DAIRY FARM PROJECTS LADD EARNING AND LEARNING mijE ^. p. ^tll pbrarg ./ 'b^^ ^orti| Carolina ^tate College i'liiiiiiJiiiJi.'iiiiiiiiiiiii S01 944738 Date Di mMii} iO'^^W Lrf!5is :ebl2'32 7^J^ ^ ?OQct' lOlVlay'5; ^ SF241 .L3 Dpjrv j •sU^ ti aLLQ^aOi^ l^346' ■^-^11 Febl2'3:? ^ / THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. DEC 1 1 1974 a: 30M- 10/73 c±:t',. DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS MACMKLAN AGRICULTURAL PROJECT SERIES EDITED BY RUFUS W. STIMSON Supervisor of Vocational Agricultural Education in Massachusetts VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION By RuFUS W. Stimson VEGETABLE GROWING PROJECTS By Ralph L. Watts DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS By C. E. Ladd Other books in preparation Farming For Combining Study Rule-Books Earning and Learning Guide-Books DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS CARL EDWIN LADD, PH. D., Professor of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Cornell University; formerly Specialist in Agricultural Education, New York State Education Department, and Director of New York State School of Agriculture at Alfred University. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1923 All rights reserved Printed in the United States o] America Copyright, 1923, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1923. LIBRARY N. C. State College To THE Farmers of Delaware County, New York, Who Taught Me to Love the Dairy Cow 11141 EDITOR'S PREFACE This is a hand-book for dairymen who are ambitious to increase their profits. Primarily it is intended for pupils in Smith-Hughes vocational agriculture courses who desire to enter on life careers of successful dairy farming, or to combine dairying with growing one or more cash crops. Its author is himself known to be a successful dairy farmer. He is, also, an expert in farm management, an experienced teacher of vocational agriculture, and a successful supervisor of teaching in this field. We are now agreed that education cannot be bestowed. It must be achieved. Pupil initiative, pupil planning seasonably done and applied by local survey and job analysis methods, pupil observations and experience instantly and soundly appraised with a view to betterment of methods and results, preferably in connection with sizeable projects on home farms covering com- plete cycles of production, — these are fundamental factors in effective teaching by the project method. Accordingly, in this, as in the other books for pupils in this Project Series, there is no long pull of text that might tempt pupil or teacher aside into mere memorizing. Each section, as a rule, provides for some activity, something originated by the pupil or something given the pupil to do. Questions are raised, references are given, problems are proposed, practicums, surveys, and contests are planned, which make it necessary for every pupil to bestir himself in order to get into his mind and his habits the substance of the course. But the treatment is intended to arouse and to develop the utmost initiative on the part of both pupil and teacher. X ■ EDITOR'S PREFACE In the calendar of activities of the first chapter and elsewhere, the author has undertaken to state briefly and clearly exactly what he would do under given conditions. But his holdings are so checked and balanced by proposed pupil activities during the learning period, that the pupil must not only get these ideas into his head, but must also reason about them, judge them, adapt them to his conditions, accept or reject them on his own responsibility. Every pupil should become a keen-witted and well-informed judge of dairy farming efficiency, and competent in dairy farm work and management. Work for all is indicated by heavy faced type. There is a fuller program in italics for the more rapid workers. Any pupil, we believe, who covers the ground shown by this study guide-book ought to be allowed at least one unit of entrance credit by any agricultural college. The skeletonized form of the calendar, of the proposed ques- tions, problems, references, and the like, is intended to prompt both pupil and teacher to originate and to insert all items of local and personal importance essential to a proper program of "Earning and Learning." RuFUS W. Stimson. April 10, 1923. CONTENTS Chapters arranged by months during the school year to promote seasonal study of dairy farming activities PAGE Explanations and Acknowledgments xiii Reference Key xv List of Illustrations xvii Chapter I. Calendar of Dairy Farming Activities, Project Work, Practicums or Laboratory Activities, and Observations 3 Chapter IL Chapter in. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Chapter X. Chapter XL Chapter XII. Chapter XIII. SEPTEMBER Selecting the Dairy Cows 30 Studying Breeds of Dairy Cattle .... 40 Keeping Dairy Herd Records 55 OCTOBER Feeding and Watering the Dairy Cow ... 69 Milking and Bedding the Cow 88 Selecting and Handhng the Bull .... 96 NOVEMBER Providing a Sanitary and Handy Stable for a Healthy and Profitable Herd 104 Saving All the Fertility in the Manure . . .115 Producing Clean Milk 127 DECEMBER Selecting Regions Adapted to Dairy Farming. 136 Planning a Crop Rotation and a System for Main- taining Fertility 148 Planning a Barn for a Dairy Farm . . . .162 xii CONTENTS JANUARY PAGE Chapter XIV. Drying Up the Cow and Caring for Her tefore and during Calving 175 Chapter XV. Developing the Dairy Heifer 181 Chapter XVI. Keep Farm Accounts 188 FEBRUARY Keeping Farm Accounts (Continued) 188 MARCH Chapter XVII. Detecting and Treating Diseases of Dairy Cattle . 207 Chapter XVIII. Raising the Dairy Calf .... .212 Chapter XIX. Starting in the Business of Raising Pure Bred Dairy Cattle 220 APRIL Chapter XX. Improving the Dairy Herd Through Breeding 229 Chapter XXI. Preparing Dairy Cattle for Show or Sale . .243 Chapter XXII. Advertising and Marketing Dairy Cattle and Other Dairy Products 248 Chapter XXIII. Chapter XXIV. Chapter XXV. MAY Caring for Pastures and Summer Feeding . 257 Planning the Farmstead and Field Layout of a Dairy Farm 270 Choosing and Buying a Dairy Farm . . . 282 JUNE Chapter XXVI. Financing the Dairy Farm Business . .294 Chapter XXVII. Organizing a Successful Dairy Farming Business . 303 Index 323 EXPLANATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author has prepared this handbook for two kinds of dairy- men. Primarily, it is for vocational agriculture dairy farming pupils, who are enrolled in departments of high schools, or in the special and county agricultural schools. But it could not be a good book for such pupils without being adapted, also, to the needs of men engaged in dairy farming who are out of school and who desire to improve their livestock and equipment, their methods, and profits. Therefore, it is presupposed that every user of this handbook has one or more cows in his care, either as his own home project, or as a practical dairy herd for the success- ful handling of which he is, in some capacity, directly responsible. The chapters are addressed directly to the vocational agricul- tural pupil who is in school. They are planned, beginning with Chapter II, to give him the selection of subject-matter and the seasonal arrangement of activities that seem best suited to the regular school year, beginning in September, when most schools open. But the "Calendar" and its cross-references in Chapter I should be a guide both to year-round work, and to the study of special problems as they naturally arise. The subject-matter is arranged within its subdivisions in the order suggested by Mr. F. E. Heald in Bulletin No. 3, published by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, namely : What must be done What must be learned What it is well to learn Or, as other educators might prefer to state it : How to do the work properly Why to do the work in these ways or the reasons therefor General facts of interest about dairy farming The book covers, not only the special problems and methods of feeding, breeding, care, and management of the dairy herd, but also farm management problems, and methods of organizing and carrying on the business of a successful dairy farm. xiv EXPLAxNATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Calendar in the first chapter Usts the work that should be done each month, the practicums that should be worked out, and the observations that should be made. These items may be supplemented, or replaced, by many other items of "Project Work," "Practicums," or "Observations," formulated by the pupils or by the vocational teachers, or suggested by county agricultural agents or successful dairy farmers, either to fit local conditions, or to solve local problems. The author has referred to other books or iDulletins by asking definite questions and giving many specific references. This is to save time and to encourage the pupil to broaden the range of his reading and reasoning. Questions, problems, and class exercises are printed in two kinds of type. Those printed in black-faced type should be covered by all who desire a thorough grasp of dairy farming. Those printed in italics may well be covered, if there is time for them. The latter, however, contain more of the "general vocational" than of the "how" or "why." The work and study outlined, if thoroughly mastered, should insure generous college entrance credit in the cases of those who enter agricultural colleges. The key to all references is given on pages xv-xvi. Suggestive initials are used to denote the author or the title or both; the numerals used with the initials refer to page numbers. The author desires to express his appreciation to the following persons, institutions, firms, and associations for illustrations and charts furnished for this book: United States Department of Agriculture, Holstein Friesian Association, American Jersey Cattle Club, Ayrshire Breeders' Association, American Guernsey Cattle Club, Newton Farms, Meridale Farms, Hargrove and Arnold, Carnation Stock Farms, Dutchland Farms, Middlesex Meadows Farms, Falfurias Farms, Strathglass Farms, Penshurst Farms, Tarbell Farms, Langwater Farms. To the editor of this project series, the author owes the plan on which this book is organized. C. E. Ladd. April 10, 1923. REFERENCE KEY B Bailey, L. H. — Cyclopedia oj American Agriculture; The Macmillan Company Bo Boss, Adrew — Farm Management; Lyons and Carnahan C Curtis, R. S. — Live Stock Judging; Lea and Febiger DC Book — Diseases of Cattle; United States Department of Agri- culture E Eckles, C. H. — Dairij Cattle and Milk Production; The Macmillan Company EW Eckles, C. H., and Warren, G. F. — Dairy Farming; The Macmillan Company G Gardner, F. D. — Successful Farming; John C. Winston Co. Ga Gay, Carl W. — Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock; The Macmillan Company H Harper, M. W. — Animal Husbandry for Schools; The Macmillan Company HM Henry, W. A., and Morrison, F. B. — Feeds and Feeding; The Henry Morrison Company Hu Hunt, T. F. — How to Choose a Farm; The Macmillan Company K221 Bulletin — Farm Leases in Kansas; Kansas Bulletin 221 Ki King, F. H. — Physics of Agriculture; F. H. King L Ladd, C. E. — Dairy Farming Proiects; The Macmillan Company Li Livingston, George — Field Crop Production; The Macmillan Com- pany xvi REFERENCE KEY LFB Lyon, T. L,, Fippin, E. O., and Buckman, H. O.— Soils, Their Properties and Management; The Macmillan Company M Michels, John — Dairy Farming; John Michcls M158 Bulletin — Winter Rations for Dairy Heifers; Missouri Bulletin 158 M167 Bulletin — Renting Land in Missouri; Missouri Bulletin 167 Mu Mumford, F. B. — The Breeding of Animals; The Macniillan Com- pany P Plumb, C. S. — Beginnings of Animal Husbandry; Webb PubUshing Company Va P Van Pelt, Hugh C. — How to Feed the Dairy Cow; Fred L. Kimball Company V27 Bulletin — Milk Houses for Vermont Dairy Farms; Vermont Bulletin 27 W Warren, G. F. — Elements of Agriculture; The Macmillan Company W-FM Warren, G. F. — Farm Management; The Macmillan Company W-PD Washburn, R. M. — Productive Dairying; J. B. Lippincott Company Wi Wing, H. H. — Milk and Its Products; The Macmillan Company LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Typical grade Guernseys coming in to be milked . . . Frontispiece FIGURE PAGE 1. Learning to judge Jerseys 31 2. World's champion Ayrshire cow, Garclaugh May Mischief .32-33 3. A good udder 34 4. Dairy cow score card 38 5. High record Ayrshire, Auchenbrain W hite Beauty 2nd . . .42 6. Auchenbrain Brown Kate, Ayrshire cow 43 7. The Imported Jap — a purebred Jersey bull — famous foundation animal 45 8. World's record Guernsey cow, Murne Cowan 46 9. High producing Guernsey cow. Countess Prue .... 47 10. Oak De Kol Ollie Homestead — purebred Holstein Friesian bull 49 11. May Walker Ollie Homestead. Purebred Holstein cow holding the world's record for butter making over all breeds . 50 12. Springbrook Bess Burke 2nd, one of the largest and best Holstein Friesian cows 51 13. Daily milk weight sheet 56 14. World's champion Ayrshire cow 58 15. World's champion four years old Ayrshire 59 16. Johanna Bonheur Champion 2nd — purebred Holstein Friesian bull 60 17. A World's record Holstein Friesian cow 61 18. Age and percentage of increased production 63 19. "Low," "Medium," and "High" protein feeds .... 71 20. Pounds per ton of digestible nutrients 73 21. River bottom hay land 74 22. Oats one of best feeds for young stock and dry cows ... 76 23. Corn produces a large amount of food per acre .... 78 24. Water that makes small load heavy at harvest time makes cow give more milk in winter 79 25. Feed and labor factors per 100 pounds of 3 per cent milk 86 26. Bull of fine individuality and well handled with staff and ring . 96 27. Bull calf — good individual from high producing ancestry . . 100 28. Dairy bull score card 102-3 29. Rutherford system of stable ventilation 105 30. King system of stable ventilation 106 31. Air and oxygen requirements in twenty-four hours . . . .107 32. Expensive and unsanitary type of barn 108 33. An unhandy and dangerous type of barn ...... 109 34. A well planned barn .... ... Ill 35. A New England dairy farmstead . . . .113 xvii xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 36. Losses of farm manure by fermentation and tracking . . .116 37. Solid and liquid parts of excrement per ton 117 38. Hauling manure spreader with a tractor 118 39. Cutting ensilage corn with a tractor 119 40. Value of excreta from several farm animals 123 41. Pounds of excreta per thousand pounds live weight of several farm animals 124 42. Score card for dairy stables 128 43. Bacteria added to milk by unsteamed utensils 133 44. Favorable topographical and market conditions .... 136 45. Receipts from sale of dairy products in different sections . 138 46. Distribution of dairy cows in the United States in 1910 . 140 47. Mountainside pasture adapted to small cows 141 48. Limestone walls indicate soil conditions favorable to growing legumes 143 49. TjTjical alfalfa land in New York 145 50. A good job of plowing 149 51. Lodged grain may choke out seeding 152 52. Cabbage furnish a cultivated crop in the rotation . . . .155 53. A most efficient t\T3e of dairy barn 162 54. A round barn on fiat land 163 55. A twelve sided barn 165 56. Concrete silos 171 57a. Approximate capacity of silos of different sizes .... 172 57b. Relation of size of silo to length of feeding period and size of herd 172 58. A growthy AjTshire calf, Ringmaster's Bloom of Brae Burn 181 59. A well developed heifer, Ringmaster's Britta of Brae Burn 185 60. A sample summary of an inventory 190 61. A sample account with potatoes 192 62. A sample work record with wheat 194 63. A sample record for chores 194 64. A farmer's entries for a day 195 65. Distribution of charge for use of buildings 201 66. Calf being raised by a school girl 212 67. Guernsey calves on pasture 216 68. Seven sons and daughters of a prepotent Holstein Friesian sire . 221 69. A daughter that is a credit to her Holstein Friesian sire 225 70. A famous daughter of a famous Jersey sire 226 71. Ormsby Korndyke Lad — fourteen 30-pound daughters in 1919 . 230 72. Masher's Galore 8572 — imported Guernsey bull .... 232 73. Auckenbrain Toreador, said to be the best Ayrshire bull ever brought out of Scotland 234 74. Typical Ayrshire form, udder and horns 236 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix FIGURE PAGE 75. Rynoque Lady Peggy — fine type of Ayrshire cow .... 237 76. Bella II du Grand Fort. Imported Guernsey cow .... 240 77. Advanced registry Quercus Maid. Purebred Guernsey . , 241 78. Use an attractive letterhead 251 79. Milk transported by motor truck 254 80. Macadam roads facilitate marketing 255 81. A river bottom pasture 257 82. An excellent limestone pasture 259 83. A pasture where brush needs cutting 260 84. A typical pasture in Delaware County, New York .... 262 85. An attractive farm house, not too large 270 86. A pleasant farm home in Vermont 271 87. A commodious and comfortable farm home 273 88. Well built farm buildings add to the value of the farm . . 274 89. Topography influences field layout 277 90. Large level areas favorable to ideal layout of fields .... 278 91. Level fields permit use of labor-saving machinery . . . 279 92. Efficient combination of crop land and pasture .... 280 93. River bottom land is always valuable 283 94. A good hay crop is an evidence of soil fertility .... 285 95. Score card for farms 287-8 96. A plentiful water supply is indispensable 290 97. A first step toward financing a farm business 295 98. Efficient ratio of man power to horse power 299 99. Method of figuring labor income 304 100. Relation of size of farm to labor income 306 101. Variations in labor income 307 102. Capital related to labor income 307 103. Relation of acres in crops to labor income 308 104. Productive work unit table 309 105. Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of men and horses 310 106. Horse power ready for efficient use 310 107. Relation of receipts per cow to profits 312 108. Relation of crop yields to labor income 314 109. Hops as a cash crop to give diversity 315 110. Relation of profits to proportion of income from crops . 317 111. Potatoes grown to give balance and diversity 318 112. Combined effect of several factors on labor income . . . 319 113. Relation of acres of crops per animal unit to labor income and crop yields 320 114. Relation of size of farm receipts per cow, and crop yields to labor income 320 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS CHAPTER I DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR OR SEASONAL PROGRAM 1. — Keep Records So That You May Study and Improve Your Business You should have constantly in mind that the management of a dairy farm is neither scientific nor practical unless the farm business pays a profit. Records of various kinds are advised in this calendar. These will make it possible to study the success of the business as a whole or in any of its parts. The results of these records will give you a measure of your success, the reasons for your failures, and a foundation upon which to build an intelligent, practical, and scientific program for a more successful business for each succeeding year. 2. — Plan Your Business This calendar or program will give you suggestions as to things you should do, things you should learn, and observations you should make each month of the year. It is prepared for dairy regions north of the latitude of Washington. For particular localities in this and other regions, adjustments may be made in the column reserved for dates at the left. It cannot fit all farms as it stands. It is printed in skeleton form to help you more easily to adapt it to your particular business. "Plan your work and work your plan." 3 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS AUGUST Adjustments to Particular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Select the cows Practice scoring Note the condi- for the project and judging tion of the proj- herd. dairy cattle. ect herd as com- L:30 L: 30 pared with good herds in the neighborhood. Compare as to size of individ- Study the differ- ual and condi- ence between tion of flesh. beef and dairy types at the ag- Make up record ricultural fairs. blanks for the L: 30 dairy herd. L: 55 Visit several corn fields growing different varie- ties of ensilage corn. If possi- Start the herd ble visit a field Note the condition records. where several of the pasture. L: 55 varieties of corn are grown on the same field. Note the maturity of each and the relative yields. Which is the Start feeding sup- best corn for en- plementary sila'ge? What green feed, if are the charac- the pasture is teristics of a short. good ensilage L: 257 corn? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR AUGUST (Continued) Adiustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Begin feeding dry Study different Watch the cows as ration to cows crops grown in they go in and that will freshen the neighbor- out of the stable in the fall. hood for feeding to see whether L: 69 to supplement there is any pasture. Which lameness or is most satisfac- other sign of tory for this fouls. month? What L:209 will you raise Cool your milk. next year for feeding during August? If you have any manure that has accumu- lated since spring work started, begin Are any of the top-dressing fall cows begin- newly seeded ning to spring land with it. bag? Start plowing for winter grains. Measure the num- ber of tons of hay raised this year and keep a record of this figure and the acreage in hay. DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS SEPTEMBER Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Project Work By the Pupil Fill the silo. Continue scoring and judging dairy cows, bulls, and young stock on near-by farms. Compute the num ber of tons of ensilage in the silo. Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Class Study the breeds of dairy cattle at the agricultural fairs. L:40 Observations By the Pupil At the agricultural fairs observe how cattle owners fit their stock and show it. Begin your proj ect account! September 1. Made a study of the weather re- ports for your region to find the average date of first killing frost in fall. Use this in deciding when to cut corn for the silo. What is the most economical and satisfactory soil- ing crop being fed in your com- m unity this month? In what stage of de- velopment was your ensilage at the time of silo filling? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR SEPTEMBER (Continued) Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Make a complete List all the cash Will you rai.se the inventory of all crops raised in same kind of en- live stock, sup- your region in silage corn next plies,equipment, the order of their year? and other facili- importance. ties involved in your project, as of September 1. Draw a map of Select seed corn for your farm show- next year. ing the field ar- rangement. Make a record of the crop on Are your dry cows each field this in good flesh? year; the amounts of ma- nure, lime, and Select seed pota- fertilizer used toes for next on each field; year. and the appar- ent state of fertility. How many days of growing season do you have be- tween killing What are fresh frosts in your re- cows selling for gion? What va- in your com- rieties of corn can munity? be successfully raised for silage? for grain? DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS OCTOBER Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Plan a grain ra- tion for your herd with es pecial con sideration as to cost. L:69 Study the various feeds as to weight, color, taste, source, per cent of protein, and pounds of total digestible nutri- ents in a ton. L:69 Do as much fall plowing as pos- sible. Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Class Observations By the Pupil Observe good milkers on neigh- boring farms and see if you can improve your method. Score several dairy bulls on near-by farms. Get a record of the breeding dates of all cows already bred and make up a record booklet to be used for keeping the breeding and calving dates of all cows. Find out what ra- tion is fed on several near-by dairy farms. Compare this with your ration to see if you can improve your own. As soon as a cow begins to "spring," or make up an udder, estimate the time when she will freshen. Keep a record of this date and check with the actual calving date so as to better your judg- ment. Keep close watch of the cows due to freshen this month. DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR OCTOBER (Continued) Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Select the bull to be used with the herd. L:96 Project Work By the Pupil Decide when you wish each cow to freshen again and breed ac- cordingly. Draw a floor plan of your stable and plan a handy arrange- ment for the coming winter. L: 104 Practicums and Laboratory Activities Make a trip to your own pasture and several others in the neighbor- hood. What can be done economi- cally to improve these pastures? L:257 Observations By the Pupil In which one of the three months, September, Octo- ber, or Novem- ber, do the good dairymen of your neighborhood have most cows freshen? Why? Have you sufficient leguminous hay to feed your cat- tle through the winter? 10 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS NOVEMBER Adjustments to Particular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Ac ivities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Prepare the stable Compute the cubic As you begin to for winter use feet of air space feed more grain with special per cow^ and the watch the reference to square feet of strainer closely light, ventila- window glass per for lumpy, tion, warmth, cow in your bloody, or and ease o^ do- stable. stringy milk, in- ing work. dicating garget or L: 104 udder trouble. L:207 Make a trip to .scv- Note the condi- eral near-by tion of the hay dairy barns and o r other d r y study their venti- roughage as to Handle the ma- lation, light, and maturity, pala- nure produced stable arrange- t ability, and so as to save all ment. Compare apparent digesti- the fertility. each with the bility. L: 115 others and with your own. Continue fall Do the same for the plowing. ensilage. DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR NOVEMBER (Continued) Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Project Work By the Pupil Start feeding si- lage. Provide a box stall and special feed and care for every cow at freshening time. L: 175 Place all farm ma- chinery in itt winter quarters Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Class Observe the con- dition of the manure as an in- dication of the effect of the ra- tion on the cow. L: 69 Observations By the Pupil Note the prices of all grain feeds so as to make any change in the ra- t i o n that will give good eco- nomic results. 12 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS DECEMBER Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Plan the places Compute the cost Note the prices of where the ma- of milk in accord- the various feeds nure will be ap- ance with the so as to make plied this win- Warren formula. any economical ter. L:85 changes in the L: 14S ration. On your farm map list the crops on each field for each year as far back as you can remember. What things are Make plans for re- being sold from Also record the modeling your farms in your manure, fertil- diary barn so as neighborhood? izer, and lime to make it an applied to each efficient, health- field for each ful stable at the year as far back least e.xpense. as you can re- L: 104-162 member. Plan a rotation for Watch your cows your farm. closely for any L: 148 indication of lice. L: 185-218 Increase the grain fed to each cow slightly and Measure several watch the near-by d a i r y weight sheets to barns so as to de- see if there is a termine the vari- profitable in- ous dimensions crease in the used in the dairy Is your water sys- milk flow. stables. Get the tem satisfactory Continue to in- owner's criticism as to quantity crease the grain of each one. and method of as long as it is watering the profitable. cows? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 13 JANUARY Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations LocaUties Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Make a chart Estimate the Observe the con- showing the weight of your dition of cows crop on each heifers, and de- that are to field last year, cide whether freshen in the and proposed they are of nor- spring. If they for each future mal size. Visit are not in good year until your near-by herds flesh, start feed- rotation is es- and compare ing the dry cow tablished. their heifers with ration. L: 148 yours of the same age. L:S3 Begin to dry off cows that will freshen early in the spring. L:175 Compute the ratio of grain fed to Examine all dry milk produced cows carefully for the past to determine month. Is this how near they satisfactory? Watch your water are to fre.shen- L:69 supply to see that ing. Compare it does not freeze this with your up or become in- breeding dates. sufficient for the herd. Study feed prices Estimate the aver- to determine age cost of pro- whether you ducing milk dur- should make a ing the past change in your month. H o w rations. Have does this com- feed prices in- p a r e with the creased or de- price paid? creased in the past three months and how much? 14 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS FEBRUARY Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory LocaUties Activities By the Pupil liy the Pupa By the Class Dates Take an inventory Estimate t h o of all the farm amount of hay property and and ensilage that start a complete the cows will system of farm consume during accounts as the remainder of steps towards the year and the permanently amounts that will organizing and he left at the be- systematizing ginning of the your dairy pasture season. farming busi- L:69 ness. L: 1S8 Begin to work with heifers that will freshen in the spring, so ;is to get them accustomed to having the udder manip- ulated. ^ Observations By the Pupil Watch the cows when they eat dry roughage or ensilage to see that they clean it all up. If they do not. find out whv. Note the advan- tages, if anj', of taking a com- plete inventory of a permanently organized dairy farm at this time as compared with taking the inven- tory, for project purposes, Sep- tember 1. DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 15 FEBRUARY (Continued) Adjustments to Particular LocaUties Project Work Practicums and Laboratory Activities Observations By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Overhaul all farm machinery so as to have it ready for spring. Study the order of doing chores on various dairy farms in the neighborhood so as to decide whether you fol- low the best order of feeding hay, grain, and ensilage, of milk- ing, cleaning stables, and other work. Does the ensilage freeze badly around the walls of the silo? Order grass seed for spring sow- ing. Watch your cows for signs of lice. Begin to study the problem of what variety of en- silage corn you will raise next year. 16 DAIRY FARMINCx PROJF.CTS MARCH Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Start the new- Ijorn calves that you intend to raise, on a good ration. L:212 Kill the horns on all calves. L: 217 Keep all calf pails clean . Buy a pure bred calf and start raising pure breds if you have not done so and it is pcjs sible. L: 220 Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Class If you have a pure bred calf, trace its complete pedi- gree for five gen- erations. Observations By the Pupil Are j-our cows in good flesh at freshening? Are your cows giv- ing as much milk as they ought? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR MARCH (Continued) 17 Adjustments to Particular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Begin feeding Make a survey to Watch all calves horses more determine all the for signs of grain and pure bred cattle scours or ring hardening them in your town- worm. for spring work. ship. List the number of each breed. What are the reasons why some breeds are more popular than others in your region? L: 217 Begin to read a Hve stock peri- odical devoted chiefly to the Have you all neces- breed in which s a r y fertihzer, you are most lime, and seeds interested. on hand for spring planting? Order seed corn. 18 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Project Work By the Pupil Begin studying your herd rec- ords to deter- m i n e which cows shall be kept through another winter. Fix p a s t u fences. Sow oats and other spring grains. Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Claxs Write advertise- ments for three separate individ- uals from your herd. L:24S Clip two or more heifers and pre- pare them as if for sale or show ring. L:243 Observations By the Pupil Has your silage been satisfactory in feeding value this winter? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 19 APRIL (Continued) Adjustments to Particular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations LocaUties Activ ties By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Study all your Make a trip to one Will you raise the meadows to see or more auctions same kind of corn if any have been of dairy cattle. ne.xt year? winter killed so Estimate the sell- that they must ing price of each be plowed. animal before sale and record this with the real selling price. Compute the per- centage of your error on each animal. Make any neces- sary changes in your rotation as a result of studying the condition of your meadows. Always prepare a good seed bed before sowing • seed. 20 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS MAY Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Turn out to pas- Make a field trip Study the milk ture as soon a.s to several pas- sheets to see how the grass has a tures and study much gain the good start. their condition cows make on and the grasses pasture. found there. Estimate the number of stock they will carry. Plan supplement- ary grain feed- ing for cows Make field trips that give large to several farms quantities of to study field milk. layouts. L: SO L: 270 Take inventor.y Begin to study the again of the Monthly Crop amount of hay Reporter of the on hand and U. S. Depart- estimate the ment of Agricul- amount that the ture to find out horses will eat the condition of before the new farm crops in all hay is h a r- states. vested. DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 21 MAY (Continued) Adjustments to Particular Localities By the Pupil Project Work By the Pupil Plan a rearrange- ment, if needed, of fields to get the most effi- cient layout on the project farm. L: 270 Plant corn. Prepare a good seed bed for each crop. Practicums and Laboratory Activities By the Class Make a list of rainy- daj' jobs for the summer. Make a trip to sev- eral fields that are being plowed or harrowed to determine what constitutes good plowing and a good seed bed. Observations By the Pupil Are there any wet spots in your fields that could be drained? Would it pay to drain them? Are your cows good flesh? 22 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS JUNE Adjustments Practicums and to Particular Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Feed a small Visit several Does your milk amount of sup- meadows and flow increase on p 1 e m e n t a r y estimate the pasture? grain to any amount of hay cows producing each will pro- over 40 pounds duce. of milk per dav. L: SO ' Visit several corn- In what month did fields to study the cows that what constitutes show the greatest a good stand. Is increase freshen? the corn too thick or too thin? Cool your milk. Study the Crop Re- Do all the fields of porter. grain in the neighborhood have a good color? What are the reasons for any spots show- ing poor color? DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 23 JUNE (Continued) Adjustments to Particular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations Localities Activities By the Pupil By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil Dates Cultivate to kill List all the legumes What are friesh the weeds in all that grow in your cows selling for crops where pos- community with- in your com- sible. Do not out application of munity? List the let the young lime to the soil. price of calfskins, weeds get deacon skins, and started. List all the legumes that will grow if lime is added. Obtain prices on ground lime- stone, burned lime, and hy- drated lime at your nearest rail- cowhides. How do these compare with the prices of a year ago? Is your binder in good shape for grain harvest? road station. '"// DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS JULY ^jusi^nts ^» PaScular Practicums and Project Work Laboratory Observations Ac ivities By the Pupil By the Class By the Pupil OM^ Mow the weeds in Make a trip to Do the cows keep the pasture. several meadows in good flesh on L: 2.57 that are ready to be cut and to several where the grass has l^een mowed and is in cocks or wind- rows. Estimate pasture? Start feeding soil- the probable i n g crops o r yield in tons per silage to sup- acre and the plement the quality of pastures if the the hay. Check pastures are get- these estimates ting short. with the owner of the farm. Has the pasture be- gun to decrease in feeding value? Cool your milk. Study the Crop Re- porter. What are the causes? Begin summariz- ing records of individual cows that have com- pleted a lacta- tion period since records were started. DAIRY FARMING PROJECT CALENDAR 25 JULY (Continued) Adjustments Practicums and l()omer's Queen, 39119. World's Champion four-year-old Ayr- shire. 21,820 lbs. milk, 856 lbs. fat. 1. What is the average amount of time required to weigh the milk daily from each cow? W-FM : 218. (3) Keep a record of the feed consumed. — A record of the feed consumed by each cow should be made in order to determine whether or not the cow makes a profit. Individual cows in the herd are generally fed equal amounts of hay and ensilage. In order to determine the amount of the daily ration, the basket or receptacle in which the ensilage is fed should be weighed full of ensilage several times and its average weight found, or if the 60 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS cows are all fed ensilage from one large cart, the weight of the entire feeding may be found and divided by the number of cows to which it is fed. This need be done only once a month and whenever a change is made in the ration. Also, the total amount of hay fed to the herd may be tied up Fig. 1G. — Johanna Bonheur Cliampion 2nd. Purebred Holstein Fi-iesian Bull. with ropes and weighed. This should be done several times in order to get a fair average. This amount then divided by the number of cows to which it is fed in equal quantities will give the amount which should be charged against each cow. As in the case of the ensilage, it will be necessary to do this only once a month and whenever there is a change in the amount fed. By using these determined averages the dairyman may estimate rather closely the total amount of hay and ensilage to be charged against the individual cows for the season. KEEPING DAIRY HERD RECORDS 61 Grain is usually fed to the cows by the measure. In order to know just how many pounds are fed to each cow daily, the business dairyman should carefully determine the weight of the measure full of feed whenever he changes his ration. This is necessary for economical feeding as well as for record keeping. A record may then be made of the amount of grain fed to each cow per day. Fig. 17. — Duchess Skylark Ormsby. A Recent World's Record Holstein Friesian Cow. This record will also need to be made only once a month and when the ration is changed. In charging feed against the cows, the price should always be the value of that feed at the barn, whether it is hay, grain, or ensilage. Home produced feed should not be charged at the cost of production, as the farmer has the option of either selling or feeding the feed after it has been produced. True cost account records must indicate whether or not the cow pays for this feed 62 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS at a prior which makes it just as profitable to sell it to her as it would be to sell it on the market. 3. — Summarize the Records at the End of the Year There is little use in keeping complete records unless they are summarized, analyzed, and studied so that the farmer can make use of them. As a result of daily records, the farmer will usually decide to eliminate some of the cows from his herd. He will also decide from which cows heifer calves should be raised. He may make rather radical changes in his business because of the results of this record keeping. Although records that are kept for only one day out of each month are somewhat less accurate than are daily records, yet the one day per- month plan is much easier to summarize. Draw up a form of summary that will show you the following facts for each cow by months and totals for the year: 1. Number of days in milk 2. Amount of milk produced 3. Amount of butter fat produced 4. Value of product o. Amount of grain consumed 6. Amount of hay consumed 7. Amount of silage or other succulent feed 8. Amount of other feed 9. Value of grain 10. Value of hay 11. Value of silage or other .succulent feed 12. Value of other feed 13. Value of pasture 14. Total feed cost 1.5. Amount of labor 16. Value of labor 17. Total feed and labor cost 18. Estimated total cost of keeping cow (Add 25 per cent to No. 17) 19. Cost per unit of milk or product When this record is filled out, a glance at the result will tell at any time exactly how much milk each cow has produced during the year, the amount of butter fat produced, the variation in pro- duction by months throughout the year, and the amounts and cost of the feed consumed. In drawing conclusions from these figures KEEPING DAIRY HERD RECORDS 63 the dairyman must also bear in mind other conditions, which are not indicated by the figures. For instance, a cow may have had some trouble during the year which kept down her yearly produc- tion. Nevertheless, the records may be such that the dairyman can estimate that when the cow recovers from her trouble she will be a profitable producer. Allowances must also be made for a cow that has not reached maturity. According to a bulletin of the Wisconsin Experiment Station the production of cows at various ages should be increased by the percentages indicated below in order to make them comparable with the productions of mature cows. Age of cow at beginning of test Percentage to increase record for comparison with mature cows 23^2 years 30 per cent 23-^ to 3 years 24 per cent 3 to 3}4 years 18 per cent 334 to 4 years 15 per cent 4 to 434 years 8 per cent 414 to 5 years 5 per cent Fig. 18. — Age and percentage of increased production. 