^m^"^' ^ T!j#?:',' ^ Slltp i. 1. mm IGibrarir Jfnrth (Carnlttia &tatj IntDPraitg SPECIAL COLLECTIONS TSli^90 D85 i THIS BOOK MUST NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE LIBRARY BUILDING. 20M 1 1-75 PRACTICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS ON THE ART OF WEAVING. BY JOHN DUNCAN, INVENTOU OF THE PATENT TAMBOURING MACHINERY. ILLUSTRATED BY FOURTEEN ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. GLASGOW: PRINTED FOR JAMES AND ANDREW DUNCAN; AND i*^' LONGMAN, HURST, REES AND ORMEj LONDON. 1808. ENTERED IN STjITI ONERS' HALL. JAMES HEDDERWICK PRINTERS, GLASGOW &C0.7 •w. 3 PRACTICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS ART OF WEAVING. BY JOHN DUNCAN, INVENTOR OF THE PATENT TAMBOURING MACHINERY. PART I. ILLUSTRATED BY SEVEN ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. GLASGOW: PRINTED FOR JAMES AND ANDREW DUNCAN, BOOKSELLERS, TRONGATE. 1807. ENTERED IN STATIONERS' HALL. r t .TAMES HEDDERWICK & C0.\ PRINTERS. j TO THE MANUFACTURERS OF CLOTH, OPERATIVE WEAVERS UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, THESE ESSAYS, Intended for their Use, RESPECTFULLT DEDICATED. 94858 CONTENTS. PA C E. Introduction — Motives for undertaking this Work Objections considered — Historical Facts relative to the Art of Weaving — Political and Economical Causes of its Extension — General Plan and Abstract of the Contents of the Essays, . . . • ESSAY I. ON THE WEAVING OF PLAIN CLOTH. Materials and Texture, * General Explanation of the Plates, ... 2 Winding, .....•••* Warping, ....■•• ^ Warping Mill, .6 Operation of Warping, ^ Beaming, . . • • • • • .11 T-k • 12 Drawuig, • . • • • • • ^-^ Weaving Loom, ^^ Yarn Roll, or Beam, '^ CONTENTS. PACE. Rods, 18 Heddles, ib. Lay and Reed, 21 Temples, 24 Cloth Roll, or Beam, ...... ib. Shuttle and Pirn, 25 Dressing, ........ 26 Weaving, ....... 29 Treading, ........ 30 Crossing the Shuttle, . . . . . 33 Striking home the Woof, . . . . . ib. Faults in Cloth, 36 Calculations and Tables, . . . . .38 Warpers' Table, . . . . . . 43 Ravels, ........ 56 Beaming Table, ...... 59 Setting of Heddles, 72 Setting Table, . . . . . . 75 Ornamental Weaving, vi^ith Plain Mounting, . . SO Stripes, ib. Checks, 84 CONTENTS. ESSAY II. ON THE WEAVING OF TWEELED CLOTH. PACE. General Remarks, 85 Causes of the Strength of Tweels, ... 87 Mounting of Looms for Tweeling, . . .89 Draught and Cording, ..... 92 Arrangement of Treddles, .... 95 Breaking the Tweel, ..... 98 Tweel of Five Leaves, ..... 99 Six Leaves, ..... 100 Seven Leaves, • . . . , ib. Eight Leaves, . . . . loi Sixteen Leaves, 102 Tweeled Stripes, ib, of Five Leaves, . . .103 Broken Tw^eeled Stripe, . . . . 104 Design Paper, IO5 Patterns for Table Cloths, Of 2 Sets, or 10 Leaves, . . . . 108 — 3 Sets, Ill — 4 Sets, 113 — 5 Sets, . , , . . ^ .117 — 6 Sets, 119 Back Harness, or Diaper Mounting j . . .122 CONTENTS. PAGE. Fancy Flushing, 125 Remarks, . . . . . . .133 Collection of Patterns used in the Lancashire Manu- facture, 137 Serge Tweeling, . . . . . .151 LIST OF THE PLATES. 1st, "Warping Apparatus. 2d, Plan and Elevation of a Plain Loom. 3d, Elevations and Sections of do. 5th, Plans and Elevation of Mounting for Tweeling. 6th, Designs, Draughts, and Cording for Table Cloths. 7th, Do. illustrated by colours. 8th, Plans and Elevations of the Back Harness, or Diaper Mounting. INTRODUCTION. THE motives wliich induced me to undertake this work, have been shortly stated in the Prospectus, which has been circulated. The great extent to which the manufacture of almost every species of cloth has been carried in this country, undoubtedly renders it an object of the first national importance; and an apology for attempting a collection of facts relative to this business, which, although extensively known, have never been collected and recorded, seems hardly necessary. A variety of publications relative to the art of weaving, chiefly designed for the use of the operative class of weavers have, indeed, appeared at different periods. But the authors of all these works have acted upon the presumption, that the art itself was fully known to their readers, but that they were wholly, or partially, ignorant of the science of arithmetic^ Hence, they contain merely collections of Tables for the purpose of facilitating calculation, many of which are more adapted to the use of the manufacturer, than of the operative warper or weaver. Of the mechanical part of the business, such as the construction of the looms, and other apparatus, requisite for various kinds of work, and the practical instructions necessary for working these looms, they do not at all treat. ii INTRODUCTION. Tliat these works have been found useful for the purposes for which they were intended, the extensive circulation of most of them sufficiently evinces. But it seems also evident, that they were better calculated for a former, than for the present state of society. The general knowledge of arithmetic has gradually extended since the times at which most of them were published, while that of the mechanical part of the business, during the same interval, has become, and is still becoming more limited. To those who look in a cursory way, at the immense extension and improvenient of the business in all its branches, this observation may appear rash and unfounded. Nothing, however, is more certainly true, and the causes which have produced, and still continue to produce this limitation of general knowledge, both among manufacturers and operative weavers, may be easily and satisfactorily traced. Forty or fifty years ago, when the manufactures, at least those of Scotland, were conducted upon a compara- tively small scale, and almost entirely confined to linens and coarse woollen goods, the materials of which were the growth of the country; most persons spun, or pur- chased their own yarn, and employed their own weaver, to fabricate either plain or ornamented cloth from it. Every mistress of a family was, then, the manufacturer of her own household cloths, and the character of a good housewife depended, in no small degree, upon the quantity produced under her management. This is still the prac- tice in many parts of Scotland, but it is gradually upon the decline, and, in all probability, must, at no very distant period, cease to exist. In this state of the manufacture, it was necessary for every weaver, in order to suit the demands of his em- INTRODUCTION. ui ployers or customers, to be acquainted with the manner of weaving a considerable variety of goods; and hence arose tlie superiority of the general knowledge of the old, to that of the modern weavers. But this manner of con- ducting a manufacture can never subsist long, after a country begins rapidly to extend her trade. The great advantages derived from the division of labour, and adoption of a regular system of economy, in the arrange- ment and direction of every business, are soon felt, and no sooner felt than acted on. The operative who frequently shifts from one kind of work to another, will never attain the same dexterity in any, as he who is con- stantly employed at the same. His frequent changes also produce much loss of time, and, consequently, his work is both higher in price, and inferior in quality. It will be admitted, that this general principle, the truth of which is acknowledged by all writers on economy, has been applied to practice, with great rapidity, in ail the branches of the manufacture of cloth, both in England and Scotland. The former country, indeed, from the superior extension of her trade, had adopted it in most cases, before it was much thought of in the latter. The great majority of mankind are ever prone to limit their desire of information, to that which appears at the time, most necessary to their subsistence and comfort. The modern weaver, accustomed to be constantly employed at the same kind of work, seldom troubles himself to inquire by what means other kinds are, or may be produced, and hence the very cause which in- creases his practical dexterity, tends at the same time, to impede the progress of his knowledge of his profession Indeed, many of the different species of weaving have, already, become nearly local, and the Manchester weavei IV INTRODUCTION. is, in general, as ignorant ot the mode of mounting anc! working a gauze or net loom, as he of Paisley or Glasgow- is of a corduroy or velveteen. The division of labour, however, is now carried still further. The mounting of a loom is frequently the business of one man, and the working of it that of another; and there are many weavers who work for years upon a loom, of which they hardly know how to arrange a single cord or lever. That this system of division, the beneficial effects of which have been so much felt in practice, will continue to be still further extended, there is no room to doubt. It is, however, matter of regret, that whilst it is produc- tive of so many practical benefits to society, its effect should tend to preclude thousands of useful and valuable men, from the acquisition of knowledge, which, although they should be seldom called to exercise, may be of essen- tial service in many situations, and will at least afford to an inquisitive mind, a source of rational and innocent amusement. Besides this consideration, many other circumstances concur, to render records of the state of every art pecu- liarly desirable. It is well ascertained by the researches of Antiquarians, that many useful and ornamental arts, which were known and practised by the ancients, have been totally lost for want of such records. In the orna- mental parts of weaving, such losses have, probably, occurred freque:itly, and may, very probably, occur again. The ornamental arts are so much regulated by the prevailing fashion, taste, and, probably, caprice of man- kind at the day, that many species of ornamental goods lie neglected for years, and are afterwards revived, if the knowledge of their construction is then existing. Wlien lliis knowledge is only transmitted by verbal instruction. ..jftiacL INTRODUCTION. V and when that instruction is confined to the efforts of operative tradesmen, employed in the more active duties of their respective professions, little expectation can be formed of its general diffusion. Their attention is naturally more directed to their present, than to their former employments, and when it is no longer in their power to illustrate the instructions which they may occa- sionally convey to others, by showing them the practical operation, the task becomes doubly diiBcult. Labouring under such obstacles, it is scarcely to be doubted that arts which fall into temporary decay, will be either entirely lost, or recovered with great difficulty. Of this the decay of the gauze and net manufacture is a striking iiistance. Sx)me years ago, this branch of weaving had attained a considerable extent in the west of Scotland, particularly in the town and neighbourhood of Paisley. The material employed was silk, and the manufacture very beautiful. While the fashion continued, the business ivas prosperous. But it contained in itself, the seeds of rapid decay. The raw material was costly, and from its inherent quality, added to the flimsincss of the texture, ill calculated to undergo the fatigue of any known opera- tion for whitening or clearing. The goods were, of course, expensive luxuries, from the attainment of which the great majority of people were precluded, by the price and want of durability. About this period, in conse- quence of the invention of spinning cotton by machinerv, the muslin trade was introduced. The muslins possessed three advantages over the silk gauzes. They were new — they were cheaper — and, as the cotton would bear washing or bleaching, they were more lasting. The silk gauze manufacture, already rapidly declining, was soon totally abandoned, and a considerable laspe of years ^ VI INTRODUCTION. intervened, before the weaving of gauzes and nets was resumed, and cotton substituted in the place of silk. Those who were employed in reviving this branch of weaving, know that the progress of it was slow and difficult, and, it is not improbable, that had it remained in disuse for a much longer period, and a generation in- tervened, it might have been totally lost. The arts of printing and engraving afford important facilities for preserving and diffusing the knowledge of mechanical operations, and to these we ought to look for the cheapest, easiest, and most effectual means of counteracting the inconveniences alluded to, which na- turally obstruct the progress of usefur knowledge, and which are much increased by the modern system of economical arrangement. Having stated the foregoing remarks, as the inducements wliich led me to apply my attention to the investigating and analysing the various branches of the art of weaving, I shall notice two objections which have been urged against my undertaking. The first of these is. That it is improjjer to divulge the secrets of any trade^ because it may operate to the prejudice of those ivho practise it. This doctrine is so justly, and now almost universally exploded, that I shall occupy very little room upon it. It will appear at once, without entering at all into the question of the policy of monopolies, whether preserved by secrecy or legal restriction, that the case does not apply to the business of weaving. It is absurd to suppose, that a trade which employs so many thousand people, in almost every quarter of the world, and which has existed for so many thousand years, either is or can be secret. Besides, experience has sufficiently proved, that liberal and unreserved communication be-f INTRODUCTION. vii twccn artificers of all descriptions, has always produced good, and never evil. Indeed, it is obvious, that every man, where this takes place, receives the advantage of the instruction of many, and gives only his own in return. The balance, therefore, must always be in his favour. With these short remarks, I shall dismiss this objection. The second objection which has been urged, although .y it does not appear, to me, to stand upon a more solid foundation than the former, may require a little more consideration. The objection is. That hy communicating information upon tlie art of weaving^ a kncivledge of that art may be acquired out of this country^ andy consequently^ the manufactures may become kss productive. Whether a general knowledge of the principles upon which our arts are conducted, would in any respect injure the manufactures of this country, if known abroad; and whether it is possible to prevent them from being known, I confess appears to me, at the least, a matter of very great » doubt. But were the proposition admitted, in its fullest extent, respecting arts which have originated or may originate with ourselves, it could have no effect upon the principles of the art of weaving, which has been entirely imported, and has received little other alteration, than what has been derived from the improvement of the machinery, and the various economical arrangements which have taken place. The history of this art is very little known, and its great antiquity, necessarily, involves the earlier eras of it in the most perfect obscurity. Enough, however, is known to prove that none of the species of it originated m Britain. The silk manufacture was first practised in China, and the Cotton in India. Both the wooUen and hnen were borrowed by us from the continent of Europe, Vlll INTRODUCTION. and all improvements in them we owed, for a long period, to the foreign artificers who settled amongst us. To the present day, our superiority in point of quality, is only acknowledged in the cotton manufacture, whilst in those of silk, woollen, and linen, it is still disputed by other countries. We find that a number of weavers and cloth workers were invited by Edward III. from the continent, and settled in England, for the purpose of introducing and promoting the woollen manufacture, about the year 1330. In the following year, two weavers (probably of linen) came from Brabant, and settled at York, which that monarch considered of such importance, as to declare, that it " may be of great benefit, to us and « our subjects." Many more weavers from Flanders, were driven into England by the persecutions of the Duke of Alva, in the year 1567, who settled in different parts of the kingdom, and introduced the manufacture of baizes, serges, crapes, and other stuffs. Again, about the year 16S6, nearly 50,000 manufacturers, of various descriptions, took refuge in Britain, in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantz, and other acts of religious persecution, committed by Louis XIV. From this era, we may date the rise of the linen manufacture in this kingdom. I have met with an old, and, I believe, now very scarce book, published at Edinburgh in 1724, by order of ** the Honourable Society for Improving in «' the Knowledge of Agriculture." It is entitled " A *' Treatise concerning the manner of fallowing of ground, « raising of grass seeds, and training of lint and hemp " for the increase and improvement of the linnen manu- " factories in Scotland." The first five chapters of this work, are devoted to agricultural subjects; the sixth, contains directions for spinning linen yarn; the seventh, INTRODUCTION. IX treats of the weaving of linen cloth ; and the eighth, of bleaching. The title of the seventh chapter is as follows : « Chap. 7. Concerning weaving of Linnen-Cloth in *< Imitation of the Foreign Linnen. « 1st, What Looms are used in this Kingdom. " 2dly, The looms of this Kingdom not proper for " weaving good Cloth. « 3dly, The Dutch Looms and Estilles fit for Hollands, ** Cambricks, &c. «« 4thly, French Looms fit for Cloth of Normandy and « Brittany. « 5thly, Choice of Reeds, and Yarn fit for Reeds and *' Geers [luddles). « 6thlyj The way of dressing Yarn, and preparing the " Stuff. " 7thly, The Cloth as yet made in this Country too " thin and sleazy. « 8thly, The waft to be somewhat finer than the « warp, &c." To this chapter, are added six coarsely executed en- gravings of the foreign looms described. The first is a profile elevation, and is called « The side of the French " Loom." The second is a perspective view of the same loom. The third is «« The side of a Loom called Estille." The fourth, a perspective view of the Estille. The fifth and sixth, are the side and perspective of the Dutch Loom. Of these looms, the Dutch is extremely heavy, and is intended for the stoutest fabric, or holland. The French loom is for the next kind of cloth, or linen; and the Es- tille, for the lightest, or cambric. The construction of them is extremely clumsy, and, however highly prized in b X INTRODUCTION. those days, would appear very strange to a modern weaver or loom wright. The back posts of the Estllle, or cambric loom, rise no higher than the yarn beam, and the whole appearance of the frame work, is not unlike some of the modern power looms. These facts sufficiently prove, that we have no preten- sions to superior knowledge, or exclusive possession of any secrets or mysteries belonging to the art of weaving. The very names of most of our manufactures indicate their origin to be foreign. Holland, Florentine, Linau, Cord du roi, Genoa Cord, Marseille, Paduasoy, and many others, as clearly denote the quarters from which we de- rived the art of manufacturing these stuffs, as the names Nankeen, Ballasore, Madrass, Bengal, &c. used in our cotton manufacture, evince their importation from India, at a more recent period. It is not, therefore, in our superior knowledge, but in a chain of events, religious, political, and economical, that we ought to trace the causes of the present unrJvaled greatness of our manufactures, and their consequent cir- culation in every quarter of the globe. To the wise and liberal policy of our third Edward, we owe the first in- troduction of these manufactures ; and to the tyranny and cruelty of Alva, and the bigotry and intolerance of Louis, we are indebted for much of their improvement. To these sources, we may trace the establishment of our cloth manufactures ; and the causes, which have pro- duced their gradual progress to their present state, are easily found. Since the period, at v/hich we acquired the benefits of the united skill and labour of the French arti- zans, whom the folly and caprice of a tyrant drove from his own dominions to seek refuge here, the internal peace of this country has been little disturbed. Two rebellions. INTRODUCTION. XI neither long in duration, nor extensive In mischief, are the only exceptions. During the same period, we have enjoyed a greater portion of religious and civil liberty, and a more equal administration of justice, than any other country in Europe. The tranquillity, and security of pro- perty, arising from these causes, naturally produced con- fidence, and confidence as naturally produced enterprise and exertion. Our insular situation, besides affording us internal peace amidst the wars which have convulsed and desolated the rest of Europe, gave us uncommon facilities for commercial intercourse with every part of the world. Both the acquisition and security of property were, thus, placed within the reach of genius and Industry, and more powerful stimulants do not exist. It will not appear wonderful, that with such advantages, we should have outstripped competitors, perhaps equally ingenious, and equally Industrious, but whose exertions have been thwarted, and whose career has been interrupted by events, from the operation of which we have been, either partially, or wholly exempted. Wliile we have proceeded with little interruption, we have daily had opportunities of improving our knowledge, and profiting both by our prosperity and misfortunes. The former has served us as an example and Incentive; the latter, as a warning for the future. This, I trust, is not an overcharged picture of the general state of almost every extensive manufacture in Britain. The capital employed In them is Immense, the principles upon which their prosperity depends have been investigated and matured, the workmen have become skil- ful and expeditious, regularity has been introduced, and machinery for facilitating operations extensively applied. An order of things like this, is not, nor ever can be, the XU INTRODUCTION. creature of a moment. It is the gradual result of the exercise of deliberate exertion, of genius, enterprise, and patient industry. The basis upon which the whole system rests, is confidence of personal safety, and security of pro- perty. Even this confidence can only be gradually acquired, and years must elapse, before the continent of Europe can assume such a political and commercial aspect, as will induce capitalists to embark their property in permanent establishments, and before mechanics can acquire suffi- cient skill and dexterity, to prove dangerous rivals to the •already established manufacturers of Britain. Besides this, the field for further improveinent is still most ex- tensive, and promises to be cultivated both with ardour and with judgment. In every quarter, men of genius and science are busied in applying those elementary and speculative principles, which were formerly confined to tlie closet of the philosopher, to the purposes of active and useful improvement. The great link, which com^cts theory with practice in all the useful arts, is rapidly forming, and the result affords a rational prospect of our manufactures being extended and improved, even more than they have been. In such a state, I see nothing to fear in a compvetition, purely commercial, with the whole world-, and, I own, that I can contemplate the prospect of general peace, not only without apprehension for the prosperity of our country, but with real pleasure and sanguine hope. Would to heaven, that every country in Europe had as little to dread from the power of the French arms, as this has from the skill of her manufacturers. I am almost apprehensive, that after employing so much time upon this subject, many will be inclined to think, that I have raised a phantom merely for the pur- pose of combating it. I can, however, assert, that the INTRODUCTION. Xlll objection has been seriously and repeatedly urged, by persons for whose judgment, on most subjects, I" have much esteem, and the purity of whose motives I cannot doubt. As the question is important, I shall offer no apology for having discussed it at some length. Having explained the objects which I have in view in publishing this work, I shall now proceed to consider the general plan of it. Extensively as the art of weaving is applied, the varia- tion of one branch from another is by no means so great as may be generally imagined. There are, properly, only two kinds, namely, plain, and cross weaving. Besides plain cloth, tweeling, flushing, spotting, and all the ornamental varieties, are only modifications of the first. .Common gauze is the ground of the second, and all the fanciful nets, and other cross woven goods, are entirely founded upon the same principle. This, therefore, I consider to be the most correct method of classing the different kinds of cloths ; but, in a first attempt at regular arrangement, I think it better, in order to avoid obscurity and confusion, to make the classification more particular. I have, therefore, allotted particular Essays for every branch which differs in any essential point from another, and I have preferred such distinction as arises from the difference of the mechanical operation, to that which is produced by the nature and quality of the material. The first Essay is devoted to the weaving of plain cloth, which is by far the most extensive, and in which all the kinds of yarn are used, either separately or combined. The second, relates to tweeling and flushing. This branch comprehends also a great variety of thick goods, jnanufactured from all the materials generally employed In the texture of clotli. XIV INTRODUCTION. These two Essays are now submitted to the public, as specimens of the work. The Second part is at the press, and considerably advanced, both in the printing and en- graving department. It will probably appear early in January 1808, and will consist of the following Essays: Essay 3d, will treat of the weaving of Double Cloth, and its application to the manufacture of carpets, quilts, &c. It will also contain a description of the Draw Loom, illustrated by plans, sections, and elevations; and of its application to the weaving both of damasks and carpets. Essay 4'th, will contain a description of the methods of Cross Weaving, and of the modes of producing the dif- ferent kinds of gauze, catgut, and nets. The Plates attached to this Essay Mill exhibit the plans, elevations, and sections, necessary to enable a mechanic to compre- hend the nature of the machinery employed. Plans of the draught and cording of gauzes and nets will also be given, which, in so far as I know, has never been before attempted, and the want of which has greatly increased the difficulty of acquiring a competent knowledge of this branch of the art. In Essay 5th, the ornaments, such as spots, brocades, lappets, &c. which are interwoven with various grounds, will be investigated, and illustrated by plates. Essay 6th, will be devoted to the consideration of the economy of weaving, the omission of unnecessary, and the simplification of indispensible processes, the division of labom*, and the application of power. And Essay 7th, will be set apart for the investigation of such facts and subjects, relative to the manufacturiug • of cloth, as form more properly the business of the manu- facturer, than of the operative weavei*. INTRODUCTION. XV From this abstract of the subjects of the Essays, it will appear that regular arrangement forms an essential part of the plan of the work. I am aware, however, that it has already been, and may still be necessary, in some instances, to deviate from this. Upon a subject so ex- tensive, it is hardly possible to avoid occasional omissions of facts which may be important. Whenever this shall appear to have been the case, I shall, without hesitation, introduce whatever I conceive to be material and im- portant, even out of the regular order; for I conceive any disadvantage arising from this, to be less injurious to the general utility of the work, than the suppression of facts which deserve to be known. In general, I am more solicitous to record facts than opinions, but where the latter are occasionally introduced, I have been careful to give them as such, and to state the reasons which have induced me to adopt them. "With respect to the style, much will not be expected in a work of this kind. Me- chanical descriptions, and the investigation of processes necessary in manufactures, afford no scope for excursions of fancy, nor declamatory eloquence. If they are clear, accurate, and perspicuous, they will sufficiently answer the ends for which they are intended. The attainment of this has been my sole aim; but I am too conscious of the difficulty of accomplishing even tliis, to flatter myself that I have always succeeded. I must here notice a considerable difficulty, which attends a person who writes upon the art of weaving; and indeed th$ same difficulty, in some measure, ac- companies descriptions of all the other mechanical arts, especially those which have been least discussed. This is the want of precise technical words, to express our meaning clearly. Those which are used by weavers. XVI INTRODUCTION. vary in almost every district, and in every branch of the manufacture. Hence, terms which are familiar to the weavers in one place, are almost unknown to those of another. In this state, I had no choice but to adopt those which I have found most generally used, and best understood by the operative weavers, in this part of the country. I hope, from the explanations which accom- pany all or most of them, few weavers who are accus- tomed to a different nomenclature, will find much diffi- culty in comprehending the meaning which I attach to them; and they may then substitute any term most familiar to them, for the one which I have used. In the course of my inquiries concerning those branches of weaving with which I was least conversant, I have uniformly experienced attention and civility, and have found every person to whom I have applied, liberal and communicative. I must, however, acknowledge the great assistance which I have received from Mr. William Jamieson, King-Street, Glasgow, to whom I am indebted for a number of valuable designs of various kinds of work, collected by him during many years practice in various branches of weaving, and for much useful and accurate information. The fourth Plate, which contains a miscellaneous col- lection of specimens of various cloths, and which is generally referred to throughout the whole work, cannot, upon that account, be finished so as to accompany the first part. It will, therefore, be published with the second. ClasGOIVj \6fh Novemba-i 1807. ADVERTISEMENT, THIS work being now completed, is submitted to the judgment of professional men, aiid the public in general-, with considerable diffidence. The Art of Weaving has been so extensively applied in almost every country, and the knowledge of its various branches acquired from so many different sources, that it is impossible that any individual should have been practically employed in all tliose branches. When reduced to its original principle, the hseriion of weft by forming sheds, every part bears a strong analogy to the rest; and the minute knowledge of each of these parts must be acquired by experience and reflection. This, to a certain degree, is the case in all arts and sciences, but many of them have been frequently and minutely investigated, through the medium of the press. The errors and deficiencies of one author, have been corrected and supplied by others; and those who afterwards discuss the subject, possess the advantage of ready access to all the opinions and all the knowledge of their predecessors. In the art which I have undertaken to investigate, no such advantage exists; for little, if any thing, has ever been published upon the subject. With such disadvantages, it is natural to expect that some parts of this work may be considered as erroneous, and others superficial. Respecting the first, I can only say, that I XVIU ADVERTISEMENT. have assiduously used every means of procuring accurate information, upon those points in which I had the least practical experience; and that I have not, knowingly, misrepresented any thing. The drawings and descrip- tions of the net work, were taken from a loom, upon a small scale, which I was at pains to have mounted suc- cessively, for every different species which I have described. Respecting the second, besides the difficulties attendant on the subject, from its novelty, the whole varieties in the Art of Weaving, if investigated in detail, would occupy a work far beyond the size and price, which those, for whose use this is chiefly intended, could be supposed capable of purchasing. The general plan of the work, the motives for under- taking it, and the objections to the undertaking, were so fully detailed in the Introduction to the First Part, that it does not appear necessary to say much here upon these subjects. The arrangement of the Second Part is very nearly the same as mentioned in the Intro- duction. The first five Essays, comprehending Plain Weaving, Tweeling, Double Cloth , Weaving, Cross Weaving, and Spotting, are chiefly intended for the use of operative weavers, and those whose business it may be to superintend the weaving department of a manufactory of cloth. The mercantile part, evidently does not come within the plan of a work of this nature; nor, indeed, on a business so exceedingly extensive, whose markets ex- tend to almost every part of the known world, whose branches are so widely dift'erent, and whose fluctuations, both from natural and political causes, are so frequent, would it be easy to write any thing satisfactory. The mercantile system, forming one of the most important branches of political cconomvj and having for its object ADVERTISEMENT. XlX tJie exchange of all commodities, both in their rude and manufactured state, cannot be properly treated of in a work, confined to the investigation of the principles and practice of a particular application of human art and industry. In the sixth Essay, I have given some account of the rpcent plans for tlie introduction of that species of economy, which, by decreasing human labour, and sim- plifying the processes necessary to bring the materials used in fabricating cloth from the rude to the manufac- tured state, tends to reduce the price of the finished goods. This chiefly applies to the manufacture of cotton, where almost all these plans have originated. In this part of the work, I am aware that so much diversity of opinion may exist, that I can only ofl?er, as an apology for the way in which I have treated it, the importance of the subject, and the advantages which society may derive from its investigation. I ought, perhaps, also to apologize for the comparative view of the linen and cotton manu- factures, and for the long extract relative to the state of the former, about 75 years ago, which I have introduced into the same Essay. The two brandies of weaving, by far the most extensive, at least in Scotland, are, however, certainly subjects both of general and particular curiosity, and for this reason, I conceived the comparison to be, in some degree, within the plan of the work. Since that Essay was printed, I have been informed, although I can by no means pledge myself for the accuracy of the in- formation, that the book, from which the extract is taken, was attributed to the late Duncan Forbes of Culloden, Lord President of the Court of Session, a man uni- versally esteemed for the patriotism and benevolence of his character. XX ADVERTISEMENT. In the seventh Essay, I have republislied die only attempt which I have ever met with, to analyse the geometrical principles upon which the adaptation of warps to reeds, depends. I have added the reasons which in- duce me, partly, to differ in opinion from the ingenious author of that hypothesis. The remainder of this Essay, relates to the computation of yarn of various kinds, a subject which has been treated of in many former publications; and, indeed, the only braiTch of the business which has been treated of at all. For this reason I have confined myself to a few practical Tables, and a short account of the arithmetical priiK;iples of their construction. These two Essays, are more particularly intended for manufacturers than operative weavers. My task being now finished, I have only to add, that I am perfectly aware that every author, who bys his opinions before the public, voluntarily incurs the risk of deserved censure for whatever may be trifling or errone- ous. To such censure, where due, I must, of course, submit, and have only to request sucli leniency as can- dour may suggest, for tlie novelty of the undertakingy and the liifficulties attending its execution. GLJsconr^ 2St/t Marchy 1808. ESSAY I. ON THE WEAVING OF PLAIN CLOTH. MATERIALS AND TEXTURE. 'T^HE substances chiefly used in the manufacture of -*- cloth, are wool, silk, flax, and cotton. These, after being manufactured into yarn by various processes, which it is not within the plan of these Essays to inves- tigate, may be used, either separately, or two or more of them may be combined in the same fabric of cloth. The texture of all plain cloth is produced by the same operation, and the only variation in the fabric, arises from the nature, and quality, of the materials employed. The yarn, of which every web is composed, consists of two kinds, either similar, or dissimilar, in their quality. The first of these, called the warp, after undergoing various preparatory processes, which shall be noticed afterwards, is wound upon a cylinder or beam, and stretched horizontally in the loom. By the operation of weaving, the second, called the woof or weft, is thrown across the former and interwoven with it, to form the texture or cloth. Fig. 1. Plate 4. is a representation of the texture of plain cloth. It is drawn upon a large scale, to show tlie intersections of the warp and woof, A North Ca-o-n.3 Btar- Cr^Moge !a ESSAY I. plainly and distinctly, and may be supposed to be a pat- tern of coarse cloth, of a thin fabric, as viewed through a microscope or magnifying glass. In the different kinds of yarn, used for the weaving of cloth, the fineness of the thread is ascertained by the length, and weight, of given quantities. The modes of counting, however, are different, in the several branches of the weaving business. The thickness of the fabric, of every species of cloth, depends upon the proportion, which the fineness of the yarn employed, bears to the number of splits, or intervals, contained in a certain length of the reed, in which the cloth is woven. These also are differently counted in different places, and in different species of manufactures. In Scotland, the fineness of woollen and linen yarn is generally called its size or grist; and that of cotton yarn, its number : the measure of the reed is called its sett; and the art of proportioning these to each other, is called caaming or slewing. As the investigation of these proportions is, more properly, the business of the manufacturer, than of the operative weaver, a separate Essay shall be appropriated for that part of the subject, GENERAL EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. The parts y of which the various instruments, used in the manufacturing of cloth consist, are so numerous, and arc placed in so many different situations, that it seems utterly impossible by any description, however elaborate, or minute, to convey a just idea of their construction, without the aid of representation. It would be equally impracticable, to make a perspective drawing of a warping mill, or loom, as they appear from any point of view. PLAIN WEAVING. 3 without concealing many essential parts, and distorting others. For theae reasons, I have adopted the modes of representation used by engineers, architects, and other artificers. These are, Istly, G rotmd plans ; — where the spectator's eye is sup- posed to be placed immediately above the object viewed, and at a moderate distance from it. 2dly, Elevations; — where objects are viewed as they appear perpendicularly. The eye, in this case, is supposed to be placed cither in front, behind, or at one side, and nearly on a level with the centre of the object viewed: where the first of these occur, they are distinguished by the name oi front elevations; the second by that of back elevations ; and the third are called profile elevations. 3dly, Sections. — These may be, either on a ground plan, or in the same plane or direction with either of the three kinds oi elevations. They are used, when a part of any object must be supposed to be cut away, in order to represent what is behind, or under it. They are distinguished by the name of horizontal sections, when they are in the same direction as a ground plan : lateral or profile sections, when viewed from one side ; and transverse sections, when viewed from the front, or back of the object. In plans, and drawings of this description, all the parts are represented of their natural shapes, and dimensions, without the intervention of oblique, or perspective lines; and those parts which are circular, or which are farther from the eye than others, are distinguished by deeper shading. In plans, where the end, only, of any particular part appears, it is distinguished, by having diagonal lines drawn upon it, which form a resemblance, to the appear- ance of the grain of cross cut wood. 4 ESSAY I. These modes of representation are so well known, by most mechanics, that the explanations here given of them, may appear, to many, superfluous. I hope, how- ever, that the introduction of them will not appear altogether unnecessary, when I state, that although common in many other arts, I have never met with a single instance, where such drawings have been used, for the purpose of illustrating the construction of looms, or any other branch of the art of weaving; excepting, plans of the dranvitig and cording of fancy patterns, which may be considered as horizontal sections of a loom. Before proceeding to the description of the weaving loom, and of the operation of weaving, it may be proper to consider the previous, and preparatory processes which the yarn undergoes. WINDING. The common custom of spinners has been, to reel the yarn into hanks of a given length, and in this state, to deliver it for the purpose of being made into cloth. This process does not come within the compass of the present Essay, although, the arts of spinning, and weaving, which form the two great divisions of labour, in fabri- cating cloth from the raw material, are so intimately blended, that hardly any thing, analogous to the one art, is entirely foreign to the other. At present, it will be sufficient, to consider yarn delivered in hanks, as the material from which cloth is made. The first process, in linen and cotton yarn, is boiling in the hank. The fibres of the former, being long and tenacious, require only to be freed from impurities by means of boiling water, and soap or pot-ash. To the PLAIN WEAVING. 5 latter, a certain proportion of flour is added, to increase its firmness and tenacity. When these operations have been performed, and the yarn has been thoroughly dried, it is wound upon bobbins; and it is customary to wind equal quantities of the yarn upon each bobbin. This is done, generally, by means of the common bobbin wheel, which is so well known, that it has been thought unnecessary to give a figure of it. It consists, merely, of a wheel, whose diameter is about four feet, from which a spindle is driven, by means of a band, and upon ihis spindle the bobbin is fixed. The yarn, to be wound upon the bobbin, is extended upon two small wheels, revolving on their centres, and called iv/iish. WARPING. The yarn, after having been wound upon the bobbins, is delivered to the warper. His business is, again, to wind it from those bobbins into a form, which will produce the length and breadth of the warp requii-ed- The length is a certain and fixed measure, and the breadth is pro- duced by tlie number of threads which he winds upon the warping mill. In former times, and in a more rude state of the art, it was the practice in v/arping (which is merely stretching a given number of threads to equal lengths), to fix plugs or pins in the side of a wall, at a certain distance. The operator, having the threads which compose the warp rolled into clues, placed those clues in a box, or other vessel; then fixing the ends of all the threads, to the plugs or pins at one end of the wall, he took all the threads in his hand, and permitting them to slip through his fingers, he went to the other end, where he passed the yarn over the pins fixed there. 6 ESSAY I. and then returned to the former. This formed the length of the web, and the breadth was made up, according to the number of times which he passed in succession, and the number of threads in his hand. This custom, when the manufacture of cloth became extensive, was found to be troublesome and inefficient; because, to produce a proper length, the operation must have been performed, either in the open air, and subject to all the vicissitudes of weather, or if done in a house, the length of that house must have been enormous. This, probably, gave rise to the invention of the warping mill: a machine very simple in its construction, but of very great utility. WARPING MILL. The vv arping mill forms a circle, or rather a polygon inscribed within a circle, and the yarn is wound around it, in the form of a spiral, or screw, by which means, a very great length may be produced, in a small compass. Warping mills are constructed of difl'erent heights and circumferences, according to the particular species of goods for which they are designed, or to the room which they are to occupy. A plan and elevation of those, used in the manufacture of cotton goods, will sufficiently illustrate the principle of their construction, and these will be found in Plate 1. Fig. 1. is a ground plan, and Fig. 2. a profile elevation of the common warping mill, and the same letters refer to the same parts, in both figures. The circumference of a mill is generally live English ells, of 45 inches each, and is divided into 20 equal parts, of II4 inches, or J of an ell each. The mill is built upon three horizontal frames, PLAIN WEAVING. 7 such as represented at A, Fig. 1. The circular piece L is of solid wood, with a square mortise B in the centre, through which passes a square axis, in each end of which is an iron pivot or journal. The lower pivot is fitted in a socket, and the upper in a round hole or bush. The axis being placed perpendicular to the horizon, the mill is turned about by means of a trundle F, from which the motion is communicated to the mill, by a crossed band H passing round its circumference, as near to the floor as convenient. The arms or radii, of which there are 20, are dovetailed into grooves in the centre piece L, and their extremities are mortised into the upright standards which form the circumference of the mill, and which, being exactly 11^ inches asunder from centre to centre, divide that circumference into 20 equal parts. The arms or radii, numbered from 1 to 20, appear very plainly in Fig. 1. but the standards at their extremities appear only as sections, and are, therefore, distinguished by diagonal lines, to give them the appearance of cross cut wood. In Fig. 2. one half of the upright standards are quite visible, and are numbered from 1 to 10, whereas the arms and centre pieces are almost totally concealed. Near the circumference, the arms are connected and kept firm, by round pieces of wood, as represented in Fig. 1. E is the hecky as it is usually called. It consists of a number, generally 120 or more, of steel pins, with a round hole or eye in the upper end of each, through which a thread passes in the process of warping. The pins are placed, alternately, in two frames distinct from each other, and either of which may be raised at pleasure. By these means, what is called the lease is formed. The lease is most essential in every stage of the operation of weaving, as the whole regularity of the yarn in the loom 8 ESSAY r. depends upon it. Fig. 3. is a front elevation of part of n heck, for the purpose of showing, more distinctly, the way of lifting the alternate threads, when required. The steel pins of the heck ought to be very carefully polished, for the sake of smoothness, and should be tempered hard, to preserve the inside of the eyes from being soon worn, by the friction of the yarn passing through them. D is a frame of wood, on the upper part of which are fixed a convenient number of pins, in a perpendicular direction, and at equal distances: upon each of these pins is a small puUy of hard wood, which runs freely round upon the pin, as a loose axis. These serve to guide the yarn upon the mill, and also to divide it into portions called luilf gangs, which are useful in the subsequent operation of beaming, as will be afterwards describea. On the end of the frame D is a square box, through which passes a perpendicular post C, upon which the whole frame D slides up, or down, when the mill is turned round. This is effected, by means of a cord passing over the pullics N, aTrd fixed to the end of the axis of the mill. When the mill is turned one way, the cord winds round the axis and raises the frame Dj when turned the contrary way, the cord unwinds, and the frame is allowed to sink. Four small rollers are generally placed in the inside of the box to diminish the friction. G, Fig. 1. is a horizontal section of the frame for containing the bobbins, or, ^ it is commonly called, the hank. By an inadvertency, it has been represented as straight or flat, but it ought to be of a circular form, that every thread may unwind from the bobbin in a direction, as nearly as possible, at right angles to the pin or axis upon which the bobbin turns. G, Fig. 2. is a profile elevated scctioTi of tlu? snme. PLAIN WEAVING. 9 Two cross frames of wood I and K pass between the upright standards which form the circumference of the mill, in each of which are two smooth round pins, on which the leases are formed. Near to the upper lease pins I is another pin M, upon which the warp is turned. The frame at I is fastened to the mill, but that at K may be moved to any part, as the length of the warp may require. It consists of two parallel pieces of wood, con- nected by a third, joined into the one and passing through the other. In the connecting piece is a mortise, into which a wedge or key is driven, to make the frame fast in any situation in which it may be placed. OPERATION OF WARPING. The number of bobbins which are to form the warp, are placed in the bobbin frame or batiky so that every thread may unwind from the upper part of the bobbin. The threads are then passed successively through the eyes of the heck, and the whole, being knotted together, are fixed to the upper pin M upon the mill. The mill is then turned slowly, until the upper lease pins at I come nearly opposite to the heck. One frame of the heck is then lifted, and the warper passes the fore finger of his left hand through the space, formed between the threads which are lifted, and those which remain stationary. He then sinks the frame which had been lifted to its former place, and lifts the other. Into the space formed by this he inserts his thumb, and carefully places the yarn upon the two pins at I; the first passing through the interval kept by his fingers, and the second through that kept by his thumb. Every alternate thread is thus crossed, and the upper lease is formed. He now divides B 10 ESSAY I. his yarn into portions, as nearly as possible equ^l to each other, to form what are called half gangs. These are' kept distinct from each other, by passing along different rollers on the frame D (see Fig. 1.), until he arrives at the lower lease pins K. Turning the mill gradually and regularly round, he winds the yarn about it in a spiral formed bv the descent of the frame D, until he has com- pleted a number of revolutions sufficient to produce the length of his web (each revolution being five ells), and then fixes the lower pins at the proper place. Upon these pins he turns his warp, fonniirg another 1-ease, by passing every division, or half gang of his yarn, alternate- ly over and under each pin. This lease differs from that formed upon the upper pins only in this respect, that instead of being formed by the crossing of the individual tlvreads, it is produced by crossing the half gangs; As formerly stated, the use of this lease is to preserve regularity in the operation of beaming. The lower lease being formed, the warper turns the mill in a contrary direction until he arrives again at the top, where he opens his heck as before, and places his yarn upon the upper pins; turns his warp upon the pin M, and repeats the former process, until he has collected upon the mill the quantity of warp required. A^Tien this has been effected, he secures his leases by tying a piece of twine round one half of the yarn upon each pin, cuts away liis threads, and drawing the warp gradually off the mill, links it into a succession of loops called a chain, forms it into a bunch, and in this state it is delivered to the weaver. In this consists the whole operation of warping. It is an important part of the duty of a warper, to be very careful that any threads which may be broken in the process, be immediately knotted, and PLAIN WEAVING. H that the broken threads may not be crossed over the others. He ought also, to take particular care that his leases be placed correctly upon i'ae pins, and sulhciently secured, before the warp is taken off the mill. The modes pf calculation used to ascertain the quantity of v/arp, will be investigated afterwards. In the mean time we shall proceed to the next operation, which is BEAMING. When the weaver has received his wavp in the ckt'rn, his first care is to wind it upon the beam in a proper manner. Having ascertained the number of half gangs, and the breadth of the web, he passes a small shaft of wood through the interval formed by the last of the lower pins upon the warping mill, and a small cord tied to this shaft through that formed by the first. This gives him the lease for beaming, and keeps the half gangs distinct. When this has been done, and the cord made fast at both ends of the shaft, the knotting left by the warper must be cut, and the warp stretched to its proper breadtli. An instrument or utensii, called a ravel^ LS then to be used. I have not given any figure of this, partly for want of room, and also because it differs in uothing from a ircd ; excepting, that the intervals are much wider, and that the upper part may be taken off, for the purpose of placing the half gangs in their re- spective places. Ravels, like reeds, are of different dimensions, and one proper for the purpose being found, every half gang is to be placed in an interval between two of the pins. The upper part, or cape^ is then put on and secured, and the operation of winding the warp upon the beam commences. Two persons are employed to 12 ESSAY I. hold the ravel which serves to guide the warp, and to spread it regularly upon the beam; one or two to keep the chain, or chains, of the warp, at a proper degree of tension, and one or more to turn the beam upon its centres. The warp being regularly wound upon the beam, the weaver next proceeds to take it through the heddles, and this operation is called DRAWING. When the warp has been beamed, two rods are in- serted into the lease formed by the upper lease pins on the warping mill; the ends of these rods are tied together, the twine by which the lease was secured is cut away, and the warp stretched to its proper breadth. The beam is then suspended by cords behind the heddles and somewhat higher, the warp hanging down perpen- dicularly. The weaver then places himself in front of the heddles, and another person is placed behind. The former opens every heddle in succession, and it is the business of the latter to select every thread in its order, and deliver it to be drawn through the open heddle. The succession in which the threads are to be delivered is easily ascertained by the rods, as every thread crosses that next to it. The warp, after passing through the heddles, is next drawn through the reed by an instru- ment called a sley hooh^ two threads being taken through every interval. These operations being finished, the cords or mount- ing which move the heddles are applied; the reed is placed in the lay, and the warp is divided into small portions, which arc tied to a shaft connected by cords to the cloth beam. The weaver then dresses a portion PLAIN WEAVING. 