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PROBLEMS, PROJECTS, AND EXPERIMENTS
IN BIOLOGY
ATWOOD
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
CIVIC AND ECONOMIC
BIOLOGY
"This latest addition to civic biology offers a new
viewpoint in science teaching, and in giving prom-
inence to the practical phases of the science" —
General Science Quarterly (Mass.)
COMPARATIVE VERTEBRATE
DISSECTION
This volume is the result of many requests from
teachers for a manual "different" from those now in
use. The book prepares the student for a continua-
tion of the study to its logical conclusion in uni-
versity courses.
P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO.
PHILADELPHIA
PROBLEMS, PROJECTS,
AND
EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
BY
WM. H. ATWOOD, M. A., M. S.
MILWAUKEE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
55 ILLUSTRATIOxNS
PHILADELPHIA
P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO
1012 WALNUT STREET
^
.c^
Copyright, 1923 by P. Blakistox's Son & Co.
PRINTED IN U. S. A. .
BY THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
n> C. State Cof/eg
FOREWORD TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTl
The contents of this manual are arranged to correspond In
sequence with the author's Civic and Economic Biology, but it has
been assembled with the thought in mind thai it may be used with
other texts. If copies of Civic and Economic Biology arc available
as references, this manual should be adapted to any course in biology,
either with or without a special text. With this in mind, referent
to various biological works have been placed below the sectional
headings. It is the author's hope that the references cited will be
available to the students in the laboratory.
Laboratory work is naturally so dependent upon conditions which
obtain, both within the laboratory and in the environment of tin-
school, that it is best to have a considerable variety of exercis
suggested from which selections may be made. It is hardly to be
expected that all of the exercises suggested here will be worked out,
or that they will be taken up, in all cases, in the order given. They
are all workable, and something of value may be learned from each.
Experiments which often fail, or give indifferent results, have been
eliminated. Those which have been selected should stimulate
thought. A problem requires thought for its solution.
Class spirit and cooperation are stimulated if student commits
are appointed or elected to assist the instructor. Student- should
feel that they are as reponsible for the success oi the course as the
teacher. The membership of the committee- should be changed
from time to time so that each student will serve in a variety oi
activities. If the class is well organized, a diversity of work may
go on at one time; but under unfavorable condition- it will be more
necessary to keep all members working at the same problem at a
given time.
Variation in the content and method has been especially sought.
Students soon lose interest in a drawing course, or a laboratory
course in essay writing. Teachers also enjoy a course more it it
can be made to varv in method and content from year to J
'W« J* )
vi FOREWORD TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
There should be a difference between a problem, a project, and an
experiment; but the difference is more in the point of view of the
student and teacher than in the exercise itself. Do not make
experiments of mere demonstrations. It is not necessary that all
things be taught by the problem method. Simple things should be
simply taught.
The directions are stated very briefly. The student should
be given an opportunity to make mistakes. They should have an
educational value. Directions which are given in too great detail
eliminate opportunity for initiative. Students should ask few
questions of the teacher and should solve their own problems.
Quizzes should be frequent and should cover all reports, topics,
demonstrations, field trips, etc. A quiz is a review. Everything
should be reviewed. Students are responsible in the quiz for the
projects of others which have been presented to the class. Experi-
ence has shown that students study better if quizzes are frequent and
searching. Written work should be handed in daily, as it is ready,
and that which fails to equal the standard of the course should be
rewritten. Teachers and committees should return students'
papers promptly.
Advance preparation should be made for many laboratory
problems and projects. Look ahead in the manual and make
arrangements for such exercises. Seedlings require from two to
three weeks to sprout and start their growth. Paramecia cultures
should be started about two weeks before they are to be used. Some
materials which can be collected in the fall for winter use should be
carefully preserved. Reports and topics should be assigned in
advance and should be ready when the study with w r hich they are
connected is before the class.
The illustrations have been selected with great care as to their
teaching value and also for their scientific accuracy and artistic
qualities. Good illustrations are a stimulus to the student. Those
which have been borrowed are credited in the legends.
It is the hope of the author that the use of this manual will ensure
both enjoyment and efficiency to the courses in the biological sciences
where it is used.
Wm. H. At wood.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pace
i ORGANIZATION ,
2 INORGANIC MATTER 2
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING MATTER
4. ENVIRONMENT AND ADAPTATION 4
5. THE GOLDENROD, A TYPICAL PLANT
6. INSECT STUDY 6
7. THE CRAYFISH (CRAWFISH) id
8. WORK WITH ROOTS AND SOILS 14
9. PLANT STEMS AND FORESTRY
10. THE STRUCTURE AND WORK OF LEAVES 23
11. FOOD AND ITS USES
12. CHEMICAL FOOD TESTS
13. DIGESTION 36
14. RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION 39
15. TROPISMS AND RESPONSES 41
16. STUDIES OF PROTOZOANS 45
17. LESSONS WITH ALG^, MOSSES, AND FERNS 4 7
18. THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE PINE TREE
19. THE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FLOWER 50
20. CELL DIVISION
ai. THE LIFE HISTORY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
22. FRUITS AND SEED DISTRIBUTION
23. STUDIES IN PLANT PROPAGATION
24. SEEDS AND SEED GERMINATION 6a
25. LIFE HISTORIES OF ANIMALS
26. THE FROG
27. STUDIES ON THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANT I <>l DOMLsri-
CATED ANIMALS AND PLANTS
28. VARIATION AND HEREDITY AND THEIR APPLICATION I
PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING
29. EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS
vii
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
30. THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION 78
31. BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND MOLDS 79
32. BACTERIA AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF MAN 84
33. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS 87
34. WEEDS 88
35. PARASITIC WORMS 89
36. INSECT PESTS 90
37. RATS AND MICE 94
38. FISH AND POND LIFE 95
39. THE PERCH (DISSECTION) 96
40. BTRDS 98
PROBLEMS, PROJECTS
AND
EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
i. ORGANIZATION
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Preface and Study i.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chaps. I and IT.
Elementary Biology, Gruenberg, Preface and Chap. I.
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chap. I.
Hunter's Biologies, Preface and Chap. I.
The Teaching of Biology, Lloyd and Bigelovv.
Principles of Science Teaching, Twiss, Macmillan Co.
The Teaching Botanist, Ganong, Macmillan Co.
I. Soon after the beginning of the school year, it will he well to
hold an election and choose committees to attend to the business of
the class. The library committee should have charge of tin- books
and the bookcase. A good system of cataloguing should be insti-
tuted, and every book should always be in its place at the dose of the
day. The archives committee should have charge of all paper-
and reports which are produced by the members of the das The
museum committee should have charge of the museum cases and
should see that all specimens are kept in good order. The committee
in charge of apparatus should see that the equipment which belongs
to the department of biology is conserved and put away in u r ""d
order. The supplies committee should purchase for the instructor
such materials as are to be bought locally and should keep the
materials used in the course in good order. The committee on
ventilation and sanitation should assist the instructor in such matters
as lighting, fresh air, heating, cleanliness, etc. There should he Min-
or more committees in charge of the plants and animals which a
kept alive in the department. Are there any other commitl
which should be appointed? Remember that Loyalty t<> duty and
a wholesome spirit of cooperation are the prime essentials which
i
2 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
make for a successful course in biology. The class expects every
one to do his duty promptly.
2. INORGANIC MATTER
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atvvood, Study i.
Introductory chapters of other biologies.
2. Exhibit of Kinds of Matter.— The supplies committee should
arrange an exhibit of chemical elements, chemical compounds, and
minerals. Place them in three groups and label each specimen.
Make such remarks to the class as may seem appropriate, and have
the names of the specimens learned by the students.
Prepare another similar exhibit of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Understand that the chemical composition of living things and
their products is much more complex than that of minerals.
3. Crystallization. — Heat about a half cupful of water to boiling
and add as much copper sulphate as will dissolve in the boiling water.
Pour the liquid into a dish and let it cool. Watch the formation of
crystals of copper sulphate.
Dissolve some more copper sulphate in warm water and put
it away to evaporate slowly. The crystals which form in this way
should be larger. Why? Try to get crystals of the following by
this method: ammonium nitrate, sugar, salt, glucose, starch, glue,
potassium sulphate, potassium chlorate, and potassium dichromate.
Each student should not try all of the above mentioned materials,
but if each takes one, results may be compared. Do they all form
crystals? Are the crystals of each salt alike?
4. Draw diagrams of some of the crystals.
5. Irritability. — Pour a small amount of a solution of silver nitrate
into each of four test tubes. To the first add some sodium chloride
solution. To the second add some sodium bromide solution. To
the third add some sodium iodide solution, and leave the fourth as it
is. Place them in the sunlight. How long does it take to change
the color?
6. Report. — Some student may prepare a topic on the subject,
The Chemical Changes Produced by Light on Silver Salts. See a
chemistry, or a book on photography.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING MATTER
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING MATTER
See the same references as in the preceding se< tion.
7. Growth. — Committees or individuals may study some of the
following phenomena of growth and report to the clas
How rapidly do leaves come out of the hud? In what ways are
various leaves and flowers folded in buds? Do stems grow in
length after they are once ^_^___„_____
formed? How do they in- iff
crease their diameters, by
adding to the outside or
throughout the entire stem?
Do leaves reach a certain size
and then stop growing? Is
the color of young leaves
lighter or darker than old
ones? Which plants grow
the more rapidly, vines or
plants with heavy stems?
8. Plant some seeds and
note the growth of the roots.
Do they increase in diameter?
Do they grow only at the tips,
or throughout their entire
length? In a young seedling,
are the roots or the leaves the
more extensive?
9. How long does it take
the following animals to be-
come fully grown: fly, potato
beetle, snake, turtle, cow, sheep, dog, chicken, robin, man, elephant ' J
How long does it take the eggs of the following bird- to hate li : robin.
chicken, duck?
Compare the proportions of the parts of a young dog with those
an old one. How do they change as the puppy becomes a dog?
10. Irritability. — If a specimen of Mimosa is growing in the labora-
tory, touch its leaves and note how they respond. It no plant is
Fig. 1. — Diagram of a chamber to
phototn>i>ism. {Fundamental
Gager.)
4 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
available, plant some seeds and have one ready for observation
later.
Place a young, rapidly growing weed, or some other plant, in a
dark box with light admitted through only one side. After a few
davs note its response to light. Observe the leaves of the plants in
the windows and other places. How are their leaves arranged in
reference to the light?
Can a committee find a compass plant and bring it into the labora-
tory as an exhibit. Explain to the class just how it grew.
Let a committee experiment with earthworms to find if they
respond to light. Do they respond to a jar? To sound? Touch
one with a drop of water, then with salt water, then with a weak acid.
Compare results. Touch first the head and then the tail with a
toothpick and determine which end is the more sensitive. Place
one on a moist blotter on a dry board. Will it crawl off of the blot-
ter? Is it sensitive to dry surfaces? Report all of these results to
the class. Some of them may be repeated in the presence of the
class.
Other experiments on the responses of plants and animals will
be performed later in the course.
4. ENVIRONMENT AND ADAPTATION
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 2, 3, and 4.
Civic Biology, Hunter, Chaps. II and III.
11. Field Trip. — The class should be divided into troops of three
to six students each for the study of the various features of the
environment in the vicinity of the school. One group may study a
meadow, another a brook, another a pond, and another a woods.
Make out a plan of what you expect to study before you start.
Never go on a field trip without a notebook. Keep a record of what
you find. Note the conditions of light, heat, moisture, abundance
of plants and animals, soil, and the kinds of life found in each region.
Bring samples and specimens to the laboratory for exhibition and
discussion on the day following the excursion. Write lists on the
THE GOLDENROD -
board of the kinds of plants and animals found in ea< li lo( alii y and
compare.
Do not wear your best clothing on field trips. I sped to gel your
feet muddy. Those who visit a pond or brook should ha
to secure the small animals which live there. Water-tight \
should be provided to bring home the catch. Bags and baskets
will be convenient.
12. Project— Let each student of the class choose a plant or
animal and make a special study of its relation to temperature, water.
light, air, soil, food, and shelter. The results should be written
up and filed with the archives committee. Sonic of the- m<
interesting ones should be read to the class.
5. THE GOLDENROD, A TYPICAL PLANT
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 5 and Fig. 1 76.
Wild Flowers, Blanchan, Doubleday, Page & Co.
13. Field Trip. — Read Study 5 in Atwood 's Biology, and make
arrangements to go on a field trip to study the goldenrod or some
other typical plant.
Where do they grow? What kind of soil? What arc tin- light
and moisture conditions of their habitat? What other plant- u r row
with them? Are they more or less vigorous than their competitoi
Are they more or less numerous than all of the other kind- iA plants
in their vicinity? How do they compare in this respect with any
one kind? How do they rank in abundance as compared with each
of the other kinds of plants growing with them?
How tall is the highest plant which you can find? What gave it
this advantage? Does it bear more seeds than the othei What is
the average height of goldcnrods? Compare them with other plants
in their environment in this respect.
Note the color of the flowers. Estimate the Dumber ^\ individual
blossoms in a large and an average sized flower cluster. 1 some have
gone to seed, count the number of seeds to a flower and to a duster.
Scatter some seeds in the wind and watch them -ail. !»«• they sail
6 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
as well as the dandelion seeds? What is the advantage in having the
blossoms in a cluster?
Note how tall the stems are. Are they branched? Why would
it be poor economy to have them branched at the bottom?
How are the leaves arranged on the stem? Where are the ones
which are dying? Why do they die first? Note the shape of the
leaves. Does each get relatively more light than it would if they were
broad and large? Does this same principle hold for blades of grass?
Find a plant which is growing in loose soil and dig it up. Find its
underground stems and its roots. What is the color of each? Are
there any scales on the stems? What are the scales morpholog-
ically? Do you think much food could be stored underground?
How many plants would have grown from the one which you dug out
the next spring? What is the use of the underground stem?
Capture as many of the various insects inhabiting the goldenrod
as you can. There will be beetles, bees, flies, and butterflies.
Assign them to one of these groups. Have a separate receptacle
for each group and take them to the laboratory where students may
find what their names are as a project. What were the insects doing
on the goldenrod? Are any of them of any benefit to the plant?
Bring some goldenrod and other plants to the class-room for
reference during the quiz which follows the field trip.
6. INSECT STUDY
References
College Zoology, Hegner, Macmillan & Co.
General Zoology, Pearse, Henry Holt & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 6, 64, 65, and 66.
14. Laboratory Work.- -The grasshopper is the largest of the
common insects, and it is of a generalized type of structure. These
facts, together with its abundance, make it a favorite for laboratory
study as a typical insect. If the natural history of the insect is to
be studied, the bee is considered superior. See Atwood's Biology,
Study 6, also pp. 411 and 412. Large lubber grasshoppers may be
had from the dealers, or smaller ones may be caught locally.
INSEC1 STUDY
Make a sketch of the side view of the grasshopper to show the
features mentioned below. The body of an insect is divided into
three divisions —the head, thorax, and abdomen, bind the lai
compound eyes. Examine them with a lens to the facet
Can the grasshopper see in all directions at one time withoul movi
his head? The three simple eyes will be seen with the aid of a lei
One is in the middle of the face, and another before ea< h compound
eye. They appear as small beads.
The antennae are possessed of how many joints How great is
their range of movement?
Wd
^
ATAX
obd
omen
• compound e^e
ocellus | /pronotum j auditory or^an
"tarsus
Fig. 2. — External view of a grasshopper to show its parts. [ftet WaU
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin No. '■
The mouth parts are shown here and in Figs. 328 and 329 in
Atwood's Biology. Find them in your specimen and learn the
names of their parts. They may be arranged as in Fig, 329 and
drawn.
The thorax is composed of three parts (somites The first i>
called the collar. It is movable on the body. Note that it
bears the first pair of legs. The second division bears a pair of wings
and a pair of legs as does the third. The divisions ,,|' the thorax
are called the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax.
8
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Compare the two pairs of wings. Which pair does the
most of the flying? How does the grasshopper make its sounds?
Do you know how the katydid, cricket, and cicada make their
sounds?
Study the leg of an insect. The first two parts are small and
difficult to make out. They are the coxa and trochanter. The
femur is the largest part of the leg. It is followed
by the slender tibia, and the foot is the tarsus.
Compare the legs of the grasshopper with those
of other insects.
Draw an insects' leg and label the parts.
The abdomen is composed of rings (somites).
How many are there? The first ring is incom-
plete below in the grasshopper and contains the
ear. See Fig. 121 in Atwood's Biology.
15. Report. — How does the ear of the grass-
hopper work?
If a live specimen is available, its respiration
should be observed. The abdomen will be seen to
swell and contract as air is taken into the tracheal
system and let out again. See Figs. 33 and 96 in
Atwood's Biology. Count the spiracles along
each side of the abdomen. You should be able
to find- two on each side of the thorax also. An
ovopositor consisting of two or more spines is
usually found at the end of the abdomen of female
insects.
16. Report. — How do grasshoppers lay their
Fig. 3. — Mouth
parts of a grass-
hopper, m, Man-
dible; max, max-
illa; L, labium; p,
palps. (Elements
of Animal Biology,
Holmes.)
eggs
17. If it is desired to study the internal anatomy of an insect, a
committee may be asked to find suitable directions in a manual and
copy them on the board.
