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.^^ 
 
 DENTITION 
 
 AS INDICATIVE OF THE 
 
 AGE OF THE ANIMALS OF THE FARM. 
 
 BY 
 
 PROFESSOR SIR GEORGE T. BROWN, C.B. 
 
 WITH SIXTY ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION. 
 
 Honiron : 
 
 i JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 I 1920. 
 
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 ANIMALS OF THE FARM IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
 
 By Professor Sir George Brown, C.B. 72 pp. "With 52 Illustrations. 
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 DENTITION AS INDICATIVE OF THE AGE OF FARM 
 
 ANIMALS. By Professor Sir George Brown, C.B. 64 pp. With 60 
 Illustrations. Seventh Edition : 1920. Price Two Shillings. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE'S FOOT AND THE 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING. By Professor Sir George Brown, C.B. 
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 QUARTER-EVIL. Disposal of Quarter-Evil Carcasses, Disinfec- 
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 JOHNE'S DISEASE. February, 1912. 
 
 OX WARBLE, OR BOT FLY. March, 1917. 
 
DENTITION 
 
 AS INDICATIVE OF THE 
 
 AGE OF THE ANIMALS OF THE FARM 
 
 BY 
 
 PROFESSOR SIR GEORGE T. BROWN, C.B. 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION. 
 
 Uontion : 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1920. 
 
 VET MED LIBRARY 
 N. n STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ....... 3-4 
 
 DENTITION OF THE HORSE .... 4-34 
 
 Evidence of the Age of the Horse during 
 
 Temporary and Permanent Dentition . 10-23 
 
 Indications of Age of the Horse afforded 
 BY the Teeth after the Completion of 
 
 Permanent Dentition 23-34 
 
 DENTITION OF THE OX 34-45 
 
 DENTITION OF THE SHEEP . ' . . . 45-51 
 
 DENTITION OF THE PIG 51-61 
 
DENTITION 
 
 AS IXDICATIVK OK THE 
 
 AGE OF THE ANIMALS OF THE FARM, 
 
 ♦♦♦- 
 
 Introductory. 
 
 JUDGiNCx the age by the teeth is an ancient art, the origin of 
 which may perhaps be dated back to the time of the domestica- 
 tion of the horse — an Mnimal which, for commercial and 
 economic reasons, must have attracted more attention tlian 
 tliose which were used for food. In modern times the system 
 was extended to other animals of the farm, as appears from 
 the older veterinary writers on dentition, among them M. 
 Girard, whose observations and illustrations were copied by 
 Youatt, and from his book bj' more recent writers. 
 
 There is a general belief among stock-owners that the 
 improvement which has taken place in the various breeds of 
 farm animals, as the result of careful breeding and feeding, has 
 led to early maturity of the teeth, as well as of other organs and 
 tissues of the body. For this idea, Girard, and after him Youatt 
 and other writers, are certainly responsible. According to them, 
 cattle do not get the full set of broad teeth until they are four 
 or five years old, sheep at four years old, and swine at three 
 years old. Bat when the writer of this paper, with these views 
 ill his mind, commenced an inquiry on dentition in 1850, he 
 soon found out how very wide of the truth they were. Cattle 
 Ijred oh the Royal Agricultural College Farm had their dentition 
 perfectly complete in most cases under three years and a half, 
 in many instances soon after three years, and, in one case, at 
 two years and ten months. Sheep had their full complement 
 of teeth at three years, and pigs soon after one year and a half. 
 All the animals on the farm were of the average quality — 
 
 a2 
 
4 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 improved Shorthorn cattle, Cotswold sheep, and Berkshire pigs. 
 They were kept on liberal rations, but not forced for show 
 purposes. 
 
 The inquiry was continued beyond the College Farm, and 
 the cattle, sheep, and swine belonging to well-known breeders 
 and exhibitors were examined, and it may be stated without 
 hesitation that from the commencement of the investigation to 
 the present time, including a period of more than fifty years, 
 no remarkable advance has been observed in the rate of 
 development of the teeth. None of the thousands of cattle, sheep, 
 and pigs which have been examined during that period have 
 shown examples of dental precocity more pronounced in 
 character than those which were met with in the early part of 
 the inquiry among the animals on the College Farm at Ciren- 
 cester and elsewhere. 
 
 It did not at first occur to the writer to question the truth 
 of the assumption that the improvement of the various breeds 
 of farm stock by selection and high feeding sufficiently 
 accounted for the early appearance of the teeth ; but now, after 
 a further period of over half a centnry has elapsed, i.e. from 
 1850 to 1902, without any marked change having been noted 
 in the development of the teeth — although breeders have 
 been during tlae whole period steadily devoting their know- 
 ledge and energies to the cultivation of the various breeds 
 of cattle, sheep, and swine — it is impossible to avoid the con- 
 clusion that the original version of the development of the 
 teeth was based on imperfect observation, or on the custom of 
 one writer quoting in good faith from another. 
 
 With some exhibitors, the number of whom, it may be 
 observed, grows less year by year, it is a favourite contention 
 that the system of forcing animals by high feeding on prepared 
 food facilitates the cutting of the teeth. Physiology affords no 
 ground for the assertion, and experience proves that it is 
 incorrect. The use of prepared food lessens the wear of the 
 masticating organs, and rather tends to retard than accelerate 
 their development. 
 
 Dentition of the Horse. 
 
 Among the animals of the farm, the horse has always 
 occupied a prominent position, and everything relating to his 
 management in health and disease has received special 
 attention. It is not therefore remarkable that horsemen were 
 familiar with the method of judging the animal's age by the 
 teeth long before it was ascertained that a similar method was 
 applicable to other farm-stock. And at the present time, 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 5 
 
 although the investigations which have been carried out by 
 veterinary authorities on the Continent and in this country 
 have led to the collection of a large amount of valuable evidence 
 in reference to the development of the teeth of the ox, sheep, 
 and pig, the fact must be admitted that the teeth of the horse 
 exhibit reliable indications of the age for a much longer period 
 than those of any other animal. 
 
 The ages of cattle, sheep, and swine are to be judged with 
 accuracy only during the period occupied by the cutting of the 
 temporary teeth and their replacement by permanent organs ; 
 but a peculiar conformation of the teeth of the horse enables 
 the expert to form an opinion of the animal's age long after 
 the completion of permanent dentition. Girard carries his 
 description of the changes which occur in the form of the 
 tables of the incisor teeth, or more properly the nippers, up 
 to the age of twenty years ; and Mr. Sidney Galvayne. in his 
 book on the age of the horse, gives the murks which indicate 
 the age, according to his view, up to thirty years. 
 
 When dentition is completed, the horse has six incisors or 
 nippers in the front of the mouth in both upper and lower 
 jaws, and twenty-four molars, six on each side, in the jaw. 
 
 Ill the male there are also four tusks, one on each side of 
 the upper and lower jaws, between the corner incisors and 
 the molar teeth. Small conical teeth, known as wolves' teeth, 
 appear in many instances in front of the first upper molars 
 in the colt, and sometimes remain after the temporary are 
 exchanged for permanent teeth ; but, as merely rudimentary 
 organs, they will not require any notice beyond the statement 
 that a vulgar prejudice has assigned to them a special signifi- 
 cance as a cause of blindness, and on this ground they are often 
 punched out. If this operation is roughly done it is a mere act 
 of ci'uelty ; in any case it is superfluous. But. so far as the 
 teeth are concerned, their retention or removal is a matter of 
 indifference. 
 
 It is customary to judge the age by the incisor teeth, for 
 the reason that they are more easily examined. The amateur 
 may be content to form an opinion from the mere cursory 
 inspection of the signs which are most readily observed ; but 
 the professional examiner is expected to take advantage of all 
 the evidence which he can obtain by a critical inspection of 
 molars and incisors, and it is a fact that in some animals at 
 certain periods of dentition the molar teeth afford more certain 
 indications of age than the incisors. 
 
 In the illustration on next page (Fig. 1) the temporary and 
 permanent incisors of the horse are depicted side by side, and 
 in each the following parts may be distinguished. First, the 
 crown of the tooth, which projects above the gum ; the neck, 
 
fi Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 which is encircled by the gum ; and the fang, which is lodged 
 in its appropriate socket in the jaw. 
 
 It wall be observed that the temporary tooth is much smaller 
 than the permanent organ, which is placed on the left hand, 
 and also that the distinction between the upper part of the 
 tooth, or crowai, and the fang is much more marked in the milk- 
 tooth. In fact, the permanent incisor does not indicate any 
 actual line of separation between the upper and lower portions. 
 
 Fig. 1 . — Permanent and Temporary Incisors of Horse. 
 
 B. Temporary. 
 
 A. Permanent. 
 
 For all practical purposes a knowledge of the form of tiie 
 teeth, and especially the signs which distinguish the temporary 
 from the permanent organs, is quite sufficient. To the scientist, 
 the study of the minute structure and development of the teeth, 
 in their connection with the habits of the different classes of 
 animals, is very interesting, but it does not assist the practical 
 observer in judging the age. 
 
 The next illustration (Fig. 2) shows a perfectly formed 
 central permanent incisor. All the parts of the tooth which 
 the expert is required to note carefully are clearly defined in 
 this figure. 
 
 Attention is, in the first place, directed tu the upper surface 
 of the crown of the incisor, which is described as the table of 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 7 
 
 the tooth. In the centre of the table is a cavity (a) familiarly 
 known as the " mark," on account of the dark colour of its 
 interior. 
 
 In form, the table of the incisor tooth may be described as 
 an elliptical figure, with its long axis running transversely. 
 At the end of the fang the figure is also elliptical, but the long 
 axis is exactly at right angles to that of the table ; and by 
 grinding, or by the slower process of wearing an incisor tooth 
 from the upper surface towards the fang, a series of figures will 
 
 Fig. 2. — Pernmneiit Incisor (Horse). 
 
 he formed, passing from the elliptical to the oval, the square, 
 and the triangle, first with equal sides, and then with two sides 
 longer than the base. 
 
 For the purpose of making the nature of these changes 
 evident, the outlines of the figures, which result from the wear 
 of tooth structures, are placed on the right of the tooth (Fig. 2). 
 There are, however, other points which require to be noticed. 
 The cavity in the centre of the table is formed by an inflection 
 of the structures of the tooth in the shape of a hollow cone, 
 the apex of which reaches into the fang. In the recent tooth 
 
8 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 the cavity extends quite across the table, but, necessarily, as 
 the tooth is worn it becomes more and more circumscribed, 
 and at length the apex of the hollow cone is reached, and 
 the " mark " consists of a mere speck, and then is entirely 
 obliterated. 
 