13 of his warp, and commences the operation of weaving. But before entering into the investigation of this process, it may be proper to devote some attention to the con- struction of the WEAVING LOOM. The most essential working parts of this machine are represented in Plates 2. and 3. Fig. 1. Plate 2. is a ground plan, or rather a horizontal section of a common loom; for the upper part must be supposed to be entirely cut away, so low as the upper shafts of the heddles and upper shell of the lay, for the purpose of showing in their proper forms, those parts of the loom, warp, and cloth, which are there represented. Fig. 2. Plate 2. may be considered either as a profile elevation, or as a profile section of the same loom. All the parts are there represented as they appear to a person standing at one side of the loom, and many- parts, concealed or cut away in Fig. I. are seen very plainly in Fig. 2. whilst many others which are distinctly seen in Fig. 1. are, of necessity, either partially, or totally hid in Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Plate 3. is a transverse section of the same loom, as viewed from the front; for the cloth roll, the lay, and all the other parts in front of the heddles must be taken away, that the mounting and other parts con- tained in the figure may be seen. The lay and reed, which arc cut away in Fig. 3. are distinctly represented in Fig. 4. Plate 3. In all of these figures, the same part of the loom is constantly marked by the same letter of reference, and thus, by comparing the figures, every part is shown in 14 ESSAY I. the various forms, in which it would appear when viewed ■ibove, in front, or at one side. It has been deemed best, totally to omit the side and cross frame work of the loom, and to exhibit only the working, or vioving poi-ts. This has been done for two reasons. Firstly, Because the construction of the frames of looms are very different, and the particular form is not essential to the operation, but may be varied according to the fancy either of the weaver or tlie loom wright. The dimensiorio also vary, according to the nature and breadth of the work for which the loom is intended. The strength of the different parts must depend entirely upon the work to be performed; for it will be obvious, that the quantity of wood necessary to give sufHcient strengtli to the posts and rails of a carpet, sailcloth, or sheeting loom, would prove a useless incumbrance, and add an unnecessary weight, to one designed for tlie weaving of light fabrics of silk or muslin. It is sufficient, therefore, in constructing the frame work, tliat care should be taken to make it of strength equivalent to the stress of the work which is to be per- formed; tliat tlie parts should be accurately squared, the joints tight and firm, and that the frame should be well fitted to the working parts. If these points are sufli- ciently attained, the m.ost simple and least expensive plan of construction, must in this, as in all other machinery, prove invariably the best. The second reason for omitting the frame work is, that it would have been difRcult, if not impossible, to represent the working parts distinctly, without many addi- tional drawings; because, in most of the representations, many things would have been concealed by the inter- PLAIN WEAVING. 15 vention of different parts of the frame. Had additional drawings been resorted to, the expence of this work must have been considerably augmented, without adding almost any thing to its practical utility. We shall now proceed to explain the different figures contained in the Plates 2. and 3. But, as division of study contributes as much to the extension and simpli- fication of the scientific pursuits, as division of labour does to those of their practical application, the principal parts essentid to the process of weaving, shall be shortly enumerated in the first place. It will then be of im- portance to recapitulate them individually, and to enter more fully and particularly into the investigation of each. The following are the principal working parts of the common loom: A, the yarn beam or roll, upon which the warp is wound -, B, the rods which keep the threads of the warp in their respective phces. The rods, as was formerly stated, pass through the intervals which form the lease; that is to say, a thread passes over the first rod and under the second: the next passes under the first and over the second, and so on alternately. By this contrivance, every thread is kept distinct from that on either side of it, and if broken, its true situa- tion in the warp may be easily and quickly found. This is of such importance, that too much care cannot be taken to preserve the accuracy of the lease. The third rod divides the warp into what is usually called spUtfuls; for two threads, alternately, pass over and under it, and these two threads also pass through the same interval betwixt the splits of the reed. A close in- spection of the lines which represent the threads of the warp, in Fig. 1 . Plate 2. will serve to illustrate what has been stated above, for the lines are drawn so as 16 ESSAY I. to show the way in which each thread passes between the rods. The third rod is commonly, although impro- perly, called the lease rod, for all the rods are lease rods, and the preservation of the lease is the chief cause of using them. C, the hcddles through which the warp passes; and which, by raising and sinking one half of the warp alternately, form the sheds or spaces, to receive the weft. D, the reed through which also the warp passes, two threads being drawn through every split, or rather interval; and which, moving along with the lay, strikes home the weft to form the cloth. H, the lay mentioned above, vibrating upon centres placed upon the upper rail or cape of the loom. II are the boxes for receiving, and KK the drivers for giving motion to the fly shuttle : LL, the temples for stretching the cloth to a proper breadth, and M is the cloth roll or beam for receiving the cloth when woven. Below the heddles, and attached to them by cords, are two treddles N, which are moved by the weaver's feet to open the sheds. The shuttle i^ driven across by a motion communicated by the weaver's right hand, and the lay is moved, backward and forward, by his left: these are all the motions required. Before proceeding further, it may now be proper t6 notice shortly the different parts of the loom in succes- sion, to explain the nature of their construction, and application to the purposes for which they are intended. YARN ROLL OR BEAM. In constructing this part of the apparatus, particular care ought to be used to select wood perfectly sound, and thoroughly seasoned. Whilst the smallest moisture '■emains in wood, no operation performed upon it can be PLAIN WEAVING. 17 trusted. But it is absolutely necessary, that the yarn beam of a loom should be, as nearly as possible, both perfectly straight and perfectly round. In proportion to any deviation from these, the loom will be defective, and the deficiency ^'ill prove injurious in proportion to the fineness of the cloth to be vv^oven. It is, therefore, of the utmost conse- quence, that the wood should be dry, and the iron axles firmly driven into it before the beam is turned, and that the turner should be particularly careful in the execution of his part of the work. Upon this depends the uniform tightness of the warp, and of course the quality of the cloth, in so far as that is concerned. It is, besides, of the first consequence to the operative weaver, because if the beam bends by twisting, one side will be heavier than the other, and oppose greater resistance to the threads of the warp, which may cause many of them to be broken. This greatly retards the work, for every operative weaver will be convinced, that he may throw many shots of woof sooner than he can knot one thread of warp. The warp is kept to a proper degree of tightness, by means of a cord U rolled, two or three times, round one end of the yarn beam. One end of this cord is fixed to a lever V, moving on a joint at one end. This lever, the end of which only can be seen in Fig. 2. and which does not appear at all in Fig. 1. is parallel to the beam, and directly under the back part of it, so that the cord passing from the lever to the beam, may be in a perpendicular direction. To the other end of the cord, after passing round the beam, is fixed a weight W. A heavier weight X is then hung from the lever V, and as this weight is moved nearer to, or further from the centre of the lever, the tension of the warp will become less or greater as may be needful. This apparatus is C 18 ESSAY I. called a pace. In heavy fabrics, it is still the general custom to tighten the warp by means of a stout pin, which is called a bore staff. The yarn beam of looms constructed for heavy work, seldom has iron axles, but is merely rounded at each end. In the end, at the right hand, a number of holes are bored, into one of which an end of the bore staff is put, and the other end is drawn upwards by a cord, until the warp is sufficiently tight. RODS. As mentioned before, the principal use of the rods is to preserve the lease. When any threads of the warp are broken, great care ought to be taken to have them returned into their proper places. When this is ne- glected, the warp gets into confusion, and great trouble, difficulty, and loss of time ensue. The rods are made of hard wood, and should be well smoothed, to prevent them from catching or breaking the warp: the two front ones are of a circular form; the third, or lease rod, is flat, and broader than the others, which is convenient in the process of dressing the warp, as will be afterwards described. The rods are kept at an uniform distance from the heddles, either by tying them together, or by a small cord with a hook at one end, which lays hold of the front rod, and a weight at the other which hangs over the yarn beam. HEDDLES. To weave plain cloth, only two leaves of heddles are really necessary; but in fine webs, where many threads are contained in the warp, the number of heddles re- PLAIN WEAVING. 19 <]ulred would be so great, that they would be crowded together, which would cause unnecessary friction, and strain the warp. For this reason, four leaves are now Taniversally used, except in very coarse work. The heddles are made of stout level twine, and are connected together by cords above and below, to which each heddle is fastened. They are then stretched on two tliin flat shafts of wood. The upper edges of these four shafts are represented in Fig. 1. at C, and the sections or ends of them at C. Fig. 2. where the front leaves appear raised, and the back leaves sunk, for opening the shed through which the shuttle passes. For plain work, clasped heddles are chiefly used: a representation of these, upon a larger scale, is given in Fig. I. Plate 3. where the heddle twine is represented by double lines, for the purpose of showing how the upper and lower parts cross each other. The cross line shows the direc- tion in which every thread of the warp passes through the heddle. For many kinds of work, the heddles are constructed with eyes. One of these is shown in Fig. 2. which will also explain, by inspection, the way in which the twine is knotted to form the eye. The apparatus by which the heddles are supported cannot be represented in Fig. 1. Plate 2. that being a plan of the working parts of a loom, as seen from above. In the profile section, ]Fig. 2. all the connections appear, although in that view, only the ends of the v/ooden parts, except the treddlcs, can be shown. In Fig. 3, Plate 3. which is an elevated section as seen from the front, they are dis- tinctly seen, and will render the construction of the whole very apparent. On the upper side rails of the loom, rests the heddle bearer S, stretching across the loom. From this two levers Z are suspended by cords. 20 ESSAY I. From one end of these levers are hung the jacks F, and from each end of these jacks pass the cords which connect them with the upper heddle shafts. The cord connecting one end of each jack with the heddles, is fixed to the first and second leaf, and that connecting the other end, to the third and fourth leaf. Under the heddles are two spring staffs Q, suspended by cords from the under heddle shafts. These are connected with the two marches R, which move upon joints, and these marches are again connected with the two treddles, from which the whole motion is derived. The other end of the lever Z is connected by a small cord with the under heddle shafts, and this end rests in a small notch, fixed to the side frame of the loom. When the heddles are to be pushed back, the levers are relieved from the notches: the weaver then presses down the upper shafts, by means of the small cords; the under shafts are at the same time raised, and thus the heddles are slackened to ease the warp. When heddles with eyes are used, this apparatus is unnecessary, and the jacks may at once be hung from the heddle bearer as in Fig. 2. Another way of easing the heddles is now, most generally, practised. The lower links, or dcups, are lifted by small rods, and the heddles are pushed back by moving the lay. In drawing the warp through the heddles, the first thread is drawn through the fourth leaf, the second through the second, the third through the third, and the fourth through the front. When it becomes necessary in the after process, occasionally to draw out the rods, their places may be recovered in the following manner: by raising the third and fourth leaves, and sinking the first and second, the place of the second rod is given, and by PLAIN WEAVING. 21 reversing this, we find that of the first. By raising the first and third leaves, and sinking the second and fourth, we obtain the place of the lease rod. LAY AND REED. Fig. 4. Plate 3. is an elevation of the lay and reed, taken from the front, and exhibits very plainly those parts, which are cither concealed or imperfectly seen, in the plan and profile Figs. 1. and 2. Plate 2. The parts of the lay are as follow : H is the sole, or under shell of the lay, in which there is a groove to receive the lower edge of the reed D. O is the upper shell, in which also is a groove for the upper edge of the reed, by which it is kept in its place, bb are the two swords of the lay, which are suspended from the rocking tree T by means of cords cc, as represented in Figs. 2. Plates 2. and 4. Plate 3. When the pins at dd are turned round, they twist the suspending cords, which of course be- come shorter. By these means, either end of the lay may be elevated or depressed at pleasure, to bring it into a proper working position. Instead of these cords, screws are sometimes used, which is certainly a steadier, though a more expensive plan. The boxes II are con- structed of a proper size to receive the fly shuttle, which is driven from either, by pulling forward the driver K, sliding freely on the polished spindle f; it then passes along -the race rod g with great velocity, and lodges in the opposite box. The drivers are moved by the cords ee fastened to the handle h, which the weaver moves with his right hand, as before mentioned. In weaving light fabrics of cloth, the upper rib of the reed is not confined in the upper shell of the lay, but a 22 ESSAY I. light shaft of wood with a groove is used. To each end of this shaft is fixed, at right angles, a thin flat piece of wood, which springs easily backward and forward. The extremities of these pieces are nailed to the back of the swords of the lay, and a cord is tied round both, lower down, by which the degree of spring may be regulated. The upper rib of the reed is received into this groove, and the upper shell of the lay is supported above it, but perfectly free from it, and serves merely as a rest for the weaver's left hand to work the lay. By this contrivance, the reed yields when the weft is driven up, and diminishes the danger of making the cloth too thick. These machines are called flyers. In still lighter goods, a woollen cord is stretched very tight between the swords, and to it the upper rib of the reed is tied. It is also common to use a double set of flyers, one of which is above, and the other under the reed. The reed consists of two ribs, between which are the splits, through each interval of which two threads of the warp are drawn, in plain weaving. The splits of the reed generally consist of thin pieces of split reed or cane, from whence both the names reed and split are derived. It is now, however, very common to use brass, and sometimes steel wire, rolled flat for this purpose. What- ever may be the substance used, care must be taken to have the splits equal in length, breadth, and thickness, and very smooth. The regularity of the cloth depends much upon the former, and if the latter is neglected, the warp will be frequently much broken and injured. The splits of a reed ought not to be perfectly flat, but thicker in the middle and tapering to cither edge. This not only diminishes the friction on the warp, but wilj PLAIN WEAVING. 23 allow any small knot or lump to pass much easier, U'ithout breaking the thread. The fineness, or, as it is called among weavers, the set of a web, is determined by the number of splits of the reed in a given length. In Scotland, the reed is divided into hundreds, and these hundreds again into five parts, each containing 20 splits, which are called porters. Formerly, different lengths vvrere used for different fabrics : a reed for working hoUand was considered to be 40 inches in length; for linen 37 inches; and for cambric 34 inches; and the number of hundreds contained in these respective lengths, was called the set of the reeds. It is probable, that these lengths owed their origin to the breadths of which it was customary to weave these different kinds of cloths The 40 and 34 inch reeds are now very little used, and the 37 inch, or linen reed, has been universally adopted in the cotton manufacture. The cause of this seems to be founded upon consider- ing a yard of 36 inches as a proper standard, and as all cloth shrinks considerably in the breadth, the additional inch was, probably, allowed for this. But the shrinking of cloth is very different in various fabrics: cloth of a stout thick texture, requires a much greater allowance than light thin goods. The additional quantity of warp is, therefore, allowed by the manufacturer, in proportion to the quality of the web, and this is regulated by observation and experience. The length of the Scotch ell is 37 inches, and it, probably^ bears this proportion to the English yard of 36 inches, for a similar reason. In Lancashire and the adjoining counties, where the manufacture of cotton goods, chiefly of thick fabrics, is carried to very great extent, a mode of counting their reeds, different from any of those above mentioned, i< 24 ESSAY I. in use. Their reeds are divided into portions of 19 spITt:-' each, which they call baresy and the number of these contained in 24 inches, is called the number of the reed. A comparative Table, of the English and Scotch reeds, is added to this work, by which the one may be brought, nearly^ to agree with the other. TEMPLES. The temples, by which the cloth is kept extended during the operation, consist of two pieces of hard wood, with small sharp points in their ends, which lay hold of the edge, or selvage, of the cloth at either side. These pieces are connected by a cord, passing obliquely through holes, or notches, in each piece. By this cord, they can be lengthened or shortened, according to the breadth of the web. They are kept flat after the cloth is stretched, by a small bar turning on a centre. Their form will appear very plainly at L, in Fig. 1. Plate 2. One end is seen at L, in Fig. 2. CLOTH ROLL, OR BEAM. Behind the temples is the roll, or beam M, for re- ceiving the cloth when woven. This, like the yarn roll, ought to be well seasoned, and turned very true. On one end of it is a ratchet wheel, in which rests a catch to hold against the pace, or balance weight, on the yarn beam, and keep the cloth tight. When the warp has been wrought up as near to the heddles as can be done conveniently, the weaver shifts forward the temples, rolls up a proper quantity of cloth, which unwinds an equal length of warp from the yarn rollj then shifts back the PLAIN WEAVING. 25 Tods and heddles, until the latter hang perpendicular, and proceeds with his weaving. This is called drawing a bore. In weaving thick and bulky fabrics of cloth, there is generally a cross beam of wood, called the breast beamy where the cloth beam M is represented in the figure, and the beam itself is placed below. The cloth passes over the breast beamy before being received on the cloth beam. SHUTTLE AND PIRN. The shuttle is made of hard wood, generally boxwoody and tipped with iron at each end, and on one side are flat pieces of wire, to diminish the friction on the reed. It runs upon two small wheels, or rollers, of iron, hung in centres. Within is the bobbin, or pirn, upon which the weft is wound in the form of a cone. The weft thread escaping from the pirn, passes through a small eye, generally of glass, fixed in the side of the shuttle next to the cloth. The pirn is fixed upon a screw in the hollow, or box, of the shuttle, and may be taken out at pleasure. Fig. 8. Plate 3. is a representation of both. In the woollen, and cotton manufactures, the use of the fly shuttle is almost universal: but in the linen, and silk, it is still common to pass the shuttle through the warp by the weaver's hand. The boxes, drivers, spindles, and other apparatus, used for driving the fly shuttle, are unnecessary in working by the hand, and would, indeed, be incumbrances. The construction of the common lay and shuttle is so universally known, that I have not thought it necessary to give figures of them. D D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina Stats College 26 ESSAY I. OPERATIONS OF WEAVING. When a warp has been properly placed in the loom, and all the machinery requisite for weaving it into cloth has been added, the business of the operative weaver, depends more upon care and attention, than upon manual dexterity. Silken and woollen warps, which are animal substances, require little preparation after being put into the loom. In these it is only necessary for the weaver, occasionally, to clear his warp behind the rods, and to pick oflF, or pare away, any kiiots or lumps upon the yarn, which might present obstructions in passing through the heddles or reed. The clearing of the warp is generally ciorre with a comb, which is drawn gently through it; the teeth of the comb being kept in an oblique direction, in order to avoid breaking the warp when any obstruction presents itself. For the operations of picking and paring the warp, a pair of small sheers is used. These operations are equally necessary in warps spun from the vegetable substances, flax and cotton. But they require besides, a further preparation to fit them for the purpose of weaving: this is called DRESSING. This operation is justly esteemed of the first import- ance, in the art of weaving warps spun from flax or cotton; for it is impossible to produce work of a good quality, unless care be used in dressing the warp. The use of dressing is, to give to yarn sufficient strength, or tenacity, to enable it to bear the operation of weaving into cloth. It, also, by laying smoothly all the PLAIN WEAVING. 27 ends of the fibres, wlxich compqsc the raw matci ial, from which the yarn is spun, tends both to diminish the fric- tion during ihe process, and to render the cloth smooth, and glossy, when finished. The substance in common use for dressing, is simply a mucilage of vegetable matter boiled to a consistency in water. Wheat flour, and sometimes potatoes, are the substances commonly employed. These answer sufiiciently well in giving to the yai-n both the smoothness and tenacity required; but the great objection to them is, that they are too easily and rapidly affected by the operation of the atmosphere. When dressed yarn is allowed to stand exposed to the air, for any considerable portion of time, before being woven into cloth, it always becomes hard, brittle, and com^ratively inflexible. It is then tedious and trouble- some to weave, and the cloth is rough, wiry, and uneven. This efFect is chiefly remarked in dry weather, M'hen the weavers of fine cloth find it indispensibly necessary to have their yarn wrought up, as speedily as possible, after being dressed. To counteract this inconveniency, herring or beef brine, and other saline substances, which have a tendency to attract moisture, are sometimes mixed in small quantities with the dressing : but this has not proved completely and generally successful; probably, because the propo^-tions have not been sufficiently attended to, and because a superabundance of moisture is equally prejudicial with a deficiency. Indeed, the variation of the moisture of the air is so great and so frequent, that it appears difficult, if not impossible, to fix any general, not to say universal rule, for the quantity to be mixed. It is stated as a fact, which will appear singular to weavers in this country, that in India the process of weaving, even their finest muslins, is conducted in the 28 ESSAY 1. open air, and exposed to all the heat of the climate, which is intense. "We know well that this would be impracticable with fine work in this country, even in an ordinary summer day. I have never been able to procure any accurate account of the substance, which the Indian weavers employ for dressing their warps. It, certainly, would prove of important benefit to the manufactures of this country, were this investigated in a satisfactory manner. Neither does it appear that this subject, which is of much importance, has hitherto attracted the attention of scientific men, or that it has been treated in an ac- curate or philosophical manner. It, however, opens a wide field for chemical investigation, and promises to prove equally useful to mankind, and lucrative to the person who may succeed in supplying the desideratum. It may be necessary to resume the consideration of this part of the subject, in treating of weaving by power, and dressing by machinery. At present, we shall proceed with a short account of the common manual process. When the warp, previously dressed, has been wrought up, as far as can be done conveniently, the weaver is obliged to suspend the operation of weaving, and to prepare a fresh quantity of warp. It is necessary to stop, when the dressed warp has approached within two or tlirec inches of the back leaf of the hcddles, that room may be allowed to join the old dressing to the new. The first operation, as in wool and silk, is to clear the warp, with the comb, from the lease rod to the yarn roll, or. beam. The proof that this operation has been properly executed is, by bringing back the rods, successively, from their working situation to the roll. When this has been done, the two rods nearest to the heddles, are drawn ou£ PLAIN WEAVING. 29 (Of the warp to one side, and the lease rod only remains. The next duty of the weaver is, to examine the yarn .about to be dressed, and carefully to take away every knot, lump, or other obstruction, which might impede jthe progress of the work, or injure the fabric of the cloth. This being performed, he proceeds to apply the substance used for dressing, which should be rubbed gently, but completely, into the whole warp, by means of two brushes used in succession, one of which he holds in each hand. He then raises the lease rod on one edge, to divide the warp, and sets the air in motion by moving a large fan, for the purpose of drying the warp which has been dressed. It is proper in this stage of the opera- tion, to draw one of the dressing brushes lightly over the warp at intervals, in order to prevent any obstruction, .which might arise by the threads, when ngitated by the fan, cohering, or sticking to each other, whilst in a wet state. Whenever the warp is sufficiently dried, a very .small quantity of grease is brushed over it, the lease rod is again placed upon its flat side, and cautiously shifted forward to the heddles. The other rods arc then put again into their respective sheds, and the process is finished. WEAVING. The operation of dressing the warp being finished, the weaver again resumes that of forming the cloth. The operations required, are only three, and these are very simple: 1st. Opening the slwds in the warp, alternately, by pressing the treddles with his feet. 2J. Driving the shuttle through each shed, when opened. This is performed by the right hand, when 30 ESSAY I. the fly shuttle is used, and by the right and left hand, alternately, in the common operation. 3d. Pulling forward the lay, to strike home the woof, and again pushing it back nearly to the heddles. This is done by the left hand with the fly, and by each hand, successively, in the old way. In describing operations so simple and uniform, it is neither easy nor necessary, to go much into detail. It may be useful, however, in this place, to notice the mistakes, into which unexperienced weavers are apt to fall, and the defects, and inconveniences, which these mistakes occasion. TREADING. In the treading of a web, most beginners are apt to apply tlie weight, or force, of the foot much too suddenly. The bad consequences attending this mistake, are parti- cularly felt in weaving fine or weak yarn. In weaving, as in every other branch of mechanics, the resistance, or reaction, is always nearly as great as the moving power, or force, which it is necessary to apply. From this it follows, that the body of the warp must sustain a stress, nearly equal to the force, with which the weavers foot is applied to the treddle. Besides this, every individual thread is subjected to all the friction, occasioned by the heddles, and splits of the reed, between which the threads pass, and with which they are generally in contact when rising and sinking. But the art of spinning has not been as yet, and probably never can be brought to such a degree of perfection, as to make every thread capable of bearing its proportion of this stress equally. It is equally confirmed, both by mathematical demonstration, PLAIN WEAVING. 31 and by practical experience, that when any body is to be moved with increased velocity, it is necessary to exert greater power to move it; and as the resistance increases in proportion to the power, this sudden application of the pressure of the foot to the treddle, must cause a propor- tional increase of the stress upon the warp, and also of the friction. Now, as it is impossible to make every thread equally strong, and equally tight, those which are the weakest, or the tightest, must bear much more than their equal proportion of the stress. This causes them to be bi'oken very frequently, and, even with the greatest attention, more time is lost in tying and replacing them, than would have been sufficient for weaving a very con- siderable quantity into cloth. But if the weaver, from inattention, should continue the operation, after one or more threads are broken, the consequence will be still worse. When a thread has been broken, it no longer retains its parallel situation to the rest, but crossing over or between those nearest to it, either breaks them also, or interrupts the passage of the shuttle: most frequently it does both. The same reasons will sufficiently prove the error of another opinion, too common among weavers, especially the younger part of them. This is, that a greater quantity of work will be produced, in proportion as every motion is performed with increased rapidity. It is unquestionably true, that time will be lost by conduct- ing the operations too slowly: but it is equally true, that there is a rate of velocity, beyond which it is im- prudent to accelerate the motions of a loom. "What the precise rate of this velocity ought to be, has not, as I believe, been correctly ascertained. Indeed, it must vary considerably, according to the breadth of the 32 ESSAY 1. web, the nature of the fabric, and the strength of the materials. Instead, therefore, of giving precise rules of motiony I shall here insert a few calculations of the quantities of work, which may be produced by uniform and incessant motion, at rates usually reckoned slow. In a * cotton shawl, let the warp be 1000, and the weft at the rate of 1200: it will follow, that the shuttle must be driven 2400 times across the web, to produce one square yard of cloth. Now if this is done 60 times per minute, the whole will be completed in 40 minutes, supposing no time to be lost. Butj as this is impossible, allow one fifth of the whole time to be occupied in tying threads, changing pirns, and other necessary operations, and still the yard of cloth will be completed in 50 minutes. Again, in a 1200 | web [even nuefied), let the time of weaving a yard i/i lengthy be computed at the rate of 40 shots per minute; this, with the former allowance of one fifth part of the time for stopping, will be done in an hour and 15 minutes. Yet every weaver will bo satisfied, that looms, regularly and constantly wrought at the above rates, will produce more cloth, than is generally effected even by the most rapid motions. No allowance is made here for the time employed in dressing, because this is supposed to be the same, whether the operation of weaving is performed quickly or slowly. These illustrations, which are confirmed by the prac-* tical observation of every experienced weaver, will be sufficient for the present. The subject will be more fully discussed, when we come to investigate the methods of weaving bi/ power., and of dressing whole webs by tlie aid of machinerv. PLAIN WEAVING. 33 CROSSING THE SHUTTLE. This, like the former motion, ought to be performed with a regular and uniform velocity. In every kind of weaving, and especially in thin wiry fabrics, much of the beauty of the cloth depends upon the woof being well stretched. But if the motion of the shuttle be too rapid, it is very apt to recoil, and thus to slacken the thread. It has also a greater tendency either to break the woof altogether, or to unwind it from the pirn in doi'blcsj which, if not picked out, destroy the regularity of the fabric. The woof of muslins and thin cotton goods, is generally woven into the cloth in a wet state. This tends to lay the ends of the fibres of the cotton smooth and parallel, and its effect is similar to that of dressing of the warp. The person who winds the woof upon the pirn, ought to be very careful that it be well built, so as to unwind freely. The best shape for those used in the fly shuttle, is that of a cone; and the thread ought to traverse freely, in the form of a spiral or screw, during the operation of winding. The same wheel, used for winding the warp upon bobbins, is also fit for winding the weft. It only requires a spindle of a different shape, with a screw at one end, upon which the pirn is fixed. The wheel is so con- structed, that the spindles may be easily shifted, to adapt it for either purpose. STRIKING HOME THE WOOF. That the fabric of the cloth may be uniform in thickness, it is necessary that the lay should be brought forward with the same force every time. In the common E 34 ESSAY I. operation of weaving, this regularity must be acquired by practice. It is, however, of consequence to the weaver, to mount his loom in such a manner, that the range of the lay may be in proportion to the thickness of his cloth. As the lay swings, backward and for- ward, upon centres placed above, its motion is similar to that of a pendulum. Now the greater the arc, or range, through which the lay passes, the greater will be its effect, in driving home the weft strongly, and the thicker will be the fabric of cloth, in so far as that depends upon the weft. For this reason, 'in weaving coarse and heavy goods, the heddles ought to be hung at a greater distance from the point where the weft is struck up, than would be proper in light work. The point, or rather line, where the last wrought shot of weft is struck up, is called by M'eavers the fell. The pivots, upon which the lay vibrates, ought, in general, to be exactly at equal distances from a line drawn per- pendicular to the fell, and one drawn perpendicular to the heddles, and between these two lines. But ars the fell is constantly varying in its situation, during the operation, it will be proper to take the medium. This is the place where the fell will be, when a bore is half wrought up. From this, the following conclusion may a'lso be dra\'m: The ^c^vj- ought always to be short in weaving light goods •, for the less that the extremes vary from the medium, the more regular will be the arc, or swing, of the lay. The result of what has been stated above is, that in each of the three operations of weaving, the motions ought to be constant and uniform; and that they should follow each other in regular succession. But some observation will be -necessary, to adapt these to different species of cloth. PLAIN WEAVING. 35 The beauty, or excellence, of some cloths, consists in the closeness of their texture ; that of others, in the openness, and regularity of the intervals between the threads. When the latter of these is required, the weaver must vary his process, from that wliich would be proper in the former. The extreme tightness of the weft, is a principal excellence in open goods, and is, to a certain degree, necessary in the others, but by no means to the same extent. Two alterations are, therefore, necessary, in the formation of such fabrics. The first is in the mounting of the loom ; the second in the operation. By referring to Fig. 2. Plate 2. it will appear, that the threads of the warp pass from the yarn beam to the cloth beam, upon a level, or horizontal, straight line. Consequently, the half of the warp which rises, and the half which sinks, will deviate equally from a straight line, and be equally stretched. When this is the case, the threads of warp which pass through the same interval in the reed, will appear close together in the cloth, with a vacancy between them and those next to them, which vacancy is caused by the intervention of the splits in the reed. But if the yarn beam is raised considerably above the level of the heddles, the warp, when at rest, will no longer be in a t-traight line, and when the shed is opened, the half of the warp which descends, will be drawn considerably tighter than the half which rises. Thus, each half will be slack alternately, and the consequence of this is, that the warp spreads in the cloth, and the intervals caused by the splits of the reed, are no longer discernablc. The former of these ways of placing the beam, is practised in thin work, the latter in thick. Wlien the weft has been thrown across the warp, if 36 ESSAY 1. the fabric is thin, the lay is brought home rather before the shed is closed, in order that the weft may be struck up as tight as possible. But in weaving thick goods, the shed is closed before the motion of the lay is applied. In consequence of this, the threads of the warp, to a certain degree, slacken the weft, and give a closer ap- pearance to the cloth. In weaving thick cotton goods, the weft is inserted in a dry state, when the fabric is wanted to appear very close. It may, now, be proper to notice the defects which most commonly occur in the weaving of cloth, and to explain the causes from which these arise. When, from any cause, the weft is not regularly inter- woven with the warp, a deficiency must happen in the cloth, which is called by weavers a scobb. This may proceed from several causes: the most frequent, is some obstruction in the warp, which prevents any portion of it from rising or sinking regularly, when the shed is formed; of course, the shuttle, instead of passing fairly between the threads of the warp, passes either over or under the portion which is obstructed, and the weft, at that place, is not at all interwoven with the warp. A knot or lump upon the warp, if not picked away in the dressing, will often obstruct two or three threads, and form a small scobb. When the weaver, from inattention, continues to weave, after a thread of warp has been broken, it very frequently crosses between a number of the threads nearest to it, and, by obstructing the shed in that place, will cause a large scobb. Scobbs are also .sometimes produced by the lay being too low hung, but this is more frequent in weaving with the hand shuttle than with the fly. In this case, the scobbs arc always near the list, or selvage, of the cloth. PLAIN WEAVING. 37 A second fault in cloth is known, among weavers, by the name of Tijisp. This is most frequent in light fabrics, and is occasioned by any particular thread of weft not being struck up so close as the rest. Jisps are very frequently occasioned by defects, either in the construc- tion or mounting of the loom. If either the yarn beam or cloth beam are not turned very true, jisping will be unavoidable. Or if either the heddles, or the lay, be not hung parallel to the beams, the same defect will ensue. If the loom is correctly made and mounted, the fault must be with the weaver, and this is only to be sur- mounted by attention and practice. The other faijlts in cloth, generally proceed from inattention in the management of the warp or weft. If threads are inaccurately drawn through either the heddles or the reed, the defect will be apparent in the cloth. There is nothing which adds more to the beauty of cloth of every description, and about which good weavers are more solicitous, than a tight uniform selvage. In order to produce this, the warp must be dressed, even with greater care than what is necessary in the middle of the web. The tightness of the weft, also, contributes materially to the beauty of the selvage. It is, sometimes, the custom, to warp a few splitfuls at each selvage, with coarser yarn than the body of tlie web. In many kinds of cloth, however, the common practice is, to draw the threads which form the selvage, double. That is, to draw two threads through each heddle. The threads, which form the warp of the selvages, being coarser than the rest, and, also, being more drawn towards the middle of the web, by the weft, the splits of rhe reed, through which they pass, are apt to be worn 38 ESSAY T. much sooner than the others. A weaver should carefully attend to this, for if the reed is injured, the work cannot be good. When cane reeds are used, and when the webs wrought in them are, generally, of the same breadth, it is now very common to make those splits, through which the warp of the selvages passes, of brass. It is unnecessary to enumerate further, the defects which may occur in the weaving of cloth, for no instruc- tions can altogether supply the vi'ant of that skill, which is only to be attained by practical experience. CALCULATIONS AND TABLES. As we have confined this Essay, solely, to the operative part of the art of weaving, reserving what is properly the business of the manufacturer for future investiga- tion, it is only necessary to introduce, in this place, such calculations and tables, as may be useful to the operative warper and weaver. When the yarn, which is to form a warp, is delivered to the warper, upon bobbins, it is usual to give him., at the same time, a ticket, or slip of paper, specifying the length of the web, and its breadth, in porters of 20 sphts each. When he has received this, his first duty is to calculate how many revolutions of the mill will be necessary, to produce the length required. This is a very simple operation, being nothing more than dividing the number of ells in the warp, by the number of ells produced by one revolution of the mill. Thus, if the length of a warp is 100 ells, and the circumference of the mill 5 ells, it will be obvious, even to a person little acquainted with arithmetic, that 20 revolutions will produce the length required. If an even number of PLAIN WEAVING. 39 revolutions does not produce the length required, the difference can be easily counted, each interval between the standards, which form the circumference of the mill, being ^ of an ell, as formerly stated. Thus, if a warp is 76^ ells, 15 revolutions produce 75 ells, and con- tinuing to turn the mill until the' warp has passed over 7 intervals more, 1^ ells will be added to the length, making in all 76^. To the length of the Warp, it is necessary to add an allowance for the thrum. The thrum is that portion of the warp, which remains after the weaving is finished, stretched between the fell of the cloth and the yarn beam. It is used by the weaver either for knotting the threads which may be broken In a succeeding web, if nearly of the same fineness; or if the new web is exactly of the same set and quality of the preceding, he frequently prefers twisting the new warp to the old, thread by thready to drawing it afresh through the mounting. This is particularly the case in fancy or ornamental work. The length of the thrum must vary according to circumstances. One and a half inter- vals between the standards, or 16| inches is a common allowance in plain work. After the warper has ascertained the length of his warp, his next duty is to calculate how often he must repeat his operation, to complete the number of threads required in the breadth. The quantity of yarn wound upon the mill, in going from the upper to the lower pins and returning, is generally called by warpers a mill gangy or bout. As the breadth is generally counted in porters of 20 splits each, and as every split contains two threads, it is plain that in turning the mill from the upper to the lower lease pins and returning again, every bobbin in the bank will produce two threads, or one splitful of warp. 40 ESSAY I. Hence it follows, tliat his calculation must depend Upoif the proportion which the number of bobbins, or runners, bears to the number of porters required. For every 20 bobbins will produce one porter of warp, each time that the operation is repeated. Therefore, if the number of porters are multiplied by 20, to reduce them to splits, and the product divided by the number of bobbins, the quotient will be the number of mill gnngs, or bouts. If, for example, a warp is to contain 93 porters, and the warp is to be run with 100 bobbins: then, 93 X 20 = 1860 and 1860 -f 100 = 18,^ Of course, 18 mill gangs arc to be run with 100 bob- bins, and 1 mill gang with 60. Or if the number of bobbins can be divided by 20, without leaving a fraction, the porters divided by the quotient will give the same result, and the operation will be shorter: for, 100 -^ 20 = 5 and 93 -r 5 = ISf In the first example, the remainder is splitfuls; in the second, it is porters, and 3 porters are equal to 60 splits, so that the result is exactly the same. Although the above are very simple arithmetical opera- tions, I have added a table, because it may assist those who are not proficients in calculation, and may save time and trouble to those who are. In this table there is little of novelty, for many, upon similar plans, have been formerly published. Those, however, which are to be met with in former publications, appear in general to have been more adapted to the use of those who conduct small businesses in what is called the line of customer weaving, where' the warper generally receives the yarn, which is to form his warp, in small parcels from his employers, and is^ PLAIN WEAVING. 41 of consequence, frequently limited in the number of his bobbins, than for the purposes of general and extensive manufacture, where such inconveniences seldom occur. I have, therefore, calculated the following table on a more extensive scale than has been usually done; whilst, at the same time, it may be rendered useful, in almost every instance, even for small and limited operations. The following description of the mode of using it, will serve to illustrate this. The first column on each page contains porters (of 20 splits each) from 1 to 150. The number of bobbins, or runners, are contained in the other columns, and the number is marked on the top of each. The column marked 1 contains the number of times required to run a mill gang viith one bobbin, to produce the porters opposite. The other columns express the same, with the number of bobbins marked on the top of each. As an example, suppose that a warp containing 114 porters, is to be run with 110 bobbins. Tracing 114 from the first column, and 110 from the top, will give 20-80, signifying that the warper is to run 20 times with his whole number of bobbins, and the last course with 80. It may appear unnecessary to many, that the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, and 15, should have been inserted in this table, while the larger numbers have been taken at intervals of 10 bobbins each. The reasons for this arrangement are as follow: Istly, The first column of bobbins marked one, by the former explanation, certainly shows how often the mill must be turned to produce the warp required, with one bobbin. And this, in 150 porters, will be no less than 3000 times. It is obvious that no person, in his senses, would undertake a task of this kind. But besides this, F 42 ESSAY I. this column expresses the number of splits contained in the number of porters opposite to it. It also will give the number of hundreds and splits, by placing a point before the two right hand figures. Those on the left are then hundreds: those on the right splits. This will frequently save a calculation. 2dly, The second column, being exactly one half of the first, may be used to obtain the number of splits in one chain, when the warp consists of two, which is often the case. 3dly, A warper who is limited in his quantity of yarn for warp, will often be obliged to diminish the number of his bobbins, when he comes nearly to the end of his operation. The small numbers may, therefore, be of service in a case of this kind; and if less useful to those, whose operations are conducted on an extensive scale, they will at least allow that the table would have been defective without them. To the latter, it seems unne- cessary to make any apology, for calculating the columns containing the larger numbers, at intervals of 10 each. They are seldom so limited, as to be precluded from warping with as many bobbins as their bank or heck will contain, and the table to them will be merely similar to what a ready reckoner, or interest table is to a merchant, or banker. WARPERS' TABLE. 44 ESSAY I. WARPERS' in i 1020 510 340 255 204 102 68 34 25-20 52 1040 520 346-2 260 208 104 69-5 34-20 26 53 1060 530 353-1 265 212 106 70-10 35-10 26-20 54 1080 540 360 270 216 108 72 36 27 55 1100 550 366-2 275 220 110 73-5 36-2027-20 56 1120 560 373-1 280 224 112 74-10 37-1028 51 1140 570 380 285 228 114 76 38 28-20 58 1160 580 386-2 290 232 116 77-5 38-2029 59 1180 590 393-1 295 236 118 78-10 39-1029-20 60 1200 600 400 300 240 120 80 40 30 61 1220 610 406-2 305 244 122 81-5 40-20 30-20 62 1240 620 413-1 310 248 124 82-10 41-10 31 63 1260 630 1-20 315 252 126 84 42 31-20 G4 12S0 640 426-2 320 256 128 85-5 42-20 32 65 1300 650 433-1 325 260 ISO 86-10 43-10 32-20 66 1320 660 440 330 264 132 88 44 33 67 1340 670 446-2 335 268 134 89-5 44-20 33-20 68 1360 680 453-1 340 272 136 90-10 45-10 34 69 1380 690 460 345 276 138 92 46 34-20 70 1400 700 466-2 350 280 140 93-5 46-20 35 71 1420 710 473-1 355 284 142 94-10 47-10 35-20 72 1440 720 180 360 288 144 96 48 36 73 1460 730 486-2 365 292 146 97-5 48-20 36-20 74 1480 740 493-1 370 296 148 98-10 49-10 37 75 1500 750 500 375 300 150 100 50 37-20 PLAIN WEAVING. 49 TABLE. o 51 52 53 54. 55 56 51 58 59 eo 61 62 63 64. Q5 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74. "75 BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 20-20 20-40 21-10 21-30 22 22-20 22-40 23-10 23-30 24 24-20 24-40 25-10 25-30 26 26-20 26-40 27-10 27-30 28 28-20 28-40 29-10 29-30 30 17 17- 17- 18 18- 18- 19 19- 19- 20 20- 20- 21 21- 21- 22 22- 22- 23 23- 23- 24 24- 24- 14-40 14-60 15-10 15-30 15-50 16 16-20 16-40 16-60 17-10 17-30 17-50 18 18-20 18-40 18-60 19-10 19-30 19-50 20 20-20 20-40 20-60 21-10 21-30 60 20 •40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 ■60 ■20 ■40 ■60 ■20 40 ■60 11-30 11-50 11-70 12 12-20 12-40 12-60 12-80 13-10 13-30 13-50 13-70 14 14-20 14-40 14-60 14-80 15-10 15-30 15-50 15-70 16 16-20 16-40 16-60 10-20 10-40 10-60 10-80 11 11-20 11-40 11-60 11-80 12 12-20 12-40 12-60 12-80 13 13-20 13-40 13-60 13-80 14 14-20 14-40 14-60 14-80 15 9-30 9-50 9-70 9-90 10 10-20 10-40 10-60 10-80 10-100 11-10 11-30 11-50 11-70 11-90 12 12-20 12-40 12-60 12-80 12-100 13-10 13-30 13-50 13-70 120 8-60 8-80 8-100 9 9-20 9-40 9-60 9-80 9-100 10 10-20 10-40 10-60 10-80 10-100 11 11-20 11-40 11-60 11-80 11-100 12 12-20 12-40 12-60 >0 ESSAY I. WARPERS' BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. o 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 30 40 76 1520 760 506-2 380 304 152 101-5 50-20 38 77 1540 770 513-1 385 308 154 102-10 51-10 38-20 78 1560 780 520 390 312 156 104 52 39 79 1580 790 526-2 395 316 158 105-5 52-20 39-20 80 1600 800 533-1 400 320 160 106-10 53-10 40 81 1620 810 540 405 324 162 108 54 40-20 82 1640 820 546-2 410 328 164 109-5 54-20 41 83 1660 830 553-1 415 332 166 110-10 55-10 41-20 S4- 1680 840 560 420 336 168 112 oQ 42 85 1700 850 566-2 425 340 170 113-5 56-20 42-20 86 1720 860 573-1 430 344 172 114-10 57-10 43 87 1740 870 580 435 348 174 116 58 43-20 88 1760 880 586-2 440 352 176 117-5 58-20 44 89 1780 890 593-1 445 356 178 118-10 59-10 44-20 90 1800 900 600 450 360 180 120 60 45 91 1820 910 606-2 455 364 182 121-5 j60-20 45-20 92 1840 920 613-1 460 368 184 122-1061-10 1 46 93 1860 930 620 465 372 186 124 !62 46-2o! 94 1880 940 626-2 470 376 188 125-5 62-20 47 95 1900 950 633-1 475 380 190 126-1063-10 47-20 96 1920 960 640 480 384 192 128 64 48 97 1940 970 646-2 485 388 194 129-5 64-20 48-20 98 I960 980 653-1 490 392 196 130-1065-10 49 99 1980 990 660 495 396 198 132 66 49-20 100 2000 1000 666-2 500 400 200 133-5 66-20 50 PLAIN WEAVING. 51 TABLE. - o. 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 76 30-20 25-20 21-50 19 16-80 15-20 1 3-90 12-80 "-- 30-40 25-40 22 19-20 17-10 15-40 14 12-100 78 31-10 26 22-20 19-40 17-30 15-60 14-20 13 79 31-30 26-20 22-40 19-60 17-50 15-80 14-40 13-20 SO 32 26-40 22-60 20 1 7-70 16 14-60 13-40 81 32-20 27 23-10 20-20 18 16-20 14-80 13-60 82 32-4-0 27-20 23-30 20-40 18-20 16-40 14-100 13-80 83 33-10 27-40 23-50 20-60 18-40 16-60 15-10 13-100 SI- 33-30 28 24 21 18-60 16-80 15-30 14 85 34 28-20 24-20 21-20 18-80 17 15-50 14-20 86 34-20 28-40 24-40 21-40 19-10 17-20 15-70 14-40 87 34-40 29 24-60 21-60 19-30 17-40 15-90 14-60 88 35-10 29-20 25-10 22 19-50 17-60 16 14-80 89 35-30 29-40 25-30 22-20 19-70 17-80 16-20 14-100 90 36 30 25-50 22-40 20 18 16-40 15 91 36-20 30-20 26 22-60 20-20 18-20 16-60 15-20 92 36-40 30-40 26-20 23 20-40 18-40 16-80 15-40 93 37-10 31 26-40 23-20 20-60 18-60j 16-100 1 5-60 94 37-30 31-20 26-60 23-40 20-80 18-80 17-10 1 5-SO 95 38 31-40 27-10 23-60 21-10 19 17-30 15-100 96 38-20 32 27-30 24 21-30 19-20 17-50 16 97 38-40 32-20 27-50 24-20 21-50 19-4o' 17-70 16-20 98 39-10 32-40 28 24-40 21-70 19-60 17-90 16-40 99 39-30 33 28-20 24-60 22 19-80 18 16-60 100 40 33-20 28-40 25 22-20 20 18-20 16-80 iy^ tSSAY 1. WARPERS' o5 BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. S-i O 1 2 3 1 ^ 5 10 15 30 40 101 2020 1010 673-1 U05 404 202 134-10 67-10 50-20 102 2040 1020 680 510 408 204 136 68 51 103 2060 1030 686-2 ' 515 412 206 137-5 68-20 51-20 104 2080 1040 693-1 520 416 208 138-10 69-10 52 105 2100 1050 700 525 420 210 140 70 52-30 106 2120 1060 706-2 530 424 212 141-5 70-20 53 107 2140 1070 713-1 535 428 214 142-10 71-10 53-20 108 2160 1080 720 540 432 216 144 72 54 109 2180 1090 726-2 545 436 218 145-5 72-20 54-20 110 2200 1100 733-1 550 440 220 146-10 73-10 55 111 2220 1110 740 555 444 222 148 74 55-20 112 2240 1120 746-2 560 448 224 149-5 74-20 56 113 2260 1130 753-1 565 452 226 150-10 75-10 56-20 114. 2280 1140 760 570 456 228 152 76 57 115 2300 1150 766-2 575 460 230 153-5 76-20 57-20 116 2320 1160 773-1 580 464 232 154-10 77-10 58 117 2340 1170 780 585 468 234 156 78 58-20 118 2360 1180 786-2 590 472 236 157-5 78-20 59 119 2380 1190 793-1 595 476 238 158-10 79-10 59-20 120 2400 1200 800 600 480 240 160 80 60 121 2420 1210 806-2 605 484 242 161-5 80-20 60-20 122 2440 1220 813-1 610 488 244 162-10 81-10 61 123 2460 1230 820 615 492 246 164 82 6 1-20: 124 2480 1240 826-2 620 496 248 165-5 82-20 62 125 2500 1250 833-1 625 500 250 16G-10 83-10 62-20 PLAIN WEAVING. TABLE. CO Si BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. O 50 60 70 SO 90 100 110 120 101 40-20 33-40 28-60 25-20 22-40 20-20 18-40 16-100 102 40-40 34 29-1025-40 22-60 20-40 18-60 17 103 41-10 34-20 29-30 25-60 22-80 20-60 18-80 17-20 104. 41-30 34-40 29-50 26 23-10 20-80 18-100 17-40 105 42 35 30 26-20 23-30 21 19-10 17-60 106 42-20 35-20 30-20 26-40 23-50 21-20 19-30 17-80 107 42-40 35.40 30-40 26-60 23-70 21-40 19-50 17-100 108 43-10 36 30-60 27 24 21-60 19-70 18 109 43-30 36-20 31-10 27-20 24-20 21-80 19-90 18-20 110 44 * 36-40 31-30 27-4024-40 22 20 18-40 111 44-20 37 31-50 27-6024-60 22-20] 20-20 18-60 112 44-40 37-20 32 28 24-80 22-40 20-40 18-80 113 i5-10 37-40 32-20 28-20 25-10 22-60! 20-60 18-100 iU- 45-30 38 32-40 28-40:25-30 22-80 20-80 19 115 46 38-20 32-60 28-6025-50 23 20-100 19-20 116 46-20 38-40 33-10 29 25-70 23-20 21-10 19-40 117 46-40 39 33-30 29-20 26 23-40 21-30 19-60 118 47-10 39-20 33-50 29-40 26-20 23-60 21-50 19-80 119 47-30 39-40 34 29-6026-40 23-80 21-70 19-100 120 48 40 34-20 30 26-60 24 21-90 20 121 48-20 40-20 34-4o!30-2o!26-80 24-20 22 20-20 122 48-40 40-40 34-60 30-40:27-10 24-40 22-20 20-40 123 49-10 41 35-lo'30-60 27-30 24-60 22-10 20-50 124 49-30 41-20 35-30 31 27-50 24-80 22-60 20-80 125 50 41-40 35-50 31-20 27-70 25 22-80 20-100 54 ESSAY WARPERS' en ;-■ BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. Si O 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 SO 40 126 2520 1260 840 630 504 1 252 168 84 63 127 2540 1270 S46-2 635 508 254 169-5 84-20 63-20 128 2560 1280 S53-1 640 512 256 170-10 85-10 64 129 25S0 1290 S60 645 516 258 172 86 64-20 130 2600 ISCO 866-2 650 520 260 173-5 86-20 65 131 2620 1310 873-1 655 524 262 174-10 87-10 65-20 132 2640 1320 880 660 528 264 176 88 66 133 2660 1330 886-2 665 532 266 177-5 88-20 66-2C J 34. 2680 1340 893-1 670 536 268 178-10 89-10 67 135 2700 1350 900 675 540 270 ISO 9» 67-20 J36 2720 1360 906-2 680 544 272 181-5 90-20 68 3 37 2740 1370 913-1 685 548 274 182-10 91-10 68-20 138 2760 1380 920 690 552 276 184 92 69 139 2780 1390 926-2 695 556 278 185-5 92-20 69-20 110 2800 1400 933-1 700 560 280 186-10 93-10 70 Ml 2820 1410 940 705 564 282 188 94 70-20 J 42 2840 1420 946-2 710 568 284 189-5 94-20 71 M-3 2860 1430 953-1 715 572 286 190-10 95,10 71-20 lU 2880 1440 960 720 576^ 288 192 96 72 145 2900 1450 966-2 725 580 290 193-5- 96-20 72-20 146 2920 1460 973-1 730 584 292 194-10 97-10 73 147 2940 1470 980 735 588 294 196 98 73-20 148 2960 1 480:986-2 740 592 296 197-5 98-20 74 149 2980 1490993-1 745 596 298 198-10 99-10 74-20 150 3000 1500 1000 750 600 300 200 100 75 PLAIN WEAVING. OO TABLE. BOBBINS, or RUNNERS. O Ph 126 127 12S 129 130 131 132 133 134- 135 136 137 138 139 14-0 14-1 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 ISO 50 CO 70 80 90 100 110 20 -40R.2-20 40 ■ 10 ■30 •20 ■40 •10 ■30 •20 ■40 12 1-2. 