18. Exhibit. — The museum committee may prepare an exhibit
to show one or more insects of each of the common orders of the class
Insecta. Notes which state the differences which distinguish the
orders may be made to accompany the exhibit. The notations will
be somewhat like the following table:
[NSECT STUDY
Fig. 4. — The internal anatomy of the grasshopper. The regions of th
are: hd, Head; th, thorax; and ab, abdomen. The regions of tin-
tract are: tn, Mouth; oe, esophagus; p, pouch; g, gizzard; 1
s, stomach; i, ileum; c, colon; and r, rectum. Other parts arc: .;. Anteni
b, brain; ce, cement gland; d, duct of salivary glands; t, ex tubuli
h, heart; o, oviduct; ov, ovaries; sg, salivary glands; vg, ventral ganglia of m
system; w, wall of body. (Elementary Zoology, Galloway.)
Fig. 5. — Cross section of the body of the
ap, First joint of leg; bw, body-wall which is made up
muscles; c, gastric caeca; /*. heart; /. pa 1 ; of body-cavity; ph.
1-3, tracheal tubes; sg, salivary gland ventral |
mentary Zoology, Galloway.)
IO PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Aptera : >il\ ir fish; no wings, body covered with scales.
Ephemerida: May-flies; delicate four winged flies, two or three setae project
from the end of the body.
Odonata: dragon-flies and damsel-flies; four winged, long bodied insects.
Orthoptera: grasshoppers, crickets, roaches, katydids, walking-sticks, and
mantids; chewing mouth parts, straight wings.
Hemiptera: bugs, cicadas, scale insects; piercing mouth parts.
Lepidoptera : butterflies and moths; large scaly wings.
Diptera: flies and mosquitoes; only one pair of wings.
Hymenoptera: ants, bees, wasps, and ichneumon-flies; wings hooked together.
The best reference for this work is General Zoology, Pearse, Henry Holt and Co.
7. THE CRAYFISH (CRAWFISH)
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, pp. 30, 13S, and 142.
General Zoology, Linville and Kelly, Ginn & Cc.
Practical Zoology, Hegner, Macmillan Co.
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chap. XXII.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. XXVI.
New Essentials of Biology, Hunter, Chap. XVIII.
The laboratory work on the crayfish is given at this place in the manual, but
the needs of the course may require that it be studied elsewhere. No large
amount of space was given to this form in Atwood 's Biology because it can be
studied satisfactorily in the laboratory, and it is of little economic and civic
value. Ho vever, it has long been a favorite for laboratory dissection.
Crayfish may be taken from the ponds and brooks where they live by fastening
a piece of fat meat on the end of a string and casting it into the water. When the
animal seizes the meat, it may be drawn from the water before it has time to
"think it over" and let loose of the bait. They may be had, alive or preserved,
from the dealers. The lobster is better for dissection, because it is larger.
19. The live crayfish may be kept in shallow water in the labora-
tory indefinitely. They should be fed pieces of meat and bread.
Why must they be kept in shallow water? Must they be allowed an
opportunity to come to the surface? Why do they come to the
surface? How do they seize their food? How is it held while it is
being eaten? How does the crayfish walk? Which legs push and
which pull? Are the pinchers used in walking? How many legs are
there? Do they all have claws on their ends? Compare the legs
THE CRAYFISH j ,
with those of the grasshopper. Note how the feelers are used. How
many are there? The smaller ones arc called antennules, and the
larger are called antennae. Find the eyes. Can they be moved?
Find the large fin-like structure at the end of the tail. Thro*
crayfish in a vessel of deep water and learn how it swims. I >es4 ribe
the process. Does the crayfish prefer to hide under something oc
to remain out in the open? Take one out of the water and pla< e it
on the desk. How does it retreat? How docs it make a defei
when retreat is not possible? With a piece of glass tubing fon e some
red ink or other colored solution into the water near the head of
the crayfish. Note by this how the water circulates through the gill
chambers on the sides of the body. Watch the swirnrnerets in their
rhythmical movements under the abdomen (tail).
The dead crayfish will be colored red if it is preserved in formalin.
What are the natural colors of crayfish? Are they all of the same
color? Are their colors protective?
Note the two body divisions in the dead specimen. The head
and thorax are combined in one piece, called the cephalothorax.
The part commonly called the tail is the abdomen. The mouth
parts are more numerous than in the insects. The first pair are
hard and are called the mandibles. The second and third pair art-
called the first and second maxillae respectively. The three pairs
which follow are called maxillipeds. There are. then. >i\ pair- of
appendages which have to do with eating, but the posterior pair- are
not of so much importance as the anterior on< Tin- posterior
pairs also help in passing water over the u r ill<. Remove the mouth
parts and place them in a series on a sheet of paper. When they
are arranged have them inspected. It they are all perfect, th<
should be drawn and labeled. Not all students will succeed in get-
ting all of the parts out entire. They should be removed with the
greatest care with sharp pointed tweezers.
Draw a cheliped, a leg, a swimmeret, ami the telson.
The crayfish is a somited animal. Count the rings in theabdonu
The telson may or may not be counted, a- you like. Are then-
evidences of segmentation in the cephalothonu
Dissect the animal by opening the -hell (carapace- on the back
and cutting it away. The stomach is a lame sac in the head end
1 2
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
the body. Cut it open and find the "teeth" which it contains.
What are they used for? Just back of the stomach is the heart.
It is a mere sac with muscular walls. On the sides of the stomach
and heart are the reproductive organs. Nearer the legs and also
on the sides of the stomach are the halves of the pancreas. This is
a large glandular organ which secretes digestive juices. The green
glands are situated below the stomach on either side of the head.
I The glands are not always green.) They are excretory and dis-
charge their fluid through openings in the bases of the antennae.
Trace the intestine through the abdomen and note the strong muscles
through which it runs.
Fk;. 6. — Internal anatomy of the crayfish, a 1 , a 2 , Antennae; br, brain; d.l.,
duct of liver or pancreas; e, eye; g, green gland with opening at g 1 ; h, heart;
/, intestine; I, liver; m, mouth; ms, muscles; p, pericardium; r, rostrum; s, stom-
ach; sa, sternal artery; v.n., ventral nerve cord. {From Hatschek and Cori.)
Draw a diagram of the internal anatomy of the crayfish. Make
the drawing very light at first and have it inspected before finishing
it. Label it completely. It is sometimes advisable for students
who have had little experience in drawing to use a stencil or some
other device to get a perfect outline of the body in which to draw the
visceral organs.
The blood vessels need not be looked for unless the specimens have
been injected. The nervous system will be found by removing the
other structures in the cavity of the body and looking first in the
head between the eyes where the brain may be seen. What is its
color and shape? Show it to the instructor. Commissures run
back from it to the ventral ganglia going on either side of the esopha-
THE CRAYFISH
gus. Carefully dissect the tissues of the floor of the cephalothi
and as you do so, trace the nerve cord hack to the tail. Noti ;
it is a double row of ganglia. Is there a double ganglion for ea< h
somite? See figure 95 in Atwoods' Biology and note the nerve cord
of the earthworm. The crayfish has the same tyjx
grasshopper and all other arthropods.
I
Fig. 7. — Diagramatic cross section through the thora <;.
Appendage; c, carapace; c.f., flap of the carapace overhanginj
tive tract; g, gills; h, heart; /, liver or pan m, m', muscli
ps. space around the heart (pericardium) ; r, reproductive bodies; ■>!, • I
v.a., ventral artery; v. s., ventral blood sinus around the nei AfUt ! :ng.
Elementary Zoology, Galloway.)
The gills of the crayfish lie in a row along the sides of the cephalo-
thorax without the body-cavity bu1 within the cover of the carapa<
They have three different attachments and are in -<
and three for each somite. Can you determine where the}
attached and which somites have three u r ills and which
The ear of the crayfish is to be found in t he base i >l 1 1 •■ nnule
of each side. It is shown in V'\^. [ig of Atwood' B and i->
more properly called a statocyst. Why? Cut it open and examii
the interior. The pit lure was made from the lobster. U
differ from the statocyst of the crayfish?
14
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
20. Project.- -Try to keep some crayfish alive in the laboratory.
They should be in charge of a student or committee, and should be
ivd twice a week or oftener. Do not permit stale food to remain in
their water. Provide something for them to hide under.
8. WORK WITH ROOTS AND SOILS
Reference
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 7 and 8.
21. Supplies Committee Project. — Secure samples of various
kinds of roots to show to the class. Try to get brace roots of corn;
aerial roots of ivy; tap roots of weeds, turnip, radish, carrot, beet,
parsnip, alfalfa; fascicled roots of dahlia, and sweet potato; and
j>\ar
vascular
-smaii-ceiiea
parenchyma
large-celled
parenchyma
-nng of growth
Fig. 8. — Diagramatic cross section of beet. {Botany of Crop Plants, Robbins.)
fibrous roots of various grasses and grains. As each specimen is
presented to the class such points of interest as are known may be
mentioned. Drawings may be made of some of them.
22. Project.- -Two boys may secure a draw-scale and go out and
pull up various weeds with it attached to their stems and note what
force is necessary to remove them from their anchorages. A large
scale will be necessary if you remove big weeds. Bring the weeds
and the record before the class.
23. Laboratory Work. — Each student may be provided with
sections of the carrot, beet, and other roots. Find the epidermis,
ROOTS AND SOILS I 5
cortex, and stele. Note how the branch roots « ome off from the stele.
Scrape some of the tissue of the carrot stem and examine under a
compound microscope to find the various kinds of cells, especially
the spirals of the sap ducts, of which the root is composed.
Draw a cross section of the root and label all of the parts.
24. Plate Gardens. — Some of the students may prepare some glasi
plates and pieces of blotter of the same size as the plates and plant
small seeds on the surface of the blotter. Then place a glass plate
on either side of the blotter and tie a string around them. Dip
the plates and blotter in water and keep in a covered dish to prevent
- cortex
"H- cambium
pah
and
wood
Fig. q. — Diagramatic cross section of turnip, (Botany oj ( rup Plant R
evaporation. As the seeds grow the root hairs are seen. Plant
different kinds of seeds in each garden.
Note. — Radish seeds arc very easily germinated and develop r.»<>t hair- which
are of the best quality for observation. It' -prays of tin- wanderii
cantia) are placed in water, they will develop excellent r.n.t hair- and tip-
25. Acid secretion of roots may be shown by !rtt : <
spread their roots in soil over the surface of polished marble -lab-
or blocks. After some weeks they should be taken up and the si
cleaned, when a delicate etching may be seen on 1 he polished surl
Another method is to prepare a fluid (thin) solution of gelatin and
litmus. Add enough soda to make it slightly alkaline. Place it in
a test tube and insert the roots of a seedling. Where the n
i6
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
secrete acid the litmus will turn red. Care must be taken to
avoid the growth of bacteria before the demonstration is complete.
26. Individual Project. — Some of the students may plant the
seeds of squash or pumpkin in sand. When the seedlings are the
size shown in Fig. 45, Atwood's Biology, they may be pulled up if
the sand has been allowed to become nearly dry, and the root hairs
will hold the particles of sand as shown in
the figure. Show your results to the class.
This may be tried with other kinds of seeds.
What is the value of root hairs to the plant?
27. Osmosis Experiments. — Prepare an
egg osmometer by making an opening in
the top of an egg large enough to insert a
glass tube of small diameter. Insert the tube
and seal with paraffin or sealing wax. Now
carefully chip away the shell from an area as
large as a dime on the other end, but do
not puncture the shell membrane. Emerse
the egg in water in a beaker. It is best not
to let the opening in the lower side touch
show osmosis through a . . . , ,
membrane. Sugar solu- the bottom of the glass.
tion is placed within the The above experiment may be modified
thistle tube and water is , ^ 5JJ . . n
placed in the large vessel. as shown in Gager s Fundamentals of Botany,
{Experimental General Fig. 44. A further modification is to place
Science, Clute.) . . . , . . . . . .
the entire egg in a weak acid solution (about
4 or 5 per cent) as the shell is dissolved off the egg membrane
becomes distended until the egg is nearly spherical.
28. The carrot osmometer is made by boring a hole in the top of
a carrot (or beet) with an auger and fitting a rubber stopper in the
opening. If the opening is filled with a strong sugar solution and
the carrot is emersed in water good results should follow. Make
more than one. See Atwood's Biology, Fig. 46.
29. Cell turgor may be demonstrated by placing slices of beet in
strong salt water. Why do they become flabby. Place wilted
slices in water. Why do they become turgid?
30. Individual Projects — Choose two plants which are easily
wilted. Allow the soil in their pots to become dry. When they
ROOTS AND SOILS i ;
are willed, water one pot abundantly and cut the other plant •
near its root and put it in a vase of water. Whit h revives the tn<
rapidly? Of how much value are the roots and their root hail
31. Soils. — The supplies committee should secure samples
sand, clay, humus, and such other kinds of soils as are available and
prepare an exhibit for the class. Another cxhil.it may be made
to show the kinds of rocks which produce -and, clay, and lime
soils when they weather.
32. Demonstration.— Hygroscopic water may be shown bypla< ing
some soil in the bottom of a test tube and holding it in a horizontal
position over a flame so that the soil is heated. Moisture will
collect on the cool sides of the top of the tube. Compare the amount
of such water in sand and humus. Is it possible that some
of the water which comes from the humus is due to chemical
decomposition?
33. Experiment. — The value of a mulch in conserving soil moisture
may be shown by working out the experiment shown in Fig. |
Atwood's Biology.
34. Capillarity may be demonstrated for soils by placing various
kinds in large glass tubes (gas lamp chimneys) which have been -
up in pans. The soil will lie against the bottom of the pan. Pour
water into the pans and watch it rise in the soil in the tube \\ hich
kinds of soil allow water to pass up the most rapidly?
35. Percolation may be demonstrated with the same apparatus
is used above, but the water is poured into the top of the tube in
each case. Does it pass down equally fast in all soils. What soils
will receive the most rain water?
36. Project. — The humus content of soils may be demonstrated
by weighing out a small amount of dried soil on a delicate balan
and heating it to redness until all of the carbon of the humus is burn*
out. On weighing again the difference in weight will indicate wl
proportion was composed of plant and animal remains,
experiment may be performed by various -indent- a- ap ' and
the results presented to the 1 la--.
37. Project.— The comparative ability of soils to hold wat
may be demonstrated by the experiment shown in Fij in
Atwood's Biology. Place a different kind ^\ -oil in each dish and
2
l8 PROJECTS AXD EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
omit tin- sawdust. Do all soils dry out with the same rapidity?
Show the results to the class.
38. Topic- The fixation of nitrogen in soils by the agency of
bacteria. See Fig. 21.
39. Crop Rotation. — Consult references and learn what this
means. What has clover and other legumes to do with it? What
would be a good rotation for a potato farm? For a farmer who
specializes in wheat? In corn? In cotton? Make a diagram of
each of the above mentioned rotations on the board. Discuss them
in class and let each student make a copy for his notebook when they
have been corrected. This may be worked out as a class pro-
ject. The date of the study in class should be set two days ahead
and each student should be given references in the agriculture texts
in the library.
40. The value of drainage may be shown by placing plants in
each of two tin cans. Make holes in one and leave the other as it is.
Water them both frequently but keep the can without holes in the
bottom flooded. After some days note the difference in the two
plants. How long does the one without drainage live? Are all
plants affected the same? How does excess water damage roots?
9. PLANT STEMS AND FORESTRY
References
Experimental Botany, Payne, American Book Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Studies 9, 10, and 11.
41. Field Trip. — Go to a woods or a park and study trees. Learn
to recognize them by the shape of their stems and branches. Com-
pare the thickness and roughness of the bark. Note also its color.
Compare the twigs as to size. Collect samples of twigs to show
various kinds and arrangement of buds, and bring them to the
laboratory. Place some of the buds which have been collected
after the leaves have fallen, in water in the warm sunlight. They
will open and may be studied as to their scales, scars, leaves
and flowers.
PLANT STEMS AND FORESTRY
[9
42. Draw specimens of bucls and label them. Se< Fig 6,and
57 in Atwood's Biology.
43. Demonstration.- -The supplies committee should sei ure sp<
mens of erect, climbing, prostrate, and underground stems and
present them to the class with appropriate remarks as to where if
are found, how they are related to the environment of the plant, and
what special advantages each provides.
coro
—leaf bud
growth
scar
scales
/ rjrowfn
Fig. ii. — Spur of sour cherry to show (lower buds. Compare with P
and 57 in Atwood's Biology. (Botany 0) ( 'rop Plants, Robbin
44. Notebook Work. Prepare a table listing the advanta
and disadvantages of each special kind oi stem.
45. Project. — Plant specimens of bulbs, corms, tubers, and
rhizomes. Give them into the charge of a committee and obs
them from time to time throughout the coming months.
46. Draw cross sections of young stems and label the r<
and rings of tissues which appear. Permanent slides may be had
from dealers. These may be used with the microscope or lantern.
20
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
47. Experiment. — Investigate the circulation of sap in stems by
placing various kinds in red ink. They should be in good health
Fig. 12. — Section of tulip bulb to show the structure of a typical bulb. B, Flower
bud; F, stem; S, bud-scales. (Fundamentals of Botany, Gagcr.)
Fig. 13. — Photomicrograph of a cross section of a young stem of Aristolochia
sipho to show beginning of the formation of the cambium ring, a, Epidermis;
b, collenchyma; c, parenchyma of cortex and starch sheath; d, sclerenchyma;
c thin-walled parenchyma of the pericycle; /, medullary ray; g, phloem; h,
xylcm; i, cambium; j, pith. (Plant Anatomy, Stevens.)
and growing. The ink will pass up in their sap ducts making them
more easily seen. In what part of stems does the sap flow up?