 Owing to the inflexion of the whole of the tooth-structares 
 to form the hollow cone, the tables of the incisors have, besides 
 the ivory and crnsta, two distinct rings of enamel, which are 
 distinguished from the other parts by their pearly whiteness — 
 an external or larger ring which forms the outline of the table, 
 and a central ring which surrounds the cavity in the centre of 
 the table. That part of the tooth which is situated in the front 
 of the mark is described as the anterior edge, and the portion 
 behind it as the posterior edge. 
 
 All these parts are indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2), and it 
 is necessary that the reader should clearly recognise them in 
 order to understand the description of the changes which are 
 occasioned by the wear to which the teeth are subjected. 
 
 While the temporary dentition is proceeding, and also during 
 the time that the permanent are taking the places of the tem- 
 porary teeth, the examiner may form an opinion of the age by 
 merely noting what teeth are in the mouth ; but when these 
 changes are completed, he is compelled to base his conclusion 
 upon the evidence which he gains from an inspection of the 
 tables of the incisor teeth, those of the lower jaw being gene- 
 rally selected. In doing this, he has to observe whether the 
 cavity or mark extends across the tooth, or is surrounded by a 
 line of worn structure, in Avhich case the table is said to be fully 
 formed, as it appears in Fig. 2. The width of the worn surface 
 in front of the cavity, as compared with that at the back, should 
 be taken into consideration, and also the shape of the table, 
 whether oval, or square, or triangular. 
 
 No particular importance can be attached to the tusks as a 
 means of judging the age. Thej- only occur in the horse, aud 
 are less regular than the other teeth in the time of their eruption. 
 The small rudimentary teeth which sometimes exist in place of 
 tusks in the mare need not be taken into account at all. 
 
 There may in certain cases be reason to suspect that the 
 mouth of the horse under examination has been manipulated, 
 with the view to make the animal appear younger or older than 
 it really is. Up to the age of five years it may be advantageous 
 to the seller to convince the purchaser that the horse is above 
 its real age ; but as six years old is, according to genei-al con- 
 viction, the period of equine perfection, an old horse gains by 
 being made to appear as near that age as possible. 
 
 That the horse's mouth is sometimes subjected to certain 
 operations for the purpose of deception cannot be doubted. 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 9 
 
 Many young animals come into the market showing by the mal- 
 position of their teeth, or the absence of some of them altogether, 
 that violence has been employed to aid the natural process of 
 eruption, but often in so bungling a manner that the object has 
 been defeated. Early extraction of the temporary teeth facili- 
 tates the cutting of the permanent organs, and by commencing 
 with the central incisors as soon as signs of their displacement 
 are seen, and continuing the same system in respect of the lateral 
 and corner teeth, the whole of the permanent incisors may be 
 brought into the mouth soon after four years. The cutting of 
 the tusks at this age is also facilitated by fitting a hot iron, cun- 
 ningly arranged, over the points of the teeth which may be just 
 pricking through the gum, and thus burning away the structure 
 which obscured the organs from view. 
 
 It was a favourite argument with Mayhew, who devoted 
 much time to the study of dentition, and certainly was the first 
 to announce the fact of the cutting of the first and second per- 
 manent molars in the same year, instead of following each other 
 at an interval of a year — as had been taught previously — that 
 extraction of the temporary teeth, or lancing the gums, or the 
 adoption of any means by which inflammation was excited, 
 would tend i-ather to retard than facilitate the advance of the 
 permanent teeth. Mr. Mayhew's contention was, that .during 
 the existence of inflammation blood was determined to the gum, 
 and therefore a less than the ordinary supply was sent to the new 
 tooth, which would consequently be developed slowly. How- 
 ever satisfactory this explanation might be to the physiologist, 
 it had no weight with the breeder, who kne^v from practical 
 experience that the permanent or second teeth did come up 
 more quickly if the first teeth were taken out. 
 
 Treated in the manner above described, the horse at four 
 years off is accepted as a five-year-old ; but the expert is well 
 aware that at the age of four years there are eight molar teeth 
 which have only just approached the level of the others, and 
 these enable him to distinguish with absolute certainty between 
 a horse of four and another of five years old. 
 
 The clumsy expedient of excavating the centres of the teeth 
 of old horses, and blackening the cavity thus made by means of 
 a hot iron to represent the lost mark, is not likely to deceive 
 any one who is familiar with the anatomy of the teeth ; and the 
 operation, which is dignified by the term " Bishoping," from the 
 name of its inventor, is too laborious to be often performed. 
 Indeed, it may be allowed that the tricks which are played with 
 horse's mouths are not so frequent or so successful as to con- 
 stitute an important element in the question of the value of the 
 evidence of age which is afforded by the teeth. 
 
10 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 It is customary to calculate the ages of all thoroughbreds 
 from January 1, and of other horses from May 1. The terms 
 " off " and " coming " are employed with the understanding that 
 they mean the addition to or sujjtraction from the stated age of 
 a few months. Thus " three years off " means three years and 
 about three months ; and " coining four years " means that the 
 horse Avants about three months to complete the year. It is not 
 essential that the examiner should conform to usage in respect 
 of the terms above mentioned, unless he thinks fit to accept 
 them ; nor is he compelled to insist ihat the year shall be com- 
 pleted in all cases on the 1st of January or May. The statement 
 of the opinion of a horse's age will be made absolutely, and 
 without any reference to an arbitrary standard, which neverthe- 
 less may, for ordinary purposes, have a certain amount of 
 convenience. 
 
 In reference to horses which are exhibited in different classes 
 at Shows, a question has more than once arisen as to the precise 
 meaning or intention of the terms applying to the class, and 
 the question has not yet been answered in a satisfactory manner. 
 For example, an animal entered in the four-year-old class has 
 a condition of dentition wJiich indicates that he is nearly five 
 years old. This may be admitted by the exhibitor, but he also 
 contends that the horse is a four-year-old until he has reached 
 his fifth birthday. If this plea be allowed, it is obvious that a 
 horse foaled in the beginning of the year may have to compete 
 Avitii one which was foaled late in the same year. 
 
 Evidence of the Age of the Horse During Temporary 
 AND Permanent Dentition. 
 
 At hirth the foal has the two centi-al temporary incisors 
 somewhat laterally placed, in consequence of the jaw not being 
 wide enough to accommodate them both in front. The teeth are 
 nearly covered by the gum, and only a small portion of the 
 upper anterior edges is to be seen. In some cases the extreme 
 corners of the lateral incisors are to be detected in outline unde)- 
 the gum. The three temporary molars are usually under the 
 gum at the time of birth. The state of the incisors at birth is 
 showai in the following drawing (Fig. 3), wdiich was taken, on 
 the morning of its birth, from a cart-colt foaled at the Royal 
 Agricultural College Farm. 
 
 By the end of the second week after hirth, the central incisors 
 will be fairly in the mouth, and in six or eigJit weeks the lateral 
 teeth, and also the temporary molars, are well up. 
 
 In the illustration on page 12 (Fig. 4) the state of the incisor 
 teeth at tivo months old is shown. The central incisors at this 
 age have the surfaces very slightly woin, and the cavity or 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 11 
 
 infundibulum is not surrounded by a line of worn structure ; 
 only the anterior edges of the teeth have yet been subject to 
 attrition. In the lateral incisors the wear is confined to a small 
 portion of the anterior edge which is nearest to the central teeth. 
 These appearances are indicated in the drawing (Fig. 4). 
 
 Between two and six months old the central and lateral 
 incisors increase in size with the growth of the animal. At six 
 months old the mouth has a very neat and compact appearance. 
 The centrals and laterals are well developed, and their anterior 
 edges are worn level. The posterior edges are, however, still 
 rather below the anterior, and the table, therefore, is not 
 perfectly formed. The drawing on page 13 (Fig. 5) was taken 
 from the mouth of a cart-colt at the age of six months. 
 
 -Incisors of Colt at birth. 
 
 Soon after seven months, indications of the cutting of the 
 corner teeth may often be seen, and in many instances the 
 points of the teeth will be observed pricking through the gum. 
 At ni7ie months old the colt will have the corner incisors 
 in the mouth with their extreme anterior edges in apposition, 
 leaving a triangular space, which is seen most perfectly on a 
 side view when the lips are slightly separated. 
 
 At this period the fourth molar, which is a permanent tooth 
 from the first, begins to protrude through the gum, and by the 
 time of the completion of the first year it is level with the 
 temporary molars ; but its surface is not worn, and the recent 
 
12 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 appearance of the tooth is most important as evidence of the 
 age of one year. 
 
 The illustration on page 14 (Fig. 6) shows the condition 
 of the molar teeth at the completion of the first year. Three 
 temporary molars have the upper surface worn, and are thus 
 readily distinguished from the fourth molar, which has only 
 recently b-en cut. 
 
 The illustration on page 15 (Fig. 7) shows the shell-like 
 character of the corner teeth, and the state of the tables of the 
 other incisors in the one-year-old colt ; and it may be remarked 
 that the appearances correspond with those of the teeth of the 
 five-year-old horse ; the chief difference being that in the 
 yearling the teeth are temporary, and in the five-year-old 
 permanent, organs. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Incisors of Colt at tiro months. 
 
 A practical horseman would perhaps feel amused at the idea 
 of the possibility of a yearling being taken for a five-year-old, 
 or a two-year-old for a six ; but in the case of rough forest- 
 ponies, in which the aspect of colthood is quickly lost, such 
 mistakes have occurred, and it is therefore not out of place to 
 suggest that care should be taken to discriminate between the 
 temporary incisors, and, if necessary, to refer to the molar 
 teeth, in order to avoid such embarrassing blunders. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances it will be more frequently 
 necessary to distinguish between a yearling and a two-year-old, 
 than between a o&e-year-old and a five, and it fortunately 
 happens that at the age of ttvo years another molar, the fifth in 
 situation, is in the mouth, and may be at once distinguished 
 by its recent appearance. Soon after eighteen months the 
 fifth molar begins to protrude through the gum, and by the 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 13 
 
 termination of the second year is level with the other molars, 
 as shown in Fig. 8 (page 16), so that any doubt which may 
 remain after an inspection of the incisors may be settled by 
 reference to the condition of the molars. 
 