43 1-3- 43- 44 44- 44- 45 45- 45- 1046 46- 46- 47 47- 47- 48 48- 48- 49 t9- 49- 50 36 36- 36- 36- 37- 37- <1 "7 O I - 38 38- 38- 38- 39- 39- 39- 40 1-0- 40- 40- 41- 41- 11- 12 42- 42- 42- •20 ■40 ■60 •10 •30 •50 •20 •40 •60 10 ■30 ■50 ■20 •40 •60 ■10 ■30 50 20 40 60 31- 3L 32 32^ 32- 32. 33 33- 33- 33- 34 34- 34- 34^ 35 35- 35- 35- 36 'iG- 36- 36- 37 37- 28 25-i 20 28-2025-40 60 80 28-40 28-60 28-S0'26 29-10 26 25-( 25- 29-30 29-50 29-70 30 30-20 30-40 30-60 30-80 31-10 31-30 31-50 31-70 32 32-20 32-40 32-60 32-80 20|33-10 4033-30 26. 26' 26. 27 27. 27. 27. 27. 28 28- 28- 28- 28^ 29 29- 29- 29- 29- 30 ■20 ■40 ■60 ■80 ■20 -40 ■60 ■SO ■20 •40 ■60 •80 •20 ■40 ■60 •80 120 22-100 23-10 23-30 23-50 23-70 23-90 24 24-20 24-40 24-60 24-80 24-100 25-10 25-30 25-50 25-70 25-90 26 26-20 26-40 26-60 26-80 26-100 27-10 27-30 21 21-20 21-40 21-60 21-80 21-100 22 22-20 22-40 22-60 22-80 22-100 23 23-20 23-10 23-60 23-80 23-100 24 24-20 24-40 24-60 24-80 24-100 25 ^6 liSSAY I. When the warp has been delivered to the weaver, and he prepares to wind it upon the beam, it is necessary, in the first place, to calculate the number of the ravel which he ought to use. The number of the ravel is ascertained by the number of pins contained in 36 inches, and these are counted by scores of 20 pins each. Thus a ravel containing 200 pins in 36 inches, is called a ten score ravel. If, therefore, a warp 36 inches or 4 broad contains 200 half gangs, it will require a ten score ravel. But, if, another web containing the same number of half gangs, is to be of a greater breadth, it will obviously re- quire a coarser ravel, and if of less breadth, a finer one will be necessary. The difference is found by an inverse proportion: for, As 16 = the number of nails in a yard Is to the number of half gangs. So is the number of nails in the breadth proposed To the number of pins in the ravel required, ifiverse/j/. From this the following rule will arise: Multiply the number of half gangs in the warp by 16, and divide the product by the number of 16ths, or nails, in the breadth required. The quotient will be the number of the ravel sought. For example, let a warp which is to be beamed -i-f broad, contain 236 half gangs. Required the ravel ? 236 X 16 = 3776 and 3776 -f 19 = 198i| The fraction may be thrown away, and 198 pins or 9 score 18 pins will^e the ravel sought. In those instances where the breadth is counted in 4ths or 8ths of a yard, the operation may be made shorter. In the first case, multiply by 4 and divide by the number of -l-ths in the breadth: in the second, multiply by 8 aifd divide bv the number of 8ths. PLAIN WEAVING. 57 tJpon this principle, the Beaming Table is calculated. But it must be noticed in this place, that some allowance h to be made in the number of the ravel, which ought always to be coarser than the exact number of pins which will give the breadth, for the following reason : The first part of a warp which is wound upon the beam, must always be broader than what follows it, for the sake of building the selvage properly, which cannot be done perpendicularly, and the breadth must gradually decrease during the whole operation. Therefore, it will be nearest the truth to calculate the ravel, so that an average breadth may be produced. That is to say, the breadth of the warp upon the beam ought to be, as nearly as possible, the same with that at the reed, when the process of beaming is half finished. It is impossible to give any certain rule for the allowance, as a long web will require more than a short one, and a coarse web more than a fine one. The Table, therefore, is calculated to the exact breadth (omitting fractions), and the allow- ances left to the discretion of the beamer. Some weavers, after ascertaining the breadth of their web, roll pieces of the list, or selvage, of woollen cloth a certain number of times round the beam, to confine each selvage of their warp. When this is done, the warp may be beamed of equal breadth from the beginning to the end. This Table is to be used nearly in the same v/ay as the Warpers' Table. The half gangs, from 50 to S-iS at intervals of two, are contained in the first column upon each page. The remaining columns contain the number of the ravel, in scores and p'wsy for each breadth from i§ to ^. The breadth is marked on the top of each column, as a fraction of a yard. Therefore, to use the Table, find H 58 ESSAY I. the number of half gangs in the first column, and on the same line, and under the breadth proposed, will be found the number of the ravel. For instance, suppose that a weaver receives a warp consisting of 270 half gangs, and is instructed to have it beamed xi wide; by referring to the Table, he will find in the same line with 270, and under ^^, 9-7, which is the exact number of the ravel, omitting fractions. He will then make such allowance as his judgment and experience may direct (say 7 pins), which being subtracted from the number found in the Table, will lead him to select a nine score ravel, as suited to his purpose. In the breadths not exceeding ^, or yard, the calcula- tion is only carried on until a 16 score ravel would be required. It was deemed unnecessary to go farther, for even this is much finer than ravels are generally made, or than will be found useful in common practice. It is not common to make ravels nearer in number to each other than 5 pins, nor is it essentially necessary; for if a ravel is too coarse for the breadth required, by a few pins, the warp may be easily reduced to the proper breadth, by holding the ravel m an oblique direction, instead of parallel to the beam. By the same means, and by gradually increasing the obliquity during the process of beaming, the breadth is decreased to build the selvage*. BEAMING TABLE. 60 ESSAY I. BEAMING Half BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Gangs. I 1 1 3 4 V To 4 4 I 7 TS 50 4 3-12 3-6 3-1 2-17 2-13 2-10 2-7 52 4-3 3-15 3-9 3-4 2-19 2-15 2-12 2-8 54. 4-6 3-18 3-12 3-6 3-1 2-17 2-14 2-10 56 4-9 4-1 3-14 3-8 3-4 2-19 2-16 2-12 58 4-12 4-4 3-17 3-11 3-6 3-1 2-18 2-14 60 4-16 4-7 4 3-13 3-8 3-4 3 2-16 62 4-19 4-10 4-2 3-16 3-10 3-6 3-2 2-18 64 5-2 4-13 4-5 3-18 3-13 3-8 3-4 3 66 5-5 4-16 4-8 4-1 3-15 3-10 3-6 3-2 68 5-8 4-18 4-10 4-3 3-17 3-12 3-8 3-4 70 5-12 5-1 4-13 4-6 4 3-14 3-10 3-5 72 5-15 5-4 4-16 4-8 4-2 3-16 3-12 3-7 74 5-18 5-7 4-18 4-11 4-4 3-18 3-14 3-9 76 6-1 5-10 5-1 4-13 4-6 4-1 3-16 3-11 78 6-4 5-13 5-4 4-16 4-9 4-3 3-18 3-13 80 6-8 5-16 5-6 4-1 S 4-11 4-5 4 3-15 82 6-11 5-19 5-9 5 4-13 4-7 4-2 3-17 84 6-14 6-2 5-12 5-3 4-16 4-9 4-4 3-19 86 6-17 6-5 5-14 5-5 4-18 4-11 4-6 4 88 1 6-8 5-17 5-8 5 4-13 4-S 4-2 90 7-4 6-10 6 5-10 5-2 4-16 4-10 4-4 92 7-7 6-13 6-2 5-13 5-5 4-18 4-12 4-6 94 7-10 6-16 6-5 5-15 5-7 5 4-14 4-8 96 7-13 6-19 6-8 5-18 5-9 5-1 4-16 4-10 98 7-16 7-2 6-10 6 5-12 5-4 4-18 4-12 PLAIN WEAVING. 61 TABLE. Half NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Gangs. 9 ■ 9 s 1 1 I 6 1 1 z ? 'i 6 6 J7 50 2-4 2-2 2 1-18 1-16 1-14 1-13 1-8 52 2-6 2-3 2-1 1-19 1-17 1-16 1-14 1-9 54 2-8 2-5 2-3 2-1 1-19 1-17 1-16 1-10 56 2-9 2-7 2-4 2-2 2 1-18 1-17 1-12 58 2-11 2-8 2-6 2^4 2-2 2 1-18 1-13 €0 2-13 2-10 2-8 2-5 2-3 2-1 2 1-14 62 2-15 2-12 2-9 2-7 2-5 2-3 2-1 1-15 64. 2-16 2-13 2-11 2-8 2-6 2-4 2-2 1-16 66 2-18 2-15 2-12 2-10 2-8 2-5 2-4 1-17 68 3 2-17 2-14 2-11 2-9 2-7 2-5 1-18 70 3-2 2-18 2-16 2-13 2-10 2-8 2-6 2 72 3-4 3 2-17 2-14 2-12 2-10 2-8 2-1 74 3-5 3-2 2-19 2-16 2-13 2-11 2-9 2-2 76 3-7 3-4 3 2-17 2-15 2-12 2-10 2-3 78 3-9 3-5 3-2 2-19 2-16 2-14 2-12 2-4 80 3-11 3-7 3-4 3 2-18 2-15 2-13 2-5 82 3-12 3-9 3-5 3-2 2-19 2-17 2-14 2-6 84 3-14 3-10 3-7 3-4 3-1 2-18 2-16 2-8 S6 3-lG 3-12 3-8 3-5 3-2 2-19 2-17 2-9 88 3-18 3-14 3-10 3-7 3-4 3-1 2-18 2-10 90 4 3-15 3-12 3-8 3-5 3-2 3 2-11 92 4-1 3-17 3-13 3-10 3-6 3-4 3-1 2-12 94 4-3 3-19 3-15 3-11 3-8 3-5 3-2 2-13 96 4-5 4 3-16 3-13 3-9 3-6 3-4 2-14 98 4-7 4-2 3-18 3-14 3-11 3-8 3-5 2-16 t>^ ESSAY I. BEAMING BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Half Gangs. I o To 1 1 I 4 1 3 I "(5" T 4 1 7 100 8 7-5 6-13 6-3 5-14 5-6 5 4-14 102 8-3 7-8 6-16 6-5 5-16 5-8 5-2 4-16 104 8-6 7-11 6-18 6-8 5-18 5-10 5-4 4-17 106 8-9 7-14 7-1 6-10 6-1 5-13 5-6 4-19 108 8-12 7-17 7-4 6-13 6-3 5-15 5-8 5-1 110 8-16 8 7-6 6-15 6-5 5-17 5-10 5-3 112 8-19 8-2 7-9 6-18 6-8 5-19 5-12 5-5 114 9-2 8-5 7-12 7 6-10 6-1 5-14 5-7 116 9-5 8-8 7-14 7-2 6-12 6-3 5-16 5-9 118 9-8 8-11 7-17 7-5 6-14 6-5 5-18 5-11 120 9-12 8-14 8 7-7 6-17 6-8 6 5-12 122 9-15 8-17 8-2 7-10 6-19 6-10 6-2 5-14 124 9-18 9 8-5 7-12 7-1 6-12 6-4 5-16 ]26 10-1 9-3 8-8 7-15 7-4 G-14 6-6 5-18 128 10-4 9-6 8-10 7-17 7-6 6-16 6-8 6 130 10-8 9-9 8-13 8 7-8 6-18 6-10 6-2 132 10-11 9-12 8-16 8-2 7-10 7 6-12 6-4 134 10-14^ 9-14 8-18 8-4 7-13 7-2 6-14 6-6 136 10-17 9-17 9-1 8-7 7-15 7-5 6-16 6-8 138 11 10 9-4 8-9 7-17 7-7 6-18 6-9 140 11-4 10-3 9-6 8-12 8 7-9 7 6-11 142 11-7 10-6 9-9 8-14 8-2 7-11 7-2 6-13 144 11-10 10-9 9-12 8-17 8-4 7-13 7-4 6-15 146 11-13 10-12 9-14 8-19 8-6 7-15 7-6 6-17 148 11-16 10-15 9-17 9-2 8-9 7-17 7-8 6-19 PLAIN WEAVING. 63 TABLE. NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Half Gangs. I 9 4 2 I 1 1 1 5 6 4 7 4 100 4-8 4-4 4 3-16 3-12 3-9 3-6 2-17 102 4-10 4-5 4.1 3-17 3-14 3-10 3-8 2-18 104. 4-12 4-7 4-3 3-19 3-15 3-12 3-9 2-19 106 4-14 4-9 4-4 4 3-17 3-13 3-10 3 108 4-16 4-10 4-6 4-2 3-18 3-15 3-12 3-1 110 4-17 4-12 4-8 4-3 4 3-16 3-13 3-2 112 4-19 4-14 4-9 4-5 4-1 3-17 3-14 3-4 114. 5-1 4-16 4-11 4-6 4-2 3-19 3-16 3-5 116 5-3 4-17 4-12 4-8 4-4 4 3-17 3-6 118 5-4 4-19 4-14 4-9 4-5 4-2 3-18 3-7 120 5-6 5-1 4-16 4-11 4-7 4-3 4 3-8 122 5-8 5-2 4-17 4-12 4-8 4-4 4-1 3-9 124. 5-10 5-4 4-19 4-14 4-10 4-6 4-2 3-10 126 5-12 5-6 5 4-16 4-11 4-7 4-4 3-12 128 5-13 5-7 5-2 4-17 4-13 4-9 4-5 3-13 130 5-15 5-9 5-4 4-19 4-14 4-10 4-6 3-14 132 5-17 5-11 5-5 5 4-16 4-11 4-8 3-15 134. 5-19 5-12 5-7 5-2 4-17 4-13 4-9 3-16 136 6 5-14 5-8 5-3 4-18 4-14 4-10 3-17 138 6-2 5-16 5-10 5-5 5 4-16 4-12 3-18 UO 6-4 5-17 5-12 5-6 5-1 4-17 4-13 4 14-2 G-6 5-19 5-13 5-8 5-3 4-18 4-14 4-1 144 6-8 6-1 5-15 5-9 5-4 5 4-16 4-2 • U6 6-9 6-2 5-16 5-11 5-6 5-1 4-17 4-3 148 6-11 6-4 5-18 5-12 5-7 5-2 4-18 4-4 64 ESSAY I. BEAMING BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Half J-XtllM. Gangs. I 1 1 « 4 s" I s To 4. 4- ■rs- 150 12 10-18 10 9-4 8-11 8 7-10 7-1 152 12-3 11-1 10-2 9-7 8-13 8-2 7-12 7-3 154- 12-6 11-4 10-5 9-9 8-16 8-4 7-14 7-4. 156 12-9 11-6 10-8 9-12 8-18 8-6 7-16 7-6 158 12-12 11-9 10-10 9-14 9 8-8 7-18 7-8 160 12-16 11-12 10-13 9-16 9-2 8-10 8 7-10 162 12-19 11-15 10-16 9-19 9-5 8-12 8-2 7-12 164 13-2 11-18 10-18 10-1 9-7 8-14 8-4 7-14 166 13-5 12-1 11-1 10-4 9-9 8-17 8-6 7-16 168 13-S 12-4 11-4 10-6 9-12 8-19 8-8 7-18 170 13-12 12-7 11-6 10-9 9-14 9-1 8-10 8 172 13-15 12-10 11-9 10-11 9-16 9-3 8-12 8-1 174- 13-18 12-13 11-12 10-14 9-18 9-5 8-14 8-3 176 14-1 12-16 11-14 10-16 10-1 9-7 8-16 8-5 178 14-4 12-18 11-17 10-19 10-3 9-9 8-18 8-7 180 14-8 13-1 12 11-1 10-5 9-12 9 8-9 182 14-11 13-4 12-2 11-4 10-8 9-14 9-2 8-11 184. 14-14 lS-7 12-5 11-6 10-10 9-16 9-4 8-13 186 14-17 13-10 12-8 11-8 10-12 9-18 9-6 8-15 188 15 13-13 12-10 11-11 10-14 10 9-8 8-16 190 15-4 13-16 12-13 11-13 10-17 10-2 9-10 8-18 192 15-7 13-19 12-16 11-16 10-19 10-4 9-12 9 194- 15-10 14-2 12-18 11-18 11-1 10-6 9-14 9-2 196 15-13 14-5 13-1 12-1 11-4 10-9 9-16 9-4 198 j 15-16 14-8 13-4 12-3 11-6 10-11 9-18 9-6 PLAIN WEAVING. 65 TABLE. NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Half Gangs. s I 9 To 5 4 1 1 1 1 6 4 7 4 150 6-13 6-6 6 5-14 5-9 5-4 5 4-5 152 6-15 6-8 6-1 5-15 5-10 5-5 5-1 4-6 154 6-16 6-9 6-3 5-17 5-12 5-7 5-2 4-8 156 6-18 6-11 6-4 5-18 5-13 5-8 5-4 4-9 158 7 6-13 6-6 6 5-14 5-9 5-5 4-10 160 7-2 6-14 6-8 6-1 5-16 5-11 5-6 4-11 162 7-4 6-16 6-9 6-3 5-17 5-12 5-8 4-12 164 7-5 6-18 6-11 6-4 5-19 5-14 5-9 4-13 166 7-7 6-19 6-12 6-6 6 5-15 5-10 4-14 168 7-9 7-1 6-14 6-8 6-2 5-16 5-12 4-16 170 7-11 7-3 6-16 6-9 6-3 5-18 5-13 4-17 172 7-12 7-4 6-17 6-11 6-5 5-19 5-14 4-18 174. 7-14 7-6 6-19 6-12 6-6 6-1 5-16 4-19 176 7-16 7-8 7 6-14 6-8 6-2 5-17 5 178 7-18 7-9 7-2 6-15 6-9 6-3 5-18 5-1 180 8 7-11 7-4 6-17 6-10 6-5 6 5-2 182 8-1 7-13 7-5 6-18 6-12 6-6 6-1 5-4 184 8-3 7-14 7-7 7 6-13 6-8 6-2 5-5 186 8-5 7-16 7-8 7-1 6-15 6-9 6-4 5-6 188 8-7 7-18 7-10 7-3 6-16 6-10 6-5 5-7 190 8-S 8 7-12 7-4 6-18 6-12 6-6 5-8 192 8-10 8-1 7-13 7-6 6-19 6-13 6-8 5-9 194 8-12 8-3 7-15 7-7 7-1 6-14 6-9 5-10 196 8-14 8-5 7-16 7-9 7-2 6-16 6-10 5-12 198 8-16 8-6 7-18 7-10 7-4 6-17 6-12 5-13 66 ESSAY I. BEAMING BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Half Gangs. I 4? i I 3 Ts - s I s ^6 -i I r I 200 16 14-1 oil 3_6 1 12-6 11-8 10-13 10 9-8 202 14-13|l3-9 12-8 11-10 10-15 10-2 9-10 204 - 14-16 13-12 12-11 11-13 10-17 10-4 9-12 206 - 14-19 13-14 12-13 11-15 10-19 10-6 9-13 208 .- 15-2 13-17 12-16 11-17 11-1 10-8 9-15 210 - 15-5 14 12-18 12 11-4 10-10 9-17 212 - 15-8 14-2 13 12-2 11-6 10-12 9-19 21i - 15-11 14-5 13-3 12-4 11-8 10-14 10-1 216 - 15-14 14-8 13-5 12-6 11-1010-16 10-3 218 - 15-17 14-10 13-8 12-9 11-1210-18 10-5 220 - 16 14-13 13-10 12-11 11-1411 10-7 222 - - 14-16 13-13 12-13 11-1611-2 10-8 22 i - 14-18 13-15 12-16 11-1811-4 10-10 226 - - 15-1 13-18 12-18 12-1 11-6 10-12 228 - - 15-4 14 13 12-3 11-8 10-14 230 - - 15-6 14-3 13-2 12-5 11-10 10-16 232 - - 15-9 14-5 13-5 12-7 11-12 10-18 231 - - 15-12 14-8 13-7 12-9 11-14 11 236 - - 15-14 14-10 13-9 12-11 11-16 11-2 238 - - 15-17 14-12 13-12 12-13|ll-18 11-4 24-0 - - 16 14-15113-14 12-1612 11-5 242 - - - 14-17 13-16 12-18.12-2 11-7 244 - - - 15 13-18 13 12-4 11-9 246 - - - 15-2 14-1 13-2 12-6 11-11 248 - - - 15-5 14-3 13-4 12-8 11-13 PLAIN WEAVING. 67 TABLE. NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Half Gangs. K I 9 1 6 s 2 1 11 2 i 6 4 7 '4 200 8-17 8-8 8 7-12 7-5 6-19 6-13 5-14 202 8-1 S 8-10 8-1 7-13 7-6 7 6-14 5-15 i^oi. 9-1 8-11 8-3 7-15 7-8 7-1 e-16 5-]G 206 9-3 8-13 8-4 7-16 7-9 7-3 6-17 5-17 208 9-4 8-15 8-6 7-18 7-11 7-4 6-18 5-18 210 9-6 8-16 8-8 8 7-12 7-6 7 6 212 9-8 8r.l8 8-9 8-1 7-14 7-7 7-1 6-1 214^ 9-10 9 8-11 8-3 7-15 7-8 7-2 6-2 216 9-12 9-1 8-12 8-4 7-17 7-10 7-4 6-3 218 9-13 9-3 8-14 8-6 7-18 7-11 7-5 6-4 220 9-15 9-5 8-16 8-7 8 7-13 7-6 6-5 222 9-17 9-6 8-17 S-9 8-1 7-14 7-8 6-6 224. 9-19 9-8 8-19 8-10 8-2 7-15 7-9 6-8 226 10 9-10 9 8-12 8-4 7-17 7-10 6-9 228 10-2 9-12 9-2 8-13 8-5 7-18 7-12 6-10 230 10-4 9-13 9-4 8-15 8-7 8 7-13 6-11 232 lO-G 9-15 9-5 8-16 8-8 8-1 7-14 6-12 234- 10-8 9-17 9-7 8-18 8-10 8-2 7-16 6-13 236 10-9 9-18 9-8 8-19 8-11 8-4 7-17 6-14 238 10-11 10 9-10 9-1 8-13 8-5 7-18 6-16 240 10-13 10-2 9-12 9-2 8-14 8-6 8 6-17 242 10-15 10-3 9-13 9-4 8-16 8-8 8- 1 6-18 244 10-16 10-5 9-15 9-5 8-17 8-9 8-2 6-19 246 10-18 10-7 9-16 9-7 8-18 8-11 8-4 7 248 11 10-8 9-18 9-8 9 8-12 8-5 7-1 68 ESSAY I. BEAMING BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Half Gangs. 250 252 25-t 256 258 260 262 264. 266 268 270 272 274 276 278 280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294 296 298 15-7 15-10 15-12 15-15 15-17 16 14-5 14-8 14-10 14-12 14-14 14-17 14-19 15-1 15-4 15-6 15-8 15-10 15-13 15-15 15-1 16 13-6 13-8 13-10 13-13 13-15 13-17 13-19 14-1 14-3 14-5 14-8 14-10 14-12 14-14 14-16 14-18 15 15-2 15-5 15-7 15-9 15-11 15-13 15-15 15-17 12- 12- 12- 12- 12- 13 13- 13- 13- 13- 13- 13- 13. IS- IS- 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 10 12 14 16 18 2 4 6 ■H 10 •12 •14 • 16 •18 .2 ■4 ■6 ■8 ■10 ■12 ■14 ■16 11-15 11-17 11-19 12 12-2 12-4 12-6 12-8 12-10 12-12 12-14 12-16 12-17 12-19 13-1 13-3 13-5 13-7 13-9 13-11 13-12 13-14 13-16 lS-18 18114 PLAIN WEAVING. 69 TABLE. Half NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Gangs. I 9 4 j'o 1 1 1 5 lb' 6 4 7 4 250 11-2 10-10 10 9-10 9-1 8-13 8-6 7-2 252 11-4 10-12 10-1 9-12 9-3 8-15 8-8 7-4 254 11-5 10-13 10-3 9-13 9-4 8-16 8-9 7-5 256 11-7 10-15 10-4 9-15 9-6 8-18 8-10 7-6 258 11-9 10-17 10-6 9-16 9-7 8-19 8-12 7-7 260 11-11 10-18 10-8 9-18 9-9 9 8-13 7-8 262 11-12 11 10-9 9-19 9-10 9-2 8-14 7^9 264 11-14 11-2 10-11 10-1 9-12 9-3 8-16 7-10 266 11-16 11-4 10-12 10-2 9-13 9-5 8-17 7-12 268 11-18 11-5 10-14 10-4 9-14 9-6 S-18 7-13 270 12 11-7 10-16 10-5 9-16 9-7 9 7-14 272 12-1 11-9 10-17 10-7 9-17 9-9 9-1 7-15 274 12-3 11-10 10-19 10-8 9-19 9-10 9-2 7-16 276 12-5 11-12 11 10-10 10 9-12 9-4 7-17 278 12-7 11-14 11-2 10-11 10-2 9-13 9-5 7-18 280 12-8 11-15 11-4 10-13 10-3 9-14 9-6 8 282 12-10 11-17 11-5 10-14 10-5 9-16 9-8 8-1 284 12-12 11-19 11-7 10-16 10-6 9-17 9-9 8-2 286 12-14 12 11-8 10-17 10-8 9-1 S 9-10 8-3 288 12-16 12-2 11-10 10-19 10-9 10 9-12 8-4 290 12-17 12-4 11-12 11 10-10 10-1 9-13 8-5 292 12-19 12-5 11-13 11-2 10-12 10-3 9-14 8-6 294 13-1 12-7 11-15 11-4 10-13 10-4 9-16 8-8 296 13-3 12-9 11-16 11-5 10-15 10-5 9-17 8-9 298 13-4 12-10 11-18 11-7 10-16 10-7 9-18 8-10 70 ESSAY I. BEAMING BREADTHS OF WARPS AND Half Gangs. -So- -1 \ J 1 5 7- '•i J. 4 '. I 300 - - - - - 16 15 14-2 302 - - - - - - 15-2 14-4 304 - - - - - - 15-4 14-6 306 - - - - - - 15-6 14-8 308 -. - - - - - 15-S 14-9 310 - - - - - - 15-10 14-11 312 - - - - - - 15-12 14-13 314 - - - - - - 15-14 14-15 316 - - - - - - 15-16 14-17 318 - - - - - - 15-18 14-19 320 - - - - - " 16 15-i 322 - - - - - - - 15-3 324 - - - - - - - 15-4 326 - - - - - - - 15-6 328 - - - - - - - 15-8 330 - - - - - - - 15-10 332 - - - - - - - 15-12 334 - - - - - - - 15-14 336 - - - - - - - 15-16 338 - - - - - - - 15-18 340 - - - - - - - \6 342 - - - - - - - - 344 - - - - - - - - 346 - - - - - - - - 348 - - - - - - - - PLAIN WEAVING. 71 TABLE. NUMBERS OF THE RAVELS. Half Gangs. 9 I > J 4 2 I T3- 1 1 T 1 5 I 0' 6 4 7 4 300 13-6 12-12 12 11-8 10-18 10-8 10 8-11 302 13-8 12-14 12-1 11-10 10-19 10-10 10-1 8-12 sot 13-10 12-16 12-3 11-11 11-1 10-11 10-2 8-13 S06 13-12 12-17 12-4 11-13 11-2 10-12 10-4 8-14 308 13-13 12-19 12-6 11-14 11-4 10-14 10-5 8-16 310 13-15 13-1 12-8 11-16 11-5 10-15 10-6 8-17 312 13-17 13-2 12-9 11-17 11-6 10-17 10-8 8-18 314- 13-19 13-4 12-11 11-19 11-8 10-18 10-£^ 8-19 316 14 13-6 12-12 12 11-9 10-19 10-10 9 318 14-2 13-7 12-14 12-2 11-11 11-1 10-12 9-1 320 14-4 13-9 12-16 12-3 11-12 11-2 10-13 9-2 322 14-6 13-11 12-17 12-5 11-14 11-4 10-14 9-4 324 14-8 13-12 12-19 12-6 11-15 11-5 10-16 9-5 326 14-9 13-14 13 ' 12-8 11-17 11-6 10-17 9-6 328 14-11 13-16 13-2 12-9 11-18 11-8 10-18 9-7 330 14-13 13-17 13-4 12-11 12 11-9 11 9-8 332 14-15 13-19 13-5 12-12 12-1 11-10 11-1 9-9 334 14-16 14-1 13-7 12-14 12-2 11-12 11-2 9-10 336 14-18 14-2 13-8 12-16 12-4 11-13 11-4 9-12 338 15 14-4 13-10 12-17 12-5 11-15 11-5 9-13 310 15-2 14-6 13-12 12-19 12-7 11-16 11-6 9-14 342 15-4 14-7 13-13 13 12-8 11-17 11-8 9-15 344 15-5 14-9 13-15 13-2 12-10 11-19 11-9 9-16 346 15-7 14-11 13-16 13-3 12-11 12 11-10 9-17 348 15-9 14-13 13-18 13-5 12-13 12-2 11-12 9-1 S5 12 ESSAY I. The only otlier table, generally used by operative weavers, is that for setting the heddles, so as to corre- spond witli the reed. Few weavers are in possession of a sufficient variety of heddles, to suit every reed in which they may be employed to weave cloth. Therefore, when a weaver receives a warp, to be woven in a reed of any particular set^ if he has no heddles of the same fineness, he selects those, nearest to, and finer than the reed. The supernumerary heddles are then to be set aside, at regular interv^als, so that the breadth of the warp, in the heddles, and in the reed, may be the same. For example, suppose that a weaver may receive a 1400 web, of any breadth, and that he has a set of heddles, calculated to weave a 1600 web of the same breadth. In this case, it is plain, that 200 of his heddles must be set aside. A little reflection will also make it apparent, that these supernumerary heddles must be set aside at equal intervals, as nearly as can be effected ; for were the whole set aside in one place, the breadth of the warp, in the heddles, would differ materially from its breadth in the reed. But it is important, that the breadth of a warp should be as nearly equal as possible, in every part of the loom. For, if it is not, the threads which form the warp, will not be parallel to each other; and those which have the greatest obliquity will be more stretched than the rest. Therefore, when a finer set of heddles is to be adapted to a coarser reed, the superfluous heddles, which are not to be filled with warp, are divided, as equally as possible, among those which are to be filled; and this is called by weavers setting of Jieddles. In the example quoted, 200 heddles are to be set, in order to reduce the number of the heddles (1600) to correspond with the number of the reed (liOO); and PLAIN WEAVING. 73 these 200 heddles which are to be set aside, must be placed, at equal intervals, among the ll-OO which are to filled with warp. This, also, is merely a case of direct proportion : As the number of heddles to be set = 200 Is to the number to be filled, = 1400 So is one heddle to be set = 1 To the number to be filled = 7 From this, it will appear that 7 heddles are to be filled, and one set aside, or left empty, in rotation through the whole breadth of the web. As both the heddles and reed are calculated on the same breadth, the process will be the same for all breadths of warp. And as one of the middle terms of the proportion is unity, the rules for practice will be, 1st, Substract the number of the reed from the number of the heddles. The difference, or remainder, will be the number of heddles to be set. 2d, Divide the number to be filled, which is the same as the number of the reed, by the number to be set, and the quotient will be the answer. But it frequently happens, that the number of heddles to be set, will not exactly measure the number which are to be filled : that is to say, that a remainder will be left. . When this occurs, the remainder is to be added to the figures in the quotient. For example, let it be required to set 1300 heddles to a 1050 reed. In this case, the difference is 5 half hundreds, and the sum of the half- hundreds in the reed is 2 1 : therefore, 21 -r 5 = 4- and there remains 1. Now, this remainder of 1 is to be added to the number of heddles to be filled, every fifth time; therefore, 4 heddles are to be filled and 1 set, 4- times successively, and 5 are to be filled and 1 set, the fifth time. K 74 ESSAY I. It is not frequent now to construct reeds of any other numbers than hundreds and half hundreds, but if a reed of a different number, say, for example, 910, or 9 hun- dreds and 2 porters, should be sometimes used; in this case, both the sum and difference must be reduced to porters, and the operation will then be the same as before. For example, to set 1100 heddles to a 94-0 reed: the sum of the porters in the reed is -l"?, and the difference in porters is 8 ; therefore, 47 -f 8 = 5, and 7 remain; therefore fill 6 heddle& 7 times, and 5 heddles once. In the above examples, the calculations have been made for single heddles, but it is necessary to observe, that both in filling and setting the heddles, one heddle on each leaf is to be understood. Tables similar to the following, have appeared in different publications. In regular business, the greater part of them will never be used; for as heddles may be set so easily, it appears unnecessary to have them con- structed to every single porter. Indeed, heddles are most generally constructed to consist of even hundreds, and even the reeds, as formerly observed, are seldom divided more minutely than into half hundreds. It may be necessary, however, that very coarse reeds should contain odd porters; and that the differences of their respective sets should advance by small degrees. For the difference between a reed of 400, and one of 420 splits is -i%th; and this will, of course, make as great a relative difference as that between 1000 and 1050, or between 2000 and 2100. For this reason, the Table has been inserted upon a more copious scale than will be generally necessary, and will meet almost every case wliich can possibly occur in any species of weaving. SETTING TABLE. 76 ESSAY I. Heddles H. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 n p. 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 6 6 6 6 6 Reed. Draughts, Times. H. P. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 7 11 24 4 5 7 12 25 4 5 8 12 26 4 6 8 13 27 4 6 8 13 28 5 6 9 14 29 r. 1 3 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 D. T. 6 1 8 1 12 1 5 1 6 2 8 2 5 2 6 3 13 1 5 3 9 1 5 4 7 1 9 2 14 1 7 2 Heddles. Reed. //. P. 3 4 4 4 4 4 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 1 6 2 5 4 6 G 1 6 2 6 3 5 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 6 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 DraughtSjTimes D. T. D. T. 5 4 6 I 6 1 7 3 9 2 10 1 14 1 15 1 30 1 5 3 6 2 7 1 9 1 10 2 15 1 31 1 5 2 6 3 7 3 8 1 10 1 15 1 16 I 32 1 5 1 6 4 i 2 8 2 10 2 11 1 16 1 33 1 2 5 3 5 2 1 3 8 3 5 4 3 4 1 4 1 5 5 6 1 Q 7 1 8 3 10 1 11 2 16 1 17 1 34 1 PLAIN WEAVING. 77 Meddles. Reed. H. P. 5 I 5 5 5 6 G 6 6 7 .5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 Draughts, Times i). T. D. T. 2 4 3 6 3 3 4 5 6 8 11 17 35 2 3 3 4 5 G 8 U 17 3G 2 3 3 4 5 6 8 11 18 37 1 4 4 4 6 5 1 1 4 7 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 5 G 7 9 2 12 1 1 18 1 1 3 8 4 4 5 6 7 9 1 12 1 1 Heddles. H. P. 8 8 8 8 8 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 2 8 2 S 2 9 9 9 9 Reed. H. P. 5 4 DraughtSjTimes D. r. 1 6 1 3 3 1 8 1 12 1 D. T. 3 9 18 38 4 4 5 9 1 12 2 19 1 39 1 3 8 J 3 t 4 5 1 G 1 7 3 8 6 9 2 13 1 19 1 5 5 6 4 13 1 4 2 4 6 5 4 8 2 9 3 10 2 4 1 Q 5 5 78 ESSAY I. Heddles Reed. Draught >, Times. Heddles. Reed. Draughts jTimes H. P. H. P. D. T. D. T. H. P. H. P. D. T. D. T. 9 7 3 5 4 6 3 u 10 2 17 2 18 1 9 ( 4 6 3 7 3 11 10 2i 21 1 9 8 1 10 3 11 1 11 10 3 26 1 27 1 9 8 2 14 1 11 10 4 54 1 9 8 2\ 17 1 12 9 3 1 9 8 3 21 1 22 1 12 9 1 10 4 4 9 8 4 44 1 12 9 2 4 8 3 5 10 8 1 4 4 5 5 12 9 2i 3 1 4 4 10 8 2 5 6 6 2 12 9 3 4 1 10 8 2^ 6 2 5 1 12 9 4 5 5 4 6 10 8 3 6 6 7 1 12 10 1 5 3 6 6 10 8 4 7 4 8 2 12 10 2 6 4 7 4 10 9 1 11 2 12 2 12 10 ox ■"2 7 1 10 9 2 15 1 6 2 12 10 3 7 3 8 4 10 9 2i 19 1 12 10 4 9 1 10 9 3 24 1 12 11 1 14 1 10 9 4 49 1 12 11 2 19 1 11 8 3 a 2 1 12 11 2i 23 1 11 8 1 3 13 2 1 12 11 3 29 1 11 8 2 3 10 4 3 12 11 4 59 1 11 8 2| 3 3 4 2 13 10 3 2 4 1 11 8 3 5 5 4 7 13 10 1 4 9 3 5 11 8 4 4 1 13 10 2 4 1 11 9 4 1 5 1 13 10 2* 4 4 5 I 11 9 1 5 8 6 1 13 10 3 4 7 5 5 U 9 2 5 1 6 ( 13 10 4 5 10 4 1 11 9 2i 6 2 7 1 13 11 6 1 5 1 11 9 3 6 1 7 6 13 11 1 6 7 7 2 11 9 4 8 5 9 1 13 11 2 7 7 8 1 11 10 1 12 1 13 3 13 11 Oi "2 8 2 7 1 PLAIN WEAVING. 79 Heddles Reed. Draught 5, Times. Heddles. Reed. Draughts,Timo6 //. P. H. P. D. T. D. T. H. P. H. P. D. r. 2). T. 13 11 3 8 5 9 2 15 11 2-1 3 5 4 2 13 11 4 9 1 10 5 15 11 3 3 10 4 7 13 12 1 15 3 16 1 15 11 4 4 113 5 is 12 2 20 1 21 2 15 12 4 1 13 12 2^ 25 1 15 12 2 5 10 4 3 13 12 3 31 1 32 1 15 12 2i 5 1 13 12 4 64 1 15 13 6 1 7 1 14. 10 3 1 2 1 15 13 2 9 3 8 5 14 10 1 2 6 3 13 15 13 9\. "1 9 1 o' 14 10 2 3 16 2 2 15 14 2-1 29 1 14 10 2^. 3 1 16 11 2 4 3 I 14 10 3 3 15 4 2 16 11 2i 3 5 2 4 14 10 4 ^) 10 4 6 16 12 3 1 14 11 3 1 4 2 16 12 2i 4 4 3 3 14 11 1 4 1 16 13 4 2 5 1 14 11 2 5 5 4 8 16 13 2i 5 3 6^2 14 11 2-^ 5 3 4 2 16 14 2i 10 2 9 1 14 11 3 5 10 4 2 16 15 2i 31 1 14 11 4 5 7 6 4 17 12 3 2 2 3 14 12 1 G 2 7 7 17 12 2^ 3 7 2 2 14 12 2 8 6 ( 2 17 13 3 3 4 1 14 12 2?. 8 2 9 1 17 13 2i 4 6 3 1 14 12 3 9 1 17 14 5 2 4 1 14 12 4 10 2 11 4 17 14 2-1 6 4 5 1 14 13 1 16 2 17 1 , 17 15 8 1 7 1 14 13 2 22 2 23 1 1 17 15 2-1 10 2 11 1 14 13 2i - 2 27 1 0, 18 14 3 1 4 1 15 11 3 3 2 1 18 14 2i 5 1 4 6 iry 11 o 3 15 4 3 18 15 5 1 80 ESSAY I. Having finished the foregoing general account of tlie nature and process of plain weaving, it now becomes necessary to pay some attention to the fanciful and orna- mental department of the business. Of ornamental goodsj many descriptions are woven in the common loom, without any additional apparatus, and with little, if any, variation, from the process of weaving plain cloths. The extent to which this species of manufacture is carried, renders it an object of very great importance, and the variation, in the operative part of the process, is so small, that it may be introduced under the description of plain weaving, with little violation of arrangement. As the thickness of the fabric in plain cloth, depends upon the proportion which the fineness of the yarn bears to the measure, or set y of the reed; it follows, that if yarns of different degrees of fineness are introduced, at regular inter%'als, into the same web, two distinct fabrics will be produced, and that the appearance of these will be dif- ferent when the web is finished. Yarns of different colours may also be introduced ; and when either of these is practised, the goods are called STRIPES. Stripes are formed upon cloth, either by the warp, or by the woof. A^Hien the former of these ways is prac- tised, the variation of process is chiefly the business of the warper: in the latter case, it is that of the weaver. In extensive manufactories, where large quantities of striped goods of the same description are to be made, it is common to form the stripes in the warping, because in this case, the stripes and their distances from each other, will be uniform; which cannot be, always, relied upon, when the stripes are formed bv the weft. PLAIN WEAVING. 81 In warp stripes, where the colour is the same, and the difFerencc is in the fabric, the effect may be produced, cither by using yarns of different fineness, or by drawing a greater quantity of warp through a given number of heddles or spUts, where the stripes are to be formed. For example, two or more threads may be drawn through the same heddle, or three or more heddlefuls may be drawn through the same split ; or, thirdly, if the stripe is to be very thick, both these ways may be adopted. Fig. 8. Plate 4. represents a stripe in the way they are generally drawn by manufacturers, as guides to the warper. Of this, the portion from A to B is called one set of the stripe, because the same pattern, repeated suc- cessively, will form all the stripes in the breadth of the web. Suppose then, that a warp striped according to this pattern, is delivered to the warper: his first care will be to examine the pattern, and ascertain tKe number of splits which each description of warp is to occupy, and the number of threads which are to be drawn between each two splits. These ought, always, to be marked upon the ticket, or pattern, which he receives. For example, let the stripe Fig. 8. be supposed to be formed of warp dyed blue, and the ground, or intervals between the stripes, of white, one set of the pattern will then be Blue splits 3 11113 Total 1 * White splits 9 3 3 3 3 3 9 Total 33 Thus it appears, that one set of this stripe consists of 43 splits, of which 33 are white, and 10 blue; and sup- posing the whole to be drawn, with one thread in each heddle, and two in each split, 86 bobbins will be required; of which, GG will be white, and 20 blue. Witli this number, properly disposed in the bank and heck, every L 82 ESSAY I. time riiat the mill is ran from the upper to the lower pins, will produce one set, and the same in returning; or every complete mill gang will form two sets of the pattern. But, if the warper should not have so many bobbins, he must limit his operation to one half of the set, to preserve the regularity of the stripe. The process will, of course, be considerably more tedious-, but, in warping stripes, this inconvenience is unavoidable. Again, if he has a sufficient supply of bobbins, and if his bank and heck are large enough to contain the number, he may warp v/ith a set and a half, or 129 bobbins, which will save much time, as each mill gang will produce three sets of the pattern. The arrangement for each of these modes, is as under: Blue Bobbins 6 2 2 2 2 6 6 2 2 White Bobbins 18 663|366 18|I8663 1st i set. 2d 1 set. 3d I set. The above explanation of the way in which warpers arrange their bobbins to form stripes, will apply to the greater part of patterns generally adopted; for a certain degree of regularity, in almost every species of orna- inental decoration, is found to produce a more pleasing effect, than the most unbounded variety. It often hap- pens, however, that stripes of different forms are com- bined in the same web. When this is the case, the warper must cut away his ends, and change the arrange- ment of his bobbins, still forming his pattern by sets, or half sets, as often as may be necessary. Patterns depend so much on the fancy of the manu- facturer, or the purchaser, that no further rule can be given for warping stripes. Study and practice alone, will render a warper expert in this part of his business. PLAIN WEAVING. SS In warp stripes, it is only necessary, on the weaver's part, to be careful to have his warp drawn through the mounting of his loom, agreeably to the pattern: a little additional care is also required in dressing, that the coarse, or dyed yarn, may be as fully smoothed as the rest. When tlie stripes are to be formed across the web by the woof, the weaver must have a shuttle for every kind of woof which is to be inserted, and must be careful to change these at proper intervals, according to the pattern. Figs. 5, 6, and 7. Plate S. represent portions of a fly-lay adapted for two shuttles, which may be shifted when necessary. Fig. 5. is a ground plan of the lay, with two sets of boxes, which are shifted at pleasure, by means of two cranks, connected by a rod, or wire, passing along the upper shell of the lay. Near to the middle of this rod, is a small handle, which the weaver sliifts with his left hand, when the boxes are to be changed. Fig. G. is a front elevation of one set of the boxes, to show Iiow they are hung from centres above. To the back of each driver a small cord is attached, a part of which is repre- sented in the figure. The other end of this cord, after passing under a small pully, is fastened to a spring (generally a piece of cane, or whalebone), fixed to the cape cf the loom, and serves to pull back the driver, in order to allow the boxes to shift. Fig. 7. is a profile elevation, or section, of the same boxes. The reference letters, as usual, denote the same parts as in Fig. 4. Lays upon the same, or similar plans, may be con- structed with more boxes, when necessary; and the whole difference between this method of working stripes and plain weaving, consists in changing the wpof at proper i:itervals. 84 ESSAY I. &c. When webs are striped by the warp, and also by the weft, they are called CHECKS. The patterns of checks may be either similar, or dissimilar, in the warp and weft. The former is the most prevalent. Checks being merely combinations of the two methods of striping, require no further description; and as they contain most frequently a mixture of colours, their beauty depends more upon the taste and fancy of the manufacturer, and the skill of the dyer, than upon that of the weaver, whose business is rherely to make the cloth of a good quality, and insert his weft according to his pattern. Stripes and checks are manufactured in great quantities from all the different materials, especially from woollen, silk, and cotton. When the patterns of checks differ at the borders, from the middle, or bosom of the web, they are called shawls, or handkerchiefs. It is very common to weave these with borders only, the bosom being left plain. In this case, the check work is only at the corners, the rest of the four borders appearing as stripes^ two by the warp, and two by the weft. ESSAY II. ON THE WEAVING OF TWEELED CLOTH. 'TnHIS species of weaving, which, probably, derives / -■- its name from the French word touaille^ is, almost exclusively, confined to thick fabrics of cloth. The application of it is very extensive, and it is much used in the manufacturing of cloth from each kind of material. It possesses also this advantage, that, besides forming a species of ground, it is applicable to an infinite variety of ornamental decoration. To the investigation of the first of these properties, we ^vill, for the present, confine ourselves. In analysing the fabric of plain cloth, it has been shown, that every thread of the warp and of the woof, cross each other, and are tacked together alternately. This is not the case in tweeling, for in this manufacture only the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, &c. threads cross each other to form the texture. Tweeled cloths have been fabricated of many different descriptions. In the coarsest kinds, every third thread is crossed: in finer fabrics, they cross each other at intervals of 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8, threads; and in some very fine tweeled silks, the crossing does not take place until the 16th interval. 86 ESSAY II. Before proceeding further, it may be proper to explain what is known, among weavers, by the appellation of Jlushitig. When any thread, or portion, whether of warp or woof, is not regularly interwoven with the fabric, as in plain weaving, that thread, or portion of threads, is said to be flushed. By referring to Fig. 2. Plate 4. this will be better illustrated than by any description. In Fig. 1. which was referred to as a specimen of plain cloth, as it M'ould appear when viewed through a microscope, the intersections of the threads are evidently alternate. Fig. 2. may be considered as a representation of tweeled cloth, upon the same principle that Fig. 1. represents plain cloth. This figure will show, that the same thread of woof remains flushed, or disengaged from the warp, while passing over three threads-, and is tacked down by passing uf:der the fourth. Now were this cloth turned upside down, the same appearance vrould take place in the warp. That is to say, every fourth thread of warp would be interwoven with the woof, and the remaining three threads would be flushed. An inspection of the figure will also evince, that the threads, both of the warp and woof, are interwoven in regular succession, and at regular intervals. To produce these efl^ects, a number of leaves of heddles is required, equal to the number of threads contained in the interv^al between each intersection, inclusive. Thus, when every third thread is to be interwoven, three leaves are required; if every sixth thread, six leaves will be necessary, and so of all the others. For this reason, the different species of tweels are distinguished by the num- ber of leaves which are requisite in weaving them; as a four, a five, or a six leafed tweel, Sec. The specimen in Fig. 2. is a four leafed tweel. TWEELING. 87 Tweeling is, in many instances, applied to the weav- ing of cloths which require a great portion of strength, thickness, and durability. For instance, in the Hnen manufacture, every descrip- tion of bed and table linen, is generally tweeled ; some- times with ornaments, and sometimes without them. In the silk, tweeling is very common. Sometimes it is employed for the sake of strength, but, more frequently, for the display of colour. In the woollen, strength is the general object; and in the cotton, it is most com- monly the same. It may be necessary in this place, to inquire shortly into the causes which render tweeled cloths stronger than plain, and to ascertain the difference. In so far as the strength of tweeled cloths depends solely on the mode of weaving, that strength will be rather diminished than increased, when compared with plain cloth, containing an equal quantity of similar materials. For, in the texture of plain cloth, every thread is constantly interwoven; whilst in that of tweels, they are only interwoven at intervals. Now, in the latter case, the threads can derive no mutual support from each other, except at the intervals where they are interwoven 5 and that part of them which is flushed, must depend entirely on the strength of the individual threads; those of the warp being flushed upon one side, and those of the weft upon the other. The following inference will naturally arise from this : Let two webs of equal length, equal breadth, and equal in the quantity, quality, and fineness of the yarn, be woven. Let the first be plain, and the second tweeled. The quantity, quality, and fineness of the materials being equal, their strength ought to be so also. But, if bv 88 ESSAV II. strength^ we understand that quality, which opposes tlie most effectual, and most continued resistance to the decay of cloth, from common wearing; the tweeled web (if equally used) would be in tatters, long before the plain one was materially injured. This is the idea commonly, although inaccurately, attached to the word strength, when applied to the fabric of cloth; and, in- deed, the above remark will not be found universally true, for the durability of cloth, exposed only to common wearing, depends partly upon its strength, and partly upon its flexibility. It is not, therefore, in the effect of the mechanical operation, but in the facility of combining a greater quantity of materials in the same dimensions, which this mode of weaving affords, that we are to look for superior strength or durability. This may be easily illustrated. When the shed of any web is opened, every thread either above or below the thread of woof which has been driven through the web, will oppose a certain resistance to the operation of the lay in driving the shot home; and the sum of all these resistances will be the whole resistance. Now, in plain weaving, every thread is interwoven, and therefore, opposes its portion of resistance; whereas, in a four leafed tweely every fourth thread only is interwoven, and, of course, gives resistance. The ratio of resistance, therefore, will be inversely in proportion to the number of leaves in the tweel, compared with unity. In the warp, the friction in the reed M'ill be diminished in the same proportion; for each thread, instead of changing its place at every shot, changes only once in every four shots. Consequently, much more warp may be crowded into the same space without injury, than could be done in plain weaving. TWEELING. 89 iFrom the above, we may safely deduce, that the strength, or durability, of a tweeled web will be some- what less than the proportion of the materials which it contains will be to that of a plain web, supposing each to be of equal strength and quality. But, when the fabric is very close, tweeled cloth possesses another advantage over plain, in point of durability. When the warp of plain cloth is very much crowded in the reed, and the weft driven very closely home, the threads, in order to cross each other alter- nately, rnust deviate very materially from their natural form, which is in a straight line ; whereas, when woven, they become serpentine. This renders the cloth very liable to be easily cut, or chafed, especially when com- posed of hard, and comparatively inflexible materials. This defect is chiefly observable in stout linens, and arises from the inelastic, and inflexible nature of the fibres of the flax. But, when tweeled, as the threads only cross at intervals, the deviation from the straight line Is much less, and the flexibility of the cloth, of con- sequence, much greater. The same general remarks, which have been given in the 1st. Essay, apply, almost equally well, to the opera- tions of the weaver. In all descriptions of weaving. The varieties consist chiefly in the modes of mounting the looms. Our next consideration, therefore, is the MOUNTING OF LOOMS FOR TWEELING. As almost every variety of fanciful weaving is efl"ected by the order and succession, in which the weft is inter- woven with the warp, the principal difference, in mount- ing the looms, is in the number and arrangement of the M 90 ESSAY II. leaves of heddles, and the apparatus for moving these leaves. In weaving plain cloth, the jacks, represented in Fig. 3. Plate 3. at F, answer the purpose sufficiently well, because the raising and sinking, of every tliread is alternate. But, in the weaving of tweels, and many other kinds of fanciful and ornamental cloth, the number of leaves is, generally, greater; and these leaves are to be raised, or sunk in a succession, which may be sometimes regular, and, in other cases, not. It is, therefore, neces- sary, that the mounting of the loom should be adapted to the purpose for which it is intended; and as the suc- cession of moving the leaves, by means of the treddles, may frequently vary, the mounting which connects every leaf with the treddle, and from which its motion is de- j-ived, must be such, that the leaf may be raised, or sunk, independent of all the others. A representation of the mechanism used for this purpose, vidll be found in Fig. 1 . Plate 5. In this figure. Jour leaves of heddles are represented at C; perpendicularly above which, are four levers moving upon centres at B. From one end of each of these levers at A, a leaf of the heddles is suspended by the two (obliquely placed J cords shown in the figure. These cords, meeting below the lever, continue as a single cord to pass tlirough a groove in its end, and are, then, made fast to it. Below the heddles, are two sets of niarclies^ consisting of four marches each, which are moveable at the centres F and I. The long marches are distinguished by the letter E; the short marches by G. Each of the four long marches, is connected with the end of the corre- sponding top levers at D; each short march is connected with the lower shaft of the leaf of heddles, to wliich it is to give motion. TWEELING. 91 Now, as each of these marches is connected with one leaf of the heddles, it follows, that, if a long march is pulled down, the leaf will rise; if a short march is pulled down, the leaf will sink. This will be apparent, when it is considered, that the cords, below, form a direct connection between the lower heddle shafts and the short marches. Of course, when one of the latter is pulled down, those of the former, with which it is connected, must sink also. But the motion, communicated from the long marches to the upper shafts, is reversed at the centre B of the top levers ; for when the end at D is pulled down, the end at A will rise, and the leaf will be pulled up by the suspending cords. These top levers are known, among weavers, by the name of coupers. The arrangement of this apparatus, although very simple, ought to be carefully studied, by those w-ho are not conversant with the practice of weaving; for it is very generally used, in almost every species of ornamental work. The ends of the top levers, or coupers^ at A, which contain the grooves for the suspending cords, ought to be segments of a circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance of the gi"oove fcom the centre of motion at B, in order that the pull may be uniformly perpendi- cular. The distance of the centre B from the end D, is generally made twice as great as that from A to B; for otherwise, the long marches would communicate too great a range of motion to the leaves. If greater accuracy is wanted, the ranges of the different levers, and the ratio which they bear to each other, m.ay be calculated by the same rules, which apply to all other motions com- municated by means of levers, and these are explained in nlmost every elementary treatise upon mechanics. 92 ESSAY II. When the connections, between the leaves and marches, have been formed agreeable to the above description, it is only necessary to arrange the treddles, and to connect each treddle with the marches which it is intended to move- It is a general rule in fancy weaving, that every indi- vidual tteddle should be connected with ail the leaves of the heddles, for the purpose of raising some, and sinking the rest. Some exceptions to this rule occur, but these are few, and will be particularly noticed, when the cases, to which they relate, are to be investigated. The connecting cords between the marches and treddles, are applied in the manner proper for weaving a web, which may be tweeled or plain, as may be required. This kind of mounting is, generally, used for cloths in which the grounds are woven plain^ and stripes, tweeled by the weft, occasion- ally introduced. If the figure is carefully examined, the connections of each treddle with the marches may be easily distinguished, by comparing the lines which represent the cords, with the description which will be afterwards given. But, previous to this, it may be useful to explain the mode of drawing plans upon paper, to direct the weaver in drawing his warp through the heddles, and of apply-t ing the cords by which these heddles are to be moved. These plans are, generally, called the DRAUGHT AND CORDING. Plans of this description may be considered as hori- zontal sections of a loom, for the purpose of showing the heddles and treddles. Although the treddles, in a loom, are placed directly under the heddles, it is usual to represent them at one side, upon the paper, for the sake oC easier reference from the one to the other. TWEELING. 93 Fig. 2. is a representation of the way of drawing and cording a common four leaf tweel. The four leaves of the heddles are shown at C, numbered from 1 to 4, and the four treddles at N, also numbered in the order in which the weaver is to tread them. A portion of the warp, as it passes through the heddles, is represented at D, and the threads of warp, which pass through the same interval of the reed, are connected by cross lines. In this case, four threads pass through each interval. Where the threads of warp cross the heddles, the black marks denote the leaf through which each particular thread is drawn. For example, as it is the most convenient way for weavers, to draw their warps through the heddles from right to left, the order of the figures denoting the warp, is inverted. The first thread is drawn through the back leaf, and so on, suc- cessively, to the front. Where the treddles N cross the heddles C, the black marks refer to the mode of apply- ing the cords which form the connections between the marches and treddles, either to raise or sink the heddles. Wherever a black mark is placed, it denotes that the heddle and treddle, whjch there intersect each other, are to be connected by the long marches; that is to say, that the treddle when pressed down, must raise that leaf. When all the connections, distinguished by the black marks, have been formed, all the remaining connections must be made by the short marches; for the treddle which raises only one leaf, must sink all the others. For example: Where the treddle No. 1. crosses the fourth, or back leaf, in Fig. 2. there is a black mark. A cord, therefore, is to be carried from the long march under the fourth leaf, to the first treddle; and cords are to be car- ried from the short marches, under the other three leaves, 94 ESSAY II. to the same treddle. Thus, the treddle No. 1. when pressed down, will rnise the first, or back leaf, and sink the other three. The treddle No. 2. when properly corded, will raise the second leaf, and sink the others: the third treddle will raise the third leaf; and the fourth treddle, the fourth, or front leaf. It will be evident, upon consideration, that if the weaver presses down tlie treddles, successively as they are numbered, he will raise every leaf, in succession, fi'om the back- to the front; and at every tread, one leaf will be raised and three sunk. By comparing this operation with the specimen of tweeled cloth Fig. 2. Plate 4. it will become obvious, that the effect there represented, will be produced. Whether a tweeled web is wrought with three, four, or five leaves, the succession is in the sam.e order, unless when other* wise arranged to produce a different effect. Fig. 3. and 4. Plate 4. are also representations of tweels of four leaves, and as the fabric of tweeled cloth is gene- rally thick and close, convey a better idea of the appear- ance than Fig. 2. which is designed merely to give an accurate representation of the intersections of the threads. If we suppose that the warp of a tweeled v/eb is of white yarn, and that the weft is black, Fig. -t. Plate 4. will con- vey a correct idea of the appearance of the upper side of a web, woven in a loom mounted according to the plan Fig. 2. Plate 5.; and Fig. 3. will represent the appearance pf the under side of the same web. For, in Fig, 3. the white warp appears flushed, and in Fig. 4. the black weft is flushed. Now, were the cording in the plan Fig. 2. Plate 5. reversed; that is to say, were three leaves to rise, and one to sink, when each treddle is pressed down, the effect would be quite the same, excepting that the upper bide would then be flushed by the weft, and the under TWEELING. 95 side by the warp. Tliis reversing of the flushing, which may be cfTected by additional mounting, is the principle upon which the ornamental figures upon many kinds of tweeled cloth depend. We shall have occasion to treat of this afterwards. Fig. 3. Plate 5. is a plan of mounting, which will pro- duce exactly the same eirect as that represented in the transverse section Fig. 1. The only distinction is, that the treddles are arranged in a different order, those in Fig. 1. being in the order 4, 3, A, B, 1, 2; and those in Fig. 3. in the succession 4<, 3, 2, 1, A, B. Now, the order in which the treddles are arranged, may be varied as the weaver pleases, and is merely a matter of convenience. It may, however, be proper here, to make a few general observations upon THE ARRANGEMENT OF TREDDLES. "When a great number of treddles are necessary to produce any effect, it will be, obviously, the best way to arrange them in the succession in which they are to be pressed down by the weaver, when this is practicable. For, if some regular order be not adopted, the weaver will frequently be apt to mistake the treddle, and press down a wrong one. In heavy fabrics, where great power must be applied, the weaver is, generally, obliged to use both his feet; and frequently the whole weight of his body will be no more than sufficient. In this case, it is common to place the treddles in regular succession, from right to left ; as, 6-5-4-3-2-1 But, where the fabric is lighter, and when the pressure of one foot is sufficient, it will be more convenient to OG ESSAY ir. arrange the trecldles so, that the right and left foot may be applied alternately, without crossing each other. When this is the case, the weaver, while treading with one foot, has sufficient time to shift the other to the next treddle, M'ithout impeding the operation. This, naturally, leads us to commence our succession at the centre, and to place the succeeding treddles, alternately, upon each side; as, 5-3-1-2-4-6 In this case, the treddles 1-3-5 will be wrought by tlie left foot, and the treddles 2 - 4- - 6 by the right; and by applying the feet alternately, the treddles, from 1 to 6, will be wrought in the regular order of the numbers. In the plan. Fig. 3. the first of these successions is adopted; in the elevation. Fig. 1. recourse is had to the second. In both, four treddles are required for the tweel, and two for working the web plain. The former are dis- tinguished by numbers; the latter, by the letters A, B. In all the plans given, it is to be understood, that when two treddles are applied for the purpose of working the web plain, these treddles are, always, distinguished by the letters A, B. All treddles for the fanciful part, are distinguished by numbers ; and the placing of these numbers, gives the order in which the treddles are to be wrought. Fig. ■i. Plate 5. shows the draught and cording of a loom, mounted for working a tweel consisting of five leaves. There is no difference between this figure and Fig. 2. excepting in the number of the leaves, and the number of the treddles. The drawing of the warp through the heddles, proceeds in the same regular suc- cession from right to left; and the treddles are arranged in the same order. In this ficure, five of the lines,' TWEELING. 97 which represent the threads of the warp, are connected by- each cross line: five threads, therefore, are to be drawn throusrh each interval of the reed. Fig. 5. Plate 4. represents a kind of ornamental tweel, produced, merely, by reversing the order, in which the warp is drawn through the heddles. The plan, for draw- ing and cording a web of this description, will be found by referring to Fig. 5. Plate 5. The heddles consist of five leaves, and the explanations of the references, already given for Fig. 2. apply equally well to this, and to all the other plans. Fig. 6. is a plan for mounting a loom, so as to produce both plain and tweeled cloth, at the same time. Such plans are, generally, adopted, when it is requisite to weave webs, the grounds of which are to be plain, and the stripes iweeled by the warp. Two treddles are added, to enable the weaver to work the whole fabric plain, if necessary. If not required, the two plain treddles A, B may be omitted. In this plan, the leaves 1, 2, 3, 4 contain that portion of the warp, which is to form the tweeling, or stripes; the leaves A, B, that portion which is to form the ground, or intervals. An examination of the mode of applying the cording will evince, that when the treddles 1, 2, 3, 4 are pressed down in the order of the numbers, the tweeling leaves 1,2,3,4 will rise successively, and the plain leaves A, B alternately. The draught of the warp, through the reed, as denoted by the cross lines, is, here, adapted to the purpose of rendering the tweeled stripes more close and compact than the plain ground; for, of the former, four threads pass through each inter- val, and of the latter, only two. But, if the whole is to be wrought plain, occasionally, the whole warp ought to be equally drawn. This case very rarely, if ever, occurs. N 98 ESSAY II. Fig. 7. is a plan of a tweeled stripe, where the tweeling is reversed in the draught, in a way similar to that shown in Fig. 5. Stripes of this kind are called, by weavers, herring botiesy from the resemblance which the stripe bears to the back bone of a fish. The draught and cording will appear by inspection, if the explanations already given are fully understood. It has been deemed unnecessary to multiply the num- ber of plates, by engraving more plans of plain tweels. As the whole plans are the same in principle, such figures, as may be printed in the text, it is presumed will answer every further purpose of illustration which may be necessary. We have, hitherto, considered all the threads of warp, in tweeled cloth, as interwoven in progressive succession, for the sake of rendering the general principle of tweeling more obvious, to those previously unacquainted with this branch of weaving. When tweels do not exceed four leaves, this arrangement is always adopted. But, when a greater number of leaves is used, a kind of alternate succession is esteemed preferable: this is called, by weavers, BREAKING THE TWEEL. When a tweel consists of many leaves, the flushing of both warp and weft would be so great, that the inter- vals between the points, at which they are interwoven, would, necessarily, be very flimsy, and the fabric very unequal. To obviate this inconvenience, the broken tweel has been used. The same mounting by which a regular tweel is wrought, will also work a broken tweel, by treading in a difi^erent succession. But, this would derange the order of the trcddles, and as mentioned TWEELING. 