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Copyright 1923 
 
 WALLACE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
Corn and Corn-Growing 
 
 H? AT WALLACE 
 
 AND 
 
 E. N. BRESSMAN 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 DES MOINES 
 
 WALLACE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 1923 
 
ijie^^^o^ 
 
 This text on corn is^j^^Ofmmarily on a teachinji' outline of a eom- 
 I)lete term course on^oi^ilf an aj>ricultural college. We have attempted 
 to include everM jl^fical thing' related to corn. The text is desi<ined 
 not only for cwl^S:e and Smith-Hughes instructors, but also for experi- 
 ment station workers, corn breeders and practical farmers who are inter- 
 ested in growing more and better corn. Teachers may think that the 
 order in which the chapters are arranged is a little unusual. It has been 
 found on experience, however, that this order gives excellent results and 
 holds the interests of the students much better than is the case when the 
 botany and classification of corn are discussed early in the book. 
 
 Although throughout the text we are presenting the best knowledge 
 now available, we realize that new scientific discoveries and shifting 
 economic conditions may change things considerably in the future. We 
 want to make the student feel himself a part of this unfolding instead of 
 having him learn things in the belief that they are absolutely true now 
 and for all time. 
 
 In the preparation of the manuscript liberal use has been made of 
 experiment station and United States Department of Agriculture publi- 
 cations, both with and without credit. Much credit is due to the early 
 and present members of the Farm Crops Department of the Iowa State 
 College for the aid given in the early stages of the preparation of the 
 manuscript. Others have given valuable assistance in the preparation of 
 the completed text. 
 
 H. A. WALLACE. 
 E. N. BRESSMAN. 
 Sept. 1, 192:3. 
 
 11341 
 
av 
 
 ^ 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 1. HISTORY OP CORN 1 
 
 2. THE IMPORTANCE OF CORN 8 
 
 3. CORN AS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL 11 
 
 4. THE ADAPTATION OF CORN IS 
 
 5. PICKING SEED CORN 22 
 
 6. STORING SEED CORN 28 
 
 7. TESTING AND GRADING SEED CORN 31 
 
 8. THE RELATION OF SOILS TO CORN 35 
 
 9. PREPARATION OP THE SEED BED •. 40 
 
 10. PLANTING CORN 51 
 
 11. CULTIVATING CORN 52 
 
 12. WEEDS OF THE CORN FIELD 59 
 
 1.3. HARVESTING EAR CORN 64 
 
 14. SOFT CORN 70 
 
 15. CORN FODDER 75 
 
 IG. CORN SILAGE 80 
 
 17. HARVESTING WITH LIVE STOCK 86 
 
 18. COMPANION CROPS FOR CORN 91 
 
 19. FEEDING CORN TO LIVE STOCK 96 
 
 20. MARKETING CORN 99 
 
 21. CORN PRICES 107 
 
 22. CORN-HOG RATIOS 115 
 
 23. COST OF CORN PRODUCTION 119 
 
 24. INSECTS OP CORN 123 
 
 25. DISEASES OF CORN 135 
 
 26. CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 140 
 
 27. POPCORN 149 
 
 28. SWEET CORN 153 
 
 29. VARIETIES OF CORN 157 
 
 30. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANT 167 
 
 1. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN 170 
 
 32. CORN BREEDING 179 
 
 33. TECHNIQUE OF INBREEDING 186 
 
 34. HEREDITY IN CORN 189 
 
 35. CORN JUDGING 199 
 
 36. CORN YIELD CONTESTS 203 
 
 37. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OP CORN 206 
 
 38. CORN GROWING OUTSIDE OF THE CORN BELT 212 
 
 39. CORN STATISTICS 221 
 
CHAPTER 1 
 
 HISTORY OF CORN 
 
 /^ORN is one of the few standard crops that originated in America. 
 Early writers disagreed as to the place of origin of corn, some main- 
 taining that it came from eastern Asia; others that it came from Africa, 
 while still others said it was of American origin. The latter is now gen- 
 erally accepted as the true theory. The main reason for the acceptance 
 of this theory is that no mention is made of corn in the early writings, 
 
 On left fossil ear discovered in Peru and on right modern types of corn as grown 
 in Peru. (Courtesy of Journal of Heredity.) 
 
 and, with one possible exception, no mention is made of it until the dis- 
 covery of America, in 1492. This possible exception is a tradition of the 
 Norsemen that they found the grain being cultivated by the Indians 
 when these explorers landed on the western continent, in 1002. Another 
 reason for the belief that corn originated in America is that it was gen- 
 erally cultivated by the natives when Columbus first discovered the 
 continent. Its antiquity in America is also indicated by the specimens 
 found in the ruins of the Cliff Dwellers and ]\Iound Builders. High- 
 land Peru and southern Mexico are the two places which have the best 
 
2 CORN AXI) CORN-GROWING 
 
 claim to being the original home of corn. The fossil ear found in 1914 
 in Peru by Doctor W. F. Parks, indicates Peru as the place of origin of 
 corn. The ear, -which is doubtless several thousand years old, is much 
 like some of the present-day varieties grown in Peru. The specimen is 
 three inches in length, tapered, and rounded on the butt end. The ker- 
 nels are somewhat like those of rice popcorn. 
 
 According to Harshberger, the Indians pr()ba])ly first found the 
 plant in ^Mexico, in the region above 4,500 feet altitude and south of 20 
 degrees north latitude and north of the river Coatzacoalcos and in the 
 isthmus of Tehuantepec. It probably reached the Rio Grande about 700 
 A. D., and by the j^ear 1000 had reached the coast of Maine. These dates 
 are more definite than most writers give, but the evidence of wild grasses 
 related to corn growing in southern Mexico suggests IMexico rather than 
 Peru as the place of origin. 
 
 Originated From Wild Grass 
 
 In southern IMexico there are two native wild grasses, gama grass 
 and teosinte, both of which are closely related to corn. Corn has never 
 been found growing wild, and many are of the opinion that corn has 
 been developed from teosinte, which resembles corn more closely than 
 any other wild grass. Other writers think that both corn and teosinte 
 developed many thousands of years ago from a common ancestor, pos- 
 sibly from such a grass as perennial teosinte, recently found in southern 
 Mexico. Others think that annual teosinte is a cross of corn and peren- 
 nial teosinte. 
 
 Teosinte has a tassel just like corn, and the seeds are enclosed by 
 hu.sks and borne in the axils of the leaves. The teosinte ear (there is 
 no cob) is about three inches long and is composed of five to ten ker- 
 nels arranged end to end. Teosinte readily crosses with corn, which 
 again suggests that the two plants have a common ancestry or that corn 
 originated from teosinte. 
 
 Corn and teosinte both doubtless trace back to a plant resembling 
 gama grass, a plant having a tassel at the top and tassel-like structures 
 on long, lateral branches — all tassels bearing male flowers on the upper 
 part of the tassel and female flowers on the lower part. In the process 
 of evolution and diversification, the tassels at the top came to produce 
 only pollen and the tassels on the lateral branches only seeds, and at 
 the same time the lateral branches were shortened until the tassels were 
 enclosed by husks. It is also probable that in this evolution the lateral 
 tassel developed into an ear. Nature has been aided by man, of course. 
 in the selection of our present types of corn. 
 
 Early Types of Corn 
 
 IMost writers sjjcak of flint, soft, gourdseed and sweet types of 
 corn as beiim' urowu b^■ tlu' Indians aiid the earlv settlers. Indications 
 
HISTORY OF TORN 
 
 Teosinte tassel and ear spike. The teosinte ear spike is covered with husks and 
 each kernel has a silk just as with corn. (Courtesy of Journal of Heredity.) 
 
4 CORK AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 are that the dent varieties of today are the result of both accidental and 
 intentional crossing of gourdseed and flint types. This is discussed 
 fully in Chapter 26. 
 
 The Atlantic Coast farmers, from 1800 to 1840, made a real effort 
 to o'et high yielding strains of corn. The farm papers of 1819 to 1822 
 tell of several instances of getting Maha (undoubtedly Omaha Indian) 
 ■corn from Council Bluffs— now a part of Iowa. This corn was an 
 •eight-row soft corn type, and several of the eastern farmers claimed 
 yields of more than 100 bushels to the acre. The Sioux yellow, ten 
 to twelve-row flint corn was introduced from the west by several grow- 
 ers, and there were several introductions of a Canadian flint corn. These 
 introductions, together with the local varieties, are probably found to 
 some extent in all of our present-day varieties, and help to explain the 
 heterogeneous nature of our present-day types. 
 
 The Iowa State Agricultural Society report of 1858 says : "A great 
 many varieties of corn are cultivated, and it would be hard to tell which 
 is the best, as farmers entertain different opinions." IMost of the 
 varieties Avere dents, according to the report. 
 
 J. M. Chambers, of Linn county, Iowa, in 1858 wrote: "The yellow 
 flint and the Virginia gourdseed are the principal varieties." 
 
 Early History in America 
 
 Early explorers in America mention the large fields of corn culti- 
 vated by the Indians, and remarked about the slowness of Europe to 
 adopt this new grain, which they considered so valuable. In 1498, 
 Columbus reported his brother as having passed through eighteen miles 
 of corn on the Isthmus ; in 1605, Champlain saw a field of corn at the 
 mouth of the Kennebec river ; in 1609, Hudson saw many fields along 
 the Hudson river, and in 1620, Captain INIiles Standish reported a field 
 of 500 acres in Massachusetts that had been cropped the year previous. 
 Drawings made by Hernandez of corn which he found in Mexico about 
 1600, show the plant with three or four ears on the stalks, and ears with 
 eight or ten rows. 
 
 Thomas Hariot, a member of the ill-fated Virginia colony of 1585, 
 wrote in 1588 what is probably the first extended English description 
 of corn as grown in what now is the United States. He stated : "Paga- 
 tour, a kinde of graine so called by the inhabitants; the same in the 
 West Indies is called Mayse. . . . The graine is about the bignesse 
 of our ordinary English peaze, and not much different in forme and 
 shape, but of diners colors ; some white, some red, some yellow, and some 
 blue. All of them yeelde a very white sweete flowre ; being used ac- 
 cording to his kind it maketh a very goode bread. ' ' 
 
 On November 16, 1620, a group of Pilgrims landed on the Plymouth 
 coast and spied five Indians whom they followed all that day. The 
 next morning, they "found new stubble where Indian corn had been 
 planted the same year." Near a deserted house "heaps of sand newly 
 
HISTORY OF CORN 5 
 
 paddled with hands which they dio-ged up and found in them divers fair 
 Indian corn in baskets, some whereof was in ears, fair and good, of 
 divers colors, which seemed to them a goodly sight having seen none 
 before." 
 
 The most important history of corn in this country, as far as the 
 white man is concerned, began with the settlement of Jamestown in 1607. 
 The colonists had a hard time to keep from starvation ; and had it not 
 been for the corn obtained from the Indians, the colony would probably 
 have resulted in failure. The Indians taught the colonists how to pre- 
 pare the ground and plant the corn. The trees were girdled, the ground 
 stirred and the grain planted in hills three or more feet apart. In places 
 on the New England coast, it was necessary to fertilize the ground be- 
 fore it would produce a crop. The Indians showed the colonists how 
 to fertilize with fish. Herring or shad, which came up the streams by 
 the thousands in the spring to spawn, were caught; and one fish was 
 placed in each hill of corn. One w-riter of the time said that it took 
 about a thousand fish to plant an acre of corn, and without fish no 
 corn was planted. He also stated that an acre of corn planted with fish 
 yielded as much as three acres planted without. 
 
 Corn formed such an important crop with these colonists that many 
 laws were passed regulating the minimum amount to be grown and the 
 methods of earing for it. It was even enacted that all dogs should be 
 tied by the leg during planting time, to prevent their eating the fish. 
 Other laws were passed providing for the payment of taxes in corn. 
 The price when used for this purpose was fixed by law. One writer 
 of the time says that the reason so much corn was grown rather than 
 wheat was because wheat would not grow and mature. The failure of 
 W'heat was, of course, due to the growing of unacclimated English va- 
 rieties. 
 
 The cultivation of corn in America increased rapidly. In 1609, it 
 is reported that thirty acres were planted. In 1650, there is a record 
 of 600 bushels being exported from Savannah, and from that date on 
 there were exports from the colonists almost annually. In 1770, the 
 total exports were 578,349 bushels, and in 1800 this was increased to 
 2,032,435 bushels. 
 
 Later History in America 
 
 "With the opening of the Mississippi valley, the production of corn 
 increased by leaps and bounds. The growers found that corn was pecu- 
 liarly adapted to this region, and it at once became the principal crop. 
 This .section soon became world-famous as the ' ' Corn Belt. ' ' About 1870 
 began the increased use of farm machinery and improved varieties of 
 corn so that a man could tend a much larger area and at the same time 
 obtain larger yields. The 1839, 1859 and 1919 maps of corn production 
 in the United States illustrate very vividly how recently the Corn Belt 
 has come into its own. 
 
CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 MAP I. 
 
 In 1839 Tennessee and Kentucky were the leading corn states and the total pro- 
 duction of the entire United States was less than the normal crop of Iowa 
 today. (Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 MAP II. 
 
 From 1839 to 1859 the center of corn production moved north and west and the 
 corn belt as we now know it began to take shape. Illinois and Ohio were 
 the leading corn states in 18.59. (Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 
 
HISTORY OF COKX 7 
 
 Schmidt says that during the fifty-year period from 1849 to 1899 
 the center of corn production moved north only five miles, whereas at 
 the same time the center of production had moved westward 480 miles. 
 The center of corn production is now near the IMississippi river, not far 
 from Keokuk, Iowa. 
 
 History in the Old World 
 Soon after the New World was discovered, corn from the West Indies 
 and Peru was introduced into Spain, Italy, southeastern Europe, India, 
 Africa and China. During the sixteenth century, corn growing spread 
 
 MAP III. 
 
 In 1919 Iowa was the first coru state and the center of corn production was not 
 far from Keokuk, Iowa. (Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 
 
 with exceeding rapidity over the temperate and sub-tropical regions of 
 the entire world. In no place, however, with the possible exception of 
 a rather limited area in the Balkan states, did corn come to dominate the 
 entire agriculture of a region as it does in the Corn Belt of the United 
 States. Much of the corn grown in Europe has descended from the trop- 
 ical flints of the West Indies. In the nineteenth century, however, a 
 few Corn Belt varieties were introduced into Europe, but generally 
 speaking, corn as grown in the Corn Belt has met Avith very little favor 
 anywhere outside of the Corn Belt. For further information concerning 
 corn outside of the Corn Belt, see Chapter 38. 
 
CHAPTER 2 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORN 
 
 /^ORN produces more food value per acre than any other crop. A 
 .35-bushel crop gives nearly 150 pounds of protein and more than 
 3.000,000 units of energy. Corn is becoming more and more popular 
 as a human food. It is the main cereal food of the cotton belt. Corn, 
 consumed directly and in the form of meat, dairy and poultry products, 
 is the principal source of food of the American people. 
 
 The corn crop played a vital part in the great World war. In re- 
 sponse to widespread appeals, the United States acreage in 1917 was 
 increased more than 10 per cent, and approximated 117,000,000 acres. 
 The crop of 3,065,000,000 bushels was next to the largest ever harvested. 
 If this crop had been loaded on wagons, each containing 50 bushels and 
 occupying 20 feet of space, these wagons, placed end to end, would make 
 a line long enough to encircle the globe nine and one-half times. Dur- 
 ing the war and the years immediately following, the Ignited States sent 
 Europe an average of 50,000,000 bushels more corn annually than was 
 customary before the war. Corn, both in the form of corn and of hog 
 products, played an absolutely decisive part in helping the Allies to 
 Avin the World war and in keeping hundreds of thousands of Europeans 
 from starving after the war was over. 
 
 Corn has never been used as extensively for human food as wheat. 
 However, millions of the poorer classes in ]\Iexico, Italy, Argentina. Spain 
 and the Balkan states eat far more corn than wheat. 
 
 Value in the United States 
 
 The value of corn in the agriculture of the United States is well 
 known. In acreage, in multiplicity of uses, in production and in value, 
 it exceeds any other cultivated crop. In the decade, 1908 to 1917, the 
 acreage devoted to corn in this country was .4.8 per cent greater than 
 the combined acreage of the crops of wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, buck- 
 wheat and flax. The value of the corn crop for the same period was 24.3 
 per cent more than the combined values of these crops. 
 
 Eventually, the manufacture of corn products in the United States 
 will equal or exceed the meat packing industry. Even now, more than 
 one hundred million bushels of corn every year are used in the manu- 
 facture of such products as starch, corn syrup and corn oil. Corn is 
 one of the greatest potential sources of the alcohol which will doubt- 
 less be needed to run our automobiles when eventually the crude petro- 
 leum supply is exhausted. 
 
 Valuable as a sustainer of life among primitive ])eoples in peace 
 
THE IMPORTANCE OF CORN 9 
 
 and war, corn, ever since the early days of the Jamestown and Plymouth 
 colonies, has bulked large in the white man's existence on this conti- 
 nent. There is no indication that it will ever be otherwise 
 
 In the Corn Belt 
 
 Corn is the basis of wealth in the agricultural region known as the 
 Corn Belt — Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, eastern Nebraska, southeastern 
 South Dakota, northern ]\Iissouri, southern INIinnesota and eastern Kan- 
 sas. One hundred and forty million acres of the richest land in the 
 world lie in this Corn Belt of the United States, of which Davenport, 
 Iowa,, is not far from the center of production. As may be judged from 
 Map 3, in Chapter 1, the Corn Belt extends about 100 miles west into Ne- 
 braska, 75 miles northwest into South Dakota, 50 miles north into Minne- 
 sota and eastward through Iowa, the northern two-thirds of Illinois, Indi- 
 ana and the western half of Ohio. This region is the Corn Belt as it 
 exists in the third decade of the twentieth century. As time goes on, it 
 may shift a little to the north. 
 
 Of the one hundred and forty million acres in the American Corn 
 Belt, about eighty-five million acres are plow land, and of this plow 
 land about one-half, or forty million acres, are put into corn. Roughly, 
 twenty million acres are in tame grass meadow and twenty million acres 
 in oats and wheat. 
 
 It is corn that enables these middle-western states to produce such 
 a surplus of pork and beef. The good homes, high land values, and 
 prosperity of the Corn Belt are a direct outcome of the wealth that the 
 corn crop brings to this region. The corn crop of the Corn Belt is the 
 world's greatest bulwark against famine. In times of need, a part of 
 the crop may be diverted from its customary use as an animal food to 
 its more economical use as a human food. 
 
 During the spring, summer and fall, the Corn Belt farmer spends 
 nearly three-fourths of his man and horse labor on corn. He puts twice 
 as much time on this crop as on all of his other crops put together. Corn 
 is at the center of Corn Belt agriculture. Wheat, oats and hay are grown 
 chiefly to rest the land in preparation for more corn and to use farm 
 labor at seasons of the year when it can not be employed in growing corn. 
 
 The Corn Belt farmer feeds nearly half of his corn to hogs. It is 
 only in rather limited areas, as in central Illinois and parts of north- 
 western Iowa, that it is customary to ship the greater part of the corn 
 to market in the form of grain. In all sections, one-sixth to one-fourth 
 of the crop is kept at home to feed to horses. This part of the crop is, 
 in a sense, just as much fuel as the gasoline used to run a tractor. Rough- 
 ly, 02ie-fiftli of the Corn Belt corn is sold in the form of fat cattle, dairy 
 products, chickens and eggs. For decades to come, the greater part of 
 the corn of the Corn Belt must be sent to market in the form of live 
 stock or live stock products. But after the population of the United 
 
10 CORN AND CORN-GROWIXG 
 
 States passes 150,000,000, there will be an ever-increasino- percentage of 
 corn consumed by people and a smaller percentage consumed by fat cat- 
 tle and fat hogs. 
 
 The Corn Belt of the United States is the only place in the world 
 where there is such a large area of fertile land favored by a rainfall of 
 10 to 18 inches during the four months following corn planting and 
 an average mean temperature during the thirty days centering around 
 tasseling time of 70 to 80 degrees. The only close approach is in north- 
 central Argentina, in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre 
 Rios and Cordoba. And in this possible corn belt of Argentina, winter 
 wheat, alfalfa and flax are so profitable and the chance of devastating 
 summer drouth is so great that there probably never will be more than 
 one-half as much corn grown as in the American corn belt. 
 
CHAPTER 3 
 
 CORN AS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL 
 
 r^ORX requires abundant moisture and a moderately high tempera- 
 ture if it is to make its best growth. Laboratory experiments in- 
 dicate that when plenty of moisture is available, a temperature of about 
 90 degrees is most favorable both for germination and growth. Growth 
 stops altogether at temperatures of below 40 degrees or above 118 
 degrees. 
 
 Temperature for Germination 
 In most corn growing sections, the temperature during the week 
 following planting is around 60 to 65 degrees, and under such a tem- 
 perature corn usually appears above ground in eight or ten days. When 
 the ground is cold and the temperature averages 50 to 55 degrees, it 
 usually takes eighteen or twenty days for the corn to come up. When 
 the temperature is less than 55 degrees, it seems that the slowly sprout- 
 ing corn kernels are very susceptible to root rot infections ; whereas, 
 when the temperature is above 60 degrees the kernels are much more 
 resistant. If the soil is warm and moist and the corn is planted shallow, 
 a temperature of 70 degrees will bring it above ground in five or six 
 days. In the central part of the Corn Belt, yield and temperature rec- 
 ords indicate that a mean temperature of 55 degrees or less during May 
 tends to reduce the yield by about 15 per cent. A temperature of 56 
 to 5S degrees will not ordinarily cut the yield by more than 3 or 4 per 
 cent, unless accompanied by heavy rains and prolonged cloudy weather. 
 
 Temperature and Rainfall During June 
 
 From the time the corn comes up until it reaches a height of three 
 feet, it is necessary under practical farm conditions to give three or 
 four cultivations, in order to kill the weeds. This can be accomplished 
 most effectively when June is rather hot and dry. A mean tempera- 
 ture of 70 to 72 degrees in June, with two to four inches of rain, seems 
 to be ideal. A mean temperature of more than 75 degrees for the month 
 of June is so often accompanied by exceedingly dry weather, not only 
 in June but also in July, that it is a matter of history that years of ex- 
 ceedingly hot Junes are usually years of below-average corn crops. 
 
 July Weather and Corn Yield 
 
 In Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, ^lissouri, Kansas, Nebraska and southern 
 
 Iowa, the rainfall and temperature during the ten days before and the 
 
 twenty days following tasseling time have more to do with corn yield 
 
 than the weather at any other period. Ideally, there should be four or 
 
]2 
 
 C(^RX AXl) CORX-CiROWIXG 
 
 five inches of rainfall durinii' this thirty-day period, and the mean 
 temperature should average from 72 to 74 degrees. Corn appreciates 
 mean temperatures as high as 85 degrees, but as a practical proposi- 
 tion, mean temperatures above 75 degrees nearly always lower the yield 
 for the reason that such temperatures cause the corn plants to trans- 
 pire water more rapidly than they can take it up from the ground. 
 This might not be true under irrigation, but in the Corn Belt, mean 
 temperatures above 75 degrees are usually accompanied by drouth. It 
 is also true that a drouth which would cause very little bother at 70 
 degrees may be a serious matter at 80 degrees, for it has been found 
 at the Xebraska station that a full-grown corn plant will transpire daily 
 
 MAP IV. 
 
 76 ' 7( 
 
 Average temperature isotherms during June, July, and August in the corn belt. 
 The most productive corn land is north of the 75-degree line and south of 
 the 69-degree line. Only in southwestern Minnesota is there really good 
 corn land somewhat north of the 69-degree line. The breeding of high yield- 
 ing early varieties may possibly push the northern limit of the Corn Belt 
 beyond the 69-degree line. 
 
 about four pounds of water at a mean temperature of 70 degrees, where- 
 as at 80 degrees it will transpire about seven pounds. 
 
 During this thirty-day period, on land capable of producing forty 
 bushels per acre under favorable conditions, each degree the mean tem- 
 perature averages above 74 degrees cuts the corn yield by about 1.2 
 bushels per acre, and each inch the rainfall is below four inches cnts 
 the yield by two bushels. For instance, w^ith land yielding forty bush- 
 
EFFECTS OF TEArPERATFRE xVXD RAINFALL 
 
 l;] 
 
 els per acre under the best conditions, if the corn starts to tassel on 
 July 18 and the temperature from July 8 to August 7 averages 78 
 degrees and the rainfall totals two inches, the indicated jield •would be 
 forty bushels minus 4.8 bushels because of high temperature and four 
 bushels because of drouth, or 31.2 bushels. 
 
 A general one-inch rain during late July often increases the pros- 
 pective crop of the Corn Belt states by two or three bushels per acre, 
 or by a total of over 100,000,000 bushels. Some people have therefore 
 spoken of such a rain as worth millions of dollars to the farmers. As 
 
 MAP V. 
 
 Number of days from time temperature normally rises above 61 degrees in 
 spring until it goes below 65 degrees in the fall. This map, together with 
 Map IV, indicates fairly accurately where the early maturing strains are 
 required. In northeastern Illinois much earlier varieties are required than 
 in the same latitude in Iowa. 
 
 a matter of fact, December future corn prices as set by the Chicago 
 Board of Trade during July and early August reflect these rains in 
 such a way as to leave the total prospective value of the new crop changed 
 but little. The rain which increases the prospective corn crop of the 
 Corn Belt by 100,000,000 bushels, or by 7 per cent, will also lower De- 
 cember corn futures prices by 6 to 12 per cent. The July and early 
 August rains which add 100,000,000 bushels to the coming crop of the 
 Corn Belt usually result in the new corn being priced 4 or 5 cents a 
 bushel cheaper, or enough to make the total value actually somewhat 
 less than if the rain had not come. It is the corn product manufacturers, 
 
14 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 exporters and stockmen who buy more corn than they raise, Avho benefit 
 by the July and Aug-ust rains which increase the corn crop. And, of 
 course, it is always true that those corn sections which receive heavy 
 July rains when the Corn Belt oenerally is hot and dry, benefit enor- 
 mously at the expense of their less fortunate neighbors. 
 
 December Future Corn Prices and July Weather 
 
 Generally speaking", the Chicago December future corn price, as 
 quoted day bj^ day during July and August in the daily papers, is the 
 best measure for the average farmer of how the new corn crop of the 
 entire Corn Belt is being treated by the weather. If on July 30 the 
 
 MAP VI. 
 
 13'^12' 
 
 Average inches of rainfall in three .'summer months of June, July, and August. 
 
 December future price is 6 cents a bushel higher than on July 20, it 
 is an indication that there has been practically no rain anywhere in 
 the Corn Belt during the past ten days. If the price during this jieriod 
 has dro])ped by 2 cents a bushel, it is almost certain that there have 
 been abundant, well-distributed rains over the greater part of the Corn 
 pje.lt. Sometimes December corn futures during July and August are 
 affected to some extent by business conditions and by wheat prices, but 
 as a rule they move up and down in symjiathy with C-orn Belt weather 
 and verv little else. 
 
EFFECTS OF TE:\1PERATURE AND RAINFALL 15 
 
 Northern loAva and southern Minnesota differ from the central 
 part of the Corn Belt in that they are more likely to be damaged by 
 cold and wet during May and June than by heat and drouth during July. 
 It is only in years of exceptional drouth, like 1894 or 1901, that the 
 northern part of the Corn Belt is likely to suffer much from July weather. 
 Even in such years, the corn of the northern Corn Belt is usually not 
 so very far below normal, whereas there is a great shortage in the central 
 and southern parts of the Corn Belt. The net result, as a rule, of dry, 
 hot July weather, so far as northern corn farmers are concerned, is 
 prosperity at the expense of the corn farmers further south. On the 
 other hand, cold, wet summers like 1915 and 1917 hurt the corn yields 
 in the north and boost them south of central Iowa. 
 
 From a commercial standpoint, drouth and heat during July and 
 early August have much more effect on the corn market than cold and 
 wet at any time of the year. 
 
 August Weather 
 
 Over most of the Corn Belt, heat and drouth during the first half 
 of August are almost as likely to hurt the corn crop as heat and drouth 
 in July. ]\Iissouri, Nebraska and Kansas corn is especially susceptible 
 to heat damage during the first half of August. North of central 
 Iowa, however, the corn yield is more likely to be damaged by cold 
 weather in August than by hot weather. August weather averaging 
 below 69 degrees seems to damage the corn crop in northern Iowa and 
 southern ]\Iinnesota, especially in years when the May, June and July 
 weather has also been a little cooler than normal. The ideal August 
 weather is a temperature of 72 or 73 degrees and a rainfall of four or 
 five inches. 
 
 After August 20, the weather usually has very little significance. 
 The corn plant at this time is manufacturing and storing sugar and 
 starch much more rapidly than earlier in the season. Nevertheless, 
 after thirty days have lapsed following tasseling, it seems that moder- 
 ately dry weather does no damage. Rainfall is important while the 
 young corn kernels are just forming, but for some reason is not so neces- 
 sary when the corn plant is most actively at work storing food in these 
 kernels during late August. 
 
 Frost 
 
 Frost has far less effect on the corn crop than most people think. 
 In a season which has been unusually cool throughout, like 1915 or 1917, 
 a September frost may cause much soft corn north of southern Iowa. 
 Occasionally, as was the case in 1920, unusually warm September weather 
 enables the corn crop to avoid the frost damage which seemed almost 
 inevitable. It is only rarely that frost causes any widespread damage 
 to corn. As a rule, most corn is sufficiently matured to withstand 
 
16 CORN AND rORK GROWING 
 
 frost damage two or three weeks before killing frost actually comes. 
 Frost damage is never reflected in the price of corn on the terminal 
 markets in the same way as heat and drouth damage. 
 
 Heat and Rapidity of Growth 
 "While mean temperatures above 74 degrees during the twenty days 
 following tasseling time seem to harm the corn crop, it is also true that 
 previous to tasseling time the rapidity with which the corn grows de- 
 pends largely on the temperature. During June and early July, corn 
 grows twice as fast on those days when the mean temperature is 78 
 degrees as it w'ill when the mean temperature is onl}^ 62 degrees. A 
 75-degree mean results in about 25 per cent faster growth than 70 de- 
 grees. A number of years ago, at the Pennsylvania station they found 
 that during the three weeks preceding tasseling time there was a tend- 
 ency for corn to grow in twenty-four hours at the following rates at 
 varying mean temperatures : 
 
 ' 05 degrees 3.2 inches 
 
 70 degrees 4.1 inches 
 
 72 degrees 4.5 inches 
 
 75 degrees 5.1 inches 
 
 7S degrees 5.4 inches 
 
 The average temperature during the fifty or sixty days following 
 planting time is the chief influence determining just when a given 
 variety of corn will tassel. With the ordinary 115-day strain of such 
 varieties as Reid Yellow Dent, the following temperatures during 
 the sixty days following planting result in the varying lengths of time 
 till tasseling about as follows: 
 
 68 degrees 74 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 70 degrees 66 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 73 degrees 54 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 With a so-called ninety-day strain, the corresponding table, based 
 on temperatures during the forty-five days following planting time, is 
 as follows: 
 
 67 degrees 59 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 69 degrees 51 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 71 degrees 43 days from planting to tasseling 
 
 After tasseling starts, heat no longer plays such an important part. 
 The number of days from tasseling until ripe does not vary with the 
 heat in the same clear-cut fashion as the number of days from planting 
 to tasseling. 
 
 Extremely high temperatures (above 95 degrees during the heat 
 of. the day) may kill the pollen within an hour or two after it is shed 
 and thus cause poor pollination if the high temperatures are continued 
 day after daj' at the time the pollen is flying. The storing of food in 
 the corn kernel during late July and August is an altogether different 
 
EFFECTS OF TEMPER ATURP] AND RAINFALL J 7 
 
 process than the rapid growing of the corn plant during late June and 
 early July. And it seems that hot weather does not have nearly as 
 much to do with hastening ripening as it does with causing rapid growth 
 before tasseling. 
 
 Cold Nights 
 
 It is a common belief that corn will not grow satisfactorily in re- 
 gions where the nights are cool, though the days be warm. Usually, the 
 true explanation why corn is not grown in such sections is something 
 else. In South Africa, where corn growing has expanded at a phe- 
 nomenal rate since 1900, the minimum temperature at night during the 
 tasseling season averages only about 60 degrees, and in some sections it 
 is as low as 55 degreees Cool nights reduce the rapidity of growth 
 previous to tasseling, but if the season is long there is no definite proof 
 that cool nights (55 to 60 degrees at the low point of the night) reduce 
 the yield. 
 
 Summary 
 
 The ideal corn season in the central part of the Corn Belt is about 
 as follows : 
 
 May — 65 degree mean temperature (warmer than average), 3.5 inches of 
 rain. 
 
 June — 71 degree mean temperature, 3.5 inches of rain. 
 
 July — 73 degree mean temperature (cooler than average), 4.5 inches of 
 rain. 
 
 August — 73 degree mean temperature, 4.5 inches of rain. 
 
 Xo temperatures above 96 degrees in the heat of the day at tassel- 
 ing time, ground thoroughly saturated with moisture during the twenty 
 davs following tasseling. 
 
CHAPTER 4 
 
 THE ADAPTATION OF CORN 
 
 /^OKX, in its distribution over the United States, has been changed in 
 many ways by nature and by the plant breeder and farmer. The 
 corn crop has shown especial adaptability to differences in lenpth of 
 seasons. At the present time, there are at least 1,000 varieties, some of 
 which mature in 80 days in the North and others in 150 days or more 
 in the South. Because of its wonderful adaptation to conditions, the 
 crop is now o-rown with success in every state of the nation, from sea level 
 to })1ateaus a mile above. 
 
 Home-Grown Seed 
 
 Ordinarily, it is a poor practice to buy seed corn. The average 
 farmer should rely chiefly on seed grown in his own field or his neigh- 
 bor's field until he has proved by actual test in his own field that a 
 certain strain from outside has greater yielding power. It is usually 
 folly of the worst sort for a farmer in central Nebraska to buy any large 
 quantity of Indiana seed corn, even though it may be grown in the same 
 latitude. ^Moving corn more than 100 miles north or south is always 
 uncertain. However, Reid Yellow Dent, as grown in south-central 
 Iowa, usually gives a good account of it.self in central Illinois, and vice 
 versa. Some sorts do poorly when moved only twenty or thirty miles, 
 whereas other strains have an unusuall}- Avide adaptation. 
 
 Farmers have observed the superiority of well-adapted varieties. 
 This superiority is demonstrated when good home-grown seed is planted 
 in comparison with seed imported from a distance. The value of home- 
 grown seed was shown in two series of five-year tests conducted by the 
 Ignited States Department of Agriculture in co-operation with twenty- 
 eight state experiment stations. Equivalent lots of seed were grown 
 each year at all the station.s. These experiments indicated that varie- 
 ties which produce best at home often yield poorest when tested under 
 another environment. 
 
 During a period of seven years, samples of seed corn obtained from 
 forty to sixty farmers in each of twenty-nine counties in Iowa were 
 planted side by side under identically the same conditions for a compara- 
 tive study of quality and yielding power. These tests showed that in 
 each of these counties there were from three to eight men who had corn 
 yielding an average of 10.9 bushels per acre more than the average of 
 all other local corns tested, an average of 19.7 bushels per acre more 
 than .seed purchased from seed firms, and an average of 13.5 bushels 
 more than seed introduced into the county from prominent seed corn 
 breeders or growers in other sections of the state. 
 
THE ADAPTATION OF CORN 19 
 
 At the Nebraska station, six leading varieties of corn were compared 
 for two and three years, the seed in one case being native grown and in 
 the other from Iowa or Illinois. Here in every case the native seed 
 of the same variety gave the better yield, the average being a difference 
 of 6.2 bushels. 
 
 Effect of Acclimatization on Yield* 
 
 A more striking result was secured when varieties representing three 
 degrees of acclimatization were grown in comparison at the experiment 
 station. The first group of five varieties represented seed taken from 
 samples receiving high prizes at the National Corn Show. They came 
 from the very best growers, and were undoubtedly productive varieties 
 of corn in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, where they originated. Being show 
 com, it is probable they had been grown under most favorable condi- 
 tions, thus making them less suited than the average to withstand the 
 ^•ery dry and unfavorable season they were grown at the station. The 
 second group was made up of a collection of varieties secured from grow- 
 ers in the state, but located at some distance from the station and on 
 somewhat different soil. The third group was made up of a collection 
 of varieties grown for several years by farmers near the station. 
 
 Table I — Effect of Acclimatization on Corn 
 
 ~~ r ~ 
 
 Character of Seed | Yield Per A. 
 
 I 
 
 Show corn from Illinois, Indiana and Ohio (five varieties) j 39.8 bushels 
 
 Seed from growers in state (five varieties) | 4,5.6 bushels 
 
 Local varieties near experiment station (seven varieties) | 48.8 bushels 
 
 These results were unusually marked, due to the very dry, hot sea- 
 son during the earing time, but a season that would not be unusual far- 
 ther west in the state. The data plainly indicate the value of native 
 seed — that from a distance yielding 39.8 bushels; that from the state, 
 but at .some distance, yielding 45.6 bushels, and that from farmers near 
 the station yielding 48.8 bushels per acre. 
 
 Changes in Corn Not Adaptedf 
 
 AVhen corn grown in one section of the country for a number of 
 years is moved to another section where soil and climate are different, 
 the plant always undergoes more or less change during the first two or 
 three years before it becomes adapted to its new conditions. 
 
 The definite effect of climate in modifying the corn plant is shown 
 in the following experiment : Seed of two varieties of corn, Snowflake 
 White and loAva Gold Mine, was obtained from Iowa and grown in 
 
 ♦Nebraska Bulletin No. 126. 
 vNebraska Bulletin No. 91. 
 
L>;) (M)KX AND COKX-GKOWIXG 
 
 Nebraska for two years. In the third year, seed was taken from this, 
 and seed was also obtained from the same original source in Iowa. These 
 were all planted in adjacent plo'ts at the experiment station. A marked 
 difference was shown throughout the experiment between the different 
 plots. In the Snowflake "White variety, the stalk from the seed that 
 had grown in central Nebraska for two years had decreased almost a 
 foot in height, the ear was 8.8 inches lower down, and the ear shank 
 almost two inches shorter, while th(> plants from Nebraska seed had 
 an average of 1.2 fewer leaves. 
 
 The weight of both stalk and ear was found to be heavier in the 
 corn grown from the seed just from Iowa, but the proportion of ear to 
 stalk was higher in the acclimated corn. The Nebraska corn averaged 
 almost 200 square inches less leaf area, which was to be expected of 
 plants grown in a drier climate. The yield of grain was in favor of the 
 home-grown seed. 
 
 Similar conclusions were indicated from variety tests. Of the 
 twenty-two varieties that were tested by the co-operating farmers in 
 various parts of the state, thirteen were Nebraska grown, four from 
 Illinois, two from Iowa, one from Indiana and two from Minnesota. In 
 these experiments, the significant fact was revealed that not one of the 
 nine varieties the seed of which was grown outside of the state ever 
 took first or even second place in the average results for the state. These 
 results do not indicate that the varieties from the other states are poorer 
 seed than our own. Their low yield is due to the fact that they are not 
 at first adapted or acclimatized to our own conditions. 
 
 The lesson to be learned from this is that to get the best results 
 in corn growing, the seed must be home-grown, and grown not only in 
 the same state but in the same locality. The results of the variety tests 
 indicate that seed grown in eastern Nebraska will not do as well in 
 western Nebraska as local varieties, and vice versa. There should be 
 careful growers of seed in every county of the state. 
 
 Use of Unadapted Seed 
 
 Too many Avill send away for seed when better seed may be found 
 at home than can be obtained anywhere else. It is always uncertain 
 to buy seed from a distance, and this is doubly true when good seed is 
 scarce. One is likely to pay much more than it would cost to separate 
 out the good ears by means of the germination test. Seed grown as far 
 south as Oklahoma has been sold through agents to Corn Belt farmers 
 for planting their crop. There can be but one result — soft corn. 
 
 A mistaken idea prevails in regard to the "running out" of corn 
 because it has been grown too long in a locality. The longer a corn is 
 grown in the same locality, the better ada})ted it becomes to the condi- 
 tions of that particular locality, provided good seed is used each year. 
 
 On the edge of the Corn Belt and in new corn region.s, much trouble 
 is caused by growing unadapted strains. Nearly every introduction 
 
thp: adaptation of corn 21 
 
 of unadapted corn has proved to be a failure. A corn grower in south- 
 ern New Mexico introduced practically every known variety of the Corn 
 Belt, but with no success. The unselected native corn of his own sec- 
 tion yielded more than fancy, high-priced, imported seed. ]\Iany other 
 similar instances could be quoted. 
 
 If seed corn must be purchased, it should be obtained from a local- 
 ity where soil and climatic conditions are practically identical with those 
 of the place where the corn is to be grow^n. The price of seed corn is 
 not important. The loss of from two to five dollars a bushel, the aver- 
 age price of seed corn, is small as compared to the loss of a large part 
 of the crop. A bushel of seed corn should produce on the average 
 300 bushels of corn. At 50 cents a bushel, the produce of a bushel of 
 seed is worth $150. The loss of stand, immaturity, etc., resulting from 
 unadapted seed corn may actually cause a loss of $20 or $30 per bushel 
 of seed planted. 
 
CHAPTER 5 
 PICKING SEED CORN 
 
 TT IS doubtful whether the governor of each Corn Belt state could issue 
 a more valuable proclamation each year than one proclaiming a suit- 
 able week for all farmers of the state to gather and dry seed corn. One 
 year the governor of Iowa issued a proclamation as follows : 
 
 To The Farmers of Iowa: 
 
 Your attention is again directed to the serious situation that often con- 
 fronts the state in the springtime on account of the lack of good seed corn. 
 Because of the high valuation of our land, it is essential that the very best seed 
 possible be provided. 
 
 Wages are high and hired help hard to secure. It is, therefore, primarily 
 important that everything possible be done to increase the production of corn 
 per man power. One hundred per cent seed corn will very greatly increase 
 the production of corn per acre and the production per man power. 
 
 Permit me again to urge every farmer to save enough seed corn this fall 
 to supply his needs for next season, and if possible, a surplus for the follow- 
 ing season. By doing this, you are following a wise and sound business prin- 
 ciple, as well as rendering a service to agriculture generally and our whole 
 country. 
 
 Therefore, by virtue of authority in me vested, I, W. L. Harding, Governor 
 of the State of Iowa, call upon all of the farmers of this state to help in this 
 important work, and for the purpose of concentrating upon this matter, I pro- 
 claim and set aside the period commencing September 20 and ending October 
 2, 1920, as seed corn weeks, and earnestly urge that this period be made one of 
 general participation in this great work. 
 
 In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused to be 
 affixed the great seal of the state. 
 
 Done at Des Moines, this si^iteenth day of August, 1920. 
 
 No prudent Corn Belt farmer will allow October 15 to pass with- 
 out having sufficient seed for at least one year's planting stored w^here 
 it can not be injured by unfavorable weather conditions. The average 
 farmer who picks corn from his own field a week or two before killing 
 frost, and Avho stores that seed in an airy place where the ears do not 
 touch and where they will not freeze before they are dried out, will get 
 paid, on the average, at least a dollar an hour for his time. In the 
 northern part of the Corn Belt, October 1 should be the latest date for 
 picking seed corn from the field. Field selected seed should be picked 
 several weeks before the corn is dry enough to husk and crib. 
 
 Farmers in localities that sometimes have no seed corn because tlie 
 jn-evious season was too dry or too short may "insure" themselves by 
 
PICKING SP^.ED (U)RX 
 
 23 
 
 saving early each fall a supply of seed corn sufficient for two or three 
 years' planting. Good seed corn well cared for will retain good germi- 
 nation and high productivity for three years. 
 
 Corn has been transported from a land of perpetual summer, where 
 the returning wet season permitted the seed to germinate without having 
 
 Picking seed corn before frost. 
 
 endured winter conditions. It has been introduced into northern locali- 
 ties where the winters are severe. It has shown a remarkable ability 
 to adapt itself to short summers, but is dependent upon man to care for 
 its seed during the winter. Therefore, seed corn should be picked before 
 killing frost. 
 
 To get the largest yields of corn, it is desirable to grow a variety 
 that will use nearly all of the growing season of an average j^ear. In 
 the seasons shorter than the average, much of the corn will not dry 
 enough to escape injury from freezing. In such seasons, field selec- 
 tion is necessary to obtain seed that will grow. In some varieties, con- 
 tinued early selection will tend to reduce the number of days required 
 for maturity by as much as a week or ten days. In the northern half 
 of the Corn Belt, this earliness is desirable and will not reduce the yield 
 if other factors are properly cared for. 
 
 In years when June, July and August are unusually cool and rainy, 
 it is of altogether extraordinary importance to go through the field in 
 
24 CORX AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 late September and pick one bushel of the best matured ears for each 
 three acres which are to be planted the following spring. The frost 
 damage to seed corn in 1915 and 1917 was forecast long in advance 
 by the cool summer weather. On the other hand, in years of heat and 
 drouth during July and August, t^ere is almost never any danger of 
 frost damage to seed corn unlei^is^mjfere are exceptionally heavy rains 
 in September and October. In^cn years it may be perfectly safe to 
 delay the picking of the, seed corn until regular corn husking time. To 
 be on the safe side, ]^'e.y^, it is well to make it an invariable rule 
 to pick and hang uaMone'^eek before the average date of killing frost 
 one bushel of seed o^iVl^r each three acres to be planted the following 
 spring. ^'' 
 
 Cause of £W^i^ Injury* 
 
 The underlying causes pfvfreeziHg injury are late maturity of the 
 corn and abnormally ead^Vireezto^' weather. Late maturity may re- 
 sult from (1) late VJg^^S^j^v planting of unadapted varieties, and 
 (3) peculiar weath^^onditions which do not favor early ripening. 
 Undue early freezing <:njj?Jr work similar injury to corn which would 
 possess strong vitality*" under normal weather conditions. When sub- 
 jected to a severe frost, immature corn suffers a partial or total loss 
 of germinative power. 
 
 The germ in a sound kernel of corn is an embryonic living jilant 
 with stalk, leaves and root. When this living germ contains a large 
 amount of moisture, some physical or chemical change is brought about 
 by freezing, which results in death. Following this, the germ usually 
 turns dark in color, which is a fairly safe index as to whether the ger- 
 mination has been destroyed. 
 
 As the moisture content of the corn decreases, the injury to the 
 vitality of the kernel from exposure to any given freezing temperature 
 is decreased. Dry corn containing 10 to 14 per cent of moisture will 
 not be injured by any amount of winter freezing. Air dry corn with 
 a moisture content of 10 or 12 per cent will withstand the freezing 
 temperature of liquid air, or 190 degrees Fahrenheit below zero. On 
 the other hand, corn with 60 per cent moisture may be killed by pro- 
 longed exposure to barely freezing temperatures. There may be varia- 
 tion in the moisture content of kernels on the same ear, which will ac- 
 count for partially impaired germination of an ear. In 1915, as much 
 as 16 per cent variation was found in the moisture content of such 
 kernels. 
 
 *Nebraska Bulletin No. 163. 
 
PICKING SEED CORN 
 
 Table II — Moisture Content and Germination of Corn Harvested at 
 Various Dates During Fall and Winter of 1917-1918 
 
 Condition of Corn at Time of First Frost, October 8 
 
 Moisture in Grain of 
 Corn Gathered on 
 
 Shocked Corn — 
 
 1. Fairly well matured, ears solid 
 
 Corn Standing in Field — 
 
 2. Fairly well matured, ears solid 
 
 3. Somewhat rubbery, ears twisted... 
 
 4. Very rubbery, grain medium soft 
 
 5. Grain very soft 
 
 6. Late dough stage 
 
 7. Milk stage 
 
 I I 
 
 301 171 
 
 17 
 21 
 26 
 
 27 
 i 34 
 I 36 
 
 I 26] 
 
 - 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 16| 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 15| 
 
 18 
 
 16 1 
 
 23 
 
 19| 
 
 26 
 
 21| 
 
 28 
 
 28 i 
 
 33 
 
 291 
 
 Condition of Corn at Time of First Frost, October 
 
 Per Cent Perfect Germi- 
 nation of Corn Gath- 
 ered on 
 
 I I I I 
 
 98| 85| 93| 871 86 
 
 ! I 1 I 
 
 98| 83| 87| 93| 88 
 
 94| 56| 79| 59| 61 
 
 92| 34| 20| 14| 20 
 
 92| 14| 17| 5| 6 
 
 82| 10| 10| 01 
 
 44| 1| 1| 0| 
 
 Minimum temperature, degrees F~ "1241 "171 -16| -18j -21 
 
 Shocked Corn — 
 
 1. Fairly well matured, ears solid 
 
 Corn Standing in Field— 
 
 2. Fairly well matured, ears solid 
 
 3. Somewhat rubbery, ears twisted... 
 
 4. Very rubbery, grain medium soft. 
 
 5. Grain very soft 
 
 6. Late dough stage 
 
 7. Milk stage 
 
 *The first selection was made after the first killing frost, which occurred 
 in the early morning of October 8. 
 
 November 19 — Prolonged freezing, with minimum of 17 degrees F. 
 December 11 — Prolonged freezing, with minimum of -16 degrees F. 
 December 29 — Prolonged freezing, with minimum of -18 degrees F. 
 January 17 — Prolonged freezing, with minimum of -21 degrees F. 
 
 Methods of Selection 
 
 If the best seed ears are planted in one portion of the field, a large 
 amount of labor will be saved in picking seed corn in the fall. This por- 
 tion of the field will usually contain the number of good seed ears 
 sought. 
 
 Seed corn should be : 
 
 1. "Well adapted to seasonal and soil conditions where it is to be planted. 
 
 2. Grown on productive plants of a productive variety. 
 
 3. Well matured and preserved from ripening time until planting, so that 
 it will retain its full vigor. 
 
26 
 
 CORN AND COKX GROWING 
 
 A seed corn cart is one of the most convenient aids in gatlieringr 
 seed corn. It calls attention to the necessity of gettinj? into the field 
 before the first frost, to select the seed ears. A wooden soap box fast- 
 ened upon a pair of iron wheels similar to cultivator wheels, and a couple 
 of poles for shafts makes a cheap but handy seed corn cart. A seed corn 
 sack is not so invitin^i to the ordinary farmer. Anyone who has carried 
 a sack eontainino; about a bushel of corn through the field knows that it 
 is a tiresome task. 
 
 ]More than one row of stalks may be observed when picking seed 
 corn. However, as much time as possible should be given to a study of 
 stalk conditions. The practical rule to follow in picking seed corn in the 
 field is to save the ears which are medium large, well matured, solid, 
 and carried on a stiff stalk at from three to five feet above the ground. 
 
 A seed corn cart. 
 
 The ear should be borne on a shank which points the ear downward rather 
 than upward. Later on, the ears may be gone over for the finer points. 
 Of course, no ear should be saved showing any sign of mold, and neither 
 should an ear be saved if it comes from a stalk infested with smut, fusa- 
 rium or any other kind of disease. 
 
 In Illinois and the states further west and north it seems to be ad- 
 visable to pick for ears with a moderately smooth dent, ears with kernels 
 which are smooth, shin.v and horny. In central and southern Indiana, 
 however, highest yields are obtained with roughlv dented corn which 
 
PICKING SEED CORN l>7 
 
 is somewhat starch}-. A rather broad, thick kernel seems to be best 
 in nearly all sections. The kernel should carry its Avidth well toward 
 the tip, for there is probably no more serious weakness in Corn Belt 
 seed corn than the narrow, tapering, shoe-peg type of kernel. Ears 
 carrying kernels of this sort almost never have that solid, heavy-for- 
 their-size feeling which characterizes ears with broad, thick kernels which 
 carry their width well toward the tip. 
 
 If home-grown seed is not selected before husking time, it may be 
 obtained by any of the following methods : 
 
 1. Select from the load when husking for early feed. 
 
 2. Select at time of general husking by having a box on the side of the 
 wagon for seed ears. 
 
 3. Select at the time the husked corn is being elevated into the cribs. 
 
 4. Select and test ears from the crib during winter or spring. 
 
 5. Use one-year-old seed. 
 
 The first method is practiced only to a limited extent, while the 
 second method is the most common way of getting seed corn, and is a 
 satisfactor}^ method in years of well-matured corn. However, in "soft 
 corn" years there w411 be great difficulty in getting viable seed. The 
 third and fourth methods are better than using unadapted seed. If 
 the one-year-old seed has been kept under good storage conditions, it 
 makes desirable seed for planting. 
 
CHAPTER 6 
 
 STORING SEED CORN 
 
 npOO often seed corn is not taken care of after pickinp-. If field- 
 selected seed corn is not stored in a dry. well-ventilated place where 
 it will not freeze, it may as well be left in the field until harvest time. 
 The husked ears should be stored the same day that they are picked. 
 A good storage place for seed corn should have the following essentials : 
 
 1. Dry. 
 
 2. Well ventilated. 
 
 3. Protected from weather. 
 
 4. Temperature above freezing. 
 
 5. Free from mice. 
 
 6. Convenient for handling and testing the seed. 
 
 Provided the windows and doors are left open on all clear, bright 
 days during the fall, the following are good : 
 
 1. Dry attic or spare room. 
 
 2. Dry cellar. 
 
 3. Any dry, well ventilated building. 
 
 All the following places have so often proved bad for seed that 
 they should be avoided : 
 
 1. Barn where there is live stock or hay-mow above live stock. 
 
 2. Over oats or corn. 
 
 3. Damp cellar. 
 
 4. Closed attic over kitchen. 
 
 5. Any damp or closed place. 
 
 6. Out in the open. 
 
 The common practice of hanging- seed ears in corn cribs or other 
 open buildings maj' obtain good ventilation, but it offers no protection 
 against freezing. Although corn containing less than 16 per cent of 
 moisture is not readily injured by cold weather, most seed corn contains 
 more than this amount of moisture in the fall. Under certain condi- 
 tions seed corn may be stored in a dry basement. This practice should 
 not be encouraged unless the ventilation is good. Frequently, the ven- 
 tilation of a basement is poor and the humidity of the air high, affording 
 good conditions for the growth of mold. There is probably no better 
 place in which to store seed corn than in a well ventilated room in the 
 house, provided the room temperature does not fall below 26 degrees F. 
 A desirable arrangement for the farmer who saves a large amount of 
 seed corn is to build a house especially for storing seed corn. 
 
 The method of storing is of secondary importance, provided the 
 place is right. The method selected, however, should provide a free 
 circulation of air on all sides of each ear. In other words, no two ears 
 should touch, nor should they lie flat upon a board or other surface. 
 This is especially important when the ears are selected early and con- 
 tain a large amount of moisture. It is also important that the .seed be 
 
STORLXG HEED CORN 
 
 29 
 
 protected from mice and rats. A method which probably best meets 
 both of these conditions is that of hanging the ears individually. It is 
 
 safe to take down the ears when the 
 
 moisture content is less than 18 per 
 cent. Seed corn stored under good 
 conditions should be dry enough to 
 withstand winter temperatures with- 
 in fifty days after picking. 
 
 Artificial heat is sometimes 
 used in drying seed corn, where it is 
 necessary to dry it rapidly or where 
 large quantities are handled. AVhen 
 heat is used, it should be applied 
 gradually and temperatures higher 
 than 70 degrees should be avoided. 
 Too rapid drying will injure the 
 vitality of the seed. For small quan- 
 tities, however, such as will be need- 
 ed on individual farms, air drying 
 of seed corn is satisfactory. 
 Wire Hanger 
 
 One of the cheapest, most con- 
 venient and most satisfactory hang- 
 ers for storing seed corn is the wire 
 hanger, cut from electric-welded 
 hog-tight fencing. As the hangers 
 are cut from the wire the long way, they may be made any de- 
 •sired length. This v.-ire has perpendicular strands two inches apart 
 and horizontal strands four inches apart, thus making a 2x4-inch rect- 
 angular mesh. 
 
 The wire is cut in such a manner that looking at the hanger filled 
 with corn and hanging up, two ears are hung in pairs, opposite each 
 other, and each pair of ears is four inches below the pair above. The 
 wire may be cut with a cold chisel and a hammer, using a piece of iron 
 on which to rest the wire ; or with a pair of wire cutters. 
 
 Seed ears may be placed on these hangers rapidly. The hangers 
 may be hung on nails driven into rafters or 2x4 's, wath the greatest 
 economy of space. These hangers may also be carried from place to 
 place and conveniently laid on tables for the germination test without 
 having the corn fall off. When through with them in the spring, they 
 may be tied in bunches and stored in a small space. The cost of wire 
 and the labor in preparing hangers for 1,000 ears need not exceed tv.'o 
 dollars. 
 
 The illustration shows 48-inch wire fencing cut for making seed corn 
 hangers. It will be seen that the wire is cut in such a manner as to 
 prevent waste. 
 
 twine luince 
 
30 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWIXC 
 
 Making seed corn hangers out of electric welded fence. Note the alternate 
 wire method of cutting. 
 
 Binder Twine Hanger 
 The binder twine hanger is one on which a large amount of seed 
 may be hung in a comparatively short time and in a little space. Take 
 a piece of binding twine, twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and after 
 tying the ends together, place a loop over each hand and lay an ear 
 in the middle at the bottom so that each end of the ear is supported by 
 a strand of the twine. The two ends of the loop are then crossed and 
 another ear is placed on the crossed twine above the first one. This 
 operation is repeated until the string is full. By the use of a shuttle de- 
 vice, one man can string the ears about as fast as two can working with- 
 out it. Objections to this hanger are that ears fall out and one ear can 
 not be removed without tearing down the entire hanger. 
 
 Other Hangers 
 
 Woven wire, tacked on both sides of a framework, made i)refer- 
 ably of four-inch material, makes a handy seed corn rack. Lath tacked 
 four inches apart on each side of four-inch uprights make desirable 
 racks. Each pair of lath accommodates twenty-five or more ears. Such 
 a rack five feet in height holds 400 ears. 
 
 Other good devices are made by driving nails into boards, poles, 
 or posts, over which the butts of the ears are thrust. These hangers 
 are known as seed corn trees. A large number of devices for storing 
 corn have been offered on the market. Many of them give good sat- 
 isfaction and may be used by those who do not care to devise a method 
 of their own. 
 
CHAPTER 7 
 
 TESTING AND GRADING SEED CORN 
 
 TF >SEED corn is picked before freezing weather and stored in a dry, 
 Avell ventilated place and protected from freezing temperatures until 
 it is well dried, there is no need of seed corn testing. But in order to 
 be absolutely safe, every farmer, in February, should germinate two 
 hundred kernels of corn from tM^o hundred ears taken at random. If 
 less than 90 per cent of these kernels grow strongly, it will almost cer- 
 tainly pay the farmer a dollar an hour for his time to make a thorough 
 ear by ear test of all the ears which he expects to plant. 
 
 The Cheap and Efficient Rag Doll 
 
 The rag doll seed corn germinator, according to Hughes, of Iowa, 
 made possible a satisfactory corn crop throughout all of the Corn Belt 
 in 1918, when we were at war and when a failure in our corn 
 crop would have been a national disaster. Seed corn fit to plant was not 
 
 Rag doll (courtesy of Iowa Station) 
 
 to be had in any quantity, perhaps not enough to plant one-tenth of the 
 corn crop. The only means of getting good seed was by testing mil- 
 lions of individual ears, separating the good from the bad. The doll 
 germinator was used in making practically all of these tests. 
 
32 TORN AND COKX-GROWIXG 
 
 Tlie ear by ear test may be made easily -with the ra<j: doll tester, 
 which is the simplest of all the home-made testers. To make and fill a 
 forty ear rag doll tester : 
 
 1. Tear sheeting into strips nine inches wide and seventy inches long. 
 
 2. Spread the cloth lengthwise on table and rule through the middle and 
 crosswise every three inches, leaving five inches on each end. This makes 
 twenty squares on each half of the doll. 
 
 3. Number the squares, beginning with "1" in upper left-hand corner, 
 "20" in upper right-hand corner, "21" in lower left-hand corner, "40" in lower 
 right-hand corner. 
 
 4. Write numbers corresponding to the forty ears being tested on the 
 back of the left-hand end of the cloth. 
 
 5. Thoroughly wet the cloth and spread it smoothly on the table, with 
 Square No. 1 at the left. 
 
 6. Remove six kernels from representative parts of Ear No. 1 and place 
 in Section No. 1 of the cloth, etc. 
 
 7. Use a stick or roll of paper the diameter of a pencil, around which to 
 roll the cloth. 
 
 S. Roll the cloth carefully, but not too tightly, beginning at the right- 
 hand end. 
 
 9. Place a cord or rubber band loosely around the middle and firmly 
 around each end of the rag doll. 
 
 10. Soak in lukewarm water for five to ten minutes. 
 
 After soaking', turn a bucket upside down over the dolls, keeping 
 them from drying out while the kernels are given time to germinate. 
 If placed in a pail, the dolls should be raised so that the lower end will 
 receive sufficient air and not stand in the water. '^1 ^z dolls are stood 
 up, the sprouts will grow toward one end and the roots toward the 
 other, making the test much easier to read than where the dolls are 
 allowed to lie flat. This method also insures better drainage and bet- 
 ter ventilation. It is also w^ell to put a wet piece of gunny sack or other 
 coarse cloth around the dolls to prevent them from drying out. The 
 dolls should be sprinkled often enough to keep them .l.^t. They should 
 be kept at room temperature, 60 to 80 degrees F. The end bands should 
 be removed after two days, to allow sufficient room for growth. In 
 five or six days, the germination test should be ready to read. 
 
 To read the test, carefully unroll the doll. Examine all kernels 
 elo.sely. In ca.se all six kernels do not show strong germination, the 
 ear should be discarded. There is danger of discarding as worthless, 
 liowever, ears called "slow germinators, " which, though backward in 
 germination, are practically as strong as any. At the Iowa station, 
 ears which when tested and read as having six weak kernels, gave a 
 higher stand and a greater yield in tests than any other class of ears 
 with the exception of those read as six strong. If seed is very scarce, 
 it may be well to save ears showing not more than one dead kernel out 
 of the six tested. In reading the test, watch for signs of mold and other 
 disease. The use of the germination test in selection of disease-free 
 corn will be gone into more in detail in Chapter 25. 
 
TESTING AND GRADING SEED CORN 83 
 
 Cost of Testing 
 
 The cost of testin<>' individual ears of corn for germination de- 
 pends upon the method used and the efficiency of the operator. From 
 the tests made at the Iowa experiment station, the cost has been found 
 to be from 15 cents to 45 cents for each one hundred ears. The differ- 
 ence was due entirely to the method of testing which was emploj'ed. The 
 cost of testing corn by the rag doll method was 18 cents and by the saw- 
 dust box method, 27 cents. This was on the basis of pre-war values. 
 
 The cost of selecting seed for planting an acre will depend upon 
 the method used and the quality of the corn. If the corn is of fair qual- 
 ity so that it is not necessary to throw away too many ears, the cost 
 per acre will be less than 10 cents. And even if the corn is of such poor 
 vitality as to make it necessary to throw away 85 per cent of the ears, 
 the total cost of getting out enough for an acre will not be over 25 cents. 
 
 What to Do if Low Testing Corn Must Be Planted 
 
 Even though corn with a general test as low as 60 per cent must 
 be planted, the effect on the yield is not necessarily very serious, pro- 
 vided the farmer knoM's that he is planting low testing corn and in- 
 creases his rate of planting accordingly. If the farmer would plant 
 100 per cent corn at the rate of three kernels per hill, he should plant 
 60 per cent corn at the rate of five kernels per hill in order to get as 
 many live kernels planted on each acre as with good corn. According 
 to the theory of probabilities, 17,500 kernels of 60 per cent corn planted 
 on an acre of 3,500 hills would result approximately in : 
 
 36 hills with 5 dead kernels. 
 
 272 hills with 5 live kernels. 
 
 907 hills with 1 dead and 4 live kernels. 
 
 269 hills with 4 dead and 1 live kernel. 
 
 1,210 hills with 2 dead and 3 live kernels. 
 
 806 hills with 3 dead and 2 live kernels. 
 
 If the live keriiVi' f^om 60 per cent corn grew as vigorously as from 
 100 per cent corn, the yield should not be affected by. more than two 
 or three bushels per acre by such a distribution as the above. At any 
 rate, at the Nebraska station, as a five-year average, they found that 
 alternating hills of one, two, three, four and five plants yielded at the 
 rate of 58.6 bushels per acre, as compared with 59 bushels where every 
 hill contained three plants. One of the greatest objections to planting 
 60 per cent seed corn is that the hills with four to five stalks have a rather 
 high percentage of nubbins. 
 
 Shelling and Grading Seed Corn 
 Shell the .seed corn by hand, discarding the tips and butts. Shell 
 each ear in a pan by itself before dumping it into the sack with the rest 
 of the shelled ears. As you shell, note the kernel type. Throw out ears 
 the kernels of which show decided signs of starchiness or dull color on 
 the backs of the kernels ; also throw out ears with kernels showing hlis- 
 
34 CORX AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 tered jzerms or other sijins of immaturity. Watch for moldiness around 
 the tips of the kernels. IMoldiness is one of the most .serious seed corn 
 defects, and all ears showing- a sign of it should be thrown out. Dis- 
 card ears with shoe-pegi>y kernels which do not come out full and plump 
 to the tip. Moderately large, well-matured kernels, with a plump tip 
 and with a shiny, horny back, free from starch, seem to be associated 
 with yielding power more than any other factors which we can tell about 
 merely by looking at the seed. Shelling corn by hand gives the time 
 required to judge the kernel type effectively. It also avoids a few broken 
 kernels, although this is really not important. 
 
 After .shelling, it helps a little to run the corn over either a cheap 
 hand grader or a cylinder machine grader. Iowa experiments indicate 
 that size of kernel is one of the most important things in determining 
 yield. The light, small kernels are especially likely to be poor yielders. 
 Theoretically, therefore, the eliminating of the small kernels with a grader 
 should be decidedly worth while. And, of course, kernel uniformity is 
 of real help in getting the best results out of the corn planter. 
 
CHAPTER 8 
 
 THE RELATION OF SOILS TO CORN 
 
 npHE best corn soils are ^vell drained, deep, dark loams. Sand}^ soils, 
 unless heavily manured, are not desirable for corn, as they dry out 
 quickly and are usually low in fertility. On the other hand, clay soils 
 are, as a rule, poorly drained and too compact to produce the best corn. 
 
 The good corn soils of central Illinois and northern Iowa contain 
 in the plowed soil of an acre about 1,200 pounds of phosphorus, 4,500 
 pounds of nitrogen, and 35,000 pounds of potassium. On this type of 
 soil, one to two per cent of the nitrogen and one-half to one per cent 
 of the phosphorus seem to become available in the ordinary year. A 
 forty-bushel corn crop (grain and stover) removes from the soil sixty 
 pounds of nitrogen, eight pounds of phosphorus and twenty-eight pounds 
 of potassium. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two elements that are 
 likely to limit corn yield, except on deep peats where potassium is usually 
 lacking. Calcium, applied in the form of lime, often gives an increase 
 of three or four bushels of corn per acre. 
 
 Corn is the rankest feeding and the most destructive of soil fertility 
 of all our common crops. Only on the very richest soils caii corn be 
 grown for more than two years in succession with any assurance of 
 profit. In, humid regions, corn yields may be maintained or increased 
 by the use of (1) rotations, (2) barnyard manure, (3) clover, (4) crop 
 residue.s, (5) good tillage, (6) commercial fertilizers. 
 
 Crop Rotations 
 
 The all-important and economical way of maintaining corn yields 
 is to use proper crop rotations. Of course, the short-time tenant can 
 not make very much use of the rotation. In other cases, rotation is 
 very valuable, and should be an important part of the fertility plan of 
 a farm. The most common rotations in the Corn Belt (in some sections 
 wheat is grown instead of oats) are as follows: 
 
 1. Continuous corn. 
 
 2. Corn-oats. 
 
 3. Corn-oats-clover. 
 
 4. Corn-corn-oats-clover. 
 
 When corn is grown on good land continuously, the available fer- 
 tility not only decreases rapidly, but there tends to be increasing dam- 
 age from corn insects and diseases. After ten or fifteen years of con- 
 tinuous corn growing, the yield tends to be about twenty-five bushels 
 per acre, as contrasted with thirty-five bushels where the corn and oats 
 
36 
 
 ( 'OKX AND ( H) RX-G ROW I XG 
 
 arc rotated, and sixty-five buslicls where there is a rotation of corn, corn, 
 oats and clover, and where ei<iht tons of manure are applied once every 
 four years. 
 
 The corn, oats, clover rotation is preferred to the corn, corn, oats, 
 clover rotation on the poorer soils and will oive an increase of about 
 five bushels of corn to the acre. 
 
 The typical, good corn soil of Towa and central Illinois yiidds about 
 fifty-five bushels of corn, one year with another, when a rotation of 
 corn, corn, oats and clover is used and when eight tons of manure are 
 
 Spreading 
 
 ino-^t iinporicinl jobs tonnected with corn 
 growing. 
 
 applied per acre every eight or nine years. If no manure whatever is 
 used, and reliance is placed solely on a rotation of corn, corn, oats and 
 clover for maintaining yields, the average acre corn yield one year with 
 another on typical good corn soil should be around forty-five bushels, 
 with the tendency very slightly downward as the lime leaches out of the 
 soil and it becomes more difficnlt to get a stand of clover every four 
 3'ears. If a rotation of corn and oats alone is used without any clover, 
 the yield should be around thirty-five bushels per acre, but with the 
 tendency gradually downward. For ten or fifteen years there may be 
 an average of only five or six bushels difference between the acre yield 
 of a corn and oats rotation and that of a corn, corn, oats and clover 
 rotation, but as the years go on, the difference seems to widen out to 
 about fifteen bushels per acre. 
 
THE RELATION OF SOILS TO CORN ?,! 
 
 Barnyard Manure 
 
 If the labor spent on the corn crop is to bring' in more than hired- 
 hand wag'es, the jield should be more than forty bushels per acre. But 
 as to just what is the most practical plan of building up a corn soil 
 beyond this point depends on the particular situation of each farmer. 
 The man who has possession of a farm for only two or three years may 
 find it decidedly inadvisable to make any effort to grow clover. But 
 no matter how a man is situated, it almost invariably pays to haul out 
 all manure every spring and every fall (oftener if it is at all convenient) 
 and spread it at the rate of about eight tons per acre on land which is 
 to be plowed for corn. If only enough manure were available, the prob- 
 lem of maintaining a highly productive corn soil would be very simple. 
 Unfortunately, on most corn belt farms, there is available enough ma- 
 nure to give an application of eight tons per acre only once in every 
 eight years. Under practical conditions, the fields near the barn get 
 eight tons per acre once every four years, and the outlying fields get 
 manure rarely if ever. 
 
 A ton of manure contains about ten pounds of nitrogen, two pounds 
 of phosphorus and ten pounds of potassium, and it normally has the 
 ability of eventually increasing the corn yield by about three bushels, 
 as well as having some effect on the small grain and clover. The first 
 step in building up a corn soil is to haul out the manure. The man who 
 does not do that is rarely justified in spending money for lime, phos- 
 phate or other fertilizer. 
 