 It will be observed in the figure just referred to that the 
 surfaces of four molars are worn level, while the points of the 
 new tooth, the fifth in position, are rounded, excepting a small 
 portion of the inner side of the tooth, which shows the effects 
 of attrition, but only to a slight extent. 
 
 The incisor teeth at two years of age have their tables per- 
 fectly formed as a rule ; but, in some instances, the corner 
 
 Fig. 5. — Inclaors of Colt at six months. 
 
 teeth, although they have lost their shell-like character, still 
 have a portion of the posterior edge untouched, as shown in 
 the illustration of the mouth of a two-year-old filly (Fig. 9, 
 page 17). 
 
 Between two and three years of age the central temporary 
 incisors of the horse are changed for i)erraanent teeth, and the 
 different phases of the change are sufficiently well defined to 
 assist the examiner in deciding whether the animal is two 
 years "off" or coming three years. 
 
 At two years " off," or two years and a quarter, there will 
 be evident signs of the shedding of the upper central incisors. 
 The gum at the necks of the teeth is somewhat sunken, and the 
 colour is rather deeper than in other parts. Very soon a red 
 line appears in this position, and it is evident that one or both 
 of the temporary teeth are only held in their places by a small 
 portion of the fang which has not yet been absorbed. At two 
 
14 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 years and a half the permanent teeth will generally be in the 
 mouth. Perhaps one temporary central incisor may yet remain ; 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 15 
 
 but even in that case the state of the permanent teeth ^\ ill be 
 sufficient evidence of the animal's age. 
 
 The mouth of the horse at two years and a half has a ver.y 
 characteristic appearance, especially when viewed in the front 
 by separating the lips. The four permanent central incisors 
 are seen in position about half grown, with deep cavities or 
 infundibula extending across each tooth, presenting a striking 
 contrast to the worn temporary teeth on each side of them. 
 The new permanent teeth at this age are not more than half- 
 way up, and there is consequently a considerable space between 
 the* upper and lower teeth w^hen the temporary teeth are in 
 apposition. 
 
 Fig. 7 .— Incisors of Colt at one year. 
 
 When the horse has reached the age of two years and nine 
 months, the four permanent incisors will be in actual contact, 
 at least in regard to their anterior edges, when the mouth is 
 closed ; but on examining the tables it is apparent that no 
 wear has taken place, and the posterior edges of the teeth are 
 not yet level with the anterior. 
 
 At three years old the central permanent incisors are fully 
 developed, and the anterior edges show a narrow line of worn 
 surface. The posterior edges are level with the anterior, but 
 are not worn to the same extent. 
 
16 
 
 l^entifion as indicative of the Age 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 17 
 
 In giving an opinion in a case of dispute as to the age 
 exceeding or not exceeding three years, the examiner will pay 
 particular attention to the upper surfaces of the central per- 
 manent incisors in the first place. The tables of these teeth 
 are not fully formed at three yeai'S of age, and the cavity is not_ 
 bounded by a line of worn structure, but extends quite across 
 the teeth, and is open at least on one side and sometimes on 
 both sides. Perfectly formed tables on the central incisors will 
 
 Fig. 'J. — Incisors of Cart-filly at two years. 
 
 certainly- indicate that the horse is above the age of three, and 
 it is most probable that the state ol the lateral temporary 
 incisors will show that they are about to be shed, a fact which 
 will add materially to the evidence. 
 
 These ai)pearances of the incisors are shown in the next 
 illustration (Fig. 10), which was taken from the mouth of a 
 colt on the completion of the third year. No difficulty ought 
 to be found in recognising the three-year-old mouth at a 
 glance. 
 
18 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 The fully developed pei-manent incisors are seen in striking 
 contrast to the temporary teeth on each side of them, and 
 cannot easily be overlooked. 
 
 During the development of the central permanent incisors 
 in the course of the third year, an important change is going 
 on in the first and second molars, the fangs of which are 
 gradually absorbed as the permanent teeth push their way up 
 underneath them. 
 
 Fig. 10. — Incisors of Horse at three years. 
 
 It has already been stated that these teeth do not follow 
 the rule by coming up singly at intervals of a year, but advance 
 nearly together, so that eight molars are cut between the second 
 and third year. 
 
 At two years and a half old, one or two of the permanent 
 molars may be in the mouth. Sometimes the second in position 
 is cut before the first, and a careful examination will show that 
 the crowns of the first and second temporary molars whicli 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 19 
 
 yet remain are only retained in their position by a slight 
 attachment to the gum, and very little force is required to 
 dislodge them. 
 
 The drawing on page 20 (Fig. 11) shows the condition of 
 the molar teeth soon after two years and a half. A permanent 
 tooth, the first in position, is seen occupying the place of the 
 temporary molar which has fallen, and the second permanent 
 tooth is pushing its way up under the second temporary molar, 
 which is only held in its place by small portions of the fangs 
 that have not yet been absorbed. The fifth molar, which was 
 up at two years old, is fnlly developed, and is quite clear from 
 the angle of the jaw. 
 
 At three years old the first and second permanent molars 
 are well up, and the top and bottom teeth are in contact when 
 the mouth is closed ; but the teeth are distinguished by the 
 recent appearance which they present in comparison with the 
 worn surfaces of the teeth immediately behind them. 
 
 From the completion of the third year to the termination 
 of the fourth year, the changes which have been described in 
 reference to the central incisors and the first and second molars 
 occur in the lateral incisors, and the third and sixth molars. 
 
 At three years " off " the same condition of the gum which 
 was described in respect of the upper central temporary incisors 
 now appears at the necks of the lower lateral temporary in- 
 cisors. At three years and a half some, or perhaps all four, 
 of the permanent lateral incisors are in the mouth ; and soon 
 afterwards the third and sixth permanent molars are cut, as 
 shown in the drawing (Fig. 12, page 20). 
 
 No ditHculty would be experienced in distinguishing the 
 recent molars in the condition represented in the illustration. 
 The first and second, and the fourth and fifth molars show 
 considerable wear, while the new teeth present rounded points 
 on their surfaces, and are not nearly level with the other teeth. 
 One or two of the most projecting points of the sixth molar 
 show the effects of attrition ; but these teeth at the age of 
 three years and a half have their posterior points close to the 
 angle of the jaw and still covered with the gum. 
 
 At four years old the horse has the lateral permanent 
 incisors in apposition, and the third and sixth molars are level, 
 or nearly level, with the other teeth. 
 
 The tusks of the horse are often through the gums at four 
 years of age, but they are not usually fully developed before 
 five years, and occasionally they are not well up before five 
 years and a half. As a means of judging the age, these teeth 
 are of little importance. 
 
 The drawing (Fig. 13) represents the state of the incisor 
 teeth on the completion of the fourth year. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 
 
 I)entition as indicative of the Age 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 21 
 
 Between four and Jive years the corner temporary incisors 
 ai'e removed, and the permanent teeth occupy their places. 
 Indications of tlae change are seen at four years " ofE " in the 
 upper corner incisors, and in a few months the temporary teeth 
 are displaced, and the permanent organs are in the mouth. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Incisors of Horse at four years. 
 
 Biit their edges do not meet until the fifth year is completed, 
 and even then the contact is limited to the anterior part, and 
 a triangular space, similar to that which can be seen between 
 the upper and lower corner teeth in the mouth of the yearling, 
 may be recognised wlien the lips are separated at the side of 
 the mouth. The shell-like character of the corner permanent 
 teeth is the special indication of five years old. 
 
22 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Aqe 
 
 In the following figure (Fig. 14) the condition of the 
 incisors in the five-year-old mouth is shown. 
 
 In the illustration it is evident that the corner permanent 
 incisors show but slight indications of wear on the completion 
 of the fifth year, only the anterior edge exhibiting the effects 
 
 Fig. 14. — IiK'isors of Horse at five years. 
 
 of attrition. The tables of the lateral incisors are fully formed 
 by the central cavity being surrounded by a line of worn sur- 
 face. In the central incisors the cavity has become extremely 
 shallow. 
 
 The development of the corner permanent incisors com- 
 pletes the permanent dentition of the horse. 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 23 
 
 Indications op Age of the Horse afforded by the 
 
 Teeth after the Completion of Permanent 
 
 Dentition. 
 
 The horse occupies an exceptional position among the 
 animals of the farm in respect to the evidence of age which 
 is afforded by the teeth after all tlie^ permanent organs are 
 developed, and there is no longer anything to be gained by 
 a comparison between them and the temporary. All animals 
 exhibit distinct signs of wear in their teeth as age advances ; 
 but, owing to the peculiar arrangement of the structures of 
 which the teeth are formed, the horse alone gives definite 
 evidence which can be interpreted by a careful observer up to 
 an advanced period of the animal's life. 
 
 It was explained in the preliminary observations on the 
 teeth of the horse that the permanent incisors present two 
 somewhat oval surfaces, one at the upper part of the tooth and 
 the other at the end of the fang : the long axis of the first 
 being horizontal, and that of the second vertical ; and, as a 
 consequetice, the wear of the tooth, from the upper towards 
 the lower oval, results in a series of figures, some of which 
 are depicted on page 7. 
 
 After five years, evidence of age is to be obtained by the 
 inspection of the tables of the incisor teeth, in regard to their 
 form, the extent and depth of the central cavity, and the form 
 of the central enamel. 
 
 At six years old the horse's age is judged chiefly by the 
 amount of wear which the corner teeth have sustained, although 
 there are other marks that are worthy of notice. 
 
 The corner teeth have lost their shell-like character, and a 
 line of worn surface surrounds the central cavity, excepting a 
 small point where the corners touch the lateral incisors. The 
 line of wear is broader at the anterior than at the posterior 
 edge, and the cavity is still of considerable depth. 
 
 In the lateral incisors the cavity (or mark) is shallow, and 
 much smaller than that of the corner incisors. The figure 
 described by the central enamel is approaching an oval. The 
 cavity in the central incisor is almost worn out, but its 
 boundaries are distinctly marked by the central enamel which 
 surrounds it, forming an elliptical figure which extends almost 
 across the tooth in the direction of its long diameter, and is 
 nearer to the posterior than to the anterior edge. 
 
 The tusks are usuallj' well developed, but their points are 
 not worn, and the hollows on their inner surfaces are well 
 defined. 
 
