commonly injurious his crop may be suffering from. The different kinds of attack are arranged alphabeti- cally under the headings of Food Crops, Forest Trees, and Fruit, beginning respectively with Asparagus, Ash, and Apple ; and the insects attacking each crop or tree are similarly arranged alphabetically under such crop, by the name by which they are cominonlij known, as Turnip *'Fly," "Wireworm," &c. The number of synonj-ms or scientific names used by different writers cause some difficulty; therefore, in XIV INTRODUCTION. cases of doubt, where the writer quoted from is one of our known authorities, the name used by him has been selected that the information might be preserved entire. With regard to methods of prevention : the most serviceable of these are based, not on applications when the crop or trees are undergoing attack, but rather on modes of cultivation and treatment which may diminish the amount of insect-presence beforehand, by clearing away all points of harbourage and breeding-places, as well as attacking the pest generally and on a broad scale at the points where the details of its habits show that it is most open to injury. Also on means adapted to promote vigorous and healthy growth, whereby we lessen the liability of the plant to sustain damage, first, by pushing it forward in its early stages, and afterwards by enabling it to overcome or outgrow the damage it may suffer in cases of ordinary amount of attack. The difficulty is when we get to special applications, for in these cases the success of the remedy depends on many circumstances, such as weather, character of the soil, condition of the crop, and the time of day when used ; as many dressings applied when the dew is on will totally fail if used when the leafage is dry or in the heat of the day. In the various methods of treatment mentioned throughout the volume an endeavour has been made to give only such as have been found to answer b}^ trust- worthy observers, or which by comparison of observations may be presumed to be of service ; but many points of agricultural practice necessarily vary as much as the soils do in different parts of our island, and the reader is especially requested to bear this in mind where INTRODUCTION. XV treatment recorded as serviceable in one district should not be in accordance with what is desirable in another, as it is impossible in this little book to give the full details ; and the best treatment — even such as has been worked out by men thoroughly acquainted with the science and practice of their calling — cannot be universally applicable. In a very few instances treatment which must be altogether exceptional has been recorded, attention being draicn to this point. This is especially the case with the large amount of Turnip-seed noted as having been advised by some growers, at page 149, in order to make up such a thick plant as might counterbalance the ravages of the Turnip Fly ; an amount by which, failing the insect-attack, the crop would be ruined hj a few days' neglect in singling, and far exceeding anything service- able on land which can be pulverized to a line tilth, and where seed at the rate of two and a half to four pounds the acre is amply sufficient ; but a very different state prevails on many clay soils, where mechanical means are often insufficient to reduce the land to a proper surface, and consequently much seed is wasted and the rough ground forms a most favourable shelter for the " Fly " ; the suggestion, however, must be looked on as quite exceptional, and in two other cases of remedies advised theoretically, but very unsafe in practice, attention is dra^Ti to the point by italics. A few words may be added regarding the properties of gas-lime as a protection against insect-attack, which are not yet so well known as they ought to be. On its first removal from the purifying-chambers it is destructive of life to insect and vegetable alike, but by exposure to atmospheric action, or by being mixed with the soil, it absorbs oxygen, and gradually changes into sulphate of XVI INTRODUCTION. lime or gypsum — a safe and serviceable manure. It is a valuable dressing for insect-infested land, laid on, and dug or ploughed in, in the autumn. Notes of application of this remedy to special insects' attacks are given. There are many other points which it might be well to enter on further, but space does not allow ; and having been desired to add some notes which might serve as a kind of Introduction to Entomology, it is endeavoured in the following pages to give as shortly as possible some information regarding the main points of insect-life, such as the egg ; the characteristics of insects in their three successive states of life ; the principles of classification, with a table of the thu-teen orders into which insects are classified ; and a short description of the chief distinctions of these orders ; to Avhicli (preceding the Index) a Glossary is added, with explanation of some of the most commonly used entomological terms. INTRODUCTION TO ENTOMOLOGY.* Insects begin their lives either by being hatched from eggs, or produced aUve by the female ; commonly they are hatched in the form known as maggots, caterpillars, or grubs, but they are never generated by decaying vegetables, putrid water, bones, carcases, dung, or any other matter, dead or alive, excepting their own insect forerunners. They come out of these matters constantly, but, if the observer will watch, he may often see the arrival of the insects, the laying of the eggs, and be able to satisfy himself as to the gradual development and the method of breeding, and that the progeny is produced by the female insect. The eggs are usually laid soon after the pairing of the male and female, and are deposited on or near whatever may be the food of the larvae. They are laid singly or in patches, and are sometimes attached by a gummy secretion to the leaf or whatever they are laid on; occasionally they are fastened by a short thread, or raised (like the heads of pins) on a stiff foot-stalk of hardened viscid matter. Such insects as insert their eggs in living animal or vegetable matter are furnished with a special egg-laying apparatus or ovipositor, such as a borer, or organs enclosing bristle- like points or saws, by means of which the female pierces a hole, and passes the egg down mto the wounded spot. For the most part insect-eggs hatch shortly after they are laid, but sometimes they remain unhatched during * For the meaning of special entomological terms, and fuller explana- tions of some of the details, the reader is referred to the Glossary- preceding the Index. XVm INTRODUCTION TO the winter ; and it is believed that, where circumstances are unfavourable to development, they may remain unhatched for years, but this point is one of those subjects on which more information is needed. They have been found to endure intense cold without injury, and, besides some special and extraordinary instances, it has been found by experiment that insect-eggs may be exposed to a temperature lower than that to which they are usually subjected in this country, and cold enough to solidify their contents without destroying their powers of hatching. In a very few cases insects are partly developed before birth, otherwise, after hatching from the egg, or being produced alive (in the same first stage of develop- ment) by the female, insects pass their lives in three different conditions or stages successively. The first is that in which they are known as maggots, grubs, or caterpillars; in the case of Grasshoppers, Cockroaches and some other insects, where the young are very much the same shape as the parent, only without wings, they usually go by the parent's name; the young of Green-fly are sometimes known as "nits." In this state' they are active, voracious, and increase in size ; and in this first stage all insects are scientifically termed larvce. In the second stage some orders of insects are usually inactive and cannot feed, as is the case with the chrysalis of the Butterfly, or the mummy-like form of the Beetle or Wasp with its limbs in distinct sheaths folded down beneath it ; some, however, are active and feed, as Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, Aphides (or Green-fly), and others, and resemble the j^arent insect, excepting that their wings and for the most part their wing-cases are not as yet fully formed ; and in this second stage all insects are scientifically termed yupte. The third state is that of the perfect insect, in which (whether male or female, or of whatever different kind, as Moth, Beetle, Cricket, Aphis, &c.) it is scientifically termed an imago. ENTOMOLOGY. XIX The term Larva is from the Latm, meaumg a mask or ghost, and signifies that the insect in this stage gives a mere vague idea of its perfect form. Pupa signifies an infant, and is appropriate to the second stage in which the insect is foriiuiui into the perfect state, hut is not fully developed either in its limhs or functions. Imago signifies the image, the likeness, or an example of the perfect insect. The appropriateness of the scientific names for the first and third stage does not seem very clear, hut there is no doubt of the convenience of having some one term by which each diflerent stage of life of any insect may be described ; and these are the words that have been adopted ; in the following pages some detail is given of these three successive stages of development. Larva. — Maggot, grub, caterpillar, &c. If an insect- egg about to hatch is held against the light, or examined as a transparent object by means of a strong magnifier, it will be seen that there is a speck inside which increases in size and becomes more regular in shape daily, until it is too large for the egg to contain, when it breaks through this thin film which serves as an egg-shell, and often begins life by eating it. This is the larva. It is usually hatched from an egg, but sometimes is produced alive (as some fly-maggots, or Aphides during the summer months). When it is coloured and has many, feet, it is usually called a caterpillar ; white fleshy larvae, such as those of many beetles or flies, are commonly known as grubs or maggots ; such as resemble the parent insect are usuallj^ known by the name of this insect ; but the term of "worm" or "slug" is objectionable, as it leads to confusion. LarvaB difl'er ver}^ much in appearance : some are legless, cylindrical, or tapering at one end, blunt at the other, with the head (which is soft and furnished with hooks by wa}^ of feeding apparatus) capable of being drawTi some way back into the maggot ; many fly-maggots are of this kind ; some larvae are legless or with a mere XX INTRODUCTION TO rudiment of a pair of legs on the three rings behind the head, fiesh}^ smallest at the tail, and fm-nished with distinct head and jaws ; such are some kinds of beetle and wasi3-grubs ; others are strong and fat, a few inches in length, with three pairs of legs well developed — as the Cockchafer grub. The caterpillars of the butterflies and moths are often beautifully marked, and have for the most part a pair of articulated feet on each of the three segments behind the head, and pairs of fleshy appendages called sucker-feet on some of the other segments and at the end of the tail, not exceeding sixteen in all. These "sucker-feet" enable the caterpillar to hold firmly to the twigs they frequent. Proceeding onwards still by number of feet, the cater- pillars of the Sawllies will be found in almost every case (Corn Sawlly, C. ■pijgiiKeiis, excepted) to have, besides the three pairs of true feet, five, six, or seven pairs of sucker-feet, and also the pair at the end of the tail (known as the caudal proleg). In some cases (as with CTrasshoi)pers, Aphides or Green-fly, Plant-bugs, &c.) the 3^oung in the first stage — whether produced alive or hatched from the egg — much resembles the parent, that is, has a distinct insect shape of head, with horns, trunk or thorax, furnished with six legs, and abdomen ; and differs mainly in size and in being wingless ; but, whether in this shape, or what is known as grub, maggot, or caterpillar, or whatever kind of insect it may belong to in this first stage, it is scientifically a larva. In this larval stage the insect feeds voraciously and often grows fast : the skin does not expand beyond certain limits, and when this point is arrived at, the larva ceases feeding for a while ; the skin loosens, cracks, and is cast ofl" by the creature inside, which comes out in a fresh coat, sometimes like the previous one, sometimes of a different colour or differently marked. This operation is known as moulting, and occurs from time to time till the larva has reached its full growth. The duration of life in the first or larval state is various ; in some instances it only extends over a week or two ; ENTOMOLOGY. XXI ill some (as with the "Wireworm and caterpillar of the Goat Moth) it lasts for a period of three, four, or five years. As far as observations go at present — that is to sa}', -^-itli such kinds as have at present been observed — larviB are not injured by an amount of cold much beyond what they are commonly called on to bear in this country ; but they are liable to injury from over supply of moisture, whether from sudden rain in warm weather or from full fiow^ of sap of their food-plant, and in this point of their constitutions we have a principle that may help much towards getting rid of them. When the larva has reached its full growi;h it ceases feeding, and (in the forms known as caterpillar, grub, or maggot) it either goes down into the ground and forms a cell in the earth, or spins a "cocoon" (that is, a web) round itself of threads drawn from the lower lip (as in the well- known Silkworm-cocoon), or in some way it makes or seeks a shelter in which it changes from the state of larra to that of pupa. See figs., pp. 38, 101, 192, &c. Piij)(i. — Chrysalis. It is much to be regretted that we have no generally-adopted word, excepting "chrysalis" (which is commonly used in the case of butterflies or moths), to describe the second stage of insect life in which it is changing from the state of hirra to that of the complete insect. Whilst in this condition it is for the most part without power of feeding and perfectly inactive, lying (in the instance of Beetles, Bees and Wasps, and some others) with the limbs in sheaths folded beneath the breast and body, or (as with Butterflies and Moths) protected by a hardened coating secreted from the pores of the creature within, when it casts its last larval skin. The method of this change may be easily observed in the case of the caterpillar of the Peacock-butterfly, which fastens itself by the tail, and then (after its black and silver-spotted skin has cracked) by infinite WTiggiing and struggling passes this cast-oti' skin backward, till it is pressed together at the tip of the tail ; and the creature from within appears in its new form as a bright XXll INTRODUCTION TO green clirysalis, or inipa. It is covered with a moist gummy exudation, which quickly hardens and forms a protecting coat, and in due time (if left unharmed) the butterfly inside would crack through this and appear from within the case ; but if it is wished to observe that the beginning of the change to the butterfly form has taken place already, one of these chrysalids may be dropped into a little warm turpentine, or turpentine and Canada balsam, directly the caterpillar-skin has been cast ; this will soften the gummy coating just mentioned, and the limbs of the future butterfly will be seen. In some cases the change takes place (as with various kinds of flies) in the hardened skin of the maggot, which may be called a "fly-case"; and in some (as with Plant-bugs, Aphides or Green-fly, Grasshoppers, Dragon- flies, and some others) this state of pupa is an active one, in which they move and feed, and resemble the perfect insect, excepting in having more or less rudi- mentary wings or wing-cases. For figures of some of these different kinds of pupae, the reader is referred to pp. 17, 23, 31, 102, 207, &c. When the time for development has come, the pupa (if it is one of the active forms, as of a Grasshopper, for instance) may be seen looking heavy and stupid ; pre- sently the skin of the back splits lengthwise, and through the opening the perfect insect slowly makes its wa}^ out of the pupal skin, carefully drawing one limb after another from its precisely-fitting case, the long hind legs the last, till (in the instance observed, in twenty minutes) the perfect Grasshopper stands by the side of the film of its former self. Flies press out one end of the fly-case, or leave the sheaths of the limbs and body behind (see figure of Onion Fly and Daddy Long-legs). Beetles and Wasps cast the film from their limbs ; and Butterflies and Moths crack open the chrysalis-case, and after a short time (during which the wings that had lain undeveloped are expanding) they appear of their full size. The insect is now fully formed ; it will grow no more ; its internal, as well as external structure is ENTOMOLOGY. XXIH complete ; and it is what is laio^Mi scientifically as the imago. Imago. — Beetle, Butterfly, "Wasp, Fly, &c. This is defined as an animal formed of a series of thirteen rings or segments, hreathing by means of tubes (tracheae) which conve}^ the air from pores in the sides throughout the system, and divided into three chief portions. Of these the first is the head, furnished with horns (antennae), a mouth (diflering very much in form in different kinds of insects), large compound eyes (which consist of many small ones formed into a convex mass on each side of the head), and frequently two or three simple eyes on the top. The second portion (called the thorax, or sometimes the "trunk"), is formed of three rings, bearing a pair of legs attached to each, and ha\dng usually a pair of wings on the second and third of the rings ; but sometimes the wings are wanting, sometimes there is only one pair. The third portion (called the abdomen) is formed of the remaining nine rings, and contains the organs of rej)roduction and most of those of digestion. Insects in this perfect state are of two sexes, male and female ; in some instances (as with Wasps and some others) there are imperfectly-developed females, known as " neuters." After the insect— whether Beetle, Butterfly, Fly, or other kind — has come forth from its chrysalis or fly-case (that is, from ih.Q ijupa), and its limbs have expanded, it grows no more ; it is complete, and its remaining work is to support life until it has propagated its species. Usually jJrt/rn;// soon takes place, and the male dies; but the female has great tenacity of life until she has laid her eggs. The length of life, however, is various ; in some instances a few days, or even hours, is the extent : in others the insects " hj^bernate," that is, find some shelter in which they pass the winter, and from which they reappear with the return of warmth and sunshine. XXIV INTRODUCTION TO Classification of Insects. — Opinions of diiYerent writers vary much as to the most desirable form, but the method appears to be the most simple and comprehensive in which the}^ are divided into thirteen orders, arranged according to general similarity in the early stages, and also in the general appearance of the perfect insects composing each order ; also according to the number or nature of their wings, or the method in which they are folded beneath the wing-cases. In the following table the orders are arranged accordingly in the classification given in Prof. Westwood's 'Introduction to Entomology,' these thirteen orders being formed into two great tribes of Mandihulata and H((i(stdlat(t, according to whether they feed by means of jaws (mandibles), as in the case of Beetles, &c., or by means of some kind of sucker (haustellum), as is the case with Butterflies, Aphides, &c. These orders are placed in succession according to the nearest resemblance which the insects of one order bear to the one preceding or following ; and the reader will notice that the two last syllables of the name of each order are Ptera, meaning "wings," from the Greek word Ptcroii, a wing. The preceding part of the word signifies the nature of the wing. MANDIBULATA. CoLEopTERA. — Sheath-wiuged. Beetles. EuPLEXoPTERA. — Tiglitly-folded winged. Earwigs. Orthoptera. — Straight-winged. Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, &c. Thysanoptera. — Fringe-winged. Thrips. Neuroptkra. — Nerve-winged. White Ants, May-flies, Dragon-flies, &c. Trichoptera. — Hairy-winged. Caddice-flies. Hymenoptera. — Membrane-winged. Sawflies, Gall-flies, Ichneuixion -flics, Ants, "Wasps, Bees, &c. Strepsiptera. — Twisted-winged. Bee-parasites. ENTOMOLOGY. XXV HAUSTELLATA. Xepidoptera. — Scale-winged. Butterflies, Moths. HoMOPTERA. — Similar-winged. Lanthoru-fiies, Cuckoo Spit- flies, Aphides, Scale-insects, &c. Heteropteka. — Dissimilar-winged. Plant-bugs, &c. Aphaniptera. — Imperceptible -winged. Fleas. Diptera. — Two-winged. Gnats, Daddy Long-legs, Gad-flies, Bot-flies, Mesh-flies, &c. 1. CoLEOPTERA (Aristotle). — Beetles. 1, Otiorhynchus sulcatus ; 3, larva: 4, pupa, magnified; b, 0.j)icipes ; fig. 2 and the lines show nat. size. The upper pair of wings, which are called wing-cases ■or elytra, are usually horny or leathery, and thus form a " sheath" for the large membranous under wings which are folded beneath them. The head is furnished with large eyes, jaws moving transversely, and with horns {antenncB) of very various shape. In the water-beetles the hinder legs are often flattened to a somewhat oar-like shape, and fringed with hairs. The larvEe are usually fleshy grubs having scaly heads furnished with jaws : sometimes they are legless, but iip<^ are active and voracious, and are much like the perfect insect, excepting that the larvae are wingless and the pupae have " short rudimental wings and wing-covers which at the first period of this state are but slightly to be perceived." — (J. 0. W.) The Grasshopper is a good example of this order. The Mole-cricket, figured opposite, is sometimes very injurious to plant-life by feeding on the roots, and is remarkable for the size and strength of its fore legs, but its upper wings are not characteristic of the Orthoptera. 4. Thysanoptera (Haliday). — Thrips. 1 — 4, Com Thrips (female) at rest, and flying; 5 — 8, Potato Thrips, larva, and perfect insect flying; all nat. size and magnified. The insects of this order are often very minute, some- times only about the third of a line in length. They XXVlll INTKODUCTION TO have four wings, which are nearly alike and usually long, ^ narrow and with long "fringes" all round, laid flat along the back when at rest and somewhat curved outwards. The under side of the head is prolonged into a beak shape, with the parts of the mouth joined into a kind of sucker- like sheath, " out of whose free end the bristle-formed jaws project." The larvae and pupae much resemble the perfect insect in shape, and in the first stage are active, in the second are sluggish. The Corn and Potato Thrips are examples of this order. 5. Neuropteka (Linnaeus). — Dragon-flies, May-flies, Stone-flies, &c. 1, Golden-ej'e, Chrysopa perla ; 2, egg of Chrysopa; 3 and 4, larva; 5 and 6, cocoon, nat. size and magnified. "Wings four, nearly equal in size, membranaceous, with many "nerves" sometimes forming a network. The under wings are occasionally folded. Head usually with jaws, but these are sometimes absent, as in the May-flies, which, only living for a short time, do not require apparatus for feeding with. Abdomen generally long and slender. Larvae with six legs; pupae various, in some cases active, and somewhat resembling the perfect insect ; in others inactive, with the limbs folded beneath them. The families of the Dragon-flies {Lihellulidce) , Stone- flies (Perlida), and May-flies {Ei^hemeridcB) , pass their ENTOMOLOGY. XXIX first stages in the water, and have active pupae as well as larvae. The Hemerohiidce (see C. j)6rla, figured opposite) are peculiar in laying eggs fixed by a long stalk of a viscid secretion ; the larvae feed ravenously on Aphides. In the eleven families of which Neuvoptera is composed, it is said that there is "scarcely a leading characteristic of the order which does not meet with an exception." 6. Tkichopteka (Kirby). — Caddice-flies. Wings fom% membranous, the upper usually with branching nerves, and "/mrr^"; the under pair shorter and broader, and folded when at rest ; legs long ; jaws rudimentary. The early stages are passed in water. The larvae (known as Cad-baits or Caddice-worms) are nearly cylindrical, with six legs, and live in cases which they form round themselves of little bits of stick, or pebbles, shells, &c. ; and in these they change (in the water) to pup^e much resembling the perfect insects. 7. Hymenoptera (Linnfeus). — Wasps, Bees, Sawflies, Gall-flies, &c. Humble Bees.— 1, Bomhus lucorum; -4, B. tci-restris. Wings four, naked "membranous,'' a,nd.i\iimshedmth. XXX INTKODUCTION TO a few veins ; the upper pair (which are much larger than the under ones) are marked on the fore edge with a minute thickened spot called the " stigma.'' The head is usually furnished with large compound eyes, and also with three simple eyes or ^'ocelli" on the crown; the horns are various (sometimes in the Sawflies with fine comb-like processes). The upper jaws (mandibles) are horny, but not always serviceable for eating with ; and in some cases, as with the Honey Bees, a portion of the mouth apparatus (the maxillae), united with the lower lip and its appendages, form a sucker or proboscis by means of which to draw up their food. The body is covered "svith a hard skin, and usually has head, thorax, and abdomen distinctly separated. The abdomen of the female is often supplied with a sting, or with an ovipositor, by means of which she can pierce into animal or vegetable matter to insert her eggs. In some cases this is done by means of a kind of borer ; in some, as with the "saw "-flies, by means of a kind of saw-like apparatus. The larvae are usually maggot-like and footless, with the mouth commonly but slightly developed ; but in the family of the Sawflies {Teuthredinidcs, see p. 224) the larvae are more like Butterfly caterpillars, and have usually, besides the six true feet, twelve to sixteen sucker-feet. (The Corn Sawfly, -p. 84, is an exception). Pupae are inactive, with the limbs of the futm'e insect distinguishable, but wrapped in sheaths and folded beneath the breast. Change sometimes takes place in cocoons. This order contains the families of Sawflies (Tenthred- inidce), Sirices (Uroceridce), Gall-flies (Cynipidce), Ich- neumon-flies (Ichneumojiidce) , Ants {Formicidce), Wasps (Vespidce), and various kinds of Bees (Andrenidce and Apida), classed under the head Mellifera. For examples, see Humble Bees, Oak Gall-fly, Sawflies of various kinds, and Sirex. ENTOMOLOGY. XXXI 8. Strepsiptera (Kirby). — Bee Parasites. These are named frora tlie small "twisted" appendages ■which they bear in the place of the fore wings ; the true "wings are large in proportion to the size of the insect, forming more than a quarter of a circle, with the two straight edges placed in front and against the body. They live in the larval state as parasites in Wasps and Bees, and merely require to be referred to here. 9. Lepidoptera (Linnaeus). — Butterflies and Moths. Yellow Underwing, Tryphana pronuba. — 1. caterpillar; 2, pupa or " chrysalis " ; 3, moth. Wings four, covered on both sides with fine " scales " (whence the name of Lepidoptera, from Lepis, a scale). Head furnished with two large compound eyes, and sometimes with ocelli ; horns various ; mouth with a proboscis. Body hairy, or scaly. The larvae, commonly called caterpillars, are nearly cylindrical, long, soft, and often variously coloured, spined, or tubercled ; the head is scaly or horny, bearing eyes, jaws, and a pair of short horns ; the three segments next to the head have usually a pair of horny feet on «ach, and of the remaining nine segments the tail and the four intermediate ones are usually each furnished with a pair of sucker-feet or prolegs. These vary in number from four to ten, but the pair beneath the tail is XXXll INTRODUCTION TO seldom missing. The caterpillar "^'ben about to ebange^ usually spins a cocoon witb tbread from its moutb, or buries itself, or in some way provides a place of safety ; it tben moults its skin for tbe last time, and a viscid moisture exuding from tbe surface of tbe newly-exposed cbrysalis bardens rapidly over tbe rudimentary limbs of tbe future motli or butterfly, and protects it in its inactive state, till in due time tbis outer case is cracked down tbe- back and tbe insect comes foftb. Large Cabbage Butterfly, Tbis order is divided into butterflies and motbs ; tbe- butterflies are distinguisbable by tbeir borns being, almost invariably tbin and long, ending in a knob (see fig.) ; also by tbeir ligbt and elegant sbape, and beautiful colouring. Tbey mostly fly by day, and wben at rest carry tbeir wings erect. Cabbn^e Motb. Tbe motbs are distinguisbable by tbe borns never being club-sbaped, but generally tbread-like or witb side- ENTOMOLOGY. XXXllI branches ; and they commonly rest with then- wings expanded, and are of a heavier make and more shiggish in flight than the butterflies ; also, though not exclusively evening or night-fliers, many of them are so. The family of the Clear-wing Moths {yEgeriidce) is very peculiar, and diflers from the other Lepidoptcra in the wings being more or less transparent or "clear,'' and ivithoiLt "scales''; but froni other characteristics re- sembling those of this order it has been placed in it. Hornet Clear-wingr. The larvas of the clear-wings feed and change tO' chrysalids in branches or roots of trees. For examples of Butterflies, see Cabbage Butterflies ;. of Moths, see those of Cabbage, Turnip, Apple, &c. 10. HosroPTERA (MacLeay). — Froghoppers, Aphides or Green-fly, Scale-insects, &c. 3^ Potato Frog-fly. — 1 and 2, eggs; 3 and 4, pupa; 5 and 6, Frog-fly^ nat. size and magnified. XXXIV INTRODUCTION TO Wings usually four (but sometimes two, or absent), entirely membranous, slanting downwards, the upper largest, and not overlapping when at rest. Head with a mouth formed for suction and placed far back beneath it. Horns often short. Larvae various; pupse usually active. This order contains such various forms of insects that it is convenient to take the subdivision, as given by Prof. Westwood, into three sections, of Trimera, Dimera, and Monomcra, havmg respectively three, two, and one, joints in the feet. The first includes many large foreign insects, as Lanthorn-flies, &c. ; and amongst our own the Cuckoo- spit, Cicada (or Tettigonia) sjmmaria, and the Frog- hoppers, figured on the precedmg page. Larch Aphis, Chcrmes laricis, ou twig. — Mother Chermes, with eggs ; winged specimen and larva, magnified. The second section includes the A2)hides, or Green-fly ; PsyllidcE, or Jumping Plant-lice ; and Alcyrodcs, or Snowy-flies. The third section contains the Scale-insects, amongst which the females are usually fleshy masses, furnished with suckers, but without trace of articulated limbs ; he males have one pair of wings, but the mouth is obsolete. For descriptions and life-histories of the above insects, see references in Index. ENTOMOLOGY. XXXV 11. Heteroptera (Westwood). — Plant-bugs. A- 1 and 2, Potato-bug., Lygus Solani; 3 and 4, pupa, nat. size and magnified; 5, Hop-bug, nat. size; 6, ditto, magnified. Wings four, the upper pair or wing-cases the largest, partly lapping over each other when at rest, and with the part the nearest to the body leathery and "dissimilar" in texture to the rest of the wing, which is membranous; under wings membranous. The head is usually broad, with horns commonly of moderate length, composed of three to five joints ; the sucker-mouth is very like that of the Homoptera, but placed in front, not behind the lower part of the head. Horns usually somewhat thread-like. Legs various, chiefly formed for walking, but sometimes in the aquatic species with fringes on the hinder pair. Larvae resemble the perfect insect, but without rudiments of wings ; pupae wdth still more resemblance, from these being distinguishable. One section of this order lives in water, and contains the insects commonly known as Water Scorpions and Water Boatmen ; the other, besides the " Water- measurers" common on water, contains various kinds of Bugs preying on plant and animal life by means of then- suckers, and characterized generally by a power of giving out a scent on being alarmed, which is usually, but not always, of a disagreeable kind. XXXVl INTRODUCTION TO 12. Aphaniptera (Kirby). — Fleas. Four scales, which are "impercejJtible'' to the naked eye, take the place of wings. The legs are long and formed for leaping, and the mouth for suction. The larvae are minute worm-like, footless grubs ; the pupae are inactive, with legs enclosed in sheaths. 13. DiPTERA (Aristotle). — Flies. Various kinds of dipterous flies (see pp. 31—34). — 1, 6, and 7, larvae. ^ 2 and 3, pupae, nat. size and magniged; 4, 5, 8, and 0, flies, magnified, with lines showing nat. size. Wings ''two," membranous; in the place usually occupied by the hind wing are a pair of slender filaments with a knob at the end, called "poisers" or " halter es.'' Head usually distinct, and horns generally inserted near together on the forehead. Mouth formed for suction. Legs long. Larvas fleshy, cylindrical, and footless, but sometimes with indications of feet ; and it is only in this order that the head of the larva is sometimes soft and fleshy ; mouth generally furnished with two hooks, as an apparatus for feeding with. Pupge various ; in most cases the skin of the larva shrinks and hardens, so as to form a case in which the change takes place, and out of which fly-case the fly makes its way when developed by cracking off one end ; ENTOMOLOGY. XXXVU Winter Gnat, Trichocera hiemalis ; larva and pupa, nat. size and magnified. in the case of Gnats (CidicidcB) the pupae are active, and swim in the water ; the pupae of the Daddy Long- legs and of the Winter Gnat, figured above, which are of the family Tipulidce, show in some degree the form of the contained insect, and have the limbs enclosed in sheaths; and in the case of the "Forest-flies" {Hippo- hoscidce) the insect passes the larval stage and changes to the pupa in the abdomen of the female before being deposited. This order includes Gnats, Daddy Long-legs, Gad-flies, House-flies and Flesh-flies, Bot-flies, &c. For illustrations of Cabbage and Carrot Flies, Daddy Long-legs, Onion Fly, Turnip Leaf-miner, &c., see Index. PART I, FOOD CROPS THE INSECTS THAT INJUEE THEM. PAET I. FOOD CROPS THE INSECTS THAT INJURE THEM. ASPAKAGUS. Asparagus Beetle. Crioceris asparagi, Linn. Asparagus Beetle, larva and eggs ; all magnified. Natural length of egg and beetle shown by lines. The Asparagus Beetle often causes injury, and in some seasons does much damage, by the grub eating off the leaves of the Asparagus, and gnawing the more tender shoots so as to destroy them. The eggs are dark-coloured, somewhat spindle-shaped, and may be readil}' observed fastened by one end along the shoots, or on the unopened flower-buds. D. H. HILL LIBRARY b fsbrth Carolina State College Z ASPABAGUS. The grubs are of a dirty olive, or slate-colour, and exude a large drop of blackish fluid from the mouth on being touched. From the tail being curved and holding fast by a fleshy foot, it is very difiicult to pick them off. They are full-fed in a fortnight, when they go down into the ground, spin parchment-like cocoons, in which they change, and come up as perfect beetles in about another fortnight or three weeks. The Beetles are about a quarter of an inch long, blue- black or greenish ; the body behind the head red, with two black spots. The wing-cases are ochreous-yellow, with a line down the centre of the back, a branch from each side of it, and also a spot or patch at the base and tip of each wing-case of blue-black. These markings form a kind of cross, whence the name sometimes given of " Cross-bearer." The successive broods of Beetles lay their eggs directly, and the insect, in all stages, may be found from about the middle of June till the end of September. The 12-spotted Aspakagus Beetle, which differs from the above in being red, with twelve spots on the wing- cases, is seldom found in England. Prevention and Eemedies. — Dipping the infested shoots in a mixture of half a pound of soft-soap, a quarter of a pound of flower of sulphur, and about the same quantity of soot, well mixed together in a pail of "warm water, has been found a good remedy. The infested shoots were well dipped, and next day the grubs "were found to have all been cleared off. The plants were afterw^ards syringed, to clean off the dirt left by the dijjping, and soon regained their healthy appearance. — (W. D. C.) Syringing with water warm enough to make the grubs loosen hold, but yet not of a heat to hurt the leafage, clears them off well. The greater part of the grubs fall as the water touches them, and the rest on a smart tap being given to the shoot. Dry soot plentifully thrown on to them, whilst they are on the ground under the ASPAKAGUS BEETLE. 6 Asparagus and are still wet, appears quite to prevent any return of the grubs to the shoot. If any, either of the beetles or grubs, return, a second treatment would probably clear them completely. A large number of beds may soon be dressed by a man and boy going round together — one syringing, the other striking the shoots and throwing the soot upon the grubs ; and the gro-v\i;h of the Asparagus, after this slight manuring, is good. The water should not be of a heat above what can be well borne bj^ the hand. Hand-picking has been recommended, but from the strong hold that the grub has on the shoot this is difficult to manage without hurting the plant ; but a little salt (or any other application disagreeable to the grub) taken in the fingers, instead of working bare- handed, helps to make it loosen its hold. Cutting off the shoots that are badly infested with eggs and burning them is of service. Shaking the beetles into a wide bason or tray, held below to receive them, has been recommended ; but it is desu-able that some mixture of mud or soot and water (or of a nature that ma}'' stick to them at once) should be provided for them to fall into, or they would soon escape. Strewing the plants well with unslaked lime early in the morning, whilst the dew is still on, is also recom- mended. BEAN. Bean Aphis. Aplds rumicis, Fabr. „ faba:, Kirby & Spence. Bean Aphis : 1, Bean-shoot, with Ajihides ; 2, male, mag. ; 0, nat. size. ; 4, wingless female, magnified. The Bean Aphis (known also as "Black Fly," "Col- lier," and "Black Dolphin") sometimes appears in such vast numbers as to smother the Beans, making them look as if they were coated with soot. The attacks are begun by a few wingless females establishing them- selves near the top of the Bean-shoots, where they pro- duce living young. These in their turn are soon able to produce another living generation ; and so on, and on, till the increase is enormous, and from the numbers of the "Black Fly," and the sticky juices flowing from the punctures which they have made with their suckers, the plant becomes a mere dirty infested mass, with a few diseased leaves sticking out from amongst the plant-lice. These Aphides are very similar in shape throughout all their stages, excej^ting that in the first and second (which answer to those of larva and pupa), although they have six legs and are active, they have not wings. BEAN APHIS. O The young are slaty gray, but soon acquire a blackish velvety coat. The pupa is larger and slaty gray, ex- cepting the abdomen, which is black with various white spots, and the cases for the wings are also black. Of the two kinds of females producing living young, the wingless kind is shiny (or sometimes dull) black, excepting the shanks and the middle joints of the horns, which are somewhat ochreous. The head, body, and abdomen are so much grown together as to seem almost like one piece (see fig. 4, magnified). The winged female is shiny and black, or with a brownish tinge ; the shanks and middle joints of the horns are amber-yellow, a,nd the wings are yellow at the base, with a green line and mark on the fore edge, and brown veins. The egg-laying female — that is, a third description, which appears in autumn, and lays the eggs from which a new series of generations, producing living young, will start again in the following year — is very like the wing- less viviparous form figured above. The male (fig. 2, magnified) is black and winged. — (' Farm Insects,' and *Mon. of Brit. Aphides'). Prevention and Eemedies. — No better plan appears to be known than cutting off the infested tops of the Beans, but it should be done as soon as the " Colliers " are noticed. This point is very important, on account of the extraordinary rate at which Aphides increase. The tops should be trampled on thoroughly as they are cut off' ; sheared into baskets and burnt ; or destroyed in some other way with the Ajjliides on them, for if these are left amongst the Beans the insects are able to make their way back again to the growing plants, and thus little good will have been done. In garden cultivation, where there is only a small amount of crop to be attended to, it sometimes answers to throw soot on the infested plants. This lodges well amongst the Aphides and in the axils of the leaves. Any dry di-essing that would thus lodge, and make the b BEAN. Bean-tops more or less unpalatable to the Aphides, ■would be of use. Where only a small extent of crop needs attention, a good drenching with strong soap- suds, or syringing with a solution of soft-soap, would also be useful ; the soapy matter sticks to the Aphis, and is thus a much surer remedy than many of the attemjDted applications which run off at once from the skin of the insects, and consequently are useless. A healthy, luxuriant growth is also of importance. The "Colliers" may attack the healthy as well as the unhealthy plants, but the strong groT\^h which is run on by previous good cultivation of the ground, and also the application of a little liquid manure if desirable, will keep the plant in heart with a plentiful flow of sap, and thus it will suffer much less from attack than the weakly, stunted growths that have no power to replace the juices which the Aphides are constantly sucking out of them. Eemoval of the wild plants on wdiich this kind of Aphis is to be found would probably materially lessen its numbers. These "Colliers" or " Black Flies " are to be found in great numbers on the Curled Dock {Rumex crisjjus, whence their name of " rumicis"), and also on Thistles ; and it is stated that the wingless egg- producing female winters in Furze-bushes, the branches of which may be found dotted with Aphis eggs. — ('Farm Insects,' * Brit. Aphides,' &c.) TT T 1 ■!