 Clover 
 
 Where a man has possession of a farm for a number of years, the 
 third step in building up a highly productive corn soil is to grow clover 
 once in every four years, instead of only once in every fifteen or twenty 
 years, as is the case on most Corn Belt farms. But in order to grow 
 clover successfully, it is necessary in many sections to apply two tons 
 of limestone and 300 pounds of acid phosphate (or 1,000 pounds of rock 
 phosphate) per acre once every four years. The limestone is best ap- 
 plied just previous to clover seeding, but the acid phosphate or rock phos- 
 phate is best mixed with the manure as it is loaded just previous to 
 being hauled out to the corn ground. 
 
 Plow Under Corn Stalks* 
 
 Corn stalks should be turned under, and not burned. Probably no 
 form of organic matter acts more beneficially in producing good tilth 
 than corn stalks. It is true, they decay rather slowly, but it is also true 
 that their durability in the soil is exactly what is needed in the produc- 
 tion of good tilth. Furthermore, the nitrogen in a ton of corn stalks 
 is one and one-half times that of a ton of manure, and a ton of drv 
 
 'Illinois Soil Report No 24. 
 
38 CORN AND rORX-GROWIXG 
 
 corn stalks incorporated in the soil will ultimately furnish as much hnmus 
 as four tons of average farm manure. When burned, however, both 
 the humus-making material and the nitrogen are lost to the soil. 
 
 Proper Handling* 
 
 It is a common practice in the Corn Belt to pasture the corn stalks 
 during the winter, and often rather late in the spring after the frost is 
 out of the ground. This tramping by stock sometimes puts the soil in 
 bad condition for working. It becomes partially jniddled and will be 
 cloddy as a result. If tramped too long in the spring, the natural agen- 
 cies of freezing and thawing and wetting and drying, with the aid of 
 ordinary tillage, fail to produce good tilth before the crop is planted. 
 Whether the crop is corn or oats, it necessarily suffers, and if the season 
 is dry, much damage may be done. If the field is put in corn, a poor 
 stand is likely to result, and if put in oats the soil is so compact as to 
 be unfavorable for their growth. Sometimes the soil is worked when 
 too wet. This also produces a partial puddling, which is unfavorable to 
 physical, chemical and biological processes. The bad effect will be 
 greater if cropping has reduced the organic matter belov.- the amount 
 necessary to maintain good tilth. 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers 
 Having made the best utilization ]:)0ssible of rotations, manure, 
 legumes and crop residues, the question arises whether mineral plant 
 foods can be used profitably. It is well known that even live stock 
 farming, with the most careful conservation of manure, does not main- 
 tain fertility (unless concentrates bought from outside the farm are 
 fed). One of the most effective methods of increasing the value of 
 manure is reinforcement with phosphorus. The use of 320 pounds of 
 acid phosphate with eight tons of manure, at the Ohio experiment sta- 
 tion has increased the yields of corn 6.2 bushels; of wheat, 3.3 bushels, 
 and of clover hay, 413 pounds. 
 
 The effects of fertilizer are not always confined to an increase in 
 yield. Quality, maturity and composition are other important effects, 
 concerning which, however, little is known under Corn Belt conditions. 
 The physiological effects of small amounts of plant food, applied at 
 various times in the groAvth of the plant, have yet to be studied. The 
 effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are not so simple as are 
 commonly supposed. At the Wisconsin station, small amounts of fer- 
 tilizers applied in the hill for corn have given better results than larger 
 amounts broadcast. The use of fertilizer in the hill is also thought to 
 increase the salt concentration of the corn sap sufficiently to eual)]e it 
 to withstand a lower temperature than unfertilized corn. One hundred 
 pounds of acid phosphate per acre in Ihe hill at time of plantinu' the 
 corn has uiven good results in ^lissouri. 
 
 'Illinois Soil Report No. 24. 
 
THE RELATION OF SOILS TO CORN 39 
 
 Tlie following is an outline of what seems at present to be the most 
 logical program for soil improvement involving the use of fertilizing 
 materials and with particular reference to the corn crop : 
 
 1. The growing of legumes at least once in a four or five-year rotation, 
 preceded, when necessary, by liming, for supplying the bulk of the nitrogen 
 and for liberating from the soil some of the potassium required. 
 
 2. The conservation of manure, and application on the ground preced- 
 ing corn. 
 
 3. The use of small amounts of fertilizer used in the most efficient man- 
 ner (probably in the hill at planting time), for the physiological effects on 
 growth. 
 
 4. The use of larger amounts of fertilizer on the small grain crops of 
 the rotation as a basic treatment in the maintenance of fertility, and for the 
 residual effect on legumes. 
 
CHAPTER 9 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED 
 
 A FIR]\I seed bed with a mellow surface and all trash cut up finely 
 
 and covered should be the aim of every grower in the preparation 
 
 of a seed bed for corn. There is no danger of doing too much work. 
 
 During the preparation of the seed bed, weeds can be killed more easily 
 
 and cheaply than later in the season by cultivation. 
 
 Corn is planted on ground that has been in corn, small grain or sod 
 the previous year. In the corn belt, it is estimated that about 35 per 
 cent of the corn is planted on corn stalk ground, 45 per cent on small 
 grain stubble and 20 per cent on sod ground. Therefore, three different 
 general methods of seed bed preparation are necessary. 
 
 Preparing Corn Stalk Ground 
 
 On corn stalk ground, it is the general custom to break the stalks 
 as early in the spring as possible with a railroad iron, harrow or heavy 
 plank. The stalks are cut l\v disking Avjth a well ^■harpen(Ml disk or 
 
 Disking the corn stalks. 
 
 stalk cutter. The ground is usually disked once to cut up trash. ]m\- 
 verize the soil, level the ground, and kill the weeds. 
 
PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED 41 
 
 The practice of burning- corn stalks is not so common as formerly. 
 Agitation against this method, the lowering- of the fertility in many 
 fields because of continual cropping and the realization of the value of 
 crop residues turned under have reduced the practice to a minimum. 
 When corn stalks are burned, there is a loss of organic matter not only 
 in the stalks but also in the soil. There are cases of rank stalk growth 
 that justify burning the stalks. 
 
 Next, the ground should be plowed as early as possible in the spring, 
 and shallow — four to five inches. Rarely in the Corn Belt is the corn 
 husked early enough to allow fall plowing. Corn stubble, corn cut for 
 fodder or silage, may be either fall or spring plowed. Spring plowing 
 is liest done early and shallow, in order : 
 
 1. To give trash time to decay. 
 
 2. To give the seed bed a chance to settle. 
 
 3. To give weeds time to start so that they may be killed before planting. 
 
 4. To prevent loss of moisture before planting. 
 
 5. To give thorough preparation of the ground. 
 
 Each half day's plowing should be harrowed in the direction of the 
 plowing with a spike-tooth harrow, (1) to prevent the formation of 
 clods and loss of moisture by evaporation, and (2) to level the surface 
 and make disking easier. Final preparation of seed bed should be done 
 just before planting. 
 
 Ordinary five-inch plowing seems to be satisfactory in the Corn 
 Belt. It is always advisable, however, to do as thorough a job of plow- 
 ing as possible. The following points should be kept in mind : 
 
 1. The furrows should be straight as possible. 
 
 2. A roundish furrow top with no breaks or depressions is desirable. 
 
 3. All trash should be deeply covered. 
 
 4. The furrows should be of the same width. 
 
 5. A uniform depth of furrow is desirable. 
 
 6. The plows should be in and out evenly at the ends. 
 
 7. The back furrow should be raised slightly and all trash covered. 
 
 Before planting, the seed bed should be disked and harrowed thor- 
 oughly for the following reasons : 
 
 1. To kill weeds. 
 
 2. To settle the seed bed. 
 
 3. To pulverize the soil. 
 
 4. To level the seed bed. 
 
 If disked but once, the land should be disked across the plowing. 
 Harrowing should be done diagonally to or across the disking. 
 
 Preparing Small Grain Stubble 
 
 Small grain stubble may be plowed in either the fall or spring. 
 Disking before plowing is a good practice. In the Corn Belt, there is 
 more time to fall plow. The most important advantage of fall plowing 
 is that it puts the farmer in control of his spring work, aiding him espe- 
 
42 
 
 (^ORX AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 cially in <iettin^' his ('orn planted without delay. Those who have larjie 
 areas to plow in the spring I'or corn usually are late with corn planting. 
 Moreover, a few insects and their eggs are destroyed by disturbing them 
 late in the fall. Other than these two, there are no advantages of fall 
 ploAving over spring plowing. 
 
 Good plowing. 
 
 Fall plowing of stubble ground should be done to a depth not to 
 exceed six inches. It should be disked early in the spring, to hold 
 moisture and to start weeds. Before planting, the field should be disked 
 and harrowed enough to give a level, fine, well-firmed seed bed. Rolling 
 with a corrugated roller is desirable on light types of soil. Spring plow- 
 ing of stubble ground should be done early and shallow, not more than 
 four inches deep. Harrow immediately, and disk and harrow to ]Mit 
 the ground in shape. 
 
 Preparing Sod Ground 
 
 There are more advantages in plowing clover, timothy or blue grass 
 sod for corn in the fall than stubble ground. Sweet clover sod after 
 one year's growth is an exception. It should be spring plowed in order to 
 keep down volunteer growth. It is advisable to plow other sods late in the 
 fall to allow for a maximum growth of pasture or green manure. Fall 
 plowed sod is far easier to Avork than spring plowed sod. Fall plowing 
 of sod reduces the damage done to corn bv drouth the following season. 
 
PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED 
 
 43 
 
 In addition, late fall plowing will destroy many cut-worms, wire-worms 
 and other insects which are more noticeable after sod. Blue grass sod 
 should be plowed shallow, and clover sod deep, because of the difference 
 in rate of decay. It is best to allow the fall-plowed ground to lie rough 
 over the winter, but it must be worked down early in the spring and 
 otherwise carefully managed. If spring plowed, sod ground should be 
 disked first, plowed early and shallow, and then disked and harrowed 
 thoroughly. After spring plowing of sod ground, double disking with 
 
 
 Harrow each half day's plowing. 
 
 cross disking is necessary. The amount of work required to put the 
 ground in good shape for corn will depend on the condition of the sod 
 and the time of breaking. 
 
 Wild grass sod is harder to work than clover and timothy sod, and 
 IS much slower to decay. This kind of sod should be plowed in the early 
 summer, if possible. Deep breaking, four to six inches, should be done, 
 and the furrow slice should be turned over flat. Shallow, })lowing, two 
 to four inches, followed by "backsetting" (second plowing) about two 
 inches deeper, after the sod has rotted, is a desirable method for tough 
 sod. In either case, the ground should be thoroughly packed and disked 
 to put the seed bed in good condition for corn. 
 
 Standard Day's Work 
 
 The amount of work done in a ten-hour day on average C'orn Belt 
 farms (based on 1922 Yearbook, United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture ) is as follows : 
 
44 COKX AXI) COUN GROWING 
 
 Plowiiisi' witli horses: 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Walking, 14-inch, one man, two horses 1.9 
 
 Sulky, 14-inch, one man, four horses 2.6 
 
 Gang, 24-inch one man, four horses 4.1 
 
 Gang, 24-inch, one man, six horses 4.9 
 
 PloAvin<i' witli tractor: 
 
 Two-plow 6.7 
 
 Three-plow S.2 
 
 Four-plow 10.4 
 
 HarroAvinu' with horses: 
 
 Sixteen-foot spike-tooth, one man, four horses 38. 7 
 
 Disking with horses: 
 
 Eight-foot single disk, well-packed land, one man, four 
 
 horses 17.1 
 
 Eight-foot single disk, freshly plowed land, one man, four 
 
 horses 15.2 
 
CHAPTER 10 
 PLANTING CORN 
 
 'T^IIERE are three general methods of planting- corn: (1) surface 
 
 planting, (2) listing, (;3) furrow opening. 
 
 Because of the weed factor, a large percentage of the corn in the 
 Corn Belt is surface checked on a well-prepared seed bed by the use of 
 the two-row corn planter. Surface planted corn is usually checked — 
 planted in hills, to permit cross cultivation. The check is made by a 
 knotted wire which regulates the drop of the seed. 
 
 Types of Check-Row Planters 
 
 The i)lanters that are used may be divided into three classes, ac- 
 cording to the type of ]ilanter plate, as follows: (1) edge drop cumu- 
 
 
 5i- 
 
 \_^ 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 ■BfeH 
 
 1 
 
 ■II 
 
 ^^^B 
 
 \ ■ 
 
 H 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 K 
 
 
 ^^^^^^■^-^^^mT^ 
 
 ^^^S 
 
 ^s^^^^^ 
 
 n^^H^l^^ 
 
 
 
 :^^| 
 
 ipl 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Corn planting. The horses have just been turned around at the end of the row, 
 and the marker has not yet been dropped. 
 
 lative, (2) flat drop cumulative, (3) full hill drop. Corn planter tests 
 by C. O. Reed, at the Illinois station, indicate that deep, rather narrow 
 kernels of the Reid type, when well sorted with a grader, were planted 
 with equal accuracy by both edge and flat drop types of planter plates. 
 Tests with other varieties showed an advantage for the flat drop over 
 the edge drop. In every case, the full hill drop proved to be 20 to 
 
46 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 30 per cent less accurate than the other two types. The full hill drop 
 had a tendency to plant about 15 per cent of the hills Avith four kernels 
 and a few hills with five kernels, when three were desired. 
 
 The planter should be tested as to its rejrularity in dropping- the 
 desired number of kernels. This testino- may be done on a clean, hard 
 surface by tripping the planter by hand. Planters are provided with 
 a series of plates made to drop different numbers of kernels of a given 
 size. The process of selecting the plate that will drop the desired num- 
 ber of kernels in each hill is called calibration. It is desirable to have 
 a planter drop the required number of kernels in at least ninety out of 
 
 Moving and stretching planter wire befo'"e starting a new row. 
 
 one hundred hills. If the planter fails to drop the kernels correctly, 
 the plates should be changed or filed until they will drop the required 
 number. The plate adjusted to each lot of corn should be put with that 
 lot, to avoid any confusion at planting time. Place the seed in gunny 
 sacks. Put less than two-thirds of a bushel in a sack, and hang it in 
 a dry place until ready to plant. 
 
 Method of Checking Surface Planted Corn 
 It is not difficult to get checked corn straight both ways in a field 
 that is not irregular in shape or hilly. A first-class job of checking 
 corn consists in planting the rows absolutely straight both ways. It 
 requires an energetic team, well matched as to disposition and rate of 
 walking, and a driver who understands how to drive and to set a check 
 wire. To make the rows straight in either direction, it is necessary 
 to start right and keep right. The rows should be planted the long 
 way of the field, and work should commence on a straight side. 
 
PLANTING CORN 47 
 
 The end of the reeled wire must be fastened to the iron stake and 
 the latter fastened in the corner of the field where the work is to be 
 commenced. The planter, carrying the spool of wire, is driven to the 
 other side or end of the field, unreeling the Avire. After laying the wire 
 across the field, it should be stretched reasonably tight and fastened at 
 the end of the field. Here, it is connected with the planter, and two 
 rows are planted with one trip across the field. At the end of the field, 
 the wire is released and the planter turned around. At this end of the 
 field, the wire is moved over twice the distance between rows. The wire 
 should be stretched to the same tension every time it is set and then 
 connected with the planter. This process is repeated until the field is 
 planted and the wire wound on the reel. 
 
 In an irregular shaped field, where the rows lengthen or shorten, 
 as the work progresses, it is best to set stakes at the irregular end, set- 
 ting one every forty feet, at a point touched by a button on the wire, 
 the series of stakes representing a cross row. In this way, the operator 
 may keep all the cross rows straight, setting his wire so that a certain 
 marked button is^ constantly in direct line with the row of stakes. In 
 case of surface irregularities, such as ridges or depressions, it is almost 
 impossible to make the rows perfectly straight. 
 
 Small fields may be })lanted with hand planters, called "jobbers." 
 These devices are used on spring plowed native sod ground, stumpy or 
 stony fields, and test plots. They do satisfactory work and their use 
 insures uniform dropping and covering. The field is marked off both 
 ways with a marker and the kernels are dropped at the intersections. 
 With a three-row sled marker, thirty to forty acres may be marked 
 both ways in a day. 
 
 Surface Planting — Drilled 
 
 The other common way of putting in surface planted corn is drill- 
 ing. Drilled corn is planted in rows that can be cultivated only one 
 way. Experiments indicate that there is no appreciable difference be- 
 tween the average yields of drilled corn and that planted in checks 
 where the same number of kernels are planted per acre and the corn is 
 kept free of weeds. One kernel dropped every fourteen inches in the row 
 is the drilled corn equivalent to three kernels per hill in corn checked 
 three feet six inches. Drilled corn can not be cross-cultivated except 
 when young, and then only with the harrow or weeder. On newly-broken 
 sod, drilled corn may be kept fairly clean, but in the case of most Corn 
 Belt land, drilled corn becomes very weedy. The ordinary corn planter 
 is commonly used for drilling, but the grain drill with certain spouts 
 stopped is extensively used on the western edge of the Corn Belt. 
 
 It is advantageous to drill corn under the following conditions : 
 
 1. When the field is hilly, because drilling with the rows at right-angles 
 to the slope of the hill will keep down soil erosion. 
 
 2. When planting on sod ground, because it is usually free of weeds. 
 
 3. When planting corn for fodder or silage on clean ground, because 
 drilled corn cuts more easily. 
 
48 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 Listing 
 
 Listing is practiced in western Kansas, in western Nebraska, and 
 in parts of northwestern Missouri and western Iowa. Listing is based 
 on tlie principle given in the paragrai)h on depth of planting, on page 
 .10. It is a common method in dry, windy, and light soil areas. It is 
 not a general practice and is an undesirable practice on shallow soils 
 and poorly drained ones. Listed corn has the following advantages over 
 surface planted corn: 
 
 1. It withstands drouth better. 
 I 2. It is not so easily blown down. 
 
 3. It is a cheaper method of planting. 
 
 4. It is a quicker method, because it combines plowing and planting in 
 one operation. 
 
 5. It gives higher yields under some conditions. 
 
 Listing is the process of throwing open a series of furroAvs across 
 a field by means of a specially devised plow provided with a double 
 mold-board that throws the soil both ways. The furrows are opened 
 to a depth of six or seven inches, and are spaced the usual width of the 
 corn rows. The corn is planted in the bottom of these furrows. ^lost 
 listers have a drill attachment so that the corn may be planted as the 
 field is plowed by the lister. Listed corn is rarely checked. There 
 are two ways of listing — single and double. 
 
 The most common method is single listing. The ground is un- 
 touched during the winter and until planting time. Then the grounJ 
 should be disked once or twice to kill weeds, but often the lister is the 
 only implement used in preparation of the seed bed. It covers the 
 entire surface between the rows with loose dirt, but underneath this cov- 
 ering of loo.se earth is a ridge of hard, unbroken soil. Such a prepara- 
 tion does not present the most favorable condition However, it is a 
 rapid and cheap method of planting, as the one operation prepares the 
 ground and plants the seed. Most listed corn is planted in this way. 
 
 Double listing is a slight modification of the above method. The 
 only difference from single listing is that the ground is listed twice. 
 The ridges which are left by the first operation are opened and thrown 
 into the furrows by the second. This tillage completely loosens the sur- 
 face soil and leaves it in much better condition than does single listing. 
 In many cases the first listing is done in the fall and the field is allowed 
 to remain in that condition until spring, at which time the ridges are 
 opened with the lister. The second listing and the ]ilanting may be 
 done at the same time. 
 
 Furrow Opening 
 
 A furrow opener consi.sts of a pair of disks or shovels so arranged 
 
 as to open a small furrow. One set of these disks or shovels is fastened 
 
 to each planter shoe of an ordinary corn planter. They are set deep 
 
 or shallow by regulating the lever on the planter. This method of 
 
PLANTING C'ORN 
 
 49 
 
 planting possesses practically all the advantages obtained by listing 
 because the seed is planted in a furrow similar to listed corn. In order 
 to use this attachment on the planter successfully, the ground must be 
 prepared as for surface planted corn. This method is used extensively 
 in the listed corn areas. 
 
 Table III — Yield of Corn as Determined by the Method of Preparing the 
 
 Seed Bed, (Maryville, Nodaway County) Missouri — 
 
 1911 to 1922, Inclusive 
 
 
 
 
 -?^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 u u 
 
 > a 
 
 
 
 
 a> a 
 
 
 Method of Preparing 
 Seed Bed 
 
 Yield 
 
 in Bushels Per Acre 
 
 ear av 
 s per 
 rease 
 3 plan 
 
 
 
 
 ^•3 
 
 a^ 
 .-■s 
 
 1911!1912|1913|1914|1915il916|1917il919|1920 Z^ < 
 Groulid~^lowed, crop sur- ! | | I I I I I 
 
 face planted .....| 49.9| 62.8| 14.5| 44.9| 41.1| 46.3| 75.0| 78.5 51.7 51.61 
 
 Ground plowed, crop plant- | I | | I | | I 
 
 ed in shallow furrows..] 55.6| 76.5! 18-6| 51.4| 53.0 60.9| 81.9| 78.4 
 
 51.7 
 55.2 
 
 59.0 
 57.6 
 60.2 
 64.2 
 58.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 12.6 
 
 Double listed I 56.9] 73.0J 18.2| 54.6| 44.3| 53.8| 68.4| 84.4| 54.7 
 
 Double disked, single listed..| 67.4] 75.5i 36.7| 54.1| 42.5] 56.7i 80.2| 75.2] 53.2 
 
 No disking, single listed | 60.3| 80.0| 43. 1| 58.1| 45.2] 59.2| 84.2| 91.9| 55.9 
 
 Average | 58.0 | 73.5 28.2 | 52.6 | 45^| 55^| 77^| 81^| 54.1 
 
 Inches of rainfall for the | III j 1 
 months of June, July I | | I I I 
 and August | 5.71| 6^1 8^| 6^ 31^| 10^ J^|^ 5^8 
 
 Rate of Planting 
 
 Thickness of planting depends on variety, soil, latitude and pur- 
 ])ose for which grown. Also it should be kept in mind that in the cen- 
 tral C'orn Belt only 70 per cent of the kernels planted produce stalks. 
 I\Iost growers in the Corn Belt plan to get about three kernels in the 
 hill, the rows being three feet six inches apart both ways. This dis- 
 tance between rows is more or less standard for planters, check wires 
 and cultivators. In drilled corn, the distance between the rows is the 
 same as in checked corn, and the plants should average ten to fourteen 
 inches apart in the row. 
 
 On rich clover land or sod, with corn planted for fodder or silage, 
 or with small varieties, checking at the rate of five kernels to the hill 
 and drilling at the rate of one kernel every eight or nine inches often 
 gives the best yields. However, even on rich land, corn planted at the 
 rate of three kernels per hill produces ears which average about 50 per 
 cent heavier than the ears produced when five kernels per hill are plant- 
 ed. Unless machine buskers are used, the labor of husking is so in- 
 creased by thick planting that it is doubtful if five-kernel planting is 
 warranted on even the richest soils of the northern part of the Corn Belt. 
 On poor land, with tall growing varieties, two or three kernels per hill 
 unquestionably give the best results. Planting for silage is discussed 
 in Chapter 15. 
 
50 CORN AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 Table IV 
 
 Followinp- are the results obtained on soils much richer than the 
 averap'e with different rates of planting- in different sections of Iowa 
 for an average of 1920, 1921 and 1922: 
 
 NORTHERN SECTION 
 
 No. kernels Average Number Stalks Bushels Per 
 
 planted at Harvest Acre 
 
 2 1.78 53.39 
 
 3 2.60 66.50 
 
 4 3.16 71.77 
 
 5 3.89 74.56 
 
 NORTH-CENTRAL SECTION 
 
 2 1.74 53.49 
 
 3 2.51 65.73 
 
 4 3.14 67.78 
 
 5 3.86 68.89 
 
 SOUTH-CENTRAL SECTION 
 
 2 1.64 58.53 
 
 3 2.34 70.42 
 
 4 3.04 74.07 
 
 5 3.65 74.66 
 
 SOUTHERN SECTION 
 
 2 1.76 49.49 
 
 3 2.35 60.75 
 
 4 2.35 60.75 
 
 5 3.68 59.18 
 
 A bushel of 56 pounds of seed will plant about seven acres where 
 hills of three kernels are three feet six inches apart both ways. 
 
 Depth of Planting 
 
 No matter how deep the kernels are planted, they will send out 
 their permanent roots an inch or two beneath the surface. In listed 
 corn, the permanent roots are covered to a depth of five or six inches 
 after their position has been definitely determined by the emergence of 
 the young corn plant above ground. Of course, other permanent roots 
 will also come out from the higher nodes which are surrounded by soil 
 as a result of lister cultivation. In reality, surface planted corn sends 
 out its permanent roots (not brace roots) from its bottom two or three 
 nodes, which are located just beneath the surface of the ground, whereas, 
 listed corn has the advantage of more nodes below ground and a larger, 
 deeper root system. 
 
 The kernel should be planted only deep enough to be well surround- 
 ed with moist soil, usually not deeper than two inches. Corn planted 
 too deeply will rot in the soil or the great effort of the seedling to emerge 
 will stunt the growth. Where the seed bed has been thoroughly worked 
 uniformity of depth of planting is obtained. If it is necessary to plant 
 deeply because of dry weather, light soil or wind, it is advisable to use 
 the lister or furrow opener planter. 
 
PLANTING CORN 51 
 
 Time of Planting 
 
 Corn planting usually begins when the normal mean temperature 
 reaches 56 degrees F., and the bulk of the planting is done Avhen the 
 normal mean temperature reaches 61 degrees F. — about the middle of 
 May in the central Corn Belt. Earlier planting is more difficult to 
 keep clean, and often causes a loss of stand due partly to insects, but 
 chiefly to rotting of the seed and increased susceptibility to disease. 
 Later planting reduces yields and gives more opportunity for frost in- 
 jury in the fall. Whatever the time of planting, the seed bed should be 
 well prepared and danger of severe spring frosts should be over, although 
 liuht spring frosts do not injure the young seedlings, especially under 
 dry conditions. In fact, while a severe freeze will destroy that part of 
 the young seedling which is above ground, it is astonishing how often 
 a new vigorous growth is sent up from the roots. The practical optimum 
 date of planting corn in the central Corn Belt, one year with another, 
 is May 15. Planting before May 1 or after May 25 usually gives re- 
 duced yields. 
 
 Replanting Corn 
 
 Loss of stand is usually due to (1) bad weather conditions, such as 
 frost or heavy rains; (2) i)oor seed; (3) birds, insects or rodents; (4) 
 poor preparation of the seed bed; (5) planting too deeply, or (6) plant- 
 ing too early. Every precaution should be made to overcome the.se 
 conditions. If, nevertheless, there is less than a three-fourths stand, 
 the entire field should be replanted. A few- missing or one-stalk hills 
 may be planted by hand with the same or an earlier variety, but this 
 is not .so very practical. If the loss of stand occurs too late for replant- 
 ing, it is best to disk the field or any poor part of it and sow to an emer- 
 gency hay crop, such as Sudan grass or sorghum cane. 
 
 Acres Planted Per Day 
 
 According to the United States Department of Agriculture Year- 
 book for 1922, the standard number of acres planted in a ten-hour day 
 is about as follows : 
 
 Two-row planter, S^/^^-foot rows, one man, two horses 14.0 
 
 By hand, 3%-foot rows, one man 4.5 
 
CHAPTER 11 
 
 CULTIVATING CORN 
 
 '"pHE average Corn Belt farmer with fifty acres of corn spends :'>(J0 
 hours of man labor and 600 hours of horse labor cultivating corn. 
 At the same time, his team walks about 470 miles. This takes more time 
 than anj' other farm operation except corn husking. IMoreover. corn 
 cultivation conflicts to some extent with haying and oat harvest. The 
 principle of cultivation followed by most farmers is to cultivate the 
 crop as many times as possible before the corn gets too high to work in. 
 But they should keep in mind the reasons for cultivating and the cheap- 
 est, easiest ways of accomplishing the desired results. 
 
 Chief Reasons for Cultivating 
 
 A large number of corn cultivation experiments have been conduct- 
 ed throughout corn producing states. With but few exceptions, the 
 tests show that in the cultivation of corn, the removal of weeds is the 
 all-important object. The Kansas, Illinois, Minnesota and ^Missouri 
 stations and the United States Department of Agriculture have obtained 
 conclusive results showing the great importance of the weed factor. Corn 
 hoed by hand to prevent weed growth, without stirring the soil, has 
 yielded as much as corn thoroughly cultivated. As an example of such 
 experiments, those at the Kansas station, conducted upon a heavy silt 
 loam, are represented in Table V, which gives the average yields of corn 
 variously cultivated in 1914-1921, inclusive. 
 
 Table V— Method of Cultivation Test Summary, 1914-1921 
 
 11914 
 
 1915 
 
 
 Ordinary cultivation | 13.0| 
 
 Ordinary cultivation | 
 plus one-horse culti- j 
 vator, as per judg- | 
 
 ment | 13.3 
 
 Ordinary cultivation | 
 plus one-horse culti 
 
 ).1| 70.0 
 
 57.3 
 
 I'ator every 10 days..|11.0| 52 
 No cultivation, weeds 
 
 "I9i6 
 
 1917 I 
 
 o Oi 
 
 I I 
 
 19191192011921 
 I I I 
 
 43.91 45;3I 44.4 
 
 44.51 46.5 
 
 39.0 
 
 34.9127.7 
 
 33.5 
 
 26.1 
 
 24.31 
 
 74.81 60.11 47.0 
 
 77.5i 
 
 76.3 
 
 , 65.51 42.7| 46.1| 41.51 44.8| 34.4 
 
 u L-uiiivitinJii, wecuo I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 scraped | 9.2| 58.6| 71.4| 44.0| 46.8| 45.0| 40.6| 29.4| 25.7| 73 
 
 65. 
 
 45.8 
 46.6 
 
 Where weeds have been removed by hand -hoeing, the yields of corn 
 have been a])out the same as where the corn has been thoroughly culti- 
 
(TLTIVATIXG CORN 
 
 53 
 
 vated. Thus with iuter-tilled crops, when the fields are free of weeds, 
 it is not profitable to cultivate, unless the soil is of such type as to 
 bake and crack. The high cost of tillage may be lowered by reducing 
 the amount and depth of cultivating. 
 
 Other Reasons for Cultivating 
 At various periods throughout the history of corn cultivation, several 
 other beneficial results have been attributed to proper cultivation. Some 
 of the common reasons are to : 
 
 1. Conserve moisture. 
 
 2. Make plant food more available. 
 
 3. Retard soil erosion. 
 
 4. Mix the soil constituents. 
 
 5. Improve the physical condition of the soil. 
 
 6. Germinate dormant weed seeds. 
 
 7. Give the plants a loose soil in which the roots will grow better. 
 
 8. Cover organic matter. 
 
 9. Control the soil temperature. 
 
 Under some conditions any or all of these desirable factors may be 
 accomplished to a certain extent. But, as previously pointed out, the 
 killing of weeds appears to be the only factor that has a great effect 
 on the crop that year or following years. Soils lose large quantities of 
 soil water, but this loss is due chiefly to utilization by the growing crop, 
 transpiration from growing weeds, or internal evaporation and escape 
 
54 
 
 ("ORX AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 of water vapor. Only methods of tillag:e which will prevent loss from 
 these sources are of value so far as the water in the soil is concerned. 
 Excessive run-off may be retarded and the absorption of water by the 
 soil may occasionally be aided by proper methods of surface tillage. 
 
 Types of Cultivators 
 
 There are a large number of corn cultivators in use today. Dif- 
 ferent ones are of special value for different conditions and times of 
 cultivation. However, the right cultivator should be used at the right 
 time and under the conditions to which it is adapted. Cultivators may 
 be divided into the following classes : 
 
 1. Shovel cultivators — (a) with small shovels; (b) with large shovels. 
 
 2. Surface cultivators — blade or sweep. 
 
 3. Disk cultivators — (a) surface planted corn, (b) listed corn. 
 
 4. Harrows — (a) spike-tooth, (b) weeders. 
 
 5. Miscellaneous cultivators — (a) one-horse, (b) hand hoe. 
 
 The first three classes may be divided again according to whether 
 they are of the one-row or two-row type. The latter are becoming com- 
 mon. They are of particular advantage on large areas and for later 
 cultivations. The two-row cultivator reduces the time required for 
 cultivation about 45 per cent. Care must be employed when using the 
 
 Two-row cultivator with duck-foot shovels. 
 
 two-row cultivators for the first cultivation and in crossing checked 
 corn. Another classification may be made according to whether the 
 cultivators are horse or power drawn. At the Missouri station it re- 
 (piired forty-two minutes to cultivate three inches deep an acre of twelve- 
 inch corn the third time Avith a two-row motor cultivator. The cultiva- 
 tion required three-fourths of a gallon of gasoline and one-tenth of a 
 quart of oil for each acre. 
 
 The first shovel cultivators were large, and each gang of the ma- 
 chine carried only one shovel. These large shovels stirred the ground 
 
CULTIVATING CORN .35 
 
 deeply and did considerable injury to the root system of the crop. The 
 tendency in making shovel cultivators has been toward smaller shovels 
 with more of them on each gang of the cultivator. Small shovels are 
 desirable for the later cultivations. There are various shapes of shov- 
 els, such as the duck-foot, spearhead and the common or rectangular 
 (sometimes called bull-tongue). 
 
 Surface cultivators are characterized by long sweeps or blades that 
 work just under the surface of the ground. Surface cultivators are of 
 }iartieular advantage in the later cultivations. Many corn growers, 
 therefore, substitute blades for shovels on their cultivators after the 
 second cultivation. Large implement concerns state that surface cul- 
 tivators should be more widely used on loam soils, but that they have 
 grown slowly in popularity because farmers have been accustomed by 
 long usage to the shovel type. The surface cultivator has not found 
 favor in sections of heavy clay or other tight soils. It is an excellent 
 cultivator with which to fight morning-glories, Canada thistles and sim- 
 ilar types of weeds. 
 
 The weeder or harrow gives excellent results when the corn is small 
 and the ground is not baked. 
 
 The disk cultivator is the best type to use on weedy, grassy and sod 
 ground. The disks will cut heavy growth that the shovels will not 
 work in. Most cultivators used in listed corn are of the disk type. 
 
 Harrows are excellent for early cultivation. Many weeds may be 
 killed and a large amount of ground cultivated at a low cost with the 
 harrow. Corn may be harrowed right after planting, before it is up, 
 and until it is a foot high. The only time there is any danger of injury 
 to the corn is when the field is harrowed at the time the plants are just 
 coming through the ground. Harrowing will often take the place of one 
 ordinary cultivation. Also, weeders cover a large amount of ground and 
 cultivate corn efficiently, especially when the corn is small. 
 
 There mav be times after the corn is "laid bv" — given the last 
 
56 CORX AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 ordinary cultivation — when additional sino-le hor.se cultivation is bene- 
 ficial. In such case, a special type of one-horse cultivator may be used, 
 or a mower wheel may be drapp-ed through the field. Hand pulling- 
 or hoeing of persistent weeds after the corn is ''laid by" should be 
 l)raeticed. 
 
 Table VI — Implements Used in Cultivating Corn (Illinois Station) 
 
 (Bushels Per Acre) 
 
 I I I I I I I I I I I 
 Implements |1912|1913|1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919!1920|1921| Av. 
 
 Small shovels I 61.7[ 47.51 44.3| 48.0] 33.2| 67.3 
 
 Large shovel | 61.0| 45.2| 42.61 45.2| 29.1 
 
 Tower cultivator i 64.0| 42.1i 43.l| 51.6 33.2 
 
 Disk cultivator j 64.41 44.3! 46.71 48.8 35.6 
 
 I I I I I l_l l__l I 
 
 47. 2| 53.2| 36.9 
 
 62.4 
 67.1 
 67.5 
 
 47.51 57.8| 37.7 
 50.2 53.91 38.1 
 
 53.0 
 54.0 
 49.3 
 
 49.2 
 48.2 
 49.3 
 
 47. 2| 55. li 29.0] 56.8| 49.5 
 
 Cultivation Procedure 
 
 The first cultivation may be made before the crop is up. While 
 the harrow is more commonly u.sed, some farmers prefer to "blind plow," 
 following the planter marks with the ordinary cultivator before the 
 corn is up. Blind plowing is desirable in fields infested with quack 
 grass or similar weeds. In many cases farmers neither blind plow nor 
 harrow, but begin cultivation with the ordinary cultivator after the 
 corn is about four inches high. 
 
 The first cultivation is always in the same direction as the corn 
 is planted. Care should be taken that the young plants are not in- 
 jured or covered. Either stationary or rotating shields on the cidti- 
 vator Avill help to protect the plants from being covered by loose soil. 
 Plants partly or entirely covered at the time of the first cultivation are 
 permanenth" stunted and are either barren or produce nubbins. 
 
 The cultivator should run deeply and close to the row the first 
 time over, so as to cover weeds in the hills. The kernel contains food 
 on which the plant feeds when it starts, hence the roots have not yet 
 grown out Avhere many of them will be disturbed. The first cultiva- 
 tion is the most important. If it is deep and close to the corn plants, 
 it helps to warm the soil, destroys weeds, and loosens the ground so thor- 
 oughly that the later plowings are easier. 
 
 In checked corn the second cultivation is usually crosswise of the 
 direction the corn is planted. The ease or difficulty of this cultivation 
 is dependent upon how accurately the corn was checked in planting. 
 
 After the first cultivation, it is not advisable to run the shovels 
 too deeply or too close to the hills. Allow them to throw in just enough 
 dirt to cover weeds in the hills. A month after planting, the roots from 
 hills, side by side, may be found to meet each other between the corn 
 rows and to be within two and one-half inches of the top of the ground 
 six inches out from th(> hills of corn. Plowing deeper than three inches 
 close to tile liills at this time tears niauv roots and injures the com. 
 
CULTIVATING CORN 
 
 Methods of Cultivation 
 
 In general, there are two methods of cultivation, (1) level culti- 
 vation, (2) hilled or ridged cultivation. Level cultivation is best. Com- 
 pared to the ridged type of cultivation it has the following advantages : 
 
 1. Less surface is exposed for evaporation. 
 
 2. Only shallow cultivation is required. 
 
 3. The field is more easily prepared for the next crop. 
 
 4. Yields are greater. 
 
 Depth of Cultivation 
 
 Surface culture, which means stirring the soil to a depth not greater 
 than four inches below the surface, cultivates without pruning or in- 
 juring the roots of the plant, and forms a mulch on the surface. Deep 
 culture conserves as much soil water as the shallow method, but in 
 most cases the yields of grain from shallow tilled fields have been in 
 excess of those obtained under identical soil and climatic conditions 
 from deep-plowed fields. The difference usually is attributed to the 
 fact that deep culture injures the roots of the plants. 
 
 How Cultivation Affects Soil 
 
 The cultivation must be suited to the kind of soil. If a field is 
 sandy or easy to work, because it is rich in organic matter, it may be 
 plowed from the beginning with a surface cultivator. Wet, heavy 
 soils should be given deeper cultivation the first time to loosen them up 
 and dry out the surface. If a shovel cultivator is used, it should not 
 run as deeply the second time. A surface cultivator may be used on 
 heavy soils of this type unless there have been heavy rains to pack 
 the soil. 
 
 Number of Times to Cultivate 
 
 The number of times to cultivate corn will depend upon the num- 
 ber and kind of weeds, the ground in w^hich it grows and the climatic 
 conditions. Keep the corn free from weeds, and try to keep the dirt 
 on top loose — to hold moisture. The growth of weeds in many corn 
 fields shows that such fields are suffering from a lack of cultivation. 
 In others the soil is baked and moisture is lost. When the ground gets 
 too dry after heavy rains, it will dry and crack open. These cracks 
 allow the moisture to escape rapidly, and should be prevented by cul- 
 tivation. After the corn grows tall, its foliage shades the ground from 
 the sun, and largely prevents both the loss of moisture by evaporation 
 and the growth of weeds. Sometimes, when the season is warm and 
 wet, the corn may grow so fast it is only cultivated twice. The usual 
 number of cultivations in the Corn Belt is four. 
 
 Cultivation of Listed Corn 
 
 Disk cultivators are commonly used to cultivate listed corn. The 
 disks are set to cut and throw out the weedv fringe the first time over. 
 
58 
 
 CORN AND (;ORX-GK()WINCt 
 
 A hooded shield is used to protect the plants, especially the first time 
 over. Small shovels are set to mulch the soil in the furrow close to the 
 corn, and large shovels are set to destroy weeds on top of the ridge. 
 The second time over, the corn is a few inches high, and so the disks 
 
 ^W* ; »: 
 
 w^^J^^H 
 
 Lister two-row cultivator, illustrating method of throwing dirt away from the 
 plants in the furrow the first time over. When the plants are larger, the 
 dirt will be thrown toward them. 
 
 are set to throw in, filling the furrow. The shovels are set to destroy 
 and work down the ridge. The disk cultivator is used two or three times, 
 depending on conditions. Often listed corn is "laid by" with an ordi- 
 nary shovel cultivator. Both single-row and tAvo-row lister corn culti- 
 vators are used. 
 
 Ways of Reducing Cost of Cultivation 
 
 Harrow and disk the field thoroughly before planting, to kill weed 
 growth in its early stages and to make the seed bed firm. If most of 
 the weeds are killed before the crop is planted, later cultivations may 
 be reduced to a minimum. Good preparation of the seed bed will lessen 
 the cost of cultivation. The use of the harrow or weeder for early cul- 
 tivation is one of the most important labor saving practices. Two-row 
 cultivators save man labor. Remember that the one big object of cul- 
 tivation is to kill weeds. 
 
 Acres Cultivated Per Day 
 
 Under Corn Belt conditions, the average number of acres cultivated 
 in a ten-hour day is about as follows : 
 
 One-row riding (first or second cultivation), one man, two 
 
 horses 5.5 
 
 One-row riding (third cultivation), one man, two horses 7.0 
 
 Two-row riding, one man, three or four horses 13.0 
 
CHAPTER 12 
 
 WEEDS OF THE CORN FIELD 
 
 'T*HE wheat crop rusts, the oat crop lodges, the cotton crop has its 
 boll weevil, and the corn crop has its weeds. Good corn prowin;i 
 is a constant battle airainst weeds, and the w'eed factor is a large one in 
 delermining the number of acres of corn to grow. Weeds deprive corn 
 of both moisture and plant food. 
 
 Although weeds are one of the worst enemies of corn, the corn field 
 is an excellent place to eradicate Aveeds that have become a pest in mea- 
 dows, pastures and small grain. In 
 sections where corn or other culti- 
 vated crops can not be profitably 
 grown, the weed problem is a diffi- 
 cult one. To rid their fields of 
 weeds, the farmers must summer 
 fallow, thereby losing the crop for 
 one j^ear. Corn growing is partially 
 replacing summer fallow in many 
 sections, because clean cultivation of 
 corn frees the ground of weeds and 
 the corn crop is not a heavy user of 
 moisture. The crop following corn 
 does nearly as well as after summer 
 fallow, thus showing the importance 
 of killing weeds. 
 
 Influence of Weeds on Yield* 
 
 The most important factor in the 
 growth of a crop of corn on fer- 
 tile soil with a well-prepared seed 
 bed in humid regions is the killing 
 of weeds. With the same prepara- 
 tion of seed bed, corn produced, as 
 an eight-year average, 7.3 bushels per acre where the weeds were al- 
 lowed to grow, and 45.9 bushels where the weeds were kept down with- 
 out any cultivation. This gives an increase of 38.6 bushels, or say ^19.30 
 per acre, for keeping weeds down. Weeds deprive the plant of moisture, 
 light and food, all of Avhich are absolutely necessary for the production^, 
 of crops. 
 
 Poor cultivation in June gave foxtail 
 and barnyard grass such a start 
 that the yield of this field was re- 
 duced twenty bushels per acre. 
 
 'Illinois Bulletin No. 181. 
 
60 CORN AND COKX-GROWIXG 
 
 The Classes of Weeds 
 Some weeds produce enormous quantities of seeds, some produce 
 strong underground stems (quack grass) or roots (Canada thistle), that 
 produce new ])lants, and others produce both seed plentifully and strong 
 underground systems. The weeds of corn may be classified according 
 to the length of their life as follows: 
 
 1. Annuals — those that live one year, such as foxtail and crab-grass. 
 
 2. Biennials — those that live two years, such as bull thistle and wild carrot. 
 
 3. Perennials — those that live more than two years, such as Canada thistle 
 and quack grass. 
 
 The annuals and biennials are usually controlled by cultivation, 
 because they grow only from seed. If new weed seeds are kept off the 
 farm, and the weeds already growing are prevented from going to seed, 
 no great amount of trouble will be had from these. ]\Iost of the peren- 
 nial weeds are propagated by underground parts as well as seeds, 
 and the job of eradication is more difficult. To eradicate these weeds, 
 all top growth must be kept down, so that the underground parts will 
 starve. Care must be taken in cultivation so that underground parts 
 are not spread by the cultivator, for small pieces take root and form 
 new patches of the perennial weed. 
 
 Use of Smother Crops to Kill Weeds 
 
 There are many smother crops that will control weed growth or at 
 least weaken the growth of the weeds so that the pests may easily be 
 eradicated by proper cultivation. Alfalfa, Sudan grass, buckwheat and 
 sorghum are good weed exterminator crops. A heavy seeding of oats 
 acts as a smother crop. For smother crops to be effective, the seed bed 
 must be clean at time of sowing. Fall plowing and thorough cultiva- 
 tion with the disk in the spring, followed by shallow plowing before 
 seeding, checks the weeds severely. The oats should be cut early for 
 hay, before the weeds mature seed. After the removal of the crop, the 
 ground sliould l)e disked and plowed. 
 
 Common Corn Field Weeds 
 
 Some of the worst corn field weeds from the standpoint of number, 
 difficulty in eradication or damage to the corn crop, are : 
 
 1. Canada thistle. Cirsium arvense. 
 
 2. Quack grass. Agropyron repens. 
 
 3. Wild morning-glory (Bindweed). Convoltnilus sepium. 
 
 4. Black bindweed (Wild buckwheat). Polygonnm convolvulus. 
 
 5. Cocklebur. Xanthmm canadcn.sc. 
 
 6. Indian mallow (Butter-print). Abutilon theophrasti. 
 
 7. Pennsylvania smartweed (Heart's-ease). Polygonum pcnnsylvayxicxim. 
 
 8. Lady's thumb. Polygonum persicaria. 
 
 9. Foxtail (green and yellow). Setaria viridis and Setaria glauca. 
 
 10. Crab grass (Finger grass). Digitaria sanguinalis. 
 
 There are many other weeds often found in the corn field, such as 
 European biudwccd, which is one of the worst of all when it gets in a 
 
WEEDS OF THE CORN FIELD 
 
 61 
 
 field, milkweed, horse-nettle, slioot'ly. lamb's quarter, wild sunflower, 
 barnyard o'rass, artichoke, rajjrweed, pigweed and Russian thistle (only 
 in western ]>art of Corn Belt). 
 
 Methods of Control 
 
 These Aveeds of corn are classified in four groups, as follows : 
 
 1. Weeds which require a special type of shovel on the corn cultivator. 
 
 2. Weeds which can not be handled to the best advantage unless the land 
 is put into meadow or pasture for a time. 
 
 3. Weeds which require a thorough hand hoeing during late July or early 
 August. 
 
 4. Weeds which are common in every corn field but require no attention 
 other than the ordinary three or four cultivations. 
 
 First Group 
 
 The first group includes weeds like the Canada thistle, wild morning- 
 glory, and European bindweed and other weeds that grow from under- 
 
 Quack grass, a bad corn field weed 
 in the extreme northern part of the 
 Corn Belt. 
 
 Canada thistle. 
 
 ground running roots and from seed. These running roots branch and 
 grow horizontally from the main root. They may be found from a few 
 inches to a few feet below the surface of the soil. At almost any time 
 during the growing season, buds will form on these horizontal roots and 
 send up new plants. The above-ground growth manufactures the food 
 material that is stored in the roots. In order to starve out the plants, 
 it is necessary to keep down all top growth. If the underground growth 
 
62 
 
 CORS AND C'ORN-GROWIXG 
 
 is not replenished by food which is made only by the aid of green leaves, 
 all of the food in the underground roots Avill be used by the growing 
 plant. In time, the plant and roots will die. It is necessary to watch 
 for the introduction of new plants from seed. 
 
 Frequent cultivating with si)earhead, surface, or duck-foot shovel is 
 necessary so as to keep down the top growth of the weeds in this group. 
 After cultivation is discontinued, the patches of these weeds should be 
 kept down by hoeing. Localized patches where there is a thick stand 
 may be summer fallowed and a crop grown on the remainder of the field. 
 Where thistles are not too firmly established, smother crops, such as 
 alfalfa, grasses, millet and small grains thickly sown and grown for one 
 season give these weeds a set-back which makes easier the eradication by 
 clean cultivation in the corn field the following year. The plants are 
 easily spread by root-stocks that hang on the cultivator shovels. 
 Second Group 
 
 In the second group are weeds such as quack grass and Johnson 
 grass which spread by underground stems in the same way as the first 
 group. It seems necessary to put a field that is badly infested with 
 these weeds into meadow or pasture for a term of years. The pasturing 
 or continued cutting of these gras.ses brings the underground stems 
 closer to the surface of the ground. Exposing the underground stems 
 by plowing will kill many of the plants. The following crop of corn 
 will afford a good place for thorough cultivation and liberal use of the 
 hoe. This method of control may also be used for the first group. 
 
 Third Group 
 
 Persistent annual weeds, such as 
 the cocklebur, butter-print, black 
 bindweed, wild morning-glory and the 
 Russian thistle are weeds that should 
 be handled by the third method. Or- 
 dinary cultivation will not kill all of 
 these weeds in a corn field where they 
 have a good hold. It will recpiire 
 thorough cultivation plus hoeing auil 
 hand pulling during late July and 
 August to clean a field. "Weeds of this 
 type set an abundance of seed, and so 
 every ])lant should be eradicated. 
 Plants of the cocklebur a few inches 
 high will mature seed. The Viur of 
 lliis weel encloses a pair of seed, one 
 oC which will germinate one season 
 and the other the next season. The 
 seed of the butter-print lives in the 
 soil for ten or more years. 
 
 L.. 
 
 Foxtail, the most widespread annual 
 weed in corn. 
 
WEEDS OP THE ('ORX FIELD 63 
 
 Fourth Group 
 
 ]\Iost of the ordinary annual corn field weeds are in this class. The 
 most common weeds of this group are the Pennsylvania smart weed, lady's 
 thumb, foxtail, shoofly, crab grass, lamb's quarter, and pigweed. Thor- 
 ough preparation of seed bed and cultivation as outlined in the previous 
 chapter will rid badly infested fields of these weeds. Heavy June rains 
 which delay the first or second cultivation permit annual weeds of this 
 type to become very serious. In this case, the only practical thing 
 which can be done is to cultivate as quickly and cleanly as the weather 
 will permit. Heavy late summer rains often cause a rank growth of 
 these weeds in August, even though the field was clean at the time of 
 "laying by." Such a growth is not serious, and there is nothing prac- 
 tical to do about it. 
 
CHAPTER 13 
 
 HARVESTING EAR CORN 
 
 npHE three methods of harvesting that have to do with ear corn are 
 discussed in this chapter, while the other methods of harvesting- are 
 taken np in the following chapter. The six general methods of harvest- 
 ing are as follows: 
 
 1. Husking the ears by hand from standing stalks. 
 
 2. Snapping the ears by hand from standing stalks. 
 
 3. Husking the ears by machine from standing stalks. 
 
 4. Cutting the stalks for silage. 
 
 5. Cutting the stalks for fodder. 
 
 6. Harvesting with live stock. 
 
 Husking by Hand 
 
 Most of the crop in the Corn Belt is husked by hand from the stand- 
 ing stalks after heavv frost. At this time the ears are dry enough to crib 
 
 Thumb hook. The husking hook takes 
 an altogether different motion than 
 the peg. Young men who have 
 learned to use the hook find it much 
 speedier. 
 
 Husking peg or pin is used by th ^ old- 
 er generation. Clean work can be 
 'lone with the peg, but it is slower 
 than the hook. 
 
 and they break from the stalks more easily. Before corn is picked, the 
 husks shoidd be dry and the kernels hard. Ordinarily, harvest begins 
 the latter part of October and is completed at Thanksgiving time, but 
 fields occasionally stand throughout the entire winter. 
 
 With the use of a husking hook or peg, one man will average about 
 75 l)ushels of corn a day, depending upon condition and yield of corn 
 and weather conditions. Records of 100 bushels of corn picked in a day 
 are common. An unusual corn husking record is 261 bushels picked 
 in a ten-hour day. This record was made by Charles Fries, of Rippey, 
 Iowa, working in a fichl of good corn averaging 60 bushels to the acre. 
 He did not handle the team nor unload the corn, but only picked. Rec- 
 ords are ba.sed chiefly upon the stamina of the picker, but it is unques- 
 
HARVESTING EAR CORN 
 
 65 
 
 tionably true that men who use hooks generally make better records 
 than those who use pegs. The hook method of husking was invented 
 independently by R. F. Clark, of Illinois, and Mr. Kees, of Nebraska, 
 about 1895. Young men have found the hook much speedier than the 
 peg, but the older men still cling to the peg, especially in the eastern 
 part of the Corn Belt. The hook, except in the hands of an expert, does 
 not husk quite as clean as the peg. 
 
 One man with team and wagon picks two rows at a time in one trip 
 across the field in the direction the corn is planted. The ordinary farm 
 wagon is equipped on the side opposite to the picker with a "bang 
 board," or extension side, against which the picker throws the husked 
 ears. Tn addition to the husking peg or hook, and gloves, the "bang 
 board" is the only extra equipment used. 
 
 Snapping Corn 
 
 Snapping is the breaking of the ear from the stalk, but not remov- 
 ing the husk. This practice is common in the south, where corn dries 
 out well and there is danger of injury in the crib from moths or weevils. 
 In the Corn Belt, corn fed directly from the field early in the fall is 
 snapped in order to save the labor of husking. Sweet corn is usually 
 snapped and hauled directly to the cannery. Ordinarily, corn for crib- 
 bing is not snapped, because : 
 
 1. The husks interfere with the drying of the corn in the crib. 
 
 2. The husks take up storage room. 
 
 3. The husks interfere with corn shelling, except in the case of big power 
 shellers. 
 
 Husking By Machine 
 
 Eventually, corn husking machines will be used extensively, but 
 they will come into common use gradually. The machines were used 
 on many large farms during the World war. There has been a great 
 
 
 
 Husking machines give satisfaction under some conditions. 
 
66 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 improvement in the corn picker, and improvement will continue so that 
 the machine will pick up down stalks, catch shelled corn and husk clean 
 in dry weather. 
 
 Even now, corn pickinf? machines seem to have been sufficiently 
 perfected so that they are a decided success on the larger farms where 
 all conditions are favorable. All conditions are not likely to be favor- 
 able, however, for more than one-fourth of the time Avith the types of 
 corn which are now most generally grown in the Corn Belt. There is 
 a real opportunity for someone to develop types of corn genuinely adapt- 
 ed to the corn hu.sking machine. 
 
 In standing corn, during October, the machine seems to give better 
 results than the ordinar.y busker, picking many nubbins which most 
 buskers pass up and leaving less in the way of silks and ribbons on the 
 corn in the wagon. With six horses and one man, it will pick on the 
 average about 370 bushels in a ten-hour day. But as the season wears 
 on and the stalks become brittle and some of the ears drop off, the ma- 
 chine seems to labor under a serious handicap. Ideal picking condi- 
 tions are : 
 
 1. Upright, hard shelling corn. 
 
 2. Stalks and husks not too brittle. 
 
 3. Dry under foot. 
 
 4. Cloudy or damp weather. 
 
 Heretofore, in the Corn Belt, corn breeders have selected for single- 
 eared types of corn because of the greater labor of husking two-eared 
 stalks. With the corn husking machine, however, there may be a positive 
 advantage in two-eared sorts. 
 
 W^ith hand buskers., it is inadvisable for corn to carry the ears much 
 lower than waist high, but with the machine it is permissible for the ears 
 to be as low as two feet from the ground. For the picking machine, it 
 seems that a rather smooth-kerneled, shallow-grained sort which clings 
 tightly to the cob would be better than a deep-grained, rough, easy- 
 shelling kind. 
 
 Reid Yellow Dent, and other varieties of corn similarly bied, are 
 responsible for a large part of the difficulty with corn picking machines. 
 Reid Yellow Dent is an ideal variety for hand huskers' carrying a large 
 ear on a small shank and breaking off easily. It is just about the worst 
 possible variety for machine husking. 
 
 Even under ideal conditions, when the machine picks cleanly, there 
 are some objections to the mechanical picker, as f oIIoavs : 
 
 1. It requires five or six horses to pull the machine. 
 
 2. It is hard on the horses. 
 
 3. It tears down the stalks and leaves them in poor condition for pas- 
 turing. 
 
 4. It is expensive, costing about .$400. 
 
 Elevating the Corn 
 The larger Corn Belt farms usually have a portable elevator for 
 delivering the husked corn from the wagon to the crib. These elevators 
 
HARVESTING EAR CORN 
 
 07 
 
 save the large amount of hand labor required when the corn is scooped 
 by shovel from the wagon into the crib. The corn is dumped and ele- 
 vated by power furnished bj" a team or gasoline engine. A crib may 
 be entirely filled with no hand labor. For shoveling, the w'agon is 
 equipped with a special end-gate, which provides room for the shoveler 
 to stand. 
 
 Corn Cribs 
 A good corn crib should provide for the following : 
 
 1. Ventilation. 
 
 2. Protection from rodents. 
 
 3. Exclusion of moisture. 
 
 4. Accessibility to the feed lot. 
 
 5. Permanency. 
 
 Most of the cribs are of wood with slatted siding. These cribs are 
 of varying lengths, but are quite \niiformly eight feet wide, so that good 
 
 Cribbing corn with portable elevator. 
 
 ventilation is obtained. In years of large corn crops, much corn is placed 
 in temporary wire or stave fence cribs. For permanency, farmers have 
 been building cribs of special hollow tile that has a channel extending 
 downward toward the outside of the crib. These circular cribs with 
 central ventilators and cement floors have proved very satisfactory. 
 
 Moisture in Corn 
 
 It is not safe to crib in an ordinary crib, ear corn that has over 30 
 per cent moisture. In an average j^ear at husking time, corn will con- 
 tain from 20 to 30 per cent moisture. There is a rapid decrease from 
 September to November in the amount of moisture in cribbed corn, and 
 again in the spring months. 
 
68 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 From November until the following October, corn will lose from 8 
 to 20 per cent in weight, depending upon conditions. As a rule, there 
 will be about 17 per cent shrinkage in ordinary corn the first year. The 
 second 3'ear there is a small amount of shrinkage in crib corn, usually 
 less than one per cent. (See Chapter 21.) 
 
 Measuring Corn 
 
 To find the number of bushels of shelled corn in a bin, multiply 
 the length by the width by the depth (all in feet), and divide by 1.25. 
 To find the number of bushels of ear corn, divide by 2.5. If the corn 
 is in the husk, divide by 3.5, For a round crib, multiply the distance 
 around the crib by the diameter by the depth of the corn (all in feet) 
 and divide by 10 to get the number of bushels of ear corn ; if the corn 
 is in the husk, divide by 14.5. A common wagon box is 10 feet long and 
 3 feet wide. It will hold two bushels of shelled corn or one bushel of 
 ear corn for every inch in depth. There are 2,150.42 cubic inches in 
 a bushel of shelled corn, and 4,300 cubic inches in a bushel of ear corn 
 (allowing 70 pounds of ear corn to the bushel). In the case of unusu- 
 ally deep grained, smooth-dented, well-matured corn, 3,800 cubic inches 
 of ear corn may shell out a bushel. 
 
 Pasturing Corn Stalks 
 
 A valuable by-product of the husked corn crop is the excellent pas- 
 ture afforded by stalk fields after husking. A majority of Corn Belt 
 farmers turn live stock into a corn field as soon as the field has been 
 husked. A stalk field furnishes a good place to winter over cattle and 
 horses. The live stock break down the stalks, aiding in preparation of 
 seed bed in the spring. Pasturing of stalks in wet weather is a dis- 
 advantage, especially on heavy soils, as the live stock will pack the soil. 
 
 Shelling Corn 
 
 Ear corn not containing more than 25 per cent moisture will shell 
 readily, and in the frozen state corn with more moisture will shell. 
 However, it is not safe to bin shelled corn containing more than 19 per 
 cent moisture. If shelled corn is to be stored beyond April 15, it should 
 not contain more than 17.5 per cent moisture, or it is likely to heat seri- 
 ously during the first spell of w^arm w-eather. Grade 3 corn, which 
 contains not more than 17.5 per cent moisture, may be safely shipped in 
 warm weather. 
 
 The two types of corn shellers are spring sheller and cylinder 
 sheller. ]\Iost of the small power shellers and hand shellers are of the 
 spring type. These shellers have an adjustable rag iron that holds the 
 ears against a deep grooved wheel that shells the corn from the ear as a 
 large wheel revolves the ear, so that the kernels are removed from the 
 entire ear. Blowers for cleaning, cob stackers, and elevators are part 
 of most of the power types. The cylinder sheller is usually a large power 
 
HARVESTING EAR CORN 69 
 
 machines. The corn is shelled by the revolvino- of shellin«>' rin<zs within 
 a cylinder cage. A common objection to this type of sheller is the 
 broken cobs and cracked kernels that, result. Large shellers of this 
 type will shell as many as 350 bushels in an hour, and will handle 
 "snapped" corn fairly well. 
 
 Time Required for Husking 
 
 According to the 1922 Yearbook of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, about the following number of bushels may be husked in 
 a ten-hour day: 
 
 Bushels 
 
 From shock, by hand, one man 45.0 
 
 From standing stalks, by hand, one man, two horses 85.0 
 
 From standing stalks, by machine, one man, six horses 375.0 
 
CHAPTER 14 
 
 SOFT CORN 
 
 COFT corn contains from 25 to 65 per cent moisture. It is only in 
 very nnnsnal years, such as 1902, 1915 and 1917, that much of our 
 central Corn Belt corn will contain over 25 per cent moisture in De- 
 cember. In such a year, the following information is of great value. 
 
 Soft corn usually falls in the "sample" grade, for it contains over 
 23 per cent moisture in addition to damaged grains. To classify soft 
 corn simply upon the amount of moisture present, the following approxi- 
 mate grading was made by the loAva station : 
 Percent Moisture Grade 
 
 65 Markedly soft (rare) 
 
 55 Very soft 
 
 45 ; Soft 
 
 35 Fairly soft 
 
 25 Cribable 
 
 20 Safe corn 
 
 14 Old corn, mature 
 
 12 Usually two-year-old corn 
 
 8 Usually kiln-dried 
 
 Ways of Utilizing 
 
 It is best to leave soft corn in the field as long as possible because 
 it will dry more rapidly. However, special precautions must be made 
 for the use of the crop. The following are a number of methods of 
 using the soft corn crop that are suitable for different conditions : 
 
 1. Ensiling 
 
 2. Shocking 
 
 3. Cribbing 
 
 4. Shredding 
 
 5. Marketing 
 
 6. Feeding 
 
 Silage 
 
 The silo is an excellent place for storing soft corn. Usually, it is 
 safe to add water, but the aim always should be to produce a silage 
 that will run from 60 to 70 pounds of water for 100 pounds of material 
 as it is taken from the silo. Ordinary mature dry fodder corn which 
 is siloed in January and February will require about a ton of water 
 with every ton of fodder. Some years soft corn will require the addi- 
 tion of no water for silage. 
 
 To ensile the soft ear corn without the stover is practical. Soft 
 corn ears in the late roasting stage or silage were husked, run 
 
SOFT CORN 71 
 
 through a silag'e cutter and tightly packed into small silos, in a test 
 at the Iowa station. The silage resulting after twelve days of fermenta- 
 tion (ordinary silage is practically made in ten days) was good. It 
 had a favorable odor, much like ordinary corn silage. It was bright, 
 light colored, free from mold, and palatable. Such corn grain and cob 
 silage will not develop as much acidity as ordinary silage, but enough 
 to preserve it if properly cut up and packed. At the end of two months 
 this soft ear corn silage Avas in excellent feeding condition. "Snapped" 
 corn (ear plus husks) will make good silage. The husks are of advan- 
 tage in that they will tend to tie or pack the small ear pieces closely 
 together and hold the desirable moisture. 
 
 Shocking the Soft Corn Crop 
 
 Shocking the corn in small shocks will help to save the stover, which 
 is of high quality in a soft corn year. Shocking will be of further ad- 
 vantage in that the ears will dry out rapidly, especially in dry weather. 
 In a favorable season, the ears really dry out so as to make a little better 
 feed than if allowed to dry out and weather on the stalk. However, 
 in a wet season there is some risk in the shocking process. 
 
 Cribbing Soft Corn 
 
 Usually corn is safe to crib when it contains not more than 33 per 
 cent moisture. The more mature corn, from the .hillsides, the high 
 ground and the earlier plantings, may advantageously be stored in the 
 crib. The silks and husks and other foreign material tend to hinder 
 ventilation and promote souring and molding. The softest ears should 
 be separated and fed early if practicable. The wagon bed may be 
 divided into two bins, one in front for soft corn and one behind for 
 hard corn. Another place where sorting is practical is at the crib if 
 an elevator is used. The soft ears may be picked from the elevator chute 
 and thrown out, while the mature ears are allowed to proceed upward. 
 The crib should be off the ground to aid ventilation. The six or seven- 
 foot crib excels the eight-foot in the soft corn year. 
 
 Crib ventilation by special devices is valuable. Fill the bed of the 
 crib about two to three feet deep with ear corn; place the ventilators 
 on top of the corn, running them lengthwise with the crib. Fill in 
 another two or three feet of corn, place more ventilators, and so on until 
 the crib is filled. These ventilators are best made out of 2x8 's set on 
 edge side by side about 8 to 12 inches apart. Nail cross cleats on the 
 top as well as on the bottom of the two parallel 2x8 's, so as to form a long, 
 rectangular, open box. Instead of slats or cleats, a substantial grade 
 of galvanized or plain wire mesh may be used. To keep the 2x8 's from 
 collapsing and to prevent filling with corn, the cross cleats should be 
 liberally provided. There is another simple ventilator built like a hog 
 trough. It is placed in the crib in a horizontal position and turned face 
 downward. The air can not proceed upward through this trough, for 
 
72 COKN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 the only opening- is on the inverted side. Lay either of these types of 
 ventilators in the crib about two to four feet apart. A six-foot crib 
 should nsnally have two ventilators runninpr lengthwise. In placing the 
 ventilators of the second set, place them midway between, not directly 
 above the ones first placed on the next lower level. Put the third set 
 directly over those of the first set, and so on. 
 
 Vertical ventilators may be used. These ventilators are usually made 
 of eight to twelve-inch tile. They should extend from the floor of the 
 crib to the roof. Between the tiles place a couple of 1x1 's or 2x2 's, to 
 allow the air to enter the tile at every joint. The first horizontal ven- 
 tilators previously described may be used vertically. 
 
 Use of Salt 
 
 Tests by Hughes at the Iowa station show that salt is of value in 
 retarding fermentation and the development of molds in soft corn. In 
 cribbing soft corn, from one-half to one pound of salt for each 100 pounds 
 of soft corn may be used, the amount depending upon the condition of 
 the corn. While two pounds of salt per 100 pounds of corn appears 
 to give noticeably better results than one pound, it is probable that this 
 amount of salt can not be used safely when the corn is to be fed to live 
 stock. If stored under favorable conditions, the use of salt will not 
 prevent the development of molds or of heating, particularly in ear corn. 
 Therefore, it is necessary to use the greatest care in providing the best 
 ventilation possible. Especially soft ears and ears which are already 
 damaged should be sorted out before placing the rest of the corn in the 
 crib. The effect of the salt in preventing shelled corn from heating and 
 molding should be of value when such corn is shel!ed and shipped, before 
 it has thoroughly dried. The great danger of soft corn heating when 
 in storage and transit is well known. 
 
 Use of Heat 
 
 Soft corn has been dried out in the crib at a Ioav cost by a method 
 originated by the Iowa station. Ventilators are placed underneath a 
 
 Model of the Hughes hot-air drier, which has been used very successfully in 
 making soft corn cribbable. 
 
SOFT CORN 73 
 
 crib and heat is forced by means of a hot-air furnace and blower through 
 the corn. A series of trap doors allows drying- out of small sections of 
 the crib at one time. In tests, the moisture content of crib corn was re- 
 duced from over 30 per cent to less than 10 per cent, at a cost for fuel 
 and power of less than five cents a bushel. One northern Iowa farmer 
 dried 3,000 bushels of soft corn in one crib by this method at a cost of 
 less than one cent a bushel. 
 
 Shredding 
 
 Shredding soft corn is usually unsatisfactory. It is hard to shred 
 because it is sappy, and, furthermore, if it is not well dried out it will 
 spoil in storage. Some farmers recommend the addition of salt, about 
 five to twenty ])Ounds to the ton. If necessary to shred, it is well to 
 shred often, and not store too large a quantity of shredded material. 
 It is well to put off the shredding to the latest possible date, so that 
 the corn will be well dried out in the shock. 
 
 Marketing 
 In marketing soft corn, it is well to shell in a frozen condition and 
 haul it to market in the frozen state. Inasmuch as a premium is paid 
 for the most mature, hardest corn, it is well to sell that and feed the soft 
 ear corn. It is surprising how much water in a frozen condition ear 
 corn can carry in the grain. Even though not frozen, corn with as much 
 as 25 per cent moisture will shell readily. 
 
 Feeding 
 
 The feeding of soft corn is the most logical method of disposition. 
 There are two essential precautions : Feed early while the quality is 
 still good, and feed often — three, four and more times a day. IMoldy 
 corn is dangerous for horses and young sheep. But hogs may usually 
 be trusted to eat what they will. 
 
 "Moldy corn," says Dr. R. E. Buchanan, "has often been suspected 
 of poisoning cattle and hogs. Investigations carried on in recent years 
 seem to indicate, however, that this rarely, if ever, occurs. The dis- 
 eases or sickness of cattle which once were supposed to be due to mold 
 poisoning have since been found to be due to infection with hemorrhagic 
 septicemia or other diseases which have nothing whatever to do with 
 mold on corn. It seems, therefore, that there is no good reason why 
 corn showing more or less mold can not safely be fed to cattle and hogs. 
 
 "The molds which appear are sometimes blackish, sometimes bluish, 
 greenish or pinkish in color. If these molds are not present in exces- 
 sive amounts, that is, the corn is not actually rotten or matted together 
 by the mold, it is not probable that cattle and hogs will be injured by 
 eating it. 
 
 "What has been said above, however, should not be used as justi- 
 fication for feeding moldy corn to horses. Many instances are on record 
 of horses being killed by eating moldy silage, moldy corn, and moldv 
 
74 CORN AXD CORN-GROWING 
 
 forage of other types. "Whether or not it is the mold itself or some 
 other organism growing in the moldy corn that causes the trouble is at 
 present uncertain." 
 