PLANT STEMS AND FORESTRY
2 I
Draw cross sections of stems to show the region where the sap
flows upward.
48. Project.— Plant portions of stems of the willow, English
ivy, and other plants with their top ends in the soil and the bottom
ends up. If they are well cared for they will grow this way. \\ bat
influence do you think gravity has on the direction of flow of sap?
Fig. 14. — Photomicrograph of a cross section <•!" a four-year-old
Aristolachia sipho. Note the annual rings ami the compressed medulla
The labeling is as in the previous figure with tin- following additi
cambium; k, cork; m, new medullary ray forming; n , from thi
xylem has been formed from the cambium. {Plant .1 mitom;. -
49. Reports and Topics.- Will the library committee prepare
a list of topics on trees and forestry which are suitable for written
themes or reports? The archives committee will consult with the
instructor when the topics selected arc written up and el
which should he given to the (lass.
50. Demonstration. Show specimens of plane and quart)
sawed oak and other woods to the class ami explain the grain
22
I'ROJKCTS AND KXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
..I wood. It is due both to the annual rings and the medullary
rays.
51. Project. — Find some stumps of trees which have been cut
recently, measure their diameters, and count their rings. How fast
do trees grow? Compare the speed of growth of hard and soft
woods. Report your findings in class.
Fig. 15. — Transverse section through a four-year-old stem of white pine.
a, fork; b, cortex; c, phloem; d, cambium; e, xylem;/, secretion reservoir; g, pith;
h, medullary ray. (Pharmaceutical Botany, Youngken.)
52. Demonstration. — The museum committee should prepare an
exhibit of specimens of wood which are ring porous, diffuse porous,
and of evergreens which have resin ducts instead of pores. If no
specimens are in the laboratory, try to secure some. They will show
their special features better if they are planed and polished in the
department of manual training.
II WES
53. Committee Investigation. Learn what trees are favored foi
street planting in your city. Why are they favored? Make a list
of our native trees which are good for city planting and .1 list which
are not. Give reasons. Present the results of your inv< tion
to the class. For the above information you should visit the city
forester or the citv clerk.
Fig. 16. — Photomicrograph of a cp tion of a corn stalk t<-> show '.he \
of an endogenous stem, a, Epidermis; f>, cortex an«l pericycle; c, fundamei
(pith) tissue with vascular bundles interspersed in it. The large tul
bundles are xylem, the small tubes arc phloem. {Plant Ana torn
10. THE STRUCTURE AND WORK OF LEAVES
References
Civic mid Economic Biology, Aiwood, Studies 1 2 and 1
Experimental Botany, Payne, American Book Co.
Plant Anatomy, Stevens, I'. Blakiston's Son & Co.
54. Types of leaves may be studied by having each student bring
as many kinds as he ran find to clas When colle< ted, they may be
sorted into three groups those of the conifers, palmate, md
pinnate leaves.
Note the shape of the needles of the pine- and spruo I
needles are flattened, spruce needle- are square in section, and pit
WPEBTT
. (
24
•
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
needles arc long. The foliage of the hemlock, arborvitae, juniper, and
cypress should be studied so that it may be recognized at sight if
these trees grow in your locality.
The pinnate leaves may come from trees, shrubs, and herbs. Sort
them into their various types. Do the same with the palmate leaves.
55. Draw some of the leaves which have been brought in and
label them with the assistance of the figures in Study 12 of Atwood's
Biology.
56. Stomates may be studied by carefully peeling the epidermis
from the lower surface of various leaves and mounting in a drop of
water under the compound microscope. An onion
stem, the leaves of tulips and lilies, and the live-
for-ever have an epidermis which is easily removed.
Some leaves may be viewed as opaque objects,
and if the light is just right, the stomates may be
seen. Are there as many on the upper as on the
lower sides of the leaves? Can you think of a
reason for this variation? Compare leaves which
stand erect with those which are held in a hori-
zontal position on their stems.
Draw some stomates as you see them under
the microscope. See Atwood's Biology, Fig. 78.
57. Topics. — How do stomates open and close?
Why do they do this? What gases and vapors
f the Hve-for-ever pass in and out through stomates? Of what value
to the plant is this interchange?
58. Notebook Work on Photosynthesis.— Con-
sult the following biologies and write a description
of photosynthesis: Atwood, Fig. 80; Hunter, p.
106; Moon, Fig. 26. Answer the following ques-
tions. What organs of the plants perform this
work? What energy is used? What materials?
What are the waste products? What are the products of this action
and what is done with them? Why is starch called a carbohydrate?
Design a diagram to illustrate your topic.
59. Transpiration. — Split a cork lengthwise in two parts, and
hollow out a groove in each half to fit the stem of a plant. Pull the
with a portion of
the epidermis
peeled to show the
method of remov-
ing the epidermis
to view the sto-
mates under the
microscope. {Fun-
damentals of Bot-
any, Gager.)
LEAVES
plant out of the soil with its roots in good condition. Wash them.
Fit the halves of the cork around the plant stem near the n nd
put the roots in a test tube of water which will hold them. I il tin-
cork in the mouth of the tube. Now insert a fine glass tube in the
side of the cork so that air may pass into the test tube, and thi
seal the cork and plant in with chewing gum, paraffin, or vaselii
Weigh the plant and tube carefully and phut- in the sunlight.
Fig. 18. — A, Upper epidermis without stomates; B, I rmi»
stomates of the fern Drynoria meyeniana. {Heredity and Evolution i
Gager.)
Weigh again from day to day. The only way in which the I
tube can lose water is through the plant, as that which comes out
through the glass tube is negligible. Make more than one of th<
experiments and compare.
60. Projects.- Consult references and set up some of the many
experiments which have been designed to illustrate transpiration.
Which demonstration is the best?
61. Diffusion of gases may be illustrated by the instructor
shown in the figure.
26
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
62. Guttation drops may be obtained by using the split cork
and test tube described in the experiment above. Place a large
leaf in the tube, rolled up if necessary, and seal it in. The leaf
should be of a plant which gives off much water. The geranium
is not good for this demonstration. See Fig. 81 in Atwood's Biology.
Try some other methods also. When does water come out of the
water pores in leaves? Do all plants have them? Are guttation
drops the same as dew?
63. Project. — Arrange for a committee to plant some seeds in the
dark. Care for them well, and they will grow. Do they develop
any chlorophyll? How long
NH4CI
Fk;. 19. — An experiment to show dif-
fusion of gases. How does air enter and
leave a leaf? (General Science, Brownell.)
do they live without light?
Report from time to time to
the class.
64. Experiment. — Place
some green leaves in boiling
water for a minute or two.
Then place them in alcohol.
After a time they will be seen
to have lost their chlorophyll.
Remove them and note the
color of the alcohol. Chloro-
phyll is a green pigment composed of a protein containing iron in the
"ferrous" condition. If the alcohol is allowed to evaporate the
chlorophyll will remain. Is it still green?
65. Projects. — Make skeleton leaves. See Payne's Botany, p.
146.
Make blue prints of leaves.—- See Payne's Botany, p. 146.
66. Demonstration. — Set up the apparatus shown in the illustra-
tion and collect oxygen in the test tube which is placed over the
funnel. Common ditch moss (Elodea) or some other plant which
lives in water will do. This experiment does not work as easily as
some manuals would lead the experimenter to believe. It must be
in bright sunlight, and when the carbon dioxide in the water is all
gone it must be given time to collect from the air, or it may be made
from limestone and acid and bubbled in. How is this experiment
related to photosynthesis? See Payne's Botany, p. 162.
I.I. Wl -
67. Microscope Work. Chloroplasts may be seen in green cells
with the compound microscope. Secure some spirogyra Se< I
184 in Atwood's Biology) or sonic ditch moss I and pla<
under the microscope in a little water. I )<> riot gel any water on the
stand of the microscope or on the lense-. Note that the < hlorophyl]
is confined to definite bodies within
the plant cell. They are bands in
spirogyra, and rounded bodies in
Elodea. If these plants are not avail-
able, various other green plants will
do. Draw what you see and label as
completely as you can.
68. Teacher's Demonstrations.
To Show that Plants Need Oxygen.
Follow directions as given at the
bottom of p. 96 in Atwood's Biology.
To Show that Plants Need Carbon
Dioxide. — Repeat as above but put
in a dish of pure sodium hydroxide
or lime water. The dishes used in
these demonstrations should be wide
across and shallow. Some plants will
live a long time under the above
conditions.
69. Demonstration.- Sap circulates
through the veins of plant leaves.
Prove this by placing various leaves
and seedlings with leaves in red ink photosynth. PaUa
so that it will be absorbed by the lea!
stem or the roots of seedlings and sent out into tin- leavi N
that the veins become red. A concentrated soluti< ink will be
too strong. It should be diluted. It may take one or tw<
complete this demonstration.
70. Experiment to Demonstrate the Presence of Starch in a
Green Leaf.- Pluck a leaf from a geranium <>t' the kind which
has white markings on it s leaves, and which ha- stood in bright
sunlight for about two hour-. Place it in boiling water at om
I- 1.
• M'
28 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Tnal il with alcohol as directed above in studying chlorophyll.
This is to get the color out. When the leaf is no longer green, place
it in a solution of iodine for an hour or more, if necessary. The
blue color denotes starch and its absence in the places which had
no chlorophyll indicates that it is produced in the green tissue only.
ii. FOOD AND ITS USES
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 14, 15, and 16.
.1 Civic Biology, Hunter, Chaps. XIX and XX.
We have seen how plants secure their food by photosynthesis,
and we will consider in the work which follows some of the food
problems of animals. We should keep in mind the fact that plants
make their food from water, carbon dioxide, and mineral salts; and
that animals use the food which plants have elaborated not being
able to make it themselves.
71. Problem.— How do molds get their food? Place some moist
bread in a covered dish so that it will not dry out and keep it in
the dark. Does mold need sunlight? Has it chlorophyll? Does it
use the same foods as green plants?
72. Dissolve some glucose or corn sirup in water and add some
yeast. Put it away in a warm place in the dark. Does the yeast
grow? Compare it with a mold in its food-getting.
73. Notebook Work. — Write an article on the food-getting of
green plants as compared with yeasts, molds, and bacteria. The
archives committee will select a few of the best to be read to the
class.
74. Euglena. — It may be possible to get some euglena from a
pond. If not, they may be had from Powers & Powers, Station A,
Lincoln, Nebraska, or from some other dealer. Observe them under
the microscope. How do they move? Can they swim? If so,
how? Note that they are green. This is due to chlorophyll. They
live like a plant, and have the advantage of being able to go from
place to place.
FOOD AND ITS l>
Draw several euglena in different positions. Can you show the
nucleus, eye spot, and gullet? It will probabl) nol be possible to
see the lash.
The author has kept a culture of a green protozoan,
the euglena, in an aquarium in the Laboratory for
Try to make a culture of euglena. Place it in the chargi
a committee.
75. Notebook Work. — Animals are divided into herbivorous or
carnivorous groups according to whether they eat vegetable or animal
food respectively. Some, as man eat both. They are called
omnivorous. Make a table of the vertebrate animal- assign!
them to one or the other of the three clas Bears and d«
are carnivores in spite of the fact that they eat large quantitii
vegetable food. Discuss all doubtful cases before placing them in
the table.
76. Project. — Make several balanced aquaria and place each in
charge of a student. Observe them from time to time a- the- phi:
and animals grow. Do they all stay balanced? See At wood's
Biology, Figs. 86, 87, and 356. See also Hunter, p. [66; Hodge and
Dawson, p. 13, 299, 315.
77. Notebook Work. — Consult some of the following referent
and make diagrams of the chemical cycles listed below: Atwood,
Figs. 9, 82, and 86; Gruenberg, Chap. XIV j Moon, Chap. 1.III;
and Hunter, Chap. XIV. Diagram the carbon cycle first, then the
nitrogen cycle, and then the food cycle. Use a ruler and i.»m-
pass in drawing your lines so they will be uniform and neat.
If time permits, it will be well to write note- explaining each
diagram.
78. Food Plants. — See p. 102, Atwood 's Biology, and make
table of the common plants which are used a- food. In cadi
we use the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, or seeds. \
each plant to its proper place in the table. It may be well 'k
this table out on the board as a class proje< 1, after which it ma\
copied in the notebooks.
79. Caloric values of foods have been overstressed of late
If it is desired to do such work, a reference may be consulted.
At wood's Biology, p. 107.
3°
PROJECTS AXD EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
A//T/?OGf/V Or A//r>
t
I
I
I
i/vftTiT r/y^r/OAf
U
i
(YOOIU.£,
S^ETO TO ANtMALS
G/?£EN-
-rA&W
P / 1
L .
/*7Aqt/fr£-
Ml/Ait/S
4/
Fig. 21. — The nitrogen cycle as shown in the life of an alfalfa plant. {General
Science, Brownell.)
Fool) AND ITS I'M
80. Topic— Insectivorous plants capture insects and digest them.
Pitcher-plants, sundew, and the Venus fly-trap are described and
illustrated in Interesting Neighbors, Jenkins. P, Blakiston's Son 8 I
Fig. 22. — The Venus fly-trap, the leaves of whirl) captu
{Heredity and Evolution in Plant C tr.)
Compare the food-getting ol these plants with other plants and
animals. In what situations do they livi I their habitat lacking
in essential plant foods?
3 2
PKOJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
12. CHEMICAL FOOD TESTS
Reference
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Studies 14, 15, and 16.
The following tests may be made by each member of the class if
laboratory facilities permit; or they may be performed as a demon-
stratioD from the lecture table. Each should be written up carefully
in the notebook. See Atwood, Study 15; Hunter, the last half of
Chap. II; and Payne's Botany, pp. 19-29.
81. Carbon Test. — Place bits of cloth, wood, feathers, etc., in small
test tubes containing small amounts of concentrated sulphuric acid.
The acid decomposes organic compounds and extracts water leaving
the carbon to color the contents of the tube black. It may be
necessary to let some tubes stand for quite a while.
82. Starch Tests. — Starch is not soluble as it exists in plants,
therefore it will be necessary to boil some starch in a test tube of
PlG. 23. — Starch cells of a potato before and after being cooked. Describe what
has happened. {General Science, Brownell.)
water. Cool it. Add a few drops of a solution of iodine. The
starch is changed to starch iodide which is blue. Heat it, the solu-
tion should be clear. If it is cooled again, the blue color returns.
Iodine may be dissolved in water if a few crystals of potassium iodide
are dissolved first. This is better than an alcoholic solution. Test
various foods for starch. Is there any starch in sugar? In corn
sirup? In honey? In mucilage?
Scrape a raw potato and place some of the pulp under a compound
microscope. The starch grains have an appearance somewhat like
Rye.
Buckwheat
r
.
T
>>
_ s -_L-_
Bean.
Ah k< »\\ :
Barley.
Oat.
T J g
Maize.
Rut:.
- ' &i
I
^>
'■
Pica.
Win \ 1 .
Fig. 24. — Various types of starch grain een under th
Analysis, I.c/J'tnann and Beam.)
34 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
an oyster shell. Grains of starch from different plants have a
different appearance. Examine several kinds in water. Can you
tell from what plant a sample of starch came by examining the
grains? Can you tell if potato starch has been mixed with corn
starch?
83. Glucose Test. — When a solution containing glucose is heated
with Fehling's solution the copper in the test fluid is oxidized by the
glucose, and yellow to deep orange copper oxide appears in the test
tube as a precipitate.
Fehling's solution may be made as follows: Dissolve 34.65 grams
of copper sulphate in 500 cc. of water and put in a bottle. In
another bottle containing 500 cc. of water dissolve 125 grams of
sodium hydroxide and 173 grams of Rochelle salt (sodium-potassium
tartrate). Keep the solutions separate until shortly before they are
to be used when they are mixed in equal parts to form Fehling's
solution.
Heat a dilute mixture of glucose and Fehling's solution in a test
tube. Note the beautiful deep orange to red color. Try this with
various foods, especially cane sugar, starch, mucilage, and flour.
Place some ground cracker, flour, or starch in water and add some
diastase or saliva. After a few minutes test with Fehling's solu-
tion. What is the action of these two ferments on starch?
84. Protein Tests. — Prepare some white of egg in water.
1. The heat test is made by placing some of the solution in a test
tube and boiling. A cloudy appearance indicates the presence of a
protein which coagulates when heated.
2. The xanthoproteic, or yellow test, is made by placing nitric acid
on some egg white in the test tube and heating gently. It should
turn yellow. Now pour out the excess liquid and add enough
ammonium hydroxide to neutralize the acid. A deep orange color
should appear.
3. The burning test is made by burning a piece of meat or a
feather and noting the odor.
4. The sugar test is made by adding a drop of concentrated cane
sugar solution to the protein solution in a test tube and then adding
a drop or two of pure concentrated sulphuric acid, when a deep
red color appears.
CHEMICAL FOOD TKSTS
(Millon's test and the biuret test give a red and a violet color
respectively. They may be found described in Hawk's Physiolog
ical Chemistry, and Payne's Botany. They are both very deli<
tests.)