 All the above characters are shov/n in the illustration 
 (Fig. 15) of the lower incisors of a six-year-old hoi'se. 
 
24 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 At seven years old the tables of the corner teeth are per- 
 fectly formed, and the cavity in each tooth is very shallow. 
 The central enamel, however, is well defined and forms an 
 elliptical figure, which is nearer to the posterior than to the 
 anterior edge of the tooth. In the lateral incisors the central 
 enamel forms a figure which is nearer to the oval than to the 
 elliptical, and the mark, which is very shallow, does not 
 
 Fig. 15. — Incisors of Horse at six ycn-s. 
 
 i^JMj^ 
 
 extend so far across the table of the tooth as it AoQS> at six 
 years old. These teeth are also deeper from front to back 
 than they were at six years. 
 
 The central incisors at seven years old have their sides 
 elongated, so that the table approaches the figure of a triangle. 
 The mai'k.is very close to the posterior edge of the tooth, and 
 the central enamel forms an oval with flattened sides in place 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 25 
 
 of the elliptical figure which is shown in the drawing of the 
 six-year-old mouth. The tusks are somewhat blunted at their 
 points. 
 
 The following illustration (Fig. Ifj) represents the above- 
 described characters of the seven-year-old mouth. 
 
 Between the seven-year-old and the eight-year-old mouth 
 the difiEerence at first sight is not very marked, and the 
 examiner is required to look rather critically at the tables of 
 
 Fig. 16. — Incisors of Horse at seven years. 
 
 the incisor teeth, the shape of the central enamel in the central 
 incisors, and the form of the tables of the corner teeth. 
 
 In some cases the corner teeth will show almost as much 
 wear at seven years old as they do in other cases at eight years ; 
 but there are differences in the height of the teeth above the 
 gums and in the general aspect of the mouth, which must not 
 be lost sight of when an accurate opinion has to be formed. 
 
 In the eight-year-old mouth the form of the tables of the 
 incisors and the shape of the central enamel in^ the central 
 incisor afford tolerably satisfactory indications of the age. The 
 central teeth are more distinctly triangular than they were at 
 
2G Deyitition as indicative of the Age 
 
 seven years ; the central enamel in these teeth is also triangular 
 in figure. All the tables of the incisors are worn as level as the 
 different degrees of density of the various structures will permit. 
 The cavities are either very shallow, or quite obliterated by being 
 filled up with one of the tooth tissues, although the central 
 enamel in each tooth is perfectly well defined. The gum of the 
 corner incisors at eight years has lost its circular form and 
 
 Fig. 17. — Incisors of Horse (" Peep-o'-Day Boy ") at eight years. 
 
 become square. The tusks are more blunted at the tops than 
 in the seven-year-old mouth. 
 
 In the above illustration (Fig. 17) the appearance of the 
 eight-year-old mouth is shown. The drawing w^as copied from 
 the mouth of " Peep-o'-Day Boy " in 1852. The horse was 
 foaled in 1844. 
 
 From eight to teti years old the changes occasioned by the 
 wear to which the teeth have been subjected are not sufficiently 
 regular to enable the examiner to speak positively as to the 
 exact age, but during this period the cavity in each lower 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 27 
 
 central incisor is worn out, and only a small circle of enamel in 
 the tables of the central incisors remain to indicate its position. 
 In the corner teeth at ten years old the central enamel has 
 become round, or nearly so, as shown in the following drawing 
 (Fig. 18) of the mouth of " Solace," a steeplechase mare, foaled 
 in 1842. The teeth are depicted exactly as they appeared in 
 the summer of 1852, and fairly represent the characters of the 
 ten-year old mouth. 
 
 Fig. 18. — Incisors of Mare (^^ Solace^') at ten years. 
 
 I 
 
 At the age of ten years further evidence may, if necessary, 
 be obtained by referring to the groove at the upper part of the 
 corner incisor in the top jaw. At page 5 it was stated that 
 Mr. Sidney Galvayne's system of judging the age of the horse 
 proposes to define the age up to thirty years. The method, as 
 will appear further on, consists chiefly in observing the length 
 of the groove which appears in the upper corner incisor at ten 
 years, and gradually extends to the lower edge of the tooth. 
 In Fig. 22, page 31, the appearance of this groove at ten years 
 old is shown. 
 
28 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 At tivelve years old the teeth are longer from the receding 
 of the gums, and are also nari-ower in consequence of having 
 been worn towards the fang, which decreases in width from 
 the neck of the tooth to its termination. The tusks are blunted, 
 especially those of the upper jaw, and a quantity of tartar 
 often surrounds those in the lower jaw. The incisors at this 
 age project almost in a straight line from the jaws, and in some 
 mouths a line drawn transversely across the tables of the teeth 
 will cut the centres of all of them, excepting those of the 
 corner teeth. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Incisors of Horse (" Lothario ") at twelve. 
 
 The above drawing (Fig. 19) represents the teeth of the 
 thoroughbred horse " Lothario," foaled in 1840, as they 
 appeared in 1852. 
 
 On comparing the tables of the teeth with those of the marc 
 " Solace " (Fig. 18) at the age of ten years, it will be seen that 
 there are certain important differences. The central incisors 
 have quite lost the " mark," which is only represented by a 
 dot. The central enamel in the remaining incisors forms a 
 much smaller figure than in the ten-year-old teeth. The 
 
of the Animals oj the Fa 
 
 29 
 
 corner teeth have become more oval in form, and only a trace 
 of the central enamel can be seen. 
 
 After twelve or fourteen years of age the evidence which is 
 afforded by the tables of the teeth is not definite enough to 
 justify a positive opinion as to the animal's age, and the 
 illustrations (Figs. 20, 21), which are accurate representations 
 of the teeth of the thoroughbreds " Kremlin " and " Epirus," 
 will show how far the appearances may differ in animals of 
 the same age. Both horses were foaled in 1834, and the 
 
 Fig. 20. — Iiicisora of Horse (" Kremlin ") at ni7ieieen. 
 
 drawings show the state of the teeth in 1853, when the animals 
 were nineteen years old. 
 
 In both cases the teeth form a more acute angle with the 
 jaw than is usual at this age. In this particular both mouths 
 agree, but in other respects they differ from each other to a 
 noteworthy extent. 
 
 The mouth of " Kremlin " was drawn as a very remarkable 
 specimen, and it may be said in regai-d to it that experienced 
 judges have more than once decided that the teeth indicate 
 the animal to be much above the actual age. 
 
30 
 
 JJentltion as indicative of the Age 
 
 About the time that the cast of the mouth of " Kremlin " 
 was taken, a specimen of a horse which was believed to be 
 thirty-six years old at the time of his death was obtained, and 
 it was observed that, so far as the tables of the teeth were 
 concerned, those of " Kremlin " seemed to have been worn as 
 much as those of the older horse. 
 
 The central enamel can yet be seen in all the incisors of 
 " Epirus " (Fig. 21). In fact, the remains of the marks are 
 
 Fig. 21. — Incisors of Horse (" Epirus ") at nineteen. 
 
 more evident than they are in the teeth of " Lothario " (Fig. 
 19) at twelve years of age. The tables of the incisors in the 
 mouth of the older animal are triangular instead of square. 
 " Kremlin " (Fig. 20) shows a comparatively youthful form 
 of the tables of the incisors, a condition which is due to the 
 rectangular position of the teeth in regard to the jaw ; but it 
 is evident that the central enamel is entirely worn out, not a 
 trace remaining. The small circles in the tables of the teeth 
 merely indicate the apex of the inverted cone in which tlie 
 infundibulum originally existed, and any good observer looking 
 at the two mouths would decide that "' Kremlin " was older 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 31 
 
 than " Epirus." It is, however, quite certain that both horses 
 were of the same age, and both of them much older than the 
 teeth indicated them to be. 
 
 A method of judging the age of the horse up to thirty years, 
 by iioting the length of a groove in the upper corner incisors, is 
 referred to by Mr. Sydney Galvayne in his pamphlet on horse 
 dentition. The groove to which Mr. Galvayne attaches so much 
 iuiportance is really a groove in the fang of the upper corner 
 incisors. It is not seen until the horse has reached the age of 
 ten years, by which time the alveolar cavity has become shallow, 
 the tooth has grown in length in proportion to the wear, and a 
 portion of the fang — with the lateral groove — is exposed. This 
 
 Fig. 22.— (a) Groove at the side of the upper corner Licisor at ten years 
 of age. ' 
 
 appearance is shown in the above illustration (Fig. 22) from 
 Mr. Galvayne's book. 
 
 According to the author, eleven years elapse before the 
 lateral groove extends to the bottom of the tooth, and the age 
 18 to be judged during that time by the extension of the groove 
 year by year. As the incisor is worn the fang grows longer, 
 and the walls of the alveolar cavity are absorbed. 
 
 It is evident that the extension of the groove year by year 
 must be very gradual, and to distinguish the slight difleerence 
 between the groove of ten years and the groove of eleven years 
 IS possible only to an expert w ho has devoted himself to the 
 
 ■\u^}^ illustration and those on pp. 32 and 33 are published by arrangement 
 with Mr. Sydney Galvayne, the owner of the copyright of these illustrations. 
 
32 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 study of the subject, and has had numerous opportunities of 
 correcting his observations. 
 
 Fig. 23. — (i) Groove reaching half-way clown the corner Incisor at fifteen 
 to sixteen years old. ' 
 
 From the account which the originator of the system gives 
 of his successful attempts to define the exact ages of old horses 
 
 Fig. 24. — (c) Groove exte?iding the v)hole length of the corner Licisor at 
 twenty-one years old. ^ 
 
 whose exact ages were known to his interrogators, the reader may 
 be satisfied that the test is a reliable one ; and at the least it adds 
 
 ^ These illustrations and those on pp. 31 and 33 are published by arrange- 
 ment with Mr. Sydney Galvay ne, the owner of the copyright of these illustrations. 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 33 
 
 to the means of judging the age of the horse at a period when ^ 
 the signs on which reliance was formerly placed no longer exist. 
 
 Fig. 25.— (d) Groove grovm down from the gum, leaving the upper part of 
 the tooth smooth at the age of twenty -six years.'^ 
 
 The drawing on page 32 (Fig. 23) shows the groove about 
 half-way down the tooth, which will indicate the age of fifteen 
 or sixteen years. 
 