 Food Value of the Crop 
 
 The yield of dry matter in corn at different stages, on the acre basis, 
 as figured from Indiana results of Jones and Huston, on a basis of 100 
 as final mature yield, is as follows : 
 
 Table VIII 
 
 
 Stage of Growth 
 
 o 
 
 CC CD 
 
 o w m c m Hp. 
 
 Four feet high .'. I...: ;...J.^ | | 7.76 
 
 First tassels I | | 23.85 
 
 Silks drying, kernels forming ! 14.56| 90.21| 48.53 
 
 In the milk | 43.73| 92.41| 65.59 
 
 In the glaze | 74.561 100.00| 86.11 
 
 Well dented | 89.19| 101.84] 94.87 
 
 Read y to shock | 100.00| 100.00 1_100-00 
 
 In the early kernel stage, less than 15 per cent of the dry matter 
 found at maturity has been laid down in the ear, and only 44 per cent 
 in the milk stage. If frost comes when the milk still shows plainly, 
 the yield is approximately half in dr}^ matter, as compared to the nor- 
 mal matured .yield. The stover contains more than 90 per cent of the 
 total possible dry matter as early as the milk stage. Therefore, in frost- 
 ed corn the greatest damage in yield is to the ears. 
 
CHAPTER 15 
 
 CORN FODDER 
 
 /^ORN fodder is the source of a large amount of feed for all types of 
 live stock. The entire plant, including ears, is referred to as corn 
 fodder, while the stalks without ears are called corn stover. This chap- 
 ter will deal Avith both corn fodder and stover, and also the method of 
 handling corn for silage up to the time it is ready for the silo. Chapter 
 16 discusses the making of co"n silage. 
 
 Varieties of Corn for Fodder 
 In the present state of our knowledge, the safe thing for most Corn 
 Belt farmers to do is to stick by the regulation grain sorts as commonly 
 grown in the community, since the grain is the most valuable part of 
 the plant. Approximately 60 per cent of the digestible food materials 
 present in the corn plant are found in the ears, and 40 per cent in the 
 stover. Eventually we shall do as in New York and New England, 
 where they almost invariably use a different variety for fodder than 
 they do for grain. Our present varieties are not perfect. They blow 
 down too easily. A two-eared sort of Reid or Learning might be well 
 worth while for fodder and silage and a little later .sort may well be used 
 for fodder than for grain. 
 
 The large, late ma- 
 turing varieties from the 
 southern states have in 
 some cases given a larger 
 amount of dry matter 
 than the adapted local 
 varieties, but as the dif- 
 ference i s relatively 
 slight and the quality of 
 fodder and silage rela- 
 tively, poor, and a much 
 greater tonnage of green 
 fodder must be handled, 
 owing to the greater per- 
 centage of water in the 
 more immature south- 
 ern varieties, those 
 * adapted to the locality 
 ^ a r e considered more 
 profitable. 
 
76 (H)RX AND CORN-GROAVING 
 
 It is desirable to plant corn Avliich is to be used for fodder just as 
 early as if the crop were to be harvested for grain only. The corn should 
 mature early enough to be ready to harvest before frost, as only in that 
 Avay is the maximum yield of dry matter obtained. In some instances, 
 when it has been found necessary to plant a field of corn rather late in 
 the season, it has been found desirable to use the replanted corn for 
 fodder, as the crop will often become sufficiently mature before frost 
 to make a fair quality of fodder and silage when it would not do to crib. 
 
 Method of Planting 
 
 It really makes little difference whether corn for fodder is drilled 
 or checked. If the land used is verj'^ weedy, checking undoubtedly will 
 be the safest method, as the weeds can be better kept under control by 
 cultivating in both directions. On clean ground, drilling is often pre- 
 ferred, as the plants will be more uniform in size and the corn binder 
 will run more smoothly, since the stalks are cut one at a time. On very 
 fertile, clean ground, a somewhat greater yield may be secured b}^ 
 drilling. 
 
 Rate of Planting 
 
 Corn for fodder may be planted a little thicker than for grain, as 
 a greater yield of both grain and fodder usually will result. The rows 
 are placed three feet six inches apart and the kernels dropped so that 
 there will be one stalk every nine or twelve inches in the row when drilled 
 or three to five stalks per hill when checked. The thickness of plant- 
 ing should depend somewhat upon the fertility of the soil, the variety, 
 the amount of rainfall in the region and to some extent upon the length 
 of the growing season. If the corn is planted too far apart, the stalks 
 grow rank and woody, there is a tendency to mature late, and also the 
 yield will be reduced. On the other hand' corn may be planted too 
 thickly to be desirable for silage. If too thick, the plants lack substance 
 and shrink badly in the silo, the percentage of grain is slightly' reduced 
 and there may be a greater tendency for the corn to blow down. 
 
 Time to Cut 
 
 The best results are obtained when the kernels are well dented and 
 hard and the lower leaves of the plant turned brown. At this stage, the 
 corn plant has its greatest feeding value. In addition, it is in good con- 
 dition to put in the silo. 
 
 Although there is some difference of opinion as to the best time 
 to harvest corn for silage, it is generally conceded that immature corn 
 does not make the best quality of silage. When corn is cut too early, 
 the silage has a dark color, contains too much acid and some of the feed- 
 ing value is lost. Some farmers prefer greener silage for feeding to 
 dairy coavs than for feeding to beef animals. For the value of corn at 
 different stages of growth, see Table VIII, Chapter 14. 
 
 Of course, it is desirable not to allow the corn to become fully ripe 
 because the ]ilants become more woody and leaves are lost. If, how- 
 
CORN FODDER 77 
 
 ever, the corn becomes over-ripe before cutting-, a good quality of silage 
 can be made if a little water is added by running it into the top of the 
 blower with a hose while the silo is being filled. Sufficient water should 
 be added to make it possible to pack the silage firmly. 
 
 Method of Harvest 
 
 Corn may be cut either by machinery or by hand. Hand cutting 
 is seldom practiced, but is sometimes resorted to when the corn is blown 
 down so badly as to prevent harvesting with machines. It is well to 
 make the bundles rather small, for while this will take more tw^ine, the 
 bundles may be shocked and loaded on the wagons more easily, and also 
 they will feed into the silage cutter somewhat better. 
 
 Shocking Corn Fodder 
 
 Ripe corn should be shocked as soon as it is cut. If the corn is 
 green and full of moisture, it should be allowed to lie on the ground 
 for a few days. The shocks should be large- containing about forty 
 medium sized bundles. Two men working together can build a firm 
 shock by setting the bundles in an upright position, the butts firmly on 
 the ground, and bracing the shock from all sides. The tops of the bun- 
 dles may be closely compressed together with a small rope that has a 
 ring in one end. Binder twine may then be used to hold the tops to- 
 gether and the rope released for use on the next shock. A shock of 
 this type should stand a year with a minimum amount of waste. 
 
 Losses in Corn Fodder 
 
 There is a loss of feed value in both silage and fodder. However, 
 the loss in the latter is greater. No matter how well shocked, corn fod- 
 der will lose in value. Corn fodder or stover standing in the field for 
 a few months, according to Henry and Morrison, loses 20 per cent of 
 the dry matter it contains, due to weathering and fermentation. They 
 say that the losses are in the sugar, protein and starch, the most valu- 
 able ])arts. 
 
 Utilization of Fodder 
 
 Corn fodder may be utilized in any of the following ways : 
 
 1. Soiling crop — cut green and fed. 
 
 2. Dry corn fodder — cured in the shock. 
 
 3. Shredding — ears removed and stover torn in small pieces. 
 
 4. Stover — ears removed and stover fed. 
 
 5. Silage — discussed in Chapter 16. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous uses. 
 
 Corn as a Soiling Crop 
 
 Because of poor pastures in the late summer, many farmers feed 
 green corn to their live stock. Usually the corn is cut daily and fed. 
 This corn is palatable and relished by all kinds of live stock. More corn 
 
78 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 is used this way than is generally realized. Sweet clover and early 
 varieties of dent corn may be used to good advantage, for they are ready 
 to feed early in the season. 
 
 Dry Corn Fodder 
 
 The cured corn fodder (shock corn) may be fed directly from the 
 shocks or from stacks where it is stored for ease in feeding. Fodder 
 should not be put in stacks or mows until it is cured. The stacks should 
 be narrow and not over ten feet high, and it may be advisable to put 
 layers of straw or hay betw^een the layers of fodder bundles. There is 
 some waste in both corn and stover in feeding fodder. It is not nearl.y 
 so valuable as silage. Corn may be thickly grown and cured to make a 
 coarse hay. 
 
 Shredding 
 
 Most of the shredding machines now used husk the ears from the 
 fodder and then tear the stover into small strips. The husked ears are 
 elevated into a wati'on and the shredded stover is elevated or l)lowu into 
 
 .J^ ■. 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 f^; 
 
 l^55BB 
 
 
 Shreddins corn fodder. 
 
 the barn or stack. The shredded stover is easily handled, and there is 
 less waste than in ordinary stover. The shredded stover makes good 
 bedding. Large piles of shredded stover heat easily, especially if the 
 stover is green. The addition of salt heljis to keep down heating. Usu- 
 ally, shredding is done late in the season. 
 
 Corn Stover 
 
 Often the ears are removed from shock corn and the stover fed 
 directly to live stock as a roughage. The stover of small, early varieties 
 
CORN FODDER 79 
 
 as grown in the northern Corn Belt is of good quality. Stover may be 
 fed to all classes of live stock and will "carry over the winter" cattle 
 and idle horses. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 In some sections, especially in new regions where machinery is 
 scarce, corn fodder is rim through an ordinary threshing machine. The 
 grain is shelled and the stover blown into the barn or stack. In the 
 south, corn is topped — stalk cut off just above the ear — and the leaves 
 are stripped from the stalk for feed. This practice is often followed 
 to hasten maturity. However, the practice is not recommended, for it 
 reduces the yield of ear corn very greatly. 
 
 Standard Day's Work 
 
 Under favorable conditions, the following number of acres ean be 
 handled in a ten-hour day : 
 
 Cutting : 
 
 Binder, 40-bushel corn, one man, three horses 8.0 
 
 Platform cutter, 40-bushel corn, two men, two horses 6.0 
 
 Shocking and cutting by hand : 
 
 After binder, two men 3.6 
 
 Cut and shock by hand, one man 1.4 
 
CHAPTER 16 
 CORN SILAGE* 
 
 QILAGE aids the farmer to utilize fully the food value of the crop which 
 he produces. Corn properly stored in the silo saves more of the food 
 value of the plant than is possible by any other method. Not only is 
 there a saving in food value, but the crop may then be fed practically 
 without Avaste. Silage is very palatable and is readily eaten by almost 
 
 Silage is a cheap I'eed for fattening cattle. 
 
 all classes of farm animals, being especially well suited for cattle and 
 sheep. Silage furnishes a succulent feed in winter when greatly needed 
 and is also a valuable supplement in late summer and early fall when 
 pastures are likely to be short. When corn is harvested as silage, the 
 farmer is less dependent upon the weather and the crop is stored in a 
 smaller space and more convenient form for feed than it is possible 
 to store the same amount of corn as dry fodder. 
 
 Number of Silos 
 
 The use of silage crops dates back to the time of Caesar. The 
 Romans stored green feeds for their horses in the ground. The Germans 
 
 ♦Varieties, planting and harvesting corn for silage are discussed in 
 Chapter 15. 
 
CORN SILAGE 81 
 
 made use of silage for animal feed many centuries ago. However, silos 
 have been in use in the United States only during the last half century. 
 Since their introduction, the number has increased rapidly, until the 
 "watch towers of prosperity," as they are called, dot the entire Corn 
 Belt and the great dairy states. 
 
 There are about half a million silos in the United States, of which 
 about one-third are found in the dairy sections of Wisconsin, New York, 
 Minnesota and New England. In the dairy sections, silos are found on 
 every third or fourth farm, whereas, in the Corn Belt proper, silos are 
 found on about one farm in ten. 
 
 Kinds of Silos 
 
 There are many kinds of silos in use today, but there are onl}' two 
 general types of silos, as follows : 
 
 1. Pit silos — built partially or wholly below ground. 
 
 2. Above-ground silos — built of wood or masonry. 
 
 The first type is found only in the western edge of the Corn Belt 
 and the plains section. The second type includes nearly all the silos of 
 the Corn Belt. No attempt will be made to describe the building of 
 either type. But the desirable features of a Avell-built silo may be stated 
 as follows : 
 
 1. The walls should be as air-tight as possible. 
 
 2. The walls should be strong enough to resist the pressure of the silage. 
 
 3. The inner surface of the wall should be smooth. 
 
 4. The location and constiniction of the silo should prevent freezing. 
 
 5. It should be built to resist high winds. 
 
 6. It should be cylindrical in shape and have plenty of depth. 
 
 7. It should be convenient for filling and emptying. 
 
 S. The foundation should be durable and extend below the frost line. 
 9. A permanent silo of neat appearance adds much to the farm. 
 10. The silo should be simple in construction and low in cost. 
 
 What Silage Is 
 
 Silage is finely chopped green material packed in an air-tight recep- 
 tacle. All reference, unless otherwise noted, Avill be to corn silage, for 
 it is the common silage used. The making of silage is a fermentation 
 process, which begins as soon as the silo is filled. The following changes 
 are brought about : 
 
 1. Increase in temperature — 85 to 90 degrees F. 
 
 2. Evolution of carbonic acid gas — dangerous in pit silos. 
 
 3. Change in color — darker. 
 
 4. Aromatic odor — desirable. 
 
 5. Formation of acids — 1 to 2 per cent of weight. 
 
 (a) Lactic acid — acid of sour milk. 
 
 (b) Acetic acid — acid of vinegar. 
 
 6. Formation of alcohols — 1 to 4 per cent weight. 
 
 7. Breaking down of proteins — no loss to silage. 
 
 These changes, which are bacterial, physical and chemical, are prac- 
 tically completed at the end of two weeks, and the silage is made. Silage 
 
82 CORN AND (^ORN-GROWING 
 
 may be kei)t for year^i in a tight silo without loss of palatability or vahie. 
 However, it is important that the silajxe be weM packed and the silo 
 tight, because air permits the development of molds, which are some- 
 times poisonous, and -which quickly destroy the acids and thus allow 
 the silage to spoil. Bacteria which cause decay will not live and work 
 in the presence of lactic and acetic acids when no air is present. 
 
 Common Yields of Silage 
 
 Under average conditions, a fifty-bushel crop of corn will protluce 
 from eight to twelve tons of silage per acre. Assuming that a ton of 
 silage contains five bushels of corn, crops, yielding 30, 40, 50, 60. 80 and 
 
 Low-down racks save labor at silo-filling time. 
 
 100 bushels per acre will produce in the neighliorhood of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 
 20 tons of silage per acre, respectively. However, the variety, soil, rate 
 of planting, etc., will cause the number of bushels in a ton of silage to 
 vary from three to eight. 
 
 Culture of Corn for Silage 
 
 Most Corn Belt farmers handle corn for silage in the same way 
 that they do for grain. However, the possibilities of particular varieties, 
 increased rate of planting, and time and method of cutting corn for silage 
 are thoroughly discussed in Chapter 15. 
 
 Filling the Silo 
 
 Most of the corn fodder for the silo is hauled on ordinary racks. 
 There are some advantages in loading if a low-down rack is used. 
 The general custom is to have about seven wagons hauling, with an extra 
 
CORN SILAGE 83 
 
 man at the cutter to help unload. Bundles are laid flat on the rack, with 
 butts one way. Usually the bundles are hauled as soon as the corn 
 is cut. 
 
 The man who feeds the corn to the ensilage cutter affects very 
 directly the progress which is made. He determines the length of the 
 pieces into which the silage is cut. An important precaution is to see 
 that the knives of the cutter are sharp at all times. Two or three sets 
 of knives are maintained for most cutters, so that they may be changed 
 or re-sharpened once or twice a day. 
 
 Adequate power to drive the cutter is another pre-requisite to effi- 
 cient silo-filling, whether the sou.rce of power be a gas tractor or a steam 
 engine. A large cutter and a small engine will slow up the operations. 
 Reserve power is highly important if the cutter is to be run smoothly 
 ;m(l do the best work. 
 
 Short Lengths 
 
 31uch difference of opinion exists regarding the length to cut corn 
 for silage. Some farmers prefer one and one-half inches, while others 
 advocate cutting not over one-half inch. The longer cuts are more eco- 
 nomical of power and the silo may be filled more rapidly, but the silage 
 will not pack as closely in the silo. Therefore, it may not keep as well, 
 and in addition there is more waste in feeding. All things considered, 
 the one-half inch or three-quarter inch cut is probably the most desir- 
 al)!o. as it packs readilv and feeds out with l)ut little waste. 
 
 Distribute and Pack Well 
 
 The heavy and liglit portions of the finely-cut corn must be uni- 
 formly distributed. The heavy part of ears and stalks should not be 
 in the center or on one side, and the lighter part, such as leaves, on the 
 other side, as settling will be uneven and much spoiled silage will likely 
 result. In order that the full capacity of the silo may be utilized, and 
 at the same time insure a good quality of silage, it is essential to dis- 
 tribute the cut corn uniformly and tramp firmly all parts of the silo, 
 especially the outer edge. The work of distributing the cut corn and 
 ]->acking it is greatly facilitated by the ordinary distributor. 
 
 When a large quantity of corn is placed in a silo within a short 
 time, a considerable settling of the silage results, making it necessary 
 to refill the silo within a few days in order to utilize the full capacity 
 of the silo. Where two silos have been built side by side, filling one 
 for a day and then filling the other for a day until the two silos are 
 filled, will partially overcome the difficulty from settling. 
 
 Adding Water 
 
 If corn is cut at the proper time, good silage can be made without 
 adding water. Corn in the silo at filling time should feel moist. Briefh', 
 water should be added to corn when filling the silo under the following 
 
84 CORN AND (^ORX-GROWTXG 
 
 conditions : First, when corn is too ripe and does not pack well in the 
 silo ; second, Avhen ref illintr the silo in the late fall or winter with dry 
 shocked corn. 
 
 Preventing Waste on Top 
 
 Unless feedin<>' is commenced as soon as the silo is filled, some corn 
 at the top of the silo Avill spoil. This waste may be partly eliminated 
 in several Avays. First, level off the surface and tramp firmly. Some 
 farmers use finely cut straw or chaff from the straw stack thoroughly 
 packed and Avet down, to cover the top. Others soak the top with water 
 and sow oats. The oats sprout and make a thick covering which keeps 
 out the air and reduces the waste. Satisfactory results have come from 
 the use of tar paper spread over the surface and covered with a thin 
 layer of cut corn from which the ears have been removed. In any case, 
 it is a good plan to jiull the ears off the last load of corn wliieh is ]Mit 
 into the silo. 
 
 Opening the Silo 
 
 Corn may be fed as soon as the silo is filled, but for the first few 
 days, it is nothing but green corn finely cut. When handled in this 
 way, there is no waste on the top of the silo. During the first ten days 
 or two weeks, fermentation takes place, and the corn is gradually 
 changed to silage. When allowed to stand for a time before using, some 
 corn at the top of the silo Avill spoil and before feeding is begun this 
 spoiled layer should be removed. 
 
 Refilling the Silo 
 
 After the contents of the silo have been fed out, the silo may be re- 
 filled Avith dry shocked fodder, if it is available. Dry corn put in the 
 silo makes a very satisfactory feed, but it is not as high in value as silage 
 from corn put in at the proper stage. In refilling a silo with dry corn 
 fodder, about 250 gallons, or one ton, of Avater should be added to each 
 ton of dry fodder. The Avater may be run in the top of the bloAver Avith 
 a hose. It is not desirable to alloAV the Avater to run in one place, as 
 it Avill folloAv channels, and leaves parts of the silage practically dry, 
 resulting in much spoiled feed. Corn stover may be used in the above 
 Avay. HoAvever, its feeding value is much loAver than silage made from 
 fodder. These types of silage should be made not later than February 1. 
 
 Frosted Corn Silage 
 
 If the corn which is to be used for silage is frosted while still quite 
 immature, it is best to cut it soon after frost, to avoid loss of leaves and 
 alloAV the corn to cure out to some extent before putting it in the silo. 
 In 1915, Avhen much immature corn Avas liar\'ested for silage, many 
 farmers cut their frosted corn, cured it in the shock, and filled 
 their silos later in the season, adding Avater to facilitate the pack- 
 
CORN SILAGE 85 
 
 ing of the silage. Some of the farmers who put this kind of corn into 
 the silo immediately, found that the silage produced Avas very watery. 
 Soft corn silage is discussed in Chapter 14. 
 
 Corn Silage Versus Other Silage 
 
 As far as its content of protein and sugar is concerned, the corn 
 plant furnishes the most nearly ideal single plant material for silage. 
 Plants similar to the legumes contain too much protein material in pro- 
 portion to the sugar content. Sunflowers give a large tonnage, but a 
 coarser silage. Dairy sections in the southern Corn Belt infested with 
 the chinch bug have grown sunflowers for silage with only fair results. 
 
 Legumes, especially soy beans, have been mixed with corn for silage. 
 Ordinary corn and soy bean silage, resulting from growing the two crops 
 together in the same field, usually has ten parts of green corn to one 
 part of soy beans. The Indiana experiments indicate that the advan- 
 tage of corn and soy bean silage is more theoretical than actual. Ap- 
 parently, any slight increase in the value of the silage per ton, or in 
 the yield of the mixture per acre, is counterbalanced by the cost of the 
 soy bean seed and by the extra bother involved in handling the mixture. 
 
 Characteristics of Good Silage 
 
 In buying, feeding or judging silage, it is well to know the charac- 
 teristics of good silage. Good silage should have the following char- 
 acteristics : 
 
 1. Cut in short half-inch lengths (not long shreds). 
 
 2. Very leafy with few coarse stalks. 
 
 3. A large amount of grain in the stover. 
 
 4. Sweet and free from all molds. 
 
 5. Sharp odors of acid. 
 
 6. No odor of spoiled butter. 
 
 7. Even distribution of moisture. 
 
 8. From 60 to 74 per cent moisture. 
 
 9. Light in color. 
 10. Palatable. 
 
 Measuring and Valuing Silage 
 
 To measure silage, square the diameter and multiply by .7854, and 
 then by the depth of settled silage. This gives the number of cubic 
 feet. If not much silage has been fed out, allow 40 pounds to the cubic 
 foot. In the bottom one-third of the silo, allow 43 pounds per cubic 
 foot. A ton of average Corn Belt silage is worth the value of five bush- 
 els of corn plus 300 pounds of loose hay. 
 
CHAPTER 17 
 
 HARVESTING WITH LIVE STOCK 
 
 npHERE are three general ways of harvesting the standing corn crop 
 with live stock. Hogging-down, however, is the only common prac- 
 tice. These ways, in the order of their importance, are : 
 
 1. Harvesting with hogs — hogging-down. 
 
 2. Harvesting with sheep — sheeping-down. 
 
 3. Harvesting with cattle and horses. 
 
 Hogging-Down 
 
 Hogging-down corn is a practical and efficient way of gathering 
 the crop and feeding spring pigs which are to be finished for the early 
 winter market. Farmers who have tried it are almost unanimously 
 agreed that the method is economical and successful. The most enthu- 
 siastic hogging-down men are those who have followed the method 
 longest. Tests show that hogging-down gives as good results as dry 
 lot feeding. 
 
 Fifteen advantages of hogging-down, according to the Iowa sta- 
 tion, are : 
 
 1. Labor is saved. 
 
 2. Storage charges on corn are saved. 
 
 3. Returns are equally as good. 
 
 4. The hogs develop good constitutions. 
 
 5. No manure is lost. 
 
 6. The manure is evenly and uniformly distributed. 
 
 7. The crop is harvested without waste. 
 S. The weeds may be cleaned up. 
 
 9. Hogs may follow cattle in the field. 
 
 10. Facilitates and encourages the gathering of seed corn. 
 
 11. Poor stands of corn may be taken advantage of. 
 
 12. Under certain conditions brood sows may be run in the field. 
 
 13. Fall plowing is sometimes possible. 
 
 14. Organic plant material will be largely added. 
 
 15. Corn is harvested more quickly. 
 
 However, the practice has some drawbacks. Twelve disadvantages, 
 according to the Iowa station, are : 
 
 1. Hardens the soil if pastured when wet. 
 
 2. Some waste of corn in wet weather. 
 
 3. A loss of stover. 
 
 4. Difficulty of fencing. 
 
 5. Brood sows and gilts get too fat. 
 
 6. Takes extra care to turn hogs into new corn. 
 
 7. Heavy hogs may waste some corn. 
 
 8. Hogs do not gain well after hogging-down. 
 
HARVESTING WITH LIVE STOCK 87 
 
 9. Likelihood of neglecting hogs. 
 
 10. More liable to sickness. 
 
 11. Stalks are hard to plow under. 
 
 12. Several minor disadvantages. 
 
 Variety of Corn to Use 
 
 The highest yielding corn which is adapted to the locality is the 
 variety to use for hogging-down. The hogging-doAvn season may be 
 lengthened by having a small field of an early variety of corn on which 
 to turn the hogs early in the fall. In the North, hogging-down is the 
 only practical way of harvesting short-stalked varieties such as the early 
 flints. Sweet corn does not produce as much pork as field corn, because 
 it does not yield so well. 
 
 The Principle to Follow 
 
 The Iowa station says that hogs can gather their own corn to ad- 
 vantage by making efficient use of the grain eaten as they carry on 
 their labor-saving and fattening campaign. However, results show that 
 in the corn field, as in the dry lot or in the pasture, the same general 
 principles of nutrition govern the hogs' appetites, digestion assimila- 
 tion, growth and fattening. It is necessary to know where the protein 
 is coming from to grow the pigs. Although corn field weeds, such as 
 purslane, lamb's quarter, pigweed and morning-glory, furnish some 
 protein, the average hog is in need of more bone and muscle-building 
 material than he can get in the corn field. Some means should be pro- 
 vided to supply supplements to the corn crop. 
 
 Supplements Necessary 
 
 Tankage or some other supplement furnishing high quality protein 
 equally cheaply, should be fed when hogging-down a field of corn. It 
 seems to be far more important to feed tankage than to grow soy beans 
 or rape with the corn. And even though a stand is obtained of the soy 
 beans or rape, it is still advisable to use the tankage. "Weaver, of the 
 IMissouri station, gives the following average results for hogging-down 
 corn and soy beans, with and without tankage, during the years 1919, 
 1920 and 1921 : 
 
 Hogging-down corn (courtesy of Iowa Station). 
 
88 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 Table IX 
 
 Weight (in pounds) and Yield (in bushels) 
 
 Hogs in lot I 15 
 
 Days fed 
 
 Average initial weight 
 
 Average final weight 
 
 Total gain 
 
 Average daily gain per head 
 
 Tankage, total 
 
 Average daily tankage per head. 
 
 Tankage per pound of gain 
 
 Yield of corn 
 
 Yield of soy beans — seed 
 
 34.9 
 3.39 
 
 43.06 
 
 Rape, soy beans, eowpeas (in the southern Corn Belt), pumpkins 
 and rye are grown in the corn field for hogging-down. The value and 
 the method of planting these crops in the corn field are discussed in 
 Chapter 18. Hogs running in the corn field will utilize the corn to 
 better advantage and require less tankage if they may run on a clover, 
 alfalfa, rape or blue grass pasture adjoining the corn field. 
 
 Other Essentials 
 
 It is essential that the hogs be put on a full feed of corn before 
 being turned into the corn field. It is a good practice to feed green 
 corn fodder with the old corn so that the hogs will get accustomed to 
 their new ration. The feeding of oats will help somewhat in counter- 
 acting the laxative effects of feeding the green corn. If the hogs come 
 in at night, feed them some old corn before turning them out in the 
 morning. 
 
 Hogs do better when an abundance of water and shade are pro- 
 vided. Clean, clear tile water is good if the land from which it comes 
 is free from cholera and other contagious infection. Clear creeks of 
 known source and fresh springs are good drinking places for hogs. The 
 ordinary barrel water works well in most places. The value of plenty 
 of clean, fresh water for hogs in the corn field can not be over-empha- 
 sized. 
 
 Carrying Capacity of Corn 
 
 Usually the field should be fenced, so that small areas may be 
 harvested at a time. It is well to hog-off an area in three weeks, and 
 better in two weeks. Spring shotes weighing 90 to 130 pounds are 
 desirable for hogging-down corn. According to the IMinnesota station, 
 it will require the following number of days to hog off an acre of corn 
 with 125-pound pigs : 
 
HARVESTING WITH LIVE STOCK 
 
 89 
 
 Table X 
 
 
 Approximate No. of Days 
 
 Number of Pigs Weighing 125 Pounds 
 
 0/ 
 
 u 
 
 t 
 
 il 
 
 22.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 5.6 
 
 y 
 
 i 
 Ji 
 
 30.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 O 
 
 is 
 
 37.5 
 
 18.7 
 
 9.3 
 
 « 
 
 0) 
 
 le 
 
 §8 
 
 45.0 
 22.5 
 11.2 
 
 0) 
 
 Is 
 
 ?8 
 
 10 
 
 52.5 
 
 ''O 
 
 26.2 
 
 40 
 
 14.1 
 
 
 
 Sheeping-Down Corn 
 
 The practice of turning lambs into the corn field at the rate of 
 .six or seven per acre, to clean up weeds and the lower leaves of corn, 
 is a good one. Turning in twenty to forty lambs per acre to harvest 
 the corn crop is more doubtful, for the reason that the lambs are ready 
 to go back to market at the time when the fat lamb market is usually 
 low, and, moreover, there is often some death loss when the lambs first 
 start to eating corn. 
 
 In the latter practice, all of the essentials, such as providing proper 
 forage, water, shelter, fencing, salt, the right kind of animals, and proper 
 management are similar and equally as important for sheep as for hogs. 
 It is profitable to have additional pasture and forage outside of the 
 
 Sheeping-down corn. 
 
 corn field for the lambs. Plenty of rough feed should be supplied so 
 that the lambs will not eat too much corn. The same forages, soy beans, 
 cowpeas or rape, as sown in the corn field for hogs, may be used for 
 sheeping-down. At the Nebraska station, they found it advisable to 
 feed the average lamb in the corn field one-fourth of a pound of oil meal 
 daily. 
 
 Thrifty lambs, weighing from 45 to 60 pounds, are desirable ani- 
 mals for sheeping doAvn corn. Older sheep are all right if not too de- 
 
90 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 fective in the teeth to eat corn readily. The feeders should be started 
 slowly on the corn to keep doAvn scours and bloat. Extreme precaution 
 and common sense should be used in turniuo- the lambs into the corn 
 field. 
 
 Lambs turned in the corn field late in September will gain from 
 tAvelve to twenty pounds per head in a feeding period of from two to 
 three months. During the feeding period the lambs will harvest one 
 or two bushels of corn each, depending on the amount of supplementary 
 feed. Small areas should be sheeped-doAvn and the lambs moved before 
 they have to hunt for feed. Shotes running with the lambs or turned 
 in the field afterwards will clean up the corn left by the lambs. 
 
 Harvesting With Horses and Cattle 
 
 Horses and cattle may be used to harvest the corn from the stand- 
 ing stalks in the field. However, the disadvantages of packed soil, waste 
 and fencing difficulties, are more pronounced than in hogging-down. 
 This method of harvesting is not a widespread practice, and is not used 
 except in case of very cheap corn when husking is high-priced or labor 
 is difficult to get. It is better to husk the corn fairly clean and turn in 
 the horses and cattle to pasture the stalks and clean up the corn remain- 
 ing in the field. 
 
CHAPTER 18 
 
 COMPANION CROPS FOR CORN 
 
 /^CCASIONALLY, other crops are grown with corn to balance the 
 corn ration for animals and to utilize the ground better. It is doubt- 
 ful if the returns warrant either reason. At any rate, there are many 
 essentials and precautions to keep in mind in order to get the most out 
 of an acre of corn and to feed the crop profitably. 
 
 The crops ordinaril.y planted with corn are soy beans, rape, cowpeas 
 (in the southern Corn Belt), and sometimes pumpkins. Clover and rye 
 have been sown in corn just before the last cultivation of the corn, with 
 varj^ing success. Usually, the lack of moisture causes i)Oor results and 
 makes it a poor practice. The crop sown with corn should be well 
 adapted to the locality and add more to the combination than it takes 
 away. 
 
 Soy Beans 
 
 Soy beans are a comparatively new crop in America, especially in 
 the Corn Belt. Trials during the last twenty years have shown the 
 crop to have a wide range of adaptation, including all the corn and cot- 
 ton lands of the country. The seeds are four times as rich in protein 
 and fat as shelled corn. 
 
 The most popular use of soy beans in the Corn Belt is for planting 
 with corn for hogging-down or for silage. Over 70 per cent of the soy 
 beans grown in the Corn Belt are planted with corn for hogging-down. 
 The beans are planted at the same time as the corn. They are erect- 
 growing annuals which do not interfere with the growth of corn or 
 with cultivation. The cost of cultivation is not increased by the addi- 
 tion of the beans, and the feeding value of the corn is improved. There 
 is no real difficulty in handling the beans with corn for silage. 
 
 Effect of Yield on Corn 
 When sown at the ordinary rate of three beans with three kernels 
 of corn per hill, most experiment stations agree that there is some re- 
 duction in yield of corn. Practical farmers, however, .seem to be of one 
 opinion, that the total feeding value of the crop is increased. The 
 amount of the decrease in the corn yield will depend almost entirely 
 upon the amount of moisture and plant food available for the crop. If 
 there is sufficient of each for both crops, little decrease in the yield of 
 corn can be noticed, but if the crop is struck by drouth, the corn will 
 suffer before the beans. 
 
 Method of Planting 
 
 The most practical method of planting beans with corn is to place 
 the beans in the hills of corn at the same time the corn is planted. This 
 
92 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 is best accomplished by means of a bean attachment for the planter, 
 which is operated by the check wire the same as the corn planter. It 
 is also possible to drill corn and drill beans at the same time, or to check 
 corn and drill beans between the hills. The latter method has given 
 greater yields of both corn and beans than hills of corn and beans to- 
 gether, but there are disadvantages in the cultivation of such a planting. 
 Beans and corn may be mixed and planted from the corn planter box, 
 but this is not so satisfactorj', as an uneven stand of corn often results 
 because the beans settle to the bottom of the planter box faster than the 
 corn. Practical farmers, by adding a handful or so of beans on top of 
 the corn at each round, can overcome this objection to some extent. 
 
 Rate of Seeding 
 
 About three beans per hill of corn should be planted. The greater 
 the number of beans per hill, the greater the reduction in the yield of 
 corn. 
 
 If three beans are planted per hill, the pounds of beans required for 
 each acre are as follows : 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Manchu (large seed) 5.0 
 
 Medium green (large seed) 5.0 
 
 Ito San (medium seed) 3.5 
 
 Chestnut (medium seed) 3.5 
 
 Ebony (medium seed) 3.5 
 
 Midwest (medium to small seed) 3.0 
 
 Peking (small seed) 2.0 
 
 One bushel of beans, therefore, will plant from twelve to thirty 
 acres, depending on the size of the beans. 
 
 Varieties 
 
 The several hundred varieties of soy beans are as different as are 
 varieties of corn, and much of the success in soy bean growing depends 
 upon the choice of the proper variety. To be planted with corn, a 
 variety must be chosen that will ripen with the variety of corn that is 
 used as the companion crop. For silage and sheeping-down, a later 
 variety may be used, but for hogging-down the soy bean variety should 
 be matured when the hogs are turned in. The early varieties, like Ito 
 San and Chestnut, rij^en readily in the most northern states. The mid- 
 .season kinds, like Peking, INIanchu and IMedium Green, mature in the 
 Corn Belt. 
 
 Inoculation 
 
 Inoculation is an important factor on most Corn Belt soils. The 
 inoculation of the seed or soil is simply applying some substance that 
 is known to carry live bacteria. On fields that have grown a successful 
 crop of soy beans during the past three or four years, the bacteria are 
 usually present in .sufficient numbers. On other fields, they should be 
 supplied in order to insure maximum yields. Inoculation, however, is 
 not absolutely necessary for the production of a crop. 
 
COMPANION CROPS FOR CORN 
 
 93 
 
 There are various methods of inoculation. An easy method is to 
 use soil from a field that has grown a successful crop of soy beans dur- 
 ing the previous year. Dry it in a shadj^ place and when the soil is 
 dry enough to sieve through a piece of screen wire, spread the seed about 
 two or three inches deep on a clean place. Make a solution of one-half 
 
 Soy beans in corn furnish green feed rich in protein. 
 
 cup of sugar to one quart of hot water for each bushel of beans. When 
 the solution is cool, sprinkle it over the beans to make them sticky. Sift 
 the soil uniformly over the moist beans. After drying a few hours, the 
 beans are ready to plant. 
 
 In case no inoculated soil is at hand, commercial cultures may be 
 used with good results. These cultures may be purchased from any 
 seed house. The method of application is essentially the same as the 
 one mentioned, except that hot water must not be used. Directions for 
 the use of commercial cultures always accompany the package and have 
 l)een found to be reliable. Care should be taken not to wet the beans 
 to such an extent that the seed coats will swell enough to break. 
 
 Rape 
 
 Rape is closely related to cabbage, turnips and rutabagas. The seed, 
 the root system and the smooth, large, succulent leaves resemble those 
 
94 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 of cabbage, but there is no tendency to form a head. The plant urows 
 two feet tall under average conditions, and on rich, moist soil will grow 
 three or more feet in height. 
 
 Rape is one of the most valuable pasture crops which can be seeded 
 in the corn at the last cultivation, and is more valuable than soy beans 
 in corn, if a stand can be obtained. However, because of lack of mois- 
 ture, a stand of rape in corn about twice in every five 3'ears, is all that 
 may be expected. But since rape seed rarely costs more than 13 cents 
 a pound, and the total cost of seeding will not exceed 75 cents an acre, 
 farmers can afford to seed rape annually with the expectancy of get- 
 ting stands twice out of five years. The corn and rape growth can be 
 harvested profitably by hogging down or Ity pasturin-z' with sheep in 
 the fall. The leafy plants also tend to shade the ground sufficiently to 
 keep the land free of weeds. Rape has little effect on the yield of corn 
 in the average year, reducing the corn yield about one-half bushel. 
 
 Method of Planting 
 
 The seed is generally scattered with a hand seeder at the rate of 
 three to five pounds per acre, immediately preceding the last cultiva- 
 tion, which should be shallow. It may be sown a little later with a one- 
 horse drill, but the delay in time of seeding and the additional labor 
 are objections which jirobably more than offset the advantage of pro- 
 viding a more uniform distribution and covering of the seed. The suc- 
 cess of late seedings depends largely on the rainfall during July and 
 August. 
 
 Varieties 
 
 There are two types of rape, the winter or biennial and the summer 
 or annual. The biennial kind lives two years where the winters are 
 extremely mild, as in the South and on the Pacific coast, but in the Gorn 
 Belt the plants are killed by hard freezes in late fall, so it is necessary 
 to make new seedings every year. The summer or annual type, which 
 is also known as "bird-seed" rape, produces seed the first season, but 
 the plants do not make sufficient growth to be of value for forage. The 
 winter or biennial kind, usually known as Dwarf Essex rape, is tlic o:i\v 
 one recojumended for Corn Belt seeding. 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 In the southern Corn Belt and in the South, the cowpeas make a 
 good growth when ]ilanted with corn. The crop requires more heat than 
 corn and is not grown to any extent north of the southern line of Iowa. 
 Many of the things said about soy beans apply to cowpeas. However, 
 the cowpea is a vining plant and not erect-growing like the soy bean. 
 Cowpeas succeed on poorer soils better than soy beans. They should 
 not be planted until the soil is thoroughly warm. Similarly to soy beans, 
 the crop may be sown with corn in one operation with the ordinary corn 
 planter. Broadcasted in the corn and covered at the last cultivation. 
 
COMPANION CROPS FOR CORN 95 
 
 they should be sown about one bushel to the acre. If cowpeas have 
 been grown in a locality for a long- time, inoculation will not be neces- 
 sary. The Whippoorwill. New Era and Iron are common varieties. 
 
 Pumpkins 
 
 According to the Iowa exj^eriment station, pumpkins are often 
 used to advantage with corn. The seed is planted in either missing 
 hills or adjacent to every third hill. Corn planters are now available 
 with a pumpkin seed attachment. On a fertile soil the pumpkins do 
 not seriously interfere with the corn crop and are an added source of 
 revenue, yielding from two to three tons per acre. 
 
 Many of the canning factories are ready to contract for this crop in 
 the spring- at a specified price, or it may be fed to the stock. From two 
 to three tons per acre is a common yield, depending on the severity of 
 injury from the bugs when the plants are small and an adequate moisture 
 supply when the pumpkins are filling out. 
 
 Other Crops 
 
 Clovers, alfalfa and rye have been sown in corn just before the last 
 cultivation of the crop, with varying success. Usually the lack of mois- 
 ture causes poor results. It is not a widespread practice and is not 
 recommended. IMany other crops may be sown with corn, but usually 
 to no advantage. 
 
CHAPTER 19 
 
 FEEDING CORN TO LIVE STOCK 
 
 r^ORN is the basis of the live stock grain ration in the Corn Belt, for 
 it is (1) plentiful, (2) easily obtained, (3) comparatively cheap, 
 (4) palatable to all classes of live stock, (5) high in carbohydrates, and 
 (6) low in crude fiber. Corn is a carbohydrate or starchy feed, rich 
 in energy, fat and heat-forming material, but it is low in protein and 
 ash — bone and muscle-building material. The protein which the kernel 
 does contain is inefficient and unbalanced. About 58 per cent of the 
 protein is zein, which lacks some of the amino acids necessary for animal 
 growth. 
 
 Composition of Corn 
 
 The average percentage composition of some of the common carbo- 
 hydrate grains, as given by Henry and Morrison, is as follows : 
 
 Table XI 
 
 Grain 
 
 Dent Corn No. 3. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 Rye 
 
 
 
 'S 
 o 
 
 Carboh 
 
 ydrates 
 
 
 
 
 ja 
 
 3 
 
 
 W 
 fc 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 U 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 16.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 66.11 
 
 10.2 
 
 1.9 
 
 12.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 71.2i 
 
 9.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 12.4 
 
 10.9 
 
 59.61 
 
 9.3 
 
 2.7 
 
 11.5 
 
 4.6 
 
 69.81 
 
 1 9.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 11.8 
 
 l.S 
 
 73.2 
 
 4.7 
 2.1 
 4.4 
 2.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 It will be noted in Table XI that corn, wheat and rye each contain 
 about 2 per cent fiber, whereas barley contains more than twice as much 
 fiber as corn, and oats contain five or six times as much. In the case of 
 hogs, each 1 per cent of excess fiber lowers the feeding value by 5 per 
 cent. Fiber is not so important with horses and cattle, and for this 
 rea.son oats are much more efficiently utilized by this class of live stock 
 than by hogs. 
 
 The following table from ''Feeds and Feeding," by Henry and Mor- 
 rison, shows the average digestible nutrients and the nutritive ratio of 
 the common grains : 
 
FEEDING CORN TO LIVE STOCK 
 Table XII 
 
 97 
 
 Dent Corn No. 3. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 <v 
 
 
 cc 
 
 CL 
 
 rt 
 
 c 
 
 q; 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 -S-s 
 
 S£ 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 2R 
 
 ^-Z 
 
 Fat 
 
 Nut 
 rati 
 
 b^-a 
 
 U ft 
 
 Ox: 
 
 83.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 63.3| 
 
 4.3| 1:10.4 
 
 S9.8 
 
 9.2 
 
 67.51 
 
 1.5| 1: 7.7 
 
 90.6| 9.9| 68.4| 
 
 1.2| 1: 7.2 
 
 90.81 9.7| 52.11 
 
 3.8| 1: 6.2 
 
 90.7| 
 
 9.0 
 
 66.8| 
 
 1.61 1: 7.8 
 
 Value of Corn as a Feed 
 
 Corn is the premier feed for fattenin<i- live stock. It also holds 
 a prominent place in the rations for breedin"- and orowino' stock, but 
 it is especially necessary with such animals to supplement the corn with 
 feeds rich in protein and mineral matter. 
 
 In chemical composition, different colors of corn are the same. 
 However, the feeder has always noticed that live stock prefer yellow 
 
 Half the corn of the Corn Belt is fed to hogs 
 
 corn. Experiments at the Wisconsin station indicate that yellow corn 
 contains Vitamin A, which i.s lacking- in white corn. Flint corn is hard- 
 er than dent corn, and may be more difficult for live stock to eat. An 
 experiment at the Illinois station indicated that hogs would eat about 
 four pounds per day of Democrat corn (a hard corn, but not a flint) ; 
 whereas, of Silvermine (a moderately hard corn) they would eat about 
 five pounds. Moreover, the hogs required about 8 per cent less of the 
 softer Silvermine to produce 100 pounds of gain than they did of the 
 somewhat harder Democrat. 
 
98 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 The following: table gives the comparative values of corn and other 
 feeds based on chemical analj'ses, as given in Table I of Henry and ]\Ior- 
 rison's "Feeds and Feeding," when nitrogen-free extract (starch) is 
 valued at 1.2 cents per pound, fat at 3 cents a pound, and protein at 5 
 cents a pound. 
 
 Table XIII 
 
 GRAINS Value Per Bu. 
 
 Corn, No. 3 $ .78 
 
 Oats 47 
 
 Barley 71 
 
 Rye 85 
 
 Wheat 92 
 
 Soy beans 1.60 
 
 *ROUGHAGE Value Per Ton 
 
 Clover Hav 24.00 
 
 Timothy 18.40 
 
 Alfalfa 25.20 
 
 Oat Straw 14.80 
 
 COMMERCIAL FEEDS 
 
 Bran 31.60 
 
 Shorts 34.00 
 
 Hominy Feed 30.80 
 
 Oil Meal (old process) 47.00 
 
 tCottonseed meal (39 per cent) 51.40 
 
 Tankage (60 per cent) 65.80 
 
 Gluten Feed 40.40 
 
 Soy Bean Oil Meal 54.20 
 
 Corn Oil Cake Meal 40.20 
 
 Barley, wheat and rye, if they are to have a feeding value a; h'lr'.i 
 in relation to corn as indicated in this table, must be ground. 
 
 In years of large corn crops, it may be advisable to value the nitro- 
 gen-free extract at 1 cent a pound or even less, Avhereas protein may still 
 be worth 5 cents a pound. It is necessary, therefore, to re-calculate this 
 table if it is to fit changing conditions from year to year. 
 
 No animal can make satisfactory growth on corn alone. In the 
 case of hogs, the bone and muscle-building material in which corn is 
 lacking may be supplied b}^ small amounts of tankage, oil meal, dairy 
 by-products, pasture, or alfalfa or clover hay. With cattle and sheep, 
 oil meal, cottonseed meal, clover hay, alfalfa hay, or pasture most com- 
 monly supply the necessary ]')rotein and mineral matter. 
 Importance in Feeding Operations 
 
 Eighty- per cent of the corn crop is fed to live stock. In growing 
 corn, therefore, it should constantly be kept in mind that live stock, in 
 all probability, will be the final market. The outstanding problem of 
 the Corn Belt is to obtain the greatest po.ssible number of pounds of 
 live stock from each acre of land at the least expenditure of human 
 labor. Any step forward which results in the economic production of 
 more bushels of corn per acre is fundamental to solving this problem. 
 
 *When digestibility is taken into account, these hay values are about 15 
 per cent too high. 
 
 tFeeding tests indicate that cottonseed meal is worth only about 85 per 
 cent as much as the chemical analysis value used above. 
 
CHAPTER 20 
 
 MARKETING CORN 
 
 y^BOUT 250,000,000 bushels aniiuallr, or 15 to 20 per cent of the Corn 
 
 Belt production, passes through such large primary corn markets 
 
 as Chicago. Omaha, Peoria, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Kansas City. 
 
 CORN SOLD OR TO BE SOLD 
 1919 
 
 Alost of the corn whicli comes on the terminal markets originates in central 
 Illinois, northwestern Iowa and eastern Nebraska. (Courtesy of United 
 States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 Chicago is outstandingly the largest of these primary markets, normally 
 receiving over 100,000,000 bushels annually, or as much as any other 
 four markets put together. Northern Iowa, central Illinois and eastern 
 Nebraska furnish over half of the corn which is received by the primary 
 corn markets. 
 
 From Farm to Local Elevator 
 
 In north-central Iowa, the typical method of handling the corn 
 which is- eventually sold at Chicago is described in the following : The 
 farmer hauls his corn, either shelled or on the ear, to the local elevator, 
 ^lost progressive farmers who have any large quantity of corn to sell 
 ]irefer to shell at home, because they can haul a larger load of shelled 
 corn. Moreover, they have the cobs to burn, and as a rule the elevator 
 will pay them a cent or two a bushel more for shelled corn than for ear 
 
100 
 
 CORX AND C'OKX GKOWIXG 
 
 corn. Tlu' cost of haulinu' corn four or five miles is about four cents 
 a bushel when man lalior is 25 cents an hour and horse labor 18 cents 
 an hour. 
 
 In November, December and early January, many elevators run a 
 moisture test on the corn which they buy, especially in soft corn years. 
 While the local elevators do not usually buy corn on grade from the 
 farmers, it is necessary at the start of each season for them to deter- 
 mine about how the typical corn in their respective communities will 
 tirade. If thev find, as Iowa elevators found in December of 1917, that 
 
 Hauling corn. 
 
 most of the corn is 22 to 26 per cent moisture, they know that it will 
 g-rade either as Xo. 6 or Sample grade on the Chicago market. T]i(\v 
 therefore ]^ay the farmers the Chicago price for Sample grade corn minus 
 frei'jht to Chicauo and the cost and risk of handling. 
 
 Price Differential Between Corn on Iowa Farms and at Chicago 
 
 In the ordinary year, new corn in northern Iowa in December con- 
 tains less than 19.3 per cent moisture, which i)ermits it to grade as Xo. 4. 
 As a rule, therefore, Iowa elevators during the early winter i)ay tlic 
 Chicago price for X"o. 4 corn minus freight and handling charges. The 
 freight from north-central Iowa to Chicago previous to June 25, 1918, 
 was about seven cents a bushel. The rate was then raised until it 
 reached 13 cents a bushel during the latter part of 1920 and during 
 1921. During 1922 and 1923, the rate has been 10.5 cents a bushel. It 
 cost the ordinarv countrv elevator about three cents a bushel to handle 
 
MARKETING COKX 
 
 101 
 
 corn previous to 193 7, and about 4.5 cents a l)ushel witli costs as they 
 have prevailed durin<>' 1922 and 1928. This means that before the war 
 the north-central Iowa elevator during the early winter usually paid 
 the farmers for corn the Chicago price for No. 4 corn less seven cents 
 for freight and three cents for handling. In other words, with Chicago 
 No. 4 corn at 60 cents a bushel, the north-central Iowa elevator paid 
 .")() cents. 
 
 In the summer-time, when the moisture content in farm corn 
 dropped to less than 15.5 per cent and it would, therefore, grade as 
 No. 2 instead of No. 4 on the Chicago market, the north-central Iowa 
 elevator would pay the farmers about 10 cents below the Chicago price 
 for No. 2 corn. Dtiring 1922 and 1923, the standard differential be- 
 t\veen Chicago corn prices and prices paid by north-central Iowa ele- 
 vators has been 10.5 cents (the freight rate) plits 4.5 cents (the handling 
 
 Tyi^ical country elevator. 
 
 charge), or a total of 15 cents. At times some other market may bid 
 more for Iowa corn than Chicago, and in stteh case Iowa farmers may 
 get for their corn a price within eight cents a bushel for corn of the 
 same grade at Chicago. This is rather ttnusual, however, and is a result 
 as a rttle of corn shortage in ]\[issouri, Kansas and Texas, which causes a 
 strong temporary movement of Iowa corn sottthward. 
 
 Types of Country Elevators 
 
 There are three kinds of country elevators — independent, line and 
 farmers' co-operative. The independent elevator is tisitally owned by 
 a wealthy man in a small town who has an extensive accptaintance with 
 farmers. Bankers, lumber dealers and feed dealers seem especially like- 
 ly to embark on this line of business. 
 
102 COPxX AXD CORX-GROWIXd 
 
 The Federal Trade Commission reports that of over 9,000 eoiieerns 
 handling- grain at eonntry stations in 1918, from which rejiorts wev 
 secured, 36 per cent Avere commercial line elevators, 19.49 per cent were 
 farmers' co-operatives, and 31.62 per cent were commercial independ- 
 ents. The local mills accounted for most of the balance. In several 
 of the grain states, where there is a keen interest in co-operative mar- 
 keting, the percentage of farmers' elevators is much higher than the 
 general average of the country as reported by the Federal Trade Commis- 
 sion. For instance, Iowa's percentage of co-operative elevators was 
 estimated at 32.6 in 1921. It should be noted also that the average farm- 
 ers' elevator does business on a bigger scale than either of the other tyi^^s. 
 It buys annually on the average nearly twice the volume of the line 
 elevator and about one-half more than the average independent. Ordi- 
 narily, an elevator should handle 100,000 bushels of grain annually if 
 it is to do business on an economical basis. 
 
 Previous to 1900. many of the line elevators profiteered unmerci- 
 fully, at the expense of their farmer patrons, and did all in their power 
 to prevent the formation of co-operative elevators. Since 1910, the 
 different types of elevators seem to have been doing business on about 
 the same margin, with the tendency in favor of the co-operative elevators 
 in years of rising prices, and oftentimes in favor of the line or inde- 
 pendent elevators in years of falling prices. 
 
 Two Ways in Which Country Elevators May Sell Grain at Chicago 
 
 Country elevators may ship their grain to Chicago as fast as they 
 are able to fill the cars, or they may ship a little more leisurely and 
 protect themselves against a decline in the market by '' hedging "" (sell- 
 ing short as many bushels of corn for future delivery as they have bought 
 from the farmers). If the elevator does not take out any price insur- 
 ance in the form of "hedge" sales, it will make a speculative profit above 
 expectations in case the Chicago market advances before the car gets to 
 it. On the other hand, there may be a speculative loss if the market 
 falls. This speculative ri.sk becomes very great in years of car shortage, 
 which may cause the la])se of several AAceks between the time the corn is 
 purchased from the farmer and the time it is sold at Chicago. 
 
 When an elevator deals only in cash grain without any "hedge" 
 insurance, it is necessary to pay about $2 a car (about one-seventh of a 
 cent per bushel) for brokerage and miscellaneous charges. If, how- 
 ever, an elevator takes out "hedge" insurance by .selling "future" corn 
 at the time the purchase is made from the farmers, it is necessary to 
 pay about one-fourth of a cent per bushel in addition for the insurance. 
 
 The method of hedging is illustrated in the following: An elevator 
 is buying corn on February 20, which it expects to ship sometime in 
 March. May future corn, which is the nearest future, is quoted at 72 
 cents and the cash No. 3 corn is 66 cents. The elevator knows it must 
 buy corn from farmers at 15 cents below Chicago price for same grade, 
 
MAKKETIXG CORN 
 
 103 
 
 and it therefore i^ays 51 cents for 1,115 bushels of corn, ^vhicli is all 
 that is offered to it that day. The same day it wires a commission com- 
 pany at Chicago to sell 1,000 bushels of May corn at 72 cents (the 6-cent 
 difference between the February cash No. 3 corn price and the May 
 future is in part caused by contract future corn being No. 2 and in part 
 by the two or three months' storage charges). When the corn is finally 
 received in Chicago, on March 10, the price of the May future may be 65 
 cents and the cash No. 3 corn 59 cents. In that case, the elevator in 
 buying back its paper contract on ]\rarch 10, makes a profit of seven 
 cents a bushel, which enables it to meet the loss on the cash corn. On 
 the other hand, an advance to 80 cents for May future and 74 cents for 
 No. 3 cash will result in a loss of eight cents a bushel on the paper corn, 
 which counteracts the gain of eight cents on the actual corn. In either 
 case, the net result is that the elevator gets for its corn a price about 
 equivalent to what it paid the farmers on February 20. 
 
 The theory of "hedging" is beautiful, and the practice is fairly 
 good. Unfortunately, some elevator managers succumb to the tempta- 
 tion to buy and sell paper grain above what is needed for purely "hedg- 
 ing" purposes. In a few cases, also, the cash grain and future grain 
 markets do not maintain the sympathetic relation toward each other 
 which is neces.sary if "hedging" is to be perfect price insurance. 
 
 The four futures commonly dealt with on the Chicago market are 
 May, July, September and December. The smallest unit of paper grain 
 customarily handled is 1,000 bushels. Commission firms charge one- 
 fourth of a cent per bushel, or $2.50 for 1,000 bushels, for the sale and 
 purcha.se. In addition, it is necessary to put up with commission firms 
 10 cents a bushel, or $100 for 1,000 bushels, to serve as margin to pro- 
 tect the commission company in case the corn goes down before the deal 
 
 Mcisture tester used in rleterminin.s; corn grades, both by country elevators 
 and at primary markets. 
 
104 
 
 rOKX AND COKX-0 ROWING 
 
 is closed. "Hedging"' can be made really useful by elevator managers, 
 especially -when they are unable to ship promptly, and the tendency of 
 the market seems downAvard. In the case of line elevators, " hedginji' ' " 
 is usually taken care of from a central office. ]\Iany co-operatives do 
 not hedge at all, partly because they fear their managers may speculate 
 on the side and partly because they do not understand the advantages. 
 
 The Grain Act, which was passed by Congress in 1922, gives the 
 United States Department of Agriculture power to designate certain 
 markets as contract markets where futures may be traded in. Regula- 
 tions may also be prescribed with the idea of making it possible for the 
 future grain prices to register actual changes in supply and demand 
 conditions rather than mere speculative raids and corners. It is to be 
 assumed, therefore, that the Grain Act may make it possible to use the 
 Chicago market for "hedging" purposes with greater safety than would 
 otherwise be the case. 
 
 Handling Cash Grain at Chicago 
 
 Grain cars, when they reach Chicago, are switched onto grain tracks, 
 where they are examined by state grain inspectors. Samples of grain 
 are taken from each ear, and these samples are taken to a grain grading 
 room, where the percentage of moisture is ascertained and the corn is 
 given a definite grade on the basis of the Federal Shelled Corn Stan- 
 dards, as set forth in the following : 
 
 Table XIV — Grade Requirements for White, Yellow and Mixed Corn 
 
 
 
 Maximum Limits of 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S ■~: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a g 
 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 Si 
 
 "S c 
 
 Grade 
 
 5-H 
 
 2? 
 5S 
 
 11 = 
 
 S2i 
 
 
 
 
 .s ^ 
 
 Mois 
 (per 
 
 <li ^ u 
 
 o a a 
 
 $ a 
 
 x2 
 
 No. 1 
 
 55 
 
 14.0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 .0 
 
 No. 2 
 
 53 
 
 15.5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .1 
 
 No. 3 : 
 
 51 
 
 17.5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 .3 
 
 No. 4 
 
 49 
 47 
 
 19.5 
 21.5 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 ^ 
 
 No. 5 
 
 1.0 
 
 No. 6 
 
 44 
 
 23.0 
 
 71 
 
 15 
 
 3.0 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sample grade shall be white corn, or yellow corn, or mixed corn, respec- 
 tively, which does not come within the requirements of any of the grades from 
 No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive, or which has any commercially objectionable foreign 
 odor, or is heating, hot, infested with live weevils or other insects injurious to 
 stored grain, or is otherwise of distinctly low quality. 
 
 The corn in Grades Nos. 1 to 5, inclusive, shall be cool and sweet. 
 
 The corn in Grade No. 6 shall be cool, but may be musty or sour. 
 
IMARKETIXG CORN 105 
 
 Definitions 
 
 For the purposes of the official j>rain standards of the United States 
 for shelled corn (maize) : 
 
 Corn— Corn shall be shelled corn of the flint or dent varieties. 
 
 Basis of Determinations— Each determination of color, damage and 
 heat damage shall be upon the basis of the grain after the removal of 
 foreign material and cracked corn as provided in the section defining 
 foreign material and cracked corn. All other determinations shall be 
 u])on the basis of the grain, including such foreign material and cracked 
 corn. 
 
 Percentages— Percentages, except in the ease of moisture, shall l)e 
 percentages ascertained by weight. 
 
 Percentage of Moisture— Percentage of moisture in corn shall be 
 ascertained by the moisture tester and the method of use thereof de- 
 scribed in Circular No. 72 and supplement thereto, issued by the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, or ascer- 
 tained by any device and method giving equivalent results. 
 
 Test AVeight Per Bushel— Test weight per bushel shall be the weight 
 per Winchester bushel as determined by the testing apparatus and the 
 method of use thereof described in Bulletin No. 472, dated October 30. 
 1916. issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, or as deter- 
 mined by any device and method giving equivalent results. 
 
 Foreign Material and Cracked Corn— Foreign material and cracked 
 corn shall be kernels and pieces of kernels of corn, and all matter other 
 than corn, which will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round 
 holes twelve sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, and all matter other 
 than corn remaining on such sieve after screening. 
 
 Heat-Damaged Kernels— Heat-damaged kernels shall be kernels and 
 l)ieces of kernels of corn which have been distinctly discolored by ex- 
 ternal heat or as a result of heating caused by fermentation. 
 
 The market corn is also divided into classes on the basis of color. 
 
 as follows : 
 
 AVhite Corn— This class shall consist of corn of which at least 9S 
 per cent by weight of the kernels are white. A slight tinge of light straw 
 color or of pink on kernels of corn otherwise white shall not affect their 
 classification as white corn. 
 
 Yellow Corn— This class shall consist of corn of which at least 95 
 ]ier cent by weight of the kernels are yellow. A slight tinge of red on 
 kernels of corn otherwise yellow shall not affect their classification as 
 yellow corn. 
 
 Mixed Corn— This class shall consist of corn of various colors not 
 coming Avithin the limits for color as provided in the definitions of white 
 corn and yellow corn. White-capped yellow kernels shall be classified 
 as mixed corn. 
 
106 CORN AND ('()KN-GR()^Y1XG 
 
 In the ordinary crop year, the leading' primary markets receive 
 about equal amounts of No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 grades of corn, with much 
 more No. 3 and No. 4 corn coming- in during December and January. 
 In a soft corn year like 1917, 25 to 40 per cent of the corn may be .soft 
 corn and sell 5 to 15 cents a bushel below No. 2. In unusually .sound 
 corn years like 1920, half of the corn may grade as No. 2 or better. 
 
CHAPTER 21 
 
 CORN PRICES 
 
 ^<)RX prices are chiefly dependent on the size of the crop in the 
 I'nited States. Statistical research indicates that corn prices before 
 the war, on farms of the United States, on December 1, varied up and 
 down according to size of the crop, about as follows : 
 
 Corn Crop Price, Dec. 1, on farms 
 
 20 per cent below normal 34 per cent above normal 
 
 l.T per cent below normal 21 per cent above normal 
 
 10 per cent below normal 15 per cent above normal 
 
 10 per cent above normal S per cent below normal 
 
 The normal corn crop for the United States from 1923 to 1928 seems 
 to be about 2,850,000.000 bushels. Because of world-wide price dis- 
 turbances, it is exceedingly difficult to say just what will be the normal 
 corn price on farms of the United States on December 1, from 1923 to 
 1928. If we assume 80 cents as the normal corn price, a crop of 3,135.- 
 000.000 bushels (10 per cent above normal) would mean, according 1o 
 the table, a price of 8 per cent below normal, or 73.6 cents, whereas, a 
 crop of 2,565,000,000 (10 per cent below normal) would indicate a price 
 of 15 per cent above normal, or 92 cents. 
 
 Corn Prices Also Influenced by Size of Crop Two Years Previous 
 
 A large corn crop two years previous tends to mean higher corn 
 prices this year. This is probably a result of a larger hog population 
 wliich followed the large corn crop and which is still existing two years 
 following the large corn crop. This influence is very small as compared 
 to the influence of the size of the corn crop the same year. The tend- 
 ency is expressed in the following : 
 
 Corn Crop, two years 
 
 previous Price, Dec. 1, on farms 
 
 2.5 per cent below normal 5 per cent below normal 
 
 10 per cent below normal 2 per cent below normal 
 
 10 per cent above normal 2 per cent above normal 
 
 15 per cent above normal 3 per cent above normal 
 
 Corn Prices Influenced by Wheat Prices 
 
 Both corn flour and corn meal are used occasionally to some extent 
 as Avheat flour substitutes, and there is therefore a little sympathy be- 
 tween wheat and corn prices. Before the war. this relationship seems 
 to have been about as follows: 
 
108 COKX AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Wheat Price Corn Price 
 
 Dec. 1, on farms Dec. 1, on farms 
 
 30 per cent below normal 6 per cent below normal 
 
 20 per cent below normal 4 per cent below normal 
 
 10 per cent below normal 2 per cent below normal 
 
 10 per cent above normal 2 per cent above normal 
 
 20 per cent above normal 4 per cent above normal 
 
 30 per cent above normal 6 per cent above normal 
 
 During the twenty years following the Civil war, corn sold on the 
 average for only about half as much per bushel as wheat, but since 1890 
 corn has averaged 65 to 70 per cent as much as wheat, and in years of 
 .short corn crops and fairly good wheat crops corn has sold within a few 
 cents a bushel of wheat. Because of the fact that wheat is richer in 
 gluten than corn, and therefore better adapted to bread making; be- 
 cause a bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds, whereas a bushel of corn 
 weighs only 56 pounds, and because corn is higher in moisture than 
 wheat, it is doubtful if corn Avill ever sell for any length of time for 
 more than 85 per cent as much per bushel as wheat. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that corn will gradually advance from its present ratio of around 
 70 per cent to 80 per cent for the reason that the good corn lands of 
 the world are much more limited than the wheat lands, and corn is used 
 in making many more different kinds of food and industrial products 
 than Avheat. In fact, it is possible though hardly probable that corn 
 will eventually sell for practically the same price per bushel as wheat. 
 
 For the immediate future it is to be expected in years when both the 
 wheat and corn crops are normal, that corn will sell for about 70 per 
 cent as much per bushel as wheat. If corn sells for a period of years 
 above this ratio, there will be a teudencv in lar'.ve parts of ^Missouri. 
 Illinois, Indiana and Ohio to ]uit much land which is now in winter 
 wheat into corn. 
 
 Corn Price in Early Winter Influenced by Hog Packing the 
 Preceding Summer 
 
 There is a tendency for the numlier of hogs packed the ])recediug 
 summer to influence corn prices in the early winter, about as follows : 
 
 Number of Hoss packed at western Corn Price during early winter 
 
 points preceding summer. immediately following. 
 
 8 per cent decrease below normal. ...4 per cent decrease below normal 
 4 per cent decrease below normal. ...2 per cent decrease below normal 
 4 per cent increase above normal... .2 per cent increase above normal 
 8 per cent increase above normal....4 per cent increase above normal 
 
 Evidently, a large number of liogs fed out during the summer im- 
 mediately preceding the new corn crop helps in some measure to create 
 a situation making for slightly higher priced corn. 
 
 The average weight of hogs during the summer also indicates a 
 little something concerning the oncoming corn price situation. The re- 
 hilion seems to be about as follows: 
 
CORN PRICES 109 
 
 Weight of Hogs at western pack- Corn Prices during early winter 
 
 ing points preceding summer. immediately following. 
 
 6 per cent increase above normal... .8 per cent decrease below normal 
 3 per cent increase above normal.. ..4 per cent decrease below normal 
 3 per cent decrease below normal. ...4 per cent increase above normal 
 G per cent decrease below normal....S per cent increase above normal 
 
 rt seems that ho<i's are fed out lo a heavier wei^-ht than usual durino: 
 the summer ^vhen corn is more abundant and cheaper than usual. This 
 indicates a temporary weakness in the corn situation which is likely 
 to carry over to some extent into the new crop season. Fewer ho<>s 
 than usual, fed to heavier weights than usual during- the summer season 
 immediately ])recedin,G: the new corn crop, indicate that the hog Dack- 
 ground to corn prices is unfavorable. On the other hand, large numbers 
 of ho?.s fed out to a light weight during the summer months indicate 
 that the hog background to corn prices is favorable. Some people think 
 that large numbers of hogs fed to heavy weights would be more favor- 
 able to high corn prices than large numbers fed to light weights. Actu- 
 ally, it does not work out this way, for the reason that farmers will not 
 feed hogs to heavy weights except when there is an abundance of cheap 
 corn, a situation which usually continues to make somewhat for cheaper 
 corn prices during the new crop season. 
 
 Corn Prices and Hog Prices 
 
 Corn and hog ratios are discussed in tlie following chapter (22). 
 There is not the close immediate connection betAveen corn prices and 
 hog prices that many people think. Statistical research indicates that 
 l)efore the war corn prices usually led the way and hog prices followed 
 l)ehind. As a rule, scarce, high-priced corn was followed several months 
 later by higher-priced hogs, the full effect being felt on the hogs about 
 eight or nine months later, and continuing for about twenty months after 
 the short corn crop Avas harvested. 
 
 Hog prices are practically valueless in predicting the future course 
 of corn prices, although corn prices may be of very real value in pre- 
 dicting the future course of hog prices. 
 
 Weather and Corn Prices 
 
 Since the size of the crop (discussed in the first paragraph of this 
 chapter) has far more to do with corn prices than all the other factors 
 put together, it is especially important to study the weather in its rela- 
 tion to the size of the crop. This is gone into in great detail in Chap- 
 ter 3. Suffice it to say here that the all-important weather from the 
 standpoint of corn prices is the rainfall and temperature from July 1 
 to August 20. During this period, it requires an average of about one 
 inch of rainfall every ten days to hoVl new crop futures (December and 
 ]May) corn prices steady. More than one inch of rainfall in ten davs 
 tends to lower corn prices, 1.4 inches or more tending to cause a drop 
 of two or three cents a bushel. Less than half an inch of rainfall in 
 
no CORN AND ('0RX-(!K{)WIXC1 
 
 tell (la\-s tends to cause an advanei^ of 1hree or four cents a bushel. I r 
 there has been an average of less than a tenth of an inch of rain during 
 the ten-day period, and if the mean temperature has averaged above 80 
 degrees, the corn price may run up six to eight cents a bushel. To de- 
 termine the average rainfall, it is necessary to have reports from at 
 least twenty representative stations in each of such states as Iowa, Illi- 
 nois. Indiana, Ohio, IMissouri, Nebraska and Kansas. The daily corn 
 and wheat region bulletin, which may be obtained from the Chicago 
 AVeather Bureau, gives such information. 
 
 Prices as Influenced by Shrinkage and Time of Year 
 
 Illinois and Io^^•a ex})eriments indicate that on the average, corn 
 picked early in November will shrink about 3 per cent during November. 
 2 per cent during December, 1 per cent in January, 1 per cent in Feb- 
 ruary, 1 per cent in ■March, 3 per cent in April, 3 per cent in May, 2 
 per cent in June, and 1 per cent in July, normalh' making a total of 
 about 17 per cent shrinkage from cribbing time in November until the 
 middle of the following summer. Of course, there is considerable vari- 
 ation in the years. If the fall is dry and the corn is unusually well 
 matured, the shrinkage may amount to only 9 or 10 per cent, whereas 
 in years when the fall is wet or the corn is poorly matured, it may run 
 as high as 25 per cent. The monthly figures represent normal condi- 
 tions. In some years, however, the really heavy shrinkage will start 
 in late Alarch, in other years in April, and occasionally not until June. 
 Ordinarily, though, late April and ]\Iay is the time of the heaviest shrink- 
 age in corn, much depending, however, on the temperature and the 
 humidity. 
 