99 before, might be productive of frequent mistakes. Weavers, therefore, prefer placing the cording so, that the regular succession of the treddles may be preserved, while rlie effect of the broken tweel, is at the same time produced. An example of each of these follows: The first is a regular five leaf tweel, the same as Fig. i-. Plate 5. The second is the same tweel broken, and the succession of the treading to produce either the regular, or broken tweel, is expressed by the numbers annexed to each. FIVE LEAVES, Regular Tweel. Broken Tweel. H 1 1 1 |o| 1 1 1 1 1 |o| 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 '2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 ^H 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 R. 5 4 3 2 1 B. 3 5 2 4 1 B. 5 4 3 2 I R. 3 5 2 4 1 The above example will suiliciently show tlie two ways of tweeling; and also, that the whole difference in the cording is, solely, to preserve a regular order in the tred- dles. The same succession of treading, which breaks the tweel in the one case, restores its regularity in the other. In these, and the following examples, each inter- val, between the lines, denotes a leaf. Numbers are used, instead of the marks In the engraved plans, to show the order and succession in which the threads are drawn j and the cypher, inserted in the squares, denotes a raising cord, as the black mark does in the plates. Fig. 9. Plate 4-. is a specimen of the effect, and appear-- ance, of a five leaf tweel broken in this way, as vievi'ed on the side, where the warp is flushed. In the same way, tweels of six and seven leaves are drawn" and mounted. 100 ESSAY II. The following are examples of each SIX LEAVES. Regular. Broken. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 <^^ 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 6 R.6 5 4 3 2 1 B.6 4 2 5 3 1 Regular. B. 6 5 4 3 2 1 R. 6 4 2 5 3 1 SEVEN LEAVES. Broken. 0| 1 1 \ 1 1 - 1 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 1 4 1 ^ 1 ^ i 5 1 6" 6 |V 1 7 R.7 B.6 6 5 4 2 4 7 3 5 2 3 1 1 B. R. 7 6 6 4 5 o 4 7 3 5 2 3 1 1 These examples will show the manner of forming the alternate, or broken, tweel. It is to be observed, that the cording may be adapted in various ways, and the tweel broken in different places, according to the discre- tion of the weaver. When the number of leaves will admit of it, the succession should be made, as nearly as possible, at equal intervals. For example, in the broken tweel of six leaves, all the leaves ought to follow each other in a succession, passing one leaf between each, until you come to the sixth treddle; but as the first treddle immediately follows the sixth, in repeating the operation, there will be no interval there, and the effect of these two leaves will be that of a regular, while all the rest give that of broken tweel. There is also an interval qC TWEELING. 101 two loaves, between the intersection, produced by the third and fourth treddles. This, however, cannot be avoided in working witU six leaves; this number, therefore, although given as an illustration, ought to be avoided in practice. The five leaf tweel also, although much used, has an interval of two leaves between the third and fourth treddle. When eight leaves are employed, the succession in breaking the tweel, is different, and disposes the warp at intervals, more perfectly than any tweel which can be formed by a smaller number of leaves. In all the former, the interval is formed, by passing one leaf be- tween every two, until the whole are corded; but, in the eicfht leaf tweel, two leaves are omitted, and the third lias the raising cord applied, as will appear by the follow- ing example : EIGHT LEAVES. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 '2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 6 11 1 7 1 1 1 S Broken 8 7 G 5 4 3 2 1 Resrular 6385 2 741 It is unnecessary to give a draught of the regular eight leaf tweel, because it proceeds exactly like those already given; besides, with so many leaves, regular tweeling is seldom, or never, used. By examining this cording, it will appear that the intervals, by which the tweel is broken, are perfectly regular; for the first treddle suc- ceeds the eighth, at the §ame interval as all the others. i02 ESSAY II. The last specimen of common tweels, which we shall give, is that of sixteen leaves, which is only to be found in some of the very fine Italian and French tweeled silks. Here the tweel is broken, by omitting four leaves, and cording the fifth. SIXTEEN LEAVES. |0 |0 O I 10 |0 11 12 IS 15 16 B.16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 '2 1 Having finished the observations, and given such examples as appeared necessary, to convey a sufficient knowledge of the principles of common tweeling, of the varieties of which it is susceptible, and of the machinery requisite for weaving the various kinds; our next object is, to investigate the means by which looms are adapted to the weaving of TWEELED STRIPES. In the references to Figs. 3. and •!•, Plate 4. the flushing upon tweeled cloth has been explained. On c?ie sUe, tlie ivarp is flushed: en the ether, the iveft. Most kinds of TWEELING. 103 ornamental weaving, upon tweels, are produced by this quality of the fabric. The application of it to the forming of stripes is, at present, the subject of de- scription. Stripes, upon tweeled cloth, differ from those upon plain, in the following respects: Tweeled stripes may be formed without any distinction in the fineness of the warp; nor do they require supernumerary threads to be drawn, either through the heddles, or the reed. It is only necessary, tojliish the warp and weft alternately. The examples, necessary to elucidate this, are upon the scale of a five leaf tweel; for the same principle will apply to any number of leaves, used for tweeling. FIVE LEAFED TWEEL STRIPE. i i \ i TcTl 1111 I Q q o o 3 3 3 3 I 4 4 4 4 O i I I I \ 5 5 5 5 OlOIOIOI 1111 0|(0|0|0| 2222 0|0|10|0| 3333 0|0|0| |0| 4444 I O I O I I I I 3 5 5 5 5 4 3 2 1 The above is a specimen of a stripe upon ten leaves, five of which flush the warp, and five the weft. The stripe is produced by two sets of leaves, consisting of five each. The cording of the back set is exactly the same as the regular five leaf tweel, formerly described. That of the front set is the same, reversed; for, in the former, there are five raising cords, which raise one leaf successively, while all the rest sink : in the latter, there are five sinking cords, which sink one leaf successively. roi fiSSAY II. while all the rest rise. By this arrangement, the one set flushes the warp, the other the weft. The stripe is formed, by drawing a portion of warp through one set of leaves, then another portion through the other set, and so on, alternately, according to the pattern of the stripe, which may be regulated by fancy. It is usual in this species of tweeling, to invert the order of raising the leaves of the two sets; for it will be obvious, that when the treddles are worked in the order from right to left, the back leaves will rise, in succession, from 1 to 5, and the front leaves will sink, in an inverted succession, from 5 to 1. I do not know whether this produces any improvement in the appearance of the cloth, but it is the general practice. If a broken tweel is preferred, the leaves are corded exactly as in common tweeling, one set rising, the other sinking. The following example will be sufficient: TWEELED STRIPE BROKEN. 1 1 1 1 |0| 1111 1 1 1 1 f 1 2 L' a 2 1 1 1 1 j 1 :5 :? 3 3 |0|||||4444 1 1 1 1 1 15 5 5 5 l|0|0|0|0| 1111 |0|0|0| |0| 2222 10 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 :3 |0|0|0|0| 1 4 444 |0|0||0|0| 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 2 1 All tweeled stripes are mounted upon the same prin- ciple. Any number of leaves may be adopted, as in common tweeling. The patterns depend, entirely, upon the succession of drawing the warp through the heddles, and mav be varied almost to infinity. TWEELING. 105 . The next species of tweeling, which requires our nttention, is a kind of tweeled check. It is much used in the manufacture of table-cloths, and is known in Scotland by the name of Dornock. But as we are now entering Upon the fanciful part of this branch of weaving, it will be proper to notice the way of sketching patterns, for weavers, upon DESIGN PAPER. To facilitate the sketching of designs for ornamental weaving of most kinds, they are generally drawn upon paper, ruled with a number of parallel lines at equal inter- vals; and these lines are crossed at right angles, by others, so that the whole exhibits the appearance of a number of small squares. Of these, the lines draM'-n from the top to the bottom of the paper, are supposed to represent the warp, and the cross lines, the weft of a web. Some of the lines, generally every tenth limy in either direction, are drawn bolder than the others, to render the counting of the number of lines easy. Fig. 1. Plate 6. is a specimen of paper of this description, which is known by the name of design paper. In drawing any pattern, for weav- ing, upon design paper, each interval, between two lines, may be supposed to represent any number of threads, either of warp or woof, at discretion. In all the patterns upon the design paper in Plate 6. each inter\^al represents five threads, because the tweel to be formed consists of five leaves. The pattern Fig. 1. which is one of the most simple which can be formed in this kind of weav- ing, is an imitation of a common checker board, for playing at draughts or chess. Let the squares which are black, be supposed to represent that part of the web, O 106 ESSAY II. where the weft appears flushed over the warp, Upou one side of the cloth, and those squares, which are left blank, to represent that part where the warp is flushed over the weft. The former, then, if we suppose the weft to be black, will give the same appearance as Fig. 4. Plate 4. the latter, that of Fig. 3. But as the squares of the checker are, alternately, black and white, the weaver, to accomplish this, must have it in his power to reverse the flushing at pleasure. This is effected by an apparatus consisting of ten leaves, the same as in the stripes, and ten treddleSi being exactly two sets of the mounting necessary for weaving df common five leaf tweel. The plan of the mounting opposite to the design, Fig. 1. Plate 6. will serve to illustrate this. Every square, in the design, occupies six spaces upon the paper, and it has been already mentioned, that each of these spaces represent five threads, or one set of a five leaf tweel. Each square, therefore, consists of six sets, or thirty threads, and the squares are alternate. Therefore, six sets, of five threads each, are drawn through the first five leaves, the same as in common tweelingj then six sets are drawn through the other five leaves, and so on, alternately, until the whole warp is drawn tlirough the heddles. A careful inspection of the figures, it is presumed, will render this very plain, even to a person not conversant with ornamental weaving, and it is of importance, that this simple pattern should be fully understood, as it forms the base, upon which the whole structure of ornamental tweeling is founded. The drawing of the warp difl^ers, in no respect, from that used for the stripes; the five additional treddlea are used to reverse the flushing. The treddles, from six to ten, raise the tweeling leaves of the back set, and sink TWEELING. 107 tliose of the front. The treddles, from one to five, exactly reverse this operation. The weaver, therefore, works the treddles Ij 2, 3, 4, 5, successively, until he has completed one range of squares or checkers; he then works those numbered 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, until he has completed another range, and so on alternately. The Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Plate 6. are wrought by the same mounting as Fig. 1. The whole difference is in the way of drawing the warp through the heddles. In Fig. 2. every individual thread is drawn as in the former examples in the plates. In Figs. 3, and 4. one line drawn across the heddles, represents a set, consisting of five threads drawn successively in the same way as Figs. 1, and 2. The same is expressed, by numbers, in the two draughts under Figs. 3, and 4. The first and second set of heddles, are divided by an interval, and the number of sets, to be drawn upon each, are expressed by the numbers. I have added a number of draughts of pat- terns on the same plan, all of which are wrought with ten leaves, and ten treddles, or two sets of tweel mounting, the difference being entirely in the drawing. All these patterns, if wrought with only five treddles, v/ill form tweeled stripes. 108 ESSAY II. DRAUGHTS OF TWEELED PATTERNS OF TWO SETS, OR TEN LEAVES. No. I. No. 2. 2d. set 35 35 || 10 10 40 1st. set 35 35 || 10 40 10 No. 3. No. 4. 10 5 10 10 5 10 40 II 10 40 10 40 10 5 10 40 10 5 10 II 10 40 10 40 No. 5. No. 6. 20 5 20 5 5 5 5 || 40 5 5 5 5 20 5 5 20 5 5 5 || 30 30 5 5 5 No. 7. 20 5 20 5 5 5 5 20 5 5 20 5 5 5 5 20 5 5 20 5 5 5 5 20 5 20 5 5 5 5 No. 8. 40 5 5 5 20 5 5 5 5 20 20 5 5 5 10 ; 5 5 5 No. 9. 5 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 5 20 20 5 10 10 5 20 20 No. 10. 5 5 5 5 20 5 20 5 5 5 5 20 10 10 20 5555 20 55 20 555 5 15 5 15 TWEELING. No. 11. 109 15 15 o 5 5 5 15 30 15 5 5 5 Ti 30 15 5 5 5 5 15 15 5 5 5 No. 12. 5 5 15 5 15 5 30 10 30 5 15 5 15 30 15 30 5 15 5 15 5 5 15 5 15 5 No. 13. 25 10 10 10 15 15 10 10 10 H 15 To 10 To 25 10 To To No. 14. 5 30 10 10 30 5 5 30 10 5 20 5 10 30 No. 1. 15 5 15 30 10 15 5 5 15 10 30 15 5 5 15 5 5 15 5 15 5 5 No. 16. 30 30 30 30 10 10 10 10 30 30 30 30 10 10 10 10 No. 17. 10 10 15 5 15 10 10 15 5 15 25 5 25 10 10 25 5 25 10 10 No. IS. 20 20 5 5 5 20 20 20 5 20 5 5 20 5 20 110 ESSAY II. When a greater variety of pattern is wanted than can be accomphshed by ten leaves, or two sets of mounting, additional leaves and treddles become necessary, and these go on progressively, by sets of five leaves each, according to the pattern required. Fig. I. Plate 7. is an example of a pattern wrought by three sets of mounting, or fifteen leaves. Fig. 2. represents one where four sets are necessary. This figure is drawn as a four leaf tweel ; therefore, every space in the design represents only four threads, and the four sets of mounting contain only six- teen leaves and sixteen treddles. To render the effect which the mounting produces more apparent, this plate has been coloured, and each set of leaves and treddles are of the same colour, as the spaces in the design paper, where the flushing is reversed, to produce the pattern. For example, where the design is coloured blue, the blue treddles are to be used, and the blue leaves giva-the re- verse, while all the other leaves rise and sink like a com- mon tweel. The same is the case with all the other colours; and it will appear, upon inspection, that the cords are placed exactly upon the same principle as was formerly explained. In Fig. I. The cording is applied to produce a broken tweel: in all the others the tweel is regular. The following is a variety of patterns, wrought by three, four, five, and six sets of tweel mounting: as formerly, the draughts only are given, for the cording in tl^ whole is the same. tweEling. Ill PATTERNS OF THREE SETS. No. 1. 3d. set 6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 2d. set 6 6 2 2 2 6 6 2 2 2 1st. set 6 6 2222 6 6 No. 2. No. 3. 3 3 3 3 2 II 1 1 8 1 1 8 1 2 22 2 2232 II 1 41131331311 2 3 2 2~3 2~1 i 113 11 No. 4. 11 16 1 16 1 11 3 111111113 11111 1 3 3 13 3 13 3 13 ' No. 5. 1 18 1 1 i 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 1.3 3 1 3T 113 11 113 11 No. 6. No. 7. 1 3 1 3 i 3 13 II 1 2~2 1 1 3 1 113 3113 3 11313 3 313 3 3 113 3 11 II 11 1 13 3 No. 8. 3 113 3 113 1. 1111111313 313 1112 111 10 112 ESSAY II. No. 9. No. 10. 16 113 3 1 6 6 13 3 113 3 1 3 3 116 1 332 22222 3 3 2 2 2 2 No. 11. 3 3 n 3 i" 3 113 113 3 11 3 13 1 3 13 1 No. 12. 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 No. 13. No. 14. 3 3 3 3 3 13 3 13 3 13 111 3 3 1 1 No. 15. 1 i 2 1 i To" 3 1 3 n n n 3 1 3 3 113 i 1 1 i 3 113 No. 16. 6 111 13 3 1 111 3 3 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 i r~ "3 3 n n 3 3 n n No. 17. 3 3 2 1 16 1 12 3 3 11 11 3 3 11 11 6 1 12 3 3 2 1 1 TWEELING. lis PATTERNS OF FOUR SETS. No. 1. "~~" 2 1 2 2 1 2 " 2 2 i 2"^ ~ 12 2 1 11 " 3 1113 ~1 1 No. 2. 2 3 3 1 I 11 11 1 — _ _- — 3 3 3 No. 3. 1 1 1 1 3 113 _^ 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 212 11 11 11212 11 1 2 12 1 11 No. 4. 113 3 3 3 11 1 1 211121121112 1 1 6 16 1 1 I 1 II 1 1 21121112112 1 1 No. 5. 3 3 111 3 1 13 1 11 1 3 11 3 If 11 3 13 11 114 ESSAY II. No. 6. 14 1 4 114. 1 4. 1 1 4. 1 3113 1313113 3113 4 1 1 I 4 11 1 10 1 1 10 1 No. 1 11 11 13 1 13 11 11 11 3 113 1 1 1 3 13 4 4 4 4 No. 8. Ill 1 1 111 1 1111 1 1 1111 1 1 1111 13 113 1 3 1 1 fi 1 No. 9. 1 5 1 1 8 1 1 1 1 1 3 11 3 12 2 13 112 113 11 No. 10. 2 112 2 112 .13 1 1 3 1 1 1 11111 19 1 111111 TWEELING. 115 No. 11. No. 12. 4 ^ II 6 6 ;^ 1 13 1 II 1 13 13 3 11 3 \\ 3 113 3 1 3 II 3 1 3 ^ No. 13. 'i 1 2 2 1 2 1 n 2 2 2 2 11 2 3 13 11 1 3 113 1 1 1 No. 13. continued. 2~2 . 2 2 r~l 1 2 2 2 2 12 2 11 3 113 1 11 3 13 1 1 1 No. U. 11 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 12 2 12 2 12 2 12 1 1 2I2 i 2~2 1 1 No. 15. No. 16. 1 5 1 15 1 11 3 3 3 3 3 3 II 2 112 1 1 113 111 II 13 1 13 1 11 2 12 2 12 l| 2 112 116' ESSAY 11. No. 17. 3 3 2 2 11112 2 1 3 3 1 111 1 3 3 ] I 3 3 3 3 3 3 No. 17. continued. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 111 1 3 3 12 2 11112 2 1 No. 18. 1 1 1 2 2 12 2 1 2 12 1 11 11 11 2 12 11 11 1 1 1111 No. 18. continued. 1 1 1111 1 2 12 11 11 2 2 1 11 11 11 1 1 1 1 2 12 11 No. 19. No. 20. ^ 1. 11 3 3 3 3 1 2 112 1 1 II 13 11 1 2 2 11 II 3 3 1 1 12 1 2 II 3 3 2 2 TWEELING. H7 PATTERNS OF FIVE SETS. No. 1. 1 15 1 3 3 \ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 No. 2. 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 11 3 13 3 3 2 2 11 1 2 2 No. 3. 5 3 3 2 2 12 2 112 2 112 2 112 222 2 22 2 2 No. 4. ' 3113 11 3 113 1 1 ~ 3 1 3 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 118 ESSAY 11. No. .3. ] 1 11 II 11 1 11 1 11 2 2 1 11 1 11 1 2 2 2 12 11 11 2 12 No. 5. continued. 2 ti 22 122 12212 21 12 222 22222 2 1 1 2 2 n 2 - _ - - No. 6. No. 7. 1 i; 1 1 114 11 1 !i 11 13 3 1 11 !! 1 3 13 3 13 1 1 jl 3 115 11 1 1 11 n "" No. 8. No. 9. 1 1 1 ii 3 3 3 3 ' 1 1 1 \\ 3 3 3 3_^ \\ 3_3 3 3 II 3 3 9 h I No. 10. DRAUGHT. No. 10. ORDER OF TREADING. 3 10 II 9 10 3 3 2 3 3 II 1 9 9 3 3 3 3 3 II 113 3 3 3 3 3 3 II 113 3 3 3 3 3 II .21 TWEELING. X19 PATTERNS OF SIX SETS. No. 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 1 3 1 n 3 n " 1 1 3 1 i 113 11 No. 1. continued. 1 1 1 1 1_J 1 3 1111 ~^^ 1 i i ~ ■ 3 n 1 1 ~ _ - - _ No. 2. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 No. 2. continued. 2 112 2 12 2 12 2 1 2 2 112 2 112 120 ESSAY II. No. 3. }■ 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 4 4 14 11 4 12 2 4 2 2 2 2 No. 3. continued. 4 114 4 1114 4 1 1 1 4 14 14 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 No. 4. 2 2^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 S J 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 No. 4. continued. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 TWEELING. 121 These patterns have not been selected for any particular merit which they may possess, but, merely, as illustrations of the manner of weaving tliem, and all patterns of equal compass. Every pattern may be varied very much, by working the treddles in a different succession. One pattern, therefore (No. 10. four sets), is inserted where the suc- cession of the treddles is not in the same order as that of the draught. Those who wish to attain a thorough knowledge of tliis, and of every branch of ornamental weaving, ought carefully to draw the draughts, given for the mounting of webs, upon design paper. The rule for this is simple and easy. Select any pattern. Suppose every unit in the figures employed, to be comprehended in one square of the design paper. Draw the whole design of the set which occurs, first across the paper, making each of the largest draughts square by the weft. Continue the pattern, until all the sets, of which the mounting consists, have been inserted, and the pattern will be complete. The patterns may be lengthened, or shortened, by the weft, at discretion. A careful comparison of the figures, upon the design paper, in Plates 6, and 7. with the draughts, will be of much service in rendering this familiar. The principles before described may be carried to any extent; for, as the patterns assume a greater variety, it is only necessary to increase the number of leaves. This, however, would be attended with much practical incon- venience; for when many leaves are necessary, they not only occupy a great space, but require a greater degree of power applied to move the treddles, than a man can easily exert. Indeed, in fanciful tweeling, it is generally O 122 • ESSAY II. found Inconvenient to work with more leaves than fifteen, or three sets. To obviate this, when an extensive range of pattern is required, a very inge'nious, although simple, apparatus, has been adopted; which is called, by weavers, a BACK HARNESS. The superiority of the back harness for extensive patterns, consists in this; that in no case to which it is applied, more than one set of treddles, that is, the number* requisite for working a common tweel of the same num- ber of leaves, is necessary. Plate 8. contains the various parts of a back harness and other apparatus, consisting of five harness leaves, and five plain leaves, for working a fanciful five leaf tweel. From the construction of the harness, each leaf produces an effect equal to that of five leaves upon the plan formerly described. This mounting, therefore, although it consists only of ten leaves, possesses the means of working any pattern of twenty-five leaves, or five sets. The five leaves, at A. Fig. 1. represent the back harness. Each heddle contains an eye, which is generally made of tin, and through each of these eyes five threads of the warp are drawn. The harness leaves are lifted, as may be required, by means of the top levers, or coupers, B. Of these there are usually two sets, for the sake of lifting both sides equally. The other end of the levers, at D. are connected by cross shafts, from each of which hangs H cord, passing through a hole in a square board E. Upon each cord is a knot, which, when the leaf is raised, is fixed in a notch in the board E. The proper shape of the holes and notches, appear in Fig. 3. To the end of TWEELING. 123 pach cord Is attached a handle, which the weaver pulls with his hand, when necessary, to lift a leaf of the liarness. The front mounting, at C, consists of five leaves, as in a common tweel, and is worked by treddles and marches, exactly in the same way. The five threads, .which are drawn through each eye of the back harness, are drawn in succession through the front leaves, one thread passing through each, as represented in Fig. 2. The eyes of the front heddles, are of a length rather greater than the whole depth of the shed. To understand the application of this apparatus, we must again recur to the general principle of fancy tweeling, viz. jlush'ing by the ivarp^ or hy the %veftj and reversing the jltish'iug at ■pleasure. The cording is applied to the front leaves, in such a manner, that one leaf rises, one sinks, and the other three remain stationary, at every tread. The order may be either that of the regular, or the broken tweel. This is one of the exceptions to the general rule, of the treddle which raises certain leaves, sinking all the rest. In the plan of cording, Fig. 2. the raising cords are, as usual, distinguished by black marks, the sinking ones are left blank, and where the leaves are to remain stationary, and where, of course, no cord is required, a cross x i^ placed. Now, by again referring to Fig. 1, it will appear, that the leaves 1, 2, 3, 4 of the back harness are sunk, and the leaf 5 is raised. The leaf 1 of the front mounting is is raised; the leaf 5 is sunk, and the leaves 2, 3, 4 are stationary. As five threads pass through every eye of the harness, all the thresds which pass through the har- ness leaf 5, will be raised above the shuttle, except those '-vhich are sunk by the front leaf 5. Four threads are, 124 ESSAY II. therefore, above^ and one below. This produces a tweel, flushed by the warp. In all the other harness leaves, all the threads will be under the shuttle, except those which are raised by the front leaf 1. Four threads, therefore, are be/ow, and one above. This produces a tweel, flushed by the weft; and the flushing may be reversed at pleasure, by raising or lowering the harness leaves. The length of the eyes of the front leaves, being ra- ther more than the depth of the shed, the leaf which sinks, carries with it one thread of every five which are raised by the harness; the leaf which rises carries up one thread of every five which are sunk. Upon the rest, they produce no eflfect. The patterns given, answer equally well for the harness, as for leaves; it being always re- collected, that one harness leaf answers the purpose of five upon the former plan, supposing the tweel to be one of five leaves. The last and most comprehensive apparatus, employed by weavers for fanciful patterns of great extent, is the draw loom. This apparatus, besides being used for weaving the most extensive patterns in ornamental tweeling, is, also, adopted for the same purpose, both in the weaving of double cloths, such as carpets, &c. and also in spot weaving. We shall, therefore, postpone the description of the principles and machinery of the draw loom, until these branches have been investigated. Jn the mean time, we proceed to give specimens of a great variety of fancy work, effected by flushing. The following sixteen patterns, represent the drawing and cording of a species of tweeling, much used for a variety of purposes. TWEELING. 125 No. 1. 1 0| |00|00 |00 01 I jo 1 1 1 1 2 32 1 |00|00| 00 03 31 *( ojoojo 1 00 4 30 jOojooj (00 5 29 1 1 j 1 6 28 |00| |00| 7 27 1 1 1 1 8 26 1 ( j 1 9 25 1 0|0 1 0| 00000000 10 24 (0 I jo (0 00 00000011 23 (0 ( Oj 0( 00 00000 12 22 1 (0 (0 (0 13 21 1 Oj 0( 0( 000(0 000 14 20 1 jo jo j 0(00 15 19 1 0( 0( j OOOJOOO 16 18 jo jo ( i 000(0000 17 17 16 18 14 13 20 21 11 87654321 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 No. 2. 1 ( ( 0(1 1 1 0(0(0 0(2 30 j ( ( 3 29 ( ( j 4 28 5 27 6 26 7 25 8 24 9 23 10 22 11 21 12 20 13 19 14 18 15 17 16 16 15 17 14 13 18 19 12 11 20 21 9 8 23 24 5 4 3 2 27 28 29 30 126 ESSAY II. No. 3. |0||00 0|0i [001 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 2 26 |0|0| 0||000 3 25 1 1 1 1 j U 4 24 j 1 1 1 j 5 23 (ijo OOJoilO 6 22 1 1 d 1 1 7 21 1 1 I jo S 20 j 1 1 1 9 19 j I 1 1 10 18 IIJOpO 0| 11 17 1 I 1 1 12 16 |0|0|0 |00 13 15 io|0| |00 14 i4 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 }5 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2Q No. 4. 1 1 1 I 1 1 2 26 1 3 25 1 4 24 1 5 23 1 6 22 1 7 21 8 20 1 9 19 I 10 18 1 11 17 1 12 16 1 13 15 1 14 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 TWEELING. 127 No. 5. o| -'~ 1 1 01 01 o| o| 1 I 1 "1 1 1 01 1 2 30 o| :5 29 1 1 4 28 ~ ' — "o" 6 27 '6 26 1 7 25 1 8 24 |o 1 1 i 9 23 o 1 1 1 10 22 " 1 1 1 11 21 1 12 20 lo jo 13 19 I \o IT 1 14 18 \^ 1 « jo 15 17 1 |o |o 10 1 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 No. 6. 1 |o| |61olo|o| 1 1 1 10 o| 1 1 10"| |0|0 0|0| 1 1 |0| 1 2 30 0|0|00|1| 10| II 3 29 1 1 ill 1 1 11 4 28 1 1 III 1 5 27 o| 1 1 1 6 26 " lo |o 1 7 25 1 1 1 8 24 1 1 1 9 23 1 1 1 1 10 22 1 1 1 1 1 n 21 o 1 1 1 jo 12 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 19 IJO 1 ||0|0T)0|0| 1 14 18 1 1 1 j I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 17 II 1 |10lOOO|oio|0||0| 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 128 ESSAY II. No. 7. 0(00 1 1 2 30 3 29 4 28 5 27 6 26 7 25 8 24 9 23 10 22 11 21 12 20 1 13 19 1 14 18 1 15 17 1 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 No. 8. |0 ||||0|0|1 1 1 2 30 1 3 29 1 4 28 1 5 27 1 6 26 0(7 25 (8 24 i 9 23 ( 10 22 0( 11 21 (0 12 20 j 13 19 ( 14 18 ( 15 17 ( 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 SO TWEELING. 129 No. 9. 1 "o" IT 1 1 o| o| o\ 1 o| 1 o\ 1 1 |"o o" 1 o| 1 1 o| I o| 1 2 30 1 1 o| i o| 1 0| 3 29 1 o| 0| 1 o| 1 o| 0| 4 5 28 1 0| 1 o| 1 0| ^1 27 1 ~ «l o| 1 0! 1 6 26 10 « 1 7 25 "1 |o "o' o_ "o" 1 8 24 1 9 23 1 "oT 10 22 j 11 21 1 12 20 1 « 13 19 1 14 18 1 15 17 1 16 16 15 14 17 18 13 19 12 20 11 21 10 22 9 8 23 24 7 25 6 26 5 27 4 28 3 29 2 30 1 No. 10. 0|0 0|0 1 1 1 2 30 o| 3 29 1 4 28 |o 5 27 |o () , 6 26 1 7 25 1 8 24 1 9 23 1 10 22 1 O 11 21 1 12 20 o| 13 19 1 14 18 1 15 17 1 I 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 R 26 27 28 29 30 130 ESSAY II. No. II. 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 |o 2 30 |o 1 1 3 29 |o 1 1 1 1 0)0 r o' o b " 4 28 1 6 5 27 1 6 26 1 o| 1 o 7 25 |o o' 1 |o 1 1 o" 8 24 |o 9 23 |o -• 1 1 10 22 |o 1 1 11 21 1 1 1 12 20 1 ,0 1 1 13 19 |o 01 1 C) 14 18 l« 1 |o o| 15 17 |o 1 1 1 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 25 26 27 28 29 30 No. 12. 1 1 1 o| III io| |0 1 I o 1 1 1 2 30 1 1 f) 1 3 29 o 1 « ) 1 •) ■■ 4 28 ■ n c) 1 ;) 5 27 r. o 1" O M 6 26 o| C 7 25 |o 8 24 o| O 9 23 |o '1 10 22 ol-.^ 11 21 () 1 tl 12 20 1 (^ o 1 •^M 13 19 1 14 18 o o \ |o 15 17 1 1 1 t^ 1 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 TWEELING. 131 No. 13. lo|o |o |o| |o |o| 1 |0|O 1 1 - 0| |0| V\ \- |0|0|0 'i 28 - |0 |0| II 0|0|0_| 3 27 -0| 0| o| jo 1 |0 0|0 4 26 \U f'^ h'l |() lO' 1 1 1 5 -^> -7ri--|--n— :"M^' ! ! i^-i '1- - |o- |o II ^> '.'lol 1 |o| / - n 1 ., 1 1 1 r U 1 1 1 1 1 >• « - -J" i^'"^ " i^'l 1 l"l '' ^' -.III ". 1 o 1 1 1 o 1 1 h' 10 20 |n ,.|,.| |0| Oil! 11 19 -| i |0|0 o| 1 "" II' h'l i 12 18 1 |,>|r, |n 1 j 0| 1 1 lOj jOj Iti injojoj j io lol 1 1 joj |0 14 16 Tcriir|~|~| lol 0| lol 1 1 |0l 15 15 14 13 12 11 10 16 17 18 19 20 987654321 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 23 No. U. J 1 1 1 1 1 t) 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 u 1 1 1 1 n 2 26 1 I'M l"l 1 1 I'M ^ ^ "^ - n 1 1 .. 1 1 1 1 (. 1 1 * '-^^ llTj— I'^ni^l"!" f^i 5 23 1 1 1 1 i' 1 I I jo >' ^ -- 1 n 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 Oj 7 21 ' 1 1 1 "1 1 |0l ~| « 20 1 1 1 1 1 () 1 |0 1 9 19 "o'\ 1 ^1 |"o"| |iri jo 10 18 1 1 |0| 10| |0| 11 17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 13 15 joj 1 1 |0| 1 1 |0 0| 10 14 14 13 12 11 10 15 16 17 18 9 8 7 19 20 21 6 5 4 3 2 1 22 23 24 25 26 132 ESSAY II. No. 15. 1 0| |0 1 1 1 1 f 1 1 1 1 1 2 25 1 1 1 1 1 3 25 |0 10 1 1 1 4 24 loo 1 1 1 1 5 23 1 t ^ 1 1 1 6 22 1 1 1 j 1 7 21 1 1 1 1 1 8 20 1 1 1 1 9 19 1 1 10 18 1 1 11 17 1 1 12 16 1 1 13 15 1 1 1 14 14 13 15 12 11 16 17 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 21 22 23 24 25 26 No. 16. 1 o|olo o| 1 1 1 I o|o|o 1 1 2 26 o|o 1 1 1 1 3 25 o|o II 1 j 4 24 o|o 1 1 5 23 o|o 1 I 6 22 1 1 7 21 1 8 20 1 j 9 19 1 1 10 18 1 1 11 17 1 1 12 16 1 loo 13 15 1 I 14 14 13 12 15 16 11 10 17 18 20 21 6 22 23 4 3 2 1 24 25 26 TWEELING. 133 Patterns of the description preceding, are used in great variety. The specimens given are sufficient to illustrate the general principle-, and, afterwards, the particular figures may be regulated by fancy. . The pattern No. 1. consists of seventeen leaves, and seventeen treddles. The figure, which it forms upon cloth, will be found drawn upon design paper, in Fig. 10. Plate 4. By this mounting, a part of the cloth is woven plain, and the rest contains flushing, or tweeling, of different kinds, extending from three to thirteen leaves. If we suppose, as formerly, the warp to be white, and the weft black, the flushing will give the efFect, produced upon the under side of the cloth, as stretched in the loom. Each square of the design paper is supposed, in this instance, to repre- sent only one thread of warp or weft. By counting the spaces, therefore, of black or white, the extent of the flushing will be found in any direction, and the single squares which are, alternately, black and white, of course, represent plain cloth. The figures, upon the part at the right hand of the plan, represent the order and succession in which the threads arc drawn through the heddles. The numbers are placed from left to right, in the usual order of writing or printing-, but, as weavers draw their webs from right to lefty the order in the plan will be exactly inverted in practice. For want of room upon the page, the numbers from 1 to 16, and from 18 to 32 are placed in straight lines-, but it is to be understood, that the draught is exactly in the order represented in Fig. 5. Plate 5. which was explained in the description of com- mon tweeling. Each number, in all these plans, signifies only a single thread. The order of treading, is exactly that in which the numbers under each plan are placed. 134 ESSAY II. If the plan No. 1 . is compared with the pattern upon the design paper, it will be found, that the raising cords^ marked by the cyphers, exactly correspond with the squares, which are black, and that the plan is an exact representation of the fourth part of one set of the design. That this must be the case, in all the plans, will be obvious, if we consider, that the draught through the heddles being double, and inverted, will double the plan by the warp, and invert the two sides; and that the treddles being gone twice over, and the succession also inverted, will produce the same effect by the weft. Proper attention to this, will make it easy to draw a design of this kind of work, when die plan of mounting is given ; and, on the contrary, to draw a plan of mounting, when a design is given. The pattern on the design paper, contains a set and a half each way, to give the full effect of every part. No. 2. is a plan containing sixteen leaves and sixteen treddles. Fig. 11. Plate 4. shows its effect upon the design paper. The description given of No. 1. applies equally to this and to all the others. In Nos. 3, and 4. which are upon fourteen leaves, the figures, representing the succession of the draught, are placed more nearly in their respective places, as they ought to be drawn. Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8. are upon sixteen leaves. The appearance of No. 7. is, upon design paper, represented by Fig. 12. and that of No. 8. by Fig. 13. Plate 4. These, it is presumed, will be sufficient to illustrate all the others. Figures of this kind are sometimes varied, and thrown into squares, by drawing the warp successively over the leaves in two sets, in the manner formerly described. TWEELING. 135 One example of this draught will be sufficient. It refers to Nos. 3, and 4. 29 28 27 26 1 13 25 2 ] 12 14 24 3 11 15 23 4. 10 16 22 5 9 17 21 fi 8 18 20 1 19 Continued. 32 44 31 3 3 43 45 30 34 42 46 35 41 4' 7 3t 40 48 37 39 49 IS 50 1 2 3 4- 5 6 7 136 ESSAY II. The successive numbers, from 1 to 50, contain one set of this draught; the numbers 1 to 7, commence the second draught. The treading may be in the same order as the draught, or varied at pleasure. The fancy tweels, which have been described, are chiefly employed in the manufacture of table linens and cottons. Besides these, a very great variety of pattern is produced, in the weaving of thick goods, for garments of different kinds. Some of these are woven of silk, or woollen, but cotton is the substance by far the most extensively employed. The difference, in the effects of these, depends entirely upon the succession of the draught, the application of the cording, and the order of treading. Some of these goods* such as velvets, corduroys, &c. have the flushing cut, at certain intervals, after the weaving is finished, to complete the effect. But the investigation of this, and many other ways of finishing cloth, does not come witliin the plan of this work. I have had the good fortune to procure a very extensive, and, I believe, accurate collection of patterns, applicable to these kinds of work. "With them I shall conclude this Essay. The numbers, showing the draught in all these plans, are placed in the order of drawing, and each number denotes one thread. The raising cords are, as usual, represented by cyphers, and the order of treading is pointed out by the numbers placed under each plan. TWEELING. 137 No. 1. PILLOW FUSTIAN. 2 4 3 1 No. 2. PLAIN VELVERET. 1 1 4 5 1 II 1 1 1 3 I 1 1 3 6 2 II 1 0| 1 5 1 1 6 2 3 II 1 1 1 2 |0| 5 1 4 II 1 |0 |6 4 4 6 2 3 1 5 No. 3. DOUBLE JEAN. 4 2 3 1 No. 4. PLAIN THICKSET. |o 1 1 1 II |o 1 8 |o 2 II |o 64 i 3 II 5 2 1 4 II 7 3 1 4 6 2 3 1 5 7 8 No. 5. BEST THICKSET. 6 4 2 3 1 5 No. 7. STRIPE. No. 6. STOCKINET. 1 1 1 1 3 1 II 1 1 1 1 II 1 |0 5 II 1 |0 1 2 1 |0 1 1 2 11 |0|0 1 3 1 1 1 1 6 4 II 1 1 1 4 1 2 4 3 No. 8. VELVET TUFT. |o 6 1 II 1 o| 5 3 1 1 7 4 II 0|0 4 2 |o 5 2 II |o 1 4 2 !o 8 3 II 1 1 ■ ■l 5 3 1 6 4 2 3 1 5 138 ESSAY II. No. 9. PRINCE S CORDS. G 4 2 S 1 5 No. 10. 1 ' 1 ! t lot 7 3 1 11 |o |o| 1 t 1 (0 I |o io| 9 5 II 1 1 |0| 2 ( 1 1 1 1 10 4 H 1 |0 1 1 3 1 |o 1 1 i 1 8 6 2 II I 1 10|4 2 S I 4 No. II. CORD AND VELVERET. No. 12. BARLEY CORN. 1 1> I r I [ 3 1 3 1 ]\ \ 5 1 |0|0 5 7 5 7 3 |0|||0|0t6 8 2 \\ |[0}||86 4 2 6 4 \\ I O I 4 2 4 2 3 1 6 5 4 2 3 1 No. 13. PLAIN CORD. No. M. BOLTON CORD. { 1 1 |o| 3 1 (( 1 1 1 1 |0| [01 5 3 I i |o| 1 1 t 1 1 4 2 tl t |o| t 1 1 1 4 2 lol 1 1 i 0|0| 1 5 II 1 1 1 t 1 \o\ 9 7 1 |o| |o 1 1 [6 If |o |0 t 1 1 1 10 8 6 G 4 2 3 1 5 6 4 2 3 1 5 No. 15. THICKSET CORD. No. 16. ROUND TOP. to|||Q|o| 33MIII|o|o|| 6g ( I O I I I I 4 2 II I I I I I I 10 8 4 I I ) I |Q| 9 7 tl | 0|0| I |0 | 7 1 'i I I I I Mo 8 6 It I I O I I I I 9 ^ 3 4 6 2 3 1 5 TVVEEHNG. 139 No. 17. VELVERET CORD. No. 18. JEAN. I 1 1 I l"-l S 1 1 1^1 I i I ^- i^l_ I _MJLl-J "1 |Q|o| \ Jl 6 4 2 3 1 5 No. 19. CABLE TWEEL. To I \ |0| I 3 6 4 2 3 1 No. 20. GENNET. |o| i 1 1 1 1 II 1 o| |uj 1 1 I'M 1 |o| . 1 2 II 1 1 1 O 1 1 4 1 |o| hM 13 11 1 !"l 1 1 - 1 |o| 1 |o 14 II 1 |UJ i 1 5 1 1 l"J io_ 1 5 II |0 J 1 ]0| 3 1 1 |ol 1 Ol6 11 JO 1 1 1 |6 6 4 2 5 3 1 No. 21. 4 6 2 3 1 No. 22. RIBS. — 1 |o| 1 1 J |o| 1 2 - o| 1 1 3 1 3 IT o|ol i 4 4 |o| |o 5 10 5 1 |ol 6 11 _ 1 6 2 5 3 1 16 4 2 4 3 G 5 No. 23. No. 24. DOUBLE king's CORD. GENOA THICKSET. M 1 |o 01 1 II 01 1 |o| 1 o II " 2 1 t 1 1 s H 1 3 1 1 |o 01 4 (1 4 |oi 1 10 5 H 5 |ol lo| 1 1 6 II 6 '3 4 C « 10 12 3 1 7 5 11 9 4 2 5 3 1 8 6 11 9 7 12 10 140 ESSAY II. No. 25. No. 26. QUEEN S CORDS. |o 1 1 1 1 2 1 ^ 2 3 1 3 10 4 1 4 ^-^ 1 5 1 6 n 6 4 6 2 3 1 5 7 4 2 9 6 3 5 1 10 8 18 15 12 11 7 16 14 17 13 No. 27. No. 28. queen's velveteens. o| 1 II I |o 2 II 2 |o 3 II 3 1 4 11 4 |o 5 II 5 10 6 II 6 1 3 12 8 4 2 5 7 6 9 11 10 2 4 3 6 8 7 5 10 12 11 9 No. 29. PLAIN VELVETEEN. 13 2 4 8 5 7 6 No. 30. GENOA VELVETEEN. II 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 i! 1 1 ( 2 II 1 3 II 1 1 i 3 j 1 1 4 II 1 1 1 4 II 1 5 II 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 6 II 1 (1 1 1 6 2 4 8 12 3 1 6 7 5 10 119 TWEELING. 141 No. 31. No. 32. GENOA VELVERETS. 1 1 § "1 1 2 § "1 1 3 § 1 l« 1 |0 1 4 1 1 ~ 1 4 § 1 |o 1 5 2 "l~ 5 § |o| 1 6 "|"o" |0 6 § 1 1 0| |0 3 4 6 2 7 3 1 8 6 4 2 3 1 16 14 5 10 11 9 7 r> 11 9 8 13 12 14 10 12 13 15 15 16 No. 33. PLAIN BOLTON CORD. No. PLAIN 34. CORD. 1 1 1 |o 1 7 3 1 § |o| 1 1 ' "rm 1 1 8 6 2 § 1 1 o| 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 § |o| 1 1 3 1 1 |o|o 1 9 § 1 1 o| 1 4 |ol 1 1 o| 5 § lo|o 1 1 5 |o|o| 1 1 10 § o| 1 o| 1 6 4 6 2 3 1 No. 35. king's cord. No. 36. corded muslinet. 1 § o| 1 01 1 1 1 2 § 0| |0 o| 2 7 3 § |o| z 3 S 4 § o| l_ |o 4 1 1 ^ 5 § 1 1 ^ 1 ^ 1 lo 6 § 1 1 liL 6 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 5 142 £SSAY II. No. 37. FANCY TNVEEL. No. 38. RIB AND JEAN. jO||0||) 11 1§|0|0[ 0| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 '_' § 1 1 1 1 2 I 1 1 1 1 1 (t 9 3 S 1 1 tJ 1 1 3 |0 |'J|*-'|| 8 4 §||0| 0|4 1 1 1 1 1 : 5 i 1 1 1 1 5 |0| 1 1 |0| 1-2 6 5 1 1 |0 0|6 S 6 4 2 12 1 5 3 7 9 10 11 1 6 3 5 4 2 No. 39. No. 40. VELVET WITH GENOA BACK. VELVET WITH PLAIN BACK. 1 |0| 1 1 § |o| i 1 |0| i |0|OlO| 2 § 1 1 |0| 1 1 2 0|0| II 3 § 1 1 1 |0|0| 3 1 |0|0| 4 § 1 1 |0| ! 1 4 |0|0| jo 5 § 1 |0| 1 |0| 5 1 1 1 1 6 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 2 4 6 10 8 12 3 1 11 9 13 4 2 8 5 7 6 No. 41. HONEY COMB. 8 2 5 3 1 10 4 11 9 7 12 C No. 42. JEAN RIB. |0|0| 1 § l|o||«l 1 1 1 « 1 2 ■ >> 1 1 tJ 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 :5 § 1 1 1 t) 1 1 3 ' 1 1 1 1 4 § 1 1 26 23 17 11 8 2 1 |o| |o 27 21 18 12 6 3 1 |o 1 o| |o 29 5 1 1 |o |o 10 4 1 ^ h> 1 1 15 9 |o |o 1 |o 20 14 1 ^ 1 1 1 |o 2 5 19 \o |o 1 30 24 8 6 14 4 7 10 13 J6 2 3 5 11 15 1 9 148 ESSAY li. No. 63. ROYAL JEAN CORD. 1 1 15 13 1 1 14 12 1 1 16 11 0| 1 10 1 1 y 1 10 5 1 1 4 1 1 7 3 1 1 6 2 1 1 8 1 4 6 5 3 1 No. 64. WILD WORM CORD. 1 1 1 1 1 9 7 3 1 1 1 1 1 jo 5 |0| |0| |0 11 |0| 1 1 |0 13 1 1 1 |0 |0 15 I |0| |0 |0 17 ||||0| 14 8642 |0|o|0|0 0| 18 10 1 |0| 1 0| 12 1 1 tO| 0| 16 8 6 4 2 3 1 10 12 14 16 7 5 24 22 20 18 11 9 15 13 19 17 23 21 TWEELING. 149 No. 65. CORD. j- 1 |0| (0 1 20 1 1 1 |0| 0|0 19 1 1 1 1 |0 1 18 ~n 1 1 1 o|o ., ^^ 1 |0| 1 1 JO 16 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 15 ~| |olo|olo 1 14 ^ O i 1 1 1 1 13 V 1 ■ 1 1 ] ^ 1 10 12 10 8 6 4 2 -|— n"~M |0 11 9 53 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 3 14 16 18 20 22 24 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 No. 66. MOCK QUILTING AND SATIN RIB. 32 31 3 30 4 29 5 28 6 27 17 7 •26 18 16 8 25 19 15 9 24 20 14 10 23 21 ■ 13 11 22 12 CORDING. |o 1 1 o| 0|0 1 1 1 l«l 1 |o o| lojo 1 1 o| |0|0 0(0 o| o| 1 1 o| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 |o 1 1 1 " 1 1 |o| 10 987654321 150 ESSAY II. No. 67. SMALL king's cord. 1 1 1 12 ( 1 1 11 1 1 t' 1 10 6 1 1 1 9 5 1 1 1 4 1 [0 I 3 jo O ( 1 8 jo 1 1 2 \ 1 1 7 I j 1 O j 1 No. 68. DOUBLE BOUND VELVETEEN. 1 ( 1 1 j 1 1 |o 1 1 1 - 1 1 ! 1 3 0| 1 t 1 -1 1 1 5 II 6 1 1 7 1 1 s 1 1 9 1 1 10 1 1 11 1 1 12 No. 69. DUTCH CORD. 1 1 1 1 1 1 0| 1 1 1 1 3 1 jo |0 4 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 6 i j i 7 1 1 1 s * |0 1 |0 9 1 j j 10 j j 11 jo ( 12 6 4 2 5 3 1 TWEELING. 151 The explanations given of the principles of tweeling, and the ereat variety of examples of its application to different species of manufactures, it is presumed, will be sufficient to convey an adequate knowledge to those who peruse this Essay with attention. It will be proper to observe, however, that a kind of tweel is used in weaving some goods, which forms an exception to the general rule; that the flushing upon one side of the cloth is by the warp, and upon the other by the weft. Here the warp and weft are equally flushed, and the appearance of the cloth is the same upon both sides. The following are plans of the draught and cording employed to efi'ect this, upon a scale of four leaves, and four treddles, which is the number generally used. In the first, the treading is progressive; in the second, alternate. No. 1. No. 2. 1 II 1 2 II 2 3 11 3 1 io 4 II 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 3 1 In weaving very fine silk tweels, such as those of six- teen leaves, the number of threads drawn through each interval of the reed is so great, that, if woven with a single reed, they would obstruct each other in rising and sinking, and the shed would not be sufficiently opened to allow the shuttle a free passage. To avoid this incon- venience, other reeds are placed behind that which strikes up the weft; and the warp threads are so disposed, that those which pass through the same interval in the first 152 ESSAY II. reed, are divided in passing through the second, and again in passing through the third. By these means, the obstruction, if not totally removed, is greatly lessened. In the w^eaving of plain thick woollen cloths, to prevent obstructions of the same kind, arising from the closeness of the set and roughness of the threads, only one fourth of the warp is sunk and raised by one treddle, and a second is pressed down to complete the shed, between the times when every shot of weft is thrown across. Note. In the representation of the back harness, Plate 8. the leaves, both of the harness and front heddles, are drawn upon a scale greatly larger than the other parts. This was done for the purpose of showing, more distinctly, the construction of the eyes; and the other parts could not have been represented on the same scale, without ex- tending the plate to a very inconvenient size. PRACTICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS ON THE ART OF WEAVING. BY JOHN DUNCAN, INVENTOR OF THE PATENT TAMBOURING MACHINERY. PART II. ILLUSTRATED BY SEVEN ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. GLASGOW: PRINTED FOR JAMES AND ANDREW DUNCAN, BOOKSELLERS, TRONGATE. 1808. ENTERED IN STATIONERS' HALL. JAMES HEDDEKWICK & PRINTERS, GI.ASGOW CO.") CONTENTS. ESSAY III. DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVING. Introductory Remarks, . 153 Carpets of two Colours, 154. Draw Loom, ...... . 161 Reading on the Design, 164 Patent Draw Loom, ..... . 169 Comparison of the Draw Looms, 172 Remarks on Mounting Draw Looms, . . 174 Carpet Draw Loom, .... 176 Carpets of more than two Colours, . 179 Concluding Remarks, .... ib. r- ESSAY IV. CROSS WEAVING. Introductory Remarks, .... . ISl Gauze, ...... 182 Description of Mounting, . . • . . 186 Application of the Weights, . 187 CONTENTS. PACR. Connections of the Mounting, . 189 Whip Net, 192 Mail Net, . 195 Mounting and Connections, 197 General Remarks, .... . 199 Patent Net, or Night Thought, 200 Mounting and Connections, . 202 Catgut, 204. Miscellaneous Observations, . 205 Dropped Nets, ..... ib. Spider Net, . 206 Double Paris Net, . . . . . ib. Balloon Nets, ..... . ib. Concluding Remarks, .... 207 ESSAY V. SPOT WEAVING. Common Spots, .... . 209 Paper Spots, ..... 212 AUover Spots, ..... . 214. Brocades, or Finger Spots, 218 Spot Draw Loom, .... . 220 Lappets, ....... 221 Double Frame Lappet, . 222 Wheel Lappets, ..... ib. Pressed Spotting, .... . 224. Conclusion, 225 CONTENTS. ESSAY VI. ECONOMY OF "WEAVING- PACS. Introductory Remarks, . 227 State of the Linen Trade in 1733, . 231 Advance of this Trade until 1784', . 250 Remarks on the Linen Manufacture, 252 Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade, . 253 Comparison of the Trades, 256 Modes of Economy in the Cotton, . 258 "Winding Machines for Warp, 259 Stockport Plan, . . . , . 261 Dressing Machine, .... ib. Improvement in Looms, . 262 Remarks on Dressing, .... 263 Cylindrical Brush Machine, . 266 Experiment made at Barrowfield, 267 Hints for its Improvement, . 270 Power Looms, 272 Wiper Loom, ..... . 274. Crank Loom, ..... 276 Vertical Loom, .... . 277 Velocity of Power Looms, 282 Modes of inserting Weft, . . 283 Compressing of Cops, .... ib. Winding Machines for Pirns, . 284 CONTENTS. ESSAY VII. MANUFACTURING OF CLOTH. PAGE. Introductory Remarks, ..... 285 Caaming, or Sleying, ..... 286 Geometrical Principles, as published in 1759, . 287 Remarks on this Theory, .... 296 Computation of Linen Yarn, .... 302 Table of Warps, 305 Principle of the Calculations, . . . .318 Computation of Cotton Yarn, . . . 319 of Woollen Yarn, . . . .321 of Silk, ..... ib. Scotch and English Reeds, . . . . ib. Bolton and Manchester Reeds, . . . 322 Stockport Reeds, ...... ib. Comparative Tables, ..... 323 Manchester and Bolton, . ; . . . 324« Stockport, 325 Weavers' Glasses, 326 LIST OF THE PLATES. 4th, Miscellaneous Specimens of the Texture of Cloth. 9th, Plans and Sections of various Draw Looms. 10th, Plans and Sections of Gauze Mountings. 11th, Plans and Sections of Net Mountings. 12th, Designs, Draughts, and Cordings of Spots. 13th, Do. do. Hth, Plans, &c. of the Working Machinery of Power Looms. ESSAY III. ON THE WEAVING OF DOUBLE CLOTH. THE next variety of weaving which claims our attention, is that of double cloth. It is composed of two webs, each of which consists of separate warp and separate weft; but the two are interwoven at intervals. The junction of the two webs is formed by passing each of them occasionally through the other, so that each par- ticular part of both is sometimes above, and sometimes below. This species of weaving is, almost exclusively, confined to the manufacture of carpets, in this country. The texture is generally the same as that of plain cloth, although some are manufactured with cut flushing, similar to velvet. The material employed is generally dyed woollen, and, as almost all carpets are decorated with fanciful ornaments, the colours of the two webs are dif- ferent; and they are made to pass through each other, at such intervals as will form the pattern required. Hence it arises, that the pattern on each side of a carpet is the same, but the colours are reversed. U 154 ESSAY III. More colours than two are frequently introduced into carpets, but as the most simple mode of illustrating the general principle and process, we shall, in the first in- stance, confine our attention to CARPETS OF TWO COLOURS. As we have formerly supposed the warp of tweels to be white, and the weft black, we shall now suppose that a carpet is to be woven, one web of which shall be white, and the other black. Let us also suppose the pattern to be the same with that given as the first example of fanciful tweeling; that is, a representation of a checker board, the squares of which are black and white alter- nately, as in Fig. 1. Plate 6. already referred to. A web of this kind may be wrought with eight leaves of heddles, moved by eight treddles. The draught of the warp, and application of the raising cords, will appear by the plan of draught and cording which follows: Black above. White above. 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 7 5 3 1 White 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 8 6 4 'J White 2 |0|0|0||||0|| 7531 Black 3 0|0||0||O|||| 8642 Black 4 0| |0|0i| 1 1 |0| 7 53 1 White 5 0|0|0| II joj 1 18 642 White 6 1 |0( II |0|0|0| 7 5 3 1 Black 7 0| 1 1 II 1 1 |0j8 6 4 2 Blacks- 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 •fi X 75 w w « .2 ^ .2 White above. Black above. DOUBLE CLOTH. 155 By examining the preceding plan, the draught of the two warps will plainly appear, for in each of the two sets of heddles, two leaves contain the white warp, and two the black, and one splitful of each, containing two threads, is drawn alternately. The web is also wefted, by throwing across a shot of white and a shot of black, alternately. Now, we are to suppose, that in the portion of warp, which is represented as drawn through the four front leaves, the black warp is to be wrought above, and the white warp below; and, that the four back leaves exactly reverse this operation. Let us then examine what effect each treddle will produce, when the cording is applied ac- cording to the plan. Let the treddle 1 be pressed down, and a shot of white weft be thrown across. The cording which connects this treddle with the leaves, raises the white leaves 1 and 5, and sinks those marked 2 and 6. Thus one half of the white warp is raised, the other half is sunk, and as the warp is drawn through each leaf alternately, plain white cloth will be produced. At this tread, the black warp is not interwoven at all, for, in the back set of leaves, where the white is to be above, both the black leaves 3 and 4 are sunk; and in the front set, where the reverse takes place, both the black leaves 7 and 8 are raised. The white weft, therefore, passes over the former, and under the latter, perfectly clear of both. Let the treddle 2 be next pressed down, and a black shot be thrown across. This treddle raises the black leaves 3 and 7, and sinks those marked 4- and 8. This, therefore, produces plain black cloth, as the former did white. Here the white is not interwoven, for the white leaves 1 and 2, in the back set, are both raised, and those in the front set, 4 and 5, ^re both sunk. The third treddle again weaves white 156 ESSAY III. cloth, sinking the white threads which were raised by the treddle 1, and raising those which were sunk. The fourth treddle again produces black cloth, in the same way. So long as the weaver continues to tread these treddles in succession, the effect, as in tweeling, will continue the same, and the web, when finished, would have the ap- pearance of a black and white stripe. But, to produce the checker, when one set of squares are completed, he shifts to the second set of treddles 5, 6, 7, 8, which re- verse the effect, raising the white where it was formerly sunk, and sinking it where it was raised. This is the principle upon which all double cloth is woven, and its application to fanciful ornament forms the only variety in the mounting of the looms. Carpets are seldom wrought with leaves and treddles, nor are they well fitted for this branch of weaving. The materials being coarse and ponderous, the webs frequently broad, and the range of pattern generally extensive, there would, neither be room for tlie leaves required, nor could the weaver exert the power necessary for treading. An apparatus, similar to the back harness, formerly described, may be used for some patterns; and when the range is extensive, carpets must be woven in the draw loom. Very few carpets, if any, are woven in this country, excepting in draw looms. It will be curious, however, to explain how they may be wrought by a back harness, and to trace the analogy, which subsists between tweeling and double cloth. The mode of weaving carpets, as now practised, will then be investigated. To illustrate the application of the harness to carpet weaving, we shall again recur to the checker pattern, and compare the effect of working it by a harness, with the explanation already given of mounting it with leaves. DOUBLE CLOTH. 157 1st Harness lea f w www b b 2d Harness leaf b b b b w w w «) >.< r rt :« ^ :« J2 IT -— *:>. E J? pp ^ •a -a ;2 ;2 1 x| -\ 1 7 5 3 1 7 5 3 1 White 2 x| ^\ 1 8 6 4 2 8 6 4 2 White n 1 l'^ 1 I'^l 7 5 3 1 7 5 3 1 Black 4 1 1 ^ 1 |x| 8 6 4 2 8 6 4 2 Black 4 3 2 1 The checker pattern may be wrought by this mounting, and will produce exactly the same effect as the former. A comparison of the two will be useful to illustrate the difference between leaves and harness mounting. In the former, eight leaves and eight treddles were necessary; in this, six leaves and four treddles are sufficient. The two back leaves form the harness, and are raised by levers and cords, suspended over the weaver's head, as described in the last Essay, and represented in Fig. 1. Plate 8. The letter w represents one splitful, or two threads, of white warp ; the letter b, one splitful of black. In this kind of weaving, when the harness is used, two threads are drawn through each eye. The front mounting consists of four leaves, moved by four treddles. The draught of both warps, through the harness, will appear by inspecting the plan; each letter representing two threads, as above stated. Of the front leaves, two contain the white, and two the black warp. The succession of drawing is denoted by the figures. When the first leaf of the harness is raised, press down the first treddle, and throw a white shot across. The white and black warp, being, alternately, drawn through 158 ESSAY III. the harness leaf, according to the range of the pattern, the white will be raised in the one set of checkers, and the black in the other. The cording applied to the first treddle raises the white leaf 1, and sinks the leaf 2. This treddle has no connection with the two black leaves, which remain stationary. In this instance, the letter x is used, where no connection between the heddles and treddles ought to be made. The same letter will be used, wherever a similar case occurs. The leaf I raises one thread of every splitful of white in the second harness leaf, and the leaf 2 sinks one thread of every splitful in the first leaf. Plain white cloth is, therefore, produced by the operation of this treddle. The white will be above, or below, according to the situation of the harness leaf through which the warp passes. The second treddle produces the same effect upon the black warp, which the first does upon the white. The third and fourth treddles complete the operation. When one range of checkers has been completed, the first harness leaf is lowered, and the second raised. This reverses the situation of the two warps, and the operation pro- ceeds as before. The eyes of the heddles in the front inounting, are of a length rather more than the whole depth of the shed, as in tweeling. The eyes of the harness leaves are made of tin or copper, and are called mails f by weavers. There are many different plans for raising the harness leaves, whether used for fancy tweeling or for double cloth. It is not easy to determine which is the best; for upon this, as in all other practical applications of the mechanical powers, much diversity of opinion has existed, and probably will continue to exist. In general, the superiority of one plan to another must be ascertained DOUBLE CLOTH. 