Apply some of the tests described above to various kinds of foa
85. Fat and Oil Test.- Foods which contain much oil will mal
grease spot on paper. It may be necessary to grind the material
very fine and press it against the paper. A gentle heat may be of
some aid. Be sure that the spot is not a water spo 1 by giving it time
to dry or by warming it. If it is an oil spot it will May.
Soudan III may be had from the dealers. It is a dye. Place it
on the grease spot and then wash the spot with alcohol. N tin-
color.
86. Water or Moisture Test— Place some of the material to In-
tested in a test tube and hold in a horizontal position over a flame
so as to heat the material in the bottom of tin- tube- without heating
the top of the tube. If moisture is present, it will collect >>n tin-
sides of the tube. If the material is strongly heated the moisture
may result from the chemical decomposition of tin- substance which
is tested.
87. Test for Mineral Matter. — This is sometimes called tin- ash
test. Heat the material to be tested in a crucible until it i- red.
Keep it so for a long time. If anything remains it is mineral matter
which will not burn or pass off as a vapor.
Free salts in a soluble condition may be- detected by soaking tin-
material to be tested for a time in water and then altering the water
and allowing it to evaporate, when they will be- Kit a- crystals.
88. Review. — How can you detect starch in pulverized sug
Starch in glucose? Salt in meat? Starch in ice cream? Glu
in candy? Starch in candy? Wool from cotton? Salt in butter?
Limewater in milk to keep it sweet? Barley flour in wheat flour?
Starch from flour? Glue from mucilage? [f a disput d><»ut
any of these questions it should be tried out. that i- th< 1.
89. Milk Tests. Sour milk may be- tested for by placing a strip
of blue litmus in it. If tin- litmus turn- red, tin- milk i-
Another test is to put some soda in the milk. If it efferv* the
milk is sour. Explain tin- chemical action. 1- sour milk us<
PROJECTS AMI EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
cooking? Explain. Smell and taste are also good methods of
testing sour milk.
90. Butter-fat tests of milk are made by centrifuging the fat
from the rest of the milk or dissolving out the fat in ether. The
Babcock milk test is most frequently used, but the ether test is
more accurate. Get State and Government bulletins from the
agricultural departments which give directions for making the test.
Also see Bowden's General Science, p. 574. The test may be made
before the class as a demonstration. If we should give complete
directions for making the test here, it would require too much space,
as there are many difficulties to avoid.
91. The formaldehyde test is made by placing some milk in each
of two beakers. To one add a small amount of formaldehyde and
leave the other as it is. Place a drop or two of a solution of ferric
chloride in some pure hydrochloric acid. Add twice as much of
this acid to each of the beakers of milk as there is milk. Mix the
milk and acid well by rotating the beakers. Place them both in
boiling water for some minutes. The milk which contains formalde-
hyde becomes lavender to purple in color. Why is formaldehyde
added to milk? To determine this take two samples of fresh milk
and add a few drops of formaldehyde to one and none to the other.
Set them away and observe which becomes sour first. Formaldehyde
is a dangerous poison, and must not be used in preserving milk.
13. DIGESTION
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 16.
Elementary Biology, Gruenberg, Chap. XIX.
92. Committee Project, — Dissect one or more frogs to show the
digestive system. Spread the specimens under water in pans and
show to the class. The organs may be drawn and labeled. Ward's,
Rochester, N. Y. have a model of a frog which may be set up
before the class and its organs drawn. Other preparations may be
had of the specimens in glass jars with the organs dissected. The
DIG] STION
nasal cavity
PALATE
MOUTH CAVITY A*
NASAL Pit'.
OHAL PHAR\ I
LARWvJEAL PHARYNX
BILE AND
PANCREATIC
DUCTS
RIGHT COLIC
FLEXURE
DUODENUM
LEFT fOUC
V*^9^T. . . v\\ FLEXURE
XI
VERMIFORM
PROCESS
Fig. 25. — Diagram of the alimentary canal
Morri
,SS PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
museum committee may make some preparations of various animals
and preserve them in glass jars in formalin.
93. Notebook Work. — Make a drawing of the digestive organs of
some animal, or of man; label the parts, and name the digestive
juices which each organ supplies.
94. Consult Fig. 91 in Atwood's Biology; pp. 275 and 343 in
Hunter's Biology; Figs. 28 and 32 in Gruenberg's Biology; Fig. 114
in Moon's Biology; or Figs. 178 and 165 in Smallwood's Biology and
write a description of the similarities and differences in the digestive
systems of the frog and man.
95. If it is desired to make a study of the teeth, consult Eddy's
Experimental Physiology and Anatomy, p. 60.
96. Salivary digestion was illustrated in connection with the
study of Fehling's solution as a test for glucose, which see if it is
desired to make a further study of its action. Does it act in an acid
medium? In an alkaline medium?
97. Exercise. — Commit to memory the table of digestive juices
given on p. 112 of Atwood's Biology and write it as a test.
98. Notebook Work. — Write a description of the passage of
digested food from the intestine to the blood system. How does it
get through the walls of the intestine? Which foods go through the
liver ? Which through the lymphatic system ? See Atwood's Biology,
Fig. 93; Moon, Fig. 121; Hunter, p. 354; and Gruenberg, p. 87.
99. Digestion Experiment. — Pepsin may be had from drug stores
or from dealers in biological supplies. Prepare some boiled egg.
Mince the white very fine. Place some pepsin solution in four test
tubes. To the first add nothing, to the second add a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid, to the third add several drops of dilute hydro-
chloric acid, and to the fourth add two drops of an alkali (NaOH).
Place some minced egg in each test tube and stand away in a warm
place for one or two days. In which of the tubes has digestion taken
place? Why did it not take place in all of the tubes? In which
did it go on the most rapidly? This experiment may be performed
by each of four or five students and the entire class may view the
results if time and space are limited. Write it up completely in the
notebooks and state which tube was the most representative of the
actual conditions which exist in the stomach.
RESPIRATION AND < lk< I LATION
ioo. Pancreatin may be used in a similar manner to illu
intestinal digestion. The only place when- faU in
the intestine. If you wish to digest fats, use corn oil,
oil, or olive oil. The pancreatin musl be fresh and of the besl quali
or results will be disappointing. Ii may be made alkaline byaddi
a little sodium carbonate.
101. An emulsion may be made to show to the i lass by mixinj
light vegetable oil with a dilute alkali and shaking D be
fat remain emulsified? For how long? Soap will form from tl
emulsion if it is left to stand or is warmed. An understands
the chemistry of soap-making is helpful in understanding the
digestion of fats.
102. Absorption. — Our problem here is, why are foods digested?
Use two diffusion shells such as are sold by the dealers in biological
supplies. Suspend each in a vessel of water. PL >me starch
which has been mixed with cold water in one and some glucose <»r
honey which has been diluted slightly in the other. After some
time test the water in the first vessel for starch. Test the water in
the second vessel for glucose. Did the starch osmos< Did the
glucose? Which digestive juices change starch into glu< Why
is this necessary?
14. RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION
Reference
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 17.
103. Teacher's Demonstration. Secure some defibrinat un-
clotted) blood from a butcher, or by killing a chicken, and put it ii
bottle. Pass carbon dioxide through tin- blood rapidly from
generator. Note that the blood becomes a deep purple in 1
Look at the veins in the wrist and compare. N >w pas oxygen
through the blood. It become? a bright scarlet. I (plain h-
carbon dioxide and oxygen are carried by the haemoglobin in t ;
blood. Why is the blood which flows from a cul always r<
Pass carbon monoxide gas through the blood and n
becomes a carmine red m c< ' '• In dilute solutions it
4°
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
/In
bluish-red. Carbon monoxide has such a strong affinity for haemo-
globin that it can not be replaced by oxygen as can the dioxide.
Does this explain why it is a deadly poison? Can the presence of
carbon monoxide be detected by its odor? Why is it dangerous to
be in a closed room with a gasoline engine running?
In the above demonstration, the carbon dioxide may be obtained by placing
hydrochloric acid on lumps of limestone. The oxygen may be obtained from
the air and may be pumped through with a bicycle pump. The carbon monoxide
may be had by passing gas from the gas jet through the blood, or it may be made
by placing concentrated sulphuric acid on crystals of oxalic acid in a generating
flask.
The technical words used in this study should be carefully spelled on the board,
and the experiment written up in the notebook.
104. The function of the diaphragm in respiration may be shown as
in the figure. A piece of dentist's rubber sheeting may be tied over
the bottom of the vessel. Place a button
in its center and fasten a string around
the button and the rubber. A toy
balloon may be placed on the inside of
the glass vessel. Write an explanation
of this demonstration.
105. Notebook Work. — From a model
of the heart, from charts, from illustra-
tions in texts (Atwood, Fig. 99), or from
a pig's heart describe the circulation of
the blood through the heart.
The circulation of the blood of the
earthworm may be described from Fig.
95, Atwood'' s Biology. A dissection to
show these vessels may be made by some student as a project, but
it is usually only a partial success as a class dissection. Put the
dissected specimen in the museum case.
106. The operation of the tracheal system of an insect may be
described from Figs. 33 and 96, Atwood' s Biology.
107. Red blood corpuscles may be studied under the microscope
as directed in Eddy's Experimental Physiology and Anatomy,
p. 72.
Fig. 26. — Apparatus for an
experiment to show the effect
on the lungs of depressing the
diaphragm. (Elements of
Animal Biology, Holmes.)
TROPISMS AND !■: I SPl ►] 41
108. The circulation of the blood in the frog's foot
strated as directed in Eddy, ]>. 70.
109. The Air in the Lungs. Blow the breatl
of cold glass or metal. \\ hal 1 olle< 1 - on the surfai e of the .
metal? Blow gently on the hull) of a thermometer. Whal hapr*
Blow slowly through a glass tube int.. a glass of fresh lin tcr.
What causes the cloudy appearance of the limewati Wriu
statement in your notebook telling what you have learned from th<
tests. When a fire hums what are the produi I < >mpare with
the statement which you have just written.
no. Project. — Two hoys may weigh themselvi irately
before athletic practice and again after. What became of the
materials which were lost? How is the energy of exei irnisl
in. Lung capacity may be determined by filling a la
vessel, as a bottle, with water either before or after inverting it in
another and larger vessel of water. Insert a large glass or rubl
tube under the vessel. After taking a normal breath the air from
the lungs should be blown into the inverted glass vessel. \
venient scale of measurement should be applied to the side ol tl
vessel. Now fill the lungs full to capacity and repeat. Compare
with others. Sterilize the end of the tube which you put in your
mouth. In the average student's lungs there will remain about ic
cubic inches of air after all has been expelled which can be «lri\ <
out. What is your average lung capacity? What is your maximum
capacity?
15. TROPISMS AND RESPONSES
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Unit III.
Experimental Botany, Payne, American Book l
The Animal .\fin^_-.'-i
vV'7 l r-1
:)■
T
HEAT
Fig. 28. — Diagram of a tank to show how animals seek optimum conditi
which to live.
and record the temperatures on the board. This demonstration
should be started about two hours before it is to be shown to the
class. There will be considerable difference in the results obtained
with different kinds of animal-. The more a< tive they are th< ner
they will respond.
117. Trial and error reactions may be observed 1>> watching
paramecia under a microscope. Place some -» urn in the water win
they are and note how they colled around it. Plao ry -mall
crystal of salt in the drop where they are and note how the) acl in
reference to it. The entire class may work at this if there are enouj
microscopes.
118. Draw a diagram of a nerve cell and label all of tin pa
How does the impulse enter the cell? What is its COUJ \\
does it pass out of the cell?
44 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
119. Topic— What is the nature of the nervous impulse? Is it
electrical? 1- it chemical? Does it take time to travel, or is it
instantaneous?
120. Draw various types of antennae of crustaceans and insects
from specimens. A hand lens may be necessary to see the joints of
insects' antennae. See Figs. 115, 116, 117, 118, and 120, Atwood's
Biology.
121. Draw a diagram of the human ear from some book or model.
Label all of the parts carefully and be able to reproduce it, when
asked, from memory.
122. Demonstration. — Consult a physics text and set up a pen-
dulum to demonstrate the laws of amplitude, of length, of material
of the bob. This may be written up in the notebook after it is given
to the class.
123. Consult the physics text again and set up a sonometer to
illustrate the four laws of strings. They are the law of length, of
tension, of diameter, and of material of which the string is composed.
Write this up also and state how sound is produced. If these experi-
ments have been performed in the classes in general science, a review
only should be given now.
124. Student's Demonstration. — Stand before the class and hold a
reading glass before a cardboard screen so that it will form an image
of the window, or some object out of doors. Consult a good physics
text. What is an image? What ways are there of forming them?
What is a virtual image? A real image? Which kind is formed on
the retina of the eye? If the room can be partly darkened, an image
of a burning candle may be made to fall on the screen.
125. Draw a diagram of the human eye in the notebook and label
all of the parts. Be able to reproduce the drawing and the names of
the parts, when called on to do so, from memory.
126. Draw a diagram of the brain of the frog from Ward's models
of the brains of typical vertebrates (Ward's, Rochester, N. Y.).
Label the parts carefully, and learn the names of the parts of the
brain, and the cranial nerves. See Fig. 136 and the table on p.
160 of Atwood's Biology. See also Fig. 43 in this book.
127. Social Recitation. — It is usually valuable to devote one
laboratory period to an interchange of ideas and experiences on
PROTOZO \\S
animal intelligence, as it has been observed by the members of I
class. There may be evidences of superstition, im
vation, faulty memory, etc. on the part of some studei
128. Debate. Resolved that the dog can and dees reason. I
this debate your most conflicting arguments will (inter ai 1
the proposition, "What is reason?"
16. STUDIES OF PROTOZOANS
References
General Zoology ', Pearse, Henry 1 1« >I t and Co.
General Zoology, Linville and Kelly, Ginn & Co.
Practical Zoology, Hegncr, Macmillan Co.
Life of Inland Waters, Ncedham and Lloyd, Comstock Pub. <
The Protozoa of Iowa, Edmondson, Davenport Acad, of & i.
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 25.
129. The Ameba. — These animals may be raised in the laboratory.
The committee in charge of cultures may L r <» to a pond Bn ik the
ice if it is winter.) and secure some water weeds, particularly th<
which are covered with a great deal of slime. Place them in some
glass pans and let stand for some days, when amebas may be found
on the sides of the glass and in the sediment at the bottom. !' will
do no harm if the culture gets scum on it- surfai Mak< ral
cultures, each different in some details from the other The ame
on the sides of the glass should be taken off by rubbing the I
along the glass and transferring the material which it coll<
microscope slide. If any are found, they should be studied
as they may be gone in a day or two. Note how they mo
and avoid objects in their path. Can the nucleus be found?
vacuole be found? How are the pseudopodia put out and . in?
Draw an ameba in several shape- as it ■. Jong.
If amebas can not be obtained by the method described
had alive from the various dealers, and should l»<
They may be had permanently mounted <>n mi<
130. Paramecia. These animals will be found, ith
many other protozoans, in the cultures described aboi tam-
ing amebas. The hay infusion culture is the si
4O PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
should be made, and a little water from a pond or from the ameba
cultures should be added to inoculate it. The hay should be chopped
fine, and placed in water about two weeks before the protozoans are
to be studied. A scum of bacteria will rise to the surface. This is
the food on which the paramecia lives.
Place some of the scum on a slide and note their movements.
We have referred to the avoiding reaction before. Can their cilia
be seen? Note whether they go backwards as much as forwards.
How rigid is the shape of their bodies? Can the nucleus be found?
The oral groove? A vacuole? Watch one gather food. If they
go too fast to be seen well, they may be entangled in some fibers of
cotton if it is placed on the slide, or as the water dries they will
become less active. A thin solution of gelatin will be of value also.
Run it under the cover glass. As the protozoans swim into it, their
motion is impeded.
131. Other protozoans will be found in the cultures with the
amebas and the paramecia. Observe them, try to learn their
names, and make some sketches of some of them. You will find
various worms and crustaceans also. For the identification of the
forms which you find see The Protozoa 0} Iowa, Edmondson, Daven-
port Academy of Sciences; and Life of Inland Waters, Needham and
Lloyd, Comstock Pub. Co. The identification and enumeration of
those found will make an interesting project for an individual or
group.
132. Questions. — What is a balanced aquarium? Is a hay
infusion balanced in this sense? Why does the culture die out?
How long are the protozoans abundant in the culture? Would they
become numerous again if more hay were added? How does a hay
infusion differ from a balanced aquarium?
133. Division. — When the culture is at its best, you should be
able to find specimens which are dividing. Look for them. They
will seem to be double individuals. Are they just as active as the
ones which are not dividing? Only a few people have seen the
ameba divide, but hundreds of paramecia may be seen dividing in a
good culture. They are about one half as large as others and are
attached end to end. How long does it require to complete the
process of division? See Figs. 144, 145, Atwood's Biology.
ALCE, MASSES, AND ll RNS
134. Conjugation. — In tin- same culture where the
growing rapidly you should be able to find a few individuals which
are conjugating. These specimens are attached by their sides ;m«i
can be distinguished easily from those which arc- dividin]
135. Draw diagrams of specimens which are dividing and als
which are conjugating. A good description of the conjugation
paramecia may be found in Hegner's College Zoology.
136. Notebook Work.-- Write a description of the most successful
methods of making a culture for paramecia. How many days after
preparing the culture did the paramecia appear? How long do they
stay? How many days is the culture covered with scum? On
what do the paramecia feed? Describe the process of locomotion.