-, ( Earth Bee, Bomhns terrestris. Humble Bees. \ ^,\t -d ? ( Wood xJee, ,, iucorum. These Humble Bees sometimes do harm by piercing a hole through the lower part of the calyx into the Beau- flower, so as to get at the honey inside ; and by so doing they cause a part, or even the whole, of the Bean-pod to prove abortive. They have been known to do serious injury ; but it, generally speaking, may be doubted whether the larger size of the pods, from a few of the HUMBLE BEES. 7 blossoms being thinned out, does not make up for the slight damage. The female, or Queen of the Earth Bee, is black, with a band of orange-yellow just behind the head and another on the second ring of the abdomen, and with two tawny bands near the tip of the tail. The worker has the yellow often of a paler colour, and the bands toward the tip of the tail white instead of tawny. The male or drone has the orange-yellow brighter than the female, and the tip of the abdomen pale tawny or white. 1, Wood Humble Bee; 2 and 3, punctures made by Bees in Bean-calyx; 4-, Earth Humble Bee, sucking nectar. The Queen of the Wood Bee is smaller than the above- mentioned queen, and is black, with a band of lemon- yellow just behind the head and on the second ring of the abdomen ; the three end segments of the abdomen are snow-white. The worker is marked like the queen. The drone has a black band between the wings and across the abdomen, and has (like the queen and worker) the three rings at the tail snow-white ; otherwise it is for the most part yellow or yellowish white. The nests may be found in old loose walls, heaps of rough stones, in dry banks, at the roots of trees, and such-like places. The nests of the Earth Bee may be 8 BEAN. found occasionally at the distance of five feet from the entrance of the hole. — (Descriptions from 'Bees of Great Britain'). Prevention and Eemedies. — If any serious injury is found to occur, the best plan is to have the nests searched for and destroyed. For a few pence any boys that are about will soon find them out ; but unless it is quite certain the Bees are doing harm, it is much better not to destroy them. Bean Beetle. Bnichus granarius, Linn. y^^^ 1 and 2, Bnichus granarius, nat. size and mag.; 3, infested Bean split open, showing cell ; 4 and 5, larvae, nat. size and mag. ; 6 and 7, pupae, nat. size and mng. ; 8, Bean injured by Beetle, vegetating ; 9 and 10, Bnichus pisi, nat. size and mag. ; 11, injured Pea. The Bean Beetle injures the crop by laying its eggs in the Beans and Peas whilst they are still soft in the pods, often choosing the finest for the purpose. BEAN BEETLE. V The maggots feed inside the seed, sometimes eating away most of the contents, but generally leaving the growing germ uninjured so that the seed does not lose its power of sprouting. When full-grown, the maggot gnaws a round hole to the inside of the husk of the seed, and usually cuts a line round this kind of circular lid of its burrow, so that when needed to be displaced afterwards, for the escape of the Beetle, the bit will fall out on a touch. The maggot turns to the pupa in the Bean or Pea in which it has fed, and appears generally to pass the winter in this state. When spring comes it changes to the perfect Beetle, and makes its escape either by gnawing a way out, or — commonly — by pushing out the loose lid of its burrow. The Beetle is little more than the eighth of an inch long, and if looked at under a magnifying glass will be found to have the head drooping, with the mouth forming a kind of wedge-shaped beak, the fore part of the body somewhat bell-shaped, and each wing-case pitted with ten rows of small dots. The colour is black, with brown hairs and various white spots ; the tip of the tail prolonged, and covered with grey down. The front pair of legs are reddish. The Beetles may be found on flowers of the Furze as early as February, but though they may be found in seed beans in March, April, and Ma}^ they do not always leave the seed as soon as they are developed. — (J. Curtis.) Pkevention and Eemedies. — A great deal may be done in the way of prevention by attention to the seed before it is sown. The maggot goes on feeding in the seed after it is stored ; by the end of autumn probably all the beetle-maggots will be full-fed, and will have eaten their way in the seed to the inside of the skin. This will show on the outside as a round or oval mark (about the size figured at 6 a), rather duller in colour than the I'est of the skin, and rather more transparent, from the substance of the seed being cleared away behind it. If 10 BEAN. this round piece of skin be lifted off, the Bean Beetle will probably be found inside, and by this mark infested seed may be known. Such seed should not be sown. If Beans or Peas thus infested are sown, the Beetles will not be in the slightest degree injured by being buried, but will come up through the ground in due time to infest the new crop. The Bean Beetles begin to appear in February, although some may still be found in the seeds till May. When they have left the seed, the round hole through which they escaped will show where they have been, and such seed is to be avoided. The injured seed will sprout in most cases, but although the growing germ is left, a great part of what this germ needs to make it grow healthily is gone. If we consider that, in germination, chemical changes take place by which the insoluble starch in these seeds is turned into soluble plant-food, and that on this alone the young sprouting plant is nourished until the leaves and rootlets are produced, it will be evident that the chances of a strong and healthy plant are much diminished by using maggot-eaten seed. The young plant depends on the quantity of food in the seed for the vigour of its first start, and if this first start is not vigorous the later growth will probably be stunted and sickly also. Crops of autumn-sown Beans have been found to be the most infested, because, as above mentioned, the Beetles are still in the seed, and before the maggot- injury shows through the skin it is not easy to tell which are the infested Beans. It is difficult to apply any remedy in the field suitable to such a small insect, but the use of spent Hops as a manure, which is found serviceable in other cases of insect-attack, might be of use here. Bean Beetles (Bruclii) of various species are found — sometimes in enormous quantities — in imported seed, and where there is much Bean-growing round mills where Beans are ground, it would be highly desirable some measures should be taken to save us from the BEAN BEETLE. 11 consequences of the vast numbers sometimes to be found in such places. — (See 'Farm Insects,' note, p. 363.) Dipping the Beans or Peas in boihng water for one minute is stated to kill the grub inside without hurting the seed, but as dipping for four minutes generally destroyed the germinating power the experiment is much too hazardous for general use as regards seed, though it might be acted on with advantage with regard to Beans or Peas about to be ground. The simple remedy' practised in the Colonies for the Weevil in Eice,* which destroys life by exhausting the air, might be of service in this case ; and also it is probable that if greater care was exercised in choice of seed by the buyers, especially in the retired spots and small holdings where "cheap seed" finds a market, that this "pest," which is not so troublesome as many others, would be materially lessened. — ('Farm Insects,* &c.) * I procured a large tank, such as is kept on ship-board for the water supply. In it the Eice wiis put, filling it up until -i •.-.•• t- i Red Maggot. } ^^'^''^«'"^*« i'-'tici' Kirby. 1, Infested floret; 2 — 6, larva, and cased-larva (? pupa), iiat. size and magnified; 7 and S, joints of antenn.T, magnified; 9 and 10, C. tritici, nat. size and magnified. Parasite flies. — 11 and 14, Platygaster tipuhe ; 12 and 13, Macroglenes penetrans, nat. size and magnified. The grub of the Wheat Midge, known as the " Eed Maggot," often does some harm, and at times causes a serious amount of damage to Wheat-crops, by injuring the young grains when forming in the ear, so that many of them never reach maturity. In June, when the Wheat is in blossom, the female Midges may be seen laying their eggs, and are noted as being busiest at the work about eight o'clock in the evening. In the morning they may be foimd resting on the lower part of the culm of Wheat, with their heads downward, flying about, however, in great numbers near the ground when the stems are shaken. 80 CORN. The females are furnished with a long ovipositor, as thin as a hair, which they can extend at pleasure, and thus insert their eggs inside the florets. The eggs are oblong and transparent, and (with the help of a glass) may be found in little patches of from one up to twenty in number. The maggots have been found ten days after the deposit of eggs was observed, some with their heads in the woolly top of the germ of the future grain, some inside the sheaths of the flower. It was not, however, observable that any meddled with the anthers of the stamens to an important degree, and it is therefore supposed that the injury to the grains in the ear is from the maggot so gnawing and drawing the moisture from the germ that the pollen cannot act sufiiciently to fertilize it. These maggots are lemon or orange-colour, more pointed at the head than the tail, and legless, but wrinkled transversely into folds, by means of which they can wriggle themselves along at pleasure. They are very small, only about the tAvelfth of an inch long, but their presence may be known b}^ the altered colour of the lowest part of the floret, where they are to be found. When full-grown, it appears that some of the maggots go down into the ground, but such as have not left the ears when the corn is cut are housed with it. This is important as regards treatment, but does not show any variation in the habits of the grub, as, if the corn had been left alone, it would have fallen, and the grubs thus come to the ground in the natural course of things. After a time they may be found in filmy transparent cases (see fig.), and turn to reddish pupae, lighter at the end of the tail, from which the Midges appear in June. The "Midge" is orange-yellow, or ochreous, with black eyes, and (as observable in the magnified figure) the longest vein of the wings is not forked. The above species, that is, the Cecklomyia tritici, is the kind usually meant when speaking of the "Wheat Midge," but there is another kind that much resembles WHEAT MIDGE. 81 it. This is the Ltisioptcri/.v ohjuscata (as identified by the late And. Murray), differing from the above in tlie fly being black, and the long vein of the wing being forked at the end. The larvte or maggots, and also the pupae of the two kinds, were indistinguishable ; and, as far as is kno^^'n, their habits are also alike, and during a series of observations made by myself on the habits of the "Wheat Midge" in West Gloucestershire, in 1869 and 1870, it was found by Mr. Murray that all the specimens sent to him, whether from chaff-heaps or caught in the Wheat-fields of the neighbourhood, were the black, not the oraurie Wheat Midge. — (See ' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' 1870 ; ' Farm Insects,' &c.) Prevention and Eejiedies. — The best method of prevention consists of such cultivation and thorough treatment of the surface of any field (known to have been infested), after the crop is removed, as may destroy these grubs or " Eed Maggots" in the ground. In Canada, where this maggot is much more hurtful than with us, it is considered a complete cure to turn down the surface of the field with the Michigan plough, which, with the first turn-furrow, takes off about two inches of the surface, together with the weeds and stubble, and the insect-vermin in the roots, and deposits them at the bottom of the furrow ; wdiilst the second turn-furrow raises another land-slice, and, depositing it over the previous one, buries it several inches deep. If the course of agricultui'e allows this to be left untouched till after the usual time of appearance of the Wheat Midge in the followmg year, it is found to completely destroy the maggot. In our own case, such ploughing and working of the surface might be effected by having a skim-coulter attached to the plough, constructed in such a manner as would cut and lay an inch or two of the surface in the bottom of the preceding furrow, thereby burying the Eed Maggots to such a depth as would render their coming to the surface (or being brought to it by after cultivation) G 82 CORN. very improbable ; or broad-sharing might be adopted, which would tend to break up the surface soil. The weeds and roots of all plants being either carted off or burnt, would help to destroy many of the maggots, and a large proportion of the remainder would be left on the top in reach of birds. These operations would be of service by putting the maggot in unnatural circum- stances, which a large number of experiments have shown it to be particularly susceptible of injury from. Another point of great importance is in regard to the grubs housed in the corn. Enormous quantities of these maybe found in the chaff or the dust after threshing; and on neglected farms or small holdings where the chaff is often thrown in heaps, to decay in out-of-the-way corners, this treatment suits the Wheat Midges most admirably. The following June brings them out in clouds from the heaps to infest every Wheat-field near, and this practice, therefore, of spreading them is most objectionable. It is also bad in another way by greatly increasing the opportunities of multiplication of the Midge. It has been noted by careful observation that the Wlieat Midges seen in the Wheat-fields were all females, consequently it may be supposed that few, if any, males were there ; but from my own observations of the Midges over the chaff-heaps, I am led to think that jDairing takes place immediately on the hatching of these Midges from the pupas, and thus these vast collections are doubly hurtful. The heaps preserve the grubs through the winter, and from the quantity (probably) of both sexes that are hatched in one locality, the female is sent out in a condition at once to lay fertile eggs. Where chaff is thrown away, it would be no greater loss to destroy it thoroughly by burning with other rubbish, or, if used as litter, it could be placed in the bottom of the yard, where the trampling amongst the wet droppings of the cattle would kill the maggots. Or again, the chaff' might be placed in the bottom of the dung-pit, where the maggots would be effectually WHEAT MIDGE. 83 destroyed, and in this way there would be an increase of good farm-manure, with a saving of much more mischief from " Eed Maggot" next season than is generally supposed. Simpl}- burying the chaff in the ground is not at all a certain means of prevention. Fh'ing the stubbles (as mentioned under " Corn Saw- fly") is an effectual way of getting rid of many of the " Eed Maggots " which may be found after the corn is cut, clinging about the lower part of the stalks. In the American and Canadian experiments, it has been found of great service so to time the Wheat-sowing that the period of flowering should be clear of that of the appearance of the Wheat Midge. In the uncertain climate of our country any experiments depending on weather are of doubtful use, still the point is worth consideration. In this case the plant and the insect- development are not necessarily similar^ affected by weather ; a few days or hours warmth will bring the "Midges" from their pupa-cases, whilst the retarded plant takes much longer time to make up its lost ground ; and the following observations, made in the wet summer of 1879, show instances of escape of the later Wheats from attack, because time of oviposition of the Midges was gone by before the ears were ready to receive the eggs. On June 27th the AMieat Midges were abundant near Maldon, in Essex, whilst there were as yet no Wheat- ears on which they could oviposit, and the crop was not damaged. — (E. A. F.) In the part of Hertfordshire observed the "Eed Maggot" was abundant only in the earlier fields (B. B.) ; and in the east of Norfolk, in the ease of two small patches close alongside of each other, one that was autumn-sown suffered, but the other, which was spring-sown, was uninjm-ed. — (A. S. 0.) Destroying such wild grasses as the Wheat Midge is known to frequent, especially the Wild Oat, or Arena fatiia, is very desirable, and also the encouragement of the small insect-feeding birds. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' ' Eeport on Inj. Insects,' 1879, &c.) 84 CORN. Corn Sawfly. Cephus jnjfjmams, Curtis. 1 and 2, Sawfly, magnified and nat. size; 3, stem containinij larva; 4 and 5, larva, nat. size ami magnified; 6 and 7, i:iarasite fly, Pachyiiierus calcitrator, magnified and nat. size. This Fly attacks various kinds of Corn by piercing a hole in the stem whilst it is still young and soft, and laying an egg just below the first knot. The young grubs feed on the inside of the stalk, and as soon as they are strong enough they gnaw through the knot and make their way upwards, sometimes through all the knots ; they then come down again (always inside the stem), and about harvest-time, or a little before it, the}- cut the stem nearly through all round at the level of the ground. These infested stalks may be known by the thin white ears standing upright and empty, or with few perfect grains ; whilst the healthy plants are still green, and in some degree bending with the weight of the head. When the maggot has thus travelled down the stalk CORN SAAVFLY. 85 find nearly cut it through (so that nothing may prevent its escape presently as a liy), it goes clown into the lowest part and spins itself a silken case, in which it passes the winter. It changes to a pupa in the early summer of the following year, and comes out as a fly just in time to attack the new crops. The maggot is about half an inch long, whitish and fleshy, and has a horny brown head, with strong jaws. It is very peculiar, for, though the larva of a Sawfly, it has only the rudiments of three pairs of feet. It has also a tubular appendage at the tip of the tail, which can be drawn in and out like a telescope, and helps it in its progress along the inside of the stalk. The fly is four-winged, black, and more or less marked or spotted with yellow on the head, abdomen, and legs. The yellow is bright in the male ; more of a sulphur or ochre-colour in the female ; and the wings are iridescent in the male; more smoky in the female. — ('Farm Insects.') Prevention and Kemedies. — The grub winters inside the lowest part of the stalks of the stubble, therefore any means whereby the stubble may be destroj'ed, or buried too deeply for the fly to come up again after it has developed, will be serviceable. Where there has been a bad attack, it is desirable to collect the rubbish, that is, the roots of stubble, and either burn it in heaps on the field, spreading the ashes afterwards over the surface, or cart it ofl' the land with the weeds, which, mixed with quick-lime or gas-lime, forms a foundation for a good compost-heap, and is a sure method of destruction of the grubs. The clearing of the ground might be effected either by a Biddle's scarifier or the broad-share paring-plough ; or a common plough, with its mould-board unattached, and fitted with a share a foot in breadth, might be set to work on the stubble after the grain-crop is carted, and skim off the surface to the depth of three or four inches ; the harrows will shake the earth from the roots, and a 86 COEN. turn of the cbain-liarrows collect the refuse, wliicb may be disposed of as above mentioned. Burning tbe stubbles bas been recommended, and is an excellent metbod of destroj-ing tbe maggot ; in some cases, by tbe elevation of tbe finger bar of tbe reaper, tbe stubble may be cut at sucli a beigbt tbat tbe simple act of setting tbe residue on fire will burn tbe wbole surface of tbe field, and prove a tborougb remedy. Commonly, bowever, tbe autumn-cleaning of tbe stubbles ougbt to be a sufficient remedy. Tbe Sawliy does mucb barm on tbe Continent, and is common in tbis country, in Corn-fields and on grasses growing in tbe woods in June ; but is not known as one of our bad crop-pests. -^ ^ rp, . i lltrips ceyealium, HolidsLY. oorn J. nnps. - 7 t-- ^ I )) p/njsajjus, Ivn-by. 1 — 4, Corn Thrips (feniale), nat. size and magnitied. (5 — 8, Putato Thj'ips, T. viinutissima, nat. size and magnified.) Tbese very small insects are of tbe same kind as the little black creatures (hardly large enough to distinguish as insects) tbat are often exceedingly annoying by settling on tbe face in warm w^eatber, causing a deal of irritation by running to and fro, and twisting in all directions. CORN THRIPS- 87 If looked at under a glass, the perfect insect will be found to be blackish, hardly the twelfth of an inch long, the abdomen long, narrow, and smooth, with the tip bristly; the male without wings. The female has two pairs of long narrow wings, fringed with long hairs, and curving outwards, so that when they are laid straight along the body at rest the tips are apart. The feet are very short and stumpy, without claws. The two earlier stages of grub and pupa much resemble the perfect insect, excepting that the grub is deep yellow, and has no wings ; the pupa is of a paler yellow, with whitish cases for the wings which are not yet developed. The Thrips are to be found on Wheat-ears 'in every stage of growth, from June till the ripening of the ears, also sometimes in the sheathing-leaves of the stem. The common position, when feeding, appears to be with the sucker fixed in the furrow, and towards the lower part of the grain, thus drawing away the juice and causing the seed to shrivel. They are said also to do harm by sucking the juice from the stalk above the knots whilst it is still soft and tender. — (' Farm Insects.') Prevention and Eemedies. — I find very little bearing on these points, but it is stated that Thrips do most mischief to late-sown Wheat, the early-sown crop being too hard at the time the Thrips appear for them to injure it. Also these insects are to be found near marshes, and in the damp hot weather accompanying thunder-storms they have been noticed as especially injuring the crop in the part of a field to the north of a high hedge, and also the Potato Thrips, figured above, have been noted as most abundant on plants sheltered from the wind. From these observations it would seem that a well- drained soil, properly cultivated and free from weeds, with surrounding hedges well trimmed down, so that the sun and wind might have free play, would be the best preventive, by inducing an early ripening of the corn CORN. that would be be3'ond the power of the insect to injure, and would also do away with the damp close spots that, in some cases at least, it had been found to frequent. It does not appear that any of the applications, such as dusting with sulphur, the use of tobacco-water, &c., which are serviceable in the garden, can be remuneratively used in the field. Wireworms. Grubs of Click Beetles. FAater lineatus, Liun. ,. obscuncs, ,, ,, sputator, ,, ,, ruficaudis, Gyll. 1 and 2, E. lineatus; 3 and 4, E. obsctn-us ; 5 and (3, E. sputator, nat. size and magnified; 7, larva of E . sputator ? ; Sand 9, larva of £. lineatus, nat. size and magnified; 10, ini-pa of Wireworm (lines show nat. length). Wireworms may perhaps be said to do the greatest amount of mischief of any of our farm pests : they destroy root, grain, and fodder-crops. From their method of gnawing the roots or underground shoots, and then going on to another plant, they waste and destroy far more than they need for food ; and as they live for several years as grubs, and feed during these years on almost every kind of crop that is WIRE-\VORJIS. 89 commonly grown, their ravages are of a ver}^ serious kind. The Wireworm is the grub of the long narrow greyish brown, or blackish beetle (see figs. 1 — 6), often seen during summer in grass-fields, commonly known as the Skip- Jack, or Click Beetle, from its power of regaining its position, when laid on its back, by a spring or skip, accompanied by a sharp click. Figs. 7 and 8 give the size of two kinds of these grubs which are called Wireworms, from their likeness in toughness and shape to a piece of wire. Like it they are very smooth and shining, and somewhat cylindrical ; but a little flattened, so that (like a wire that has been pressed by a weight) they have a blunt edge at each side. The colour is ochreous-yellow, turning to a darker tint after death. The Wireworms have three pairs of short legs, one pair of these being placed on each of the rings imme- diately behind the head, and tliej^ have also a sucker-foot below the tail. The egg from which this grub is hatched is laid either in the earth close to the root of a plant, or between the sheathing-leaves near the base of the stem. On being hatched, the grub or "Wireworm" eats into the stem just above the true root, about an inch below the surface of the ground, and sometimes eats its way up the middle of the stalk, even above the surface of the earth. The Wireworms are said to live five years in the grub state, but the length of time probably depends on the supply of food. Where they are well fed, it is supposed that they only take about three years before changing to the pupa. But however this may be, with the exception of any temporary pause in winter (when they go down deeper and deeper into the ground as the frost increases), they feed voraciously near the surface till the time has come to turn into the chrysalis (or pupa). Then they go deep into the soil, and form an earth-cell in which they change, and from which the perfect Beetle comes up through the earth in two or three weeks, probably 90 CORN. appearing about the first weelis of August ; or tliey may pass tlie winter in this state, and the beetles develop from the chrysahs in the following spring. Of the many kinds that are to be found of these beetles, only four are noticed as being particularly hurtful to crops. These were formerly all known scientifically as different species of Elatcr. E. sputator, fig. 5 (and 6, magnified), is the smallest. It has the head, and part of the body behind it, black ; legs rufous; and the wing-cases dusky. E. ohscHnis (fig. 3, magnified) is larger and pitchy, covered with ochreous down or hairs ; so that perfect specimens appear dull brown all over, and rubbed ones blackish. It has black thighs, and the shanks and feet rusty. E. lineatHs (fig. 2, magnified) is very like the pre- ceding, but greyer; it has the wing-cases striped, and the legs rusty red. The Wireworm of this species is often found in dung and vegetable earth. These three kinds are now generally known as Agriotes, instead of Ehiter. The fourth species, now known as Athbus, has its special name of ii{ticati(Us, from the red colour of the abdomen and tail ; this is larger than the others. These four kinds of Click Beetle are, however, alike in all important points in their manner of life. Eluter I Acjriotes) ohscuriis, iiat. size and magnified. The reader is particularly requested to notice the figure and description of these grubs or larvse, that is, of the " true Wireirorm," that he may distinguish it from the grubs of other insects which are not altogether WIRE WORMS. 91 unlike it, and from insect allies which pass under the name oi false ]]l)-ctcon)is. The Wireworm has six true legs ; this distinguishes it from the grubs of the Daddy Long-legs, or Crane Fly (Leather Jackets), which have none. Also the Wireworm has oith/ six legs (besides the sucker-foot at the end of the tail) ; this distinguishes it from the Centipedes and Millipedes, which have many. Of these the Centipedes are chiefly animal-feeders, or feed like worms on the earth ; the Millipedes, of which four kinds are figured below, feed on plant-roots, on decayed vegetation, and more or less on animal matter, such as grubs, earth worms, &c. — ('Farm Insects'; ' Skip Jack, and the Wireworm,' by A. M., &c.) False Wireworms. Snake Millijiede^;.— 1, Julus Londincnsis ; 2 and 3, J. guttatus, nat. size and magnified; i, J. terrestris ; 5, horn; G and 7, flattened Millipede, Polydesmus complanatus. Prevention and Remedies. — Soil from broken-up pasture-land or Clover-leys often swarms with these pernicious grubs, and it is from this infested ground that the most serious damage arises both to garden and field- crops. With regard to garden-crops, the broken turf should never be used without having been thoroughly examined, so as to make sure there are no Wireworms in it. If it is only wanted in small quantities, this can be easily 9'2 CORN. done ; the turf can be broken by hand mto small bits, so that its state can be seen. Where a large quantity is wanted, it is a good practice to throw the turf in a heap after being mixed with fresh gas-lime, a dressing of gas-lime being also spread over the heap. The sulphide which is present in fresh gas-lime will kill all the vegetation and the insects, and by the time the turf is required for use it will be converted by the action of the air and moisture into sulphate of lime (gypsum), which is serviceable in various ways as a manure. If turf-heaps are allowed to get covered with grass, it is of no use, so far as getting rid of Wireworm is concerned, to have them at all ; for these grubs will be as perfectly well suited there as in the field. If we are to get rid of the Wireworm feeding at the roots, we must get rid of the growing grass or plants, and any treatment is good that brings this about, whether it be turning the heaps, liming, burning, or otherwise. In cultivation of fields broken uj) from grass-land or clover-leys, something may be done beforehand to diminish the number of insects, and consequently of eggs laid, by spreading lime-compost, ashes (on heavy land), or any dressing obnoxious to insects, and harrowing with a chain or brush-harrow. Paring and burning is a good practice, so far as getting rid of the grubs is concerned, as great numbers of the grubs and other insect-vermin are thus destroyed, and also a large amount of the live grass-roots and weeds that might feed such grubs as remained in the ground. The rubbish should be burnt as soon as possible, or the Wireworms will quickly leave it, go down into the earth, and escape. The habit of the Wireworm to go down deep — even as much as a foot below the ground in winter — should also be remembered, as a paring that would clear off a large proportion of the Wh-eworms in warm weather would very likely pass above almost all of them in winter, and leave them uninjured to come up to the surface in spring. WIREWOEMS. 93 A summer fallow, and burning all rubbish on the ground is also recommended. B}^ this means the grubs at the shoots are destroj^ed at once, and those in the ground die for want of food. The application of gas-lime is also useful here ; it may be mixed with three or four times its own bulk of earth, and applied as a dressing ; or it may be spread thinly over the ground, and well mixed with it a short time before the crop is put in. It is probable that, where the land can be left free for a sufficient time afterwards, it would answer well to put a strong dressing of gas-lime fresh from the works on the ground after ploughing and cleaning. This would destroy everything it touched, and by spring would be changed (as noticed above) into a good manure. But, whether the object is carried out by special applications, or by the common operations of thorough cleaning of the broken-up ground and burning the rubbish, it is of great importance to clear the field thoroughly of the Wireworms before the new crop is put in. No time is gained, /or us, by putting it in, to them; they will take each crop in succession, and waste or destroy till they begin their change to the condition of Click Beetles. Strips of grass or clover should not be left growing in the field, or at the sides, for the Wireworms feeding in these will spread themselves round and damage the neighbom-ing crop. Such methods of cultivation as will ensure a strong healthy growth are of-'great importance ; the Wireworms injure and weaken a great deal more than they destroy ; and if the soil is so prepared as to ensure available food to the plants, they will push on and get over the attack, where weak plants would sink under it. This is especially the case with grain-crops. Drilling manure with the seed will help in this matter. Probably any manure that acts rapidly will be of service, but Lawes's Turnip Manure has been found to answer well with Barley on a badly-infested piece after dead or bare fallow, the parts of the held not thus 94 CORN. treated having more than half the plants destroyed. — (B. B.) A mixture of guano with superphosphate of lime, drilled with the seed on pasture-land broken up the l^revious 3'ear, has similarly brought a good crop, whilst the rest of the plants on the field perished by Wire- worm : in this case Wireworm was found between the drills, which seems to point to the safety of the crop being from the dislike of the grubs to the manure, as well as to the increased strength of growth. Dissolved bones drilled with the seed also do good. Soot and also guano have been found to stop the mischief in bad attack on Oats. The soot was applied at the rate of sixteen bushels per acre, the guano at the rate of two hundredweight, "all in a pouring rain." Many of the patches that were apparently destroyed put out new roots at about half an inch below the surface, and the crop was excellent. In this case there would be benefit from the manure being washed down into the soil for immediate use, and if on the first signs of attack, before the strength of the plant is gone, any kind of liquid manure that may be preferred was applied at once, — by the liquid manure- cart, where this is practicable, — it would do much good, partly by driving some amount of the Wireworms away, but chiefly by giving the plant strong food in a form that it could take up at once, and so counterbalance the lessened supplies conveyed up the partly-eaten stem. Any stimulating manure, whether chemical or other- wise, suitable to the soil, which is easily soluble by rain and which would thus come quickly into action, would be of service. Nitrate of soda and common salt, mixed in the ])yo- portion of one hundredweight of the first with two hundredweight of the second, have proved useful for this purpose ; but with regard to special applications there is much difference of opinion, probably arising from different circumstances as to soil, time of application, and amount used. WIREAVORMS. 95 Soda-asli is said to be of use. Salt applied at the rate of twenty bushels per acre to badly-infested land did well. In this case the salted part bore a beautiful crop, whilst that to which salt was not applied did not bear a fourth. Any manure which dissolves quickly and that is suitable to the crop, and can be applied so as to act at once, will do good. Eape-dust is a good stimulating manure, and Eape- cake has been found of use, applied in the proportion of five hundredweight to the acre, crushed into about half- inch lumps, and mixed well with' the soil. This acts by drawing the Wireworms from the crop ; the Wireworms are stated to collect in vast numbers in it, and the plants are thus freed. With regard to mechanical applications, one of the common remedies used among corn-crops is, rolling with a heavy roller so as to solidify the surface, and thus j)revent the grubs from travelling through the ground. The Cambridge or ribbed roller is serviceable for this, or Crosskell's clod-crusher, where it can be used on lighter land. The remedies used amongst root-crops are, drill- hoeing, horse-hoeing twice in a place, hand-hoeing close to the rows, and chopping- out to stop the progress of the Wireworm along the drills ; here the object of the treatment is by stii'ring the soil, to encourage the growth of the plants, and to harass and disturb the Wireworm. — (E. A. F.) Treading the Barley witli 3'oung sheep (tegs) is of use in keeping the Wireworm from "running." — (T. H.) In attack of Wireworms on young beds of year-old seedlings of forest-trees, it has been found of use to scrape the earth back from the collars of the young plants to a distance of about six inches, so as to lay bare the larger roots, and hand-pick and destroy the grubs. The roots were then dusted freely with equal parts of lime and fresh dry soot, and fresh soil used to cover them ; the old soil being removed and charred, to kill any Wireworm that might remain in it. — (M. D.) 96 CORN. In garden-cultivation, one exceedingly important means of prevention is to avoid the use of infested turf. Deep-trenching is a good means of getting rid of the Wireworm (P. L.) ; and where they are numerous and injurious in gardens, great quantities may be caught by burying Carrots or Potatoes two feet apart and six inches deep in the borders, and examining them and destroying the Wireworms found every other day (P. B.) ; or pieces of Carrot or Potato may be run through with a stick (to save trouble in search) and buried nearer the surface, and examined daily. Parafdn used in the proportion of one part to fifteen of water, has been tried in the north amongst garden- crops, especially amongst Carrots, and has proved an effectual remedy. Paraffin has also been found of service in stopping bad attack on Turnips. In this instance a quantity of dry sand was procured and moistened with paraffin just sufficiently for it not to clog, but run freely in the hand ; this was strewed lightly along the centre of the drills, so as to fall directly aliove the roots of the plants, through- out a four-acre field, and the result was satisfactor3\ The attack was stopped, and a good crop was obtained. -(J. K.) Two crops which "Wireworm are considered by most observers to dislike are White Mustard and Woad, and in experiments on fields of fifty and forty acres respect- ively, of Wheat which suffered from Wireworm, the portions which had been under White Mustard were free from attack. If this should be commonly the case, a crop of White Mustard would be very desirable to clear the Wireworm from broken-up pasture. The natural enemies of the Wireworm are the mole, which does good service in this matter to a considerable amount ; rooks, plovers, peewits, or lapwings also assist m keeping them down. 97 HOP/ „ A >,• (Aphis liunniU, Schrank. ^ ^ Vii ' \ Phorodon humnii , ^chvA,\\\i. Green Fly. | ^^ var. .Va/«A./>, Fonsc. 1 and 2, Female Aphis, nat. size and macjnified: 3 and i, larvcB or "nits," nat. size and magnified. The Hop-plant has many insect-foes. Chief amongst these is the Green Fly, or Aphis {Aphis humuli), which in some seasons has caused the almost total destruction of the crop of Hops. The general appearance of these pale green Aphides is too well known to require description, but it may be observed that the genus Phorodon, to which they belong, is distinguishable from others of the Aphidin(e by the horns being hardly longer than the body, together wdth the lowest joint being toothed or gibbous, and the tubercles on the forehead each having a strong tooth. The legs are short, and the honey-tubes long. The variety " Malahch'' is distinguishable from the species hiunnli by the females bearing living young being larger, and, in the case of the wingless kind, of a yellower green than /?»/«»/?"; in the case of the winged kind, of a brighter green, with the head, horns, and legs * In the papers regarding Hop-insects, I am much indebted for valuable information to C. Whitehead, Esq., F.L.S., of Barming House, near Maidstone. 98 HOP. (excepting the thighs) black, instead of brown or browTi and green ; and the markings on the abdomen dark, instead of black, as in the case of humuli. The male of P. humuli, which is winged, may be known from the winged female by being smaller, but with large head, small abdomen, longish horns and wings, and the colour wholly pale green, save some olive markings on the back : this is to be found in the beginning of September on the Hop-plants. According to the common rule of life in the ApJiidincB, the appearance of the male in the later part of the summer, or in the autumn, precedes by a few days that of the ('(]fi-l<(>/iiig wingless female, and concludes the generations of the year. It is only between these that pairing takes place, and the fecundated female subsequently lays the eggs which give rise to the countless winged swarms of the following year, all produced without the further intervention of the male, until the season again closes with the autumn appear- ance of the winged male and wingless oviparous female. — ('Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' &c.) The young, or larvfe,- — commonly known as "lice" or "nits," — which may be seen whilst being produced alive as early as the middle of Maj^ are at first of a semi- transparent greenish white, afterwards the}^ are green, and much resemble their parents, excepting in not having wings. The viviparous females always appear in greater or less numbers in the Hop-gardens about the second or third week in May. If the conditions are favourable, they then deposit their first brood of larvae on the leaves of the plants, and, from the early date at which these young have the power of producing descendants, increase goes on at a rate which words do not convey, but which the state of the attacked plants shows only too plainly. The result of this is, if the Aphides are undisturbed, what is known in Hop-districts as "a hlighV occurs. The powers of the leaves are exhausted by the millions of insects drawing out the juice with their suckers, and HOP APHIS. 