159 by particular circumstances, rather than by precise rules. In the representations given in Plate 8. the harness leaves are raised by means of two parallel levers, moving upon their centres. When there is sufficient room for an apparatus of this kind, it seems well adapted to the pur- pose for which it is intended. If accurately constructed, the two ends of the leaf, will rise equally, and, conse- quently, the shed will be equally deep in every part. It is, however, much more common, in extensive harness mountings, to raise all the leaves, by means of cords passing over pullies. A cord is fixed to either side of the leaf, near the extremity, and the two cords meet in the centre, in an oblique direction, nearly similar to what is represented in Fig. 1. Plate 5. Each cord, passing over a pully, is then brought, in a horizontal direction, over the weaver's seat, and made fast to a piece of wood, generally nailed to the upper cross rail of the loom. To each of these cords another is attached, which passes through the board. Fig. 3. Plate 8, as formerly described. When the handle at the lower end of one of these cords is pulled down, the leaf or leaves attached to the cording rise, and as before, the knot upon the cord is secured by the notch in the board, until an alteration becomes necessary. In comparing these ways of mounting a back harness, it will be obvious, that the plan exhibited in the Plate is more steady and secure than the other. The parallel levers by which the leaves are raised, if made of sound wood, and properly seasoned, will be little affected by the variation of the weather, and the leaves, of course, will rise regularly and equally at both ends. This is very important in weaving tweels and carpets, where the breadth of the web is frequently two or three yards. 1 lie mounting by cords, however, is cheaper, and occupies 160 ESSAY III. Jess room. But hempen cords, which are generally used, besides their tendency to stretch when new, are very considerably afFccted by every vicissitude of the atmo- sphere, and, therefore, less dependence ought to be placed upon their operation. I have often thought that when looms are mounted for fancy weaving, particularly where the fabric is thick, and the power required great, the substitution of wires for cords would be a material improvement. A wire remains perfectly uniform in all seasons, and, from its superior strength, would last for many years. Cords, on the contrary, besides being contracted or relaxed by every change of the atmosphere, are very apt to rot from damp or moisture, which is very common in weaver's shops. I am aware, that the expence of mounting a loom with wires, will form a serious objection when a variety of work is wanted, and the mounting, of course, frequently- changed. But, when there is a rational prospect of a loom being employed for a length of time upon the same pattern, I am convinced that it will be found not only the best, but eventually the cheapest plan. When a mounting is extensive, and much cordage required, great pains are frequently necessary to keep the whole regular, and much time is lost in regulating and repairing the cords. If wires are used, the leaves must be raised by levers; for wire, however much softened, does not possess sufficient flexibility to bend over a puUy. The wires should be lackered or painted, to preserve them from rusting, and their lengths may be regulated with great accuracy, by means of temper screws. The above, however, is given merely as an opinion, for I have never known the experi- ment tried; but I do not entertain a doubt, that it would be found a material improvement. DOUBLE CLOTH. 161 But in actual practice, carpets are generally, if not always, woven in the DRAW LOOM. I SHALL, therefore, before proceeding, endeavour to describe and illustrate the principle and construction of this extensive and useful machine, and to trace the dif- ference which generally subsists betvi-^een those which are used for double cloths or carpets, and those employed for the manufacture of damasks, which are fancy tweels of the most extensive range of pattern. Draw looms, as noticed in the Essay on tweeling, are also used for spot weaving, when the pattern is extensive; but the construc- tion of these differs very little from the others, and the small deviations shall be noticed in the proper place. I preferred postponing the description of the damask draw loom, until I could also introduce that for carpets; both for the sake of tracing the analogy between them, and to afford further opportunities of extending my inquiries and examinations, respecting these machines, which are, by much, the most complicated used by weavers. I offer this apology for inserting the observations upon damask, which properly form a part of the Essay upon tweeling, in this place. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to give repre- sentations of the full mounting of an extensive draw loom, for the number of cords is so irhmense, and they are, necessarily placed so close together to save room, that it would only create unnecessary confusion to attempt to delineate the whole. I have lately seen a damask draw loom at Dunfermline, where that manufacture is carried to great extent and perfection. This loom, which I was X 162 ESSAY III. Assured was not the most extensive in the place, contained 120 designs of 10 spaces each, and, consequently, was adapted to work a pattern as extensive as could have been efl^^cted by 1200 leaves, upon the plan of the back harness formerly described. I have, therefore, represented speci- mens of the working parts upon a Hmited plan, for the most extensive are only continuations of the most limited,^ in the same regular succession. Tliese plans will be found in Plate 9. The use of the draw loom is to combine much mount- ing in a small space-, consequently, the shafts, and every other part which is composed of wood, are avoided, and the moving apparatus consists entirely of cordage. That part of the apparatus which serves as a substitute for the heddles of other looms, is called the harness, and passes through a flat board containing a number of holes or other divisions. In Fig. 1 . the edge of the board is re- presented at C, and the harness passing through it at H. The figure is a transverse elevation of that part which is peculiar to the draw loom, the front leaves, which are worked by treddles, and all other parts in front being taken away for the purpose of showing these parts. I'n the draw loom, the draught of the warp through the mails of the harness is always in uniform succession, as in tweeling; but it is customary to draw a number of threads through the same mail, as in the back harness used for the diaper. Indeed, the draw loom harness is merely an extension of the former, effecting the same end by different means. Fig. 2. is a representation of the flat side of the board, the edge of which is seen in Fig. 1. to show the way in which the holes, or divisions, through which the harness passes, are placed. Near the centre of each twine of the harness, is the copper or pewter DOUBLE CLOTH. 163 mail, which serves as the eye, and each is kept tight by a small weight (generally of lead) hung to the bottom. Now, if we are to suppose that the range of the pattern is 100 spaces of the design, for 1000 or any number is only an extension of the same principle, then the 1st, 101st, 201st, Sec. twines, after passing through the board are to be knotted together, because all rise at once, each being the first of a new design. In like manner, the 2d, 102d, &c. are knotted, and so on until the whole succession of 100 is completed. To each of these a cord is then tied, which after passing over a pully in the box A (containing in this case 100 pullies) is fastened, in a horizontal direction, to a fixture on one side of the loom, and nearly level with the box A. The horizontal part of these cords is marked B, and this part of the mounting is called the tail. To each cord in the tail, another cord is tied at a convenient distance on one side of the loom, and passes perpendicularly towards the floor, near which they are all made fast to a cross piece of wood. These cords are called swipleSf and are distin- guished by the letter D. Another stout cord F is then stretched from the roof to the floor, parallel to, and at a small distance from the simples. These operations being performed, the whole must be made uniformly tight, and care must be taken that all the mails are level and of a proper height. The warp is then to be drawn through the mails and front mounting, successively, as before mentioned, and the remaining parts for lifting the harness to form the design are to be applied. If the connection fi'om the harness to the simples is traced, it will be evident that when any simple is either pulled down, or strongly to one side, it will raise all the twines and mails with which it is connected j and, when 164 ESSAY III. relieved, they will be pulled back to their former places, by the weights which are fastened to each. As the simples are very numerous and close to each other, it would be impossible, in a heavy design, to select those which should be successively pulled, without a great waste of time, unless means of regular and speedy selection are employed. This is effected by means of another set of cords called lashes^ represented at E, and connecting the simples with the cord F, upon both of which the lashes slide easily up and down. The applica- tion of the lashes to the simples must be regulated by the pattern to be produced, and this is called READING ON THE DESIGN. Tpiis operation, from the complexity of the patterns, and the necessity of accuracy, is generally performed by two persons. The pattern, being drawn upon design paper, points out what mails are to be raised, or which is the same, what simples are to be pulled at every change of the harness. It is the business, therefore, of one person to read, or rather to select, from the paper what simples are to have lashes applied to them at every change. The other person, following the instructions which he receives, passes a lash round eveiy simple which is pointed out. He then knots the lashes together, and connects the other end with the cord F by a loop round it, so that the lashes may slide freely upon it. The other end passing loosely round each simple, also slides fi^eely upon them. The lashes must be uniformly tied, that the simples may be pulled equally. A single instance will be sufficient, to illustrate how the design is taker; from the design paper. DOUBLE CLOTH. 165 Let Fig. 14. Plate 4. represent the design of a flower, any number of which are to be woven, at certain intervals, by the draw loom. By counting the spaces upon the design paper, it will appear that this flower covers 45 by the breadth, and 35 by the lengtli. The former gives the number of mails in one flower; and the latter, the number of changes which the harness must undergo while it is working. When the warp has been regularly drawn, and the simples applied, the lashes are to be placed according to the design. In this case, every square which is black, represents a simple to be raised. Begin- ning at the bottom, it appears that only two mails are to be raised for the stem of the flower, and counting from the right hand, these will be raised by the 31st and 32d simple. The instruction, therefore, given to the person who applies the lashes isj Pass thirty and take two. On the second row of squares, part of the flower as well as the stem, must be raised, and by counting as before from the right, passing the white, and taking the black, the direction will be; Pass 18, take 3; pass 8 and take 2. On the third, two other parts come in: therefore, pass 10, take 3; pass 5, take 5; pass 7, take 2; pass 7 and take 4. In the same way, the operations are continued until the whole 35 are completed, always passing the white, and taking the black. I shall add the whole instructions for this flower, by comparing which with the design, the principle may be sufficiently understood, and all damask patterns, however extensive, are done exactly on the same plan. 1st, Pass 30 and take 2. 2d, Pass 18, take 3; pass 8 and take 2. 3d, Pass 10, take 3; pass 5, take 5; pass 7, take 2; pass 7 and take 4. 166 ESSAY III. 4th, Pass 9, take 5; pass 4, take 5; pass 6, take 3; pass 6 and take 6. 5th, Pass 8, take 7; pass 3, take 5; pass 6, take 4; pass 4 and take 7. 6th, Pass 8, take 7; pass 4, take 3^ pass 6, take 2; pass 2, take 2; pass 2 and take 8. 7th, Pass 8, take 7; pass 4, take 2; pass 6, take 3-, pass 2 and take 1 1 . 8th, Pass 9, take 5; pass 5, take 2; pass 5, take 4i pass 2, take 2-, pass 3 and take 4. 9th, Pass 10, take 3; pass 8, take 2; pass 2, take 4; pass 4 and take 2. 10th, Pass 11, take 2-, pass 10, take 2; pass 2, take 2; pass 4 and take 2. 11th, Pass 11, take 2^ pass 10, take 3; pass 2, take 2; pass 6 and take 2. 12th, Pass 13, take 3; pass 3, take 3; pass 4, take 2j pass 6 and take 5. IStli, Pass 16, take 4; pass 5, take 2-, pass 8 and take 8. 14th, Pass 25, take 2; pass 8 and take 9. 15th, Pass 24, take 2; pass 10 and take 9. 16th, Pass 8, take 3; pass 13, take 2; pass 11 and take 8. 17th, Pass 7, take 5; pass 11, take 2; pass 14 and take 6. 18th, Pass 7, take 6; pass 9, take 3; pass 16 and take 3. 19th, Pass 7, take 6; pass 8, take 4. 20th, Pass 7, take 6; pass 7, take 0; pass 7, take 4. 21st, Pass 1, take 3; pass 4, take 5-, pass 6, take 2-, pass 2, take Sj pass 5, take 6. DOUBLE CLOTH. 167 22cl, Take 6, pass 3; take 4, pass 4; take 3, pass 3, take 14-. 23d, Take 7, pass 3-, take 2, pass 5; take 2, pass 3-, take 9. 24th, Take 8, pass 2; take 2, pass 2^ take 2, pass 8; take 2, pass 3 ; take 7. 25th, Pass 1, take 13; pass 10, take 2; pass 5, take -I-. 26th, Pass 2, take 5; pass 3, take 4; pass 10, take 2. 27th, Pass 10, take 2; pass 2, take 4; pass 7, take 2. 28th, Pass 8, take 4; pass 2, take 6; pass 5, take 2. 29th, Pass 7, take 5; pass 3, take 6j pass 5, take 6. 30th, Pass 7, take 5; pass 3, take 6; pass 5, take 8. 31st, Pass 6, take 6; pass 3, take 6; pass 6, take 8. 32d, Pass 6, take 5; pass 5, take 5; pass 6, take 8. 33d, Pass 6, take 5; pass 6, take 3; pass 8, take 7. 34th, Pass 6, take 5; pass 19, take 3. 35th, Pass 7, take 3. From this It will appear, that the shape of every pattern wrought in the draw loom, depends entirely upon the mode of connecting the lashes and the simples. Of course, the pattern may be altered at pleasure, to any other which does not exceed the range of the mounting, merely by changing the order of this connection. It will also be obvious, that in ascertaining the order from the design paper, the connection of the lashes with the simples, is denoted by counting from right to left, or vice versa, and that the number of changes, and conse- quently the number and arrangement of sets of lashes on the cord F, is, In like manner, ascertained by counting the design from the bottom to the top. The first set is generally placed lowest upon the cord, and the rest in regular succession above it. The sets are connected with each other, at convenient distances, by pieces of 168 ESSAY III. twine; so that by a slight pull, they will follow eacli other in regular order. When the connections are com- pleted, all the sets are pushed up nearly to the top of the cord F. The loom is then to be worked by two persons, one of whom pulls the draught, and the other manages the treddles, shuttle, and ley. The fore mount- ing is exactly the same, in every respect, as the diaper harness, and the number of leaves equal to one Set of the tweel. For the ordinary qualities of damasks, five leaves are commonly used, but many of the finest are wTought with eight. When the operators are ready to begin, the person who draws, pulls the first set of lashes down, and then by drawing the simples, and consequently the tail, raises that part of the harness attached to the part which is pulled. The weaver then works until a change of the harness becomes necessary. The person who draws, then slacks the simples which had been drawn, pulls down the second set of lashes and draws the simples as be- fore; the weaver proceeds to work until another change is required, and so on until the whole pattern is com- pleted. In the design given, the weaver is to work once over his treddles between every change, and this is generally the case in damask weaving. When the mounting of the draw loom is very extensive, it is found convenient to have two, and sometimes three boxes of pullies; for were the whole number of pullies placed in one box or frame, it must be extended to a very inconvenient size. These are placed parallel to each other, as represented by the dotted lines Fig. 1. and an equal portion of the cordage is conducted over each. It is also common, to have three or four different sets of dimples, and lashes. One set of these is stretched, and DOUBLE CLOTH. 169 the others are loose; and each set is stretched in turn, when a different part of the pattern is to be wrought. Many different attempts have been made, at various times, and with various success, to supersede the neces- sity of employing an additional person to draw the lashes, by constructing the apparatus so, that the weaver may draw the harness, as well as work the treddles. The most recent, and probably the most generally adopted of these plans, is one which has been lately invented and introduced at Dunfermline, where it is now very com- mon. It is known there, by the name of the PATENT DRAW LOOM. In this loom, the tail of the harness, instead of being carried over pullies to one side, extends perpendicularly upward, and is fastened to the roof of the shop. Upon each cord is a knot, at a convenient distance from the roof, and all the knots must be at an equal heighth. The simples extend horizontally over the weavers' head, where they are made fast ; and the lashes hang down from these, and have generally a small handle, or bob, as it is fre- quently called, attached to each. An instrument, called the comby from its figure, is hung in a horizontal position, and moveable on its centres. The appearance and shape of the comb will be found in Fig. 4. which represents it as it appears when viewed from above or below. In Fig. 5. it appears as viewed on one side. In both these figures, a represents the centres, b the teeth, c the pull, d a few cords representing the relative situation of the tail of the harness to the comb, e cords representing simples, and f Fig. 5. the situation of the lashes. In Fig. 5. the operation is represented by two cords of the y 170 ESSAY III. tail d, one of whicli has the knot drawn into the teeth b, and the other is disengaged. When the weaver puUa down any particular set of lashes, those simples to which they are attached, are drawn into the oblique direction^ as at e, and, consequently, pull those cords of the tail to which they are tied between the teeth of the comb. The end of the lever projecting at c, being then pulled down, and secured by a knot in a notch, in the same way as the diaper harness mounting, the -teeth rise, and by means of the knots, carry up that part of the harness which is drawn betwixt the teeth, whilst all the rest remains free. When a change is wanted, the comb is let down, and the simples being slacked, the cords of the tail quit the comb; another set is drawn in by pulling another set of lashes, the comb is again raised and secured as before, and the operation proceeds. The weaver pulls the lashes with one hand, and raises the comb with the other, so thac very little time is consumed in changing the harness. The patent draw loom seems to possess some very ob-^ vious advantages, which are not to be found in the old loom. It saves the labour of an additional person, and the operation seems to be conducted altogether, or nearly^ as quick. 2dly, Both the tail and simples are much shorter, and, consequently, require less cordage; the boxes or frames of pullies are unnecessary, and the space occupied by the simples at the side of the loom is saved : and 3dly, The mechanical appai'atus is so applied, that much less power is required to raise the harness, which must be of considerable advantage in heavy mounted looms, where the strength required is very considerable. By reducing the way in which the power is applied in both cases, to the elementary principles, the difference will be found to be very great. In the first case, one end DOUBLE CLOTH. 171 of the tail is made fast, and the other sustains all the weights attached to the harness. The simples which are pulled down to raise the harness are connected to the tail, between the end which is fast and the pullies. Con- sequently, the simples act in the same ratio, as a weight fixed to a moving pully, suspended by a rope passing through the pully, and of which rope one end is made fast. It has been often demonstrated, that a weight, say of 2 lbs. in this situation, will be balanced by another of only 1 lb. suspended from the other end of the rope, after passing over a fixed pully. Hence the weight, or the power, which is the same thing, applied to the simples to pull them down, must be somewhat more than double the sum of all the weights, attached to that part of the harness which is to be raised. See Emerson's Mechanics, Prop. 27, or almost any elementary treatise. But in the case of the patent loom, the harness is raised perpendicularly by the comb; consequently, no more power is required than will overcome the sum of the weights to be raised; and if the lever, at the end of which the comb is fixed, be divided into three equal parts, and the centres, or pivots, placed at the distance of one of these parts from the comb, the power will be again doubled: Emerson, Prop. 19. From these calcula- tions, we may deduce, that the power required to raise the harness of the patent loom, v/ill be only about one fourth of that required for the other. But in every species of complicated mechanism, many deficiencies and objections, which may not be obvious to the eye of a transient spectator, frequently become apparent upon practical experience. For this reason, I was at pains to collect from those who were daily em- ployed in working them, their opinions of the comparative merits of the two plans. 172 ESSAY III. When the range of pattern was not very great, I found both the general opinion and practice, which is still more conclusive, decidedly in favour of the patent loom. It was only respecting the very highest mounted looms, that a difference of opinion seemed to exist. I was informed that two looms, of very extensive ranges, had been lately mounted; the first, of 120 designs, upon the old plan; the second, of 125 designs, upon the patent plan. Both looms were allowed to execute their work in a very suf- ficient manner, but it was stated, that the mounting of the patent loom, although last set to work, was already much decayed, whilst that of the other, which had pro- duced more cloth, was impaired in no perceptible degree. Should this prove to be generally the case, it will form a just ground of hesitation, in preferring the new to the old plan, in looms of this description. The mounting of an extensive draw loom, is a work necessarily involving much time, labour, and expence, and the loom must therefore, be employed for a very considerable portion of time, before it will indemnify the proprietor. But it may be possible, admitting the fact to be as stated, which I have no reason to doubt, that the difference of the mounting of these two looms, in point of durability, might be produced by some incidental or contingent circumstances in their construction, independent of the general principle. The cordage of the one might be inferior to that of the other, either in the quality of the stuff, in the spinning, or in both. Some part of the machinery might have been imperfect in the work- manship, and caused unnecessary friction; the mounting might have deviated a little from an equal degree of tension, or from the true level, which must produce more strain on one part than another. Whether any of DOUBLE CLOTH. 173 these causes did operate in this case, I had riq means of ascertaining ; but, in forming opinions respecting complicated and expensive machines, too much caution cannot be used, in investigating not only the direct principles of construction, but all the minute and colla- teral circumstances which may affect their operations. Want of attention to this, has been more injurious to the improvement and extension of practical mechanism, than any circumstance which has come to my knowledge upon that subject. Therefore, without offering any decided opinion upon the fact stated, it may be sufficient to re- mark, that speculatively and abstractedly considered, the patent loom, particularly the harness part of it, appears to possess some advantage over the other, even in point of durability. The tail, instead of being conducted over pullies to one side, rises perpendicularly to the roof; consequently, the cords deviate much less from a straight line, and the decay which must be produced, both by the friction of tlie pullies, and the deflection of the cords, is, almost entirely avoided. It is, however, to be allowed, that some friction will be produced by pulling the cords betwixt the teeth of the comb, and afterwards, by raising the harness, and that, in the former of these motions, the friction is almost at right angles to the staple of the hemp or lint, which is a very unfavourable direction. In these comparisons of the old and patent draw looms, I have endeavoured impartially, to state both the opinions which I had collected, and the remarks which occurred to myself. Probably, some time may still elapse, before the superiority of either will be universally admitted, even by those who, from their practical experi- ence, have the best opportunities of forming an accurate judgment upon the subject. 174 ESSAY III. But, in whatever way a draw loom is mounted, too much attention cannot be paid, both to the quality of the materials, and accuracy of the workmanship. This, in- deed, is a general rule, and will be found to apply to every description of machinery. No plan of economy can be more ruinous in its effects, than that of construct- ing any piece of mechanism of insufRcient materials, and inaccurate workmanship, for the sake of a small reduction of the first expence. The mounting of an extensive draw loom will occupy a man, for at least four months. Estimating these to be lunar months, of 2 i working days to each, and the person, employed in mounting the loom, to earn 3/. per day, the expence, for labour alone, will amount to 14'/. Sj-. before the loom can be set to work. Let us then suppose, that the wea- ver who works this loom, besides paying the person who draws the harness, if he employs one, can earn 1/. per day, more than he could if weaving plain cloth. In this case, it will require 288 working days of constant indus- try, before the price of labour in mounting is repaid, exclusive of the whole expence of the materials. It is plain, that whether a weaver mounts a loom for himself, or employs another to do it for him, the case will be precisely the same, for in both instances the price is esti- mated by the labour. In the first instance, labour is given; in the second, money; and, by the supposition, the value is the same. But, to make the calculation simple, let us suppose that an operative weaver m.ounts the draw loom, which he is afterwards to work. By the supposi- tions which we have made, he will expend 96 working days, in the mounting, before he begins to weave, and 288 working days in weaving, before he recovers com- mon wages for the time which he has expended. These, DOUBLE CLOTH. 175 taken together, amount to 384? working days, to which adding the intervening Sundays (without any allowance for holidays, sickness, or other causes of impediment), lie will at the end of one year and 83 days, or nearly 15 months, be merely paid for his labour. Now let us again suppose that the money expended for materials of the best quality, in mounting a draw loom, amounts to 10/. and, that those of inferior quality, might be purchased for 6/. Let us suppose also, that these two mountings will last in proportion to their prices, which, in practice, is never the case, for the vulgar adage " the best is always the best penny-worth," will here be found in- variably true. In this case, the former will last ten months for every six that the latter will. Let us then suppose, that the worst mounting will last for two years, and the best for three years and four months; the calcu- lation will then be FOR THE WORST. For labour, as before . . . Z,. l-l- 8 For materials . . . . , 6 20 8 RETURN. Is. per day for G26 working days . . 316 The profit, therefore, to the weavef will be 10/. 18/. excluding interest. FOR THE BEST^ For labour , . . . For materials RETURN. 1..-. per day for 1043 working days Or of profit, excluding interest Z.14. 8 10 24 8 52 3 28 15 176 ESSAY III. In both cases, it is supposed, that each kind of material has been laid in at the fair market price, and that no imposition has been practised on the buyer. The grounds upon which these calculations are made, have been taken entirely at random, to illustrate and prove the position advanced. Whether the price of wages, the cost of materials, or the durability of the appara- tus, be taken high or low, the inference will be nearly the same. In every state of the price of labour, if good materials only repay a weaver, bad will ruin him; and, if bad materials yield him a profit, good ones would yield him much more. Simple as this principle is, and easily demonstrable, there are few from which there are more deviations in common practice. I have known incalculable loss, in many instances, arise from this deviation, and have, therefore, entered more into the consideration of it, than I should have done, were it more generally understood, and practised in the affairs of common life. We now proceed to consider the application of the draw loom to the weaving double cloth, and to explain the dilFerence which exists between the Damask, and CARPET DRAW LOOM. Carpets, being generally composed of coarse and bulky materials, there are, of course, much fewer splits, or threads, in the warp, than in that of a damask; and, consequently, the drawing apparatus is much less exten- sive. The common run of carpets do not exceed 10 porters of warp, 4 threads in the split, in the breadth of 37 inches, which is equal to a 500, wrought two in the split or 1000 threads. The harness and mails of the DOUBLE CLOTH. 177 carpet draw loom, are perfectly similar to those of the damask, excepting that they are larger and coarser. In drawing a carpet through the harness, only one thread passes through each mail, and one thread of each of the two warps is drawn alternately. The draught, through the harness, proceeds in regular succession as in the damask, and two threads of each warp pass between the same splits of the reed, which is, generally, of steel. It is found, in general, unnecessary to use simples in the carpet draw loom; the lashes, therefore, are attached directly to the cords of the tail, from which they hang down perpendicularly at one side of the loom. To the lower end of each set of lashes is tied a cord, and to the other end of this cord, is suspended a small handle, or bob. Fig. 6. is a transverse elevation of part of a carpet draw loom, showing how the lashes and bobs are attached to the tail. A is the box or frame of pullies, B the tail, C the lashes, G the board through which the cords pass, H the bobs. The bobs are suspended in two rows, as represented in Fig. 7. which is a section of the board G, showing two of the bobs. Of these bobs, one lifts that portion of the black warp which is to be uppermost; the other lifts the white in the same manner, supposing still that these are the two colours of which the carpet is com- posed. The four front leaves open the sheds, two being set apart for the black warp, and two for the white. The front leaves of the carpet draw loom are exactly similar to those of the diaper, the eyes being of a length rather more than the depth of the shed, so that they may not interrupt the harness in rising. In some looms, the whole is mounted as a harness, and the treddles are connected with certain of the tail cords. Upon inquiring Z 178 ESSAY III. of persons, who had been long in the habit of working both, I could not ascertain that any decided preference was to be given to either plan. Both are found to do very well, and both are generally used in different manufactories. Let us now suppose, that Fig. 14. Plate 4'. is to be wrought as a carpet, and that the figure is black upon a white ground. In this case, when a white shot is thrown across, the figure must be raised, and the ground sunk; and when a black shot is inserted, the ground is to be raised, and the figure sunk. For the first, the instruc- tions. In reading on, will be the same with those given for damask, and for the second, directly the reverse. As the shots of weft are thrown in alternately, the harness must be changed at every shot, and for this reason the bobs are placed in pairs, as represented by Fig. 7. The instructions, therefore, will be 1st. White shot, pass 30 and take 2. Black shot, take 30, pass 2, take 13. and so on, whatever is passed in the one case, being taken in the other. Different plans have been tried in carpet weaving, as well as damask, to supersede the use of the draw boy. Hitherto, none of them have come into very general practice, although there seems no reason to doubt that some saving may be effected in this way. Carpet weav- ing, however, does not possess the same facilities for this as damask, for in the former, as the harness must be changed at every shot, if the time of doing so should • impede the weaver even very little, more will be lost than an equivalent for the wages of a draw boy. Besides this. DOUBLE CLOTH. 179 as the weaver must shift his shuttle at every shot, he is sufficiently occupied without being obliged to change his harness. Carpets are seldom warped upon mills, for the yarn being very coarse, the warp is found not to be sufficiently stretched. A square frame of wood is, therefore, com- monly used, with pins at certain distances, over whicli the warp is stretched by the warper, in a manner similar to the old practice, described in the first Essay. As the warps of carpets do not contain many threads, this prac- tice is considered sufficiently expeditious. When carpets consist of more than two colours, tlicy are woven exactly as checks, and merely require addi- tional shuttles to insert the weft, the same as the warp. There is no other difference in the process. It is not yet customary to use the fly shuttle in carpet weaving, and when the webs are too broad for one man to stretch, two are employed, one at each side of the loom. Many kinds of carpeting for rugs, passage, and stair cloths, &c. are also woven in the plain loom. Carpets are also manufactured with flushing like velvet, which is afterwards cut. When this is the case, wires are introduced into the shed, to form the length of the flushing. In each of these wii^es is a groove, and when the weft has been thrown across, a sharp pointed knife is passed along the groove, which serves as a guide for it. The wire is thus relieved, and the cut warp forms the flushing. These may either be wrought plain, or in figures raised by the harness. This manufacture is chiefly carried on at Kidderminster, and has hardly been introduced at all in Scotland. From the name, it appears to have been originally imported from Turkey. Very elegant carpets are also manufactured in France. 180 tSSAY III. Quiltings are also double cloths, and are manufactured exactly upon the same principle as carpets. The two webs are generally of the same colour. This manufac- ture is also derived from the French, and was chiefly carried on in the neighbourhood of Marseilles. Those made in England, are generally of cotton^ ESSAY IV. WEAVING OF CROSSED WARPS, THE ornamental kinds of weaving, which form the subject of the 2d and 3d Essays, are those peculiar to stout fabrics of cloth, of various descriptions. That which we are now to investigate, is exclusively adapted to the slightest and most flimsy textures. Like the other branches of the art, we derived our first knowledge of cross weaving from the continent-, but, this species of weaving has certainly been much improved, and a con- ^derable variety of nets added, by the invention and in- genuity of weavers in this country. The manufacture of cross woven goods is, chiefly, carried on in Glasgow, Paisley, and the neighbouring villages in the counties of Lanark and Renfrew, in the west of Scotland. Some attempts have, indeed, been made in diff^erent parts of England, to introduce this manufacture; but, whatever may have been the success of these experiments, it does not appear that they have ever been prosecuted to any considerable extent. The first branch of cross weaving, and of which all the others are only varieties, is 182 ESSAY IV. GAUZE. In all the species of weaving, which we have hitherto considered, the threads of the warp, whether raised and sunk alternately, or at intervals, remain always parallel to each other, and without crossing. But in gauze weaving, the two threads of warp, which pass between the same splits of the reed, are crossed over each other, and twined like a cord at every tread. They are twined to the right and left alternately, and each shot of weft preserves the twine which the warp has received. Fig. 15. Plate 4. is a representation of gauze, drawn, like the other specimens of cloth in the same plate, upon a large scale, and will, by attentive observation, exhibit the cross- ings of the warp, and intersections of the weft. To produce this appearance, it is only necessary that the warp should really be crossed at every second shot; for its return from the crossed to the open, or parallel state, gives the reversed crossing. The whole variety in every branch of the art of weaving, consists merely in the way of forming the sheds j and, as this is effected by the heddles, and thefc- connections with the treddles which move them; the whole knowledge of the art, consists in the arrangement of this part of the apparatus of a loom. Representations of the mounting, peculiar to gauze weaving, will be found in Plate 10. Fig. 1. represents two threads of warp, opened to form the shed, where the warp is not crossed, and Fig. 2. the shed where it is crossed. The mounting, of a gauze loom, consists of four leaves, constructed like common clasped heddles, and of two half leaves. The leaves are raised and sunk, by means of top levers, or goupers, and marches, exactly CROSS WEAVING. 183 in the same way as in most other ornamental looms, and as represented in Fig. 1. Plate 5. The open shed of the gauze is formed by the leaves 3 and 4; the cross shed, by the leaves 1 and 2, and by the half leaves. The leaves 1 and 2 are called standards, and the half leaves pass through them, as represented in Fig. 3. It is necessary to observe, that in order to produce the twine, in forming the sheds, the threads do not rise and sink alternately, as in plain weaving, nor at intervals as in tweeling. In both sheds, .',^e thread A is always raised, and the thread B sunk; but in the open shed Fig. 1. the threads are not crossed, and in the cross shed Fig. 2. they are. By examining these figures, the way of drawing the warp through the heddles, will become apparent, and this is an important part of every branch of cross weaving. The thread A is drawn through the third leaf, but, as it always rises, it is not taken through the clasp, or eye, of the heddle, but above it, through what the weavers usually call the upper doup. In like manner, the thread B, which always sinks, is drawn through the under doup of the fourth leaf. When this has been done, the thread A is crossed over the thread B, as will appear more plainly in Fig. 5. which is a horizontal, or ground plan. After being drawn through these two leaves, which are generally called the back mounting, and crossed, it only remains to draw the warp through the fore mounting. Of the half leaves, one is hung from above, and one rises from below. The one hung from above, passes through the lower doup of the leaf, or standard 2, and that, hanging from below, the upper doup of the standard 1. This will appear very plain in Fig. 3. Through the under half leaf, connected with the standard 1, the thread A is drawn, and through the upper half leaf, connected with 184 ESSAY IV. the standard 2, the thread B passes. In Figs. 1. and '1. the shaft of the upper half b, appears, as hung between the standards 1 and 2; but this is not the usual practice, for it is found more convenient, to place the two standards together; the under half leaf a, in front of the standard 1, and the upper half leaf b, behind the standard 2, as in Figs. 3. and 4. By means of the half leaves, the alternate crossing of the warp is effected ; for, in the open shed Fig. 1. the half leaves work in an opposite direction to the standards, and leave room for the ."Warp to rise and sink in the space between the leaves and standards, while, in the cross shed Fig. 2. the half leaves rise and sink with their respective standards, and force one thread of warp across the other. Thus, when the warp is direct, the half leaves are crossed, and when the mounting is direct, the warp is crossed. This will plainly appear, by carefully tracing the threads A and B, in Figs. 1. and 2. and also In Figs. 3. and 4<. where sections of the threads are represented by round dots. In Fig. 3. the half leaves and standards are crossed as in Fig. 1. and in Fig. 4. if the standard 1 is sunk, and the standard 2 raised, the mounting will be direct, and the warp crossed as in Fig. 2. It has not been the custom, among weavers, to repre- sent the drawing or cording of gauzes or nets, upon paper. This may have arisen, in some instances, from the desire of keeping that branch of manufacture secret. But, in general, it may be traced to a different cause. From the very nature of the process, it is much more dllTicult to represent cross than parallel warp; and, as the crossings take place, alternately, in the warp and in the heddles, these crossings cannot be easily represented, without elevations of the machinery, as well as ground plans. This circumstance, together with tlie want of attention CROSS WEAVING. 18^ Smong operative weavers, to whom the knowledge of cross weaving is chiefly confined, to acquire a knowledge of mechanical drawing, has, hitherto, prevented any at- tempt at representation. Their views seem never to have gone further than horizontal plans of tlieir hcddles and treddles, and the formation of their pattern upon design paper, which is not well adapted to represent crossed warp. In my attempt to obviate this inconvenience, I have merely applied the modes of drawing described in the first Essay, and well known among engineers, architects,- mill Wrights, and many other artificers, for the purpose of adapting that kind of illustration to the weaving loom, which they have long practised successfully, to illustrate many other branches of mechanical study. But, in order to render the mode of mounting a gauze loom as plain as possible, I shall enter into a more de- tailed description of the mounting, than has appeared necessary in those kinds of weaving, where the horizontal plans of the draught and cording have been long prac- tised and understood by professional men. The novelty of the subject, and its evident utility, should I succeed in my explanation, will, I hope, screen me from the charge of unnecessary prolixity; and should I even fail in rendering this part of the knowledge of the art so perspicuous as I wish, I shall not think either my own or my readers' time wholly misapplied, if the practica- bility of representing the gauze and net mountings upon paper, shall be established to the satisfaction of those interested in the manufacture. It has been already stated, that the gauze mounting consists of two back leaves, two standards, and two half leaves. These are moved by two treddles. The Aa 186 ESSAY IV. intermediate levers are five top levers, or coupers, five long, and five short marches. Tracing the heddles in regular succession from the front, the first is the under half leaf a; the second, the front standard 1; the third, the second standard 2; the fourth, the upper half leaf b; the fifth, the first back leaf 3 ; and the sixth, the second back leaf 4. The two back leaves and the two standards, are raised or sunk, as the case may require, by connecting cords with the marches and treddles, as in other looms. The half leaves have no connection with any treddle, but are lifted and sunk by the warp, in the open shed Fig. 1. and kept tight by weights, in the cross shed Fig. 2. These weights must, therefore, operate upon the half leaves in the cross shed, and must be relieved in the open. It will be proper to trace the connections of the leaves with the coupers and marches, in the first place, and, then, to explain the way in which the weights are applied to operate upon the half leaves. 1st, The lower half leaf a, is attached by a cord below y to the first short march : it has no connection above. See Fig. I.Plate U. 2d, The first standard, by oblique cords, to the first couper above; the couper, to the first long march-, the standard is connected beloiu with the second short march. Sd, The second standard, to the second couper above; the couper, to the second long march; the standard, to the third short march beloiu. 4th, The upper half leaf b, to the third couper above; the couper, to the third long march : no connection beloiv. 5th, The first back leaf 3, to the fourth couper above; the couper, to the fourth long march \ the leaf 1 to the fourth short march below. CROSS WEAVING. 187 6th, The second back leaf, to the fifth couper above; tlie couper, to the fifth long march ; the leaf, to the fifth short march beloiv. These connections being formed, it only remains to apply the weights to their respective marches, and to connect the other marches with the treddles. The mode of applying the weights will appear in Fig. 1. Plate 11. This figure is a transverse section of the front part of the mounting of a ivhip tiet, of which it will be necessary to treat afterwards. In the mean time, as the cording of common gauze is exactly the same as that of the whip net, it will serve to illustrate that part of the mounting. TJie lower half leaf «, is cormccted nvith tJie first short march. The upper half leaf bf with the third couper above, andy from thence, with the third long march. The application of the weights is, therefore, as follows : From the first short march two cords descend, one passing on each side of the first long march; and from these cords, the weight is suspended. Above the long march, the cords are attached to each end of a piece of wood (generally a piece sawed or cut from a common bobbin), by which they are kept assunder, to prevent them from rubbing on the long march which works between them. Another piece, of the same kind y, is fixed below, and from this the weight is suspended. The same apparatus is applied to the third short march, and passes upon both sides of the third long march, for the upper half leaf. The pieces of wood are distinguished by the letters v and z. When the open shed is made, the first standard is pulled down. This raises the first long march, which, consequently, liffs the weight, and allows the under half 188 ESSAY IV. leaf a, to rise. At the same time, the second standard is raised. This, of course, also raises the third short march, and relieves the pressure of the weight from the third long march. The upper half leaf b, is thus allowed to sink. In forming this shed, the standards and half leaves merely yield to the warp, for the raising and sink- ing is entirely produced by the back leaves. In the cross shed, the back leaves have nothing to perform, and, therefore, remain stationary, while the motion of the standards being reversed, the weights act with their full power, and keep the half leaves tightly drawn to that part of the standards through which they pass. From these explanations, and from a careful examina- tion of the Plates 10. and 11. the general principle of weaving gauze may be pretty well understood. The connections of the back leaves, standards, and half leaves, with the long and short marches, have been already Stated. The connections with the treddles, will be found by examining Fig. 5. Plate 10. which is a horizontal plan, similar to those employed, to illustrate other branches of weaving. In order to bring this as nearly as possible to the same plan, as other plans of draughts and cordings, similar marks have been used. The warp thread A, which is drawn through the upper doup of the first back leaf 3, is distinguished by a black mark. The thread B, which is drawn through the under doup of the leaf 4, by a ivhite mark. The draught of the warp, through tlie upper half leaf b, is also denoted by a white, and that through a, by a black mark. The connections for raising the back leaves and standards, are also marked black; and those for sinking them, ivhite. Where no connection from the marches to the treddles is necessary, the mark X is used. CROSS WEAVING. 189 As the half leaves are raised and sunk by the warp, no mark is used for the cording of them. The open shed is formed by pressing down the treddle 1 ; the cross shed, by the treddle 2. The treddle 3, merely reverses the motion of the treddle 2, to enable the weaver to work plain cloth as well as gauze, when he finds it convenient. The alternate motion, necessary for plain cloth, is entirely performed by the standards and half leaves, the back leaves remaining stationary, in this as well as the cross shed. But, in this shed, it is necessary to connect the marches with the plain treddle, to keep the half leaves tight when the weights are raised, the fore mounting in the plain shed, being exactly in the same situation as in the open shed. It does not appear necessary to add more to these explanations; but, although it involves a recapitulation, I trust it will not be deemed improper, to give the whole connection of a gauze loom, for the use of those, who may be neither fully acquainted with the subject, nor conversant with the modes of drawing mechanical design»f HEDDLES. Front Mounting. a, a half leaf; the shaft below. 1, a full leaf; the first standard. 2, a full leaf; the second standard. b, a half leaf; the shaft above. Back Mowithig. 3, a full leaf; warp through upper doup. 4, a full leaf J warp through under doup. 190 ESSAY IV. CONNECTIONS WITH THE COUPERS. First Standard, 1 ; first couper. Second standard, 2; second couper. Upper half leaf, b; third couper. First back leaf, 3; fourth couper. Second back leaf, 4 ; fifth couper. COUPERS TO LONG MARCHES. First couper-, first long march. Second couper; second long march- Third couper; third long march. Fourth couper; fourth long march. Fifth couper; fifth long march. HEDDLES TO SHORT MARCHES. Under half leaf, a ; first short march. First standard, 1 ; second short march. Second standard, 2; third short march. First back leaf, 3 ; fourth short march. Second back leaf, 4; fifth short march. WEIGHTS FROM MARCHES. First weight, from first short march; over first long march. Second weight, from third short march; over thirc^ ^ long march. CROSS WEAVING. 191 OPEN SHED TREDDLE 1. Lower half leaf, a; raised and slack. First standard, 1 ; sunk. Second standard, 2; raised. Upper half leaf, b; sunk and slack. First back leaf, 3*, raised. Second back leaf, 4; sunk. CROSS SHED TREDDLE 2. Lower half leaf, a; raised and tight. First standard, 1 ; raised. Second standard, 2; sunk. Upper half leaf, b; sunk and tight. Both back leaves, stationary. PLAIN SHED TREDDLE 3. Lower half leaf, a; sunk and tight. First standard, 1 •, sunk. Second standard, 2; raised. Upper half leaf, b; raised and tight. Back leaves, stationary. To form these sheds, the following connections between the marches and treddles are necessary: LONG MARCHES. Treddle 1 -, second and fourth long march. Treddle 2; first long march. Treddle 3 •, second and third long march. 192 ESSAY IV. SHORT MARCHES. Treddle 1 ; second and fifth short march. Treddle 2; third short march. Treddle 3; first and second short march. From the drawings, and descriptions, I hope, that any person, who possesses an ordinary knowledge of common weaving, and who will study them with care and atten- tion, will find little difficulty in mounting a gauze loom. When the principle of gauze weaving is thoroughly un- derstood, its application to the weaving of fancy nets, may be easily acquired. Many varieties of net work are used; but a few, which form the ground work upon which the rest are formed, will be sufficient to elucidate the general principle, and the limits, to which it is ne- cessary to restrict this work, will not admit of more par- ticular details. The most simple of these is known by the name of the WHIP NET. The term whip Is used by weavers, to denote a species of warp rolled upon a separate beam, and slackened, as may be required, to form fanciful patterns. In this net, the whole warp is of this description, and, therefore, only one beam, or roll, is required. The mounting of the whip net is, in every respect, the same as common gauze, and the connections are formed exactly in the same way. Fig, 16. Plate 4. is a representation of this net, upon a large scale like the others. In every species of net weaving, it is found proper to use glass beads, in place of the eyes of common heddles, or the metal mails CROSS WEAVING. 201 than the gauze, to distinguish them from each other, and to show the way in which both are led in, or drawn. The under shaft of the bead lams is supposed to be raised, and the upper shaft sunk, so that the lams may be per- fectly slack. The lams belonging to the upper shaft, which cross above the warp, are represented by double lines to make the crossings distinct. Those belonging to the under shaft, which cross below the warp, are single black lines. The way in which these lines are drawn, will show that the upper lams cross in fronts both of the standards and under lams. The connections of the heddles with the treddles, are showrt in the same way as before, the black marks de- noting raising, or long march, connections; the ivhitey sinking, or short march, connections; and the mark x, stationary leaves, or no connection. In the gauze part of this, as in the mail net, the back gauze leaves must be sunk, when the gauze bead lams are raised to form the cross shed; but if the full gauze mounting is used, they remain stationary, as represented in the plan. Fig. 9. is a transverse elevation of the part before the reed, used for the patent net. The bead lams, and part of the standards, are drawn to show the crossings as they appear when viewed in front. The shafts are omitted, being exactly the same as those of the mail net. The threads of warp, being shown in section, are represented by round dots; those of the gauze, luhite; and of the whip, black. In both of the Figs. 8. and 9. one set of the pat- tern is given; and this is to be repeated until the whole warp is drawn. The patent net is wrought either with three, or four beams. If the single bead lam without standards is used, two beams are required for the gauze part; if the full gauze mounting is adopted, only one Cc 202 ESSAY IV. beam is necessary. In both cases, two are requisite for the whip, in order that each half should be slackened in its turn, for the alternate crossing. As in the mail net, it is most common to use the full mounting for the gauze. For practical use, I shall give the sheds of the patent net, in the same way as the others. SHEDS OF THE PATENT NET, OR NIGHT THOUGHT. FIRST SHED, TREDDLE 1. Under lams, a; raised and slack. First standard, 1 ; sunk. Second standard, 2; sunk. Upper lams, b; sunk and tight. Gauze lams, k; sunk and slack. First whip leaf, 3-, raised. Second whip leaf, 4', stationary. First gauze leaf, 5; sunk. Second gauze leaf, 6; raised. SECOND SHED, TREDDLE 2. Under lams, a; raised and slack. First standard, 1 ; sunk. Second standard, 1\ raised. Upper lams, b; sunk and slack. Gauze lams, k; raised and tight. First whip leaf, 3 \ raised. Second whip leaf, 4; sunk. First gauze leaf, 5; sunk. Second gauze leaf, 6; sunk. The gauze leaves, stationary ^ with full mounting. CROSS WEAVING. 203 THIRD SHED, TREDDLE 3. XJnder lams, a; raised and tight. First standard, 1 ; raised. Second standard, 2; raised. Upper lams, b-, sunk and slack. Gauze lams, k; sunk and slack. First whip leaf, 3 ; stationary. Second whip leaf, 4; sunk. First gauze leaf, 5; sunk. Second gauze leaf, 6; raised. FOURTH SHED, TREDDLE 4. Under lams, a; raised and tight. First standard, 1 j raised. Second standard, 2; sunk. Upper lams, b; sunk and tight. Gauze lams, k; raised and tight. First whip leaf, 3 -, stationary. Second whip leaf, 4; stationary. First gauze leaf, 5 ; sunk. Second gauze leaf, 6; sunk. The gauze leaves, stationary^ with full mounting. There are many varieties of these nets, but they depend more upon difference in treading, than any variation of the general principle. To give plates representing these varieties, v/ould enhance the price of this work too mucii to render it susceptible of that circulation which is my chief object. Some descriptions of those varieties will be given, as miscellaneous observations, before the conclusion of tliis Essay. In the mean time, we proceed to give a short description of a species of gauze, generally called 204 ESSAY IV. CATGUT. To those who are previously acquainted with the main ner of weaving gauze, that of producing catgut will be a very simple operation. The principle of both is exactly the same. The gauze, as already explained, is crossed and twined at one treading. It is there kept fast by the intersection of the weft; and, at the next tread, by re- turning to the open state, the twine is reversed, and the warp again locked by the weft. Consequently, the same threads of warp always rise and sink, being crossed and open alternately. The catgut carries the twine a little further; for, in this species of cross weaving, half a turn more is produced than in the gauze. The most simple way of weaving catgut, will appear in Figs. 10. and 11. Plate 11. Fig. 10. represents the open, and Fig. 11. the cross shed, as they appear when opened. The whole mounting consists of two back leaves, and a set of bead lams, similar to those already described for the gauze part of the mail and patent nets. The open shed is formed by the back leaves, the lams yielding a turn and a half, as represented in Fig. 10. At the next tread, the cross shed is formed by raising the lams, and leaving the back leaves stationary, or sunk, as in gauze, see Fig. 11. Here the threads, A and B, rise and sink alternately, as in direct weaving, but with the gauze crossing added to the plain shed. Catgut, therefore, combines the prin- ciples of plain and cross weaving. In the finer kinds of catgut, it is found useful to work the lams through a standard, as represented by Fig. 12. It will appear by this figure, where the threads of warp arc in section, and represented by dots, that the whole gauze cross is effected by the lam; and the additional half turn is produced by sinking the standard, when the lam is pulled tight. CROSS WEAVING. 