 On the basis of shrinkage alone, it would take, to equal a ])rice of 
 50 cents a bushel for corn in November, 55 cents in April and US cents 
 in July. When interest is added at 6 per cent, and allowance is made 
 for the overhead investment in the crib, and for a small amount of rat- 
 tage, it will be found that in the ordinary year, it will take, to equal a 
 price of 50 cents a bushel for corn in November, about 52 cents in De- 
 cember, 53 cents in January, 54 cents in February, 55 cents in March, 
 57 cents in April, 59 cents in May, 60 cents in June, 62 cents in July. 
 and 62.5 cents in August. The actual pre-war normal price for corn 
 on Iowa farms was 49 cents a bushel in late November and December. 
 50 cents in January, 51 cents in February, 53 cents in March, 56 cents 
 in April, 59 cents in May, 61 cents in June, 63 cents in July, 63 cents iir 
 August, and 61 cents in September. This would indicate that before 
 the war, it was normally a good plan to sell corn in late November, if 
 possible, rather than to sell in December, January, February or March. 
 Rather than to sell in these months, it seemed usually to be a good ])l;i:i 
 to hold for a June, July or August market. 
 
 Corn Prices as Affected by the General Price Level 
 
 Whenever the general price level rises as a result of the abundant 
 cu.rrency which follows upon an increased gold supply, improved bank- 
 
CORN PRICES 111 
 
 in<>' methods, or war, it is inevitable that corn prices also should rise. 
 From 1896 to 1913, the general tendency of corn prices was upward, 
 tecause prices of all kinds were going up as a result of the sudden in- 
 crease in gold output accompanied by improved banking methods. From 
 1915 to 1920, the war demand, accompanied by currency inflation, sent 
 prices of all kinds up. and corn moved in sympathy. 
 
 From 1896 to 1913, food prices of most kinds increased somewhat 
 more rapidly than prices generally, because the great over-production 
 of food resulting from the opening of the IMississippi valley was finally 
 absorbed. Corn prices advanced more rapidly than most other food 
 prices, because the corn land of the world was qnite fnlly exploited be- 
 fore the wheat, oat and rye land. 
 
 Tf we express the relation between farm corn prices and the general 
 United States price level as 100, in the decade 1906-1915, then the rela- 
 tion during the twenty years extending from 1866 to 1885 was 79, 
 whereas the relationship during the decade of 1886-1895 was 88 and 
 during the decade of 1896-1905 the relationship w^as 87. 
 
 Using the same method, we find the corn crops of 1920, 1921 and 
 1922 selling for an average of only 61, as compared with 100 in 1906- 
 1915. This very low relationship was caused partly by the inability 
 of Europe to pay normal prices for our surplus corn and pork products 
 and partly by the ability of organized labor and organized business to 
 hold up manufactured products and freight rates to a high level. Corn 
 prices will doubtless reach again their 1906-1915 ratio to the general 
 price level by the decade of 1930-1940. The decade of 1920-1930 is one 
 of readjustment and uncertainty. 
 
 Corn Prices and Wages of City Labor 
 
 From 1811 to 1860, a l)ush("l of corn on the Chicago market sold for 
 the value of four hours of city labor. From 1 873 to 1902, a bushel sold 
 for the value of 2.3 hours. From 1903 to 1912, a bushel sold for the 
 value of 2.4 hours of labor. Corn in 1921 and 1922 sold on the basis of 
 1.2 hours of labor per bushel. 
 
 During the four years before the war (1911-1914), it required about 
 1,170 bushels of Chicago corn to equal the yearly wages of the railroad 
 man. In 1921 and 1922, it required 2,700 bushels to equal the yearly 
 wages of the railroad man. 
 
 Theoretically, it is to be assumed that in the long run the volume 
 of city labor will increase more rapidly than the output of corn, and 
 that therefore the tendency will be for the yearly wages of city labor 
 to buy fewer and fewer bushels of corn. Labor-saving inventions both 
 on the farm and in the cities tend to postpone this eventual outcome. 
 Temporarily also, labor organizations can hold wages above the ratio 
 Avith corn prices justified by the fundamental economic situation. This 
 results oftentimes, however, in larger numbers of corn farmers looking 
 for work in the cities. It is to be expected, therefore, that the situation 
 
112 
 
 COKN AND COKX-GROWING 
 
 of l!)21-l!l'22 will not continuo iiidcfinitcly. l)nt th;it corn prices -will 
 after a time come to have as favorable a ratio with the waues of labor 
 as ill 1911-1914. 
 
 Geography of Corn Prices 
 Before the war, the United States Department of Ag-riculture made 
 a lieographical study of corn prices for the five-year period, 1910-1914. 
 The oiitstandino- feature of this inA-estipration was that the center of 
 
 Geography of corn prices, 1910-1914. 
 
 Geography of corn prices, 1920-1922. Note that the cheap corn section is still 
 about the same as before the war. 
 
(^ORN PRICES 113 
 
 c'lieap corn was in northwestern Iowa, northeastern Nebraska, south- 
 eastern South Dakota and southwestern ^Minnesota. When No. 2 corn 
 was 61 cents a bushel on the Chicago market during December, it was 
 customary for corn on farms in northwestern Iowa to sell about 14 
 cents a bushel cheaper, or around 47 cents a bushel. Eastward and 
 southeastward of the cheap corn section in northwestern Iowa, corn 
 prices before the war ordinarily tended upward at the rate of about 
 three cents every hundred miles. 
 
 A study based on the three-year period, 1920-1922. indicates that 
 northwestern Iowa, northeastern Nebraska, southeastern South Dakota 
 and southwestern ^Minnesota is still the cheap corn section. The really 
 great difference between the two maps is caused by the increase in 
 freight rates. During 1920 and 1921, the cost of shipping a bushel of 
 corn from northwestern Iowa to Chicago was seven or eight cents more 
 than before the war, and in 1922, after the reduction was made, the cost 
 was still about four cents a bushel more than before the war. 
 
 From the standpoint of producing .surplus corn for the Chicago mar- 
 ket, the only reg;ion which compares with northwestern Iowa is central 
 Illinois. The corn price in this section would be just as low as in north- 
 western Iowa except for the fact that it is two hundred miles closer to 
 Chicago. Before the war, this gave it an advantage of five cents a 
 bushel. Since the war, as a result of the increase in freight rates, the 
 advantage has amounted to at least seven or eight cents a bushel. 
 
 In southern oMissouri and southern Illinois, with the exception of 
 a very small area along the river in extreme southeastern ^Missouri, there 
 is no surplus corn whatever to ship to market. Home-grown live stock 
 furnishes the market, and the corn price customarily is almost as high 
 as the Chicago price. In fact, there are sections of the Ozarks Avhere 
 corn almost invariably sells higher than at Chicago. There are parts 
 even of northern ^Missouri where corn is often shipped in. During 
 1921 and 1922, for instance, there were sections of northern Missouri 
 with the corn price averaging around 65 cents at a time when only 200 
 miles away, in central Iowa, the price was 42 cents. This situation 
 encouraged a considerable movement of Iowa corn southwai-d instead of 
 to Chicago. 
 
 In studying the two maps, keep in mind that the prices are based 
 on December 1 farm values. During the summer-time, when there is 
 less moisture in the corn, and when a corn shortage develops in many 
 localities, farm corn prices much more nearly approach the Chicago corn 
 prices. 
 
 For the ten years, 191.3-1922, average December 1 corn prices for 
 representative states in different sections of the country were : South 
 Dakota, 70 cents; Iowa, 73 cents; Illinois, 78 cents; Ohio, 83 cents; 
 Pennsylvania, 99 cents: New York, $1.16; ^Massachusetts, $1.22; Georgia, 
 •+1.08; Texas, $1; Colorado, 85 cents; Idaho. $1.04, and California, $1.24. 
 
114 CORN AND (OKX-CIROAVIXG 
 
 The corn price rises rajiidly in every direction from the center of cheap- 
 est corn, where Iowa, Nebraska. South Dakota and ^Minnesota come 
 tog-ether. 
 
 Corn Value 
 
 The ultimate value of corn is as a source of fuel or power. A bushel 
 of ear corn contains about the same number of B. T. units as 50 to 60 
 pounds of ordinary soft coal. When soft coal is above $15 a ton and 
 corn is less than 30 cents a bushel, corn may derive a part of its value 
 from its heating content. This situation is reached only in communi- 
 ties remote from coal mines and terminal markets in years when the 
 general economic situation is demoralized and the corn crop is very 
 large. 
 
 When crude oil becomes so scarce that crude oil sells wholesale alove 
 50 cents a gallon, it is possible that alcohol made from corn at 75 cents a 
 bushel can compete with the gasoline as a source of power for automo- 
 biles and trucks. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions, corn derives its value largely from its 
 ability to furnish fat-forming material to hogs more cheaply than any 
 other grain. By means of the corn-hog combination, it is possible to 
 produce palatable meat with a less expenditure of land and human 
 labor than in any other way. Corn is the most efficient plant of the 
 temperate zones in fixing the energy of the sun's rays, and the hog is 
 the most efficient meat animal for converting that sun energy of corn 
 into a palatable form for human consumption. Corn also derives a 
 part of its value from its ability to furnish the 22,000,000 farm work 
 horses and mules of the United States the cheapest energy which can be 
 obtained in any grain. 
 
 Heretofore, corn has derived only a small part of its value from 
 its use in factories and mills. Its use in this way is steadily growing, 
 however, and eventuall.y the corn food products as manufactured wiil 
 have as much to do with corn values as the ham, bacon and lard Avhich 
 are made by the hog out of corn. Commercial corn ])roducts are dis- 
 cussed in Chapter 37. 
 
CHAPTER 
 
 CORN-HOG RATIOS 
 
 /^OKX and hogs influence each other profoundly. One year with an- 
 other, hogs consume about 40 per cent of the corn crop of the United 
 States, or as much as all of the other farm animals put together. Hogs 
 are even more important as a market for corn than the foregoing indi- 
 cates, for the reason that the horse, mule and dairy cow demand for 
 corn is almost constant, whereas the hog consumption of corn often 
 varies by as much as 10 per cent from one 3'ear to the next. Moreover, 
 tlie 20 per cent of the corn crop which the farmers of the United States 
 customarily feed to their horses and mules is used to keep the farm man- 
 MAP NO. VII 
 
 Note that the hog dots are thickest where corn dots are thickest, the most 
 outstanding exception heing east-central Illinois. (Courtesy of United 
 States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 ufaeturing plant running and is not a direct source of income. The 
 corn which is sold in the form of hogs bulks far larger than the corn 
 which is used in any other way. 
 
 Close Relationship 
 
 -Maps Xos:. VII and VIll illustrate the exceedingly clo^e relationship 
 between corn and hogs in the United States. It will be noticed that 
 where the corn dots are thickest, so also are the hog dots. The outstand- 
 
116 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GKOAVING 
 
 ing- exception i^s in central Illinois, Avhere with Chica<>'0 only 100 miles 
 away, the comparative freight rates on corn and hogs are snch as to 
 make it more profitable on many of the rented farms to ship corn rather 
 than hog-s to Chicago. In the mountain and Pacific coast states, the 
 hog dots are thicker than the corn dots, the hogs being fattened on barley 
 and milo. These western hogs are barely sufficient to supply the home 
 demand, and do not have commercial significance in the same way as 
 the hogs of the Corn Belt. 
 
 Chicago Values as a Basis for Ratios 
 
 With corn and hogs so dependent on each other, it is not surprising 
 that there should be a close relationship between corn and hog prices. 
 This relationship is known as the corn-hog ratio. As the average of the 
 past fifty years, it has required on the Chicago market 11.5 bushels of 
 Xo. 2 corn to equal in value 100 pounds of heavy hogs. In other words, 
 with No. 2 corn at 50 cents a bushel at Chicago, the tendenc^y has been 
 
 MAP NO. VIII 
 
 Compare with I\Tan VII and note the tendencv tci corn and hogs to go together 
 in the United States. (Courtesy of I'. S. Dent, of Agriculture.) 
 
 for heavy hogs to sell for 11..") times as much, o:- lor $5.75 a hundred- 
 weight. Decade after decade, the ratio has averaged around 11 or 12 
 bushels on the Chicago market. Sometimes corn is so cheap and hogs 
 are so high that the ratio may be 15 or 16 bushels for a year or so, but 
 in such a ca.se the result is the breeding of .so many sows that there is 
 an over-production of hogs and a shortage of corn (unless the weather 
 is unusually favorable), Avith the result that hogs become cheap and corn 
 liiuh and tlio ratio narrows suddenlv to 10 bushels or even less. Usuallv. 
 
CORN-HOG RATIOS 
 
 117 
 
 hogs sell for about twenty months below their long-time ratio with corn 
 and then for about twenty months above it. Sometimes cholera, un- 
 usual business conditions, war, or exceptional weather modifies the 
 swing of hog prices above and below their normal ratio, but even so 
 the swings are only rarely shorter than twelve months or longer than 
 thirty months. The chart illustrates the rhythmical nature of the corn- 
 hog relationship. The zero line in this chart is the 11.5-bushel ratio cor- 
 rected for the season of year (in December the ratio is about 11 bushels, 
 whereas in the early spring it averages 12.4 under a situation where the 
 average for the entire year is 11.5 bushels). 
 
 Ratio Based on Farm Values 
 
 If Corn Belt farm values are taken for both corn and hogs, instead 
 of Chicago values, the normal ratio is 13 bushels of farm corn to equal 
 100 pounds of farm hog, instead of 11.5 bushels. This difference is 
 
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 L 
 
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 Chart illustrating when hog prices have been above and below their normal 
 ratio with corn prices weighted seasonally. 
 
 caused partly by the fact that farm corn is on the ear instead of shelled, 
 and averages No. 3 grade instead of No. 2. 3Ioreover, the freight rate 
 on corn is a much higher percentage of its value than is the case with 
 hogs, and this automatically tends to make the ratio higher on the farm 
 than at Chicago. The Corn Belt farm ratio between corn and hogs has 
 a normal seasonal range from about 11 bushels during the late summer 
 to l-t bushels in the early spring. In central Illinois, 100 miles south 
 of Chicago, the corn-hog ratio, as a result of the freight rate situation, 
 averages about 12.5 bushels over the same series of years that the ratio 
 in northwestern Iowa is 13.5 bushels. The difference of one bushel in 
 
118 CORN A XT) CORX-G ROWING 
 
 ratios explains Avhv it is that northwestern Iowa farmers feed on the 
 averag'e 45 per cent of their corn to hogs, whereas central Illinois farmers 
 feed only 25 to 30 per cent. Over any period of time, the corn-hog ratio 
 is a very delicate governor of the percentage of the corn crop which 
 will be fed to hogs. 
 
 In the long run, the price which the consumers of the United States, 
 England and Germany are willing to pay for pork and lard has more to 
 do with determining corn prices than any other one thing. Corn farm- 
 ers, even those who keep no hogs, should watch the hog market. If hogs 
 are plentiful and low priced, it may mean a temporary scarcity of corn 
 and high corn prices, but it also means that fewer sows will be bred for 
 next year and that eventually a hog shortage will result, which means 
 a corn surplus, unless unfavorable weather has caused a short corn crop 
 at the same time as the short hog crop. Corn men should also be vitally 
 interested in pork exports, for it is a matter of history that after several 
 years of unusually heavy pork exports the tendency is toward an increase 
 in corn prices. AVe normally export twice as much corn in the form of 
 pork as in the form of grain. The corn-hog relationships are not a.s 
 direct and immediate as many people think, but over any period of time 
 it is astonishing how corn prices depend on hog prices, and vice versa. 
 
CHAPTER 23 
 
 COST OF CORN PRODUCTION 
 
 TX THE best corn sections of Iowa and central Illinois, where gany 
 plows are nsed and five-horse teams, an acre of corn requires about 
 16 hours of man labor and 42 hours of horse labor. This divides up 
 roughly as follows : Plowing, tAvo hours of man labor and ten hours 
 of horse labor ; disking-and harroAving, two hours of man labor and eight 
 hours of horse labor; planting, three-fourths of an hour of man labor 
 and one and one-half hours of horse labor; cultivation, five hours of 
 man labor and ten hours of horse labor; husking from standing stalks, 
 five hours of man labor and ten hours of horse labor ; spreading manure, 
 one and one-fourth hours of man labor and two and one-half hours of 
 horse labor. 
 
 Costs Vary in Different Sections 
 
 In large parts of Nebraska, where the land is very level and the 
 fields are large, and where plowing and planting are done at the same 
 time by means of the lister, an acre of corn requires only about fourteen 
 hours of man labor and thirty-eight hours of horse labor. In Indiana, 
 however, where the fields are smaller, and where the combination of 
 heavy spring rains and a clay soil make plowing and disking more diffi- 
 cult, an acre of corn husked from the standing stalks may require as 
 much as twenty-four hours of man labor and fifty-eight hours of horse 
 labor. In the eastern part of the Corn Belt, because of the smaller 
 fields and smaller farms, they do not use gang plows and five-horse 
 teams as generally as in the western part of the Corn Belt. In their 
 husking operations, also, they tend to cling to the old-fashioned husking 
 peg instead of adopting the somewhat more speedy husking hook. 
 
 Share Tenant's Cost of Production 
 
 The cost to the share tenant of producing an acre of corn in the 
 central part of the corn belt is the value of the man labor plus the cost 
 of the horse labor plus the cost of the machinery. With single men get- 
 ting $51 a month and board, it may roughly be figured that the cost of 
 an hour of man labor is around 34 cents. The cost of an hour of horse 
 labor is roughly equivalent to the value of one-tenth of a bushel of oats 
 plus one-tenth of a bushel of corn plus five pounds of hay, or with corn 
 at 70 cents a bushel, oats at 40 cents a bushel and hay at $16 a ton, it 
 maj^ be said that the cost of an hour of horse labor would be around 15 
 cents. With values as just stated, a share tenant in the central part 
 of the Corn Belt would invest in his acre of corn about sixteen hours 
 
120 rORX AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 of man labor at 34 cents an hour, or $5.44, and forty-two hours of horse 
 labor at 15 cents an hour, or $6.30, making- a total cost of $11.74 an acre 
 for man and horse labor. 
 
 The machinery ami mijccllaiicons item ehar;.ie amounts roughly to 
 two per cent of the value of a gang plow plus the value of a corn culti- 
 vator plus the value of a 20-foot harrow. Before the war, this amounted 
 to about $2 an acre, during the Avar to about $4 an acre, and since the 
 war to about $3.40. 
 
 Adding' $3.40 to the $11.74, we get $15.14 as the total cost to the 
 share tenant of producing an acre of corn Avhen single men are getting 
 $51 a month and board, and when horses are eating corn worth 70 cents 
 a bushel, oats worth 40 cents a bushel and hay worth $16 a ton. In re- 
 turn for his investment of $15.14, the share tenant gets half the corn 
 crop. If the yield is 40 bushels an acre, as is customary in the best 
 parts of the Corn Belt where this method of renting is most commonly 
 met Avith, the cost of producing a bushel of corn, so far as the share 
 tenant is concerned, is $15.14 divided by 20, or 75.7 cents. With a 30- 
 bushel crop, the cost to the share tenant Avould be $1.01, and with a 60- 
 bushel crop, 50.5 cents a bushel. 
 
 This Avould be on the assumption that there is no more labor in- 
 volved in the large crop than in the small crop. As a matter of fact, 
 the husking charge varies directly with the size of the crop, and taking 
 this into account, the cost to the share tenant of a 30-bushel yield of 
 corn would be only 97.5 cents instead of $1.01, and of the 60-bushel yield. 
 54.5 cents instead of 50 5 cents. 
 
 Owner's Cost of Production 
 
 The farmer Avho owns his land has all the expenses of the share 
 tenant plus the taxes and the interest on the investment in his land. If 
 he paid $170 an acre for his land, he has, at five per cent, an interest 
 charge of $8.50 an acre, and in addition there is probably a tax of at 
 least $1.50 an acre, making a total of $10 an acre. Ten dollars plus the 
 $15.14 Avhich represents the man labor, horse labor and machinery charge, 
 gives a total of $25.14. With a yield of forty bushels per acre, the cost 
 per bushel would be 62.8 cents. 
 
 This represents the cost of the corn in the crib in December, and 
 makes no allowance for shrinkage. If the corn is to be held until the 
 following summer, the shrinkage, which on the average amounts to about 
 16 per cent, plus the interest on the value of the corn, will raise the 
 cost by about 13 cents a bushel, or to a total of about 76 cents. If the 
 corn is then to be shelled and hauled to market, there will be an addi- 
 tional cost amounting to at least four or five cents a bushel. 
 
 Reducing Costs 
 
 There is no easy way of reducing corn production costs. In sections 
 where the fields are large and level, production costs can g-enerally be 
 reduced several cents a busliel if gang plows are substituted for sulky 
 
COST OF CORN PRODUCTION 121 
 
 plows and two-row cultivators for the ordinary single-row. In some 
 sections it may be possible to reduce costs slightly by substituting tractor 
 plowing for horse plowing. Some of the tractor people who use the trac- 
 tor for corn cultivating as well as plowing, disking, harrowing and plant- 
 ing, have carried an acre of corn up to husking time with the expendi- 
 ture of only five hours of man labor and five hours of tractor labor. 
 This contrasts with 9.75 hours of man labor and 29.5 hours of horse 
 labor for doing the same work in the ordinary way. Of course, the trac- 
 tor was used with a two-row cultivator and the job of cultivating the 
 first time over may not have been quite as good as with the single-row, 
 horse-drawn cultivator. The tractor is worth while watching, however, 
 as a possible means of reducing labor costs on large, level farms. 
 
 As a rule, however, the methods commonly used in a locality are 
 so well adapted to the situation that it is impossible to make any change 
 in the machinery which will result in a saving of more than a cent or 
 two per bushel. 
 
 Land owning farmers can reduce production costs most effectively 
 by rotating crops and applying manure. Improving the productive 
 capacity of the soil by ten bushels per acre will ordinarily do more than 
 anything else to reduce production costs. 
 
 One of the simplest ways of lowering corn production costs is to use 
 the highest yielding variety possible. In every locality there are farm- 
 ers growing varieties which yield five or ten bushels per acre less than 
 the better sorts would yield on the same land. Every two or three years 
 it is good practice to buy a few pecks of seed corn Avhich has a reputa- 
 tion for high yielding power in order to compare it side by side with 
 the home corn. 
 
 Another possible way of reducing costs is to save five hours of 
 man labor and ten hours of horse labor per acre by using hogs to do 
 the harvesting. With man labor at 34 cents an hour and horse labor 
 at 15 cents, this Avill reduce the cost per acre by about $3.20, or, roughly, 
 eight cents a bushel. However, hogs during late September, October 
 and November can utilize only a limited acreage to the best advantage 
 in this way. In wet falls, unfortunately, the hogs waste considerable 
 corn. See Chapter 17 for further discussion. 
 
 When corn husking machines are further perfected, and especially 
 when varieties are developed which are adapted to the corn husking 
 machine, it maj^ be possible by making an investment of several hundred 
 dollars in a husking machine to save much of the man labor require:! in 
 husking. 
 
 Cost of Producing Silage 
 
 Silage corn as grown in the Corn Belt requires the same man and 
 horse labor per acre up through the time of the last cultivation as ordi- 
 nary corn, or, roughly, 11 man hours and 32 horse hours. At 34 cents 
 an hour for man labor and 15 cents an hour for horse labor, this amounts 
 
]2l: corn AXD CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 to $8.54. The labor at silo filliiif;' time varies considerably with the 
 distance of the field from the silo, but averages per acre about as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Man Horse 
 labor labor 
 
 Cutting with binder 1.7 5.1 
 
 Loading bundles 4 .9 
 
 Hauling from field and unloading 7.0 14.0 
 
 Running engine and cutter 3.0 
 
 Packing in silo 2.9 
 
 Total hours per acre for corn cutting and silo 
 
 filling 15.0 20.0 
 
 At 34: cents an hour for man labor and ]5 cents an hour for horse 
 labor, the labor charge for silo filling operations would be $8.10 per acre. 
 The total labor of growing an acre of silage corn, in the center of the 
 Corn Belt, is about 26 hours of man labor and 52 hours of horse labor, 
 or, with prices as mentioned, a total labor charge of $16.64. The in- 
 terest and depreciation on the silo is roughly $4 an acre, and the ma- 
 chinery and equipment charge is $6. About 3.5 pounds of twine are 
 used per acre, or, roughly, 40 cents' worth. If the use of 40-bushel corn 
 land (eight-ton silage land) is put in at $10 per acre, we get a total of 
 $37.04 per acre under the same conditions as the production of corn 
 husked from standing stalks costs $25.14. The silage at eight tons to 
 the acre, would cost about $4.86 per ton under the same conditions as 
 the corn would cost 62.8 cents a bushel in the crib in December. 
 
CHAPTER 24 
 
 INSECTS OF CORN 
 
 INSECTS that attack com are numerous, but mo.st of them do not cause 
 serious damag-e. Occasionally local attacks are severe and the entire 
 crop of a community will be destroyed as a result of the work of a par- 
 ticular insect. Control measures, to be practical, should "be simple, 
 cheap and easily applied. 
 
 Most common corn insects have four stages in their life history, 
 which may last a part of a year, one year or several years. The four 
 stages are the egg, larva, pupa and adult stage. An adult insect usually 
 deposits .several hundred eggs and its function in life is completed. The 
 eggs, as a rule, hatch out quickly into the larval or worm stage. After 
 the worm finishes feeding, it turns into the pupal or resting stage. From 
 the pupa emerges the adult as the butterfly does from the cocoon. Some 
 insects such as the aphis bear live young. 
 
 The description of the insect, life history, the character of damage 
 done and the control measures are given of the important insects of corn 
 in the Corn Belt. The insects are divided into five classes, those that 
 work primarily on the (1 ) roots, (2) stalks, (3) leaves, (4) entire plant, 
 (5) stored grain. 
 
 INSECTS THAT WORK ON THE ROOTS 
 Wire-worm 
 
 The common wire-worms are reddish-bjown in color, hard and rather 
 shiny in appearance, cylindrical in shape and an inch or more in length. 
 The adults are boat-shaped fellows, one-half to three-fourths of an inch 
 long and brown or black in color. They are known as "click beetles'' 
 or "snapping beetles," from the snapping noise they make when on their 
 backs. 
 
 The wire-worm changes to the pupal stage in July or early August. 
 Only two or three weeks are spent in this stage before changing to the 
 beetle. The beetle, hoAvever, spends the winter in the pupal cell and 
 comes out the next spring. It deposits its eggs in the soil. The larvae 
 hatch out in a few days and begin feeding. The corn wire-worm may 
 spend as long a time as five years in the soil, while the wheat wire-worm 
 spends only three. 
 
 The failure of seed to sprout or the withering of corn plants at two 
 feet or less in height, often indicates wire-worm attack. Wire-worms 
 feed first on the seed itself, later on the roots. If the affected field 
 has been in grass a year or so previous, the injury is most likely to be 
 
124 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GEOWING 
 
 that of wire-worms. The larvae do 
 not cause any visible injury to g-rass. 
 However, when ^rass land is put into 
 corn, the wire-worms concentrate 
 upon the hills of the planted <iTain 
 and cause much damage. 
 
 Wire-worms are difficult to con- 
 trol because, (1) they work under- 
 ground; (2) they cling to life; (3) 
 there are several injurious specimens 
 of wire-worms requiring different 
 methods of control. 
 
 There are many useless or im- 
 practical control measures often rec- 
 ommended. They are (1) coating 
 the seed with various poisons or re- 
 pellants, such as tar, kerosene, Paris 
 green and strychnine — an Iowa 
 county agent says the insects enjoy 
 and eat the protected kernels more 
 readily; (2) treating the soil with 
 salt, and (3) plowing late in the fall. 
 There seems to be no practical way 
 of controlling wire-worms. 
 
 Corn Root Aphis 
 
 (a) Wire worm beetle or click beetle. The corn root aphis or root 
 
 (b) Wire worm. (Much enlarged ; louse is a tinv blue-green adult. The 
 the full grown wire worm is only ^ ,. i •' , , , , ^ ^i 
 
 about 11/2 inches long.) root lice which hatch from the eggs 
 
 in the spring are all the same sex, 
 females, which produce during the summer ten to twenty generations of 
 live young. These females are found throughout the spring and summer 
 and the males do not appear until the fall. The root lice multiply very 
 rapidly and cause much damage to growing plants. Most of them are 
 wingless, but occasionally winged forms are found. In the fall, both 
 males and females appear. ^Mating takes place, and the females deposit 
 eggs, instead of producing young. These eggs are taken up by the little 
 brown ants, which care for them in their nests during the winter. The 
 root lice are very Avell cared for by the ants, because the aphis secretes 
 a sweet substance, "honey-dew," of which the ants are fond. 
 
 The presence of the corn root aphis in a field of growing corn is 
 usually shown by (1) a dwarfing of the plants and a yellowing or red- 
 dening of the leaves; (2) finding numerous ant hills near affected 
 stalks; (3) the presence of many lice on the main roots. The tiny lice 
 suck the juices from tiie roots, thereby weakening the growth and re- 
 ducing the vield. 
 
INSECTS OF CORN 
 
 125 
 
 Crop rotation is the most offectivo measure against the root 
 aphis, although it feeds on other plants than corn. Where crop rotation 
 with only one or two consecutive crops of corn is practiced, little injury 
 occurs. The other croiis jiTOwn are not much affected, as corn is the 
 favorite food of the corn aphis. If it is not practical to rotate, deep 
 and frequent cultivation early in the season may help. 
 
 Corn Root Worm 
 
 The root worms arc ,-mall, slender, white grubs, a'.out half an iueli 
 lonu' when full grown. The northern form of the root worm in its adult 
 stage is a plain grass-green beetle, _ ^ . .^ 
 
 about one-fifth of an inch long. The 
 beetle of the southern root worm is 
 green, with twelve black spots on its 
 back. It is also somewhat larger 
 than the plain green beetle, measur- 
 ing nearly a quarter of an inch long. 
 
 In the fall, the beetle of the 
 northern form may be seen on the 
 silk of corn and the flowers of the 
 goldenrod. The beetles deposit their 
 eggs in the soil near the stalks of 
 corn. The next spring these eggs 
 hatch out early. The young root 
 worms begin to attack the corn al- 
 most as soon as it is out of the 
 ground. Throughout the summer, 
 the larvae work on the roots. When 
 the larvae mature, they change to 
 
 the pupal stage, in which they spend only a short time. The plain green 
 beetle emerges from this pupa and the life history is repeated. The 
 black-spotted beetles of the southern corn root worm are found not only 
 in the fall, but all through the season, from early spring onward. There 
 seem to be at least two generations of them during the year. The life 
 history of the southern corn root worm is similar to that of the northern 
 form, except that it is passed through in a much shorter time. 
 
 Corn is the only food plant of the northern root worm. On the 
 other hand, the southern root worms have been found in wheat, rye. 
 millet and other grasses. The northern form does more injury to the 
 corn in the north. The withering of young plants and the blowing over 
 of the stalks may be due to the root worm. However, more often these 
 conditions are due to other factors. 
 
 If the plain green or the black-spotted beetles are seen in very large 
 numbers feeding on the silks of the corn in the fall, it is an indication 
 that a corn field on the same piece of ground will be infested with the 
 root worms the next year. Those fields should be i)lanted to some other 
 
 g«:^23!:^3EXI^> 
 
 (a> Corn root worm beetle is grass 
 green in color and is found in late 
 Jr.ly and August, feeding on corn 
 tassels and corn silk, (b) Corn root 
 worm burrows into corn roots, caus- 
 ing corn to blow down easily in late 
 summer. (Enlarged.) 
 
126 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 crop than corn, and the corn put on a new field. Rotation is an almost 
 infallible cure for the northern corn root worm, but is not such a certain 
 l)reventive of the southern form. 
 
 White Grub Worm 
 
 The grub is a large white insect with a reddish-brown head. It is 
 similar to the grub found in manure piles, although the latter is not 
 injurious to corn. The parent form of the white grub is the common 
 May beetle or June bug, the large, black or brownish beetle which flies 
 to the lights in ]Mav and earlv June. 
 
 V '^'^^ /'^ The beetles hide in the grass all 
 
 • Ndw^ i\ /y'y^ (lay an,;] after sun-down feed on th'^ 
 
 /f 1h\ '"^MJ " "^^"^ leaves of trees, often doing consider 
 ngH vv V^"^ 7 ^^^^^' damage. They deposit their 
 ( a ) b '^'^^-^'^f eggs in rather compact soil, usuall\ 
 
 , ^ ^ , , sod ground, during June. These 
 
 (a) June bug. (e) Full-grown white i ^ i i ^i 11 
 
 grub ready to pupate. (d) Half- ^ggs hatch and the young grubs be- 
 
 grown grub at stage when it does gin to feed upon the roots of the 
 
 ducedT^ (damage to corn. (Re- gTass that summer. Grubs do not 
 
 become full groAvn for two years, and 
 even then they remain in the soil for a third winter, emerging as beetles 
 nearh' three years after the eggs were deposited. A generalized life 
 history is as follows : 
 
 First year — In May the beetles emerge from the soil, feed, and de- 
 posit eggs. Larvae hatch, begin to feed, and winter over in the soil. 
 
 Second year — Larvae feed during the season. The most damage to 
 crops is caused this year. The larvae winter over in the soil practically 
 full grown. 
 
 Third year — Larvae feed early in the season, pupate in June or July, 
 and change to beetles a few Aveeks later. The beetles stay in the soil 
 over winter. 
 
 Fourth year — Same as the first. Beetles emerge in ]\Iay and early 
 June. 
 
 The presence of the white grub is indicated by (1) dwarfing of the 
 plant, (2) killing of the plant in any stage of growth, (3) weak root 
 system, (4) falling of the stalk. The grubs are not known to infest such 
 crops as clover, alfalfa or buckwheat; these may safely follow sod in a 
 "grub year." Small grains are attacked by the grubs, but to a less 
 extent than corn or potatoes. 
 
 Under certain conditions, grubs may be controlled by an intelligent 
 rotation, particularly in a district known to be badly infested. Grubs 
 are usually abundant near wooded areas. When grubs are expected 
 in any particular year, corn should not follow sod. It may safely follow 
 a cultivated crop. By referring to the generalized life cycle, one may 
 
INSECTS OF CORN 127 
 
 determine when to expect damap-e by gTiibs. For instance, if the beetles 
 are exceptionally abundant one year, a laro-e number of grubs may be 
 expected the next year. In any given locality, the grubs are likely to 
 be numerous at three-year intervals. For example, northeastern Iowa 
 has had outbreaks in 1912, 1915, 1918 and 1921. If the two-year-old 
 grubs are damaging corn, there is no practical measure to get rid of 
 them at once without injuring the crop. However, such measures as fall 
 plowing, rotation and turning hogs in on grub infested land may par- 
 tially prevent further injury. Hogs turned into infested fields by the 
 middle of October, before the grubs go deep, will rapidly clear out most 
 of the grubs. The only objection to turning in hogs is that occasionally 
 they become infested with the thorn-headed worm, which is a parasite 
 of both hogs and white grubs. Because the grubs go deeper into the soil 
 for the winter, early fall plowing is of some value, as it brings the grubs 
 to the surface and crushes many of them. 
 
 INSECTS THAT WORK ON THE STALKS 
 
 Cut- worm 
 
 Full grown cut-worms are about one and one-half inches long, usu- 
 ally dull in color. Rarely, as with the variegated cut-worm which 
 attacks clover, are they well marked or striped. Late in June or early 
 in July the mature larva forms a loose cell in the soil, changes to the 
 pupal stage, and a few dayfi later to the adult or moth. ]\Ioths of the 
 various species are much alike. All are dull in appearance and brown 
 in color, with the hind wings lighter than the fore wings. 
 
 The moths deposit eggs in the grass lands late in the season. The 
 larvae hatch the same fall and spend the winter in the soil partly grown. 
 Consequently, they are of good size by the time the young corn plants 
 are pushing their way through the ground. There is usually only one 
 generation each year. 
 
 The cutting off of the stalk at the base of the plant, at or just below 
 the surface of the soil, is the work of the cut-worms. Usually, the 
 insect responsible for the damage may be found in the soil near the plant 
 attacked. 
 
 If cut-worms are present in a corn field, the only two measures to 
 be taken are replanting and poisoning. Replanting should be delayed 
 until damage by the insects has practically ceased. Although the cut- 
 worm pupates in late June, it usually does very little severe damage 
 after warm weather comes on in early June. A poison bait may be made 
 by mixing one pound of Paris green with twenty-five pounds of dry 
 bran or middlings. Scattered over a corn field, this bait attracts the 
 cut- worms, which feed on it and are killed. Results are sometimes very 
 good, but occasionally this method seems to be worthless. 
 
 Early fall plowing of grass land to be planted in corn the next year 
 is a preventive measure. This plowing buries the eggs or young larvae 
 
128 CORX AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 so they can not live over winter. Close fall pasturing of such land is 
 also a benefit. Corn land should he disked and harrowed as much as 
 possible before planting'. 
 
 Chinch Bug 
 
 The adult form of the chinch bup- is about one-fifth of an inch lon-^', 
 black in color, with the under winj:s whitish. These wino's cross on the 
 back of the in.sect. forming- a sort of an X-shaped mark. Young- chinch 
 
 Adult winged forms of chinch bug. The larval form, which invades corn fields, 
 looks like this, but has no wings. 
 
 bugs are pale yellow at first, becoming quite reddish later. At first, 
 there are no traces of wings, but in the later stages wing pads appear. 
 Chinch bugs shed their skins four times and after the fourth moult be- 
 come full grown. 
 
 During the winter, chinch bugs hibernate in clumps of grass and 
 along fences and hedge rows. In April they go to the wheat fields, 
 which offer plenty of food at this time. They soon deposit their eggs 
 and their young feed on the wheat. At wheat harvest, the bugs of the 
 preceding year are dead and the young ones have not developed wings. 
 The bugs seek green food, and since they are unable to fly, they crawl 
 from one field to another. Growing corn at this time is especially tempt- 
 ing to the partly grown chinch bugs, and the object of the control mea- 
 sures is to keep the bugs out of the corn. Chinch bugs mature in the 
 corn field in July and deposit eggs for a second generation. They grow 
 rapidly and feed on the corn. In September, the second generation 
 matures and spends the winter as adults. 
 
 Since 1900 most chinch bug damage has been to corn south of the 
 southern Iowa line. Back in 1887, however, chinch bug injury was 
 noticeable in three-fourths of the counties of Iowa. Damage to corn 
 occurs, for the most part, in midsummer, when the growing bugs pass 
 from ripening wheat to corn. It does not necessarily follow that the 
 chinch bug will not become dangerous in localities where no wheat is 
 grown, although such usually is the ca.se. Chinch bugs drive their beaks 
 into the plant tis.sue and suck the juices. 
 
INSECTS OF CORN 129 
 
 In general, the four control methods for the chinch bug- are (1) 
 cleaning- all rubbish and waste places, (2) barriers around fields, (3) 
 spraying, and (4) natural enemies. 
 
 Since the chinch bugs hibernate in clumps of Avild grass and similar 
 places, much benefit may be obtained by burning rubbish along fences 
 and hedge rows, in the winter. Clean culture does away with hiber- 
 nating places in a field. 
 
 As wheat harvest in an infested field draws near, measures to pre- 
 vent the insects from entering the corn field should be taken. This is 
 best done by making barrier lines of some repellant, such as road oil or 
 creosote, around the infested field. The road oil barrier must be kept so 
 sticky that the chinch bugs can not cross it, but the creosote acts on ac- 
 count of its repellant odor. The strip of oil should be half an inch thick 
 or more. Post holes about two feet deep should be dug at intervals of 
 about twenty feet, along the oil line. A little kerosene poured into these 
 holes will kill the bugs that collect. These barriers must be kept 
 freshened. 
 
 Calcium cyanide was extensively used as a chinch bug barrier for the 
 first time in 1923. It seems to be quite satisfactory, but rather expen- 
 sive. After more experimentation has been done, further information 
 should be obtained from the ^Missouri and Illinois stations. 
 
 Once the bugs are in a corn field, spraying with tobacco extract or 
 kerosene emulsion is the only measure available. This is usually im- 
 practical. 
 
 The natural insect enemies of the chinch bug are not numerous, nor 
 do they thrive in hot, dry weather. On the other hand, chinch bugs 
 are the more numerous and thrive best under these conditions. How- 
 ever, the natural enemies have done much to reduce the number and ex- 
 tent of chinch bug attacks. 
 
 In southern Illinois they have found it well worth while to reduce 
 chinch bug damage by growing varieties of corn with unusually large, 
 sturdy stalks, wide leaves, and more than usually vigorous root's. The 
 Democrat or Champion White Pearl is probably the best of these varie- 
 ties. Under conditions of moderately severe chinch bug infestation, the 
 Democrat will yield twice as much as Reid Yellow Dent, whereas, on 
 the same soil, without chinch bugs, the Reid corn will usually yield 'two 
 or three bushels more per acre. 
 
 Corn Bill-Bug 
 
 There are several kinds of bill-bugs. Most of them are black or 
 brown in color. All are beetles with hard backs and long snouts, which 
 make, the holes in the leaf blades. In the grub stage, the corn bill-bugs 
 feed on the roots of certain grasses. One of the most common species 
 feeds on timothy roots. 
 
 In general, the insects spend the winter in the beetle stage and 
 work in this stage upon the young corn plants in the late spring. In 
 
130 ('ORX AND COKX-OKOWIXG 
 
 the early suninier, the beetles deposit their eggs on timothy and other 
 grasses. The eggs hatch and the young grubs feed on the grass roots 
 until early fall, when the adult beetles appear. Before changing to 
 beetles, the grubs enter the pupal stage for a short period. 
 
 The tender leaves injured by rows of holes cut across the blade, is 
 the work of the corn bill-bugs. The injury occurs when the plant is a 
 few inches high, and the leaf blade is still within the sheath of the corn 
 stalk. The holes do not become coni^ipicuous until the blade has grown 
 out. Since the blade is curled up within the leaf sheath, one hole made 
 in the leaf sheath means six or eight holes in the curled leaf blade. Corn 
 ]ilauted on timothy sod that has been infested with these grubs is likely 
 to be damaged, especially if the sod has been turned under in the spring. 
 
 It has been found that the early fall or summer plowing of sod lands 
 which are infested with these grubs, reduces greatly the injury if corn 
 is put in the field the following year. The stirring of the soil disturbs 
 the insects so that they are unable to survive the winter. 
 
 Army Worm 
 
 The army worm resembles the eut-worm. The color varies from 
 yellow to brown or black. There are three stripes, a middle black one 
 and an upper and lower yellowish one, on each side. The worm pupates 
 in the soil. The pupa gives rise in ten to twenty days to a moth. The 
 moth is a night-flying insect and is often attracted in large numbers to 
 light. The fore wings of the moth are yellowish-brown in color and are 
 marked with a small white speck near their center. Each female moth 
 is cai>able of laying about 700 eggs. 
 
 These eggs hatch into small green worms in about eight to twelve 
 days. The young worms eat but little and feed close to the ground. 
 They may be in a field in great numbers and still escape detection. The 
 worms are nearly full grown before injury becomes serious. Three to 
 five weeks are required for full growth. The worms then are one and 
 one-half inches long and one-eighth of an inch wide. 
 
 While the army worms prefer to breed and feed in grass or small 
 grain growing in low and moist parts of fields, they become so abun- 
 dant and food material so scarce, that the worms are forced to seek other 
 places for their food. On such occasions, the worms migrate in vast 
 armies and enter a corn field if it is in their path. The migrating worms 
 climb the stalks and strip the plants of their leaves. The worms hide 
 (luring the daytime under clods of dirt and rubbish, and feed during the 
 night. 
 
 There arc several control measures for the army worm. Infested 
 areas may be mowed, covered with straw and burned. If migrating, 
 the worms may be destroyed by spraying. ])y scattering poisoned bait, 
 similar to that used for cut-worms, or by trenching, as described for 
 tile clnueh bnsr. 
 
INSECTS OF CORN 1:J1 
 
 Grasshoppers 
 
 There are several species of grasshoppers. ]\Iost every one is fa- 
 miliar with the ordinary adult which does the damage to crops. The 
 habits of the nsiial species are much alike. The grasshopper has no lar- 
 val stage. 
 
 The grasshoppers usually lay their eggs in the fall of the year and 
 then^die. The eggs are laid in masses in the ground. As many as 127 
 eggs have been found in a single egg mass laid by one of the large species 
 of hoppers. Each female ordinarily produces two eg^ masses. The eggs 
 remain in the ground over winter. The following spring, during ~\Iay 
 and June, the eggs are hatched. The young insects feed and grow and 
 at intervals shed their hard skin. After the skin has been moulted for 
 the fifth time, the insect is fully Avinged and the females are ready to 
 lay eggs. 
 
 Ordinarily, grasshoppers do not breed in corn fields, but may in- 
 vade such fields from neighboring ones where alfalfa, grain or grass is 
 grown, or from uniilowed edges of fields and roads. They eat the 
 leaves, silks and husks of the corn plant. 
 
 There are several control methods. Poison bait made as follows is 
 good : 
 
 Bran or mixed bran and sawdust 25 pounds 
 
 White arsenic or Paris green 1 pound 
 
 Salt 1 pound 
 
 rheap molasses 2 quarts 
 
 Water 10 quarts 
 
 Amyl acetate (technical) 1 ounce 
 
 This amount of bait is sufficient to scatter over two acres. It slumld 
 be scattered early in the morning. 
 
 Corn Ear-Worm 
 
 The ear-worm is the common greenish or brownish worm that eats 
 into the ears of both dent and sweet corn. The adult is a brown moth. 
 
 As there are three generations in one year, and each female produces 
 200 to 300 eggs, this insect can increase rapidly. They go over the 
 Avinter in the pupal stage. The moth emerges early in the spring and 
 deposits eggs which hatch by the time corn is planted. The first two 
 generations live on the leaves, but the third generation attacks the ears. 
 
 It is especially damaging to sweet corn. In the South it plays havoc 
 with the dent varieties. The young worm begins to feed on the silks 
 and kernels at the tip end of the ear. The full grown worm tunnels 
 down the ear toward the butt end. The same worm feeds on the cotton 
 boll the tomato and tobacco bud. 
 
 There ai)pears to be no reliable measure for controlling the corn 
 ear-worm. Fall plowing has often been recommended, but it is doubtful 
 if this measure is effective. The insects breed with such rapidity dur- 
 ing the summer that any benefit of fall plowing is overcome. Some 
 benefit has Ix'cn obtained h\ dusting sweet corn during the silking 
 
132 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 jicrioil. witli powdered lead arsenate, but this is not practical except 
 with sweet corn. Varieties that have lono-, ti.u"ht-fittin<i' husks are pro- 
 tected to a certain degree from the M'ork of this worm. Late planted 
 corn seems to be more susceptible to ear-worm damap-e than early planted 
 corn. 
 
 The ear-worm should not be confused with the extremely injurious 
 European corn borer, which is described on paji'e 133. 
 
 American Stalk Borers 
 
 There are several kinds of stalk borers. The chief importance of 
 these insects is the possibilitj' of confusing them with the much-feared 
 European corn borer, which is described on page 133. 
 
 One stalk borer commonly found in the Corn Belt has broader, 
 darker brown stripes than the pale stripes of the European borer. It 
 does its work early in the season, whereas the European borer is most 
 active after tasseling time. The American stalk borer does little damage 
 and its control is not important. 
 
 INSECTS THAT WORK ON THE ENTIRE PLANT 
 
 European Corn Borer 
 
 The adult is a moth which flies from place to place and deposits 
 eggs upon the plants of its choice. These eggs hatch into smooth cater- 
 pillars which bore into the stalk. In the case of corn, the entire plant, 
 includino- tassel, stalk and ear, is invaded. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^^ ---M 
 
 European corn borer (greatly enlarged I. The full-grown caterpillar is about 
 one inch long. 
 
INSECTS OF CORN 133 
 
 The larvae pass the winter in the stalk. The borer is rather lig'ht 
 in color, with a row of small, dark-brown spots on each segment, while 
 several dark brown or pink lines extend lengthwise of the body. Be- 
 cause the adult is a moth, the borer is easily spread. The moths either 
 fly or may be blown for great distances. 
 
 It is one of the worst corn pests of Hungary. It was introduced 
 into the eastern United States in 1917, and has rapidly moved west. 
 As yet, it has not reached the center of the Corn Belt, but the danger 
 is great. Corn is the preferred food, but it will also attack many grain 
 crops and weeds. 
 
 The one practical method of control when it reaches the Corn Belt 
 Avill be community co-operation in the careful burning of all corn stalks 
 before the middle of May. Late planting may also help. 
 
 The European corn borer has possibilities of causing as much dam- 
 age to the corn crop as the boll weevil has caused to the cotton crop. 
 There is grave danger that it will reach the heart of the Corn Belt 
 by 1930. 
 
 INSECTS THAT WORK ON STORED CORN 
 
 There are several insects of stored corn, only a few of which are 
 mentioned in this chapter. On account of the severe winters, they ordi- 
 narily do not damage corn greatly in a large part of the Corn Belt, 
 especially the northern section. 
 
 The Angumois grain moth, the ]\Iediterranean flour moth and the 
 '\^•eevil are three insects of stored corn that are often found in large 
 numbers where the storage temperature is above freezing during -the 
 winter. The weevil is injurious to the stored grain of many crops. The 
 small brown adult beetle punctures the kernel and inserts its egg. The 
 white larva or grub lives inside and eats the kernel. Several may be 
 found in one kernel. The pupal stage is white and transparent. The 
 Mediterranean flour moth is injurious to many grains, especially wheat. 
 The adult is a small gray moth. The silken webs spun by the larvae are 
 troublesome. The Angumois grain moth is not numerous in the Corn 
 Belt. The small round holes in a kernel of corn are indications of at- 
 tack by this insect. The moths are light brown in color. The larva 
 is a small, whitish worm. 
 
 Under farm conditions, the only practical control is fumigation 
 with carbon disulphide, a heavy liquid, which is volatile. The gas 
 formed is heavier than air, and so the liquid must be placed at the top 
 of the room or building to be fumigated. One pound is sufficient for 
 50 to 100 bushels of grain, depending on the temperature and the type 
 and size of building fumigated. The gas is highly inflammable, and 
 so all lights and fires should be kept away from the building being fumi- 
 gated. It is also slightly poisonous. Hydrocyanic gas is effective but 
 extremely poisonous. Heat may be used in mills or elevators as a 
 remedv. 
 
134 CORN AND (ORX-GROWING 
 
 Other Pests 
 
 liirds. like the blac'kl)ir(l and crow, eat a large amount of the planted 
 seed, and in some eases some of the crop. Rodents and rabbits often 
 cause a reduced stand by eating the seed. Some farmers attempt to 
 ])oison these pests. Others spread a bushel or so of well-soaked corn 
 in a field adjacent to a newly-planted field of corn. The pests feed on 
 This soaked corn and do not disturb the planted seed. 
 
CHAPTER 25 
 
 DISEASES OF CORN 
 
 /^ORN is freer from disease damage than most other crops. The two 
 important groups of diseases of corn are corn smut, with which every 
 corn grower is familiar, and root rot, fusarium, diplodia and similar 
 diseases to which so much attention has been directed in Indiana and 
 Illinois. Previous to 1913, much of the damage caused by this latter 
 group of diseases was attributed to the corn root-worm, the corn root- 
 louse, or to drouth. These diseases are not w^ell understood. There are 
 possibly ten different bacterial or fungus organisms which play some 
 part in root rotting, stalk stunting, leaf rolling, joint discoloration or 
 leaf reddening in the corn field. 
 
 Corn Smut 
 
 All corn growers are familiar wath the black balls of corn smut 
 which are found in every corn field. It is a typical fungus with the 
 mycelium growing inside the stalk or leaf of the corn plant. Exter- 
 nally, smut first appears as a rather lustrous, lead-colored bump, but 
 
 MAP NO. IX 
 
 E.-Tiinated percentage of corn crop destroyed by smut. Solid, over .5 per cent. 
 Diagona) lines, 2.6 1o 5 per cent. Squares, 1.1 to 2. .5 per cent. All others 
 under 1.1 per cent. 
 
136 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 Corn smut. 
 
 of Iowa Station.) 
 
 this bump swells and darkens until it bursts and lets loose the black 
 smut spores, which are in effect the seeds which carry over the disease 
 in the soil for another year. In the average field, smut causes the loss 
 of one-half to one bushel an acre, but in many fields it causes the loss 
 of two or three bushels an acre. Map IX, based on information compiled 
 by the United States Department of Agriculture, indicates that smut is 
 a much more serious matter on the extreme southwestern edge of the 
 Corn Belt than it is in the central part. Possibly extreme drouth and 
 heat are favorable to the development of corn smut. 
 
 No one has discovered any effective way of preventing corn smut. 
 Rotation helps some. After corn has been grown on the same field for 
 more than two years, the infection seems to get worse. Theoretically, 
 it should help to go over the field several times in July and August and 
 pick off the smut balls before they burst, but this is absolutely im- 
 practical. Treating the seed with formaldehyde, in the same way as 
 small grain is treated for smut, does not reduce the percentage of smut. 
 The one practical method of attack is to breed for strains of corn which 
 are smut-resistant. It has been definitely proved that some strains 
 of corn are much more smut-resistant than others. It would seem to be 
 Avorth while to avoid picking seed ears from stalks which show the 
 slightest signs of smut infection. The constructive corn breeders of 
 the future Avill do some of their best work in developing high yieUling 
 strains of corn which are much more resistant to smut than any which 
 we now have. 
 
DISEASES OF CORN 137 
 
 Corn smut is not poisonous. It has been fed in large quantities 
 to live stock without bad effects. In fact, an eastern experiment sta- 
 tion states that it makes an excellent substitute for mushrooms, for 
 human consumption, if <i'athered l)efore reaching' the Inirsting stage. 
 
 Diplodia 
 
 Probably the most clear-cut and outstanding of the root-rot group 
 of diseases of corn is diplodia, which infects the entire plant but mani- 
 fests itself most noticeably in the form of moldy ears — ears which are 
 moldy altogether apart from any mold following damage by the corn 
 ear-worm. White streaks of mold found between the kernel tips are 
 almost certain signs of diplodia. In bad cases, the entire ear will be 
 a mass of white mold. ]\Iany apparently good seed ears are slightly 
 infected with diplodia, and when planted produce a very high percent- 
 age of stunted and barren stalks. One of the most important things 
 to look out for when shelling the seed ears by hand is to throw out any 
 which show the slightest trace of mold at the kernel tips. Diplodia 
 is doubtless carried over from one year to the next in the soil as well 
 as in the seed corn, but there is apparently nothing that we can do about 
 the presence of the disease in the soil. Diplodia does not do so very 
 much damage if strong, mold-free seed is planted, provided the late 
 summer and early fall is not unusually moist and warm. In 1922 and 
 1923 experiments of the United States Department of Agriculture in 
 central Illinois indicated that it is possible to treat seed corn so as to 
 free the seed from diplodia infection. No information is available as 
 yet as to the substance used. 
 
 Fusarium 
 
 There are many species of fusarium attacking a great variety of 
 plants. Ordinarily, they are not so very serious. One of them, when 
 weather conditions are just right, causes scab in wheat. It has been 
 definitely demonstrated that the same fusarium (Gibberella S. is a 
 type of fusarium) may, when corn is following wheat, cause very serious 
 damage to corn. There are several other fusariums infecting corn, and 
 most of them are carried over winter not only on the corn stalks but also 
 inside the kernels of corn. No method of treating the corn with for- 
 maldehyde will free the kernels from infection. Apparently all that 
 can be done is to pick out the ears that are infected and avoid planting 
 them. Illinois experiments indicate that seed which is infected with 
 fusarium will yield fully 20 per cent less than disease-free seed. Iowa 
 experiments indicate that under favorable conditions of soil and weather 
 there is very little difference in yielding power between seed infected 
 with fusarium and seed not infected. There is no question about the 
 low yielding power of seed infected with diplodia, but there do seem to 
 be some conditions under which fusarium is not so verv serious. 
 
138 <"()J{X AXl) C'OKN-GKOWIXG 
 
 Controlling the Root-Rot Diseases 
 
 From the standpoint of practical action against the root-rots, the 
 first thing is to select normally matured ears from normal stalks in the 
 field. Go over the seed ears and throw out all having kernels with 
 starchy backs. Throw out the ears that are light for their size and 
 which show any sign of disease at the shank. Shredded, dull-colored 
 shank attachments indicate disease. The next step is conducting the 
 germination test with unusual care and with an eye open for signs of 
 infection. However, the Ohio station states that although experts can 
 use the germination test to select disease free ears, the average person 
 can not make practical use of the germination test from the disease stand- 
 point. There are two methods of testing for diseased ears. One is a 
 table germinator with a limestone-sawdust base. The other is a modified 
 rag doll. 
 
 Modified Rag Doll 
 
 The following directions are designed to help in constructing the 
 special form of rag doll to pick out infected ears : 
 
 1. Lay a 12x60-inch strip of firm, water-finish, fiber (butcher's paper i 
 on a table. 
 
 2. On top of the paper lay a 12x54-inc.h moistened strip of muslin. 
 
 3. Place eight representative kernels from each ear in a row, with gt-rm 
 sides down and tips pointing in the same direction. 
 
 4. Roll the paper and cloth into a doll, as described in the making of 
 the rag doll. 
 
 5. Store the dolls in a warm, moist place for seven days. 
 
 6. The stored dolls should not come in contact with one another. 
 
 7. A box with wire cross rods three inches apart in the upper part of the 
 box is suitable for storage. 
 
 8. Keep the dolls moist and see that the container allows drainage. 
 
 9. Unroll the dolls and read the test. 
 
 10. The percentage of germination of each ear is determined in the usual 
 way, and the seedlings are then examined for molding or rotting. The seed- 
 lings which have discolored or rotten stems or roots, or which come from rot- 
 ten kernels indicate ears infected with disease. 
 
 Disease Resistant Corn 
 
 It will not be until WM) or later that we have any very compk'tc 
 knowledge concerning this group of diseases. It is probable that eventu- 
 ally it will be found that the best way of meeting these diseases will be 
 by the breeding of disease resistant strains. Preliminary work indicates 
 that some strains are much more resistant than others. Here again is 
 a great field of work ()i)en for the constructive corn breeder. 
 
 Effect of Soil 
 
 Hoffer, working in Indiana, and Holbert, working in Illinois, have 
 both found that soil conditions have much to do with these diseases. 
 AVhero the soil is acid and corn is grown vear after vear. it seems that 
 
DISEASES OF CORN 1:59 
 
 these diseases are likely to groAV in virulence. Presumably this explains 
 why these diseases are regarded as so much more serious in the eastern 
 part of the Corn Belt than in Iowa. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge, the practical way of handling 
 these diseases is to apply lime to acid soils, grow clover once in four 
 years, avoid growing corn on the same land more than two years in suc- 
 cession, burn the corn stalks, avoid following scabby wheat with corn, 
 and plant seed corn which the germinator indicates to be disease-free. 
 
 Other Diseases 
 
 Corn rust is a common disease of the plant. This disease affects 
 mainly the leaves and tassel of the plant, and interferes Avith their func- 
 tioning. However, the damage is not great, and so little attention has 
 been given to control measures. Other diseases of corn are sheath spot, 
 wilt and damping-off. 
 
CHAPTER 26 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 
 
 /^ORN is a Slimmer annual which belongs to the grass family, ^ueh 
 other common farm crops as wheat, oats, barley, rye and sorghum 
 also belong to the same family. Incorrectly, flax and buckwheat are 
 often called grasses. Botanists classify the corn plant as follows : 
 
 Botanical Division Name Characteristics 
 
 Family Gramineae Fibrous root system leaves alter- 
 nate, parallel veins in leaves, 
 split leaf sheath, ligule, stems 
 cylindrical with solid nodes. 
 
 Tribe Tripsaceae (maydeae)... Male and female flowers in sepa- 
 rate places on the same plant. 
 
 Genus Zea Grain borne on a lateral cob. 
 
 Relatives of corn. To left, Job's tears, showing female flower below and male 
 flowers above. To right, gama grass, with female tassels in lower part of 
 tassel and male flowers in upper part. (a) female flower (enlarged); 
 (b) male flower (enlarged). 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 
 
 141 
 
 Teosinte-corn hybrid plant produced by a single kernel. Note large numbers 
 of suckers and branches which bear tassels. A plant of this sort will often 
 produce forty ears, but each ear carries only ten or fifteen kernels. 
 
142 COKX AND COKX-GKOWING 
 
 Besides zea (corn), there are three other common <>enera helono-int; 
 to tlio tribe Trij^saeeae — Euchlaena (teosinte), Tripsacnm (jiama jirass). 
 and Coix (Job's tears). Teosinte and gama grass are described in 
 Chapter 1. Teosinte will cross with corn, but as yet there have been 
 no successful crosses of either corn or teosinte with gama grass or Job's 
 tears. Job's tears is an ornamental garden plant. Large growing, soft 
 shelled forms of Job's tears are cultivated as a grain crop in the Pliilip- 
 pines and other tropical eastern countries. 
 
 There are several other genera belonging to Tribe Tripsaceae, Avhich 
 are found in India, but which seem as yet to be of no practical impor- 
 tance. From a strictly botanical point of view, there are no clear-cut 
 species of the Genus Zea. Before the discovery of Mendel's law and its 
 application to the genetics of corn, many distinct species of zea were 
 recognized. Today most of these so-called species are looked on merely 
 as interesting freaks which behave as Mendelian dominants or ^Mendelian 
 recessives. 
 
 On the basis of kernel texture there are four common groups of 
 zea (corn") : 
 
 1. 
 
 Dent. 
 
 2. 
 
 Flint. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sweet. 
 
 4. 
 
 Soft. 
 
 Dent Corn 
 
 Dent corn is characterized by a depression in the crown of the 
 kernel. This denting is caused by the unequal shrinkage of the hard 
 starch found on the sides of the kernel and the soft starch which com- 
 poses the crown. The character of the indentation varies all the way 
 from a shallow dimple through a crumpled crease to a thin beak or 
 hook. This last kind of indentation is characteristic of those dents 
 with the highest percentage of soft starch toward the crown. Dent 
 corn varies in color and in size and shape of ear. There is also a great 
 variation in size and shape of kernel. Some ears of dent corn bear 
 kernels of the extreme shoe-peg type, very narrow and deep. Other 
 ears of dent corn bear kernels of the square type, very wide and shallow. 
 In between are all gradations of kernel type. 
 
 The great diversity of type sketched in the foregoing, together Avitli 
 historical and genetic evidence, indicates that dent corn is not in any 
 sense a species, but a conglomerate mixture. This mixture seems to 
 have resulted from both accidental and intentional crossing of the large 
 flint type (recognized as a distinct sort in the early part of the nine- 
 teenth century) with the gourd-seed, which seems to have been a late- 
 maturing, rank-stalked type, bearing an ear with 22 to 36 rows of rough, 
 deep, very soft, shoe-peg kernels. The ears were rather short, small- 
 cobbed and very thick because of the great depth of grain. Some 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 
 
 14:J 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^!* ■ 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1. 1 
 
 Jr 
 
 ■bIr 
 
 w 
 
 IF 
 
 
 
 ^W 
 
 Teosinte ear spikes on left. Three ears on right are types which result when 
 teosinte is crossed with corn and the corn types are selected out. (Courtesy 
 oi" United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 people have looked on the gourd-seed as being synonymous with dent 
 corn. That this is not true is indicated by the testimony of farmers who 
 grew both dents and gourd-seeds. For instance, one farmer who grew 
 both Avrote : 
 
 "Gourd-seed is a large, rough, soft corn. It is later and has larger 
 stalks and ears than the other varieties. It lacks the flintiness and 
 weight for the same bulk as the others have. In comparison with dent 
 of my own raising, in feeding hogs, 1 thought it took about one and one- 
 fourth bushels to go as far as one of my own corn. But cattle in par- 
 ticular will eat it more readily, as it is not so hard to masticate." 
 
 Mr. John Lorain, in his "Practice of Husbandry," published in 
 1825, refers to the common practice of mixing gourd-seed with other 
 varieties : 
 
 "So prevalent are mixtures, that 1 have never examined a field of 
 corn (where great care had not been taken to select the seed), which 
 did not exhibit evident traces of all the corn in general use for field 
 
144 CORX AND CORX-G ROWING 
 
 planting, with many others that are not used for this purpose. None 
 can be longer nor more readily traced than the gourd-seed. 
 
 "The quantity of the gourd-seed mixed with the flinty yellow corns, 
 may be determined, so as to answer the farmer's purpose. When the 
 l)roportion of the former greatly predominates, the grains are pale, very 
 long and narrow, and the outside ends of them are so flat (beaked) that 
 but little of the indenture is seen. As the portion of the gourd-seed 
 decreases in the mixture, the grains shorten, become wider, and their 
 outside ends grow thicker. The indentures also become larger and 
 rounder, until the harder corns get the ascendancy. After this, the 
 outside ends of the grain become thicker and more circular. They also 
 grow wider, and the fluted appearance between the rows increases. The 
 indentures also decrease in size until they disappear, and the yellow, 
 flinty variety is formed. But, as I believe, not so fully but that the 
 latent remains will forever subject it to more or less change. It is 
 more difficult to determine the quantity of big and little yellow flints, 
 which may happen to be mixed with the gourd-seed, and at the same 
 time with each other. The soft, open texture of the gourd-seed renders 
 it unfit for exportation, unless it be kiln-dried." 
 
 Lorain, previous to 1825, stated that true gourd-seed is white : 
 
 "It is invariably white, unless it has been mixed with the yellow 
 flinty corns. Then it is called the yellow gourd-seed, and too many 
 farmers consider it and most other mixtures original corns. I have 
 often heard of original yellow gourd-seed corn, but after taking much 
 trouble to investigate the fact, could never find anything more than 
 a mixture. If there be an original yellow gourd-seed corn, it has eluded 
 my very attentive inquiry from the Atlantic to our most remote western 
 settlements. ' ' 
 
 Lorain also says that much of the corn which passes for white gourd- 
 seed has been mixed with white flint. 
 
 Peter A. Brown, LL. D., writing a paper on corn for the Chester 
 county, Pennsylvania. Cabinet of Natural Science, in 1837, refers to 
 true gourdseed as carrj-ing twenty-four or more rows of kernels. He 
 looked on ears carrying fourteen to twenty-two rows of kernels as mix- 
 tures of flint and gourdseed. No reference is made to dent corn, although 
 he lists thirty-five different types, seven of which he states were origin- 
 ated by mixing gourdseed and flint. He mentions the King Philip as 
 mixing especially well with gourdseed. 
 
 According to the twelfth Smithsonian Institute report, the Mound- 
 builders of Arkansas grew a type of corn which is "judged to be the 
 variety known in the South as the gourd-seed corn. ' ' 
 
 Beverly, in his history of Virginia, written in 1705, states that the 
 Indians grew a late flint and a late dent. "The other has a larger grain 
 and looks shriveled, Avith a dent on the back of the grain as if it had 
 never come to perfection ; and this they call She corn. This is esteemed 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 
 
 14; 
 
 by the planters, as the best for increase, and is universally chosen by 
 them for planting; yet I can't see but this also produces the flint corn, 
 accidentally among- the other.'' Evidently there was some crossing of 
 flint and gourdseed to produce dent corn long before the time of John 
 Lorain. 
 
 The genetic evidence in favor of the hypothesis that the typical dent 
 varieties grown in the Corn Belt are a cross of the flint and gourd-seed 
 corns, consists in the ease with which inbreeding isolates out types 
 which are practically pure flints. H. A. Wallace has isolated out of 
 the Clyde Black strain of Reid Yellow Dent a flinty type similar in 
 appearance to the Dutton flint, popular in New York seventy years 
 ago. Gourd-seed types, because of their lateness and susceptibility to 
 disease, have thus far been difficult to isolate in their pure inbred form. 
 
 Of course, it is recognized that there may have been many other 
 sorts mixed in forming the modern dent corn, but it is believed that the 
 chief characteristics of dent corn as it is known in the Corn Belt today 
 are due to the large flint and the gourd-seed. 
 
 Modern dents seem to contain varying percentages of flint and 
 gourd-seed blood. Johnson County White appears to contain a high 
 percentage of gourd-seed, whereas Northwestern Dent is unquestion- 
 ably more than one-half flint. 
 
 The hybrid heredity of dent corn and the consequent variability and 
 possibility of securing unproductive as well as productive mixtures, 
 indicates that intelligent selection is probably more necessary with dent 
 corn than with purer types. 
 
 Dent corn typically contains about 10 per cent protein, 68 per cent 
 nitrogen free extract, and 4.8 per cent fat. It is one to two per cent 
 poorer in protein and one to two per cent richer in nitrogen free extract 
 than flint corn of the same moisture content. Shelled dent corn typi- 
 cally weighs 55 or 56 pounds per bushel, whereas shelled corn of the 
 small seeded flints may weigh 60 pounds per bushel, and the flour corns 
 may Aveigh only 50 pounds. 
 
 p-L-inT - i^i_ouF=\- DEin-r 
 
 hORmr iTARcn Gcrrn 
 Illustrating difference of kernel texture in different types. 
 
14(i CORN AND (M^RX-GROWIXG 
 
 Flint Corn 
 
 Flint corn differs from dent corn in that it contains practically no 
 soft starch; therefore, no indentation is formed. Most flints sucker 
 jirofusely, and nsnally bear more than one ear ])er plant. Flint corns 
 are good yielders and furnish excellent fodder. The corn meal made 
 from flint corn is of superior quality. ]\Iost yellow flints are a much 
 deeper yellow than yellow dents. 
 
 The four common classes of flint varieties are (1) early flints, (2) 
 medium flints, (3) tropical flints, and (4) popcorn. 
 
 The early flints are the earliest varieties of corn grown in the United 
 States. They grow only three or four feet high, and bear the ear within 
 a few inches of the ground. The color is variable, and the ear six to 
 seven inches long and usually carrying eight rows. This type is adapted 
 to short seasons, high altitudes and dry conditions. Representative 
 varieties are Gehu, Dakota White and Early Indian. Most of these 
 early flints were developed by the Indians of the northwest with but 
 very little improvement by the white man during the past thirty years. 
 
 The medium flint class consists principally of varieties that orig- 
 inated in New England and the Middle-Atlantic states. They grow from 
 five to seven feet in height, but are finer stalked than the dent varieties. 
 They vary greatly in size and color of ear and in length of maturity. 
 Most of them are eight-rowed. Because of their fine stalks and numer- 
 ous leaves, they make an excellent quality of fodder and silage. Repre- 
 sentative varieties are Longfellow, King Philip. Smut Nose and Mercer. 
 Both the early and medium flints sucker considerably and carry many 
 streamers on their husks. 
 