99 the pores of the leaves are clioked by the fluid voided by the Aphides, or by honey-dew; so that they cannot perform their natural functions, and the growth of the plants is consequently checked. In some seasons the Aphides do not remain to breed. It is supposed that they do not remain unless the plants are in a peculiar condition — an unhealthy or abnormal state in which the sap is grateful to their taste. — (C. W.) Pkevention and Eemedies. — "When it is seen that the winged flies stick persistently to the under surface of the leaves, and that larvae or 'lice' have been produced, the planters begin to wash the plants. This can hardly be done too early, as when the lice swarm it is difficult to dislodge them all. Washing is done by means of a large garden-engine, fitted with a pump, and a long length of gutta-percha hose on each side, having a single jet, or rose, or spray syringe, which can be directed under the leaves, and round the bines, thoroughly clean- ing the plants. This engine is drawn along the rows or alleys by three men, one of whom also pumps ; the others take a hose each, which is long enough to enable them to wash three rows. "The wash is usually composed of from fourteen to tAventy pounds of soft soap to one hundred gallons of water; some add the juice of a quarter of a pound of tobacco ; others think that the tobacco kills the ' ncgur ' — the larva of the Lady-bird, or Cocci ucUa, which feeds on the Aphides. "The cost of washing varies from thirty to thirty-five shillings per acre each time it is done. Great care must be taken to wash every leaf underneath, and the process generally must be repeated twice, or even thrice. "The great points are — to begin early, to have the plants thoroughly washed, and to continue to wash until the leaves are clear from hce. In ordinary seasons washing is efficacious, if thoroughly carried out, and there are many planters who have made good profits by judicious washing. If, however, the weather is wet and 100 HOP. cold, as in 1879, washing seems to be of little avail." — (C. W.) The following recipe for Hop- wash, used by an exten- sive grower, has also been found reliable in dry- weather : — To thirty-six gallons of water in a copper add sixty pounds of soft soap. Then add either fourteen pounds of bitter aloes or two pounds of tobacco, and boil together. For use, add thirty-six gallons of water to every gallon of this liquid. — (J. W.) In some cases a little soda is found serviceable, mixed with the solution of soft soap. Quassia has been experimented with at a strength of four ounces to one gallon of water, but proved quite useless, either to kill or to drive away the Green Fly. — (T. H. H.) Many methods of treatment, such as dipping infested shoots, fumigation, &c., are suggested by various writers, but appear of very doubtful use. At present, though "remedies" are found, as above mentioned, to cure or mitigate the attack, no "means of prevention" of it have been discovered. It is found that circumstances of locality, whether from soil or surroundings, exercise an influence in the amount of attack, as " In some districts the Hop-plants are more liable to l)e blighted than others, and in most districts there are 'lucky' farms uj^on which the Aphis- blight or mould rarely affects the plants. A hedge or a stream frequently forms a line of demarcation between Hop-land that is liable to blight and that which ordinarily escapes blight." — (C. W.) It is also observed, " Flat low lands, although the best land, and generally the most productive and sheltered from wind, are more subject to be blighted by Aphis than higher and more exposed situations." — (S. E.) Weather influences have great effect on the Hop. Under favourable circumstances it grows rapidly, espe- cially in warm nights — as much as four inches of gro"v\i;h having been recorded as taking place in one night on bines. East winds in the spring are unfavourable to LADY-BIED. 101 the plants, and favourable to Green Fly. The sunshine, and warmth m sheltered positions which often accompany these winds, alternate with frosts at night that check the growth of the tender succulent shoots, and thus a state of sap is produced peculiarly suitable to the Aphides, which increase rapidly under these circumstances. Practically it has been known as far back as Tusser's time, that — " The wind in the North, or else Northerlj'-East, Is bad for the Hop as a fray at a feast," and scientifically the recent observations of Mr. G. B. Buckton, as to the more rapid development of Aphides on plants of which the sap is sickly, and the amount of food to be drawn from them insufficient, points to the reason of the increased attack, but how this knowledge is to be utilised does not appear at present. Amongst natural means of protection we have some help from the Aphis-eating birds, but the chief assistance is fi'om the CoccineUidce, the beetles well known as "Lady-birds," which feed (especially in the larval stage) voraciously on the Aphides. r^'-yi Lady birJs and chrysalids; 1 — 4, egg and larva, nat. size and magnified; 7, Coccinella hipunctata; 8, C. dispar; 9, C. septempunctata. The above figure shows the appearance of the slaty grey six-legged grubs (magnified, with line giving length when full-grown). These grubs are prettily marked with scarlet and yellow, and when full-fed, which is in about 102 HOP. a fortnight or three weeks, they hang themselves up by the tail, and turn to a shiny black pupa or chrysalis, spotted down the back with orange, from which the beetle (known as the "Lady-bird") comes out in about another fortniglit or three weeks. The figures give the common red Lady-bird, distinguishable by its seven black spots, and two smaller kinds. These should be by all means protected, and especially when they appear in the vast swarms in which they frequently follow on a special outbreak of Aphides, and in which to our great injury they are liable to be swept up and destroyed, as in the instance of their great appearance in 1869. Hop Bug. Li/i/ns iimhcJlatanim. ■> \ 1 and 2, Potato-biip-, L. Solani; :3 and 4, jniprfi of do., nat. size and magnified; 5 and C, L. umbellatarum, nat. size ami niaptnified. Li the case of the plant-bugs, whether of Li/f/tis umbellatarum or other species, the injury to the plant is effected by the insect inserting the sharp beak-like sucker into the shoot, leaf, bine, or whatever part it feeds on, and drawing away the juices. Thus it not only weakens the plant by the quantity of sap it takes away, but it also injures the tissues and disturbs the regular flow of sap by the immense quantities of little holes it drills with its sucker into whatever part it may select for attack. HOP BUG. 103 The Lygus umheUatarum (of Panzer, figured nat. size at 5, magnified at 6) is for the most part red or rosy on the head, horns and body between the wings ; a triangular sjDace behind this portion white, with black at the base ; abdomen shining-black above, witli ochre-coloured mar- gin. The wing-cases are clouded with red, and the horny or membranous part near the tip has a smoky border. The wings (which when at rest are folded beneath the half-solid, half-transparent wing-cases) are large and iridescent, with dusky nerves ; legs varied with ochre and red ; shanks tipped with brown, feet pitchy. The plant-bugs in their earlier stages are similar in shape to the parents, excepting in the absence of wings, and similar in their method of feeding ; but in the case of this Lygus it has hitherto only been noticed feeding in the pupa state on the Hop. — (' Journal of Eoyal Ag. Soc.,' vol. X., p. 79.) Pre^'ention and Remedies. — In the autumn, winter, and spring, Hemiptera (Plant-lnigs) ma}^ be found about the roots of plants, in tufts of grass and in moss, among dead leaves and the debris of hay-ricks, and corn-stacks, and in field-rubbish. — (Brit. Hemiptera.) This plant-bug, the L. umheUatarum, is to be found on Potatoes, and is said by Curtis to be found on umbellate plants later in the year ; and also on grass in May, and another nearly-allied kind is found on Nettles. As far as appears at present, the only way of diminishing the attack (excepting by the s} ringings and dustings used for other Hop-j)ests) is by clearing away the rubbish it shelters in during the winter, and the weeds that it feeds on in summer. TT -m \ Haltica concmna, Curtis. Hop Flea. ] , i \- \ ^ ( ,, (syn. dentipes). This species of Hop Flea, known as the Brassy or Tooth-legged Tm-nip Flea, is very like the common 104 HOP. Turnip Flea or Fly-beetle, but differs in being more oval, convex, and shiny. It is of a greenish black colour, with a brassy or coppery tint ; the horns are only half as long as the body, and of a pitchy colour, more rust-coloured towards the head ; the wing-cases have ten lines of deep dots along each ; the legs are black, but bright rust-colour at the base of the shanks, 1 and 2, Hop Flea, iiat. size and inagnitied ; o, liiud leg, magnified. and the shanks on the second and hind pairs of legs are toothed below the middle, whence the common name of "tooth-legged" and the scientific synonym of dentijies. This flea-beetle infests Hop-grounds and Turnip-fields, and is also to be found in hedges, nettles, and grass. — (' Farm Insects.') It does not appear certain, however, that it is the only kind of flea-beetle that infests our Hop-grounds, and the following observations on the habits of the " Hop Flea" are given with the note that (although resembling the species described above by Curtis as Haltica concinna) this may prove to be a kind especially confined to the Hop : — "These flea-beetles hybernate in the perfect state in the ground close to the Hop-hills, or in the hollow dead bines left on the stocks, or in the pieces lying on the ground near them. They emerge in the early spring, and attack the shoots of the Hop-plant, piercing them as soon as they appear. HOP FLEA. 105 "If the weather is cold, and the shoots unable to grow away rapidly, the Flea occasionally causes serious injuries, and makes them stunted. They are especially active in dry seasons and when the land is rough. In wet seasons, and in growing seasons, when the shoots go quickly up the poles, they do not cause much harm in the early stages of the plant-growth. But later on in the summer, after a very dry season which has been favourable to their increase, they get into the cones and deposit their eggs. From these eggs the larvse — little white maggots wath six pectoral feet — are hatched in about ten days ; they immediately begin to burrow in, and feed on the stalks or 'strigs,' causing their deca,j, and making the bracts of the cones lose colour and become disintegrated. "During the spring and earlier part of summer the eggs are laid in the bine, or under the skin of the leaves ; and one female {vide J. Curtis's 'Farm Insects') will lay about one egg daily, so that they are not extra- ordinarily prolific." — (C. W.) Prevention and Eemedies. — " To check the Fleas, planters dust lime or soot over and around the Hop-hills when the shoots are low% but there is no remedy adopted against their onslaughts after the bines have been tied to the poles. " One means of preventing the spread of these beetles is to have all the pieces of old bines carefully removed from the Hop-garden after Hop -picking and all the cuttings after the hills have been 'dressed,' and to move and pulverize the ground as early as possible in the spring. The Flea is very injurious to the bine in early spring, particularly in dry weather, and where the land is rough and badly cultivated." — (C. W.) The following remedies have been suggested, namely, to cover up the young shoots with four to five inches of fine mould, which gives them security from being injured by the Flea for several days, when the bines will have acquired more strength and grow more rapidly 106 HOP. away from attack ; and where much injury is done, the application of a little rich manure, as Peruvian guano, is recommended. — ('Farm Crops.') In the ' Keport on the Flea-l3eetle of the Vineyards of the United States of America,' where great losses are caused by the species Grajjtodera (Haltica) chalijhea, Illiger, besides the above mentioned measures of clearing all pieces of old l)ine, broken wood, and rubbish, under which the beetle can harbour in winter, it is stated that when attack has commenced, good may be done "by syringing the vines with a solution of whale-oil (^ fish- oil, Ed.), soft soap, two pounds of soap to sixteen gallons of water." The following method, which was found to keep the flea-beetles in check in a large vineyard at Arlington, Virginia, might be serviceable : — "A strip of cotton-cloth three feet by six, kept open by cross-sticks at the end, is thoroughly saturated with kerosine and held under the vine, which is shaken by the supports being struck. The beetles fall readily by the jar, and contact with the kerosene sooner or later destroys them After striking the sheet the flea- beetles show no disposition either to fly or jump." — (Eeport of the Commissioner, Department of Ag., U. S. A., 1879.) It is stated that, with these sheets, three boys rapidly clear the vines over a large space of ground, and in case of bad attack the method would be worth a trial in our Hop-grounds. Hop Prog Fly. Eupteryx picta, Fab. Little green and yellowish green insects, like tiny Grasshoppers, weaken the Hop-plants much in some seasons by boring holes in the leaves and bines, and sucking the juices. They are endued with mighty powers of jumping, and are called "Jumpers" in Kent. — (C. W.) HOP-DOG. 107 These are probably Eiiptcrij.r incin, a species very similar in form to E. Solaiii, figured amongst insects injurious to Potatoes, but larger, and more spotted. They are of a yellow colour, spotted with black on the head and on the body between the wings ; the abdomen is black, with yellow margins to the segments. The upper wings are clouded with brown, and have the l)ase, tip, and various sj^ots, yellow ; the under wmgs are transparent, with brown veins ; the legs are sulphur- colour. The pupae resemble the perfect insects in shajje, excepting that they are as jet wingless ; and are of a buff colour, with dark eyes, and tips to the feet. — (' Farm Insects.') PEEi'ENTioN AND PiEMEDiES. — When " -Tumpers " are numerous, men are sent into the Hop-gardens with boards covered with tar, held at the leeward side of the bine. The poles are violently shaken or struck, and the Jumpers, taking tremendous "leaps in the dark," fall on the tarred boards held underneath. — (C. W.) This Frog-fly also inhabits Burdock and Nettles, most objectionable weeds in a Hop-district, being frequented by varicms Hop-pests. Hop-dog. Caterpillar of [DasijcJiira pudibiinda,^!!!!!. Pale Tussock Moth. The caterpillar of this moth (commonly known as the Hop-dog) is often to be found in Hop-grounds. It is of a delicate green colour, with a good-sized bunch of yellow hairs standing up like a brush on the back of the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth segments, each of which have a strij)e of velvety black between them ; a longer and more slender tuft of hau's at the extremity projects backwards like a rose-coloured tail. The caterpillars feed during summer on the leaves 108 HOP, of various kinds of trees, also on the Hop, and about Sej)tember spin a slight web amongst the leaves in vphicli each turns to a hairy chrysalis, from which the moth comes out in the following May. 1, Female moth; 2, eggs; 3, caterpillar; 4, web; 5, chrysalis. The moths are about two inches in the spread of the fore wings ; those of the male are grey, with a broad smoke-coloured transverse bar, and brownish markings ; those of the female are paler grey, without the central bar. The hind wings of both male and female are nearly white, with a dusky streak near the hinder margin. The head, body between the wings, and abdomen are ashy white; horns whitish. — (E.N., J. F. S.) Peevention and Eemedies. — If the caterpillars are in any great quantity, a hard syringing is to be recom- mended ; from the moisture lodging in its long hair, heavy rain or any other application of water is a serious annoyance to this caterpillar, and a help towards diminishing its numbers. OTTER MOTH. 109 From the size of the cocoons they are readily noticed, and all that are spun in leaves or on twigs may he easily cleared. Foreign ohservations mention the caterpillars going down the stems in autumn to turn to chrysalids in moss, or at the sm-face of the ground ; and it is recommended in that case to have them searched for and destroyed near infested trees. In the case of Hop-grounds this would be done in the regular course of cultivation. Otter Moth. Hepialus ImmnU, Stephens. V^£^5 1 and 2, Eggs, nat. size and magnified ; •"!, caterpillar; -4, chrysalis; 5, male ; 6, female. The caterpillars of this moth (which is kno-^m also as the Ghost Moth, or Ghost Swift) injm-e the Hop by infesting the roots, "which they penetrate Avith their strong jaws, consuming the inside as well as the bark." The moths fi}^ in the evening, after Ij-ing concealed during the day amongst leaves or grass, and it is stated 110 HOP. that during this flight the females drop their eggs one by one.— (E. L. T.) The caterpillars are of a cream-colour, with brown heads, and a scah' patch on the next segment. They bur}- themselves in the ground, and feed below the surface until they are nearly an inch and a half or two inches long. When full-fed they spin a web amongst the roots on which they have been feeding, and in it they turn to stout, blunt, dark brown pupte with two rows of spines. This change takes place in Maj^ and the moths are common in grassy places about the middle of June, especially in the south of England. They are very peculiar in appearance, from the wings being somewhat straight and narrow ; also there is not any great difference in size between the front and the hinder pair. The male is about two inches in expanse of the wings, which are white above ; the head, body, and abdomen are pale tawny. The female is about three inches in expanse ; the fore wings are yellow above, with orange markings ; the hinder wings smoky, changing to bright tawny on the hinder margin. — (J. F. S., E, N.) Pke"\-ention and Remedies. — The injuries occasioned by the larvas of the Ghost or Otter Moth, Hepialus humuli, and the Swift Moth, H. InpaUnus (large fleshy grubs which attack the roots), are fortunately rare. — (C. W.) As the caterpillars feed amongst roots, the best remed}" is to examine these carefully, if the plants are found to be flagging without obvious cause. From their large size the}- are easily seen, and can be taken out by hand and destroj'ed ; and if there is reason to suppose them present, it is well to have a stock here and there examined throughout the ground when the plants are dressed in the spring. Also as the moths frequent grassy places, and the caterpillars feed on the roots of the Burdock and of the Common Nettle, it would be very desirable to clear off HOP-^^NE SNOUT MOTH. Ill these large weeds and also patches of neglected grass which give harbourage by day to the moths. Hop-vine Snout Moth. Pi/ralis rostral is, Linii. Hypcna rostralis, Stephens. 1, Caterpillar; 2, chrysalis; ."J ami 4, inotli. The caterpillars of this moth injure the Hop b}' feedmg on the leaves. They are of a pale green colour, with clearer spots, and a whitish line on the sides and back ; slender in shape and gradualh' smaller towards the head, and of the size figured above ; and are distinguish- able b}' having onl}- three pairs of sucker-feet in addition to the true feet on the rings next the head, and the pair of sucker- feet at the end of the tail. When full-fed the caterpillar draws a leaf parti}' together, and commonly changes to the chrysalis in a light cocoon which it spins within the folds. The moth, which appears in June and July, or earlier, is rather more than an inch in the spread of the wings, and is variable in colouring. In well-marked specimens the fore wings are greyish brown, darker from the base to about the middle, with a zigzag blackish streak across near the tip, and some raised tufts of black scales about the centre ; the hinder part of the wings is palest. The hinder wings are brownish. 112 HOP. The moths of this genus may he generally known by the snout-like appearance of the front of the head, whence they take their name. — (' Illus. Brit. Entom.') Peevention and Eemedies. — Strong syringing, by means of the engines, with some of the regular Hop- washes, or with the common fish-oil soft soap procurable at ten to twelve shillings per firkin of sixty pounds, appears to be one of the best remedies known. The soft soap makes the Hop-bines unpleasant to the caterpillars, and, if applied as soon as any number of the moths are seen about early in the season, would probably deter a large proportion from laying eggs on the syringed plants. Striking the poles is also recommended, so as to make the caterpillars (which loose hold on a slight shake) fall to the ground ; but the difficulty in this method of treatment is to keep them from going back again up the plants. Trampling on them, throwing soot, lime, &c., or, in bad cases of attack, shaking them into something placed below or on to tarred boards, are recommended. Hand-picking the leaves with the moth-cocoons inside gets rid of much of the second brood, and these cocoons are also to be found about the stems of their various food-plants, on the surface of the ground, or in sheltered nooks ; and clearing aw^ay plant-rubbish generally, and more especially the Nettle on which this caterpillar feeds, would be of service. Red Spider. Tetranychus teJarius, Linn. The " Eed Spider," which causes enormous damage in dr}' seasons to the Hop-crops, is neither an insect nor (properly speaking) a spider. From the first it may be distinguished at a glance, magnifier in hand (as shown by the figure on next page), and from true spiders it may be known by the body and abdomen being in one piece, and not merely joined by an almost thread-like RED SPIDER. 113 connection. Strictly speaking, it belongs to the " Spinning Mites," and the figure gives a greatly- magnified view of the long stiff hairs, with globular formations at the tip,_ which are supposed to be of use in spreading their webs on the leaves. J^ Ked Spider. Hairs on the foot (from Claparede), magnified. These mites being scarcely discernible, excepting when collected together, and possible difference in species or in variety not affecting the matter of their prevention, I refer the reader, for their life-history and sjiecific distinctions considered to exist by various writers, to the paper on 'Eed Spider of the Lime Tree,' (/ T. tclarius T. tiliarum, Mull.), with figures of the mite, eggs, and webs, from life ; and to '' Eed Spider on the Plum.' Pre\'ention and PiEMEDiES. — " Tliis little mitc, hardly to be distinguished without the aid of a glass, works much mischief in very hot dry seasons. Its effect upon the leaves of the Hop-plant was until recently attributed to heat and drought, and was called 'Fire-blast.' In the unusually hot and dry summer of 1868 the ' Eed Spider' did immense damage in the English and German Hop-plantations. The leaves of the plants turned brown, became shrivelled, and fell off; and thousands of acres produced no hops. "Mr. And. Murray, in his 'Handbook of Economic Entomology' (Ai)tera, pp. 88, 89), thus describes the I 114 HOP. work of this Mite : — ' On leaves (especially the under side of them) it finds a fit hold, and spins its web, affixing the threads to the prominences and hairs of the leaf; and under this shelter a colony, consisting of many of both sexes in maturity, and young in all their ages, feed and multiply with rapidity. The plant soon shows the influence of their presence in its sickly yellow hue ; the sap is sucked by myriad insect-mouths from the vessels of the leaf, and its pores are choked by excremental fluids.' "Washing the plants with soft soap and water, or even with pure water, is a remedy for these mites ; in 1868 some planters tried a solution of sulphur thrown over the plants by the ordinary washing-engines, which killed the " Eed Spider," but was done too late to save the crops ; no doubt when hot and dry summers return again, washing with solution of sulphur will be largely adopted."— (C. W.) The following note describes the progress of the attack, and the effect of rain in checking it ; and also gives some idea of the amount of loss consequent on attack : — "Eed Spider in Hops. This only appears in dry seasons. It shows itself first by a brownish j'ellow appearance in the middle of the leaf, generally at the top of the poles, in large spots, spreading rapidly all over the Hop-garden, unless rain comes, which, if of any continuance, stops its progress. On looking under the discoloured leaves a small web will be found over the whole surface. After a time these leaves drop off", and the Hops all become red or brown. "In 1868 I had fifteen hundredweight per acre reduced on several acres to five hundredweight, and then the five hundredweight were only worth about half-jDrice. We do not use anything to stop it, because of the Hop being out." "Eed Spider" does not spread in late Hops which have been kept back by vermin, as the leaves are young and full of sap. It is dryness in everything that HOP WIREWORM. 115 conduces to its spread, and I should think that this year one thousand acres of Hops have heen left unpicked through it.— (J. W.) The Eed Spider appears to shelter itself in any convenient nooks — cracks in the Hop-poles, for instance, or, in winter, beneath clods of earth, stones, &c. ; and all observations show the prevalence of heat and drought to be favourable to its increase ; but whether these points can be met remuneratively by removal of sheltering-places, dressings of the ground, or appli- cations of moisture beyond the customary washes, is still uncertain. Hop Wireworm. Larva of Striped Click-beetle. FAater Uneatus, Liun. Afjriotes Uneatus, Esch. Striped Click-beetle and larva (Wir.^worm), nat. size and nmgnified. This species of Wireworm is the grub of the striped Click-beetle ; it is considered to be probably only a variety oi A. ohscurus, but differs from it in having the wing-cases of the beetle marked lengthwise with greyish or dusky lines, whence the name of linccttiis. It is stated by Bouche that the Wireworm of this kind (the A. Uneatus) is sometimes to be found in great multitudes in dung, and in vegetable earth. For life-history of " Wireworms," see this head amongst Corn-insects. 116 HOP. Prevention and Eemedies. — Wireworms are frequently very injurious to fresh-planted Hop-sets, especially upon recently broken-up pasture-land, eating off the tiny shoots directly they appear, and sucking the juices from the hearts of the sets. It sometimes happens that a large percentage of the sets die in consequence, and have to be rejjlaced, involving great expense to the planter, as well as the loss of a year. The only efficacious way of getting rid of the Wireworm in a Hop-ground is to put traps of small slices of Mangolds, Potatoes, Carrots, or Swede Turnips, or small pieces of Eape-cake, close round the Hop-hills. These should be looked at twice a week, and the Wireworms which have eaten their way into them should be taken out and destroyed. As many as one hundred and fifty Wireworms have thus been trapped close to one Hop-hill. — (C. W.) As these Wireworms, if once in possession, will live on in the same ground for several years (it is said five years), eating the whole time, excepting when they may go down deep in cold weather, it is a very important matter to save the expense of trapping or attack, by taking measures that the ground should be as far clear of them as is possible before planting, and also that they should not be brought in with vegetable- soil. When pasture is to be broken up for Hops, it is of service to brush it early in autumn with chain or brush- harrows, and dress it with lime-compost ; this is a great preventive of the beetles laying their eggs. Folding sheep so that the grass is eaten very close answers the same purpose. In preparing the ground it is much better, as regards getting rid of the Wireworm, to trench with the spade two spits deep than to plough with the subsoil plough following. The weeds and grass-roots, and the like, in which the Wireworm feeds are not as thoroughly got rid of, even by deep ploughing, as by being thoroughly put down below by the spade, and the Wireworm has con- sequently plenty of food to keep it thriving until the new crop is put in. HOP WIKEWORM. 117 Paring and burning is serviceable as a means of getting rid of the Wireworm and its food together, but has its drawbacks agriculturally; and it should be borne in mind that the Wireworm will go down as much as twelve inches in cold weather, therefore it is well to pare and burn before cold has set in ; also the parings should be collected and burnt at once, or the Wireworms will very speedily secure themselves again in the ground. All possible care in removing the clods with grass-roots, and clearing the ground of rubbish which would keep the Wireworm in food-plants till the Hops come, would answer, (See " Wireworms" in Corn.) The fresh vegetable-soil from old hedgerows or similar places brought in to restore old Hop-grounds is particularly likely to bring in Wireworm. It would save after expense to have the fresh field-soil heaped with lime or gas-lime, and the surface of the heap turned from time to time, to destroy grass and weeds which would, as in the field, feed the grubs. Gas-lime would thoroughly destroy all it touched — insect or plant — at first, if fresh from the works, but the atmospheric action or mixing with the earth would rapidly change its chemical nature to the sulphate of lime or gypsum serviceable to the crops. It is noted that in planting, "one good well-rooted set in good soil will make as good a stock as two or more ; but it is safer to put two, for fear of Wireworm" (C. W.) ; and in the early spring season, when the Hop-plants are dressed and the hills covered with a little fine earth, it would probably answer well to add some insect- deterrent. For Wireworm in Turnips it has been found to succeed well to mix sand with just enough parafiin to moisten it slightly — not enough to clog, but still to run in the hand — and to sprinkle this very lightly over the roots by hand. Ashes or dry earth would answer almost as well as sand, and as the Wu-eworms usually feed near the surface, the smell or the paraffin in dilute state driven down by the rain would soon tell on them. 118 HOP. Eape-cake at the rate of five hundredweiglit per acre, crushed into luraps of about the size of half- inch ground bones, ploughed or harrowed well in, is stated to answer well ; on the other hand, it is stated on good practical authority that Rape -cake is of no use as a preventive, but rather encourages the Wireworm. 119 LETTUCE. Lettuce-root Aphis. AjJiis (Fciiijihiiius) lactuac, Westwood. These Aphides are found beneath the surface of the ground on the roots of Lettuce. If the plants droop suddenly without any evident cause, in warm weather, it is likely that on examination the roots may be found covered with small greenish plant-lice, which are destroying the plant by sucking away the juices. This species is very small, only about the twelfth of an inch long, and scarcely a quarter of an inch in the spread of the wings, and is much like the common Aphides, the Green Fly of the Plum, for instance, but is distinguishable, with the help of a glass, as one of the Pemplugince by the third vein of the fore wings, counting from the body, not having any fork. The perfect insect is of a pale greenish yellow, with the head and body between the wings of a browner green ; the pupa is also of a dusky or dirty pale green colour, with the tip of the body wrapped in cottony down. This insect is without honey-tubes. — (J. 0, W., in * Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette.') Pkevention and Eemedies. — It is very hard to apply either, as, the Aphides being under ground, the first sign of their presence is the plant drooping from the extent of the injury, and then it is very likely too late to save it. Anything to be done to the attacked plants must then be done at once, and those near should be carefully examined by drawing the earth gently away for a few inches down the stems, to see whether there is any Aphis-attack beginning. Drenching the ground round the Lettuces with strong soap-suds, soap-suds and tobacco-water, lime-water, tobacco- water (of a proper strength), or dilute Soluble Phenyle, may be good as direct remedies if applied at once ; at least there does not appear to be any more 120 LETTUCE. hopeful method of treatment noted. The best treatment, however, would probably be to give good waterings of liquid manure, or dilute guano ; this would be in every way beneficial; it would not suit the Aphides, and it would throw the plants into luxuriant growth and carry those that were only a little injured over the attack. As matter of prevention, a dressing of sand or dry earth saturated with spirit of tar, and placed by hand round the neck of the plants, is recommended ; also a good dusting of lime, or of soot over the ground, might be of service in making it very unattractive to the plant- lice to go down into. The attacked plants should all be removed as soon as possible, in such a way as would destroy the Aphides, and neither leave them in the ground nor drop them all about to crawl or fly to the neighbouring plants. If the Lettuces are drawn, it would be desirable to cut off the root of each plant just below the collar (as it is pulled up), and drop it into a pail of any mixture that would kill the Aphides, or cripple them for flying ; or the roots might be cut off into anything convenient and burnt ; or, if the plants were waste, the whole might be thrown at once to the pigs. Any way in which the Aphides are surely destroyed will serve. The infested spots should be purified by half a spadeful of quick-lime, or gas-lime, or something to kill the pests remaining in the ground where each Lettuce has been drawn, unless the bed is cleared completely, so as to allow regular measures of cultivation which would destroy the Aphides over the whole ground. Lettuce Fly. Anthomyia lactucce, Bouche. The maggot of this Fly feeds on the seed of the Lettuce, and sometimes occurs in such quantities as to cause a complete failure of the seed-crop. The Fly lays her eggs on some part of the flower (probably amongst the outer scales), and the little LETTUCE FLY. 121 maggots on being hatched gnaw their way into the base of the flower and into the seed-grains. These grains they completely clear out, so that only the outer husk remains, and when the seed is eaten they leave the skin, and go on to another seed-vessel or turn to pupse in the Lettuce-head, or in the ground if they have fallen down. The maggots are found in the latter part of the summer, and are abundant in September. They are much like those of the Onion and Cabbage Flies ; legless, tapering at the head, and cut off short and toothed at the tail; yellowish white, and about the third of an inch long. They turn to pupse in the autumn ; these pupae or fly-cases are of a bright chestnut-colour and oval shape, and (as seen through a magnifying glass) are rough. The flies hatch in the following year, and appear from April to June ; they are very like the Onion Fly in sha^je and size (see fig.), but somewhat different in colour. The males are black and bristly, with face inclining to chestnut-colour ; four whitish stripes more or less plain on the fore part of the body behind the head ; abdomen grey, each ring blackish at the base, and with one black triangular spot ; the legs are black ; and the two wings are stained with black. The female is grey, with a bright chestnut stripe down the face ; blackish legs, wings, and nervures lighter than those of the male. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette.') Prevention and Eemedies. — A great deal may be done to prevent the appearance of this fly by examining the Lettuce-seed carefully before sowing. If the pupae or little brown fly-cases are sown with the seed, the fly will come out of them in due time and make its way up through the earth, lay eggs, and so give rise to an attack of the maggot. It is therefore recommended that infested seed should be cleared in whatever way may be preferred. Probably passing the whole through a sieve with a mesh of such a size as would not let the 1'22 LETTUCE. pupae fall througli would be the easiest method, taking care of course to burn or scald these pupaB directly. In this case, however, the seedsmen are the proper parties to look to for remedy. More careful examination of the seed on receiving it from the producers would be necessary, and, if the seed was infested, measures might be adopted to clear it which, on this large scale, would probably be more effective than those the grower could, or would, in most cases adopt for the small quantity requh-ed for his crop. It may also be worth consideration whether returning seed unfit for use to the dealer is not a desirable plan ; om* leading seedsmen would wish to be able to correct their own suppliers, and, in the case of carelessness or wilful mis- serving, attention ought to be drawn to the matter. Infested crops that are cleared off as worthless should of course be bm-nt at once ; not thrown in a heap with the pup® still in them, to hatch next spring. 123 ONION. Onion Fly. AntJiomyia cepamiu, Bouche. teryx Solani, Curtis. :=^ 1 and 2, Eggs; 3 and 4, pupas ; 5 and 6, Frog Flies, nat. size and magnified. This insect feeds in all its stages by inserting its sucker into the stem or leaf of the Potato, and drawing out the sap. The eggs (figured above) are white and spindle-shaped, and are to be found upon the under side of the Potato- leaves. The larva, which is much like the parent Frog Fly in shape, but without wings, is green when hatched, and is furnished with six legs, two horns, and a sucker ; in the next stage (the pupa) it is green, nearly as large as the parents, but narrower; with black eyes, long black horns, and a stout sucker, by means of which it feeds until ready to change to the perfect insect. It then fixes itself firmly by its six legs to a stalk or leaf, the skin bursts along the back, and through the opening the perfect insect creeps out, leaving the deserted case standing as an empty insect- skin on the plant, or fallen beneath it. This "Frog Fly" is bright green, fading to 140 POTATOES. a yellow tint, with short horns, brown eyes, and four iridescent wings less than a quarter of an inch in expanse ; the upper pair glossy, somewhat rusty at the tips, and twice as long as the body ; the lower pair exceedingly delicate. The length of the insect is about a twelfth of an inch. The flies are very nearly allied to the common Cuckoo Spit Fly (Tcttigonia sjnimaria), but they have not the power, like the Cuckoo Spit or "Froth Fly," of secreting a mass of frothy matter round them in their larval stages. — (' Farm Insects.') It does not appear that, as yet, this fly has been noted as causing any serious mischief to Potatoes needing prevention or remedy, but a short account of the insect is given here for reference in case it should be found that this species, as well as the Eupteryx jpicta, is one of the kinds of Frog Flies that at times do much damage to the Ho^ds. Death's-Head Moth. Sphinx atrojws, Linu. Aclierontia atropos, Curtis. The caterpillar of this moth is sometimes found in great numbers feeding on Potato-leaves, but it seldom does any serious amount of damage. When full grown these caterpillars are of great size, sometimes measuring four or five inches in length. They are thick and fleshy, with a pair of feet on each of the three segments behind the head, four pairs of sucker- feet, and another pair set close together beneath the last segment which act as claspers. Above this pair, on the back of the caterpillar, is a protuberance like a tail or horn, tubercled, and bent do"s\Tiwards, but turned up again at the tip. The head is horny, and furnished with strong jaws. The colour is generally yellow, or greenish yellow, speckled with black on the back, with seven slanting stripes of blue or lilac on each side ; the upper end of these stripes form a kind of row of points, DEATH S-HEAD MOTH. 141 where tliey meet along the back, the lower end pomts forward, and is white or bordered b}^ a wdiite line. When about to change, the caterpillar turns to a lurid yellowish or reddish tint. It then goes down into the earth, throws off its skin, and turns to a large chestnut- coloured chrysalis. The caterpillars that change in July come out as moths in September and October; those that change in the autumn do not come out till the following spring. 