4. — Determine How Much Milk or Butter Fat a Cow Should Produce in a Year In the more intensive dairy regions of the Eastern States it is generally considered that a mature cow should give 7000 pounds of milk per year in order to be profitable, or if butter or cream is sold a mature cow should produce the equivalent of 250 pounds of butter per year. This is subject, however, to a considerable vari- ation for different conditions. Summer dairies that are producing milk almost entirely on pasture and consume little grain may return a profit with a smaller amount of milk or butter fat. Cows that are fed very extensively upon grain or kept upon expensive soiling crops instead of upon cheap pasture may show a loss at 7000 pounds of milk. Where there is a special market for extra rich milk, Jersey cows, that produce milk of high test that will bring a greater price per 64 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS quart, may show profit when producing considerably less than 7000 pounds per year. In this case, however, they will usually be producing the equivalent of 250 pounds of butter per year. In making the final decision as to whether or not your cow is profitable you must take into consideration the price that you receive for j'^our milk and the cost of the feed and labor that you expend upon her. These things may be determined easily if com- plete herd records are kept. 5. — Make Babcock Tests for Butter Fat in Milk* Materials. — A hand-power centrifugal tester, at least two milk test bottles, one pipette to measure the milk, one acid measure, about one pint of sulphuric acid with specific gravity between 1 .82 and 1.85, a few ounces of milk, and some hot water must be pro- vided. The necessary apparatus and acid can be ordered through a hardware dealer. Sulphuric acid is sold also at drug stores. Samj)ling the Milk. — The milk to be tested should be thoroughly mixed just before the sample is taken, to make sure that the fat or cream is evenly distributed. This can be best done by gently pouring it back and forth between the two vessels several times. The milk should be neither very cold nor very hot, but at a tem- perature between 60° and 70° Fahrenheit. Place the small end of the pipette at the center of the milk and suck the milk up above the 17.6 cubic centimeter mark.f Quickly put the index finger over the upper end of the pipette, and by releasing the pressure allow the milk to run out until its upper surface is even with 17.6 cc. mark when the pipette is held straight up and down. Place the point of the pipette a short distance into the test bottle neck, holding it against the glass, with both pipette and bottle held at an angle. Remove the finger to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. Be sure to get every drop of the milk, taking care to drain the pipette and to blow the last drop into the bottle. *Froiu Cornell Rural School Leaflet. t Cul)ic centimeter is abbreviated cc. and is equivalent to about twenty drops. k]<;eping dairy herd records 65 A little practice should make any one proficient with the pipette. It is best always to make this test in duphcate; hence, two bottles are needed for each lot of milk. Using the Acid. — The acid is very strong and must be handled with great care. If any gets on the hands, face, or clothing, it should be washed off quickly and cold water should always be ready for this purpose. Do not leave the acid where young chil- dren can get it. After all the samples of milk to be tested have been measured, the acid should be added. Fill the acid measure to the 17.5 cc. mark with acid that is neither very cold nor very hot, but about the same temperature as the milk. Pour this into the bottle with the milk, holding the bottle in a slanting position. The acid will then carry down any milk left in the neck and follow the glass surface to the bottom of the bottle and form a layer under the milk. Hold the bottle by the neck and give it a circular motion for a few minutes, mixing the milk and acid until no milk or clear acid is visible. By this time, the contents will be dark colored and hot. This change is due to the fact that the acid has dissolved all the solid constituents of the milk except the fat, which it does not affect. Whirling the Bottles. — The bottles are whirled to separate the fat so that it can be measured. They should be hot when whirled. If necessary, they may be heated by standing in hot water before being put into the machine. A steam machine is easily kept hot when in use. Other kinds should have boiling hot water placed in them. Place the bottles in the machine so that each one will have another directly opposite, to keep the machine in balance. Whirl the bottles five minutes at the proper speed for the machine in use. Then stop it, and, with the pipette or by some other con- venient means, add hot water to each bottle until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two minutes. Add hot water enough to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the graduations on the neck of the bottles. Whirl one minute. The fat should then form a clear column in the neck of the bottle. 66 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Reading the Percentage. — Keep the fat warm so that it will be in a fluid condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck in a perpendicular position, on the level with the eye. Read the mark or graduations at the extreme top and bottom of the fat column. The difference between these is the percentage of fat in the milk. Most test bottles are made to read as high as 10 per cent. Each percentage has its number marked on the glass and there are five small spaces, each representing .2 per cent between these principal marks. Thus, if the top of the fat column is even with the third short mark above the 7 mark, the top reading would be 7.6; and if the bottom is halfway between the first and second short marks above the 3 mark, the bottom reading would be 3.3; the difference is 4.3, which is the percentage of fat or number of pounds of fat in 100 pounds of the milk tested. The following observations should be noted: If the fat column is clouded with white specks, probably the acid was not strong enough, or not enough was used, or the heat was not high enough, or mixing was insufficient. If the fat column is clouded with dark specks, probably the acid was too strong, or there was too much, or the heat was too great. Always keep the acid bottle closed when not in use or the acid will lose strength. Remember that it is a poison and corrosive. (1) Points to be noted especially in making the Babcock test. 1 . Be sure to mix the sample of milk thoroughly before drawing it out with the pipette. 2. When measuring a sample of milk with the pipette, keep the index finger dry. 3. When measuring a sample of milk, keep the mark on the pipette on a level with the eye. The same precaution should be observed when reading the per cent of fat after the test is com- pleted. 4. Do not try to measure a sample of milk by trying to draw the milk just to the mark on the pipette. Draw the milk above the mark, as directed. 5. When adding milk or acid to the test bottle, slant the bottle. KEEPING DAIRY HERD RECORDS 67 The liquid will then run down the lower inside of the neck of the bottle and will not be forced out by outcoming air. 6. Do not h,old the bottle so that its mouth points toward your- self or any one else. The action of the acid upon the milk pro- duces great heat. This heat often causes the contents of the bottle to spurt out violently. 7. After adding the acid to the milk, shake the bottle thor- oughly until the contents become quite dark in color. 8. After using the pipette, wash it thoroughly, preferably in hot water. This will tend to prevent the transmission of disease germs from the mouth of one person to another, should any such germs be present. 9. The tester should be firmly fastened to a solid bench or table. 10. The person operating the machine should give his whole attention to it and not allow his fingers or clothing to get in the path of the bottle cups. 11. Remove all objects from the vicinity of the tester. This will prevent their being hit by the bottle cups when the machine is in motion. 12. If acid is spilled upon anything, pour on plenty of cold water, and then add some alkali, such as lime or baking soda, to neutralize the acid. 13. Do not leave the acid bottle uncorked. 14. Keep all glassware perfectly clean. 15. After washing the glassware, rinse it thoroughly in clean water to remove soap powder. The soap powder and the acid produce a violent chemical reaction. 1. Draw up a good milk sheet for keeping the daily weighings of milk for a month from a herd of twelve cows. Start using this at once with the project herd. 2. Visit the nearest creamery or milk handhng plant and watch the tester conduct the Babcock test with a large number of samples. 3. Use the Babcock Tester at the school until the pupil becomes proficient and does accurate work. 68 DAIRY FARIMIXO PROJECTS 4. Visit a near-by herd at milking time. Let each student sample the lot of milk and bring his sample back to the school to test. Arrange the samples so that two samples are taken of each cow's milk for testing by two different students. After testing the samples at the school the students should check with each other to determine their degree of accuracy. 5. Using a loose leaf note book and plain paper, draw up a sum- mary form for the yearly record by months of each cow in the home herd or project herd. Summarize. 6. Which is the most profitable cow in your dairy herd? Give all figures. 7. When arid by whom was the Babcock test invented? Wi : S9. CHAPTER V FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 1. Feed a balanced ration 2. Consider the following factors in making up a ration (1) Amount and bulk of dry matter (2) Comparative cost of digestible nutrients in different grains (3) Nutritive ratio (4) Palatability (5) Variety of feeds (6) ]\Ianurial values 3. Feeding and watering the dairy cow in winter 4. Feeding the dairy cow in summer 5. Caring for pastures 6. Using soiling crops when pasture is not available 7. Feeding the dry cow 8. How the animal's body uses food 9. Food used to produce one hundred pounds of milk The feeding of dairy cattle in summer presents few difficulties where pasture is available. Pasture alone is an ideal ration. The feeding of cattle in winter, however, is a more difficult problem. The basis of the dairy cow's ration in winter is the roughage and succulent feeds usually produced upon the farm. To these should be added grain or concentrated feeds which may be grown on the farm or may be purchased. Feed the cow as much dry roughage, such as clover hay, alfalfa hay, mixed hay, straw, or corn stalks,, as she will clean up at each feeding. In addition, she should be given if possible a liberal feeding, i.e. from thirty to forty pounds per day, of some succulent 69 70 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS food, such as roots or silage. The remainder of the ration should consist of grain or concentrates and the amount fed should vary with the milk production. A ratio of orie-pound of grain to three or four pounds of milk is generally advised. 1. How much hay, ensilage, and grain should be fed to a dairy cow producing thirty pounds of milk daily? W-PD : 239. E : 267. 1. — Feed a Balanced Ration As we have learned in our biology study, the food of all animals may be divided into two classes; namely, energj^-giving compounds and tissue-building compounds. We commonly speak of the tis- sue-building compounds as proteins. The proteins are present in large cjuantities in such foods as peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, cotton- seed meal, and gluten. They are present in smaller quantities in all of the grains. Energy-giving compounds are commonly spoken of as carbo- hydrates, or starchy foods, and fats. One pound of digestible fat produces two and one-quarter times as much energy as one pound of digestible carliohydrates. Some foods which are especially rich in energy-producing compounds, i.e. carbohydrates or fats or both, are corn, oats, oil meal, timothy hay, and corn silage. All of these foods also contain some protein. Oil meal contains a great deal of protein and is classed as a high protein feed. Investigators at experiment stations and practical dairymen have found that dairy cows give the greatest amount of milk when their ration is so made up that there is a certain relation between the protein and the carbohydrates and fat. This relation is called the nutritive ratio. It is generally considered that this ratio should be about one part of protein to six parts of carbo- hydrates plus fats reduced to carbohydrate value. A ration having a nutritive ratio of less than one to six is spoken of as having a narrow nutritive ratio, while if the ratio is more than one to six it is said to be a wide nutiitive ratio. FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 71 How is each of the following substances used in the animal's body: protein, carbohydrates, fat? NY-117: 56-57. H : 56-58. Fill in after each one of the following feeds its nutritive ratio: NY-117: 77-100. corn siloge . . . timothy hay . . carrots potatoes turnips . . . . skimmed milk . millet hay. . . . alfalfa hay red clover hay wheat bran . . corn meal . . . oats gluten feed The following method of balancing a ration is adapted from that published by Professor H. H. Wing of Cornell University. Low protein group Medium protein group High protein group Total protein 12 per cent or less Total protein 12 per cent to 25 per cent Total protein 25 per cent or more Corn 10.3 Oats 11.4 Wheat bran 15.4 Mixed wheat feed 16.3 Standard wheat middlings. 16. 9 Flour wheat middlings.. . .19.2 Malt sprouts 26.3 Linseed oil meal 33.9 Rye 11.3 Gluten feed". . . . .' 25 . Barley 12.0 Buckwheat 10.8 Hominy chop 10.5 Dried beet pulp 8.1 Corn and cob meal... .8.-5 Cotton seed feed 20 . Buckwheat feed (shuck in) 18.3 Pea meal 20.2 Cull beans 21.6 Brewers' dried grains 25.0 Distillers' dried grains (corn) 31.2 Buckwheat middlings (free from shuck) 26.7 Fig. 19.- Low," "medium," and "high" protein feeds. "Heavy" feeds are underlined; "light" feeds are not underlined. The ordinary grain feeds may be divided into three groups: low protein (less than 12 per cent); medium protein (12 to 25 per cent); high protein (over 25 per cent). Mixed hay, corn silage, and cornstalks or fodder are very similar in composition so far as the balance between protein and carbohydrates is concerned. For the sake of variety it is desirable to use at least three feeds. If one low protein, one medium protein, and two high protein foods be mixed together in equal parts by weight, the mixture will make a well-balanced ration to be used with roughage which 72 DAIRY FARMING TROJECTS contains no leguminous plants. If leguminous roughages are used, the grain mixture may be made up of one low protein, one medium protein, and one high protein food mixed in equal parts by weight. An ideal grain ration should weigh about one pound to the quart. To secure this, the mixture should contain at least one "light" food. A dairy cow in full milk should have all the hay and silage that she will eat and if she is giving 4 per cent milk or richer, she should have one pound of grain for each 3 or 3}/^ pounds of milk that she produces. A cow giving milk with less than 4 per cent of fat should have one pound of grain for each 3}/2 or 4 pounds of milk that she produces. 1. What is meant by net energy values and who are the leading experimenters in determining these? HM : 92. 2. Are the net energy values obtained by these experimenters applicable in work with dairy cows? HM : 95. 3. Hov: is the Scandinavian feed unit systein used in economical feeding of dairy cattle? HM : 95-96. 4. What is a respiratio7i calorimeter and how does it irork? HM : 40. 2. — Consider the Following Factors in Making Up a Ration In making up an ideal ration several factors must enter into consideration. The more important ones are as follows: Amount of dry matter, cost of the ration, nutritive ratio, palatabiUty of the ration, variety, constipating and laxative quaUties, and ma- nurial values. (1) Amount and bulk of dry matter. — The cow has a very long digestive tract and great digestive capacity. Her organs of digestion function in such a way that she is able to obtain the greatest amount of nutriment from her feed, if the food itself is very bulky, loose, and easily permeated by the digestive juices. For this reason, the cow's ration must contain a large amount of dry matter. About two thirds of this dry matter should be in the form of dry roughage, such as hay, straw, or cornstalks, and FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 73 of succulent materials, such as silage or roots. About one third of the dry matter should be in the form of grain. A cow weighing 1000 pounds and producing 30 pounds of milk per day is generally considered to require about 25 pounds of total dry matter. If too much grain and too little roughage or succulent materials are used in the ration, the food in the stomach will be too compact and not sufficiently loose or bulky to allow the digestive juices to do their best work. In order to give the best results the entire ration should be bulky and the grain ration by itself should possess considerable bulk. (2) Comparative cost of digestible nutrients in different grains. — One of the most important factors to be considered by the farmer in making up his ration is the cost. Economical feeding means profitable production ; uneconomical feeding means unprof- itable production, even though the quantity of production may be large. In selecting the concentrates or grains to be used, the item of cost should be of prime consideration. Feeds should be selected on the basis of their cost per pound of digestible nutrients rather than of their cost per ton. The following table gives the number of pounds of digestible nutrients in a ton of each of the feeds named : Corn 1676 Flour middlings 1564 Oats 1391 Malt sprouts 1412 Hominy 1692 Oil meal 1554 Beet pulp 1432 Cottonseed meal 1564 Corn and cob meal 1418 Gluten feed 1614 Wheat bran 1218 Brewers' grain 1314 Wheat feed 1340 Distillers' dried grains 1778 Standard middlings 1386 Buckwheat middlings 1532 Fig. 20. — Pounds per ton of digestible nutrients. By dividing the market price of each feed by the number of pounds of total digestible nutrients in a ton of that feed we may find the cost per pound of digestil^le nutrients. (Jrdinarily, the 74 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS fanner has enough variety of feeds from which to select so that he may exercise some choice as to cost and be able to cheapen his ration to a very considerable extent. The calculation neces- sary is very simple and should be performed. (3) Nutritive ratio. — The nutritive ratio for dairy cows should seldom be narrower than 1 to 4.5 and seldom wider than 1 to 7. For very young animals the nutritive ratio may be somewhat below 1 to 4.5. 1. How wide a nutritive ratio may be used and still obtain maxi- mum production from dairy cows? HM : 99. (4) Palatability. — The ration must be made up of feeds which are pleasant to the cow's taste, i.e. it must possess palatability. Certain feeds such as brewers' grains, buckwheat hulls, cottonseed meal, gluten feed, overripe hay, or roughage that has been poorly cured are generally considered to be unpalatable. Such feeds as Fig. 21. — This river bottom meadow produces the, hay for the next winter's feeding. FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 75 silage, all leguminous hays, roots, oats, corn, bran, linseed meal, and beet pulp are known as palatable feeds. Many of the un- palatable feeds are exceptionally good from the standpoint of milk production. When feeding these, they must be mixed with enough of the palatable feeds to induce the cow to eat large quantities. (5) Variety of feeds. — If a cow is fed on a ration made up of only one or two constituents or constituents which all come from the same plant, the appetite is generally dulled, and the animal will not eat a large quantity of food. Experiments at the University of Wisconsin have proved that in some cases it is detrimental both to the cow and to her offspring to feed her en- tirely on foods from one source. This was particularly true when cows were fed entirely on products of the wheat plant, i.e. wln-at gram, wheat bran, and wheat straw. A ration for the dairy cow should contain at least three different concentrates and two different roughages. These feeds should come from not less than three different plants. Such a variety as this will stimulate the cow's appetite, induce her to eat larger quantities, and result in greater milk production. (6) Manurial values. — In selecting the concentrates to be fed, some consideration should be given to the manurial values. It has been established by chemists that a considerable amount of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash contained in the food is returned by the animal in the manure. If reasonable care is exercised in getting the manure from the stable to the fields so that the farm receives a large share of the fertilizing value that is contained in the manure, then considerable attention should be given to the manurial value of the various foods. In actual practice, however, there is so much wastage in delivering the manure from the stable to the crop, and the crop returns from an extra invest- ment in manure require so long a time compared with the milk returns from an extra investment in feed that most dairymen do not give much emphasis to manurial values. This point has probably been overemphasized by the experiment station and underemphasized by the practical farmer. 76 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 77 According to Henry and Morrison, the dairy cow returns in the form of manure 89.7 per cent, of all the phosphoric acid and potash. The value of this will depend upon the market value of these fertilizing constituents and will vary from year to year. Some of the concentrates from which is recovered the greatest amount of fertilizing constituents are cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal, malt sprouts, distillers' dried grains, gluten, middlings, bran, and brewers' grain. 1. What per cent of the fertility contained in the food is recovered in the manure of dairy cows? W : 138. 2. Which has the greater value per ton, Uquid manure or solid manure? W : 140. 3. How great a loss of fertility may result when manure is exposed to the weather for some months? W : 141. 4. Compare the composition of cow manure with that from horses, sheep, and swine. HM : 217. 5. How does the value of the manure produced in a year by a cow weighing 1000 pounds compare with the value of that produced in the same time by sheep, pigs, or horses per 1000 pounds weight? HM : 218. 6. How may the farmer prevent loss of fertiUty in manure? W : 142. HM : 219. W-FM : 199. 3. — Feeding and Watering the Dairy Cow in Winter The manner in which the various feeds are given to the cow and the order in which they are given during the day vary con- siderably among different dairymen. The best established practice seems to be to feed the cow half of her grain ration at the time of each milking if she is milked twice a day, or one third at the time of each milking if she is milked three times a day. Some dairymen feed the grain to all the cows before starting to milk. Others feed the grain after milking and some dairymen feed each individual cow her portion of graui just before starting to milk her. The temperament of the cow probably affects this 78 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS practice somewhat. Some cows seem to be more contented and secrete their milk more evenly while eating their grain. Others seem to do better if the grain is fed before or after milking. Silage should be fed after milking and the hay is generally fed after the silage has been eaten. Many dairymen feed their grain on top of the silage. Some dairymen flood the mangers with water and, after the cows have drunk all that they will, throw the hay or silage into the remainder of the water. These Fig. 23. — Corn produces a large amount of food per acre. foods soak up some water and as a result the cow takes more water into her system. There is some danger of getting the mangers dirty and sour if the remains of any of the food are left long in a damp condition. But some of our most expert dairymen use this method of watering and feeding consistently with wonderful results. Water the cow at least twice each day. This water should not be too cold and should be easily accessible in some place which is protected from the cold and the wind. If the water is too cold, the cow will not drink the quantity that she requires. If the FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 79 cow must go from a warm stable across a cold, windy, open field and drink ice water, she will be so chilled that the maximum amount of milk will not be produced. The best methods of water- ing are either to have the water before the cows constantly in water buckets or to flood the mangers twice daily if the mangers are water-tight. It is a common saying among dairymen that any method that induces a cow to take into her system more water will result in a greater supply of milk. Whether or not this Fig. 24. — The water that makes a small load heavy at harvest time makes the cow give more milk in winter. is true, at least a full supply of milk is dependent upon a full and sufficient supply of water being taken into the system. Eckles foimd that a cow, producing 13.3 pounds of milk per day and consuming 18.2 pounds of dry matter, drank 40.3 pounds of water; a cow, producing 26.8 pounds of milk and consuming 28.3 pounds of dry matter, drank 77.3 pounds of water; and a cow, producing 100 pounds of milk per day and consuming about 35 pounds of dry matter, drank from 216 to 307 pounds of water per day. Such quantities as these if drunk at a freezing temper- ature would chill the animal's body to such an extent that the 80 DAIRY FARMIXO PROJECTS functions of digestion and milk secretion would stop completely for a while. It would recjuire a considerable amount of the food which the cow had consumed to warm this water to body tem- perature. It is cheaper to burn coal to heat water for the cow than to bum corn or expensive feeds in her body for the same purpose. 1. How much salt should be supplied to the dairy cow and how should it be fed? H^^I : 263. 2. In what order and how often should the cow be fed hay, grain, and silage? W-PD : 244. EW : 133. 3. Does the dairy cow require salt in her ration? HM:.57. E : 246. 4. How much water do dairy cows require daily? EW: 125. 5. Shoixld water ever be warmed for dairy cattle in winter? E : 244. EW : 126. 6. How should the cow be fed before freshening: (1) if she is to freshen in the winter? (2) if she is to freshen in the summer? VaP:221. VaP:21S. 7. How should a cow that has just calved be fed until she is on fuU feed? VaP:231. 8. What is the average production of butter fat per cow in the United States and what are the two reasons for this low average? VaP : 17. 4. — Feeding the Dairy Cow in Summer In summer, the ration of the dairy cow should be made up as largely as possible of pasture. In any region where pasture grasses do well they are by far the cheapest food, unless the value of the land is exceedingly high. Except under conditions of poor pasture or regions of exceedingly high-priced land, no soiling system has been devised which in economy approaches pasture feed. While FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 81 a cow is on pasture, she cuts and hauls her own feed. Pasture grass is one of the most nutritious and best balanced rations for the dairy cow. It is the natural food. It is sometimes necessary to supplement a pasture ration with some grain. This is true in the case of cows that are exceptionally high producers, or in case the pasture is somewhat poor, or when the pasture begins to dry up badly. Eckles of the University of Missouri suggests the following quantities of grain with abundant pasture for varying production: Jersey cow producing — 20 pounds of milk daily 3 pounds of grain 25 pounds of milk daily 4 pounds of grain 30 pounds of milk daily 6 pounds of grain 35 pounds of milk daily 8 pounds of grain 40 pounds of milk daily 10 pounds of grain Holstein-Friesian or Ayrshire cow producing — 25 pounds of milk daily 3 pounds of grain 30 pounds of milk daily 5 pounds of grain 35 pounds of milk daily 7 pounds of grain 40 pounds of milk daily 9 pounds of grain 50 pounds of milk daily 10 pounds of grain Good pasture is approximately a balanced ration. The grain fed as a supplement to pasture, then, should balance in itself without the addition of any roughage, i.e. the grain ration alone should contain approximately one pound of protein to six pounds of carbohydrates and fat. 1. What are the summer conditions which bring about a maximum production of milk? E : 257. HM : 258. 5. — Caring for Pastures Never turn cows upon pasture until the grass is well started in the spring. This rule should be followed invariably. But the grass should not be allowed to obtain too great a start before the cows are turned m. Here is a time when you must use good judgment. Poor judgment may result in an inadequate supply of pasture for the entire season and harm may be done to the 82 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS pasture that it will take years to overcome, whereas good judg- ment will insure a sufficient supply of good pasture for the whole season and for other years. The young, immature pasture grass of early spring contains a large amount of water and a small amount of dry matter. If a high-producing cow is turned on it at this time of the year, the pasture ration will be insufficient. The pasture should be supplemented for a few weeks at least with some grain to insure constant production. It is always better to start cows on pasture gradually, allowing them to pasture only a short time each day for the first few days. Farmers should more generally recognize the great value of a good pasture and should be more ready to expend some money in improving or maintaining its production. A pasture which is very weedy, or in which the grass has grown coarse and long during the early part of the season, may often be improved by mowing about haying time. If this is done, the cutting bar of the moving machine should be tilted high so as to leave as large an amount of plant to start the new growth as possible. A light application of manure and regular applications of lime will be immensely beneficial to any pasture and will return the dairy- man as much profit as if applied to any other crop on the farm. The best pasture grasses of northeastern United States are the blue grasses and white clover. Both of these are very much improved by the application of lime. 1. What is a formula for a good mixture for seeding permanent pasture on good land? on poor land? W : 196. 6. — Using Soiling Crops When Pasture Is Not Available If you have no pasture and can obtain none or if, because of poor adaptation of pasture grasses to the region or because of high price of land, you find it necessary to feed your cows through the summer without pasture, you may do well to establish a regular soiling system. When doing this, however, you must keep in mind that the daily cutting and hauling of great masses of succulent feeds, the hauling away of manure, the extra care FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 83 of the cows in the barn, and the cost of producing soihng crops all go to increase greatly the cost of milk production. Probably the most economical feed to take the place of pasture or to supplement pasture during the dry period is silage. If silage is not available, then a succession of crops may be raised which will mature in such a sequence as to furnish sufficient green food for every day in the summer. There are many such soiling com- binations in use. This system must start with rye or some other early growing crop, continue with oats and peas or other mid- season crops planted in succession so as to mature over a long period, and usually end with corn for late summer or early fall feeding. Grain should be fed to supplement such soiling crops to some extent and under the same conditions as it should be used to supplement pasture. 1. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of using a soiling system and under what conditions is it practicable? HM : 209. 2. What are some of the crops which are best adapted for use in a soiling system? HM:211. 7. — Feeding the Dry Cow All cows should be dry for from six weeks to two months before calving. During this period the cow must grow her unborn calf and store up a certain amount of food to be used when she again begins to give milk. This means that the cow as soon as she goes dry should be liberally fed. Dairymen can learn an important lesson from breeders of pure bred Hve stock who prepare animals for Advanced Registry test- ing. All such animals are fed so liberally that they are fat at calv- ing time. For the first few weeks of the lactation period the high-producing cow uses all the food which she can eat and even draws upon her own body tissues in order to produce milk. 84 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS P'eeding before calving should be looked upon as an investment which is sure to be repaid by an increased milk flow during the next lactation period. A good grain ration for a dry cow is made up of equal parts of ground oats, cornmeal, bran, and oil meal. Feed about four pounds of this daily. This ration should provide the proper amount of nutriment for the cow and the fetus and should keep the cow in the sHghtly laxative condition which is desirable. If the cow is on rich, full pasture, it will not ordinarily be necessary to feed any grain before calving. If a cow is fat at calving, what is the effect on the percentage of fat in her milk and on the yearly production of fat? HM : 254. E : 270. 8. — How the Animal's Body Uses Food The body of an animal is made up of water and dry matter in about equal proportions. The water is used for four purposes: (1) It is a part of all bone and flesh. (2) It carries food from the digestive tract to the cells which need it. (3) It carries away the wastes of the body through perspiration and urine. (4) It equalizes the temperature of the body. The dry matter of the animal body is made up of four groups of substances: (1) Ash. (2) Nitrogeneous substances (3) Carbohydrates. (4) Fats. FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 85 Ash is the mineral part of the body and corresponds exactly to the inorganic part of the ash of plants. It is the part which would be left if the body were burned. In animals the ash is mostly in the bones, but it is found to some extent in all the tissues. It constitutes from 2 per cent to 5 per cent of the live weight. Nitrogenous substances of the body are also known as protein or albuminoids. Protein is found chiefly in the lean meat, the skin, and the body products. It exists in the animal body in a much more nearly pure state than it does in plants. The protein of the body must come entirely from the protein of the food. The fact that the animal body is so largely composed of protein explains the great necessity of feeding a ration which contains sufficient protein. Carbohydrates exist in the body in very small quantities and are found chiefly in the blood. These sui)stances are used by the body chiefly to furnish energy to the muscles and heat. Fats also supply energy to the animal and furnish heat to the body. In this way, they have the same function that carbohy- drates have but are much more concentrated. One pound of fat supplies two and a quarter times as much energy as one pound of carbohydrates. The daily ration of the animal, then, must provide water, ash, nitrogenous substances, carbohydrates, and fats. Water by itself is taken directly into the body of the animal, and it is a part of all feeds. The succulent feeds contain much more water than any others. Ash exists in all plants in such quantities that the dairy- man does not need to worry as to whether or not his cows are obtaining a sufficient quantity, provided they are fed a good variety in their ration and that plenty of salt is supplied. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are found in all of the ordinary animal foods. The dairyman need only concern himself with ob- taining such a ration that the proportion of the total protein to the total amount of carbohydrates will be such as to make a well- balanced ration. 1. How does the animal's body use carbohydrates, fats, and proteins? NY-117: 55-57. HM:29-.31. 86 DAIRY FARMING PRO.IFXTS 9. — Food Used to Produce 100 Pounds of Milk Probably the most reliable figures on the quantity of food con- sumed in producing milk are those given in connection with the famous formula for computing the cost of milk production worked out by Prof. G. F. Warren of Cornell University and adopted by the Dairymen's League as the basis of their computations. This Warren formula is based on averages derived from close and accu- rate cost accounts on a large number of farms in New York State, combined with results of accurate and careful statistical studies of the cost of producing milk made by the survey method. In- vestigational work in several other states has shown similar results where the conditions and the size of the cow were the same. The Warren formula indicates that the factors which go to make up one hundred pounds of three per cent milk are those shown in Fig. 25. Grain 33 . 79 pounds Hay 43 . 30 pounds Other dry forage 10 . 80 pounds Silage 102 . 50 pounds Labor 3 hour.s Fig. 25. — Feed and labor factors per 100 pounds of 3 per cent milk. The above factors make up 80 per cent of the cost of producing milk. By using the market value of these factors and adding to the total 25 per cent of itself to cover other costs, such as interest, depreciation, use of buildings, etc., the cost of milk may be esti- mated at any time. 1. If a farmer has timothy hay and corn silage, suggest three different grain mixtures which can be used to make up a balanced ration. 2. List all the standard concentrates for sale at your mill or by grain dealers. Fill in the following table with each feed. FEEDING AND WATERING THE DAIRY COW 87 Total di- COSTPEH Percent High. Name of Price gestible DIGE8TI- Heavy or ofdiges- MEDIUM, Palata- Laxative FEED NUTRI- LIGHT TIBLE OR LOW BILITY OR OON- ENTS TRIENT PROTEIN PROTEIN stipatinq Use tables from Henry and Morrison's (^abridged) . Feeds and Feeding" 3. Criticize each one of the rations made up under the first exercise as to each factor which should be taken into consideration in making up a ration. 4. Bring to class a description of the order of feeding and watering and the method of watering on your home farm or on some farm with which you are familiar. Discuss and compare the various methods. 6. Obtain from the local feed dealer the prices on all the common feeds. Plan the best and cheapest balanced ration for your project herd. Using market prices, compute the cost of milk in your locality by means of the Warren formula. CHAPTER VI MILKING AND BEDDING THE COW 1. A quiet milker gets the most milk 2. Milking cows by machine 3. Ailments to be treated at the time of milking (1) Bloody milk (2) Leaking teats (3) Chapped teats and injm-ies (4) Preventing kicking 4. Bedding the dairy cow. 1. — A Quiet Milker Gets the Most Milk During milking time keep the dairy stable quiet and do nothing that excites or frightens the cows in any way. You should con- stantly bear in mind that the exceptional development of the milking characteristic in the dairy cow has been accompanied by the development of a highly nervous disposition. Shouting around the cow stable, the chasing of cows by dogs, and pounding the cows, all lessen the amount of milk and directly affect your pocket- book. Anything unusual may lessen the amount of milk secreted. The presence of strangers in the barn, a strange milker, feeding at an unusual time, and various other changes in the regular routine of management will decrease the amount of milk produced. Contrary to popular opinion there is very little milk in the cow's udder at milking time. The milk is secreted by the cow during the process of milking. To secure the maximum amount of milk that the cow is capable of secreting at that time the stable must be quiet and the cow must be handled in such a way that she is quieted and soothed rather than excited. MILKING AND BEDDING THE COW 89 In order to secure the most milk the cow should be milked quickly, quietly, and completely. The quick, strong-handed milker will stimulate the cow to secrete quickly and fully a maxi- mum amount of milk. The cow should not be stripped for a long time. Yet you must bear in mind that the last milk, or the strip- pings, is much richer in butter fat than the first milk secreted. It is, therefore, advisable to get as much of the strippings as can be obtained economically without any ill effects upon the cow. No milk should be left in the cow's udder when the milker is through. Milk left in the udder at this time tends to prevent the secretion of milk at the next milking and will ultimately dry up the cow. After you have milked the cow completely dry, do not go back after an interval and extract more milk, even though you find that it is possible to secure a small additional quantity. This practice is bad for the cow. It tends to dry up the cow and ultimately results in loss of milk. It is not a good practice to strip a cow slowly and for a long time with the thumb and forefinger, as is so commonly done by some milkers when their hands begin to get tired. The most efficient milker is a inan or woman with strong hands, who milks quickly, quietly, and com- pletely with httle stripping. Whenever possible the same person should milk the cow at every milking period. A change of milkers will generally mean a decrease in the amount of milk secreted. Where it is impossible for each dairyman to have a certain string of cows which he milks and no one else handles, if is a common practice for the men in the barn to milk the cows in succession just as they happen to come to them. If there is such a constant change in the work- ing force that regularity is not possible, this succession may be practicable as it has a tendency to accustom the cow to being milked by any good milker. Some dairymen, as stated in Chapter V, feed grain before milking, some after milking, and some during milking. Which- ever plan is adopted, it should be regularly followed. After a cow has become accustomed to eating grain while being milked, 90 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS she will often hold up her milk unless she is fed at milking time. Regularity of procedure in feeding will result in more milk. Always milk the cows at regular intervals. So far as possible the intervals between milkings should be equal. If the herd is milked twice a day, this will give twelve hour periods between milkings. If milked three times a day, they should be milked at eight hour periods; and if four times a day, at six hour periods. The ultimate test of the efficiency of the milker is the daily milk sheet. One of the biggest reasons for weighing the milk daily is that the milker may check his efficiency and that the farm owner may know exactly what results each milker is obtaining. A drop in milk production is registered by the scales and will call for an explanation. This may be found in poor milking or in careless milking. It may be found in a disturbance in the stable or in some organic trouble in the cow herself. Whatever the cause may be, daily weighing of the milk is the surest way to detect it. 1. Are larger yields of milk obtained from fast or slow milking and why? M : 70. 