 The tropical flints are not well knoAvn in the United States. Pre- 
 sumably, Columbus found tropical flints growing on the West India 
 islands and introduced them to Europe. Many of the common flints 
 of Italy, the Balkan States and Argentina seem to be tropical flints. 
 The tropical flints, as modified by selection in these countries, require 
 about 120 days to mature. Many of them do not sucker. The kernels 
 usually are narrower and deeper than with the medium class of flints. 
 Oftentimes the ears carry twelve rows. 
 
 Popcorn differs from the other flints in that it contains an even 
 higher percentage of hard starch, the kernels are usually much smaller, 
 and the hull in proportion to the size of kernel is tougher and thicker. 
 Because of these characteristics, the kernel, when heated, has the ability 
 to pop better than the other flints. Popcorn is discussed in Chapter 27. 
 
 While there is great variability among all four classes of flints., just 
 described, there is reason to think that they arc more luiiforni in tlicii- 
 characteristics than the dents. 
 
 Sweet Corn 
 
 SAveet corns may be of the dent type (Evergreen) or the flint ty])e 
 (Golden Bantam), and also of soft corn types. Sweet corn, therefore 
 has the possibility of being one of the most variable of all corn tyjies. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 147 
 
 Tlie only distinguisliing characteristics of sweet corn are wrinkled ker- 
 nels and translucent, hard starch, which does not mature normally, ap- 
 parently remaining- in the sugar stage much longer than is the case witli 
 ordinary corn. 
 
 Soft Corn 
 
 Soft varieties of corn are grown only to a very limited extent. They 
 are also known as "squaw" corn and "flour" corn. Soft corn is usu- 
 ally similar to flint corn in plant and ear characters, but differs in 
 that the kernels are composed largely of soft starch Instead of hard 
 starch. Like flint corn, it has no dent (sometimes there is a slight dent 
 in Hopi Indian corn). The horny starch in soft corn is such a very thin 
 shell at the sides of the kernel that it is impossible for any strain of this 
 corn to be deep yellow in color (the yellow color of corn is found only 
 in the horny starch). 
 
 Strains, of soft corn are Brazilian Flour, Hopi and the Blue Flour 
 of the Nebraska and Dakota Indians. Evidence indicating the purity of 
 flour corn as an ancient type is the inbreeding Avork done by Kemptoji 
 and Collins with the Pawnee Blue Flour. The Pawnee Blue Flour with- 
 stands inbreeding with less loss of vigor than any other strain of corn 
 which has thus far been put through this severe test. 
 
 Other Types 
 
 Kernel texture, while convenient for practical purposes, is only one 
 basis of classifying corn. Geneticists have studied hundreds of distinct 
 types which the botanists of a generation ago would have dignified with 
 Latin names as distinct species. Some of these types are : 
 
 1. Pod corn — each kernel enclosed by a husk as well as the entire ear. 
 
 '1. Brachytic corn — short jointed corn which is normal in every respect 
 except that the joints are only half the normal length. There are the usual 
 number of leaves. 
 
 3. Purple-leaved corn — the leaves and husks are a deep, beautiful purple. 
 
 4. Japonica. or striped-leaved corn. 
 
 .5. Hairy corn — hairs on the stems and leaves. 
 
 6. Ramosa corn — ear a round cluster of kernels withort a true cob. (Dis- 
 covered at the Illinois station.) 
 
 7. Corn bearing ears with lateral branches at the base of the cob. 
 
 5. Tassel ear corn — ears borne on tassels. 
 
 9. Waxy corn — logically, this should be included as a fifth member ot 
 the classification on kernel texture. The carbohydrates of the kernel are 
 stored in the form of dextrin, instead of as starch. It is not shriveled, however, 
 like sweet corn. 
 
 10. Starchy sweet corn — like waxy corn, this logically should be included 
 with the classification on basis of kernel texture. The upper part of the ker- 
 nels is transparent and horny like sweet corn, and the lower part is starchy. 
 This corn is grown by certain Mexican and Peruvian Indians. It can be pro 
 duced by crossing true sweet corns with dent corn and then selecting out in 
 later generations the sweet corn recessives which carry white starch at the 
 base of the kernel. It is not grown commercially. 
 
148 VOVx^ AND CORX-GROAVIXG 
 
 There are many more rather freakish types of this sort which have 
 as legitimate claim, from a botanical point of view, to be known as 
 species of zea as do dent corn, flint corn, sweet corn and soft corn. From 
 a practical point of view, however, this classification into four groups, 
 on the basis of kernel texture, seems best. 
 
 ^4^ 
 ^t"^ 
 
CHAPTER 27 
 POPCORN 
 
 npHE growing of popcorn on a field scale in the Corn Belt is a spe- 
 cialized and localized industry. Profit in popcorn growing depends 
 largely on the grower's ability to produce popcorn of good quality, store 
 his crop properly, and market it advantageously. In comparison to 
 field corn, popcorn is more bother to raise, harder to get a stand, more 
 difficult to keep clean, and more bother to gather and deliver. In addi- 
 tion, marketing difficulties and fluctuating prices make it an unprofit- 
 able crop for promiscuous planting. 
 
 Why It Pops 
 
 Popping is the complete eversion of the kernel as a result of the 
 explosion of the contained moisture when heat is applied. A 12 per 
 cent moisture content is considered best for popping. This means that 
 popcorn usually pops best after about six months of storage. Ordinary 
 rice popcorn increases in volume from twelve to twenty times on pop- 
 ping. Certain high popping strains and the Jap Rice may increase 
 in volume by as much as thirty times. 
 
 Types of Popcorn 
 
 The three common types of popcorn are White Rice, Jap and Pearl. 
 In the great popcorn district in Sac and Ida counties, Iowa, the White 
 Rice and Jap are grown almost exclusively. 
 
 White Rice — -The kernels are pointed at the crown. Ears are seven 
 or eight inches long and carry twelve or fourteen rows of kernels. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 ^''W^^^|t^jr,wM»'«rBF«-^-^^ ' 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Z 
 
 1 1 ! 
 
 2 
 
 1 I 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 7 
 
 Typical ear of White Rice popcorn, which is grown more commercially than 
 all other kinds put together. 
 
150 COKX AND COKX-GKOAVIXG 
 
 stalks are usually six or seven feet tall. It yields about 70 i)er cent as 
 many pounds of ear corn per acre as ordinary dent corn grown on the 
 same land. It is the outstanding- popcorn of America, but the Jap is 
 gradually replacing it to a considerable extent. 
 
 Jap — The kernels are pointed like the White Rice, but are much 
 narrower. The ears are only two or three inches long. They carry 
 typically from twent3'-four to thirty-six rows of grain. Kernels are 
 deep but exceedingly narrow. The stalks are about five feet tall. It 
 will yield about 70 per cent as many pounds per acre as the White Rice 
 and about half as many pounds as ordinary dent corn on the same land. 
 Because of the small ears, it is difficult to husk. When buskers of dent 
 corn are paid four or five cents a bushel (eighty pounds of ear corn), it 
 is customary to pay buskers of White Rice about 15 cents per hundred 
 pounds of ear corn and buskers of Jap about 23 cents per hundred 
 pounds of snapped corn. 
 
 Jap corn suckers less than most strains of White Rice, and the main 
 tassel spike is shorter and thicker. ]Many of the stalks are somewhat 
 hairy. Two or three ears per stalk are common. 
 
 Jap produces a more tender product on po})ping than the White 
 Rice, and is much in demand on that account. Some call it Jap Hull- 
 less because it is so tender. It also increases more in bulk on i)opping 
 than is the case with ordinary White Rice. 
 
 The market has normally paid from 40 to 100 per cent more for 
 Jap popcorn per hundred pounds of snapped corn than for White Rice 
 per hundred pounds of ear corn. 
 
 Pearl Popcorn — The kernels are rounded and shallow, and look 
 like small flint kernels. The ears are about eight inches long and carry 
 eight to fourteen rows. The eating quality of Pearl popcorn is low as 
 compared with the Jap. The large popped kernels of the eight-rowed 
 variety are strung on strings and used as ornaments at Christmas-time. 
 The three common Pearl varieties are White Pearl, Golden Queen and 
 Eight-rowed. 
 
 Cultural Methods 
 
 Popcorn is grown in almost exactly the same way as ordinary dent 
 corn. It should not be planted after June 1, because popcorn which is 
 the least bit immature is worthless. An ordinary corn planter with 
 special plates is used to plant popcorn. It may be either checked or 
 drilled. However, drilling is to be discouraged unless the land is ex- 
 ceptionally free from weeds. Five to six kernels are dropped in a hill, 
 and often three feet four inch wire is used, so that the cross rows are 
 forty inclies apart and the planter rows forty-two inches. Five to six 
 pounds per acre gives a good .stand. 
 
 Cultivation is practically the same as that of the dent corn. How- 
 ever, the smaller plant makes the first cultivation a little more difficult. 
 Three to four cultivations are the rule, and it is "laid by'' at the same 
 time or a little later than dent corn. 
 
POPC'ORX l')l 
 
 Popcorn ripens somewhat earlier than fiekl corn, hnsking often be- 
 ginning- the last of September or the first of October. It should be fnlly 
 mature before frost comes, as freezing- injures the popping qnality and 
 greatl}^ reduces its value on the market. The best quality of popcorn 
 is obtained by allowing the ears to ripen fully on the standing stalks. 
 Husking from the shock, while practiced in a limited way, is very poor 
 practice. Formerly, popcorn was harvested exclusively by hand, but in 
 late years the husking machine has come into favor as a means of getting 
 the corn into the crib. Both methods have their good points. Three me{n 
 operating a machine will crib as much corn as five men by hand. The 
 husking machine is discussed in (-hapter 13. Forty inches of White 
 Rice per day is a good day's picking for a man. It seems to take at 
 least twice as much labor to husk White Rice popcorn as it does dent corn. 
 
 Marketing 
 
 From 60 to 75 per cent of the entire crop is marketed before the 
 first of January. Some is hauled directly from the field to the market. 
 The crop is often contracted for before the seed is put in the ground. 
 The contract price fluctuates greatly, but is usually around $2 per 
 hundred pounds of White Rice ear corn when prospects are for dent corn 
 selling for 50 cents per bushel of ear corn (eighty pounds) in December. 
 ]\Iost of the popcorn cribbed on the farm is marketed shelled. Shrinkage, 
 according to one authority, is about 30 per cent. Rat-proof cribs are 
 often used, though rodents do less damage to popcorn than to dent corn. 
 
 Cribbing and Shelling 
 
 The Dickinson, Cracker-jack and ShotAvell peoi)le, who buy the bulk 
 of the commercial popcorn, have built large plants for the storage of 
 popcorn. One plant in Sac county, Iowa, consists of four cribs with a 
 capacity of 1,250,000 pounds each of ear corn, or a combined capacity 
 of five million pounds; an elevator with a 350,000-pound shelled corn 
 capacity, and five tanks with a capacity of two million pounds of shelled 
 corn. 
 
 Popcorn cribs along railroad tracks, owned by one of the big commercial con- 
 cerns in Sac county, Iowa. 
 
152 CORX AND CORN GROWING 
 
 Early in the summer, shellino- starts in the big cribs and is kept up 
 intermittently all summer, so that the cribs will be empty in time for 
 the new crop. The sheller is built in as part of the plant, and endless 
 belts convey the corn from the cribs to the sheller. 
 
 Amount Grown 
 
 Popcorn is grown in practically every state. However, the main 
 portion of the market supply comes from Sac and Ida counties, in Iowa, 
 and Valley and Greeley counties, in Nebraska. 
 
 Iowa is the leading popcorn state. Two counties, Ida and Sac, nor- 
 mally grow over 10,000 acres annually. The following table gives pop- 
 corn acreage in Ida and Sac counties for different years : 
 
 1912 1919 1922 
 
 Ida county 5,412 11,411 2,996 
 
 Sac county 8,408 14,722 5,160 
 
 As to whether the decline in acreage indicated by the 1922 figures 
 will jirove to be permanent is rather doubtful. 
 
 Uses of Popcorn 
 
 Most of the popcorn is used as a confection. "Cracker-jack," 
 "Checkers" and similar well-known delicacies are coated popcorn. In 
 handling the commercial grades of popcorn, the wholesaler must figure 
 on a waste of 7 to 25 per cent. This waste is made up of kernels that 
 will not pop, kernels that are mixed with dent corn and dust or broken 
 pieces of cob that the sheller did not clean cut. Considerable popcorn 
 flour is used commercially. It is said that it is a fine light flour of 
 unusually high quality. 
 
CHAPTER 28 
 
 SWEET CORN 
 
 CWEET corn is extensively grown for canning- purposes in many sec- 
 tions of the Corn Belt, especially in Iowa and Illinois. It takes 
 about IjOOO acres of sweet corn to maintain an efficient canning factory. 
 Sweet corn is an early cash crop, that is usually contracted for at plant- 
 ing- time ; hence, the marketing of the crop is not a problem. Sweet corn 
 fits in Avell before winter wheat in the rotation, making for some sections 
 a better combination than field corn and oats. The stalks left in the 
 field after snapping the sweet corn are a valuable feed, worth $8 or $4 
 an acre. In general, sw^eet corn is a profitable crop for many farmers 
 located within four miles of a canning factory. 
 
 How It Differs from Field Corn 
 
 The ordinary dent, flint and soft corns are usually referred to as 
 field corn, although some of these types are occasionally used as roast- 
 ing ears. Kernels of sweet corn are horny, wrinkled and translucent. 
 The high sugar content of the kernel gives this type of corn its name 
 and particular uses. Most sweet varieties are prolific and sucker greatly. 
 As a rule, sweet corn requires a shorter season than field corn. 
 
 Uses of Sweet Corn 
 
 ]\lost of the sweet corn grown on a fi(4d scale in the Corn Belt is 
 sold to canning factories that are within hauling distance of the farms. 
 Dried sweet corn is still used by farmers, and sweet corn on the ears in 
 the "roasting stage" or "in the milk," is an important vegetable. A 
 small amount is picked for table use. Although sweet corn yields less 
 than field corn, a few farmers prefer it for hogging-down or sheeping- 
 down. According to the Iowa station, "Sweet corn provides an early 
 soiling crop. It may be harvested in early September before the field 
 corn is sufficiently matured and at a time when green feed is usually 
 scarce. Sweet corn silage has a very high value. The stalks are sweet, 
 palatable, and contain less crude fiber and hence a higher percentage of 
 digestible matter than field corn." 
 
 Varieties 
 
 Distinct varieties of sweet corn were not well developed until the 
 last of the nineteenth century. Now there are a great number of varie- 
 ties, which are usually classed as to time and maturity. The following 
 ones are most commonly grown in the Corn Belt for canning purposes : 
 
154 
 
 CORN AXD CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 1. Stowell's Evergreen — medium late, most prominent canning variety. 
 
 ■1. roitntry Gentleman — late, good quality; yields less, but brings higher 
 price than Stowell's Evergreen; canners like it because the grains are narrow. 
 
 3. Golden Bantam — very early, small, yellow, tender; prospects of becom- 
 ing a very important canning variety in northern sections. 
 
 Soil and Climate 
 
 Good corn land is as important for sweet corn as for field corn. 
 For a description of corn soils and fertilizers, see Chapter 8. Sweet 
 corn is not as hardy as the field corns, and is more easily injnred by 
 
 frosts or liackward spring weather. 
 Ill addition, hot weather makes the 
 corn tough. Cool seasons make a 
 tender corn. Otherwise, the general 
 relation of climate to sweet corn is 
 aliont the same as for field corn. 
 
 Easy on the Land 
 
 Sweet corn when harvested at 
 the canning stage does not exhanst 
 the soil fertility as do most farm 
 crops. It is a well-recognized fact 
 that the processes involved in the 
 maturing and filling out of the seed 
 make a heavy drain upon the fertil- 
 ity of the soil. Sweet corn is har- 
 vested before this stage is reached. 
 At this stage, ears are 75 per cent 
 water. As sold to the canning fac- 
 tory, the ears from an acre of sweet 
 corn remove slightly more potash, 55 
 per cent as much nitrogen and 25 
 per cent as much phosphorus as the 
 ears from an acre of field corn. 
 Since potash is not as important as 
 nitrogen and phosphorus under Corn 
 Belt conditions, it may be seen that 
 sweet com is quite easy on the land. 
 
 Sweet Corn Seed 
 
 According to Erwin, it is cus- 
 tomary for the canners in the Corn 
 I)elt to "renew the seed supply, eom- 
 iiionly from the New England States, 
 every year or at frequent intervals. 
 This practice seems to be based 
 Evergreen Sweet Corn. upon three assumptions : First, that 
 
 A mature seed ear of good type. swret corn when grown continu- 
 
SWEET CORN 155 
 
 ously under Com Belt conditions loses in sugar; second, becomes starchy, 
 and third, tough." However, Erwin's tests show that these assump- 
 tions are not always true, and that adapted home-grown seed sliould be 
 used. 
 
 Cultural Methods 
 
 A well-prepared seed bed similar to the one for field corn should 
 be made for SAveet corn. The crop should not be planted until after 
 field corn, for it is not so vigorous and grows slowly in a cold, wet soil. 
 From four to five kernels are planted in a hil]. Planting operations 
 and cultivation are just the same as for field corn. 
 
 Harvesting and Marketing 
 
 Sweet corn is harvested much earlier than the field varieties. The 
 harvest season is about a month in length, from the middle of August 
 to the middle of September. Collins says that sweet corn is at its best 
 about eighteen days after the silks emerge. The ears are snapped with 
 the husks on and delivered directly to the canning factory. The time 
 for this is directed b}^ the factory, and it is important that the corn be 
 gathered at about the right time. With th(^ sweet corn crop there is no 
 storage ])roblem and no loss in shrinkage. 
 
 The customary yield on forty-bushel corn land is two and one-half 
 tons of snapped corn to the acre. Prices for sweet corn vary greatly 
 from year to year. However, Corn Belt canneries usually pay for a 
 ton of the snapped corn delivered to the factory a price equivalent to 
 fourteen to seventeen bushels of new corn. Of course, unusual weather, 
 causing unusually cheap or unusually high dent corn prices, may vary 
 this ratio, but one year Avith another these figures are about right for 
 Evergreen corn. Ordinarily, the gross income from field corn and sweet 
 corn groAvn on similar land is about the same. The higher value of sweet 
 corn stalks, however, and the other incidental advantages make the real 
 income from sweet corn usually greater than from dent corn. 
 
 Canning 
 
 Practically all the work of canning is done by machinery, from the 
 time the corn is dumped on the scales until it is loaded on cars with 
 labels attached. The corn is first husked, then the ears pass through a 
 silker, and from there they go to the cutter. The cobs are ejected from 
 the building, while the kernels pass on to the mixing vat, where salt, 
 sugar and water are added in proper proportions. The corn then is fed 
 into cans, which are capped and cooked in steam for an hour or two. 
 Labeling and ])oxing usually are not done until after the rush season, 
 or until time for the corn to be put on the market. A ton of ordinary 
 Evergreen sweet corn yields about 672 cans, or 28 cases. With prices as 
 they prevailed in 1923, with canned Iowa corn selling Avholesale, per 
 dozen, at 90 cents, it would seem that the loAva canneries were selling 
 the product of the average ton for about .1^50. Of this, about $15 rep- 
 
156 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 resented the cost of the 672 cans. In addition, salt, sugar and other 
 materials cost about $1-, and labor amounted to perhaps $12. Overhead 
 expenses were around $10 and the farmers were paid $9 a ton for their 
 corn. The retail price is usually 45 per cent above the wholesale. When 
 Iowa sweet corn retails at $1.30 a dozen, the Iowa farmer is paid about 
 23 cents out of this $1.30. The grower of the sweet corn seems to be 
 only one small factor in a highly complicated process. 
 
 Table XV 
 
 Acreage, Yield Per Acre and Price Per Ton of Sweet Corn Grown for 
 Manufacture, 1920-1922 
 
 (Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of 
 Agriculture.) 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Maine 
 
 Ohio 
 
 New York 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 All other 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Yield Per Acre Price Per Ton 
 
 Total 
 
 48,540| 27 
 55,850 18 
 15,S20| 10 
 30,9701 13 
 27,070| 14 
 24,590 
 10,870 
 15,080 
 11,860 
 
 6,950 
 
 3,000| 
 
 2,140i 
 
 3,430| 
 
 9,900] 3 
 266,0701135 
 
 ,580 
 ,520 
 ,040 
 ,790 
 
 34,760 
 32,120 
 14,270 
 20,310 
 
 850| 16,6701 
 660| 22,2601 
 
 ,640 
 ,180 
 ,700 
 ,270 
 ,570 
 ,820 
 990 
 ,190| 
 
 8,4901 
 13,730| 
 11,6601 
 5,510| 
 5,540| 
 1,960| 
 1,750| 
 5,6901 
 
 8001194,7201 
 
 2.2| 
 2.3 
 3.1 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 2.6 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2.0 
 1.8 
 2.2| 
 2.2| 
 2.2| 
 2.3| 
 
 2.6 
 2.8 
 3.2 
 2.5 
 2.3 
 2.5 
 2.8 
 2.9 
 2.8 
 2.2 
 2.0| 
 2.3 
 2.7 
 2.9 
 2.61 
 
 Husk Pile Silage 
 
 $19.75|$12 
 15 
 30 
 18 
 22 
 
 2.61 23 
 
 2.5| 15 
 
 2.0| 18 
 
 2.0| 15 
 
 2.0| 14 
 
 2.7 15 
 
 2.0 20 
 
 2.4| 17 
 
 2.0| 13 
 2.4|$19 
 
 9.77 
 7.20 
 27.50 
 5.70 
 16.59 
 10.00 
 22| 10.54 
 00| 10.00 
 40| 9.14 
 00 11.41 
 00| 10.00 
 00| 15.00 
 00| 10.00 
 981 8.07 
 
 55| 12 
 
 28!$13.45|$11. 
 
 Husk pile silage compares favorably with ordinar^^ field corn silage. 
 It is a valuable by-product of the canning factory, that is usually sold 
 or given to the growers for feed. This silage is made up of husks, tips 
 of ears, and cobs, which are high in protein and starch. The cobs are 
 not as valuable as the husks and refuse ear tips. Husk pile silage fer- 
 ments in the pile where it is dumped at the factory, and it need not be 
 placed in a silo. 
 
CHAPTER 29 
 
 VARIETIES OF CORN 
 
 A LTHOUGH there may be a thousand varieties or strains of corn, a 
 few leading' ones make up a large percentage of the corn grown. 
 A few of the leading varieties iu different sections of the Corn Belt are 
 giveu in the following : 
 
 Section of Corn Belt Leading Varieties 
 
 Northern Silver King, Minnesota No. 13, Northwestern Dent, 
 
 Wimple, Golden Glow. 
 Central Reld Yellow Dent, Silvermine, Boone County White, 
 
 Learning. 
 Eastern Boone County White, Reid Yellow Dent, Johnson County 
 
 White, Learning, Punk Yellow Dent. 
 Western Reid Yellow Dent, Silvermine, Hogue Yellow Dent, 
 
 Freed White Dent, Calico. 
 Southern Reid Yellow Dent, Boone County White Dent, St. Charles 
 
 White, Kansas Sunflower. 
 
 Reid Yellow Dent 
 
 Reid Yellow Dent was originated by an accidental cross between a 
 rather late, light-reddish colored corn and a small, early yellow corn. 
 Robert Reid, the originator, brought the reddish colored corn, known 
 as Gordon Hopkins corn, to Illinois from Brown county, Ohio, in 1846. 
 Because of a poor stand in 1847, a small yellow corn was used in re- 
 planting the missing hills, and so the cross occurred. James L. Reid, a 
 son of Robert Reid, improved the hybrid by selection, his best work 
 being done from 1870 to 1900. He won a prize with it at the World's 
 Fair, in 1893, and as a result it soon became widely distributed. 
 
 Standard ears of this variety are nine to ten inches long and seven 
 to seven and one-half inches in circumference, for the central Corn Belt, 
 but vary somewhat with the section of the Corn Belt in which they are 
 grown. The ear is slightly tapering, the rows are closely spaced, dis- 
 tinctly dove-tailed, and average from sixteen to twenty-two in number. 
 The kernels are slightlj' keystone in shape, of medium depth and nar- 
 row to medium in width, Avith a square crown and a smooth to rough 
 indentation. The normal color is yellow, but the reddish tinge of the 
 Gordon Hopkins often appears. The cobs are inclined to be small and 
 are dark red in color. The stalk is rather heavy, tall and leafy. The 
 ears are often borne a little too high on the stalk unless care is taken in 
 selection. The general opinion seems to be that Reid Yellow Dent can 
 not be surpassed on rich soil Avhere it has become acclimated. 
 
158 
 
 C^>RX AND CORX-GKOWIXG 
 
 Reid Yellow Dent requires from 110 to 120 days to mature and 
 should be classed as medium late. At present, due to wide adaptability, 
 it is the most common yellow variety in the Corn Belt, although the type 
 necessarily has been modified to fit many different conditions. The 
 type as now generally grown is rougher than the type whicli Reid orig- 
 inally preferred. 
 
 Outstanding strains of Reid corn are lodent, Black, McCulloch and 
 Krug. lodent is an early Reid developed by L. C. Burnett, after years 
 of painstaking ear-row work at the Iowa station. Black lias resulted 
 
 a;uiii;sMM««vWMmmmsm«v\ 
 
 aWT t 
 
 Ut'id corn. (Rough type.) 
 
 from a cross of lodent and a late show type of Reid, made by Clyde 
 Black, of Dallas county, Towa. McCulloch was produced by selection from 
 a cross of a small amount of Pride of the North with a large amount of 
 Reid. Fred McCulloch, of Iowa county, Iowa, was the originator. George 
 Krug. of Woodford county, Illinois, in 1903, crossed Gold ]\Iine with a 
 Nebraska strain of Reid and has developed Krug corn by selecting con- 
 tinuously for a smoother, rather small-eared type. All of these strains 
 have demonstrated their ability to yield. fSee Chapter o6, on Corn Yield 
 Contests.) 
 
 Boone County White 
 
 Boone County White was originated in Boone county, liuliaiui, 
 by ^Ir. -Tames Riley. In 1876, he obtained his foundation stock, which 
 was a large, coarse, late-maturing variety of corn known as' White 
 ]\Iastodon. The stalk is heavy and rank, with short inter-nodes and 
 abundant foliage. The ideal ear is nine and one-half to ten and three- 
 fourths inches long and seven and one-half inches in circumference. 
 The shape is nearly cylindrical, with straight rows, sixteen to twenty- 
 two in number, and of medium spacing. The butts arc rather large and 
 open, with shallow cavity. The cob is white and is rather large and 
 heavy. The kernels are thick and ])locky, medium to wide, and medium 
 to deep. The normal color is a creamy white and the usual indentation 
 is rather rough. 
 
 Boone County White is a hitc-maturing variety of corn, recpiiriiiL;' 
 120 to 125 days. It is grown chiefly in the southern Corn Belt, and 
 on account of its late maturity is not well adapted to the remainder 
 of the (;'orn Belt. However, it is a popular corn on the rich land of 
 
VARIETIES OF CORN 
 
 15!) 
 
 the .sections wliere it is adapted. Boone County AVhite and the related 
 Johnson County White are far more widely gTOwn than any otlier white 
 Corn Belt varieties. 
 
 Learning 
 
 Learning- corn has been developed since 1856, according to W. A. 
 Lloyd, of the Ohio station. It did not originate in 1826. Mr. Lloyd 
 says: ''Manifestly, J. S. Learning could not, as it is often stated, have 
 originated this corn at that time (1826)." J. S. Leaming, in develop- 
 iiii:' Learning corn. ])lac('d special emphasis on early maturity. He 
 
 Leaming corn (original type, as favored by Mr. J. S. Leaming 
 
 Thniight that a rather short stalk, heavy at the V)utt and tajx'ring rapidly. 
 l)earing" a tapering' ear. "\^'as the type that matured earliest. The original 
 Leaming: corn ripened in from 90 to 100 days. 
 
 The present day type of stalk is still medium in height. The ideal 
 ear is nine to ten and one-half inches in length and seven to seven and 
 three-fourths inches in circumference, with large, rather open bntt and 
 distinctly pointed tips. The roAvs vary from sixteen to twenty-fonr 
 in number. The kernels of true Leaming are medium in depth, very 
 thick and rather narrow. Leaming is a deeper yellow than most yellow 
 dents. The indentation varies from smooth to rough, luit in the original 
 Leaming the smooth type was preferred. 
 
 It is grown most extensively in the central and eastern parts of 
 the south-central Corn Belt and to some extent in adjoining sections of 
 the north-central Corn Belt. Leaming became popular in the eighties 
 and nineties, partly because of the publicity it received from winning 
 prizes at the World's Fair in Paris, in 1878. 
 
 Silvermine 
 
 8ilvermine originated with J. A. Beagley, of Sibley, Illinois, who 
 started Avith a sample of white corn which won a prize at the Ford 
 county, Illinois, institute in 1890. The Iowa Seed Company, of Des 
 Aloines, bought his entire crop in 1895, for $1,000, and originated the 
 name, Iowa Silvermine. 
 
 Silvermine is not a rank-growing variety, and even on rich soil it 
 does not produce as heavy foliage as some varieties. The stem is of a 
 fine texture and there is little coarseness about the joints. The ears are 
 
160 COR\ AND CORX-G ROWING 
 
 medium in size, beinp- from nine to ten inches in lenu'th and from seven 
 to seven and one-half inches in circumference. They are cylindrical 
 for about two-thirds of the lenfjth of the ear and then slowly taper off 
 at the tip. The kernels are of medium depth and width, but thin in 
 comparison with their width. The dent varies from smooth to roufi'h. 
 The color is creamy white. The deep kernel and small cob of Silvermine 
 give it a high shelling percentage. 
 
 Silvermine is adapted to a wide range of climate and soil and 
 has the reputation of doing well on poor soils. It is a medium early corn, 
 maturing in 110 to 115 days, and is well adapted to central Corn Belt 
 conditions. It is the leading white variety just north of the section 
 where Boone County White is widely grown. 
 
 Silver King 
 
 Silver King, also known as Wisconsin Xo. 7, was first developed as 
 a variety by H. J. Goddard, of Fort Atkinson, Iowa, who brought a 
 bushel of the seed from Indiana to Fayette county, Iowa, in 1862. Mr. 
 Goddard selected for early maturity and yield. To improve the yield, 
 he selected fairly large ears with deep, wide kernels, a medium to small 
 cob and closely spaced rows. One of the valuable characteristics of this 
 
 Silver King. 
 
 corn is its freedom from barren stalks. The ideal ear is eight to nine 
 inches long and six and three-fourths to seven and one-half inches in 
 circumference. There is a gradual taper from butt to tip, and the rows 
 average sixteen to the ear and are inclined to be wavy. Silver King has 
 creamy white kernels which are very wide, of medium depth and thick- 
 ness, slightly keystone in shape. The usual indentation is rough. It is 
 one of the earliest maturing of the prominent varieties, maturing in 100 
 to 110 days. It ranks first in importance in the northern Corn Belt and 
 stands next to Reid Yellow Dent in the north-central parts. Some Silver 
 King is grown as far south as JMissouri, but only for late planting or 
 rej)lanting. 
 
 Kansas Sunflower 
 
 Kansas Sunflower originated from an early yellow variety of corn 
 introduced from Iowa into Douglas county, Kansas, in 1887. John 
 ]\Ioody, of Eudora, Kansas, obtained seed of this variety in 1890, and 
 continued growing it for some time, carefullv selecting the seed each 
 
VARIETIES OF CORN 161 
 
 season. Five years later he sold his entire crop to the Barteldes Seed 
 Company, of Lawrence, from Miience it was distributed under the name 
 of Kansas Sunflower. 
 
 The stalks grow from eight to nine feet in height, are fairly leafy, 
 and under favorable conditions sucker rather badly. The variety is a 
 hardy and vigorous grower. The ideal ears are nine to ten inches in 
 length and seven inches or slightly less in circumference. The ears are 
 rather slender and taper slightly, carrying ordinarily fourteen to eight- 
 een rows of kernels. The kernels are broad, medium deep and of medium 
 indentation. The grain of Kansas Sunflower is a bright, rich yellow. 
 
 Kansas Sunflower is a medium late variety, which rij^ens in 120 to 
 125 days. It is well adapted for growing throughout eastern Kansas. 
 Because of the slender ears and lack of show characters, Kansas Sun- 
 flow^er has not been a very popular variety, even though it has consist- 
 ently given good results. 
 
 St. Charles White 
 
 The St. Charles White is a native of St. Charles county, Missouri, 
 where it has been grown for a great many years. Two types of this 
 corn are recognized — the small St. Charles and the large St. Charles, 
 the former being slightly earlier and better adapted to thin lands. 
 
 The ears taper somewhat from butt to tip. The cobs possess the 
 striking peculiarity of being blood-red in color. The St. Charles White 
 is a late-maturing variety, averaging 125 to 130 days for complete ma- 
 turity. It is a rank-growing variety with adaptation similar to Booue 
 County White. It is useful as a silage variety. 
 
 Commercial White 
 
 The Commercial Wliite corn was originated by P. E. Crabtree, of 
 Barton county, Missouri, who developed the corn by sc^lecting the white 
 cobbed ears of the St. Charles White. The ideals which have been kept 
 in mind in selection are uniform kernels of medium depth, Avith. a low 
 amount of crown starch and large germs. 
 
 The ears are larger in circumference and more cylindrical than are 
 those of the St. Charles White, but often taper quite abruptly at the 
 tip. The rows are straight and distinctly paired. The butts have a 
 tendency to be flat and often have a large shank. The kernels are 
 broader than those of St. Charles White and are only of medium depth. 
 The}^ are thick and a trifle more wedge shaped than the St. Charles 
 White and more rounded at the top. They possess a small amount of 
 crown starch and are pearly white in color. The indentation is medium 
 smooth. 
 
 Commercial White is a late maturing variety which requires 125 
 to 130 days for complete ripening. It is a tall growing corn, averaging 
 about nine feet for the state, and very leafy. The stalks are very strong 
 and stocky. The cob, which has a tendency to dry slowly, prevents as 
 high a grade of market corn as either Boone County White or St. Charles 
 
162 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 White. It is a good silage variety. Missouri co-operative tests have 
 shown it to be the highest yielding variety on the black prairie uplands 
 of the state. 
 
 Minnesota 13 
 
 Minnesota 13 was originated l)y ear-row breeding at the ]\Iinne- 
 sota experiment station, from seed purchased in 1893, from a St. Paul 
 seed company. Probably it was from Pride of the North. The ideal 
 ears are seven to eight inches long and six and one-half inches in circum- 
 ference. There are twelve to sixteen rows and the ears are slightly 
 tapering. It has yellow kernels and a red cob. The kernels are shallow 
 and have a dimpled dent. It is an early-matnring but heavy-yielding 
 variety, adapted to the region extending from southern ^Minnesota north- 
 Avard. 
 
 Golden Glow 
 
 Golden Glow, which is the most popular yellow dent in Wisconsin, 
 Avas originated by the Wisconsin station by crossing a Wisconsin strain 
 of ^Minnesota 13 Avith a someAA^hat later and larger-eared variety long 
 groAA^n in Wisconsin under the name of North Star. After several years 
 of selection, the new variety AA'as distributed by the Wisconsin station. 
 
 Hogue YelloAV Dent 
 
 Hogue YelloAv Dent has been groAvn by :;\lr. R. Hogue, of Crete, 
 Saline county, Nebraska, since 1885. He obtained the corn from Lan- 
 caster county, Nebraska. The history of the corn previous to that time 
 is not knoAvn. Mr. Hogue has carefully selected the seed each year, 
 having particularly in view a deep kernel. The result is an ear Avith 
 rather deep kernels, deeply indented and fairly late maturing. One 
 characteristic of the corn is a thick, medium tall stalk Avith long, broad 
 leaves, giving a large amount of foliage. The variety has never been 
 intentionally crossed since Mr. Hogue obtained it. Mr. Hogue has 
 never undertaken to select for uniformity of kernel type or ear ; in fact, 
 he has ahvays intentionally selected and mixed several ear types for 
 his seed supply. 
 
 The standard for type adopted by the Nebraska Corn Improvers' 
 Association is: Shape of ear, slightly tapering; length of ear, eight 
 to nine inches ; circumference of ear, seven to eight inches ; color of 
 kernel, yelloAv ; shape of kernel, Avedge ; indentation of kernel, rough ; 
 number of roAvs, sixteen to tAventy ; size of shank, medium ; size of cob, 
 medium ; color of cob, red. 
 
 The variety requires approximately 120 days to mature and is not 
 AA'ell suited under conditions of a shorter groAving season. It is ex- 
 tensiA'ely groAvn in eastern Nebraska and central Kansas. 
 
 Johnson County White 
 Johnson County White Avas originated by J. D. Whitesides, in 
 Johnson county, Indiana, in 1893, from a cross betAveen Boone County 
 AVhite and Forsythe's Favorite, and Avas imjiroved by several farmers. 
 
VARIETIES OP CORN 163 
 
 The ideal ears are about nine and one-half to ten and one-half inches 
 long- and seven and one-half inches in circumference. They are about 
 the same size as Boone County White, but are slightly more tapering-. 
 The kernels are narrower and more nearly square at the crown than 
 Boone County White. They are also deeper, rougher and more starchy 
 in composition, which gives them a starchy white color. 
 
 Johnson County White matures in 120 to 125 days, and is adapted 
 to the southern Corn Belt, but is too large and late maturing north of 
 southern Iowa. It is replacing Boone County White in many localities. 
 
 Freed White Dent 
 
 This variet}' was developed by J. K. Freed, of Scott county, Kansas, 
 who began by selecting a badly mixed variety of a local corn for the 
 purpose of establishing a more uniform type of ear and kernel. The 
 original source of the foundation stock is unknown. The corn has been 
 grown in western Kansas for at least thirty years. 
 
 Freed White Dent ranges in height from six to eight feet, depend- 
 ing on the growing conditions. The stalks are sturdy, fairly leafy, and 
 are likely to sucker extensively under favorable conditions, but not to 
 so great an extent as most other western developed varieties. The ideal 
 ears are seven to eight and one-half inches long and six and one-half to 
 six and three-fourths inches in circumference. The number of rows of 
 kernels varies from twelve to sixteen. The kernels are rather shallow 
 and medium in width and thickness. The dent is smooth and the kernel 
 texture is flinty. 
 
 Freed White Dent is an early variety, which matures in 105 to 110 
 days. It is primarily adapted for growing in western Kansas and on 
 the uplands in west-central Kansas. Because of its hardiness and vigor- 
 ous growing habits, it is an exceptionally high-yielding early corn for 
 growing anj'where in Kansas. 
 
 Northwestern Dent 
 
 The origin of Northwestern Dent is doubtful, but almost certainly 
 was the result of crossing a dent and a flint, one of which was red. It 
 is a semi-dent variety that normally produces more suckers and leaves 
 than any other common dent. The ear is six to nine inches long with ten 
 to fourteen rows of kernels. The kernels are red with a wliite or yel- 
 lowish crown. It is a hardy corn adapted to the extreme northern part 
 of the Corn Belt, and is the best known variety in the northwest. 
 
 Wimple Yellow Dent 
 
 Wimple Yellow Dent was developed by ■Mr. Wimple, of Beresford, 
 South Dakota. The ideal ears are eight to nine and one-half inches in 
 length and tapering in shape. The kernels are wide with a short beak 
 dent and are lemon yellow in color. It has a larger ear and considerably 
 heavier stalk than Silver King. Wimple Yellow Dent matures in from 
 
164 TORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 105 to 115 days. It has been grown in the northern part of the Corn 
 Belt for a number of years. The originator has recently developed 
 a smoother, earlier strain. 
 
 Funk Yellow Dent 
 
 Mr. Funk, of ^McLean county, Illinois, secured the original seed from 
 'Sir. James Reid, about thirty years ago. Since that time, popular opinion 
 has demanded several variations in type. For a time, it was bred for a 
 rough type, but in recent. years the emphasis has been on the smooth. 
 
 A popular utility type of corn is Funk Yellow^ Dent, Strain 176-A. 
 The ideal ears are nine to eleven inches long and seven to eight inches 
 in circumference. This variety conforms just as nearly as possible to 
 the utility type score card. The story of how this strain of corn has 
 been developed from Funk YelloAv Dent is as follows : 
 
 ■'In germinating several hundred bushels of seed corn during the 
 winter of 1915 and 1916, we occasionally noted a few ears on the ger- 
 minator that were remarkably free from molds and rotting and that 
 possessed unusual vigor and magnificent root development. These ears 
 proved their superiority in the field during the following season, by far 
 outclassing everything else in the experimental plots. The progeny from 
 these champion mother ears have been multiplied and improved further 
 by special breeding methods." 
 
 Calico 
 
 Strains of Calico have been developed by different growers. The 
 shape of the kernel, dent, character of stalk and length of growing season 
 vary considerably, depending upon the grower. The ears are from nine 
 to eleven inches long and almost cylindrical. The kernels are variegated 
 in color, ranging from pink to red, depending upon the amount of 
 red in the striping, but there are sometimes groups of kernels of solid 
 white, red or yellow. It is quite widely distributed and has no fixed 
 characteristics. Many strains are early to medium maturing. These 
 are well adapted to western Corn Belt conditions. 
 
 Bloody Butcher 
 
 Bloody Butcher is a name applied to strains having a deep red grain. 
 The crown of the kernel varies in color for the different varieties, but 
 is usually lighter than the remainder of the kernel. As a rule. Bloody 
 Butcher corn is not any more productive than corn of any other color. 
 Like Calico, the different varieties of Bloody Butcher vary greatly, as 
 do those of the white and yellow varieties. The red color is in the hull 
 only; beneath the hull, some Bloody Butchers are white and some are 
 yellow. 
 
 Several of the important varieties in addition to the ones just de- 
 scribed are as follows : 
 
VARIETIES OF CORN 165 
 
 Early White Dent 
 
 .Marten White Dent (Great Plains) ; Payne White Dent (Great 
 Plains) ; Pioneer White Dent (North^vest) ; Rustler White Dent (North- 
 west), and Webber Early Dent (Great Plains). 
 
 Medium to Late White Dent 
 
 Brazos White (Texas) ; Champion White Pearl (Illinois) ; Chisholm 
 (Southwest) ; Cob Pipe or Collier (Missouri) ; Democrat (Illinois) ; 
 Easterly White (Illinois) ; Eureka (general) ; Farmer's Pride (eastern 
 Corn Belt) ; Farmer's Interest (eastern Corn Belt) ; Faulkner (Illinois) ; 
 Forsythe (Kansas) ; Hammett (Kansas) ; Iowa Ideal (Iowa) ; McAuley 
 (Kansas) ; Mexican June (Southwest) ; ]\Iunikhuysen (Southeast) ; Ne- 
 braska Wliite Prize (Nebraska) ; Pride of Saline (Kansas) ; Roseland 
 (Kansas) ; Shawnee White (Kansas) ; Sherrod White Dent (Kansas) ; 
 Surcropper (Southwest) ; Tuxpan (Southwest) ; Vogler White Dent 
 (Indiana), and White Wonder (Oklahoma). 
 
 Early Yellow Dent 
 
 Ardmore Yellow (South Dakota) ; Brown County Yellow (North- 
 Avest) ; Golden Surprise (Ohio and Illinois) ; Kossuth County Reliance 
 (Iowa) ; Minnesota King (Minnesota) ; Murdock (Wisconsin) ; Pride 
 of the North (general), and Robertson Yellow Dent (Northwest). 
 
 Medium to Late Yellow 
 
 Bear Paw (Ohio) ; Gartner (Missouri) ; Champion (Ohio) ; Clarage 
 (Ohio) ; Cuppy (Ohio) ; Darke County Mammoth (Ohio) ; Early Yellow 
 (Indiana) ; Ferguson (Southwest) ; Giant Beauty (Southeast) ; Golden 
 Beauty (Missouri) ; Golden Eagle (Illinois) ; Golden Gem (Southeast) ; 
 Golden King (Illinois) ; Goldmine (general) ; Hiawatha (Kansas) ; Hil- 
 dreth (Kansas) ; K. B. Yellow Dent (Iowa) ; Lancaster Sure Crop 
 (Pennsylvania) ; Legal Tender (general) ; Midland Yellow (Kansas) ; 
 Monitor (Ohio) ; Riley Favorite (Indiana) ; St. Charles Yellow Mis- 
 souri; Shroll Yellow Dent (Ohio) ; Skipper (Southeast) ; Wabash Yellow 
 (Indiana) ; Western Plowman (Illinois), and Yellow Jumbo (Ohio). 
 
 Miscellaneous Dent 
 
 Blue and White (scattered) ; Devolid (Ohio) ; Early Red (scat- 
 tered) ; Hackberry (Ohio) ; Hecker Red (Illinois) ; Lenocher Homestead 
 (Iowa) ; Minnesota 23 (Northwest) ; Old Glory (Texas) ; Rotten Clarage 
 (Ohio) ; Strawberry (general) ; Stony Hill White Cap (New York) ; 
 Strout Red (Illinois) ; Swadley (Great Plains), and White Cap Y. D. 
 (general). 
 
 Cotton Belt Single Ear 
 
 Lowman (yellow) ; Shenandoah White (white) ; Southern Beauty 
 (white) ; Wyatt Improved (yellow) ; Hickory King (white). 
 
]66 CORN AND CORN GROWING 
 
 Cotton Belt Prolific 
 
 Bigg Seven Ear (Avhite) ; Cocke Prolific (white); Garric (whiTf : 
 Hasting Prolific (white) ; Hickory King (white) ; Jarvis Golden Prolific 
 (yellow); Marlboro Prolific (white); Mosby (white), and Sanders 
 (white). 
 
 New England Flints 
 
 Hall Gold Nugget ; King Philip ; Longfellow; ]\Iercer; Rhode Island : 
 Sanford White ; Smut Nose. 
 
 Northwestern Flints 
 
 Assiniboine ; Burleigh County Mixed ; Cassia County ; Dakota White : 
 Fort Peck Indian ; Gehu. 
 
 Southern Flints 
 Creole. 
 
 Argentine Yellow Flints 
 Canario; Colorado, and Piamontese. 
 
 Italian Yellow Flints 
 
 Cinquantino; Nostrano Isola; Pignoletta d'oro; Rostrato. and Scag- 
 liolo. 
 
 Soft Corn 
 
 Ivory King ; Mixed ; Rea, and Brazilian Flour. 
 
CHAPTER 30 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANT 
 
 npHE two steps in the development of the corn plant are first, g-ermina- 
 
 tion, and second, growth. The essentials of these two steps in devel- 
 opment are discussed in this chapter. 
 
 Germination 
 
 The four conditions necessary for seed to germinate are (1) vitality', 
 (2) moisture, (3) heat and (4) oxygen. 
 
 Under favorable conditions, corn may retain its vitality for ten 
 years. However, after the second year of storage, the vigor of germi- 
 nation rapidly declines. As a practical proposition, seed corn should 
 never be kept past the second year. 
 
 Moisture is necessary for seeds to germinate. Water readily pene- 
 trates and softens the seed coat of corn. 
 
 Corn requires a higher temperature to germinate than the small 
 grains. It is a crop which germinates best under higher temperatures 
 than usually prevail in May. Doctor Pammel, of the Iowa station, gives 
 the following temperatures for the germination of corn : Minimum, 
 49.9 degrees F. ; maximum, 134.8 degrees F. ; optimum, 91.4 degrees F. 
 Cold-resistant strains of corn are being developed which will germinate 
 Avhen the temperature is as low as 43 degrees F. 
 
 Oxygen is found in the seed, but not enough for germination. One 
 of the reasons that corn does not germinate well on poorly drained soils 
 is that the excess water in the soil excludes oxygen. 
 
 Growth 
 
 Growth is cellular development. During early development, growth 
 takes place in all parts at the same time, and after the first three weeks 
 of growth all parts of the plant are formed. The five essentials for the 
 growth of the corn plant are (1) vigor, (2) water, (3) light, (4) heat, 
 and (5) plant food. 
 
 The plant must have inborn vigor. A seed may sprout, but if the 
 seedling does not have strength, a normal plant will not be obtained. 
 
 Water 
 
 Corn requires large quantities of water to carry plant food and to 
 keep it from wilting. Kiesselbach found that the rapidity of transpira- 
 tion of corn varies directly with the temperature and the leaf area. A 
 well-grown corn plant on a hot day in late July w411 transpire five to 
 ten pounds of water. This means that an acre of corn plants at this 
 time of year is pumping up water from below and throwing it into the 
 atmosphere at the rate of eighteen tons daily, or 720 tons of water per 
 acre for the forty days during July and August when the corn is most 
 active. 
 
168 CORN AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 Light 
 
 Light furnishes the power which all green plants require. The pro- 
 cess bj^ which green plants take sunlight and store up its poAver is known 
 a.s photosynthesis (light-building). In photosynthesis the carbon diox- 
 ide of the air enters the leaves through stomata (little holes) and is 
 there combined by the poAver of the sunlight Avith Avater to make for- 
 maldehyde and later starch. Starch is literally imprisoned sunshine. Of 
 all green plants, corn is one of the most efficient in capturing sunlitiht 
 in large quantities and storing it aAvay in the form of starch. 
 
 Heat 
 
 Corn recpiires a large amount of heat for deA'elopment. In a Penn- 
 sylvania experiment, it AA'as found that during the tAA^enty-tAA'o days 
 preceding tasseling, tho.se days Avith a mean temperature of less than 
 70 degrees F. usually resulted in a groAA^th of three to three and one- 
 half inches in tAventy-four hours, Avhereas those days AA'ith a mean tem- 
 perature of 75 or more degrees resulted in a groAvth of five to five and 
 one-half inches in tAventy-four hours. When the temperature in the 
 daytime exceeded 85 degrees, further increases did not seem to result 
 in greater groAvth, probably because of moisture shortage. 
 Plant Foods 
 
 A fifth essential for groAvth is jilant food. In general, corn requires 
 the folloAving chemical elements: Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen 
 (0), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S), cal- 
 cium (Ca), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg). The expression, "C.HOP- 
 K(i)NS CaFe Mg (Mighty Cxood) " is a reminder of the essential chem- 
 ical elements. 
 
 Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen are furnished by air and Avater, 
 Avhereas the other elements are minerals in the soil. About f)7 ])er cent 
 of the corn kernel comes from the air and only 3 per cent from the soil. 
 Each element is a specialist in its OAvn field, and should it become defi- 
 cient can not be replaced by another. 
 
 Oxygen is the most abundant element. It readily forms com})ounds 
 Avith practically all other elements and constitutes about one-half of 
 all knoAvn matter. It enters the plant in the compound, CO,, a gas, and 
 HoO, Avater, Avhere it is further changed by sunlight to build up the 
 carbohydrates and proteins. The corn kernel is about 46 per cent 
 oxygen. 
 
 Carbon is closely associated AA'ith plant life. It enters the leaves 
 of the ])lant in the form of COo, Avhere it is combined by sunlight Avith 
 Avater brought up from the roots to form sugar, starches and the like. 
 Carbon composes 45 per cent of the corn kernel. 
 
 Hydrogen is the third most abundant element in the corn ker- 
 nel. It makes up 6.4 per cent of the corn kernel. Water is the one 
 important source of h.ydrogen for plant growth. This element is com- 
 bined by sunlight Avith carbon and oxygen to form the various carbo- 
 hydrates and proteins Avithin the plant. 
 
]VKVEL()PMENT OF THE PLANT 169 
 
 Xitrogeii is one of the most important and possibly the least ap- 
 preciated elements. It forms one-sixth of the protein in plants, the 
 formation of which would be stopped without it. Nitrogen : 
 
 .1. Stimulates growth of foliage. 
 
 2. Imparts a deeper green color to foliage. 
 
 3. Delays the maturing process. 
 
 4. Controls the amount of other plant foods used. 
 
 About 1.5 per cent of the corn kernel is nitroj>en. 
 
 Sulphur is an important constituent of both protein and proto- 
 plasm. There is practically always a great abundance of sulphur in 
 the soil. About one-fifth of one per cent of the corn kernel is sulphur. 
 
 Phosphorus is found in every cell of every plant, but it is especially 
 a])undant in the seed. It is of great value because it : 
 
 1. Causes rapid germination of seed. 
 
 2. Causes early ripening. 
 
 3. Causes greater formation of seed in proportion to stem. 
 
 4. Is essential to protoplasm. 
 
 About one-third of one per cent of the corn kernel is phosphorus. 
 Potassium plays an important role in the development of plant life. 
 It seems to : 
 
 1. Encourage carbohydrate formation. 
 
 2. Aid in transference of starch. 
 
 3. Aid the plant in resisting fungus disease. 
 
 About one-third of one per cent of the corn kernel is potassium. 
 Calcium, which is fundamental both to plant and animal nutrition : 
 
 1. Aids in the development of root hairs. 
 
 2. Aids in the transportation of starch. 
 
 3. Neutralizes plant acids. 
 
 4. Has a strengthening effect on cell walls. 
 
 The corn kernel contains less than one-tenth of one per cent of 
 calcium. 
 
 Magnesium is found more particularly in the seed of plants. In 
 this respect, it is the opposite of calcium. Practically all soils contain 
 sufficient magnesium for plant growth. About one-seventh of one per 
 cent of the corn kernel is magnesium. 
 
 Iron is second to oxygen in abundance in the earth's crust. It is 
 never a limiting factor in production, as plants use only a small amount 
 of it. Nevertheless, iron is essential to chlorophyll production. By 
 withholding iron from plants, no chlorophyll will develop, and conse- 
 quently the plant makes no natural growth. Only small traces of iron 
 are found in the corn kernel. 
 
 Of these ten essential elements, there are two, phosphorus and cal- 
 cium (lime) which must be purchased and added to the soils of the 
 Corn Belt to keep them productive. The other eight elements are either 
 present in abundance already or can be maintained through certain nat- 
 ural processes. 
 
CIIArTER :}1 
 
 BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN 
 
 /^ORN, like other grasses, has a fibrous root system. The three types 
 of corn roots are (1) temporary, (2) permanent and (3) brace 
 roots. 
 
 Illustrating how depth of planting influences length of mesocotyl and why the 
 permanent roots (p) start just below the surface of the ground, no matter 
 how deep the kernel is planted. The temporary roots (t) lose their impor- 
 tance after the permanent roots are well established, except possibly in the 
 case of Hopi corn. 
 
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 171 
 
 The temporary root system is composed of the roots which are 
 pushed downward from the tip of the kernel when it first sprouts. Dur- 
 ing the first two or three weeks after germination the temporary roots 
 furnish most of the food which the young plant obtains from the soil. 
 
 The root system of corn is much more extensive than most people suspect. 
 This picture shows only a part of the roots. The great mass of fine roots 
 are lost on digging. (Courtesy of Iowa Station.) 
 
 Brace roots. 
 
172 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Later on, tliese roots either rot away 
 from the plant or become unim- 
 portant except in the case of Hopi 
 corn, -which seems to rely on the tem- 
 porary roots to bring- up moisture 
 from the deeper layers of the soil. 
 
 If the young- corn plant, two or 
 three weeks after germination, is 
 dug up. it will be noted that between 
 the kernel and the green stem above 
 ground is a slender white stem. This 
 is known as the mesocotyl. In the 
 case of corn planted one inch deep, 
 the mesocotyl is about one inch long, 
 whereas in the case of corn planted 
 twelve inches deep (Hopi corn is 
 often planted this deep), the meso- 
 cotyl is twelve inches long. The tem- 
 porary roots start from below the 
 mesocotyl and go downward, where- 
 as the permanent roots start from 
 just above the mesocotvl. 
 
 Corn occasionally sends out branch- 
 es from the upper nodes. This is 
 common in teosinte and certain 
 types of tropica] corn. 
 
 Permanent Roots 
 
 The first two, three or even four 
 nodes of the mature corn plant are 
 separated by very short inter-nodes and are just below the surface of the 
 ground. It is from these nodes just below the surface of the ground that 
 the permanent roots start out laterally from the nodes and then go 
 downward to a depth of as great as five or six feet. The large, strong 
 permanent roots are concentrated within a foot or two of the plant 
 and only the small, fibrous roots reach the greater depth. 
 Brace Roots 
 
 Brace roots differ from the i)ermanent roots in that they come from 
 the first two or three nodes above ground. In ''down" corn or certain 
 tropical varieties the brace roots may come out from nodes as high up 
 as the fifth or sixth. Brace roots from the first node or two above 
 ground are of very real help in maintaining an upright corn plant, but 
 it is doubtful if brace roots from the higher nodes serve any useful 
 purpose. Funk says they are as.sociated with diseased corn. The stem 
 of each inter-node is hollow on one side and it is on this hollow side 
 that the leaf comes out. From the lower nodes on this hollow side there 
 usually develops a small bud which does not amount to much except in 
 the cases of the nodes Avhich bear ears. 
 
 The roots of the corn plant : 
 
 1. Support and anchor the stalk. 
 
 2. Absorb plant food (soluble salts and water). 
 
BOTANICAL CHARA(TERISTI(;S 17:! 
 
 3. Excrete organic substances (such as carbon dioxide, mineral salts and 
 organic acids). 
 
 4. Render plant food soluble by action of the excretions. 
 
 Root growth is increased when the following conditions are present : 
 
 1. Large supply of oxygen. 
 
 2. Favorable temperature. 
 
 3. Plenty of moisture. 
 
 4. Good soil tilth. 
 
 5. Abundant available plant food. 
 
 Stalks 
 
 The stalks of corn vary in height from one and one-half to about 
 thirty feet. Some of the small, early popcorns will develop ears when 
 only one and one-half feet high. Silage corns often make a growth of 
 eighteen feet. 
 
 The stalk is made up of nodes or joints, usually eight to twenty in 
 number. The average number of nodes is about fourteen. In typical 
 dent varieties of the central Corn Belt, the eighth node as a ride bears 
 the ear. The node is the origin of all lateral outgrow^ths, such as roots, 
 branches, leaves and ears. The portion of the stalk between the nodes is 
 called the inter-node. The longer inter-nodes are toward the top and 
 the shorter toward the base 
 
 In cross-section, the stalk is made up of four parts, as follows : 
 
 1. The epidermis, a thin transparent tissue, covers the outer part of the 
 stalk. It is impervious to moisture and protects the stalk from insects and 
 disease. 
 
 2. Just beneath the epidermis is the stem wall — a woody layer, the hard, 
 stiff portion of the stalk, made up of large numbers of fibro-vascular bundles, 
 closely packed together. These bundles, stiffened by silica deposits, make the 
 stem wall the "backbone" of the plant. 
 
 3. The center cavity of the stalk is filled with pith. It is a soft, spongy 
 mass of tissue and serves as a storehouse for moisture and food. The fibro- 
 vascular bundles in the pith are separated by large masses of pith. 
 
 4. The fibro-vascular bundles are channels for the transportation of 
 plant food. They are found mostly in the woody stem wall and extend from 
 the roots up through the stalk to the leaves and ears. They carry mineral 
 plant food from the roots to the leaves and manufactured plant food to the 
 ears and stalk. A little food is manufactured in the stem as well as the leaves. 
 
 Length growth takes place just above the nodes, and at the end of 
 the stalk. The growth may be likened to a telescope. As a telescope 
 unfolds, so does the corn stalk unfold. Therefore, the statement that 
 we can "see corn grow over-night" is often made. Diameter growth 
 takes place from the inside and not by added layers as in a tree. This 
 type of diameter growth is called endogeneous. 
 
 Suckers 
 Suckers, or tillers, are branches which come from the nodes just 
 at or just beneath the surface of the ground. The tendency to sucker is 
 influenced by the variety, soil conditions, rate and method of planting. 
 
174 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 A large amount of available plant food will produce more suckers than 
 soil in poor condition. Plentiful moisture increases the number of 
 suckers. 
 
 Corn planted one kernel to the hill will send out more suckers than 
 when planted at the rate of five kernels. Suckers have their own root 
 system and often bear ears. However, the ears as a rule are inferior 
 to those upon the main stalk, often being borne on the tassel. It does 
 not pay to pull off the suckers. At the Nebraska station, they found 
 that pulling off suckers cut the yield greatly. 
 
 Leaves 
 
 The leaves on a corn plant are arranged alternately, conceal the 
 groo\'ed sides of the stalk, and are usually twelve to eighteen in number. 
 The wav3' margin, the result of the outside growing faster than the mid- 
 rib, adds surface and flexibility to the leaf. The corn leaf is made up of 
 three parts, as follows : 
 
 1. Leaf sheath. It comes from the node, and clasps or surrounds the 
 stalk. 
 
 2. Blade, often incorrectly called the leaf. It is composed of the mid- 
 rib, veins (parallel to mid-rib) and intracellular tissue. 
 
 3. Ligule, located at the hinge between the sheath and the blade. It is 
 a collar which prevents water, dirt and insects from running down the sheath 
 and stalk. At either end of the ligule is situated the auricle, or lobe-like por- 
 tion. It is the light-green, wavy, triangular portion of the blade. It turns 
 the water down the stalk onto the leaf below. 
 
 The leaves use the energy of the sunlight to manufacture plant food 
 
 from water, minerals and carbon 
 dioxide, and give off excess moisture. 
 
 <P Flowers 
 
 The male and female flowers of 
 corn are located in spikelets on dif- 
 ferent parts of the same plant. This 
 flower arrangement makes cross pol- 
 lination and fertilization the general 
 •ule in corn. It is estimated that not 
 more than five per cent of corn 
 grown under field conditions is 
 selfed ("pollen falls on silk and fer- 
 tilizes ovule of the same plant). 
 Kiesselbach found less than one per 
 cent of self-fertilization under ordi- 
 nary Nebraska conditions. 
 
 The male flowers are located in 
 er, which has not yet opened enough spikelets on the tassel of the plant. 
 !„Vj;°fTorr;"?i ZTX.°J. S5 Each .spikelet eontain.s two flowers 
 palea. and each llower has three anthers. 
 
 Staminate 
 
 male spikelet 
 
 borne 
 
 by the corn tassel, (a) Upper flow- 
 
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 175 
 
 Avhich contain the golden colored pollen. There are about 2,500 pollen 
 grains in each anther, and there are about 7,500 anthers in each tassel. 
 Therefore, each tassel may furnish about 20,000,000 pollen grains. This 
 number is far in excess of the pollen required, because only one pollen 
 grain is needed to fertilize a flower and develop a kernel, and an ear re- 
 quires onty from 800 to 1,000 pollen grains to fertilize the female flowers. 
 
 Female or pistillate corn flower (green ear shoot without husks, but with silks) 
 on the left. Male or staminate corn flower on the right. 
 
 There are therefore 20,000 pollen grains produced for each female flower. 
 The pollen is carried by the wund, and occasionally pollen may be blown 
 half a mile. There is, however, much less mixture between fields than 
 is commonly thought. Pollen ordinarily retains its vitality for about 
 twenty-four hours. It may be killed in a few hours by heat and drouth. 
 
 The tassel, as a rule, emerges before the silks do, and so pollen is 
 available from one to three days before it is needed. Kiesselbach says : 
 "Extensive observations have shown that in general the pollinating 
 
176 
 
 CORN AND COKX-GROWIXG 
 
 ])eriod of the tassel materially overlaps the silking- period. Self-pollina- 
 tion might occur extensively were it not for the overwhelming prepon- 
 derance of foreign pollen scattered promiscuously through the air.'' 
 
 The female flowers are located in pairs on the cob. Only one 
 flower of each pair develops. An exception is the Country Gentleman 
 variety of sweet corn, in Avhich both flowers develop. An average ear 
 of corn Avill have about 800 developed female flowers. Each of the 
 
 Illustrating how each unfertilized ovule on the young shoot has a silk (style) 
 growing from it. 
 
 flowers sends out a silk (style), and it takes from two to four days to 
 send out all the silks. The kernels near the butt end of the ear send 
 out their silks first. The end (stigma) as well as the surface of the silk 
 is hairy and mucilaginous, to aid in catching the pollen grains. These 
 silks are receptive to pollen before they emerge from the husk, and if 
 they are not fertilized, they remain receptive for about two weeks. 
 Fertilization 
 Kiesselbach says : ' ' Every kernel has its own silk and must be 
 fertilized separate^'. In the process of fertilization, pollen falling on 
 the silk germinates and grows a pollen tube through the silk to the 
 kernel, to which it conducts the two sperm nuclei. One of these nuclei 
 fuses with the egg nucleus to form the initial embryo nucleus, (true 
 fertilization), and the other with the two polar nuclei, forming the initial 
 endosperm nucleus (causing xenia. See Chapter 34). T,his entire 
 process has been found to be completed Avithin approximately twenty- 
 
BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 17' 
 
 four hours' time. Fertilization is 
 reflected in the discoloration and 
 drying' of the silks in from forty-two 
 to seventy-two hours after pollina- 
 tion." 
 
 Ear Compared With Sucker 
 
 The ear, including the shank and 
 husks, may be likened to a branch 
 or sucker of the main stalk. Each 
 ear shank contains as many nodes 
 as the stalk bears above the ear. The 
 nodes of the shank occasionally bear 
 several small ears in addition to the 
 main ear. Each husk represents the 
 leaf sheath, and the streamer often 
 found toward the top of the husk is 
 comparable to the leaf blade. The 
 cob is analogous to the tassel, in that 
 it is a central spike which bears 
 floAvers. However, except in the 
 case of freak ears, the cob has no 
 
 lateral branches. Theoretically, each Typical kernel of dent corn 
 row of corn corresponds to a spike 
 and the entire ear is a combination 
 of a number of spikes which have 
 grown together. 
 
 As a rule, Corn Belt varieties 
 mature but one good ear of corn 
 upon one stalk. Prolific varieties 
 mature several ears upon one stalk. 
 
 Kernel 
 
 The kernel is ripe in the ordinary season about fifty days after 
 fertilization. Twenty days after fertilization the kernel is ripe enough 
 to germinate, although it has only reached the milk stage by this time. 
 
 Stages of ripening are : 
 
 Milk stage — starch in the form of a fluid (about twenty days after fertili- 
 zation). 
 
 Soft dough — starch soft and cheesy (about thirty-five days after fertiii- 
 zation). 
 
 Hard dough — starch hard and fjrm (about forty-two days after fertili- 
 zation). 
 
 Ripe (about fifty days after fertilization). 
 
 The kernel may be divided into six parts, as follows : 
 
 1. Hull — the thin covering which encloses the entire grain. The hull it! 
 nearly colorless in commercial varieties except in red and calico corn. 
 
 2. Aleurone layer — a thin layer just beneath the hull. This layer is 
 colorless and difficult to distinguish except in blue corn and a rare dull-red 
 type. The red aleurone type is never grown commercially. 
 
 (1) Aleu- 
 rone layer, which is colorless and 
 almost impossible to detect with the 
 naked eye, except in blue and a rare 
 type of red corn; (2) horny or hard 
 starch, which is colorless except in 
 yellow corn; (3) soft starch, which 
 is white in all colors of corn; 4, 5 
 and 6 together are the germ, 4 being 
 the scutellum, 5 the plumule and 6 
 the radicle; (7) tip cap. 
 
178 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 3. Soft starch — large, loose starch cells that occupy the crown and often 
 the back and a part of the germ end of the kernel. It is often called white 
 starch. Tn soft or flour corn, nearly all the kernel except the germ is soft 
 starch. 
 
 4. Hard starch — small, compact starch cells and protein bodies occupying; 
 the sides and back of the kernel. It is translucent, whereas soft starch is 
 opaque. In flint corn nearly all of the kernel except the germ is hard starch. 
 The color of yellow corn is found solely in the hard starch, which means that 
 yellow flint varieties are usually far deeper in color than either the soft or 
 dent varieties. The hard and soft starch together make up what is commonly 
 called the endosperm. 
 
 5. Germ — oily portion occupying most of the front side of the kernel. 
 Composed of three parts, plumule, radicle and scutellum (or cotyledon). The 
 plumule develops into the stem sprout and permanent roots. The radicle de- 
 velops into the temporary roots. The scutellum absorbs changes and transfers 
 plant food for the seedling. 
 
 6. Tip cap — affords attachment of the kernel to the cob and protection 
 to the germ. It is usually retained by the kernel in shelling. When broken 
 off, it exposes the black covering of the germ. This covering is natural and 
 not an unsoundness. Botanically, the tip cap is a bract which in the ancestors 
 of corn almost completely enclosed the kernel. 
 
CHAPTEK 82 
 CORN BREEDING 
 
 CPECIAL corn breeding methods do not pay on the average farm. 
 
 Most farmers who have a good, acclimated variety are jnstified in 
 doing nothing more than picking well-matnred, solid ears, free from 
 mold, every fall before frost. In addition, it may be well to see that 
 the ears come from stiff stalks and are borne at a convenient height from 
 the ground. Suggestions along this line are given in Chapter 5. 
 
 Every few years, however, it is a good plan on one side of the field 
 to grow side by side with the home variety of corn another sort which 
 has a well-fonnded reputation for high yielding power. If this sup- 
 posedly high yielding corn from the outside does unusually well, it may 
 be a good plan to start all over with it or to mix it with the home corn. 
 No special methods are necessary' in this kind of corn breeding. Prac- 
 tical farmers have followed this general plan for fifty years, and as yet 
 there is no sure proof that a better method exists. 
 
 Four general methods of corn breeding have been practiced by corn 
 breeders. These four methods are, (1) selection, (2) ear-row breeding, 
 (3) cross breeding and (4) inbreeding. 
 
 Selection 
 
 Nearly all commercial varieties of corn have been formed by selec- 
 tion preceded oftentimes b}^ a certain amount of cross breeding. The 
 famous Illinois experiments started by Cyril G. Hopkins in 1896 and 
 maintained for many years by Louis H. Smith, have demonstrated that 
 unusual changes in type may be obtained by long-continued selection. 
 After eight or ten years of selection for low ears at the Illinois station, 
 they obtained a strain which on the average carried its ears less than two 
 feet from the ground, whereas another strain developed from the same 
 original Leaming, but selected for high ears, carried its ears more than 
 seven feet from the ground. After twenty years, a strain of corn 
 selected for high oil contained over ten per cent on the average, as 
 contrasted with two per cent for the strain selected for low oil. In like 
 manner, a high protein strain containing sixteen per cent protein was 
 developed and a low protein strain containing six or seven per cent. 
 In every case but one, however, these selections resulted in reduced yield- 
 ing power. The one exception was the strain selected for two ears, which, 
 at last reports from the Illinois station, was still yielding about as well 
 as Reid corn. The other selections have yielded on the average only 
 about three-fourths as well as Reid corn. It seems that selection for 
 one particular thing results after a time in close breeding and that this 
 reduces the vigor. 
 