 Fig. 26.— (e) Groove nearly worn out, and upper part of Incisor round and 
 smooth at thirty years old.^ 
 
 Year by year the same process continues, and at twenty-one 
 years of age the groove is seen along the entire surface of the 
 corner incisor, as shown in the drawing (Fig. 2-4, opposite). 
 
 ' These illustrations and those on pp. 31 and .S2 are published by arrange- 
 ment with Mr. Sydney Galvayue,the owner of the copyright of these illustrations. 
 
 
 
34 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 As the growth of the grooves of the tooth and wear of the 
 crown, added to the continued absorption of the alveolus, goes 
 on, it follows that the groove will finally be worn out and the 
 tooth be left round and smooth. Fig. 25 shows the upper part 
 of the incisor next the gum in this condition, while the groove 
 commences near the middle of the tooth. 
 
 B3' the age of thirty the groove is nearly worn out, only a 
 small portion remaining at the bottom of the incisor, the whole 
 of the upper part of the tooth being smooth. 
 
 The author of the system by long observation acquired great 
 skill and accuracy in judging the ages of old horses, from ten 
 years to thirty, iDut the stock-owner is not likely to devote 
 enough time to the subject to master all the difficulties. He 
 will, however, be interested to know that by an ingenious and 
 comparatively simple method of observation the age of the 
 horse may be judged up to an advanced period of life. 
 
 Dentition of the Ox. 
 
 In the front of the mouth of the ox there are eight incisors 
 or cutting teeth in the lower jaw only. In the front of the 
 upper jaw there is an elastic pad of fibrous tissue, covered with 
 mucous membrane. The incisors may be distinguished as 
 centrals, or first pair ; middles, or second pair ; laterals, or 
 third pair ; and corners, or fourth pair ; the same terms being 
 equally applicable to the temporary and permanent organs. 
 
 Temporary incisor teeth are easily distinguished from the 
 permanent by their size. The fangs of the temporary teeth 
 are much shorter than those of the permanent, but this fact is 
 not to be recognised until the teeth are removed from the jaw. 
 No question is likely to arise in the mind of the examiner 
 as to the distinction between temporary and permanent organs 
 in the ox ; in fact, the common term " broad teeth," as 
 applied to the latter, sufficiently indicates their prominent 
 feature. 
 
 Molar teeth are named according to their position. In the 
 temporary set there are three molars on each side of the upper 
 and lower jaws, and in the adult these teeth are changed for 
 permanent organs ; while three additional teeth, the fourth, 
 fifth, and sixth in position, all of which are permanent teeth 
 from the first, are added, making the full set of permanent 
 molar teeth six on each side of the upper and lower jaws. 
 
 From the illustration of the incisors of the ox, originally 
 published in Girard's work and afterwards copied by Youatt 
 and others, the reader would be led to believe that the temporary 
 incisors were protruded into the mouth in pairs. ThuB, at birth 
 
of tlxe Animals of the Farm. 
 
 35 
 
 two teeth are shown standing up prominently from the gum. 
 In the course of a fortnight two more are added, then two more, 
 and at the end of a month or five weeks the eight teeth are 
 well up. Nothing of this sort, however, occurs in nature ; on 
 
 Fig 27.— Incisors of Calf at birth. 
 
 the contrary, in the mouth of the calf at hirth, the tenijiorary 
 teeth, molars and incisors, are all so far advanced that they may 
 be seen in outline under the gum, and commonly the cutting 
 
 Fig. 28. — Incisors of Calf at one month. 
 
 edges of the incisors and a few of the points of the molars are 
 uncovered. The illustration above (Fig. 27) shows the state of 
 the incisors at birth. 
 
 The advance of the teeth and the receding of the gums 
 proceed very rapidly after birth, and at the age of um month 
 
36 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Ag& 
 
 the temporary teeth, viz. eight incisors in the lower jaw and 
 three molars on each side in the top and bottom jaws, are fully 
 
 Fig. 29. — Molars of Calf at one month. 
 T.M., temporary molars. 
 
 developed. Figs. 28 and 29 show the temporary incisors and 
 molars in the calf of one month old. 
 
 Fig. 30. — Molars of Calf at six months. 
 P.M., permanent molar. 
 
 No accurate opinion of the age of a calf can be formed from 
 the observation of the state of the dentition between the ages 
 of one and six months, when the fourth molar is cut ; but 
 during this period the jaws expand, the incisor teeth gradually 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 37 
 
 become less crowded, and the space between the third molar 
 and the angle of the jaw increases as the fourth molar, which 
 is the first permanent tooth, advances to occupy its place, as 
 shown in Fig. 30. 
 
 At the age of six months the fourth molar is well developed, 
 but it is in close contact with the angle of the jaw, and the pos- 
 terior surface is not quite free from the covering of the gum. 
 
 Between six and twelve months old there are no important 
 dental changes, the incisor teeth become worn, and as the jaws 
 increase in size there is more space left between them ; but it 
 
 Fig. 31. — Incisors of Steer at one year. 
 
 is not possible to assert from the states of the incisor teeth 
 whether an animal is under or over the age of one year. 
 
 The illustration above (Fig. 31) represents the average state 
 of the incisors at the age of one'year. 
 
 Shortly after one year the fifth molar begins to make its 
 appearance, and at fifteen months it is well up. The appear- 
 ance which the fifth molar presents at this age is very much like 
 that of the fourth molar at the age of six months. The new 
 tooth is in close contact with the angle of the jaw, and the gum 
 covers the extreme posterior part of its sm-face. These appear- 
 ances are shown in the illustration on the next page (Fig. 32). 
 
 No change occurs in the incisors, excepting that which is 
 caused by the wear of the teeth and the growth of the jaw, 
 
38 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 Fig. 32. — Molars of Steer at fifteen months. 
 P.M., permanent molars. 
 
 Fig 33. — Incisors of Heifer at one year and ten months. 
 
 until the age of one year and eight or nine months, at which 
 time the two central teeth become loose and the first broad 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 39 
 
 teeth sometimes begin to project through the gnm. In very 
 forwai'd animals the central permanent incisors are cut at the 
 age of a year and seven months, but they are never level with 
 the other incisors before one year and ten months, and their 
 perfect development is indicative of the age of two years. 
 
 The illustration opposite (Fig. 33) was taken from a Short- 
 horn heifer at the age of one year and teti 7nonths, and may be 
 accepted as indicative of the general appearance of the incisors 
 at that age. 
 
 While the first pair of permanent incisors are advancing to 
 take the place of the temporary teeth, the sixth and last perma- 
 nent molars push their way through the gum, and at the age of 
 
 Fig. 34. — Showing the sixth Molar at two years. 
 T.M., temporary molars, p.m., permanent molars. 
 
 two years diTe in position. Any err>a' or opiuiuu :is tu Uio age 
 which might arise from the premature cutting of the central 
 permanent incisors may be corrected by reference to the state of 
 the molars. 
 
 In the above illustration (Fig. 34) the sixth molar is shown 
 in the position described, and in the same figure the first and 
 second permanent molars have taken the places of the tem- 
 porary teeth ; this change, in the writer's experience, does not 
 usually occur until the animal is a month or two over two years 
 of age. Many cattle entered in the class not exceeding two 
 years are certified to be one year and eleven months and two or 
 three weeks old, and at this age the central broad teeth will be 
 well up ; but no signs of the cutting of the middle incisors are 
 to be seen, and when animals are exhibited in this class with 
 four broad teeth well developed, no hesitation need be felt in 
 
40 
 
 Dentition as iiidicative of the Age 
 
 certifying that the state of the dentition indicates the animal to 
 be above the stated age. 
 
 From two years and two months to two years and six months 
 the second pair of broad teeth, the middle permanent incisors, 
 are cut and occupy the place of the corresponding temporary 
 teeth in all the cultivated breeds. Instances of late dentition 
 present themselves from time to time in which the middle 
 permanent incisors are not cut until the animal is approaching 
 three years old. There is consequently a possible variation 
 of several months in the time of the appearance of these teeth. 
 
 Fig. 35. — Incisors of Ox at two years and three months to two 
 
 years and six mouths. 
 
 In the above illustration (Fig. 35) the ordinary condition of 
 the incisors at two years and six months is shown, but it is 
 important to note that the incisors may present the same 
 appearance at two years and three months. Under these cir- 
 cumstances a definite opinion can only be given after a careful 
 examination of the molar teeth. 
 
 At two years and two or three months the change of the 
 anterior temporary molars for permanent teeth will be going on. 
 Some of the new teeth will be cut, but not fully grown, and 
 several of the temporary oi'gans still remain in their places. 
 
of the Animals of the' Farm. 
 
 41 
 
 By two years and a half most of these will have given place to 
 newly-cut permanent teeth, and by two years and nine or ten 
 
 Fig. 36. — Molars of Ox at three years. 
 P.M., permanent molars. 
 
 months all the anterior temporary molar.s will have disappeared 
 and the permanent teeth will occupy their places, and the animal 
 at the age of three years will have the three anterior molars on 
 
 Fig. 37. — Incisors of Ox at two years and seven months to three 
 
 years 
 
42 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 each side the top and bottom jaws nearly level with the other 
 teeth, but showing no signs of wear. 
 
 The illustration on page 41 (Fig. 36) exhibits the three 
 recently cut anterior molars as they appear when the ox is 
 verging on three years of age. 
 
 The eruption of the third pair of permanent incisors may 
 occur at any time between two years and six months and three 
 years of age. These teeth are present, as a rule, before the 
 
 Fig. 38. — Incisors of Ox at two years and ten mo7iths to 
 three years a?id three months. 
 
 animal is three years old, and occasionally they will be found 
 well developed soon after two years and a half. 
 
 The illustration on page 41 (Fig. 37) represents the average 
 condition of the teeth at three years of age. 
 
 The fourth pair of broad teeth, the corner permanent 
 incisors, are also subject to great variation in the time of cutting. 
 They take the place of the temporary teeth soon after the 
 eruption of the third pair, and they are frequently well 
 developed at two years and ten months old, while in some 
 instances they are not cut until three years and six months, or 
 even later. 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 43 
 
 In the illustration opposite (Fig. 38), the state of the 
 incisor teeth in forward animals at tivo years and ten months 
 is depicted. 
 