2. What percentage of fat may be found in the first milk drawn and what percentage in the strippings? M : 70. E : 219. HM : 253. 3. Describe the process by which milk is formed in the cow's udder. HM : 80. 2. — Milking Cows by Machine There are now on the market several kinds of milking machines which have been thoroughly tested and found practicable. The mechanical principle upon which these machines work varies with the type of machine, and the method of applying that principle is worked out in a different way in each machine. The dairyman who uses a milking machine should, first of all, thor- oughly master all of its mechanical details and adjustments. MILKING AND BEDDING THE COW 91 An experienced dairyman of good judgment in one of the greatest dairy sections in the Eastern States once declared that he could, with his automobile, drive in less than an hour to a farm where any one of the standard types of the milking machine had worked out successfully, or within the same time he could drive to a farm where any one of the standard types had been a failure. Nearly all of the machines are operated by gasoline engines and the engine has perhaps caused more trouble than the machine. In purchasing an engine for this purpose always bear in mind that it is to be used twice daily and every day in the year. In other words this must be a most dependable machine. Money should not be wasted in cheap, poorly made engines, which will alwaj^s cause trouble. The best and most "fool-proof" engine on the market should be purchased for this purpose. Always strip cows after machine milking. This stripping may and should be very short, but should never be omitted. By strip- ping, the observant dairyman will learn the condition of the cow's udder and teats and whether or not she is giving bloody or thick milk. Many a case has occurred where garget had spread through a large part of the herd before it was discovered, simply because the cows were all milked by machine and the careless dairyman had not observed the condition of the udder or the condition of the milk. Stripping after the machine and careful watching of the milk sheets will give you an accurate indication of the condi- tion of each cow at every milking. Milking machines save considerable labor and make it possible for the dairjTTian to milk all of his cows without assistance in case of labor trouble or temporary lack of help. The milking machine, when well handled, will ordinarily milk seven or eight cows per hour for each single unit. The good dairyman who is using a milking machine will give all of his time and attention to the work in hand. The man who stops to talk or sits down in the barn door to rest while the machine is running will surely get into trouble. We must bear in mind that milking by machine consists of applying one of the most delicately constructed machines to one of the most highly developed of animals. To obtain good results a high degree 92 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS of skill on the part of the operator and constant attention to de- tails are necessary. 3. — Ailments to Be Treated at Time of Milking (1) Bloody milk. — Cows very often produce bloody milk. Traces of blood are commonly found in the separator bowl after milk has been separated. This is not necessarily an indication of disease or serious injury. It more likely is an evidence of a slight rupture of a small blood vessel in the udder or of a slight injury to the udder or teats. If the bloody milk persists, care should be taken to determine the cause. It may be the result of an injury caused by other cows stepping upon the udder in the stable, or it may be the result of internal trouble which will require the services of a veterinarian. Ordinarily, bloody milk will clear up within a few days. (2) Leaking teats. — Some cows, when their udders become full, leak their milk badly. This results in a loss of milk and will often cause an unsanitary, bad smelling stable. If there are leak- ing cows in the herd, milk them as soon as they are put into the stable. There is very little we can do to prevent leaking. Teat plugs may be used, but they are dangerous and liable to cause infection. They also drop out easily. A drop of collodion on the end of the teat after milking will sometimes seal it over until the next milking and prevent leaking. These expedients require time and are at best rather unsatisfactory. If a cow is a persistent leaker and leaks throughout most of her lactation period and to such an extent that she is unprofitable, she should be disposed of. (3) Chapped teats and injuries. — A cow's teats often become chapped and sore. Many times also their skins become injured by slight scratches from berry bushes or from other causes. Care- less milking at this time will often develop the habit of kicking. Whenever the teats are sore or chapped, thoroughly rub them before milking with vaseline or some oil that will soften the skin and prevent hurting. If no vaseline or oil is at hand, rub the teat carefully so that the first squeeze of the hand will not open up cracks which are beginning to heal and cause them to bleed. MILKING AND BEDDING THE COW 93 Occasionally warts develop upon the teats. These crack open and bleed so that they cause the same discomfort to the cow as is caused by any other injury to the teat. They should be treated with vaseline or sweet oil, and some method used to remove them. (4) Preventing kicking. — If a heifer is properly handled before milking and at the time when she is being broken to milking, she will seldom develop into a kicker. Cows which have acquired the habit of kicking are sometimes hard to break and are very dis- agreeable to milk. A rope or strap fastened around both hind legs just above the hocks and crossed between the legs so that it takes the form of a figure eight, will prevent the cow from kicking. In cases which have not become too persistent, a strap or rope may be fastened around the body, just in front of the udder and drawn tight. This will usually prevent the cow from kicking. After this has been done for a few days, simply laying the strap or rope across the cow's back at milking time will generally prevent kicking. A cow that persistently kicks, that must be strapped at every milking, and that will sometimes throw herself when strapped, is generally a damage to the herd and should be dis- posed of. The excitement in the herd caused by her troubles and her effect upon the milker's disposition, will ordinarily offset any profit which it is possible for her to produce. 1. What is inflammation of the udder and how should it be treated? EW: 158. 4. — Bedding the Dairy Cow The best bedding for the dairy cow is good, clean straw. If this can be chopped or run through a cutting machine, it will go much farther than if used whole. When straw is not avail- able, sawdust or shavings make a suitable substitute. These are not so desirable from the manurial standpoint, however, as they decay very slowly in the soil. Bedding should do two things: It should make the cow com- fortable by giving her a soft, warm substance upon which to lie, and it should absorb the liquid manure, so as to prevent loss of 94 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS fertility. In dairy regions wiiere little grain is raised such sub- stances as coal ashes, ground limestone, and occasionally sand or muck are used as absorbents but rarely for bedding. 1. Obtain catalogues of three different kinds of milking machines commonly used in your neighborhood. Study the essential points of difference. Answer the following questions for each machine: (1) How much vacuum is recommended? (2) How powerful an engine is used? (3) Upon what principle does the teat cup work? (4) Where is the pulsator? (5) What cleaning solutions are recommended for clean- ing the machine? 2. Visit a dairy where a milking machine is used; study its use and obtain answers to the above questions. 3. Using the project herd or some near-by herd, make a record of the average time required to milk a cow by hand and by machine. Compute the average number of cows milked per hour by hand and by machine. 4. In milking by hand which teats should be milked at the same time? VaP:261. 5. What is the Hegelund method of udder manipulation? How is it done and what are the results? What are the reasons for these? VaP : 265-269. 6. What is the relation between udder troubles and methods of milking? VaP : 270. 7. Do most farmers in your region raise enough straw for bedding for their cows? 8. What is the market price on each of the common bedding materials in your locality? MILKING AND BEDDING THE COW 95 9. Describe the tissues of the udder and the function of each. VaP : 258. 10. How important is a knowledge of the proper methods of milking con- sidered to be in Denmark f VaP : 266. 11. What is the origin of the name "Cow-slappers"f VaP : 265. CHAPTER VII SELECTING AND HANDLING THE BULL 1. Select a bull of good type and individuality 2. Select a bull of pure breeding 3. Select a bull with a good pedigree 4. Feed and develop the bull properly Fig. 26. — Hobsland Perfect Piece, Ayrshire bull. A fine iiKlividual, well handled with staff and rinfi. 90 SELECTING AND HANDLING THE BULL 97 1. — Select a Bull of Good Type and Individuality In selecting a bull to head the dairy herd, the first thing to look for is good individuality. In general, he should possess the same characteristics and qualities that we look for in a good dairy cow and that are described in the second chapter. In addition, however, the bull should be masculine in every characteristic. His head should be larger and coarser and of a decidedly masculine type. The neck should be high, thick, and entirely different from the fine, thin neck that we look for in the dairy type of cow. He should have bright, prominent eyes, set well apart, a broad muzzle, large nostrils, and a deep, broad chest. He should have large abdominal capacity, a mellow, loose, soft hide, and some indications of spareness of flesh. These char- acteristics are in general much the same as those of the dairy cow, but the bull in every case should be larger and coarser than the cow. We should expect to find a much thicker hide than the cow's, but this does not excuse a hide so thick and stiff that it is lacking in mellowness. From the shoulders backward the bull should have much the same conformation as the cow. The masculine type should be chiefly shown in the head and neck. Many breeders place a great deal of importance on large rudi- mentary teats, squarely placed and far apart. Above all, the bull should have a resolute, active style and all other indications of good constitutional vigor. As in the case of the cow, especial importance is generally given to a long, straight back, and to a long, broad, level rump. The bull should be a true type of his breed. That is, if he is a Jersey, he should come as near as possible to perfection in the characteristics for which the Jersey breeders have been breeding during many generations. If he is a Holstein, he should be true to the Holstein type; and if of any other breed, true to the type of that breed. Trueness to type indicates a strong concentration of the characteristics of the breed in this one individual, and should result in the ability of this individual to produce offspring which are true to the type of the breed. In all auctions of pure 98 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS bred stock during the past few years one feature has been out- standing. Breeders are unwilling to buy a bull of poor individuality, no matter how excellently bred. The first basis of selection among dairymen is, and rightfully should be, good individuality. 2. — Select a Bull of Pure Breeding Always use a pure bred, registered bull, no matter what sort of cows you may possess. The pure bred animal is one which has been bred true to a certain type for many generations. For a long time no outside, or distantly related, blood has been intro- duced. A pure bred bull, then, represents a strong concentration of certain characteristics. When crossed with cows of mixed, or less pure, breeding, these strongly fixed characteristics of the bull will nearly always be perpetuated in the offspring, displacing the less firmly fixed and less concentrated characteristics of the poorly bred cow. We call this ability of the animal to transmit its own characteristics to its offspring prepotency. It is highly important that the dairy bull possess prepotency. If he is lack- ing in this characteristic, he will be a failure in the herd, as his offspring will be no improvement over their dams. If the bull possesses strong constitutional vigor and purity and closeness of breeding he will nearly always be prepotent. 1. Why is it necessary to use a bull better bred than the cows even to retain the milk production at a uniform level? E : 154. 3. — Select a Bull with a Good Pedigree In selecting a bull you should examine not only the bull's indi- viduality and his purity of breeding, but should, so far as possible, study the records of his ancestors. It is very important to know what his dam and his sire's dam have done in the way of produc- tion. It is also important to know what sort of daughters his sire has produced and what sort of daughters have been produced by each sire in his pedigree. All of these things will be indications of this bull's abilities. SELECTING AND HANDLING THE BULL 99 Most of our dairy breeders now do a considerable amount of official testing. Through the official records of these tests it is easy to find the production of the various animals in the bull's pedigree. The purchaser may examine these records for the total amount of milk produced, or the percentage of butter fat. Better yet, he may examine them for a good balance between the two factors. The relative importance of these two factors will vary with the breed and with the product to be marketed. In the East, where the main product is market milk, the total amount of milk pro- duced is probably the better factor to consider. The premium generally paid in the market for an additional richness in butter fat is insufficient to give much importance to this feature. In sections where butter is sold, the total amount of butter produced will be the more important factor. If the breeder has a herd producing milk that is poor in butter fat, he should use, as a sire, a bull whose ancestors have produced milk that was higher in butter fat so as to improve the quality of his herd in this respect. In like manner many other characteristics of the herd may be improved by selecting a bull that is strong in the qualities in which the herd as a whole is weak. 1. V/hat two methods may be used in selecting a herd sire? Give the advantages and disadvantages of each. E : 163-167. 4. — Feed and Develop the Bull Properly The young bull should be fed generally in much the same manner as a young heifer. After he has been weaned from skimmed milk or calf food, he should be fed an abundance of alfalfa or clover hay and a small daily portion of a mixture made up of 30 poimds of corn, 30 pounds of oats, 30 pounds of bran, and 10 pounds of oil meal. The growing bull should not be fat, but only in good growing condition. Never allow the mature bull to become fat during the breeding season, as he will be much less sure in breeding. Always give a growing bull an abundance of exercise. This will keep him vigorous and prevent his getting overfat. Exercise may 100 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS be given by running in pasture, or in a closed paddock, or by work- ing at various things, such as on a tread power. Some dairymen even work their bulls in a yoke or harness. When the bull is about one year old a ring should be placed in his nose to make it easy to lead or handle him. It is generally better not to dehorn the bull until he shows some signs of ugliness. If the horns are removed Fig. 27. King Pietertje Ormsby Piebe 1 "i 1 A - ^ producing Holsteiu laicestiy from high then his head will be so sore for a few days that the memory of this time will always tend to prevent his bunting things. The bull should never be teased, plagued, or excited more than necessary. He should be handled quietly and firmly. The wise dairyman will never trust a. bull or take any chances with him, no matter how kind and tractable he has always seemed to be. It is impossible to tell when the kindest and gentlest animal is going to develop into one of the most ferocious. The one safe way is to handle him as if he were proved to be ugly. It should SELECTINCx AND HANDLING THE BULL 101 also be borne in mind that the large, full-grown bull can easily, in a spirit of play and without any intention of ugliness, crush a man's body. Many instances have occurred where men were seriously injured or killed by bulls that probably were not vicious but only playful. 1. At what age may bulls be used for service? E : 1 69. HM : 288 2. Why is it a bad practice to allow the bull to run with the herd? E- 170. 3. Suggest a ration for a service bull. HM : 288. 4. Using the score card given at the end of this chapter, score at least one bull of each of the dairy breeds. 5. Obtain a sales catalogue from one of the pubUc sales of pure bred cattle of any breed. Assign to each member of the class two bull pedigrees to be discussed before the class as to relative values. 6. Using a pedigree blank such as are used in the sales catalogue, compute the percentage of the blood of each ancestor that the individual carries. 7. Using a catalogue from a Holstein sale containing pedigrees which give the results of seven-day tests, select individuals which illustrate : a. An abnormally high percentage of butter fat b. An undesirably low percentage of butter fat c. An especially large yield of milk per day d. An especially large yield of milk per year e. A good record for a young cow 8. Using a catalogue as in number 7, select individuals which are inbred and compute the percentage of blood which they carry of some ancestor that appears more than once in the pedi- gree. 102 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS PARTS Head Foiehead . . . Face Muzzle Ears Eyes Horns Neck Shoulders . Chest Crops Chine Barrel Loin and Hips Rump Thurl Quarters Flanks Legs Tail DESCRIPTION Showing full vigor; elegant in contour Discredit, vs K, s }4. m 'i, vm Ji, e 1 Broad between the eyes; dishing Discredit, vs H. s '4. m H. vm ^, e 1. Of medium length; clean and trim, especially under the eyes; the bridge of the nose straight Discredit, s ^. m^, e ii. Broad, with strong lips Discredit, s H. m H, e 'A. Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and soft; the secretions oily and abundant Discredit, m %, e H- Large; full; mild; bright Discredit, s %. m '4, e 'A. Short; of medium size at base; gradually diminishing towards tips; oval; inclining forward; moderately curved inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy. Discredit, m H, e M. Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature); fine and clean at juncture with the head; nearly free from dewlap; strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders. . . Discredit, vs J^, s U, m >4, vm H, e 1. Of medium height; of medium thickness, and smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides; smooth over front Discredit, vs H. a '4. m H, vm H. e 1. Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the brisket; broad between the forearms; full in the foreflanks (or through at the heart) Discredit, vs 'i. s ^2, m 1, vm m, e 2. Comparatively full; nearly level with the shoulders . . . Discredit, vs M. s K. m 1, vm IK, e 2. Strong; straight; broadly developed, with open vertebrae Discredit, vs H, s K. m H, vm %, e 1. Long; well rounded; with large abdomen, strongly and trimly held up Discredit, vs H, s A, m 1, vm \A. e 2. Broad; level or nearly level between hook bones; lev( 1 ard strong laterally; spreading out from the chine broadly and nearly level; the hook bones fairly prominent. . . . Discredit, vs H. s 14. m 'a. vm K, e 1. Long; broad; high; nearly level laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail Discredit, vs J^. s '4, m A, vm %, e 1. High ; broad Discredit, vs H. s K, m 1, vm I A, e 2. Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full at sides; open in the twist Discredit, vs J^, s M, m A, vm %, e 1. Deep ; full Discredit, vs A. a H, ra A, vm %, e 1. Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; arms wide, strong and tapering; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep Discredit, vs A. s H. m A, vm M, e 1. Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below; the switch full Discredit, s A, m '4, e i?. Possible Score Dis- credits Fig. 28— Scale of Points for Dairy Bull.* The interlined "discredits" relate entirely to the method of application agreed upon by the Inspectors, in order to secure uniformity of work. The abbreviations are as follows: vs, very slight; s, slight; m, marked; vm, very marked; e, extreme. ♦Furnished by Holstein-Friesian Association, SELECTING AxND HANDLING THE BULL 103 Hair and Handling Rudiment- ary Teats. Escutcheon . DESCRIPTION Brought Forward Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich brown or yellow color Discredit, vs J'i. s M, m 1, vm IJ^, e 2. Large; full; entering large orifices; double extension; with special development, such as forks, branches, connections, etc Discredit, vs H. s 'A, m 1, vm I 'A, e 2. Large ; well placed Discredit, vs K. s H, m Vi, vm %. e 1. Largest; finest Discredit, vs ^2. s 1, m 2, vm 3, e 4. Possible Score Dis- credits Fig. 28. — Scale of Points for Dairy Bull.* — Continued. ♦Furnished by Holstcin-Friesian Association. 9. From any sales catalogue giving pedigrees suggest a combination of five females and one male which would make a good foundation herd for a man with small capital. Give reasons. 10. Is there any relation beticeen dehorning and lack of prepotency? E : 172. 11. Why is a bull from a dairy breed more liable to be ugly than one from a beef breed? E : 172. 12. Is there any relation between age of the dam and prepotency of the bull? E : 168. CHAPTER VIII PROVIDING A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE FOR A HEALTHY AND PROFITABLE HERD 1. Give the cow plenty of good fresh air 2. Give the cow plenty of light 3. Keep the stable at an even temperature 4. Arrange the stable conveniently In order to obtain efficient winter production from dairy cattle, you must simulate summer conditions in housing as well as in feeding. The production of milk during the winter months is unseasonable and unnatural for the dairy cow. For this reason it is more necessary to study the cow's environment and general management in the winter than in the summer. This chapter will consider largely the problems which you must face when you bring your cows from pasture and begin to stable them in the fall. The construction and ideal arrangement of dairy build- ings will be considered in a later chapter. 1. — Give the Cow Plentj^ of Good Fresh Air Pure air is as essential to cows as to human beings. To insure keeping them in good health and at the maximum production, ventilation must be provided. For a small number of cows this may be done by windows or hay chutes, or by other openings. A more satisfactory way, and a necessary way when a large herd is kept, is to provide a regular ventilating system. There are two important ventilating systems in general use known as the King and the Rutherford. In the King system, 104 A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE 105 one large flue, or more, opening; near the floor of the stable and extending through the roof, carries away the foul air that, being heavier than fresh air, has settled to the floor. At the same time, fresh air is taken in through many small pipes which extend through the wall and open into the top of the stable near the ceiling. These pipes bend downward and their openings to the outside air are considerably lower than their inner ends. Thus the warm air of the stable is trapped so that it cannot flow down a pipe and out of the stable against the heavier cold air which fills that pipe. Generally, a ventilator is placed on top of the /e/yf/hrfor heac/ yTmiTi^ ffurM£j?Fo/f0 ^rsrfAi Kz/ye system Fig. 29. — A section through a shed roof stable showing an adaptation of either the Rutherford system or the King system to this type of construction. — Vermont Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 28. 106 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS outlet flue. This creates a suction which aids in moving the foul air from the stable up the flue through the roof. To insure the working of this flue it must be made as nearly air-tight as possible. The Rutherford system is in common use in Canada but not in the Ignited States. In this system, air is admitted to the floor Fig. .30. — Section through a stable showing the construction of the King system of ventilation. Fresh air is admitted in front of the animals at the ceiling and the foul air removed from behind them near the floor. — Vermont Department of .\griculture, Bulletin 28. A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE 107 Air breathed in 24 hours Oxygen consumed in 24 hours Animal Per 1,000 pounds of weight Per head Per 1,000 pounds of weight Per head Man Cubic feet 2,833 3,401 2,804 7,353 7,259 8,278 Cubic feet 425 3,401 2,804 1,103 726 24.84 Pounds 12.207 13.272 11.04 29.698 29.314 24.84 Pounds 1.831 Horse 13.272 Cow 11.04 Swine 4.456 Sheep 2.931 Hen .075 Fig. 31. — Air and oxygen requirements in twenty-four hours per one thousand pounds weight of animal- — King. of the stable through a pipe from the outside. Provision is gener- ally made for deflecting this air towards the ceiling. The pipe that takes out the foul air is built in the same manner as in the King system, but starts from the ceiling of the stable instead of near the floor. An adjustable damper is placed in this pipe so as to control the rate of flow of the air. Ventilation seems to take place more rapidly through the Rutherford system than through the King system; and, as a result, the Rutherford system ordinarily uses smaller pipes. As this system has never come into general favor among dairymen in the United States, all figures given in this chapter will apply to the King system only. In both systems it is essential that the stable should be fairly tight, with no large quantity of air entering or leaving through cracks, windows or other openings, if the circulation of air through the regular ventilating flues is to be insured. It is not necessary to use expensive intake flues for the King system. In many regions sections of galvanized pipe of the same size as the ordinary stove pipe are used. A straight piece is in- serted through the stable wall, an elbow is placed on the outer 108 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS end and one length attached to this, extending downward. If an ordinary damper is placed in the section which extends through the stable wall, we have a very economical and efficient intake pipe. Often it seems advis- able to have the outtake pipes located in the stable at a place such that they hinder the operation of ensilage carts or other stable equipment, or are very much in the way when you drive through with the manure spreader. This may be avoided by bringing the wooden ven- tilating flue just to the ceiling of the stable and extending it from there to its position near the floor by means of a heavy canvas tube made of the same size as the ventilating flue. A light wooden frame should be placed in the lower end of this canvas tube to keep it open. This can- vas may be easily swung aside or hung on a hook Fig. 32. — The" entire first story of this barn is used for manure storage and the dairy herd is stabled above. This is ex- pensive and unsanitary. An inexpensive manure pit would be more sanitary and efficient. near the ceiling whenever it is in the way. 1. Why is it necessary to ventilate stables? Ki : 350. 2. How many cubic feet of air does a 1000 pound cow breathe in twenty-four hours? Ki : 'A54. See, also, Fig. 31. A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE 109 3. What are the causes of the movcincnt of air currotts into and from a ventilated stable? Ki : 358. x\ssuming that Computing the size of intake and outtake Hues the average velocity of air in the flue that carries foul air out is 300 feet per minute, you should provide outtake flues with a cross section area of 1 square foot for each five cows or their equiva- lent. The combined cross section area of the intake flues should exceed this by about 10 per cent. A stable containing twenty cows would require out- take flu3s with a total cross section area of 4 square feet, and intake flues with a total cross section area of 10 per C3nt more than this, or 4.4 square feet. These figures apply to the King system of ventilation only. It is important to re- member that air space measured even in a large number of cubic feet does not insure good ventilation, but that some provision must be made for changing the air. It should also be borne in mind in all our ventilation work that warm air rises to the ceiHng, and that bad air is Fig. 33. — The cow stable is on the second floor of this barn and the cows must climb a flight of 18 steps to get to the stable. The first floor is used only for a manure pit. An unsanitary, unhandy, and dan- gerous arrangement. 110 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS heavier than pure air of the same temperature and tends to settle to the floor. Cold air is not necessarily pure air. A damp, bad smelling stable should remind you at once that better ven- tilation must be provided, if your cows are to be kept healthy and if sanitary milk is to be produced in an economical manner. 2. — Give the Cow Plenty of Light In every cow stable there should be provided from three to four square feet of window space per cow. If these windows are well placed some light will reach all parts of the stable. SunUght is nature's greatest disinfectant. SunUght is also the cheapest disin- fectant, and it works every sunny day killing harmful bacteria whether you know that they exist or not. A light, well ventilated stable will seldom harbor any disease germs. It is said that direct sunlight will kill the germs of tuberculosis in a few minutes. SunUght also reveals dirt and brings any unsanitary conditions to your notice. For this reason the Ught stable is ordinarily kept much cleaner than the dark stable. To be most efficient, windows should be placed vertically rather than horizontally, as vertical windows allow the sunlight to extend more nearly across the stable and cover the floor space more completely. If possible, the barn should extend north and south rather than east and west. This will allow windows to be placed on the east and west sides, thus admitting sunlight to the stable aU through the day. All windows should be placed flush with the wall on the inside so as to prevent an accummu- lation of dust. If a window is dirty it is not giving full service. Throughout the winter the stable windows should be kept so clean that light passes freely through them. If more than four square feet of window space is provided for each cow, the stable may be too cold. Moreover, an excess of windows may give too much light and be hard on the cows' eyes. A good way of Ughting up the stable after sufficient window space has been provided is to paint the interior with white paint or to whitewash it. This will diffuse the light within it and at the same time make the stable more sanitary. A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE 111 1. What factors affect the efficiency of windows in lighting a building? K : 348. 3. — Keep the Stable at an Even Temperature Some dairy stables are kept too warm; some too cold; and in many stables the temperature varies too much. Repeated experi- ments by farmers and at various experiment stations have proved that cows may be kept very healthy and may produce a con- siderable quantity of milk economically when housed only in a ,!^pL -^ ''"^'ii^H^- ■il^ ^^^r^^ 3--*^ *-^ ■^^ ^^^ f"1 — -^m « QI^^^^H Wl^wm ^^ \ ^-"^i- ^^^BIHil^^^^^Si Fig. 34. — A small well planned barn capable of housing about twenty head of cattle. Note the attached manure pit, also two silos so arranged that they can both be filled without moving the cutter. shed, open but protected from the wind. When cows are pro- ducing large quantities of milk, it is cheaper to house them in a well ventilated, light, and moderately warm stable than to use extra quantities of feed for warming their bodies. Young stock and dry stock may very often be roughed through the winter in an open shed or covered barnyard and be kept in as healthy, growing a condition as if they were in heated stables. Cattle that are thus exposed to the cold will, of course, have a 112 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS rougher coat. Because of this, owners of pure bred stock and dairymen who deal in stock find it advisable to house their cattle to keep them looking better. A dairy herd which is housed in a very warm stable but occasion- ally turned out into cliilly air will suffer more and produce less milk, than the herd which is kept uniformly under cool conditions. The important factor to remember is that the herd should be kept at as equable a temperature as possible and not too warm. 1. What range of temperature is permissible in the dairy stable in winter? What is the best temperature? W-PD : 186. 4. — Arrange the Stable Conveniently It is worth while for you to stud}'^ the interior arrangement of the cow stable. Remember that any loss of time occasioned by an unhandy arrangement will be repeated every day of the stabling season, or approximately'^ six months in the year. This means a loss of a large number of hours in a year or period of years. You should study the stable arrangement and the methods of doing the work with a view to eliminating all waste motion and unneces- sary labor. The milking cows should always be placed together in one sec- tion of the stable, and the dry stock and the young cattle by themselves. This saves extra travel in milking and often means that all the milking can be done by one light rather than by several. It is also more economical in feeding. All cattle should be kept close together and on the same floor of the barn. If you have cattle in two different stables or on different barn floors, extra traveling is required. So far as possible, you should plan to have all hay, all bedding, and all feed come from the storage above to a central part of the stable from which all of the cows are nearly equally distant. This makes for economy of time and labor. The manure which the cow produces, because of its water content, is heavier than the feed which is carried to her. It is A SANITARY AND HANDY STABLE 113 therefore more important to provide an economical method of removing the manure from the stable than to provide an economi- cal method for bringing the feed to the cow. Overhead htter carriers, or provisions for driving through with the manure spreader or wagon, are the most efficient methods. If manure must be wheeled a long distance in a wheelbarrow or carried a long distance with a shovel or fork, there is a loss in time and money. Fig. 35. — A New England dairy farmstead. It is not necessary to go out of doors to reach the stable in cold, windy weather, but the fire risk is greater than where buildings are separated. Pens or box stalls for small calves and box stalls for bulls should be placed near the dairy cattle, unless sanitary conditions forbid. Box stalls for sick stock should also be placed near in order that the sick animal may share in the warmth given off by other animals of the herd. Contagious diseases seldom occur in the stable to such an extent that it is necessary to isolate any animal completely from the herd. All stable equipment, such as lanterns, forks, shovels, brushes, currycombs, etc., should be placed near the door of the stable 114 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS and should have a definite place planned for them so that it will not be necessary to look all over the barn to find the articles needed. Pails, milking machines, and medical equipment will ordinarily be kept in the milk house. Where silage is fed, some method should be provided for carrying it from the silo to the individual cows. If an overhead track and a feed carrier are not possible, a two wheel or four wheel silage cart is generally very satisfactory. The same cart is often used for grain. 1. Make a detailed floor plan and side elevation of your project stable. Show the ventilating system now in use. Compute the square feet of window per cow. 2. Using the plans made in the preceding problem, plan the most efficient method of ventilation. Show all intake and out- take flues; indicate the direction of the air currents and show computations used to determine the size of flues. 3. Make the floor plan and side elevation of an ideal stable planned for twenty dairy cows and the usual amount of young stock. Show all dimensions and location of windows and ventilating flues. 4. Using data found in Chapters V and IX and in your project record book, estimate the total pounds of feed carried to your project herd each day and the total pounds of manure to be removed from the stable. 6. Visit several well planned dairy stables. Study the ventilating system of each and make a drawing showing how it works. Compute the number of square feet of window per cow. 6. Make a detailed drawing of the construction of an efficient wooden outlet flue. 7. Make a cross section drawing of a dairy barn showing how to bring outtake flues together at the peak of the roof and how to join them to a ventilator on the roof of the barn. Show the location of the track for the hayfork. 8. Design a method of hanging a tiro-sash window which shall be so adjustable as to aid in ventilating the stable. CHAPTER IX SAVING ALL THE FERTILITY IN THE MANURE 1. Save the liquid manure 2. Do not waste manure between the stable and the field 3. Balance the crop ration by adding reenforcements to the manure 4. Where manure should be applied 5. Rate of application of manure 6. Value of manure from various farm animals 7. The market value of manure For many generations it has been recognized that a live-stock farm is a fertile farm, and increases in fertility year by year. This is true, however, only when the full value of the manure is saved and applied to the crop land. It has been estimated by agricul- tural authorities that one half of the fertiUzing value of the manure is lost on the average farm. The dairyman who permits this is losing possible profits just as surely as if he permitted his cows to die through lack of feed or care. 1. — Save the Liquid Manure It is necessary to absorb the liquid manure in some way in order to save the fertiUzing elements. A considerable proportion of the liquid manure is absorbed by the more sohd portion. There are many absorbents commonly used on farms which are effective. Perhaps the most common is straw. Ordinary straw from oats, wheat, barley, or other grains makes a very good bedding for dairy cows and absorbs the liquid manure very well. Its absorptive powers may be greatly increased by running it through a cutting box and chopping it into short sections. In this way a very small supply of straw may be made to last through an entire winter. Long, coarse straw rots rather slowly. By using it as an absorbent, 116 116 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS decay is hastened and the straw itself is made valuable for fertil- izing purposes much more quickly than it would be if spread on the ground when dry. Sawdust is a very efficient absorbent. There may be some dan- ger of making soil sour by using too large quantities of sawdust in the manure ; but on the average farm where a field is manured only once or twice in an entire crop rotation, there is little danger of this. Shavings are also efficient, though often more expensive than sawdust. Shavings decay much more slowly than sawdust, and as they are generally used in larger quantities they may have an injurious effect upon the soil sooner than will sawdust. Constituent lost Organic matter. . Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid. Potash Percentage loss Protected Unprotected 60 69 23 40 4 16 3 36 Fig. 36. — Losses of farm manures by fermentation alone and by fermenta- tion and leaching combined. — From Lyon's "Soils & Fertilizers." Horse manure is commonly used as an absorbent of the liquid manure in the dairy barn, as horse manure is dry and generally mixed with a large quantity of straw bedding. In some regions boards of health object to its use from a sanitary standpoint. It is doubtful, however, if horse manure when used carefully in the stable has any injurious effect upon the quality of the milk pro- duced. It is best used by being placed in the bottom of the drop just after the stables are cleaned. If spread through the drop in a thin layer, it is in position to absorb liquids to its fullest capacity before time to clean the stable again. Spoiled hay, weeds, grass, hay that the cattle will not eat, and various other crop residues are often used as absorbents. They are all effective. There is some danger, however, of spreading weed seed by this process, if weeds, or very weedy hay, are used in the stable. SAVING FERTILITY IN MANURE 117 Coal ashes, ground limestone, and various other substances are sometimes used as absorbents. Coal ashes are capable of absorb- ing only a small quantity of liquid. Ground limestone is still less effective. Both, however, help to keep the stable dry and odor- less. The use of ground limestone on the stable floor and in the drop is especially advisable from the standpoint of applying ground limestone to the land economically and distributing it evenly. There are many specialized dairy sections where no grain is raised, and consequently no straw is available for bedding. In such regions many cows are kept throughout the winter upon concrete or wooden floors with no bedding under them. This is Percentage of solid and liquid parts of excrement 1 Solid, 80 per cent. . Liquid, 20 per cent Entire excreta I Solid, 70 per cent. . Liquid, 30 per cent Entire excreta ! Solid, 67 per cent. . Liquid, 33 per cent Entire excreta ! Solid, 60 per cent . . Liquid, 40 per cent Entire excreta Pounds in a ton 1500 1800 1560 1700 1840 1720 1200 1700 1360 1600 1940 1740 Phos- phoric acid 6 trace 5 4 trace 3 10 1 10 Fig. 37. — Pounds of water and plant-food materials in one ton of solid excreta, in one ton of liquid excreta, and in one ton of entire excreta of several different classes of animals. — From Lyon's "Soils and Fertilizers." uncomfortable and often injurious to the cow. There is a conse- quent loss of most of the liquid portion of the manure. If you are dairying in such a section you can well afford to spend a con- siderable amount of time in solving the question of how to save 118 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS the liquid manure. The horse manure should certainly be used in the drop under such circumstances. In addition to this, saw- dust, weeds, refuse hay, coal ashes, ground hmestone, chopped cornstalks, and any other available absorptive material should be used. The Table of Fig. 37 from Lyon's "Soils and Fertihzers" shows the composition of the manure from various animals. It should be noted that in each case the solid matter makes up the greater part of the manure. It should be noted also, however, that the liquid manure in every case is much higher in nitrogen and potash content than is the solid manure. Nitrogen and potash are our most expensive fertilizing elements. It is very poor business to waste such constituents in the liquid manure from your cows and then purchase nitrogen and potash in a fertilizer sack from your dealer. Fi(i. 38. — Hiiuliiifi nuinun; from a pit in summer Willi a truftur. SAVING FERTILITY IN MANURE 119 2. — Do Not Waste Manure between the Stable and the Field Elimination of the waste of manure between the stable and the field will stop one of the big leaks in dairy farming. Haul the manure from the stable to the field, and spread it directly from the wagon or sleigh, or better yet, spread it with a manure spreader. Never place it in small heaps to be spread later. Piling in small heaps means that all this manure must be handled over again by a man who spreads it with a fork from the heap. The heaps dry out very quickly, bacterial action takes place very rapidly, and a large percentage of the fertilizing elements is lost. There are some disadvantages in hauling the manure directly from the stable to the field. Meadows which overflow during the winter can not be manured in the fall or winter as the manure may be washed away and lost at flood time. If manure is spread on steep hillsides when the ground is frozen, a considerable loss may result from washing. During a long continued wet spell the ground often gets so soaked that meadows would be very badly cut up if a manure spreader or a manure wagon were driven across Fig. 39. — Cutting ensilage corn with a tractor. 120 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS them. In some regions it is nearly impossible to spread manure during the winter on account of deep, heavy snows. In such regions when manure spreaders can not be used manure can often be spread from sleighs. In spreading from a sleigh small sticks or pieces of brush should be used to mark the area which is ma- nured each day so that in case of a snowstorm there will be no confusion as to the portion previously covered. Perhaps the greatest objection to hauling manure directly from the stable to the field is that it is uneconomical to hitch up a team simply to haul one load of manure per day. If your farm is well organized, well diversified, and has work for your horses every day during the winter, it is poor economy to haul the manure one load at a time for every day of the winter season. Under such circum- stances, or if weather conditions make it impossible, some pro- vision should be made for storing the manure with the least pos- sible amount of loss. The manure should never be stored under the eaves where it is exposed to rain, or in any place where water can leach through it. The best place to store manure is in a pit or in a covered barnyard. In order to preserve all its fertilizing constituents, the manure in storage should be damp and well packed. Loose, dry manure quickly becomes fire-fanged and loses a large portion of its nitrogen. A covered barnyard where the manure from all the animals may be mixed and trampled by stock, may be used very efficiently as a means of conserving the fertil- izing elements. Such trampling, however, makes pitching out the manure in the spring heavy work. The Ohio Experiment Station in a course of experiments lasting over a period of fourteen years, found that manure spread frcsh from the stable gave an average yield of thirty per cent more than did manure which had been left in an open yard. A concrete manure pit with a roof over it to keep out the rain will pay for itself on most dairy farms within a few years. In such a pit manure may be stored for a week or for several months. Directions for building such a pit may be obtained from most of the companies which manufacture Portland cement. SAVING FERTILITY IN MANURE 121 3. — Balance the Crop Ration by Adding Re'enforcements to the Manure Lyon states that an ordinary mixture of horse and cow manure with an average quantity of straw htter will have a composition such that 20 tons of it is equivalent to 1 ton of a 5-1-6 fertilizer; that is, a fertilizer containing 5 per cent of nitrogen, 1 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 6 per cent of potash. This analysis is very high in nitrogen and very low in available phosphoric acid. In order to make a balanced plant food some phosphorus carrier should be added to the manure. In the Eastern states and all regions where acid phosphate is most commonly used as a fer- tilizer, this should be added at the rate of 50 pounds to each ton of manure. In Western states where raw rock phosphate is com- monly used as a fertilizer this may be used as a reenforcement at the rate of 100 pounds to each ton of manure. Other chemicals which may be used as a reenforcement are gyp- sum, and kainite. Gypsum acts upon the ammonia changing it to ammonium sulphate, a stable compound. It should be applied at the rate of 100 pomids to each ton of manure. Gypsum con- tains no phosphoric acid and so has no balancing effect. Acid phosphate as a result of its method of manufacture contains a considerable amount of gypsum and so helps to save the ammonia. Kainite also reacts with the ammonia and increases the potash in the manure. It is caustic and can not be used where it will come in contact with the feet of anima's. It contains no phosphorus and does not in any way tend to balance the manure. Before adding any reenforcement to the manure make every possible provision for saving all the fertility and applying it to the field. All these reenforcements are expensive. If manure is al- lowed to leach in the rain or to be wasted in any other way after reinforcements are applied, money already invested in fertility is simply thrown away. 1. What results did the Ohio Experiment Station obtain from using various reenforcements with stable manure? Which reenforcements were most valuable? LFB : Gil. 122 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS 4. — Where Manure Should Be Applied Manure should be applied to crops which produce the greatest value per acre, as a percentage gain in their production means a larger gain in dollars and cents than an equal percentage gain in a crop of low value. This means that manure should be ordi- narily applied to the cash crops or to the cultivated crops of the farm. Some crops are especially benefited by manure. Com is a rank feeder and seems to be capable of feeding upon manure when only partly decayed. Many other crops require that the manure be completely decayed before its elements can be used for their growth. Manure applied to the soil makes it loose, friable, and especially adapted to potato culture. After the cash crops and the other most valuable crops have been manured, any surplus should be applied to the grasslands or meadows. Many agricultural writers advise that all manure should be applied to the meadows, and a few farmers make a practice of applying all the manure to them. Most farmers, however, manure their cultivated or cash crops first, and then use any sur- plus upon new seeding. An application of manure to hay crops in- creases the growth of both the tops and the roots. On hay land manure thus leaves a greater amount of stubble, and a greater number of roots in the soil, and so increases the organic content at t*he time when the land is again plowed. Coarse, strawy manure should not be applied to lands which are to be mowed in the following year, as the trash left will be raked up with the hay. 5. — Rate of Application of Manure The Ohio Experiment Station has conducted a series of experi- ments with different rates of application of manure. A study of the results seems to indicate that the heaviest applications do not return to the farmer as great a value for each ton of manure as do more moderate applications. Under ordinary farm con- ditions an application of from eight to twelve tons of manure per acre, applied as thin as possible, is more profitable than SAVING FERTILITY IN MANURE 123 heavier applications applied less often. A thin application, how- ever, is rather difficult to make by hand. It is generally necessary to use a manure spreader to distribute evenly an application of less than twenty tons per acre. The dairyman who has so many animals that he can manure his land heavily is in danger of not receiving as great a crop value for each ton of manure as is the dairyman who has a moderate-sized herd, well proportioned to his number of crop acres. This is another important reason for bal- ance in the dairy farm. The balance between crop acres and ani- mal units should be such that the manure produced can be profit- ably used. One of the places where a dairyman can apply a small amomit of manure most profitably each year is upon the pasture land. In planning the cropping system and the use of fertilizers and manures, therefore, the pasture lands should always be considered. This is discussed more fully in Chapter XXIII. 6. — Value of Manure from Various Farm Animals The table, Fig. 40, taken from Lyon's "Soils and Fertilizers," gives the comparative value of the manure from various animals, based on pre-war prices, i.e. nitrogen at ten cents a pound, phos- phoric acid at two and one-half cents per pound and potash at four cents. The amounts of manure produced by various farm animals in pounds per day, and in tons per year, are given in the table of Fig. 41. The division of this amount between liquid and solid manure is indicated in the table of Fig. 37. Swine excreta . . Cow excreta Horse excreta . . Sheep excreta . . Poultry excreta. Value per ton $1.50 1.64 1.97 2.87 4 80 Fig. 40. — Value of excreta produced by several farm animals. 124 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Most farm animals are not in the stable throughout the year. Dairy cows are generally in the stable only during the winter season of from five to seven months. A very good general rule to follow in computing the amoiint of manure produced is that a one thousand pound animal will produce practically one ton of manure per month for each month that it is in the stable. While on pasture the production is the same of course, but the manure is left on the pasture. Animal Pounds per day Tons per year Horse 50 9.1 Cow 70 12.7 Steer 40 7.3 Swine 85 15.5 Sheep 34 6.2 Fig. 41. — Excreta from variou.s farm animals to the one thousand pounds live weight. 7. — The Market Value of Manure The table of Fig. 40 indicates the value of manure based upon its average analysis and upon the commercial value of the various fertilizing elements. Manure, however, has a market value in various sections of the country which is not dependent upon fertilizing elements. This value varies in accordance with the law of supply and demand. In trucking regions where few animals are kept and a great deal of manure is needed, manure has a high value, and is shipped in at considerable cost. In dairy regions where large numbers of animals are kept, manure has a much lower value. When sold at all, manure is commonly valued at $1.00 to SI. 50 per ton in dairy regions, and from $4.00 to $6.00 per ton in trucking regions. The chemical analysis of a manure does not indicate its true commercial value. One of its greatest values is not computed commercially. This is its value as humus making material. Every ton of manure has a considerable amount of such value, depending of course upon the needs of the soil to SAVING FERTILITY IN MANURE 125 which it is apphed. Humus is particularly valuable in light sandy soils to bind them together, to make them less Icachy, and to increase their absorptive powers. It is also especially valuable in heavy clay soils to loosen them up, to make them more porous and to increase their absorptive powers. Manure also improves any soil because it introduces a large number of bacteria and increases bacterial activity, and because bacterial activity brings plant nutrients into available forms. 1. Using tables given in this chapter or in reference LFB : a. Estimate the total number of pounds of manure, both liquid and solid, to be produced by your project herd during the year. b. Estimate the percentage of the above totals which will be available for spreading on the fields. c. Compute the amount of reenforcement needed. 2. Visit several of the better farmers in your neighborhood and find out where they apply manure and in what quantities for each crop. 3. Where will you use the manure produced and in what amounts per acre? 4. How much money will you credit your herd with for manure produced this year? 6. What is the most economical and efficient absorbent to use on your farm? 6. Draw plans for a manure pit for a herd of twenty cows, showing all dimensions, location in relation to the dairy stable, and method of getting the manure into and out of the pit. 7. Make a complete bill of materials and estimate the cost of the manure pit. Compute the investment per ton of manure stored. Compute the annual cost of storage per ton of manure. 126 DAIRY FARIVIING PROJECTS 8. What is fire-fanging and what is the cause of it? LFB : 596. 9. Using tables given in this chapter or in reference LFB: a. Estimate the total nuviber of pounds each of nitrogen, phos- phorus, and potash in the solid manure produced by your project herd in one year. b. Do the same for the liquid manure. c. To how many pounds of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of potash would these be equal? CHAPTER X PRODUCING CLEAN MILK 1. Produce sanitary milk (1) Provide clean and healthy milkers (2) Be clean in methods of milking (3) Clean the cows before milking (4) Use milk from healthy cows only (5) Keep barn and surroundings in sanitary condition (6) Use clean utensils (7) Supply wholesome food and pure water (8) Use plenty of clean bedding (9) Do not raise a dust before milking (10) Cool milk promptly and thoroughly 2. Produce certified milk when profitable 3. Study experimental data on production of clean milk The production of clean milk is one of the most difficult prob- lems of the dairyman. The fact that milk is used as a human food, and is used very largely as a food for infants, places upon the dairyman a moral obligation to make as pure and wholesome a product as can possibly be made. Every year city and state departments of health spend a large amount of time in attempt- ing to improve the milk supply. Unfortunately, many of the plans devised by such bodies in the past have been very costly and extremely impractical. Experimental data of the last few years have demonstrated time after time that expensive equip- ment and palatial barns are not necessary in order to produce pure and wholesome milk. Not only is the dairjanan morally obUgated to produce as sanitary milk as possible, but from the business standpoint it 127 128 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS will often pay him well to produce a better grade of milk. Many milk distributors now pay a premium of from fifteen to twenty- five cents per hundredweight for milk produced under sanitary conditions and with a low bacterial content. The dairyman who is retailing milk can often sell his milk at a premium if it is known to be sanitary. In every region there is an opportunity for a number of dairymen to create for themselves a special market for sanitary milk at high class hotels, restaurants, ice cream fac- tories, soda fountains, and other places. Such a market will often pay a much better price than the general market of the region. If this extra price can be obtained at a reasonable cost, it leaves a fair margin of profit and affords an incentive to better methods. To a specialized dairyman who has suitable stables and equipment and wishes to spend the extra time and money required, the production of certified milk presents an interesting, and under the proper conditions, a profitable field. Card Cows Stables Milk house UtensUs Handling milk Total Federal Card 16 34 8 26 16 100 00 N. Y. Board of Health 8 15 7 28 42 100 00 New Hampshire 4 10 4 42 40 100.00 Fig. 42. — Weights given to various factors on score cards for dairj' stables. Vermont Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28 1. — Produce Sanitary Milk To produce sanitary milk the following factors are essential: clean and healthy milkers, clean methods of milking, prompt and thorough cooling, clean cows, healthy cows, sanitary barn and surroundings, clean utensils, wholesome food and pure water, clean bedding, and stable air free from dust. (1) Provide clean and healthy milkers. — No man should be allowed to milk cows if he has any communicable disease. A milker who is apparently in ill health or has sores upon his skin PRODUCING CLEAN xMILK 129 or whose face and hands are broken out should not be allowed to work around milk. Warm milk is an ideal place for all sorts of bacteria to grow, and there are many cases on record where serious epidemics have resulted from diseased milkers. Milkers should not wear, while milking, the clothes in which they have done field work or other farm work. Each milker should be provided with a clean milking suit, preferably white, which covers up all of his other clothing. All dairy supply houses now carry these in stock, and sell them at a very reasonable price. Milkers should always wash their hands before milking. (2) Be clean in methods of milking. — Never milk with wet hands. Milking with wet hands simply washes the dirt from the outside of the udder into the pail and contaminates the milk with enormous quantities of bacteria, in proportion to the clean- Uness or uncleanliness of the cow's udder and of the milker's hands. There is no excuse for wet milking. Dry-handed milking is really easier and quicker. The dair^niian who has learned to milk with wet hands should break liimself of the habit and learn to milk dry handed. The first milk which conies from each teat is known as foremilk and contains many thousands of bacteria. In order to produce milk with a low bacterial count, the first stream or two from each teat should be rejected, (3) Clean the cows before milking. — Much of the dirt which goes into milk comes from the under side of the cow's body, or from the large hairs on the cow's udder during the process of milk- ing. Milk is strained for the purpose of removing the larger par- ticles of such dirt. In removing the dirt by straining, however, we must remember that we are not removing the bacteria. It is im- portant to prevent this dirt from getting into the pail and to do this, the under side of the cow's body and the cow's udder should be freed from all these loose particles just before milking. The hairs on the udder often hold a large amount of dirt, containing many kinds of bacteria. Wiping with a damp cloth just previous to milking prevents a large amount of contamination. One man with a pail of water and a damp cloth can wipe off the udders 130 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS of a large herd of cows in a few minutes. It is not necessary to obtain clean water for each cow. A study of the farms which pro- duce certified milk in New York State showed that, on the aver- age, seven and one half cows were washed with one pail of water. If the hind legs and flanks of the cow are kept clipped during the winter season, it will greatly aid in keeping the cow clean. Sometime previous to milking, the cow should be brushed and cleaned, but this should not be done immediately before milking, as it will leave the stable air full of dust which will get into the milk. (4) Use milk from healthy cows only. — Milk from a diseased or unhealthy cow is not fit for human consumption. No cow which is plainly in an unhealthy condition should be allowed to remain in the herd. If the condition is only temporary, and the cow is expected to recover, she should be isolated from the rest of the herd and her milk discarded until she becomes healthy. Tubercular cows should be discarded. The best way of deter- mining which cows are tubercular is by using the tuberculin test. A physical examination, however, by a trained veterinarian will reveal those cows which are in an advanced stage of tuberculosis. If cows have garget or other udder trouble, the milk should not be sold for food. A cow sometimes for a few days gives bloody milk or thick stringy milk. This may be due to a temporary condition or if it persists it may be due to a permanent injury of the udder. As long as the condition remains, the milk should not be used for food. (5) Keep bam and surroundings in sanitary condition. — A well lighted, well ventilated stable is a great aid in the production of sanitary milk. Sunlight is our best and cheapest disinfectant. An abundance of sunlight, with good ventilation, will go a long way toward making the stable sanitary. In order that the stable may be kept clean easily, all floors and gutters should be made of concrete. The walls should be smooth and of such construction that little dust can find place for lodgment. They should be fre- quently whitewashed. Whitewash is a dismfectant, and at the same time gives the bam a sanitary appearance. PRODUCING CLEAN MILK 131 The barnyard or exercising yard for the cows should be dry and well drained. If the yard is nuiddy, the cows cannot be kept clean. If the cows must wade through soft manure in passing to and from the stable, they can not be kept sufficiently clean to produce sanitary milk. (6) Use clean utensils. — The Geneva Experiment Station found that one half of the bacteria collected in the milking proc- ess can be excluded by the use of a covered pail. The pail used in their experiments was about twelve inches high and had an elliptical opening in the top about seven by five inches. With this pail after a little practice milking was as easy as with the old-fashioned, wide top kind. At the same time, it prevented a large proportion of the dirt which was brushed off the cow's body during the milking process from falling into the pail. Milk pails, milk cans, and all other containers should be thor- oughly washed and sterilized between milkings. Pails which are carelessly washed in warm water and left from one milking to another often become very efficient incubators for the growth of bacteria. The old fashioned way of washing the pail, then rinsing in very cold well water, and turning it up in the sunlight to dry on the well platform, was a fairly efficient and sanitary method, unless dust blew into the pail durmg the drying process. (7) Supply wholesome food and pure water. — The cow should never be fed upon partly decayed vegetable matter such as spoiled ensilage, musty or spoiled hay, half-rotten potatoes, apples, or cabbage refuse. Neither should such half-spoiled materials be allowed to lie around the stable in heaps and con- taminate the stable air. Milk absorbs odors so readily that any unsanitary condition in the stable durmg the milking process may give a disagreeable taste and odor to the milk. Many un- sanitary or strong smelling foods may transfer their odors to the the milk through the cow. If grain is wet before feeding, or if the mangers are flooded to water the cows, especial care should be taken that quantities of sour, foul-smelling feed do not collect in the manger. The cow should at all times be supplied with an abundance of 132 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS pure water. Impure water, as well as bad air, may affect the 6dor and taste of the milk. From an economical standpoint, also, im- pure water will result in a smaller consumption of water and in a consequent shrinkage in milk production. (8) Use plenty of clean bedding. — If cows are not bedded well their flanks will be constantly caked with manure so that it will be almost impossible to brush or wash them clean. Saw- dust, shavings, and straw make the most sanitary beddings. Shavings and sawdust are less dusty than straw, but there is no reason why the most sanitary milk should not be produced in stables where straw bedding is used, if the bedding is not shaken up or put in place just previous to milking. (9) Do not raise a dust before milking. — At milking time the stable air should be free of dust. If the air is full of dust, it may get into the milk. The hay or dry roughage should be fed after milking instead of before milking. The stable should never be cleaned, nor the cows bedded, nor the floor swept just previous to milking. This work should be done at least half an hour before. (10) Cool the milk promptly and thoroughly. — When the milk comes from the cow it is approximately at body temperature and is one of the finest possible mediums for the growth of bacteria. Many thousands of bacteria are present under the best of con- ditions. If the milk remains at this temperature any length of time an enormous bacterial growth takes place. For this reason, it should be cooled promptly and thoroughly. This may be done by straining the milk, as soon as drawn, into a can set in cold water, or by running it immediately over a milk cooler containing ice water. If it is run over an open cooler, care should be taken that dust can not blow into it during the cooling process, or ad- ditional contamination may take place. 2. — Produce Certified Milk When Profitable The term certified milk is used to indicate market milk that is the cleanest and most wholesome that can be produced under conditions imposed by medical milk commissions. Certified milk PRODUCING CLEAN MILK 133 must be free from disease germs, and must be produced from tuber- culin tested herds. It must have a certain known composition and must not exceed a certain minimum number of bacteria per cubic centimeter. Certified milk generally brings the producer about twice the price of ordinary milk. Under the conditions required, however, the production of certified milk is very ex- pensive. Some dairymen who are able to meet these conditions in a practical and economical manner have made very satisfactory profits from the business. Source of bacteria Number of bacteria per cc. of milk Total number of bacteria Sources other than utensils 3 pails 1 strainer 1 clarifier tank 5,000 54,635 7,315 8,038 141,340 50,900 83,246 250,000,000 2,731,750,000 365,750,000 401,900,000 7,067,000,000 2,545,000,000 4,162,300,000 1 clarifier 1 cooler 1 bottle-filler tank Total 350,000 345,000 17,523,700,000 17,273,700,000 Fig. 43. — Average number of bacteria added to fifty liters of milk by the various unsteamed utensils in which it was handled: Dairy A. — Illinois Bulletin No. 204. In 1910 a survey was made of the producers of certified milk in New York State. The results of this survey give us some very usable data on the production of certified milk. Each pro- ducer was asked the question, "What do you consider the most in need of thought and attention in the production of certified milk?" The largest number of the answers to this question gave the opinion that a clean, careful milker was the most important factor in the production of certified milk. The next important factor was thought to be a healthy cow, and a clean cow. Clean sterilized utensils came next in importance. To obtain a clean cow the majority of these producers brush the whole body of the cow before milking. They wash seven and one-half cows 134 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS with one pail of water on the average; the number varies, how- ever, from twenty-four cows to two cows per pail of water. 3. — Study Experimental Data on the Production of Clean Milk Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station gives the following experimental conclusions as the result of a series of experiments. 1. When the cows were milked before feeding, the number of bacteria per CO. was 1233; when milked immediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3656, or three times as great. 2. When the udder and flanks of the cow were wiped with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per cc. was 716. When not wiped, the number was 7058, or ten times as great. 3. When the cows were not brushed just before milking the number of bacteria per cc. was 1207; when brushed just before milking the number was 2286, or nearly twice as great. 4. When students who had studied the production of clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per cc. was 914; when milking was done by regular unskilled milkers, the number of bacteria was 2846, or three times as great. Wiping or washing the udders before milking not only very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk, but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very large extent. Fraser has shown that the average weight of dirt which falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times as great as that which falls from the same udder after washing, and when the udder is simply soiled, it is eighteen times as great. 1. What were the results obtained by Eckles as to bacterial con- tent and age at first souring for milk kept at different tem- peratures? EW : 179. 2. Make a list of the different operations in your dairy stable in the winter, including all milking, feeding, and removal of manure ; and arrange these in the order which will give you the most efficient conditions for profitable and sanitary pro- duction. PRODUCING CLEAN MILK 135 3. What are bacteria; how large are they and how do they repro- duce? M : 146. 4. Give some instances where bacteria are harmful and some where they are helpful. M : 147. 5. Describe in full the process of lactic fermentation. M : 148. 6. Describe in full the process of curdling and digesting fermentation. M : 149. 7. Describe in full the process of butyric fermentation. M : 150-151. 8. What are abnormal fermentations? What is their causef Describe some of the more common forms. M : 151-154. CHAPTER XI SELECTING REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 1. Dairy farming requires a cool climate 2. Dairying depends upon good grass land 3. Dairy regions are generally regions with rugged topog- raphy 4. Competing types of farming may prevent the develop- ment of dairying 5. Dairying has developed best among people who under- stand dairy cattle 6. Transportation determines the dairy product which can be sold with profit 7. Adaptation of dairying to new and undeveloped regions Fig. 44. — Vermont hillsides best adapted to grass production in pasture and meadow. This with the nearness to *he Boston milk market makes dairying the chief business. 136 REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 137 Dairy farming develops in particular regions because those regions are especially adapted to dairying. In starting your dairy project it is worth while to consider what factors make a region adapted to this industry. A knowledge of these factors will help you in choosing a farm even within a suitable region, and in placing a proper valuation upon it. In case no problem of purchasmg is involved, a knowledge of the factors which make a region suitable, or the reverse, should help you to under- stand to just what extent your particular farm is adapted to dairying and to organize your business in such a way as to make a proper balance between dairying and other desirable farm enterprises. 1. — Dairy Farming Requires a Cool Climate Profitable dairy farming has developed m the cooler regions of the temperate zones. The United States is no exception to this rule. That this is true is shown by the map in Fig. 45, on which are indicated the regions where dairying is developed most ex- tensively in this country. All of these regions have from six to seven months of winter, and only one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty daj'^s of crop-growing weather between killing frosts. The successful production of dairy products and of dair}'^ cattle seems to demand a cool climate. Our milk-pro- ducing cattle have never thrived so well in the warmer as in the cooler sections of the country. Dairying has developed in regions where there is a liberal amount of rainfall. The only exceptions to this are the irrigated regions where a sufficient amount of water is furnished artificially. Dairying is never found as an important industry in dry-farming or semiarid regions. Dairymen are agreed that one of the primary requisites for a good dairy country is that there must be an abundance of pure, fresh, cold water. This is necessary not only for the health of the cow but for the successful production and preservation of milk and dairy products. In cool regions it is much easier to secure a uniformly high quality of milk, butter, or cheese. Nearly all the cheese factories of the 138 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 139 United States are located where the average growing season is of less than one hundred and fifty-five days; and there are very few cheese factories in the United States in regions which have a mean summer temperature during June, July, and August of more than seventy degrees. 2. — Dairying Depends upon Good Grass Land All of our important dairy enterprises have also developed in regions which produce grass and pasture bountifully. Good grass or pasture land depends upon two factors. The soil should be rich and heavy in texture, i.e. of a loam, silt loam, clay loam, or clay; and the climate should be cool and moist. We have already seen that dairying develops best in a region of cool, moist climate. It is such a climate that produces the best pasture and hay crops. Most of northeastern United States is naturally hay and grass land. Not only is the climate cold and moist enough to be adapted to hay crops, but the soil is generally heavy enough to produce excellent crops and to make it possible to keep a field in g'od without reseeding for from three to ten years. The very light, sandy areas which are found in this region are never im- portant dairy regions, because they are not grass lands. 3. — Dairy Regions Are Generally Regions with Rugged Topography The typical dairy region is hilly or mountainous. This is not because hills and mountains are necessarily adapted to dairying. Level land may be much more easily cultivated than rough, hilly land, and is therefore generally used for crop production. Rough, or hilly, land can not be worked so economically and is there- fore used for pasture. The farmers of the United States raise crops upon the land which is adapted to crop production; they pasture the land that, because of topography or lack of drain- age, is not adapted to raising crops. It seems to be a general rule of the dairy business that it does not ordinarily pay to pas- ture land which can be used for ci-op production. 140 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 141 4. — Competing Types of Farming May Prevent the Development of Dairying There are many regions that are fairly well adapted to dairy- ing, yet this industry has never been developed m them to an important degree. One reason for this is that these regions are also adapted to the growing of fruit and other intensive crops. Often fruits, especially grapes or small fruits, are raised on land which is too rough to cultivate for any other purpose. This is Fig. 47. — Mountainside pasture adapted to small cows which can move around easily. the land which would naturally be used for pasture. It pays better, however, for fruit growing. In parts of these sections fruit growing, and the growing of beans, cabbages, potatoes, and other field crops will provide a very fair income for a farmer without his keeping a dairy through the winter. Moreover, in these areas there has not been a pressing demand for milk. Con- sequently competitive types of farming have prevented the development of dairying. 142 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS 6. — Dairying Has Developed Best among People Who Understand Dairy Cattle One factor which has encouraged the development of dairying in the United States is the presence of farmers of English and Teutonic origins who for many generations have been familiar with dairy farming. These farmers by inheritance are cattlemen. They and their families are accustomed to the work of milking and caring for cattle, and to treating their diseases; and they understand the habits of cattle. Because of this vast fimd of experience they are very successful dairymen and usually surpass men of other nationalities in this business. There are no more expert handlers of cattle in America than are to be found among these descendants of the Scotch, English, and Holland settlers. 6. — Transportation Determines the Dairy Product Which Can Be Sold with Profit In studying transportation as it affects dairying, we must take into account two factors: distance from the farm to the shippmg point, and distance from the shipping point to the ultimate market. Two decades ago New York State was the most im- portant butter- and cheese-producing region in the United States. To-day Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Miimesota are rapidly taking the butter and cheese business away from New York. There are several reasons for this. As New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, and the many other large cities of the East con- stantly increase in size, they require increasing amounts of milk. Milk must reach the city in such condition that it can be delivered to the consumer and used by him before spoiling. It is very difficult to bring milk more than four hundred miles from the farm to the city. The territory within from three to four hundred miles of these Eastern cities has been able in the past to produce all the milk required by them and a large amount of butter and cheese besides. As the cities needed more milk, they paid a price somewhat in excess of the butter- and cheese-factory price and induced most of the farmers of the region to ship fluid milk to REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 143 them, rather than butter and cheese. This is the natural economic development that we should expect. There are several factors which make it uneconomical for the dairyman of the East to produce butter or cheese. The dairyman of the West can purchase or raise his grain much more cheaply than can the dairyman of the East. Butter and cheese are both Fig. 48. — Limestone walls indicate that legumes can be easily grown and that feed bills may be kept at a minimum. concentrated food products and can be shipped one third of the way across the United States for less than five per cent of their cost, or at a cost of from two to three cents a pound. Hay, silage, and other roughage often are cheaper in the West than in the East. Many of the Western dairy regions are just as well adapted as the East to pasture. It is much cheaper to ship one pound of butter or cheese a long distance than it is to ship the several 144 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS pounds of grain required to produce this butter and cheese. The Western dairyman can ship the concentrated product in the form of butter or cheese to the Eastern market at such a low transportation cost that he is able to compete successfully with the dairjanen of that region. These, then, are the two factors which are affecting the type of dairy products of Eastern and Western dairy regions. First, the large cities of the East demand fluid milk and are willing to pay more money for it than the same milk would bring when made up into butter and cheese. This increase if great enough insures the shipping of fluid milk to the cities. Second, all food costs which enter into the production of butter and cheese are cheaper in the West and attract the production of these products to Western regions. We should expect in the future to see butter and cheese production diminishing in New York State, the New England States, Penns^^lvania, and New Jersey in proportion to the increase in population of our great Eastern cities. And, similarly, in the vicinity of large cities in the West we should expect to see butter and cheese production give way to the pro- duction and shipment of fluid milk. 7. — Adaptation of Dairying to New and Undeveloped Regions Many articles have been published about the development of dairying in new regions of the United States. We should expect that wherever a city grows to a considerable size, dairying must be developed within shipping distance for fluid milk in proportion to the population of that city. There has been considerable dis- cussion, also, of the extension of dairying in the irrigated regions. Irrigated land is capable of furnishing a good supply of pasture and is generally adapted to the growing of alfalfa. Irrigated land, however, is always very expensive land, and dairying very rarely is developed on expensive land, unless that land is very close to market. None of our irrigated areas is close to market. The area of irrigated land in the I'nited States is very small. If all REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING 145 of it were developed for dairy farming, it would not affect the dairy market of the country as a whole to any great extent. Dairy farming has been developed in the South somewhat during the past ten years. The southern part of the United States, however, is naturally unadapted to the production of hay. Most of it produces very poor pasture. Dairying has never Fi(i. 40. — Typical alfalfa huid in New \'ork. Kspccially adapted to dairying, because of its ability to produce this excellent dairy roughage. been developed extensively in regions with a warm climate. It demands skilled labor and most of the labor supply of the South hitherto has been, and may for some time continue to be, un- skilled. In certain sections of the South that have fair pasture land and that grow alfalfa abundantly, we may expect some development of dairy farming. The development of more diver- 146 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS sitiod furniing now bcins urged in the South may include some dairying. On the whole, however, it is safe to predict that this section probably will never be able to develop dairy farming to such an extent that it will supply even its own people with ade- quate quantities of fluid milk, butter, and cheese. Using the last United States census report as a source of data, work out the following factors: 1. List in order of importance the ten states having the greatest number of dairy cows. 2. List in order of importance the ten counties of your state having the greatest number of dairy cows. 3. List in order of importance the ten states producing the greatest quantities of butter; cheese. 