4^ v«s«a«iS»-^»- Death's-Head Moth aud Cateriiillar. The moth is the largest of the British kinds. The spread of the wings is from four to five or even to six inches. The fore wings are of a rich brown, varied with yellowish or rusty tints, with black lines or cross-bands much waved and zigzagged ; they have a pale or ochre- coloured spot in the middle, and are sprinkled with small white dots. The hind wings have the margin slightly scooped out, and are bright orange, with two brown or black bands, the outermost being broadest. 142 POTATOES. The head is black ; the back has markmgs, in its thick black velvety clown of pale ochre and orange colour, exactly like a painting of a skull or death's head, whence the name of the moth. The abdomen is yellow, with six black bands across ; and a line or row of spots down the centre, and the tip of the tail are of a bluish grey colour. Where the eggs are laid does not appear to be noted. When the moth is alarmed it makes a sharp squeaking plaintive cry, not unlike the squeak of a mouse. It is said to enter Bee-hives and rob the Bees of their honey, whence the name sometimes given of Bee Tiger-Moth. Pkevention and Eemedies. — The caterpillar usually hides by day, and comes out in the evening or at night to feed. If it should occur in sufficient numbers to cause serious damage, it would be well for the owner of the Potatoes, or some one interested in the matter, to go through the field carefully at different times and ascertain when these great grubs are feeding. From then' large size they are distinguishable in the twilight of the evening, or in a clear moonlight, so that, when it has been made out at what time they are to be found, they might be easily got rid of by hand-picking. 143 TUKNIPS. Turnip Aphis. Green Fly. A2)his rapa, Curtis. ,, fioris-rapm, Curtis. PiJiopcdosipJnon diantJii, Schrank. 1 — i, Aphis floris-raiJcv ; 5 — 8, Aphis rapce, nat. size and magnified. This Aphis is common in the summer on many kinds of plants, and is especially hm-tful to Potatoes, Turnips, and Swedes. It is chiefly to be found on the under side of the leaves, but sometimes occurs in such numbers as to smother the plants ; and the vast swarms of Green Fly which at times fill the air, as in the autumn of 1834 and in 1868, are believed to have been of this species. The Aphis is very variable in appearance ; the wingless viviparous female is usually of some shade of green, but often of an ochreous-red in autumn ; the winged female is usually black, with reddish yellow abdomen, striped and spotted with black ; ochreous legs ; and wings yellow at the base, with yellow main vein ; the insect is, 144 TURNIPS. liowever, sometimes entirely black, ochreous, or green. The variety Jloris-rapcs that is mentioned by Cm-tis as found on flower-stalks of the Turnip, is described by him as dull pale green, dusted with white. — (' Mon. of Brit. Aphides ' ; ' Farm Insects.') Prevention and Eemedies. — In garden cultivation, some good may be done by copious syringings with such applications as ammoniacal water, tobacco-water, and soft soap, the strength of the application being pro- portioned to what the leafage will bear. One part of gas-water or ammoniacal liquor to ten or twelve of water will kill Green Fly, but the strength of the liquor varies so much that experiment is necessary to ascertain its power. A proportion of twenty-eight pounds of soft soap and half a pound of tobacco are used with one hundred gallons of water at an expense of i;2 2s. per acre as an Aphis-wash in the Hop-gardens, this being applied by means of garden-engines with double hose, worked by three men. How far under the present arrangements of field cultivation the mixture could be applied to the crop at a remunerative cost, or whether it could be applied at all to a field of Turnips, remains to be seen ; but if it could be brought to bear it would be likely to be beneficial. One great difficulty in counteracting Aphis-attack arises from the skin of the Aphis being often of such a nature, or covered with a mealy secretion of such a nature, as repels water, and consequently many of the applications simply run oft' them, without doing us any good. Such poisonous applications as will kill them, either by caustic action at once, or lodging where they must be imbibed, are of service ; and solutions of common salt and of sulphate of soda have been stated to be serviceable, but I have no details of proportion or precise results, and, generally speaking, an adhesive medium like soft soap, which may also be a vehicle of some Aphis-poison, is the surest cure. TURNIP FLY. 145 Fish-oil soft soap, expressly manufactured for appli- cation in field cultivation, is procurable from the City Soai3 Works, London, at the price of ten to twelve shillings per firkin of sixty pounds. Aphides multiply most quickly in dry weather, and on plants which are sickly from drought, exhaustion by insect-attack, or other causes ; so that all measures of cultivation tending to produce vigorous healthy growth are serviceable in counteracting attack ; and where cir- cumstances allow of the application of liquid manure, or of water to an extent to make the plant-food in the soil available, and push on growth that otherwise was being checked by drought, such treatment would be desirable. Where new growth is not being made, and the juices are being constantly abstracted by the Green Fty, the plant necessarily fails, unless extra food is supplied to start it forward. When Aphis-attack is found to be beginning in garden cultivation, it will be of service to break off infested leaves, or remove the infested plants, taking care to crush the leaves under foot, or destroy the Aphides at once in any convenient way. Various kinds of Titmice, and especially the Blue Tit, are of service in destroj'ing Aphides; and the common Lady- bird Beetles and their larvae feed on them voraciously. There appears to be no further remedy for this and other insects that prey on the Turnip-crop when advanced to maturit}^ than eating off the crop by folding sheep upon it: their treading and urine would exterminate every- thing, and thus be of some service as a means of prevention for next season. Turnip Fly. j Phi/Ilotreta nemonun, Chevi'olat. Flea Beetle. [Haltica nemorum, Curtis. This is one of our most destructive kinds of farm- insects. With regard to its appearance little need be said; we all know" the small black shiny beetles to be L 146 TUENIPS. found in myriads, in fine sunny weather, gnawing holes in the Turnip-leaves as long as they are undisturbed, but skipping off as briskly as the fleas from which they take one of then- names on being meddled with. 1 — 3, H. nemorum; 4 and 5, eggs; 6 — f), maggot; 10 and 11, jiupa; all nat. size and magnified. When viewed in the hand or under a magnifying glass, some difference may be found in their size and marking. One of the largest and commonest kinds (JI. nemorum) has a broad yellow stripe down each wing-case ; another kind {H. concinna) is brassy, with a tooth on the second and hinder pairs of legs ; another kind is black, and dark blue above ; another is of a brighter blue above ; but these are (as far as we know) alike in their method of living, in the harm they do, and the way in which they do it. The same methods of prevention or cure apply alike to all; and as it is almost impossible to distinguish them unless they are caught, and also as, however much they may vary in marking, still they are all " Turnip Fly," which is the point of view in which we are concerned with them here. I have only named two species, and refer the reader who wishes for further information regarding the different kinds to the ' Farm Insects ' of John Curtis. TURNIP FLY. 147 During winter the Turnip Fly Beetles may be found sheltered under bark, fallen leaves, clods of earth, and the like places ; also amongst stubble, and especially in heaps of long strawy manure left on the fields ; and on particularly fine days they may be seen coming out to sun themselves. On the return of spring warmth they begin work, and, till the crops are ready for them, are especially to be found on weeds of the same family as the Turnip and Cabbage, such as Charlock, Shepherd's Purse, and Jack- by-the-Hedge. When the attack begins on the Turnip the female lays her eggs, which are few in number, for successive days on the under side of the rough leaf. The maggots, which hatch from these in ten days, are white or yellowish, fleshy, and cylindrical; with three pairs of feet in front, and a sucker-foot at the end of the tail. The head is furnished with cutting jaws, and has large dark eyes. Directly they are hatched they gnaw through the lower skin into the pulp of the leaf, and make their way onwards, forming winding burrows inside it. Here they feed for about six days, then they come out and bury themselves (keeping near the Turnip) not quite two inches deep in the ground, when they turn into the chrysahs stage, from which the " Turnip Fly" or "Flea Beetle" comes up in about fourteen days. It is in this state that the so-called "Fly" does most mischief. It gnaws the seed-leaves, and the young l^lant when it first springs, and thus often totally destroys it ; and also gnaws the rough leaves, forming large holes through the leaf. There may be five or six broods in a season. — (' Farm Insects.') Prevention and Eemedies. — The points that need particular attention are, 1st, clearing off such weeds as the fly feeds on till the Turnips are ready for it ; 2nd, such a method of cultivation and manuring as shall give a fine, deep, clean, and moist seed-bed, rich in available 148 TURNIPS. plant food, so that a healthy and rapid growth may be promoted and all pomts of shelter or harbourage for the "Fly" be reduced to the lowest limit; 3rd, available means of applying moisture in dry seasons ; 4th, appli- cations and special treatment to destroy the fly when it is badly infesting a crop. With regard to weeds : — The fly frequents wild plants of the Cabbage tribe, as Shepherd's Purse, Jack-by-the- Hedge, and is especially fond of Charlock. It has been observed as unusually numerous where this weed has been plentiful in the previous year, and also to spread (as from a centre) to the neighbouring crops from a Charlock-infested field. It is often supported in the spring by these or other weeds till the Turnips are large enough for it to attack, and therefore means should be taken to get rid of them beforehand from the autumn stubbles. In the case of Charlock a double turn of the harrow over the stubble is of use, small weeds may be cleared by broad-sharing ; the seeds are thus covered sufficiently to induce immediate germination, a,nd the sprouting weeds as w^ell as roots in the soil will be cleaned by the regular processes of cultivation further on. Waste spots of land and hedge-sides should also be attended to ; the first is often overrun with Shepherd's Purse; the second is often infested with the tall, large- leaved, onion-like smelling plant with white flowers, the shape of the Charlock-blossom, known as " Jack-by-the- Hedge." A deep cultivation that will turn down weeds and destroy insects is very serviceable, and care should be taken that all manure from the yards or sheds should be completely buried. Any long strawy lumps left on the surface will shelter the fly, and from these it will come out to the destruction of the crop. Plentiful rolling, harrowing, and other means of securing a fine seed-bed are also desirable, both that the ground may be in a state to push on a good growth, and also that the surface may be free of harbourage. "'Where clods prevail, Turnips fail." TUllNIP FLY. 149 The three requisites for healthy germination are, warmth, moisture, and some amount of air ; and it is only hy securing these that a rapid and healthy development of the plant can be obtained. It has therefore been recommended, when the surface is prepared for drilling, to leave it undisturbed for three weeks ; also, on the other hand, when partly-rotted farm-manure is ploughed-in in spring, to sow immediately. In each case the reason is the same, that is, to secure the moisture in the ground ; in one instance by not opening the pulverized earth more than can be helped, and in the other by putting the seed above the half-rotted dung before the moisture and warmth accompanying decompo- sition has gone from it. The Turnip requires moisture, and it is of great importance to run on a healthy growth by furnishing it with a sufficient supply, joined to a liberal application of ammoniacal and phosphate manures, as well as farm- yard manure. , For these reasons watering the ground in garden cultivation, and the use of the water (or liquid manure) drill in dry v>reather is very serviceable. This makes the food round the plant available at once, and where the seed is put in with artificial manure, as " Peruvian guano," superphosphate of lime, or whatever may be known to answer, gives it a good start. The first difficulty in Turnip culture is the fly eating up the crop bodily whilst still in the seed-leaf, therefore anything that will run it quickly and healthily through this stage is a point gained ; nothing will do this better than a well-prepared soil, with sufficient moisture to enable the Turnips to have the benefit of it. Thick sowing up to eight or ten pounds per acre is advised by various growers, who state that thus, in case of hot dry weather, the plants will thrive better for the pro- tection they give to each other (being thus moderately damp, with the roots shaded), and that some may be reckoned on to escape the fly. This, however, needs careful looking to, or the result will only be a worthless drawn growth. 150 TURNIPS. The use of the horse-hoe is advised both before and after the seed comes up, and its frequent use aftenvards is strongly insisted on. Where water can be supplied in a season of drought to the young growing crop by a water-cart, or any other means, it will be very serviceable. In an instance noted where the plant was thus saved, the cost was fifteen shillings per acre. Here there was water at both ends of the held. In garden cultivation watering would probably always pay; in field cultivation this would depend on local facilities. With regard to Swedes, it has been found, from the preference of the fly for the White Turnip, that if the seed is mixed in the proportion of one quarter White to three-quarters Swede, or again, if one drill of White is put in at intervals amongst the Swedes, that the fly will be attracted to the White, and thus allow the Swedes to get well ahead. This plan was found to answer well by several years' experience in East Lothian and elsewhere. With regard to direct applications to destroy the fly, it should be borne in mind that very much depends on the time of day and the state of the weather when these applications are made. The Turnip "Fly" is active in bright dry weather; and wiien the thermometer stands at 75° in the shade, it has been observed on the wing in great numbers : when the weather, on the contrary, is cold and wet, it is sluggish ; and in rain or heavy dew these beetles cannot leap, from the moisture clogging their legs, and thus preventing the powerful springs with which they customarily leap out of the way of attack. This circumstance has much to do with the very different success, in different circumstances, of exactly the same remedy. A dressing that is put on early in the morning, w^hilst the dew is still heavy on the plant, has a very different effect to what it has either on a morning that is dewless or in the middle of the day, TURNIP FLY. 151 "when the fly lias every chance to protect itself under clods of earth, &c., before the dressing reaches it; and, though the reason is not given, the advice is constantly the same in observations on remedies — (ii)p^y wliilst the dew is on. Eolling with a light roller as early as 2 or 3 o'clock on a dewy morning has been found to succeed well in bad attack during very hot and sunny weather. Where the nature and condition of the soil permits, it has been found a good remedy, in attack of "Fly" as well as of Turnip Sawfly, to drive a flock of sheep over the attacked field very early in the morning, whilst the dew is still on the leaf. The sheep must be kept in motion, that they may not feed on the Turnips, and well up in a body, so as to tread the whole of the ground, which should be taken on successive days where there is a large extent to avoid injury to the sheep, as they must be kept moving. In one case noted the extent of ground was thirty-seven acres, and from four to five hundred sheep were driven over ; and the cure of a bad attack was satisfactor3\ — (R. T.) The locality was a high-lying spot, with warm exposure in a chalk district, and probably it is only on a light or sandy soil that this remedy is applicable ; on clay soils, or such as approach to a plastic character, it would be hazardous, if not simpl}' destructive. With regard to dressings when the fly is present : — Soot, lime, road-dust, and others of the usual applications have been found useful, and may all be serviceable if applied when the dew is on; but the remedy that appears the best proved is the one noted by Mr. Fisher Hobbs as having never failed during the eight years in which he made use of it. I give the recipe and passage at length from his statement made before the Council of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, quoted in the ' Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette' for May 28, 1859, p. 473 :— " One bushel of white gas-ashes " (gas-lime) "fresh from the gas-house, one bushel of fresh lime from the kiln. 152 TUKNIPS. six pounds of sulphur, and ten pounds of soot, well mixed together and got to as fine a powder as possible, so that it may adhere to the young plant. The above is sufficient for two acres, when drilled at twenty-seven inches. It should be applied very early in the morning when the dew is on the leaf, a broadcast machine being the most expeditious mode of distributing it ; or it may be sprinkled with the hand carefully over the rows. If the fly continues troublesome, the process should be repeated ; by this means two hundred to two hundred and twenty acres of Turnips, Swedes and Eape have been grown on my farm annually for eight or nine years without a rod of ground losing plants. The above is a strong dressing to be used when the fly is very numerous, and has never failed when applied at night. Numerous experiments have been tried, and amongst them I recommend the following in ordinary cases Fourteen pounds of sulphur, one bushel of fresh lime, and two bushels of road-scrapings per acre, mixed together a few days before it is used, and applied at night, either by means of a small drill or strewed along the rows by hand. I have known sulphur mixed with water applied in a liquid state by means of water- carts during the night, and the horse-hoe immediately following the water-cart. This has succeeded admirably." -(F. H.) The quantity that has been written on the matter of prevention of fly is enormous, but all the notes show that care should be directed especially to, 1st, cleaning the ground ; 2nd, preparing, by good cultivation and plenty of manure, to push on the growth healthily; 3rd, sufficient moisture, and a supply of water (where this can reasonably be given), in case of the weather being too dry for the Turnip-growth to run on properly without ; 4th, all dustings, dressings, &c., should take place when the dew is on the leaf, and the fly exposed to them, not in bright sunshine. For further information, the reader is referred to the papers from which this sketch has mainly been taken, TURNIP LEAF-MINERS. 153 namely, the ' Farm Insects ' of John Curtis ; a paper "On the use of the Water Drih," hy A. S. Kuston, 'Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society,' 1859; the paper ahoye-mentioned by Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; and obseryations recorded by agriculturists too numerous to quote indiyidually, given in the ' Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette,' and also by observers recorded in the yearly ' Reports on Injurious Insects.' Turnip Leaf-miners. Black Leaf-miner. Ph>jtoi)i>/za ni;iriconiis, Macquart. Yellow „ Drosophila ? Jiava, Fallen. P. nigriconiis, nat. size and magnified ; pupa ; and leaf, with minings. The Turnip-leaf is attacked by the maggots of two kinds of two-winged flies {Diptera), which, from their method of clearing away the substance of the leaves in galleries, are known as miners. The Black-horned Leaf-miner, figured above, is a very small ^x, only about the twelfth of an inch long, of a slate black or ash-colour, with an ochreous head, dark horns, and wings pale slate-colour ; its maggot works beneath the skin of the under side of the Turnip- leaf so regularly that tracks are not seen on the upper side. The grub changed to pupa in the leaf, from which the fly came out in a few days, in the instance noted. 154 TURNIPS. The other Leaf-miner is also a small two-winged fly, about the twelfth of an inch long — scientifically a Drosophila ; the colour is generally ochreous, the face white, and the wings yellowish. The maggot is of a pale green colour, and is as constant in its habit of burrowing under the skin of the upper side of the Turnip-leaf as the other is in keeping to the under side. D. i flat' a. — 1, blistered leaf; 2 ami •'!, inagLTdt; 4 and 5, pupa; (j and 7, tlj-, nat. size and magnitied. It also differs (or occasionally differs) in leaving the leaf when full fed, and either remaining on the ground or going down into it to turn to pupa. These pupa or fly-cases are in both instances brown or chestnut-colour. The blisters are disfiguring to the leaves, but are not noted as ever occurring in such quantities as to cause any serious damage requiring prevention or remedy. — (' Farm Insects.') Turnip Moth. Common Dart Moth. Noctua [Agrutis) ser/etum, Ochsen. The caterpillars of this Moth are destructive to Turnips, Cabbage, Mangold Wurzel, Carrots, Eadish, Corn, Grasses, &c. ; in fact they seem to feed on any plant that is not too hard for them to gnaw. COMMON DART MOTH. 155 The egg is laid during the summer, as early as June or towards autumn, and the caterpillars hatch in about a fortnight. These, when full grown, are about an inch or an inch and a half long, nearly as thick as a goose-quill, and smooth, with a few hairs ; of a pale smoky colour, but sometimes pinkish, or purplish brow^n, and with two dark lines along the back and one along each side ; these lines, however, are not always distinct. The head is a pale dingy brow^n, much narrower than the next ring, and is stretched out on a plane with the body. Moth and caterpillnr. When first hatched, the caterpillars appear to feed chiefly above ground, choosing the part of the plant just at the surface of the earth (between the root and stem), and, thus gnawing off the tops, they destroy the crop to a serious extent ; as they grow stronger they go further down, and generally remain wholly underground or only come up at night to feed. Whilst the plants are young the caterpillars feed on those near them, going on to others as food gets short, gnawing off the tops as above mentioned, or feeding on the leaves, which, after having cut through the leaf-stalks, they drag partly down into their burrows, to be eaten during the day. When the Turnips are formed, the caterpillars establish themselves inside the bulbs, and as many as twelve may be found in one Tm-nip ; these gnaw large holes and cavities, 156 TURNIPS. sometimes going completely througli from one side to the other, and continue to feed there till the bulb is consumed, or till they have to leave it on account of frost or some other cause. According to circumstances of climate, &c., they feed during the winter, or pass it in cells formed in the earth, coming out to feed again in the early spring. In May or June they turn to smooth brown chrysalids in the ground, from which the moth appears in about a month. This moth has the fore wings of a pale grey ground colour in the male, dark umber-brown in the female, with various markings, as figured ; the hind wings are pearly white, clouded towards the hinder edge in the female, and with dark rays. The colour of the body (including the abdomen) varies, like the ground colour of the fore wings, with the sex ; it is lighter in the males than in the females. It is not fully ascertained whether there are one or two broods of this moth in the year. — (' Brit. Moths,' ' Farm Insects,' &c.) Prevention and Eemedies. — These are not easy to find. In garden cultivation something may be done, where a plant is found to have had its head gnawed off, by turning up the soil close to it, and destroying the caterpillar, which will very likely be found an inch or two below the surface. If not removed, it will certainly go on and destroy another or more plants the following night, and continue so doing ; so that the work of removal will probably pay. It is stated to be a regular part of cultivation in some of our Cabbage-growing districts, in attacks of this kind, to put on a number of workers to dig down round the suspected plants, and thus turn out the grubs and destroy them. Watering the ground with any special application does not seem of use, as the grub is perfectly well able to go down deeper, and so get out of the way of annoyance. COMMON DART MOTH. 157 Tobacco-water is, however, said to kill all the cater- pillars that it touches, and if this is the case, it might be useful as a watering applied overhead to the plants (of a strength tested relatively to safety of the foliage) at night, as soon as the caterpillars are out at feed on the leaves. In the case of Cabbages where the roots were attacked, the treatment of applying a handful of soot round the stem of each of the plants and earthing them up immediatel}" has saved the crop, and been followed by a good growth ; this would do good by encouraging the growth when only a part of the roots had been hurt, and it would be ver}^ likely to keep the caterpillar from coming up through it to attack the plant. We thus have some hold over night-feeding grubs, for (when the plant is once clear of them) if we can find anj^thing to put round the stem that they will not come up through, or walk over, and that will not hurt the plant, we can keep it clear from their attack. Gas-lime would do a great deal of good in this way. It is an excellent means of keeping off attack, and w^hen put carefull}^ by hand in a narrow^ ring round the stem of an infested plant has been found to answer well. The amount that is safe would vary with the age of the plant and time of exposure of the gas-lime to the air, but in the case of half-grown kale and gas-lime about two months from the works, a ring about as thick as a finger round (but not against the stem) is quite safe. The mixture of gas-lime, &c., found serviceable by Mr. Fisher Hobbs as a remedy for Turnip Fly (see p. 151) would also be worth trying as a remedy for the " surface caterpillars." Something may be done by hand-picking the cater- pillars that are hidden under clods of earth, stones, &c., during the day, and the operation has been recommended for clearing the plants at night ; but this is so very troublesome it seems a rather doubtful expedient. With regard to field cultivation, as the caterpillars feed on almost all plants that are soft enough to gnaw, 158 TURNIPS. and are voracious eaters, it is of great service to clear the ground of all plants some time before the new crop is sown. In districts where catch-cropping prevails, the land onght to be ploughed and cultivated so as to be cleared of all food for these grubs for (say) a fortnight before the Turnips are sown ; the caterpillars will thus (as far as observations go) have either been literally starved out or — as they are very active when in search of food — will have strayed away to find it elsewhere. The chief means of prevention, however, with this caterpillar appears to be the encouragement of the birds that especially feed on it. The Crow, Eaven, Jackdaw, and Magpie are all said to be useful, but the great helpers are the Eook and the Partridge. The Eook works down into the earth with his bill, the Partridge turns out the grub by scratching, and where (as well j)ointed out by the late Edward Newman) we increase the quantity of any special crop so as to attract any special insect, and at the same time allow the birds which feed on those insects to be destroyed, we can hardly fail to suffer severely. — (' Brit. Moths,' ' Farm Insects,' Ed., &c.) Diamond-back Turnip Moth. ' Cerostoma xylostella, Curtis. Plutella xylostella, Doiibleday. ,, (syn.) cruciferarum. The caterpillar of this Moth seldom does much damage, but in 1851 it appeared in enormous quantities in England and Ireland, in some cases almost clearing the attacked crop. It feeds on the leaves of Turnips and Swedes, and occasionally on Cabbage. This caterpillar is about half an inch long and spindle-shaped (that is, gradually tapering towards the head and tail), of a pale green colour, with the head rather yellower, or grey ; it has a pair of short-jointed feet on each of the three rings next to the head, and the foremost of these rings has a DIAMOND-BACK TURNIP MOTH. 159 number of small black spots ; the two next have each two yellowish spots on the back. As many as two hundred and forty of these caterpillars have been counted on a single plant of moderate size. They gnaw the leaves away down to the veins, and, where the attack is bad, clear off these afterwards so as utterly to destroy the crop. Moth (nat. size and magnified), caterpillar and cocoon. TMien full fed they spin a cocoon of threads on the remains of the Turnip-leaves or on the ground, formed of such open network that the chrysalis can be seen through it. In the specimens observed this light cocoon was left open at each end, so as to allow the chrysalis to leave its old caterpillar-skin outside at one end, and the moth (on coming out of the chrysalis) to escape at the other. The chrysalis is greyish white, with several black streaks down the back and sides. The moth hatches from it in about ten to eighteen days, and to the naked eye appears not unlike the Clothes-moth. When magnified it will be seen (as figured above) that the fore wings are long and narrow, with several pale spots on the fore edge, and a white or ochreous stripe along the hinder edge, this stripe being waved so that when the moth is at rest the two edges of the wings laid flat along the back form a row of pale diamond-shaped markings, whence the name of "Diamond-back Moth." 160 TURNIPS. The hinder -wings have a very long fringe. There appear to be a succession of broods, as the moth is observable from the end of June until October. — (' Farm Insect&j' and J. 0. W., in ' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette.') Prevention and Eemedies. — This caterpillar is too small to be conveniently got rid of by hand-picking, and, as it feeds chiefly beneath the leaves, it is thereby protected from most attempts to injure it ; so that hot lime, soot, and salt have all been tried without more than partial success. Something more effective might possibly be done (as with Turnip Sawfly) hj taking a scuffler between the rows with a bough of Fir or Broom fixed so as to sweep the grubs off the leaves. From the habit of these caterpillars of throwing themselves down and hanging by their threads on being alarmed, many would be so thoroughly swept away that they could not get back again. In bad cases of attack, it would be worth while to try this plan rather than have the whole crop destroyed ; or it might answer to send a man and boy through the field, one with a bough to sweep with, the other with soot or (in careful hands) with gas-lime, to throw under the plants on the fallen grubs. Again, the mixture mentioned at p. 151, of gas-lime, lime, and soot, would be safe in all hands, do good to the plants, and be very bad for the caterpillars. The growth that this or any other suitable manure would cause would be very favourable. In the severe attack of this caterpillar in 1851, it was observed that the "growing rains" towards the latter part of July saved some of the crops ; also that in those badly attacked the hoed and singled portions perished, whilst in the parts not hoed enough was saved for about half a crop. This caterpillar rarely occiu's, but when it does is apt — unless prompt measures are taken — to sweep the crop fairly away. HEAET AND DAET MOTH. 161 Heart and Dart Moth. Xoctua {Juj-otis) exclawationis, Linu. ^loth, caterpillar, and chrysalis in earth-cell. The caterpillars of this Moth live during the day just under the surface of the earth, or beneath clods, stones, loose rubbish, and such like places ; and from this peculiar habit they (as well as a few other very destructive kinds) are commonly known as "surface cater^nllars.'' They curl themselves up when disturbed, can walk fast, and can bury themselves in a few seconds ; they come out in the evening and feed during the night, passing from one plant to another and gnawing the leaves off at the crown, so as to do far more mischief than those that only eat straightforwards at one spot. This caterpillar is about an inch and a half long when full grown, of a dull lilac colour, with a paler stripe down the back, having one dark line along each edge, and a double one along the centre of the back. Beneath it is whitish green ; the head is brown, with black jaws, and the first ring of the body behind the head is horny and brown above ; all the other rings have little tubercles on them, each tubercle having a short hair growing out of it. The caterpillar is flatfish and has little power of holding on with its feet, so that it readily falls when the plant is shaken. When full fed it forms a cell in the earth in which it changes to a rust-coloured chrysalis, M 162 TURNIPS. from which the moth comes out in June of the following year, or sometimes a little earlier. The moth is of a clay- colour, with markings as at fig. 1 ; the spot hehind the head is black ; the upper wings are dark towards the front edge ; the under wings in the male are white, with the upper margin and nerves brownish ; in the female the under wings are dark brown. — (' Farm Insects,' and ' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' 1844.) Prevention and Eemedies. — The moth may be seen towards the close of day, flying about neglected weedy spots, and the caterpillar may be found during the day under clods of earth, rubbish, &c., as mentioned above ; therefore clearing away weeds and useless encumbrances on the ground is of great service. The caterpillar comes out at night, and therefore hand-picking at night does good ; but probably the application of waterings, or dressings, of anything offensive or injurious to the caterpillars, would be a much better plan. Watering the infested ground with gas- water has been found effective in destroying these grubs. A thick coat of soot dug into the surface is of service ; also it has been found (as with the caterpillars of the Turnip Moth) that when Cabbage and Cauliflower-plants are going off with these grubs, scattering a handful of soot round each plant and earthing it up will make it throw out fresh healthy root-fibres, and the plants will recover and do perfectly well. This treatment is worth noting, for here, as with several other kinds of caterpillar-attack, the plant dies, oiot from being eaten up, but simply from starvation. The grub or caterpillar goes wandering from plant to plant, gnawing and injuring numbers successively so that they cannot draw up their full supply of food ; and if soot or any other material is api)lied that drives away these creatures, and acts as a stimulant to the plant, it will often save the crop. The grubs grow quickly and TURNIP SAWFLY. 163 require so much food that the plants fail quickly under their attack ; as soon, therefore, as a plant is seen to be flagging, the roots should be examined, and, if the caterpillar is there, treatment should be applied. Guano is a very useful application in such cases, as it is good for plant-life, and often injurious to insect-life ; but it should be borne in mind that, as soon as the presence of the grub is discovered, the remedy should be applied at once. In this instance, as with others of the surface cater- pillars, thorough cultivation of the ground, so as to clear it of weeds on wdiich the grubs may live before a new crop is put in, and a thorough turning over of the soil, so as to bring as many as possible of the grubs to the surface where they will be picked up by birds ; and, generall}^ to put the soil in a state favourable to the in-coming crop, is very important. Turnip Sawfly. Athalia spinarum, Fabricius. Caterpillai's, pupa, and puj^a-case. Sawfly, magnilied, with Hues showiusr nat. size. The caterpillars of this Sawfly, which are known under various names, as "Blacks," "Black Palmers," "Niggers," &c., ajppear from time to time in very large 164 TURNIPS. numbers, and do serious damage, sometimes clearing the leafage of a whole field of Turnips, excepting such of the veins as are too hard to be eaten, in the course of a few days. Taking the dates of some attacks which are especially recorded, we find them noticed in 1756, 1760, 1782, 1806, 1818, 1833, 1835, and the following years up to 1838 ; in 1782 it was estimated that about two-thirds of the Turnip-ground in Norfolk had consequently to be ploughed and re-sown ; but the worst attack recorded took place in the dry summer of 1835, when the injury to the Turnips extended as far north as Durham ; and in the southern counties, from Somerset to Kent, the crop was. a failure, the second and even the third sowing being devoured by these "niggers." The Turnip Sawflies which produce these caterpillars, are dull and torpid in moist and cloudy weather, but they thrive and fly actively in warmth and sunshine ; and it is during the period when the sunshine is hottest. that pairing takes place. The eggs are laid one by one in small slits cut for them in the leaf by the saw-like ovipositor of the female (from which apparatus the Sawflies are named) ; and the eggs are very numerous, one female laying from two to three hundred. These eggs hatch in about five days, or less in warm weather, but take more than twice that time if the weather is damp and cold. The grubs begin to feed immediately on coming out of the eggs, and are at first usually of a greenish white colour; afterwards they become jet-black, with a paler stripe on each side, and when nearly full-grown they are slate-colour and pale beneath, in addition to the pale stripe just mentioned. Before their first change of skin (or moult) they cling to the leaf, and, if disturbed, let themselves down by a thread and go back again up it at pleasure ; afterwards they fall down, having no power to spin threads at this stage of growth, and remain awhile as if dead, and then, crawl back again up the stems to the leaves. TUBNIP SAWFLY. 165 These caterpillars have in all twenty-two feet, con- sisting of a pair of "true feet," horny, and furnished with claws on each of the three segments next the head ; a pan* of "sucker-feet" (fleshy cylindrical masses by which the caterpillar can hold fast at pleasure) on each of the succeeding eight segments, excepting the fourth from the head, and another pair of sucker-feet at the end of the tail — thus having only one segment, besides Sawfly caterpillars destroying Turnip-leaf. the head, unfurnished with feet. They greatly enjoy being exposed to the full heat of the sun. When full grown, which is in about three weeks, they go down into the earth, spin a silken cocoon, which is smooth and white inside, but not easily distinguishable from the earth, which sticks to it externally; and from these cocoons the Sawflies come out in about three weeks in the early summer, and are ready to lay eggs and start a 166 TURNIPS. new attack immediately. Later in the season, three months pass before the caterpillars turn to chrysalids, and many of the autumn brood are believed to remain in the cocoons during the winter, and not to change to chrysalids (and thence to Sawflies) till the next spring. These flies are very pretty, of a bright orange, with a deeper reddish colour just behind the black head ; the four transparent wings are netted over with veins, and are yellowish towards the base ; the legs are stout and short, with the shanks hairy ; and the feet are whitish, with the tips of the joints and all of the lowest joint, as well as the claws on it, black. The mischief caused by these flies when they occur in large numbers is simply overwhelming, and often (in such cases) only ceases with the total destruction of the crop, in consequence of the voracious appetites of the grubs and the rapid succession of broods. For further details of the enormous quantities in which they have been recorded as appearing in various places, the swarms in which they pass from one spot to another, and much valuable information too long to be entered on here, the reader is referred to the account (from which the above note is abridged) given by John Curtis in his ' Farm Insects.' Prevention and Eemedies. — The best of these are to be found by looking at the habits of the grubs. If these grubs or caterpillars are disturbed whilst they are changing their skins, which happens every six or seven days during the three weeks in which they continue feeding in grub form, they die ; for if they loose hold with the pair of feet at the tip of the tail during this operation they cannot fix them again, con- sequently they have nothing they can pull against to drag themselves out of the old tight skin, and therefore they perish in it. Also — as mentioned above — if alarmed, they drop from the leaf, and after the first few days they have no power of spinning a thread, consequently have some difficulty in getting back again. TURNIP SAWFLY. 