180 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROAVTNG 
 
 Most of our early corn breeders assumed that a moderately l&v^e 
 ear with a deep kernel and a well-filled butt and tip was fundamental 
 to yielding- power. They selected for this one thing- above everything 
 else in developing our modern types of corn. In all probability, the 
 pioneer corn breeders, by following this method, brought about a con- 
 siderable increase in the yielding power of the corn which they had 
 received from the Indians. It has been found, however, by repeated 
 experiments during the past twenty years that in our modern Corn Belt 
 varieties, no ear character is so very closelv associated with vield. At 
 
 Low ear and high 
 
 ir corn at Illinois station, developed by selection from same 
 original Learning. 
 
 the Ohio station, they selected for shallow grained corn year after year 
 for a number of years, but the yield of shelled corn per acre was not 
 impaired thereby. Seed from ears with bare tips seems to yield just 
 as well as seed from ears with well-filled tips. By selection, it is pos- 
 sible to develop corn of beautiful appearance, but it seems to be very 
 difficult to develop corn of outstanding yielding power. So far as 
 we know now, very few of the stalk or ear characteristics which we can 
 see with the eye are at all closely related to yield in our ordinary varie- 
 ties of Corn Belt corn. Of course, it is obvious that in the case of a corn 
 which is too late for the season that one of the things which must be 
 done is to pick for a smaller ear and stalk, and vice versa. But in the 
 case of a well acclimated strain, no method of selection has yet been 
 found which has so very much effect on yielding power. It has been 
 
CORN BREEDING 181 
 
 found possible to alter the appearance of the ear and stalk considerably 
 but the improvement of the yielding power by any method of selection 
 has been fonnd to be very difficult. 
 
 Ear-Row Breeding 
 
 In the closing years of the nineteenth century and the opening 
 years of the tAventieth, the Illinois and Ohio stations developed the 
 ' ' ear-row ' ' method of corn breeding. The theory of this method seemed 
 so sound that every one had great hope that the inherent yielding power 
 of corn subjected to this method of breeding would be greatly increased. 
 
 To begin with, fifty or a hundred good ears of a high yielding strain 
 vv'ere picked out. These were planted an ear to a row, part of the seed 
 from each ear being saved for planting the year following. Each row 
 was weighed up separately in the fall, and it was invariably found that 
 some of the good rows would yield about twice as much as the poor 
 rows, and ten or twenty bushels per acre more than the average of the 
 field. The plan was then to go back to the remnant seed of the fifteen 
 or twenty ears Avhich had produced these high yielding rows and plant 
 them the following year in a small plot by themselves, an ear to the 
 row. It was supposed that seed saved from this plot would yield much 
 more than the original corn. As a matter of fact, the results were not 
 so very encouraging. This was ascribed to inbreeding, and the method 
 was modified to provide for detasseling of alternate rows and saving 
 seed only from the detasseled plants. Much time and thought was 
 spent on developing fine points in the method. In recent years, very 
 little has been said about the ear-row method because no outstandingly 
 high yielding strain of corn has been developed by it. Here and there, 
 practical farmers have used the method for a short time, but they have 
 almost always dropped it after a year or two. At the Nebraska station 
 they found, after fourteen years of continuous ear-row breeding with 
 Hogue Yellow Dent, that the yielding power had been decreased about 
 one-third of a bushel per acre from the regular Hogue handled in the 
 ordinary way. By crossing four of the high yielding strains isolated 
 by the ear-row method, the yield was increased about one and one-half 
 bushels per acre, as an average of seven years ' tests. It would seem that 
 scarcely one farmer in a thousand is justified in making any effort to 
 improve his corn by the use of the ear-row method. Even in the hands 
 of expert corn breeders the ear-row method of increasing corn yields 
 has not proved so very satisfactory. 
 
 Cross Breeding 
 
 About 1910, a number of the experimental corn breeders became 
 temporarily enthusiastic over the possibilities of improving yielding 
 power by crossing two varieties. By planting two varieties in alternat- 
 ing rows and detasseling the one, it is easily possible to obtain cross-bred 
 seed to plant the year following. At the Connecticut and Minnesota 
 
182 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 stations, they have found that crosses between a high yiehling- flint 
 variety and a high yielding dent will often yield more than either parent. 
 At the Michigan experiment station, in the late seventies, and at the 
 Illinois experiment station, in 1892, they found that the cross-bred 
 seed yielded several bushels more per acre than the higher yielding of 
 the two parents. More recent and complete experiments, however, at 
 the Iowa and Nebraska stations, imlicate that very few crosses will yield 
 as well as Reid Yellow Dent in Iowa or Hogne in Nebraska. As a four- 
 year average, the highest yielding cross-bred corn at the Nebraska sta- 
 tion AA'as a cross of Reid and Hogue which yielded 45 bushels per acre 
 
 Crossing flint and dent. The kernel of the first 
 generation hybrid is in the center. 
 
 as compared with 45.2 bushels for pure Hogue and 44.9 bushels for Reid. 
 In one year the cross outyielded the Reid by nine bushels and the Hogue 
 by four bushels, but in the other three years the pure parents had the 
 advantage. Thirteen different crosses at the Nebraska station yielded 
 as a four-year average, 1.6 bushels per acre less than the average of 
 their parents. At the Iowa station, the results have been much the same, 
 although it was found that a medium late flint from Argentina, crossed 
 Avith Reid, oftentimes yielded more than the pure Reid. The bulk of the 
 evidence indicates that crossing two dent varieties is not ordinarily worth 
 while, but that the crossing of flints and dents may have some possibili- 
 ties. It seems that the average Corn Belt farmer will not find it worth 
 while to produce cross-bred seed himself, and, unless some new and 
 startling combinations are found, it is very doubtful if it will pay him 
 to buy cross-bred seed from anyone else. 
 
 Inbreeding 
 
 The newest method of corn breeding is based on developing inbred 
 strains of corn by putting the pollen of a plant on the silk of the same 
 plant and continuing this "selfing" generation after generation until 
 after four or more generations absolutely distinct inbred types have been 
 produced. The inbreds as usually developed by this method yield about 
 twenty bushels per acre under the same conditions that ordinary corn 
 yields fifty bushels. When two unrelated inbreds are crossed, however. 
 
CORN BREEDING 
 
 188 
 
 startling results usually 
 follow. At the Nebraska 
 station, where all other 
 methods of corn breed- 
 ing have failed to pro- 
 duce a higher yield than 
 Hogue Yellow Dent, as 
 grown in the ordinary 
 way, it was found, as a 
 four-year average, that 
 the cross of eight sets of 
 two inbreds each yielded 
 forty-eight bushels, as 
 compared to forty-one 
 bushels for the Hogue 
 in the same years. Oc- 
 casionally two inbreds 
 do not ' ' nick ' ' well, and 
 yield only half as much 
 per acre as the variety 
 from which they were 
 derived. On examina- 
 tion, it will generally be 
 found that dnbreds pro- 
 ducing such results are 
 either closely related, or 
 have some serious weak- 
 ness in common, or are 
 weaker than the average 
 inbred. At the Con- 
 necticut station, where 
 corn has been inbred for 
 a greater number of 
 generations than any 
 place else in the world, 
 it has been found that 
 
 while crosses of two inbreds have often yielded more than the 
 original variety, that even higher yields were obtained by crossing 
 four inbreds together to produce a "double cross." This takes two 
 years. For instance, if A, B, C and D are the inbreds, the method is 
 to produce single crosses, AB and CD, the first year and then cross these 
 the following year to produce double cross ABCD. This double crossed 
 ABCD seed, when planted, has given exceptionally good results at the 
 Connecticut station. The single crossed seeds produce plants and ears 
 which are very uniform, every plant and ear looking almost exactly 
 like every other plant and ear. The double crossed seeds, however, pro- 
 
 Crof 
 
 5ing flint and dent. The first generation liy- 
 brid is in the center. 
 
]S4 
 
 CORX AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 Or. the left an inbred, Avhich was developed after five years of selfing. On the 
 right inbred No. 1-6 of the Connecticut Station, which has been selfed for 
 seventeen years. In the center the cross of the two, which is a vigorous, 
 productive type, producing fully as much as Reid corn and twice as much 
 as either inbred parent. 
 
 duce iilants and ears Avhich vary from one another about as much as is 
 the case in the ordinary variety. This variability may account in some 
 measure for the double crossed seed yieldinu- more than the single 
 crossed. 
 
 Practical Method for Farmers 
 
 What the final practical outcome will be of this new theory of pro- 
 ducing inbred strains and then combining them into single, double or 
 even quadruple crosses, no one can say. The method looks promising, 
 but there are some drawbacks. The cross must be made every year. 
 Seed selected from a high yielding single cross is very disappointing in 
 its ability to yield the next generation. It promptly lap.ses back toward 
 
CORN BREEDING 185 
 
 its inbred form, and nsnally yields only about tliree-t'onrtbs as well as 
 the year before. If this crossing of inbred strains is ever used in a prac- 
 tical Avay, it probably will be necessary for Corn Belt farmers to buy 
 their seed every year from seedsmen or seed associations which are spe- 
 cializing- on this kind of thing. However, it may be that further experi- 
 menting will demonstrate that it will be possible after forty or fifty good 
 inbreds have been located which are mutually compatible to combine 
 them together in the form of a new variety, with the result that the 
 yielding power of this complex cross will not slide downhill in 
 later years in the same way as a single cross or a double cross. Just 
 what the application of breeding and cross breeding inbred strains will 
 be, no one can say with any certainty. It does seem to be plain, how- 
 ever, that this method offers the best hope of making any genuine prog- 
 ress in corn breeding. Nevertheless, it is i)robable that not until after 
 1930 will this new idea in corn breeding have gone far enough to mean 
 anything one way or another to the practical corn farmer. For the 
 time being, the practical thing for him to do is to save sound seed of a 
 standard high yielding strain in the manner suggested in Chapter 5. 
 From time to time, the more experimentally minded can try out corn 
 which has done well in corn yield contests and also single and double 
 crosses of inbreds which may be offered by experiment stations and seed 
 companies as time goes on. 
 
CHAPTER 33 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF INBREEDING 
 
 TXBREEDIXG involves placing- live pollen of a plant on the silks of the 
 same plant and also keeping ont any foreign pollen. The customary 
 way of doing this is to tie a twelve-pound pinch bottom paper sack over 
 the tassel just before it begins to shed pollen. A three-pound paper 
 sack or a glacine bag (two and a half by five inches is a convenient size) 
 is slipped over the ear shoot as soon as it is out far enough so as to hold 
 the bag on, and before any silks have appeared. Thump the tassel bag 
 
 h1 method of inbreeding, 
 into sack. 
 
 pollen 
 
 to tell when the pollen has started to shed. If the silks are out and 
 pollen is shedding, take the tas.sel sack off and invert it over the ear shoot 
 and tie it, allowing the bag to bend in the middle Avhile tying so as to 
 avoid losing the pollen. After the tying is completed, straighten out 
 the bag and shake it suddenly, so that a considerable amount of the pol- 
 
TECHNIQrE OF INBREEDING 
 
 187 
 
 len in the bag will fall on the silks enclosed in the bag. In a week or 
 two, especially if there has been a rain, the ear shoot will have grown 
 so much that it will be necessary to loosen the string holding the bag on. 
 
 New Method 
 
 In 1922, a new technique of inbreeding was devised by Merle T. 
 Jenkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture. It is known 
 as the bottle method, and has several advantages for people who are 
 inbreeding more than 100 plants a year. With the bottle method, the 
 ear shoots are covered up in just the same way as with the old-fashioned 
 method, but the tassels are not covered at all. When the silks are out 
 and the tassel has begun to shed, the tassel is pulled out and put in a 
 twelve-pound pinch-bottom paper sack and the base of the tassel is placed 
 in a one or two-ounce bottle filled with water and tied to the corn stalk 
 at the same place as the ear shoot comes out. The paper sack encloses 
 both the ear shoot and tassel and is held in place by a paper clip or a 
 
 Illustrating Jenkins' bottle method of inbreeding corn. On left, glacine bag 
 placed over ear-shoot before silk appears. In middle, bag removed, silk and 
 tip of ear-shoot cut off and bottle attached. On right, twelve-pound paper 
 sack with tassel and ear-shoot inside of it. Tassel is kept alive and shed- 
 ding pollen for a day or two by water in the bottle. In the meantime, the silks 
 have come out again. (Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 string. The silks of the tassel are cut back together wdth the tips of 
 the husks for an inch, or even two inches, just before the twelve-pound 
 sack with its enclosed tassel is put over it. A day or two later, the 
 silks groAv out again and the water in the little bottle has kept the tassel 
 alive so that it is still ready to furnish pollen when the silks are ready 
 
188 CORN AND CORN GROWING 
 
 a<i"ain. The Ijottle is most quickly tied to the stalk by means of 22-yaug'e 
 copper -wire, such as can be bought from a radio supply house. Several 
 hundred bottles can be prepared in advance by twisting a foot of the 
 copper wire around the neck of each in such a way that there will be two 
 ends about four inches long to twist around the stalk. The bottles are 
 carried to the field in a water bucket. The bottle method appears more 
 difficult and complicated than the old-fashioned way, but in actual prac- 
 tice is much more rapid. Two men can inbreed forty to sixty plants 
 an hour. One very great additional advantage is that rain often drove 
 water into T:he tassel bags used in the old-fashioned method, making it 
 necessary to do a lot of work in replacing them, and sometimes making 
 it im]iossible to inbreed certain plants at all. 
 
 Growth of Tassels and Silks 
 Follo^\•ing are some facts about the flowering habits of our typical 
 Gorn Belt stalk of corn, which may be worth while to anyone who is 
 expecting to do some inbreeding : 
 
 1. From the time the tassel first appears until the first pollen is shed is 
 usually about a week. 
 
 2. Silks usually appear two or three days after pollen shedding first 
 begins, although there are occasional plants whose silks come out a day or 
 two in advance of the pollen. 
 
 3. Pollen shedding continues for about a week, although a few plants 
 produce tassels which will continue to shed for ten or twelve days. 
 
 4. With a moist atmosphere and a rather low temperature, corn pollen 
 may live two or three days, but with temperature and humidity as it usually 
 is in the ordinary corn field, nearly all of the pollen dies within twenty-four 
 hours after it leaves the tassel. 
 
 5. Silks are receptive to pollen for two weeks or even longer after they 
 first appear. If they are not fertilized, they may grow to a length of ten or 
 twelve inches, although in the case of some plants the unfertilized silks make 
 very little more growth than the fertilized. After a pollen grain falls on a 
 silk, it grows with great rapidity, germinating and sending a pollen tube 
 through seven or eight inches of silk to the ovule (unfertilized corn kernel) 
 within twenty-four hours. 
 
 6. If a tassel is pulled before it begins to shed pollen, it will rarely live 
 to shed, even though it is placed in water. However, after a tassel has begun to 
 shed it may be pulled and continue to produce viable pollen for a day, even 
 though it is not placed in water. 
 
 7. There is considerable difference in the habits of different corn plants, 
 but the typical plant acts about as described in the foregoing. 
 
CHAPTER 34 
 
 HEREDITY IN CORN 
 
 CCIEXTISTS have probably done more fundamental work Avitli the 
 lieredity of corn than with any other plant or animal, with the ex- 
 ception of the Drosophila (fruit fly). Practically none of this scien- 
 tific work has .yet been of practical value, although inbreeding and the 
 crossing of inbred strains (described in Chapter 32) promises eventually 
 to be of very real importance. 
 
 Mendelian Characters 
 
 Most of the corn heredity work has centered around the problem of 
 finding which characters are Mendelian dominants and which iMendelian 
 rtMM'ssives. More than one hundred IMendelian characters have already 
 
 Floral abnormalities. Branched ear and ears bearing tassels. Most freaks of 
 this sort are Mendelian recessives, which are found to some extent in every 
 commercial corn field, but which do not often get a chance to express them- 
 selves. 
 
 been discovered, and by 1935 several hundred more will undoubtedly 
 be worked out. Many of these characters are freaks which so affect the 
 plant that it does not have the capacity of producing an ear which a 
 farmer would save for seed. In spite of this, they are found to some 
 extent in nearly all corn fields. Thej^ seem especially likely to be found 
 in rather large numbers on those farms where a special effort has been 
 made to breed a high vielding strain of corn bv the ear-row method. 
 
190 CORN AND C0RX-C4R0WING 
 
 One of the commonest of freaks is a white stripe running through the 
 leaves. A plant of this sort when inbred and the seed planted pro- 
 duces plants all of Avhich are affected with striped leaves. But if tin- 
 silks of a striped-leaved plant are fertilized Avith pollen from a normal 
 plant, and the seeds produced are planted, the result w411 usually he 
 plants all of which are normal. Occasionally, a plant which appears 
 normal carries the striped character in one-half of its pollen grains, and 
 when the pollen of such a normal plant is used on the silks of the striped 
 plant the result will be plants one-half of which carry striped leaves and 
 one-half of M^hich are normal. Normal plants which are produced in 
 this way bear pollen one-half of which carries the striped-leaf factor and 
 one-half of which are normal. Also, one-half the ovules or unfertilized 
 corn kernels carry the striped leaf factor and will produce a striped 
 leaf plant if striped-leaf pollen falls on their silks. The striped-leaf 
 character is known as a Mendelian recessive and normal leaf color is the 
 Mendelian dominant. 
 
 Following are some of the Mendelian recessives, affecting the plant 
 or leaf : 
 
 1. Blotched or mottled leaf. 
 
 2. Pale green leaf color. 
 
 3. Yellow leaf color. 
 
 4. Pure white seedlings. 
 
 5. Crinkly leaf. 
 
 6. Short jointed or the brachytic type of dwarf corn. 
 
 7. Crooked jointed or zig-zag com. 
 
 8. Tassels with no pollen. 
 
 9. Leaves with a mid-rib but no real leaf. 
 
 Njearly all abnormalities, and there are probably hundreds of them. 
 are Mendelian recessives. Some of the outstanding exceptions in the 
 way of unusual characters which are Mendelian dominants are : 
 
 1. Purple plant color (governed by three dominant factors, A, B, Pli. 
 
 2. Brown plant color (determined by dominant B and dominant PI with 
 recessive a). 
 
 3. Pod corn or primitive corn with a husk covering each kernel. 
 
 4. Red kernels which owe their color to the red pericarp or hull. 
 
 Xenia 
 
 In the case of factors affecting the kernel, it is very easy to get con- 
 fused as to the nature of corn heredity because of what is known as 
 xenia. When a pollen grain from an ordinary yellow dent corn fer- 
 tilizes the ovule of white corn, one of the pollen nuclei joins with the 
 germ of the ovule and the other nucleus joins with the two polar nuclei 
 of the ovule, which union later results in the endosperm or starchy part 
 of the kernel. Yellow colored endosperm is a Mendelian dominant and 
 because of this xenia or double fertilization, the effect of yellow pollen 
 when used to fertilize white corn may be seen the same year, although 
 the color is paler than that of pure yellow corn. The hull or pericarp 
 is not affected by xenia. That is the reason Avhy pollen from red corn 
 
HEREDITY IN CORN 
 
 191 
 
 has no immediate effect, althoug-h a 
 year later it shows up strongly. 
 The pericarp, botanically, is a part 
 of the mother plant, whereas the 
 endosperm is a product of the recent 
 mating-. 
 
 Blue color in corn kernels is 
 found in the aleurone layer, which is 
 a very thin layer found just between 
 the pericarp and the endosperm. 
 The aleurone color is subject to 
 xenia. Blueness in the aleurone is 
 dependent on four different Men- 
 delian dominants (A, C, R and Pr), 
 all of which must be present. More- 
 over, another factor (I) must be 
 absent. All of our common dent 
 varieties have one or two of these 
 dominant characters which make for 
 blue color in corn. Very few of 
 them, however, have what is known 
 as the R factor. The other three 
 factors (A, C and Pr) are more com- 
 monly found in ordinary corn. This 
 study of blue color in corn kernels 
 is an exceedingly complex matter, 
 and because it is so difficult and has 
 no immediate practical application, 
 it will not be gone into in further 
 detail, but the student will be re- 
 ferred to Memoir 16 of Cornell 
 riiiversitv. 
 
 Illustrating defective kernels. A 
 Mendeiian recessive. (Courtesy of 
 Connecticut Expei'iment Station.) 
 
 Heterozygosis and How Inbreeding Affects It 
 
 A plant or animal is said to be homozygous Avhen all of its germ cells 
 carry the same hereditary properties. Most corn plants are not homo- 
 zygous, but are heterozygous (germ cells differ from one another). 
 However, there are varying degrees of heterozygosity. For illustra- 
 tion, we may say that a completely homozygous corn plant produces 
 germ cells each of ^^hich carries the inheritance ABCDEFGHIJ. A 
 slightly heterozygous corn plant might carry half its germ cells with 
 aBCDEFGHIj' and the other half with ABCDEFGHIJ. Actually, 
 the ordinary corn plant carries dozens of different types of germ cells, 
 as may be roughly illustrated in part as follows: ABCDEfghij ; 
 ABcdeFGhij: ABcdEfgHij ; ABCdefghij ; ABcDeFgHiJ, etc., etc. 
 Perha]^s this particular plant may be homozygous for A and B and het- 
 
19: 
 
 CORN AND CORxX-GROWlNG 
 
 erozygoiis for all else. In the ordinary corn field, it may Ix' roughly 
 assumed that the avera<»e plant is homozygons for about half of its 
 characters and heterozygous for half. As long as Avind pollination con- 
 tinues, and the farmer does not line-breed by planting closely related 
 ears, there will be little or no change in the proportion of homozygosity 
 and heterozygosity. If, however, a plant which is 50 per cent hetero- 
 zygous is selfed; the next generation will bear germ cells which are 
 much alike, and the probabilities favor only 25 per cent heterozygosity. 
 In succeeding generations, the heterozygosity should decline to the fol- 
 lowing percentages: Second, 12.5 per cent; third, 6.25 per cent; fourth, 
 ;H2 per cent ; fifth, 1.56 per cent, etc. After five generations of selfing, 
 it is a general rule that almost complete homozygosity is reached, pro- 
 vided the plant to start with was 50 per cent homozygous. It takes 
 about seventeen generations of brother and sister mating to give the 
 same degree of homozygosity as five generations of selfing. 
 
 Why Heterozygosis Increases Vigor 
 
 It is theoretically })ossible some day to find an inbred strain wliicli 
 is homozygous only for good qualities and which would therefore be 
 
 e 3 /o 
 
 Illustrating how a blood strain which is 50 per cent heterozygous is affected 
 by different numbers of generations of different methods of breeding. Six 
 generations of selfing should bring 99.2 per cent homozygosity if the strain 
 was 50 per cent homozygous to start with. (Bulletin 1121, United States 
 Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 vigorous. Actually, all inbred strains so far developed by selfing for 
 four or more years are decidedly unproductive. When two different 
 homozygous inbreds are crossed, the result is usually great vigor, as 
 described in Chapter 32. This kind of vigor is supposed to be due to 
 
HEREDITY IN CORN 193 
 
 the fact that most p'ood characters are Mendelian dominants and most 
 bad ones are Mendelian recessives, and that the first generation cross 
 of two strains g'ives a chance for all of the good characters of both parents 
 to appear, with none of the bad, unless the bad are found in both par- 
 ents. It is this theoretically sound background which has caused so 
 many experimenters to spend so much time with corn inbreedinu' Avork 
 in recent years. 
 
 Linkage 
 
 The most recent step forward in corn heredity has been in the study 
 of linkage, discovering which IMendelian factors are located in the same 
 chromosome. Corn has ten chromosomes and it is probable that by 1935 
 nearly 100 different factors will have been placed. Not only this, but 
 it will be possible to say about where in each chromosome each of the 
 factors is located. This kind of Avork belongs to the professional genet- 
 icist at the present time. Eventually, it Avill have very practical appli- 
 cations because after the freakish factors are definitely located in their 
 various chromosomes it may be possible to locate the' position of some 
 of the factors Avhich make for yield. In the meantime, it is AA'orth Avhile 
 to knoAv that this kind of Avork is going on and to be prepared to learn 
 more about it Avhen it finally begins to have some practical applications. 
 
 Alphabetical List of Genetic Factors in Corn 
 
 List furnished by Dr. Emerson, of Cornell University. Factors 
 capitalized, dominant; not capitalized, recessive. 
 
 A— anthoeyanin. General plant color including aleurone. peri- 
 carp, stem, leaves, etc. 
 ad— adherent. Leaves and tassel adhering, 
 an— anther ear. 8emi-dAvarf plant Avith anthers throughout ear. 
 ar — argentia. Silvery leaf. 
 B — "broAA-n." A plant color factor. An allelomorphic series 
 
 B, B^^', b. 
 be — brachytie. Dwarf plant, 
 bh — blotched aleurone. 
 bl— blotched leaf, 
 ^br — broAA'n aleurone. 
 bv — brevis. DAvarf plant, 
 C — colored aleurone. 
 
 CO— coherent. Branches of tassel cohering, 
 cr — crinkly leaf. 
 
 d— dAvarf plant Avith anthers throughout ear. 
 de— defective. Little or no development of endosperm anrl 
 
 embryo, 
 ^dt— dotted leaf, 
 f — fine striped leaf. 
 
 aMode of inhentance not definitely established. 
 
104 CORN AXI) CORX-CIROWIXG 
 
 fi — fine streaked leaf. 
 
 f 1 — floury-flinty endosperm. 
 ^Fs — fasciated ear. 
 
 g — L^olden leaf. 
 g\— glossy leaf, 
 gs— green striped leaf. 
 
 I — inhibitor of aleurone color, 
 in — intensifier of red and purple aleurone. 
 ^Ir — interrupted ear. 
 
 j— japonica striped leaf. 
 1 — luteus (yellow) seedling. 
 
 Ig— liguleless leaf. 
 
 li— lineate leaf, 
 
 ]\I— mottled aleurone — with heterozygous R. 
 mr — midrib. Leaf consists of but little more than the midrib, 
 ms— male sterile. Anthers produce no pollen, 
 na— nana. Dwarf plant, 
 nk— naked. Cob and tassel almost free from spikelets. 
 
 P — pericarp and cob color. An allelomorphic series P'"'"'', P^^'^^', 
 
 P^'", etc. 
 pb— piebald, yellow and green spotted seedling, 
 pg— pale green seedlings. 
 PI — purple plant color. 
 Pr— purple aleurone. 
 
 R— red aleurone. An allelomorphic series, also affecting plant 
 
 colors and pericarp : R'", R^, r"", r^, r^*^, etc. 
 ra — ramosa ear. 
 ^ru— rugose leaf. 
 
 sh— shrunken endosperm. 
 ''^sk— silkless. No silks on cob. 
 
 si — slashed. Slashed or shredded seedling, 
 sm — salmon silks. 
 
 sp — spear. Spear-like seedling. Usually lethal. 
 
 st — stippled aleurone. 
 
 su — sugary endosperm. 
 
 te— tassel ear ) Two types producing only pistillate flowers in 
 
 ts— tassel seed ) the tassel. 
 Tu — tunicate ear (pod corn), 
 -'^tw — twisted stalk. 
 
 V — virescent seedling. 
 
 w — white seedling, 
 ws — white sheath. 
 wx — Avaxy endosperm. 
 
 Y — yellow endosperm. 
 
 aMode of inheritance not definitely established. 
 
HEREDITY IN CORN 195 
 
 Yp — pale yellow endosperm. 
 ys — yellow striped leaf. 
 zb — zebra — transversely striped leaves. 
 zg — zigzag stalk. 
 
 zu — Zimi aleiirone (colored caps). 
 (This list was quite complete in 1922, but new factors are being 
 added by corn geneticists every year.) 
 
 Chlorophyll Factors 
 
 Seedlings — 
 
 pb — ^piebald. 
 pg — pale green. 
 V — virescent. (Lindstrom, 1918.) 
 w — white. (Lindstrom, 1918.) 
 Seedlings and mature plants — 
 ar — argentia. 
 f — fine stripe. 
 
 1 — yellow seedlings with w or v. Yellow striped in mature 
 japonica. (Lindstrom, 1918; 1921.) 
 zb — zebra. 
 ]\Iature plants — 
 
 bl — blotched leaf, 
 dt — dotted leaf, 
 fi — fine streaked, 
 g — golden. (Lindstrom, 1918.) 
 gs — green striped. (Lindstrom, 1918.) 
 j — japonica striped. (Lindstrom, 193 8.) 
 li— lineate leaf. (Collins, 1920.) 
 ws — ^ white sheath, 
 ys — yellow striped. 
 
 Plant and Anther Colors 
 (Emerson, 1921) 
 Plant — Anthers — 
 
 la— A B PI R'— purple .purple 
 
 lb— A B^ PI Rr— weak purple purple 
 
 Ig — A B PI R^ — purple green 
 
 Ila — A B pi RJ" — mn red pink 
 
 lib — A Rw pi Rr — weak sun red pink 
 
 Ilg — A B pi R^ — =iun red green 
 
 Ilia — A b PI R'' — dilute purple ^purple 
 
 Illg — A b PI R& — green green 
 
 IVa — A b pi R^ — dilute sun red pink 
 
 IVg — A b pi Rs — green green 
 
 V — a B pi — brown green 
 
 Via — a B pi — green (or slight brown in 
 
 sheaths) green 
 
196 
 
 CORN AND (^ORN-GROAVTNG 
 
 r a b PI — ^reen (or sliji'ht lirown in tas- 
 
 Vlb— sel) -reen 
 
 L a b PI r<^'^ — g-reen (consideralilc brown in 
 
 tas.sel) green 
 
 Vic — a b pi — green. 
 
 Factor r'' has the same effect on plant color as R'", and rs the same 
 effect as R^. 
 
 Silk Colors 
 (Anderson, 1921a) 
 A Sm P — green. 
 A Sm p — green. 
 A sm ,P — salmon. 
 A sm p — brown. 
 Colors indicated are of silks under husks. Parts exposed to sunlight 
 may be red if R'" or r'' is also present. P is the factor for red pericarp. 
 With aa all silks are green. 
 
 
 Pericarp Colors and Patterns 
 
 
 
 (Anderson, 1921b) 
 
 
 Cherry pericarp series — Pericarp color — 
 
 Cob color — 
 
 A PI rch 
 
 cherry 
 
 purple 
 
 a PI T^^' 
 
 brownish 
 
 brownish 
 
 A pi rch 
 
 white 
 
 white 
 
 a pi r^h 
 
 white 
 
 white 
 
 Red pericarp series- 
 
 - 
 
 
 A P'-'- 
 
 red 
 
 red 
 
 Apor 
 
 orange 
 
 red 
 
 A P^^i- 
 
 white 
 
 red 
 
 A Pow 
 
 orange 
 
 white 
 
 A pew 
 
 white-capped red 
 
 white 
 
 APvv 
 
 variegated 
 
 variegated 
 
 Ap 
 
 white 
 
 white 
 
 With aa brown color in place of red. 
 
 Aleurone Colors and Patterns 
 
 (East, 1912; Emerson, 1918) 
 i A C R Pr — purple, 
 i A C R pr — red. 
 i A C r ■>, 
 i A c R 1 
 i a C R 
 i ,A c r 
 i a C r j 
 i a c r j 
 I A C R Pr— white. 
 
 Bh — blotched. Shows only in A c R Bh. 
 
 br — brown. Relation unknown. 
 
 whit( 
 
HEREDITY IN CORN 197 
 
 in — intensifier. 
 
 ]M — mottled. Shows only in r r R. 
 
 st — stippled. 
 
 zu — Zimi. 
 
 Endosperm Colors 
 
 Y— yellow. (East & Hayes, 1911.) 
 Yp — pale yellow. (Emerson, 1911.) 
 
 Endosperm Texture 
 
 Su Wx— starchy. ( Collins & Kempton, 1914 ; Kempton, 1919. ) 
 Su wx — -waxy. (Collins & Kempton, 1914; Kempton, 1919.) 
 su Wx— sugary. (Collins & Kempton, 1914; Kempton, 1919.) 
 su wx — sugary. (Collins & Kempton, 1914; Kempton, 1919.) 
 
 Fl Fl Fl— flinty. ( Hayes & East, 1915. ) 
 
 Fl Fl fl — flinty. (Hayes & East, 1915.) 
 
 Fl fl fl —floury. (Hayes & East, 1915.) 
 
 fl fl fl —floury. (Hayes & East, 1915.) 
 de — defective seeds. (Jones, 1920.) 
 sh — shrunken endosperm. (Hutchinson, 1921.) 
 
 Plant Height 
 Dwarfs and semi-dwarfs — 
 
 an — anther ear (variable in height). (Emerson & Emerson, 
 
 1921.) 
 be — brachytic. (Kempton, 1920.) 
 bv — brevis. 
 cr — crinkly. 
 
 d — dM-arf. (Emerson, 1912b; Emerson & Emerson, 1921.) 
 na — nana. 
 
 te — tassel ear. (Emerson, 1920.) 
 ts — tassel seed. (Emerson, 1920.) 
 tw — twisted, 
 zg— zigzag. (Eyster, W. H., 1921a.) 
 
 Leaf Characters 
 cr — crinkly, 
 gl — glossy. 
 
 Ig — liguleless. (Emerson, 1912a.) 
 mr — midrib, 
 ru — rugose, 
 si — slashed, 
 sp — spear. 
 
 Ear Characters 
 
 d — dwarf. AVith anthers in the ear. 
 an — semi-dwarf. With anthers in the ear. 
 ra — ramosa. Branched ear. (Gernert, 1912.) 
 Fs— fasciated ear. (East & Hayes, 1911; Emerson, 1912b.) 
 
198 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 in — interrupted ear. (Emerson, 1912b.) 
 nk— naked. (East & Hayes, 1912.) 
 sk — silkless. 
 
 Tu— tunicate. (Collins, 1917.) 
 te — tassel ear. Zigzag rows in ear due to development of both 
 
 flowers of the spikelet. 
 ts — tassel seed. Zigzag rows in ear due to development of both 
 
 flowers of the spikelet. 
 
 Tassel Characters 
 ad— adherent. 
 CO — 3oherent. 
 
 ms — male sterile. (Eyster, L, A., 1921.) 
 nk — naked, 
 ra — ramosa. 
 Tu — tunicate, 
 te — tassel ear. 
 ts — tassel seed. 
 
 Linkage Groups in Corn 
 
 List furnished by Dr. Lindstrom, of the Iowa Experiment Station. 
 I, the C group, including also I, sh, wx, v^ 
 II, the R group, including also 1, S, g, li^, pgi, (w,?) 
 
 III, the Su group, including also Tu 
 
 IV, the B group, including also Ig, ts^, v^ 
 
 V, the Y group, including also PI, sm. fi, bh, w^, w-, Wg 
 VI, the P group, including also br, tSo, f 
 VII, the A group, including also v ? 
 
 Miscellaneous Linkages 
 Yp-pg3 
 d— pgo 
 gs — z,-an 
 gl — fr-v 
 (This was the situation as viewed by Dr. Lindstrom early in 1923. 
 ]\Iany more factors will doubtless be placed in their linkage groups every 
 year as more experimental work is done liy the corn geneticists.) 
 
CHAPTER 35 
 
 CORN JUDGING 
 
 r^ORN shows first became really popular about 1890, reaching their 
 crest about 1910. In the early corn shows, the idea was to give 
 the prize to the sample which gave indications of the greatest yielding 
 power. The men who drew up the early score cards assumed that of 
 course high yield was associated with ears as large as the ordinary sea- 
 son would mature, and ears with a high percentage of shelled corn. 
 Therefore, in the central part of the Corn Belt their ideal was an ear ten 
 inches long, seven and one-half inches in circumference, with eighteen 
 to twenty-two rows packed together tightly on the cob and carried out 
 over the tip and well-rounded butt. They wanted the space between 
 the rows of kernels, both at the cob and on the outside of the ear, to be 
 as narroM' as possible because that meant a higher percentage of shelled 
 corn. Deep kernels, kej'stone in shape, and moderately wide, met their 
 ideals better than either the narrow shoe-peg kernel or the shallow, 
 extremely square kernel, both of which are usually associated with a 
 lower shelling percentage. They preferred ears with straight rows and 
 cylindrical in shape, because the kernels were more uniform and could 
 be planted with fewer skips by the corn planter. Large germs were 
 desired because that meant more oil and protein in the kernel and there- 
 fore more feeding value. For probably fifty years before the popular 
 corn shows of the early twentieth century, these common sense points 
 had appealed to thoughtful corn farmers everywhere, and the men who 
 made out the score cards in the nineties merely reflected the opinions 
 of the men who had thought most about corn. 
 
 Fancy Points 
 
 About 1900, the corn judges began to prefer corn with a rough 
 dent. The rough dented corn seemed to have straighter rows and more 
 uniform kernels, which also seemed to be a little deeper. It was also 
 advisable to develop fancy points of this sort in order to enable the 
 judges to make any distinction between the hundreds of competing sam- 
 ples, most of which were almost equally good from the standpoint of 
 the original score card. And so it came about that corn judges uncon- 
 sciously came to think more and more about fancy points. 
 
 Tests Upset Ideals 
 
 The first corn shows were held before the days of careful experi- 
 mental work. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that actual yield 
 tests with different types of corn rudely upset some of the most cher- 
 
!00 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 ished ideals of the early corn judges. For ten years the Ohio station 
 continnonsly selected for moderately long ears of corn and for moderately 
 short, and contrasted the yielding power of the two strains. The short 
 ears, only six or seven inches in length, seemed to have the ability to 
 yield almost exactly the same as the ears nine or ten inches long. Bare 
 
 This type of ten-ear sample, which represents hundreds of hours of labor pick- 
 ing over thousands of ears of corn, wins at the corn shows. No one can 
 tell in advance whether such corn will yield as much or more than ordi- 
 nary corn. 
 
 tipped ears with nearly an inch of cob showing yielded about the same 
 amount of shelled corn per acre as ears with perfectly filled tips. Ears 
 shelling out only 76 per cent yielded considerably more ear corn per acre 
 and fully as much shelled corn as ears shelling 88 per cent. Smooth corn 
 slightly outyielded the rough corn. Carefully conducted tests of this 
 sort at the Ohio, Nebraska and a number of other stations made it ap- 
 pear extremely doubtful if many of the points on the old-fashioned 
 corn score card were worth while from the standpoint of yield. 
 
 No one has as yet learned enough about corn to know just what 
 relationship there is between yield and the different ear and kernel 
 characteristics. The relationship seems to be different in different sea- 
 sons and on different soils. The following yield score card is based chief- 
 ly on experimental work at the Iowa station and probably applies as well 
 as any to central Iowa and Illinois. 
 
CORN JUDGING 201 
 
 Yield Score Card 
 
 (No fancy points) 
 
 Points 
 Solid, well-matured ear which weighs like lead (heavy for its size, with 
 
 kernels firm on cob) 15 
 
 Length of ear( at least 7 inches) 5 
 
 Circumference of ear (at least 5.5 inches) 5 
 
 Width of kernel (not less than one-fourth inch wide) 15 
 
 Thickness of kernel (not more than 8 kernels to the inch) 10 
 
 Depth of kernel (at least seven-sixteenths inch deep) 15 
 
 Kernel plump at tip 15 
 
 Kernels without blistering or damage by mice 5 
 
 Kernels with bright, large germ (germ should be clear and waxy when cut) 5 
 Kernels come loose from cob without leaving tip cap or taking part of cob 
 
 with them 5 
 
 Kernels hard, horny and shiny, without showing white starch on their backs 5 
 
 Total lOU 
 
 It is assumed in this score card, as should be the case with all corn 
 score cards, that ears which will not grow are given no consideration 
 whatever. In Illinois and parts of Iowa where root rot diseases are 
 serious, the last point — ^hard, horny, shiny kernels free from starch — 
 probably should be given 15 or 20 points instead of only five, for it 
 has been definitely proved that starchy kernels are more susceptible to 
 these diseases and yield less as a consequence. In Nebraska, especially 
 in the western part, 15 or 20 points should be given to a smooth dent 
 combined with a slender ear and freedom from starchiness. On the 
 other hand, the rich bottom lands of central and southern Indiana seem 
 to yield more when planted to a rough, somewhat starchy corn carrying 
 twenty or even twenty-two rows of kernels, than when planted to the 
 smaller, slender-eared type with its horny, shiny kernels. 
 
 What Corn Judges Like 
 
 AVhile no one knows much about measuring the effect of ear and 
 kernel characteristics on yield, it is fairly easy to learn what type of corn 
 will appeal to corn judges at the big corn shows. In the single ear 
 classes in the central part of the Corn Belt, the ideal ear is ten inches 
 long, seven and one-half inches in circumference, with twenty or twenty- 
 two straight rows of kernels carried out to the tip (tip kernels being 
 of the same type as the kernels on the body of the ear), and with a 
 well rounded butt with only a small opening left for the shank. Of 
 course, the ear must be straight and cylindrical in shape, with the diam- 
 eter carried uniformly from the butt to within two or three inches of the 
 tip, where a slight taper is permissible. The kernels must be moderately 
 wide, keystone in shape, deep, plump at the tip, and without any trace 
 of being shrunken or blistered. In Iowa and Illinois, the judges lay 
 great emphasis on the backs of the kernels being horny and shiny, but 
 in Indiana and at the International Grain and Hay Show they are not 
 so particular about this point. In central Iowa, Indiana and at the 
 
202 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 International the custom has been to favor the rough corn, -whereas in 
 Illinois, since 1920, they have been favoring the smooth corn with an 
 exceedingly horny kernel, showing the least possible susceptibility to 
 root rot infections. By attending corn shows and associating with corn 
 judges, it is possible to learn their ideals and pick corn to meet them. 
 In the ten-ear, thirty-ear and bushel classes, it is necessary to pay great 
 attention to uniformity. All of the ears should be within an inch of 
 the same length. None of the ears should carry less than eighteen rows 
 nor more than twenty-two. The kernels should all be of the same size, 
 shape and color, showing no trace of mixture with white pollen (if 
 the variety is yellow) or yellow pollen (if the variety is white). In ad- 
 dition, the ears must be true to what the judges recognize as the variety 
 type. To fulfill all of these requirements means that a man must start 
 with seed from a recognized show strain and grow it out on rich soil 
 and then go over 50,000 or 100,000 ears in the hope of finding a prize 
 winning sample. Picking corn for show is interesting work which ap- 
 peals to farmers with an eye for the beautiful. The premiums offered 
 at the corn shows have made corn exhibiting profitable for many men. 
 This has been especially true in central Indiana and the southern half 
 of Iowa, Mhere a combination of rich soil, a rather long season, and 
 favorable rainfall have made it possible to grow beautiful, rough, large- 
 eared corn very easily. 
 
 Shows Are in a State of Change 
 
 It seems that corn shows are now in a state of change, and that in 
 the future the judges may pay somewhat more attention to the practical 
 points and somewhat less to the merely beautiful. The weak point in 
 all corn judging is that most of the really important functions of the 
 corn plant which have to do with yield express themselves in other 
 ways than through the shape of ear and type of kernel. 
 
 Corn shows and corn judges have an important place in drawing 
 men of like tastes together, but the day is past when they are having 
 much direct influence in improving the yield of our corn. The Iowa 
 Corn Growers' Association has to some extent recognized this by inaugu- 
 rating a scientific yield contest, as described in Chapter 36. 
 
CHAPTER 36 
 
 CORN YIELD CONTESTS 
 
 PRACTICAL farmers long ago discovered that the corn which won at 
 the corn shows was not necessarily high yielding corn. It was there- 
 fore suggested that farmers compete to see who could produce, not the 
 best looking corn, but the most corn per acre. Such contests demon- 
 strated that it was possible in the South, by means of extremely heavy 
 fertilizing combined with a favorable season to produce over 200 bushels 
 per acre. On rich clover sod land in the North it was found that occa- 
 sionally, when all conditions were favorable, that over 130 bushels per 
 acre could be produced. But the practical farmer again rebelled. He 
 said that he had no time to fool around with a pet acre of corn which 
 would not win a prize unless it happened to be favored with lucky rains 
 at just the right time in July and August. As a result, acre yield con- 
 tests are now used for the most part as a device to interest farm club 
 boys. In this way, these tests have done an immense amount of good, 
 definitely starting many boys on the path of becoming genuinely inter- 
 ested in all that makes for good farming. 
 
 Best Type of Test 
 
 The best type of corn yield contest involves growing several strains 
 of corn side by side on the same land, to see which sorts will yield the 
 most when all conditions are alike. This type of contest should be con- 
 ducted for at least three years, and preferably for five. Since practical 
 farmers are not in position to do the careful experimental work involved 
 in this kind of a contest, it has been the custom for the county agent, 
 the experiment station, or the Corn Growers' Association to supervise 
 the planting and weighing. All the farmer who enters this kind of a 
 contest has to do is to furnish a few pounds of seed (in some cases he 
 also pays an entry fee of a few dollars to defray part of the expenses). 
 The farmer has none of the bother of growing or harvesting, but at the 
 finish receives the benefit of knowing how his seed compared in yielding 
 power with other strains of corn grown under exactly the same soil 
 and moisture conditions. If his corn has done well, he may develop 
 quite a seed business. If it has done poorly, he will find it advisable 
 to buy corn from someone whose corn has done well, growing the two 
 sorts side by side on his own farm at first in order to verify under his 
 o^^ n conditions the results of the yield test. 
 
 Woodford County Test 
 The first carefully conducted three-year corn yield contest of this 
 sort was the Woodford county, Illinois, test, which was began in 1919 
 and completed in 1921. Seed from 120 Woodford county farmers was 
 
204 
 
 COKN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 entered in this test in eaeli of three years. These 120 sorts were grown 
 side by side in two different places in the county. Every other row 
 across the test field was a check sort not entered in the contest. By cor- 
 recting the yield by means of the adjoining check, it was possible to take 
 into account soil variations. The Krug strain of Reid Yellow Dent, 
 which stood at the top as an average of the three years, outyielded the 
 average corn in the contest by 6.6 bushels per acre, and the poorest, which 
 was also a strain of Reid, by 17.1 bushels. The ten high yielders were 
 grown again side by side in a number of different places in "Woodford 
 county, in 1922, and again the Krug corn outyielded the others. The 
 Krug corn was also entered in the Iowa corn yield contest in 1922, and 
 yielded within one bushel per acre as much as the corn which won first. 
 
 Iowa Yield Test 
 
 The Iowa corn yield contest was begun in 1920 by the Iowa Corn 
 Growers' Association. The Iowa experiment station assists in planting 
 and harvesting the plots of the strains, which are grown side by side 
 under the same conditions. Each strain which is entered is grown in 
 
 Black Yellow Dent corn, which has yielded well as a three-year average in the 
 Iowa Corn Yield Contest. 
 
 the eastern part of the state, the central, and the western, and at each 
 place at least five plots of each strain are grown, thus making fifteen 
 replications in all. Such a careful test involves an expense of about 
 .$20 for each strain of corn entered, and each farmer who sends in his 
 seed to be tested is therefore charged $10, the other $10 being borne by 
 the Corn Growers' Association. For purposes of the contest, the state 
 is divided into four sections, northern, north-central, south-central and 
 southern. Most of the strains entered in the northern section have been 
 Silver King, whereas, in the southern and south-central sections the 
 contest has chiefly been between different strains of Reid Yellow Dent. 
 In the south-central section, where the competition has been the keenest, 
 the Black strain of Reid has stood high as an average of three years, 
 with a yield of seven bushels per acre more than the strain of Reid 
 which was the lowest as an average of the three years. There were 
 
CORN YIELD CONTESTS 205 
 
 many other strains of Reid which were lower yielding than this low 
 strain, but the farmers growing them became tired of paying $10 to 
 enter them after one or two years. In this respect, the Iowa form of 
 corn yield contest is inferior to the Woodford county, Illinois, test, 
 where all the farmers stay in every year and the results are not an- 
 nounced until the last year. 
 
 Technique of a Yield Test 
 
 In the ordinary county corn yield contest, the county agent sees 
 that some ten or twenty different local strains are planted side by side 
 on the same farm. Such a test awakens a lot of local interest, but un- 
 less the county agent neglects his other duties it is very difficult for 
 him to make a really thorough comparison and as a result the ordinary 
 county corn yield contest is rather inaccurate. The technique of con- 
 ducting a corn yield contest in order to get the most accurate comparison 
 of yielding power at the least expense of money and time has not yet been 
 thoroughly worked oat. In the Iowa corn yield contest the original 
 plan was to plant the different sorts side by side in plots of four twenty- 
 five-hill rows each, there being five replications of such plots for each 
 sort. Only the two center rows were harvested, the theory being that 
 the two outside rows might be affected by the sorts grown on either side. 
 In actual practice, it was found that all of the sorts entered were so sim- 
 ilar in their habit of growth that there was no need of having two border 
 rows to eliminate plot competition. Under such conditions, it seemed 
 possible to gain accuracy by having twenty replications of one row each 
 rather than five replications of four rows each. In the Iowa contest, 
 they have always grown a check sort every fifth plot in order to have 
 a standard by which to correct for soil conditions. It seems, however, 
 that the use of a check sort to correct for soil conditions is only doubt- 
 fully worth while when there are ten or more replications. The ideal 
 way seems to be to have a row of check corn grown in every other row 
 across the field or else to leave out the check and try to obtain accuracy 
 by having at least ten replications. Refined mathematical and experi- 
 mental methods are being applied to this problem, and it is expected 
 that by 1928 the most practical way of determining the comparative 
 yielding powers of different kinds of corn when grown under the same 
 conditions, will have been discovered. In any event, it will always be 
 necessary to run such a test for at least three years. 
 
 The benefit of such contests as the Iowa corn yield contest is that 
 certain standard strains are discovered which have demonstrated their 
 ability to yield well over a period of years. Farmers who do not enter 
 such contests can get seed of such sorts to grow side by side with their 
 home corn. Hundreds of farmers have done this as a result of the 
 loAva corn yield contest. Some of them have found that their home corn 
 has a higher yielding power under their own conditions, but others 
 have found that the high yielding corn discovered by the yield contest 
 is fully five or ten bushels per acre better than their home corn. 
 
CHAPTER 37 
 
 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN 
 
 A BOUT two hundred and eighty million bushels, or 10 per cent of the 
 corn crop of the United States, is manufactured annually. Roughly, 
 one hundred and eighty million bushels, or 6.5 per cent, are ground in 
 the corn meal mills, and sixty million bushels, or 2.2 per cent, are handled 
 by the starch factories. About forty million bushels, or about 1.5 per 
 cent, of the corn crop is used in the manufacture of alcohol, lye hominy 
 and in miscellaneous ways. 
 
 Dry Process 
 
 The corn meal mills manufacture the meal by what is known as the 
 dry process. In the early days of corn milling, the entire kernel was 
 ground. This made an excellent quality of corn meal, although some 
 people objected to it because of the fine particles of hull. The greatest 
 objection, however, was the presence of the germ in the meal, which made 
 the meal rancid if kept a great length of time. IModern corn milling, 
 therefore, involves degerminating the corn as its first step. The corn 
 is sprayed with water or treated with steam until it has a moisture con- 
 tent of about 20 per cent, after which it goes into a machine with a 
 rapidly revolving core, w^hich results in breaking up the kernel in such 
 a way as to loosen the hull and the germ but not to grind the starch. By 
 mechanical processes, the hard starch is separated and ground into the 
 commercial corn meal as we know it today, or, as some people call it, 
 ' ' hominy grits. ' ' If the meal is ground extremely finely, it makes what 
 is known as corn flour, which can be mixed with wheat flour to produce 
 a product which is just as good as pure wheat flour, although the bread 
 made from it does not rise quite as much. 
 
 The soft Avhite starch is mixed with the hulls, which are commercially 
 known as corn bran, to make what is known as hominy feed. Extensive 
 experiments with hominy feed in Iowa and Indiana, indicate that it has 
 ])ractically the same value for hogs as shelled corn. The germs are some- 
 times ground and mixed with the hominy feed; but in the more up-to- 
 date plants, the oil is pressed out. The oil cake which is left after press- 
 ing out the oil is generally mixed with the hominy feed. Under average 
 conditions, a bushel of corn, under the dry process, produces about 22 
 pounds of corn meal, 33 pounds of hominy feed, and one-half pound 
 of oil. 
 
 In the manufacture of corn flakes, the dry process is used until the 
 coarse particles of horny starch are separated out. These are rolled 
 
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN 207 
 
 out and toasted. Most of the corn flakes are manufactured by three 
 large plants at Battle Creek, Michigan. They use about 10,000,000 bush- 
 els of corn annually. 
 
 Wet Process 
 
 The starch factories use only about one-third as much corn as the 
 corn meal mills, but the process is far more complicated, and the prod- 
 ucts are much more extensively used in a wide variety of industries. The 
 method of manufacture is known as the wet process. A bushel of corn 
 as manufactured in a starch factory by the wet process produces about 
 32 pounds of starch, 15 pounds of gluten feed, 1.5 pounds of corn oil and 
 1.5 pounds of corn oil cake meal. Of the 32 pounds of starch which 
 are obtained from the ordinary bushel of corn, only about 12 pounds 
 are usually sold by the starch factories in the form of starch. Most of 
 the rest (about 20 pounds) is usually converted into corn syrup. Twenty 
 pounds of corn starch make 24 or 25 pounds of corn syrup or glucose. 
 About tAvo pounds of the original 32 pounds of starch obtained from a 
 bushel of corn are made into a corn sugar. Both corn syrup and corn 
 sugar are extensively used in candy making, ice cream, preserving, etc. 
 Of the sugar used in commercial candies, over one-third comes from corn. 
 People in the United States who eat candy are patronizing the farmers 
 of the Corn Belt to almost as great an extent as they are the planters of 
 Cuba and Hawaii. 
 
 The wet milling process of corn manufacture is briefly as follows : 
 
 The corn first goes through a very thorough purification process by 
 which dust, particles of corn cobs, nails and other impurities are re- 
 moved. The corn is then steeped for about thirty-six hours in lukewarm 
 water to which is added a small amount of sulphurous acid. This is nec- 
 essary for it prevents fermentation, and also softens the corn, allowing a 
 better separation to take place later on in the process. Most of the sul- 
 phurous acid is lost in the steps to follow : The steeped corn is fed into 
 disintegrator steel mills, which crush the kernel but do not grind it. In 
 this crushing the elastic germ remains unbroken and is easily separated 
 from the remainder of the kernel. This is done by passing the crushed 
 mass into "germ separator tanks," in which the germs, containing 60 
 per cent oil, rise to the top and are removed by a mechanical skimming 
 apparatus. They are then thoroughly washed with water in rotating 
 sieves to remove all traces of gluten and starch which may adhere to them. 
 
 The lumps of endosperm, hulls and loose particles of gluten and 
 starch leave the separator tanks as tailings. This mass, coming from the 
 bottom of the tanks, goes to the buhr mills, in which it is ground fine. 
 It is then pumped over revolving silk sieves, where the hulls are removed 
 and washed free from adhering gluten and starch, which pass through 
 the fine silk cloth. The hulls, separated in the rotating sieves, are partly 
 dehydrated and then thoroughly dried in steam dryers. They are later 
 mixed with the gluten to form "gluten feed." 
 
208 CORX AND ("ORX-GROWIXG 
 
 The mixture of starch and gluten suspended in water and ])assin<z' 
 through the .sieves during the separation of both the germ and hulls, 
 is run off at a regulated speed over long sloping troughs or tables. The 
 starch being the heavier settles down into a solid cake, while the gluten 
 suspension runs off the tables as tailings. The gluten liquor is collected 
 in cone settlers where it is concentrated. The concentrated liquor is 
 filter pressed and the resulting gluten (containing about 55 per cent pro- 
 tein) is dried and mixed with the hulls to form "gluten feed." To this 
 gluten feed, before it is finally dried, is also added the concentrated 
 steepwater, containing food materials which were dissolved out from 
 the corn. 
 
 The somewhat solid cake of starch on the tables is removed by 
 churning it up with a heavy stream of water. The starch liquor is filter 
 pressed and the press cake rapidly dried into so-called "pearl starch," or 
 pulverized and sold as powdered starch. For food purposes the starch is 
 subjected to a number of washings before it is filter pressed, dried and 
 powdered. These .starches find their way into the market in bulk or in 
 package form under the various trade names such as "Buffalo," "Kings- 
 ford Silver Glos.s," "Duryea" or "Argo Gloss." Some of these starches 
 are also made in crystal and in lump form. For laundry purposes there 
 are prepared various grades called "thin boiling starches." Dextrines, 
 used for making adhesives, sizing mixtures, etc., are made from pow- 
 dered starch. 
 
 Dent corn, which is used mo.stly by the corn products industry, con- 
 tains practically no .sugar of any kind. Corn sugars and syrups are 
 made by changing, by hydrolysis, the starch into the sugar or syrup, as 
 the case may be. The process is briefly as follows : The starch liquor 
 from the tables is first rewashed and then pumped into large vessels 
 capable of being ,subjected to high pressures. The starch liquor is 
 heated in these convertors with a very small amount of muriatic or 
 hydrochloric acid under a pressure of about thirty-five or forty-five 
 pounds, depending on whether it is desired completely to change the 
 starch into sugar or only partially to form corn syrup. After this treat- 
 ment the liquor (corn sugar or syrup) is blown into large tanks, in 
 which the muriatic acid is neutralized with soda ash. As a result of the 
 action between the acid and soda ash there is formed a small amount of 
 common, harmless salt Avhich is found in traces in all corn sugar 
 products. After the neutralization the liquors are passed through a 
 mechanical separation to remove the suspended matter present. To 
 remove color these liquors are run over bone black filters. They are 
 then partially concentrated in vacuum pans, again decolorized with bone 
 black and finally concentrated by evaporation to the desired gravity. 
 
 The sugar liquor, after concentrating, is run into barrels, where it 
 solidifies on cooling. These grades are used in many industries, among 
 them the brewing, tanning and sugar color making. A higher grade 
 sugar is made by running out the concentrated sugar liquors into large 
 
COMMERCIAL PRODTTCTS OP CORN 209 
 
 boxes in which it solidifies. When hardened to a certain degree it is cut 
 into small rectangular pieces. These, after proper curing, are wrapped 
 in press cloths and placed in hydraulic presses, where they are subjected 
 to a high pressure. The mother liquor, containing non-crystallizable 
 matter, is forced out. This is called "hydrol" and corresponds to mo- 
 lasses in the cane sugar industry. The sugar cakes are then broken up, 
 dried and pulverized. Corn sugar produced in this way is used in 
 baking, manufacture of chewing gum, candies, etc. 
 
 Recently a new method for the production of an extremely pure corn 
 sugar was tried out and found to be successful. In this method the sugar 
 is crystallized out of the sugar liquor under slow motion, and under 
 conditions paralleling those in use for producing white cane sugar. This 
 resulted in a sugar of 99.5 i)er cent purity, i. e., 99.5 per cent pure dex- 
 trose. Previously the highest purity obtained in the finished sugar was 
 95 per cent. This sugar, "Refined Cerelose, " is only about three-fifths 
 as sweet as cane sugar, but carries, pound per pound, fully as much 
 value as cane sugar, and is more digestible and healthful. A slightly 
 more purified sugar has been used recently by physicians for baby feed- 
 ing experiments. The corn sugar was found to give wonderful results in 
 this connection, and, as a result many physicians are prescribing it 
 continuously. ' ' Refined Cerelose ' ' has been found to be satisfactory for 
 use in confectioner}', ice cream, and baking. Its use for condensed or 
 evaporated milk will also prove satisfactory. 
 
 Corn Oil 
 
 The germs after drj-ing, are conveyed to cylindrical steel mills and 
 ground to a fine powder. This oil meal is heated and passed through 
 presses. The cake from Avhich the oil has been pressed is ground up and 
 sold as oil cake meal. The oil run off from the presses goes through a 
 refining process, in which it is filtered, neutralized, decolorized and 
 clarified, deodorized with steam, chilled and again filtered. This results 
 in the edible corn oil of commerce. It makes an excellent salad oil, 
 which many housewives believe to be fully equal to the more expensive 
 olive oil. It is the most valuable product on a pound basis that is pro- 
 duced from corn. 
 
 Corn Products Refining Company 
 
 For man}' years the starch factories seemed to find it difficult to 
 get on a sound financial basis. Stability has been brought into the 
 industry in recent years by the consolidation of a number of plants under 
 the name of the Corn Products Refining Company. This company' has 
 made a great success, and has done much toward increasing the consump- 
 tion of corn products generally, largely by popularizing its products 
 with the retail trade under trade names, such as "Karo, " "Argo," 
 "Cerelose," "Mazola," etc. Previous to 1915, the common stock of this 
 corporation sold customarily on the New York Stock Exchange for 
 considerably less than $50 a share, whereas, since 1920 it has sold most 
 of the time for considerably over $100 a share. This company probably 
 
210 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 buys more bushels of corn annually than any other corporation in the 
 world. It has large plants at Argo, 111. ; Pekin, 111. ; Kansas City, Mo., 
 and Edgewater, N. J. There are three independent companies in the 
 state of Iowa, one at Cedar Rapids, one at Clinton, and another at 
 Keokuk, w4th an approximate grind capacity of 15,000,000 bushels an- 
 nually. The three Iowa plants together have a capacity almost equal to 
 the Argo plant of the Corn Products Company. 
 
 Types of Corn for Wet and Dry Processes 
 
 It should be noticed that the corn meal mills and the starch facto- 
 ries are best served by different types of corn. While both appreciate 
 a corn high in oil, the corn meal mills' chief product is made out of the 
 
 The Penick & Ford Corn Products Plant, at Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Wet process 
 plants use over a million gallons of water daily, and must have an abun- 
 dant water supply. 
 
 horny starch, whereas the starch factories' chief product is made out 
 of the soft starch together with a part of the horny starch. The corn 
 meal mills sell the soft starch and the hulls as an animal feed, whereas 
 the starch factories sell the glutinous part of the hard starch and hulls 
 as animal feed. It would seem, therefore, that a flinty corn rich in 
 protein, would serve the corn meal mills best, whereas, a rather soft corn 
 low in Drotein would serve the starch factories better. 
 
 Miscellaneous Products 
 
 A bushel of corn can be made into 2.') gallons of alcoliol, and it is 
 possible that a hundred years from now corn alcohol wall be extensively 
 used instead of gasoline to furnish motive power for automobiles and 
 trucks. Roughly estimated, corn at 90 cents a bushel can produce alco- 
 hol to compete with gasoline at 50 cents a gallon. Before the war, about 
 
COT^IMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN 211 
 
 23,000,000 bushels of corn Avere used annually in the distillation of alco- 
 hol, but since the Volstead act only three or four million bushels have 
 been reported to the revenue officers as being used in the distillation 
 of alcohol. One of the less important but very interesting corn indus- 
 tries is the manufacture of cob pipes. In south-central IMissouri, they 
 grow one of the largest-eared varieties of corn in existence. The cobs 
 of this Missouri cob-pipe variety sell to the pipe factory for about as 
 much as ordinary ear corn which carries the kernels as well as the cobs. 
 About .$500,000 worth of Missouri cob pipes are sold annually. 
 
 The cobs of ordinary corn are used to some extent in the manufac- 
 ture of a dye known as furfural. As yet, however, no very strong mar- 
 ket for ordinary corn cobs has been found. Many miscellaneous products 
 of little importance are made of the stalks and husks. 
 
 The ten per cent of the corn crop used by American corn industries 
 plays a more important part in making the corn market than many 
 people suspect. These industries buy a large part of the corn which 
 comes to such markets as Chicago, and the competition which they fur- 
 nish plays an important part in setting the price. As the years go by, 
 and people become more and more familiar with the good qualities of 
 food products made out of corn, it is probable that these corn industries 
 will be able to compete more and more successfully with hogs in the 
 furnishing of a satisfactory market for the Corn Belt farmer's corn. 
 
CHAPTER 38 
 
 CORN GROWING OUTSIDE OF THE CORN BELT 
 
 npHE outstanding corn growing areas of the world are characterized 
 by a mean temperature of 5G to 70 degrees at planting time, a mean 
 temperature of 67 to 81 degrees at tasseling time, a rainfall of at least 
 five inches, one year with another, for the fifty-day period centering 
 around tasseling time, and a soil moderately rich and fairly easy to cul- 
 tivate. In the best corn producing sections of Iowa and Illinois, the 
 mean temperature at planting time is around 61 degrees and at tasseling 
 time around 75 degrees; the rainfall averages about eight inches, one 
 year with another, during the fifty days centering around tasseling time, 
 and the soil is unusually rich and easily cultivated. There are very few 
 large bodies of land in the world which possess the same combination of 
 factors so favorable to corn as the Corn Belt. Some of the other corn 
 groAving sections are described in the following : 
 
 Corn Growing in the Cotton States 
 
 Probably more corn is produced in the cotton states than any other 
 one section outside of the Corn Belt. Ordinarily, about 35,000,000 acres 
 are planted in these states, as compared with about 50,000,000 acres in 
 the Corn Belt. Because of poor soil, how^ever, the yield averages less 
 than twenty bushels per acre, and the total output of corn in the cotton 
 South is less than half as much as in the Corn Belt. Nearly all of the 
 corn raised in the cotton South is consumed at home. Practically none 
 of it reaches such primary markets as Kansas City, St. Louis and Chicago. 
 
 From one-fourth to one-third of the improved land of the cotton 
 states is put into corn. Cotton has first place in the eyes of the southern 
 farmers, but corn is a close second. 
 
 In such cotton states as South Carolina, Georgia, Mississipju and 
 Louisiana, the corn is generally planted during March or early April, but 
 may be planted as late as June or even July. Plowing is customarily 
 done in the form of beds three and one-half to five feet wide. First a 
 double moldboard plow, called a middle buster, is run down between 
 where the rows of corn or cotton were the previous year. Then ground 
 on either side of the furrow thus made is turned over with a single 
 shovel turn plow, the final result being a series of beds about four feet 
 wide, with furrows five or six inches deep in between. The tojis of the 
 beds are harrowed off and the corn is usually planted on the center of 
 the beds with a one-horse corn planter. In some cases, the corn is planted 
 in the furrows between beds. In the western part of the Cotton Belt, 
 
GROWING OUTSIDE OF CORN BELT 
 
 213 
 
 "where the rainfall is lighter, they 
 often use western Corn Belt methods 
 and plow level or list. Listing- also 
 seems to be growing in favor in the 
 eastern part of the Cotton Belt. 
 
 The . rate of planting in the 
 South is usually only about one-half 
 as thick as in the North, except on 
 rich bottom lands. On exceptionally 
 poor soil, the rows may be spaced six 
 feet apart and the kernels two feet 
 apart in the row. 
 
 Cultivation is much the same as 
 in the North, but much of it is willi 
 single-horse cultivators. In parts oL" 
 the South, considerable hand hoeinu' 
 is done at the rate of about two acres 
 a day. 
 
 Because many of the soils are 
 poor, corn is more often fertilized in 
 the Cotton Belt than it is in the Corn 
 Belt. A mixture which often gives 
 very good results is one hundred 
 pounds of acid phosphate and two 
 hundred pounds of cottonseed meal, 
 applied either at the time of plant- 
 ing or just before the corn is planted. Sometimes fifty or a hundred 
 pounds of muriate of potash are added to this mixture. 
 
 The southern corn root worm is a very serious pest in the South, 
 and often damages the corn planted in March and early April very 
 severely. Especially is this true in cold, wet seasons. Corn planted in 
 ]\Iay ordinarily is not bothered. On well-drained land, where this pest 
 usually causes but little trouble, it seems to be the best policy to plant 
 in March or early April. 
 
 Throughout the cotton states, the prolific varieties which average 
 nearly two ears to the stalk and oftentimes as many as three, are far 
 more popular than the single-ear varieties which are almost universally 
 grown in the Corn Belt. The ears of these prolific varieties are only 
 about three-fourths as large as the ears of the single-ear sorts, but under 
 southern conditions, the average prolific plant yields about 15 per cent 
 more than the average plant of the single-ear type. The typical ear of 
 prolific corn carries twelve or fourteen rows and the kernels are rather 
 flinty with a very smooth dent. The husks of well-bred southern varie- 
 ties fit tightly to the corn and carry out well past the tip, this husk pro- 
 tection being valued in the South because of the corn ear worm and 
 weevil, which cause very severe damage to varieties with loose husks. 
 
 An 
 
 extreme example of 
 prolific corn. 
 
:u 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 ';«»"** 
 
 •LS.W" 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 AND CANADA 
 
 CORN (MAIZE) 
 
 (CUT FOR GRAIN) 
 
 ACREAGE 
 
 Compare this map with the maps of the Argentine corn belt and the European 
 corn belt. In each case, the clots represent 5,000 acres. In the United 
 States, as in Argentina, very little corn is grown where the summer rainfall 
 is less than eight inches. Note that corn is grown uniformly in the cotton 
 states, but that the density of corn planting is not equal to that in the corn 
 belts of Argentina and Europe. (Courtesy of the United States Department 
 of Agriculture.) 
 
 Climatic conditions in the cotton states are quite favorable to corn, 
 although the weather is frequently too dry at tasseling time for the 
 best results. The rainfall is usually sufficient to produce an abundant 
 crop, and the cotton states would undoubtedly be another Corn Belt if 
 the soil were only richer. As it is, nearly all of the records of corn 
 yielding over two hundred bushels per acre have come from the South, 
 such results being obtained by planting corn thickly on land heavily 
 fertilized. The corn yields of the South will increase in the future as 
 the South grows more soy beans, cowpeas, velvet beans, crimson clover, 
 peanuts and live stock. As long as the cotton states plant over 33,000,000 
 acres of land to cotton every year, it is doubtful if they will ever produce 
 much more than twenty bu.shels of corn per acre on the average. 
 
GROWING OUTSIDE OF CORN BELT 215 
 
 Corn Growing in Argentina 
 
 The Argentine corn belt is located about six hundred miles nearer 
 the equator than the American corn belt. At planting time, in November 
 (some corn is planted as early as late September and some as late as 
 December), the temperature is usually about five degrees higher than 
 in the Corn Belt during May. At tasseling time, in January, the tem- 
 perature is about the same as in the corn belt of the United States. The 
 rainfall during the fifty days centering around tasseling time averages 
 about the same as in our corn belt, but there is a little greater danger of 
 really severe drouth. Moreover, there is occasional severe damage caused 
 by the langosta (a grasshopper), which comes in droves from northern 
 Argentina and southern Brazil. The soil is deep and exceptionally rich. 
 
 Year by year, since 1909, the acreage, the average acre yield (in bush- 
 els), and the exports from Argentina (in bushels), have been as follows: 
 
 Av. Acre Yield Acreage Exports 
 (000 omitted) (000 omitted) 
 
 1909 24.3 7,349 89,499 
 
 1910 23.7 7,425 104,727 
 
 1911 3.5 7,945 4,923 
 
 1912 35.2 8,456 190,351 
 
 1913 20.9 9,464 189,328 
 
 1914 25.5 10,260 139,458 
 
 1915 31.3 10,386 170,488 
 
 1916 16.3 9,928 113,140 
 
 1917 6.5 8,969 35,190 
 
 1918 19.6 8,715 26,170 
 
 1919 27.0 8,252 97,850 
 
 1920 31.3 8,184 173,642 
 
 1921 28.5 8,090 111,603 
 
 1922 24.1 7,344 109,101* 
 
 1923 19.5* 7,851* 
 
 *Preliminary figures. 
 
 Corn production in Argentina from 1911 to 1922 averaged 200,000,- 
 000 bushels, and the exports averaged 113,000,000 bushels. Argentine 
 live stock apparently consumes on the average about 85,000,000 bushels 
 annually, or less than half the crop, whereas in the United States live 
 stock consumes about 80 per cent of the crop. The great barriers to 
 increased live stock con.sumption of corn in Argentina are the splendid 
 alfalfa pastures and the fact that occasionally, as in 1911 and 1917, the 
 crop is almost an entire failure. In such years, a live stock industry 
 built on corn suffers the greatest inconvenience. The possibilities of 
 Argentina as a pork-exporting nation are a little uncertain as long as 
 there is the probability of almost complete crop failure once in every 
 five or ten years. In this respect, Kansas and Argentina are much alike. 
 