4. List in order of importance the counties of your state producing the greatest quantities of butter; cheese. 5. Obtain the local wholesale price for butter, cheese, and fluid milk. If 100 pounds of milk will produce a number of pounds of cheese equal to 2.7 times the percentage of butter fat as shown by the Babcock test, compute the price which you should receive for your milk if sold for cheese; butter; or fluid milk without making any allowance for factory costs. 6. Is the milk produced in your locaUty sold as fluid milk or for manufacturing purposes? 7. Is your county adapted to dairying? Why? 8. Is your farm adapted to dairying? Why? 9. From the last census report prepare a tabular statement to include the following factors for your state, your county and three other counties of the state: Number of farms Number of dairy cows REGIONS ADAPTED TO DAIRY FARMING ]47 Number of dairy cows per farm Pounds of butter made on farms Pounds of butter made in factories Pounds of cheese made in factories 10. Tabulate by months the percentage of milk, butter, cream, and cheese made in each month of the year. EW : 215. 11. During what months is the most cheese ynade in Wisconsin? EW : 216. 12. Which slate raises the largest number of calves yearly, Wisconsin, New York, or Iowa? EW : 214. 13. What changes have occurred in the amounts of butter and cheese pro- duced in Neiv York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota in the last ten years? EW : 211. CHAPTER XII PLANNING A CROP ROTATION AND A SYSTEM FOR MAINTAINING FERTILITY 1. Plan a crop rotation (1) Grow enough hay to feed all the hve stock (2) Grow legumes (3) Produce sufficient succulent roughage (4) Grow other crops in the rotation (5) Decide upon the best order in which to grow the crops (6) Essentials of a good crop rotation (7) Reasons for a crop rotation 2. Exclude pasture from the crop rotation where possible 3. Provide for two rotations where conditions warrant them 4. Manure the pasture 5. Use commercial fertilizer to supplement the manure 6. Use lime where needed In organizing the business of a dairy farm, it is as essential to plan a careful cropping system as to plan the careful manage- ment of the dairy herd. The farm should feed the dairy herd to a great extent, in most cases supplying all the roughage and in many cases a considerable part of the concentrates. This part of the business must be well planned in order to obtain the great- est efficiency of the business as a whole. Moreover, manure is an important product of the dairy herd, but it is worth no more to the dairyman than he is able to make it worth to his business. A well planned and organized cropping system is essential, if he is to get the full value from the manure, 148 PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 149 1. — Plan a Crop Rotation The first step in planning a crop rotation is to decide what crops to grow. The size of the dairy herd, the number of horses, the number of other animals, the crop adaptations of the region, the marketing facilities, and various other factors will assist you in deciding, first, what crops you must grow; second, the acreage of each crop; and, third, the crops which it would be well to grow in order to have a well balanced business. (1) Grow enough hay to feed all the live stock. — The dairy farm should be planned always to produce enough hay or other dry roughage to feed all of its live stock. Hay is a very bulky product and a ton occupies a large amount of shipping space. It is only possible to put ten or twelve tons of hay in a freight car and this makes it expensive to ship it for long distances. The man who Fig. 50. — Well tilled land is essential to successful dairy farming. A good job of plowing done at the right time goes a long way towards insuring a good crop. 150 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS purchases must pay the high cost of shipping this large bulk. Furthermore, in all dairy regions, hay is one of the most profitable crops that can be produced. Cost account records show that a larger profit is made, on the average, for each hour of time ex- pended in producing hay than in any other labor performed on the farm. The hay crop fits well in the work with dairy cattle, as the hay harvesting comes at the time of year generally when the dairy herd is producing the smallest quantity of milk, and when the least amount of labor is required to produce that milk. The dairy farm should be planned to produce enough hay for its needs, even in years when the crop is short. If it is necessary to purchase hay in these years, the farmer will find that he is compelled to pay very high prices because of the general shortage. It is always better to plan to have enough hay in poor years and to sell a part of the crop in good years, than to have just enough in the best years and have to purchase what is needed in the poor years. (2) Grow legumes. — Grow as large a proportion of legumes in your hay as possible. The best legume to raise is alfalfa. If you can not raise alfalfa successfully, raise red clover, alsike, sweet clover, oat and pea hay, vetch, or any other leguminous plants that do well in your section. Legumes contain a large amount of protein, the most expensive feed element that we buy for our dairy herd. The cattle feeds which contam a large quantity of protein are always the highest priced feeds. A large proportion of protein in the hay will make it possible for the dairyman to feed a much less expensive grain mixture. Another reason for producing leguminous hay is that these plants gather nitrogen from the air and enrich the soil. Consequently, they mcrease its productivity for the succeeding crops. The excellent crops of com or potatoes which are made after plowing under a clover sod are conmion evidences of this. It is seldom possible, however, to devote the entire hay acreage to leguminous hay unless alfalfa grows readily. Red clover in many sections runs out after one year and we have in its place timothy, blue grass, or whatever other hay was seeded with it. PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 151 Alsike clover will ordinarily persist a little longer than the red clover, but it produces a smaller crop. If you are dependent on red clover for your principal legume, it will generally be necessary to leave hay down only one year and to seed each year as large an acreage of hay as you expect to cut over the next year. On account of the high price of clover seed, this is rather expensive and makes a heavy charge against the farm business. Moreover, land which is in sod is gathering humus rather than destroying it. Therefore, it is desirable to keep land in sod for several years in succession if possible. The practical dairyman solves this problem by leaving his hay down for two or three years. The field on which he cuts his new seeding will be almost clear clover. If he uses some alsike clover in his seeding, he will have a considerable amount of clover in the field which he is cutting over for the second or even for the third time. There is opportunity to dispose of considerable timothy hay by feeding it to the horses. Timothy hay is usually considered to be a better feed for horses than is clover hay. The remainder of the timothy hay may be sold, fed to drj^ stock in small quantities, or fed for a portion of the season to the regular dairy herd. (3) Produce sufficient succulent roughage. — The dairy farm should produce enough silage, roots, or other succulent feed for the dairy herd. In regions of the United States where any variety of com can be produced economically the cheapest succulent feed for winter is com silage, and it is much cheaper to feed the herd on this sort of roughage than on any other. With the high price which the American farmer must pay for labor, the pro- duction of root crops is too costly to compete with the produc- tion of com. As we have seen in the chapter on "Feeding the Dairy Cow," succulent feed is essential for the most profitable winter milk production. In regions where com grows well, it is desirable to produce silage to feed the young stock as well as the milking animals. In regions which are not so well adapted to com, or where the length of time between killing frosts is less than one hundred forty days, it is generally cheaper to feed 152 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS young stock on good leguminous dry roughage entirely, than to feed them partly on expensive com silage. A dairy cow producing a large quantity of milk will ordinarily consume from three to five tons of com silage m a winter, or forty pounds of silage per day. A two-hundred day period requires at this rate just four tons per cow for the winter. Silage com can not generally be Fig. 51. — Lodged grain may choke out the seeding and cause a temporary change in the rotation. depended upon to yield an average of much more than eight or nine tons per acre. The practical dairyman, therefore, plans to grow about one acre of silage com for each two cows in his herd. This will generally give him enough silage to feed through the winter. In an exceptionally good com j^ear, after fillmg the silo, he will have some com left over to husk and the comstalks to feed. PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 153 (4) Grow other crops in the rotation. — The crop rotation must contain enough small grain, such as oats, wheat, barley, or rye, to irisure a good catch of the meadow grasses when seeding. In some regions especially adapted to the production of these grains, the dairy farm may produce a larger acreage of them than is required for this purpose, but in most dairy regions, the acreage of small grains is determined by the amount of grass seeding required each year. Small grain is also grown for the sake of the straw to be used as bedding. In order to develop a well plamied dairy-farming business, it is advisable to raise as large an acreage of the best cash crop of the region as possible. This may be hay, potatoes, beans, cabbages, tobacco, corn, hops, wheat, or some other crop. 1. What is the most common cash crop in: (1) The Northeastern States? (2) the Middle Western States? (3) the North- western States? (4) the Southern States? 2. What are some of the cash crops raised in your region? W- FM: 406. (5) Decide upon the best order in which to grow the crops. — After decidmg upon what crops shall be grown, you necessarily will have to plan the succession hi which they may be grown in order to formulate your rotation. This succession is more or less fixed by seasonal conditions, by plant characteristics, and by the experience of generations of farmers. When sod ground is plowed up, corn is generally the first crop raised upon the field. There are several reasons for this. Corn is known as a rank feeder. It can obtain plant food from sod or organic matter which has only begun to decay to a greater extent than can most other crops. For this reason, it does better on freshly plowed sod ground than do other crops. A second reason for plantmg corn is that it is a cultivated crop, and cultivation makes it possible to kill the weeds that have multiplied in the sod ground. Oats or barley customarily follows corn. By the second year, the sod has largely decayed and these gram crops can feed effi- ciently on the plant food produced. Grain crops do not ordinarily 154 DAIRY FAR]MING PROJECTS do well the first year after sod, because of the difficulty iii plow- ing under sod early enough to make a well settled seed bed for the sowing of the grains. In most of the dairy regions, wheat and rye can not be sowed after com, as the com is not removed from the field early enough to permit seeding with these winter grains. In the regions where wheat is commonly gro\m after com, cli- matic and soil conditions are such that dairying is not generally carried on. If wheat is grown on the dairy farm, it will generally follow oats or barley and precede clover in the rotation. The grasses generally follow small grains, although there are limited sections in New England where grass is seeded with com. A common rotation, then, for a dairy farm, is com, oats, clover, and timothy, with the field remaining in timothy from one to three years. In case potatoes, beans, or cabbages are raised, these crops will ordinarily be placed on freshly plowed sod ground along with the com and followed by oats in the same way as the com. If the acreage of the farm does not permit the foregoing, the rotation is sometimes com, potatoes, oats, clover, timothy, and sometimes potatoes, com, oats, clover, and timothj^; beans or cabbages in either case being substituted directly for the potatoes. Such rotations as these, however, mean raising a cultivated crop on a field two years in succession. This results in a more rapid oxidation of the humus and a consequently greater exhaustion of fertility. (6) Essentials of a good crop rotation. — A good crop rotation should provide the following essentials: 1. Sufficient dry roughage for the live stock on the farm. 2. Sufficient succulent roughage for the dairy herd which is in milk during the winter. 3. Every field should remain in sod from one to three years, and this sod should include as much clover, alfalfa, or other legumes as possible. 4. A crop of small grain with which to seed for hay. 6. One cultivated crop. 6. As large an area as possible of the most profitable cash crop of the region. PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 155 7. The area of each crop should be nearly the same year after year. (7) Reasons for a crop rotation. — There are important reasons for crop rotation, some of which have been discussed already. They may be summarized as follows: Fig. 52. — Cabbage furnish a cultivated crop in the rotation and make a good cash crop. If the market is over-supphed, they are an excellent succulent feed worth the cost of raising. 1. A crop rotation helps to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. 2. A crop rotation helps to keep up the humus supply of the soil. S. A crop rotation often saves labor. In many parts of the country, it is possible to sow a small grain crop, such as winter wheat or oats, after potatoes or beans without plowing. Grasses 156 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS and small grain are sown at the same time with one fertilization, and one preparation of the seed bed. 4. A crop rotation keeps the land occupied with crops a larger share of the time. This prevents erosion and makes it possible for all plant food which becomes available to be absorbed by a useful crop, instead of ^being lost by leaching out of the soil or being used up by weeds. 5. A crop rotation provides for the alternation of deep and shallow rooted crops. In this way, a greater portion of the soil is used to produce food, and plant food is brought by the deep rooted crops from the lower soil and left in the upper soil by decay for use by the shallow rooted crops. 6. A crop rotation may provide for a balanced removal of the plant food. 7. A crop rotation is the first step in the organization of a well balanced, systematic dairy-farm business. 2. — Exclude Pasture from the Crop Rotation Where Possible Wherever possible, pasture should be permanent rather than rotated. A permanent pasture ordinarity provides cheaper feed than rotated pasture, as land that can be used for the production of crops will generall}^ pay a better income through crop produc- tion than through pasture. Dairy farms are generally located in regions where pasture is available and almost universally they depend for a large part of their profits upon the use of cheap pasture. The use. of pasture in a rotation makes it necessary to fence all the fields in the rotation. This is expensive. The annual upkeep of the fence and the large amount of expensive labor to mow the fence lines and keep them free from weeds and brush each year is an additional cost. If a field is pastured in the crop rotation, however, the meadow is generally pastured for one year just previous to plowing it up for corn or for any other following crop that requires cultivation. PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 157 1. How wide a strip of land is wasted by each of the common types of fences? W-FM : 387. 3. — Provide for Two Rotations Where Conditions Warrant Them There are several conditions under which it is desirable to have two rotations on the same farm. In many cases, it happens that there are two, three, or sometimes four small fields of from one- half acre to two acres in close proximity to the dairy farmstead. In such a case, these fields may be planned with a special rotation, the purpose of which will be to furnish grain and succulent feed during the season when pasture has begun to dry up and cows have begun to show decrease in their milk. These fields may grow, then, a succession of such crops as oats and peas, rye, millet, fodder corn, and alfalfa. One such field may be kept in mangels or root crops each year, if the ownership of a pure bred herd and Advanced Registry testing each winter necessitate the raising of such a crop. In many cases the dairy farm has several fields which are so far away from the farmstead that it is not profitable to raise silage corn or any other cultivated crop upon them. Such fields may be kept in a rotation of buckwheat, oats, clover, and timothy; or oats, wheat, clover, and timothy, the hay being left down as long as it is profitable to cut it. This will provide for the minimum amount of travehng to these fields each year. If such land is adapted to it, often it is desirable to seed it down to alfalfa and leave it as long as it is profitable to mow it. When it is necessary to plow up the field, it should produce one or two crops of small grains and be seeded down again as soon as possible. Two radically different types of soil on the same farm may make it necessary to have two rotations. The presence of a con- siderable amount of wet land makes it necessary to have one rotation for the wet land and another for the dry land. If a farm has river-bottom land and hill land, two rotations may be necessary. 158 DAIRY FARIMING PROJECTS 4. — Manure the Pasture Probably no better returns can })e obtained from the use of manure than by applying it in limited quantities to pasture land. This question will be discussed more at length in a later chapter on the care of pasture. In planning the disposal of the manure, however, it is well worth while for the dairyman to plan to apply on a portion of his pasture each year as much manure as he can spare from the cultivated crops and meadows. There are parts of the year when it is impossible to spread manure on crop land because crops are growing. These commonly occur during the months of May and June, and to a limited extent during July and August. Any manure which may be produced in the stable at these times can be profitably applied to pasture land. 5. — Use Commercial Fertilizer to Supplement the Manure In Chapter IX we have seen that barnyard manure m itself is not a balanced fertilizer. It contains large quantities of nitro- gen and a considerable amount of potash, but is deficient in phos- phorus. Phosphorus is one of the most necessary fertilizers. The first fertilizer that you should consider using on a dairy farm should be some phosphorus carrier, such as acid phosphate, or raw rock phosphate. The acid phosphate is much more avail- able, and more widely recommended, although in certain sections of the Middle West where the land is exceptionally rich in humus, the raw rock phosphate is commonly used. On most dairy farms, if there is a sufficient amoimt of manure produced so that each field may have a liberal application at least once in four years, it will not be necessary to purchase commercial nitrogen or com- mercial potash. If the farm is in poor condition at the begummg of the business, it may be necessary to purchase these forms of fertilizers for a few years until all of the fields have been manured over. Also, it may be necessary to apply potash for a longer period, if the soil is especially deficient in it, or if some cash crop is raised which seems to respond particularly well to applications of potash. In the more extensive dairy regions where the land is in a fair PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 159 state of fertility and a rotation of corn, oats, clover, and timothy is practiced, soil fertility seems to be maintained very satisfac- torily under the following conditions : first, if two thirds or more of the hay produced is fed on the farm; second, if the straw is used up in the manure; third, if sufficient animals are kept so that each field in the rotation may receive an application of from ten to twenty tons of manure per acre, once in five years; fourth, if the meadow grasses raised contain a large proportion of legu- minous plants; fifth, if acid phosphate is applied to the corn at the rate of from four to six hundred pounds per acre; sixth, if lime is applied at the time of seeding grass in amounts according to the soil needs; seventh, if the manure produced is applied to the fields with a reasonable degree of care in saving all the plant nutrients. 6. — Use Lime Where Needed If the soil of the dairy farm is a limestone soil and contains a sufficient amount of limestone for all of its needs, it is unneces- sary to apply lime in a commercial form. A very large proportion of our dairy land, however, is deficient in lime. On such farms, it should be applied at least once in the rotation. The best plan is to apply it as a top dressing and to harrow it in just previous to sowing the grain and grass seed. The amount of lime may vary from one thousand pounds to several tons per acre, depend- ing upon the acidity of the soil. It is not economical, generally, to attempt to correct the acidity entirely at one liming, as this would be too expensive. The practical dairyman, unless he is preparing land for alfalfa, rarely applies more than a ton of lime per acre at one time. Acid soils must be limed in order to produce the best yields of clover, alfalfa, or most other legumes. Lime is a very cheap soil amendment. Its effect extends over a number of years. The chief drawback to its use is the labor cost of handling the large bulk required and of applying it economically to the soil. The form of lime to be used depends upon the cost and the distance of hauling. If the different grades are of equal purity, IGO DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS fifty-six pounds of burnt lime are equivalent to seventy-four pounds of hydrated lime and to one hundred pounds of ground limestone. Ground limestone, however, is generally much more pleasant to handle, as it has no caustic properties and does not require slaking. The farmer who lives several miles from market and must haul his lime a great distance should consider care- fully the advisability of using burnt lime, as the labor saved by hauling the much smaller amount required is a considerable item. 1. Plan a rotation for the farm where your project herd is kept; give the acreage of each crop and reasons for that acreage being raised. 2. Make a fertilizing plan for this farm, showing to what crops and in what amounts the manure, Ume, and acid phosphate will be applied. 3. Formulate a suitable rotation and make a fertilizing plan as in problems 1 and 2 for each of the following conditions: a. A farm with one hundred crop acres, twenty-five cows, and the possibility of hay, potatoes, and beans as cash crops. b. A farm in very poor condition with one hundred and fifty crop acres, forty cows, and the possibiUty of raising hay or buckwheat for cash crops. c. A farm in good condition with fifty acres of crops, twelve cows, and the possibility of potatoes and cabbages as cash crops. 4. List the leguminous crops which may be used for hay and arrange them in order of the amount of lime requirement. 6. List the crops which are used for ensiUng in your locality. 6. What relation has been found between the amount of cash crops sold and the profits on the average dairy farm? EW : 276. 7. Obtain the prices on burnt lime, hydrated lime, and ground Umestone in the nearest market. Which is the cheaper when computed in terms of calcium content? PLANNING A CROP ROTATION 161 8. How fine should limestone be ground in order to be most efficient? LFB : 540. 9. Corn-pare the effectiveness of caustic lime and ground limestone at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station plots. LFB : 541. 10. What influence does lime have on the formation of nitrates in the soil? LFB : 536. 11. What is gypsum and of what value is it agriculturally f LFB : 542-543. 12. What are the sources of phosphorus for use in fertilizer? LFB : Sll- 13. What is the difference between raw rock phosphate and acid phosphate? LFB : 514. 14. What grades of acid phosphate may be purchased in your region and which is cheapest per pound of phosphoric acid? CHAPTER XIII PLANNING A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 1. What is the most economical shape for the dairy bam? 2. What are the best dairy bam dimensions? 3. Where should the barn be located? 4. Is a basement bam desirable? 5. What building materials should be used for the dairy bam? 6. How should the dairy stable be planned? 7. How should the silo be located and built? 8. How should the dairy and ice houses be located and arranged? Fig. 53. — A most efficient i\\>'' >>i <\:ni\ li.-mi. iwo ii.\\> oi fn\\> and \>o\ stalls so arranged that the farmer can drive througli the barn lengthwise. The horses are kept in an L on the back side of the end nearest the house. 162 A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 163 In Chapter VIII, we already have stated the essentials for health in arranging a dairy stable. The planning of a dairy barn involves, as well as the essentials there covered, the whole problem of housing economically and efficiently the dairy herd, crops, horses, equipment, and supplies. A much larger proportion of our dairy farmers will remfldel dairy barns than will build new ones. A carefully made plan is as necessary in one case as in the other. This chapter will con- sider the whole question of barn planning as if for a new barn. Individual parts of the chapter will apply to the remodeling of barns for profitable dairy farming. 1. — What Is the Most Economical Shape for the Dairy Bam? There are two shapes of dairy barns in general use, the rec- tangular and the round. The rectangular barn is most commonly used, and probably more than ninety per cent of all the dairy barns in use in this country are of that shape. During recent years, however, there has been some movement toward popularizing the Fig. 54. — A round barn on flat land with a driveway leading to the third floor. Economical of lumber, but unhandy and inefficient in inside arrangement. 164 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS round bam. This movement originated in the Middle West and the University of Illinois has issued a bulletin giving the advan- tages and methods of construction of a round barn. As a result, a small proportion of the dairy farms in Illinois now have round barns, and they or some of their adaptations, such as the hexagonal or octagonal, are found in every dairy state to a limited extent. The chief advantage of the round bam is in the saving of lum- ber. The perimeter of a circle is much less than the perimeter of a rectangle of equal area. It requires a much smaller amount of lumber to enclose a round bam than to enclose a rectangular bam of equal capacity. The saving in many cases approximates one third of the entire lumber bill. Some of the disadvantages of the round bam are: (1) It is very difficult to handle a large hay crop economically, as the hay track for use in unloading must be circular, or else not reach all parts of the bam.. It is obvious also that the track can not be hung in the highest point of the roof and hence much storage room up under the roof is inacces- sible. (2) It is much easier for carpenters to construct stalls with square comers than to fit them against a circular wall. It is difficult to arrange partitions in the round barn m such a way as to make box stalls, granaries, bays, or other sections regular in shape. (3) The round bam, if it is large, is less easily lighted. The dairy stable, therefore, is much more likely to be dark and unsanitary. (4) It is difficult to make an economical arrangement for two rows of cows in a round bam. If the cows face toward the outside of the bam, the space which each occupies is wider at her head than at her hips, whereas the cow is wider at her hips than at her head. This means that, if the cow is given sufficient room at her hips, there is a considerable waste of room at her head, and a consequent waste of travel in feeding. While the popularity of the round barns seems to be decreasing rather than increasmg, the rectangular barn often has a modi- fication of shape. One modification consists of an L at one side, extending outward from the end, or some place near the end, of the building. This L if directly opposite the threshing floor, makes a very handy place for the storage of straw. An L also A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 165 provides a barnyard sheltered on two sides from the cold winds. Often the basement of the L is used for a horse bam, or for a calf bam, or for dry stock. 2. — What Are the Best Dairy Bam Dimensions? The usual dairy barn is thirty to forty feet wide. If the barn is to contain two rows of cows, it should be either thirty-four Fig. 5'^. — A twelve-sided barn, with cows on the second floor above a manure pit. Note that the ensilage cutter must be set up twice to fill these silos. About one-third of the silage must be pitched up to get it to the stable floor. or thirty-six feet wide. It is not possible to arrange two rows of cows facing away from each other and allow room to drive through the bam between them with a width less than thirty- two feet. Even this width gives very cramped space. A width of thirty-four or thirty-six feet gives sufficient room for two rows of cows arranged in this way, and leaves enough space for feeding alleys and a driveway of convenient size. If two rows of cows 166 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS are placed facing each other and a driveway through the bam is not phinned, they may be crowded into a thirty foot width, but a thirty-four or thirty-six foot width with a driveway is much more convenient. A width greater than thirty-six feet is wasteful of space in the basement and makes haymows m the barn above so wide that it requires more labor to mow away the hay. The length of the bam will depend entirely upon the size of the busi- ness and the number of animals kept. If the cows are placed in only one row through the bam, the arrangement may be modified somewhat, but wherever any considerable number of cows is kept, the arrangement in two rows allows a much greater economy in doing the work. The distance from the bam floor above the basement, or the top of the sill, to the eaves of the bam, or the top of the plate, is commonly knowTi as the height of post. The height of post and the shape of roof will depend upon the amount of dry rough- age to be stored. The height of the barn should be sufficient to provide for a doorway to the driving floor at least fourteen feet high, as this height will be required to bring in easily a large load of hay. In regions where a large amount of roughage is produced, a desirable height of post is fourteen feet with a hip roof, or from sixteen to twenty feet with an ordinary roof. 3. — Where Should the Bam Be Located? The dairy bam should be located in a sheltered spot if possible; that is, where an orchard, piece of woodland, a windbreak, or the natural topography of the country protects it somewhat from the wind. It should be located on well drained soil where the foundations and the floors may be kept dry, and where there may be a well drained bamyard. The barn should never be so located that cows must wade through mud or manure to get into the stable at any time of the year. It should not be too close to the house, and drainage from the bam should not be toward the house. It should be a considerable distance from near-by buildings on account of fire risk, but should be near enough to facilitate the doing of the work. A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 167 4. — Is a Basement Bam Desirable? It is desirable, if possible, to be able to drive in with loads of hay on to the floor above the dairy stable. This is a most con- venient and economical arrangement. It necessitates either build- mg a long steep bridgeway, to reach the second floor, or placing the bam against a bank in such a way that the dairy stable is partially below the general level of the ground. Such a stable, commonly known as a basement stable, provides very satisfac- tory warmth for the herd and is convenient in many particulars if it is well lighted and dry. The stable which is entirely aboye the ground is more difficult to keep warm, but more easily lighted. In certain sections of New England, and in the eastern part of New York State where the hills are very precipitous, a common type of barn is one that is placed against a steep high bank in such a way that a small amount of bridging makes it possible to drive with a load of hay into the peak of the barn. The hay is then pitched off by hand into deep bays, which often extend thirty feet below the driveway. The unloading of hay in such a bam is easy and convenient, as the hay is never pitched up, but can be rolled from the wagon into the mows below. These bams are very satisfactory in regions where the topography is such that it is possible to build them economically, provided the stable can be given a sufficient amount of light. 5. — What Building Materials Should Be Used for the Dairy Bam? A few bams have been constructed with steel framework. These have not become popular, however, and, on account of the high price of steel, are not in common use. Nearly all farm bams are constructed on a wood framework. During recent years, the plank frame, or the frame made up of planks, has come into much more common use than the old-fashioned heayv^ timber frame. The plank frame is lighter m weight, easier to construct, easier to repair, and saves lumber. Most dairy barns are built with storage space above the dairy 168 DAIRY FARiMIXG PROJECTS stable. In this case, the stable wall may be constructed of stone^ concrete, wood, or a combination of such materials. If the base- ment is partially underground, the side which comes in contact with the soil must necessarily be built of stone or concrete. All that portion which is above groimd, however, or that does not come in contact with the soil, may be built more economically of wood. A common and very satisfactory method of construct- ing a basement is to build the side walls of concrete or stone up to the bottom of the windows; and from this height to the plate, to build them of wood. The portion of the bam above the basement, which is used for the storage of crops only, need not be tightlj^ constructed. The siding should not be matched, but of ordinary boards. If the cracks between the boards are too large, battens may be used. Good ventilation between boards aids in curing the hay. Large cracks or openings, however, admit rain and snow which will spoil the hay. 6. — How Should the Dairy Stable Be Planned? The first thing to decide in plamiing the dairy stable is whether the cows should face in or face out. This is one of the questions that is much discussed every year, and that will probably never be settled except by the individual to meet his particular needs as he sees them. Some common measurements that should he used in plaiming the stable are as follows: Each cow should have a space not less than three feet wide for small cows and up to four feet or more for large Holstcins. A width of from three to three and one-half feet is very satis- factor}^ dependmg upon the size of the cow. The length of the cow stall, that is, the distance from the gutter to the curb upon which the stanchions are fastened, should be four feet ten inches, or five feet, for Holstems; four feet four inches, or four feet eight inches, for Jerseys; and other lengths for other breeds according to their size. It is very convenient to have the platform where the cows A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 169 stand vary considerably in width from one end to the other, so that cows of different lengths, and even yearlings and two-year olds, can be accommodated with platforms suited to their length of body. The gutter may be from twelve to sixteen inches wide. Four- teen inches is a desirable width. It should be two inches deeper on the side next to the cow platform than on the side next to the alley, or, in other words, the cow platform should be at least two inches higher than the alleyway directly behind the cow. This makes the cows show off better to the prospective buyer or visitor. Unless the dairyman expects to clean the stable more than once a day, the gutter should not be of a depth less than six inches on the shallow side. It should also never be more than ten inches m depth on that side. Both sides of the gutter should be perpendicular. Any other shape is less convenient to clean and is not successful ordmarily in keeping the cows from stand- ing in the gutter. The feeding manger should be from twenty-four to thirty inches in width. The alley way in front of the feeding manger should be level with the top of the manger, if the latter is built entirely of concrete, and generally from six to twelve inches higher than the bottom of the manger. This arrangement makes it possible to sweep back into the manger easily the grain, hay, or ensilage which the cows throw out while eating. All feeding alleys should be at least four feet wide and a width of five feet is more convenient. All driving alleys should be at least eight feet wide. The height of the basement should never be less than seven and one-half feet in the clear and never more than nine feet. Too high a basement is a cold basement; too low a basement may permit horses to injure the tops of their heads when being driven through. If the feed mangers are con- structed so that they are water-tight, it is often convenient to water the stock by flooding them. The stable floor is most durable and most satisfactory when constructed of concrete. Some dairymen object, however, to concrete for the platform under the cows. A concrete surface 170 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS which has been insulated by the use of tar paper imbedded underneath makes a satisfactory platform. Cork bricks, though rather expensive, make a very satisfactory platform. Cow stanchions may be made of steel, wood, or steel with wood lining. The wood stanchions or wood-Uned stanchions may be a little more comfortable for the cows. There are many good stanchions on the market. A good one should possess the fol- lowing characteristics: (1) It should not be rigid, but should allow the cow to swing her head around and lick her body. (2) It should be hung loosely at the bottom by means of several links of a chain or in some such way that the cow may swing her shoulders forward in getting up without bringing a strain on the rigid stanchion. (3) It should open in such a way that when opened it does not easily swing out of place or permit the cow to step through into the manger. (4) It should be made of such material that it will stand a considerable strain. Hay chutes and grain chutes should lead from the haymow in such a way that feeding can be done most economically. Hay chutes should be larger at the bottom than at the top to prevent plugging, and should never be less than four feet square. 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having cows with their heads together and with tails together? EW : 140. WPD : 180. 