167 Looking at these points, it has been found useful to dislodge the grubs by sweeping the Turnip-leaves with boughs of light leafage or twigs, such as Fir, Furze, or Broom. Many different ways are noted — such as fastening the boughs on a cart-rope, held by a man at each end, which thus may be dragged along so as to brush the Turnips ; or fixing them to a bar supported by two wheels so that the boughs may lightly sweep the leaves as they pass over them ; or again, fixing a good-sized Fir-branch or bunch of Broom in front of a scuffler, and thus, whilst the blades do their regular work, the branches sweep down the grubs, many of which are killed or do not come up again. In slight attacks, it is of use for a man to brush the plants with a light bough, and in this case the grubs can be stamped on, or lime or soot thrown on them, and also over the leaves, which w^ill do something towards protection. It is also stated to have been found serviceable to drive sheep through an infested field. The passage of the sheep distm-bs the caterpillars, many of which fall from the leaves and are trodden under foot ; but the desirableness of the remedy is somewhat doubtful (especially on lieaA^y land), excepting in very extreme cases of attack. When the attack is bad the Turnips should not on any account be hoed or thinned (the grubs will thin them only too much), and, if left alone, enough may escape for a crop ; also the hoeing does not hurt the SawHies or their grubs to any useful degree, and the pests from the destroyed plants will move on so as to be in double force on the remaining part of the crop. Thick- sowing is of advantage against Sawfiy, as well as against the common Turnip Fly, both for the reason just given of some part of the crop escaping, and also because the Sawfiy likes sunshine and dryness. Where the leaves are plentiful there is more moisture and shade, and these parts are safer from attack ; and also 168 TURNIPS. in the hot dry seasons in which these Sawflies thrive the thicker vegetation will help on the plant, which loves moisture. For these reasons — that is, a plentiful supply of moisture being needed for the proper growth of the Turnip-plant, and moisture being prejudicial to the Sawfly — thorough watering with liquid manure by means of the water-cart on a dull day, or after sunset, would be most beneficial. It would stimulate the growth of the plant, and destroy many of the caterpillars by washing them off the leaves into the wet soil. A dull day for the watering, or a time when the sun is not shining, is desirable) to avoid a sudden chill, which would be bad for the leafage), or the sunshine burning spots where the water might have run together in drops, on the leaves. In all attacks on leafage it is of the utmost importance to keep up the strength of the plant ; the damage done is by the grubs destroying what for its own vegetable uses are in fact its breathing and digestive organs. It cannot live without its leaves, and if a larger portion of these are eaten off each day than is replaced by growth, it fails just in that proportion. By the application in moist weather of nitrogenous or ammoniacal manure, or by watering with liquid manure in drought, a plentiful supply of food is brought to bear at once, and thus we may possibly tide the plants over the difficulty and save the crop within the bounds of remunerative outlay. — (' Notes of Observations of Injurious Insects,' ' Farm Insects,' &c.) Turnip Gall Weevil. Ceutorhynchus sxdcicoUis, Stephens. This Weevil is injurious to Swede and White Turnips by causing the growth of knobs or galls on the surface of the bulbs, similar to those that it causes on the roots of Cabbage. On opening these knobs one or more maggots will be found inside, of the same species as those in the Cabbage, TURNIP GALL WEEVIL. 169 but commonly of a yellowish colour when they are feeding inside galls of the Swede Turnip. As the habits of this Weevil in its various stages, and also its power of 1 — 5, Gall with maggots nat. size and magnified; 6 and 7, Weevil, nat. size and magnified; 8, leg of Weevil, magnified. endurance of cold in the maggot state, appear to be the same whether it feeds on Cabbage or Turnip, the reader is referred for the life-history to the notes of Cabbage Gall Weevil, p. 41. Prevention and Remedies. — These galls are rarely numerous enough to injure the Turnip, and commonly the soft juicy swellings do not lessen the quantity of nutritive material in the bulb to an important amount ; still they are better away. Clean cultivation and regular rotation of crops is a means of keeping the attacks of the weevil in check, and good dressings of chalk and lime are excellent pre- ventives ; also gas-lime, sown broadcast over the soil intended for Cabbage and then pointed-in, is a good means of getting clear of the maggot ; see also pp. 43, 44. PAET II. FOREST TREES AND THE INSECTS THAT INJURE THEM. PAKT II. FOREST TREES THE INSECTS THAT INJUEE THEM. ASH. Ash-bark Beetle. Hijleshms fraxini, Fab. Workings oi Hyle sinus fraxini, showing forked "mother gallery," with larval galleries from the sides. ^The Hylesinus fraxini is injurious, both in the beetle and grub state, to Ash trees, by boring galleries beneath the bark, sometimes slightly cutting into the outside wood of the tree. The beetles are often attracted in 174 ASH. large numbers by newly-felled Ash trunks, in the bark of which they propagate, and from whence the new brood spreads to the neighbouring trees, mainly attacking those that are sickly or decayed ; or 3'Oung trees, which they sometimes injure to a serious extent. The damage is caused not only by the bark being loosened and the regular circulation of the sap interfered with, but also by the multitude of small holes which the beetles bore in escaping after they are developed, allowing rain or moisture to soak into the substance of the bark and cause decay. The larvae are small whitish fleshy legless maggots, much like those of Scolytus ; the head is furnished with a pair of jaws by means of which the maggot gnaws its gallery beneath the bark. The beetles are about the sixth of an inch long, of various dusky shades from black to ochreous, covered with an ashy down beneath, and mottled with ashy or brownish scales above. The head is short and robust, horns red, lowest joint longest, and the end club-shaped and pointed at the tip ; body behind the head stout, convex; abdomen short, ovate; legs pitchy, and feet red, with the last joint but one bifid. — (J. F. S.) The following notes are from personal observation of the method of attack on trees newly-felled in the neigh- bourhood of Isleworth : — The beetles appeared about the 19th of April, and after wandering about on the bark for a few days the workings were begun by each beetle boring a circular hole just large enough to admit it. Here it was shortly joined by a companion, and pairing took place. At about half an inch at most from the entrance, instead of carrying the tunnel straight forward (as with those of the Elm-bark Beetle), the workings forked, and the two galleries were carried on to right and left, until, in about five weeks they were at their full length, and the working was shaped much like a T with a short stem. During this time one beetle was usually to be found in each of the side galleries, but occasionally they were together. ASH-BARK BEETLE. 175 By the 4th of July most of the parent beetles "were dead in their buiTows, and a few of the grubs hatched from the eggs which had been laid along each side of the tunnels had begun their borings ; about three weeks later these larval tunnels were to be found completed, and pupge were then fairly numerous in the cells formed by each larva at the end of its gallery. The beetles began to appear about the 10th of August : each beetle as it developed eating its way out, and soon, from the number of these perforations, giving the bark an appear- ance as if it had been riddled by shot-holes. — (' Entomo- logist.') Prevention and Eemedies. — The damage caused by these beetles is chiefly to decayed or sickly trees, or to young trees ; the attacks on felled trunks are only of importance by serving to propagate the pest. Attention to suitable locality and soil, and such management as may keep the trees in health, is the best method of prevention. The Ash has a large number of lateral fibrous roots, and likes "a good dry soil within reach of water." "A free loam with a mixtm'e of gravel" is considered suitable, but a boggy soil or low swampy ground, or stiff clay, are not suitable to its continuous healthy growth. Judicious thinning and removal of injured or infested branches are important matters. The Ash likes shelter, but if plantations are allowed to run on too long without thinning, it suffers much from the sudden exposure ; and where dead or dying boughs have not been removed, these attract insect- attack, which spreads till the ruin of the whole tree ensues. Careful removal of dead, or decaying, or sickly boughs, or such as are suffering from insect-attack, is highly desirable. Where felled wood is found to be attracting attack (which may be easily known towards the end of April by the little heap of chips lying at the mouth or below the 176 ASH. mouth of each beetle-burrow) the removal of the bark is a sure remedy. If, however, barking is a heavier operation than is wished, a good thick coat of mud laid on the timber and well rubbed into all the crannies is a very fair protection, particularly if some paraffin is stirred into the mud before application. With regard to attack on live trees, this should be watched for between the middle of April and of May, and if chips are found to be thrown out from small burrows about as large as a shot-hole, measures should be immediately taken. The best method is probably to set a man with ladder and pail, to rub a good coat of soft-soap into accessible parts of the tree by means of a common scrubbing-brush, or in any other way that may be more convenient. In a case like this, where the season of attack probably only lasts for a short time and the injury is often to a few trees, it is well worth while to stop it at once ; and a coating of any substance that is offensive to the insect, and, like soft-soap, chokes up its breathing-pores, clings to its limbs, and fills up its boring, is very serviceable. Any application which is not injurious to the tree, and will gradually be washed off by the rain, will be of use ; and probably (as these Bark-feeding Beetles do not frequent dung) a thorough coating of cow-dung mixed with clay and water, and laid on thickly with a long- handled whitewasher's brush, would answer well. Ash-bark Scale. Chionaspis fraxini. This Scale-insect is sometimes to be found in large numbers on the bark of Ash trees, infesting the parts which are still soft enough for it to pierce with its sucker, by which means it injures the tree both by drawing away the sap and also by the innumerable punctures it makes into the tissues. The Scales containing the female and her eggs are ASH-BARK SCALE. 177 white, of a soft papery consistency, and from their soft texture and the large numbers fixed side by side or partly on each other are often compressed into all kinds of irregular shapes. When perfect they are somewhat mussel-shaped, but rather broader for their length, and without much difference in the shape of the two sides. Scale, containing female and eggs ; egg. showing larva within ; female, ranch shrivelled; all much magnified. Scales on bark, slightly magnified. On raising this Scale during the winter months the shrivelled body of the female will be found beneath, towards the smallest extremity, the rest of the space being filled with a multitude of crimson eggs containing the young Scales, which may be seen with a high magnifying power, as figured above, through the trans- parent membrane of the egg. The mother-insect in my specimens was too much shrivelled for the parts to be clearly distinguishable, but appeared (as usual with female Scale-insects) to be a mere fleshy mass, with a sucker so far beneath it as to seem to arise from the breast, and without legs or wings. Amongst the mussel-shaped Scales were others onlj^ about a third of then- length, and with parallel sides, which, from com- parison with other species, I presume to be the pupa of the winged male ; but my observations being taken in winter, and this Ash-bark Scale being rarel}^ studied, I am not able to give its complete life-history. N 178 ASH. Pkevention and Eemedies. — Where this Scale occurs on trees in nurseries it is desirable to clear it, which may be done by the use of any of the applications mentioned under the head of "Apple Scale," such as. brushings with soft-soap, &c. ; or if only a few trees are attacked it is well to cut them down and burn them, to^ keep the attack from spreading, as, though not material at first, in time it affects the health of the tree. Little information is given as to causes disposing to attack, but in the case of specimens forwarded from West Gloucestershire, the infested Ash grew in a wet, tenacious, lias clay, sometimes completely sodden with moisture, and precisely the situation considered to bo prejudicial to healthy growth of the tree. — (J. U.) 179 BIKCH. Bud Gall-Mite. Phytoptus (? sp.) Infested buds, magnified; Gall-mite and egg, much magnified. The diseased growths formed of irregular masses of twigs sometimes nearly a yard long, which are often seen hanging from Birch-boughs, and are commonly known as "Witch Knots," or "Witches' Brooms," are caused by this Gall-mite. Gall-mites, or PhytoptidcB, are a subfamily of the order Arachnoidea; of quite a distinct class from insects, and easily distinguishable from them (in any stage of insect- life) by having two pairs of legs ; but as they are the cause of a good deal of injury to plant-life, it seems desirable just to mention them. The Gall-mite of the Birch is so minute as to be imperceptible to the naked eye, except when collected in masses ; when magnified it appears as figured above ; dull white, long and cylindrical in shape, much wrinkled transversely, and furnished with two pairs of legs placed together near the foremost extremity, which can hardly be called the head, but contains the feeding apparatus by which the various species of Gall-mites cause much injury to the soft surface of young leaves or other part of their food-plants. 180 BIRCH. The eggs may be found at various seasons during the whole year, for I have found them with the Gall- mites hatching from them amongst diseased bud-scales in February, and at the end of August eggs were still to be found. The formation of the Witch-knots begins with a diseased growth of the Mite-infested bud, which is distinguishable by its swelled, irregular loosely-opened api^earance, from the smooth and pointed shape of the buds in healthy condition ; in the next stage (also in figure) the attacked shoot is thickly covered by the buds, which in healthy growth would have been distributed at distances of some inches along it. As time goes on, repeated forkings of the twigs from these unhealthy and infested buds, and from successive growths of the same kind, give rise to the knotted and confused masses known as Witches' Brooms. Some- times these make little progress, and the knot merely resembles a rough mass like an old rook's-nest thrown down and hanging loosely from the Bii'ch -bough ; sometimes the twigs regain healthy growth, and pushing on for as much as a yard in length form a pendant mass of some beauty, from the delicacy and gracefulness of the sprays. The formation of the Witch-knots was first traced to the action of PliyUypti in England in 1877 (see papers in ' Entomologist ' and in ' Gardeners' Chronicle ' for that year) ; and it was stated by Mr. A. Murray, in his comments on the observations, that the Plii/toptus above described which infests the buds is quite distinct from the species producing the appearance on the back of the leaves known by Schumacher as Erineum hetidiimm, and as far as I am aware it has not yet received a specific name. It is of considerable interest as producing a diseased growth of the twigs, whereas most of the Phytopti simply feed on or produce diseased growths of the soft tissues of the leaves. — (' Entomologist, 'and ' Gard. Chron.') BUD GALL-MITE. 181 Prevention and Eemedies. — Witches' Brooms should be cut off and burnt, and in cases where the tree is much infested with the small gradually-forming tufts of diseased growth it is desirable to cut it down and burn the Mite-infested twigs. The Gall-mites have no power of flying, but the wind wafts them about on leaves or broken twigs, or birds carry them in their plumage, and when once well established the attack spreads regularly onwards (as may be seen on the roadside trees at Spring Grove, near Isleworth), slowly but steadily to the neighbouring Birches. Note. — The Black Currant and the Filbert are some- times injured by Gall-mites, known respectively as Phijtoptus ribis and Calycophthora avellance. The presence of these may be known by the swollen and partly-opened condition of the bud, like that figured at the end of the shoot. In these cases it would be desirable, if possible, to clear away the bushes or the boughs that are infested; probably all the various remedies or means of prevention for attack of Red Spider, such as dressings of quick-lime or gas-lime beneath the bushes, stirring the surface soil, and measures of good cultivation generally, would be of service. In the worst instances that I have seen of Gall-mite infested buds on Filberts, the bushes appeared to have been neglected for several years, and were also overshadowed by trees. 182 ELM. Elm-bark Beetle. Scoli/tns destructor, Oliv. Beetle, magnified ; and beetle and maggot workings in Elm bark. This beetle is well known as causing much injury to Elm trees by means of the galleries that it bores between the bark and the wood, mainly in the soft inner bark, but so as also to leave just a slight trace of the working on the surface of the wood. The females may be seen early in June, making their preparations for egg-laying by working their way along the bottom of cracks in the bark, which they widen for ELM-BAEK BEETLE. 183 some distance before beginning to burrow, so that the real opening of the galleries may be at some distance from the heap of rejected matter or little heap of wood- dust that marks the first point of entrance. The male is present for only a short time after the bmTow is begun, before egg-laying commences. The burrow of the parent beetle is usually about three to five inches long, and takes about three weeks to form. The eggs are laid along each side of it, and are a hundred and upwards in number. As many as a hundred and sixty have been observed. The young grubs, when hatched, start at right angles from the parent gallery, and gnaw their way onwards, the burrows gradually increasing in size and curving to allow room for the growing size of the tenant (as shown in the fig.) Most of the larvae are full fed towards the end of July, when some turn to pupae at the end of their burrows, and the beetles from these pierce the bark and come out from the tree during August. The greater number, however, of the grubs, appear to form a little chamber either just within the wood or in the thick bark, where they pass the winter, and come out as beetles about the end of May ; thus, in case of the bark being removed or falling from the tree, although the beetle-maggots in the open galleries beneath it are exposed, to be cleared off by the birds, the others buried in their chambers, with the openings stopped up by the rejected matter, are safe from attack. The maggot is whitish, curved, tapering bluntly to the tail, fleshy, much wrinkled across, and legless. The beetles are black, 1|- to 3 lines long, with rounded rough head and reddish horns ; wing-cases rounded at the sides, and cut short at the tip, pitted lengthwise with rows of dots, with irregular punctures between, glossy, and sometimes of a pitchy colour or rusty red ; abdomen cut short, slantwise beneath ; legs pitchy ; feet reddish. It has been observed that these beetles prefer a tree that has already been attacked rather than a young and 184 ELM. vigorous one, and it is easy to tell where thej^ are or have been present by the great number of small holes, as if the bark had been pierced by shot or holes made by a bradawl, and also (whilst the beetles are boring their way out) by the wood-dust observable on the bark, or fallen on the ground beneath the openings of their burrows. The cn-cumstance of Scolt/tus attack, and sickly growth of the tree or decay of the bark occurring together, has given rise to much discussion as to whether the Scolijtm attack caused the decay, or weakened health induced attack. It is observed by Dr. Chapman, from whom I take much of the above life-history (see ' Entomologist's Monthly Magazine,' 1869, pp. 126, 127), that healthy growing trees are supposed to repel the attacks of this genus of beetles by pouring sap into their burrows. He notes that in the case of the Scolytiis pruni he had observed "burrows less than one inch long, some of which, containing a few eggs already laid, had been abandoned uncompleted by the beetles, apparently on account of the presence of a fluid which must have been sap, as no rain had fallen to account for it." — (Ent. Mo. Mag. ; Illus. Brit. Ent. ; &c.) Prevention and Remedies. — The best method of remedy aj^pears to be that adopted with great success in France by M. Robert, after careful observation of the circumstances which stopped the operations of the female beetle wdien gnawing her gallery for egg-laying, or which disagreed with or destroyed the maggots, and is based in part on similar observations of the effect of flow of sap to those noticed in England by Dr. Chapman. It appeared, on examination, that the grubs died if they were not well protected from the drying action of the air ; on the other hand, if there was a very large amount of sap in the vegetable tissues that they fed on, this also killed them, and it was observed that, when the female was boring through the bark, if a flow of ELM-BAKK BEETLE. 185 sap took place she abandoned the spot and went else- where. It was also noticed that the attack (that is, the boring of the galleries which separates much of the bark from the wood), is usualty mider thick old bark, such as that of old Elm trunks, rather than under the thinner bark of the branches. Working on these obser- vations, M. Kobert had strips of about two inches wide cut out of the bark from the large boughs down the trunk to the ground, and it was found that where the young bark pressed forward to heal the wound, and a vigorous flow of sap took place, that many of the maggots near it were killed, the bark which had not been entirely undermined was consolidated, and the health of the tree was improved. Working on from this M, Robert tried the more extended treatment of paring ofl' the outer bark, a practice much used in Normandy and sometimes in England for restoring vigour of growth to bark-bound Apple trees, and noted by Andrew Knight as giving a great stimulus to vegetation. M. Robert had the whole of the rough outer bark removed from the Elm (this may be done conveniently by a scraping-knife shaped like a spokeshave). This operation caused a great flow of sap in the inner lining of the bark (the liber), and the grubs of the Scolytus beetle were found in almost all cases to perish shortly after. Whether this occurred from the altered sap disagreeing with them, or from the greater amount of moisture round them, or from the maggots being more exposed to atmospheric changes, or any other cause, was not ascertained, but the trees that were experimented on were cleared of the maggots. The treatment was applied on a large scale, and the barked trees were found, after examination by the Commissioners of the Institute at two difl'erent periods, to be in more vigorous health than the neighbouring ones of which the bark was untouched. More than two thousand Elms were thus treated. This account is abridged from the leading article in the * Gardener's Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette ' for 186 ELM. April 29, 1848, and the method is well worth trying in our public and private parks. It is not expensive ; the principle on which it acts as regards vegetable growth is a well known one, and as regards insect health it is also well known that a sudden flow of the sap that they feed on, or a sudden increase of moisture round them, is very productive of unhealthiness or of fatal diarrhoea to Tegetable-feeding grubs. A somewhat similar process was tried by the Botanic Society in 1842 on trees infested by the Scoltjtus destructor in the belt of Elms encircling their garden in the Eegent's Park, London; "it consists in divesting the tree of its rough outer bark, being careful at the infested parts to go deep enough to destroy the young larva, and dressing with the usual mixture of lime and cow-dung." This operation was found very successful, and details with illustrations were given in a paper read in 1848 before the Botanic Society. Various applications have been recommended, such as brushing the bark of infested trees with coal-tar or with whitewash, in order to keep off the beetle attack. Any- thing of this kind that would make the surface unpleasant to the beetle would certainly be of use so long as it was not of a nature to hurt the tree, and if previously the very rugged bark was partially smoothed it would make the application of whatever mixture might be chosen easier and more thorough. Anything that would catch the beetles, either going into or out from the bark, like coal-tar, would be particularly useful, and probably strong-smelling and greasy mix- tures, such as fish-oil soft-soap, would do much good. Washing down the trunks of attacked trees has not been suggested,, but, looking at the dislike of the female beetle to moisture in her burrow, it would be worth while, in the case of single trees which it was an object to l)reserve, to drench the bark daily from a garden-engine for a short time when the beetles were seen (or known by the wood-dust thrown out) to be at work forming burrows for egg-laying. GOAT MOTH. 187 The possibilit}' of candying out the important point of clearing away or treating infested standing trees depends, of course, on local circumstances ; but, whatever care is exercised in other ways, it is very unliliel}^ that much good wall be done in lessening attack so long as the inexcusable practice continues of leaving the felled trunks of infested Elms l^'ing, witli their hark still on, when containing myriads of these maggots, which are all getting read}^ shortly to change to perfect beetles, and to fly to the nearest growing Elms. Such neglected trunks may be seen in our parks and rural wood-yards all over the country, where, without dilficult}", the hand may be run under the bark so as to detach feet and yards in length from the trunk all swarming with white Scolijtus maggots in their narrow galleries. This bark, with its contents, ought never to be permitted to remain. Where it is loose it may be cleared of many of the maggots by stripping it off and letting the poultry have access to it ; or, if still parti}" adhering, it may be ripped from the wood by barking tools, and burnt, but it is a tangible and serious cause of injury ; and if our landed proprietors were fully aware of the mischief thus caused to their own trees and those of the neighbourhood they would quickly get rid of it. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' Ed., &c.) Goat Moth. CossHs Uijnipenla, Fab. The caterpillars of this Moth are injurious to many kinds of our timber and fruit trees, as Elm, Ash, Oak, Beech, Lime, Willow, Poplar, Apple, Walnut, &c., by gnawing large galleries in the live wood. The Moth lays her eggs in crevices in the bark com- monly at the lowest part of the tree, and the caterpillars which hatch from these eggs feed at first in the bark, or between the bark and the wood ; as they grow stronger they eat their way into the wood, and form chambers and 188 ELM. galleries of various size and width, some as large as a man's finger. The caterpillar is three inches long (or mroe), of a yellow colom- with a black head, two black spots on the ring behind the head, and either a row of dark reddish patches or a stripe of the same colour along the back ; when young it is of a more fleshy colour. It has the power of exuding an oily fluid from its mouth with a remarkably pungent goat-like smell, whence the name of the moth. Infested trees may often be known by this disagreeable smell, and sometimes by heaps of dirt or wood-dust thrown out by the caterpillars lying below the entrance to their burrows. Sometimes the workings of the caterpillar are shown by a dark wet patch formed just below the entrance by the sap oozing from within. Guat Moth. During the winter they lie quiet, otherwise they feed for a period of three years, and, when ready to change, form cocoons of little bits of wood roughly spun together just inside the entrance of their burrows, in which they turn to a reddish brown chrysalis. Shortly before the moth is ready to emerge the chrysalis forces itself partly through the cocoon, where the empty case remains sticking out from the tree, and is a useful guide as to infested timber. GOAT MOTH. 189 The moth is upwards of three inches in the spread of the fore wings, which are mottled with ashy white, and rich brown with many irregular black streaks and mark- ings ; the hinder wings are of a more dingy colour, with the markings less distinct ; the head duskj^ brown ; body ;^ Young caterpillar, and chrysalis. between the wings marked across with dark brown and grey or ochreous ; the abdomen brown and grey in alternate rings. It is to be seen at the end of June and beginning of July. — (Loudon's 'Arboretum,' 'Brit. Moths,' &c.) Pre\'ention and Eemedies. — The moths are heavy and sluggish, and may be taken easily by hand as they rest quietly during the day on the bark of the tree out of which they hatched. The caterpillars sometimes leave the trees, and may be found straying about in May and in the autumn, and in such case they should always be destroyed ; but generally (as above mentioned) they change to chrysalids at the entrance of their burrows, and where trees are known to be infested these reddish chrysalids should be looked for during June or earlj^^ in July. Any mixtm-e that can be laid on the tree, so as to prevent the moth laying her eggs on the bark, is useful, and a thick coating of clay and cow-dung has been found 190 ELM. to answer well. It is a point worth consideration that the conditions needed for the existence of the live timher- feeding and the dung-feeding caterpillars are so totally different, that the instinct of the mother insect will almost certainly keep her from depositing eggs on unsuitable material ; consequently, in the case of the Goat Moth and in many other kinds of insects producing wood-horing caterpillars, a good coating of cow-dung, mixed with enough clay to make it tenacious, would he a very useful application. Whale-oil (or fish-oil) soft-soap, is also stated to be a good protection, used as follows : — Several pounds of the soft-soap are mixed in a pail with warm water to about the consistency of thick paint ; the operator, who is also supplied with a bag of sand and a coarse cloth, dips the cloth in the soap and sand and rubs the bark thoroughly, and then, with a painter's brush, lays on a thick coat of oil. This treatment is a good means of preventing ovi- position, and also of rubbing off or destroying eggs that may have been laid on the bark ; but the application of oil afterwards is less desirable, relatively to the chance of hurting the tree. If only applied to old thick bark it probably would do no harm, but, where the outside of the bark had still any life in it, it would be injured by the pores being choked up. The same difficulty occurs in the use of tar ; it is often a most serviceable means of prevention when used in moderate quantity, or only on old bark, but if applied over too large a surface, or on young bark, or again, if exposure to hot sunshire should melt the tar, and so allow it to sodden into the bark, it causes much injury. The caterpillars may be diminished in number by crushing them in their holes with a thick strong wdre ; a glance at the state of the end of the wire when it is withdrawn from the hole will show whether the cater- pillar has been reached or not. If the direction of the hole admits of the caterpillar being dragged out by a finer wire doubled at the end, so as to form a kind of hook, this plan is also serviceable. GOAT MOTH. 191 Paraffin injected by a sharp-nozzled syringe with as much force as possible into the holes where the cater- pillars are working is a good remedy (M. D.) ; and any fluid poisonous to the caterpillar, or which would make the wood of its hole poisonous or distasteful to it for food, would be serviceable, as tobacco-water, or a solution of soft-soap. The fluid might also be easily injected by means of a gutta-percha tube, of which one end was fitted on the sharp nozzle of a syringe and the other passed a little way up the hole. The fumes of sulphur blown into the hole are very effective in destroying the caterpillars of the Leopard Moth (M. D.) ; and probably this application, or a strong fumigation of tobacco, would be equally serviceable in the case of the Goat Moth caterpillars. Where a tree is much infested, it is the best plan to cut it down, split it, and destroy the caterpillars within ; as many as sixty or more caterpillars may be taken from one tree, and when in this state it will never thoroughly recover, and it becomes a centre to attract further attack, as well as one to spread infection. " The green woodpecker preys on these caterpillars, and its stomach, on dissection, has an intolerable stench."— (J. 0. W.) 192 LARCH Larch Aphis. „ "Bug." I Chennc's lands, lisii-tig. „ "Blight."] Female, with eggs, winged specimen, and larva; all magnified. Twig, with females and eggs, slightly magnified. The attack of this Aphis, known also as Larch Chermes, Larch Bug, or Larch Bhght, causes injury by means of the insects in all their stages piercing the tender bark or leaves of the Larch with their suckers, and drawing away the sap. It occurs on old as well as young trees, but is most injurious to the latter by reason of the larger proportion of the tree liable to attack. The Chermes laricis never produces living young ; it propagates entirely by eggs, and when the Larch-leaves are beginning to appear in the spring, the mother Chermes may be seen at the base of the leaf-knots along the Larch twigs, laying the eggs which will give rise to the successive generations of the year. These eggs are oval, and furnished with a kind of hair-like stalk ; of a yellow or yellowish purple colour at first, which deepens in tint towards hatching-time to a dark violet. They LAKCH APHIS. 193 are laid slowly) sometimes at the rate of about five a day), and more or less covered up with a kind of powdery down removed off herself by the mother, and gradually are piled round and over her till she is half-buried in them, and in hardening drops of turpentine which she constantly exudes with a kind of pumping motion. This female, the mother of the colony, is of the shape figured above, greatly magnified ; wingless, with short legs, and a strong sucker ; dusky violet in colour, becoming darker with age, and more or less covered with a white powdery or cottony secretion. The legs and sucker are dark, or black. The young soon hatch ; eggs may be found in the south of England in course of laying on the 2'2nd of April, and twigs swarming Avith young at the beginning of May. These are of the shape figured above, with distinctly-formed head and horns ; trunk (or thorax) with six legs ; and abdomen : at first they are of a l^owdery black, or violet, with several rows of tubercles along the abdomen, and (though Hot showing as clearly) also along the trmik ; afterwards they change " to an olive-3'ellow or clear olive-green, with horns, legs, and sucker darker olive-green or olive-brown." — (C. L. K.) These disperse themselves over the leaves, and, piercing into them with their suckers, begin the work of mischief, and the infested shoots may be known by the Ckermes scattered over the leafage, like little black or darkish specks bearing bunches of white down. Later on — about the middle of May — fully-developed winged as well as wingless specimens may be seen : the winged females of the shape figm-ed, of a yellowish tint, with brown head and horns, and various brown markings ; and with wing- veins of a j-ellowish green. The reader is requested to notice that the long vein forked at the end, placed at the fore edge of the upper wing, has only ttco side veins from it : this veining of the wings is characteristic of the tribe Chermisime, and distinguishes it from the three other tribes of the Aphidiche (for details of wings, see "Aphides" in Index). 194 LARCH. The Chermes-attack continues, or may continue, unless checked by weather or special circumstances, till August or later, and the last laid eggs of the year produce again the large shapeless "Mother Chermes," the foundress of the family of each successive year, which lives through the winter, and in spring lays her eggs as above described. Descriptions of the male Chermes have been given, but our best authorities on the subject consider that at present it has not been observed. — (' Mon of Brit. Aphides,' ' Die Pflanzenlause,' and observations by Ed.) Prevention and Eemedies. — The following remedies have been of service in checking attack of Larch Bug when already commenced : — A note is given of a plot of young Larches planted in nursery-ground a year previously, which became so badly infested with "bug" in May that they appeared as if covered with mould, with the sap exuding over the stems, so that the shoots were soft and supple, and the plants becoming rapidly exhausted. These were watered over head with dilute paraffin, in the proportion of a wine- glassful of paraffin to a watering-can full of water, and the first application checked the depredations of the Bug. The waterings were repeated at intervals of three or four days, for about three weeks, when the j)lants were entirely cleared of the Bug, and assumed a healthy and vigorous appearance. The application was found similarly serviceable in clearing Pine Bug, and in no way injm'ious to the trees when applied judiciously. — (J- ^•) . . The following remedies have proved efficacious in destroying "Bug," and preventing attack on Larch and Silver Fir. One method is as follows : — To every thirty- six gallons of water add half a pound of perchloride of mercm-y ; with this the infested trees are drenched in the early summer, when the sap is flowing freely ; a dry day is preferred for the operation, as it gives time for the LARCH APHIS. 195 solution to soak thoroughly into the bark. This has been ai:)plied to ornamental trees and plants in the nursery, and it is noted that trees operated on in 1873 continued, at the time of writing (1880), free from the "bug" and in thriving condition. This application requires to be in careful hands, being poisonous ; Wood- peckers that fed on the poisoned insects were destroyed by it ; and especial caution is given against using it to fruit-trees.— (D. F. M'K.) Another method found serviceable was the use of lime-water prepared and a^jplied thus : — One hundred- weight of best lime-shell to eighty gallons of clear water: slake the shells in the water, and allow it to stand for a week ; drain off the clear liquid, and wash or syringe the infested trees. This was found to clear the tree thoroughly of the Bug and eggs. The trees appeared to be a little sickened for a time, but all recovered. Washing with lime and water was also found to answer both as a remedy and means of prevention, but made the tree unsightly. — (D. F. M'K.) The use of quick-lime, in a plantation of Larches from eight to twelve feet high, is noted as "very disagreeable, and only partially successful." Tobacco-liquor is also mentioned as being applied for Aphis-attack to Silver Firs, the solution being rubbed on the tree and branches ; this was more successful than the lime, but more expensive and difficult of application. — (J. M'L.) Looking at the good effects both of tobacco and of soft- soap for general use in clearing off Aphides, it is probable that some of the Hop-washes in which these are combined (and which might be easily applied by a garden-engine) would be very serviceable. The following recipe from amongst those given under the head "Hops" is simple, and found reliable for regular use in the Hop-gardens : — To thirty-six gallons of water in a copper add sixty pounds of soft-soap, then add either fourteen pounds of bitter aloes or two pounds of tobacco, and boil together. For use add thirty-six gallons of water to every gallon of this liquid. — (J.W.) 196 LARCH. The common fish-oil soft-soap manufactm-ed by Messrs. Gibbs for use in the Hop-grounds may be purchased at ten to twelve shillings per firkin of sixty pounds. Paris green (arsenite of copper) is a more expensive application, being sixpence per pound, but it might be worth trying mixed with dry lime. The proportion used for dressing Potatoes is one part of the green to twenty of lime ; it should, however, not be entrusted to any but thoroughly careful hands, being a deadly iioi son. In dealing with the Larch Bug we have advantage, from its flocky coat, as washings and dressings, especially those of a sticky nature, clog the down, and thus take good effect. The amount of the presence of this CJtermes (like that of other Aphides) appears to depend partly on such states of the weather and local atmospheric surroundings of the trees as may be suitable for increase of the insect, partly on the health of the trees, and also on their neighbourhood, to such as are infested. Late frosts are noted as being injurious to the Larch, and favourable to increase of the "Bug"; this, pre- sumably, for the same reasons as in other cases of Aphis-attack, that late frosts commonly accompany clear skies, with bright sunshine by day, and the sudden alternations of heat and cold are unsuitable for healthy growth, but cause a condition of sap suitable to the Aphides. In 1880, in which year the "Blight" was very prevalent, it was observed in connection with frost in June, and with hard dry winds ; and looking back to published records of former years, it is noticed as "most prevalent when the frosts were very severe late in the season." The health of the Larch depends greatly on local conditions ; it suffers from drought and from exposure of its roots to sunshine, and also from a stagnant wet soil. Although it requires a constant supply of moisture for its roots, this moisture must be fresh, and free ; and it needs a clear dry atmosphere, with great amount of sunshine for its leaves. LARCH APHIS. 