Describe any other interesting things which were seen in theculturt
Consult references and describe division and conjugation.
137. Plasmodium malaria is the cause of chills and fevers.
Atwood's Biology, p. 176 and various other texts and write a descrip-
tion of its life history. Accompany your description with diagrams.
17. LESSONS WITH ALGJE, MOSSES, AND FERNS
References
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell, Ginu & Co.
Fundamentals of Botany, Gager, 1'. Blakis ton's Son I'ltf
■
52
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
20. CELL DIVISION
References
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Study 32.
Text-book of Zoology, Galloway, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Plant Anatomy, Stevens, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Being Will Born, Guyer, Bobbs-Merrill Co.
161. Cell Growth. — By using the microscope, examine cells of
yeast, pleurococcus, spirogyra or some other single celled plant.
Are the cells of the same size? Do you think that the larger cells
were once smaller than they are now? Do cells grow?
- !
' I •
V
B
-
i5\
m
=j)
D
r
'"'■■""' ■■' )
■ ■ -
- : . — ^
G H I
Fig. 30. — Diagram to show cell division (mitosis) in plant cells. {Fundamentals
of Botany, Gager.)
162. Cell Division. — Examine the same cells as above and note
those which have divided. Why has the spirogyra cell division
resulted in the production of a filament and the division in pleuro-
coccus a group of cells. Are all divisions in the same direction?
I I ."\\ i RING PLAN I -
163. Cell Budding.- Examine yeasl cells and note how tl
multiply by budding.
164. Draw types of the specimens which have been studied.
165. Chromosome changes in cell division may be shown by
using permanent mounts of the root tips of the onion <>r some lily.
These slides may be had from the dealers. Find cells which illus-
trate all of the stages of division shown in the illustration. The
illustration in Atwood's Biology is of a typical animal cell. I
shown here is of a typical plant cell. Plant cells have no centro-
somes. Write a description of cell division describing all of tin-
changes which take place in the chromosome.
21. THE LIFE HISTORY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
References
General Botany, Densmore, Ginn & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Studies 32 and $$.
170. This study must be made from microscope slides or from
lantern slides, unless the class and instructor are content to make it
from illustrations in books. It is a difficult study for high school
students, but it is valuable as completing the outline of the evolution
of plants. It is interesting to know how the flowering plant came
to be what it is. This study is also of value in understanding tin-
subjects of heredity and plant breeding. If it wen- spring, it would
be valuable to make a field trip and observe the great variety of
flowering plants, and it should be understood that it includes
and trees which do not have conspicuous flowers. Understand also
that the sporophyte and the grains of pollen an- the only pha
the life history of flowering plants which ran be observed naturally.
All else must be especially prepared. Read Gager a:: gen and
Davis for advanced references.
Directions for the study of the microscope slides which may be
at hand will have to be written up by the instrw tor a- ii varies in
different schools. Some students may assist by copying the
directions on the board. See Laboratory and Field I
Densmore.
54
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Fig. 31. — Types of pollen grains as seen under the microscope. A, Typha
lati folia; B, corn; C, Ambrosia elalior; D, Philadelphia lily; E, pine; F, buttercup;
G, blue beech; H, Althaea rosea, rose-mallow; i\ primrose. {Pharmaceutical
Botany, Youngken.)
FRUITS WD SI ID DISTRIB1 I I' '\
>. >.
171. Pollen gains may be viewed under the microscope 'II
arc of a great variety of forms. See the illustration. If they w
not germinated in sugar solution in a previous Study, this in-
done now. The pollen tube is a male gametophyte. Sketch some
pollen grains and later, some which have germinated.
22. FRUITS AND SEED DISTRIBUTION
References
Botany for Colleges, Ganong, Macmillan & Co.
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell, Ginn & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood. Studies ,^4 and 35.
Interesting Neighbors, Jenkins, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Fortunately, most all fruits may be preserved easily in
the museum either in the dried form or in formalin. The museum
committee will get ready as many fruits and seeds as is 1 onvenient
for the study. Write out the table, which appears in four columns
on p. 233 of Atwood's Biology, in one column. \<»w write opposite
its proper classification the name of each fruit which you have to
study.
172. Draw various ones of the fruits which may be sele< ted.
Label their parts carefully and note on the drawing to which cla
they belong. Do not include any seeds in the drawings. They are
to be studied later. Be able to state clearly the difference 1
tween fruits and seeds. Also, be careful not to ( lassify any fruit-
seeds.
173. Make a table of the methods of distribution of fruits in
nature. Now go over the fruits which you have Listed in the table
classification and list them according to their methods of distribution.
174. Make a table of the method- of distribution of see N and
fill it out as you did the one for the distribution <>\ fruits.
which are carried by the wind may be released in t ;
practical demons! ral ion of how they are a tit t ted by a 1 m renl ol air.
After the study is made the museum committee will collect the
fruits and seeds and save them for the next 1 lass.
56
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
1
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/
I \
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0) v_r--
"T'P §
^> Q_
^ ^-O
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o 5
o C
O^-
1
o
312
s
o
o
8
o
8
o
3
In
S] I I) DIS1 kll;r I [(
each. How many kinds of apples do you I. now by sight? M
list of those which you know. I ).» the same for other fruits, I >o you
Fig. 35. — Wink't^l st ids which are distributed by the wind. F
above — linden, ailanthus, :m•
Plant grains of corn at various depths against the sides of a gla
vessel, and when the ones which have germinated in the best order
and way are ready show the vessel with its seedlings to the class.
How deep should corn be planted? Should all seeds be planted at
this depth? Why the difference?
25. LIFE HISTORIES OF ANIMALS
References
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Studies 39, 40, and 41.
All of the zoologies and biologies deal with this subje< t .
Secure the embryological models of amphioxus, frog, and chit k from the de il
in biological supplies.
191. The Fish. — Developing eggs of various species of fish may
be had from the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries or some of the statioi
and from dealers in biological supplies. For reference Kell<
and Doan's Zoology; and Civic Biology by Hodge and I >n,
Chap. XXVII.
192. Draw a series of developing eggs to show the pr< from
an egg to a fish.
193. The Frog. If frogs' eggs were collected and preserved in
formalin the previous spring, they may be studied under the mien
scope. Try to find two, four, and eight cell stages in tl
of the egg. Eggs in various stages of development may be had from
the dealers in Biological suppli<
194. Draw the stages of cleavage of the frog g whi< h you find.
66 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
195. The tadpole may be studied from material which was pre-
served from last spring's catch, purchased from dealers, or from
charts. See Fig. 224 in Atwood's Biology. Before the frog's egg
hatches the tadpole can be seen to move within the white of the egg.
When it comes out, it has no mouth but clings to objects with its
sucker. It is black and is covered with cilia. Find a stage with
externa] gills. As these are withdrawn, the internal ones appear.
Which legs appear first? How is the tail disposed of? What does
the young tadpole eat? When does it first begin to breathe?
When are frog's and toad's eggs laid? When do they develop into
frogs and leave the water?
196. Draw a series of tadpoles to show the progress from an
embryo to the fully formed frog from actual specimens or from
models.
197. The Bird. — Excellent wax models of the stages of develop-
ment of the chicken's egg may be had from the dealers. Eggs
may be incubated in an incubator and the living embryos may be
seen. Chicken, pigeon, and turtle embryos which have been
mounted permanently on microscope slides may also be purchased.
Consult the illustrations in Study 40 of Atwood's Biology.
198. Draw a series of chick embryos to show development from
the egg to hatching. Label as completely as possible, but do not
expect to know all about bird embryology in this brief study. If
you get the general trend, it will be sufficient.
199. The Mammal. — It will be more profitable, in the majority
of schools, to spend more time on the development of the chick and
to leave out the study of mammalian embryos. Pig embryos are
the most frequently studied. They may be had from the dealers,
either entire or sectioned and mounted on microscope slides. It may
be profitable to study, observe, or draw a series of wax models to
show the development of the ear or another series to show the
development of the eye. If this is done consult Figs. 122, 123, 132,
233, and 234 in Atwood's Biology.
I III FROG
67
26. THE FROG
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atw 1, Figs. 22, <>i, g a ,,|
Study 39.
General Zoology, Linville and Kelley, (Jinn & Co.
New Essentials of Biology, Hunter, pp. 272-2- .
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chap. XXYIII.
Comparative Vertebrate Dissection, At wood, P. Blakiston's Son
Anatomy of the Frog, Ecker, Oxford.
Laboratory Directions in Zoology, Guyer, U. of Wis. Pr<
200. The living frog should be examined first. I'luy may be kept
in the laboratory indefinitely by feeding them twice a wick. The
first exercise may be a demonstration of how to feed a frog. I'l.
them in a dish with glass sides so the class may see what . on.
They should be left here long enough to become quiet, and then if
pieces of meat are dangled before their noses on a wire, they will
take the meat readily. Put the meat on the wire -0 that it may be
pulled off easily. Will a frog eat meat that is not moving? Will
they take food which is not good for them? ho they -wallow all
kinds of food? Are their abilities to taste well developed? Antl •
especially attracted by certain colors? What do they do when they
secure apiece of food that is a little too large to handle easilj
Put one frog in the dark and one in the light. How are their
shades of color effected? Note the spots and marking \
they protective? Learn to know the kinds of frogs by their
markings. Note that the skin is moist. It is used a- a respiratory
organ.
Locomotion.— How does the frog walk, jump, and swim?
pare the legs. How is each pair used? Compare their joints with
those of man's. Locate the elbows, wrist>. knee-, and ankK
Note that the frog has no tail.
The head of the frog is po 1 of a very large mouth, 1
nostrils, and ears. Find these structures. Can '!><• fr< ik:
Can it move its eves? Compare tin- upper and lower lid- The
nictitating membrane is a third eyelid which is transparent
Observe it.
08
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
internal nares
teeth
Breathing is accomplished by filling the throat with air and then
swallowing it into the lungs. Observe a frog as it breathes. How is
the air expelled? Can it breathe with its mouth open? An alliga-
tor breathes much the same as a frog, but can do so with its
mouth open. Can you explain? Hold the frog between the
finger and thumb by placing them under its arm-pits. The
frog usually croaks. Can it croak with its mouth closed? Of
what value is the frog's ability to croak in nature? Can it croak
underwater?
Circulation of blood may be shown by placing a frog's foot under
the microscope. Various ways of doing this have been devised.
If you make this exhibit, do not injure the frog.
The dead frog may be placed in a pan of water and cut open on
the ventral side to remove some of the formalin in which it has been
preserved, or if it is fresh we may study the inside of the mouth.
Consult the figure and locate
the parts which are named.
The Eustachian tube may be
traced to the ear chamber by
inserting a probe. The lungs
of a fresh specimen may be
inflated by inserting a blow-
pipe in the trachea.
The skin is loose and may
be removed easily. Note the
blood vessels which enter the
skin near the fore legs. What is
their use?
The body-cavity may be
explored after a cut is made
along its mid-line from the throat to the hip girdle. Find the heart.
If the specimen is freshly killed it will be beating. The liver is the
large dark red organ in the middle of the cavity. On the frog's left
and under the liver is the stomach. Trace the intestine from the
stomach to the pelvic region. Note its coils. Near its posterior
end it is enlarged to form a rectum. At its terminus is a large sac
which is the urinary bladder.
esophagus
Eustachian
tube
tongue
Fig. 39. — The open mouth of the frog
to show the structures within. {Drawn
for this work by J. Thranow.)
Tin: frog
60
The egg masses may have interfered with the observation of the
intestine if the specimen was a female. The eL r L. r ~ are held in a la'
bra]
Fig. 40. — The arU'rirs of the fr-
sac of the ovary until spring when they are laid. How large are
they? What is their color? Remove the eggs and find the la r
internal jugular ^
femoral
sciatic
F j 1 . -The veins of the
coiled, white tubes which are the oviducts. Their wall- contain
stored nutriment which is added to th( a- tiny are laid. I ach
7°
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
egg is passed from the ovary into the cavity of the body, from where
ii enters the open end of the oviduct to be passed to the cloaca.
This is the place where the intestine and the oviducts meet. The
kidneys may be seen by pushing the oviducts to one side. They are
red -brown bodies. Each is drained by a duct to the cloaca. On the
ventral surface of each kidney is a yellow colored, irregular fat
body and an orange colored strip of tissue called the adrenal body.
Find these bodies. What is known about their functions?
The lungs are simple sacs with pitted walls in the chest cavity.
They are nearer the back than the liver which covers them.
iliohypogastric nerve
— — crural nerve
-— — 6Ciatic nervr
5t7 \
— — olfactory capsule
. palatine
,5 -
Jip^'jsN
^"~ """
- ophthalmic
\ !k
ev^'.'.'^v
— eye
2jw5
ni'ti'.-;*
%\ U\-
maxillary
WW 1
^v _^~0^^
* maxillo-mandibular
\V — tympanic membrane
\ry — Gasserian ganglion
JL-V — hyomandibular
k^ — ^jy
7 •"
^ 1
— + -glossopharyngeal
v< — ^\A
\ 11 v
jugal ganglion
- — — sympathetic
"V - vagus
ganglion
43-
—The
nerves
brain and cranial
of the frog.
Fig. 42. — The spinal nerves and Fig.
sympathetic nervous system of
the frog showing the brachial and
pelvic plexuses.
The blood vessels may be found and named by use of the figures.
Remember that the blood of the frog passes through the heart twice
in making a complete circuit of the body. (See Figs. 98 and 99 in
Atwood's Biology.) If the specimens are injected, or are fresh,
this will not be difficult. But it is not possible in high school
classes if the specimens have been preserved without injection.
THE PROG 71
Mesenteries arc thin sheets of tissue which hold the organs of the
body-cavity in place Find them and name them after the organ
which is suspended in each case.
The spinal nerves and the sympathetic nervous system arc shown
in the figure. Look in the cavity of the body, along the inner wall
of the back, and find the white cords which are the nerves. Com-
pare them with the figure. Can you find them all? Those which
are associated at the level of the arm form the brachial plexus,
and those which unite to send branches into the leg form the
the sacral plexus. Each nerve trunk Leaves the spinal cord by two
branches which unite to form a spinal nerve. See At wood's
Biology, Fig. 138.
The brain and cranial nerves are shown in the figure-. With a
sharp pointed scissors the skull of the frog may be cut open from
above by inserting a point in the back of the skull where the spinal
cord leaves and cutting bit by bit until the roof of the skull i>
occipital
r- prooiic
*¥—*■ baaiocclpit*!'
— ■quaxMfcl
Fig. 44. — Side view of the skull of the bullfrog.
removed. The brain should be seen and its parts identified by refer-
ring to Fig. 136 in Atwood's Biology. It may not be possible for
students of high school grade to identify all of the cranial ner\
which are shown in the figure, but they should be found where they
arise near the brain and traced outward as far as possible.
The muscle system may be studied by referring to the figures in
Comparative Vertebrate Dissection, Atwood, P. Blakis ton's Son &
Co.; General Zoology Laboratory Directions, Sigerfoos, Minneapolis,
Minn.; Anatomy of the Frog, Ecker, Oxford.
The skeleton is divided into the axial and the appendicular
parts. The axial consists of the skull and vertebral column. A
view of the skull is shown here. If skeletons are available, the
bones of the skull mav be identified. The bones of the vertebral
7 2 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
column are the vertebrae. Each consists of a centrum which is the
main part of the bone and a neural arch which surrounds the nerve
i ..id. At the sides are the transverse processes which terminate in
short ribs. It may almost be said that frogs have no ribs. The
last bone in the vertebral column is the urostyle. Account for its
peculiar shape.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the limbs and their support-
ing bones. The shoulder girdle is a curved plate of bones and
cartilage which supports the front legs. It is not closely attached
to the axial skeleton. The humerus is the first bone of the front
leg. The radius and ulna are united to form the bone of the fore-
arm. How many wrist, hand, and finger bones are there? The
pelvic girdle supports the hind legs. Is it attached to the vertebral
column? The first bone in the leg is the femur. The tibia and
fibula are united in the shank of the leg. The ankle is long and
contains two long tarsal bones. How many toes are there?
Draw such features of the anatomy of the frog as the instructor
may direct. All students may not be asked to make the same
drawings.
27. STUDIES ON THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DOMES-
TICATED ANIMALS AND PLANTS
For a reference see Unit V, Atwood's Biology.
The author has not been accustomed to do any laboratory work
with this section of the work. It has been interesting to work up
topics and reports, and devote a few minutes each day to the giving
of them to the class; but their nature must depend upon the refer-
ences which are available, their number, and upon the time which is
given to this unit of the book.
201. Library Committee Work. — Prepare lists of reports on the
subject matter of the first half of Unit V of Atwood's Biology which,
in your judgment, can be made up from the reference material avai-
lable in your library. Submit them to the instructor for approval
and let the members of the class select such as they wish to work
on. This should be done before this study is taken up in class.
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 73
202. Exhibits.- Hie museum committee should prepare exhibits
of such grains, fruits, vegetables, etc. as are available and as will be
instructive to the class.
203. Government bulletins of the department of agriculture may
be had for the asking. Write to the Editor in Chief of the Depart-
ment of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C, and get your name on the monthly mailing list of announce-
ments of new bulletins. Much valuable information bearing on
these studies may be had from these bulletins. They should be
placed in charge of the library committee. It is possible to get a
catalogue of bulletins which have been published in the past and
are still in print.