2. Make a cross-sectional diagram of your stable, showing all dimensions. If these are not entirely satisfactory draw a plan for an economical rearrangement. 7. — How Should the Silo Be Located and Built? The most economical silo is built of wood. Wooden stave silos are fairly cheap, reasonably durable, and very satisfactory under nearly all chmatic conditions. Many dairymen who have good Imnber on their farms build homemade silos. These are generally double boarded on the inside and finished with rough lumber and batten on the outside. The easiest shape to build A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 171 is square; but to insure good settling of the silage and the elimi- nation of air pockets, the corners should be built across diagonally. Other kinds of silos are built of concrete, of tile, of brick, and of wood and plaster. Where gravel is abundant and Portland cement is reasonable in price, the concrete silo is very satisfac- tory. This may be made of monolithic construction, or made of cement staves or cement blocks. It is more expensive than the wooden silo, and when once erected, if of the monolithic type, cannot be re- moved. The hollow tile silo is very satis- factory and very ornamental, but has a very high initial cost. It is highly im- portant that the silo should be properly placed in respect to the dairy stable. The silo should be so located that it is con- venient for feeding. A usual and a very satisfactory location is to place the silos at one end of the barn. In constructing a silo, a pit should not be dug below the level of the stable floor. The digging of such a pit is expensive, and the pit makes a very unsanitary, ill-smelling hole because water stagnates and silage decays in it during the summer. Fig. 56. — Permanent monolithic concrete silos erected before starting the dairy barns. 172 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Inside diameter of silo Feet Depth of silage Feet 10 12 14 16 18 Tons of silage Tons of silage Tons of silage Tons of silage Tons of silage 25 36 52 68 96 122 28 40 61 81 108 137 30 44- 68 90 115 150 32 50 72 95 126 162 34 53 77 108 142 171 36 57 82 114 158 194 Fig. 57a. — Approximate capacity of silos of various sizes. Feed for 180 days Feed for 240 days Number of cows Estimated tonnage of silage consumed Tons Size of silo Estimated tonnage of silage consumed Tons Size of silo Diameter Feet Height Feet' Diameter Feet Height Feet 10 36 10 25 48 10 31 12 43 10 28 57 10 35 15 54 11 29 72 11 36 20 72 12 32 96 12 39 25 90 13 33 120 13 40 30 108 14 34 144 15 37 35 126 15 34 168 16 38 40 144 16 35 192 17 39 45 162 16 37 216 18 39 50 180 17 37 240 19 39 Fig. 57b. — Relation of size of silo to length of feeding period and size of herd. 1. Where should the silo be located with respect to the dairy stable? M : 54. 2. How large a silo do you need for your project herd? M : 53. A BARN FOR A DAIRY FARM 173 8. — How Should the Dairy and Ice Houses Be Located and Arranged? The dairy house should be so located that the milker must pass through two doors and a fresh-air space, and not pass directly from the dairy stable into the dairy house. The dairy house should be small, compactly arranged, and should contain a large tank for cooling the cans of milk. This tank should be at such a height and so arranged that it is easy to remove the cans from it to the wagon. Other equipment of the dairy house will depend on the manner of disposing of the milk. If the farm is selling fluid milk or cream, or manufacturing any product, an ice house is essential. However, good spring water which remains cool all summer may take the place of ice. An ice house need not be expensive. The chief requisite in keep- ing ice is to have it well covered and insulated with sawdust or some other material. The ice house should be attached to the dair}^ house so that ice may be easily transported to the cool- ing tank. 1. Visit a near-by dairy barn and obtain the following data: Length; width; height of post (sill to plate); type of roof. Draw a floor plan of the stable showing arrangement, depth and width of gutter, width of all alleys, depth and width of manger, length of cow platform, width allowed for each cow. Also show location of silos, hay chutes and box stalls. Study methods of improving the arrangement and draw a floor plan of the rearranged stable. 2. What is the diameter of a round bam which has the same amount of floor space as a rectangular barn 36 feet by 100 feet? Compute the number of square feet in the outside walls of each barn, if each is 28 feet from stable floor to plate. 3. What are the essential features of a good milk house? V-27 : 3-4. 174 DAIRY FARINIING PROJECTS 4. Draw plans and make up a bill of materials for a milk house suitable in size for your dairy herd. ^'-27 : 6-23. 5. Name and describe the different types of ventilators used in your region. 6. How many feet do you travel from the cow to the milk house to empty a pail of milk? How far do you travel in a year? Is there any way of shortening this amount of travel? How much travel would you save in a year? 7. What are the usual sizes of each of the following timbers in barns of your locality: rafters, plate, purline plate, sills, crossbeams, studs? 8. How can you tell a hewn timber from a sawed timber? 9. What kind of lumber is used most commonly for barn framework in your neighborhood? 10. List five different barn roofing materials used and find the price of each. CHAPTER XIV DRYING UP THE COW AND CARING FOR HER BEFORE AND DURING CALVING 1. Give the cow a good rest between lactation periods 2. Be careful in drying up the cow 3. Feed the cow liberally before calving 4. Prevent trouble at calving time 5. Treat milk fever promptly 1. — Give the Dairy Cow a Good Rest between Lactation Periods Every cow should be dry for a period of six to eight weeks at the end of one lactation period before calving again. The length of time that the cow should be dry depends to a considerable extent upon her condition. If the cow is in fairly good flesh, a six weeks dry period is sufficient. If the cow is very thin, it may be better to have her dry for eight weeks or longer. Some cows, of course, dry up naturally three months or more before calving. How- ever, this type of cow as a rule is not profitable to keep. The profitable cow is such a persistent producer of milk that she will, if milked regularly, produce without stopping from the birth of one calf mitil the birth of the next. The cow that is not dry for a short time between lactation periods will produce milk in the new lactation period at a considerably lower level than she would otherwise, and consequently will give less milk durmg that period. It must be remembered that the unborn calf makes the larger part of its growth during the last two months before birth. This is a great strain on the cow as it means that she must eat enough 175 17G DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS food to maintain her own body and also to furnish this very rapid growth of the unborn calf. At the same time, the cow should be storing up some food in the form of fat which will be used to aid her to produce her maximum quantity of milk during the first few weeks after calving. If, in addition to these other necessities, she produces milk, the milk is usually obtained at the expense of some other activity of the body. 2. — Be Careful in Drying Up the Cow The best way to dry up a cow is to milk only once a day, either morning or night. After this has been done several days, milking may be done only on every other day, and after a few days of this, milking may be stopped entirely. If the cow is producing more than five or six quarts of milk a day, you should stop feeding her grain durmg the drying-up period. However it is sometimes better simply to change to a grain which is low in protein; or the dry cow ration which is given later m this chapter may be fed at this time. There is little danger in drying up the cow in this way. The udder will fill slightly with milk for the first few days after milking is stopped. After that the milk is absorbed and no more is produced. 3. — Feed the Cow Liberally before Calving From the time that the cow is dried up until the calf is bom, she should be fed liberally. It is necessary at this time to furnish enough food to grow the calf and also enough food to put the cow in good physical condition. Grain fed when the cow is dry will give returns in the milk pail after the cow freshens, just as surely as does the grain fed at that later date. One of the best rations for the dry cow is the grain mixture recommended for young calves: 30 pounds of corn meal or hominy 30 pounds of wheat bran 30 pounds of ground oats 10 pounds of oil meal CARING FOR COW DURING CALVING 177 Dairymen who are preparing pure bred cattle for Advanced Registry testing often vary this mixture by feeding much larger quantities of oil meal and smaller quantities of ground oats. Their theory is that ground oats produce a hard fat, and that oil meal produces a soft fat. They wish to obtain a soft fat which will milk off quickly for a seven-day test rather than a hard fat, which will milk off slowly. In regions where very extensive dairying is carried on, that is, where summer milk is produced only seven or eight months of the year, and cows are dry four or five months, the dry stock is usually fed during the dry period upon carbohydrate feeds such as hay, cornstalks, silage, etc. No grain is fed at this time. Dur- ing this long dry period, the cow accumulates a very consider- able store of food from these cheap feeds which she is able to use up in the production of milk over a period of several months after calving. Within one or two months after calving, the cow can generally be put on pasture and her production kept up by highly favorable pasture conditions. In this way a large yield of milk is produced for a short period of the year at a very small expense. 4. — Prevent Trouble at Calving Time The usual gestation period for the dairy cow is two hundred eighty-five days, but there is considerable variation with individual cows. For some weeks previous to calving, the cow's udder begins to fill with milk, or, as the dairyman says, she begins "bagging up." The length of time over which this takes place varies greatly with individual cows. There is no sure outward indication as to the exact time that the cow will give birth to the calf. You should have complete breeding records, and by reference to these should be able to estimate the probable date of calving for each cow in your herd. For several days before this date, be on the lookout for indications. It is always advisable to place the cow in a box stall at calving time. In very large herds where grade cows are kept, it is often impossible to do this, and in the larger dairy 178 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS regions a great many calves are bom while the mothers are in stanchions. This practise should never be followed by the dairy- man who has high producing cows or purebreds. Plenty of box stalls or pens should be available at the time of year when most of the cows calve. Some of these may be used for other pur- poses at other times of the year. There is considerable discussion among dairymen as to whether or not the cow should be milked before calving. If the udder is very much congested, and the cow is evidently suffering from great distention, it may be advisable to milk out the udder partly. As a rule, however, this is not a good practice. The relief is slight, and only temporary, and it increases the danger of trouble at the time of calving. After calving, the cow is in a weakened condition and should be carefully handled. She should be kept in a warm stall, and her drinking water for two days should have the chill taken off it, if the weather is cold. The first day after calving, no grain should be fed except a bran mash, made by wetting bran with warm water. The grain ration should be increased slowly, ten days to two weeks being allowed to get the cow on full ration. If the udder is swollen badly, or "caked," the grain ration should be increased very slowly and the cow's condition watched care- fully to see that it does not get worse. If the caked bag is very hard, it is sometimes advisable to rub it or bathe it with some hot solution at each milking time to remove the swelling. Hot water is very good for this purpose. Lard is also good. Rubbing carefully for some length of time with the bare hand is generally productive of good results. At this time, the dairyman should see to it that he is able to get milk out of all four quarters. If this is possible, he need not be alarmed over the congested udder. During the first few days after calving, there is some danger of milk fever in the case of cows which have produced calves previously. Heifers, at their first freshening, are never bothered with this trouble. For the first two days after calving, the cow should never be milked completely dry at any milking, as a small quantity of milk left in the udder will usually prevent milk fever. TREATING COW FOR MILK FEVER 179 5. — Treat Milk Fever Promptly Eckles gives the symptoms of milk fever as follows: The disease is so typical that it is easily recognized. It occurs in nearly every case within 48 hours after calving, and usually only after normal par- turition. Every cow liable to be aflfected should be watched carefully for symptoms until the danger is past. The first indications are restlessness and excitement on the part of the cow. Within a short time paralysis of the hind legs begins, resulting in a staggering gait. The animal soon falls and is unable to rise. From this time on the cow becomes unconscious, and remains so until death occurs in from 18 to 48 hours unless treated. The cow assumes a characteristic position, which is of great value in diagnosing the case. The head is turned to one side, and rests on the chest with the muzzle pointing toward the flank. The entire body is paralyzed, making it impossible to give medicine; but fortunately none is required. Until the discovery of the so-called air treatment for milk fever, this disease often resulted fatally. The air treatment is very simple, and if used in time rarely fails to cure. Every dairyman should own and know how to use one of the simple milk fever outfits for giving this air treatment. The outfit is inexpensive. Its essen- tial parts and the method of use as described by Eckles are as follows: The essential parts are a milk tube, to which is attached a rubber tube, a receptacle of some kind in which clean cotton is placed to catch the dust in the air as it is pumped through it, and a rubber bulb or a pump of some kind. In case an approved form of apparatus cannot be secured, an apparatus can be improvised that will serve the purpose. The author has known cases where a common bicycle pump with a quill for a milk tube was used to save the life of a cow where no better appliances could be had. However, while it is possible to stop the milk fever by any means that makes it possible to pump the udder full of air, there is great danger of intro- ducing infection at the same time that will cause inflammation and possibly result in the loss of the cow's udder. In using the milk fever apparatus the operator should first thoroughly clean his hands, likewise the cow's udder and teats, with warm water and soap, followed by a five per cent solution of carbolic acid or creolin. That portion of the apparatus which holds the cotton, the rubber tube leading to the milk tube, hkewise the latter, must be clean, and preferably boiled fifteen minutes before using, then disinfected by the use of the carbolic acid or creolin. The receptacle for holding the cotton is filled with ordinary cotton, or, better still, absorbent cotton, which may be purchased from most drug stores. The milk tube is then inserted into one of the teat openings without drawing what milk is contained, and air is pumped through the cotton into the udder. This is 180 DAIRY FARIMIXG PROJECTS continued until the quarter is well distended with air, when the tube is care- fully withdrawn and a tape tied around the teat tight enough to prevent the escape of the air. The same treatment is applied to each quarter. The teats are allowed to remain tied. Ordinarily within two or three hours the cow will regain consciousness and be able to stand on her feet. If the air is absorbed or escapes, so the udder is not tightly distended, the tape should be removed and another injection of air made as before. Usually two injec- tions are all that are required. The udder should remain full of air twenty- four hours at least, and longer if any sign of trouble remains. The calf of course is not allowed to suck during this time. If inflammation of the udder follows, it shows sufficient care was not taken in disinfecting the apparatus used. 1. What quantity of average milk would be required to equal the weight on a dry matter basis of the average unborn calf? E:231. 2. What is the average gestation period for the dairy cow? E : 232. 3. How may the manure be used as an index in feeding dairy cattle? W-PD : 159. 4. At what stage of the lactation period do cows ordinarily give the most milk? W-PD : 162. 5. How should the cow be treated in case of retained afterbirth? E : 234. 6. Give a detailed plan for the feeding of one of your project herd from the time that you start to dry her up until three weeks after freshening. 7. How long do you plan to have each of your cows dry between lactation periods? 8. // you had a herd of coivs lohich freshened in the spring, hoii' would you plan to change them so as to have them freshen in the fall ? 9. Find the cost of a milk fever outfit. CHAPTER XV DEVELOPING THE DAIRY HEIFER 1. Feed the dairy heifer for economical development 2. Shelter the dairy heifer 3. Do not breed the dairy heifer too young 4. Keep young stock free from lice and diseases 5. Prepare the heifer for milking To produce the best heifer, you should feed liberal amounts of sweet milk over a considerable period of time, followed by Fig. 58. — Ringmaster's BL well cared for. 181 182 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS skim milk for a considerable period bringing her up to the age of at least six months. From that time on, the best growth will be obtained by feeding grain liberally every day in the year. This grain should be added to pasture in summer, and to legu- minous hay and silage in winter. The raising of a dairy heifer this way, however, is costly and impractical for any kind except the most valuable of pure bred stock. Starving the heifer, or feeding her insufficient amounts of protein, will produce an un- dersized, runty animal which will never make a large producer and will never bring a good price in the market. Somewhere in between the two above extremes is the best method of raising the dairy heifer. Extremely rapid growth produced by large quantities of expensive feed is too costly. Feeding the calf too little, or a lack of the necessary kind of feed, may be poor economy because it will produce very poor quahty. The dairy heifer usually ceases to receive milk of any sort at six months of age. From that time until she freshens her develop- ment is at a rather critical stage. 1. — Feed the Dairy Heifer for Economical Development After a heifer is six months old, if it is the pasture season, she may be placed on good pasture and left for the entire season without any supplementary feed as long as the pasture is sufficient. This is the cheapest period in her development. If, previous to being placed on pasture, the heifer has been receiving both skim milk and grain, do not drop both of these at once. The skim milk should be dropped and the grain continued for some time until the animal is able to consmne a sufficient amount of pasture to satisfy its wants. Eckles states that, from the time the animal is ten months old, it should be fed mostly on roughage of the proper kind until within two or three months of calving time, when it is desirable to begin grain feeding again. The quantity of grain which should be fed depends largely on the character of the roughage. If the roughage consists of good, palatable corn silage and leguminous hay, a minimum amount DEVELOPING THE DAIRY HEIFER 183 of grain may be fed. In this case, satisfactory growth and develop- ment may be obtained by feeding from two to three pounds of grain per day. The best grain ration for this period is the same ration used for raising the calf, and for feeding dry cows: 30 pounds of corn meal or hominy 30 pounds of ground oats 30 pounds of wheat bran 10 pounds of oil meal At the University of Missouri, it was found that animals that were fed a ration producing a heavy gain during the winter made a small gain during the following summer on pasture; those that made normal gains during the winter made about normal gains the following summer on pasture; while those that made gains below normal during the winter made larger gains during the following summer on pasture, and so compensated for their lack of development during the winter. If the winter, however, was severe, the calves were low in vitality in the spring, and the sum- mer gains were not sufficient to make up for this. The best results were obtained by keeping the animals in normal growing condition throughout the year, that is, keeping them in normal flesh. Animals will stand a considerable amount of roughing during the winter and will not be injured. If they grow rather thin and rangy during all this time, they will be growing a large bony framework. If, however, the food supply is so small that the animal is actually starved and growth does not take place, stunt- ing may result. Feed your calves in such a way that the animals will keep growthy, but will not be given an expensive develop- ment of fat. Heavy feeding of a young heifer will produce an earlier maturity than will Ught feeding. Consequently, the heifer that has been well fed may be bred somewhat earlier than the one that has been lightly fed. This discussion of feeding covers only the period up to within two or three months before the first calving. During those two 184 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS or three months, the heifer should be well fed, on such a ration as that given in Chapter XIV, Section 3, so as to prepare her to produce a healthy calf and to give a good flow of milk through- out a long lactation period. 2 — Shelter the Dairy Heifer It is not necessary, and by many dairymen not deemed desir- able, to keep the dairy heifer in a warm stable throughout the winters when she is growing. Such young stock will ordinarily do fully as well if allowed to run under an open shed and range around a straw stack, as they will if fastened in stanchions in a warm barn. When they are running loose in this way, the labor of caring for them will be at a minimum. This sort of care also insures good hght, fresh air, and most healthful conditions. Animals kept in this way will grow a shaggy and rough coat, but will be at all times healthy. This does not mean, however, that such animals should be allowed to suffer from the cold or be kept in an exposed place. Some months previous to calving for the first time, these heifers should be put in stanchions so that they may be fed grain in more regular quantities, and so that they will become accustomed to being stanchioned. The dairyman with pure bred animals who expects to sell the young stock often finds it better economy to keep the heifer in a warm barn throughout the winter as this keeps them in a smooth condition and looking better for the prospective pur- chaser. 3. — Do Not Breed the Dairy Heifer Too Young The heifer should be bred so that she will freshen when between two and two and a half years of age. Jerseys and Guernseys develop a little more quickly than Holsteins or Ayrshires, and may be bred younger. If a heifer is undersized, she should be allowed to grow to better size before being bred. DEVELOPING THE DAIRY HEIFER 185 4. — Keep Young Stock Free from Lice and Diseases Young dairy heifers should be carefully inspected several times during the season to see that they are not infested with lice. Lice will prevent a well-fed calf from growing and develop- ing. Parasites consume the energy furnished by a considerable amount of feed. Always remember that when the cattle are Fig. 59. — Ringmaster's Britta of Brae Burn. A well grown and well devel- oped Ayrshire heifer. lousy, a part of j^our feed bill goes to feed the lice and brings you no returns. Lice may be removed by treating with the solu- tion described in Chapter XVIIL There are several kinds of scab, or skin diseases, which occasion- ally infect dairy cattle. The young stock should be watched carefully for any such development. Some of these are very con- tagious and very difficult to control when once they become 186 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS established. For this reason, care should l)c taken that they are not allowed to spread among the herd. These diseases may generally be controlled by using the same treatment as for lice. In some cases, the sulphur ointment recommended for the treat- ment of ringworm in (^hapter XVIII produces very good results. If such skin diseases are obstinate, and do not respond to treat- ment, it is well to consult the veterinarian before they become spread through the herd. Young cattle should be observed closely throughout their growing period to see that all individuals are in a good, healthy, growing condition. If an animal gets out of condition, is lifeless, thin, or has a dry unhealthy looking coat, it should be separated at once from the rest of the stock and given special attention to get it back into condition before growth stops or before it falls too far behind the rest of the herd in development. 5. — Prepare the Heifer for Milking The dairy heifer that has never been handled is sometimes very difficult to break to milk. If the teats are tender, the udder swollen, and the animal is a Uttle nervous in temperament, it is exceedingly easy at this time to develop a kicking habit which may persist throughout her life. Some months previous to fresh- ening, in fact as soon as the heifer has been placed in stanchions, the dairyman should begin to handle her carefully everj' day. She should be accustomed to carding and brushing first. After this, the dairyman should begin to manipulate the udder some- what and, as it begins to bag up, to pull on the teats and to handle her in much the same way he will later when he begins to milk her. If this is done carefully, the heifer may generally be broken to milk without much trouble and with Uttle danger of a kicker being developed. 1. How do you feed your yearling heifers through the winter? 2. How do the better dairymen who keep grade stock in your region feed their young stock through the winter? How is the stock sheltered? DEVELOPING THE DAIRY HEIFER 187 3. What is the cost of a good grade yearling heifer in the fall in your locahty? Would this price allow a good profit for raising the animal? 4. Estimate the weights of twelve yeariing heifers so situated that they can be weighed easily. Find the correct weight. Compute your per cent of error. 5. If a heifer is born in April and you want her to freshen for the first time in October at what age will you breed her? 6. What is a breeding rack? Draw a plan for one. 7. What was found at the University of Missouri Experiment Station to be the most satisfactory ration for dairy heifers' M-l,58:54. 8. Are the effects of different rations more marked in differences in weight or in skeletal growth? M-15S : 54. CHAPTER XVI KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 1. Keep a complete set of accounts (1) Take an inventory (2) Keep a record of all money paid out or taken in (3) Keep a record of all work done by man and horse 2. Do the daily work necessary to keep a complete set of accounts 3. Classify all entries for farm products and feed 4. Use common sense in classifying troublesome items 5. Keep miscellaneous notes with the accounts 6. Close the accounts at the end of the year 7. Study and interpret results The farmer is a business man, and to be a successful farmer he must follow modem successful business methods. In order to organize a good farm, you must have such records that you can determine the cost of production for the various enterprises, such as hay, com, oats, and dairy cattle. You should also be able to determine the cost of man labor and horse labor per hour upon your farm. You should likewise be able to determine the relative profits of the various enterprises. As a dairy farmer, in particular, you should be able to determine whether any particular cow of your herd is unprofitable; as well as whether the entire herd is making a profit. All of these may be determmed by rather simple farm cost accounts. 1. — Keep a Complete Set of Accounts In order to have a complete set of farm accounts,* three records are necessary: an inventory at the beginning and at the end of * Forms of tables and subject matter in this chapter are taken from Farm- er's Bulletin, No. 572. 188 KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 189 the year; an account of all money paid out or received; a record of all work done by men and horses during the year. (1) Take an inventory. — Taking the inventories on an ordinary farm requires from two to five hours' work at the begiiuiing and at the end of the year. The same inventory, of course, is used for closing one year's accounts and starting the next, so that after the first is taken this work is done only once a year. The inventory should be a detailed list, with values, of the following: the farm, subdivided into buildmgs and land, each building being listed separately, with the number of acres of land and its value per acre (the total value of buildings and land listed being equal to the value of the farm) ; the horses, listed by name and age, followed by other live stock listed separately, giving value per head; ma- chinery, each item being listed separately, except small tools, which may be bunched as one item; quantities of feed, produce, and supplies on hand ; growing crops (value of labor and materials already spent for their production); cash on hand and in bank; and bills receivable. The total of all these should be found and the mortgage and bills payable, if any, subtracted from it. The difference is what you are worth above debts or your present net worth. In estimating values, the market price at the farm, or the price at the selling place minus the cost of hauling to market, should always be the standard. The value put upon anything should be what it is thought can be obtained for it at a normal sale and should neither be overestimated nor underrated. In underrating or overrating you are only fooling yourself. It is better to be fair and unprejudiced and use your best judgment. The table of Fig. 60 is presented here as a suggestion as to the way in which the inventory may be classified and summarized after two inventories are completed. If preferred, the inventories may be kept on separate pages in the financial record book and the entering of inventory values to the individual accounts may be deferred until both inventories are complete and the accounts are being closed at the end of the 190 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Item Mar. 1, 1921 Mar. 1, 1922 Farm, 200 acres (including buildings) Cows: 20 head at $60 $8,000 1,200 900 783 1,100 110 97 75 $8,000 15 head at $70 1,050 Horses, 6 850 Machinery 800 850 Growing crops (cost of labor and materials) Cash 125 437 Bills receivable 95 $12,265 3,125 $12,207 2,300 $9,140 767 $9,907 Gain for the year $9,907 $9,907 Fig. -A sample summary of an inventory. In the complete inventory each cow, horse, and machine is hsted separately. year. The method of entering these amoimts is given in Section 6 of this chapter. No other account will give so much information for the time and labor expended as the annual inventory. By comparmg the net worth as shown by the current inventory with the net worth shown by that of the previous year, you can tell whether you have made a gain or loss and how much, after paying from farm receipts what you have expended for living expenses. If money has been added to or taken from the business by gifts or by transfer from or to some other business, and these items arc not included in the inventory, such items will have to be known in order to tell the gain or loss. List all your property in the inventory, so that there is no chance for such an error. You may have only a small amount of cash on hand, as the gain may all be invested in a new team, additional cows, or extra feed. On the other hand, the cash on hand may be much larger than the year before, thus making you feel more prosperous, whereas the KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 191 number of head of stock or the quantity of feed on hand may be so much less that you have actually farmed at a loss for a year. The yearly inventory shows the annual gain or loss on the farm business, but it does not show what crops or what animals have made a gain or loss. On nearly every farm where accounts have been kept, the gain or loss for the year resulted from losses on several accounts and gains on several accounts. In every case the farmer was much surprised to see which accounts showed a gain and which a loss. Results like these can only be shown by a complete system of accounts. (2) Keep a record of all money paid out or taken in. — A record of the receipts and expenditures on the farm is necessary for a complete set of accounts. For this purpose a book called by stationers a "broad daybook," or "journal," is used. The require- ments are that there be a place for a date on the left-hand side of the page, a broad space in the middle of the page in which to write items, and columns ruled for dollars and cents at the right. The page is ruled and the items are entered as shown in the sample account with potatoes in the table of Fig. 61. The financial record book at the end of the year becomes the completed account book and will have a summary of labor entered in it from the work record as described later. A separate account is kept with real estate, with each crop grown, with each class of animals, with machinery, labor, interest, persons dealt with, bills payable and bills receivable, and such other accounts are opened as may be found necessary or con- venient. The items that make up bills payable and bills receivable should be listed in the inventory at the end of the year, either from memoranda or from some other convenient source. In closing the inventory at the end of the year, the items for which money is due, or owing, should be charged or credited to their respective accounts. When these bills are settled, during the early part of the following year, the entries should be made under bills pay- able or bills receivable, as the case may be. In this book two pages facing each other are taken for each 192 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS account. The name of the account is written at the top of each page. The right-hand page is marked "Credits" and is used only to record credits to the account. The left-hand page is marked "Charges" and is used only for charges against the account. The pages then appear as shown in the following sample account with a crop of potatoes in Fig. 61. Charges June 3 4 10 11 July 12 15 Date of closing books. Seed, 160 bushels at $1.... Corrosive sublimate, 3 ozs . Seed, 43 J bushels at $1.10. . Corrosive sublimate, 6 ozs. Paris green, 6 pounds Lead arsenate, 160 pounds, Use of land at 5 per cent on $100 per acre Man labor, 796 hours at $0.282 Horse labor, 839 hours at $0.1846 Equipment use, 839 hours at $0.035 Manure, 30 per cent of 1916 application Manure, 40 per cent of 1917 application Total charges. $160.00 .60 48.13 1.20 3.00 25.60 70.00 224.47 154.88 29.36 6.00 12.00 $735.24 5.36.81 Date of closing books. Sold 226 bushels at $1.05. Sold 510 bushels at $1.15. Sold 241 bushels at $1.25, Saved for seed 135 bushels at $1.00 Saved for home use, 16 bushels at 75 cents. . . Total credits . , Total charges. $237.30 586.50 301.25 135.00 12.00 $1,272.05 735.24 Fig. 61. — Sample account with potatoes. Now, suppose that on a trip to town on June 1 one spends $1.40 for horseshoeing, $3 for fencing, $5 for cow feed, and receives a $65 check for milk. The entries are made as follows: Turn to the account marked "Horses" and on the left-hand page enter "June 1 — Shoeing, $1.40." Turn to the "Real Estate" account and on the left-hand page enter "June 1 — Fencing, $3." Turn to the "Cow" account and on the left-hand page enter "June 1 — Cow feed, $5." On the right-hand page, under this same ac- count, credit, "June 1 — Milk, 3000 pounds, $65." KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 193 These entries are now complete; they will never have to be posted or entered again in any way. It is often advisable to keep a memorandum book in the pocket in which to make notes when money is paid out in town, so that the items will not be forgotten before they can be entered in the account book. Whenever money is paid out, turn to the account in the book to which this money should be charged, and enter it on the left- hand page. Whenever money is received credit the amount to the proper account by entering it on the right-hand page under that heading. These are the only entries made. The amounts are charged or credited directly to the accounts to which they belong. Finding the account wanted is made much easier by indexing the books in the following manner: Take a piece of adhesive tape about one and one-half inches long, bend it double, and stick it on the edge of the page in such a manner that it projects about one-half inch. On this projection write the name of the account kept on that page. Put a piece of tape on each account, arranging them one below the other along the edge of the book so that all can be seen at the same time. Tabs suitable for this purpose can be purchased from most stationers. (3) Keep a record of all work done by man and horse. — For the work record, a book, ruled exactly like the financial record book, except that there should be double-entry columns at the right of the page, may be used. This should be indexed in the manner already described. In this book no separate pages are used for charges and credits and no entries are made in terms of dollars and cents. In the first double column at the right-hand side of the page are entered man hours and minutes, and in the second are written horse hours and minutes. These headings should be placed at the top of each column, so that the page appears as shown in the following Fig. 62. This book contains simply a record of the work done on the farm during the year, classified according to the enterprise for which it was done, and it also gives the date and number of hours of each operation. Suppose that the date is May 1. The work done on this day aside from chores was driUing in oats 6 hours, with 2 horses; 194 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS Operation Man Horse 1921 Hours Minutes Hours Minutes Aug. 2 Plowing oats stubble Rolling 8 1 30 45 17 3 30 Horse hours are expressed in terms of one horse for one hour. Hours of horse labor should not be charged against the horse account. Fig. 62. — A sample work record with wheat. plowing for corn 8 hours, with 3 horses; repairing plow, 2 hours of man labor alone. The entries are made as follows : The "Oats" account is turned to, "May 1" written in the left-hand column, the single word "Drilling" written in the broad space in the middle of the page, and the figure "6" entered under man hours. Since 2 horses were used for 6 hours, the figure "12" should be entered under horse hours. In the same way, on turning to the "Corn" account, "May 1 — Plowing, 8 (under man hours), and 24 (under horse hours)" are entered. Turning to the "Machinery" account, "May 1 — Repairing plow, 2 (under man hours)" is entered. When this is done, the work entry for the day is com- plete; it will never have to be posted or written again. The original entry is the only entry made. For chores a special page should be ruled for each month, as shown in the following Fig. 63. Horses Cows Poultry Hogs 1921 Hours Minutes Hours Minutes Hours Minutes Hours Minutes May I 2 3 4 etc 2 20 4 15 30 1 10 If horses are used in the chore work, extra columns must be ruled under each heading to provide a place for the entry of hours and minutes of horse labor. Fig. 63. — A sample heading for a page of an account book showing the special ruling required for entering chores. KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 195 rt IS more accurate to enter the chores every day; but, if chore time is fairly uniform each day, so that the chore work for the entire month can be based on fewer entries, an entry at the beginning, at the middle, and at the end of the month will or- dinarily be sufficient. Entries should be made at other times, if the time spent on chores changes; for instance, when the cows are turned to pasture, when additional cows freshen, or when a change of feed is made which will require more time or less time for chore work. 2. Do the Daily Work Necessary to Keep a Complete Set of Accounts The daily work of keeping a complete set of accounts ordinarily consists in entering receipts and expenses for that day and record- ing the hours of work done. On many days there are no cash receipts or expenses, as these are likely to be bunched on the days when trips are made to town. An actual day's entries made by one farmer are here shown in Fig. 64. July 23 Cultivating corn . Cutting hay Making hay Sold eggs, 5 dozen at 45 cents . . . . Paid veterinary for visit to horse . Paid extra hand, 5 days at |3. . . . Man hours Horse hours 5 3 2 10 6 2 $2.25 $3.00 15.00 Fig. 64. — A farmer's entries for a day. The entry of these items with the filling of the chore blanks for that day, if necessary, should not take more than five minutes. 