 The eruption of the corner permanent incisors, the fourth 
 pair of broad teeth, completes the permanent dentition of the 
 ox ; and from what has been stated in regard to irregular 
 eruption of the corner teeth, an examiner will realise how 
 necessary it is to be careful in judging an animal's age on the 
 evidence afforded by them. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Incisors of Ox at five years. 
 
 
 ''^-ms^''"3i}''' 
 
 
 After this period the changes in the form of the teeth which 
 are due to attrition v/ill assist the expert in forming an opinion 
 of the age ; but no exact estimate can be based on such 
 evidence. The five-year-old ox (Fig. 39, above) will show a 
 considerable amount of worn surface in the central, middle, 
 and lateral incisors, and the cutting edge of the corner teeth 
 will be marked by a line of wear ; but no one would attempt 
 to determine whether t)r not an animal were under or above the 
 age of five, and as the years increase the difficulty of judging 
 
44 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 the age by the appearance of the teeth is not diminished. It 
 is not usually a matter of much importance to decide whether 
 an ox is six years old or seven, and there are no well defined 
 mai'ks in the teeth which justify the examiner in giving an 
 opinion as to the exact age which the animal has reached. 
 Some evidence is afforded by the horns, which, although not 
 
 Fig. 40. — Incisors of Ox at ten years. 
 
 perfectly reliable, may aid the expert in forming an opinion. 
 The recognised rule is to add two to the number of rings at 
 the base of the horn, the total representing the number of 
 years of the animal's life. The teeth become narrower and 
 more widely separated from each other year by year, and the 
 worn surface much broader, as seen in the illustration above 
 (Fig. 40), of the mouth of an ox at the age of ten years. 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. ' 45 
 
 It will be seen that the characteristics of age are well 
 exhibited in the above. But it is also evident that the changes 
 in the teeth of the ox resulting from wear are not, as in the 
 teeth of the horse, of so definite a character as to enable the 
 expert to give an opinion up to an advanced period of the 
 animal's life. 
 
 Dentition op the Sheep. 
 The terms which ai-e applied to the teeth of the ox for the 
 purpose of description may be used in regard to the teeth of 
 the sheep. Eight incisors, central, lateral, middle, and corner 
 teeth, are found in front of the lower jaw only, the corres- 
 ponding part of the upper jaw being provided with an elastic 
 pad, as in the ox. Molar teeth are designated by numbers, to 
 indicate their position, and for the purpose of judging the age. 
 
 Fig. 41 — Incisors of Lamb at birth. 
 
 These teeth in the sheep may be described as corres )ondi ig 
 to the teeth of the ox in all general points, except in regard to 
 their size. At birth, the arrangement of the incisor teeth of 
 the lamb is peculiar, as shown in Fig. 41. 
 
 Genially the whole temporary set of teeth may be recog- 
 nised, but only in outline, as they are nearly covered with the 
 gum. The central incisors are most advanced, and next in 
 order come the laterals, leaving the middle and comer teeth 
 considerably below them. Very often the cutting edges of the 
 front and third pairs of teeth are through the gum. All these 
 peculiarities are seen in the illustration, which may be accepted 
 as a representation of the ordinary appearance of the teeth of 
 the lamb at birth. 
 
 By the end of the fourth week all the temporary teeth, 
 eight incisors, and three molars on each side of the upper and 
 lower jaws, are well up. 
 
 From the time of the perfect eruption of the temporary 
 teeth, at the age of one month, to the cutting of the first pair 
 of broad teeth, central permanent incisors, at the age of one 
 year to fifteen months, the only changes which will guide the 
 expert to a correct opinion of the age are those which affect 
 the molar teeth. 
 
46 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 At three months the first permanent molar, the fourth in 
 situation, is cut, and is recognised by its recent appearance in 
 comparison with the tooth immediately in front of it, the third 
 temporary molar, which shows signs of wear. 
 
 Fig. 42. — Molars of Lamb at three months. 
 P.M., permanent molar, t.m., temporary molars. 
 
 In the above illustration (Fig. 42) the appearance of the 
 molars at the age of three months is shown. 
 
 During a period of five or six months from the cutting of 
 the fourth molar there is nothing to guide the examiner except 
 the growth of the teeth and of the jaw, which results in 
 
 Fig. 43. — Molars of Sheep at nine months. 
 ^ 3 
 
 leaving a space behind the fourth molar. At the age of nitie 
 months this space is occupied by the fifth molar, as shown in 
 the drawing above (Fig. 43). 
 
 At one year old the teeth will present the following ap- 
 pearances. Incisors are worn on their upper surfaces, especially 
 the central and middle, and to some extent the lateral teeth ; 
 the corners are not worn. In sheep which are feeding on 
 turnips, some of the incisors, and in certain cases all of them, 
 are broken off, and in very forward animals the central 
 
of the Animals of t/ie Fan 
 
 47 
 
 permanent incisors are cut, but they are never perfectly level 
 and regular at this age. 
 
 Fig. 44 shows the average state of the temporary incisors 
 in a well-preserved mouth at the age of one year. At the back 
 of the mouth the recently cut fifth permanent molar is seen, 
 
 Fig. 44. — Incisors (temporary) of Sheep at one year. 
 
 while the teeth in front of it are all worn on the surfaces ; 
 these appearances, taken in connection with the state of the 
 incisors, will satisfy the examiner that the sheep is about the 
 age of one year. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 45. — Incisors of Sheep, central permanent Incisors well up, 
 at fifteen months. 
 
 The first broad teeth, central incisors, are usually cut soon 
 after one year old, and are well up at fifteen months, as shown 
 in the last illustration (Fig. 45). 
 
 At eighteen months the sixth permanent molar is cut, and 
 the recent appearance which this tooth presents is better 
 evidence of this age than can be obtained by an inspection of 
 
48 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 the incisors. Occasionally in very forward mouths the second 
 pair of broad teeth will be cut ; in other cases there will be no 
 signs of their appearance until the sheep is approaching the 
 
 Fig. 46. — Incisors of Sheep, secondpair of permanent Incisors 
 cut (four broad teeth), atone year and ten months. 
 
 age of two years (see Fig. 46, which shows the second pair of 
 broad teeth at the age of one year and ten months). So far, 
 therefore, as these teeth are concerned, the examiner may be 
 left in doubt as to whether the sheep is one year and six 
 months or two years old, and it is absolutely necessary that he 
 
 Fig. 47. — Molars of Sheep at one year and ten months. 
 
 should inspect the molars, in which important changes occur 
 between the ages of fifteen months and two years. 
 
 Soon after the sheep reaches one year and a half, the sixth 
 molar begins to protrade through the gum. Shortly after- 
 wards the two anterior temporary molars give place to the 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 49 
 
 permanent teeth, and the third temporary molar is a mere shell 
 covering the top of the permanent tooth, which is coming up 
 beneath it, and pushing it out of its place, as shown in the 
 last illustration (Fig. 47). 
 
 In this drawing the average condition of the molars of the 
 sheep just under ttvo years is exhibited. The two anterior 
 permanent molars are cut, the third permanent molar is coming 
 up under the temporary tooth, which in many cases will have 
 fallen out, leaving the permanent organ to be seen below the 
 level of the other teeth. At the back of the jaw the sixth molar 
 is seen, but does not show any marks of wear, and this tooth, it 
 may be observed, affords the most valuable evidence at a critical 
 period. In the class " not exceeding two years," many of the 
 sheep are stated to be twenty months old, and some of the 
 
 Fig. 48. — Six broad teeth at two yearn and three months. 
 
 animals may have the third pair of broad teeth not fully deve- 
 loped, but fairly advanced. When sheep exhibited as under 
 two years of age are found to have six broad teeth the animals 
 are naturally objects of suspicion, and further evidence is sought 
 for in the molars, which, as the drawing (Fig. 47) shows, exhibit 
 very characteristic marks at this period. Generally it may be 
 taken as a fact that if a sheep with six broad teeth shows the 
 three anterior molars in a state which proves that they are 
 recently cut, and especially if one or more of the temporary 
 teeth still remain, the age does not exceed two years. 
 
 Six broad teeth well up may generally be taken to indicate 
 that the sheep is two years and three months (Fig. 48), but in 
 many animals they are not present until two years and a half. 
 On the other hand, they are not uncommonly cut at twenty-two 
 months old, a fact which was recorded by the writer more than 
 thirty years ago, and since then they have been met with at 
 twenty months. 
 
50 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 In any instance of such exceptional dentition being found in 
 sheep entered in the class not exceeding two years, it will be 
 necessary to inspect the molars. If the three anterior molars 
 and the sixth molar present evidence of having been only 
 recently cut, and especially if one or more of the temporary 
 molars remain, the cutting of the third pair of broad teeth will 
 not justify disqualification. Should, however, the molar teeth 
 exhibit a uniform character, all their surfaces being quite level, 
 it may be concluded that the sheep is over two years of age. 
 
 Dentition in sheep is completed by the eruption of the 
 corner permanent incisors, which are usually cut at the age of 
 three years, as shown in the drawing below. 
 
 Fig. 49. — Luisors of Sheep at three years old, showing recently cut 
 corner teeth. 
 
 In some cases the corner teeth are not well Tip till the 
 animal is nearly four years old, so that there is a possibility of 
 a mistake being made as to the age to the extent of a year 
 by an examiner who contents himself with an inspection of the 
 corner incisors. No difficulty, however, would be experienced 
 in deciding whether the corner incisors represent three years or 
 four years, if the state of the other incisors is taken into account. 
 At four years of age the six broad teeth will show marks of 
 wear ; the central incisors especially will be worn hollow on their 
 upper surfaces, the middles and laterals also showing well- 
 marked tables in the place of sharp cutting edges; while the 
 recently cut corner incisors, supposing their eruption to have 
 been delayed till the sheep was nearly four years old, will pre- 
 sent a mai-ked contrast to the rest of the teeth which have 
 suffered from attrition. These appearances are shown in the 
 
of tlie Animals of the Farm. 5 1' 
 
 next drawing (Fig. 50) of the mouth of a sheep at the age of 
 four years. 
 
 After the age of four years, and indeed from the time of the 
 completion of permanent dentition, whether early or late, the 
 
 Fig. 50. — Incisors of Sheep at four years. 
 
 changes which are effected in tlie form of the incisors by wear 
 vary according to the nature of the food, and the examiner must 
 be content to limit his inquiries to the period within which is 
 comprised the eruption of the permanent teeth. 
 