204. Class Projects. — Make a tabulation of the domesticated
plants and list their wild ancestor, or ancestors, and the country
from which they came.
Repeat the above for the domestic animals. If time is short, a
select list may be sufficient in both cases.
28. VARIATION AND HEREDITY AND THEIR APPLICATION
TO PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 46 and 47.
Heredity and Evolution in Plants, Gager, Chaps. IV and V.
Being Well Born, Guyer, Bobbs-Merrill Co.
Genetics, Walter, Macmillan Co.
Elementary Biology, Gruenberg, Part V.
205. Variation Study. — Refer to Fig. 256, Atwood's Biology and
make a list of all of the ways in which the two ears of corn differ, the
one from the other. When the lists are complete they should be
compared in class. Note length, diameter, kernels in the row, size
of kernels, rows of kernels, butts, tips, shape of ear, curved or straight,
and any other variations which you may note. What might haw-
been the cause of some of these variations?
206. Reports may be prepared on cases of discontinuous variations
which are known in the literature of science.
74
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
207. Tabulate all of the animals which you know to produce albino
offspring on occasions. List the dates and places of occurrence.
Make another tabic for the occurrence of black animals.
208. Exhibits. — Try to secure for exhibition purposes in the
laboratory specimens of Andalusian fowls, white rats and mice,
guinea pigs, and hybrid plants.
209. Chromosome Chart. — See p. 314 in Atwood's Biology and
by referring to the chromosome inheritance chart write an explana-
tion of how the laws of Mendel and the theory that the chromosome is
the carrier of the determiners of heredity are in agreement.
PARENTS
SECOND GENERATION
Fig. 45. — Chart to show how the chromosome theory of inheritance is in
accord with Mendel's laws. The chromosomes which carry the determiners of
black color are black in the figure, and those which carry white are white.
210. Exhibit. — If possible specimens of various breeds of corn,
wheat, apples, squashes, etc. should be shown to the class.
211. Quetelet's Law. — This is the law of chance. It may be
illustrated by taking ten pennies and throwing them up a thousand
times and recording the number of heads and tails in a table with
eleven columns; or five pennies may be chosen and recorded in a
PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING 75
table with six columns. In this case it may be sufficient to throw
them up about 500 times. Take your results to an adding machine
and compare. Plot a curve of the results. Continuous variations
follow this curve in their occurrence.
This law may also be shown with the apparatus which is illustrated
in Fig. 394, Fund a men tals 0} Botany, Gager.
Secure ioo earthworms and count the rings in their bodies. Colic. I
the data in a chart and plot the curve. Is it a Quetelet curve?
Secure ioo ears of corn of the same variety and count the rows
of kernels, or measure the lengths, or diameters. Suggest other
problems or projects which might be worked out. Do you fully
realize the universality of this law?
212. Board Work. — Write down the various types of discontinuous
variations in a table form. Recall or give examples of the various
cases of mutations of which you know or have read. Assign each
to its proper place in the table. When this is done, the table may
be copied in the notebook.
213. Trap Nests. — A report may be given to the class on the
subject of increasing the production of eggs by trap-nesting the
laying hens.
214. The Babcock Milk Test. — A demonstration of this test may
be given here if it was not done in connection with the food tests.
Of what value is milk testing in improving cows?
215. Corn testing and judging demonstrations may be carried
out before the class. See Government Bulletins for directions.
216. A report may be given to the class on the life and work of
Luther Burbank.
217. Prepare a list of the wild animals in your community which
are hunted and trapped for their furs. Which ones will live and
breed in captivity? What are the game laws which protect them?
If our wild life continues to decrease as it now is, we will soon pro-
duce nearly all of our furs from domesticated, furred animals. If
there is a fox, skunk, or muskrat farm in the vicinity it may be possi-
ble to make a study of it.
218. Animal Improvement Study. — Refer to Figs. 250 and 251
in Atwood's Biology and make a list of the changes which have taken
place in the production of the zebu cattle from the wild banteng.
7 6
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
29. EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS
References
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Studies 46, 47, 51, and 52.
Civic Biology, Hunter, Chaps. XVII and XXIV.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. XXX.
Genetics, Walter, Macmillan Co.
Being Well Born, Guyer, Bobbs-Merrill Co.
Tin Next Generation, Jewett, Ginn & Co.
219. Reports on state laws on eugenics, marriage laws, population
of the asylums of the state, tree ordinances, nature of adenoids,
duties of the health department, results of school inspection for
teeth, eyes, and other ailments needing attention, suggestions
for improvement of the ventilation, lighting, and heating systems
of schools, relative humidity, child labor laws in your state, value of
pure water and milk, etc., are of great value. We can not hope to
make much more progress in civic betterment along biological
A
oim
A
b\m
□ MALE
O FEMALE
....
A - ALCOHOLIC
!• FEEBLEMINDED
Fig. 46. — Three marriages to show how feeblemindedness is inherited. De-
scribe in writing what the results are as shown in the diagram. {General Science,
Brownell.)
lines until the general public has more information of these matters
than it now has, and until it has a greater desire to profit by such
knowledge.
220. Table of Inherited Defects. — Make a tabulation on the board
of the defects which people have which are inherited. If there is
doubt about it, write a question mark to so indicate. Copy the
table in the notebook and file a copy with the archives committee.
EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 77
221. Research. — Consult the table on p. 306, Atwood's Biology
and understand how inherited defects are charted. If you know of
any people or animals having inherited defects, try to get some
data concerning them and their relatives. When it is collected it
should be charted as in the figure. In making such surveys be very
careful to avoid giving offense to people who may be sensitive.
222. Family Survey. — Make an inheritance chart of the occur-
rence of Mendelian characters in your family. Make the chart as
inclusive of as many individuals as possible. Eye-color, hair-color,
curly or straight hair, fatness, and musical ability are such character-
as may be easily charted.
223. Questions. — Is feeble-mindedness dominant or recessive?
Can normal children be born from feeble-minded parents? If
feeble-mindedness is due to disease or injury, will it be inherited ? Is
insanity inherited? May it be caused by injury? If there are no
millions of people in the United States and 20 per cent of them
have some inherited defect, how many such people have we? Make
a list of human defects and classify them as to whether they are bad
enough to be eliminated by segregating those who have, them or
should no restrictions be placed upon them. Baldheadedness
and fatness are of the kind which should not be restricted. Should
one consider the relatives of the person whom one wishes to marry?
Is a person to be blamed for being a defective? Therefore, should
we not be charitable to them?
224. Shrub Study. — Make a trip through the city to study the
shrubs which are used for improving the appearance of yards and
boulevards. Make a list of them, and star the best ones. See the
catalogues of nurserymen as references.
225. Landscape Garden Plans. — Have the local landscape gardner
give the class a talk on the science and art of his profession. Make a
diagram of your home and the shrubs and trees which surround
it. Is there room for improvement ? Will there be some flower beds
next summer? Have some of the plans put on the board and dis-
cussed as to possible improvement by the class.
226. Notebook Work. — Answer (he questions which are asked in
the studies on eugenics and euthenics in At wood's Biology, Studies
51 and 52. Read the following references and write an outline or
78 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
summary of each: The Kallikak Family by Goddard, the Zeros by
Poellman, Noteworthy Families by Galton, The Heredity of Richard
Roc by Jordan, and the Descendants of Jonathan Edwards by Winship.
30. THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Unit VI.
Heredity and Evolution in Plants, Gager, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
The Theory of Evolution, Scott, Macmillan & Co.
227. Field Trips. — Go to a stone quarry, gravel bed, the shore
of the ocean, or one of the Great Lakes and study the fossils which
are to be found there.
Go to a museum and observe the fossils which are there.
Various members of the class may be able to bring fossils to the
class for observation.
228. Reports may be given on the ancestry of the horse, elephant,
camel, birds, mammals, ancient and primitive man, plants of the
carboniferous period.
229. Demonstration. — Compare the skeletons of various animals
to demonstrate that all vertebrates are built on the same plan.
What other systems may be used to show this?
230. Table of Vestiges. — Make a tabulation of the various vesti-
gial structures of animals which you know and list their probable
use in ancestors which had them in a perfect form.
231. Reports on the lives of some of the great men of biology
may be prepared and given from time to time as they are ready.
232. Overproduction Computations. — If we start with a pair of
flies in the spring, and the female lays 200 eggs, and the young
develop and lay eggs again in 30 days, and the summer lasts five
months, how many flies will there be at the end of summer?
If a certain weed produces 3,000 seeds in a season, and all grow
each year, how many weeds will there be in ten years? If each
weed weighs ten pounds, how much will all of them weigh?
If a pair of eagles produce two young each year and live to be
100 years old, and if breeding takes place the second year, how
BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND MOLDS 79
many eagles will there be at the end of ioo years? If this problem is
too long, it may be estimated.
233. Struggle for Existence Experiment.— Plant several kinds of
seeds in a box or tray. Plant a great many seeds. Give the culture
the best of care. What seedlings survive? Did they struggle? Is
it not obvious that they can not all live?
234. Reports.— List the different kinds of the following animals
and plants which man has produced by natural selection. Do not
be discouraged if you can not give a complete list. Get as many
pictures to show as you can.
Varieties of dogs.
Varieties of chickens.
Varieties of doves.
Varieties of apples.
Reports of famous biological experiments and discoveries will be
interesting and valuable.
31. BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND MOLDS
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 56 and 57.
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell, Chap. XI.
235. Bread mold may be grown on bread by moistening it and
placing it in a warm, damp place for a day or two when it will
be covered with the hyphae of the fungus; and in a day or two more,
the black spore cases will appear.
Growth tests for bread mold may be made as follows: Secure
eight wide mouthed bottles or tumblers. Place a piece of bread
which is wet in each vessel and treat each as follows:
1. Do nothing. This is the control.
2. Remove the bread from the glass. Clean the glass and dry it.
Dry the bread completely and replace it in the glass.
3. Cover the piece of bread with dry salt.
4. Cover the bread with vinegar or some other acid as boracic.
5. Place enough sugar on the bread to cover it. Corn sirup may
be substituted for the sugar.
8o PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
6. Place the glass containing the moistened bread in boiling water
in a double cooker or a sterilizer. Keep covered after removing.
7. Place this one in a refrigerator.
8. Place on the bread a dilute solution of formalin.
Place all but No. 7 in a warm place and keep each vessel covered
to prevent evaporation and more infection. In order to make sure
that each was infected with mold, it might be well to inoculate each
piece at the start. The cultures should be examined at the end of
four days and the results written in the notebook. Be sure to explain
why mold failed to develop in the sterile cultures.
236. Microscopic Work. — Bacteria may be spread on microscope
slides, dried, stained, and viewed with the high power.
Yeasts are easily seen. They are very large cells. Place a drop
of the culture in which they are growing on a microscope slide and
view under the low and high power. What is the shape of the cells?
Note how they grow by budding. Can you find a nucleus? A
drop of iodine on the slide will enable you to avoid starch grains.
How?
Draw some yeast cells to show their shape, nuclei, and their method
of growth and reproduction.
237. Project. — Refer to Atwood's Biology, Fig. 299 and make
some wax models of various kinds of bacteria as suggested.
238. Molds. — From some of the cultures of bread mold which
you have grown, you may secure material which can be viewed under
the microscope. Find the hyphae, stolons, rhizoids, sporangio-
phores, and spore cases (sporangia). Make a drawing showing
these structures and label carefully.
239. Culture Medium.. — The best medium for the cultivation of
bacteria is the beef extract-agar-bouillon. To make it, dissolve
ten grams of each of the following materials in 200 cc. of water:
Leibig's beef extract, salt (NaCl), and peptone. In 800 cc. of boiling
water dissolve ten grams of agar-agar (or 100 grams of gelatin).
The agar must be given considerable time in which to dissolve, and
must be kept at a boiling temperature in a double cooker. Pour
the first solution into the second and filter while hot through cotton.
It should be clear. If it is not, it should be heated again and
refiltered,
BACTERIA, YKASTS, AND SCOLDS
81
Pour the hot culture medium into sterilized test tubes and Petri
dishes. The dishes should be covered immediately and the test
tubes should be plugged with sterilized cotton. Set these away
to be inoculated in the following experiments.
Note. — This solution should be made by the instructor or by a responsible
committee. If the medium is to be used for bacteria, it should be made slightly
alkaline by the addition of sodium carbonate; but if it is to be used for molds, it
should be slightly acid. Determine the acidity or alkalinity after it is filtered by
using litmus paper.
Fig. 47. — Bread mold (Rhizopus nigricans) to show its habit of growth.
A, Older plant with ripe spores; B, younger plant with unripe spores; myc,
mycelium; sph, sporangiophore; sp, sporangium; si, stolon. {Fundamentals of
Botany, Gagcr.)
240. Where may bacteria te found? — Expose the Petri dishes
in some of the following ways. To the dust of the room while it is
being swept. To dirt from under the finger nails. To a comb after
passing it through the hair. Wash the hands in a small amount
of water and place a drop of it on the culture. Scrape the teeth
with a dry, sterile tooth brush and inoculate a culture with the
scrapings. Get some dust from the road, from a window ledge,
from a basement, and other places and inoculate cultures.
Keep the cultures in a warm place and do not let them dry out.
Watch them and report the growths as they take place. Do not
remove the covers when examining Petri dishes. Compare the
S2
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
growths in the different dishes. How can you tell molds from
bacteria? Are there any differences in the kinds of molds and the
kinds of bacteria? Do you fully understand how these fungi got
into the Petri dishes? Are bacteria everywhere in the house and
out of doors? Probably none of the bacteria which you have grown
Fig. 48. — A plate culture of colonies of bacteria grown from a bit of dust from a
cow stable. (Microbiology, Marshall.)
are dangerous to man as producers of contagious diseases, but if
you had secured your inoculating material from a sewer, spittoon,
or scab it would be dangerous.
241. Pure cultures of bacteria may be made by thrusting a
sterilized needle or platinum wire in a spot of bacteria in a Petri dish
and then thrusting it in the culture medium which you have saved in
a test tube. Be very careful to avoid letting any foreign bacteria
BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND MOLDS
83
get into the tube when the inoculation is made. After a few days
the tubes may be examined. If you were careful, there will be but
one kind of bacteria in a test tube. Do you fully appreciate how
careful one must be to avoid bacteria which cause decay or disea
242. Problem. — If the bacillus tuberculosis divides every half
hour when it is growing rapidly, and you should become infected
with it, how many germs would there be in your body at the end of
ten hours? Twenty hours? One month! What prevents them
from multiplying as fast as they might?
243. Project. — Secure several kinds of food and vegetables.
Cut the vegetables in slices and mix the foods with water. Keep
them warm and moist. The class should
see them each day. Which foods are
attacked the more readily? Are any
resistant to decay?
244. Committee Field Trip. — Some
members of the class may go into the
woods and find shelf fungi growing on
trees. Note whether the trees are alive
or dead. On what kinds of trees are
they found? Bring some of the speci-
mens to the class and put them in the
museum. Give a report of your trip to
the class and file a record of it with the
archives committee.
245. Museum Exhibit. — The museum
committee will prepare an exhibit of the
various kinds of fungi which may be in
+U~ ™ tl u- u i_ e 1 FlG - 4 9- — FcrnuMUati.-n
the cases. I hose which are harmful tube for the study of gas for-
to our fruit trees are of great economic mation by yeasts and bacteria.
_^ ... . ' , . , (From Pit field ajter Williams.)
importance. Edible mushrooms which
have been preserved in formalin may be seen now and a field
trip planned for the spring, but more of them arc to be found in the
fall. If there is a mushroom cellar in the city it may be possible to
visit it.
246. Yeast plants may be grown in dilute solutions of sugar,
glucose, honey, sirup, or dough. Some of the material may be put
84 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
in fermentation tubes, and some of them placed in a refrigerator
and some in a warm place. Which shows the most gas at the top
of the tube? Smell of the cultures. What is the gas which is
produced? Some of it may be passed from a flask through a tube
into some fresh limewater. How does this prove the gas to be
carbon dioxide?
247. Reports. — How is grain alcohol made on a commercial basis?
How is cider made? How is vinegar made? Read the reports to
the class.
248. Questions. — Why does salt pork keep? Why does smoked
meat keep? How does sugar preserve? How does vinegar pre-
serve? Why do tomatoes keep better when canned than corn or
pumpkin? Can you make pumpkin keep when canned in the
kitchen? Will teeth which are kept perfectly clean decay? Which
is better, a broom or a vacuum cleaner?
32. BACTERIA AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF MAN
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atvvood, Studies 58 and 59.
Civic Biology. Hodge and Dawson, Chaps. XXI-XXIII.
Civic Biology. Hunter, Chap. XI.
New Essentials of Biology, Hunter, Chap. XXX.
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell, Ginn & Co.
Do not experiment with bacteria which cause disease in man. It is
dangerous. They may be studied from models, charts, and pictures.
249. Statistical Projects. — Consult bulletins of the departments
of health — national, state, and city — and make charts showing the
decrease in deaths from typhoid, yellow fever, tuberculosis, and
smallpox in recent years. To what has this been due?
250. Make charts to show the increase in certain seasons of the
year of pneumonia, malaria, typhoid fever, and summer complaint.
What causes this seasonal fluctuation?
251. Collect statistics to show the value of vaccination for small-
pox, and the use of antidiptheric serum. Do these figures prove
that these practises are valuable?