3, — Classify All Entries for Farm Products and Feed Entries of the value of all home-grown feeds consumed must be made in the live stock accounts. All the feed bought must be charged in the financial record book directly against the animals 196 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS for which it was bought. If the hog feed runs out some day and a bag of cow feed is taken to the hogs, make the entries in the financial record book just as if the cows had sold this feed and the hogs had bought it. At the time of threshing and at the close of haying, the total crop may be entered as a memorandum on the credit side of the proper crop account, but the figures are not yet to be carried to the money column. Estimates can be made with fair accuracy by measuring bins and haymows, or by counting the loads drawn and estimating the average weight. The values will be entered when the product is sold or transferred to the animals. When these crops are used, an estimate must be made of the proportion fed to cows, horses, and other stock; and these accounts charged with the values thereof, credit being given the crops. The quantity sold will be known from weight bills or otherwise, and it should be credited as a cash receipt. Whenever grain or hay is fed from the same bin or mow to two or more classes of animals, a day's rations for each class of animals may be weighed or measured once a month or oftener and the proper proportion of the total feed, based on these weighings and the number of days fed, charged to each kind of stock. Tliis method will give a reasonable degree of accuracy if weights are taken fairly often. When cows and horses are fed from separate haymows, there will be no difficulty in keeping the feed account separate. Where concentrates are purchased in large quantities and fed to several classes of animals, a record may be kept in the feed room of the number of sacks fed to each class. 4. — Use Conimon Sense in Classifying Troublesome Items The entry of some items will be confusing to the beginner. Generally common sense will straighten him out, if he will ask himself, "What account really deserves this credit?" or, "What account really ought to stand this charge?" The real estate and the machinery accounts usually puzzle the KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 197 beginner in keeping farm records. The former is more or less a general account in the financial book and work record. All items for fencing, ditching, improvements, repair of buildings, removal of old fences, new buildings, taxes, and insurance should be charged to this account. Many of these are somewhat permanent and are charges which the landlord ordinarily pays on farms leased on share rental. This account should be credited with any receipts from land rented out, old buildings sold, stone sold, and other similar items. If any special improvement is made, such as when a line of tile is laid, a building put up, or a silo built, a separate account may be opened with it, if so desired. When complete, the cost should be figured and this amount charged against the real estate account as an improvement. Against the machinery account, charge all costs of repairs to machinery and tools, all harness items, and the purchase of new implements or tools. This account should be credited with all receipts from sales of old machinery or machinery rented to neighbors. Under the work on machinery will be entered "Get- ting new plow points," "Repairing roller," "Storing away ma- chinery," "Making new whiffletrees," and other similar items. Such work as manuring may be charged against the crop to which it is applied, or an account may be kept with manure, and the total cost of manure, including the cost of hauling, may be distributed to the different crops at the end of the year. In this system no account is kept with "General expense." Nearly all items of this kind can be distributed as they occur. For instance, if a telephone is kept for the purpose of directing the hired man, the expense is charged directly to the labor account. If the telephone is kept for personal and general farm use, it may be charged partly to the personal and partly to the real estate account. Such items as postage stamps, if small, may be charged to the farm account, but if a large number are used for one enter- prise some of the purchases may be charged to this one enterprise. It is nearly always possible to scatter the charges to different accounts as they occur. A general expense account, if found to be necessary, should be kept very small. 198 DAIRY FARMIXG PROJECTS 5. — Keep Miscellaneous Notes with the Accounts There are many miscellaneous notes which it is desirable to keep in the same book with the accounts. Following are some of the entries which have been inserted by farmers and which are especially handy for later use. Sometimes they are merely written on the page where they seem to belong; at other times they are kept by themsslves in the back of the book: date of "last kilUng frost in spring"; date of "first kilUng frost in fall"; date of "death of horse or cow"; "height of hay or ensilage at a certain date." Other miscellaneous records may be kept, such as herd records, maps of ditches, and maps of the farm, showing the crops for each year. These are not necessary in connection with the cost ac- counting but may ])e kept if the farmer desires, and they will often prove useful. 6. — Close the Accoimts at the End of the Year Considerable time is required to close the set of accounts. However, this figuring should come in the winter at a time when other work is usually slack and when the weather is more favorable for working indoors than out. Project accounts in school work may be closed on agreed upon dates. A definite order should be adhered to in closing the accounts. This order should be as follows : (1) The first step is to take a final inventory in the same manner as at the beginning of the year. This inventory should include all bills that other persons owe the farmer and all bills which the farmer owes to other persons. (2) The list of bills payable should be inspected and any items that have not yet been charged should be charged to the proper accounts. For instance, if $15 for labor is still due the hired man at the date of closing, this item should be entered as a charge against labor. (3) The list of bills receivable should be inspected, and any items that have not yet been credited should be credited to the proper accounts. For instance, if the creamery owes the farmer KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 199 $65 for milk and a neighbor owes liim for some feed, the $65 should be entered as a credit to the cow account and the feed item should be entered as a credit to the account from which the feed was originally taken. (4) The record of all feed transferred to the live stock should be completed, charging the various animals and crediting the various crops. Produce raised and fed should be charged against the animals at what it is worth on the farm. Suppose, for instance, that there were 80 acres of hay with a total yield of 120 tons (20 tons of which had been sold and a credit entered) and that the feed-disposal memorandum showed 60 tons fed to the cows and 15 tons fed to the horses, and 25 tons left on hand. If hay is worth $12 per ton at the barn, the hay should be credited by entering on the right-hand page of the hay account "60 tons to cows @ $12 = $720; 15 tons to horses @ $12 = $180." Now, charges against the cows of "60 tons of hay @ $12" and against the horses of "15 tons (w, $12" should be made. When the value of the hay on hand, 25 tons at $12, as shown in the record inven- tory, is entered as a credit to the hay account, the credits to this account will be complete. (5) The various classes of live stock should be credited with the portion of unused feeds which were charged to them at the time of purchase or harvest. These farm items will, of course, appear in the second inventory under the group headed, "Feeds, produce, and supplies." (6) The use of pasture should be credited directly to the real estate, or to a pasture account, and charged against the animals using it. The amount charged for pasture should be as nearly as possible the market price; that is, the price for which pasture rents in that locality. (7) The value of produce used in the house, if not noted before, should be entered. The proper crops or animals should be credited and charges should be made against the personal account. This item includes estimates of the quantities of milk, eggs, potatoes, and other products used by the family. (8) The entry of value of board, produce, or other allowances 200 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS furnished to the laborers should be completed. These charges should be made against labor and the proper accounts credited. (9) The value of unpaid labor, such as work by the farmer himself, by boys in the family to whom regular wages are not paid, and milking or other farm work by women of the family, should be entered. Make these charges against labor and credit the personal account. (10) The animals should be credited with the value of the manure produced and this amount charged against the crops to which it was appUed. The valuation of the manure should be made at about the market price at the farm. To find the quantity produced, a record should be kept of the number of loads hauled to the fields. (11) The proper amounts for the use of the buildings by crops, animals, the farmer, or laborers should be entered. Each crop, each class of animals, the personal account, and the labor account should be charged with its proper proportion and these amounts should be credited to the real estate account. As a general rule, 8 to 10 per cent of the current value of the buildings may be charged as rent. The proportion of the whole sum which each class of animals or each crop should pay will have to be deter- mined by the farmer in proportion to the amount and value of the space occupied by each. Charges for the use of the buildings on one farm were made as shown in Fig. 65. (12) Taxes and insurance paid on personal property should be distributed to the proper accounts. All land taxes are charged to the real estate account and distributed as part of the "Use of land and buildings." (13) All the hours and minutes of man labor on each enterprise, including the chores, should be added up, these totals brought together and the sum of the man hours on all enterprises found. (14) The total cost of man labor for the year should be found. (15) The rate per hour should be found by dividing the total cost of man labor by the total hours of man labor. (16) The total number of hours charged against each enter- prise in the work record should be transferred to each account KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS '201 Account to be charged Per cent of total charge Amount Cows 30 20 5 10 5 10 20 $60 Horses 40 Hogs 10 Machinery 20 Corn . 10 Oats 20 Hav 40 Total.. 100 1200 Fig. 05. — Distribution of annual charge for use of buildings (Barns: Value, $2,000; use for year at 10 per cent, S200). in the financial record, multiplying each total by the rate to obtain the cost. These items should be credited to labor in the financial record book. When this is completed, the labor account should balance within a few dollars, though if the rate per hour were carried out in full to the last decimal place the account would balance. A difference of one mill in the rate for 6,000 hours would make a difference of six dollars. This difference, or error, is not important enough to consider. It may be carried to the "Loss and Gain" account, or it may be added to or subtracted from one of the larger items of labor, in accordance with whether it is a loss or a gain. (17) All the hours and minutes of horse labor spent on each enterprise, including any horse labor on chores, should be added up, the totals brought together and the sum of the horse hours on all enterprises found, just as was done for man labor. (18) To find the total cost of horse labor, the horse inventories should be entered, the first inventory as a charge and the second as a credit to the horses. Then the horses should be charged with interest on the average of the two inventories at the current rate in the section and the interest account credited. The ordinary rate charged in most parts of the United States is 5 or 6 per cent on the investment. 202 DAIRY FARMIXG PROJECTS (19) The sum of each side of the horse account should be found. The sum of the credits should be subtracted from the sum of the charges and the difference will be the net cost of horse labor for the year. No charge is made against horses for the use of the harness and other horse equipment, all these costs being charged against the various enterprises in the machinery charge, as hereafter explained, on the basis of horse hours. (20) The rate per hour of horse labor should be found by dividing the total cost by the total hours. The figure thus obtained is the rate per hour. (21) The total number of horse hours charged against each enterprise in the work record should be transferred to the same accounts in the financial record, multiplying each total by the rate per hour to obtain the cost. These items should be credited to the horse account in the financial record book. When this is completed, the horse account should l^alance within a few dollars. The difference cm be added to, or subtracted from, one of the larger items, or carried to the "Loss and Gain" account, as stated in paragraph (16). (22) To find the use cost of the machinery, the first machinery inventory should be entered as a charge, and the second as a credit, to the machinery account; then this account should be charged with interest on the average of the two inventories, as directed for the horse account. The interest account should be credited with the amount of this interest. (23) The sum of each side of the machinery account should be found and the credit total subtracted from the charge total, the same as for the horse account. The difference is the total use cost of the machinery for the year. (24) In order to distribute this cost, it may be assumed that for every hour horses were worked machinery was also used. Then each account will have charged against it the same number of machinery hours as horse hours. To find the rate of cost per machinery hour, the horse hours already charged to machinery should be first subtracted from the total hours of horse labor and the total cost of machinery use divided by this difference. Now KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 203 the use of machinery for the year should be charged in the same way that the use of horses was charged, except the charge against machinery. When this is complete, the machinery account should balance within a few dollars. The difference may be treated as explained in paragraph (16). (25) Any other accounts of convenience, such as those for fertilizer, or manure, if kept, should be distributed. (26) All the remaining items should be entered in the inven- tories. The inventory values for the beginning of the year should be entered on the left-hand page of the separate accounts as a charge; that is, the cow mventory should be entered on the left-hand page of the cow account, the hog inventory should be entered on the left-hand page of the hog account, and the others distributed in the same manner. The final inventory for the year should likewise be distributed to the separate accounts, but the items should be entered on the right-hand pages of their respective accounts. (27) The interest against all accounts, based on the average inventories, not already charged, should be charged and the interest account credited with the total, using the same rate as that used in charging interest against the horse and machinery account. (28) The proper charge for the use of the land should be entered. The rate should be high enough so that, with the use of buildings as charged in paragraph (11), it will cover interest on the investment in land and buildings, taxes on real estate, and repairs to buildings and fences, for these items were charged to the real estate account. Each crop should be charged for the land it occupied and the real estate account credited. (29) Both sides of the accounts not yet closed should be footed up. The lesser total should be subtracted from the greater in each account. If the charge side is greater the difference repre- sents a loss, and if the credit side is greater, a gain. The sample potato account given in the table in Fig. 61 will illustrate a com- pleted crop account. (30) A hst of the losses and gams should be made and the 204 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS total of each found in order to show the net gam or loss on the whole business. (31) Each account and the business as a whole should be studied in order to learn how to improve it. 7. — Study and Interpret Results Farm accounts are of little use unless they are studied and unless conclusions are drawn which wdll enable the farmer to make his business more profitable in the future. It is just as important to study the different items of cost and returns in an account as it is to know whether or not it pays. From such a study it is often possible to learn how to reduce the cost of pro- duction, or to increase the returns so as to make a losing enter- prise pay and to make a profitable one more profitable. In study- ing the results of a year's busmess, you must keep constantly in mind that these are the results of a single year. Weather con- ditions, crop conditions, and market conditions for the year, as compared with an average year, must be considered. For instance, potatoes in 1912 showed large losses on many farms because of the low prices and the quantities lost by rot. How^ever, after studying the potato account to find the cost of producing an acre, and after considering both an average yield and the price for the locality, the conclusion might be drawn that ordinarily it would, or would not, be a profitable business to raise potatoes on most of the farms where potatoes are raised. The potato account in Fig, 61 was studied when it was closed, and the following facts were obtained: Total acreage 14 Total yield (bushels) 1,128 Total cost $735.24 Total value $1,272.05 Total profit $536.81 Yield per acre (bushels) 80 . 6 Cost per acre $52.52 Value per acre $90.86 Profit per acre $38 . 34 Man hours per acre 57 Horse hours per acre 60 KEEP FARM ACCOUNTS 205 Labor cost per acre $27 . 10 Cost per bushel $0. 652 Value per bushel $1 . 128 Profit per bushel $0,476 Net return per hour of man labor $0. 672 Besides the satisfaction of actually knowing what crops or enterprises pay and how much the profit is, there are many other ways in which the accounts may be useful. They may be used to study the seasonal distribution of labor on the farm as a whole and on separate enterprises, and also to determine what crops and what animals are the most profitable. By comparing your results with the facts given in bulletins on the same subject you can find how your efforts compare with those of other farmers as to economy of labor, the working efficiency of horses, and many other points. By keeping farm cost accounts you can gain an idea of the value of labor. You soon find that time represents money and that it is equally as important to save one as to save the other. You see that it is just as important to save an hour's work by man and team on an acre of oats, as it is to get a yield of an extra bushel per acre; and that it is more wasteful to have a team idle, than to have one man idle for the same length of time. Studying the accounts after closing them the farmer usually gets many surprises. He finds that very often the largest yields may not pay. Often he finds that the enterprises which he thinks are the best and to which he devotes most of his time are being conducted at a loss, while the steadier, more common enter- prises or crops may be the only ones that show profits. 1. Study your project records and see that all accounts are up to date. 2. How long does it take each day to keep your accounts? 3. What is the total amount of capital that you have invested in your project? 206 DAIRY FAR:MING PROJECTS 4. How many man hours and how many horse hours have you spent on your project each month? 5. What are the average farm wages paid to hired men in your locality? 6. How many hours per day does the average farm horse work? W-FM : 345. 7. How much ivork should a horse do? W-FM : 348. 8. What are some ways of increasing the efficiency of labor? W-FM : 332. 9. Hoio can you cheapen the cost of machinery on your project? 10. Will it pay you to use a inilking machine? Give reasons. CHAPTER XVII DETECTING AND TREATING DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE 1. Garget 2. Indigestion 3. Foot rot or fouls 4. Contagious abortion 5. Tuberculosis You should be able to recognize the more common diseases of cattle, know how to treat the simpler ones, and know when it is advisable to call a veterinarian. Fortunately, the ailments which most commonly occur are easily remedied by the dairyman him- self. Several ailments such as scours in calves, retention of after- birth, and various teat troubles, have already been described, referred to, or will be taken up in other chapters. 1. — Garget (1) Symptoms. — The usual indication of garget is stringy, lumpy milk, sometimes containing watery matter or, in advanced stages, even pus. Swellings and hardenings in one or more quar- ters of the udder also occur. The stringy or lumpy material will often be observed first in the bottom of the strainer after the milk has gone through. One reason for stripping after a milking ma- chine is to see whether there are any signs of garget. (2) Treatment. — Reduce the grain ration to about one third of the normal amount. Give a good physic, such as one pound of Epsom salts and one ounce of ginger dissolved in a quart of warm water. After the physic has worked, many dairymen give with good 207 208 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS results a tablespoonful of saltpeter once a day for two or three days. Milk the udder clean two or three times a day or oftener. In very severe cases, or where garget seems to affect large pro- ducers very suddenly, wrap a wide bandage around the body so as to support the udder. Place inside of this bandage against the udder a hot bran poultice or cloths wrung out of hot water and keep the applications hot. After an hour or two this may be removed and the udder rubbed or kneaded thoroughly with lard or raw linseed oil. In very severe cases where pus is discharged from the udder, or in cases where the disease begins to spread to other cows, a veterinarian should be called. (3) Causes. — Garget may come from overfeeding, injuries, germ infection, or exposure to the weather. In many cases it seems to be contagious and spreads through the herd. The severe cases ordinarily come from neglect of minor instances of ropy milk or from lack of observation on the part of the milker until the udder is in a bad condition. 1. "What are all of the symptoms of garget? By what other names is garget known? DC : 231-2.3S. 2. What are some of the injurious effects of garget? DC: 231-238. 3. In cases of contagious mammilis or garget how does the germ probably pass from one cow to another? DC : 235. 2. — Indigestion (1) Symptoms. — The symptoms of indigestion are diminished appetite, irregular chewing of the cud, dull, sickly appearance, constipation, and dung passed poorly digested and of bad odor. Bloat also may accompany the trouble. (2) Treatment. — Cut down all of the ration. Give a laxative, such as one pound of Glauber's salts dissolved in a quart of Unseed tea and a pint of molasses. Feed small quantities of laxative feeds, such as pasture, roots, silage, or oil meal. TREATING DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE 209 1. What liquids may be given to soothe the Hning of the stomach? DC : 30. 2. In animals which have died of indigestion, what is the condition of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines? DC : 30, 3. — Foot Rot or Fouls (1) Symptoms. — If any of the cattle limp as they walk up to the barn, examine their feet closely to discover whether there is a swelling above the hoof or between the claws. Such a swelling is an indication of fouls. It will also be accompanied generally by inflammation. If the disease is neglected, deep abscesses may form, and the pus may work into the horny wall. If fouls are treated in time, the cure is generally very simple. If allowed to progress too far, the case may require treatment for many weeks. Fouls seems to be contagious, and as soon as one case occurs it is well to be on the lookout for others. (2) Treatment. — Pass a rope back and forth between the claws of the hoof with a sawlike motion to clean out the diseased parts. Then apply some good disinfectant in the pure form. The coal tar disinfectants are good for this. Carbolic acid solution — one ounce to a pint of water — is good. One of the best remedies in severe cases is a saturated solution of blue vitriol. In case of severe inflammation and pain, a bran or flaxseed poultice may be applied. 1. How should cattle be treated in case of loss of hoof? DC : 334. 2. What are some of the conditions that may produce inflammation of the foot? DC : 334. 3. What is idceration of the heel, how may it he recognized, and how is it treated? DC : 335. 210 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS 4. — Contagious Abortion (1) Symptoms. — When the calf is born prematurely, the trouble is known as abortion. There are two forms, known as accidental abortion and contagious abortion. Probably few cases are accidental and nearly all are contagious. This disease causes greater loss to the dairymen of America than any other cattle dis- ease. It is now thought that various other ailments of cattle are closely associated with contagious abortion. Many investigators are constanth^ working on this disease, and progressive dairymen are keeping in close touch with the latest research work. Send to your own state agricultural college or to the United States Department of Agriculture, or to the New York or Wiscon- sin State College of Agriculture, for the latest bulletins on con- tagious abortion and study them carefully. (2) Treatment. — The chief means of prevention or treatment of contagious abortion are isolation and disinfection. As soon as a cow has aborted, the gutter, stall, cow, and everything with which she has come in contact should be thoroughly disinfected. In- ject some good germicide into the vagina and wash off all the parts about the vulva and the roots of the tail. Do not breed for at least three months cows that have aborted. Bulls which serve cows that have aborted should be syringed out and carefully disinfected before being allowed to serve healthy cows. 5. — Tuberculosis The cause of tuberculosis is the tubercle bacillus which may find lodgment at any point in the body and develop and multiply. As it develops it secretes irritants which lead to the formation of a nodule or tubercle. (1) Symptoms. — When the lungs are affected, the animal may cough a dull, short cough. Wliatever part is affected, the animal is Ukely to develop a debilitated condition and become hidebound, and its hair becomes harsh and dry. TREATING DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE 211 The best means of determining whether or not an animal has tuberculosis is the tubercuUn test. Like other tests this is not infallible, but its very large percentage of accuracy is sufficient reason for its continued use. (2) Treatment. — No cure is known for tuberculosis. Pre- vention consists in removing all conditions which tend to aid the development of the disease. Give the animal plenty of fresh air, plenty of light, and enough food to nourish the body. Isolate all tuberculous animals as soon as they are detected. 1. How is the tuberculin test made? DC : 417. 2. How accurate is the tuberculin test? DC : 417. 3. What other conditions may cause some elevation of temperature during a tuberculin test besides tuberculosis? 4. How should you proceed to give a cow a drench? DC : 7. 5. What are some of the best disinfectants to use about the stable? DC : 361-364. What are the symptoms of foot and mouth disease? DC : 382-383. 7. Visit a herd which is being tuberculin tested; observe the veterinarian when he makes the injections; be present at one or more readings of temperatures; study the completed charts of temperatures. Which animals are suspected? Which ones are tuberculous and which ones have no reactions? CHAPTER XVIII RAISING THE DAIRY CALF Caring for the calf at birth Growing the young calf (1) Feeding during the first three weeks (2) Changing to skim milk and other foods (3) Raising a good dairy calf without skim milk Pasturing the calf Preventing the growth of horns Preventing and treating diseases of young calves Keeping calves from sucking each other This calf is being raised by a tsrlidol i:ii 1 "Junior Home Prujeet. " 212 w York State as her RAISING THE DAIRY CALF 213 The raising of good calves is expensive and requires much care. But the improvement of our dairy cattle depends largely upon the proper development of well-bred calves. A few farmers who are close to market and sell fluid milk find it more profitable to buy their cows than to raise them. The majority of dairymen, how- ever, must raise their own cows. The dairyman who raises the animals of his own herd can do constructive work in improving dairy cattle, while he who purchases cows can contribute nothing to the improvement of the cattle of the country. The owner of pure breds will, of course, raise his own calves and raise them in the best possible way with only due regard to the expense as they constitute the most valued product of his herd. 1. — Caring for the Calf at Birth As soon as the calf is born, the mother will ordinarily lick it dry. If she does not do so, the calf should be wiped dry with some clean straw or a cloth. The navel should be immediately dis- infected by painting with iodine or by dipping in boric acid. This will guard against infection which might result in disease and loss of the calf. The calf should then be aided to take from its mother the first milk secreted. This milk is thick, and contains the colostrum which acts upon the calf as a laxative and cleans out the digestive tract. If the calf is weak, help it to stand upon its feet and get a good meal of warm milk from its mother. After that, if it is a strong, healthy calf, it will get to the milk by itself without aid. 1. What is the average birth weight of the calves from the different breeds of dairy cattle? E : 174. 2. Why should the naval cord be disinfected as soon as the calf is born? E : 198. 2. — Growing the Young Calf The small calf should be kept fairly warm, should have good light, good air, a clean bed, and clean feed. Above all, it should 214 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS be fed regularly, and on food which is uniform in quantity and in quality. Observance of these requirements will prevent many of the digestive disorders that are so often fatal to calves. (1) Feeding during the first three weeks. — After the calf has been with its mother for two or three days, it should be taught to drink from a pail and should then be fed from two to three quarts of sweet milk at a feeding, twice a day. If it is possible, it is even better to feed the same total amount of feed, divided into three feedings during the day, rather than into two feedings. As the calf grows, the amount of milk fed should gradually be increased. Any sign of laxativeness, or scouring, or other digestive disorders should be followed at once by a decrease in the amount of feed until the calf has recovered. The feed pails should at all times be kept clean and should be frequently scalded out to pre- vent bacterial growth. (2) Changing to skim milk and other food. — After three weeks, begin to substitute skim milk for the whole milk fed the calf. You should do this very gradually, substituting for only a fifth or a fourth of the ration at first, and gradually increasing until the calf's milk diet is entirely of skim milk. If possible, the skim milk should be sweet. If it is impossible to have the skim milk always sweet, it is better to have it always sour than to have it alternately sweet and sour on successive days. The calf should also be given some good alfalfa or clover hay. The fine second cutting of these crops is best for this purpose. The young calf should be given as much hay as it will clean up from tliis time on. Before the cAi is three weeks old, it may begin to eat some grain. The best mixture for this purpose, and one which is in almost universal use by good dairymen, is made up as follows: 30 pounds of corn meal or hominy 30 pounds of ground oats 30 pounds of wheat bran 10 pounds of oil meal Some dairymen prefer to feed a mixture made up of ninety pounds of ground oats and ten pounds of oil meal. RAISING THE DAIRY CALF 215 If skim milk from a butter factory or central skimming station is fed, it should be pasteurized first. Tuberculosis has been spread to a large extent in this country through the feeding of raw creamery skim milk. (3) Raising a good dairy calf without skim milk. — If fluid milk is sold from the farm, there will be no skim milk upon which to raise the dairy calf. The best substitute for the milk is warm gruel made according to directions from some of the best of the patent calf foods or from the following formula: Mix together equal weights of linseed oil meal, red-dog flour, soluble blood flour, and hominy feed. Into a pound of this dry mixture, stir enough cold water to make a paste, to which add enough hot water, at a temperature of 145° F. to make a gallon of gruel. If the gruel becomes hotter than 145°, it will be injured. Feed this warm gruel to the calf in the same way you would feed skim milk. It is often advisable to continue feeding some milk, until the calf is four or five months old. This can be done by putting one pint of whole milk into every feeding of gruel. 1. Compare the cost of raising calves on skim milk with the cost of raising on whole milk. E : 181. 2. What is the minimum amount of whole milk required for start- ing a calf? E : 180. 3. When should the calf be taken from its mother? E : 182. W-PD : 250. 4. What should be the temperature of milk fed to calves? E : 183. 3. — Pasturing the Calf The best calves are raised by keeping them in the barn through- out the entire first year of their lives. Many dairymen, however, turn the calf out to pasture at the age of two or three months, and also feed as a supplement to the pasture the regular ration of skim milk or gruel. Many more dairymen consider that a calf 216 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS can profitably be placed on pasture when it is six months old. They believe that it will thrive there with a supplementary feed of dry grain. Fairly good calves are raised in this manner. Dur- ing the time that the calf is kept in the barn between the ages of Fig. 67. — Guernsey calves on pasti six months and two years, it should be given liberal amounts of the same dry grain mixture that it was given when young and also all the clover and alfalfa hay that it will clean up. A good rule to follow in feeding grain to the growing calf is to feed at the rate of one pound per day for the first one hundred pounds of RAISING THE DAIRY CALF 217 the calf's weight, and half a pound more for each additional one hundred pounds. After the calf is six months old, it should be given silage or roots if they are available. It should also have plenty of fresh water, and a handful of salt at least twice a week. After a heifer calf is a year old, it is well to keep her in stanchions when in the barn. 4. — Preventing the Growth of Horns When the calf is about ten days old, the buttonlike lumps where the horn will later appear, if not prevented, can be felt. Except in the case of show stock, it is generally advisable to treat the horns at this time so that they will not develop. First, bind the calf's legs together, or tie it in some way so that it is secure. Then with scissors clip the hair from around the button- hke lumps. Wrap one end of a stick of caustic potash or caustic soda in paper to protect the fingers, dip the other end in water, and with it rub the skin over the lump vigorously covering a space about the size of a dime. Rub the spot until it bleeds at the center. Do not let the caustic liquid get into the eyes of the calf. If this operation is done properly, the horns will not develop. 5. — Preventing and Treating Diseases of Young Calves The most common ailment of young calves is scours. As soon as the calf begins to be very laxative, or to scour badly, its feed should be decreased to half of the customary amount. The feed box and the feed pail should be carefully sterilized, clean bedding should be put in the stall, and everything made as sanitary as possible. If the excrement is white, the disease may be the white scours. In this case, a veterinarian should be consulted at once. If the excrement is a bright yellow, the following simple remedies together with the decreasing of the ration will ordinarily cure the disease: two raw eggs, or a cup of strong coffee. Ringworm is another disease very common among calves. It usually appears as a bare rough spot around the eyes or on the face and sometimes on the body. Ringworm results from dirty 218 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS surroundings. It may be controlled by washing the spot with a solution of one part of sheep-dip, or coal tar disinfectant, in twenty parts of water. Be careful not to get this solution into the calf's eyes. Ringworm may also be cured by rubbing it thoroughly with an ointment containing sulphur. Such an ointment may be made by mixing sulphur with either common lard or vaseline. Lice on the calf can ordinarily be killed by washing it with the disinfectant solution given above. If the calf is washed in cold weather, be sure to blanket it until it is dry. 6. — Keeping Calves from Sucking Each Other Calves should never be allowed to suck each other. This habit is often contracted, if calves are allowed to run together imme- diately after eating from a pail. It is better to have small calf stanchions in which to fasten the calves while eating and for a half hour or longer after feeding. If the habit of sucking is formed, it may be necessary to put them into separate pens or tie them up separately for a time. 1. Should calves that are going to be raised be born in the spring or fall? E : 189. W-P*D : 249. 2. How does whey compare with skim milk as a calf food? E: 194. 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using patent calf feeders? E : 196. 4. How should calves be fed for veal? E : 200. 5. Why are raw eggs beneficial for calves icilh the scours? W-PD : 258. 6. At what age should bull calves be separated from heifer calves? W-PD : 261. 7. What is a new born calf icorth in your locality? What is a veal calf worth? a yearling heifer? RAISING THE DAIRY CALF 219 8. Is skim milk available for calf raising in your locality? How much is it xoorth "per 100 pounds? 9. Does your neighborJiood raise a surplus of cattle to sell, or does it pur- chase from other regions a portion of the number required for herd upkeep? 10. Prepare in detail your plan for raising calves in connection with your project. 220 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS CHAPTER XIX STARTING IN THE BUSINESS OF RAISING PURE BRED DAIRY CATTLE 1. Handle good grades as the best preparation for raising pure breds 2. Select the breed that is most popular in your region 3. Select good foundation stock for the pure bred herd 4. Make pure breds pay from milk production alone at first 5. Select and keep cows that are uniform and good types of the breed 6. Keep dairy records and cull all unprofitable cows 7. Lispose of young bulls and other surplus stock before spending too much money on them 1. — Handle Good Grades as the Best Preparation for Raising Pure Breds The business of raising pure bred cattle is more interesting and generally more profitable than the raising of grades. It requires, however, more capital and consequently there is much more risk involved. The best way for the dairyman to start toward raising pure bred stock is first of all to handle a very high pro- ducing and profitable grade herd. It is very doubtful whether any dairyman ought to handle pure breds unless he can select and handle grade cattle in such a way as to obtain an average production per cow of at least eight thousand pounds per year for Holsteins, and, at least, three hundred pounds of butter per year for Guernseys and Jerseys. The dairyman who can obtain as high production as this from grades is justified in starting in the pure bred cattle business. 221 222 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS It is best to start with only a few pure bred cattle. By doing this, you will grow up with your herd and at the same time grow into the business gradually. There is much to be learned in handling any kind of pure bred stock. You must know each animal in your barn and its ancestors, with the production and breeding of each, for several generations back. If you start with two or three animals and make a close study of these, by the time that the number of your pure breds has increased until the entire herd is pure bred, you will know every individual thoroughly. At the same time, by becoming acquainted with the ancestors and the near relatives of each one of your animals, you will be getting acquainted with the history and performance of each one of the famous animals of the breed. By all means subscribe at once for the agricultural paper which represents your breed specifically and read it carefully so that you may become thor- oughly acquainted with all phases of the business. 