 Argentine corn is planted in rows about two and a half feet apart, 
 with the stalks about fifteen inches apart in the rows. American listers 
 are much in favor in the southwestern part of the Argentine corn belt. 
 
216 
 
 CORN AXn CORN-GROWING 
 
 The Argentine chacarero (share renter) husks into baskets and dumps the 
 baskets when full into sacks at the end of the field. 
 
 They use a three-row corn planter in some sections, but set it to drill 
 rather than cheek. Some of the more backward farmers broadcast their 
 corn and plow it under. Argrentine corn is not cultivated as much as 
 
 The Argentine corn crib (troje) has sides made of corn stalks. 
 
GROWING OUTSIDE OF CORN BELT 
 
 217 
 
 American corn. Corn husking is 
 at its height in April, May and 
 early June. The corn is husked 
 into baskets about the size of large 
 waste baskets, and then poured 
 into large sacks, and the sacks are 
 dragged to the edge of the field, 
 where they are picked up with a 
 team and wagon, and the corn is 
 hauled to a crib the sides of which 
 are made of corn stalks. Many of 
 these are round and much like the 
 temporary, uncovered fence cribs 
 seen here and there in the Corn 
 Belt. 
 
 Much of the surplus corn is 
 shelled on the farm and shipped 
 by rail to Rosario (the Chicago of 
 Argentina), Avhich is about two 
 hundred miles away from the typ- 
 ical farm. Rosario is an ocean 
 port, and the cost of shipping 
 from Rosario to either New York 
 or Liverpool is usually slightly 
 less than the cost of shipping from 
 Argentine corn production is centered Chicago to New York. The Ar- 
 in northern Buenos Aires, southwest- • ^ 
 
 ern Entre Rios, southern Santa Fe and gentme farmer really has lower 
 southeastern Cordoba. Very little corn transportation costs separating 
 is grown southwest of the eight-inch j j ^ ^ f ^^ ^- ^larkets 
 
 line of summer rainfall. Rosario, the , * • 
 
 Chicago of Argentina, on the River of the world than the American 
 Plata, is a port for ocean going vessels farmer 
 and is located in the center of densest rj.^^ ^^^^ popular Argentine 
 
 is the Canario, a twelve- 
 
 corn production. (Courtesy of United 
 States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 corn 
 
 rowed yellow flint with ears seven 
 or eight inches long. The Piamontese and Colorado are almost equally 
 popular and are very similar except that the yellow color is so deep as to 
 suggest a tinge of red. The kernels of Argentine flints are much smaller 
 and shinier than the kernels of New England flints. In one hundred 
 pounds of dry corn, the Argentine flints typically carry one and one-half 
 to two pounds more of protein, one-half pound more of fat, and two 
 pounds less of starch than our Corn Belt dents. Argentine shelled corn 
 often weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and occasionally as much as 64 
 pounds. 
 
 The stalks of Argentine flints are very sturdy and decidedly wind 
 resistant. The ears have large shanks and close fitting husks and are 
 much harder to husk than Reid Yellow Dent. Argentine varieties are 
 apparently well adapted to machine husking. Ordinarily, the Argentine 
 
218 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWING 
 
 varieties yield about three-fourths as well as Reid Yellow Dent on the 
 same land. 
 
 In Argentina there are about 18,000,000 acres of alfalfa, 14,000,000 
 acres of wheat, 8,000,000 acres of corn, 4,000,000 acres of flax and 
 3,000,000 acres of oats. It is possible for Argentina to put about 25,- 
 
 In this map, as in the Argentine and United States maps, one dot equals 5,000 
 acres. Most of the European corn is grown in the Danube region and in 
 northern Italy. The European corn belt centers around latitude 48, or far- 
 ther away from the equator than either the United States or the Argentine 
 corn belt. (Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 000,000 acres into corn 3'ear after year, but it is not likely that this w^ill 
 be done until they have a different type of corn farmer. The Argentine 
 corn farmer is typically a share renter (chacarero), who lives in a hovel 
 and keeps no live stock. He ordinarily handles one hundred acres of 
 corn and nothing else. A man of this sort will not give corn the inten- 
 sive care which will enable it to compete effectively with wheat and 
 alfalfa for the use of the land. 
 
 During the five-year period before the war, Argentina furnished 
 about 50 per cent of the corn which moved across international boun- 
 daries. The Danube basin in southeastern Europe furnished about 30 
 per cent, and the United States about 15 per cent. Because Argentine 
 corn is found to such an extent on the world market, it is worth while 
 studying the Argentine corn situation Avith some care. 
 
 Corn Growing in the Danube Basin 
 In the Balkan States, Hungary and Bessarabia is located the Euro- 
 pean corn belt. The total acreage is about 17,000,000 acres, or about 
 as much land as is put in corn in Iowa and Missouri put together. Since 
 the peace treaty, half of this corn land is in Greater Roumania, The 
 yield is typically around twenty bushels per acre, with occasional years 
 of failure when the yield is only ten bushels. The summer temperature 
 
GROWING OUTSIDE OF CORN BELT 219 
 
 averages about three degrees less than in central Iowa and Illinois. The 
 annual rainfall is about twenty inches, or about the same as western 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Drouth, insects, floods and hail often cause severe damage. Corn 
 is customarily grown in rotation with wheat, moderately early flint 
 varieties being preferred, so that they can be gotten off in time to seed 
 *\vinter Avheat. The flints seem to be largely of the twelve-row, small 
 seeded type, somewhat similar to the Argentine flints. In large sec- 
 tions of the Balkans they broadcast the corn in April and plow it under, 
 and then when the corn and weeds are about three inches high they 
 go through with a large hand hoe and cut out the weeds and surplus corn 
 and hill up the earth around each plant. Very few corn planters are 
 used, even on the larger estates, where scientific methods of growing 
 wheat are general. Where the land is plowed before planting, the cus- 
 tomary method of planting is to drop by hand into holes made with a 
 pointed stick. 
 
 The corn is quite commonly harvested by cutting the stalks off with 
 a hoe and finally husking and storing in a crib made of woven saplings 
 and thatched with straw. 
 
 In Hungary, the methods are possibly a little better than this, but 
 on the whole the Danube corn is produced by a very ignorant class of 
 peasants M'ho know absolutely nothing about modern methods of corn 
 growing. A large part of the Danube corn crop, Avhich is not exported, 
 is consumed by the peasants, the per capita consumption being about 
 twelve bushels, or probably higher than that of any other part of the 
 world. The extent to %vhich the Danube corn is eaten by human beings 
 may explain whj^ the small seeded flints are so extensively grown. 
 
 Before the war, the surplus Danube and Argentine corn quite large- 
 ly determined corn prices at Liverpool, Amsterdam and Hamburg. Dent 
 corn from the corn belt of the United States occasionally had some in- 
 fluence in years of exceptionally large crops. 
 
 Corn Growing in Mexico 
 
 Mexico, the original home of corn, until the death of Diaz grew a 
 larger acreage than any other nation aside from the United States. A 
 large percentage of the crop land of southwestern Mexico is put in corn. 
 The 3'ield is low and the crop is consumed entirely at home by people 
 (in the form of tortillas) rather than by animals. 
 
 Corn in Western Europe 
 
 Italy M'ith 4,000,000 acres, Spain Avith 1,500,000 acres, and southern 
 France with 1,000,000 acres, are the chief corn growing countries of Avest- 
 ern Europe. The small seeded flints are in greatest favor. Much of 
 the Italian corn is groAvn under irrigation. The crop is used chiefly 
 as food by the peasants. All of Avestern Europe put together produces 
 less than half as much corn as loAva. Italy, the leading corn country of 
 AAestern Europe, imports scA'cral million bushels annually. 
 
220 CORN AND CORX GROWING 
 
 Corn Growing in South Africa 
 
 In the southeastern part of South Africa is a large section of land 
 about a mile above sea level "where the season is long and the summer 
 rainfall is just right for corn. The temperature is ideal except that 
 during the middle of the summer it averages around 68 degrees, or about 
 four degrees too low. The chief drawback is a rather poor soil. Never- 
 theless, wonderful progress in corn growing has been made since 1900, 
 and there is a possibility that South Africa may rank eventually with 
 Argentina and the Danube basin in providing western Europe with corn. 
 The favorite South African variety is Hickory King, a large seeded, 
 late maturing, twelve-row dent, which is also popular on the poorer 
 soils of the northern edge of the Cotton Belt. 
 
 ^Modern corn growing methods are employed in South Africa and 
 some very good English and Boer brains are continually at work on the 
 problem of increasing South African corn production. The South 
 Africans seem to have their eyes fixed quite firmly on the export market. 
 
 Corn Growing in Asia and Africa 
 
 Nearly 100,000,000 bushels are grown every year in India, but it 
 is all consumed at home. Considerable corn is also grown in China. 
 Corn in Asia is infected with a serious disease which has not yet reached 
 the United States. 
 
 Egypt grows on her fertile irrigated Nile soil about 60,000,000 
 bushels annually, but none of it leaves the country. 
 
 The Negro tribes of interior Africa have grown considerable corn 
 for home consumption for several centuries. There is no prospect, 
 however, that any part of Africa aside from southeastern South Africa, 
 will ever produce much corn for export. 
 
CHAPTER 39 
 
 CORN STATISTICS 
 
 nPHE statistical tables in the following- are compiled (except where 
 otherwise noted) from the United States Department of Agriculture 
 publications. Students who wish to keep these tables up-to-date may 
 consult future Year-books of the Department of Agriculture, and Weath- 
 er, Markets and Crops. 
 
 Table XVI— World Corn Production Before and Since the War 
 
 (Figures given in thousands of bushels) 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
 Country 
 
 North America- 
 Canada* 17,2971 
 
 United States* | 2,712,364! 
 
 Mexico* I 164,6571 
 
 Guatemala | | 
 
 Total North American countries marked *| 
 
 Europe — | 
 
 France* I 
 
 Spain* I 
 
 Portugal I 
 
 Italy* ii 
 
 Switzerland* j 
 
 I 
 
 14,904| 13,798 
 
 )68,569| 2,890,712 
 
 61,021| 78,737 
 
 6,666| 4,828 
 
 2,894,3181 3,144,494 2,983,247 
 
 22,289| 
 26,548| 
 15,000| 
 100,349|b 
 113| 
 14,536 
 
 I 
 
 168,081] 
 I 
 
 Austria* |a 
 
 Czechoslovakia* |.. 
 
 Hungary* |a 
 
 Yugoslavia* |.. 
 
 Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia- I | 
 
 slavonia* & 62,112| 
 
 Greece* |c 5,952 j 
 
 Bulgaria* |a 28,219| 
 
 Roumania* la 100,6201d 
 
 Poland I I 
 
 Russia, including Ukraine and Northern Cau- | j 
 
 casia _ |a 70,222| 
 
 Total European countries marked * '. 
 
 Africa— ' \ \ \ 
 
 Morocco, Western I \ 5,886| 
 
 Algeria* | 4611 354 
 
 Tunis |e 228|e 354 
 
 Egypt I 64,2201 67,165 
 
 I 
 10,3931 
 
 24.8971 
 
 11,374| 
 
 96,775!b 
 
 217| 
 
 2,521|b 
 
 9,432j 
 
 31,7031 
 
 73.788] 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 7,8741 
 
 24,172| 
 
 106,333] 
 
 2,266] 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 13,621 
 26,832 
 
 76,768 
 
 185 
 
 3,703 
 
 8,996 
 
 32,493 
 
 57,400 
 
 19,802 
 
 94,207 
 
 2,776 
 
 522,867] 380,231| 334,007 
 
 4,564 
 276 
 
 Total African countries marked * ] 
 
 461] 
 
 354] 
 
 276 
 
 (Continued on Next Page) 
 
CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Table XVI— World Corn Production Before and Since the War 
 
 (Continued from Preceding Page) 
 
 Asia- 
 India British* 
 
 87,240 
 3,637| 
 2.2361 
 7,446i 
 
 83,320 
 4,281 
 
 16,734 
 
 96 240 
 
 
 
 Chosen 
 
 
 Philippines* 
 
 14,645 
 
 
 
 
 94,686| 
 
 100,054 
 
 110,885 
 
 
 
 Total northern hemisphere countries 
 marked * 
 
 1 
 3,512,3321 
 
 3,625,133 
 
 3,428,415 
 
 
 
 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 Average 
 1908-09 to 
 1912-13 
 
 1921-22 
 
 00 
 
 eg 
 
 <M 
 
 05 
 
 Chile 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Argentina* 
 
 Union of South Africa 
 Southern Rhodesia* ... 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 1,390| 
 
 2,030] 
 
 1 6,027 
 
 4,8051 
 
 
 1 174,502 
 
 176,1711 
 
 153,141 
 
 If 32,588 
 
 43,3601 
 
 50,390 
 
 !c 1,404 
 
 2,3671 
 
 5,000 
 
 i 
 
 46,8211 
 
 49,612 
 
 10,264! 
 4931 
 
 488| 
 
 Total southern hemisphere countries marked *| 208,494] 221,S 
 
 208,531 
 
 Total world countries marked * | 3,720,826] 3,847,031] 3,636.946 
 
 ♦Indicates countries reporting for all periods. 
 
 a — Old boundaries. 
 
 b — Includes new territory. 
 
 c — One year only. 
 
 d — Winchester bushels. 
 
 e — Includes sorghum. 
 
 f — Three-year average 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 223 
 
 Table XVII— World Corn Acreage Before and Since the War 
 
 (Figures given in thousands of acres) 
 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
 Country g ^ 
 
 (T) OS iH C<I 
 
 ' s; o c^i (M 
 
 North America — i | 11 
 
 Canada* | 309| 297| 318| 
 
 United States | 104,229| 103,740! 102,428! 
 
 Mexico* I 11,554| 2,545[ 3,212| 
 
 Guatemala j | 310| 4681 
 
 Total North American countries! | | ] 
 
 marked * | 116,092| 106,o82| 105,9581 
 
 Europe — I I I I 
 
 France* |a 1,155! 814| 790| 
 
 Spain* I 1,134! 1,178! 1,1591 
 
 Portugal ! I 714| | 
 
 Italy* |a 3,931!b 3,S22!b 3,S24| 
 
 Switzerland* ! 3| 5! 4| 
 
 Austria* |a 761| 112|b 148| 
 
 Czechoslovakia* ! ! 3851 395! 
 
 Hungary* !a 6,038| 2,167! l.'716| 
 
 Yugoslavia* ! ! 4,6461 4,786' 
 
 Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and I I I I 
 
 Croatia-Slavonia* la 3,059| | | 
 
 Greece |c 2731 494 ! 
 
 Bulgaria* la 1,544! 1,4181 1,552| 
 
 Roumania* |a 5,143! 8,5101 8,411! 
 
 Poland ! I 1321 183! 
 
 Russia, including Ukraine and I I I I 
 
 northern Caucasia |a 3,923| | | 
 
 Total European countries marked *7| 22,768! 23,057! 22,785! 
 
 Africa— n \ r 
 
 Morocco, Western ! | 6101 5351 
 
 Algeria* ! 34| 24! 19| 
 
 Tunis !d 43!d 551 | 
 
 Egypt ■■■! 1,857! 2,0861 \_ 
 
 Total African countries marked *....| 34! 24! l^j 
 
 Asia- n \ \ r 
 
 India, British* ! 6,340! 6,1641 6,186i 
 
 Japan ! 130! 153| i 
 
 Chosen 
 
 Philippines* 
 
 Total Asiatic countries marked 
 
 Total northern hemisphere coun- I | | I 
 
 tries marked * | 146,226! 137,171| 136,277| 
 
 (Continued on Next Page) 
 
 103,112 
 
 781 
 
 156| 
 9921 
 
 1 
 1,344! 
 
 1 
 1,329! 
 
 
 ....! 7,332| 
 
 7,508| 
 
 7,515| 
 
224 
 
 rOKX AXD COKX-GROAYIXG 
 
 Table XVII— World Corn Acreage Before and Since the War 
 (Continued from Preceding Page) 
 
 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
 Country 
 
 <js; 
 
 c^ 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chile* : 
 
 561 
 
 551| 
 
 8,128| 
 
 2,171| 
 
 1 
 
 63| 
 
 6741 
 
 7.3441 
 
 1 
 
 182| 
 
 3,690| 
 
 1 
 
 11| 
 
 68| 
 
 1 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 
 7,851| 
 1 
 
 Union of South Africa 
 
 
 2151 
 
 3,880| 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 1 
 
 
 352| 
 10| 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 
 
 Total southern hemisphere coun- 
 tries marked * 
 
 8,1841 
 
 7,407 
 
 1 
 7,919| 
 
 
 Total world countries marked * 
 
 154,4101 
 
 144,5781 
 
 144,1961 
 
 ♦Indicates countries reporting for all periods except 1923. 
 
 a — Old boundaries. 
 
 b — Includes new territory. 
 
 c — One year only. 
 
 d — Includes sorghum. 
 
 e — Three-year average. 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 225 
 
 Table XVIII— World Corn Trade 
 (Figures given in thousands of bushels) 
 
 Country 
 
 Principal exporting countries 
 
 Argentina 
 
 British South Africa 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 United States 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Principal importing countries 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Canada 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Other countries 
 
 2 115,749! 
 
 257 
 
 44 
 
 176 
 
 4,115| 
 
 9,3071 
 
 38,966| 
 
 335| 30,034| 
 
 1,2261 45,054| 
 
 51 210 
 
 637i 
 
 (1)1 
 429 
 
 7,7S4J 
 
 i 13,877| 
 ! 25,8011 
 I 10,629| 
 i 2,7461 
 '' 11,4401 
 I 471| 
 18.7081 
 ! 32,160] 
 I 14,895! 
 I 4,4041 
 ! 29,5801 
 i 1,079|. 
 ! 1,674| 
 I 9,775j 
 I 1,476| 
 I 3,9871 
 I 82,976i 
 I 3,268| 
 
 1173,642 
 5,149 
 4,1S5| 
 17,329| 
 
 21,230] 
 
 (1)1 
 
 1111,603 
 
 23 20,133 
 (1)] 696 
 (1): 30,280 
 
 1641132,186 
 i 209 
 
 268* 5 
 
 ,130| 10 
 
 25] 10 
 
 (1)1 3 
 
 61 9 
 
 61] 
 
 82] 17, 
 
 II 16 
 
 2061 12 
 
 82J 
 ,7501 15 
 I 2 
 
 124 
 ,513 
 
 ,793 
 
 ,217 
 822] 
 948] 
 609| 
 ,099] 
 ,599| 
 
 2,327] 19, 
 
 113] 12, 
 
 4] 18, 
 
 1| 1. 
 
 858] 12, 
 
 (1)1 
 
 4] 17, 
 
 566] 37 35, 
 623] 3 
 
 699 
 ,386 
 455 
 I 
 575 
 ,604| 
 466] 
 
 I 
 ,965] 
 
 I 
 ,643 
 
 ,5281 
 
 44| 7, 
 261 1, 
 
 1] 
 96] 71, 
 8_17l 3,' 
 rotal |270,991!271,026Tl98,736|232,551]230,8431360,640 
 
 505] 
 963] 
 
 057| 
 29| 
 
 188] 11, 
 
 41| 4, 
 
 (1)] 5, 
 
 67| 78, 
 
 7,3761 2, 
 
 906 
 186! 
 107! 
 194' 
 942i 
 
 M29 
 110 
 
 434 
 397 
 600 
 
 355 
 
 576 
 
 65 
 
 1,856 
 
 (1) Less than 500. 
 
 'Ausiria only. 
 
226 
 
 CnnX AND CDKX-GROAVIXG 
 
 Table XIX — Corn Exports from the United States by Countries to 
 
 Which Exported 
 
 (Figures given in thousands of bushels) 
 
 Country 
 
 
 CO 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 o 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 Belgium | 1,388| 
 
 Denmark I 2,494i. 
 
 France i 604| 
 
 Germany 1 5,232|. 
 
 Italy i 12| 
 
 Netherlands I 5,111| 
 
 Norway ! 451 |. 
 
 Spain ( 21 |. 
 
 Sweden ! ! |. 
 
 3,4671 1,0101 
 
 I 335| 
 
 1.3701 (1)1 
 
 I i 
 
 2,196i I. 
 
 461 lOOi 
 
 72| 
 
 173| 
 
 191| 
 
 1,324| 
 
 4241 
 (1)1 
 
 Portugal i 153! | 
 
 Russia in Europe j 1| | 
 
 United Kingdom ! 10,906| 15,65S| 
 
 Ukraine i | | 
 
 Mexico I 2,501| 2,736| 
 
 Cuba ! 2,3011 1,074| 
 
 Canada i 8,379| 13,229| 
 
 Other countries I 681! 123 
 
 l,560i 
 
 5,965| 
 
 5481 
 
 12,7291 
 
 2481 
 
 17,843] 
 
 95| 
 
 I I 501 
 
 I I 7921 
 
 I I I 
 
 I I I 
 
 9481 2,7071 15,811| 
 
 I I I 
 
 1341 771| 11,8721 
 
 1,965| 1,8941 2,3091 
 
 6,5421 10,0651 58,583| 
 
 159| 140| 570| 
 
 4,920 
 6,519 
 3,818 
 
 30,282 
 2,059 
 
 21,729 
 1,318 
 2,388 
 
 5,876 
 28,660 
 2,836 
 3,351 
 2,764 
 45,339 
 1,087 
 
 Total I 39,810| 39,899! 11,1931 17,761!128,975jl63,609 
 
 *Fiscal years ending June 30. (1) Less than 500. 
 
 Source — Compiled from publicaticns and records of the Department of Com- 
 merce, originating in the customs records of the Treasury Department. 
 
 Table XX — Corn Imports Into the United Kingdom 
 
 (Figures given in bushels) 
 
 Country 
 
 Russia I 7,488,7581 
 
 Bulgaria I 939,400 
 
 Roumania \ 10,652,760] 6,347,400] 
 
 Turkey in Europe : 164,080] ] 
 
 Turkey in Asia I 89,120] 
 
 Egypt ] 17,120] 
 
 Morocco 1 23,760] 
 
 United States ] 13,580,470] 
 
 Uruguay ] 59,720] 
 
 Argentina ] 45,495,513] 
 
 British West Africa I 202,240] 
 
 British South Africa ] 1,669,978 
 
 British India I 1,421,760] 
 
 Canada ] 
 
 Other countries ! 
 
 Total 
 
 1,085,3201*11,578,400 
 317,368] 1,825,000 
 
 ] 83,207,367] 73,514,566] 74,400,204 
 
 *Most of this was United States corn shipped by way of Canada. 
 (1) If any, included in "other countries." 
 
 Source — Annual statement of the trade of the United Kingdom with foreign 
 countries and British possessions. 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 227 
 
 Table XXI — Corn Acreage, Production, Value and Exports in the United 
 States, 1849-1922 
 
 Note — Figures in bold face are census returns; figures in roman are esti- 
 mates of the Department of Agriculture. Estimates of acres are obtained by 
 applying estimated percentages of increase or decrease to the published acreage 
 of the preceding year, except that a revised base is used for applying percentage 
 estimates whenever new census data are available. Acreages have been revised 
 for years 1890-1908, so as to be consistent with the following as well as the pre- 
 ceding census acreage, and total production and farm values are adjusted 
 accordingly. 
 
 1,769,6161 
 
 7,632, 
 
 4,248,991 
 
 454,535| 24,242,396 
 
 617,780! 69,091,110 
 
 648,785! 59,293,085 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 ., 
 
 1898 ., 
 
 1899 . 
 
 1900 . 
 
 1901 . 
 
 1902 . 
 
 1903 . 
 
 1904 . 
 
 1905 . 
 
 1906 . 
 
 1907 . 
 
 1908 . 
 
 1909 . 
 1910* 
 
 1911 . 
 
 1912 . 
 
 1913 . 
 
 1914 . 
 
 1915 . 
 
 1916 . 
 
 1917 . 
 
 1918 . 
 
 1919 . 
 1920* 
 
 1921 . 
 1922* 
 
 86,5601 
 88,127J 
 88,304! 
 94,914 
 95,042 
 
 28.9! 2,503,484] 
 24.3 2,144,553! 
 25.6 2,261,1191 
 25.9| 2,454,628! 
 26.4| 2,505,148! 
 
 21.3 
 26.0 
 28.4 
 29.9 
 35.1 
 
 532,884|178,S17,417 
 558,309|212,055,543 
 642,747!177,255,046 
 734,9161213,123,412 
 878,2431181,405,473 
 
 94,636j 
 95,517! 
 90,661! 
 93,3401 
 93,5731 
 
 17.0 1,613,528!' 
 27.4| 2,619,499! 
 25.9! 2,346,897! 
 27.1! 2,528,662! 
 29.4| 2,748,949! 
 1 1 
 
 60.1! 969,2851 28,028,688 
 40.1| 1,049,7911 76,639,261 
 42.1| 987,882, 58,222,061 
 43.7! 1,105,690! 90.293,483 
 40.8! 1,120,513!119,893,833 
 1 
 
 98,643 
 94,9711 
 95,603! 
 98.3831 
 104,0351 
 
 30.9| 2,897,6621 
 26.5! 2,512,0651 
 26.61 2,544,9571 
 26.1! 2,572,3361 
 27.71 2,886,260! 
 
 39.3 1,138,0531 
 50.91 1,277,607! 
 60.0 1,527,679 
 58.61 1,507,185! 
 48.0! 1,384,8171 
 
 86,368,228 
 55,063,860 
 37,665,040 
 38,128,498 
 65,614,522 
 
 105,8251 
 107,083! 
 105,8201 
 103,435! 
 106,197! 
 
 23.9| 2,531,488! 
 29.2| 3,124,7461 
 23.11 2,446,9881 
 25.8J 2,672,804! 
 28.2! 2,994,793! 
 
 61.8! 1,565,2581 
 48.7! 1,520,454! 
 69.11 1,692,092! 
 64.4| 1,722,070! 
 57.51 1,722,680! 
 
 41,797,291 
 50,780,143 
 10,725,819 
 50,668,303 
 39,896,928 
 
 105,296 
 116,730! 
 
 104,467! 
 
 97.1701 
 
 101,699! 
 
 24.4 2,566,9271 88.9 2,280,729] 
 26.31 3,065,233! 127.9! 3,920,228! 
 24.01 2,502,6651 136.5! 3,416,240| 
 28.9! 2.811,302! 134.5! 3,780,597! 
 31.5! 3,208,5841 67.0] 2,150,332! 
 1 1 
 
 66,753.294 
 49,073,263 
 23,018,822 
 16,728.746 
 70,905,781 
 
 103,7401 
 
 102,4281 
 
 29.6! 3,068,569 
 28.2! 2,890,7121 
 
 42.31 1,297,2131179,514,442 
 
 65.71 1,900,2871 
 
 "Acreage adjusted to census basis. 
 
22S 
 
 COKX AND CORX-GKOWrXG 
 
 Table XXII — Corn Production and Distribution in the United States^ 
 
 1897-1922 
 
 Year -g g | || 
 
 CO ^ o > ^^ 
 
 o -jg ^ ^-z 
 
 1897-1901 1 160,8091 2,195,795| 
 
 1902-1906 i 91,662| 2,628,334| 
 
 1907 ! 129,7861 2,512,065| 
 
 1908 1 69,2511 2,544,9571 
 
 1909 1 77-4031 2.572,3361 
 
 i i ! 
 
 1910 1 113,9191 2,886,2601 
 
 1911 1 123,824| 2,531,488 
 
 1912 1 64,764i 3,124,746| 
 
 1913 1 137,9721 2,446,988] 
 
 1914 i 80,0461 2,672,804] 
 
 ' I I 
 
 1915 ! 96,0091 2,994,793| 
 
 1916 i S7,908| 2,566,9271 
 
 1917 1 34,448| 3,065,233] 
 
 1918 1 114,678 2,502,6651 
 
 1919 ] 69,835] 2,811,302] 
 
 I I I 
 
 1920 ] 139,0831 3,208,584] 
 
 1921 ] 285,769] 3,068,569] 
 
 1922* ] 177,287] 2,890.712] 
 
 *Preliminarv estimate. 
 
 sS i o^ 
 
 o :^ 
 
 o 7i 
 
 
 1= 
 
 ,-H o 
 
 o .-^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 83.3] 85.6] 
 
 88.1] 82.2[ 
 
 82.8] 77.2] 
 
 86.9] 88.2! 
 
 84.2] 82.7] 
 
 I ! 
 
 87.21 86.4] 
 
 80. 6| 80.1] 
 
 85.5] 85.01 
 
 82. 2| 80.1] 
 
 85.1] 84.5] 
 
 I I 
 
 77.21 71.11 
 
 83.8] 83.9| 
 
 75.2| 60.0] 
 
 85.6] 82.4] 
 
 89.1] 87.11 
 
 I I 
 
 89.6] 86.9] 
 
 84.01 87.5] 
 
 85.0] 88.3] 
 
 2,005,697] 
 2,170,417] 
 1,939,877] 
 2,244,571] 
 2,126,965] 
 
 2,492,763] 
 2,027,922] 
 2,654,907] 
 l,961,058i 
 2,259,755] 
 
 I 
 2,127,965] 
 
 2,154,487] 
 1,837,728] 
 2,062,041] 
 2,448,204] 
 
 I 
 2,789,720] 
 2,684,634] 
 2,553,290] 
 
 2,362,604] 
 
 2,719,9961 
 
 2,641,851[ 
 
 2,614,208] 
 
 2,649,739] 
 
 I 
 3,000,17911 
 
 2,655,312] 
 
 3,189,510]1 
 
 2,584,960] 
 
 7,752,850] 
 
 I 
 3,090,802)1 
 2,654,835] 
 3,099,68111 
 2,617,343| 
 2,881,13r]l 
 
 I 
 3,347,6671 
 3,353,33811 
 3,067,99911 
 
 823,739] 
 045,965] 
 931,503] 
 999,2351 
 980,848] 
 
 I 
 ,165,378] 
 
 884,059] 
 ,290,6421 
 866,352] 
 910,894] 
 
 I 
 ,116,559] 
 782,303] 
 ,253,290] 
 855,269] 
 ,045,575] 
 
 I 
 ,564,832] 
 ,305,559] 
 
 ,087,412] 
 
 424,894 
 596,400 
 470,046 
 565,510 
 620,057 
 
 661,777 
 517.766 
 680,831 
 422,059 
 498,285 
 
 560,824 
 450,589 
 678,027 
 362,589 
 470,328 
 
 705,481 
 587,893 
 515,236 
 
 Table XXIII— Monthly Marketings of Corn by Farmers, 1917-1922 
 
 Estimated amount sold monthly by farmers o£ the United States 
 (millions of bushels) 
 
 Year 
 
 
 ;-! 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 % 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 <J 
 
 m 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 26] 22| 24] 56 
 
 35] 27] 30 
 21 
 
 1917-18 1 34 
 
 1918-19 1 27 
 
 1919-20 1 20 
 
 1920-21 1 35 
 
 1921-22 1 28j 42| 49] 39| 38] 71j 80 
 
 Average ] 
 
 1031 88| 45] 36| 37| 640 
 
 25] 40] 66] 57 
 
 36| 45] 35] 46| 74| 93 
 
 42- - --■ --■ -- 
 
 31] 34| 30] 42| 68| 76 
 
 30] 31] 
 
 42] 
 76| 
 
 38| 
 58] 
 
 72| 43| 
 65| 52| 
 
 34| 33 
 
 26] 33 
 
 36 55 
 
 271 44 
 
 34| 40 
 
 251 410 
 47] 440 
 61] 650 
 
 43] 576 
 43] 544 
 
 Per cent of year's sales 
 
 1917-18 
 
 1918-19 
 
 ....] 5.3 
 ....] 6.7 
 
 4.61 3.4] 3.8| 8.8| 12.2] 14.2] 16.1] 13.7] 
 
 6.8i 8.4| 6.7] 7.3112.1115.0] 7.2] 7.5] 
 5.6] 4.9] 5.6] 9.2115.0] 12.9] 9.5] 8.7| 
 5.6! 6.9] 5.3] 7.1] 11.3] 14.3] 11.7] 8.9] 
 7.3i 8.6i 6.7! 6.6] 12.4] 13.8] 12.4] 7.5] 
 5.9| 6.4] 5.6| 7.8| 12.6] 14.0| 11.4| 9.2] 
 
 7.1| 
 8.2| 
 5.9] 
 5.6| 
 4.7] 
 6.3| 
 
 5.6 
 8.0 
 7.6 
 8.3 
 7.6 
 7.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.6 
 
 9.4 
 
 7.5 
 7.9 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 1919-20 
 
 ...] 4 5] 
 
 100 
 
 1920-21 
 
 1921-22 
 
 ....] 5.41 
 . ..] 4.9] 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 Average 
 
 ....] 5.4| 
 
 100 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 229 
 
 Table XXIV- 
 
 -Monthly and Yearly Receipts of Corn at Primary Markets, 
 1913-14 to 1921-22 
 
 I 
 Month 11913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 
 
 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20|l920-2lil921-22 
 
 November I 12, 
 
 December I 38, 
 
 January ] 27, 
 
 February | 23, 
 
 I 
 
 March I 24, 
 
 April I 9. 
 
 May I 10, 
 
 June I 24, 
 
 I 
 
 July i 12, 
 
 August I 20, 
 
 September | 15, 
 
 October | 10, 
 
 Crop year] 
 total ....1230, 
 
 165 17, 
 
 230 26, 
 
 599] 30, 
 
 8771 36, 
 
 614 21 
 
 414 27 
 362| 32 
 413i 21 
 
 645 13,412 
 
 ,515 18,357 
 ,3981 24,551| 
 ,1291 39,1501 
 
 16,113 
 17,381 
 
 12,405 
 12,792 
 
 13,232 
 
 22,205 
 21,239 
 24,169 
 
 9881 13, 
 
 9481 13, 
 
 7841 12, 
 
 3221 14, 
 
 I 
 
 3181 14, 
 
 10,3741 
 
 18,2761 
 39,991] 
 26,026| 
 
 1 
 
 14,105 
 42,639 
 46,537 
 59,558 
 
 5541 17 
 
 9181 13 
 
 I 
 
 367! 21 
 
 032i 13,7671 15 
 
 0311 17,191! 18 
 
 899 15,2451 12 
 
 I I 
 
 617|254,678!250 
 
 1731 22,4661 49.5911 17,843| 22,9691 32,514] 33,930 
 
 6G5! 15,992] 28.294] 9,178] 10,669] 11,192| 13,188 
 
 768] 16,332] 19,010] 19,5601 10,894] 19,196] 21,965 
 
 9191 23,0291 19,1631 12,275] 25,763] 34,463] 35,281 
 
 ] ! ] I I I 
 
 275] 17,155] 22,292] 27,125 
 
 427; 14,145] 16,622] 8,229 
 
 359] 8,361] 22,746] 14,809 
 
 149! 8,209] 23,740] 11,849 
 
 I ! i I I I 
 538]228,376|296,9281179,559]223,065J310,122]374,160 
 
 20,102| 17,949] 22,475 
 
 9,264] 30,061] 24,708 
 
 19,852 35,578| 31,123 
 
 18,707 34,502] 28,651 
 
230 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Table XXV— Yield Per Acre of Corn Belt States and United States* 
 
 Year 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 03 
 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1894 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 1912 
 1913 
 1914 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 1922 
 1923 
 
 32.0! 
 
 33.3 
 
 29.4| 
 
 29.3 
 
 23.81 
 
 24.7 
 
 26.3[ 
 
 28.9 
 
 32.6| 
 
 32.8 
 
 41.01 
 32.5| 
 37.0; 
 36.0' 
 37.01 
 I 
 26.1] 
 38.01 
 29.6; 
 32.51 
 37.81 
 
 38.61 
 42.81 
 37.51 
 39.11 
 41.5, 
 
 i 
 31.5| 
 38.0i 
 36.01 
 43.01 
 43.4] 
 
 I 
 41.0 
 39.0i 
 
 35.0 
 30.0 
 36.0 
 38.0 
 38.0 
 
 19.8 
 37.9 
 33.2 
 31.5 
 40.7 
 
 I 42.61 39.6 
 
 I 34.61 36.0 
 
 ! 38.5; 30.3 
 
 i 39.51 40.0 
 
 I 36.5 
 
 39.31 
 
 36.0 
 40.3 
 36.0 
 33.0 
 
 38.0' 
 
 34.0 
 36.0 
 33.0 
 37.0 
 40.5 
 
 36.0 
 37.0 
 
 33.51 
 
 26.2 1 
 25.71 
 28.8| 
 37.41 
 
 36.11 
 36.01 
 31.61 
 35.91 
 39. li 
 
 29. 5| 
 38.01 
 35.5 
 36.01 
 34.61 
 
 ! 
 
 34.01 
 35.51 
 
 26.5 
 
 27.0 
 28.3 
 18.4 
 31.2 
 
 40.5i 30.5 
 
 32.51 26.0 
 
 30.01 32.0 
 
 36.0| 33.0 
 
 37.01 33.0 
 
 I 
 
 21.4| 26.3 
 
 38.71 22.8 
 
 32. 2| 28.3 
 
 36.5| 26.9 
 
 39.8! 32.5 
 
 33.6 
 27.0 
 29.0 
 34.8 
 32.7 
 
 33.01 33.7 
 
 40.01 34.5 
 
 27.01 40.0 
 
 29.01 35.0 
 
 36.01 23.0 
 
 33.5 
 30.0 
 40.0 
 40.0 
 37.5 
 
 41.0 
 33.0 
 
 36.71 
 28.31 
 33.9 1 
 
 15.0i 
 35.1! 
 
 I 
 39.01 
 29.01 
 35.01 
 31.0] 
 38.0| 
 
 I 
 25.01 
 32.01 
 28.01 
 32.61 
 34.81 
 
 I 
 39.5| 
 29.5 
 31.71 
 31.5i 
 36.31 
 
 I 
 31.01 
 43.01 
 34.01 
 38.01 
 30.01 
 
 I 
 36.51 
 37.01 
 36.01 
 41.61 
 46.01 
 
 I 
 43.01 
 45.01 
 
 29.91 
 
 27.71 
 27.91 
 22.01 
 36.01 
 
 I 
 27.01 
 26.01 
 26.01 
 26.0! 
 28.01 
 
 I 
 
 10.1! 
 
 39.0! 
 32.41 
 26.2! 
 33.8! 
 I 
 32.3! 
 31.0! 
 27.0! 
 26.41 
 33.0! 
 
 ! 
 
 26.01 
 32.0! 
 
 17.51 
 22.0! 
 29.5! 
 I 
 19.5! 
 35.01 
 20.01 
 27.0! 
 32.01 
 
 ! 
 
 30.01 
 
 28.51 
 
 22.5| 
 22.3! 
 
 23.7| 
 
 4.21 
 
 ll.li 
 
 i 
 26.0! 
 24.01 
 28.01 
 26.01 
 27.01 
 
 I 
 21.0| 
 18.9| 
 27.21 
 28.1! 
 31.8! 
 
 I 
 33.51 
 25.51 
 29.71 
 31.7| 
 25.0! 
 
 I 
 22.01 
 30.6! 
 25.51 
 26.0! 
 29.0! 
 
 I 
 28. 5| 
 28.01 
 34.0! 
 28.5! 
 30.01 
 ■ I 
 32.01 
 28.5! 
 
 35.2! 
 
 28.21 
 
 25.2| 
 
 6.01 
 
 16.1 
 
 ! 
 
 37.5! 
 
 30.0! 
 21.0| 
 28.01 
 36.0! 
 I 
 14.11 
 32.31 
 26.0! 
 32.81 
 32.8! 
 
 ! 
 34.1! 
 24.01 
 27.01 
 24.81 
 25.8! 
 
 I 
 21.0! 
 24.0! 
 15.01 
 24.5! 
 30.01 
 
 ! 
 
 26.0! 
 27.01 
 17.71 
 26.2! 
 33.8! 
 I 
 28.0! 
 25.01 
 
 26.7! 
 24.51 
 21.3 
 11.2 
 24.31 
 1 
 28.01 
 18.01 
 16.01 
 27.0! 
 19.01 
 
 29.91 
 25.6 
 20.91 
 27.71 
 
 I 
 28.91 
 22.11 
 22.01 
 19.91 
 19.0 
 
 I 
 14.5! 
 23.01 
 3.21 
 18.51 
 31.01 
 
 I 
 10.01 
 13.01 
 7.11 
 15.21 
 26.51 
 
 22.21 
 19.31 
 
 27.0 
 23.1 
 22.5 
 19.4 
 26.2 
 
 28.2 
 23.8 
 24.8 
 25.3 
 25.3 
 
 16.7 
 26.8 
 25.5 
 26.8 
 28.8 
 
 30.3 
 25.9 
 26.2 
 25.5 
 
 27.7 
 
 23.9 
 29.2 
 23.1 
 
 25.8 
 28.2 
 
 24.4 
 26.3 
 24.0 
 28.9 
 31.5 
 
 29.7 
 
 28.2 
 
 *Yield figures for United States on page 226 are probably more accurate 
 tlian these figures but are not so comparable with these state figures. 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 231 
 
 Table XXVI — Thousands of Acres of Corn in Corn Belt States and 
 United States* 
 
 Year 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ce 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 •^ 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 5 s 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 03 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 03 
 
 xi 
 
 03 
 
 o3 
 
 
 -c 
 
 
 o 
 
 <D 
 
 03 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 i< 
 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1S94 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 1912 
 1913 
 1914 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 1922 
 1923 
 
 2,852 
 
 .1 2,846 
 ! 
 
 .| 3,017 
 
 • I 2,835 
 
 • ! 2,779 
 .1 2,751 
 . 2,889 
 
 .1 3,077 
 
 .! 3,200 
 
 -i 2,976 
 
 • I 3,065 
 
 J 2,974 
 
 I 
 
 .| 3,325 
 
 .| 3,400 
 
 .| 3,550 
 
 .1 3,875 
 
 .| 3,960 
 
 I 
 
 .1 3,900 
 
 .1 4,075 
 
 .1 3,900 
 
 -I 3,650 
 
 .1 3,700 
 
 I 3.600 
 
 I 3,950 
 
 I 3,700 
 
 I 3,943 
 
 I 3,965 
 
 3,786 
 3,823 
 
 3,527| 6,310| 896 7,075 
 
 I I 
 
 3,7021 6,82lj 1,152[ 8,504 
 
 I 
 
 3,8131 
 3,6601 
 3,587J 
 3,733| 
 4,032| 
 
 I 
 4,432| 
 4,520| 
 4,295| 
 4,5521 
 4,5981' 
 
 7,026| 
 7,167| 
 6,6651 
 6,8651 
 
 7,139| 
 
 I 
 
 9,254| 
 9,623| 
 8,201| 
 9,428 
 9,617 
 
 1,129 
 993 
 954 
 945 
 
 8,249 
 7,589 
 
 7,285| 
 7,812 
 9631 8,048 
 
 i I 
 
 1,3611 9,211 
 
 l,484i 9,302' 
 
 l,439i 8,186 
 
 l,554i 9,296 
 
 1,508| 8,768 
 
 4,6431 9,617| 1,492| 9,450 
 4,6901 9,521| 1,615| 9,160 
 4,5491 9,450| 1,615| 9,068 
 4,913|10,300| 1,6901 9,200 
 4,S00|10,250| 2,040| 9,470 
 
 I I I 
 
 4,850|10,150| 2,2001 9,850' 
 4,947110,6581 2,666110,047 
 4,900jl0,450| 2,4001 9,950 
 4,949|10,346| 2,600!10.248 
 5,025!10,400| 2,800i 9,950 
 
 I I ! 
 
 5.137110,2001 2,600110,050 
 5,651111,0001 3,000111,100 
 5,138| 9.9001 2,750|10,434 
 4,882! 8,579| 2,998| 9,959 
 4,S34| 9,079| 3,288110,300 
 
 4,7181 8,999| 3,820!10,330 
 4,765| 8,819| 3,979110.123 
 
 I I r 
 
 I ! 
 
 5,505! 794| 
 
 6,613! 1,119! 
 I I 
 
 1,197 
 9941 
 1.003! 
 1,1541 
 1,200| 
 
 I 
 1,421| 
 1,577| 
 1,530! 
 1,561! 
 1,623! 
 
 1.8751 
 1,850! 
 1,942| 
 2,059| 
 2,1001 
 
 2,310| 
 2,495! 
 2,640! 
 3,000| 
 3,250! 
 
 I 
 2,950! 
 3,3501 
 3,182! 
 3,288| 
 3,650! 
 
 6,547| 
 6,612! 
 5,951| 
 6,266! 
 6,453| 
 
 6,578| 
 6,775! 
 6,260| 
 5,783| 
 6,0141 
 
 I 
 7,075| 
 7,775| 
 7,542! 
 8,100| 
 7,500! 
 
 I 
 7,4001 
 7,622| 
 7,375| 
 7,200! 
 6,500! 
 
 I 
 6,775J 
 7,200! 
 6,693| 
 5,962! 
 6,6461 
 
 I 
 6,096! 
 6,1501 
 
 I I 76,205 
 
 5,572 5,952| 70,627 
 
 I i 72,036 
 
 I I 62,582 
 
 7,807| 8,426| 82,076 
 
 7,962 8,848 81,027 
 
 8,042 9,024 80,095 
 
 7,559| 8,303 
 
 8,013 
 8,093 
 
 8,001 
 8,624 
 
 7,741 7,885 
 7,451 7,817 
 
 I 
 3.9261 
 3,0611 
 
 6,630 
 7,956 
 8,035 
 
 7,325 
 
 7,472 
 7,621 
 7,825 
 7,425 
 
 7,425 
 7,609 
 7,610 
 7,100 
 7,100 
 
 7,400 
 9,240 
 6,954 
 7,030 
 7,560 
 
 7.419 
 7,296 
 
 6,707 
 6,440 
 6,977 
 
 6,750 
 7,020 
 7,100 
 7,750 
 8,950! 
 
 8,700 
 7,575 
 7,320 
 5,850 
 5,550 
 
 6,950 
 9,156 
 6,130 
 4.188 
 5,007 
 
 4,601 
 5,098 
 
 77,722 
 82,109 
 83,321 
 
 94,350 
 
 94,044 
 88.092 
 92,232 
 94,011 
 
 96,738 
 
 99,931 
 
 101,788 
 
 108,471 
 
 104,035 
 
 105,825 
 107,083 
 105.820 
 103,435 
 106,197 
 
 105,954 
 116.730 
 104.461 
 97.070 
 101,699 
 
 103,850 
 102,428 
 
 *Acreage figures for United States on page 226 are probably more accurate 
 than these figures but are not so comparable to these state figures. 
 
232 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Table XXVII— Price Per Bushel of Corn on Farm, December 1, for Corn 
 Belt States and United States, 1891-1922- 
 
 Year 
 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1894 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 
 .411 
 
 .401 
 
 .43| 
 .271 
 
 I 
 .211 
 .25j 
 .271 
 .30| 
 .341 
 
 I 
 .571 
 .421 
 .471 
 .46| 
 .431 
 
 .40 
 .36 
 .37 
 .23 
 
 .19! 
 .211 
 .251 
 .271 
 .321 
 I 
 .55| 
 .361 
 .361 
 .411 
 .38i 
 
 .37 
 .37 
 .31 
 .39 
 .22 
 
 .181 
 .21| 
 .251 
 .261 
 .32] 
 I 
 .571 
 .36] 
 .36] 
 .391 
 .38 i 
 
 .39] 
 
 .37| 
 .341 
 .431 
 .20| 
 
 I 
 .191 
 .241 
 .241 
 .241 
 .291 
 
 1 
 .451 
 .40| 
 .381 
 .361 
 .331 
 
 .30 
 .32 
 .27 
 
 .45 
 .18 
 
 .141 
 .171 
 .231 
 
 .23 
 
 .271 
 
 .521 
 .331 
 .38| 
 .33| 
 .341 
 
 .38 
 .36 
 .30 
 
 .40 
 .20 
 
 .201 
 
 .241 
 .27| 
 .301 
 
 .321 
 
 I 
 .671 
 .331 
 .341 
 
 .441 
 .37! 
 
 .351 
 .331 
 .251 
 .461 
 .23| 
 
 I 
 .181 
 .211 
 .23] 
 .261 
 .291 
 
 1 
 .451 
 .41 
 .351 
 .361 
 .311 
 
 .26 
 
 .28 
 .27 
 .501 
 
 .181 
 
 I 
 .131 
 
 .171 
 .221 
 .23| 
 .311 
 
 I 
 .54! 
 .301 
 .281 
 .331 
 .321 
 
 .341 
 .311 
 .311 
 .431 
 
 .191 
 
 .18 
 .22: 
 .261 
 
 .25! 
 .321 
 
 .63 
 .34' 
 .36! 
 .41 
 .33 
 
 .406 
 .394 
 .365 
 .457 
 .253 
 
 .215 
 .263 
 .287 
 .303 
 .357 
 
 .403 
 .425 
 .441 
 .413 
 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 1912 
 1913 
 1914 
 1915 
 
 .! .391 
 
 • I .521 
 
 .1 .631 
 
 .1 .561 
 
 .1 .461 
 
 .581 
 .45i 
 .631 
 .611 
 .561 
 
 .361 
 
 .451 
 .601 
 
 .501 
 .401 
 I 
 .54] 
 .421 
 .601 
 .58! 
 .511 
 
 .361 
 
 .441 
 .571 
 .521 
 .381 
 
 .341 
 
 .501 
 .551 
 .491 
 
 .451 
 
 .32| 
 .431 
 .521 
 .491 
 .361 
 
 .381 
 .471 
 .571 
 .591 
 .441 
 
 .291 
 .461 
 .501 
 .501 
 .401 
 
 551 
 
 .531 
 
 .53 
 
 .601 
 
 .531 
 
 411 
 
 .371 
 
 .35 
 
 .461 
 
 .371 
 
 631 
 
 .531 
 
 .60 
 
 .741 
 
 .561 
 
 611 
 
 .521 
 
 .55 
 
 .681 
 
 .501 
 
 54! 
 
 .62! 
 
 .51 
 
 .57! 
 
 .491 
 
 .291 
 .41! 
 ..511 
 .501 
 .361 
 1 
 .551 
 .371 
 .651 
 .531 
 .471 
 
 .32 
 .44' 
 .55' 
 .54' 
 .45' 
 
 .631 
 .401 
 
 .78' 
 .63' 
 .51' 
 
 .399 
 .516 
 .606 
 .579 
 .480 
 
 .618 
 .487 
 .691 
 .644 
 .575 
 
 1916 
 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 1922 
 1923 
 
 .90! 
 
 .841 
 
 .841 
 
 1917 ; 1.36! 1.251 1.10! 
 
 .: 1.30! 1.19! 1.201 1.111 1.22| 1.43 
 .! I.2I1 1.251 1.301 1.201 1.20! 1.38 
 
 .681 .591 .59! 
 
 .80! .so! .901 .77! .781 .90' .889 
 
 1.10! 1-081 1.141 1.201 1.201 1.25i 1.279 
 
 1.101 1.281 1.49: 1.365 
 
 1.191 1.22! 1.40' 1.345 
 
 .421 .411 .44! .670 
 
 .51 
 
 .471 .641 
 
 I 1 
 
 .41! 
 .66! 
 
 .371 
 
 .561 
 
 .311 
 .561 
 
 .301 
 .561 
 
 .401 
 .681 
 
 .26! 
 .501 
 
 .271 
 .581 
 
 .423 
 .657 
 
 *Price figures for United States on page 226 are probably more accurate 
 than these figures but are not so comparable to these state figures. 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 233 
 
 Table XXVIII— Chicago Corn Prices 
 
 Xo. 2 mixed corn has been used throughout. From 1S80 to 1916, inclusive, 
 the average of the high and low for the month as been taken. Since January, 
 1917, each day of the month has been averaged. Previous to 1880, averages 
 were taken either weekly or semi-monthly. All figures are derived either from 
 the Howard-Bartels Red Book or the Chicago Board of Trade reports, or by 
 averaging prices of the Howard Bartels Chicago Daily Trade Bulletin. The three 
 sources generally agree. 
 
 I I I I I I I I I I I 10- 
 
 |1860.|1861.|1862.[1863.tl864.|1865.1866.|l867.11868.1l869.| yr. 
 
 I I I I I I I I I I I av. 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March .... 
 April 
 
 .| .481 .29| .23| 
 
 .41 .28 
 .421 .27 
 .46! .30 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 
 August 
 
 .481 
 .46] 
 .431 
 .401 -23 
 
 .33 .27 
 
 .231 .261 
 
 .23j .281 
 
 .331 
 
 September 
 October .... 
 November 
 December 
 
 I 
 .371 
 .381 
 .321 
 
 ■I 
 • I 
 .| .281 .24j 
 
 .21| .291 
 
 .22| .341 
 
 .22| .3lj 
 
 .371 
 
 .90 
 
 .881 
 .791 
 .631 
 
 I 
 .54i 
 .52| 
 481 1.301 .561 
 49| 1.26i .67] 
 
 I I I 
 
 60| 1.301 .601 
 
 79| 1.25| .491 
 
 88| 1.351 .521 
 
 93| .971 .431 
 
 47 
 
 .82 
 
 51 
 
 .89 
 
 50 
 
 .79 
 
 47 
 
 .92 
 
 48 
 
 1.04 
 
 48 
 
 1.15 
 
 .70 
 
 .481 .96 
 
 .51| .88 
 
 .561 .80 
 
 .561 .90 
 
 I 
 
 .541 1.00 
 
 .88] .58 
 .851 .62 
 
 .881 .81 
 .971 
 
 I 
 .941 .841 
 
 .551 .568 
 
 .561 .561 
 
 .541 .549 
 
 .54| .575 
 
 I 
 .604 
 .596 
 .633 
 .671 
 
 .661 1.06| .87| .67 
 .871 .971 .76| .73 
 .761 .84| .641 
 
 .76 
 
 .673 
 .693 
 .622 
 
 Yearly average | .407 
 
 .2541 .284] .590|1.082| .628| .540| .872] .843| .675| .618 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES— Continued 
 
 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10- 
 1870.|1871. 1872. 1873.|1874.|1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. yr. 
 
 1 ! 1 1 1 av. 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September 
 October .... 
 November 
 December 
 
 .72 
 
 .47 
 
 .41 
 
 .31! 
 
 .551 
 
 .66! 
 
 .431 
 
 .70 
 
 .52 
 
 .40 
 
 .31! 
 
 .58! 
 
 .641 
 
 .411 
 
 .72 
 
 .541 
 
 .38 
 
 .321 
 
 .60 
 
 .661 
 
 .441 
 
 .82 
 
 .51! 
 
 .40 
 
 .34! 
 
 .63 
 
 .711 
 
 .471 
 
 .8? 
 
 .541 
 
 .46 
 
 .391 
 
 .62 
 
 .7l| 
 
 .47 
 
 .83 
 
 .531 
 
 .49 
 
 .34! 
 
 .601 
 
 .671 
 
 .45! 
 
 .83 
 
 .511 
 
 .41 
 
 .36! 
 
 .621 
 
 .70! 
 
 .46! 
 
 .74 
 
 .451 
 1 
 
 .41 
 
 .391 
 
 1 
 
 .67! 
 1 
 
 .69! 
 
 I 
 
 .45! 
 
 .64 
 
 .471 
 
 .36 
 
 .40! 
 
 .771 
 
 .59! 
 
 .45| 
 
 .60 
 
 .471 
 
 .33 
 
 .38! 
 
 .761 
 
 .55| 
 
 .441 
 
 .61 
 
 .46! 
 
 .33 
 
 .38! 
 
 .771 
 
 .521 
 
 .441 
 
 .50 
 
 .411 
 
 .31 
 
 .501 
 
 .78! 
 
 .491 
 
 .451 
 
 .44! .421 
 
 .42| .40 
 
 .401 .42] 
 
 .461 .40! 
 
 I I 
 
 .531 
 
 .471 
 .470 
 .481 
 .509 
 
 40! 
 
 .461 .36! 
 
 .48! -38! 
 
 .45! -391 
 
 I I 
 
 .441 .36! 
 
 .431 .34! 
 
 .451 .321 
 
 .44| .311 
 
 .34! .533 
 
 .36! -509 
 
 .361 .511 
 
 .331 .497 
 
 ! 
 
 .35! -483 
 
 .411 .471 
 
 .42| .470 
 
 .41! .460 
 
 Yearly avera.ge ! .715| .4921 .381| .368| .662! .632| .446! .450] .375! -354! .487 
 
234 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES— Continued 
 
 i I I I I 
 11880. 11881. |1882. 11883. 11884. 
 
 III! 
 
 I i 10- 
 
 1885.|1886.|1887.1l888.|l889.1 yr. 
 
 I I I 1 I av. 
 
 March 
 April ... 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 1 .39 
 
 .371 
 
 .62 
 
 .601 
 
 .541 
 
 .371 
 
 .371 
 
 .36 
 
 .40! 
 
 .34! 
 
 .445 
 
 1 .37 
 
 .37 
 
 .58 
 
 .571 
 
 .541 
 
 .371 
 
 .37 
 
 .35 
 
 .471 
 
 .351 
 
 .434 
 
 ! .35 
 
 .40 
 
 .64 
 
 .56 
 
 .521 
 
 .39 
 
 .37 
 
 .371 
 
 .491 
 
 .34 
 
 .443 
 
 1 .34 
 
 .421 
 
 .74 
 
 .53 
 
 .501 
 
 .45 
 
 .37| 
 
 .381 
 
 .52! 
 
 i 
 
 .341 
 
 .459 
 
 1 .37 
 
 .431 
 
 .73 
 
 .551 
 
 .55] 
 
 .471 
 
 .361 
 
 .38] 
 
 .571 
 
 .341 
 
 .475 
 
 1 .36 
 
 .451 
 
 .72 
 
 .541 
 
 .541 
 
 .47! 
 
 .35| 
 
 .371 
 
 .511 
 
 .34! 
 
 .46.5 
 
 j .36 
 
 .481 
 
 .78 
 
 .50! 
 
 .531 
 
 .47! 
 
 .40! 
 
 .361 
 
 .48! 
 
 .361 
 
 .472 
 
 1 .38 
 
 .571 
 
 .77 
 
 .521 
 
 .53! 
 
 .45, 
 
 .421 
 
 .401 
 
 .451 
 
 .35! 
 
 .484 
 
 September | .401 .67! -67! .50| .69| .43! .39| .42! -431 .33^ .493 
 
 October ! .40! .681 .65| .481 .50] .42| .351 .42| .43| .321 .465 
 
 November | .421 .61! .68| .52| .40! -43! .35! .44| .39] .46| .470 
 
 December ...| .391 .61| .55| .59! .37! -391 -371 .49| .35| .32| .443 
 
 Yearly average | .378! .505| .678! .539! -518! .426| .373| .395! .465| .3491 .463 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES— Continued 
 
 I I ! I I I I I 
 
 1890. |1891.!1S92.|1893. 11894. 11895. 11896. 11897. 
 
 I I I I I I I I' 
 
 I ! 10- 
 
 1898.!l899.i yr. 
 
 I I av. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 .29! 
 .281 
 .29 
 .31 
 
 .341 
 
 .1 .34! 
 
 .1 .401 
 
 •I .481 
 
 I I 
 
 •I .481 
 
 .1 .511 
 
 .! .51! 
 
 .1 .50i 
 
 .491 .381 .421 
 
 .521 
 .62| 
 
 .621 
 .58i 
 .621 
 
 .581 
 .551 
 .64! 
 
 .401 .42! 
 .39! .41! 
 
 '1! .411 .411 
 I 
 
 .351 
 .35! 
 .36! 
 .38! 
 
 .701 .421 .38! 
 
 .oil .401 .40| 
 
 .50! .391 
 
 .52i .38! 
 
 I I 
 
 .461 .401 
 
 .421 .391 
 
 .42! .371 
 
 .44! 
 .531 
 I 
 .53! 
 .51! 
 .501 
 
 .491 .41! .35! .46! 
 
 .431 
 .411 
 
 .441 
 
 .«, 
 
 .52! 
 .50] 
 .45! 
 .401 
 i 
 .34! 
 .301 
 .281 
 .261 
 
 .27! .23! 
 
 .28] .231 
 
 .291 .241 
 
 .301 .241 
 
 I I 
 
 .29! .241 
 
 .271 .241 
 
 .26! -261 
 
 .231 .30! 
 
 I • I 
 
 .211 .301 
 
 .24| .27! 
 
 .241 .27! 
 
 .23! .261 
 
 .271 .37! .350 
 
 .29! -351 .353 
 
 .291 .35! .368 
 
 .321 .351 .390 
 
 I I 
 
 .351 .33 .419 
 
 .321 .34! .390 
 
 .341 .33! .399 
 
 .321 .32| .411 
 
 I I 
 
 .301 .33 .393 
 
 .31! .32 .382 
 
 .331 .32 .388 
 
 .36! .31 .363 
 
 .1 .394! .5881 .4601 .3971 .4331 .4001 .2591 .257! .317! -3351 .384 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES—Continued 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March .... 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 !1900.!1901.|1902.!1903.|1904.il905.|1906.|l907.| 
 
 I ( ! i I I I I I 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 1 I 10- 
 
 1908.|1909.| yr. 
 
 I I av. 
 
 .31 
 
 .371 
 
 .611 
 
 .46 
 
 .4b 
 
 .43 
 
 .42 
 
 .42 
 
 .59 
 
 .60 
 
 .466 
 
 33 
 
 .391 
 
 .59! 
 
 .44 
 
 .50 
 
 .44 
 
 .41 
 
 .44 
 
 .58 
 
 .63 
 
 .475 
 
 .36 
 
 .421 
 
 .591 
 
 .441 
 
 .53 
 
 .471 
 
 .421 
 
 .44 
 
 .621 
 
 .661 
 
 .495 
 
 .40 
 
 .45! 
 
 .611 
 
 1 
 
 .44! 
 
 .51 
 
 .481 
 
 .461 
 1 
 
 .48 
 
 .671 
 1 
 
 .701 
 1 
 
 .520 
 
 .38 
 
 .51! 
 
 .62! 
 
 .451 
 
 .49 
 
 .561 
 
 .«! 
 
 .53 
 
 .751 
 
 .74! 
 
 .552 
 
 .40 
 
 .431 
 
 .661 
 
 .50! 
 
 .49! 
 
 .541 
 
 .521 
 
 .53 
 
 .711 
 
 .74 
 
 .552 
 
 .42 
 
 .51! 
 
 .72! 
 
 ..51! 
 
 .49! 
 
 .561 
 
 .491 
 
 .54 
 
 .741 
 
 .71 
 
 .569 
 
 39 
 
 .57! 
 1 
 
 .571 
 1 
 
 .521 
 
 .541 
 1 
 
 .551 
 
 1 
 
 .51! 
 1 
 
 .58 
 
 .791 
 
 1 
 
 .681 
 
 1 
 
 .570 
 
 .41 
 
 .571 
 
 .60 
 
 .491 
 
 .53! 
 
 .531 
 
 .501 
 
 .62 
 
 .80! 
 
 .66: 
 
 .571 
 
 .39 
 
 .561 
 
 .581 
 
 .451 
 
 .54! 
 
 .52 
 
 .49] 
 
 .61 
 
 .73! 
 
 .611 
 
 .548 
 
 .42 
 
 .611 
 
 .551 
 
 .431 
 
 .54! 
 
 .49 
 
 .461 
 
 .58 
 
 .64! 
 
 .631 
 
 .535 
 
 .38 
 
 .651 
 
 .511 
 
 .42; 
 
 .461 
 
 .46! 
 
 .46] 
 
 .60 
 
 .601 
 
 .64| 
 
 .518 
 
 583 
 
 .504! 
 
 .6011 
 
 .4631 
 
 .5061 
 
 .5031 
 
 .4691 
 
 .531 
 
 .6851 
 
 .667! 
 
 .531 
 
CORN (STATISTICS 
 
 235 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES— Continued 
 
 I I I I I I I 10- 
 
 |1910.il911.|1912.|1913.|1.914.|l915.|1916.il917. 1918. 1919.1 yr. 
 
 I I ! I I I I f I I lav. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 May ... 
 June ... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 December . 
 Yearly 
 
 I .65 
 
 I .65 
 
 I .63 
 
 ! .59 
 
 I 
 
 I .60 
 
 I .59 
 
 I .63 
 
 I .63 
 I 
 
 i .551 
 
 I .501 
 
 I -501 
 
 I .48 
 
 .471 
 .501 
 
 I 
 .54! 
 .561 
 .631 
 
 .64j 
 
 I I 
 
 .67! .741 
 .64 
 .54 
 .51 
 
 .471 .671 .49 
 
 .471 .651 .50 
 
 .70; .52 
 
 .78| .56 
 
 I 
 
 .791 .581 
 
 .741 .61 
 
 .721 .64| 
 .78' 
 
 .76| .99 
 
 .76! 1.01 
 
 .74| 1.12 
 
 .771 1.45 
 
 1.81 
 1.75 
 1.72 
 1.66 
 
 731 .80 
 
 .72| 
 .73! 
 .70! 
 
 .75! 
 .70! 
 .731 
 .701 
 
 .78! 
 .741 
 .70 
 .65 
 
 ! 
 
 77! .74 
 
 1.64 
 
 1.62 
 
 74! .74 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.59 
 
 79| .81 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.65 
 
 79| .85 
 
 1.97 
 
 1.71 
 
 72! .87 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.59 
 
 63! 1.00 
 
 1.99 
 
 1.38 
 
 651 1.02! 2.10 
 
 1.37 
 
 72| .92 
 
 1.73 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.40! -860 
 1.3l| .845 
 1.51| .881 
 1.63| .937 
 
 I 
 1.77! .975 
 1.92| .991 
 2.1911.078 
 1.95!1.085 
 
 I 
 1.53|1.030 
 1.39| .969 
 1.51! .985 
 1.47| .933 
 
 average ! .584| .5921 .689! .626| .699! -7301 .832!1.650!1.608|1.632| .964 
 
 CHICAGO CORN PRICES— Continued 
 
 Septembe 
 Octobe 
 
 November I 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average | 1.411 .582| .626 
 
238 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Table XXIX — Chicago Heavy Hog Prices 
 
 From 1S96 to date, heavy hog prices, as compiled by Chas. A. S. McCracken 
 for the Chicago Drovers' Journal Year-Book, have been used. From ISSl to 
 1895, inclusive, the average of the range of Chicago hog prices, as compiled by 
 the Cincinnati Price Current, has ])een used. Properly speaking, these prices 
 refer more nearly to average hogs than to heavy hogs. Previous to 1881, prices 
 have been compiled from the Chicago Board of Trade reports, the grade known 
 as heavy packers and shippers being used so far as possible. 
 
 I I i 
 
 I1860.|1861.|1862. 
 
 I I I 
 
 I I I ! 
 
 1863.fl864.|1865. 1866.1 
 
 I I I I 
 
 I I 
 
 1867.1868.11869. 
 
 I I 
 
 10- 
 
 yr. 
 av. 
 ^6^ 
 6.85 
 6.92 
 6.67 
 
 6.08 
 6.08 
 6.53 
 
 6.98 
 6.73 
 6.56 
 6.56 
 6.61 
 
 January . 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 .i 4.851 5.051 2. 
 
 .| 5.251 5.001 2. 
 
 .751 3. 
 
 .551 2. 
 
 5.051 
 4.90( 
 
 35) 3, 
 
 501 4. 
 
 OOi 4, 
 
 90 4, 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 December . 
 Yearly 
 
 .| 4.80! 3. 
 
 .1 4.801 3. 
 
 .| 5.201 2, 
 
 .| 5.35i 2. 
 
 I I 
 
 .1 5.30i 2, 
 
 .i 5.301 2, 
 
 -I 5.30' 2. 
 
 .1 4.601 2. 
 
 85| 2. 
 
 10| 2. 
 
 701 2. 
 
 75| 2. 
 
 80] 2. 
 
 SOI 2. 
 
 65| 3. 
 
 45! 3. 
 
 60| 5. 
 
 05| 
 
 15| 
 
 25! 
 
 I 
 
 751 6 
 
 15! 7, 
 
 25! 8 
 
 80! 8 
 
 I 
 
 20! 9 
 
 10! 8 
 
 50! 9 
 05!10 
 
 11, 
 
 35111. 
 55!11, 
 95! 9, 
 
 I 
 45! 7, 
 25! 7. 
 551 9, 
 90|10. 
 
 I 
 50|11, 
 65112. 
 75111, 
 05| 9, 
 
 15 
 
 9.30 
 
 6.10 
 
 301 9.45 
 
 6.50 
 
 151 9.40 
 
 6.60 
 
 50 
 
 8.55 
 
 6.80 
 
 50 
 
 8.701 6.25 
 
 80 
 
 8.95 
 
 5.90 
 
 9.401 
 9.851 
 I 
 9.30! 
 8.651 
 6.951 
 5.851 
 
 6.051 8.35 
 6.351 9.15 
 
 6.60|10.15i 
 7.7510.35' 
 8.65: 9.85 
 8.551 9.751 
 
 I I 
 
 8.251 8.751 
 7.651 8.75i 
 8.95' 
 9.201 
 
 6.151 8.701 9.251 
 
 5.85! 7.501 9.301 
 
 5.75| 7.001 9.101 
 
 6.601 8.351 9.801 
 
 average 1 5.06! 3.54| 2.831 4.16| 7.91110.23! 8.69) 6.241 8.041 9.44i 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 I I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 |1870.|1871.|1872.11873.|1874.|1875.|1876.|l877.|1878. 1879.1 
 I I I I .1 I I I I I I 
 
 January I 9.05! 
 
 February I 9.00| 
 
 March | 8.55| 
 
 April I 8.801 
 
 May I 8.75i 
 
 June I 8.60| 
 
 July 1 9.001 
 
 August 1 9.50| 
 
 I I 
 
 September | 9.30! 
 
 October 1 7.90) 
 
 November 1 6.851 
 
 December I 6.151 
 
 Yearly average....! 8.46| 
 
 6.601 
 
 7.301 
 
 6.751 
 5.601 
 
 4.551 
 3.80| 
 4.40| 
 4.401 
 
 4.45i 
 4.301' 
 4.00| 
 4.15; 
 5.03r 
 
 4.35! 
 
 4.451 
 4.451 
 4.251 
 
 I 
 4.05! 
 3.90| 
 4.051 
 4.651 
 
 I 
 4.90| 
 4.601 
 4.25| 
 3.751 
 X311 
 
 3.85| 
 4.201 
 4.951 
 
 5.401 
 
 4.90! 
 4.45| 
 4.551 
 4.601 
 I 
 4.50! 
 4.301 
 3.851 
 4.701 
 4.53r 
 
 5.20| 6.60| 
 
 5.351 6.95! 
 
 5.301 7-501 
 
 5.50! 8.25] 
 I 1 
 
 5.50| 7.901 
 
 5.55! 7.001 
 
 6.05! 7.051 
 
 6.901 7.751 
 
 I ! 
 
 7.25| 8.00| 
 
 6.00! 7.95! 
 
 6.501 7.30! 
 