CiiXTAC.IOUS DISKASI'.S OF MAX
85
Collect statistics to show the decrease in deaths of infants in
recent years? Docs the milk inspection and quarantine enforcement
help in this matter?
Collect figures which show that cancer is increasing. How do
you account for this?
252. Topics may he prepared giving the symptoms, incubation
periods, and methods of treatment for some of our common conta-
gious diseases.
253. References for the above may be difficult to find. The
journal of the American Medical Asso-
ciation is valuable, as are other reliable
magazines. You should not trust all
books and periodicals for your infor-
mation. There is much incorrect in-
formation in the current literature on
the subject of disease and health.
254. Life History of the Mosquito. —
If it is now spring, the eggs and larvae
of mosquitoes may be found in stagnant
water. Let each member of the class
search for them. Report all of the
places where they are found. Place
the wrigglers in screened aquaria in the
laboratory and watch them develop.
Specimens may be taken out and drawn
in outline. Make a series to show how
they look at different ages. Adult
mosquitoes may be dried and placed on
microscope slides, then covered with a
drop of balsam, and a cover glass mav ■ FlG " 5 °~
. °. J pi pirns, t. Tracheal gills; r,
be pressed down upon it. This prepa- respiratory tube. (Entomolo
ration is not perfect but it will be of / '" /v '""- )
value in studying the parts of the mosquito under the microscope.
Find the antennae of the males and females and compare. Note
the long legs. Can mosquitoes stand on the surface of quiet water?
Do you know any other creatures which can? How many wings
has a mosquito? Why do they buzz? Onlv the females do this.
86
PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Find the probosis and distinguish its parts. See Studies 25 and 58
in At wood's Biology.
Place some mosquito larvae in an aquarium with goldfish and
minnows. (?) Make a list of the ways of fighting mosquitoes.
Fig. 51.
-Comparison of the pupae of Culex (at left) and Anopheles (at right)-
enlarged. (From Howard.)
Which methods can be used in your community? If you live in a
district where there is no malaria, is it worth while to fight the
mosquito?
255. Personal Survey. — See General Science, Bowden, p. 596 and
make the survey which is outlined there. If you have made it last
— — „ 7 ^r-, .„.„„-„„_ .- , , , ,, > •»:• ?• • i">»y>,l!»>/»»W>it
Fig. 52. — Anopheles mosquito at left, culex at right, to show their characteristic
attitudes when at rest. {Elements of Animal Biology, Holmes.)
year, repeat it now and note any improvement which may appear.
Be especially accurate in the examination of your skin, eyes, ears,
nose, and mouth. You will not be required to show your report to
the members of your class.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS 87
33. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS
References
Fund a menials of Botany, Gager, Chaps. XIX to XXI.
Fungus Diseases of Plants, Duggar, Ginn and Co.
M ycology and Plant Pathology, Harshberger, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Chic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 60 and 61.
Principles of Botany, Bergen and Davis, Ginn and Co.
Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture, and of the Slates.
256. Charts. — See Fig. 305 in Atwood's Biology and make similar
charts to show the life histories of other fungi which cause diseases
in plants.
257. Exhibits may be made of the specimens which are in the
museum. Collect as much material showing plant diseases as you
can. Some of it must be kept in formalin, but much of it can be
dried.
258. Reports may be prepared and given on the more common
plant diseases. Describe how they are caused. What parts of the
plant are affected. How they are carried. How they pass the
winter. How they are treated and cured or eliminated.
259. Table. — Make a table listing the common plant diseases,
the plants which they injure, and the method of preventing or
fighting them. Let each student work on a chart, exhibit, report,
or table.
260. Lilac mildew has been a favorite for the study of a parasitic
fungus for a long time. Gather the leaves of the lilac and dry them.
View the spore cases under the microscope and draw them. How
do the filaments of the fungus emerge from the leaf? There is a
similar fungus on the leaves of willow which is good material for
study. Consult a reference and learn the life history.
SS PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
34. WEEDS
References
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell, Ginn & Co., Chap. XXV.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Study 62.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. VII.
The departments cf agriculture of Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin
issue excellent bulletins on weeds. There are several issued by the U. S.
I department of Agriculture.
261 . Field Trip. — If it is now spring, go into the fields and find such
weeds as you can. Learn their names and get as much of the
following information from literature and by observation as possible.
How large does the weed get? Where does it grow? What soil
is best suited to it? Can it grow in water? Is it easily frozen?
Does its root live over winter ? What crops does it damage the most ?
Has it any other methods of reproduction than by seed? How are
its seeds scattered? Does it produce many seeds? Is it poisonous?
Does it have a bad taste or smell? Is it extensively eaten by animals
or insects? Is it easily uprooted or trampled out? Can it grow
well in the shade? Does it harbor any harmful insects? Does it
produce burs, berries, or large seeds? Has it a blossom? What
effect might the above have on the ability of the weed to maintain
itself? It may be possible to collect the above in the form of a
table for the common weeds of your community.
262. Survey. — The survey committee may look for poison ivy,
barberry, poison sumach, poison hemlock, poison oak, jimson weed,
and fennel. Can some of these weeds and shrubs be removed?
Keep a record of where they were found and the next class will follow
up the work of their eradication.
263. The following figures in Atwood's Biology are pictures of
weeds. Which ones of them have you found? Figs. 10, 26, 28,
29, 40, 41, 43, 47, 63, 64, 106, 107, 108, 156, 163, 174, 176, 178, 180,
181, 182, 191, 192, 194, 195, 199, 202, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317.
264. Weed Seed.— Examine a sample of clover seed which con-
tains the seeds of weeds. Use a lens. Compare the weed seeds
which you find with those shown in Fig. 317, Atwood's Biology.
How many kinds have you found? What per cent of the seed was
PARASITIC WORMS 89
weed seed? What is the law in your state in regard to weed seed in
seed which is sold for planting?
35. PARASITIC WORMS
References
General Zoology, Pearse, Henry Holt & Co.
Textbook of /.oology, Galloway, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Study 63.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. XXIV.
265. The tapeworm may be observed in the laboratory by passing
a preserved specimen around the class. Microscope slides on which
are mounted proglottides to show their parts may be had from the
dealers. These may be observed under the microscope and com-
pared with Fig. 319 in Atwood's Biology and drawn. Label all
features completely. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. makes an excellent
model of a proglottid of the tapeworm. It may be drawn by the
students. How do the eggs get out of the ovaries to the exterior?
What is the function of the uterus?
266. Ascaris may be observed from bottles containing preserved
specimens. Sometimes eggs may be found in the females. They
may be seen under the microscope.
267. Trichina may be studied from microscope slides. They may
be had from the dealers. If the slides are made from the llesh of the
rat or pig which contains the larva?, the student should consult Fig.
321 in Atwood's Biology and make sketches of what he sees under
the microscope.
268. The hook-worm may be studied from slides, but few schools
are supplied with such material, and it is not easily obtained.
269. Topics. — Secure bulletins from the U. S. Public Health
Service and report on such phases of the hook-worm problem as
may seem advisable.
270. Diagrams of the life histories of various parasitic worms
may be made by students. These mav be put in the notebooks or
on the board. Each diagram should be accompanied by a descrip-
tion. The texts by Pearse, Gallowav, and Hodge and Dawson are
good references.
go PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
36. INSECT PESTS
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Studies 64-67.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chaps. X-XY.
Economic Zoology, Kellogg and Doan.
Elementary Biology, Gruenberg, Chaps. LXXV and LXXIV.
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chaps. XXIII-XXV.
Economic Entomology, Lochhead, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Entomology, Folsom, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Elementary Entomology, Sanderson and Jackson, Ginn & Co.
Injurious Insects, O'Kane, Macmillan & Co.
271. Excursion. — If there is a greenhouse near the school, it
may be profitable to make a trip to it to study their methods of
controlling insect pests.
272. Exhibits. — The museum committee should place on exhibit
such injurious insects as are in its possession. Write out a legend
for each exhibit stating something of the life history, damage done,
and methods of control.
273. Survey. — Let each student be on the watch for insects as
they appear this spring. Capture them and bring them to the class.
Recognize them as beetles, flies, butterflies, etc. and try to learn
their individual names and what they live on. Keep a record of
the earliest appearance of insects common to your community and
file the record with the archives committee.
274. Topics and Reports. — Let each student prepare a paper on
some harmful insect. Make a chart to go with the paper if you can.
For an idea as to how to make such a chart, see Figs. 315,324,326, and
335 in Atwood's Biology and similar figures in the other references.
275. Tables. — Prepare a table of the sprays which are used as
stomach poisons and state in the table what kinds of insects are
fought with each spray.
Make a similar table for sprays which are contact poisons.
Make another table of stomach poisons which are not applied
through a spraying nozzle.
276. Laboratory work should be done on an insect which has
chewing or biting mouth parts and on one which has sucking mouth
INSECT PESTS
91
parts. See Figs. 32, 328, 329, and 330 in Atwood's Biology and
the figures of the grasshopper in Unit 6 of this manual. Insects
having chewing mouth parts which are easily studied are caterpillars,
grubworms, beetles, dragon flies, and grasshoppers. [nse< 1- having
piercing and sucking mouth parts which may be studied arc squash
bugs, assassin bugs, electric light bugs, cicadas, and some of the flii
After carefully consulting the figures in reference books, each student
I li h
Fig. 53.
Fig. 54.
Fig. 53. — Mouth parts of the mosquito to show a type of piercing mouth
parts, a, Antenna; e, compound eye; h, hypopharynx; /, labrum-epiphary nx ;
li, labium; m, mandible; tnx, maxilla; />, maxillary palpus. [From Folsom, after
Dimmock.)
Fig. 54. — The head of the housefly. {From limns.)
should make a study, with the aid of a lens, of the mouth parts of a
chewing and a sucking insect. Make sketches of the mouth parts
and label them carefully. Do you understand why stomach poisons
do not kill bugs? If bugs do not eat the leaves of a plant, how do
they do it damage? Which is the more primitive type of mouth?
92 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
In examining mouth parts of insects, the student should use a fine tweezers
and a needle point. Those of the chewing insects may be removed and sketched
apart from the head or they may be left on. It will be best to leave the mouth
parts of sucking insects on the head and sketch them in that way. They should
he separated for observation with great care or they will be broken. The needle
point is best for this purpose. Thrust it between them near the head and gently
work it down to the point of the beak parting the mouth parts as you do so.
277. Exhibit. — The supplies committee should make an exhibit
of the various chemicals which are used in fighting insects. They
may be put in glass bottles and set out for observation with such
notes as may seem appropriate. Caution. — Some of the chemicals
are very poisonous.
278. Review. — If the grasshopper was dissected in a previous
study, it should be reviewed now; but if not, it will be well to turn
to the directions there and make a careful study of the structure of
the grasshopper considered as a typical insect.
279. News Item. — Flies are being bred in our city at the rate of one million
every twenty-four hours. The committee on civic surveys of the biology class
of the high school reports finding a manure heap on River Avenue which is pro-
ducing a million flies every day. We wonder if all of the citizens of Blank have
been getting their share of these flies. A statistician on the committee reports
that there are 104 flies for each family in the city, and several times that figure
for each grocery store per day.
We hasten to inform the curious that it will be necessary to start at once if they
desire to see this marvel of insect breeding, for the manure is being removed
today. We regret to announce the destruction of so beautiful a fly paradise, but
the school physician held a conference with its owner with the result that it was
sold for fertilizer at a satisfactory profit.
The above news item is a gem of biological literature. It con-
demns no one, is somewhat humorous, and lets those who have
manure piles know indirectly that they must be removed. There
should be considerable manure for sale the day following the publica-
tion of such an article. Is it necessary to publish such an article in
the press of your city? When the fly season opens, there should be
no manure piles. Such piles do little harm in the winter, but when
spring comes the flies which have wintered over in them in the form
of maggots and pupae begin to come out, and other flies lay their
eggs there. Appoint a committee to make a survey.
INSECT PESTS 93
280. Fly Breeding Project.— Secure some fly eggs or young larvae
and some manure. Place them in a glass jar and observe their
development from day to day. I Mace them in the care of some
student who will see that the culture is kept properly until the
flies develop. Keep a record of the length of the stages of
development. Does food or temperature affect the length of the
stages?
281. Laboratory Study. — With the aid of a lens and the compound
microscope the fly should be carefully examined. Dip each fly in a
solution of formalin before handling it to kill any germs which may
be on it. The wings are gauzy and covered with hairs. Note the
veins which keep them stiff. The head is possessed of two large
compound eyes. Find the bristle-like antennae. The mouth parts
are adapted for lapping up fluids. Can you identify the mandibles,
maxillae, and labium? The body is divided into a head, thorax,
and abdomen. The thorax is composed of three fused somites.
Each somite bears a leg. Note the hairs on the legs. Are they
well adapted to carrying bacteria? Place a fly's foot under the
compound microscope and view it. Find the two hooks, the pad,
and note the hairs. The abdomen is composed of somites which are
easily distinguished. How many are there? Note the hairs. Is
the fly a good carrier of germs? If time permits, sketches of vari-
ous parts of the fly may be made.
283. Fly Trap Exhibit. — A committee may be appointed to secure
some fly traps, or they may be made. Exhibit them to the class.
See Hodge and Dawson's Biology, Chap. X.
284. Fly poison may be made by placing a little sugar or honey
in a saucer of water and adding a small amount of formalin. It may
be well to place a slip of paper in the dish for the flies to light on.
All water must be removed from the room. Flies require large
quantities of water and are fond of water containing a little
formalin. If there are flies in the laboratory, this experiment may
be tried; but there must be no water for them to get at, other than
the poison.
285. Arachnids. -Examine specimens of spiders, centipeds, and
millipeds and make out the tables on pp. 424 and 432 of Atwood's
Biology.
94 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
286. Reports may be given on the life histories and methods of
control of various arachnid pests. Government bulletins will be
found to be the best references.
287. Spider webs may be studied as projects. How are they
made? What are they used for? How many kinds are there? A
few minutes of the recitation hour may be devoted to an exchange of
information and ideas on spider webs.
37. RATS AND MICE
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 68.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. XVII.
Bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
288. David Lantz estimates that a rat does two dollars worth
of damage every year of its life. How much wheat would it eat to
amount to this figure? Corn? Flour?
Each student will make a list of the ways in which rats have been
known personally to destroy property. Bring the lists to class.
Compare and average them. It may be well to collect the averages
in a table.
289. Bubonic Plague. — Consult references and make a diagram of
the life history of bubonic plague.
290. Survey. — A survey committee should collect some infor-
mation on the rat problem in your city. Where are they the most
abundant? Are there any open sewers? Can a movement be
started and carried out to have the sewers covered? Are there any
garbage dumps in the city? Is it possible to have the garbage
burned? Are any of the merchants or manufacturers suffering loss
by rats? In making surveys, you should always be courteous and
diplomatic.
291. Problem. — If a rat brings forth ten young to a litter, and
breeds four times in a year, how many rats will there be at the end
of five years?
FISH AND POND LIFE 95
38. FISH AND POND LIFE
References
Fish Culture in Ponds and other Waters, Meehan, Macmillan & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 69.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chap. XXVI I.
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chap. XX VII.
General Zoology, Pearse, Henry Holt & Co.
Life of Inland Waters, Xeedham and Lloyd, Comstock Pub. Co.
292. Excursion. — If there is a pond, lake, or stream in the
vicinity, an excursion should be made to it. Dip nets, glass jars,
pails, etc. should be taken along. What animals do you find in
the water? Is the water clear, running, muddy, or stagnant? What
is the condition of the bottom? What is the source of supply of
the body of water which you are visiting?
What kinds of insects are present? What kinds of molluscs?
What kinds of plants? What kinds of crustaceans? List them.
Catch as many of the animals which live in the pond as you can.
Place them in aquaria in the laboratory and study them. What
ones are eaten by fish? Which ones eat others? What is the source
of all food in water?
Make a list of the fishes which are known to inhabit the body of
water. Do you know what each feeds on? W 7 hat might be done to
increase the number of fish which could be taken from the pond each
year?
Discuss the questions raised above when you meet in class the
next day.
293. Aquaria. — Review the work done with aquaria last fall.
Are any of the aquaria in the same condition in which they were
left last fall? What changes have taken place? Review the chemi-
cal cycles in ponds and aquaria. Understand the relationships of
plants and animals in water. What kinds of fish have you been
able to keep in the laboratory?
96 PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
39. THE PERCH (DISSECTION)
References
Comparative Vertebrate Dissection, At wood, P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
Laboratory Directions in Elementary Zoology, Guyer, U. of Wis. Press.
General Zoology, Linville and kelley, Ginn & Co.
Civic and Economic Biology, At wood, Study 69.
294. Study a Live Fish in Water. — How does it pass water over
the gills? How does it swim? Are all of the fins used? Note the
tins. The one at the tail is the caudal. Those along the back are
t he dorsal fins. Those under the tail are the anal fins. Those which
arc paired are the pectoral fins near the head, and the pelvic fins
along the sides of the body farther back.
Find the nostrils. What are they used for? Find the eyes.
Are they movable? Feed the fish. How do they find the food?
Study the scales. How are they arranged? Are they all of the
same size? Note how they lap over the ones behind them. Find
the lateral line which is a line from above the eye along the side of
the body to the tail. It is a line of sense organs.
Draw the fish which you have observed. Label all of its parts
carefully.