2. — Select the Breed That Is Most Popular in Your Region When starting in the business of raising pure bred cattle select the breed which is most popular in the region where you live. If one breed of cattle is kept almost to the exclusion of every other breed, it is a very good indication that the farmers of that region have abundant proof that the breed which they are keep- ing is the most profitable for that region. Many men have an idea that they are much more interested in one breed than in another, even though they have never handled this one breed more than the others. These men will probably find that the breed which produces a good profit for them will be the most interesting to them. However, if they are firmly fixed in their preference in this matter, and the breed of cattle which they wish to have is not kept generally in the region where they are, it would ordinarily be advisable for them to move to the region where the breed of cattle which they prefer is the common type. There is a big advantage in having neighbors who are engaged in the same business that you are. This is particularly true in RAISING PURE BRED DAIRY CATTLE 223 raising pure bred cattle. If several men in a region are breeding the same kind of stock, buyers find it to their advantage to come to that region for that stock. Less advertising is necessary, and better prices can be obtained, because the buyer needs to spend less money and time in finding what he wishes. Many regions have become famous for certain breeds of cows, and the breeders who live there have a decided advantage over a breeder who lives in an isolated district with no other man in the same business located near by. Onondaga County and Madison County in New York State, Jefferson County in Wisconsin, certain sections of Minnesota, certain sections of California, and many other sections may be cited as examples of the advantage that comes from having many men engaged in breeding one kind of cattle. In such a region, there is also a considerable advantage in the possibility of buying good stock close at home, in the possibility of owning especially valuable bulls in partnership with other breeders, and in the possibiUty of securing the services of especi- ally valuable bulls at a small outlay in traveling expense. There are many men of long experience in such a region with whom the young breeder can talk over his problems and from whom much valuable advice can be obtained. This is by no means the least valuable advantage of being in a region which is concen- trating upon the breed you have chosen. 3. — Select Good Foundation Stock for the Pure Bred Herd In selecting foundation stock for a pure bred herd, the young breeder who expects to start with a few animals and develop slowly should select stock primarily on the basis of good in- dividuaUty. If you can obtain this quahty and good breeding at the same time, it will be well to do so, but this combination is generally expensive. If one or the other factor must be sacri- ficed, it is better to select fine individuals. During the past few years, it has been demonstrated time and again in the sales ring that animals of poor individuality do not sell for large prices 224 DAIRY FARAIIXG PROJECTS regardless of the lines of breeding back of them. Similarly it has been shown that the good individual with mediocre breeding Vjrings a much higher price than the animal of fair or poor indi- viduaUty with good breeding. 4. — Make Pure Breds Pay from Milk Production Alone at First The new breeder often makes the mistake of attempting to develop a pure bred herd rapidly, at the sacrifice of milk produc- tion. The ultimate test of the value of the pure bred cow, as well as of the grade cow, is the quantity of milk which she will pro- duce. Moreover, the young breeder generally needs a quick turn over of his money or quick financial returns. These results can be obtained best by purchasing cattle which will give him a large volume of products to sell at once. Keeping cattle for the sake of the offspring only is an investment for deferred returns and not suitable for the man who has a small amount of capital. The pure bred cattle first purchased should pay their way from milk products alone; and, if they are the sort which ought to be kept, they should pay better than the average of good grade cattle. Thus most of the extra profits that accrue early from the keeping of pure bred stock will come in the form of an in- crease in the value of the offspring. 5. — Select and Keep Cows That Are Uniform and Good Types of the Breed In purchasing the foundation stock for a pure bred herd, the dairyman should select cows which are uniform in type. He should also select cows which are typical of the breed. Cows which are extremely large or extremely small or which are an extreme in color or abnormal in any other feature should not be selected. The best improvement will be obtained, however, by always work- ing for something a little above the average of the breed or the average of the particular herd. An extreme characteristic of any sort may mean an abnoi-mal individual. Uniformity of type RAISING PURE BRED DAIRY CATTLE 225 in the foundation stock, of course, is not as important as uniform- ity of type in the full herd when it has all become pure bred. If the first generation is not entirely uniform, the offspring will be more uniform because they will probably be sired by the same bull. For the same reason, each successive generation of off- spring will tend to become more miiform because of the mfluence Among the breeders of all kinds of animals, there are individuals who are faddists in regard to particular characteristics of the breed. Some Holstein breeders favor dark-colored Holsteins, and some favor Holsteins that are light colored. Some Jersey producers object very seriously to animals which are broken colored, that is, with white spots on them. Some Jersey producers will keep only cattle that are mouse colored or dark colored or some other 226 DAIRY FARMIXCi PROJECTS particular shade. Possession of such characteristics is without value, unless it can be proved that there is some relation between color and production. Moreover, such a mode of selection is a process which results in the elimination of some good individuals, simply because they have not the favored characteristics. It is best to avoid all such fads. The only points which should be valued in judging or scormg a dairy cow are those which are known to have a direct relation to production. 6. — Keep Dairy Records and Cull All Unprofitable Cows It is even more necessary and desirable for the owner of pure breds to keep dairy records than for the owner of grade stock. There are a large number of undesirable and unprofitable individ- uals among the pure breds of any breed. This is especially true RAISING PURE BRED DAIRY CATTLE 227 because often the pure breds have net been culled so closely as grades are culled by our best dairymen. Many a pure bred an- imal which is such a poor producer that she ought to be sent to the butcher is kept in a herd and bred, simply because all of her offspring can be registered and readily sold. Good dairy records will often be of value in selling stock. If they are unofficial records, their value in making a sale will depend entirely upon the reputation jf the owner. If the breeder is an honest, upright man and known to be such throughout the trade, his unofficial herd records may be given nearly equal credence with official records. 7. — Dispose of Young Bulls and Other Surplus Stock before Spending Too Much Money on Them Pure bred bulls which come from untested dams and unknown sires generally find a poor market and must be sold for a low price. If you are a young breeder, you should recognize this and act ac- cordingly. It is not profitable to take a young bull of such un- certain value and raise him in an expensive way with the pos- sibility that you may be able to sell him for a fair price when he is six months old. With the present price of labor, feed, and milk, it costs a considerable amount of money to raise a bull calf until he is six months old. Unless you are fairly certain of a market for such animals, you should at once convert them into veal or other- wise dispose of them if you can get a fair profit. When the herd begins to develop so that the bulls have a considerable value or when you have a good market for all surplus bulls, you may be justified in raising such animals in a rather expensive manner up to the age when you can dispose of them to best advantage. In- ventories of many herds of pure bred cattle show that the owners have on hand a number of bull calves or other unproductive stock which they hope to sell. In many such cases, a record of the sales has shown that money was lost in holding these animals too long. An unproductive animal should be disposed of as soon as possible. Each pound of feed which it eats and each hour of labor which is 228 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS spent on it increases the amount of money which you must get out of it to show a profit. It is expensive to keep in the herd: calves which are constitu- tionally weak; cows which are physically defective; cows which have aborted; and all other animals that are nonproducers and that are quite likely never to be producers. As soon as an an- imal becomes unproductive or is in a bad condition physically, it is generally best to dispose of it rather than to spend time and labor upon it. Selling quickly at a small loss and devoting the money and the labor thus saved to handling stock which is pro- ductive will generally mean greater profits. 1. What is a pure bred animal? EW : 13. 2. What is meant by grading up pure breds? W-FM : 230. 3. Can pure bred heifers be raised as cheaply as grades? W-FM: 228. 4. What is a pedigree and what is its value? EW : 15. 5. How many animals have been registered in each of the dairy breeds in America? EW : 17. 6. What is a pure bred yearUng heifer of each of the principal dairy breeds worth in your neighborhood? 7. Is your neighborhood noted for the production of any kind of pure bred cattle? What advantages or disadvantages would there be in starting a pure bred business there? 8. When were the first pure breds brought into your neighborhood? 9. Make a five-year plan for the management of your project herd and the gradual changing from grades to pure breds. Estimate the annual inventories, receipts, expenses, cattle sold, and cattle purchased. CHAPTER XX IMPROVING THE DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 1. Make careful plans for improving the dairy herd by breeding 2. Select young stock carefully 3. Select parents that are not too dissimilar 4. Breed according to the law of heredity 5. Do not expect to control sex G. Do not count on the inheritance of acquired characteristics 7. Be cautious about inbreeding 8. Avoid crossbreeding or hybridizing 9. Take every advantage of prepotency 1. — Make Careful Plans for Improving the Dairy Herd by Breeding After you select your foundation stock, you should study all phases of the business and work out careful plans for the future breeding of the herd. In doing this, you should have in mind the great laws of breeding. These breeding plans, hke all other plans, will be subject to change by conditions that may arise during any particular year; but the man who breeds without a plan is likely to get unsatis- factory results. The making of a plan requires considerable study of the Unes of breeding within the breed, and the carrying out of the plan requires still more study of these breeding lines. Have in mind the ideal of type and production towards which you wish to breed. This ideal of type should correspond with the ideal for the particular breed of cattle outhned by the Breed- 229 230 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS crs' Association that is promoting this breed. As pointed out in the previous chapter, be careful that you do not breed toward fads or toward an abnormal development of some particular characteristic which may be unrelated to actual production. The ultimate test of the breed will be its ability to produce. The points on the score card are valuable chiefly in proportion as they have a direct relation to the ability to produce. ■L^Ormsby KoriHlvkc La.l. Fduricrn ihn 191U. Ilulstt'iii-Fn'.si;ui IniU. (laughters in 2. — Select Young Stock Carefully The young stock that is raised in the herd should be culled very carefully and only those animals raised that are of good type, of strong constitution, and from high-producing dams. No matter how uniform is the foundation stock, the offspring will vary to a considerable extent one from the other and from the parent stock. Improvement comes from taking advantage of IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 231 this law of variation and selecting those individuals that most nearly approach the ideal type or that are improvements over the foundation stock. The variation will never all be in the way of improvement. There will be some animals in each generation that are poorer individuals than the foundation stock or poorer than the rest of that particular generation. These are the variations that must be culled. Occasionally, variations are found that are very radical, or entirely different from the parent stock. These are called "sports" or "mutations." If these individuals vary too greatly from the parent stock, their blood may not exhibit that strong tendency to reproduce offspring like themselves that comes from a long line of ancestors, more or less similar to each other, and concen- tration of certain characteristics. In other words, sports, or mutations, seldom produce offspring that resemble themselves very closely. Occasionally improvement has come by breeding from a sport or a mutation that represented very great improve- ment over the foundation stock. Very often, however, sports differ in an undesirable way from the parent stock, or their extreme variation is shown in a characteristic that does not possess great value. 1. What is the importance of variation in animal breeding? Mu : 196. 2. What is the difference between morphological and 'physiological vari- ation? Mu : 196-197. 3. What is meristic variation? Mu : 198. 4. What is functional variation? Mu : 199. 5. What are the causes of variation? Mu : 210. 3. — Select Parents That Are Not Too Dissimilar The use of parents with similar desirable characteristics will result in a strengthening of the desirable characteristics of the 232 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS parents in the offspring. But strengthened undesirable char- acteristics will be shown in the offspring, if the undesirable characteristics are common to both parents. The selection of parents that are dissimilar results in a breaking up of character- istics and often in a nonuniform type in the second generation or even more commonly in the third generation. It is advisable Fig. 72. — Mashe'rs Galore, 8572. Imported Guernsey bull. for the young breeder who has fairly good foundation cows to select a herd sire which comes from stock that is considerably better than the cows of his herd. It is a question, however, whether or not he will get the best development from breeding to a sire which represents extremely high production. In other words, it is probably better to breed cows that are capable of producing four hundred pounds of butter a year to sires whose ancestors have produced six or eight hundred pounds of butter a year, IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 233 than to a sire whose ancestors have produced ten to twelve hundred pounds of butter in a year. The improvement must be gradual, but it should be steady. The breeding of animals that have an abnormally developed characteristic is not generally as desirable as the breeding of those that have characteristics considerably better than the average. To illustrate, if we were mating for increased size, it would not be well to use the largest sire that we could obtain, but rather to use a sire that was larger than the dam with which we intended to mate him. A very abnormal development of any one char- acteristic is likely to mean weakness of some other characteristic. The best and sanest development of the herd will always come from constantly breeding to a sire that is considerably better than the cows, rather than breeding to a sire which is an extreme variation from the cows of the herd, but the latter may sometimes result in extremely high production. 4. — Breed according to the Law of Heredity It is a law of all breeding that like produces like, or that indi- viduals will produce offspring that resemble the parents. The valuation of breeding stock is based upon this law. This law works most systematically and most efficiently for us not only when we have selected a valuable individual that we expect to produce offspring like itself, but also when this individual has a large backing of ancestors which were like itself and hence in it the power of heredity has been strengthened and desirable char- acteristics firmly fixed. The individual of good ancestry is sure in a very large percentage of cases to give birth to offspring which closely resemble itself. Pure breds are more valuable than grade stock, because similar animals have been bred together for so many generations that certain characteristics are fixed and re- produce themselves always, except in the case of sports, or mu- tations. Grade animals that have been crossed with several different breeds have no strong blood lines tending to reproduce themselves. The grade offspring may inherit any one of a hundred 234 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS different characteristics, many of which are undesirable. The pure bred offspring will inherit hundreds of similar characteristics, most of which are desirable. In breeding, you must bear in mind that in bringing together the characteristics of sire and dam in an offspring, the result will not necessarily be the combination you desire. Many who Fig. 73. — Auchenbrain Toreador (Imported), said to be the best bull that ever has come out of Scotland. Record priced bull of the AjTshire breed. believe in crossbreeding have crossed Jerseys and Holsteins expecting to get offspring that would give as much milk as the Holsteins, and, at the same time, as rich milk as the Jerseys. If you attempt this, you are just as likely to obtain offspring that will give as httle milk as the Jerseys and as low testing milk as the Holsteins or any variation between these two extremes. IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 235 1. What are some of the useful and valuable forms of inheritance? Give illustrations of each. P : 225. 2. Who was Mendel? Explain Mendel's laws of breeding. Mu : 138-144. W : 14-20. 3. What is meant by latent hereditary characteristics? P : 227. 5. — Do Not Expect to Control Sex Many experiments have been made to determine whether or not it is possible to control the sex of the offspring previous to its birth. There are many whims, fancies, and superstitions concern- ing this; many rules that superstitious breeders beheve are in- fallible. Up to the present time, however, the best scientific re- search along this line indicates that there is no way of determining the sex of an individual previous to its birth. 6. — Do Not Count on the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics Natural characteristics, such as the ability to produce milk of a certain quality, are hereditary. Characteristics that are ac- quired after birth are not necessarily transmittible. For many generations, sheep breeders have cut off the tails of ewe lambs yet ewe lambs to-day are born with tails. In the last few years, there has been some development of the theory that acquired character- istics are hereditary. Proof in regard to this is not yet at hand, and it is an open question, the settlement of which the producers will await with great interest. 1. What is telegony? Has it any importance to the practical breeder? Mu : 16G-176. 2. What is xeniaf Has it any importance to the practical breeder? Mu : 176-178. 7. — Be Cautious about Inbreeding The breeding together of individuals that have a close degree of relationship is known as inbreeding. Various definitions of "in- 236 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS breeding," "line breeding," and "in-and-in breeding" have been proposed. These definitions have not been closely adhered to in the general discussions of the subject, and for our purpose we will consider inbreedmg as simply the breeding of closely related individuals. There is a great deal of discussion of the advantages ri.i. 74. — Typic and disadvantages of inbreeding, and a large amount of data upon each side of the argument. The facts in regard to inbreeding appear to be these: Inbreed- ing has the advantage of fixing and strengthening the power of heredity in regard to individual characteristics. Inbreeding has IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 237 the disadvantage of producing offspring that may be constitu- tionally weak and less fertile than the parents. Inbreeding may also intensify and strengthen undesirable hereditary characteris- tics as well as the desirable ones. Moreover, close inbreeding may result in bringing out some lurking undesirable characteristics Fig. 75. Fine type of Ayrshire cow. Note milk veins and well-shaped udder. Rynogue Lady Peggy. that have not appeared in known previous generations. So far as scientific data can help us at the present time, therefore, it appears to be safe for the breeder of dairy cattle to practice inbreeding to a limited extent, if he thinks exceptional conditions warrant it. Inbreeding should be resorted to only when you have a very 238 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS desirable animal, whose characteristics you wish to impress as strongly as possil)le upon future generations of calves. To be safe, however, inbreeding must always be accompanied by very rigid selection and immediate culling of individuals that are con- stitutionally weak or are likely to be sterile. It should be pointed out that a great deal of the improvement of dairy cattle during past generations has come as a result of in- breeding. The famous English cattle breeders of the eighteenth century, such as Robert and Charles Colling, Thomas Bates, and the Booths, all practiced inbreeding. The famous Shorthorn Bull "Favorite" was the offspring of a half brother and half sister. He was bred upon his own daughter, granddaughter, and great granddaughter, so that the product of this last union had 93.75% of the blood of "Favorite" in her veins. This cow was afterwards bred to other animals, carrying a large percentage of the blood of "Favorite" and yielded valuable offspring. Nevertheless, Colling, who bred these animals and was a strong advocate of inbreeding, • once crossed his stock with a Galloway. The calves from this cross realized the highest prices. Bates inbred his herd verj^ close- ly for thirteen years, but during the next seventeen years he brought in fresh blood three times. It is said that he did this only on account of the lessened fertility of his own herd. Many other examples could be cited of inbreeding, not only among cattle but among other animals. Darwin, who made the closest study of this subject, gave as his conclusions the following: "That any evil directly follows from the closest inter-breeding has been de- nied by many persons, but rarely by a practical breeder and never, as far as I know,- by one who has largely bred animals which prop- agate their kind quickly. Close inter-breeding often induces steriHty. The evidence immediately to be given convinces me that it is a great law of nature that all organic beings profit from an occasional cross with individuals not closely related to them in blood; and that, on the other hand, long continued cross inbreeding is injurious." 1. Describe Gentry's work in inbreeding swine and the results which he has obtained. Mu : 234. IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 239 2. What is the effect of inbreeding upon prepotency? Mu : 241. 8. — Avoid Crossbreeding or Hybridizing By crossbreeding, or hybridizing, we mean breeding together of individuals of different breeds. The experiences of practical dairy farmers and of scientific investigators indicate that cross- breeding is never desirable in dairy cattle. From a practical stand- point, it is very undesirable among pure bred dairy cattle, as the offspring could not be registered with any Association. Cross- breeding results in a very great variation among the offspring. This is desirable only when we are attempting to found a new strain or new breed. Crossbreeding produces variants. In animal breedmg the hybrids resulting from crossbreeding are often sterile. These hybrids also can not be depended upon to breed true and perpetuate their own characteristics. Mendel has shown that fifty per cent of such hybrids are inconstant in perpetuating their own characteristics. 9. — Take Every Advantage of Prepotency Breeders commonly observe that all parents are not equally powerful in transmitting to their offspring their racial character- istics. In other words, the offspring seem to inherit certain characteristics more strongly from one parent than from the other. An animal that is able to impress upon its offspring its own characteristics to a very strong degree is said to be prepotent. Whenever we purchase a bull for our dairy herd and select an animal with an especially good pedigree, we hope that he will be prepotent and that his offspring will receive their characteristics more strongly from him than from the dam. A study of all breeds indicates that many individuals stand out as being much more prepotent than others. These are known as the great sires of the breed. They include such individuals as "Pontiac Korndyke" and "Kmg of the Pontiacs" among the Holstems, the "Imported Jap" and many other famous sires among the Jerseys. Unfor- tunately, we cannot determine the prepotency of a sire until his 240 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS first daughters are tested. For this reason, we may use a very poor sire or a very vahiable sire for two years before we begm to know much about his vahic to the herd. His vahie, however, will be indicated to some extent previous to this time by the degree to which he impresses upon his offspring his own type and dairy form. Fig. 76, — Bella II du Grand Fort 36346. Guernsey cow. Imported. 1. What are the three steps in breeding given by Warren? W : 21. 2. Secure a five generation pedigree blank and by using herd- books run out the pedigree of five pure bred animals. Use animals from your own herd if it contains pure breds. 3. From the above figure out the percentage of the blood of each ancestor that exists in the animal whose pedigree you are studying. IMPROVING DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING 241 4. How many different kinds of pure bred dairy cattle can be found in your neighborhood? 5. Study your own project herd as to the following characteristics: size, color, dairy type, capacity, shape of udder, productivity. In what characteristics are they uniform? In which are they not uniform? How does youi herd sire differ from the majority of the cows? Fig. 77. — (^ueicus Maid, 25(343, Advanced Registry 15U3. Pure-bred Guernsey. 6. What ideal of type and production do you nave xn mind for your project herd? 7. How will you determine whether or not your herd sire is pre- potent? 8. If he is strongly prepotent, will you continue to use him and breed him upon his own daughters? If this is done, what precautions must be taken? 242 DMRY FARMINCl PROJECTS 9. Do you know of any examples of inbreeding in your neighbor- hood? What were the results? 10. Do you know of any cases of crossbreeding in your neighbor- hood? What were the results? 11. What is the difference betioeen germ plasm and somatoplasm ? What is the function of each? Mn : 161. 12. What are some of the advantages of crossbreeding? Mu : 244. 13. What is the effect of crossbreeding upon variation? Mu : 248. 14. What is the 7nost widely distributed and most useful animal hybrid? Mu : 250. 15. What is a hinny? Mu : 252. 16. What important economic results have been obtained from crossing the zebu and cattle? Mu : 253. 17. What are some of the important improvements which have been brought about through breeding? Mu : 280-284. CHAPTER XXI PREPARING DAIRY CATTLE FOR SHOW OR SALE 1. Have cattle in good flesh at the time of selling 2. Clip and blanket cattle before a sale 3. Make the animal attractive to the eye 4. Do not milk just before a sale 5. Prepare grade cattle as well as pure breds for a sale care- fully 6. Prepare cattle carefully for the show ring 7. Give stock to be sold in the home barn every reasonable advantage 1. Have Cattle in Good Flesh at the Time cf Selling Any animal for which a good price is desired should be in good flesh at the time of selling. An animal that is in fine condition looks better and is larger than an animal in poor flesh. The pubUc is always willing to pay more money for such an animal than for one that is in lean or spare condition. This does not mean that the animal should be excessively fat at the time of sale. Some purchasers will discriminate against a very fat animal. The sur- plus fat is expensive to put on and an extra fat animal will ordi- narily bring no more than one which is just in good condition. One of the first things to do toward putting a cow into fine shape for a sale is to get rid of any lice with which she may be infested. A lousy cow never looks well and is expensive to fatten because of the amount of nourishment that the lice are taking. A cow that is being culled from the herd because she is in poor condition physically, is likely to be tubercular, is a nonproducer, or for any other physical reason, should not be conditioned for 243 244 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS sale. As soon as you are sure that such an animal should be eliminated, it is best to get rid of her at once. If diseased, every day that she stays in the herd, she is a menace to the rest of the cows. If in poor physical condition, it will probably be exceedingly expensive to condition her for sale. Such an animal should be sold for slaughter. Conditioning might enable one to sell such an animal for other purposes, as the extra flesh will sometimes cover up physical defects. This, however, is not only a dishonest practice and therefore objectionable, but it would ordinarily be unprofitable on account of the extra expense involved. 2. — Clip and Blanket Cattle before a Sale Cattle that have been closely clipped always look better than cattle with long, shaggy coats. To have cattle in the best con- dition, however, they should be clipped about two weeks before the sale so that the hair will begin to grow out again and cover up any small inequalities in the clipping. At this time they also look better to the purchaser than do cattle which are just clipped. For a week or two before the show or sale, it is often desirable to blanket the animals. This gives them a smoother coat, a softer skin, and more skin secretions. 3. — Make the Animal Attractive to the Eye There are many attentions which can be given to special body parts that will make the animal particularly attractive to the eye. After the animal has been clipped, the horns should be scraped and poUshed and care taken to see that the hair is clipped closely around the base of each. Many breeders braid the animal's tail for a few days previous to the sale, then unbraid it and comb it out carefully just before the sale. This gives a fluffy, attractive looking brush on the day of the sale. Just before the sale, the brush of the tail is usually washed out carefully. 4. — Do Not Milk Just before a Sale As prospective purchasers judge a dairy cow very largely from the character of her udder, it is often desirable not to milk out PREPARING DAIRY CATTLE FOR SHOW OR SALE 245 the udder of a cow at the last milking time just previous to the sale. The udder will then be distended and show its form to the best advantage. Leaving the udder full is a very common practice, is recognized as such by most purchasers, and is not considered dishonest in any way as it is not done with intent to deceive. An empty udder never shows its true form to the best advantage, and the seller is justified in allowing it to fill with milk in order to show this true form. Some salesmen, however, allow the udder to go unmilked or only partially milked for two or three milking periods. Some go so far as to seal up the ends of the teats with some preparation so that the milk will not leak out. This is an undesirable practice as it may result in injury to the cattle, it is liable to result in a decrease of milk for that lactation period, and it gives the udder the appearance of being much larger and fuller than it normally is. A sharp line of distinction, in short, should be drawn between the allowable practice of letting the udder fill to the extent that it will have its normal appearance at milking time, and the objectionable practice of forcing the udder to hold its milk for so long a period that it becomes congested, swollen, and abnor- mal in condition. 5. — Prepare Grade Cattle as Well as Pure Breds for a Sale Carefully It is profitable to prepare grade cattle as well as pure bred cattle for a sale. The purchaser of live stock will pay more for a hand- some individual in fine condition than he will for an individual just as "typy" but in poor condition. In every other hne of busi- ness this same tendency is recognized. The automobile salesman never thinks of selUng a muddy car, nor does the clothing sales- man expect to sell a suit of clothes that is wrinkled and unpressed. No more should the Uve stock salesman expect to obtain a good price for a cow with a rough, shaggy coat, a cow that is in poor condition, or a cow whose flanks are covered with manure. Labor expense in preparing stock for a sale will generally pay better 246 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS returns per hour than any otlier hibor expended on the farm. Well prepared and conditioned stock will often bring from twenty to one hundred dollars a head more money than will poorly pre- pared stock that may be just as valuable. 6. — Prepare Cattle Carefully for the Show Ring Stock should be prepared for the show ring as carefully as it is prepared for public sale. Preparing cattle for exhibition is almost a trade in itself. There are many special practices in- volving technical details of conditioning, cleaning, washing, and blanketing, that can best be learned from the professional ex- hibitor. Just as important is the manner of presenting the animal to the judges for their inspection. The exhibitor soon learns the best way of leading and turning the animal and discovers how to make the animal stand so as to show off to the best advantage. A close study of the methods employed at any one of our state fairs or live stock expositions will pay the student who is interested or who intends to exhibit cattle in show rings. 7. — Give Stock to Be Sold in the Home Barn Every Reasonable Advantage Many breeders sell most of their stock at the home barn to visit- ing purchasers. It is not generally economical to keep all of the herd in show condition. Only the few breeding establishments that have the highest valued individuals can profitably do so. Every breeder, however, can follow a few practices that will aid in obtaining good prices. All animals that are for sale should be kept where the prospective purchaser can obtain a good view of them. They should be in the lightest and cleanest part of the bam. As explained in a pre- vious chapter, it is desirable to place the cattle in such a way that the platform on which they stand is from two to four inches higher than the platform on which the purchaser is to stand. This shows off the animals to l^etter advantage. If you are selling young stock, it is a very good practice to have the dam and the sire m good con- PREPARING DAIRY CATTLE FOR SHOW OR SALE 247 dition and to show these before showing the young stock. Most purchasers realize that it is hard to decide from the looks of a calf how "typy" an individual it will be when fully grown. If the immediate sire and dam are good individuals and so impress the purchaser, he is predisposed to look with favor on the calf. In other words, if the immediate sire and dam are clean and in good condition and show to good advantage, they help to create a favorable impression on the calf's prospective purchaser, and this impression often results in a sale. 1. If you have not already done so, clip the flanks of all your dairy cows. 2. If the time of year is suitable, clip each young animal and spend a few minutes per day for one month putting it in good con- dition for a show ring or sale. 3. Visit a public sale of cattle ; study the condition of the animals and its relation to the selUng price. 4. At the next agricultural fair you attend make a study of the methods used by professional show men in preparing ani- mals for the show ring. 5. Do your cows show off to advantage in your stable? 6 How could the stable be improved as a sales stable? What would be the probable cost? Would it pay if you had a herd of twenty pure bred dairy cows? 7. Each boy in the class should prepare an animal for the show ring. On a given day these animals should all be assembled at the school, or some other central point, and judged by a practical cattle breeder as to which animal is the best fitted for the show or sales ring. 8. Why is it more necessary to prepare cattle for an auction than for a private sale? VaP : 297. 9. How does the time of freshening affect the sale price of cattle at an auction? VaP : 297. 10. How should an animal be taught to stand in the sales ring? VaP : 295. CHAPTER XXII ADVERTISING AND MARKETING DAIRY CATTLE AND OTHER DAIRY PRODUCTS 1. Advertising' in agricultural periodicals (1) Consider the breed journals (2) Consider the general dairy papers (3) Use good pictures 2. Use attractiva stationery 3. Be businesslike in your correspondence 4. Remember that satisfied customers are the best advertise- ment 5. Study the market for dairy cattle 6. Consider public sales as means of disposing of surplus animals 7. Find or develop profitable markets for dairy products 1. — Advertising in Agricultural Periodicals (1) Consider the breed journals. — The breeder of puie bred dairy cattle will find his best market through advertising in the journal or periodical that is devoted to the interests of his breed. This is notably true if he is breeding stock of high quality that will bring an exceptionally high price. The public approached in this way is composed entirely of persons interested in that particular breed. Although the circulation of the journal may be somewhat limited, yet the number of possible buyers reached is large. (2) Consider the general dairy papers. — Another good ad- vertising medium is the general agricultural or dairy press. There are a great many papers of this sort bemg pubhshed. Some have a circulation confined to a single state, or group of states, and others 248 ADVERTISING AND MARKETING DAIRY CATTLE 249 are national in character. ]\Iany of these may be useful to the dairyman who has surplus stock to sell. If you have medium- priced or grade animals, you will usually find it more to your ad- vantage to advertise in the general agricultural press than if you have pure bred stock. The medium-priced or grade animals appeal to a much larger number of buyers. Local agricultural papers, such as the local farm bureau or extension service news sheets, are often of value in disposing of stock. For medium-priced pure bred and grade stock, the best markets are generally to be found in the immediate locality. Advertising in such papers is relatively cheap and well within the means of the man who has only a few head of cattle to sell. (3) Use good pictures. — A good picture of the stock for sale, or of the herd sire, or of some of the better animals in the herd, adds greatly to the effectiveness of an advertisement. The taking of such pictures is an art in itself. The larger breeders employ very high-priced photographers, who often come long distances and spend hours of time to get a good picture of a single animal. You can not afford this but you can, by working at the problem, secure very good photographs that will aid in making up adver- tisements or that will be worth while to enclose in a letter to a prospective buyer. The amateur photographer should observe several points that have been developed by experience. Nearly all good pictures of cattle are taken from a position at one side and somewhat behind the animal. This accentuates the wedge form which is so desir- able in the dairy cow. In a way, it perhaps gives an untrue picture. Nevertheless, this method has been carried on for so long a time and so many pictures of dairy cattle have been printed in this way, that it seems necessary for the breeder of to-day to take his photographs in this particular manner in order to make them comparable with the photographs with which we are all famihar. Pictures of dairy cattle should never show a background that detracts from the animal itself. Study the pictures in your breed journal to determine what background is most pleasing to the eye and what one it is possible for you to obtain near your barn 250 DAIRY FARMING PROJECTS that will be effective. Cattle should always be in good condition and well groomed when the picture is taken. They should be standing squarely on all four legs and in a normal pose. A fair degree of skill in judging light and distances and a cheap camera, costing from five to twenty dollars, will enable you to obtain pictures that will be worth printing in advertisements and that will be a great help in selling stock. 2. — Use Good Stationery with an Attractive Letterhead and a Small Number of Pictures The use of attractive stationerj^ of good quality is of great aid in selUng any article. The name of the farm, the name of the owner, and the post office address should be printed plainly at the top. There should also be a small amount of space devoted to pictures or records of the best individuals in the herd. The use of large sheets made of rather smooth print paper and covered with the pictures or records of animals in the herd is confusing to the prospective buyer, is in poor taste, and is comparable to distributing printed broadsides rather than to sending carefully written business letters. The average dairyman or other business man prefers his letter to give him a few concise, pertinent facts, rather than a whole broadside of Uterature concerning the breed. 3. — Be Businesslike in Your Correspondence Do not advertise unless you are prepared to take care of the correspondence that may result, and to take care of it promptly. All correspondence should be answered courteously and fully, but briefly, and within twenty-four hours of the time that it is received. You should remember that if you are busy, so are others; that your correspondent's time is as valuable to him as is your time to you. He will appreciate a prompt reply, and a reply that will give him at a glance the information for which he asks. Its brevity or conciseness should never, however, result in discourtesy of wording or brusqueness. ADVERTISING AND MARKETING DAIRY CATTLE 251 K.rg S^. D.K0I