197 A position amongst broken rock, with plenty of good loam, either on the side of a ravine or so placed that water may constantly trickle by, may be considered the tyjDC of what is most suitable for its growth ; in its natm^al habitats it thrives best on declivities connected with summits of perpetual snow, by the thawing of which the plants are fed, and where their heads are well exposed to sunlight. It has been pointed out by Prof. DeCandolle that the fine slender Larch leaves having less surface for action (that is, for elaboration of sap) than those of other deciduous trees, the action of the surface requires to be greater in proportion, to keep the tree in health ; and from this, and also from observation of the localities in which Larch thrives, he shows the desirableness of a clear dry atmosphere, with plenty of sunlight, and freedom from fogs and damp which tend to diminish the evaporation from the leaves necessary for the health of the tree ; and — to give a single instance — it is noted that at a height near Geneva (not less than that at which fine Larches were to be found) the trees did not thrive near the lake and river, whilst in the dry air of the Alps they prospered. It appears plain that any cause, great or small, that induces a damp stagnant atmosphere, or want of light round the Larches, will produce ill-health, and in such situations the Larch Bug thrives. We may do something to diminish the amount of attack by planting on proper soil, and especially avoiding such flat moorish land as is likely to cause stagnation of moisture in the ground ; and also by thinning Larch plantations in time, so as to allow as much sunshine as possible on the leaves ; and all overtopping by deciduous trees should be carefully avoided. Hopelessly-attacked trees should be felled and all the twigs burnt, to avoid spread of attack ; and in nurseries it might be worth while, besides the dressings given when the Bug is seen to be present, to give one or two thorough drenchings with soft-soap towards the middle 198 LAKCH. or end of August, to deter attack when the eggs for next year's "mother Chermcs'" are being laid. With regard to such connection as may exist between "Larch BHght" and the diseased cancerous formations known as " Larch BHster," we have no certain knowledge at present. The causes mainly under consideration as giving rise to this great evil are four : — fungus ; frost-bite ; " Blight," or Chermes-attack ; and deranged circulation of the sap; and (without venturing to offer a definite opinion) many circumstances appear to point to this last, which may arise from any cause affecting the health of the tree, but especially from weather influences, such as rapid alter- nations of heat and cold, moisture in the air, and want of sufficiency of sunlight, as at least very possibly the cause of the blister. Prof. DeCandolle observes that, as an Alpine tree, the Larch is singularly free from disease, and the trunks re- markably healthy ; and that, though sometimes Larches may be seen having a wound of "resinous cancer," it seems to proceed from some accidental cause, such as a blow when the tree was in full sap ; and after noting that he considers the cause of diseases in British Larches must originate from some difference in the physical structure or culture of British or Alpine-grown trees, he observes : — " The want of a sufficiently intense light, owing to the obliquity of the solar rays, and to the opacity of the atmosphere ; and the over damp state of the latter, appear to me i^ermanent causes which, in your climate, must predispose the Larch to a kind of watery plethora." — (See Loudon's 'Arboretum,' vol. iv., p. 2384.) It has also been observed that a form of blister affects young trees after being transplanted, in which case also the regular circulation of the sap is disturbed. By examination of diseased specimens (although this is far from affording a complete view of all forms of the disease), the formation of the blister may be traced backwards, from the large open diseased wound, to the LAKCH APHIS. 199 swelling just bursting, and not yet burst ; and then (keeping as a guide the similarity of the diseased spots as shown microscopically) from a patch beneath the bark with no external swelling, to a few small spots connected by a canal, or to a single spot filled with brown disorganised tissue, which appears to me to be the origin of the evil. In these spots (as far as observable in all the specimens examined by means of a quarter-inch object-glass) there was no trace of mycelium, or of any kind of fungoid presence ; after a time, when the blister has become an open wound, it is impossible to say that Corticiiim amorpkum (from which "blister" has been conjectured to arise) or other fungoid growths may not be present, just as Peziza or other fungi may be found on the bark ; but in all the first states of the blister that I have examined, whilst still it had not burst into an open wound, there has not been any such presence. In these cases — that is, where the "blister" was originating from a mere speck — it differed markedly from the effect of ivo^i-hite on twigs of the same age, as the effects of the frost-bite which had then taken place a few weeks before affected the cells in the bark over a surface of several inches, and the condition of the many injm'ed cells in this case, and of the one or few diseased ones in the other, was very different. This observation merely refers to the complete frost-bite, not to effect of weather on health of the tree. Observations as to the state of the precise spot where the mother Clienncs has been noticed to be attached by her sucker during oviposition would give much in- formation as to whether any diseased state of tissues was set up by the irritation of suction ; when once the disease has taken the form of an open wound, it is very probable that the presence of manij of the Chermes sucking on such young diseased bark as they may find would increase the commenced disease; but the great point is the origin. This appears, as far as specimens show, to be not a 200 LARCH. growth, hut a death ; a spot or spots joined by canals filled with dead discoloured and disorganised tissue, which may exist for one, or possibly two or three seasons unseen beneath the bark, until the consequent stoppage of sap causes a swelled growth, and the diseased mass, composed of the discoloured cells and passages, and the tumid swellings, is set on foot ; and may be traced forward in section, increasing year by year from its starting-pomt.* * The above remarks on Larch blister are offered with hesitation, as venturing on a subject where those who have better opportunity than myself for observations are still in doubt, and therefore I take leave to mention that they are mainly based on specimens forwarded for exam- ination, or observations on Larch in West Gloucestershire ; but not having the opportunity of studying the subject in the large plantations of the North, with the thoroughness requisite for a knowledge of the different developments of the disease, and the different coincident cir- cumstance on which alone conclusions can be based, I merely give these points as all I have at present to offer. 201 LIME. BufF-tip Moth. l')/(j(fr(i hicephala, Stephens. Female iiioth , caterpillar, and pnpa. The caterpillars of this Moth feed on the leaves of the Lime and also on those of the Elm, Oak, and other trees, sometimes doing thereby serious damage. The eggs are laid during June or July, in patches of about thirty to sixty, mostly on the upper side of a leaf, and are distinguishable by being convex and white above, smoke-coloured and flat beneath, with a black dot in the middle of the convex part. The caterpillars hatch in about fourteen days, and at first feed in company on the skin of the upper side and on the pulp of the leaf. After eight days they undergo the first moult (that is, cast the skin for the first time), and separate into parties of eight or ten, which feed at the edge of a leaf, but, when resting, place themselves side by side on its surface. When full fed, which is towards the beginning of autumn, infested trees may be known by the twigs of the higher and outermost branches (or in bad attacks, almost the whole of the tree) being stripped of its leafage. 202 LIME. The caterpillars, when full grown, are about one inch and three-quarters long, and sprinkled with silky hairs ; the general colour yellow, with black head, black lines running from the head to the tail, interrupted by a transverse orange band on each ring, and a black horny plate above the tail-segment. When full fed they come down from the tree, and, without spinning any cocoon, they change at the roots of herbage, amongst fallen leaves, or on or just below the surface of the earth, to a dark brown chrysalis, with two spines at the tail. The moth (figured above, life-size) comes out in June. The fore wings are of various shades of pearly or purplish grey, with rusty coloured and black markings, and a yellow or buff patch at the tip, whence the moth takes its name of Buff-tip ; the hind wings are whitish, with a dusky cloud towards the middle. The head is ochreous, and the body between the wings and abdomen is also ochreous ; but variously striped or spotted with more dusky or rust-coloured tints. — ('Brit. Moths,' &c.) Prevention and Eemedies. — The method of getting rid of the caterpillars that is chiefly recommended is, to shake the infested boughs ; it is stated that, on this being done, they fall down "in a perfect shower" (E. N.) ; and when attack is found to have begun, this plan should be adopted at once. Any method by which the boughs or infested twigs can be shaken will answer, such as jarring the larger boughs with a pole, or throwing sticks or handfuls of gravel at such parts as may be out of reach ; but a better plan would be for a man to go up the tree, and, by means of a strong pole furnished at the end with a worn-down birch- besom, to shake all the infested boughs thoroughly, beginning at the uppermost and working downwards, so as to shake off the caterpillars that may have lodged in falling on the lower branches. The addition of this worn-down stump at the end of the pole makes it a much more effective instrument, for, by using it upright, BUFF-TIP MOTH. 203 the smaller boughs can be lifted up sharply, to come down with a jerk ; or a heavy blow can be given that will shake all twigs near without any injury to the tree, whilst in the case of the sharp knock of hard wood on soft bark given by the pole, much harm is apt to be done. Before beginning the operation, a good thick band of hay or straw, or cloth well tarred, should be put round the foot of the tree, to prevent the caterpillars getting up it again ; for directly they reach the ground they start on their return journey towards the trunk, and, unless they are stopjDed, will soon be once more at work on the leaves. All that fall to the ground should be crushed with the foot, or killed in whatever way may be most convenient ; and where a tree is much infested it would be worth while to spread large cloths or pieces of tarpaulin, or anything that might be preferred, beneath it, upon which they would fall, and from which they might be collected more easily than from the grass. The large size of this insect in all its stages and its habits throws it open to attack. "At the beginning of June these singular moths may be frequently found coupled in pairs on the trunks of Lime, Elm, and other trees, or on the herbage below them ; the truncate heads and closely-convolute wings giving each pair the appear- ance of a single piece of dead and dried stick." — (E. N.) By destroying the moths at this stage many future broods are got rid of. The chrysalids may be collected by children for a few pence, under or near trees where the caterpillars have been numerous ; and poultry also are of service, as they will search eagerly for them. When the caterj^illars are about to change, they are so conspicuous, from their bright colouring, large size, and habit of straying about everywhere in full daylight, that many might be captured and killed (as above mentioned) hj children. As the caterpillars come down the tree to the ground for then- change to chrysalids, it might be worth while to throw a few spadefuls of gas-lime or of anything they 204 LIME. would not cross, in a circle at about a yard or two from the tree ; or a rough band of any material soaked in tar, or tar and oil, which would keep wet longer, would stop them from straying off. It being matter of instinct for these caterpillars to come down to the ground for the change to the chrysalis state, probably few, if any, would return up the trunk, and they might be cleared in sufficient numbers as to considerably lessen futm-e attack. Lime-tree Mite. „ Red Spider. Tetrani/chus tilianim, Miill. ,, ttiarius, Claparede. Mite, greatly magnified; web with eggs (magnified), in dried state, and after being moistened. Opinions differ as to whether the Eed Spider of the Lime-tree is the common Eed Spider, T. telarius, or a distinct species, T. tiliarum (so named, from infesting the Lime), but which is also at times injurious to French Beans, and some other garden-crops. These Acari or Mites, which are of an orange-colour and too minute to be clearly discernible by the naked eye, excepting when heaped together, are of the shape figured above, enormously magnified, from specimens infesting Lime-trees at Walthamstow, to which they were exceedingly injurious in the autumn of 1880. LIME-TREE MITE. 205 From their extreme minuteness and transparency, the various parts show very indistinctly when magnified, and the nipping-jaws and sucker were not clearly visible. I have therefore only been able to give the general figure of the mite, with the peculiar long stiff hairs with knobs at the ends (which are believed to help the Ked Spiders in spinning) figured on those feet, on which they were distinguishable. These mites spin their webs over the trunks and branches, and beneath the leaves of the infested trees, giving a kind of glaze or silky lustre to the surface ; and on this web they can travel easily. They are to be found heaped like masses of living yellow dust at the foot of the tree, and those on the leaves congregate chiefly on the lower side, sometimes so thickly that none of the green colour of the leaf is visible. Here they draw away the juices with their suckers, and, though they are but small, there are so many of them that the leaves shrink and die from the injury. Pre\t:ntion and Kemedies. — The eggs may be found attached to the webs (see figs.), and it has been found that brushing the tree-stems hard and thoroughly, so as to remove the webs, is serviceable in some degree in clearing attack ; and would be still more so if some soft- soap was brushed in at the same time. With regard to the masses that congregate together at the base of the tree, something might be done by banking round at a few feet distance and a few inches high, and filling the space enclosed with mud made as thin as would be retained by the raised edge. The Ked Spider particularly dislikes moisture, and a few experi- ments would show what chemicals or other additions might be mixed with the mud, to poison as well as drown the pest. A liberal mixture of fish-oil soft-soap, so as to completely plaster round the foot of the tree and stick all wandering mites fast that touched it, could not fail to do good at a trifling cost ; but, excepting by such continuous 206 LIME. and thorough drenchings as it is scarcely possible to apply to large trees, it is most difficult to do anything for the infested leaves. The following recipe, however, might be of service : — Gas-water, three gallons, to which is added one pound of flour of sulphur ; these to be held over the fire whilst being mixed, and soft-soap added in such quantity as to make the mixture adhere. This may be applied to the branches by means of a painter's brush, and where remedies are needed on a large scale it may be diluted to the state in which it is a safe application, and the liquid thrown over the leaves by means of the garden- engine. Probably fifteen parts of water to one of the mixture would be quite safe, but this would require trial. This attack has been considered to follow peculiar atmospheric conditions, and its severe occurrence at Walthamstow last autumn was after heat and drought, which is generally favourable to Ked Spider. — (A. M., F. H., and Ed.) For life-history of T. telarius and general remedies, see Eed Spider on "Plum," and on "Hops." 207 OAK. Cockchafer. Mclolontha vuUjaris, Stephens. Larva and pupa of Cockchafer. Club of horn of niale Beetle (^) with seven leaves ; of female ( J ) with six leaves, magnified. The Cockchafer, known also as the May Bug, is injurious both in the larval and perfect state. As a grub it feeds under ground on the roots of grass, vegetables, and young trees ; as a beetle it feeds on the leaves of Oak, Elm, and other trees, sometimes entirely strij^ping the foliage. The eggs are white or pale yellow, and are laid (early in the summer) about six or eight inches below the surface of the ground, the female burrowing down to deposit them, and laying thirty or more, near together amongst the disturbed earth. The grubs are thick and fleshy, white or yellowish in colour, with strong jaws, and three pairs of legs ; and usually lie on one side, somewhat curved together, as figured above. At the commencement of spring they come up to within a few inches of the surface of the ground, where they feed on roots of growing plants ; and at the end of the thhd summer, when full fed, they again go down into the earth to a depth of two feet or 208 OAK. more, and change to piipas (as figured above) in oval cells. During the following winter they develop into the j)erfect Chafers, but do not come up through the ground until the next summer, that is, the fourth year since they were hatched, when they may be found as early as May hanging half-torpid or sluggish beneath the leaves during the day, and coming out on the wing during the evening, when they fly in search of their mates or feed on the foliage of the trees. The beetle is too well known to require description, but it may be observed it is about an inch in length, densely covered with down on the breast, and more or less throughout ; part of the front of the face and the wing-cases are rusty or brown, the latter having five raised lines running along each ; the abdomen is prolonged into a tip curved downwards, and marked at the sides with alternate triangular patches of black and snow-white ; and the horns are terminated by fans or clubs of seven leaves in the male, six leaves in the female. This Chafer is sometimes confused with the "July Bug," the "Small" or "Summer Cockchafer" {Rhiso- trogus solstitialis) , but the two may easily be distinguished by the " Summer Cockchafer" being much smaller than the "Common Cockchafer"; also it is hairy, has a blunt tip to the abdomen (not a prolonged tail), and the fan at the end of the horns has only three leaves. The grub of the Cockchafer is very like that of the Green Rosechafer {Cetonia aurata), but is distinguishable by having few or no hairs and by not having a rusty spot on each side of the first ring behind the head, which is plainly to be seen on the grub of the Rosechafer. — (J. 0. W., in 'Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' 'Illus. Brit. Ent.,' &c.) Prevention and Remedies. — When the May Bugs or Cockchafers appear in the large quantities sometimes recorded, as when eighty bushels are stated to have been COCKCHAFER. 209 collected on one farm ('Encyc. of Agriculture,' 2nd ed., -p. 1166), it is worth while to heat or shake them from the trees, preferring noon-time or early on a bright warm day, when the beetles are clinging beneath the leaves and are dull and sluggish. They may be shaken down on to large cloths spread beneath the tree, or may be swept together and destroyed, taking care in either case that the Chafers are collected before they have time to recover from the fall and take wing ; or, as pigs and poultry devour these beetles greedily, it would save trouble to drive them below the trees and shake the Chafers down to them. Poultry would take some time about the work, but pigs would make a rapid and effectual clearance. In field or garden cultivation, where many grubs are turned up by the spade or plough, some means should be taken for destroying them. Hand-picking by children is of use, but probably in the fields the pigs would be the better helpers. Their instinct and fondness for the grub makes them hearty and well-qualified searchers. Wild birds, such as Books and Sea Gulls, should on no account be driven off. The Black-headed or Peewit Gull follows the plough in the same manner as the Books, and feeds on Cockchafers both in the grub and beetle stages ; the Common Gull will go for miles inland to follow the plough in search of insects and grubs ; and the Nightjar, by "feeding almost entirel}^ on Cockchafers and moths" during the morning and evening hours, is also of great service. In pasture lands, where the grass has been seriously injured by Cockchafer grubs feeding on the roots, much service has been done by Books turning up the grubs and devouring them : in such cases the birds should be carefully protected from molestation ; they pull up little — if anything — more than the infested plant (which would have died), and are in this case almost our only means of clearing oft' these large grubs, which otherwise, excepting when changing their skins or torpid during severe cold, would continue feeding for three years. p 210 OAK. In garden cultivation, where the ground is infested, a tame Book is of much service. The bird will set to work as soon as it is introduced, and keep on steadily at the task, clearing the grubs from spots that could not be reached otherwise without injury to the plants. — (W. S.) From the circumstance of the Cockchafer grubs feeding amongst roots and giving no signs of their j)resence till the fading of the attacked plant draws attention to the injury going forwards, it is difficult to find any remedy, excepting by means of the insectivorous birds, which appear to have an instinctive knowledge of the position of the larva below the surface ; but wiiere examination of the roots of injured plants shows this grub to be present, it would be worth while to try the effect of good drenchings of some fluid, such as tobacco- w^ater (properly diluted), gas-water, fluid drainings from pigsties, or anything else preferred that would not be injurious to the plant, but would be sufficiently offensive to the grub to drive it from the roots. — (' Brit. Birds,' ' lUus. Brit. Birds,' &c.) Marble-Gall Fly. Cynips Kollari, Hart. L.'irva and pupa of Cynips; Cynips Kollari, magnified. Marble Galls. The " Marble Galls," figured above, seldom cause much injury, but they occasionally occur in such large MARBLE-GALL FLY. 211 numbers that they appear to be the most hurtful of the forty-two or more kinds of Galls which are to be found on Oaks in Great Britain. Oak galls infest all parts of the tree ; seventeen kinds occur on leaves, fifteen affect the formation of the buds, others occur on the bark, root, and catkins, one kind is to be found in the twigs, and one in the acorn ; but with the exception of the Marble-gall and the "Common Spangle" gall {Neiiroterus Unticidaris) , which sometimes so completely loads the back of the leaves as to cause premature withering, it does not appear that any kinds are materially hurtful. The females of these Gall-flies (which belong to the order Hymenoptera) are provided with a peculiar apparatus for egg-laying, by means of which they are able to insert one or more eggs with a small quantity of fluid into the part chosen for attack, and thus set up an irritation in the living tissues which causes the diseased growth, resulting in the shape of galls. In the case of the Cynips Kollari the egg is laid in the young bud when forming in the axil of the leaf, and the consequence is the globular growi:h of cellular tissue which we find (before the Marble-gall is mature), with the grub lying in the middle : towards autumn this changes to a pupa, similar to that figured above, and generally the Gall-fly comes out shortly after, but some- times not until the following year, or possibly even later. It is furnished with four transparent wings of the expanse marked by the line beneath the figure, the body and abdomen are of a rusty or ochreous brown, and the l)ase of the abdomen pitchy. As yet females only have been observed. This gall of the C. Kollari was noticed in such great numbers in the south-west of England, about the year 1854, as to give rise to an impression that it had then first appeared in this country ; and, from it being especially observed in Devonshire, the name of " Devon- shire gall" was bestowed upon it. Further investigation, however, showed that its presence had been noted 212 OAK. previously, and that the appearance was only remarkable for its great amount ; now it is widely spread throughout the country, and is to he found as far north as the hills of Bayndee, near Banff, and Eedcastle, in Koss-shire. Pkevention and Kemedies. — This gall is chiefly to be found on low-growing Oak — such as trees stunted by want of shelter from sea-blasts or by other causes ; Oak- bushes in underwood and hedgerows ; the shoots upon the stumps of felled trees ; and also on young trees, and is especially undesirable in Oak nurseries. It has been recommended to employ children to break off the galls before they are full-grown, and thus destroy the insect within in its maggot state ; but this is but a rough remedy, for the children would probably break off' every leaf with the gall attached. It would answer better in nursery management for a man furnished with a common j^enknife to go through the trees whilst the galls were still young, and with a touch of the knife remove the gall without injuring the leaf. The operation would be an effectual cure, and very rapidly performed. In cases where the galls are formed in clusters of three or four to perhaps eight or ten, it is desirable to cut the shoot off below the cluster. If the galls are cut off whilst they are still soft and young, there is no need to take the trouble to burn them ; they will dry and shrivel, and the maggot within will perish. The encouragement of the Tomtit, or Blue-headed Titmouse, and also of the Black-headed Titmouse, is an excellent means of pre- vention of increase of these Gall-flies in Oak nurseries. Where galls are numerous, these bu-ds are of great service, by making a rough hole in the gall and picking out the contained maggot. Other larvae or maggots, besides that of the Ciinips Kollari, are often to be found in these galls, sometimes what are known as "inquilines," or fellow-lodgers, which are dispersed in small cells through the substance of the gall ; sometimes parasite larvae, feeding on the larva of Cynijys Kollari in the large central cell. MAEBLE-GALL FLY. 213 The following list, taken from the ' Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette' for 1868, p. 295, gives the various species and varieties of Oak on which "the gall" was noticed by Mr. J. Barnes as plentiful at Bicton, in Devonshire, but without interfering with plentifulness also of the acorn-crop : — Quercus pedunculata. ,, australis. ,, dentata. ,, pendida. ,, puhcscens. ,, sessilifiora. ,, Loiiettii. ,, mongoUca. ,, xalapeiisis. Quercus Tauzin. ,, Turneri. ,, heterophylla, ,, alha. ,, inontana. ,, jiyrenaica. „ magna-maculata. ,, asplenifolia. ,, rnhra, dec. The following species or varieties, though growing contiguous to others infested by galls, had never been found to be similarly attacked : — Quercus laciniata nova, americana alba. Hodf/insii. jmlustris. Chinquapin, tinctoria. JEgilops. apennina. ccrris variegata Q uerc us a q uatica. Phellos. falcata. ambiqua. laurifolia. coccinea. h ctcrophylla minor. lietcrophiiUa vulgaris macrocarpa, c&c. Common Spangle Gall. Xeuroterus lenticularis, 01. The gall of the Xeuroterus lenticularis is distinguishable from the four other kinds of Spangle-gall found in Britain by its somewhat larger size, and also by being raised in the centre and hairy. It sometimes occm-s in great 214 OAK. quantities on the backs of Oak-leaves, but rarely to an extent to cause serious damaffe. Common Spangle Gall on Oak-leaf, nat. size and magnified; also in section, magnified. Oak Leaf-roller Moth. Toi-tn.v viridana, Stephens. The caterpillars of this moth cause serious injury from time to time in our Oak woods and forests, especially in the South of England, by feeding in such vast numbers on the young leaves as to strip the trees of their foliage, and thus retard the growth of the first shoots, and injure or entirely ruin the acorn crop of the season. The eggs are laid during the summer or autumn of the year preceding the attack of caterpillars, either on or in the leaf-buds, or on the boughs (opinions differ as to the precise spot) ; but in the following spring, when the Oak leaves are appearing, the caterpillars hatch, and sometimes swarm in myriads over the infested trees on many acres of ground. The caterpillars are at first greenish grey, or lead- colour ; when full grown they are dull green with dusky spots, and about half an inch long. They have the power of rolling the tip of the leaf and spinning it together into a cylinder (as figured), within which, when full-fed, they turn to chrysalids, but meanwhile, on alarm, or as matter of choice, they let themselves down OAK LEAF-ROLLER MOTH. 215 by scores or hundreds, by means of silken threads, for about seven or eight feet, and sway about as the wind may waft them beneath the infested boughs, catching on any passing object, and also a prey to many kinds of birds ; but, if nothing else happens, they crawl presently back again, each up its own line to the bough. The chrysalis is brown, and is formed in a silken cocoon on a leaf. The moth, which appears towards the end of June, is about an inch in the expanse of the fore wings, with the head, body between the wings, and fore wings, of a light Moth; caterpillars hanging from their threads ; and rolled leaf. green ; the hind wings are brownish, and the fringes of the wings, as well as a line on the front edge of the foremost pair, are whitish. — ('Brit. Moths,' Prak. * Insecten-Kunde,' &c.) Pre\"ention and PiEMEDiES. — From the circumstance of the eggs of this moth being so small as not to be observable on the tree, and also from the caterpillar attack (which sometimes extends over miles of woodland), occurring at irregular intervals without any previous signs to give warning of its approach, it appears im- possible, as far as is known at present, to apply any 216 OAK. remedy of general service, excepting such as may be found in the encouragement of the wild birds. In a very severe attack on the Oaks in 18'27 it was observed that the Willow Wrens and Whitethroats were useful in clearing the caterpillars ; the Chafdnch also ; and the House Sparrows "were indefatigable in search of them " ; and poultry searched under the trees for such as fell to the ground (Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc, Manchester, '2nd Series, vol. v.) Rooks, Jackdaws, Thrushes, Starlings, Titmice, Nuthatches, and Wood- peckers are said to be of use in the matter (E. L. T.) Eooks and Jackdaws have been especially observed as tlocking to the infested trees, and a second crop of leafage to be soon afterwards established. — (J. H.) In cases where only a single tree is attacked some- thing might be done to save it by sending a man, furnished wdth a new birch broom, into the branches, where, by starting ojDerations at the top and jarring the boughs, he would cause large numbers of the caterpillars to fall down, and, with the long fine twigs of the broom, could clear away those that floated at the ends of their threads, without hurting the young leaves, and thus much diminish the amount of attack. This plan would be worth trying in the case of any special tree that it was wished to save, but not for general use. In case of attack occurring on young trees it is probable that drenchings thrown powerfully at the foliage by large garden-engines, would be serviceable. Any of the washes of soft-soap — or soft-soap, sulphur, and gas-water — might be used, for which see Index. Note. — For Goat Moth {Cossus ligniperda), Wood Leopard Moth {Zeiizem .J^scvU), and Buff-tip Moth (Pygcera hucephala) , of which the caterpillars attack the Oak, see Index referring to them under the heads of the trees they more especially frequent. Many other insects also feed on the leaves, or in the wood or bark of the Oak, concerning which space does not allow details in the present volume. 217 PINE. Pine Beetle. Hyhuyus jdniperda, Curtis. I 1, 2, Pine shoots pierced by beetles, in section ; 3, 4, Pine Beetle, nat. size and magnified ; ee, jaws; fg, chin, ■nith feelers, &c. These beetles are destructive to Pine plantations (from those newly planted, at all stages of their growth, up to fifty years of age), by boring through the side of the tender shoots into the pith, and eating theii- way for an inch or two along the centre. This is done in summer, and in the following spring, during high winds, these shoots are blown off. The injury to side shoots by this means is considerable, but in the case of the leading shoot being thus lost the tree often becomes bushy- headed, its groT\i,h is retarded, and its ultimate value is reduced. — (W. M'C.) Some amount of injury is also caused by the tunnels which the beetles form in the under side of the bark for egg-laying, but they rarely select healthy trees if sickly ones are at hand, and chiefly frequent fallen wood, felled trunks, or dead or decaying trees and branches for this purpose. The female appears in April or May, and begins her oj)erations by boring a hole through the bark, beneath which she forms a gallery or tunnel of a little more than 218 PINE. her own width ; along each side of this she lays her eggs, from which the larvfe or maggots soon hatch, and each larva eats its way forward beneath the bark, thus forming a series of burrows, gradually getting larger towards the extremities, sometimes running nearly at right angles with the first (or mother beetle's) tunnel, at others bending in various directions (as figured, from near Blairgowrie, E. C.)- The burrows are eaten out of the under side of the bark, but often show just a trace of working on the outside of the wood lying against it. The maggots are about a quarter of an inch long, legless and fleshy, and largest in the rings behind the head, which is of an ochreous colour ; the rest of the maggot is whitish, with a light ochreous tint towards the tail. The maggots turn to pupae at the end of their tunnels, from which the beetles come out in July and August. The Pine Beetles are of the size figured above, and of the shape given more clearly in the magnified figure, of a pitchy colour when mature, but paler previously, rough, punctured, with longish hairs, and furnished PINE BEETLE. 219 with strong jaws. The wing-cases are rounde'd down at the sides, and cover a pair of wings capable of strong flight. In their first stage — that is, whilst they are still feeding as maggots — they do little harm, this part of their life being rarely passed in healthy trees ; it is after they are developed that the real work of destruction begins. Then they pierce a little round hole through the bark, at the end of their burrow, come out through it, and fly to the neighbouring trees, where they may be found in September in great numbers, boring into the young shoots and injming them, as above mentioned. Where the beetles pass the winter is not clearly proved ; it is considered by some observers that they shelter in rubbish and moss on the ground, or in crannies in old bark, and similar places, but it is also stated that they are to be found in standing trees, the resting-place where each beetle has gnawed a burrow into the soft outer wood being marked by a lump of turpentine which has oozed from the wound and hardened outside on the bark. We need more information on this matter ; but however this may be, it is clear the maggots feed and develoj) under the bark, and this is the point mainly to be looked to for means of jn-evention. — (' Keports of Inj. Insect Observations,' ' Prak. Insecten-Kunde,' &c.) Prevention and Eemedies. — " When j-oung Fir plan- tations are thinned, all the brush ought to be at once removed, or burned on the ground, as this beetle propa- gates in the deca3dng branches in legions. They ascend the standing trees and commit extensive ravages. When Fir thinnings are lotted within the plantations it is a very common practice to dress the bark off to lighten the carriage in transit. The dressing of the bark off should not be permitted within the plantation. In a year after I have seen, around these heaps of bark, the ground covered with green shoots blown from the young trees which had been pierced by this beetle." — (W. M'C.) " Pinching off the infested shoots and burning them is the best remedy in the case of small trees. Decaying 220 PINE wood or bark is the favourite breeding-place of the Pine Beetle (and troops of other noxious insects), and these should be systematically collected and burned in Pine woods to prevent the increase of insect pests." — (M. D.) Standing trees that are sickly should be observed, and, if found to be infested, should be felled and removed. In German forestry it has been advised to bark the trunks and large branches of Pines felled in forest clearings, and thus prevent any mischief from eggs laid by Pine Beetles that have been attracted to the spot. How far this plan may be desirable (or practicable) here does not appear, but the importance of clearing all dead and decayed timher, or Pine-nihhislt hrus]i, which may serve as breeding-places, cannot be too strongly insisted on. — ('Eeports of Injurious Insect Observation,' 1879, 1880, &c.) Pine-bud Tortrix Moth. Fu'tinia turionana, Hubn. ( hthotccnia turionana, Curtis. Pine-slioots injured by caterpillars of Tortrix. Pine-bud Tortrix, E. turionana, magnified, with lines showing natural size. The caterpillars of the Pine-bud Moth are injurious to Scotch Fir, Silver Fir, and various species of Pine, by PINE-BUD TORTRIX MOTH. 221 feeding in the buds, and especially inside the terminal bud of the leading shoot. By this means some of the buds are killed, and the leading shoot is often destroyed and its place taken by a side one, the uniform growth of the branches is interfered with. The moth appears during July, and lays her eggs on the buds of the young Firs (chiefly selecting those of from five to fifteen years old. — E. L. T.) ; the caterpillars hatch in about twelve days, and feed inside the buds. " At the end of October the caterpillar eats its way from below upwards into the strongest central bud, wdiich is by thtit time formed for the next year's growth, and there hybernates." — (V. K.) The caterpillars are usually about half an inch long, reddish or purplish brown, with brown or black head, and with dark bands on the segments ; or with one dark or black band across the segment next to the head. When spring returns they feed again till, at some time between April and June, they change to chestnut-brown chrysalids at the bottom of the chamber they have hollowed out in the bud. The moth hatches from these in July, and then may be seen resting on the Pine- stems, which it somewhat resembles in colour. The fore wings are from half an inch to a little less than an inch in expanse, and of rusty red colour (sometimes of a darker tint or of a tawny orange), varied with irregular silvery markings (see figure). The hinder wings are whitish grey in the male, darker towards the edge, wdiicli has a white fringe ; in the female they are grey throughout. — (' Naturgeschichte Schad. Insecten,' ' Prak. Insecten- Kunde.') The Pine-bud Moth (above mentioned) and the Pine- shoot Moth {Retitiia huoliana, mentioned below), which are species of Tortrix, resemble each other in so many points of appearance and habits that it is not always possible to ascertain which of the two species is referred to in observations of methods of attack. From the descriptions here quoted it appears that the II. tarionana. 