295. Dissection of Perch. — Specimens with the ventral wall of the
body cut away may be kept in formalin from year to year and used
in this study for examination, or fresh specimens may be dissected.
Make a cut along the mid-line of the body and carry it forward to
the pectoral girdle and back to the anus. Now cut away the sides
oi the abdominal walls. This exposes the visceral organs of the
perch. Push a probe into the mouth and find where it enters the
stomach. Note the shape of this organ. Find the pyloric appen-
dages at the place where the stomach and intestine meet. How
many are there? What is their function? The liver is the dark red
organ forward from the stomach. How many lobes has it? Can
you find the green gall bladder? Trace the coiled intestine through
the fat which surrounds it to its opening to the outside. How
many coils are there? Can you find the pancreas and spleen?
What are the functions of these organs? The pancreas is in a
very simple form in the perch.
THE PERCH
97
The reproductive organs are situated along the intestine and vary
greatly in size with the season of the year. Trace their openings
to the exterior. The air bladder is the silvery sac in the dorsal
part of the body-cavity. What is its shape? How is it attached?
The kidneys are situated between the bladder and the backbone.
They are of a dark red-brown color. What is their extent?
lateralis system'
ophthalmic
maxillary
\ 'mandibular
hyomandibular
Fig. 55. — The brain and ten cranial nerves of the perch as seen from side view.
{Comparative Vertebrate Dissection, Atwood.)
The heart is situated between the gills in the thick triangular
area. Cut into it and observe the heart. Find the atrium (auricle)
and the ventricle. It will be difficult for a student of high school
grade to make out the blood vessels without injection, but they are
charted in Figs. 98 and 99 in Atwood's Biology. Understand how
the blood traverses the body of a fish and compare it with that
of man and the frog.
The brain and cranial nerves of the perch are shown in the illustra-
tion. Cut away the roof of the skull and remove the fatty material
98 PROJECTS VXD EXPERIMENTS IX BIOLOGY
which surrounds the brain. The most anterior lobes comprise the
cerebrum, the second pair are the optic lobes, and the third unpaired
lobe is the cerebellum. Try to find the cranial nerves which are
shown in the illustration. You may not be able to find them all.
The muscles of the perch are of the segmented type along the
sides of the body. They are an evidence of the fact that vertebrated
animal- are segmented as is the earthworm, but these evidences are
much less evident in the higher forms. Strip a piece of skin from
the side of the body and tail and observe the muscles. For refer-
ences on the anatomy of the perch consult Comparative Vertebrate
Dissection, Atwood, P. Blakiston's Son & Co. and General Zoology,
Linville and Kelly, Ginn & Co.
Draw such parts of the anatomy of the perch as your instructor
may direct.
40. BIRDS
References
Civic and Economic Biology, Atwood, Study 70.
alimentary Biology, Gruenberg, Chap. LXXVII.
Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson, Chaps. IV and V.
.Y< w Essentials of Biology, Hunter, pp. 286-302.
Biology for Beginners, Moon, Chaps. XXXI and XXXIT.
Bird Xeighbors, Blanchan, Doubleday Page & Co.
296. Laboratory Work. — The following study may be made from
a live bird or from a mounted specimen. Distinguish the following
regions: head, neck, body, and tail. The bill is peculiar to birds.
Does it contain any teeth? Find the nostrils. Note their shape
and position. Are they covered with feathers? Find the eyes.
Are they possessed of lids? What is the color of the eyes? What
is the shape of the pupil? Find the ears. Is there an external ear?
How is the ear covered?
The neck and body are covered with feathers which are so
arranged as to shed the rain and to offer as little resistance to flight as
possible. How are the wings folded? How many joints are there?
The long feathers are firmly set in the flesh of the wing. Note how
they overlap when the wing is spread. Examine a large feather.
The part which was in the flesh is the quill. The stiff central portion
BIRDS 99
is the rachis. The barbs run out from the rachis and possess
barbules which lock them together.
How many joints are there in the legs? How much of the leg
is covered with feathers? Note how the scales are arranged. How
many toes are there? On what part of the foot does the bird walk?
Are the feet webbed? What are the toe nails fitted for?
The tail of a bird is short, but it may contain long feathers. Com-
pare them with those of the wings. Is the tail broad or pointed.
What are the uses of birds' tails?
Draw a bird from side view in outline and label its parts.
297. Migration Chart. — Make a tabulation of the dates of arrival
of the migratory birds which pass through your section of the
country. Let each student be on the watch for birds and record
those which he sees. Post the list in the school and compare lists
from year to year.
298. Field Study. — Go into the woods and fields on Saturday in
groups of less than ten. If there are too many in a group, the birds
will be frightened away. Have notebooks with you and record the
names of the birds which you see. These trips should be started
before the leaves come out, because the birds are more easily seen
then. When the birds begin to build their nests, the process of
nest building should be observed. In what situation does each
bird build? What materials go into the nest? How are thev fast-
ened together? Do both birds assist in building? When are the
eggs laid? What is their color? Do both birds incubate them?
What are the young like? Do both birds feed them? What do they
feed them? A blind may be made and a watcher placed in it to
make a daily record of the food given to the nestlings. The
watcher should be relieved every hour. Are the birds which you
have watched beneficial? Do owls hunt all night? It will not be
necessary to watch the song birds after dark.
Aside from nest building the songs and colors of birds are the most
interesting. Learn to know them by their colors and songs. Note
differences in males and females. What differences may be noted in
young and old birds? It is difficult to see the color of a bird when it
is between you and the sun, or when it is in the bright light. Colors
show best in quiet woods.
IOO PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS IN BIOLOGY
Watch a sparrow's nest while the young are being feed. You
may be surprised at the large number of insects which are fed to the
young. Sparrows do much good and some harm.
299. Bird Calendar. — List all of the birds of the community as
summer residents, winter residents, permanent residents, and
migrants. Give the dates of arrival and departure. This calendar
should be started by the first class and corrected and amplified
from year to year. It should be placed in charge of the archives
committee.
300. Survey. — A tabulation may be made of the shrubs in the
community which bear fruits which are eaten by birds. What
can be done to increase the number of such shrubs? Will this have
a tendency to increase the number of birds in the community?
301. Bird Boxes. — Arrange with the manual training department
to make some bird boxes. Have an exhibit of them. When they
are set up, they should be put out of the way of cats.
• .
-
INDEX
Absorption, 39
Acid secretion, 14
Adaptation, 4
Aerial roots, 14
Ailanthus, 59
Air, 5
Albinos, 74
Alcohol, 26, 84
Alfalfa, 30
Algae, 47-49
Alkali, 38
Alligator, 68
Ameba, 45
Ammonium nitrate, 2
Andalusian fowls, 74
Animal intelligence, 45
Antidiphtheric serum, 84
Apparatus, 1
Apple 56, 60, 74, 79
Apt era, 10
Aquaria, 29, 46, 86, 95
Arachnids, 93
Arborvitae, 24
Archives, 1
A ristolochia, 20-2 1
Ascaris, 89
Avoiding reaction, 46
Babcock test, 36, 75
Bacteria, 28, 79-86
Balanced aquarium, 46
Banteng, 75
Barberry, 88
Barley, 35
Bean, 63
Bears, 29
Bees, 6
Beet, 14, 16
Beetle, 3, 6
Begonia, 60
Berries, 57
Bird boxes, 100
calendar, 100
Birds, 57, 66, 78, 98-100
Biuret test, 35
Blood, 40
corpuscles, 40
Brace roots, 14
Brain of frog, 44, 70, 71
of perch, 97, 98
Bread mold, 79, 81
Brook, 4
Bryophyllum, 60
Bubonic plague, 94
Buds, 18-23
Bulbs, 19, 60
B urban k, 75
Butter, 35
Butterflies, 6
Calendars, 51
Calories, 29
Camel, 78
Cancer, 85
Candy, 35
Capillarity, 17
Carbohydrate, 2, 24
Carbon cycle, 29
dioxide, 26, 27 28, 29, 39
monoxide, 39
test, 32
Carrot, 14
osmometer, 16
Cats, 100
Cell, 52-53
budding, 5 j
division, 52-53
growth, 5a
101
102
INDEX
Cellj turgor, 16
Centipeds, 93
Chemical compound, 2
cycles, 29
Cherry, 19, 57
Chicken 3, 66, 79
Chlorophyll, 26, 28, 48
Chloroplasts, 27, 47
Chromosomes, 53, 74
Cider, 84
Circulation, 39-41, 68
Clay, 17
Cleavage, 65
Clematis, 59
Clover, 88
Conjugation, 47
Committee, 1
Compass plant, 4
Cones of pines, 50
Contact poisons, 90
Contagious diseases, 84-87
Copper oxide, 34
sulphate, 2
Corms, 19, 60
Corn, 18, 62, 63, 64, 65, 73, 74, 94
judging, 75
oil, 39
s,talk, 23
testing, 75
Cotton, 18, 35
Cottonseed oil, 39
Cottonwood, 60
Cow, 3
Crawfish, 10-14
Crayfish, 10-14
Crop rotation, 18
Crustaceans, 44
Crystallization, 2
Culture medium, 80
Dahlia, 60
Diastase, 34
Diaphragm, 40
Diffusion, 25, 26
Digestion, 36-39
Digestive juices, 38
system, 36, 37, 38
Diptera, 10
Ditch moss, 26
Dog, 3, 29, 45, 79
Domesticated animals, 72-73
plants, 72-73
Dough, 83
Dove, 79
Drainage, 18
Duck, 3
Eugenics, 76-78
Eagle, 78
Ear, 13, 44
Earthworm, 4, 40, 42
Eggs, 65, 69
Element, 2
Elephant, 3, 78
Elm, 59
Elodea, 26, 27
Embryos, 66
Emulsion, 39
Energy of exercise, 41
English ivy, 21
Environment, 4
Ephemerida, 10
Euglena, 28
Euthenics, 76-78
Evolution, 78-79
Excursions, 4, 5, 18, 49, 77, 78, 83, 88,
9°> 95> 99
Fascicled roots, 14
Fat, 2, 39
tests, 35
Feeble-mindedness, 77
Fehling's solution, 34, 38
Fennel, 88
Fern, 25, 47-49
Fermentation tube, 83
Ferric chloride, 36
Fibrous roots, 14
INDEX
I03
Field trips, 4, 5, 18, 49, 77, 78, 83, 88,
90, 95, 99
Fire, 41
Fish, 65, 95
Flies, 3, 6, 78, 91, 92, 93
Fly larvae, 93
poison, 93
traps, 93
Flour, 35
Flower calendar, 51
Flowering plants, 53-55
Flowers 5, 50-51
Food, 5, 28-36, 64
cycle, 29
tests, 32
Forestry, 21
Formaldehyde test, 36
Formalin, 80
Fossils, 78
Fox, 75
Fungi, 83
Furs, 75
Frog, 36, 41, 43, 65, 67-72
Fruits, 55-59
Game laws, 75
Geotropism, 41, 64
Geranium, 26, 60
Gleocapsa, 47
Glucose, 2, 28, 34, 35, 38, 39, 65, 83
tests, 34
Glue, 2, 35
Goldenrod, 5-6
Goldfish, 86
Grafting, 60-61
Grass, 5
Grasshopper, 6-10, 92
Growth 3, 52
Guinea pigs, 74
Guttation, 26
Hay infusion, 45
Heart, 40, 68, 97
Heat test, 34
Heliotropism, 42
Hemipicra, 10
Hemlock, 24
Heredity, 53, 73~75
Honey, 39, 83
Hook-worm, 89
Horse, 78
Human eye, 44
Humus, 17
Hybrids, 74
Hydrochloric acid, 36, 38
Hydrotropism, 42, 64
Hygroscopic water, 17
Hymenoptera, 10
Ice cream, 35
Images, 44
Inflorescence, 51
Inheritance chart, 76, 77
Inherited defects, 76, 77
Insectivorous plants, 31
Insect mouth parts, 90
Insect pests, 90-94
Insects, 6, 40, 44, 90-94
Iodine, 32
Iron, 26
Irritability, 2, 3
Jimson weed, 88
Juniper, 24
Law of chance, 74
Leaves, 5, 23-28, 49, 5°, 60
blue prints of, 26
of conifers, 25
of pines, 50
palmate, 23
pinnate, 23
Lepidoptera, 10
Library, 1
Light, 5
Lilac mildew, 87
Lilies, 24, 53
Limestone, 17, 26
104
INDEX
Limewater, 35, 41, 84
Linden, 59
Litmus, 16, 35
Live-for-ever, 24, 60
Lumber, 50
Lungs, 41
Lung capacity, 41
Lymphatic system, 38
Malaria, 84, 86
Mammal, 66, 78
Man, 3, 37
Manure, 30
M;iple, 59
Matter, 2
Meadow, 4
Mendel, 74
Mice, 74, 94
Migration chart, 99
Milk, 35
tests, 35-36
Millipeds, 93
Millon's test, 35
Mimosa, 3, 42
Mineral matter, 35
Minerals, 2
Mitosis, 52
Mosquito, 85, 91
Moisture test, 35
Molds, 28, 60, 79-84
Mosses, 47-49
Mucilage, 35
Mulch, 17
Mushrooms, 83
Muskrat, 75
Nectar, 50
Nerve cell, 43
Nervous impulse, 43, 44
Nitrogen, 18, 29, 30
cycle, 29, 30
Odonata, 10
Oil tests, 35
Onion, 24, 53
Orthoptera, 10
Osmosis, 16, 39
Overproduction, 78
Oxygen, 26, 27, 39
Pancreatin, 39
Paramecia, 43, 45
Parasitic worms, 89
Park, 18
Pea seed, 63
Pendulum, 44
Pepsin, 38
Perch, 96-98
Percolation, 17
Perfume, 50
Personal survey, 86
Petri dishes, 82
Photosynthesis, 24,28
Phototropism, 42, 64
Pigeon, 66
Pine tree, 23, 49-50
Pitcher-plant, 31
Plane sawed oak, 21
Plant diseases, 87
propagation, 60-62
Plasmodium malaria, 47
Plate gardens, 15
Pleurococcus, 47, 48, 52
Pneumonia, 84
Pumpkin, 16, 84
Pure cultures, 82
Poison hemlock, 88
ivy, 88
oak, 88
sumach, 88
Pollen, 51
grains, 54, 55
Pollination, 51
Pond, 4
life, 95
Potassium chlorate, 2
dichromate, 2
iodide, 32
INDEX
I05
Potassium sulphate, 2
Potato, 3, 18, 60
Protein, 2
tests, 34
Protozoans, 45-47
Quarter sawed oak, 21
Quetlet's law, 74
Raspberry, 58
Rats, 74, 94
Reason, 45
Respiration, 68, 39-41
Responses, 41-45
Rhizomes, 19, 60
Robin, 3
Rochelle salt, 34
Rocks, 17
Root hairs, 14, 16, 17
Roots, 3, 6, 14, 17, 18, 27, 60, 63
Saliva, 34
Salivary digestion, 38
Salt, 2, 35, 43, 64, 79
Sand, 17
Sanitation, 1
Sap, 20, 27
Seed germination, 62-65
Seedlings, 27, 62-65
Seeds, 60, 62-65
Sensitive plant, 3, 42
Sewers, 94
Sheep, 3
Shelter, 5
Shrubs, 77, 100
Silver nitrate, 2
Sirup, 83
Skeleton leaves, 26
Skeletons, 78
Skunk, 75
Smallpox, 84
Snake, 3
Soaps, 39
Soda, 35
Sodium bromide, 2
chloride, 2
hydroxide, 27, 34
iodide, 2
Soil, 5, 14
Sonometer, 44
Soudan III, 35
Sour milk, 35
Sparrow's nest, 100
Spiders, 93
Spider webs, 94
Spirogyra, 48, 52
Spores, 60
Sprays, 90
Spruce, 23
Squashes, 16, 74
Squash seed, 63
Starch, 2, 27, 32, 35, 39
grains, 32, 33
iodide, 32
tests, 32
Stem, 5, 18-23, 60
Stomach, 38
Stomach poisons, 90
Stomates, 24
Strawberry, 58
Sugar, 2, 16,35,55, 79,83,84
Sundew, 31
Sunlight, 2, 5, 28
Tadpole, 66
Tapeworm, 89
Tap roots, 14
Teeth, 38, 84
Temperature, 5
Thermometer, 41
Thermotropism, 43
Thigmotropism, 42
Tomatoes, S4
Tracheal system, 40
Transpiration, 24, 25
Trap nests, 75
Tree calendar, 51
Trees, 18, 21
PROPERTY i/v
1 06 N. C State C
Tree stumps, 22
Trial and error, 43
Trichina, 89
Tropisms, 41-45
Tuberculosis, 84
Tubers, 19, 60
Tulips, 20, 24
Turtle, 3, 66
Typhoid fever, 84
Ulothrix, 48
*
Vaccination, 84
Variation, 73-75
Vaucheria, 48
Ventilation, 1
Venus fly-traps, 31
Vestiges, 78
Vinegar, 79, 84
INDEX
Walking fern, 60
Water, 5
test, ss
Weeds, 4, 14, 78, 88-89
Weed seed, 88
Wheat, 35, 74, 94
White pine, 22
Wild animals, 75
Willow, 21, 60
Wood, 50
Woods, 4, 18
Wool, 35
Worms, 89
Xanthoproteic test, 34
Yeast, 28, 79-84
Yellow fever ; 84
Zebu cattle, 75
871 B5«
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