 Dentition op the Pig. 
 
 When dentition is perfect, the pig has six incisor teeth in 
 the front of both upper and lower jaw — two central, two lateral, 
 and two corner teeth. Behind the corner teeth are the tusks, 
 one on each side, in the upper and lower jaws. Between the 
 tusks and the molar teeth there are usually four small teeth 
 which are described as pre-molars, one on each side of both jaws, 
 and twenty-four molars six on each side of the upper and lower 
 jaws. 
 
 Temporary and permanent incisors agree generally in number, 
 form and position, but the temporary molars are only three 
 in number on each side of the upper and lower jaws, and the 
 third molar has three cusps instead of two. The temporary 
 tusks are much smaller and more pointed than the permanent 
 teeth which replace them, and the pre-molars are not represented 
 by temporary teeth, but are permanent from the first. 
 
 It may be observed that no difficulty is found by the experts 
 in distinguishing the pei-manent incisors from the temporarj^ 
 organs, especially when both orders are in the mouth together. 
 The distinction is not, however, so marked as to secure the 
 tyro from risk of error. 
 
52 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 At hirth^ the pig has two sharp pointed teeth laterally 
 placed in each jaw, top and bottom, leaving an open space in 
 the front of the mouth (Fig. 51). The teeth much resemble small 
 tusks ; they are really the temporary tusk and corner incisors. 
 No other teeth are in the mouth at the time of birth ; but the 
 
 Fig. b\.— Teeth of Pi(j at hirth. 
 
 temporary molars are immediately under the gum, and in the 
 dried specimen they can be distinctly seen in their relative 
 positions. 
 
 Fig. 52. — Incisors and Molars of Pig at one month. 
 
 . — Molars 
 
 At one month old the three temporary molars on each side 
 of the jaw, top and bottom, are cut, the second and third in 
 position being well up, the first one just appearing through the 
 gum ; at the same time the two central temporary incisors in 
 each jaw are cut, as shown in the illustration above (Fig. 52). 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 53 
 
 At two months old the temporary central incisors are fully 
 developed, and there are signs of the eruption of the lateral 
 temporary incisors, which generally pierce the gums soon after 
 two months. The first temporary molar is now nearly level 
 with the second. 
 
 At tfiree montJis old the pig has the temporary set of teeth 
 fully developed, the lateral incisors by this time being nearly 
 level with the centrals. The temporary corner teeth and the 
 
 Fig. 53. — Incisors and Molars of Pig at three months. 
 
 -Incisors. 
 
 B. Molars. 
 
 tusks are further removed from each other than they were at 
 birth, owing to the growth of the jaw. In Fig. 53, above, 
 the state of the teeth at three months old is indicated. 
 
 Excepting the natural growth of the jaws, in common with 
 other parts, no changes occur which will assist the examiner 
 in judging the age of the young pig until the age oi five months 
 is reached. At this time there are evident signs of the cutting 
 of the pre-molars ; and the fourth molar, which is the first 
 permanent tooth, is seen behind the temporary teeth. 
 
 The illustration on next page (Fig. 54) shows the state of the 
 molars at the age of six months. 
 
^i 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 As a large number of pigs are entered at Agricultural 
 'Exhibitions at the age of between five and six months, it is 
 'necessary to devote particular attention to the signs which are 
 ■exhibited by the teeth of the pig at this period ; and the in- 
 spector is particularly required to remember that the animal 
 which he is inspecting may be actually over the stated age at 
 the time of inspection, without, in consequence, being liable to 
 disqualification. This condition of things constantly occurs at 
 the Shows which are held after the date up to which the ages 
 are calculated ; it is obviously necessary to add the daysr' or 
 weeks which have elapsed to the animal's certified age, at the 
 time of making the examination : for example, in cases where 
 ages are calculated to the 1st of June, while the Show takes 
 place early in July, a pig which is certified to be five months 
 three weeks and five days old jn the class for animals not 
 
 Fig. 54. — Molars of Pig at six months. 
 
 exceeding six months, will be more than a month over the 
 certified age when it is seen by the inspector. 
 
 Again, it must be noted that the pre-molars are not always 
 developed, and in the same litter one or two pigs will be found 
 occasionally in which this tooth is absent. The fourth molar 
 is, however, remarkably regular in its appearance, and may be 
 referred to for the purpose of solving any doubt which may 
 arise in consequence of the absence of the pre-molars. 
 
 Disqualification of a pig or pigs entered as not exceeding 
 six months would occur under such circumstances as the follow- 
 ing. The inspector, it may be supposed, is examining the 
 teeth of a pig which is entered as five months and two days ; 
 he adds the weeks which have elapsed since the date up to 
 which the age is calculated, and deals with the animal as 
 having arrived at the age of six months and nine days. At 
 this period he expects to find the pre-molars and the fourth 
 molar well up, the fourth molar being close to the angle of the 
 
of the Animals of the Fa 
 
 ti 
 
 jaw, and scarcely free from the covering of gum at the extreme 
 posterior part. But if the fourth molar stands out from the 
 angle of the jaw, leaving space behind it, and if he observes 
 in addition that the temporary corners have been changed for 
 permanents, he does not hesitate to assert that the pig is at 
 least a month older than it is certified to be. In some pigs 
 the corner permanents are found with their points through the 
 gum at seven months, but in many cases the temporary organs 
 remain till the animal has reached the age of eight months. 
 
 Disqualifications in the six-month-old class are often very 
 numerous ; the pigs are shown as close to the age as possible, 
 and the frequent presence of the corner teeth in pigs belonging 
 to certain exhibitors is the cause of the animals being rejected. 
 
 Fig. 55. — Molara of I'/y at nine months. 
 
 At nine months the corner permanent teeth are well up. and 
 the permanent tusks may be through the gum in very forward 
 animals at this age. In looking over the notes of the inspec- 
 tions which have been made for many years past, it is shown 
 that, as a rule, the pig at the age of nine months has one or ^o' 
 of the temporary tusks still in position ; in fact, the presence of 
 well-developed permanent tusks in a pig entered as not exceeding 
 nine months would be a fair ground of disqualification. The 
 drawings (Figs. 55 and 50) show the state of the teeth at nine 
 months. 
 
 A class for pigs not exceeding nine months of age at many 
 Shows takes the place of the six-months' class, and therefore 
 includes pigs of various ages from two or three months to over 
 eight months. Disqualifications in this class generally affect 
 pigs which are really under nine months, in which the state of 
 the dentition indicates the age to be above that which is stated 
 in the certificate. If, for instance, a pig which is entered in 
 this class as five months and two weeks has the corner teeth 
 just cut, or one entered as six months and twenty-one days 
 
56 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 Bhows evidence of the changing of the temporary tusks, in 
 these cases no hesitation is felt in disqualifying the animals, 
 although in both cases the animals are below the limit of age in 
 the class in which they are entered. 
 
 One year old is the age when, according to received opinions, 
 the central permanent incisors are cut. It is, however, more 
 often seen that the temporary incisors are still in their places 
 in pigs which are just under the age of one year ; and although 
 the permanent teeth, when cut, advance very rapidly, a pig 
 antered as not exceeding one year would be looked upon with 
 
 Fig. 56. — Temporary Incisors and Tusks of Pig at nine monihs. 
 
 much suspicion if the central permanent incisors were found to 
 be cut ; and if they were well up and some of the anterior 
 temporary molars had fallen, and the permanent teeth were 
 filling their places, the animal would be disqualified. 
 
 The fifth molar tooth is always cut between ten and twelve 
 months, and its perfect eruption may be taken as evidence that 
 the pig has reached the age of one year. In the illustration 
 opposite (Fig. 57) the recently cut central incisors are shown ; a 
 state of dentition which is seen only in very forward animals 
 at the completion of one year of age. 
 
 Shortly after the completion of one year, the three anterior 
 temporary molars fall irregularly ; and by the time the animal 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 
 
 57 
 
 is fifteen mouths old the thi*ee anterior permanent molars are 
 in the mouth, and may readily be known by their sharp unworn 
 points and their recent appearance, as shown in the illustration 
 on the next page (Fig. 58). These teeth are very regular in 
 their development, and afford valuable evidence in cases where 
 
 Fig. 
 
 57. — Central Permanent Incisors and Tusks nf Pig at one year 
 (Early dentition). 
 
 an opinion cannot be formed from an inspection of the incisors 
 alone. 
 
 The next change in the dentition is the final one, and 
 occurs between the age of seventeen and eighteen months. At 
 this period the sixth molar, a permanent tooth, is cut ; and in 
 forward animals the lateral temporary incisors are changed for 
 
58 
 
 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 permanent teeth. In many instances the temporary lateral 
 teeth remain up to the age of eighteen months, although they 
 are in guch cases quite loose ; and very often the pei-manent 
 teeth are cutting through the gum below or by the side of them ; 
 
 Fig. 58. — Teeth of Pig at fifteen months ; the three permanent 
 anterior Molars recently cut. 
 
of the Animals of the Fartn. 
 
 59 
 
 in other instances one lateral is found to be fully up and nearly 
 level with the centrals, while the other is just pushing through 
 the gum. The sixth molar is also fairly up, but the posterior 
 part of its crown is not quite clear from the gxim. 
 
 These changes complete the permanent dentition of the 
 pig, and there are no indications of the age afforded by the 
 teeth after this period, excepting such as depend on the growth 
 and wear of the organs. 
 
 In the following illustration (Fig. 59) the sixth molar is 
 shown as it appears at the completion of the age of eighteen 
 months. 
 
 It is very important that the examiner should exercise the 
 greatest care in the inspection of the teeth of pigs which are 
 exhibited in the class above twelve and not exceeding eighteen 
 months old. Animals are entered at various ages from twelve 
 to eighteen months ; it is necessary, therefore, in this class to 
 note the condition of the central incisors and the anterior 
 
 l-'ig. 59. — Molars of Slcj at eighteen moiilli-', sixth Molar well up. 
 
 
 jiiolars, as well as that of the lateral incisors and the sixth 
 molar. In the next drawing (Fig. 60, page 60) the full 
 <levelopment of the lateral permanent incisors is shown. This 
 state of dentition, it may be remarked, is indicative of a year 
 and eight months. 
 