205 Having stated what appeared most essential of the principles upon which cross weaving depends, and their application to common practice, I shall conclude this Essay, with a few MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. In the net, as in every other species of fancy weaving, a boundless variety may be introduced. As it would be impossible to enumerate and describe all the varieties, I shall only briefly mention a few which are in most com- mon use. A kind of fancy nets are very common, which are figured by omitting the crossing in particular places, and which leaves a wider interval than in the other parts. These are called, by weavers, DROPPED nets. To effect this, it is necessary to mount the loom with additional back leaves, and treddles for moving them. By this apparatus, the crossing of the warp which is drawn through any of these leaves, may be omitted for a shot, while the other parts of the web are crossed like a common net. The way in which these omissions are disposed, forms the pattern. This is so very similar to the way of disposing the leaves in spot weaving, which will form the subject of the next Essay, that it seems unnecessary to go more into detail in this place. A net, very simple in the mounting, but which pro- duces a very pleasing effect, is much used, and is called the ^06 ESSAY IV. SPIDER NET. This net has merely a common gauze mounting behind the reed, and the gauze is drawn through every second interval. The whip part is, usually, composed of coarser yarn than the gauze. It passes through a bead, to which two lams are attached. These lams pass through the reed, and are attached to separate shafts, so that each may be raised alternately. By these means, the whip, or spidering.^ is alternately pulled to the right and left in a zig zag direction, but the whip threads do not cross each other. On whatever side the whip is lifted, it is secured by the weft shot. Another net is known by the name of the DOUBLE PARIS NET. This net is, in every respect, both of drawing and cording, the same as the patent net, or night thought. It is wTOught entirely by the first and fourth trcddlcs, omitting the second and third. There is also a species of nets called BALLOON NETS. These are also mounted like the patent net. The cording is so disposed, that the crossing of the gauze may be continued regularly, while every crossing of the whip part is twice repeated. In this net, the gauze part is slackened, and the whip part kept always tight. By these means the gauze, being drawn alternately to the right and left, forms a waving, or serpentine appearance, instead of being perfectly straight. There are many varieties of these nets. CROSS WEAVING. 207 It is not easy to give practical instructions for tlic weaving of nets-, for the knowledge and dexterity necessary for this, like all other mechanical arts, can only be attained by assiduous practice. Much depends upon having all the cords of the mounting nicely tempered. This may be easily accomplished, by means of the snitch knot formerly described. It is also essential, that the warp and the lams should be equally slackened at the alternate treadings. If this is not the case, the lams when slack, are very apt to be entangled, which produces much inconvenience and trouble. The way of treading is also material, especially in the cross shed. It is very important that the shed should be grad- ually opened, while the lay is going back, and, after throwing the shot, that the weft should be driven home in the same gradual way, while the treddle is relieved. The crossing of the warp, both before and behind the reed, necessarily creates an obstruction in the moving of the lay, which exists in no species of direct weaving. In gauze mountings, where beads are not used, the twine of the half leaves is made of silk. This is proper, both on account of strength, and to diminish the friction. In weaving catgut, it is common to add a treddle for weaving the cloth plain, as in gauze. "When the bead lams, without standards, are used, the open shed and plain shed are wrought alternately, by the two back leaves ; the bead lams, in both instances, being sunk and slack. When the bead lam is used with a standard, the open shed, as formerly described, is formed by the back leaves, one being raised, the other sunk, and the lams slack. The cross shed, by raising both back leaves, sinking the standard, and keeping the lams tight. The plain shed is formed, by reversing the latter motion, that 208 ESSAY IV. is to say, .by raising the standard, and sinking both back leaves, the lams being still kept tight. In forming the plain shed in cross weaving, the weights suspended from the marches are relieved-, but, as the back leaves remain stationary, the half leaves, or bead lams, generally remain tight by their own weight. If, however, they have any tendency to slacken, they may be easily secured, by taking a cord from the short march of the under half leaf a, and from the long march of the upper half leaf by to the plain treddle. ESSAY V. WEAVING OF SPOTS, BROCADES, AND LAPPETS. HAVING now finished our descriptions of the grounds, or fabrics, in common use, we proceed to investigate the mode of adding flowers, and other ornamental figures, to these grounds. These ornaments are, frequently, interwoven either with plain, tweeled, or gauze grounds 5 and form a very extensive branch of fanciful weaving. The most simple of these figures, are the COMMON SPOTS. The weaving of spots is effected by additional leaves and treddles, as in tweeling, and the manner of mounting is, in every respect, similar to that used for other kinds of ornamental work. The apparatus consists of coupers, long and short marches, and treddles, as represented in Fig. 1. Plate 5. already frequently referred to. For the sake of reference, and to ascertain the exact range of the pattern, it is customary in this, as in other branches of Dd 210 ESSAY V, ornamental weaving, to draw the spots upon design paper, each interval generally denoting one splitful, or two threads of warp. The most simple figure of a spot, is that represented in Fig. 1. Plate 12. being what is called a common barley-corn spot, covering three splits, with an inten'al of nine splits between every spot. To weave this, only three leaves would be required, namely, two for the ground, and one for the spot; but, as one row of spots is thrown into the bosom of the other, form- ing a kind of diamond figure, four leaves are necessary. A, B, 1, 2, represent a ground plan of the heddles, the same as formerly described. The cross lines, 1 to 12, show a portion of the warp, as it passes through the heddles, every two lines being joined, to denote that these pass through the same interval in the reed. The black marks on each leaf of the heddles, show that the thread, to which the mark is attached, passes through the eye of the heddle in that leaf, and no other. Opposite to the plan, the spot appears upon the design paper. The left hand thread between every split, forming one half of the whole warp, is drawn through the front leaf A; and the other half is divided between the remaining three leaves, as represented. From this way of disposing the warp, it M-ill be obvious, that when the front leaf is raised, and the other three sunk, and these leaves reversed alternately, plain cloth will be produced. When the third leaf, 1 alone is raised, and all the rest sunk, the left hand row of spots is fonned, by throwing across coarser weft, by means of a separate shuttle. As this leaf raises only one half of three splits, while the whole of the next nine splits are sunk, only the portion of the coarse weft passing under those threads which are raised, is inter- woven in the cloth, the remainder passing loosely over SPOT WEAVING. 211 the interval unto the next spot. When the weaving is completed, and the cloth taken out of the loom, these loose intervals are clipped away, when the spots appear as in the design. The back leaf 2, works exactly in the same way; but it will appear, that the threads to be raised are exactly in the centre betwixt the former, and this places the alternate rows of spots in the diamond form. The leaf B, contains the remaining portion of warp, to complete that part of the plain cloth which lies m the interval between the spots. The portion of warp represented, consisting of twelve splits, is called one set of the figure, and along the whole breadth of the web the same is exactly repeated. The leaf A, containing half the warp, is generally called the ground leaf; B, containing the intervals, the plain leaf; and the two others, the spot leaves. From the design, it will appear, that the set of twelve splits is thus divided — 1, 2, and 3, form the left hand spot; 4, 5, and 6, the first interval; 7, 8, and 9, the right hand spot; and 10, 11, and 12, the second interval. The cross bars a, b, 1, 2, as usual, show a plan of the treddles. Each of the four treddles is connected with all the four leaves. The squares formed by the crossings, are distinguished by black marks, when the leaf which forms that crossing is to be raised; or, in other words, that leaf is to be connected with the treddle by the long marches, as formerly described. Where the square at the crossing is not blackened, the connection is made by the short marches, that the treddle may sink the leaf. To work this pattern, beginning with the left hand spots, the leaf 1 is raised, and one shot of the coarse spotting weft thrown across; then, two shots of plain weft are interwoven; a^ain, one of spotting; and so on, until the spot is 212 ESSAY V. sufficiently large. Six shots of plain are then wrought to form an interval by the weft, equal to the three splits in the warp; after which the leaf 2 is to be raised, and the right hand spots formed in the same way as the former. Another interval of plain is then wrought, and so on. Upon this principle, a boundless variety of figures mav be formed upon cloth, if a sufficient number of leaves be employed. It would very far exceed any moderate limits, to investigate the whole range of patterns which may be produced; nor, indeed, is it practicable. The general principle being studied and understood, all the rest may be accomplished at the fancy of the operator. The spot described, i* called a common spot, and is the most simple, because one half of the whole warp being included in the ground leaf, the whole of the spotting is thrown upon the other half. But, in tliis case, the spots will only appear to advantage on one side of the cloth, and scarcely at all upon the other. The texture of the clotli is also inferior, as the spotting is not fully incor- porated into the fabric. For this reason, recourse has been had to another mode of forming spots, which appear equally on both sides, and which are much superior in point of effect to the former. These are usually called PAPER SPOTS. These spots not only require nearly double the mounting, or apparatus, on the loom, but are much more tedious in the process of weaving. This increases the expence so greatly, as to prevent them from being manufactured to any great extent, although large quantities have been made at different times. SPOT WEAVING. 213 Fig. 2. is a plan of drawing, and cording a paper spot, such as the pattern opposite to it upon the design paper. But it will also work any other spot pattern, standing upon the same, or a smaller number of splits, and of which the two sides are similar to each other. This pattern stands upon ten splits, for each spot, with an interval of twenty splits between those on the same row; and, of course, one set of the pattern is thirty splits. Like the former, and, indeed, like most spot patterns, the second row is thrown into the bosom of tlie first; and, of course, is wrought by additional leaves. The mounting of this spot consists of twenty-two leaves, of which the leaves A and B, are, for the intervals of plain cloth, between the spots, and the remaining twenty, are spot leaves. The eleven leaves, from A to 10, contain one half of the warp, and tliose from B to 20, the other half. Qi course, when these two sets of leaves are raised, or sunk, alternately, plain cloth is produced. The leaves from 1 to 5, on the front set, and from 11 to 15, on the back set, work the left hand spot; and those from 6 to 10, and from 16 to 20, the right hand spot. The cording is represented at the left hand; the black squares, at the crossings, denoting rising, or long march connections, and all the others the reverse. By examining the figure upon the design paper, it will appear, that the lower part of it contains ten splits by the warp, and five splits, or ten spots, by the weft; and a comparison of this with the draught will show, that if the ten treddles on the left hand are pressed down in succession, they will raise the leaves so as to produce a spot similar to the figure. The second part of the spot is merely a repetition of the first, and the small spot is made by the treddles 1, 2, 3, and i: The right hand treddles, wrought in the same 214 ESSAY V. way, produce the second spot, standing in the bosom of the first. In weaving paper spots, one shot of plain, and one of spotting, are thro^^'^l in ahemately. The paper spot, here represented, may be reduced to a common spot of the same figure, by taking away all the leaves from A to 10, and drawing the warp contained in them through one ground leaf. Twelve leaves then, instead of twenty-two, will be sufficient. If a solid spot is wanted, like the lowest one in the figure, those crossings marked by small black dots, must be changed from sinking to raising connections. Having thus shown a specimen, both of common and paper spots, what other examples may be necessary, for the further illustration of the nature of spot weaving, will be given as common spots. As above mentioned, the only difference is, that in the former, half of the warp is drawn through the ground leaf, and the other half through the spot leaves and die plain leaf; while, in the latter, the number of spot leaves is doubled, the inters'als only being plain leaves. ALLOVER SPOTS, Fig. 3. represents the figure and plan of an allovev spot, set upon twenty splits, with a small round spot in the bosom of each diamond. In this, the leaf A, as formerly, forms the ground containing half the warp ; the leaf B, contains only a few plain heddles at each side of the web, to form the selvage: all the bosom of the web being covered with spotting, in the form represented in the design, from which it is called an allover pattern. The splits of warp, one to twenty, form one set of the pattern; and, at the left side, two splits of the next set. SPOT WEAVING. 216 'nineteen and twentVi are added, to show that the spotting is to be continued in sets exactly the same all over the web, without any intervals of plain. Any allover spot pattern, not exceeding twenty splits, and whose sides are similar, may be wrought by this mounting, only some variation in the cording, or in the succession of treading, may be required. To work the pattern represented, the spot treddles, from one to eleven, are to be pressed in succession, and then from eleven back to one. The black spots, denoting, as usual, the raising cords, which extend in the diagonal direction from corner to corner of the treddle plan, form the dia- mond, or allover part of the pattern. Those at the other corners, form the round spot. A careful inspection of the figure, will render this apparent. If the last men- tioned raising cords are taken away, and sinking cords substituted, the allover part will remain the same; but there will be no spot in the bosom. Or a spot of any other shape, within the range of the mounting, may be substituted, by adapting the raising cords to lift the leaves required. Upon principles the same as the above, all spot patterns may be formed, where the two sides of the figure are similar to each other; but, where this is not the case, a different and more extensive mounting be- comes necessary. Fig. 1. Plate 13. is an example of this. The spot drawn upon the design, it will evidently appear, does not correspond in the two sides. It becomes, therefore, necessary to allow a leaf of heddles for every thread con- tained in the range of the spot, which is ten splits. The other thread of the split is, as usual, drawn through the ground leaf A; and the warp, to form the intervals, through the plain leaf B. The remaining leaves are for 2l6 ESSAY V. the spot, ten being allowed for each, and forming, in all, fv/enty-two leaves-, that is, twenty for the two spots, and two for the plain work. This mode of drawing, is equally well calculated for any figure, regular or irregu- lar, not exceeding ten splits; and the alteration, whether the figure is solid like that represented, or hollow, will depend entirely upon the cording, or way of forming the connections. A careful and attentive consideration of the different designs, and modes of mounting them, which have been given, will evince that figures may be wrought upon cloth in immense variety, upon principles perfectly similar. When the spot is regular, or when the two sides of it are similar, two threads, in every figure, are driwn through the same leaf, because these threads are uniformly raised at the same time in working. But where the figure is irregular, or when no two parts of it correspond, only one thread, in each, can be drawn through the same leaf, because every thread must be raised independent of the others. Figs. 1. 2. and 3. Plate 12. are examples of the first. In Fig. 2. Plate 12. it will be obvious, that the spot extending to ten splits, the fifth and sixth form the centre; and that the two sides, from five to one, and from six to ten, are exactly similar, diverging equally from the centre. Five leaves, therefore, are sufficient for ten spHts, for numbers five and six pass through one leaf, numbers four and seven through one; and, in the same way, numbers three and eight, numbers two and nine, and numbers one and ten, pass respectively through the same leaves. In Fig. 1. Plate 13. however, the case is different. The two sides of this flower are totally dif- ferent. Like the former, it covers ten splits, and because every thread must be independent of all the others. SPOT WEAVING. 217 requires ten leaves. The particular form of the spot, is then ascertained by the manner of cording. To fix the plan of the cording, it is only necessarv to number the divisions on the design paper, which represent splits of warp, and to place corresponding numbers also to distinguish the leaves and treddles; as, for example, in Fig. 1. Plate 13. Let the warp splits on the design be supposed to be numbered from one to ten, beginning at the right. Let the spot leaves on the plan be also num- bered from one to ten, beginning at the front, and then let the spotting treddles be numbered in the same way, beginning at the centre, or plain treddles. First, then, mark the black spots, or raising connections, for the plain work. One half of the whole warp is drawn through the front leaf A, and the other half through the remainino- leaves. Therefore, where the plain treddle a, crosses the leaf A, the raising mark is placed; and where the other plain treddle b, crosses each of the others, a similar mark is also placed. Then, when the leaf A is raised, all the others will sink, and when A is sunk, all the others will rise. This will form the ground, or plain work. Proceed next to the left hand spot. The first threads to be raised m this spot, are numbers four and five. Two raising marks, are, therefore, placed where the treddle number one crosses the leaves numbers four and five. The second threads to be raised, are three and four; and the marks are placed where the treddle number two crosses the leaves numbers three and four. In the same way, proceed until the spot is finished, observing only that it often occurs, that a number of lifts upon the same threads may be ni the design, and when a connection for raising these is once formed, it is unnecessary to repeat it, because pressing down the same treddle will produce the effect as Ee 218 ESSAY V. often as maybe required. In Fig. 1. Plate 13. the tenths eleventh, and twelfth lift, are all the same, and, therefore^ require only one treddle. The right hand spot is merely the left hand one reversed, and the manner of placing the marks exactly the same. When the plan of cording is completed, it will always appear that the black, or raising marks, form exactly a copy of the design, only that it appears across the drawing, instead of being from top to bottom as in the design. When the two sides of the figure are similar, as in Figs. 2. and 3. Plate 12. the cording will represent only one half of the design. This appears very plainly in Fig. 3. Plate 1&. where the leaves and treddles are represented as being placed close together, and the intervals omitted. When this has become familiar, from study or practice,- it will be unnecessary to draw plans of the cording, as it can be taken eqjially well from the design. BROCADES, OR FINGER SPOTS. In the spots, hitherto described, as the figure is formed by coarser weft thrown across by a shuttle, when the yarn crossing the intervals is clipped away, a certain degree of roughness always appears, and, besides, all which is clipped is totally lost. To remedy these incon- veniences, another mode of spotting has been practised, and goods of this description, are called brocadeSi or finger spots. The mounting of these is very similar to- that of common spots, but the yarn, which forms the spotting, instead of being thrown across the whole fabric,, consists of a separate thread for every flower, which is generally interwoven into the fabric by the hand, or finger, whence they receive the name of finger spots. SPOT WEAVING. 219 In mounting brocade looms, it is not necessary that iliere should be an additional set of spot leaves to place the one flower in the bosom of the other-, for, as the spotting is interwoven by the hand, and as every spot is formed by a thread totally independent of all the others, every second flower may be omitted in the fingering, which will exactly produce the effect. A specimen of the draught and cording of a finger spot, will be found in Fig. 2. Plate 13. The draught comprehends every figure which does not exceed twenty splits in breadth, and the pattern may be varied to any figure of that extent, by adapting the cording to the figure required. That upon the design is only seventeen splits in breadth, and, of course, the interval Is twenty- three splits. The treddles and cording are double, for the purpose of reversing the flower, and every second flower, only, is to be fingered in working. The plain leaf b, is only for the selvage, as in the allover pattern, Fig. 3. Plate 12. In working brocades, one half of the fingering is generally performed by the weaver, and the other half by a boy or girl, employed for the purpose. To reduce the expence, by rendering the labour of fingering unne- cessary, various plans have been devised. In one, the spotting is passed through the spot sheds, by a number of small shuttles, in a way nearly similar to the tape, or incle loom. In another, the spotting is carried through by circular pieces of metal, generally brass, which are moved by a rack, and have a segment of each circle cut out. The number of plates, which it has already been found necessary to give, necessarily prevent us from representing these kinds of apparatus, and without figures 2!20 ESSAY V. it would be difficult, if not impossible, to render any description, however minute, sufficiently perspicuous. The want will be the less regretted, that brocades have not been for some years manufactured to any consider- able extent. In the specimen, it will appear that the spotting of the brocade is not woven plain like the other spots, but flushed somewhat like tweeling. This is gen- erally the case, because the flushing renders the effect more brilliant. When spotting patterns are too extensive to be wrought with leaves and treddles, recourse is had, as in the damask, and carpet weaving, to the SPOT DRAW LOOM. The principle and construction of the draw loom, have been so fully investigated in the third Essay, that very little remains to be added. The spot draw loom, besides the harness, consists of four leaves for working plain cloth, two of which are raised and sunk alternately, as in common weaving. The spotting is efl'ected by the har- ness, and the plain, by the leaves in front. The heddles, as in the other draw looms, have long eyes, to allow the spotting to rise freely. In the spot harness, mails are not used, but merely eyes like those of heddles. Various contrivances, for raising the harness, and superseding the necessity of employing a draw boy, have been adopted in this mounting. Of these, the principal are the barrel, and saw. Neither of them have been brought to such perfection as to save much labour, and, indeed, the spot draw loom is, in general, very little used. The reading on of the design, is exactly the same as in damask, the spot part being corded, and the plain omitted. Only one SPOT WEAVING. 221 thread passes through each eye of the harness. The draw loom may be mounted, either for common, or paper spots. The principle, being the same as in mount- ing with leaves, does not require to be repeated. The next species of ornamental weaving, and which, from its cheapness, is very extensively used, is the LAPPET. The lappet is a species of flushing done with whip, which is generally considerably coarser than the yarn which forms the fabric of the web. In most instances, the whip consists of two threads twined together. It is not interwoven with the fabric, but crossing over a cer- tain number of splits of warp, rises through the shed, and is tacked to the cloth by the weft shot passing under it. Until within these few years, lappets were generally wrought by bead lams, without standards, passing through the reed, and raised by shafts above. "When either of these shafts was raised, the whip, traversing over the under surface of the cloth, was lifted through the shed, and intersected by the weft. But, a much more simple, and sufficiently accurate apparatus, has lately been brought into practice, and has completely superseded the bead lams. This consists of a shaft of well seasoned wood, into which a number of lappet needles, as they are called, are driven at equal lengths. The lappet needle is formed of a piece of brass wire, one end of which is flattened by hammering. A small hole is then drilled through it to receive the whip. The hole is countersunk on each side, and the needle being polished and pointed, the other end, after being sharpened, is driven into the shaft. This shaft 222 ESSAY V. is suspended under the warp, the points of the needles being up. It is susceptible of t\fto motions, the first, from right to left, and vice versa, produces the traversing of the vv'hip upon the under surface of the cloth, to form the pattern. The second is a vertical motion, by which the needles rise through the shed, and raise the whip above the shuttle that it may be intersected by the weft. This motion is communicated by the lay, for whenever the lay is pushed back to form the shed, the lappet frame is pulled up, and when the lay is brought to the fell, to strike home the weft, the frame again sinks by its own weight. When a greater variety of pattern is wanted, more frames are used. When two are employed, th9 fabric is called a DOUBLE FRAME LAPPET. This apparatus consists of two frames of needles, which move in an opposite direction to each other, when the pattern is forming ; for, while one goes to the left, the other comes to the right, and the contrary. Sometimes, the frames are only made to approach each other, or to meet, and, sometimes, they cross each other and return. When the pattern is uniform, that is to say, when the same number of splits are to be crossed, the horizontal, or pattern motion, is communicated by the weaver's left hand, and the length of the traverse, regulated by a rack and spring, fixed upon the upper shell of the lay. But, when it is necessary that tlie length of the traverse should vary, to form any particular flower or figure, a wheel of a particular construction is used, and the goods fabricated in this way are called SPOT WEAVING. 223 WHEEL LAPPETS. The construction of these wheels is very ingenious, although very simple. In no part of this work, have I had more occasion to regret, that, without additional draw- ings, it will not be in my power to elucidate my descrip- tions so perfectly as I wish, than in the present instance. But, after mature consideration, I have thought it of less disadvantage to forfeit, at least for the present, the ampLe details which it would be necessary to give upon this and many other branches of the art of weaving, than to create an expencc upon this work, which might preclude many of the operative part of the community, from the means of access even to those parts, which have been pretty fully discussed. The wheels are made of wood, and placed at one side of the loom. The circumference is formed like a ratchet wheel, having as many teeth as there are shots of weft in the pattern, and one tooth is moved between every shot, the wheel revolving in centres. To lay down the pattern, upon a wheel of this kind, from design paper, the follow- ing instructions are necessary, which, indeed, bear a strong analogy to the way of reading on a pattern for the draw loom. The pattern being drawn, the number of squares from the bottom to the top, gives the number of teeth, whether the wheel is to work one flower, two flowers bosomed, or an allover pattern. The teeth being cut, the flat side of the wheel has a line drawn from the cen- tre, to every division between the teeth. A number of concentric circles are then described, equal to the number of squares from right to left upon the design paper. By marking these, as the pattern increases or diminishes in breadth, a rule is found for forming a groove in the flat 224 ESSAY V. side of the wheel, to regulate the traverse, or shift of the lappet frame, at every shot. An iron pin is fixed in the frame, vi^hich works in this groove, and the frame being, as formerly, traversed by the weaver's hand, the two sides of the groove stop the frame at the places proper to form the pattern required. The diameter of the pin must be added to the range of the pattern, in cutting this groove. A mode of spotting, by the application of a wheel of this kind, has been lately introduced, which supersedes the use of spot leaves, and is called PRESSED SPOTTING. . The looms of this description, which I have seen, produce a spot upon a tweeled ground; but, it is, evidently, equally applicable to plain, as to tweeled weaving. The fabric is of cotton, and the spotting coloured in imitation of the Norwich shawls. The loom has merely a plain twee! mounting. Two frames, or shafts, are suspended below the warp, like a double frame lappet. Instead of lappet needles, these frames have pressers of brass, flat on the upper edge, driven into them. These pressers, when raised, force up that portion of warp which is to form the interval between the spots^ while that part which is to be interwoven, being between the pressers, is not forced, and leaves the shed open to receive the spotting. As the pressers recede, or advance to each other, the breadth of the flower is increased or diminished. The pressers are raised by an additional treddle, placed close to each of the working treddles. These treddles are called tongues^ and are about six inches shorter than the other treddles, so that the weaver, by shifting his foot, can either press down the tongue along SPOT WEAVING. 225 with the treddle, to form the spot, or leave the tongue impressed, to form the interval. In this case, the centres of the treddles and tongues are behind, and the weaver works upon the ends of them. The same apparatus is used for lappets, where there are intervals. One of the presser frames is wrought by each side of the groove in the wheel, and these sides are cut to form the pattern. This apparatus is simple, and seems very well adapted for fabrics where the warp is sufliciently strong to bear the pressing, and where the spots are broad; but, when the warp is weak, and the spot terminates in a sharp point, requiring, perhaps, only a single splitful of warp to be open, it will be better to work with leaves. For, the pressed warp must be always more strained than the rest; and it may frequently happen, that the presser may pass a thread which ought to be pressed, and render the spot irregular where much accuracy is required. The principle of the wheel, carried a good deal further, was that which I adopted to form the patterns of the Patent Tambouring Machinery; and the very ingenious machinery, exhibited by Monsieur Maillardet, at Spring Gardens, is, in general, merely a combination of wheels upon the same principle as that which forms the lappet. Some further account of the construction of wheels of this kind, will be given in describing the mode of weaving by power. When spots are formed upon nets, they are only interwoven with the gauze part, the whip, or net part, being left perfectly free. In the Essay upon cross weaving, it ought to have been stated, that the selvages of nets, are wrought plain. I think it better to mention this here, than not to notice It at all. Indeed, it is not much out of place, for, as has Ff 226 ESSAY V. been already observed, the selvages of allover spots, ar? woven in the same way. In common spots of this de^ scription, half of the warp of the selvages is included in the ground leaf, as in Fig. 3. Plate 12. and Fig. 2. Plate 13. In those paper spots, which are allovers, the sel- vages only are on the two plain leaves, as in the intervals Fig. 2. Plate 12. The case is the same in net weaving- Two plain leaves, which only contain a few heddles at either side for the selvages, are added to each of the mountings, shown in Plate 11. They are, generally, placed behind the net leaves, and are corded to the treddles by the same means used in other fancy weaving, namely, coupers, long and short marches, so as always to produce plain cloth. ESSAY VI. ON THE ECONOMY OF WEAVING, SIMPLIFICA- TION, OR OMISSION OF PROCESSES, DIVISION OF LABOUR, AND APPLI- CATION OF POWER. I N the five preceding Essays, we have endeavoured to investigate the common manual processes, most fre- quently used in the art of weaving, and gone as much into detail upon the various branches, as the plan and limits of this work would admit. As already noticed in the introduction to the first part of the work, the know- ledge of weaving all the varieties of cloth, has been imported, and, although undoubtedly, many important improvements have been made, both in the construction of the looms, and economy of the manufactures, nothing entirely original has been invented in the business. The woollen trade, introduced by Edward the third, was the original staple of England-, and, although considerable quantities both of linen and silken goods, have long been manufactured in that country, they have been by no jneans nearly equal in value to the woollen goods. The iJ!28 ESSAY VI. cotton manufacture, which has been much more recentlr introduced, has rapidly arrived at an amazing extent and improvement. Still, however, in so far as the greatest branch of the cloth trade, and the raw material of which is chiefly the growth of the country, may be considered as its staple, the woollen remains in the same comparative situation as formerly. The manufacture of linens has been long the staple trade of Ireland, and, previous to the introduction of the cotton manufacture, many attempts were made for its extension and improvement in Scotland. An anonymous publication was printed at Edinburgh, in the year 1733, entitled, " The Interest of Scotland con- *' sidered, with regard to its police, in employing the " poor, its Agriculture, its Trade, its Manufactures, and <' Fisheries." As no name appears in the title, I have not been able to ascertain who was the author of this work. But, it is evidently the production of a man of talent and education. The sentiments contained in it, are liberal and benevolent, and, when a reasonable allowance is made for the preva- lent opinions of the age in which it was written, it ap- pears a M'ork of uncommon merit. Many of the author's opinions, indeed, have been either exploded, or at least rendered very doubtful, by the experience, which the prosecution of a more extended trade, since the j>eriod at which he wrote, has produced; and, by the able and satisfactory reasonings of Dr. Adam Smith, and other modern economists. In general, he reasons very justly on the state of the manufactures at the time, and gives many hints for their extension and improvement, some of which appear to be very judicious, and others have been proved, by experience, to be fallacious. He admits, that the in- dustry of the inhabitants, properly directed and exerted, ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 229 is tlie solid and efficient cause which produces national wealth and prosperity ; and strenuously contends, that a fair and liberal commercial intercourse between nations, which produce commodities desirable to each other, must be more advantageous to both, than the vain attempt to monopolize the manufacture of every article, used for in- ternal consumption, to the exclusion or supersession o£ all foreign trafTic. Upon this principle, which seems perfectly just, he censures a number of injudicious expe- riments, which had been made to establish manufactures of silk, woollen, gloves, earthen ware, and many other articles, by subscriptions, resolutions against using articles manufactured out of Scotland, bounties, and other expe- dients of a similar nature. He alleges that the capital lost in these speculations, all of which proved abortive, would have been, if judiciously applied, more than suf- ficient to establish and promote a staple manufacture, congenial to the situation of the country and habits of the people, and sufficiently extensive to exchange for other articles, better and more cheaply manufactured in other countries. This staple he assumes to be flax, but seems to admit that the climate and soil of Scotland, are not the most favourable for its culture, and that the management, in every stage of the process, was much inferior to that of the Dutch and Flemish artizans. To remedy the first, he proposes, that bounties shall be given for raising flax in the American colonies, which have since been severed from this country, most probably for ever. For the next, he wishes, that foreign artists should be invited, by pre- miums, to settle in this country, for the purpose of in- structing the inhabitants. He then proposes his plans for mciting the people to industry, the prevention of theft 2nd ^egg'ngj and encouragement of manufactures. 230 ESSAY VI. The machinery, by which he means to effect these objects, seems very complicated. Indeed, it appears singular, that a person who had seen so clearly the inefficiency of the projects which he reprobates, should immediately propose regulations nearly similar, for the improvement of what he considers the staple manufac- ture. He conceives the erection of work-houses in every parish, the compulsory confinement of all idle persons in these places, and the flogging them until they become good and industrious weavers, to be expedients admirably calculated to promote industry and emulation. He also proposes the establishment of hospitals for the reception of orphan and destitute children, where, at a proper age, they may be taught to weave and spin. He considers the only way of saving the weavers from idleness and other vices, into which young and unexperienced persons are apt to fall, will be to confine them to the hospital, until they arrive at twenty-five years of age, when, he says, they may enter the world without danger. He considers that the manufacture might be greatly promoted by Acts of Parliament, requiring at least seven years apprenticeship before any person should be allowed to weave upon his own account j security found by him for his performance of every piece of work in the best manner; the trade made liable to the constant inspection of overseers; these overseers amenable to the magistrates of the royal boroughs, and justices of the peace; and those magistrates directed to enforce, ivith the utmost rigour^ severe penalties for every defect in the cloth, or malver- sation in the weaver. In short, the trade is to be thrown entirely under the controul of justices and magistrates, and the whole funds for his hospitals and bridewells, raised by collections at church doors, and voluntary contributions. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 231 The work appeared soon after the formation of the Board of Trustees for Manufactures and Fisheries, and the author appears, either to have been a member of that board at the time, or, at least, to have had access to all their minutes. As I have only met with a single copy of the book, and, therefore, suppose that it cannot be generally known, and as the preface contains an account of the prevalent opinions, respecting the state of manu- factures and trade in Scotland at that period, and of the means by which their improvement was expected, I shall insert it entire. < THE PREFACE. c Many and just Complaints have been made of our * Poverty, and the Decay of our Trade-, and of the . Decrease of our People for want of Business to imploy » and subsist them. This is imputed, and justly, to the * great Use of foreign Manufactures for wearing Apparel, * Furniture, ^c. whereby the poor of other Countries » are partly imployed at our Expence. / The manufactured « Goods we export bear no Proportion in Value to those « we bring in; we must therefore send out our Product « to purchase Clothing for the Pvich, while the Poor must < either starve at home, or go abroad to seek their Bread, « where it is to be earned by Labour and Industry. < Many Schemes have been framed to cure these Evils, ' but in vain. Numbers of Gentlemen have, at difFerent « Times, entred into Resolutions, to use no foreign « Manufactures: But these could have no Effect, because ' we had no Manufactures of our own to serve them; « nor indeed can any Nation, where the Poor are imployed ' in Manufacture, serve itself with every Thing. It i^ 232 ESSAY VI. enough to have one Staple which sells to Advantage in foreign Parts, and to be capable to export it in such Quantities, as may be equal in Value to all the foreign Goods we consume at home. An Attempt of this Kind would be to hurt and ruine our Staple. "Where too many Irons are in the Fire at once, some of them must cool, and where the Staple-manufacture of a Country is neglected, and no other Branches of Business brought to Perfection, the whole will run a Risk of being lost; for Mankind, generally speaking, prefer their own private Interest to that of the Publick, and will hardly be prevailed on to buy the Manufactures of their own Country, if foreign Goods of the same Kind, and of the same, or of a better Quality, are to be pur- chased at a lower Rate. Every one buys where he finds his Commodity best and cheapest; and unless our own Manufactures are as good of their Kinds, and as low in their Prices as the same Goods of other Nations are, they will not sell either abroad or at home. Trade cannot be forced, but Manufacture may be improven. < Linen Cloth is our Staple-commodity, and a Manu- facture we have been possest of now Time out of IVIind: It is carried on by private Hands, the only Way in which a Manufacture can thrive or prosper; it is a Commodity of universal Use at home, and of great Demand at those Markets abroad, where we purchase foreign Goods of divers Kinds, which we neither can want, nor can we make them our selves without Loss; it is a Manufacture capable of employing all our spare Hands, and, was it fully improven and extended, it would be sufficient to answer our all Demands for foreign Commodities. But it has been miserably neglected and ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 233 discouraged; it has suffered from many Causes, and from none more, than the indiscreet and fruitless Attempts that have been made to introduce other Manufactures, which are already brought to Perfection, and carried on with all possible Advantages by other Nations, and by these inconsiderate Resolutions to furnish our selves with every Thing, without the Aid of foreign Trade. * Had all the Money that has been sunk and lost by publick and private Companies, and private Persons, upon these Projects, been imployed in the Improvement and Extension of the Linen Trade, those Evils we have so long complained of, had been long ei"e now cured and prevented; but our Thoughts were, from Time to Time, turned upon new Projects, which we pusht up Hill with great Eagerness, until they became too heavy for us, while our Linen Trade, which we could have carried on with Profit and Success, was intirely neglected. Ever since the Beginning of the Confusions in the Reign of King Cliarles L it has been upon the Decay, and our Manufactures of Silk Goods, fine broad Cloths, and several others of less Moment, which were introduced at a great Expence, and too long carried on with Loss to the Nation, have nevertheless, in a great Measure, totally failed. We have been long sensible of this, and the present Generation saw the Linen-manufacture, reduced to a very low Ebb, but saw an evident Possi- bility of retrieving it, if we bent all our Thoughts that "Way. This was our Condition when the Royal Boroughs, who are the Guardians of our Trade, took under their serious Consideration the State of our Trade and Manufactures in their general annual Con- vention held at Edinburgh in Jult/y in the Year 1 725. Gg 234 ESSAY VI. * and in several subsequent Meetings, of their grand * annual Committee in that Year. * The Society for the Improvement of Agriculture, * and several private Persons, who understood Trade and * Manufactures of different Sorts, gave in I'roposals and < Schemes, for the retrieving our Manufactures and « Fisheries, to these Meetings; and Comm^ittees of that < Society, and other Gentlemen, from several Parts of * the Country, likewise attended and assisted at these * Meetings: The Result of all which, was, that in their < Meeting the Seventeenth of February I72f they unani- < mously resolved to address his Majesty, and to make a * proper Application, by their Representatives in Parlia- < ment, and other Persons of Distinction then at Lencion, * who were capable to serve their Country, to have the < Monies (settled by Law for the encouraging of our < Manufactures) effectually applied for that Purpose, in * such a Manner, as that all Misapplication of them * might be absolutely prevented ; and the Royal Boroughs * appointed one of their Number to repair to London, at * their Expence, to make this Application effectual. • The effect of this was, that his late Majesty was * graciously pleased to write the following Letter to the * Royal Boroughs, which was presented to the Convention * by his Majesty's Advocate, one of their Number, upon < the Sixth of July 1726. Superscribed George R. " Trusty and well beloved. We greet you well. We " having observed, that the several Sums of Money " reserved and provided by the Treaty of Union, and by « divers Acts of Parliament, to be imployed for the « Improvement of Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotlandt^ ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 235 ♦« have not hitherto been applied to the Uses for which *' they were intended principally, because no particular « Plan or Method hath been concerted, directing the " Manner in which tliose Sums should be applied for the «« said Purposes. And being desirous to remove that " Hindrance, as speedily as may be, We have thought «' good to recommend it to you, that, at your first general «< Meeting in the Month of July next, you do take into " your Consideration the State of the said Fisheries and «' Manufactures, and of the Monies provided for encour- " aging the same, and that, by yourselves, or by Com- '* mittees of your Number, you do devise and propose " the particular Methods, Rules and Regulations, which «« to you shall seem the most proper, for the Application *« of the said Sums towards the encouraging and pro- " moting Fisheries, and such other Manufactures and " Improvements in Scotlatidy as shall most conduce to the " general Good of the united Kingdom; and that you " do return to Us the Propositions in which you shall " have agreed, to the end, that, upon due Consideration " thereof, a certain Method may be settled for the Appli- " cation and Management of those Sums for the future. " The Welfare of our loving People of Scotlandy and the " Prosperity of the Royal Boroughs, is so much concerned " in what We recommend to you, that We doubt not " you will go on in the Execution of what is expected ** from you, with the utmost Diligence, Unanimity, and " Impartiality: And, on Our Part, We assure you of Our " Countenance and Encouragement in what you shall " propose for the real Good of your Country, consistent '< with the general Interest of Our united Kingdom. " And so We bid you heartily farewel. Given at our " Court of Kensington the seventh Day of June 1726. in 236 ESSAY VI. " the twelfth Year of Our Reign. Counter-signed by " his Majesty's Command. Ho/ks Newcastle." ' The same Day that this Letter was read, the Conven- ' tion prepared and agreed upon an Answer, wherein * they exprest their great Joy and Gratitude to his Majesty, ' for his tender Concern for the Welfare of this Country, * and for that particular Instance of his great Goodness ' towards them, which must fill the Hearts of all his * loyal Subjects in this Part of Britain, and promised, * with great Cheerfulness, to prepare without Loss of * Time, by themselves and Committees of their Number, < Propositions to be laid before his Majesty, for answering ' the Ends of his Majesty's most gracious Intentions. " Upon the Eighth of July a large Committee was " appointed to consider and devise such Methods as might " most effectually answer his Majesty's most gracious " Intention of encouraging the Trade of Fishing, and " other Manufactures of this Part of the united Kingdom, " and impowered them to receive Proposals relative ** thereto, from any particular Royal Borough, or any " other Society, or private Persons, ts'c" " On the Twelfth of Jttlij particular Instructions were " drawn up for this Committee, who were to sit after " the rising of the Convention, and were appointed to " have their Plan in readiness to be laid before the next " Convention, which was then appointed to meet at " Edinburgh upon the first Wedfiesdai/ of November fol- " lowing. This Committee was directed to take the « Advice and Assistance of, and to consult with all " Persons who had Skill and Experience, in any of the " Branches of Trade or Manufacture that might be pro- " pos'd to be improven, and were specially directed in « their Plan to propose a Method for the Application of ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 237 the whole Monies that might annually arise for the Purposes intended by his Majesty, in such Manner, as the Distribution might be diffusive, and secured effectually against Misapplication; and, as it might not be charged with the ordinary Expence of Management, it being the Intention of the Convention, from their earnest Desire to promote the publick Good, and thereby, to the utmost of their Power, to second his Majesty's gracious Intentions, voluntarily to propose, that they should defray the ordinary expence of Man- agement." < This Committee met very often to receive in, and consider Proposals that were sent them from diflerent Places of the Country, upon the Subject-matters com- mitted to them, and, at all those Meetings, several Gentlemen, skilled in Trade and Manufactures, who were not Members, assisted; and upon the Eighth of November 1726. they presented to the general Convention a particular Plan for the Distribution and Application of the several Funds destined by Law for the Improve- ment of Fisheries and Manufactures, to be laid before his Majesty, which, after due Consideration, and some Amendments made, was approven of by the Conven- tion. The Sum of this Plan is ingrost in his present Majesty's Letters Patents, bearing Date at St. James's Julij 5. and passed the Seals Jiilij 18. 