222 PINE. is the smallest of the two moths, the caterpillars of which feed chiefly inside the buds, the feeding-season heing both in autumn and in the following spring. The caterpillar of the li. huoliana, which is stated to be the most injurious of the two kinds, feeds mainly in the spring of the year on the growing shoots, under a shelter of threads of its own spinning and hardenedturpentine. Pine-shoot Tortrix Moth. Retinia huoliana. These Moths are to be found during July about 3'oung Pine-trees of various kinds. The female lays her eggs between the buds at the ends of the boughs. The caterpillars which hatch late in the summer gnaw these so as to cause a How of turpentine that gives them a slight coating, and here the caterpillars hybernate. Their operations are first noticeable in the following spring when the trees begin their growth, after which the grubs attack the shoots nearest, or one side of them, and are to be found sheltered under a kind of web and the turpentine that flows from the wound. The caterpillars are at first of a dark brown, which changes to a lighter colour afterwards ; the small head and a band on the segment next to it are of a shining black. These are to be found from September to May, and on ceasing to feed they change (at the same spot) to chrysalids of a dirty brownish yellow, blunt at the tail, and furnished on the abdomen with prickle-like processes pointing backwards. They are to be found in June in the young shoots, and after lying in this state for four weeks the moths appear. These are rather larger than the foregoing species. The upper wings are reddish yellow, changing to a darker tmt at the tip and marked with light stripes from the base, and silvery spots and transverse wavy lines ; the hinder wings are blackish grey, with a yellow tint, and yellow-grey fringes. In the dusk of the evening they swarm round the tops of the young Pines out of PINE-SHOOT MOTH. 223 which they have hatched, but by day they rest and are not readily seen, from their similarity in colom' to the withered shoots of ^Yhich the}^ have been the cause. This species is common wherever Pine-trees are to be found from the north to the south of Europe. The infested trees are easily known by the distorted shoots; those that have been injured (and the growth consequently checked) on one side turn downwards, gradually lengthening, till after a while the shoot raises itself upwards at the tip and takes a straight course again ; but meanwhile a knee has been formed, and a crippled state given to the branch. The shoots that have been destroyed turn brown and die on the tree, many break off at the bend, and stumpy growths from the number of buds thrown into unnatural development entirely spoil the characteristic appearance of the tree. — (' Prak. Insecten-Kunde.') Prevention and Eemedies. — More information is greatly needed; it is noted that a vigorous gro\\i;h, attention to the trees not being over- crowded, and a suitable soil and situation, are important matters of prevention (E. L. T.) ; but even the most healthy plantations are not exempt from attack. Where the state of the buds or shoots shows the caterpillar (or chrysalis) to be present, these should be carefully removed, so as not to injure the remaining shoots, and all these infested pieces should be burnt. This will lessen the amount of future attack, and the earlier it can be done in the season the better, so as to push on a good growth in the healthy shoots that are left by means of the sap that otherwise would have been shared with the infested growths. From the fact of the moths being sometimes noticeable in large numbers flying in the evening over the infested trees, it is worth consideration whether washings of some kind \Yhich would lodge on or amongst the buds where the moths lay their eggs would not be of service to prevent oviposition. These might be applied in nm'sery 224 PINE. ground with an engine, and although tobacco-Hquor failed on trial in a plantation in Linlithgowshire much infested by moths, of which the description agrees with the habits of the above species (J. M'L.), it is very likely that some more adhesive wash would be of service (see Index) ; such as would make a light sticky coating over the buds for the short time the moths were about in large numbers, and which would lodge between them, and so especially protect the spot which the Pine-shoot Tortrix selects for deposit of its eggs. Pine Sawfly. Lojjhynis jnni, Curtis. Pine Sawtiy, pupa, and larva, mngnified. Pine-leaves injured by Savvtly The caterpillars of this Sawfly cause great damage to Pines, and especially to young Scotch Fir-woods, by feeding on the leaves. In some cases they scoop away the sides of the leaf, leaving only the midrib ; in others, beginning at the tip, they eat the leaves almost down to the sheath. They also feed on the bark of the young shoots, and, as they have voracious appetites and appear in companies, the mischief they do is enormous ; and, PINE SAWFLY. 225 unless checked by treatment or weather, is continued year after jenv by successive generations over large areas, sometimes extending to two thousand acres or more of plantation. The Sawflies appear early in summer, when the female inserts her eggs in the Pine-leaves by cutting a slit along a leaf with her saw-like ovipositor and laying a few eggs in the opening, which she covers with a resinous material scraped from the leaves, repeating the operation until all the eggs have been laid. The caterpillars hatch in about three weeks, and, like others of the genus Lophyrus, are 22-footed. They have a pair of claw-like feet on each of the three segments immediately behind the head, the next segment is footless ; the succeeding seven segments have each a pair of sucker-feet (or "prolegs"), and the tail is also furnished with a pair, known as the "caudal proleg." The colour varies much with age, health, and weather ; at first the grub is green, paler or whitish beneath, with a brownish yellow head, and black sucker-feet ; when full grown it has a rusty brown head, dark forehead, and black jaws and eyes ; it has an interrupted black line along each side formed of a patch of black dots on each segment ; the true feet are black ; the sucker-feet are yellow, with a black line at the base ; when full grown it is about an inch long. They feed for eight weeks, and then form cocoons in the moss and leaves or decayed matter beneath the tree upon which they feed, or on the leaves, or in crannies of the bark. This cocoon is oval, scarcely half an inch long, and small for the size of the caterpillar (which lies doubled on itself within), and is remarkable for the hard compact nature of its exterior. " The colour of specimens spun under moss is com- monly of a dull brown, and of those fastened to the tree either a silky ash-grey, dirty white, or with a yellow tinge ; a clean white and a rusty red (the latter commonly with a woolly surface) occur sometimes, but only occasionally." — (Th. H.) Q 226 PINE. The time taken for development varies ; in some cases the caterpillar remains michanged for nine months in the cocoon, sometimes even for a longer time before it turns to the pupa (figured above, removed from the cocoon) ; but the appearance of the perfect Sawfiies may be looked for early in the summer. The male and female differ from each other both in colour and size ; the male is black, with four transparent iridescent wings, which are about half an inch in expanse, and the feather-like rays of the horns are more developed than in the female. The colour of the female is whitish, with black head, breast, and horns ; a black patch on the back of the abdomen, and a black patch or spots between the wings, which are about three-quarters of an inch in their expanse, and iridescent with purple and green, varied with yellow, like those of the male. — (' Die Blattwespen,' ' Naturgeschichte der Schadlichen Insecten,' ' Stephens's Illus. Brit. Ent.,' &c.) Pkevention and Eemedies. — Clearing away cocoons from under infested trees during the winter is the best method of preventing attack in the ensuing season. A large proportion of the Pine Sawfly caterpillars which leave the shoots in autumn bury themselves (as mentioned above) in the dry leaves, moss, or decayed rubbish beneath the tree, and are stated for the most part to form their cocoons near the stem of the tree, where they are sometimes to be found lying together in masses as large as a man's fist. " The ground underneath Scots Fir-trees is generally bare, and covered only with the fallen leaves and tree debris ; so that it is an easy matter to examine the surface of the ground near the base of the trees, and, if found infested with cocoons, to scrape it together and hum it in small heaps, so as to destroy the insects. "Another plan might be useful; that is, turn over with a spade the loose surface-soil and tree debris containing the cocoons, and give it a heavy beat with the back of the spade, thus smashing and destroying the cocoons. PINE SAWFLY. 227 "However, nothing is so effective as collecting the surface-soil and rubbish into small heaps, and burning or charring it. Even where the surface is covered with rough herbage or heather, this is the best plan, as the rough material will all help the charring of the soil, and hurning of the cocoons." — (M. D.) With regard to clearing caterpillars off the trees, the following method was found successful on a plantation of about eighty acres near Forres, which was infested by the larva of a Sawfly : — ""When the caterpillars were first noticed, a careful man was provided with a pair of strong gloves, with directions to examine the state of the trees daily, and when he found the caterpillars — which are generally in clusters — to destroy them by infolding the branch on which they were feeding in the gloved hand and pressing it firmly. The caterpillars (which had not appeared in the whole of the plantation, but in great numbers in some parts of it) were thus prevented from doing any great amount of damage." — (D. S.) Near Dunkeld (where Sawflies had been ver}- injurious for several seasons previous to 1879, on a young plantation of two thousand acres of Scots Fir) an experiment was tried on a small plantation of twenty acres, five miles distant from any other Scots Fir wood, which, up to the date of the observations sent, had proved successful. The plan adopted was to send a number of bo3's through the plantation, each furnished with a small vessel containing naphtha, and a brush roughly made of feathers, with which the clusters of larvae were slightly sprinkled or touched, when they immediately fell down, and by this means the plantation was almost cleared. — (J. M'(j.) In the case of a bad attack of Pine-leaf Caterpillars in Pioxburghshire, after various means of destrojdng them had failed, — such as dusting the trees with quick-lime, — the use of hellebore in solution, applied by means of the syringe, was found a deadly application to the caterpillar and an effective cure. — (C. Y. M.) 228 PINE. In the case of larger trees, much good may be done by shaking down the caterpillars and destroying them l)efore they have time to creep away. They fall in great numbers (especially when chilled and slightly torpid in the morning) on the tree being shaken or jarred ; and in German Forestry it has been found that one man to shake the tree, accompanied by two women or children with a sheet for the caterpillars to fall on, from wdiich they can be collected and destroyed, can clear fifteen trees of twenty-five years old before nine o'clock in the morning. — (Th. H.) If some fresh Pine-boughs are strewed under the trees before they are shaken, the fallen caterpillars will collect immediately on the sprays, and may be trampled on, or more conveniently shaken on to the cloths to be destroyed, than by simply letting them drop on the cloths from the tree. It is also desirable, before shaking, to put a band of some nature that the caterpillars will not cross on the ground at the foot of the tree, to keep all that may have escaped from making good their return up the trunk. Quick-lime would answer this purpose, or gas-lime ; or a hay-band (or pieces of any old rags twisted together into a rope) well tarred or soaked in a mixture of tar and oil that would keep wet and sticky for some time, would be a sure preventive of traffic of the caterpillars across it. When the caterpillars have consumed the leafage on one tree, they migrate to another, and where tracts of forest are affected it has been advised to dig ditches not less than two feet deep and two feet broad, with the sides as perpendicular as possible. Looking at the clinging powers of the caterpillars, it does not seem likely that this plan would do more than delay progress, and also afford a clear space where the caterpillars, when they occur in the myriads described by Hartig and Kollar in the German Pine-forests, might be duly dealt with by regular watchers ; but, generally speaking, a broad band of something which they would not cross laid on the ground, appears a more practicable remedy. PINE SAWFLY. 229 Sand, or ashes, or dry earth, well sprinkled with paraffin and water, would probably check the onward progress more effectually at less cost ; or a band of fresh gas-lime would be effective. Quick-lime would be of little use in this case, as something is needed of which the effects would last for at least a few days. When infested and uninfested trees are mixed together, it may be worth while to isolate such as have not been attacked. Save where the boughs touch, the caterpillars can only reach them by crawling up the trunk, and a large number might be protected at a small expense by placing rings of any deterrent the forester might choose at the lowest part of the trunk, or on the ground round it. A band about a foot wide of fish-oil soft-soap, mixed to a thick consistency and laid on with a large brush, would cost little beyond the wages of the operator, and probably be a preventive. Something may be done by picking cocoons off the leaves, or clearing them from crevices on the bark ; or by removing the leaves that have eggs laid in them; but these operations are not practicable on a large scale, and (looking at the susceptibility of the caterpillars to injury from wet and cold, in their young state and when they are changing their skins) something might be done in attack on trees in nursery ground, and on limited areas, by syringing. The kind of engine used in Hop-grounds with a double hose would be applicable to the work, and, where water was at hand, the rapid clearing it would be almost certain to effect would be worth a trial. Ungenial weather acts powerfully on this insect. In the autumn of 1880 it was noted that the first frosts, coming suddenly, destroyed many of the caterpillars that still remained on the trees at Earlston, in the south of Scotland (W. W. E.) ; and the absence of the Sawllies from the Athol forests, and also their almost total disappearance from the young plantations in the neigh- bourhood of Beauly in 1880, after having ravaged the young Fir-woods for five or six years until acres were 230 PINE. complete!}' stripped of their leaves, is attributed to the low temperature of the preceding summer.- — (D. D.) We have some help in keeping down this pest both from birds and the smaller Mammalia. Woodpeckers of various kinds, Jays, Cuckoos, Titmice, Hedgesparrows, and Swallows, are of service in destroying the perfect Sawilies and also the cocoons, with the contained cater- pillar ; but they shun continuous attack on the caterpillars on the trees, and diet on them appears to be prejudicial to the nestlings. Amongst four-footed enemies the Field Mouse and the Short-tailed Field Mouse (Field Vole), both of which when driven by hunger are carnivorous, are stated to destroy cocoons lying beneath the moss, together with their contents. Squirrels are not less destructive, as many as a hundred of these spun-up caterpillars having been taken from the stomach of a single specimen ; but they will not eat the cater- pillars whilst feeding on the leaves. — (Tli. H.) The surest methods of prevention of these pests, however, appear to be in taking advantage of their habits of forming their cocoons in large numbers beneath their food-trees, and of falling from the branches on a sharp shake being given to the tree. Giant Sirex. Sirex gigas, Linn. The maggots of this beautiful Fly are injurious to Fir- timber by boring galleries in the solid wood. The method and amount of injury are variously estimated, but by comparison of the observations of many ■v\T:iters it appears that the female Sirex lays her eggs in various kinds of Pine — Scotch Fir, Silver Fir, and Spruce — which, though not decayed, are not in full health ; such, for instance, as trees past their prime, or that have been uprooted, or broken by wind or accidents, or are sickly from any other cause. " Zinke and Bechstein agree that an insignificant local injury to the tree affords a jpoint for attack ; that the GIANT SIREX. 231 females lay their eggs on such damaged spots, from "which the brood spreads, and thus in a few years an otherwise healthy trunk is destroyed." — (Th. H.) The eggs are also stated to be deposited in felled Fu*- trunks left lying in the woods. Female Sirex ; larva. Jaws of lan^a and fly, magnified. The female (as figured above) is furnished with a long ovipositor, by means of which she bores a hole through the bark of the stem of the tree for the deposit of her eggs. The maggots from these are whitish, soft, and C3din- drical, with a scaly head armed with strong jaws; a blunt j)oint on the tail-segment, and they have three pau's of very minute feet. These larvas feed in the solid timber, and are full grown in about seven weeks ; and then or later (for how long the larval and pupal state last seems uncertain) they change to chrysalids in the tree. The pupa resembles the perfect insect lying still, soft, and white, with the limbs laid along the breast and body. The further change to the complete insect may occur in a month, but if the maggot has not turned to the chrysalis till autumn the ^j will not appear till the following summer, or even a much later period. 232 PINE. The female Sirex is usually an inch and a half long, cylindrical, and with the head and the rest of the body of the same diameter. The colour is black, banded with yellow on the first two and last three rings of the abdomen, and there is also a yellow spot on each side of the head. The abdomen has a short blunt point at the tip, and underneath it is furnished with the ovipositor, which is long and black, and lies in the yellow sheath shown in the figure. The thighs are black, the shanks and feet yellow, and the four large membranous wings are of a brownish yellow. The male is smaller, with the abdomen flat and yellow, excepting at the base, which is black, as well as the last segment (or end of the tail) and its appendage. The hind pair of shanks and feet are black or dusky; pale, or with yellow rings at the base. The horns are yellow ; those of the male are nearly as long as the body, those of the female are rather more than half that length. — ('Die Blattwespen,' ' Naturgeschichte der Schad. In- secten.') Prevention and Eemedies. — The best methods of prevention are to clear away trees that are in a condition to attract attack — such as trees that have been injured by accident or ill-treatment, or that are weakened by disease or attacks of other insects, and also those that have been blown over or that have been felled, as the Sire.x lays its eggs in felled as well as in standing timber. Any trees which are found to be infested (either by the Sirex being seen escaping, or by the large holes in the trunk showing the escape to have taken place) should be felled and disposed of according to their condition, so as to stop further spread of the insect from them. If they can be taken to the saw-pit and converted to any rough use it is best, for thus the infested parts may be cut off and burnt, and the sound timber preserved ; but if this cannot be managed, something should be done, both with trees in this state and felled trunks lying in the woods, to prevent the insects escaping. STEEL-BLUE SIREX. 233 If nothing else occurred the tree might he spht for firewood to be used at once, or it would be worth while to heap up any rubbish near over the trunk and char the outside. Sometimes the insects appear suddenly in great numbers. I have seen twelve to twenty specimens captured in a few hours, as they came out of one Larch- trunk lying by a Fir-plantation in West Gloucestershire (Ed.) ; and in such a case a child with a net could easily catch and kill them. Generally, however, they appear singly or a few at a time, often over a period of several years from one trunk. Steel-blue Sirex. Sirex juvmcus, Linu. This Sirex is said to be "decidedly the most common, at least in this country, of the genus" (J. F. S.) ; but, as its habits resemble those of the Giant Sirex, that species has been selected for illustration on account of its great size and beauty. The S. juvencus is often much smaller than S. gigas, and generally of a blue-black, varied with bright or rusty red. The colouring, however, is very variable. Some- times it is blue-black, with rusty red thighs, and reddish shanks and feet; black horns, and somewhat transparent brownish wings, with rusty veins and spot on the fore edge. Sometimes, however, there is a larger amount of bright red marking ; the abdomen is bright red, save the two rings at the base, or the six lowest joints of the horns are red instead of black, and many other small differences of colouring also occur in different specimens. —{' Illus. Brit. Entom.') Pine Weevil. Hylohius aUctis, Stephens. The Pine Weevil is injurious to Scotch Fir, Spruce, Larch, and some others of the Coniferae, by feeding on 234 PINE. the tender bark of the young shoots. It mamly attacks young trees, especially plantations formed on ground from which a crop of old Fir has recently been removed, and eats away the bark of the stems, sometimes com- X)letely stripping them upwards. It also eats the bark of the shoots, and destroys the bud; and, in the Larch, it gnaws at the base of the leaves so as to render the shoots bare. 1, Pine Weevil, magnified ; line showing nat. length (snout included) ; 9, 3, Larch twigs injured by Weevils; 4, head, with snout and horn and fore leg, magnified. The beetles appear early in the summer, sometimes in May, but chiefly in June and July. In unfavourable weather they remain under shelter of the leafage, but when it is warm and sunny they are more active, and pairing then takes .place. The females deposit their eggs, which are transparent and whitish, in rifts of the bark, in logs, root- stocks, stumps of felled trees, and on exposed parts of roots. The maggots hatch in two or three weeks, and may be found from June onwards throughout the winter. When full grown it is about half an inch long, fleshy and white, with a brown head, w^iich, as well as some portions of the maggot, is beset with bristles. It is either legless, or with mere indications of legs on the three segments behind the head, and in general shape resembles other weevil maggots (excepting that the PINE WEEVIL. 235 three segments above mentioned are so much enlarged as to give a swollen appearance to this part of the maggot, which is also much wrinkled transversely), for figs, of which see references to "Weevil" in Index. The maggots form more or less winding galleries m the soft wood beneath the bark, which gradually increase in size with the gro-^i;h of the maggot, and, following the course of the root, go dovm to some depth below the sur- face. These galleries are gradually filled with the results of the wood-gnawings ("worm-meal") left by the maggot, and at the extremity of the boring there is a cocoon-like accumulation of chips forming a nest for the i^upa. The pupse resemble the beetles in shape, but with the legs and partially developed wings and wmg-cases, and also the long snout or proboscis folded under them ; the rings of the abdomen are slightly saw-like at the sides. These pupte are to be found in spring m their cocoon- like nests, and in this state they lie quiet for about four weeks, when the young beetles develop and come out, whilst some of the beetles of the previous year that have hybernated are again to be found. These latter have passed the winter in moss, or fallen leafage and twigs, or even in holes in the earth, or roots under the trees, or similar sheltering places, and may be known from the freshly-developed beetles by their more faded and worn appearance. The beetles are about half an inch in length, black, with some patches of j^ellowish hairs on the head and on the body behind the head, which is also thickly and deeply pitted. The wing-cases are rounded at the sides, and bluntly pointed at the tail (so as to be somewhat boat-shaped) ; they have alternate lines of punctures and tubercles, and are variegated with spots and bands of yellowish hairs. The legs are black. The beetle is especially distinguished by its long snout or proboscis, with elbowed horns, of which the long lowest joint fits into a hollow formed for its reception in the side of the jDroboscis (see fig. magnified). — ' Prak. Insecten-Kunde,' ' Illus. Brit. Ent.,' &c. 236 PINE. Prevention and Eemedies. — One of the chief points to be observed in the habits of this beetle is that it frequents forest clearings, that is, spots where Fir trees, few or many, have recently been felled. Here it harbours under pieces of bark, broken wood, &c., and lays its eggs on the logs, stumps, and exposed roots. It is therefore desirable that all such points of attaction should be got rid of out of the wood. There is no occasion that anything should be wasted, for the fragments that are only useful as fire-wood may be burnt long before any eggs laid in them can develop through all their transformations, but they should not remain in the woods. Fragments of roots left in the ground should be thoroughly covered with at least six inches of earth, and no logs (which are an especial haunt of the beetle for oviposition), should be left about, unless some of them, or of the fragments of bark, are used for traps. This has been found practically useful in German forestry, and if these traps were regularly examined, and the contents destroyed, they would probably be an excellent means of getting rid oi many of the weevils, which will frequent a clearing so long as it is in progress, and the air pervaded with the scent of turpentine. Bark-traps are made by laying pieces of bark with the inner side downwards on the ground. Pine bark is said to answer better than Spruce, as it remains fresh longer. The pieces should be well weighted down with stones, and examined early or late in the day. The number of beetles caught is greatest in dull weather or during soft rain. Log-traps make a good decoy to attract the female beetle to lay her eggs ; in this plan thick pieces of logs with bark on them are partly buried in the ground. The beetles resort to them, feed on the sap, and lay in them, and numbers of beetles may thus be caught and the brood from the eggs got rid of afterwards by burning the logs when convenient. Brush-traps are made of Pine or Spruce twigs, tied PINE WEEVIL, 237 together in bundles, about the size of a birch-broom ; these are scattered about infested spots, and attract many weevils, which may be easily shaken out of them and destroyed. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that all such places for propagation as dying trees, waste timber, broken bark, stocks, roots, &c., that cannot be removed, bm-ied, or utilised as traps, should be carefully gathered together and burnt. The neighbourhood of forest saw-pits should be similarly attended to, and any logs of felled timber, whether in or out of the woods, should be observed relatively to their serving for breeding-places. In the summer the beetles may be found pairing on planks, cleft timber, &c., far from woods. It is, however, not worth while (unless special circum- stances should point out otherwise) to meddle with rubbish under Pine trees, such as moss, dry Pine- needles, small twigs, and such like ; the Weevil does not feed on these, and does not lay in them (for they would not afford food to the maggot) ; it only shelters itself in them for the winter, and the small number that would be destroyed would scarcely repay the labour. The second and most important point in the habits of the Weevil is that of attacking young plantations, and especially those that have been formed on recently cleared Fir forest lands. It has been found that on land cleared of Scots Pine and planted within four years with Coni- ferae, that there would be few remaining uninjured in two years after. The following method of treatment has been thoroughly successful : — After the Pine crop is cut and cleared the ground is properly enclosed, so as to exclude stock of all kinds, and, if required, it is drained. The ground is permitted to rest the first summer for the purpose of getting up all herbage as strongly as possible, and in dry spring weather the whole is burned, so as to destroy the eggs and food of the beetle, and as far as may be stamp it out. 238 PINE. After this the ground should be planted with strong two years' transplanted plants. After each young tree is planted a layer of earth is laid round about two inches in thickness and eighteen inches in diameter ; this layer should be beaten smooth with the back of the spade to prevent the beetle lodging under any part of the rough surface. This treatment was found to answer well, for as soon as the beetle in search of food comes in contact with the bare earth it immediately steers its course in another direction, and leaves the plant untouched. The beetle is most destructive in dry warm seasons. — (W. M'C.) Following up the same principles with different details, it has been found a good plan, where planting has to be done on a large scale, and the beetle is present to any extent, to take out as many of the old roots as possible, burn all the rubbish that is lying about, and graze the ground with cattle for three or four years before replant- ing.— (W. W. E.) In the first method of treatment, allowing the growth of grass, and firing it (as is observed), " stamps out " the attack ; in the second, the turning the land into grazing ground for "three or four years," gives time for all eggs or maggots to have passed through their transformations before replanting, and the presence of the cattle and their droppings on the ground are an excellent preser- vative from weevils being attracted to the spot.* The following remark is also valuable : — " I strongly recommend surface burning when successive planting is contemplated. This is the safest method of destroying * In a young Fir wood of about eight acres in West Gloucestershire that it was wished to keep in trim order in connection with pleasure- grounds, it was the custom yearly to " skirm " (i. e., rough-mow) the ground with briar or common scythes, and fire the rubbish in a large number of small heaps piled amongst the trees, and, where convenient, on the stump of a felled Fir. When proper attention was paid the fire did not run, and this surface treatment, together with the general slight smoke from the smouldering heaps throughout the plantation, was accom- panied by (if it did not cause) an absence of Pine Weevils which some years before had appeared in great numbers at the locality. — (Ed). PINE WEEVIL. 239 the Fir Weevil in its various stages. If for special reasons the surface cannot be burned, it is well to delay planting for a few years until the weevils are exterminated. — (D. S. S.) With regard to remedies that are applicable when Weevil-attack is present in young plantations of limited extent, hand-picking is a sure but a tedious and expen- sive cure. The beetles may be gathered into wide- mouthed bottles (J. M'L.), or they might be shaken down on to tarred boards (see " Otiorliyyichus.") Quick-lime has been found to answer well, when thrown on the ground round the trees, and from the observations of the beetle attack, commencing at the ground level and gradual^ stripping the trees upward of their bark, it would appear that any deterrent thrown round the stem would be useful. Ashes or sand sprinkled with diluted paraffin, or gas-lime scattered round the trees, would probably do much good, but, though the beetles occur to a certain extent on the ground, their low and short flights exactly suit them for attack to the young trees, to wdiich they are mainly hurtful ; and mere isolation at the roots can only be looked upon as a partial remedy. The plan of painting over the stem of the young trees with a mixture of paraffin and red-lead has proved fairly successful (up to the date of the note of observation), but was not considered by the experimenter to have then been tried long enough to l)e certain of its success or its effects on the tree. — (W. W. E.) It has been found that young trees dressed with a mixture known as Messrs. Davidson's composition, used to keep off rabbits, have been free from Weevil-attack. From these notes it is plain that direct applications to the stems of the young trees are serviceable, and it. would be well worth trying whether applications of soft- soap and sulphur, or of gas-water, soft-soap, and sulphur, well laid on with a brush, would not answer (for recipes see references in Index). Probably smearing the stems with a mixture of cow-dung and lime would do good, or 240 PINE. in this case, as the application is not to a food-crop, there would be no objection to using some of the regular insect poisons. Paris Green (Scheele's Green) is retailed at sixpence per pound, and, as an arsenite of copper is a virulent poison; under proper superintendence it would be worth a trial, either laid on dilute with a thick lime- wash or mixed with fine ashes in the proportion of at least twenty of ashes to one of the arsenic green. One important point yet remains ; it appears that the young plants are most attacked after transplanting, and probably in this case, as in many others, the temporarily altered state of the sap attracts the insect feeder, and (as in other cases) all possible care to avoid what would prolong this state, or cause a sickly growth, should be afforded ; and when a large extent of ground is covered with Pine plantations, a very strict supervision of the method in which the labourers put in the young trees could not fail to do much good. Spruce-Gall Aphis. Chermes (pini) abietis, Linn. The Spruce-Gall Aphis, known also as the Spruce Adclges, or Spruce Chermes, causes the small bright green, or green and rosy, galls, shaped like miniature Pine Apples (or somewhat like Scotch Fir cones furnished on each of the divisions with a short leaf), which may be found not unfrequently in the early summer forming at the ends of the shoots of the Spruce Fir. The mother Chermes, from which the brood of the year originates, is very similar in shape to that of the Larch, but rather smaller, oval, wingless, and woolly, of various shades of green or purj^le, with dark legs, and may be found in spring with her sucker inserted in the base of a Spruce bud, thus causing the irritation which starts the diseased growth known as the " Pine Apple Gall" or " Pseudo Cone." Sometimes the shape is perfect, but often only one side of the shoot is swollen, and the other is merely stunted. SPRUCE-GALL APHIS. 241 The first growth of the gall and the first egg-laying of the Chermes begin in May, or sometimes in the later part of April, and deposit of eggs goes on slowly, the Chermes never stirring from the spot during the time, till, having laid a mass amounting to about two hundred, of various tints of yellowish green or grey covered with wool from her own body, she dies. Winged female, pupa, eggs, and horn, all magnified. Section of Chermes gall in dried state alter departure of Chermes. The larvas, which hatch shortly from these eggs, are mere specks in size ; when magnified they are seen to have six legs, and a head with horns, and to be in shape much like the pupa figured above (at first without signs of the future wings). The colour is greenish, or of a red tint. Meanwhile the growth of the gall — the ** pseudo cone " as it is called — has been continuing, and the young Chermes larvffi spread themselves, soon after hatching, on its surface, drive their suckers into the soft substance of which it is formed, and, according to various observers, become buried in it from the continued enlarge- ment of the base of the unnaturally swollen leaves, of which the gall is chiefly composed, gradually oi:c;iapping 242 SPRUCE FIE. tliem. This point is one of much interest. With regard to the larvae that were hatched outside presently be- coming tenants of the inside of the gall, there is no doubt, but, according to ni}^ own observations after long and careful watching of the growing specimens, I believe that at a certain stage of the growth of the gall a minute slit opens along the upper part of the sutures that mark the divisions of the swollen leaves of the gall from each other, and through these ojpenings the larvae creep into the chambers within. On this point enquirers may satisfy themselves by watching the Cliermes galls at hatching time, with the help of a strong magnifying glass, especially on the afternoon of a sunny day, and noting (should the process coincide with the above observations) the larvae spread themselves along the lines which divide the galls into diamond-shaped scales, apparently piercing into them with their suckers, and then disappearing into the chambers of the gall. When this " pseudo cone" has reached its full growth, which may be in four to six weeks, it hardens, the cells split open, and the contained young Chermes come out in numbers. The pupae are powdery, lead-coloured, and margined and greenish at the sides from the indications of the tint of the coming wings. When fully developed the skin cracks, and the 2)erfectly-winged insect appears — figured magnified above (the natural length, at rest with the wings folded, is about the eighth of an inch). The colour is of a yellowish green, with whitish green wings, transparent green legs, and five-jointed horns, also of transparent green ; sometimes the colom- of the insect is reddish. The winged females disperse themselves and begin to lay, and soon may be found dead by their little heaps of about twenty eggs. ' ' The larvae which hatch from this second deposit of eggs" . . . "are, in the next spring, the mother Cliermes of the attack of the current year." — (E. L. T., Prak. ' Insecten-Kunde,' * Forst-Zoologie,' ^Gardener's Chron.,' Ed., &c.) SPRUCE-GALL APHIS. 243 Prevention and Eemedies. — When Spruce trees in young woods are much infested they should be felled, and, if cut down in summer whilst the galls are green, all gall-laden shoots should be cut off and burnt. In winter this precaution is not needed, as the old galls are empty, and, if the mother Chermes should lay on the felled shoots, the buds would not develop enough to nurse up the young brood. This clearing of mature much-infested trees is very important, — cure is hopeless when they are in this condition, — and whilst each year they become more unhealthy under the attack, they form centres to spread the Chermes all around. Where young trees only a few feet high are attacked, it is desirable to go over them and remove the gall carefully, so as not to bruise or tear the other shoots, and it is well to do this as soon as the galls begin to show. The sap that would have gone to the distorted growth is thus preserved for the healthy shoots, and hatching of the Chermes out of the galls is prevented. When growth is more advanced their removal is best per- formed by a man furnished with an apron with a large pocket ; into this each gall should be put as it is cut, and the collection should be most carefully destroyed. An apron is more convenient than a basket, which requires the use of the second hand ; but if the galls, save in their earliest stages, are merely thrown to the ground, the Chermes will develop within, and probably be in no waj^ checked by the operation. How far soil and situation affect the amount of attack does not appear to have been fully noted, but probably they have the same influence as in other cases of Aphis attack. The worst instances of gall presence that I have seen were on trees of about thirty years old, which were somewhat overcrowded and in a damp locality, on a cold, stiff clay ; and also, after removal, on some fine young trees about three or four feet high, which had been planted in a space in a Fir wood so sheltered by the neighbouring trees and hedges, and also by long rough grass and weeds, that there was no free play of air. 244 SPRUCE FIR. Where there are only a small number of young trees to be attended to, drenchings with any of the Aphis washes in July, or when the Chermes were seen to be hatching, would be useful in clearing many from the trees. PAET III. FRUIT CROPS THE INSECTS THAT INJUEE THEM. PAKT III. FRUIT CROPS THE INSECTS THAT INJUEE THEM. APPLE. American Blight. Xo.Mzonenm lanu/era, Hausm. Woolly Aphis. ] Winged Woolly Apbis, magnified ; larvfe nuicli macrnified. Apple twig, with the same larvae nat. size at the lower part of the infested spot. The attack of the Apple-bark Plant-louse, or Woolly Aphis, commonly known as American Blight, may be easily detected by the woolly or cottony growth on the 248 APPLE. insects, giving the appearance of a white film growing at the bottom of the crevices where a few of them are lurking. Where there are many the spot appears as if a knot of cotton-wool was sticking to the bough, or even hanging down in pieces several inches in length, ready to be wafted by the first gust of wind, with all the insects in it, to a neighbouring bough. The "Blight" is chiefly to be found in neglected Apple orchards. Its head-quarters are in crevices in the bark, or in hollows where young bark is pressing for- ward over the surface where a bough has been cut off, or broken by accident so as to leave a shelter of the old dead bark outside ; it may, however, be found on almost every part of the tree into which the Aphis can pierce with its sucker ; and the harm caused by the attack is not only from the quantity of sap drawn away from the bark or young shoots, but also from the diseased growth which is thus set up. The bark is at first not much affected by the punctures, but the woody layers beneath become soft, pulpy, and swollen. The cells and fibres divide and subdivide, and the bark splits open over the swelling, showing the tissue beneath, which is thus exposed for a fresh attack. At the end of summer these watery swollen growths dry up and die, and thus form deep cracks. With the return of spring (as in other cases of injury) a new growth forms round the dead part, and this soft tissue is ready for the young Aphides. Thus, from the swollen diseased growth caused partly by the Aphides, partly by the natural attempts of the tree to repair damage, a constantly increasing diseased mass arises which shelters the insects in its crannies, and finds food for them in its young hypertrophied formations. The above note of the progress of diseased growth is from the paper by M. Prillieux in ' Comptes Kendus ' for April, 1875. The " American Blight " Aphis is stated to have been imported from America in 1787, but whether this is a fact appears somewhat uncertain. It may be known AMERICAN BLIGHT. 