 At the age of two years the lateral permanent incisors are 
 quite level with the centrals and are worn on their edges, the 
 sixth molar now stands quite free from contact with the angle 
 of the jaw, and indications of wear may be observed on the 
 upper surface of the other molars. After the pig has attained 
 the age of two years, an opinion as to the age must be to a 
 great extent speculative. The wear which the teeth undergo, 
 the darkening of their colour, and the growth of the tusks, will 
 afford some evidence which will assist the judgment ; but there 
 are no changes which can be referred to as indicative of the 
 exact age of the pig after the lateral incisors and the sixth 
 molars are fully developed. 
 
60 Dentition as indicative of the Age 
 
 In the course of the above remarks on the changes which 
 occur in the teeth of the pig at different ages, certain exceptions 
 
 Fig. 60. — Incisors and Tusks of Pig at one year and eight months ; 
 lateral permanent Incisors well up. 
 
 to the rule of development have been mentioned ; they are not 
 numerous, nor very important in their beaiings, and it is a 
 subject of common remark that the exceptions are nearly 
 
of the Animals of the Farm. 61 
 
 always in favour of the exhibitor, being in the direction of 
 retarded rather than accelerated development. 
 
 It may be useful to say a final word in reference to a 
 common mistake into which exhibitors, or rather their servants, 
 frequently fall, i.e. the error of believing that a little dis- 
 crepancy between the state of dentition and the certified age 
 of an animal is not of much consequence so long as the age 
 does not exceed the limit of the class in which the animal is 
 entered. The teeth are inspected with the view to ascertain 
 if they agree with the statement of the age in the certificate 
 of entry, and not for the purpose of insuring that the animal is 
 within the age to which the class is limited. 
 
 For the purpose of indicating as concisely as possible the 
 state of dentition which will be taken as evidence of the 
 different ages stated, the following scheme was tabulated 
 many years ago : — 
 
 Cattle having their central permanent incisors cut will be considered as 
 
 exceeding one year and six months. 
 Cattle having their central permanent incisors fully up will be considered as 
 
 exceeding one year and nine months. 
 Cattle having their second pair of permanent incisors fully up will be 
 
 considered as exceeding two years and three months. 
 Cattle having their third pair of perma«ent incisors cut will be considered 
 
 as exceeding two years and eight months. 
 Cattle having their fourth pair (corner) permanent incisors fully up and 
 
 their anterior molars showing signs of wear will be considered as 
 
 exceeding three years. 
 Sheep having their central permanent incisors cut will be considered as 
 
 exceeding ten months. 
 Sheep having their central permanent incisors fully up will be considered 
 
 as exceeding twelve months. 
 Sheep having their third pair of permanent incisors cut will be considered 
 
 as exceeding nineteen months. 
 Sheep having their third pair of permanent incisors fully up, and the 
 
 temporary molars shed, will be considered as exceeding twenty-four 
 
 months. 
 Sheep having their corner permanent incisors well up, and showing marks 
 
 of wear, will be considered as exceeding three years. 
 Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as 
 
 exceeding six months. 
 Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half-up will be considered as 
 
 exceeding nine months. 
 Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first three 
 
 permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve months. 
 Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents 
 
 appearing, will be considered as exceeding fifteen months. 
 Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be considered 
 
 as exceeding eighteen months. 
 
 JA8. TRUSCOTT & SON, LTD., LONDON. 
 
Animals of the Farm 
 
 IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
 
 BY 
 
 PROFESSOR SIR GEORGE T. BROWN, C.B. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 ORGANS OF THE ANIMAL BODY, THEIR FORMS AND USES.- Bony 
 Framework, Skin, Muscle, Breathing Organs, Organs of Digestion. Urinary- 
 anil Generative Organs, Organs of the Nervous System. 
 
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 Nos. 3 ahd 4 are to be obtained at the Society's House, 16 Bedford Square, London, W.C. 1. 
 
 PAMPHLETS. 
 
 Veterinary pamphlets by professor sir George Brown, C.B.: 
 
 DENTITION AS INDICATIVE OF THt AGE OF FARM ANIMALS. Seventh Edition (1920). 64 pp. 
 
 With 60 Illustrations. Price is. 
 ANIMALS OF THE FARM IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 72 pp. With 52 Illustrations. Fourth 
 
 Edition (1909). Price Is. 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE'S FOOT AND THE PRINCIPLES OP SHOEING. 23 pp. 
 
 Fourth and Enlarged Edition (1902). With 12 Illustrations. Price Gd. 
 CONTAGIOUS FOOT ROT OF SHEEP. Second and Enlarged Edition (1905). 24 pp. With 
 
 8 Illustrations. Price Is. 
 
 OTHER Veterinary Pamphlets: 
 THE MARE AND FOAL. Bit Rrotessor .J. WORTLEY AXE, M.R.C.V.S. 58 pp. With 20 
 
 Illustrations. Second Edition (1909J.. Price Is. 
 THE LAMBING PEN. By HAROLD Leeney. 3rd Ed. (1914). 40 pp. With 9 Illustrations. Price 6d 
 TUBERCULOSIS AS REGARDS HEREDITY IN CAUSATION AND ELIMINATION FROM INFECTED 
 
 HERDS. By PROFESSOR Sir John McFadyban,M.B.,b:S6., CM. (1911). 19pp. Pricels. 
 CALF REARING : An Experiment conducted at the Woburn Experimental Farm, 1912-14. 
 
 Bv J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D., 1 915. 12 pp. Price 6(i., M. to Members. 
 Pamphlets by Mr. Charles whitehead, F.L.S., F.G.S. : 
 PRACTICAL HINTS ON FRUIT FARMING. (1904). With 10 lUustrations. 43 pp. Price 1«. 
 HOP CULTIVATION. With 13 niustrations (1893). 46 pp. Price Is. 
 Dairy Pamphlets: 
 {Issued under the authority of the Dairy Committee of the Society.) 
 THE PRACTICE OF (a) CHEDDAR, (b) CHESHIRE, & (c) STILTON CHEESE-MAKING. Price 2i. each. 
 SIMPLE RULES FOR BUTTER.MAKING. (Sheet.) Price Id. each, or 5s. per 100. Mounted on 
 
 card and varnished, to hang up in the Dairy, 6d. each. 
 RECIPES FOR MAKING CREAM AND SOFT CHEESES. Price Id. 
 RFCIPE FOR MAKING SCALDED CREAM. Price Id. 
 MILK ADULTERATION. Price Id. ; 5s. per 100. 
 
 Other pamphlets : 
 COMPENSATION FOR THE UNEXHAUSTED MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS AND 
 
 FERTILISERS. By J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D., and A. D. HALL. 
 
 M.A. (1914). 16 pp. Price Is. 
 PRACTICAL HINTS ON VEGETABLE FARMING. By JAMES UDALE (1904). With 15 Dlustra- 
 
 tions. 41 pp. Price Is. 
 THE WOBURN EXPERIMENTAL STATION OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 By J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER. M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. Annual Reports on Field, Feeding, 
 
 and Pot-culture Experiments (1899-1919). Price Is. each. 
 REPORT ON THE WOBURN POT-CULTURE STATION. Bv J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A, 
 
 B.Sc. Ph.D. With 17 Illustrations (1900). 52 pp. t'rice2s. 6d. 
 THE MAKING OF THE LAND IN ENGLAND. By ALBERT PELL. (1899). 27 pp. Price 6d. 
 THE MANAGEMENT AND PLANTING OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. By Professor CHARLES E. 
 
 CURTIS, F.S.L (1904). With 6 Illustrations. 36 pp. Price Is. 
 THE CONVERSION OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. By ROBERT ANDERSON, F.S.L (1904). With 
 
 4 Illustrations. 28 pp. Price Is. 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST TREES. By CECIL WARBURTON, M.A„ F.Z.S. (1904). 
 
 With 7 Illustrations. 16 pp. Price Is. 
 ORCHARD AND BUSH-FRUIT PESTS AND HOW TO COMBAT THEM. Bv CECIL WARBUETON. 
 
 M.A.. F.Z.S. With 12 Illustrations. Second Edition (1910). 20 pp. Price 6rf. 
 SOME PROBLEMS OF RE-AFFOKESTAIION. By W. SOMERVILLE, M.A., D.SC. (1919). 13 pp. 
 
 Price 6d. 
 THE DRYING OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. By J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. 
 
 With 4 Illustrations (1897). 23 T>p. Price 3d. 
 COTTAGE SANITATION IN RURAL DISTRICTS. By H. MACLEAN WILSON, M.D.. B.Sc With 
 
 a Preface by T. Pridgin Teale, F.R.S. Second and Enlarged Edition. 32pp. 12 
 
 lUustrntions (1896). Price 3d. per copy : 2s. per doz. ; 12s. 6d. per 100. 
 MOLE-DRAINING AND THE RENOVATION OF OLD PIPE DRAINS. By DOUGLAS T. THRING, 
 
 F.S.L With 9 Illustrations. 1920. Price 6d. 
 The above can be obtained at the Society's House, 16 Bedford Square, London, W.C.I., through 
 any bookseller, or of Mr. JOHN MTJRRA Y, 50a Alhemarle Street, W.\. 
 
 Copies of pamphlets sold at not less than One Shilling each are obtainable by Members of the 
 Society at half-pjice on direct application to the Secretary. 
 
 COLOURED DIAGRAMS. 
 (Obtainable from Messrs. W. <fc A. K. Johnston, Ltd., Edina Works, Easter Road, Edinburgh.) 
 TWENTY-SIX DIAGRAMS OF INJURIOUS INSECTS, Drawn from Nature by the late Miss 
 
 GEORGIANA E. ORMEROD. in conjunction with the late Miss ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, 
 
 F.R.MetSoc. Arranged in Five Sets, comprising (1) Common Insect Attacks; (2) 
 
 Insects allecting Corn Ctox>> and Grass ; (3) Insects allecting Fruit Crops : (4) Insects 
 
 aflecting Roots and Gardens : (5) insects affecting Trees. Also varnished and mounted 
 
 on canva<i. with rollers. 
 EIGHT DIAGRAMS REPRESENTING THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE WHEAT PLANT (after FRANCIS 
 
 BAUER). With Explanatory Pamphlet bv W. Carruthers, F.R.S. 
 THE POTATO DISEASE. Bv W. CARRUTHERS. F.R.S. 
 
SF869 Brown, G.T. 
 
 B76 Dentition as indicative of the 
 
 1910 age of the animals of the farm 
 
%