1727. which are printed. ' The Convention, at the same Time, appointed their annual Committee to prepare the Heads of an Act of Parliament for regulating the Linen-manufacture; and the annual Committee did, the same Day, pursuant to the Powers and Instructions given them by the Con- vention, take under their Consideration, " That the 238 ESSAY VI. »< future Happiness and Welfare of their Country, very " much depended on the Success of their Proposals, and «' that it was their Duty to do every Thing in their " Power to make the same effectual, and did authorize " and impower one of their Number to repair to London " upon their Expence, and there, in Name and Behalf of " the Royal Boroughs, to lay before his Majestv, in " obedience to his most gracious Letter, the general and " particular Plans agreed upon by the Convention, for " promoting the Fisheries and other Manufactures of *' this Part of the united Kingdom, and Distribution of " the Funds to the particular Purposes therein mentioned, " and to endeavour to obtain such Acts of Parliament as '< might be most effectual for promoting, encouraging, " and regulating the Linen-trade, agreeable to the Heads " then approven by the said Committee." All which « are contained in the said Act of Parliament itself, which ' was past that same Session of Parliament; and this * Act was printed by itself, and several Thousand Copies * of it were dispersed. « In consequence of this Application from the Royal * Boroughs, another Act of Parliament was past that < same Session, directing the Appropriation of all the * Funds formerly provided by Parliament (which till ' then had never been applied) to the several Purposes * for which they were designed. These Funds are * severally enumerated in the Act itself, and are particu- * larly resumed in his Majesty's Letters Patents, wherein, * pursuant to the Powers vested in the Crown by the said * Act, the several Uses and Purposes to which they are * to be applied, are specially directed, and, agreeable to « the Act, Twenty-one Commissioners and Trustees are ) therein named and appointed, and the several Matters ECONOMY OF WEAVIl^G. '239 i committed to their Trust, are therein likewise specially ' directed: And I shall here beg Leave to refer the « Reader, for his better Information, to the Patent itself, ' which was printed by Order of the Trustees. * These Commissioners and Trustees, pursuant to the * Directions of the Charter, held their first Meeting in « the Borough Room at Edinburgh upon the Twentieth of < Jul// 1727. and then proceeded to lay down proper Rules ' and Methods for their own Procedure, and directed Books ' to be prepared for that Purpose. In concert with the « Royal Boroughs they made Choice of a well-qualified * Gentleman to be their Secretary, whose Conduct ever < since has very much justified their Choice. His Suffi- ' ciency. Diligence, Accuracy and Exactness, and singular * Fidelity in the Discharge of this great Trust committed ' to him, have given universal Satisfaction. « The Trustees, in obedience to the Directions given * them by their Charter, applied themseves directly to the * first Part of their Work, mmelj/j to prepare and form « a particular Plan of Distribution of the Funds, upon < the several Conditions therein specially set forth. This < Plan was finished, printed, and publish'd the seventeenth * of November 1727. to which I also beg Leave to refer < the Reader for a full Information. < The Rules and Regulations, appointed, by the Act of < Parliament, to be observed in the Linen-manufacture, < took Place the First of November in the same Year 1727. < Since this Period, we have happily turned our Eyes « upon the Improvement of our Manufactures, which is < now a common Subject in Discourse, and this contributes « not a little to its Success. People thereby pick up « Knowledge and Information, by Degrees, of our Faults * and Defects in the Management of our Manufactures, < and of the proper "Ways to cure and amend them- 240 ESSAY VI. « The Trustees bestow their Time and Attendance uDon the Service of the Publick without Fee or Reward. And I observe, from their Minutes, that their Meetings are regular and frequent. It appears almost from every Sederunt, that their Service is of great Use and Import- ance to the Country, and contributes greatly to advance the Improvement and Extension of our Fisheries and Manufactures of every Kind. Many missive Letters, for the Solution of Doubts and Questions, Petitions and Applications for Encouragements of various Kinds, upon different Branches, ^c. Memorials and Complaints of Abuses, Defects, slovenly and unprofitable Practices in the Management of many Parts of the Manufacture, and Proposals of Improvements, and of the most frugal and expeditious Methods of carrying on several Branches to the best Advantage, are frequently sent to the Secre- tary from every Corner of the Countrv. And I observe, from their Minutes, that all these are always duly weighed and considered by the Trustees, and Satisfac- tion, by regular Answers, given to the Persons who send them. The good Effects of a Correspondence of this Kind are obvious. * I might here enter into a particular Detail of the whole Proceedings of the Trustees, from the Com- mencement of their Trust, to this Time, were it not that such an Account would swell this Preface to a greater Length than the Discourse itself-, and that their whole Conduct, in the Distribution and Application of the Funds, under their Care, in each Year, is summed up in their annual Report to the King ; and that, pursuant to the Directions of his Majesty's Charter, a Duplicate or true Copy of this Report is annually given in, within thirty Days after Christmas, to the annual Committee of ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 241 the Royal Boroughs, and is by them laid before the general Convention in July thereafter, where it lies upon the Table during the Sitting of the Convention, to be perused by all the Members*, and that these Reports are all in the Hands of the Clerks to the Royal Boroughs, where any Person may have Access to see them; any Person may likewise have Access to the Minutes of Procedure of the Trustees, at any Time, in the Hands of their Secretary. < Persons of all Ranks express, on many Occasions, a generous Concern for the publick Good, and an honest Curiosity to be particularly informed of the State and Progress of our Manufactures, since they have become the Objects of the Care and Concern of the Publick; what Effects the Observations of the Regulations of the Linen Act of Parliament have had upon the Im- provement of Linen Cloth in its Quality; what new Branches of that Trade formerly unknown to us, have been introduced at the publick Charge: How far these are already improven; and what other Parts are still to be introduced, improven and extended, and how far the Application of the publick Funds, destined by Law for the Encouragement of our Fisheries and Manufac- tures, have already contributed towards these Ends. ' Many are desirous, and have been long expecting to see something publisht upon this Head ; and the Author observing that nothing of that Kind hath hitherto appeared, he lately resolved, notwithstanding of the just Sense he has of his own Unfitness for the Perform- ance, to bestow as much Time (as his necessary Attend- ance upon his own private Affairs would allow him) to reduce his Obsevvations on this Subject, in which he has been pretty much conversant, to Writing, to the end Hh 242 ESSAY VI. « that others of better Skill, and more Knowledge in these < Matters, may be excited to Publish something of the * same Kind to better Purpose. And now, that nothing < of this Sort appears from any other Hand, he has * adventured to send it abroad, such as it is, and submits * it to every Reader, who, he hopes, will consider it with * the same View he had in it, namely, to create a Spirit * of Industry and Diligence in the People, to promote * the Improvement and Extension of our Manufactures, * at least of such of them as are, or may be carried on * with the greatest Profit, upon which the Happiness < and Prosperity of this Country depends- * In the first Part, he takes Notice of Idleness, and the < bad Effects of it, as it hurts Individuals, and as it affects < the whole Body of the People nationally; and proposes < a few Rules of Police, for suppressing of Theft and * Begging, and imploying of the Poor in Work-houses. « He then speaks of the Causes of the Non-improvement * of our Grounds, and of the great Advantages of « Agriculture; and proposes the same Method for the « Improvement of our Lands, by which the Estates of * England were at first improven. - * In the second Part, he treats of Industry as the * Source of national Wealth and Power, and of the * common Motives to Industry; of Trade and Manufactures * in general, of our Trade in particular, and of the Staple- * manufactures of England^ and of this Country; of the * Causes of the Neglect and Non-improvement of our * Staple; of such Branches of Manufacture as are now * carried on with Loss; of several Trades that now are, * and are liable to be overstockt, and proposes some * Methods to prevent this; of the Improvement and * Extension of our Staple, as the only Way to imploy ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 243 « all our spare Hands of every Condition; of the Planta- * tion Trade, and the great Benefit of these Settlements « in America to their Mother Country, especially if they « were duly encouraged to raise Materials for Home- < manufactures; of the Necessity of the Improvement « and Extension of the Manufacture of jhome-made ^ Linen Cloth in Scotlandy England and Ireland. * In the third Part, he gives a particular Account of the State and Condition of the Linen-manufacture of this Country, as it is at this Time, and of its Progress since the First of November 1727. Upon Perusal of this Part since it was printed, he observes something, he intended to have spoke of, omitted, namel^f a bad Practice in the Sale of Linen Yarn, of false and short t-Tale notwithstanding of the Directions of the Act of Parliament to the contrary. • This is said to be owing to the Use of Hand-reels, a Method of making up Yarn so uncertain and precarious, that no Persons who use them, can possibly be exact in their Numbers of Threads. No Buyer can pretend to tell the Threads of every Cut of Yarn he buys, much less can tlie Stamp-master controul the Tale of all the Yam that is presented to Sale in a Fair or Market; and as Yarn can be subjected to no Stamp or other certain Check, if the Buyer discover not the Fraud until he come to sort his Yarn for Use, it will then be too late for him to recur upon the Seller. ' The most probable Way to cure and prevent this Evil, is to introduce the Practice of Check-reels every where, and if the Funds appropriated for encouraging the Linen-trade might allow it, it is propos'd that the Trustees, for the more speedy furnishing of the Country with Check-reels, might give annually a certain Number, 244 ESSAY VI. by Way of Prizes upon Spinning, in the same Way that spinning Wheels are propos'd to be given at the small spinning Schools: And when any Alteration or Amendment of the Linen Act of Parliament is propos'd, the Use of Hand-reels may be discharg'd, and every false Tale of Yam subjected to a severe Penalty, because every INIistake in a Check-reel must be made with a fraudulent Intention to deceive the Buyer. * Another Practice discharg'd by Lavv', still prevails in several Places in the North, that proves a Loss to the Spinners, which is the Use of the eleven-quarter Reel, altho' the Act directs that all Yarn shall be made up by the ten-quarter Reel, being two Yards and an Half, or ninety Inches in Circumference, and that all Reels, wherever found, other than 2\ Yards, or 90 Inches in Circumference, shall, at the Sight of the proper Officer, be destroyed, and all Yarn otherwise made up shall be confiscated. All Stamp-masters ought therefore to be strictly enjoined to make diligent Search for all such illegal Reels, and to seize all Yarn otherwise made up than as the Law directs. * The Use of Weights and Scales is the only sure Way to prove Yarn, both as to its Quantity and Fine- ness; every good Weaver uses this Method in making up a Parcel of Yarn for every Piece of Cloth, because he discovers, to a Certainty, if all the Yarn intended to be used in the same Piece, is precisely of the same Fineness; for two equal Quantities, or Cuts of Yarn, containing the same Number of Threads each, and each Thread of the same Length, if they differ in Weight, must also differ in Fineness. This Practice would likewise be of great Use to the Dealers in Yarn; they have no more to do than to tell one Cut, and to provQ ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 245 * all the rest by Weight with it, and every Cut that differs < in Weight, must likewise differ either in Fineness, or in < Tale and Quantity. < The Parliament of Ireland give great Funds for the < Improvement of their Linen-manufacture, no Defect is < sooner discovered, that can be supplied by Encourage- < mcnt, than it is done. The Trustees in Ireland gave, « at one Time, 10000 Check-reels, which were all made, * and sent and distributed to the Spinners in different « Places of the Country, at the publick Charge-, they also < at several Times have made great Numbers of good < Looms, completely mounted, of the best Kind, and give < them gratis to the best Weavers. They are likewise < careful to remove, by publick Laws, every Thing that * has the least Appearance of a Discouragement to the * Linen-trade. They, by Act of Parliament, exempted f Linen Cloth of every Kind from the Payment of all * petty Customs, or small Duties that were in Use to be * paid upon it at weekly Markets and Country Fairs. * This Act well deserves our Consideration, to put our < Linen-trade upon the same Footing of Freedom and f Immunity with that of Ireland. Those petty Duties * are a Part of the Revenue of those Boroughs and * Towns, where Linen Cloth and Linen Yarn are sold at f weekly Markets and Fairs; and a very small Part of * the Revenue they are; for the collecting of them costs * very near as much as they yield. The Manner of * raising those small Customs occasions frequent Com- * plaints and Disputes between the Dealers and Collectors, f which hurt the Dealers, in their Imagination, and the * Communities themselves in Reality: For when the * Dealers take Offence, they often fall on Ways to dispose * of their Goods, without bringing them to Market; mid 246 ESSAY VI. this so far diminishes the Trade, and the Consumption of Provisions in those Towns where the Markets and Fairs are held. « The Town-council of Dundee had this Matter under their Consideration some Years ago, and very wisely they remitted the Duties that used to be paid on Linen Cloth. They struck this small Branch of their Revenue out of their Rent-roll, and exempted Linen Goods of every Kind from the Payment of Custom of every Kind. The Effect of this was, that numbers of Country Weavers, who used to carry their Cloth for Sale to the Towns that ly nearest them, where the same Duties are still levied, do now bring their Cloth to Dundee, altho' it lyes at a much greater Distance from them. < I must humbly beg Leave to submit this, with the other Matters proposed in the following Discourse, to the Consideration of the Royal Boroughs in their next general Convention, to be held in Julij ITS^. They are the Guardians of Trade and Manufacture, and the chief Gainers and Losers by both: And when this Matter is duly weighed, they will, no doubt, prefer their real Interest, (which obviously depends upon the Improvement and Extension of our Staple-manufacture) to this imaginary Branch of a Trifle of Revenue, scarce worth collecting, and prepare a proper Application to Parliament for exempting Linen Goods of every Kind from the Payment of all Duties and petty Customs whatever, either at weekly Markets, or in Country Fairs. * The Parliament of Ireland did likewise (for the En- couragement of Weavers) by a public Law, allow any Weaver to set up and carry on his Trade in any Town or Incorporation in the Kingdom wherever he pleased. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 247 notwithstanding any Monopolies or seclusive Privileges that had been formerly granted in favours of any Com- pany or Corporation of Weavers. The Weavers in this City are indeed exceedingly easy upon this Head, they are in Use to admit any good Tradesman to the Freedom of their Incorporation, upon Terms that are easy and reasonable: But if any Foreigner or Stranger, who is a good Weaver, inclined to set up his Trade in any Town or Burgh, without being a Freeman or a Member of the Incorporation; it would prove a very great Encour- agement to the Linen-manufacture, if they were allowed to work and carry on their Trade, where they imagined they could do it to the best Advantage, upon this single Condition on their Part, Residence^ and weaving of good Cloth as the Law directs: And if all Weavers were likewise exeemed from all publick Burdens, and Parish- offices, it would be the better, and contribute much ta increase their Number. * It is observed, that any diligent young Lad, of an ordinary Genius, who applies himself close to his Business, can work and finish a Piece of Cloth very well under the Direction of a good Master, when he has been but two Years at the Trade: But it is found from Experience, that no man ought to be intrusted to sort and size a Parcel of Yarn, to warp, put in the Loom, weave; and finish a Piece of Cloth by himself, before he has wrought constantly six or seven Years at least, under the Eye of a skilful Master. It is therefore proposed, when any Amendment is made to the Linen Act, that there ought to be a Clause in it to this Purpose, to restrain any Weaver from setting up as a Master, until he has wrought constantly under a good Master or Masters for the Space of seven Years, and 548 ESSAY VI. then to be allowed to practise their Trade as Masters wherever they please, upon finding Bail, as the Law directs, to conform themselves to the Observation of all the Rules and Regulations contained in the Linen Act of Parliament. ' In the fourtli and last Part of this Discourse, thd Author takes notice of the Advantages of our Situation in an Island, that our Security depends chiefly upon our naval Force, and that our Navigation depends chiefly upon our Fisheries, which ought therefore with great Care to be encouraged. He speaks of several Discour- agements and Hardships, that several Branches of our Fisheries labour under at present, and proposes som.e Methods for relieving them, and of several probable Ways for improving and extending our Fishing-trade in every Branch, by proper Encouragement. * Throughout the whole of this Discourse, the Author has spoke his Mind, with Freedom, of our Abuses, bad Habits, and unfrugal Practices of our Tradesmen and Dealers of different Kinds, as they occurred to him; and in this, he hopes, he has given no Offence, as, it is apparent from his Manner of writing, he intended none. It is a Privilege peculiar to the Subjects of free States, to speak or write what they think, and to publish what they write, so long as they observe the Rules of Decency, and express that Regard and Respect for Dignities, and Persons of high Rank, and in high Offices, that the Nature, Peace, and good Order of every civil Society requires. < The Liberty or Servitude of a Nation, appears as much from their Writings, as from any other Part of their Conduct in Life. Free States are liable to be disturbed by Faction, and Partyrstruggles for publick ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 249 " Imployments : And their Writers, especially of History « and Biography, discover a Biass for that Side to which * they are attach'd; but both Parties speak out their Sen- « timents with great Boldness and Freedom. Indecent * Liberties are often taken with Men in Power, and even < these are sometimes of Use-, they serve to check and « controul the Conduct of great Men, to put them on < their Guard to confine themselves, in all their Actions, * within the Bounds prescribed by Law, which is their * greatest Security. The Conduct of Princes, Ministers, « and other great Men, is, in free States, variously repre- * sented, as the several Writers affect; but, by comparing ' the Accounts of both Sides, the Truth is easily discerned. * Whereas, under arbitrary Governments, their Writ- * inps are stuft with Panegyrick and fulsome Flattery : * Every Man in Power is a great and a good Man, at least * so long as his Power remains with him; and the worst » and weakest of Princes are dubb'd with the Characters * of the best and greatest, so long as they live. The same ' Characters are given to a Julius Cesar, or an Oliver Crom- * wely (who betrayed their Country, and trampled upon « Law and Liberty) that properly belong to a George Castrioi, * a William Wallace, or a Prince of Orange, who spent their * Lives in the Defence of Law and Liberty, and devoted * themselves to the Service of their Country, to rescue the * People from Servitude and the Bondage of a foreign « Yoke. « When an enslaved Nation have the rare Happiness f to be blest with the Reign of a Titus or a Trajan, then, * and not till then, the Truth and true Characters of ' former Tyrants come out: Then the Spirit of Liberty * revives, and Truth is allowed to walk abroad in Day- * light, during the short Season of such a Sun-shine. I i 250 ESSAY VI. This is apparent from the Writings of Tacitus, where the justest Sentiments of Liberty, and the strongest Dis- position to assert it, appears almost in every Page: But so strong an Impression do the Restraints of Tyrants make upon the Minds of Men, that Tacitus appears, on many Occasions, to be under a Kind of Awe and Dread of going too far: So terrible is uncontroulable Power, even in the Hands of the best of Princes. * The Author submits his Observations, upon the sev- eral Subjects he treats of, to the Examination and Judg- ment of every candid and impartial Reader; and hopes, those who discover any Errors, Mistakes, Defects, or Omissions, will publish their Remarks with the same Intention that he has done, for tJte Benefit of tJie Publick .- Or if they incline not to put themselves to that Trouble, if they transmit them to Mr. Flinty Secretary to the Trustees, where the Author may have Access to see them, they may be published by Way of an Appendix or Supplement to this Discourse; or if another Edition shall be wanted, by Way of Notes, in the proper Places to which they refer.' In a subsequent part of the work, the author gives, in a note, the quantities of linens, stamped during the first five years after the passing of the Linen Act, which I shall also copy. « The Linen Act of Parliament commenced the first * November 1727. There was stamped for Sale the first * Year preceeding first November 1728. in the West, and * Countries on the Southside of the River of Tay. Yards. Value. l,04-7,254t i. 66850 10 04 « In the Countries] ^^3^^,^^ jg jj Be.northr.^,^^>^3^>'^23x Total Quantity, 2,183,978 Z. 103312 09 08 ECONOMY OF WEAVING. » Second Year preceeding first November 1729. 251 < South, - - - 1,213,013^ i..59815 14 09 'North, - - - 2,012,142t 54568 04 IH ♦Total, - - - 3,225,155^ I,. 114383 19 08| *Increas'd 1729. 1,041,1771 11071 10 00 « Third Year preceeding first November 1730. « South, - - - 1,537,01 It i.68777 00 09t ♦North, - - - 2,218,651 62485 15 02| ♦Total, - - - 3,755,622^ i. 131262 15 IH < Increase, - - 530,506^ 16878 16 03t ♦ Fourth Year preceeding first November 1 731. ♦South, - - - 1,621,6791 i.79477 18 04| « North, - - - 2,269,93t 66178 15 lOi 'Total, - - - 3,891,573 X. 145656 14 03 ♦Increase, - - - 135,910^ 14393 18 03'- ♦ Fifth Year preceeding first November Vi '32. ♦South, - - - l,751,038t i.86566 17 07 ♦North, - - - 2,633,794t 81955 17 03t ♦ Total, - - - 4,384,832^ Z.. 168322 14 10| ♦Increase, - - - 493,2591 22666 00 07| ♦ This is besides Cloth made for private Use, of which ♦ large Quantities of high pric'd Cloth for Shirting have ♦ been lately made since the Commencement of this Act. ♦ The Values are taken up by the Stamp-masters at the ' lowest Estimate. < Increased in five Years, in consequence of the ♦ Execution of this Act of Parliament, and the small ♦ Encouragements in Quantity, - - 2,200,854^ Yards, « In Value, ------ X.65,010 5 2 ^52 ESSAY VI. In the year 1784, the quantity was 19,138,593 yards, valued at X. 932,6 17 : 1 : 1 1^; so that, from the year 1732, until 1784, the increase of yards was 14,753,7611, and of value L. 764,294 : 7 : 6|. The author, it will be observed, ascribes the promotion of the linen manufacture and its extension, during the years which he quotes, to the salutary effects of the Linen Act, and this encourages him to offer many proposals of restriction and encouragement, some of which have been enumerated. But the unprecedently rapid improvement of the manufacture of cotton, which was then hardly known, and which was not prosecuted to any extent until many years afterwai'ds; with which the legislature have scarcely, if at all, interfered; which has neither been cherished by bounties, nor fettered by statutory restric- tions, affords sufficient grounds to doubt at least the truth of his hypotheses, and to trace the extension of manu- factures to very different causes. It is a very trite observation, that mankind will always purchase where they are cheapest and best served, but its truth cannot be disputed, and it applies forcibly in the present case. The invention of the art of spinning cotton by machinery, which originated in England, and which, whether invented or not, was brought into practice by the late Sir Richard Arkwright; and the many subse- quent improvements which have been made in that art, are, unquestionably, the primary and consequent causes of the almost incredible extension of the cotton manu- facture. The first web, entirely of cotton, which was woven in Scotland, was manufactured by Mr. James Monteith of Anderston, near Glasgow, about the year 1773. Both the warp and woof of this web were spun ill this country by women, upon the common §mall wheel. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 263 The introduction of cotton warps in Lancashire was not much earlier, for the first calicoes were made in 1772. Little, however, was done in weaving goods wholly of cotton, until the water, or engine twist, was generally intro- duced about 1780. Some water twist was indeed brought to Scotland for sale, so early as 1776, but it did not begin to be generally used for warps until some years afterwards. From that period, the manufacture began gradufllly to extend, and the invention of the mule jenfii/y which came generally into use a few years afterwards, enabled the spinners to produce warps fitted for much finer muslins, than any which had been spun upon the water frames. The manufacture now extended with astonishing rapidity, and the application of power to drive the mules, together with many other improvements, both in the machinery and economy of cotton mills, whilst they daily ameliorated the quality of the yarn, rapidly reduced the prime cost of it to the spinner. This, again, very soon produced a competition, which by generally supplying, and frequently overstocking the market, reduced the price to the manu- facturer; and the same competition naturally arising among manufacturers, the prices, as will ever be the case under similar circumstances, were lowered to dealers, and, consequently, to consumers. The want of stamp-masters, bounties, penalties, &c. have never been felt in the cotton trade; and, consequently, it is fair to presume, that whatever extension has taken place in the linen, was not occasioned by the operation of these expedients. Some frauds, indeed, must have been practised, where goods could not be sufiiciently examined by the purchaser, and to these the cotton is equally exposed as the linen yarn, for it is equally impossible, in either case, to count or examine every thread. But tliese have always been found 254 ESSAY VI. to cure themselves, without the necessity of legal inter- ference, by the loss of character, and consequent difficulty of sale which they occasioned. The same consequence has always resulted after the yarn has been manufactured into cloth; for the price has, in general, borne a pretty fair proportion to the quality, when the goods were of a similar description, and equally in demand at the particular markeU It is, however, fair to admit that some restric- tions, for the prevention of frauds, might have been necessary, when the inhabitants of a country were little acquainted v/ith the principles of trade; but these restrictions become totally useless, and often vexatious, at a more advanced period. At the present advanced stage of the cotton manufac- ture, a good spinner, with the assistance of three children, can work two power-mules of 300 spindles each, and from every spindle of these two machines, can produce, of an average fineness, say No. 72, 12 hanks of 840 yards each, weekly, making in all 7200 hanks, or six millions and forty-eight thousand yards, when the mules are well con- structed, and the stuff good, and well prepared. What the reduction of labour is between this and the old prac- tices of spinning by the distaff or common wheel, it is not easy to ascertain, for to the labour of the spinner, is to be added that proportion of the labour of all those, employed in the preparatory processes, which are necessary to supply him with materials. Besides the number quoted, 72, although now esteemed rather coarse than fine, is very much finer than any thing ever spun in this country in tlie old way. I have heard the reduction of labour estimated at the proportion of 200 to 1, but I should suppose it much more. The position of Dr. Smith, that " It is the natural effect ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 255 of improvement to diminish gradually the veal price of almost all manufactures," was never, perhaps, more strik- ingly exemplified, than in this manufacture, w^hich has entirely arisen since his work was published. No. 73, was currently sold in the year 1787, for thirty-six shillings and sixpence per pound weight. In 1792, for nine shillings andeightpence-halfpenny; and in 1807, for four shillings and fourpence-halfpenny. During the same period, the raw material has, upon the whole, rather advanced than declined in price, fluctuating between two and three shil- lings per pound. Occasional scarcity has, indeed, at times, produced a temporary rise of price, and when the market was again fully supplied, a depression has taken place in this, as in all other commodities. On the average, however, tlie money price has not varied greatly, the exchangeable value may perhaps rather have sunk, for the price of freight occasioned by the war premium of insurance, and the rise of seamen's wages, naturally form part of the money price. Taking, therefore, the average price of cotton wool, fit for this number of yarn, during these years, to have been two shillings and sixpence per pound (which is very high) in the first price quoted (1787), the price of labour, interest of capital, waste of machinery, and spinner's profit, will be thirty-four shillings. In the second (1792), seven shillings and twopence-halfpenny; and in the third (1807), one shilling and tenpence-half- penny. In the last instance, the price of manufacturing is, probably, more than the calculation gives-, but the comparison between the value of the material in its raw state, and after being spun, does not affect this calculation more than the others, perhaps not so much; for it will be observed, that the two years, formerly quoted, were years of peace, the last a year of most extensive war. 256 ESSAY vr. During the same period, the general price of labour has constantly increased; a very singular proof of the pro- digious efficacy of judiciously applied improvement in the mechanical arts. In the manufacture of linen, and other goods woven from flax, no reduction of labour to nearly equal extent has been effected. Machinery for spinning fiax has, indeed, been invented, and constructed upon a plan pretty similar to that used for cotton. This machinery has been found useful in effecting some reduction, especially in the coarser kinds of linen yarn; but the very nature of the raw material presents obstacles to the improvement of the spinning of flax by machinery, which do not exist with regard to cotton, nor even in the same proportion with wool. The fibres of flax, although very strong, from their length, and inelasticity, are not nearly so well calculated for the process of drawing by rollers as the cotton, which is short in the staple, and extremely elastic. Further mechanical inventions and experiments, if judi- ciously conducted, may, no doubt, still greatly improve the art of spinning flax, but there seem to be unsur- mountable physical objections, to its ever becoming a rival to the cotton in price. Here, then, seem natural reasons, sufficient to account for the very different advances which these two manu- factures have made. The linen trade, like a ricketty child, unable to stand upon its own legs, has constantly required to be cherished and fostered by bounties. That, at this moment given upon the coarse goods, manufactured chiefly in the county of Angus, is not less than twenty- five to thirty per cent. aJ valorem. The cotton, on the contrary, from the superior facilities which it presents, has, bv the mere enterprise of individuals, risen with the ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 257 growth of a giant; so far from requiring aid or encour- a-rement from the state, the raw material has been for some years an object of taxation; and, short as its course has been, it has already reached that advanced stage of trade, where the chief difficulty lies in finding markets and consumers for the supply. The great reduction of labour, and, consequently, of price, which has taken place in the cotton manufacture, lyes, however, almost wholly in those stages of the process of manufacture, which bring the raw material into yarn. Much has not yet been effected in the weaving, nor does it appear to afford facilities, nearly equal to those which presented themselves, and have been seized upon in the spinning. The great improvement in the quality of the yarn, and the dexterity acquired by extensive practice, have, no doubt, considerably reduced the prices of weaving, but a good deal remains still to be done. In a national point of view, this has become of very great importance, for the high price of labour in this country, renders every means of facilitating all the opera- tions of manufacturing, not only peculiarly desirable, but essentially necessary. Until the continent of Europe was almost completely shut against us, the immense exportation of cotton yarn has sufficiently proved, that our great superiority lay in the spinning, and that, in many instances, foreigners have found it, at least, equally beneficial to employ their own looms, as to purchase cloth in this market. Considerations such as these have actuated a number of persons, for some years past, to endeavour to reduce the expence of weaving, particularly plain coarse goods, by various mechanical contrivances, and modes of economy. Of these I shall now endeavour to give some account. Kk 258 ESSAY VI. Cotton yarn is wound upon the spindle, in the form of a cone, and these are called cops. The usual practice has been to reel these cops into hanks, for the conveniency of starching, dying, or bleaching, when required. When plain white goods are to be manufactured, starching only is required for the warps; for the process of bleaching takes place after the yarn has been made into cloth. After starching, the next process is winding, and then warping, as noticed in the first Essay. The first means of saving labour, are by the omission of the process of reeling, and by winding the yarn at once from the cop upon the bobbin, by means of a machine, by which a number of bobbins are wound at the same time. To accomplish the starching, different experiments have been made. It has been considered a very desirable object, if prac- ticable, to starch and dry the yam in the cop, before undergoing any of the subsequent processes. The chief obstruction was found to arise from the dense form in which the yarn was rolled together, which rendered it difficult both to impregnate the cop thoroughly with the starch, and afterwards to dry it. To remove the first, an expedient was found, by exposing the cops to the operation of the starch in an exhausted receiver; for it was con- sidered, that when the pressure of the atmosphere was removed, the starch would penetrate easily to the very heart of the cop. Upon trial, this was found to succeed very well, but the drying was still found excessively tedious, and the glutinous nature of the starch rendered the subsequent operation of winding very difficult. I am not aware that these impediments have as yet been effectually removed, nor that the plan of starching in the cop, has been brought into practice. The general mode, ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 259 therefore, is to wind the yarn from the cop upon the bobbin, to warp tlie yarn by the common process, and to starch the warp in the chain. Of the winding machines, different kinds have been constructed, some driven by tlie hand, others by the foot Jike a turning-lath, and others by the application of power. The latter mode is un- questionably the best, whei?e it can be applied, for where a number of bobbins are running at the same time, the person who attends the machine will be sufficiently employed in removing obstructions, knotting threads, which occasionally break, and other necessary operations, without being also obliged to drive the machine, either by the foot or hand. When power is employed, if the cops are well built, it is very seldom necebsary to stop the machine, for any bobbin may be stopped without affecting the others. But when driven by the hand, or even by tlie foot, when any impediment occurs, it is generally necessary to stop the whole, until that is removed. By this, much time is lost, and, of course, the work produced by one person much less. For the reasons already stated, I am sorry that I cannot give drawings of these machines. They are simple in their principle and operation. The bobbins are placed upon vertical spindles, similar to the spindle frame of a mule, and the spindles are driven by cotton bands, from a hollow tin cylinder, or drum, in the same way. The threads are traversed upon the bobbin, by a wheel similar to the common heart traverse, as it is called, used in water spinning. The most recent and best constructed, which I have seen, is that lately introduced by Mr. James Dunlop, at Barrowfield, near Glasgow. As the bobbins are in general wound ratlier in the form of a barrel than per- iectly flat, Mr. Dunlop constructs his traverse wheel so, 260 ESSAY VI. that one side of it should wind the yarn equally on every part of the bobbin, and the other side so that the traverse should be gradually retarded at the middle of the bobbin, and accelerated at each end. By these means, more yarn is wound upon the middle than the ends, at every alternate traverse, and the yarn gradually arising in the middle, the bobbin assumes the barrel shape. A small quantity of starch is applied to the yarn during this operation, by means of a horizontal wooden cylinder, revolving on its axis in a trough filled with starch, over the upper surface of which the threads pass in their progress from the cop to the bobbin. It is calculated, that a woman, by one of these machines, can wind about To spyndles of yarn, of an average number, say No. 70 to 80, in a day. Eight or ten years ago, the price of winding No. 70, on the common wheel, was about two- pence per spyndle. Although these prices are now con- siderably reduced, still a considerable saving must take place by using the machines, where business is conducted upon a scale sufficiently extensive to employ them con- stantly. In dyed warps, it does not appear that this plan of economy has, as yet, produced any beneficial effect. Yarn can only be dyed in the hank, and, consequently, the process of reeling cannot be saved. I have seen winding machines, constructed for the purpose of winding dyed yarn from the hank, but these machines were so frequently stopped by the breaking which took place, in consequence of the yarn being both weakened and matted together by the dye stuffs, that no saving, in point of expence, was effected by employing them. A general system of economy in the manufacture of cotton cloths was, some years ago, introduced at Stockport, near Manchester, and partly imitated in Scotland-, of which I shall now proceed to give some account. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 261 This system, in so far as regards the preparatory pro- cesses, is not very much different from that already described. The cloths manufactured were plain, and rather coarse. A portion of warp, composed of water twist, was wound from the bobbins upon which it was spun, upon a roller or beam. A certain number of these beams being combined, the yarn was again wound from these upon another beam, which formed one half of the warp. By these means, the operations of winding and warping were wholly omitted. The warp received no starch in the process. The next object, was to avoid that combination of operations which form the chief obstacle to the speed of weaving. A machine was there- fore invented, for the purpose of dressing a whole web, before it was put into the loom, that the subsequent operation of weaving might not be impeded. Two beams, each containing one half of the warp, being placed at opposite extremities of the machine, the warp was gradually wound from these beams, upon another beam placed in the centre, and elevated above the other parts of the machine. During this process, each part was supplied with the stuff for dressing, by means of a hori- zontal roller, revolving in a trough containing the stuff, in a manner similar to that used in the winding machine. The dressing was then brushed into the yarn, by means of two brushes, one applied to the upper, and the other to the under surface of the warp. These brushes received a motion, similar to that communicated by a weaver's hands in the common process; and this motion was effected by cranks^ the brushes being sufficiently long to include the whole breadth of the warp. After this, the warps passing under rollers, placed to guide the direction, met upon the centre beam, immediately under which was 262 ESSAY VI. placed an apparatus, consisting of a horizontat axis, to which were attached six or eight flat boards, diverging from the centre, like the radii of a circle. These, by a rapid motion round the axis, generated a current of air, for drying the warp after being dressed and brushed, previous to its being wound upon the receiving beam. During the process of dressing, the threads were kept distinct in the wet state, by passing through two or three coarse reeds, placed at convenient distances from each other. The lease was preserved by a set of heddles, through which the warp passed, after being dried, and before being wound upon the beam. Upon the beam were jlanches of wood, to keep the selvages of the warp perpendicular, and the whole at an equal breadth. The only improvement in the construction of the loom, was an apparatus for winding up the cloth as it was woven-, and, consequently, saving the time necessary to shift the cloth at intervals, or, as it is generally called, to draw bores. The apparatus consisted of ratchet wheels, moved by a hanging catch, to which motion was given by a lever attached at right angles, to the upper extremity of the swords of the lay, above the centres. Some saving must, undoubtedly, have been produced by this plan, in weaving plain coarse fabrics; but many obstacles presented themselves against it. The chief of these obstacles occurred in the dressing. It has been already remarked in the first Essay, that the stuff used for dressing, although it increases the strength, tenacity, and smoothness of the warp, is not fitted to resist the operation of the atinosphere for any length of time, especially when in a very dry state. It may be easily conceived, that in the early stages of weaving, especially in a cold or moist climate, this defect ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 26'3 would not excite much attention, nor produce much inconvenience. Weavers' shops, in those days, and even still, are almost universally upon the ground floor, and are only floored w^ith earth. In consequence of this, the air in the shops is generally moist and humid, and from the pro- cess of only dressing a small portion of warp at once, and weaving it up almost immediately afterwards, little incon- venience is found. In one respect, the facility with which the dressing material is acted on by a current of air, seems rather advantageous. For, as the weaver dries his warp, after being dressed, merely by setting the air in motion by a fan, moved by his hands, greater difRcuIty of drying would both fatigue the operator and impede his progress. But in the efforts now making to improve the economy of weaving, nothing appears more likely to promote the end, than a total division of the labour of dressing and weaving, and this can only be fully effected, by dressing a whole warp at once. It will also be necessary, that this warp should be of considerable length to produce any saving. For as much time will be employed in drawing a short web through the heddles and reed, as a long one, or in twisting one web to the end of another. Now, until means are devised to preserve the warp in a proper state for weaving, until a whole web can be wrought, it does not appear that this object can be fully accomplished. Besides this, in establishing extensive manufactories and regular economy, it would be expensive and inconvenient, if not impracticable, to have all the buildings only one story high, more especially if the looms are to be driven by the application of power. I have stated, in the first Essay, the practice of weaving in India in the open air. Since the time when that Essay was written, I have earnestly inquired of different persons who have resided 264 ESSAY VI. in India, concerning the stufF used for dressing in that country j but I am sorry to say, that the results of these inquiries have been far from satisfactory. None of those with whom I have conversed, being immediately concerned with the business, any observations which they had made were merely cursory and transient. They agree, however, that the substance used is a decoction of rice, formed by boiling the rice -wdth a small quantity of water, and then expressing the juice. This juice, when cooled, forms a thick glutinous substance. I have been also informed, that before using it for dressing, it undergoes a certain process of fermentation ; but whether this fermentation is produced, or accelerated, by any mixture, or if it is entirely caused by the weather, I have not been able to learn. Whether also the stuff is used after undergoing a partial or complete fermentation, I am still equally ignorant. In this country, the common flour or potatoe dressing, is generally considered to be better after it has been fermented, especially in very dry or hot weather. Yest or barm is, therefore, sometimes mixed with it, to promote fermentation. Butter milk is also sometimes added, and, as before noticed, herring brine or other saline substances. But while these experiments are only made by operative weavers, totally unacquainted with the laws of chemical combination; and while the warp is to be dried by the manual operation of the fan, there seems to be little reason to expect much discovery in this part of the art. It seems not unreasonable to conjecture, that any sub- stance capable of adding to the smoothness and tenacity of the warps, and which would resist .the operation of the atmosphere for a considerable time, if not too expen- sive for common use, would answer the purpose. It seems also probable, that a substance M'hich, when dried, ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 265 xvould possess this property, must also require a much greater portion, either of circulation of air, or artificial heat, to reduce it from the wet to the dry state, in a rea- sonable time. But these are merely given as probable conjectures, and without a train of accurate and judi- cious experiments, it is not probable, that much prac- tical benefit will be derived. A second disadvantage, incidental to all the dressing machines hitherto contrived, has much impeded their practical utility. In the common process of dressing, the threads of warp, when in the wet state, have always a tendency to cohere, or stick together, and the agitation of the air, produced by the fan, naturally increases this tendency. To prevent this, the yarn is slightly brushed at intervals, while drying. The same tendency to co- hesion, occurs in warps dressed by machinery, and pre- sents a very great obstacle to their speed. The reeds through which the warp passes, are intended, in some measure, to remove this, but the great friction caused by the yarn passing through them in a wet state, and their tendency to be clogged by the dressing, are serious disadvantages. From these causes, threads are frequently broken, and when this is the case, the operation rtlust be suspended, the machine stopped, and the warp left in a wet state, until these threads are repaired. When the threads are tied, it is necessary, in most cases, to pass them through all the reeds-, and this, necessarily, occu- pies a Considerable portion of time. Of course, when many are to be tied, the operations of brushing and fan- ning are so long suspended, that the warp frequently gets entangled, and is separated with difficulty, and often with more breakage. Besides this, when long exposed, it is LI 266 ESSAY VI. often too much dried and hardened by the mere action of the air, to be in a proper state for weaving. A dressing machine, somewhat different in principle, xvas invented since, by Mr. Quintin Macadam, Ander-/ ston, and brought into practice by Mr. John Monteith, at his manufactory, at Pollockshaws, near Glasgow. For this machine, a patent has been obtained. The warp, as in the other, is wound from two beams at the ends of the machine, and after being dressed and dried, is lodged upon a beam in the middle. The chief novelty in this machine consists in the brushes, which are constructed on cylinders, similar to those of a carding engine. The circumference of these cylindrical brushes, being placed in contact with the under surface of the warp, they com- municate the brushing by revolving upon their own axles. Upon each end of the machine, there are two of these cylinders, and two circular wooden fans to agitate the air. Between the brushes, the first fan is placed, to dry the warp partially after the first brushing. It then receives the second brushing, and is completely dried by the second fan, which is placed between the second brush and the receiving beam. This mode of brushing the warp between the wet and dry state, assimilates the operation of the machine more to the common manual process, and may, in that respect, be productive of some advantage j but it does not appear, that the inconveniences arising from the chemical pro- perties of the dressing, or the friction caused by the reeds, are more obviated by this machine than the former. For another process, essentially useful in dressing yarn, no provision, whatever, is made in either of these machines. This is picking the warp, previous to the application of the dressing. With all the improvements in spinning, no ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 267 yarn is entirely free from inequalities, lumps, and snarls. Every good and careful weaver is at pains to remove these, and any knots which may have been carelessly tied in the preparatory processes, both to prevent obstructions in his sheds, and to improve the appearance of his cloth, when woven. As this process depends upon discrimina- tion and selection, and consequently involves an operation of the mind, it is impossible to effect it by mere machin- ery. It seems, however, perfectly possible, that this part of the operation may be effected by human labour, and the remaining operations, which are uniform, by ma- chinery, with considerable economical advantage. An experiment of this nature was lately made, upon a small scale, by Mr. Dunlop, at Barrowfield, but has not as yet been sufficiently followed up, to enable us to decide prac- tically upon its merits in point of quality, or of the saving of labour actually produced. The machine constructed, combined the principle of dressing by the common manual operation, and part of that of the two dressing machines, already noticed. The web was warped on the common warping mill, and beamed in the usual way. The beam upon which the warp was rolled, was then placed in the machine, in a situation similar to the yarn beam of a common loom. At the other extremity of the machine, was the beam for receiving the yarn when dressed, placed nearly in the same situation as the cloth beam of a loom. The heddles, lay, and reed, were, of course, omitted, and the lease was preserved by three rods, exactly in the common way. When the web was stretched in the machine, in a direction nearly horizontal, the receiving beam being only raised a few inches above the other, to afford the operator more facility in picking and brushing, the operation commenced. The rods were ^68 ESSAY VI. combed down, from the receiving to the discharging beam, the warp picked and brushed by manual labour, in the usual way, and the lease rod placed on its edge. Under the warp was a circular wooden fan, which was now set in motion by the power, while the operator con- tinued to brush the warp while drying. The fan wa^ inclosed in a circular wooden box, with an aperture only in the upper part of its circumference. During the operation of drying, this box was moved upon its centre by a common heart traverse; and as the air set in motion by the circular revolution of the fan, could only escape by the aperture, whose position might be varied at plea^ sure, every part could be sufRciently dried, without any part being too much hardened. When the yarn was sufficiently dried, the portion of warp which had been dressed, was wound, by another part of the machinery, from the discharging upon the receiving beam, and a fresh portion of warp presented to undergo the same operation, which was repeated in the same manner, until the whole warp was dressed and wound upon the re- ceiving beam, which was then carried from the dressing machine to the loom. To this process, as here described, there certainly occur some serious objections; but from what I saw of the principles and effects of it, I am in- clined to think, that something of a similar kind, if pro- secuted with judgment, energy, and perseverance, might be essentially useful, in promoting the process of weav- ing both linen and cotton goods, upon principles of economy superior to any yet introduced, more especially if the chemical part can also be improved. I shall shortly state my reasons for adopting this opinion, pre- mising, as usual, that it ought to be considered merely as hypothetical; no opportunity of practical proof being ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 269 yet in existence. The first defect which appears in the process, is the conducting the operation of brushing, by- manual labour, instead of using power. Every weaver knows that the situation of his body bending over a warp, while picking or dressing his web, is painful and fatiguing to an uncommon degree. It is only the inter- vals of ease, which he enjoys, while weaving up what he has dressed, when the body is in an erect and natural posture, and the small proportion of his time employed in dressing, which enables him to support this. But in this process, the body must be almost incessantly in this fatiguing and unnatural position-, for no sooner has he finished the dressing of one portion pf warp, than he must commence another. Whatever allowance may be made for the effects of habit, in accustoming the human body to support exertions, which, when first tried, prove uncommonly fatiguing, I am inclined to doul)t, whether any practice would enable a man to work incessantly at this operation for a sufficient number of hours daily, to render it productive. Besides this, so much is to be done by the hand, and so little by the power, that it does not appear, that, although a division of labour is created, almost any consequent reduction can be expected. By moving the brushes by power, the toil of the operator will be at an end, so soon as he has combed and picked his warp, excepting, that it will be necessary to set his brushes first in motion, and after- wards his fan; or, the first of these may engage tlie second at a proper time. In this interval, by placing two machines together, he may be employed in combing ^nd picking another warp, and thus, without impeding the operation, the labour of one man may keep two, or, perhaps, three machines employed, with less fatigue and 270 ESSAY VI. exhaustion, than would be necessary for one. The picking and combing of the warp, when yam is well spun, which is now generally the case, especially in cotton, requires much less time and labour than the brushing; consequently, one warp might be combed and picked much faster than the other could be sufficiently dressed, dried, and wound upon the receiving beam. To a plan of this kindj it may be objected, that the motion of the brushes is not uniform, nor the range equal in all stages of the process. Weavers find it necessary to brush that part of the warp nearest to the yam beam first, and gradually to extend the range of the brushes, until they have brushed the whole undressed warp. The reason of this is as follows. Every kind of yarn has upon it a certain proportion of loose stuff, not sufRciently incorporated by the twine, to retain its situation, when acted upon by the brushes. Therefore, when the whole range of the stretched warp is brushed at once, these loose particles are drawn by the brushes to the lease rod, or yarn beam. In a few dressings, these accumulate to such a degree, that they mat the yarn togethei", and form very serious obstructions to the operations of weaving. But when the warp is gradually dressed from the lease rod upwards, the glutinous nature of the dressing makes those nearest to the beam adhere to the yarn, before the uppermost are touched by the brushes. Of consequence, instead of being all collected in one point, they are scat- tered over the whole surface of the v/arp, and occasion little, if any, impediment. That it would be of advantage to imitate this motion in brushing, by machinery, seems very reasonable to suppose, for the same effects would be produced in both ways. But the great, and almost boundless variety of motion which may be communicated ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 271 by machinery, in the hands of an ingenious mechanic, would prove quite sufficient to surmount any obstacle which might arise here. This mode of dressing, if adopted and perfected, would obviate every objection against the others, except that which arises from the quality of the dressing, and even here the disadvantage would be considerably lessened. In the lirst place, the facility of picking the warp would be of great service, by removing impediments, both to the succeeding parts of the dressing process, and the subsequent operations of weaving. 2dly, All obstacles, arising from the friction of the reeds, would be removed; for none are necessary in this process. This would also prevent any necessity of suspending the operation in the wet state, which produces so much difficulty in the other modes. For any threads, which might be broken during the brushing, would be brushed down to the lease rod, where they would remain, without producing any injury, until the web was sufficiently dried, and they might then be knotted, before the dressed yarn was wound upon the receiving beam. 3dly, Every dressing might be equally dressed and dried, which is of most essential importance, and if speedily wound up when in a proper state, might remain so for a considerable time; for only the last yarn rolled on the beam, would be much exposed to the action of the air. Lastly, were it found by experience, that one person could keep three, or even two, of these machines in constant motion, I am persuaded, that the labour of that person would produce more work, and superior in quality, to that effected by any other scheme, which has been tried. I have thrown these hints, which occurred to me upon comparing the various modes of dressing which have been 272 ESSAY vr. tried, loosely together, for the consideration of those who are interested in the prosecution and improvement of this branch of the manufacture. As this is still in a state of infancy, I have done this with considerable diffidence; for as I have never been practically employed in con- structing or employing machinery of this description, facts and considerations, important in practice, may have escaped my notice. In all mechanical inventions and improvements, experience has convinced me, that before proceeding to put them in practice, the theories and prin- ciples should be maturely weighed, and the obstacles likely to arise, with the means of removing them, carefully in- vestigated. Even when all this has been done, unforeseen difficulties always occur, which can only be surmounted by decision, energy, and perseverance. I now come to consider the various plans, which have been lately adopted for the purpose of working the weaving loom, by the application of power. Many ex- periments, upon a small scale, have been made for a considerable number of years past, and looms, upon various plans, constructed. The first attempt to establish a regular manufactory of this description, in Scotland, was, I believe, that of Mr. Robert Millar, at Milton Printfield, Dumbartonshire, which is still prosecuted. These looms, for which a patent was obtained, receive their motion from treddles, moved by those excentrie wheels, which are known among mechanics by the name of wipers. Another loom, the origin of which I believe to be English, but which has lately been introduced in Scot- land to considerable extent, is the crank loom. The last, invented by Mr. Johnson, and brought into practice by Mr. Robert ShirrefF, for which also a patent has been granted, is the vertical loom. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 273 In these looms, different modes of construction liave been adopted, without any material deviation from the same general principle. The plan of weaving by power has been so recently introduced, and hitherto confined to so few hands, that it is natural to suppose, that many improvements still remain to be made, and that much difference of opinion, respecting the relative merits of the different plans does, and will, for a considerable time, exist. I shall, for these reasons, confine my observations and descriptions to the principal moving parts of each, leaving the connections, and framing of the machines, to the judgment and discretion of those, who may apply them to practice. With the exception of the motion for winding up the cloth, and unwinding the warp, which is rotatory on the ixes of the beams, all the motions of a loom are alternate, or reciprocating. The two methods, most common among mechanics, of producing these motions, are cranks and wipers, or excentric wheels. The reciprocating motion derived from the revolution of a crank on its own axis, is not uniform, but accelerated at one time, and retarded at another. By means of wipers, the motion may be made uniform, accelerated, or retarded, at any part of the revolution, according to the effect which the engineer wishes to produce. In many machines, this property gives the wiper a very decided advantage over the crank; but, in the weaving loom, the retardation of the crank, so far from being disadvantageous, is of considerable service. In Plate 14. will be found representations of the chief working parts of the different power looms; and as the vertical loom is the one most recently invented, I have M m 274 ESSAY VI. given a profile and transverse elevation of it, frOni drawings, for which I am indebted to Mr. Shirreff. WIPER LOOM. Fig. 1. is a representation of the way of moving the heddles in this loom, so as to open the sheds. This figure is a profile elevated section of the heddles L, connected with the treddles S, much in the same way as in a common loom. In some power looms, the cords above the heddles pass over pullies, as in the figure; in others. Jacks are used, as in the common loom. The motion is given to this loom, by a horizontal cross shaft, upon which are a number of wipers. A section of this shaft, with the double wiper, which sinks the two treddles alternately, is represented at S. These wipers may be constructed for any range of motion, in the following manner. Describe a circle of a convenient diameter on the piece of wood, or other substance, which is to form the wiper. Having considered the range which the wiper is to communicate to the treddle, draw a diameter line through the circle, and upon this line set off the length of the proposed range on the outside of the circle. At this point, describe a second circle concentric with the first, and divide the circum- ference into a great number of equal parts. From the centre draw a radius to each of these divisions, and the wiper will be ready for setting off. If a uniform reciprocating motion is wanted during the whole revolu- tion of the wiper, it is only necessary to divide the space between the inner and outer circle into as many equal parts as half the number of radii. Set off one of these parts on the first radius line, two on the second, three on ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 275 the third, and so on, until the whole are set off, when the semi-circumference of the wiper will be marked off; and the same operation reversed, will give the other or returning side. This forms exactly the common heart traverse. In the figure, a few radii are drawn upon S, to show the principle; but it will appear that each of these two wipers is constructed on half the circle, so that each may operate alternately on its respective treddle, when both sheds will be opened by one revolution of the shaft. As it is necessary that the shed should remain open while the shuttle is passing through, all the range must be set off some time before the wiper arrives at the centre, and the extremity left circular to suspend the., motion for the time required. This is the case with the two wipers at S. Fig. 2. is a profile elevation of the apparatus for moving the lay. E is the lay vibrating on its centres above, as in the common loom. The lay is pulled back by the operation of the wipers S upon the treddle R, by means of the connection represented in the figure. After the shuttle has passed through the shed, the lay is pulled forward by a weight attached to a cord or belt, passing over a pully, as represented. These wipers are also constructed on semi-circles, that the lay may operate twice in one revolution, as well as the heddles. Both wipers, however, operate upon the same treddle, as they are only intended to repeat the same motion, while those which move the heddles must reverse the shed. There is an apparatus of this kind at each side of the loom, to keep the lay steady. The wipers for this motion arc upon the same shaft with those for the heddles. In some power looms, the swords of the lay are reversed, and move in centres below. There are different way^ 276 ESSAY VI. for driving the shuttle. In some, the driver cords are attached to the point of a lever with two cross tails, as represented by T, Fig. 3, This lever, being placed perpendicularly under the warp, with its flat side parallel to the horizontal shaft, and moving freely on its centre, the cross tails are alternately struck by two pieces of iron, fixed to the shaft, as represented at U, in Fig. 7. and, by moving the lever, drive the shuttle across the web. la other looms, two treddles are used, which are moved alternately, by wipers on the shaft, and produce the same effect. Various means are also used for winding up the cloth, of which some notice will be taken when we come to consider the vertical loom. In the mean time, we proceed to the CRANK LOOM. In this loom no treddles are necessary, for the motion is communicated directly by the cranks. Fig. 4. is a profile of the heddles, and section of the heddle crank shaft. The shape of the cranks vi'ill appear by Fig. 5. where a small portion of the shaft is represented in a transverse direction. Fig. 6. is a profile of the lay, and section of the lay crank shaft. Fig. 7. is a transverse view of the shaft, to show the way of disposing the cranks. It will be obvious, that in this loom two hori- zontal shafts are necessary, for only one stroke of the lay can be effected by a whole revolution of the lay shaft, whereas in the wiper loom the double wiper gives two. These shafts are placed parallel to each other, and on the same level, the heddle cranks being perpendicularly under the heddles, and the lay cranks behind. As it is necessary that the lay shaft should revolve twice, while ECONOMY OF WEAVlIsG. 277 the heddlc shaft revolves once, the latter takes its motion from the former, by a spur wheel and pinion, as repre- sented by Fig. 8. The wheel, containing double the number of teeth of the pinion, is fixed on the heddle shaft, the pinion on the lay shaft. The pully, which receives the motion from the power, is also on the by shaft. The swords of the lay are lengthened below the boxes, to bring the connecting rods level with the shaft, and these connecting rods, in both motions, are usually of iron. The shuttle motion is effected by either of the two plans formerly described. We now come to the last invention, the VERTICAL LOOM. Fig. 14'. is a profile elevation of two of these looms, constructed at opposite sides of the same frame, and will convey a tolerably correct idea of their framing and appearance. Fig. 15. is a transverse elevation of one end. The remaining figures on the plate, 9 to 13 inclu- sive, are the several working parts. The whole recipro- cating motions of the vertical loom, are also effected by cranks, and these cranks are upon two shafts. A is a balance wheel on the lay crank shaft, one side of wliich is so much heavier than the other, as to coun- terpoise the weight of the lay and swords, and make them ascend and descend with equal ease. The swords rise and sink between sheers, or guides, to keep them steady. B is the pully which takes the motion from the power, and which is also on the lay shaft. C is the lay shaft, with a crank at either end, similar to those of the crank loom. 278 £SSAY VI. D is a wheel on the heddle shaft, receiving motion from a pinion of half the number of teeth on the lay shaft, as in the crank loom. E is the lay and boxes, with the reed placed horizon- tally, and on which the shuttle runs. F is the yarn beam, from wliich the warp ascends perpendicularly through the mounting. G is the cloth beam above, for receiving the cloth when woven. H the wheels by which the cloth is wound up. I is the lever and fork, for engaging or disengaging the machine at pleasure. K is a catch, by which the loom will be instantly stopped, if the shuttle should remain in the shed. All the power looms have contrivances of this kind, which will be more particularly noticed afterwards. The nature and construction of each particular motion will appear more plainly, by inspecting the supplementary figures. Fig. 9. contains a profile of the horizontal heddles, and the apparatus for moving them. At L are the heddles, placed horizontally, and guided by belts, passing over puUies before and behind. To one of these belts is attached one end of the bended lever M, moving freely on its centre, and the other end of which is connected with the crank N. The shape of this shaft and crank will be plainly seen in Fig. 10. Besides the crank for the heddles, upon this shaft is a projecting stud P, operating like a crank for giving motion to the shuttle. Fig. 11. is a profile elevation of the apparatus by which the shuttle motion is communi- cated. O is a sliding bar which moves freely in two bushes backward and forward- Upon ;he edge of this ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 279 slider, is a rack which moves a pinion Q, fixed upon an upright shaft, on the upper part of which is a cross lever, to which are attached two leather thongs, which are also connected with the drivers. The stud P, the end of which appears here like a round dot, moving round in a hollow elliptical piece, forming part of the slider, alternately moves it rapidly backward and forward, by means of the catches above and below. This motion drives the cross lever upon the top of the upright shaft to the right and left alternately, by means of the pinion Q, and thus the motion is communicated to the drivers. Fig. 12. is a ground plan of the rack and pinion. Fig. 13. is an outline of the plan for winding up the cloth. On the axis of the cloth beam is fixed a wheel, on the outside of which is a ratchet wheel, loose upon the axis. This ratchet, one tooth of which is represented, ia moved by a catch, jointed to the end of a spring con- nected with a lever; the other end of this lever is con- nected with the lay. This spring may be slackened, or stiffened at pleasure. Every time the lay rises, the spring and lever are pulled down, to move the ratchet one tooth; but the spring is made sufficiently slack, to yield without moving the ratchet, unless assisted by the stroke of the reed upon the fell of the cloth. Conse- quently, if the weft breaks, no winding-up motion is produced. This is very necessary; for, were the loom to go a shot or two without weft, and tlie cloth to be wound up, it must either be let back, or a large unweft- ed interval would be produced. Upon the ratchet is fixed a pinion, which moves a wheel turning loosely upon a stud. Another pinion, fixed to this wheel, gives the motion to the fast wheel on the axis of the clotii beam, and consequently to the beams. The relative 280 * ESSAY VI. numbers of these wheels and pinions, must depend on the quantity of weft in a given space, and they must be fitted on so as to be easily altered at pleasure. In all the different experiments upon weaving by power, hitherto made, it has been found advantageous to confine the shuttle when lodged in either box, to prevent it from recoiling. This has been effected by a circular piece of wood, pressed through one of the edges of the box by a slight spring, which yields to the pressure of the shuttle when entering, and by its friction, prevents the recoil. It is also material to disengage the loom from the power wstatitl^, if the shuttle should stop in the shed ; for if driven up by the lay, much damage will be the probable consequence. This disengaging motion, is taken from these spruigs, which are connected by bended levers, and a wire across the lay, so that either will operate. In the vertical loom, the disengaging lever I, is strongly pressed by a spring, to force out the driving puUy, whenever the catch above is lifted. To the spring for securing the shuttle, an upright piece of iron K, moving on a joint is attached. When the spring is pressed back by the shuttle, the upper part of this is thrown forward, clear of a notch in an upright slide, attached to the disengaging catch; but if one spring is not pressed, K not being thrown forward, will strike the notch, and instantly disengage the machine. The contrivances for disengaging the other looms, are exactly upon the same principle, a little differently modified to suit the construction of the looms. When the vertical loom is to work yarn M'-hich re- quires dressing, an iron roller is placed where the yarn beam is represented, and the beam itself in a small addi- tional frame, parallel to, and on a level with the roller. ECONOMY OF WEAVING. 281 so that the part to be dressed is in a horizontal position, as in a common loom. Every power loom is generally furnished with a circular fan, such as formerly described, placed under the warp, and which is occasionally set in motion to dry the yarn after being dressed. Two pair of temples are generally used in power weaving. It is not easy to decide, justly, upon the comparative merits of these looms, and upon this subject a considerable difference of opinion still prevails. The wipers are, without doubt, susceptible of a modification of the mo- tion, to suit different fabrics, in a much greater degree than the cranks; but in the coarse fabrics, hitherto woven by power, the crank motions are found sufficiently cor- rect. The mode of striking up the lay, by means of a weight, is found productive of one very considerable inconvenience. The force of the lay has a tendency to slacken, and, consequently, to spread the warp, and when the shed closes in this state, the threads are apt to obstruct each other, and occasion breaking. A very simple and ingenious apparatus, has lately been added to the vertical loom, to obviate this disadvantage, which also attends the crank loom, although not to an equal degree. This is merely a flat board, the edge of which is parallel to the warp, and which moves on centres. By means of two bended levers, connected by cords, or thongs, to the lay, this board presses the warp when the shed closes, and recedes from it when the shed is opened. Thus the warp is kept uniformly tight. The same contrivance might easily be applied to either of the other looms. The vertical loom certainly appears to possess some decided advantages over the others. Istly, It occupies a much smaller space of room, and, consequently, in a large manufactory, a considerable sav- Nn t^82 ESSAY VI. ing might be effected, toth in the expense of building, and in that of shafts and other mill work. 2dly, From the shuttle running upon the reed, a larger pirn may be used, without any risk of injuring the warp by friction. 3dly, When it is necessary to dress the warp, which, in power weaving, is usually done •\<^ithout stopping the loom, it presents the following very important advantage. The operator, while dressing, remains exactly in the same situation as when attending the working, and can, there- fore, see in a moment, any thing which may go wrong; whilst in the other looms, the person, while attending the working, must be in front, and when dressing, behind, where it is very difficult to see any obstruction which may happen before the reed. In the 1st Essay, some remarks were made on the danger and inconvenience arising from working a loom beyond a proper rate of velocity. Practical experience has uniformly proved this to be highly injurious in the manual operation, and I am fully convinced, it must be equally, if not more prejudicial, in weaving by power. It has been common to drive power looms at the rate of* 80 or 90 shots per minute, and attempts have even been made, to accelerate this velocity much beyond 100 shots. Mechanics know that even I'otatory motion, v/hen urged beyond a moderate speed, always fails in producing the effect expected. This has been sufficiently proved in spinning, where almost all the motions are rotatory. In weaving, where there are no less than three reciprocating motions, the effect must be still more injurious, especially in the lay and heddle motions. The shuttle,*" indeed, may be driven with considerable swiftness, for no injury can arise from this, unless the shuttle is thrown out pf KCONOMY Ol' WEAVING. 288 ihc box, or the weft too much strained and frequently broken. Suppose, as in Essay 1st, a 1000| shawl cloth, with 1200 weft, to be woven at the rate of 80 shots per minute. This will give a yard in 30 minutes, or 24 yards per day of 12 working hours, if no stop were to take place. I cannot state with certainty, what has been the greatest quantity of cloth of this description produced by power looms. The average quantity on the vertical loom, I have been informed, is about 15 yards, so that, if the loom works at the velocity quoted, more than one tlrird of the time must be lost by stopping. Besides, I do not think that goods of this description have, in general, t.o much weft as I have taken in the calculation. Upon the whole, I should suppose 70 to 80 shots to be the maximum of velocity, at which it is prudent to drive a power loom, even with the coarsest and strongest ma- terials; and if these looms are applied to weave finer and lighter fabrics, I suspect even this velocity must be ecu* iiderably diminished. The last plans of economy in weaving, which it will be necessary to discuss, are those which relate to the in- sertion of the weft. The process of winding the weft upon the pirn, whether from the hank or the cop, is tedious, and, consequently, expensive. Two means of reducing this expense, have been devised. The first of these is, by placing the cop itself in the shuttle upon a skewer, by which the whole expense of winding is saved. As the cops, however, are generally too large for an ordinary shuttle, it has been usual to compress them. This is effected by means of two hollow inverted cones, generall)» of brass, with a hole through the vertex of each to admit the skewer. The cop being placed upon the skewer, the two cones are pressed together by means Qt ^84 ESSAY VI. a lever or screw. The cop, being between the cones, is thus compressed to a much smaller space than it originally occupied. The compression is most effectual when the cop has been boiled, but this can only be done when the weft is to be inserted in a wet state. Machines have also been lately constructed for winding a number of pirns at the same time. The principle is entirely the same with that of the machine for winding the warp bobbins. The only difference is in the shape of the traverse, which must be constructed to wind the yarn in the form of a cone, instead of being flat or barrel shaped. Those which I have seen are turned by the hand, which I cannot think is proper, for the same reason which I stated before; namely, that in all these machines, the person who attends ought to have both hands free, and should be at liberty to shift from one part of the machine to another, to remove obstructions, and knot broken threads. I do not think that these machines are, as yet, very generally employed, and, perhaps, they have not yet reached such a state of improvement, as to render the use of them an object of much importance, in poin^ of economy. EiSSAY VII. ON THB MANUFACTURING OF CLOTH. HAVING concluded our account of the operative processes and modes of economy, connected with the Art of Weaving, it only remains in this Essay to dis- cuss the subjects which form more properly the province of the manufacturer, or foreman, than of the operative tradesman. The great extension of the business in mo» dern times, and the competition naturally arising from this, have, of late, attracted the attention of most manu- facturers, more to the mercantile than the operative part of the profession. Any investigation of this part of the business is evidently foreign to the plan of this work, and would render this part of it, rather an Essay upon com- merce, than upon any branch of the Art of Weaving. Much of the business of the person who superintends the manufacturing department, has been discussed in the preceding Essays; for a thorough knowledge of the oper- ative part of the business is essentially necessary, to enable him to conduct that department with propriety. There only remain, therefore, two points to be investigated. 'i86 ESSAY VII. The first, is the selection of proper yarn, to form the fabric required; the second, the calculations necessary to ascertain the prime cost of the goods, as a direction to the salesman. A very essential part of the business of a skilful manu- facturer is, to adapt the fineness of the warp which he uses to the reed, so as to produce the fabric of cloth re- quired, whether light or heavy. This is called CAAMING, OR SLEYING. Little has been done to reduce this to any regular system, and, hitherto, the rules generally laid down are nothing else than the results of observation and experi- ence. For this reason, the tables for caaming almost every species of cloth, are almost as various as the manu- facturers who use them-, and scarce any two people agree upon this subject. That tliis is a great desideratum in the theory of weaving, will be readily admitted, and that it may be reduced to geometrical precision, tliere seems no room to doubt. The only attempt which I have ever seen, to analize geometrically the construction of yarn, and, consequently, its application to the manufacture of cloth, is contained in a small tract, printed by Robert Urie, Glasgow, 1759, and entitled, " An Essay on the construction of Sleying Tables, by a Manufacturer." An uncommon portion of ingenuity, and considerable mathematical knoM-ledge is displayed in this work. It has now become so scarce, that I have only met with one printed copy, considerably mutilated; but, having been favoured with the perusal of the original manuscript, by a gentleman of Glasgow, related to the Author, I shall MANUFACTURING. 287 endeavour to give a short account of his method, and of the principles upon which his calculations are founded. In the first place, the author considers every thread as a cylinder, and, of course, justly infers, that supposing the density of every thread to be equal, the matter contained in it would be as the square of the diameter multiplied into the length. He also concludes, that as every thread, in proportion to its fineness, requires more twisting in the process of spinning, that, therefore, the fibres which com- pose the thread, will be more condensed in fine yarn than coarse, and that, consequently, the diameter of a fine thread will be less than that of a coarse one, in propor- tion to its weight. He further assumes, that the base of one thread being to the base of another, as the squares of their diameters, and the circumgyrations by which the twine is produced, directly as tlmr diameters-, that the ratio of one thread to another will be, as the cube of each diameter, or, which is the same thing, as the square multiplied into the diameter. The following extract from this curious little tract, will serve to convey the author's opinions in his own words. « A RIGHTLY CONSTRUCTED SLEYING-TABLE is a *« scheme which exhibits the proper reeds for disposing «' warp-yarns, of every given degree of fineness, in such " a manner, that (due regard being had to the quality, «« and insertion of the weft) all the cloths, produced from " those different warps, shall be exactly similar in fabric " or compacture." * In order to compose such a scheme for any one specicf * of cloths, the following data are previously requisite. 288 ESSAY VIJ. « 1 . The number of the reed, employed in making the < cloth, the fabric of which is intended for the model. < 2. The fineness of the warp-yarn of said cloth. And/ « 3. The fineness of the warp, the reed for which is < sought. < By the number of the reed is understood the number of splits, or rather of the intervals of the splits contained in a given 'dimension ; without having any regard to the- number of those intervals that may in fact have been occupied by the warp: for the reed is precisely the scale by which the distance between the threads of the warp is regulated', and it equally affects the fabric of the cloth, whether the breadth of the cloth be a yard, or an inch. * The comparative fineness of any two parcels of yarn may be ascertained by the number of threads, of a deter- minate length, contained in a given weight of the one, compared with the number of threads of the same length, contained in the same weight of the other-, due regard being always had to the degree of compression which the mass of each receives in the spinning. For, if two par- cels of equal weight, but of different fineness, be spun from the same materials, and the degree of compression be precisely the same; the threads in both, like all other cylinders of equal solidity, will reciprocate their bases and altitudes: in proportion as the base of the one thread is diminished, i. e. as it becomes finer than the other; the altitude will be increased, ;. e. it will become longer than the other: and if the threads of both parcels be wound up in convolutions of equal circumference, there will be a greater number of those convolutions in the one parcel than in the other, in proportion as the one «^ is finer than the other: and the two bases will be to * each other inversely as the lengths of the threads. MANUFACTURING. 289 Thus, if the number of convolutions in the coarser parcel be a, and the number in the finer be by the base of the coarser will be to the base of the finer, b : a-^ or, ^ : f, * But the parcel that has the greater number of convo- lutions, in a given weight, will have its thread more compressed by the action of the spinning-wheel, than the parcel which has the less number in the same weight. How this comes about falls to be explained a little. * Every country-girl knows, that, in making yarns, for like purposes, and from the same materials, her wheel must be oftener turned round in spinning a finer thread of a given length, suppose a yard of the parcel by than in spinning a coarser thread of the same length, suppose a yard of the parcel a. The reason is this: all yarns that are spun from the same materials, and destined to like purposes in manufacture, how different soever they may be with respect to fineness, ought to be equally hardy or equally slack in the twine : that is to say, the fibres, which compose their surfaces, ought to be twisted to the same degree of tension. Now, as the two threads of the parcels a and b are supposed to have been spun from the same materials; if they are likewise supposed to be de- signed for similar purposes, they ought so to be Hoisted, as that the superficial fibres of both may become equallij tense; these of the one, with those of the other. But the periphery of the base of the finer thread being less than the periphery of the base of the coarser; the su- perficial fibres of the finer will be less stretched by a given number of circumgyrations than the superficial fibres of the coarser tliread will be by the same number: and in order to give the same degree of tension to the superficial fibres of the finer thread with that of the su- perficial fibres of the coarser; the number of circumgy- Oo 290 ESSAY VII. ratio!is must be increased, by how mvjch the periphery of the base of the finer is less than the periphery of tho base of the coarser. * However, though the superficial fibres of the finer thread, in receiving the same degree of tension with those of the coarser, require a greater number of cir- cumgyrations; that greater number will be effected by a less force than what is needful to produce the less num- ber which the coarser thread requires. In other words, the superficial fibres of the finer thread, taken together, will be stretched to any given degree, by a less force than what is needful to stretch the superficial fibres of the coarser thread, taken together, to the same degree. For the superficial fibres of the two threads are evidently as the surfaces of the two threads; and in order to give them the same degree of tension, the forces applied to them ought to be in the same ratio. Now, as the two threads are of the same length, and the base of the finer thread less than the base of the coarser, its periphery, and therefore its surface, will be less than that of the coarser; and the force, required to give its superficial fibres the same degree of -tension with those of the coarser will likewise be less. Thus the two threads being of the same length, their surfaces, omitting the bases, will be as the peripheries of their bases; and the peripheries of their bases are as the diameters of their bases; and their bases are as the squares of their. dia- meters: therefore, the surfaces of the two threads will be as the square roots of their bases. But their bases are to each other, upon the supposition of an equal compression, f, : | ; their surfaces will then be, and the forces employed against them ought to be, Vj : ^f: and as f is less than J-, the V^ will be less than theV^^ as has been said. MANUFACTURING. 29l ■« But although the force applied to the surface of the finer thread, in tlie spinning, be less than what is applied to the surface of the coarser; the finer will be more com- pressed than the coarser. For while the compressing forces diminish and increase in the ratio of the surfaces of the threads, L e. in the ratio of the peripheries of their bases, and, consequently, in the ratio of their diameters; the masses of the threads diminish, and in- crease in the ratio of their bases, i. e. in the duplicate ratio of their diameters: the force, then, which is applied to the surface of the iiner thread, though less than what is applied to the surface of the coarser, will bear a greater proportion to the mass upon which it acts, than the force which acts upon the coarser bears to the mass of the coarser. The finer thread, therefore, being sub- jected to a force proportionally greater than that which affects the coarser thread, will be more strongly compressed -than the coarser, and become more dense, and less bulky, i. e. finer, by how much its mass is more diminished than the compressing force which is em- ployed against it. « It appears, then, that two things are to be regarded in ascertaining the comparative fineness of a yard of the parcel a, and a yard of the parcel b; the mass of each, and the force applied to the surface of each, in the spin- ning. As the threads are of equal lengths, their masses will be as their bases*, and the forces applied to them are as the peripheries of their bases, or as the diameters of their bases respectively: the two threads will, there- fore, be to each other in a ratio compounded of the ratios of these two. Thus their bases being, forces equal or apart, ^ : ^j and the forces, Vj : Vf; the coarser thread will be to the finer, -^v'j : fVf- 292 ESSAY VII. < These things being premised, the question to be dis- * cussed is simply this: — If yam, the number of which in < a given weight is a, and, consequently, its finenes-^Vj, * be properly sleyed, for any one sort of cloth, in a reed, * the number of which upon a given dimension is c; in * what reed, of the same dimension, ought yarn to be * sleyed, for cloth of the same fabric, the number of * which, in the same weight, is b, and its fineness fV'c"? * Here, for the present, let it be admitted, that the ' yarn, the fineness of which is j-y^j, is sleyed by one * thread only in each interval of the reed c; and that the * yarn, the fineness of which is f\/f, is to be sleyed in * the same manner; and let it further be allowed that the * intervals of the reed c are so exactly commensurate to * the threads f\/i, that each thread is touched upon both * sides by its neighbouring splits, without being pressed * by them, and thereby deprived of its cylindrical form. * These things granted, each inter\'al of the reed c will ' be equal to the diameter of the circular base of the * cylindrical thread contained in it. Now, as circles are * to each other as the squares of their diameters; so, ^•/tv ' versay the square of the diameter of one circle will be * to the square of the diameter of another circle, as the ' one circle is to the other. But the circular bases of the * two threads are, -^\/j • tv/^"' ^^^ '^" interval of r, or ^, * is equal to the diameter of a thread ^^7; therefore, the * square of f* will be to the square of an interval of the ♦ ' Here it is presumed, that the thickness of each of the splits, in the ' one reed, is to the thickness of each of those, in the other, inversely as « the number of sphts, in the one, to the number of those in the other. ' The strictest regard is due to this proportion in making reeds for the * same sorts of cloth ; as otherwise, the best scheme of skying, that cae ' be devised, will, in many instances, be rendered impracticable. MANUFACTURING. 293 < reed sought, W^ : W^- O^, to express it in the al- * ternate way, (jVa'c ' • b W b ' X ' * Each interval, then, of the reed x will be equal to the diameter of a thread j;x^y in the same manner that an interval of c is equal to the diameter of a thread ^y^^. And if it should be supposed, that an interval of c is commensurate to two, three, four, or any given num- ber of threads 7,-v/;7J it will follow, that an interval of X will be equally commensurate to the same number of threads f \/^. < And if an interval of r, equal to the diameters of a given number of threads ^v'i > have only a part of that number sleyed into it; and an interval of x, equal to the diameters of the same number of threads ^^/f, have the like part of that number sleyed in it; the empty space in the interval /• will be to that of the interval x, as the one interval is to the other: and the occupied space in the one will be to the occupied space in the other, in the same ratio: and the empty space in the interval x will be to the thread, or threads, contained in that interval, as the empty space in the interval c is to what is contained in it. ' In like manner, if there be sleyed into an interval of c a greater number of threads i\/^ than that interval is equal to the diameters of; and an equal number of threads f^^f be sleyed into an interval of x; the threads in the interval r, will be to the threads in the interval x, as the one interval is to the other: and the excess in the one will be to the excess in the other in the same ratio: and the excess in the interval r, will be to the threads in the interval r, as the excess in the in- terval X is to the threads in the interval .v. 294 ESSAY VII. < Hence, if yarn -fj-/j- be high-sleyed, or thick-set in the reed c; the yarn fr^^ will be so likewise in the reed x: if the former be low-sleycd, or thin-set; so will the lat- ter: and, universally, whatever the fabric of the cloth made from the one is, such will the fabric of that made from the other be; so far as the fabric of cloth depends upon the sleying of its warp. < The method, however, which obtains here, in Scot- land, of coming at the comparative fineness of yarns, is not by taking the number of convolutions in a given weight; but by — what amounts to the same thing — the weight of a given number of convolutions. For instance; a spyndle, M'^hich, in this country, is the highest denom- ination of yarn, contains 5760 convolutions of two yards and an half in circumference; or, to use the common phrase, 5760 threads, ten quarters of a yard in length. Now, if a spyndle weighs a pound; to say that it does so, is, in effect, the same as saying that there are 5760 threads in a pound. Ag^in, if another spyndle weighs a quarter of a pound; with respect to this second, to say that a spyndle is equal to a quarter of a pound; or that a pound contains four times the num.ber of threads of this yarn that it does of the former, comes to the same thing. And, no doubt, it is much easier in as- sorting any considerable quantity of yarn, to weigh it by half, or even by quarter, spyndles; and then to class the difl'erent parcels according to their respective weights *, than it M'ould be, first to divide the quantity into pounds; and then — sit down, and count the num- ber of threads in each pound; and after that — to range ' ' This supposes that every spyndle has its full tale: and, indeed, partly owing to wise regulations, and partly to irational honesty, there is little ground of complaint here. MANUFACTURING. 295 the several parcels according to the number of threads in the pound. But then, this easier method varies the state of the terms, as w^ell as the terms themselves, in ascertaining the comparative fineness of yarns j and, consequently, varies the operation in finding the value of A-. For, as in any two yarns, that are spun from the same materials, the number of threads in a given weight, of the one, is to the number of threads in the same weight, of the other, inversely as the bases of the threads, ab- stract from their compression ; so the weight of a given number, of the one, is to the weight of the same number of threads, of the other, directly as their bases. This is evident from the example just now given: there it is seen that a pound contains four times the number of the finer yarn that it does of the coarser; at the same time, a spyndle of the coarser is four times the weight of a spyndle of the finer. And, in every case, as threads of the same length and density have their masses in the ratio of their bases ; so, e contra^ their bases will be in the ratio of their masses. Now, as the two spyndles are spun from the same materials; their masses will be as their weights: and as they are of the same length, their bases will be in tlie ratio of their masses, /. e. in the ratio of their weights : and as the compressing force, applied, in the spinning, to the surfaces of threads, of the same length, is in the ratio of the square root of the mass; and the mass is as the weight; the two spyndles will be to each other directly as their weights into tlie square roots of their respective weights. Thus, if the weight of a spyndle of yarn be ^, the number of which in a pound is a; and the weight of another spyndle be Cy the number of which in a pound is h; the compara- tive fineness of the two is equally ascertained by saying, 296 ESSAY VII. < that the coarser is to the finer, d^d : e>^e\ or, j^^ : * b'^f' I" either case, the value of x will turn out to be * the same — whether the question be stated inversely^ as * the numbers; or directly^ as the weights.' At the time when this extract was written, all the yarn manufactured into cloth was spun by the distaff, or com- mon spinning wheel. For this reason, the ingenious author had not the same opportunities, which now exist, of calculating with accuracy the ratio of twine which every size or grist of yarn required; nor the effect of that twine upon the thread, considered as a cylinder. The mule jenny, from the nature of its operation, is well cal- culated for this computation; for as a given length is spun at every draught of the mule, it becomes very easy to ascertain with great accuracy the average twine which every number requires in that length, and, consequently, in any other length. If the principle, that the increase of twine necessary for fine yarn above coarse, by compressing the stuff more, diminishes the thickness or diameter of the thread be cor- rect, the whole of the subsequent reasoning must be al- lowed to be strictly mathematical, and the deduction perfectly conclusive. But there seems just reason to doubt the accuracy of this part of his hypothesis, because he appears to have entirely overlooked an effect of the operation of spinning upon the yam, very important to be taken into the calcu- lation. When any kind of material is prepared for spin- ning, the fibres are all placed parallel to each other, and the subsequent operation of twisting gives them, the co- hesion necessary to give the thread a proper degree of strength and solidity. The natural effect of this is, that the fibres, by the twining, deviate from a straight line into MANUFACTURING. 297 tW of a spiral or screw; and the same quantity of ma- terials when twined, become considerably shorter than before. In spinning cotton yarn upon the mule, the carriage, after being drawn out to its full length, evidently recedes again towards the rollers, as the twine increases; and when the stuff is not equal, the coarse threads always begin to break, before the fine ones are sufficiently twined. In the twisting of ropes, where the diameter is great, this effect is still more perceptible. From this the natural inference seems to be, that the increase of twine dimin- ishes the length, not the diameter of the thread. No allowance whatever is made for the shrinking in the length by our Author's hypothesis, but the whole is sup- posed to affect the diameter, which is evidently not the case. But it may be supposed, that as the twine increases some diminution may take place, both in the length and in the diameter; and it becomes necessary to ascertain whether this is really the case, and if so, what ratio these bear to each other, before a correct rule for caaming or sleying can be found. To ascertain these points, I made different inquiries, calculations, and experiments, the results of which I shall now lay before the reader, leaving him to decide, whether the conclusion which I have drawn from them is satis- factory or not. It is perfectly impossible, by any known instrument, to measure the actual diameter of fine yarn with any degree of accuracy, but a rope of considerable diameter may easily be measured; and as it seemed probable that the same ratio might exist in coatse spinning, as in fine, my first inquiries were directed to this branch of spin- ning. The form which the strands of a rope assume, 298 ESSAY VII. when twisted, is exactly similar to that of a common screw. I, therefore, first endeavoured to compare the one with the other, and observe the effect. Most mechanics know the way in which the spiral is marked on a wooden or iron screw, before it is cut, by drawing a succession of right angled triangles upon a piece of paper, equal in length to the circumference of the cylin- der upon which the screw is to be cut. This piece of paper is afterwards pasted round the cylinder, when the hypothenuses of the triangles form the spiral lines. Upon the same principle, the circumference of a rope may be considered as the base of a triangle; the distance between the parts of the same strand, after one whole revolution, as the perpendiculari and the spiral described by the strand in revolving, as the hypothenuse. Now as the rope shortens as the twine increases, the strands will be forced nearer to each other. Consequently, the perpen- dicular will decrease in length, and the angle at the base will become more acute. The report of practical ropemakers is, that a shroud laid rope shortens one third in the twisting. Let us, therefore, suppose, that when the strands are laid, before twining, ^he circumference, or base line, is three inches, and the perpendicular the same. Wlien the rope has been fully twined, the perpendicular will be only two inches, and if the diameter of the rope has continued the same, the base will still be three inches. Now, by a very simple operation in right angled trigonometry, the angle at the base, forming the obliquity of the spiral, will be 33° 42', which, by inspecting the common run of ropes, will be found very nearly the case. From this we may infer, that the whole contraction and compression has been in the length, and that the diameter has undergone MANUFACTURING. 299 no diminution. Next, .as every thread, M^hen twisting, appears to shorten in proportion to the twine which it receives, it seemed expedient to inquire what ratio the twine of different numbers of cotton yarn bear to each other, and how far this coincided, or differed from that of the effect which the Author of the extract just quoted supposes twining to produce, in diminishing the diameter. Upon applying to several extensive spinners, I found their answers, in general, to be, that the twine required for different numbers was as the square roots of the numbers. One of these answers, given to me by Mn Dunlop of Barrowfield Mill, I shall quote. The number of twists upon an inch of yarn being given, say No. 70=24'. To find the proper twist for No. 60, the proportion will be V70 : 24 : : ^60 : 22.2 The number of twists for every inch of the following numbers of yarn, is No. 50 20.2 80 25.6 60 22.2 90 27.2 70 24. 100 28.6 From the above, it will appear, that the ratio of twine is exactly the same as the Author assumed that of dimin- ution to be, or directly as the diameter of the cylinder, which is, therefore, the square, root of the number. This seems a second proof, that the whole compressing power of the twine is exerted upon the length. I next tried the following practical experiment: Hav- ing bored a very smooth hole, of an inch diameter, in a piece of hard wood, I passed through it a number of pieces of soft smooth twine about 30 feet long. V/heu 300 ESSAY VII. the twine was stretched without being twisted, the board could be shifted with little difficulty along them. I then twisted them, and found the length to decrease sensibly as the twine increased, but upon the diameter I could perceive no difference. When pretty hard twined, indeed, from the oblique form which the strands had as- sumed, it was more difficult to shift the board than be- fore-, but this appeared to rise more from friction, than any increase of diameter; diminution there was certainly none. From these different trials, it seems to result, that the shortening of any thread or rope, proceeds from the fibres or strands of which it is composed changing their direc- tion from a longitudinal to an oblique or spiral position; and that no further compression is produced than what is necessary to bring them all into close contact. Were more compression produced than the fibres would yield to, the diameter must increase instead of diminishing, for, as at every twist, the length, or altitude, becomes less, the stuff, when no longer susceptible of compression, must swell in thickness. But so great a quantity of twine as would effect this, so far from being of any service to yarn, would be extremely injurious. These considerations induce me to believe, that the fibres of every kind of material from which yarn is spun, undergo nearly an equal degree of compression, and that, therefore, the diameters may be estimated as those of other solid cylinders. The general rule which has been adopt- ed seems, on this account, to be the best for practical use. This is, that the square roots of the numbers are as the measure of the reeds, to produce similar fabrics. For example, if No. 40 of cotton yarn is wrought in a 1200 MANUFACTURING. 301 reed, and it is necessary to work cloth of a similar fabric in one of 1600, the proportion will be 12 : V40 : : 16 : V71.1 The fraction may be thrown away, and the number re- quired will be 71. But as the extraction of roots by com- mon arithmetic, is tedious, and not generally known, the same effect will be produced by squaring the reeds. The operation will then stand thus, 12x12 or 12'= 144 and 16X16, or 16* =256, therefore, 144 : 40 : : 256 : 71.1 The difference between this plan and that of the essay quoted, is, that this is as the squares, the other as the cubes of the diameters. No precise definition has ever been given of what really is similarity of fabric in cloth. Both of the preceding plans, are formed upon the idea that the diameter of the threads of warp should be in proportion to the measure of the reed; and this is, per- haps, the best way of fixing the standard. If we suppose that every thread touches the one next to it in a coarse fabric, and upon that supposition calculate what will pro- duce the same effect in a fine web, we will naturally call it a similar fabric. To a certain degree, it will be so; but when we consider cloth as a solid, although the threads of the fine web should be placed as much in contact as those of the coarse, the thickness of the cloth will be diminished in the arithmetical ratio of the respective diameters. In this case, I do not mean by the word thick- fiessy the crowding together of warp and weft, which is the sense in which it is generally used by weavers; but the distance from the under to the upper superficies of the cloth. Upon the whole, by far too little attention has 302 ESSAY VII. been paid to reduce this part of the business of fabricat- ing cloth to any regular system. It is certainly proper to have some fixed standard, and from this every manu- facturer may deviate, 'according to the fashion of the times, or the taste of his customers. We come now to the last part of this work, and upon this.it will not be necessary to go much into detail. This is to consider the arithmetical part of the business of a manufacturer. It is the only part of the business which has been introduced into books, formerly written on the subject of weaving, and it is, therefore, less necessary to enlarge upon it. For practical purposes, a few tables may be useful, which I shall add in a miscellaneous way, with such remarks as may seem necessary. COMPUTATION OF LINEN YARN. The circumference of the reel, for linen yarn, is fixed, by the Act of Parliament, at 90 inches, or 2i yards. Once round this is called a thread, and th# quantities of yarn are measured as follows: 1 thread = 120 threads = 1 cut 2 cuts =1 heer 3 heers = 1 slip 2 slips =1 hank 2 hanks =1 hesp 2 hesps =1 spyndle= 14400 In general, however, the calculations are made by spyndles, heers, cuts, and threads, the intermediate divi- sions being omitted. The length of warps, as formerly stated, is rated by the number of English, or mill ells of forty-five inches, or five quarters each. = 24 yards = 300 do. = 600 do. = 1800 do. = 3600 do. = 7200 do. = 14400 do. MANUFACTURING. 303 There are two ways of calculating the warp of webs necessary. 1st, Given the quantity of warp and breadth in por- ters, to find the length which will be produced in ells. For this, the common practical rule is, multiply the spyndles by 288, and divide the product by the number of porters; the quotient is the answer. One example will be sufficient. Given 34 spyndles of yarn, to warp a web 72 porters broad. Required the length in ells. 288x34=10192 and 10192 r* 72 = 1 4.1 44 ells. Thus the answer is l-i-i ells and 20 inches. This rule is chiefly useful to customer weavers, who find it necessary to accommodate the length of their webs, to the quantity of warp which they receive. 2d, Given the length in ells, and breadth in porters, to find the warp required. This rule is exactly the converse of the former; namely, multiply the ells by the porters, and divide by 288. Given 100 ells 56 porters wide. Required the quantity of warp. 100X56=5600 and 5600-^288=19111, or 19 spyndles, 11 hcers, and 1 cut. This is chiefly used in extensive manufactories, where they have large quantities of warp, and make their webs uniform lengths for the sake of regularity. The following Table is calculated upon these principles, and may be useful to save calculation in common prac- tice. On the top, are the lengths in ells ; and in the first column, the porters in the breadth. The remaining 304 ESSAY VII. columns, contain the quantity required for each of the re- spective lengths at the top. It is made as comprehensive as the limits of the work will admit. Other lengths may be found, by adding two or more of those given to make the number required. For instance, if 75 ells are re- quired, take 50, and the half of 50; or take 50, 10 twice, and 5, and so of others. It may, in some cases, be shorter, to subtract one length from another. Suppose 95 ells; 5 subtracted from 100, will give the answer. Both the calculations and the Table, it is to be re- marked, are computed exactly to the length of the reel, and number of yards In the spyndle, without any allow- ance for waste, breakage, short measure, or count. But as this can never be expected, it is customary to allow one heer, to every spyndle, for these deficiences, and even this allowance is often found too little. TABLE OF WARPS. Qfli 306 ESSAY VII. TABLE OF en ELLS. O V-i o 1 2 3 4 s. H. C. T.' s. H. C. T. s. H. c. T. s. H. C. T. 18 1 1 3 4 1 6 19 1 1 20 3 40 4 1 60 6 80 20 1 1 40 3 80 5 6 1 40 21 1 1 60 3 1 5 60 7 22 1 1 80 3 1 40 5 1 7 80 23 1 1 100 3 1 80 5 1 60 7 1 40 24 2 4 6 8 25 2 20 4 40 6 60 8 80 26 2 40 4 80 6 1 8 1 40 27 2 60 4 1 6 1 60 9 28 2 SO 4 1 40 7 9 80 29 2 100 4 1 80 / 60 9 1 40 30 2 1 5 7 1 10 31 2 1 20 .5 40 7 1 60 10 80 32 2 1 40 5 80 8 10 1 40 33 2 1 60 5 1 8 60 11 34 2 1 80 5 1 40 8 1 11 80 3o 2 1 100 5 1 80 8 1 60 11 1 40 36 3 6 9 12 37 3 20 6 40 9 60 12 80 38 3 40 6 80 9 1 12 1 40 39 3 60 6 1 9 1 60 13 40 3 80 6 1 40 10 13 80 41 3 100 6 1 80 10 60 13 1 40 MANUFACTURING, 307 WARPS. ELLS. ^ O Ok 5 10 50 100 s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. 42 17 1 11 7 7 14 14 43 17 I 100 11 1 80 7 11 40 14 22 80 44 IS 80 12 1 40 7 15 80 15 6 1 40 45 18 1 60 13 1 7 19 1 15 15 46 19 40 14 80 7 23 1 40 15 23 80 47 19 1 20 15 O 4-0 s 3 1 80 16 7 1 40 48 20 16 8 8 16 16 49 20 100 16 1 SO 8 12 40 17 80 SO 20 1 80 17 1 40 8 16 80 17 8 1 40 51 21 60 18 1 8 20 I I7 17 52 21 1 40 19 80 9 1 40 18 i 80 53 22 20 20 40 9 4 1 80 18 9 1 40 ,54 22 1 21 9 9 18 IS 55 22 1 100 21 1 60 9 13 40 19 2 SO 56 23 SO 22 1 40 9 17 80 19 10 1 40 57 23 1 60 23 1 9 21 1 19 19 58 40 2 SO 10 1 1 40 20 3 SO 59 1 20 2 1 40 10 5 1 80 20 11 1 40 €0 1 2 2 10 10 20 20 61 1 100 2 2 1 80 10 14 40 21 4 80 62 1 1 80 2 3 1 40 10 18 80 21 12 1 40 63 2 60 2 4 1 10 22 1 21 21 «4 2 1 40 2 5 80 11 2 1 40 22 5 80 65 3 20 2 6 40 11 6 1 80 22 13 1 40 310 ESSAY VII. TABLE OF CO o ELLS. c2 1 o 3 4 S. H. C. T. s. H. c. T. s. H. C. T. S. H. C. T. 66 5 1 11 16 1 22 67 5 1 20 11 40 16 1 60 22 80 68 5 1 40 11 80 17 22 1 40 69 5 1 60 11 1 17 60 23 70 5 1 80 11 1 40 17 1 23 80 71 5 1 100 11 I 80 17 1 60 23 1 40 72 6 12 18 1 73 6 20 12 40 18 60 1 80 74. 6 40 12 80 18 1 I 1 40 75 6 60 12 1 18 1 60 1 1 76 6 80 12 1 40 19 1 1 80 77 6 100 12 1 80 19 60 1 1 1 40 78 6 1 13 19 1 1 2 79 6 1 20 13 40 19 1 60 1 2 80 SO 6 1 40 13 80 20 1 2 1 40 81 6 1 60 13 1 20 60 1 3 82 6 1 80 13 1 40 20 1 I 3 80 83 6 1 100 13 1 80 20 1 60 1 3 1 40 84. / 14 21 1 4 85 7 20 14 40 21 60 1 4 80 86 < 40 14 80 21 1 1 4 I 40 87 ^ 60 14 1 21 1 60 1 5 88 7 80 14 1 40 22 1 5 SO 89 7 100 14 1 80 22 60 1 5 1 40 MANUFACTURING. 311 WARPS. ELLS. O ;-• O 5 10 50 100 s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. s. H. C. T. 66 3 1 2 7 11 11 22 22 67 3 1 100 2 »7 1 80 11 15 40 23 6 80 68 4 80 2 8 1 40 11 19 80 23 14 1 40 69 4 1 60 2 9 1 11 23 1 23 23 70 5 40 2 10 80 12 3 1 40 24 7 80 71 5 1 20 2 11 O 40 12 7 1 80 24 15 1 40 72 6 2 12 12 12 25 73 6 100 2 12 1 80 12 16 40 25 8 80 74 6 1 80 2 13 1 40 12 20 80 25 16 1 40 75 7 60 2 14 1 13 1 26 1 76 7 1 40 2 15 80 13 4 1 40 26 9 80 77 8 20 2 16 40 13 8 1 80 26 17 1 40 78 8 1 2 17 13 13 27 2 79 8 1 100 2 17 1 80 13 17 40 27 10 80 80 9 SO 2 18 1 40 13 21 80 27 18 1 40 81 9 1 60 2 19 1 14 1 I 28 3 82 10 40 2 20 80 14 5 1 40 28 11 80 83 10 1 20 2 21 40 14 9 1 80 28 19 1 40 84 11 2 22 14 14 29 4 85 11 100 2 22 1 80 14 18 40 29 12 SO 86 11 1 80 2 23 1 40 14 22 80 29 20 1 40 87 12 60 3 1 15 2 1 30 5 88 12 1 40 3 1 80 15 6 1 40 30 13 SO 89 13 20 3 o 40 15 10 1 80 30 21 1 4-0 3P2 ESSAY vn. TABLE OF ELLS, O 1 2 fi 4 S. H. C. T. 9. H. c. T. s. H. c> T. s. H. c. r. 90 7 1 15 22 1 6 91 7 I 20 15 40 22 I 60 6 80 92 7 1 40 15 80 23 6 1 40 93 7 1 60 15 1 23 60 7 94. 7 1 SO 15 I 40 23 1 7 80 95 7 1 100 15 1 80 23 I 60 7 1 40 96 8 a 16 8 97 8 20 16 40 60 8 80 98 8 40 16 SO 1 I 8 1 40 99 8 60 16 1 1 60 9 100 8 SO 16 1 40 1 9 80 101 8 100 16 1 80 1 60 9 1 40 102 8 1 17 1 1 10 103 8 1 20 17 40 1 1 60 10 80 104 8 1 40 17 80 2 10 1 40 105 8 I 60 17 1 1 2 60 11 106 8 1 80 17 1 40 2 1 11 80 107 8 1 100 17 1 80 2 1 60 i 11 1 40 108 9 18 3 12 109 9 20 18 40 3 60 I 12 80 110 9 40 18 80 3 1 12 1 40 HI 9 60 IS 1 3 1 60 13 112 9 80 18 1 40 4 13 80 113 9 100 18 1 80 4 60 13 1 40 MANUFACTURING. 313 WARPS. CO ELLS. > Dents Inch. Dents Yard. H. P. S. No. DentE Inch. Dents 1 Yard. "• P. s. 34 17 612 6 1 9 90 45 162o',16 3 5 38 19 684 7 3 94 47 1692^17 1 19 40 20 720 7 2 96 48 1728|l7 3 16 44 22 792 8 14 100 50 1800.18 2 70 46 23 828 8 2 17 104 52 1872 19 1 4 50 25 900 9 1 5 106 53 1908 19 3 1 54 27 972 9 4 19 110 55 198020 1 15 56 28 1008 10 1 16 114 51 205221 9 €0 30 1080 11 10 116 58 2088 21 2 6 64 32 1152 11 4 4 120 60 2160 22 1 66 33 1188 12 1 1 124 62 2232 22 4 14 70 35 1260 12 4 15 126 63 2268 23 1 11 74 37 1332 13 3 9 130 65 2340 24 5 76 38 1368 14 6 134 67 2412 24 3 19 60 40 1440 14 4 150 75 2700 27 3 15 84 42 11512 15 2 14 166 83 2988 30 3 11 86 43 1548 15 4 11 326 ESSAY VII. To enable manufacturers to ascertain the measure of the reed by inspection, an instrument has been long used in Scotland, and more recently adopted in England. It combines the properties both of a microscope and micro- meter, for, while the dimensions of the threads are magni- fied by. a convex glass, the measure is ascertained by a hole in the bottom of the standard. Those used in Scotland, when correctly constructed, show one thread for every hundred splits. Of course, the diameter of the hole must be the two hundredth part of 37 inches. The English glasses are calculated upon the same prin- ciple, to adapt them to their particular uses. FINIS. JA.MES HEDDERWICK AND CO. PRINTERS, GLASGOW, INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE INSERT FOLDOUT HERE D. H. HJL.1- LiSf^fARY Morth Carolina State Colleee NDFRSOMl E R. |i K1G6SI mm