249 at a glance from the common Apple Aphis (scientifically Ajihis mali), which is injurious to the leaves, by the white wool with which it is more or less covered, and from which it takes its name of "Woolly Aphis," and examination of the wings through a magnifying-glass will show that they are differently veined. A strong vein runs down the fore wing near the front edge, and from this three veins turn off' towards the hinder edge. The tldrd of these veins from the body has only one fork in the American Blight or Woolly Aphis. By this the Schizojieurince, to which division it belongs, are dis- tinguished from the Ajjliidina, which have two forks to this vein (as in Hop Aphis) ; from the PempMgince, which have this third vein icitliout a fork (as in Lettuce Aphis) ; and from Chcrinisince, in which this third vein is absent (as in Larch Aphis and Spruce Aphis). This difference in the veins of the fore wings is one clear distinction between the above-mentioned four tribes, of which the great family of Aj^hidiche (which includes all the various kinds commonly known as Aphides) are composed. The Woolly Aphides are without honey-tubes, and underneath the wool are mostly of a yellowish, reddish, or reddish plum-colour. The winged specimens are described as pitchy between the wings, and green, or with the abdomen of a chocolate-brown. The wingless females may be found packed closely together in the cottony masses, with the pale reddish young (similar to those figured above, much magnified, from specimens taken near Isleworth during the winter), moving about amongst them. Winged specimens may be found in July and August. — (' Prak. Insecten-Kunde,' ' Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' &c.) Pre\'ention and Eemedies. — The great harbouring points of this Aphis, and the nooks from which the broods come forth in spring to infest the trees, are crevices, especially such as are formed of young bark sheltered under old dead masses. It is therefore very 250 APPLE. important to keep up a clean, healthy, well-trimmed state of the hranches, such as will not allow of lurking- places, or, if they do exist, will allow of these points of attack being carefully watched. Boughs must be removed in pruning sometimes, and where the Woolly Aphis exists it is certain to try to effect a lodgment under the ring of young bark that comes rolling forward over the stump, but an eye to this matter and a few strong soap-suds brushed on the first bit of wool seen will keep all right ; whilst on trees with the boughs maimed by beating the crop off, bad pruning, pieces torn off' by the wind, &c., the Aphis gets such a hold in the rough bark as can hardly be got over. For the same reason the bark should be kept clear of lichens and moss, which form excellent lurking-places for the Aphides. It is also very desirable to keep the trees from touching each other, to keep the ground below them in decent order, at least not totally overgrown with weeds, and to have the soil properl}^ drained. By this means light will be let in, with a free and healthy circulation of air, and the insect-feeding birds will have a chance at getting at the "Blight," whereas in many of the orchards in the West of England, where the principle is held "trees should touch," the tops look well enough to the passer-by, but there is a different story beneath. Here a pale green light struggles through the thick canopy of leaves, nettles and rubbish are often knee-deep, and the limbs of the Apple trees are disfigured with the blight and tumours of many years' growth, and hung with tassels of the wool of the Aphis which show its presence in destroying hosts. A clean, healthy bark, with a proj)er allowance of air, light, and drainage, is the best of all means of prevention. With regard to remedies : — The colonies of insects remain in one place, and soon die if their food is cut off or their breathing-pores choked ; so that anything which will give such a t^aint to their harbouring-places that they cannot feed, will do good. Soft-soap, tar, or, in fact, anything oily, greasy, or sticky that can be well AMERICAN BLIGHT. 251 rubbed on, and which, by adhering for a time, will choke all the Aphides that it touches, will be of use. In the case of an orchard so badly infested that the owner had begun to clear the trees, an application of coal-tar, well rubbed into the infested spots with a hard brush, was tried and succeeded well. The trees were cured of the attack and became healthy. Another observer mentions that his trees on which this was tried were injured and some killed. Probably this different result was from the state of the trees. An application that would be perfectly safe on the blight-tumours of old trees, would be very injurious on young bark that was still living and in an active state. For washes, or mixtures to be laid on as paint, the following applications have been found of service ; but it should be observed that in the case of tobacco-water it is desirable to try what strength tender leafage will bear without injury: — Take a quarter of a pound of tobacco, infuse it in half a gallon of hot water ; when cool enough dip the infested shoots in it for a few seconds, or wash the in- fested parts in the liquor. Eepeat this in a few days, if necessary, after which the plant may be washed with clean water. Then dissolve one pound of soft-soap and one gallon of lime in enough water to make it about the consistency of thick whitewash. Apply this with a painter's brush to the stem and all the branches that can be reached, and sift some lime on the ground. An application is also recommended of half a peck of quick-lime, half a pound of flour of sulphur, quarter of a pound of lamp-black, mixed with boiling-water so as to form a thick paint; this to be applied warm. In winter, when the leaves are off, the branches and stems may be i^ainted with this, all loose bark being first removed. It is very desirable to remove the soil from the bottom of the stem, down to the main roots, and paint that part also. For special applications to nooks and crannies any- thing that is oily, soapy, or greasy will do good, but, as 252 APPLE. far as killing the insects is concerned, the thicker it is the better, so that it may fairly fill up the crevices in the bark, if possible, and not run off the Aphides till it has killed them by choking up their pores, but at the same time care should be exercised not to oil or grease young bark that may be hurt by the application. " Machine oil " is stated to be a perfect remedy, and to do no harm to the bark. Pure whale oil is said to answer perfectly, put on as a paint on the stems and into the crevices. Neats'-foot oil is also advised. Probably any cheap oil will serve the purpose ; the great point is to get it thoroughly into all the crannies with a brush, so as to come in contact with the plant-lice, and that many of these creatures may be rubbed out and killed in the operation. A simple lather of yellow soap, laid on with an old shaving-brush, does all that is needed some- times without fear of hurting the plants, and soft-soap, well rubbed in, would probably be a very effective and lasting remedy. It is also recommended, on good authority, that about the end of February the trunks and large branches should be scraped, excrescences cut off, and the whole well scrubbed with soap-suds, after which a good coating of lime and water is recommended. Probably the form of "whitewash" that has some "size" in it would be better than the simple lime and water, as the "size" makes it stick better, and thus it is more injurious to the Aphides. Ammoniacal liquor, diluted wdth ten to twelve parts of water, will kill Aphides, but (for the reason of it varying in strength, as mentioned elsewhere), experiment should be made as to the quantity of water to be added to make it a safe application to such leafage as it may touch before it is used on a large scale. Apple trees that have the shoots and leaf-stalks infested may be well cleaned for a while by means of water sent from a garden engine with a flexible hose, or, where the water supjjly is laid on with a good pressure, the use of a hose with a spreader, throwing the water with considerable force, is better AMEKICAN BLIGHT. 253 still. A strong and steady stream of water should be directed against every part ; this will wash out the crevices, and knock off many of the Aphides, as well as helj) to keep up a healthy leafage. If the attack reappears, the treatment should be repeated. For washes of soft-soap ; soft-soap and sulphur; and gas-water and sulphur, with more or less soft-soap, according as the application is needed for a wash or a paint on the boughs, see references to "Washes" in Index. A careful watch, and something done as soon as the wool appears, is what is wanted ; but if the small tufts are left alone, as of no consequence, the insects will soon spread far and wide, and a thoroughly infested tree is an injury to a whole neighbourhood that ought not to be allowed. With regard to the Woolly Aphis on Apple roots, doubts have been expressed whether it is of the same kind as that infesting the trees, but it appears now to be considered to be so, and, excepting in the matter of stopping passage down to the roots from an infested tree, this question does not affect means of prevention. Where Woolly Aphides are found on the roots it is advised by Dr. Asa Fitch to clear away the soil as much as possible from the infested roots, and pour strong soap-suds in sufficient quantity to soak into all the crannies or diseased spots, and either to remove the old soil and replace it with fresh, or to mix ashes with it. Another observer recommends partially laying bare the roots, and following this up by the application of night-soil. Ammoniacal drainage from stables is said to cure the evil. As the root Aphides in all likelihood pass down from the trunk, it would probably be a great preventive to put a loose rope of hay soaked in tar round the tree, at its junction with the ground, placing the band so as to stop passage but not injure tender bark. Besides the above applications, so many others are mentioned as being used with more or less success, it may be worth while to give the list in some kind of order. 254 APPLE. We find it includes tar, kerosine, paraffin, turpentine (diluted), also resin (with an equal quantity of fish-oil, and put on warm) ; oils of various kinds ; soaps of various kinds ; ammoniacal liquor from gas-works, and ammoniacal animal fluid, especially drainings from stahles ; tobacco-water ; paints of lime and soap ; lime and sulphur ; whitewash ; oil and soot ; and also plaster of grafting-clay to stop up chinks with the blight enclosed. Of this vast collection of means of remedy, probably the most serviceable are thorough drenchings of some of the soap-washes applied by means of the garden-engine to the tree directly the attack is noticeable, accompanied by special applications of thick mixtures of soap, or of any kind known to be deshable to kill such of the blight insects as may have remained sheltered in crevices of the bark. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette," 'Eighth Eeport of State Entomologist, Illinois,' Ed., &c.) Apple Aphis. \jjMsmaH,F^hv. „ Green-fiy. J ' ' These Aphides infest the leaves, and are sometimes very injurious. The following notes are taken from the excellent account given of the species by Mr. G. B. Buckton, E.R.S., in his ' Monograph of British Aphides,' vol. ii., that being the only life-history I am aware of giving information up to the present period, and to it I refer the reader for full details : — "The black eggs of A. mali in.a,y be found deeply buried in the crevices of the bark, and these hatch as soon as the spring sap begins to swell off the buds. The young Aphides puncture the backs of the thick fleshy leaves, which pricking causes them to curve backwards from their points ; and in this manner safe retreats are formed, and shelter from the effects of rain and hot sun." APPLE APHIS. 255 " The winged insects abound most in JuW, when they spread their colonies so much that sometimes the vast orchards of Devonshire are wholly robbed of their fruit through shrivelling of the leaves. The bark of the trees sometimes is blackened by the glutinous secretion voided by these Aphides." This species of Apple Aphis is stated to be very variable both in form and colour. Of the females that produce living young, the icingless ones (hatched from the egg first in the season, which may be called the mother- Aphides of the successive generations of the j'ear), are globose and soft, larger than those born afterwards, of a dark slat}^ grey colour, mottled with green, with short dark grey horns and legs. The later viviparous broods are variable in colour, as green, yellowish, rusty red, &c. The icing ed female bearing living young {viviparous) has the head, horns, 'and body between the wings, black ; abdomen green, with dots on each side ; legs yellowish, with black knees and feet. The wings are long, and pale green at the base. The u-ingless egg-laying female is almost globose, of a brownish green colour, with a rusty stain on the head and part of the body next to it. The tail and rings next to it are very hair3\ In the case of this plant-louse, there are wingless males; whether there are winged ones also is not certain. The wingless kind is described as "exceedingly minute, perhaps one-eighth the size of the female" (of which the greatest length given is about the tenth of an inch), legs long, horns longer than the bod}^, and sucker almost equal to it in length. The early stages of this species of plant-louse much resemble each other in form ; the pupa, however, has reddish wing-cases ; also it is usually of a paler yellow in colour than the larva, and has three green stripes on the abdomen. — (' Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' vol. ii.) Prevention and Kemedies. — ""WTiere practicable, a syringing with tobacco-water made by pouring four gallons of hot water upon a j)ound of tobacco will be 256 APPLE. found efficacious. Anointing the branches with soft-soap or strong soajp-suds kills all bark-pests, and the alkali has been said so far to act on the sap passing to the leaves that it sickens the Aphides, and causes them to fall and die on the ground." — (G. B. B.) In the case of this Aphis which blackens the bark and gives the tree a sickly smell from its excretions, thorough and repeated washings that will clean the leaves and shoots, as well as knock off the Aphides, are particularly useful. Where shoots are still in the first stages of attack, before the leaves are ruined, good drenchings applied powerfully by means of the garden-engine (as recommended in the case of American blight) are useful for this purpose, and may be of water, or of any of the washes mentioned. Washes containing soap or anything that will adhere to the Aphis, instead of being repelled by its mealy coat, are the most useful. It is desirable to cut off all infested shoots that are past hope of recovery, or can be spared, and destroy them at once, so as not to allow the Aphides on them to fly or otherwise get about. The common Blue Titmouse is especially useful in destroying Aphides ; and the Cole, Marsh, Long-tailed, and Great Titmouse ; also the Lesser Spotted Wood- pecker, the Creeper, the Nuthatch, and the Warbler, are stated to be serviceable in clearing insects from Apple- trees. — ('Observations of Inj. Insects,' 'Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' &c.) Apple-bark Beetle. Scohjtus [Immorrhdus?), Megerle. This Beetle is sometimes injurious in old orchards, in which it has been noticed in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Notts, Worcestershire, and Wicklow, Ireland. — (M. D.) The female beetle forms a passage under the bark, along which she lays her eggs. These hatch into fleshy yellowish white maggots with ochreous heads and brown jaws, which gnaw each their own gallery, starting from CODLING MOTH. 257 the sides of the central passage and increasmg m size ^vith the increase of the grub that formed them. The maggots in the case observed were hatched about the end of Ma_y, fed on the bark or occasionally on the sap-wood till the autumn, and came out of the infested branch as beetles in April of the following year. These beetles are very small, only about half to two- thirds of a line in length. Under a magnifj-ing glass this small Scoli/ttis will be seen to be black, with the front and hinder margins of the body behind the head (thorax) rust}' colour, the wing-cases rusty at the tip, and the horns on the head ochreous. This Apple-tree Scoh/tiis appears only to attack un- healthy trees, but when it does occur it has great powers of destruction, for a few females which wore allowed to establish themselves on the stem of a tree (for the sake of experiment) laid so many eggs that the maggots from them destroyed the bark for nearly a foot in length. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette,' 1845.) Prevention and Remedies. — Eemoval of all dying or unhealthy branches in which the beetle may be found to have established itself should take place directh' the attack is noticed, and these should be burnt at once, to prevent all jDOSsibility of the insects in them spreading to neighbouring trees. For habits and means of prevention of Scolytus, see Elm-bark Beetle {Sculijtiis dcstnictor). Codling Moth. Carpocupsa jminonana, Sclimidberger. The caterpillar of this Moth causes what are called *' worm-eaten" Apples, which, falling a little l)efore they are ripe, may be known by having a small discoloured spot with a hole in it on the lower side ; from this a gnawed passage leads to the middle of the Apple, which is commonly nearly filled with dirt. The method of attack consists in the moth (when the young Apples are beginning to form in the early s 258 APPLE. summer) laying one egg in eacli fruit, usually in the eye of the Apple ; from this the caterpillar or maggot hatches, and gnaws its way downwards, taking a direction so as not to huii the core. The caterpillar is about half an inch long, and slightly liairy ; whitish, with a brown or black head and dark markings on the next ring, and about eight dots on the others ; the food-canal shows as a dark line along the back. As it grows it continues its gallery towards the stem, or the lower side of the Apple, where it makes an opening through the rind, and thus is able to throw out the pellets of dirt which could not be got rid of by forcing Apple injured Ly caterpillar of Codling Motli. them upwards through its small entrance-burrow. After this opening is made it turns back to the middle of the Apple, and when nearly full grown pierces the core and feeds only on the pips ; and as a result of this injury the Apple falls. After this the caterpillar leaves the i'ruit, crawls up a tree, and, when it has found a convenient crevice in the bark, gnaws a little more of it away so as to form a small chamber, where it spins a white web over itself. Here in some cases (according to German observations) it turns to the chrysalis immediately, from which the CODLING MOTH. 259 moth comes out in a few clays to begin a new attack on the fruit ; or (as recorded in this country) it hves still as ^ caterpillar for several weeks, and then changes to the chrysalis, in which state it usually passes the winter; •and from this the moth comes out in the following •June. The moth is about three-quarters of an inch in the ■spread of the fore wings. These have a light grey or ashy brown ground, wdth delicate streaks, and broader markings of a dark tint, giving a kind of damasked appearance ; and at the hinder corner is a large sj^ot of a brownish red or gold-colour, wdth paler markings •on it, and a border of coppery or golden colour around it. The hinder wings are blackish. — ('Ent. Mag.,' ' Illus. Brit. Ent.,' ' Xaturgeschichte der Schad. Insecten.') PiiE\'ENTioN AND Eemedies. — The iufestcd Apples droj) hefore they are full}' ripe, but (as it has been observed ihat the caterpillars usually leave the fruit immediately it has fallen) removing these Apples does little good. If, however, where attack is prevalent, a slight shake was given to the tree, many of the "worm-eaten" Apples Avould drop; and clearing these away directly, before the caterpillars escaped from them, would much lessen the ;amount of future attack. Looking at the habit of these caterpillars of crawling up a tree as soon as they have left the fruit, it is probable that throwing a shovelful of anything that they would not cross round the stems of the trees as soon as the worm-eaten Apples began to fall from the boughs, would do a deal of good. They probably could not cross gas-lime, or again, ashes or sand that had been well sprinkled with spirits of tar or with paraffin would most likely answer well. A band of hay or straw, well tarred and laid on the ground round the trunk of the tree to be protected, is a sure defence as long as the tar is wet, and, to keep it moist and sticky for a longer time, the addition of fish-oil, in the proportion of one ounce of oil to "three ounces of Archangel tar, has been found suitable ; 2 GO APPLE. if the tar be moderateh' liquid, the addition of oil in the proportion of a quarter instead of a third would answer. For mixing, the tar and oil ma}' be placed over a slow fire, but care should be taken not to allow them to- become hot, as a very slight degree of heat will serve for all that is needed, and, if heated much, the mixture will dr}' more readily, or, if allowed to boil, will become hard and brittle on cooling down. A band of soft-soap laid thickly a few inches wide just above the ground would most likely keep off attack, as few caterpillars would like to crawl over it. This kind of protection does good not only by keeping the trees, clear, but also by keeping the caterpillars exposed for such a much longer time, that the birds are able to help us materially b}^ picking up stragglers. As the caterpillar harbours in crevices, it would be of service in this case, as well as with other Apple-pests, to- reduce the number of these sheltering-places as far as possible, by dressing off loose bark and rough l)roken stumps of boughs, stopping up any particularly l^ad chinks, and — generally — keeping the trees in health}^ and properly-tended condition. It has been suggested that fires of weeds, such as. would cause smoke (not flame), lighted near the trees at the time of egg-laymg of the moths, would be of use ; l)ut probably the arrangement for "trapping" the eater- pillars, mentioned by Prof. "Westwood (' Gard. Chron.,' 1879) as practised by Mr. "Wade in Tasmania, would do- more good. This consists in fastening a bandage of sacking or similar material round the stem of the tree from one to three feet from the ground, and it is advised that it should be put also round the branches. The grubs when seeking shelter ''on coming to one of these traps seek no farther," and may thus be readily destroyed. LACKEY MOTH. 2G1 Lackey Moth. Bomhjx (('lis'iocaiii])a) neustrui, Curtis. 1, Cluster ©f eggs; 2, caterpillar; -j, motb. The caterpillars of the Lackey Moth are injurious to Oak, Elm, Birch, l^-c, but are especially pests when they attack the Apple. The eggs are to be found in winter and spring, laid on naked twigs, in compact spirally-arranged rings about half an inch long (see fig.). From these eggs small black hau'v caterpillars hatch about the beginning of May, and immediately spin a web over themselves, which they enlarge from time to time as needed for their accommodation. In these webs they live in companies of from fifty to two hundred, and from them the cater- pillars go out to feed on the leaves, returning for shelter in wet weather or at night. When alarmed, they all let themselves do'svn by threads, either to the ground, or else after hanging in the aii* till the alarm is past the}- go up again by their threads to the tree. When full fed, which is about midsummer, they are an inch and a half in length, and hairy ; of a bluish grey colour", marked with two black eye-like spots on the head, two black spots with a scarlet space between them on the next ring, and three scarlet stripes on each 2G2 APPLE. side and a white one on the back, all bordered witb black along the rest of the caterpillar. At this stage the caterpillars no longer live in companies, but each finds some sheltered spot, between leaves, in hedges,, beneath the bars of railings, under roofs of sheds, or even on the top of walls, where it spins a sulphur- coloured silken cocoon, mixed with sulphur-coloured powder and with hairs from the skin woven into it, from which the moths hatch in Jul}'. The moths are variable in colouring, mostly with rusty fox or ochrey markings, but some have the fore wings of a red-brown, with two pale ochreous streaks ; others ^yellowish, with dark brown bars ; and others are variously tinted : the hinder wings are reddish brown. It is stated that the moths, and especially the females, seldom fly, but remain concealed by day under leaves and in long grass, and come out at night. The caterpillars seldom do the enormous quantity of mischief with us that they are noted as causing in France, where, according to the old law, it was compulsory on proprietors to have the webs on the shoots cut off with shears and destroyed, in consequence of the ravages of the caterpillars (if left unchecked) ruining the Apple- leafage over an extent of miles of country ; nevertheless their attacks are often the cause of much loss in this country, and need attention. — (' Brit. Moths,' ' Illus. Brit. Ent.,' and ' Gard. Chron.') Prevention and Bemedies. — Some good may be done by looking for the rings of eggs on the shoots, cutting- these off and destroying them ; also by destroying any yellow silken cocoons that maybe found about the trees; but these methods are tedious, and, though they are of use where just a few trees can be carefully tended, are of little service in orchard treatment. A far better way is to watch for the webs, and, as soon as they are seen, to carry out the old French method and cut the shoots through with a pair of nippers and destroy them. It is well for one person to cut, and another ta SMALL ERMINE MOTH. 2G3 hold a pail below for the web and all the caterpillars (which on the first alarm would throw themselves down by their threads) to fall into. The pail should have a few inches depth of water in it, or mud thick enough to prevent the caterpillars from escaping. A less troublesome but less complete method is to shake the boughs, or strike them smartly, so as to make the caterpillars drop, and sweep those that dangle by their threads in the air, down with the hand. These ma}' be trampled on, or gas-lime, quick-lime, or anything that will kill them, may be thrown on them ; but it should be done at oner. As the moths harbour under leaves and long grass, a properly kept state of undergro^vth in orchards, free from overwhelmmg weeds and rank herbage, is of service in preventing attack. Much more attention to this matter is needed relatively to keeping down Apple-pests than is commonly supposed. The dark, damp, confined air of the neglected over- crowded orchard fosters all kinds of insect-pests, and as no grass cut in such circumstances would dry, it is often left for rough feeding, or an occasional "skirming" of what is too long to remain uncut, and thus "pests" have possession ; whilst where the trees stand apart, as the}' should, there is sunshine and fresh air to cause ripened growth, and lighten up the dark nooks that insects hide in ; the grass can be properly pastured and attended to, and also the small birds have fuller access to do their work as insect-clearers. Small Ermine Moth. Yponomnita padcUa, Stephens. The caterpillars of this Moth are particularly destruc- tive to the leafage of Apple-trees and also of Hawthorn hedges. The female lays her eggs in roundish patches on the small twigs, and covers these patches with a kind of strong gum, which is yellow at first, but gradually changes to a dark brown, so as not to be easily dis- 2G4 APPLE. tinguishable from the brown twigs. The eggs may be found hatched by the begmnmg of October, but the caterpihars (which are then Httle yellow creatures with black heads, and only about half a line long) remain sheltered under the patch of gum during the winter, and do not come out till the leaves begin to unfold in spring. Small Irniiiie Apple IMotli, cnterpillni-s, and cocoons. Then it appears (see 'Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,' vol. i., l). 22) that they burrow into the young leaves and feed on the soft matter within, until they are strong enough to eat straightforward at the whole leaf, when they come out from their minings and thus make their appearance suddenly in large numbers where none have been notice- able just before. The shoots may be seen covered with caterpillars early in the summer, and these continue feeding on the leaves and spinning webs in which they live together in large companies, until, in severe attacks, the hedge or tree infested is strii)ped of its foliage, and left hung over with a kind of sheeting of the dirty ragged remains of their deserted webs. When full fed each caterpillar spins a light cocoon in which it changes to the clnysalis inside the general web. The moths, which come out towards the end of June, are about three-quarters of an inch in expanse. The fore wings are usually livid or whitish, dotted with black; the hind wings livid or lead-colour ; but they are so SMALL ERMINE MOTH. 265 variable as to be divided in some of our lists into distinct species. The kind ligm-ed opposite (see ' Gard. Chron. ■and Ag. Gazette,' 1849), characterised by the white :ground of the fore wings, thick cocoons, and by feeding ■especially on the Apple, is sometimes distinguished as Y. m(iUron'U(i.—{' Illiis. Brit. Ent.,' E. H. L. in ' Trans. Ent. Soc.,' vol. i.. Sec.) Prevention and Eemedies. — As the caterpillars of this moth turn to chrysalids in cocoons in their large nests •or masses of web, the simplest method of prevention is io cut these webs off and destroy them. Something towards getting rid of the caterpillars at ^n earlier stage may be done by shaking the trees or striking the boughs, so as to make the grubs fall ; but, from their habit of letting themselves down by their ihreads on any disturbance and then going up them again, as there is sometimes much confused web about the leaves, it takes some trouble to ensure that "they do not return. If they can be shaken in parties from large nests or wel)s, they may be caught in a pail held just below, like those of the Lackey Moth ; but if they are scattered, care should be taken to sweep down with the hand all that are hanging at the end of their threads before the}' have time to go back. This will prevent one method of return to the boughs, and if anything they cannot cross is put •on the ground round the stem of the tree (as a ring of tarred hay, a good thick painting of fish-oil soft-soap, or anything else that may be known to be avoided by ■caterpillars), then all means of getting back again ■appears to be cut off. It is desirable, however, to irample on the ground beneath a shaken tree, or throw quick-lime, to get rid of the wanderers. It has been observed that the whole brood of moths usually hatch from the chiysalis at the same time, when their light colour makes them easily seen, and they are sluggish by day ; it has therefore been found useful to 'Spread a sheet under the trees, and by beating or shaking 26G APPLE. the boughs make the moths fall into the sheet and. destroy them. Fish-oil soft-soap, being procurable at a price of ten to- twelve shillings per firkin of sixty pounds, is an appli- cation that can be used at remunerative rates, and, as in. many other cases of insect-attack, good drenchings of it. would probably be of service in clearing the trees of moths when they are hatching out of the chrysalids ; and it would help to disperse the caterpillars if syringed on to, or into, their nests. Mussel Scale. Asiiidiotus co)ichifor)uls, Curtis. Aiiple Scale; with female; female and e.Lj-g-s, magnified. The Mussel Scales are so named from their resemblance- to very small mussel-shells. They are to be found both on Apple and Pear-trees, but chiefly on the former,, where they occur on the more tender bark of the trunk,, as well as on the branches, in such large numbers as tO' cause serious injury. Some kinds of Apple-trees are- more infested than others, and the ""Wellington" is esj^ecially subject to attack. The Scales are about the eighth of an inch long, dark, brown, slightly curved and rounded at one end, much smaller and of a rusty colour at the other, and wrinkled across. They adhere firmly to the bark, and on lifting full-grown specimens the females will be found inside MUSSEL SCALE. 2G7 the smaller end of the Scale (sheltered by it, not fastened to it), the larger end of the Scale being filled with fifty or more white oval-shaped eggs. The young Scale- insects that hatch from these eggs are very small, flat, and white ; furnished with eyes, horns, six legs, and a sucker. These run about with great activity for a few days, but after a while fix themselves and begin to grow,, and gradually change in ai:)pearance and turn to pupae.. The female resembles a fat fleshy maggot of a greenish colour, globular, somewhat flattened, and with lines. across showing a division into rings, but without, articulated limbs ; after depositing her eggs she dies, and may be found shrivelled inside the Scale, The male does not appear to have been yet observed. — (' Gard. Chron.,' ' Prak. Insecten-Kunde,' &c.) Prevention and Piemedies. — Scale may be removed at any time of the year, but the best season for destroying it or applj-ing dressings is in spring, so as to clear it, away before the .young insects which creep out in May from under the old dead shells have appeared, to begin the new attack. It may be removed by thoroughly moistening the surface of the infested bark with lathers of any kind of soap (or any dressing that may be preferred), and then scraping the surface with a blunt knife, or rubbing it with pieces of coarse canvas, or well brushing it, so as to clear off the Scale without hurting the bark. Scraping with a blunt knife is a good plan, as in this way the Scales, moss, and everything on the surface are mixed up in a plaster with the soapy lather, and got thoroughly rid of together ; if brushing is preferred,, good drenchings of soap and water, or of dressings poisonous to the Scale, should be given in addition to the first thorough moistening, so as to wash down or kill all that may have only been disturbed or be lodged in crevices. Soft-soap or common coarse household soap are useful for this purpose, and the following recipes for •268 APPLE. of her long curved proboscis ; she- then lays an egg in the hole, and with the help of her proboscis she closes the opening ; she then goes on to another bud, and may continue egg-la,ving for two or three weeks ; but the date and amount of attack depend much on variation of the season influenced by the weather, for the buds must be formed before the eggs. 270 APPLE. ■can be laid, and immediately the petals begin to mifold «gg-laying ceases. Hatching may take place from the beginning to the end of April ; if the weather is warm the eggs hatch in about six days. Meanwhile the bud .grows and the petals are of their usual colour, but presently, instead of opening, they wither, and inside, in place of the stamens and germ, which have been eaten •away, will be found a curved fleshy whitish wrinkled maggot, legless, with a few hairs, and a black horny head. This maggot turns to a pupa of a rusty brown ■colour in the hollow chamber in the bud, and in about ■a month from the time when the eggs were laid the Weevils develop from the pupae, and disperse over the 'tree, where they feed on the leaves during the summer. These beetles are of the shape figured above, of a reddish brown colour, with three indistinct stripes of a paler colour on the body behind the head; the wing- cases have a large pitchy-coloured patch, with a pale ■oblique stripe on it, and two ochreous spots towards the tip. They pass the winter in chinks and crannies, or under loose pieces of the bark, or under clods of earth or stones, and come out when the flower-buds are swelling in spring, when the males may be seen flying round the trees, and the females generally crawling on the branches. — (John Curtis, in ' Gard. Chron.,' 18-44.) Pkevention and Eemedies. — Much good can be done by clearing away all rubbish round the trees that may serve for shelter during the winter, and also b}^ removing rough useless bark, and generally keeping the stems and branches of the trees in a well-tended condition. Where the bark is clean and in good order there will be few hiding-places on the trees, and, as the female Weevils seldom fly, a large proportion of attack may be prevented by putting tarred bandages, or throwing some- thing that they will not cross, on the ground round the stems, and thus preventing the females that have wintered under rubbish near the tree crawling up it in spring to lay their eggs. ArrLE-BLOSSOM -WEEVIL. 271 The Weevils fall to the ground on being alarmed, and .-at egg-laying time many might be shaken down from the trees on to cloths spread below, and thus got rid of at -an expense which would certainly be remunerative in garden cultivation, and worth a trial for orchard ground in cases where seriously bad attack was known to be going on. It will be noticed that the Weevil lays no more eggs :after the Hower-buds begin to expand, so that in fine sunshiny weather the time of egg-laying is much shortened ; also she lays on calm days, sheltering ierself from wind or fi'ost ; and following up these habits it would appear that (in addition to other precautions) trees so i)laced and managed as to have plenty of sunlight and air around them and amongst the boughs •are less likely to suffer, than where close-growing trees (even at the flowering time) keep sunlight and air from circulating j^roperly, and where, though the buds on the upper parts of the trees expand in their due season, there are many others coming on slowly on the imperfectly-ripened wood beneath still available for the Weevil. Many of the applications noted under the head of American blight would be of service in preventing attack of this Weevil. 272 CHEERY. Cherry AtdMs ^^^^'^''' "''''""'' ^^^• ^ ^ ' \Mi/z}is ccrasi, Bucktou. This Aphis, -which is often known as " Black Fly," is found m such enormous quantities on Cherry-trees in the early summer as at times to cause great damage. This arises chiefiy from loss of the sap sucked away by the Aphides, but partly from the pores of the leaves, being choked by the sweet sticky fluid ejected by the- insects. The females, both winged and wingless, that i)roducc- living young are black ; the egg-bearing females are much smaller, and of a dark or ochreous-brown ; and the male has the head and the body between the wings, brownish black, and the abdomen of an ochreous-3'ellow,. with brown transverse bars and spots. The pupa3 are olive-green, Avitli vellow wing-cases. — (' Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' &c.) Prevention and Bemedies. — Picking off the infested shoots and destroying them with the Black-fly adhering relieves the trees, and diminishes the amount of the coming attack. — (A. S.) The following application is stated to answer well : — Mix some tenacious clay with water, so as to form a thin puddle. Then loosen the infested shoots (in case of the tree being on a wall), dip them in the mixture, and leave, them to dry. After the imprisoned Black-flies have died the mixture may be washed off. This application should be made in tolerably settled weather, when there is neither violent rain to wash the mud off nor hot sunshine to crack it. — (' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette.') Probably a little Paris green or hellebore infused in the water would make this application much more certain. CHEREY APHIS. 273 Probably thorough drenchings with some of the regular Hoi^-washes used to destroy the Green-fly would be about the best treatment also for this Aphis ; a good stream of water driven at the tree is of service both in knocking Aphides from the shoots and in cleaning the coatings of