 6.851 6.95| 
 
 XOO! 7.T4r 
 
 7.151 
 7.951 
 8.55! 
 8.051 
 
 7.15! 
 6.051 
 7.001 
 6.15] 
 I 
 6.001 
 5.901 
 5.751 
 5.95| 
 
 6.81| 
 
 4.051 2.90! 
 3.901 3.70' 
 3.701 3.951 
 3.55! 3.701 
 
 [ I 
 
 3.301 3.501 
 
 3.501 3.751 
 
 4.101 3.60! 
 
 5.051 4.251 3.40] 
 
 I I I 
 
 5.301 3.95| 3.451 
 5.351 3.45! 3.601 
 4.70! 2.951 3.851 
 4.25| 2.701 4.55' 
 X29T 3.621 3.67: 
 
 6.45| 
 6.151 
 
 5.501 
 5.551 
 I 
 5.301 
 4.85! 
 4.95! 
 
 10- 
 yr. 
 av. 
 
 5.90 
 5.92 
 
 5.87 
 
 5.49 
 5.15 
 5.48 
 5.67 
 
 5.71 
 5.34 
 5.00 
 5.00 
 5.51 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 237 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 I I I I 1 10- 
 1885.|1886.1887.1888.|l889. yr. 
 
 I I I I I av. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March 
 April , 
 
 4.451 5.40| 5.00| 5.19 
 
 5.201 5.35| 4.70| 5.47 
 
 5.301 5.451 4.751 5.51 
 
 - "" 5.50| 4.75| 5.48 
 
 I I 
 
 4.50| 5.36 
 4.35 
 4.40 
 4.15 
 
 Septem 
 October 
 November 
 
 December ] 4.75 
 
 Yearly average 
 
 20! 4.20 
 
 6.051 4.25 
 
 5.951 3.85] 4.88 
 
 5.201 3.60! 4.84 
 
 5.24 
 5.50 
 5.52 
 
 5.47 
 5.12 
 
 4.64| 6.131 7.381 6.07! 5.441 4.21! 4.141 4.89| 5.71| 4. 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 !1890.! 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 1891. 
 
 1892.!1 
 ( 
 
 893.(1894. 
 
 I I 
 
 1895.|1896.!1897. 1898. 1899.1 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 10- 
 
 yr. 
 
 av. 
 T32 
 4.45 
 4.52 
 4.59 
 
 4.54 
 4.38 
 4.53 
 4.48 
 
 4.55 
 4.43 
 4.08 
 4.08 
 4.41 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March .... 
 April 
 
 3.70 
 
 3.95 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.25 
 
 May ... 
 June ... 
 July ..., 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 .1 4.051 
 
 .! 3.75! 
 
 .! 3.751 
 
 .| 3.80! 
 
 I i 
 
 .1 4.351 
 
 .| 4.051 
 
 .| 3.80| 
 
 ■i 3.401 
 
 3.55 
 3.50| 
 4.201 
 4.80i 
 
 4.65i 
 4.50! 
 5.10i 
 5.10i 
 
 4.90| 
 4.501 
 3.85! 
 3.651 
 
 4.25 
 4.60 
 4.55 
 4.50 
 
 i 
 4.551 
 5.00i 
 5.651 
 5.40l 
 
 I 
 5.151 
 5.351 
 5.50| 
 6.151 
 
 7.45| 5.30 
 
 7.95! 5.10 
 
 7.55! 4.75 
 
 7.051 5.00 
 
 I ! 
 
 7.40! 4.90 
 
 6.65i 4.75 
 
 5.60! 5.30 
 
 5.05! 5.351 
 
 I I 
 
 6.001 5.851 
 
 6.40! 5.15i 
 
 5.70! 4.35! 
 
 5.65! 4.35! 
 
 4.25 3.95| 3.35 
 
 4.15 4.10| 3.35 
 
 4.60 3.90| 3.85 
 
 4.90 3.551 4.05 
 
 3.651 3.75 
 
 4.00 3.80 
 
 3.90 3.80 
 
 3.90 3.85 
 
 4.55| 3.30! 3.75! 4.35! 3.90 
 
 4.651 3.151 3.401 4.10| 3.80 
 
 5.10! 3.051 3.50| 3.95! 4.25 
 
 4.651 3.05 3.90 3.90| 4.55 
 
 4.10! 2.90| 4.001 3.851 4.40J 
 
 3.851 3.25 3.75! 3.701 4.301 
 
 3.55! 3.25| 3.40! 3.45| 3.901 
 
 3.50! 3.251 3.35! 3.40! 4.05! 
 
 .| 3.92! 4.361 5.061 6.54| 5.02| 4.33! 3.39| 3.641 3.85| 4.031 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 11900. 11901. 11902. 11903. 11904. 1 
 
 !' I I ! I I 
 
 ! I I I I 
 
 1905. 11906. !1907. 11908. 11909.1 
 
 I 1 f I I 
 
 10- 
 yr. 
 av. 
 "5^ 
 5.78 
 6.04 
 6.27 
 
 6.06 
 6.13 
 6.23 
 6.11 
 
 6.33 
 6.01 
 5.62 
 5.63 
 5.97 
 
 January ! 4.55! 
 
 February ...' ! 4.90! 
 
 March ! 5.00| 
 
 April I 5.55 
 
 I I 
 
 May i 5.30| 
 
 June 1 5.201 
 
 July I 5.251 
 
 August I 5.20! 
 
 I I 
 
 September | 5.25! 
 
 October | 4.80! 
 
 November | 4.80! 
 
 December j 4.75| 
 
 Yearly average | 5.05| 
 
 5.25| 
 5.40! 
 5.901 
 5.85i 
 
 i 
 5.801 
 6.00! 
 5.90! 
 5.951 
 
 I 
 6.65! 
 6.10! 
 
 5.701 
 6.201 
 
 6.40| 6 
 
 6.301 7 
 
 6.501 7 
 
 7.101 7 
 
 I 
 
 7.00! 6 
 
 7.501 6 
 
 7.801 
 7.251 
 
 I 
 7.55! 
 7.00! 
 6.35! 
 6.35! 
 
 .60! 4.95! 
 
 .00! 5.251 
 
 .451 5.501 
 
 .30| 5.15| 
 
 I I 
 
 .60! 4.751 
 .051 5.05! 
 45 5.35! 
 .301 5.251 
 
 ! I 
 
 751 5.70! 
 
 401 5.351 
 
 60! 4.80! 
 
 50 4.501 
 
 4.701 5.40! 
 
 4.90! 6.00! 
 
 5.201 6.30! 
 
 5.45| 6.50| 
 
 i I 
 
 5.401 6.45! 
 
 5.30| 6.55! 
 
 5.60| 6.60| 
 
 5.901 6.151 
 
 I I 
 
 5.401 6.151 
 
 5.10! 6.401 
 
 4.80] 6.20| 
 
 4.90| 6.25! 
 
 6.60! 4.451 6.201 
 
 7.05! 4.501 6.45! 
 
 6.65! 5.051 6.S0I 
 
 6.601 5.851 7.30! 
 
 I I' ! 
 
 6.35! 5.50! 7.40| 
 
 6.05| 5.801 7.S01 
 
 5.90! 6.551 
 
 5.90! 6.60| 
 
 I I 
 
 5.80! 6.901 
 
 6.05! 6.051 
 
 4.90| 5.90| 8.10 
 
 4.651 5.75! 8.45 
 
 7.90i 
 7.60| 
 
 I 
 8.10 
 
 7.85 
 
 5.89! 6.931 6.00| 5.14| 5.23| 6.25| 6.04| 5.74| 7.50! 
 
238 
 
 CORN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 t I I I I I I I I I I 10- 
 
 11910. 1911.jl912.|l913.1914.|l915.1916.|l917.|l918.|l919.| yr. 
 
 i I i I I I I I I 1 I av. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 December . 
 
 8.70 
 
 9.20 
 
 110.65 
 
 iio.oo 
 
 7.85 
 7.25 
 6.70 
 6.15 
 
 6.30 
 6.25 
 7.10 
 
 7.85 
 
 7.40 
 8.05 
 8.75 
 8.80 
 
 8.35 
 
 8.55 
 8.60 
 8.50 
 
 6.80 
 6.70 
 6.65 
 7.05 
 
 7.30|11.00 
 
 8.30|12.50 
 9.60J14.90 
 9.70!l5.80 
 
 16.40117.601 9.77 
 16.70ll7.65|10.12 
 17.00J19.00|10.91 
 17.40 20.30 11.16 
 
 1 9.50 
 1 9.35 
 1 8.60 
 i 8.25 
 
 5.85 
 6.15 
 6.65 
 7.15 
 
 7.70 
 7.50 
 7.60 
 8.05 
 
 8.40 
 8.50 
 8.95 
 8.10 
 
 8.30 
 8.15 
 8.60 
 
 8.75 
 
 7.40 9.85!16.00il7.45120.60;ll.ll 
 7.35 9.75il5.65|16.50i20.30|10.92 
 6.951 9.75 15.20|17.70 21.65|11.17 
 6.70110.20 17.00|18.90 19.75111.29 
 
 1 8.70 6.751 8.301 8.10 
 1 8.45 6.501 8.65J 8.15 
 1 7.751 6.35| 7.751 7.80 
 1 7.651 6.25| 7.451 7.70 
 
 8.601 7.20jl0.55|18.30119.55|17.25111.33 
 7.55| 7.751 9.85ll7.25ll7.55il4.25|10.60 
 7.50| 6.851 9.85jl7.60|17.70|14.10!10.31 
 7.10| 6.60110.00;16.95jl7.55|13.50!10.08 
 
 Yearly average I 8.89| 6.64| 7.54| 8.23] 8.22| 7.00| 9.56il5.6Sil7.53|18.00|10.73 
 
 CHICAGO HEAVY HOG PRICES— Continued 
 
 I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 |1920.|1921.|1922.ll923.|i924.|1925.|1926.|1927.|1928.11929. 
 
 I ! i I 
 
 I 1 
 
 I I 
 
 January !H.90| 9.25 
 
 February |14.30l 9.10 
 
 March |14.651 9.60 
 
 April 114.401 8.25 
 
 May 14 
 
 June 14 
 
 July 114 
 
 August |14 
 
 I 
 
 September |]5 
 
 October J13 
 
 November ]12 
 
 December | 9 
 
 Yearly average 113 
 
 .001 
 
 .351 
 .501 
 
 451 
 
 i 
 .551 
 .701 
 .00] 
 
 .401 
 
 85T 
 
 7.80| 
 
 9.601 
 
 10.201 
 
 10.151 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 .20|10 
 .10110 
 
 .501 9 
 .151 8 
 
 .401 8 
 
 .401 8 
 
 .501 7 
 
 .751 8 
 
 7. 
 7. 
 7. 
 
 6^ 
 
 8.351 9.06! 
 
 .001 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 Table XXX — Chicago Corn-Hog Ratios by Decades 
 
 ^ ^1 I I i I ^ 
 
 |l870-|l8S0-|1890-!l900-|1910- 
 
 I1879.I1S89. 11899. 11909. 11919. 
 
 January .7. j 11.91 11.71 12.31 11-8| 11-4 
 
 February | 12.61 12.61 12.6! 12.21 12.0| 
 
 March I 12.3! 12.4! 12.3' 12.2| 12.4 
 
 April ! 11.51 11.9i 11.8! 12.11 11.9 
 
 '! I I I I I 
 
 May ! 10.3! 11-3! 10.8| 11.0| 11.4| 
 
 June I lO.lj 11.3! 11-2! H-lj H.O 
 
 Julv ! 10.7| 11.7' 11.4! 11.0! 10.41 
 
 August I 11.41 11.4! 10.9! 10.7! 10.3| 
 
 I I ! I I I 
 
 September j 11.81 11.1| 11.61 11.1! 11.1| 
 
 October | 11.3! H.O! 11.6! 11.0! H-O 
 
 November | 10.61 10.21 10.5! 10.51 10.61 
 
 December j 10.9i 10.9| 11.21 10.9| 10.5| 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 239 
 
 Table XXXI— Iowa Corn Prices 
 
 (Prices on farms or nearest shipping point, first of each month) 
 
 11910. 1911.11912. 1913. 1914.11915.1 
 
 I I I I I I I 
 
 1916.|1917.1918.|l919. 
 
 I I 1 I 
 
 10- 
 
 yr. 
 av. 
 T684 
 .702 
 .714 
 .766 
 
 .830 
 .857 
 .881 
 .971 
 
 .949 
 .884 
 .766 
 .720 
 
 Tsio 
 
 January , 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 .511 
 .54 
 .52 
 .51 
 
 May ... 
 June ... 
 July ... 
 August 
 
 .481 
 .501 
 
 .41j 
 .441 
 
 .531 .49| 
 .55| .56 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 .49| 
 .39| 
 
 .561 
 
 .571 
 .571 
 .531 
 
 .55 
 .56 
 .61 
 
 .69 
 .70 
 .67 
 .651 
 
 .611 
 
 .501 
 .351 
 
 .361 
 .38| 
 .39| 
 
 .41 
 
 .58 
 
 .45 
 .50 
 .52 
 .54 
 
 .66 
 
 .66| 
 .601 
 .60 
 
 .80 
 
 1.11 
 
 .661 
 
 1.211 1.361 
 
 1.2l| 1.251 
 
 1.341 1.22] 
 
 1.361 1.40| 
 
 I I 
 
 1.40| 1.54| 
 
 1.35| 1.63| 
 
 1.37| 1.66| 
 
 1.471 1.841 
 
 I I 
 
 1.50| 1.69 
 
 1.38| 1.32| 
 
 1.151 1.111 
 
 1.22| 1.201 
 I .495! -4671 .590] .506| .612| .646] .693|1.328|1^30[lT435| 
 
 .571 
 .66| 
 
 .681 
 .681 
 .69| 
 
 .711 
 
 .721 
 .69| 
 .611 
 
 .551 
 
 I I 
 
 .71j 
 .661 
 
 .591 
 
 .511 
 
 1.40 
 1.46 
 .69| 1.56 
 .731 2.021 
 
 I I 
 
 .77| 1.651 
 
 .761 1.701 
 
 .78| 1.36| 
 
 .80| 1.08| 
 
 IOWA CORN PRICES— Continued 
 (Prices on farms or nearest shipping point, first of each month.) 
 
 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 10- 
 |1920. 1921.!1922.!1923.|1924.J1925. 1926. 1927. 1928.11929. | yr. 
 
 ! 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 av. 
 
 January 1.23| .51] .32| .59] 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 February 1 29| 44| 35| 58| 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 March | 1.2S| .48| .47| .62| 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 April 1 1 41| 43 45| 62| 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 ! 
 
 May 1 1.531 .40| .48| .69| 
 
 
 June 1 1 691 44 49| 71| 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 III' 
 
 July 1 1 66| 45 50| 73| 
 
 August 1 1.36| .45] .51] 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 September 1 1 35! 40| 49| ' 
 
 October I .95 .36| .50| | 
 
 ! I 1 
 
 1 
 
 November | 64 27 53| | 
 
 
 December | 47| 30 56| | 
 
 
 
 
 Yearly average 11.238! -412! .471! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
240 
 
 COKN AND CORX-GROWIXG 
 
 Table XXXII— Illinois Corn Prices 
 
 (Pries on farms or nearest shipping point, first of each month.) 
 
 I I I ^1 I 1 I I I I I 10-^ 
 
 Il910.!1911.il912.ll913.|l914.|l915.ll916.|1917.|l918.!l919.| yr. 
 
 I I I f I I f i 1 I I av. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 .391 
 .401 
 
 .59 .401 
 .57 .40 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 I I 
 
 .54| .431 .74 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 December . 
 Yearly 
 
 .541 
 .571 
 .58 
 
 .57 
 .51 
 .43 
 .38 
 
 .41 
 .45 
 .46 
 
 .471 .64| 
 
 .64| .641 
 .601 .70 
 
 .60] 
 
 .511 
 
 .551 
 .58 
 
 .63 
 
 .711 .611 .72| .76 
 
 I I I 
 
 .721 .73 
 .661 .71 
 
 .781 
 .741 
 
 .73 
 
 .601 .50! -641 .67! 5.7 
 .55| .41| .63! -611 -54 
 
 .62 
 
 .84 
 
 .65 
 
 .92 
 
 .65 
 
 .98 
 
 .65 
 
 1.09 
 
 .69 
 
 1.47 
 
 .69 
 
 1.54 
 
 .70 
 
 1.60 
 
 .76 
 
 2.06 
 
 .80 
 
 1.72 
 
 .80 
 
 1.80 
 
 .841 1.42 
 
 .84 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.16! !• 
 
 1.25! !■ 
 
 1.36| 1, 
 
 1.30! !• 
 
 1.33 1, 
 
 1.25| 
 1.32| 
 1.391 
 
 I 
 1.47! 
 1.39! 
 1.18! 
 1.20! 
 
 34| .714 
 
 20| .735 
 
 23! -755 
 
 42| .788 
 
 I 
 
 56! .864 
 
 67| .889 
 
 74| .915 
 89|1.016 
 
 .996 
 .930 
 .809 
 .756 
 
 average | .535| .495! -636! .563! .666| .681| .724!1.378il.300|1.487| .84'i 
 
 ILLINOIS CORN PRICES— Continued 
 (Prices on farms or nearest shipping point, first of each month..) 
 
 |l920.ll921.ll922.|l923.|1924.il925.|l926.|1927 
 
 f !' I I I I I I 
 
 1928 
 
 .11929 
 
 I 
 
 I 10- 
 
 I yr. 
 I av. 
 
 January 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 1.371 
 1.441 
 1.42! 
 
 1.54! 
 I' 
 1.091 
 .184! 
 .1831 
 1.48! 
 
 I 
 1.491 
 1.09| 
 
 .77! 
 .591 
 
 .61 
 .54 
 
 .55i .50 
 
 .531 
 I 
 .51! 
 .56! 
 .531 .55! 
 .551 .561 
 
 .39| .64| 
 
 .411 .64! 
 .671 
 .68! 
 
 .53! •'76| 
 .54! .761 
 
 ! 
 
 .481 .551 
 
 .441 .56! 
 
 .35! .56i 
 
 .38! .60! 
 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 .11.379! .5001 .5201 
 
 I I I I 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 241 
 
 Table XXXIII — Corn (American Mixed) — Average Spot Prices Per 
 Bushel of 56 Pounds at Liverpool* 
 
 11912, 
 
 I 
 1913.11914.1915, 
 
 1916.1917. 
 
 1918.11919, 
 
 1920.|1921. 1922 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March .. . 
 April 
 
 .1 .92 
 
 J .95 
 
 .! .94 
 
 .1 .95 
 
 May .... 
 June .... 
 July .... 
 August 
 
 September ] 
 
 October I 
 
 November | 
 
 December I 
 
 .951 
 .931 
 
 .99| 
 .911 
 
 .911 1.04 1.40| 
 
 .9l| 1.11 1.47| 
 
 .91 1.101 1.43 
 
 .91 1.091 1.431 
 
 .91 
 
 .92 
 
 .93 
 
 1.13 
 
 .951 1.11 
 
 .S9| 1.04 
 
 .901 1.00 
 
 .911 .98 
 
 1.131 1.47 
 
 l.OSi 1.28 
 
 1.10| 1.37 
 
 1.18| 1.44 
 
 I 
 
 1.16| 1.41 
 
 1.16| 1.48 
 
 t I 1.71 
 
 1.23| 1.83 
 
 1.95 
 2.00 
 2.05 
 
 1.98i 
 
 I 
 2.03] 
 
 2.05| 
 2.05i 
 2.05| 
 
 I 
 2.05| 
 2.05| 
 2.05| 
 2.05| 
 
 16 2.11 
 161 2.11 
 16| 1.65 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.63 
 
 I 
 1.63| 
 1.61| 
 1.55| 
 
 t I 
 
 I 
 t I 
 t I 
 t I 
 t I 
 
 t I 
 1.93| 
 
 2.14| 
 2.16J 
 
 I 
 2.04 
 2.06| 
 
 t i 
 t 
 
 1.49 
 1.15 
 1.13 
 1.01 
 
 .95| .84 
 .97| .84 
 .981 .98 
 .92 
 
 .921 
 
 t 
 1.63 
 1.58 
 1.38 
 
 I 
 
 .851 .90 
 .71 
 .78 
 .85 
 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 
 *Broomhairs Corn Trade News. 
 tXo quotations. 
 
 Table XXXIV— Corn— Spot Prices Per Bushel of 56 Pounds at Buenos 
 
 Aires* 
 
 |1912.|1913.!l914.|1915.|l916. 
 
 I II I I 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918.11919. 
 
 1920. 
 
 1921. 1922 
 
 January j t I .54| .55| .54| .56] 1.07 
 
 February ; t \ .54| .56| .61] .60| 1.07 
 
 March I t | .54| .56| .56| .56| .99 
 
 April I .5S| .561 .541 .571 .51 1.03 
 
 May 1 .5.31 .55| .59] .54| .45 1.27] 
 
 June 1 .521 .55| .55] .50| .43 1.46| 
 
 July 1 ,5li .55j .571 .51| .45 1.43] 
 
 August , I .521 .55|t .561 .49| .51 1.27] .68] 1.07| .90| 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.13 
 1.10 
 
 September .. 
 
 October 
 
 November ... 
 
 December .... 
 
 Average 
 
 :■ .50! -621 .551 .51| .55| .87| 
 
 .| .511 .591 .49| .511 .701 .851 
 
 .| .52| .581 .531 .541 1.03| .95j 
 
 .| .531 .581 .541 .52| .93| .88| 
 
 I 
 
 .65] 
 .631 
 .631 
 .631 
 
 .911 
 
 .791 
 .741 
 .711 
 
 I 
 
 .921 
 .831 
 .771 
 .821 
 
 .52] .56| .551 .531 .61| 1.10| 
 
 .701 
 
 .63 
 .73 
 
 .79 
 
 .77 
 
 .61] .75 
 
 .63| .71 
 
 .65| .78 
 
 .661 .78 
 
 I 
 
 .651 .76 
 
 .58| .74 
 
 .611 .70 
 
 .631 .74 
 
 .71 .74 
 
 ^International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics, 1912-1921. Review of the 
 River Plata, 1.922. Average of weekly quotations. 
 tNo quotations. 
 SInterpolation, no quotation. 
 
("ORX AND (H)KX-GKOWIXG 
 
 Table XXXV— Corn- 
 
 -Spot Prices Per Bushel of 56 Pounds of Yellow 
 La Plata at LiverpooP'- 
 
 I t 
 
 11932.11913, 
 
 1914.|1915.|1916. 
 
 I I 
 
 1917, 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919, 
 
 1920.11921.11922. 
 
 January- 
 February 
 March ... 
 April 
 
 1 t 
 
 ::;::=! I 
 
 1 t 
 
 May i .97 
 
 June I .87 
 
 July I .71 
 
 August ! .75 
 
 September .. 
 
 October 
 
 November ... 
 
 December .... 
 
 Average 
 
 .72] 
 .681 
 .67| 
 
 .71 
 .75 
 .76 
 .74 
 
 .72i 
 .691 
 .671 
 .671 
 I 
 .701 
 .66 
 .631 
 .671 
 
 .65 
 .66 
 .68 
 .681 
 
 I 
 .741 
 .761 
 .78| 
 .971 
 
 I 
 .931 
 
 .831 
 .781 
 .831 
 
 1.401tl.89| 2.23 
 
 1.061 1-44 
 1.02| 1.42 
 1.061 1.43 
 
 1.111 1.47 
 .971 1.33 
 .921 
 
 1.92| 2.23 
 2.00| 2.23 
 2.161 2.23 
 
 2.04 
 2.04 
 1.75 
 1.74 
 
 1.74 
 1.72 
 1.65 
 1.65 
 
 .85] 
 
 .941 
 
 1.061 
 
 1.191 
 
 t i 2.23 
 
 2.171 2.23 
 
 1.45i 2.171 2.42 
 
 1.541 2.171 2.61 
 
 I I 
 
 1.39| 2.171 2.61 
 
 1.481 2.17| 2.61 
 
 1.69| 2.171 2.611 1-65| 
 
 1.811 2.171 2.61| 1.52| 
 
 l.( 
 
 1.681 
 
 §1.49| 
 
 111.771 
 
 111.961 
 
 1.97| 
 
 I 
 1.811 
 1.671 
 1.53 
 1.43| 
 I I 
 
 1.601 
 1.49i 
 1.15| 
 1.25! 
 
 1.281 -92 
 
 1.22] 1.08 
 
 1.30] 1.08 
 
 1.28; 1.03 
 
 I 
 
 1.181 1.06 
 
 1.091 1.01 
 
 1.051 1-10 
 
 .93! 1.10 
 
 I 
 
 .831 1.09 
 
 .72' 1.08 
 
 .781 -96 
 
 .881 1.00 
 
 .| .771 .701 .771 1.001 1.491 2.111 2.40| 1.74| 1.591 1.04| 1.04 
 
 *Statement prepared by Foreign Section, Division of Statistical and Histor- 
 ical Research, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. 
 tNot quoted. 
 
 JTrading in maize controlled January 5, 1917. 
 §Afloat price. 
 i Nominal. 
 
 1922 Cost of Producing Corn 
 
 (Averages by Geographical Divisions) 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 .c 
 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 S- 
 ^ £ 
 
 o 
 ^13 
 
 "cS 
 
 
 ■^ fl 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 "S ^ 
 
 i.u 
 
 fsfl 
 
 lU c 
 
 
 
 
 ^6 
 
 
 ^< 
 
 w< 
 
 HO 
 
 MO 
 
 ^ I B 
 
 Number of reports ! 2561 
 
 .A.cres in the crop, per farm i S.ej 
 
 Yield per acre, bushels ! 52| 
 
 Cost per acre — • ] | 
 
 Prepare and plant !■$ 8.401$ 
 
 Cultivate | 4.62| 
 
 Harvest I 7.17| 
 
 Market ( 2.88| 
 
 Miscellaneous labor I .88| 
 
 Fertilizer and manure | 15.89] 
 
 Seed I .79| 
 
 Land rent I 6.30| 
 
 Miscellaneous costs | 2.84| 
 
 Total ! 49.771 
 
 Credit for by-products per acre I 6.68] 
 
 Net cost per acre | 43.09] 
 
 Net cost per bushel | .83| 
 
 Value of product per acre | 44.37| 27.13 
 
 Value of product per bushel | .85| 
 
 557| 
 
 669| 
 
 881] 
 
 881! 
 
 1191 
 
 3.363 
 
 30.0| 
 
 31.81 
 
 52.31 
 
 34.4] 
 
 21.4 
 
 25.6 
 
 301 
 
 561 
 
 1 
 
 34] 
 
 261 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 i 4.67IS 4.711$ 3.15|.f 3.511$ 4.20 S 4.25 
 
 3.851 
 
 2.8o| 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.50] 
 
 2.07] 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.02] 
 
 3.75] 
 
 2.49 
 
 1.89] 
 
 2.871 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.441 
 
 2.36] 
 
 1.96] 
 
 2.341 
 
 3.58 
 
 2.30 
 
 .32] 
 
 .50] 
 
 .31] 
 
 .14] 
 
 .861 
 
 .37 
 
 5.311 
 
 4.761 
 
 1.641 
 
 2.14i 
 
 1.001 
 
 4.07 
 
 .421 
 
 .46] 
 
 .391 
 
 .40] 
 
 .481 
 
 .44 
 
 5.801 
 
 6.70] 
 
 5.32] 
 
 5.24] 
 
 4.99' 
 
 5.72 
 
 1.821 
 
 2.13] 
 
 1.40] 
 
 1.36] 
 
 2.13! 
 
 1.73 
 
 27.651 
 
 28.22] 
 
 19.001 
 
 20.52' 
 
 22.18 
 
 25.09 
 
 2.64| 
 
 2.39] 
 
 l.lli 
 
 1.14] 
 
 2.04] 
 
 2.08 
 
 25.011 
 
 25.83! 
 
 17.89] 
 
 19.381 
 
 20.14 
 
 23.01 
 
 .831 
 
 .56] 
 
 .531 
 
 .75] 
 
 .671 
 
 .66 
 
 27.131 
 
 30.111 
 
 19.42] 21.941 
 
 23.41 
 
 25.44 
 
 .901 
 
 .651 
 
 .57] 
 
 .841 
 
 .781 
 
 .73 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 Iowa Rainfall in Inches 
 
 243 
 
 Year 
 
 March 
 
 p. 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 Ml 
 
 1890 1 1.S7! 
 
 1891 1 2.60| 
 
 1892 1 2.22| 
 
 1893 1 2.141 
 
 1894 1 2.03| 
 
 I I 
 
 1895 I .83| 
 
 1896 1 1.101 
 
 1897 I 2.39! 
 
 1898 ! 1.94J 
 
 1899 1 1.' 
 
 I I 
 
 1900 1 2.06! 
 
 1901 1 2.641 
 
 1902 1 1.45i 
 
 1903 1 1.381 
 
 1904 j 2.18| 
 
 ' I 
 
 1905 1 2.041 
 
 1906 1 2.34| 
 
 1907 1 1.351 
 
 1908 1 1.58! 
 
 1909 ! 1.53i 
 
 1 1 
 
 1910 1 .17! 
 
 1911 ! .93| 
 
 1912 ! 2.01| 
 
 1913 i 2.48| 
 
 3914 1 1.691 
 
 I I 
 
 1915 1 .96] 
 
 1916 1 1.571 
 
 1917 ! 1.84| 
 
 1918 1 .63| 
 
 1919 1 2.33! 
 
 1920 1 3.02| 
 
 1921 1 1.57! 
 
 1922 j 1.97! 
 
 1923 1 2.87i 
 
 1924 1 I 
 
 1925 1 I 
 
 1926 1 I 
 
 1.80| 
 2.15| 
 4.75] 
 4.21| 
 3.071 
 
 I 
 2.62| 
 5.021 
 5.351 
 2.561 
 621 2.40| 
 
 I 
 2.67! 
 1.79J 
 1.71| 
 2.98J 
 3.631 
 
 3.031 
 
 2.421 
 1.32| 
 2.24| 
 4.58! 
 I 
 1.48| 
 3.091 
 2.66[ 
 3.28| 
 2.521 
 
 I 
 1.41| 
 2.62| 
 
 4.55| 
 2.32! 
 
 4.78| 
 
 I 
 4.59| 
 3.341 
 3.06| 
 2.091 
 
 3.56 
 3.18 
 
 8.77 
 3.45 
 
 1.87 
 
 3.19 
 6.69 
 1.92 
 4.67 
 6.23 
 
 3.31 
 2.35 
 5.39 
 
 8.55 
 3.78 
 
 5.95 
 3.54 
 3.48 
 
 8.34| 
 4.341 
 
 3.41 
 3.76 
 3.33 
 6.24 
 3.31 
 
 7.34 
 4.93 
 3.87 
 6.87 
 3.11 
 
 3.26 
 4.23 
 3.53 
 
 2.84 
 
 7.76| 1.981 
 
 5.39| 4.22| 
 
 5.19| 5.29! 
 
 3.911 3.331 
 
 2.671 .63 
 
 4.321 
 3.111 
 
 3.81 
 
 4.72 
 
 3.981 
 3.71! 
 7.161 
 2.86i 
 3.45| 
 
 5.35| 
 5.66| 
 6.411 
 
 I 
 1.99i 
 1.821 
 2.74| 
 3.31| 
 5.57] 
 
 I 
 4.161 
 3.711 
 6.651 
 5.291 
 6.131 
 
 I 
 3.56| 
 
 3.76| 
 1.82| 
 4.93| 
 
 ! 
 
 3.40| 
 6.901 
 3.261 
 
 2.98| 
 
 5.041 3.07 
 
 6.15 
 2.34 
 
 8.67 
 4.83 
 4.41 
 
 5.531 2.91 
 3.92| 3.04 
 
 7.27 
 3.66 
 4.77 
 
 1.86 
 2.27 
 3.71 
 
 1.82] 
 2.27 
 
 8.32 
 1.78 
 2.27 
 3.17 
 2.86 
 
 4.22 
 2.53 
 6.31 
 1.75 
 
 3.41| 
 
 4.24| 
 2.24 
 2.32 
 1.58 
 
 4.43| 
 3.52 
 1.86 
 3.44 
 3.68 
 
 4.65 
 1.29 
 
 4.05 
 3.95 
 4.33 
 
 4.77 
 
 3.88| 
 3.321 
 
 3.78| 
 2.68| 
 2.191 
 
 2.8li 
 2.581 
 2.29| 
 3.61| 
 2.591 
 
 3.351 
 
 5.04! 
 3.061 
 
 5.421 
 
 2.97 
 1.33 
 1.53 
 2.34 
 3.57 
 
 3.03 
 4.09 
 2.04 
 2.69 
 .93 
 
 4.98 
 4.77 
 
 6.58| 4.35 
 6.64| 3.81 
 3.431 2.78 
 
 3.81 
 4.16 
 2.75 
 1.20 
 
 1.811 3.58 
 
 3.59 
 5.12 
 3.98 
 3.31 
 
 7.88 
 
 6.03 
 3.89 
 2.90 
 1.87 
 5.34 
 
 3.30 
 6.72 
 2.03 
 
244 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Iowa Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit 
 
 1890 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 
 19(10 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 3908 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 1911 
 1912 
 1913 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 1921 
 1922 
 1923 
 1924 
 
 1925 
 1926 
 
 31.8| 
 
 41.0| 
 
 I 
 34.4| 
 30.9| 
 32.0| 
 37. 5| 
 23.0 
 
 i 
 30.7! 
 34.2 ( 
 39.1| 
 
 38.81 
 34.8J 
 
 I 
 41.5| 
 27.1| 
 40.61 
 37.9| 
 32.5| 
 
 I 
 48.9! 
 39.41 
 24.9| 
 31.9| 
 34.71 
 
 I 
 29.3 
 35.2J 
 34.6| 
 
 42.91 
 
 37.5[ 
 
 I 
 3S.0| 
 
 42.81 
 38.31 
 29.4| 
 
 45.5 
 51.7i 
 
 I 
 54.2| 
 54.51 
 47.9] 
 48.1| 
 4S.9| 
 
 52.2 
 44.9 
 48.2 
 49.8 
 44.1 
 
 I 
 47.5| 
 52. 5| 
 41.51 
 50.5 
 43.81 
 
 52.5 1 
 46.7| 
 49.9| 
 50. 2| 
 48.6| 
 
 ! 
 
 57.2J 
 47.1| 
 45.51 
 
 44.8! 
 48.4| 
 
 I 
 42.41 
 52.4| 
 49.9 
 48.4 
 
 I 
 
 57.7 
 58.3 
 
 54.0| 
 5G.6| 
 61.1! 
 
 61.41 
 65.5i 
 58.5| 
 59.6| 
 60.21 
 
 63.2| 
 
 60.7| 
 63.8| 
 61.61 
 
 59.6| 
 
 I 
 58.31 
 60.8| 
 53.5 
 59.4 
 57.9 
 
 I 
 55.4| 
 64.9| 
 62.7| 
 59.41 
 62.2| 
 
 1 
 56.11 
 59.9 1 
 55.1| 
 64.9| 
 58. 2j 
 
 I 
 59.4| 
 63.3| 
 63.41 
 59.6J 
 I 
 I 
 
 72.7 
 69.1 
 69.2 
 71.2 
 
 73.2| 
 
 I 
 69.7 
 69.1 
 69.1 
 71.4 
 70.7| 
 
 69.7 
 72.3 
 65.2 
 64.6 
 67.1 
 
 69.9| 
 67.9| 
 66.5 
 67.1 
 69.1 
 
 I 
 69.5| 
 75.71 
 66.2 
 71.5 
 72.2 
 
 I 
 65.li 
 64.5| 
 66.0 
 70.81 
 71.9| 
 
 I 
 70.7| 
 74.7| 
 72.2| 
 70.9 1 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 75.6| 
 68.51 
 73.0 j 
 75.0; 
 76.4 
 
 i 
 72.lt 
 73.61 
 75.61 
 73.41 
 73.1 
 
 i 
 73.4| 
 
 82.4| 
 73.11 
 
 72.9| 
 70.6| 
 
 I 
 70.6, 
 70.9| 
 
 73.7| 
 73.01 
 
 72.3| 
 
 I 
 74.51 
 75.5| 
 74.61 
 76.11 
 76.6J 
 
 I 
 69.51 
 
 79.71 
 74.3| 
 73.11 
 
 77.4| 
 
 I 
 72.3 
 
 77.9| 
 71.5| 
 76.51 
 
 I 
 68.4| 
 69.11 
 71.4) 
 69.4 
 74.6 
 
 77.4, 
 73.8, 
 69.1 
 69.1 
 69.1 
 i 
 74.3! 
 74.11 
 71.11 
 70.0, 
 76.1' 
 
 71.9 
 
 71.71 
 71.0 
 
 65.91 
 74.0| 
 69.41 
 76.01 
 71.5 
 
 69.3 
 
 72.1| 
 73.8 
 70.61 
 
 m _ 
 
 59.3 
 67.3 
 64.7 
 64.7 
 G5.1 
 
 71.91 66.8 
 
 71.7 58.5 
 
 68.9 70.9 
 
 71.2 65.3 
 
 74.4 62.5 
 
 64.4 
 63.3 
 59.1 
 60.8 
 64.0 
 
 65.8 
 67.2 
 62.8 
 67.9 
 62.4 
 
 63.2 
 65.8 
 62.1 
 64.5 
 64.5 
 
 63.7 
 62.5 
 62.6 
 58.6 
 67.5 
 
 66.5 
 67.3 
 67.1 
 
CORN STATISTICS 
 
 245 
 
 Illinois Rainfall in Inches 
 
 m 
 
 I I 
 
 1890 1 3.92| 
 
 1891 1 3.151 
 
 1892 1 2.141 
 
 1893 1 3.121 
 
 1894 ! 2.82| 
 
 i I 
 
 1895 1 1.62| 
 
 1896 1 1.841 
 
 1897 1 5.96| 
 
 1898 1 V.29! 
 
 1899 i 2.99| 
 
 I I 
 
 1900 1 1.991 
 
 1901 1 3.461 
 
 1902 1 3.391 
 
 1903 1 3.02| 
 
 1904 1 6.23| 
 
 I ! 
 
 1905 ! 2.27| 
 
 1906 i 3.S4I 
 
 1907 :..| 3.081 
 
 1908 1 3.111 
 
 1909 1 2.34| 
 
 i I 
 
 1910 1 .261 
 
 1911 1 1.72| 
 
 1912 1 3.28| 
 
 1913 1 5.53| 
 
 1914 ! 2.221 
 
 I I 
 
 1915 1 .84] 
 
 1916 ! 1.961 
 
 1917 1 2.851 
 
 1918 1 .961 
 
 1919 1 3.441 
 
 ! 1 
 
 1920 1 5.011 
 
 1921 1 5.13! 
 
 1922 1 6.32| 
 
 1923 i 4.341 
 
 1924 1 j 
 
 I I 
 
 1925 1 I 
 
 1926 1 I 
 
 3.64 
 
 3.97 
 
 3.18 
 
 2.25 
 
 6.43 
 
 8.14 
 
 7.69 
 
 4.34 
 
 2.75 
 
 3.28 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.96 
 
 5.78 
 
 4.26 
 
 1.93 
 
 3.261 
 
 1.54| 
 
 I 
 1.541 
 1.651 
 2.391 
 4.29| 
 3.711 
 
 I 
 3.64| 
 2.071 
 2.751 
 4.40| 
 6.24| 
 
 I 
 3.44| 
 5.061 
 4.90] 
 
 2.83| 
 2.221 
 
 I 
 1.3 5 j 
 1.641 
 4.761 
 5.391 
 2.501 
 
 I 
 4.421 
 4.81| 
 5.05| 
 2.391 
 
 5.78| 
 6.061 
 
 I 
 
 4.22] 
 1.89] 
 4.181 
 3.191 
 3.411 
 
 I 
 4.41i 
 2.70[ 
 4.02| 
 7.761 
 4.011 
 
 I 
 4.961 
 1.92| 
 3.84i 
 3.09] 
 2.30i 
 
 I 
 6.991 
 4.69! 
 4.22| 
 5.21! 
 5.22! 
 
 I 
 4.99! 
 2.09i 
 3.59! 
 4.33| 
 
 I 
 
 5.31 
 4.19 
 5.86 
 3.45 
 2.26 
 
 2.77 
 3.881 
 
 4.57i 
 4.341 
 
 2.75! 
 
 4.41 
 3.31 
 8.01 
 2.86 
 
 3.09! 
 
 I 
 3.391 
 3.251 
 
 4.46| 
 
 2.861 
 
 4.15! 
 
 I 
 2.291 
 2.77| 
 3.271 
 2.491 
 2.611 
 
 I 
 4.79| 
 5.561 
 5.48 
 3.49 
 4.61 
 
 I 
 2.15i 
 3.75| 
 1.491 
 3.50! 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.011 
 3.861 
 1.921 
 1.461 
 
 I 
 5.36| 
 6.35! 
 
 3.45| 
 2.931 
 
 3.741 
 I 
 4.191 
 2.39| 
 4.79! 
 3.72| 
 4.621 
 1 
 4.861 
 2.36! 
 5.72! 
 3.401 
 4.5^2-1 
 
 I 
 4.111 
 2.34! 
 4.261 
 2.23! 
 1.491 
 
 I 
 6.691 
 1.251 
 2.86 
 2.38| 
 1.93J 
 
 2.471 
 1.841 
 3. 
 
 2.85 
 4.74| 
 2.37 
 .98 
 1.77 
 
 2.85 
 2.80 
 1.12 
 
 4.411 
 
 2.57! 
 
 I 
 3.87! 
 1.84| 
 4.37| 
 4.461 
 4.071 
 
 I 
 3.45! 
 3.981 
 5.471 
 2.451 
 2.22| 
 
 I 
 2.701 
 4.191 
 4.041 
 2.37[ 
 3.43^ 
 
 6.-09' 
 
 4.151 
 2.66! 
 3.821 
 2.87 1 
 
 2.9ll 
 5.121 
 
 1.70| 
 
 ! 
 I 
 
 2.74 
 1.07 
 1.97 
 3.07 
 4.94 
 
 2.88 
 5.46 
 1.02 
 4.86 
 2.04 
 
 3.55 
 1.96 
 4.07 
 3.79 
 5.05 
 
 3.08 
 5.00 
 2.64 
 1.29 
 3.69 
 
 4.54 
 8.74 
 2.88 
 2.94 
 3.83 
 
 I / 
 
 4.22 
 2.92 
 2.61 
 3.77 
 3.57 
 
 2.70 
 6.62 
 1.94 
 
246 
 
 CORN AX!) ("0RX-(;R0\VIXG 
 
 
 Illinois Temperature in 
 
 Degrees Fahrenheit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 »-5 
 
 >-> 
 
 3 
 1-0 
 
 he 
 < 
 
 S 
 
 02 
 
 1890 
 
 J^'^ 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 33.11 
 34.01 
 35.91 
 38.01 
 
 45.8 
 
 39.0 
 35.6 
 39.5 
 43.4 
 34.3 
 
 35.2 
 39.5 
 43.1 
 45.5 
 40.0 
 
 45.4 
 31.1 
 47.7 
 44.6 
 39.4 
 
 51.9 
 41.9 
 30.9 
 37.4 
 38.3 
 
 35.5 
 38.6 
 42.0 
 
 47.4 
 42.7 
 
 42.3 
 50.0 
 42.9 
 37.2 
 
 t 
 1 
 
 1 
 53.11 
 53.8 
 49.4 
 50.6 
 53.8 
 
 54.8 
 59.0 
 50.4 
 49.6 
 53.8 
 
 53.5 
 50.0 
 
 50.8 
 52.8 
 46.8 
 
 51.9 
 55.3 
 44.1 
 52.5 
 50.3 
 
 53.4 
 50.0 
 53.4 
 
 52.4 
 52.7 
 
 58.9 
 50.9 
 49.8 
 47.9 
 53.4 
 
 47.3 
 55.6 
 53.9 
 51.2 
 
 1 
 59.3 
 59.2 
 58.6 
 59.3 
 61.5 
 
 63.8 
 69.5 
 59.3 
 62.2 
 64.0 
 
 64.8 
 61.6 
 67.2 
 65.2 
 62.2 
 
 63.1 
 63.8 
 56.7 
 63.3 
 60.3 
 
 58.0 
 68.2 
 64.8 
 62.9 
 65.3 
 
 59.8 
 63.6 
 56.6 
 67.1 
 59.8 
 
 61.4 
 65.5 
 66.5 
 60.9 
 
 1 
 
 75.4 
 72.0 
 71.7 
 72.3 
 75.0 
 
 74.8 
 71.4 
 71.0 
 73.3 
 73.3 
 
 71.1 
 74.9 
 69.6 
 66.3 
 69.7 
 
 72.6 
 70.5 
 68.4 
 70.5 
 71.9 
 
 70.1 
 75.5 
 68.4 
 73.9 
 
 75.5 
 
 68.5 
 67.2 
 68.5 
 72.1 
 75.0 
 
 72.1 
 76.6 
 73.9 
 73.2 
 
 75.9 
 
 71.0 
 74.3 
 77.8 
 76.3 
 
 74.1 
 75.2 
 77.0 
 75.5 
 75.3 
 
 75.5 
 82.2 
 76.2 
 75.9 
 73.2 
 
 73.1 
 
 73.8 
 75.7 
 75.4 
 73.4 
 
 76.3 
 76.2 
 
 75.7 
 78.3 
 79.0 
 
 72.8 
 80.8 
 75.1 
 
 1 73.8 
 78.7 
 
 1 74.5 
 1 80.7 
 i 75.0 
 
 70.5 
 71.6 
 73.4 
 
 72.7 
 74.7 
 
 75.0 
 73.3 
 71.7 
 73.8 
 76.3 
 
 79.8 
 74.8 
 71.9 
 72.7 
 70.8 
 
 75.0 
 76.3 
 72.9 
 74.0 
 
 77.2 
 
 73.3 
 73.2 
 72.6 
 
 78.1 
 76.0 
 
 67.7 
 77.0 
 71.8 
 78.8 
 73.6 
 
 72.6 
 74.2 
 75.1 
 
 1 
 
 61.9 
 
 ]891 
 
 
 > 
 
 69.4 
 
 1892 
 
 <^^ 
 
 
 65.1 
 
 1893 
 
 
 67.9 
 
 1894 
 
 ^6» ' 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 67.5 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V0.7 
 6\j.9 
 71.3 
 69.3 
 65.4 
 
 69.4 
 66.7 
 63.0 
 64.8 
 67.3 
 
 68.3 
 70.7 
 65.7 
 70.4 
 65.0 
 
 66.9 
 
 1911 
 
 
 
 69.6 
 
 1912 
 
 
 
 67.9 
 
 ]913 
 
 
 
 67.1 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 . .. 
 
 
 
 66.8 
 
 68.5 
 65.1 
 
 1917 
 
 
 
 65.0 
 
 1918 .... 
 
 1919 .... 
 
 1920 .... 
 
 1921 .... 
 1922 
 
 
 
 60.0 
 69.9 
 
 69.7 
 71.6 
 70.3 
 
 1923 .... 
 
 1924 .... 
 
 1925 .... 
 
 1926 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 Absorption of water, 167 
 Acclimatization, 19 
 Acids in silage, 81 
 Acres per day 
 
 Cultivated, 58 
 
 Planted, 51 
 
 Prepared, 44 
 Adaptation, 18-21 
 
 Changes in corn, 19 
 
 Effect of acclimatization, 19 
 
 Home-grown seed, IS 
 
 Use of unadapted seed, 20 
 Adding water to silage, 83 
 Africa, corn growing in, 220 
 Age of seed, 24 
 Air, 168 
 Alcohol, 9 
 
 Aleurone layer, 177 
 American origin, 1-6 
 American stalk borers, 132 
 Angumois grain moth, 133 
 Aphis, 124 
 
 Argentina, corn growing in, 215 
 Army worm, 130 
 Arrangement of leaves, 174 
 Ash. 96 
 
 Asia, corn growing in, 1, 220 
 August weather, 15 
 Automobiles, run by alcohol, 8 
 
 Barnyard manure, 37 
 
 Benefits of yield tests, 203 
 
 Beverly, reference to corn in Virginia, 
 
 144 
 Binder twine hanger, 30 
 Bill-bug, 129 
 Biological origin, 1 
 Birds, 134 
 
 Black, Clyde, 145, 158 
 Blade of leaf, 174 
 "Blind"' plowing, 56 
 Bloody Butcher, 164 
 Boone County AVhite, 158 
 Borers, 132, 133 
 Botanical characteristics, 170-178 
 
 Flowers, 174 
 
 Kernels, 177 
 
 Leaves, 174 
 
 Roots, 171-173 
 
 Stalks, 173 
 
 Suckers, 173 
 Brace roots, 172 
 Brachytic corn, 147 
 Branched ears, 147 
 Breeding, 179-188 
 
 Cross, 181 
 
 Ear-row, 181 
 
 Inbreeding, 182-188 
 
 Selection, 179 
 Brown, reference to early corn types 
 
 144 
 Burnett, L. C, 158 
 Burning stalks, 37 
 By-products, 206-211 
 
 Calcium, 169 
 
 Calibrating the planter, 46 
 
 Calico corn, 164 
 
 Carbohydrates, 96 
 
 Carbon, 168 
 
 Carbon dioxide, 81 
 
 Carbon disulphide fumigation, 133 
 
 Carrying capacity of fields, 88 
 
 Cart, seed corn, 26 
 
 Cash grain, 104 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Feeding, 96 
 
 Harvesting with, 90 
 Cause of dent, 142 
 Center of production, 9 
 Chambers, J. M., 4 
 Changes in corn not adapted, 19 
 Characters, Mendelian, 19' 
 Characteristics of 
 
 Good silage, 85 
 
 Growth, 167 
 Checked corn, 46 
 Chemical composition, 96 
 Chinch bug, 128 
 Chromosomes, 193 
 Classification 
 
 Botanical, 140 
 
 Market, 101, 102 
 Cliff Dwellers, 1 
 Climate, 8 
 Clover, 37 
 Cob products, 211 
 Cob pipes, 211 
 Coix, 142 
 Cold nights, 17 
 Colonists, 1-5 
 Colors, 195 
 Columbus, 1, 4 
 Commercial 
 
 Feeds, 206-211 
 
 Fertilizers, 38 
 
 Products, 206-211 
 Companion crops, 87 
 
 Cowpeas, 94 
 
 Pumpkins, 95 
 
 Rape, 93 
 
 Soy beans, 87, 91-93 
 Composition, 96 
 Conditions of germination, 11 
 
248 
 
 CORN AND CORN-GROWING 
 
 Constitution, 167 
 Continuous corn growing, 35 
 Continents, 212-220 
 Control of 
 
 Diseases, 135-140 
 
 Insects, 123-134 
 
 Weeds, 61 
 Co-operative elevators, 102 
 Corn Belt 
 
 American, 9, 10 
 
 Argentine, 9, 10 
 
 Center of, 9, 10 
 
 Importance of corn in, S, 9 
 
 Varieties of, 157-166 
 Corn bill-bug, 129 
 Corn-hog ratios, 115-118 
 
 Based on Chicago values, 116 
 
 Based on farm values, 117 
 
 Close relationship, 115 
 Corn Products Company, 210 
 Corn root aphis, 124 
 Corn root worm, 125 
 Cost of production, 119-122 
 
 In 1922, 242 
 
 By sections of the country, 242 
 
 Man and horse labor, 119 
 
 Owner's, 120 
 
 Reducing, 120 
 
 Share tenant's, 119 
 
 Silage, 121 
 
 Variation of, 119 
 Cost of testing seed, 33 
 Co?ts, reducing, 120 
 Cotton states, corn growing in, 212 
 Countries, distribution of corn, 157 
 Country elevators, 101-103 
 Country Gentleman sweet corn, 176 
 Cowpeas, 94 
 Cracked corn, 105 
 "Cracker-jack," 152 
 Cribs, 67, 71 
 Crop rotations, 35 
 Cross breeding, 181 
 Cross pollination, 181* 
 Crows, 134 
 Crude fiber, 97 
 Cultivating, 52-58 
 
 Acres per day, 58 
 
 Depth of, 57 
 
 Effect on soil, 53, 57 
 
 Listed corn, 57 
 
 Methods, 57 
 
 Number of times, 57 
 
 Reasons for, 52, 53 
 
 Reducing the cost, 58 
 
 Ways, 57 
 Cultivators, 54 
 Cut-worms, 127 
 
 Damping-off, 139 
 
 Danube Basin, corn growing in, 218 
 
 December future corn prices, 103 
 
 Definitions 
 
 Fodder, 75 
 
 Grades, 105 
 
 Silage, 81 
 
 Stover, 78 
 Democrat corn, 97 
 Dent corn, 142 
 Depth of 
 
 Cultivation, 57 
 
 Planting, 50 
 Detasseling, 186-188 
 Development of the plant, 167-169 
 
 Germination, 167 
 
 Growth, 167 
 Differential, price, 100 
 Digestible nutrients, 96 
 Diplodia, 137 
 Disking, 40 
 Diseases, 135-140 
 
 Diplodia, 137 
 
 Fusarium, 137 
 
 Miscellaneous, 139 
 
 Smut, 135 
 Disease resistant corn, 138 
 Distance between rows, 56 
 Distillation products, 210 
 Distribution of varieties, 157 
 Double listing, 48 
 Drilled corn, 47 
 Drouth resisting, 12, 15 
 Dry fodder, 78 
 
 Dry process of manufacture, 206 
 Dyes, 211 
 
 Early corn culture, 5, 6 
 Early history, 1, 3, 4 
 Early types, 1 
 Ear, 177 
 
 Ear-row breeding, 181 
 Ear w'orm, 131 
 Elements, 167, 168 
 Elevating, 66 
 Elevators, 101 
 Endosperm, 176 
 Epidermis, 173 
 Essentials of 
 
 Good plowing, 42 
 
 Germination, 167 
 
 Growth, 167 
 Euchlaena, 142 
 European corn borer, 132 
 Europe, corn growing in, 212-220 
 Evolution, 2 
 Exports, 225, 226 
 
 Family, 140 
 
 Fat, 96 
 
 Federal grades, 104 
 
 Feeding, 96-98 
 
 Feeding value of soft corn, 74 
 
 Female flowers, 174 
 
 Fermented products, 211 
 
 Fertility, 35 
 
 Fertilization, 176 
 
INDEX 
 
 249 
 
 Fertilizers, 37, 38 
 Fibrous roots, 170 
 Filling the silo, 82 
 Flakes, 207 
 Flint corn, 146 
 Flour, 207 
 Flour corn, 147 
 Flowering habits, 174 
 Flowers, 174 
 Fodder, 75-79 
 
 Harvesting, 77 
 
 Losses in, 77 
 
 Planting, 76 
 
 Uses, 77 
 
 Varieties, 75 
 Food value, 74 
 Foreign countries, 212-220 
 Foreign material in corn, 105 
 Fossil ear, 2 
 Freed White Dent, 163 
 Freezing, injury by, 24 
 Frequency of cultivation, 57 
 Frost, 15 
 Fumigation, 133 
 Funk Yellow Dent, 164 
 Furrow opening, 48 
 Fusarium, 13? 
 Futures, 103 
 
 Gama grass, 2 
 Genus, 142 
 
 Geographical origin, 1 
 Geography of corn prices, 112 
 Germ, 177 
 Germination, 11 
 Gloves, husking, 64 
 Gluten feed, 207 
 Golden Glow, 162 
 Gourd-seed corn, 3, 143 
 Grades, market, 104, 105 
 Grading seed, 33 
 Grain act, 104 
 Grain weevil, 133 
 Grass family, 142 
 Grasshoppers, 131 
 Grooves of the stalk, 173 
 Groups of weeds, 61-63 
 Growth essentials, 167-169 
 
 Heat, 168 
 
 Light, 168 
 
 Plant food, 168 
 
 Vigor, 167 
 
 Water, 167 
 Growing corn outside of the Corn Belt, 
 212-220 
 
 Africa, 220 
 
 Asia, 220 
 
 Argentina, 215 
 
 Cotton states, 212 
 
 Danube Basin, 218 
 
 Mexico, 219 
 
 South Africa, 220 
 
 Western Europe, 219 
 
 Growing season, 8, 11, 12 
 Grubs, 126 
 
 Hairy corn, 147 
 Hangers, seed corn, 29, 30 
 Hariot, Thomas, 4 
 Harrowing, 42 
 Harshberger, J. W., 2 
 Harvesting, 64-69 
 
 For fodder, 77 
 
 In the ear by hand, 65 
 
 In the ear by machine, 65 
 
 With live stock, 86-90 
 Heat, 8 
 
 Heat and rapidity of growth, 11 
 Heat-damaged kernels, 105 
 Hedging, 102-104 
 Heredity, 189-198 
 Heterozygosis, 191 
 History, 1-7 
 
 Hog-corn ratios, 115-118 
 Hogging down, 86-89 
 
 Advantages, 86 
 
 Carrying capacity of corn, 88 
 
 Disadvantages, 86 
 
 Principle of, 87 
 Supplements necessary for, 87 
 
 Variety of corn to use, 87 
 Hogue Yellow Dent, 162 
 Home-grown seed, 18, 20 
 Homozygosis. 191 
 Hook, husking, 64 
 Horse labor, 119 
 Horses, harvesting with, 90 
 Husking 
 
 By hand, 64 
 
 By machine, 65 
 Husk-pile silage, 156 
 Husks, 177 
 Hydrocyanic gas, 133 
 
 Illinois rainfall month by month, 245 
 Illinois temperature by months, 246 
 Importance of corn 
 
 In the Corn Belt, 8, 9 
 
 In the United States, 8, 9 
 Imports, 226 
 Importing seed, 21 
 Inbreeding, 182-188 
 Indian corn growing, 4, 5 
 Influence of weeds on yield, 59 
 Insects, 123-134 
 
 Angumois grain moth, 133 
 
 Army worm, 130 
 
 American stalk borers, 132 
 
 Chinch bug, 128 
 
 Corn bill-bug, 129 
 
 Corn ear worm, 131 
 
 Corn root aphis, 124 
 
 Corn root worm, 125 
 
 Cut worm, 127 
 
 European corn borer, 132 
 
 Grasshopper, 131 
 
(ORX AND (X)RX-GROWIXG 
 
 Mediterranean flour moth, 133 
 
 Weevil, 133 
 
 White grub worm, 126 
 
 Wire worm, 123 
 Internode, 173 
 Iowa Corn Yield Test, 204 
 Iowa rainfall month by month, 243 
 Iowa temperature by months, 244 
 Iowa State Agricultural Society, 4 
 Iron, 169 
 Jap popcorn, 150 
 Jobbers, 47 
 Job's tears, 142 
 Johnson County White, 162 
 Judging, 199-201 
 June weather, 11 
 July weather, 11-15 
 
 Kansas Sunflower, 160 
 Kernel, 177 
 
 Kiesselbach, T. A., 174 
 Kinds of 
 
 Cultivators, 54 
 
 Silos, 81 
 Krug corn, 158 
 
 Labor cost, 119 
 
 Later history, 5, 6 
 
 Lateral-branched corn, 147 
 
 "Laying by," 55 
 
 Leaming, 159 
 
 Leaves, 174 
 
 Length of season, 9 
 
 Level cultivation, 57 
 
 Life history of insects, 123, 134 
 
 Light, 168 
 
 Ligule, 174 
 
 Line elevators, 101-102 
 
 Linkage, 193 
 
 Listed corn 
 
 Cultivation, 57 
 
 Planting, 45-51 
 Live stock, harvesting with, 86-90 
 Lorain on early corn types, 143-144 
 Low testing seed, 33 
 
 Machine busker, 65 
 Magnesium, 168 
 Male flowers, 174 
 Man labor, 119 
 
 Manufactured products, 206-211 
 Manure, 37 
 Market grades, 104 
 Marketing, 99-105 
 
 Federal grades, 104 
 
 From farm to local elevator, 99 
 
 Price differential, 100 
 
 Primary corn markets, 99 
 
 Selling at Chicago, 102 
 
 Types of country elevators, 101 
 McCulloch, Fred, 158 
 Measuring 
 
 Cribs, 68 
 
 Silage, 85 
 
 Wagons, 68 
 Mechanical structure of kernel, 177 
 Mendelian characters, 189 
 Mesocotyl, 172 
 
 Mexico, corn growing in, 2, 219 
 Million-dollar rains, 13 
 Minnesota 13, 52 
 Mixed corn, 105 
 Modified rag doll, 138 
 Moisture in corn, 25 
 Moldy corn, 73 
 Mound Builders, 1 
 
 Nitrogen, 169 
 Node, 173 
 Norsemen, 1 
 North America, 4-7 
 Northern corn root worm, 125 
 Northwestern Dent. 163 
 Number of stalks per hill, 49 
 Number of varieties, 157 
 Nutritive ratio, 96 
 
 Objects of cultivation, 53 
 Oil, 209 
 Origin of 
 
 Corn, 1, 2 
 
 Dent corn, 142 
 Other countries, 212-220 
 Oxygen, 168 
 
 Parks, W. F., 2 
 
 Parts of the plant, 170-177 
 
 Pasturing stalks, 68 
 
 Pearl popcorn, 150 
 
 Peg, husking, 64 
 
 Permanent roots, 172 
 
 Peru, 2 
 
 Phosphorus, 169 
 
 Picking seed, 22, 27 
 
 Pistillate flowers, 174 
 
 Plant, 170-177 
 
 Planter, calibrating the, 46 
 
 Plant foods, 168 
 
 Planting. 45-51 
 
 Acres per day, 51 
 
 Depth, 50 
 
 Distance between rows, 49 
 
 Furrow opening, 48 
 
 Listing, 48 
 
 Rate, 49 
 
 Replanting, 51 
 
 Surface, 47 
 
 Time, 51 
 Plant selection of seed, 23, 24 
 Plowing, 42 
 Pod corn, 147 
 Poison, 137 
 
 Poisoning of live stock, 73 
 Pollen, 176 
 ]\)llination, 176 
 Popcorn, 149-152 
 
INDEX 
 
 251 
 
 Amount grown, 152 
 
 Cribbing and shelling, 151 
 
 Cultural methods, 150 
 
 Marketing, 151 
 
 Types, 149 
 
 Uses, 152 
 
 Why it pops, 149 
 Potassium, 169 
 Power shellers, 68 
 Precipitation, 13 
 Preparation of the seed bed, 40-44 
 
 Sod, 42 
 
 Stalk ground, 40 
 
 Stubble ground, 41 
 Preserving silage, 84 
 Price of seed corn, 22 
 Prices, 107 
 
 General price level, 110 
 
 Geography of prices, 112 
 
 Hogs, 109 
 
 Previous crops, lOS 
 
 Shrinkage, 110 
 
 Size of crops, 107 
 
 Time of year, 110 
 
 Value, 114 
 
 Wages of city labor, 111 
 
 Weather, 109 
 
 Wheat, 107 
 Proclamation, seed corn, 22 
 Production, 6, 7, 227, 228 
 Products, 206-211 
 Prolific corns, 166 
 Pumpkins, 95 
 Purple-leaved corn, 147 
 
 Quack grass, 62 
 
 Quick method of planting, 47 
 
 Rag doll tester, 31 
 Rainfall, 11-17 
 Ramosa corn, 147 
 Rape, 93, 94 
 
 Method of planting, 94 
 
 Varieties, 94 
 Rate of planting, 49 
 Ratios, corn-hog, 115-118 
 Relation of 
 
 Climate, 9 
 
 Soil, 39 
 Replanting, 51 
 Ridge cultivation, 58 
 Roasting ears, 153 
 Rodents, 134 
 Root rots, 138 
 Roots, 170-173 
 
 Brace, 172 
 
 Permanent, 172 
 
 Temporary, 171 
 Rotation of crops, 35 
 Roughage, 98 
 Rust, 139 
 
 Salting soft corn, 72 
 
 Score card, 201 
 Seed bed, 41 
 Seed corn, 22-30 
 
 Adaptation, 18-21 
 
 Butting and tipping, 33 
 
 Buying, 20 
 
 Cart, 26 
 
 Foreign, 19 
 
 Freezing injury, 24 
 
 Grading, 33 
 
 Home-grown, 18 
 
 .Judging, 199-201 
 
 Kind to select, 26 
 
 Method of selection, 26 
 
 Picking, 22, 23 
 
 Plant selection, 26 
 
 Price, 22 
 
 Proclamation, 22 
 
 Shelling, 33 
 
 Storing, 28-30 
 
 Testing, 31-33 
 Selection breeding, 197 
 Selection of seed, 26 
 Self-fertilization, 176 
 Sheeping-dowm, 89 
 Shelling, 68 
 Shipping, 102 
 Shocking fodder, 77 
 Shew corn, 199-201 
 Shows, 202 
 Shredding, 73, 78 
 Shrinkage, 67 
 Silage, 70, 80-85 
 
 Characteristics of good, 85 
 
 Compared to other, 85 
 
 Culture of corn for, 82 
 
 Defined, 81 
 
 Frosted corn, 84 
 
 Varieties for, 70 
 
 Yields of, 82 
 Silks, 176 
 Silos, 80-85 
 
 Pilling, 82 
 
 Kinds of, 81 
 
 Number of, 80 
 . Opening, 84 
 
 Refilling, 83 
 
 Preventing waste in, 84 
 Silver King, 160 
 Silvermine, 159 
 Single listing, 48 
 Smother crops, 60 
 Smut, 135 
 Snapping, 65 
 
 Sod ground, preparation, 42 
 Soft (flour^ corn, 147 
 Soft corn, 70-74 
 
 Classification of, 70 
 
 Cribbing, 71 
 
 Ensiling, 70 
 
 Feeding, 73 
 
 Food value of, 74 
 
 Marketing, 73 
 
252 
 
 CORN AND CORN GROWING 
 
 Salting, 12 
 
 Shocking, 71 
 
 Shredding, 73 
 Soft starch, 178 
 Soiling crop, 77 
 Soils, 35-39 
 
 Barnyard manure, 37 
 
 Clover, 37 
 
 Commercial fertilizers, 38 
 
 Crop rotations, 35 
 
 Plow under stalks, 37 
 
 Proper handling, 38 
 South Africa, corn growing, 220 
 Southern corn root worm, 125 
 Soy beans, 87, 91-93 
 
 Effect on corn crop, 91 
 
 Inoculation, 92 
 
 Method of planting, 91 
 
 Rate of planting, 92 
 
 Varieties, 92 
 Spikelets, 174 
 Spread of growth, 8 
 Stages of ripening, 177 
 Stalk, 173 
 Stalk borer, 132 
 Stalk cutter, 40 
 Stalk ground, 40 
 Stalks, number per hill, 49 
 Staminate flower, 174 
 Stand, 49 
 Starch, 178 
 
 Starchy sweet corn, 147 
 Statistics, 221-242 
 St. Charles White, 161 
 Stigma, 176 
 
 Stock, harvesting with, 86-90 
 Storage, seed corn, 28-30 
 Stored corn 
 
 Heating of, 20 
 
 Insects injurious to, 133 
 
 Shrinkage of, 68 
 Storing seed 
 
 Methods of, 28-30 
 
 Place for, 28 
 Stover, 78 
 
 Stowell's Evergreen, 153, 154 
 Striped-leaved corn, 147 
 Structure of plant, 170-177 
 Stubble ground, 41 
 Suckers, 173 
 Sugar, 208, 209 
 Supplementing corn, 98 
 Surface planting, 47 
 Sweet corn, 153-156 
 
 Canning, 155 
 
 Climate, 154 
 
 Cultural methods, 155 
 
 Difference from field corn, 153 
 
 Easy on the land, 154 
 
 Harvesting, 155 
 
 Husk pile silage, 156 
 
 Marketing, 155 
 
 Seed, 154 
 
 Soil, 154 
 Statistics, 156 
 Uses, 153 
 Varieties, 153 
 Syrup. 210 
 
 Tassel, 176 
 Tassel-ear corn, 147 
 Technique of inbreeding, 186-188 
 Temperature, 11-17 
 Temperature for germination, 11 
 Temporary roots, 171 
 Teosinte, 143 
 Terminal elevators, 99 
 Testing seed corn, 31-33 
 Thickness of planting, 49 
 Tillage, 40-51 
 Time required for 
 
 Cultivating, 58 
 
 Harvesting, 69 
 
 Husking, 69 
 
 Planting, 51 
 
 Preparation of seed bed, 44 
 Time to 
 
 Pick seed, 23 
 
 Plant, 51 
 Tip cap, 177 
 Transpiration, 174 
 Tribe, 142 
 Tripsaceae, 142 
 Tripsacum, 142 
 Types, 3, 142, 147, 210 
 
 Unadapted seed, 20 
 United States, 221-232 
 Unloading, method of, 83 
 Uses 
 
 Commercial products, 206-211 
 
 Feed, 96-98 
 Utilization of 
 
 Fodder, 77 
 
 Soft corn, 70 
 
 Value, 8, 97 
 Value of silage, 85 
 Varieties, 157 
 
 Bloody Butcher, 164 
 
 Boone County White, 158 
 
 Calico, 164 
 
 Freed White Dent, 163 
 
 Funk Yellow Dent, 164 
 
 Golden Glow, 162 
 
 Hogue Yellow Dent, 162 
 
 .Johnson County White, 102 
 
 Kansas Sunflower, 160 
 
 Leaming, 159 
 
 Minnesota 13, 52, 162 
 
 Miscellaneous, 165 
 
 Northwestern Dent, 163 
 
 Popcorn, 149-152 
 
 Reid Yellow Dent, 157 
 
 St. Charles White, 161 
 
 Silver King, 160 
 
INDEX 
 
 253 
 
 Silvermine, 159 
 
 Soft corn, 166 
 
 Sweet corn, 153-156 
 
 Wimple Yellow Dent, 163 
 Ventilators, crib, 72 
 Viability of seed, 23 
 Vigor, 167 
 Vitamines, 97 
 Vitality of seed, 24 
 Wages of city labor and corn prices, 
 
 111 
 Water, 167 
 Water in silage, 83 
 Waxy corn, 147 
 Weather 
 
 August, 15 
 
 Cold nights, 1-7 
 
 Frost, 15 
 
 Drouth, 15 
 
 Heat, 16 
 
 Illinois, since 1890, 245-246 
 
 Iowa, since 1890, 243-244 
 
 June, 11 
 
 July, 11, 14 
 
 Prices and, 14 
 
 Summary of, 17 
 Weeder, 54 
 Weeds, 59-63 
 
 Classification, 60 
 
 Control, 61 
 
 Influence on yield, 59 
 
 Names, 60 
 
 Smother crops for, 60 
 Weevil, 133 
 
 Western Europe, corn growing in, 219 
 Wet process of manufacture, 207 
 Wheat nrices, influence on corn prices, 
 
 107 
 White corn, 105 
 White grub worm, 126 
 White Rice popcorn, 150 
 Wild grass, 2 
 Wimple Yellow Dent, 163 
 Wind pollination, 176 
 Wire hangers, 29 
 Wire-worm, 123 
 
 Woodford county yield test, 203 
 World war and corn, 8 
 
 Xenia, 190 
 
 Yellow corn, 105 
 Yields 
 
 Corn, 33, 203 
 
 Silage, 82 
 Yield tests, 203-205 
 
 Iowa, 204 
 
 Woodford county, 203 
 
 Zea Mays, 142 
 
WmmSSm^^^^^^^^^^^^^m