^m 
 

 
 JiAj?^- 
 
LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 AN INDEX. 
 
 PrBUSHED U^DER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE 
 DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, P ATE RNOSTE R-RO W. 
 
 MDCCCXXXII. 
 
COMMITTEE. 
 
 CAairm/ui— The Right (loo. the LORD CHANCEI.LOll. 
 Viee-Chairman— The Rt. Hon. LORD JOHN RUSSELL, M.P., Pajroastei General. 
 
 W. Allen, Esq., F.R. & R.A.S. 
 
 Kt. Hon Vise. Allhorp, M.P. 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Lord Ashley, M.P. 
 F.R.A.S. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Lord Auckland, Presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade. 
 
 \V. B Baring, Esq. 
 
 Capl. F. Beaufort, R.N., F.R. 
 and R.A.S., Hydrographer to 
 the Admiralty. 
 
 SirO. Bell, F.R.S. L. and E. 
 
 John Hostock, M.D. F.R.S. 
 
 The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of 
 Chichester. 
 
 M'illiam Coulsnn, Esq. 
 
 R. D.Craig, Esq. 
 
 Wm. Crawford, Esq. 
 
 J. Fred. Daniell, Esq.. F.R.S. 
 
 -WILLIAM TOOKE, Esq., F.R.S. 
 
 I Sir T. Denman, M.P., Attor-IEdwin Hill, Esq. 
 
 nev-General. Sir J.Cam Hobhouse,Bt.,M.P. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Lord Dover, F.R.S., Secrctarv at War. 
 
 F.S.A. iDavid Jardine, Esq., A.M. 
 
 Lt. Drummond, R.E.F.R.A.S. Henrv B. Ker, Es^. 
 Viscount Ehringlon, M.P. Th. Hewitt Kev, Esq., A.M. 
 
 T. F.Ellis, Esq.,.ll. A, F.H.A.S. George C. Lewis, Esq., M.A. 
 John Elliolson, M.D., F R.S. lEdward Llovd, Esq., M.A. 
 How. Elphinslone. Esq., M.A. James Lochi Esq. M.P.,F.G.S. 
 Thom.as Falconer, Esq. . George Long, Esq., A.M. 
 
 I. L. Goldsmid, Esq., F.R. and J. W. Lubbock, Esq.,F.R.,R.A. 
 
 R.A.S. i and L.S.S. 
 
 B. Gouipertz, Esq., F.R. and Zacharv .Macaulay, Esq. 
 
 R.A.S. M. Maiden, Esq, A.M. 
 
 G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R. Sir B. H. Malkin, M.A. 
 
 and L.S. i A. T. Malkin, Esq., M.A. 
 
 H.Hallam, Esq., F.R.S,, M.A. 'James Manning, Esq. 
 M. D. Hill, Esq. J.HermanMerivale,Esq.,K.A.S. 
 
 les MiU, Esq. 
 
 M. D. Hill, Esq. 
 
 Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.i 
 
 W. H. Ord, Esq. 
 
 Rt Hon. Sir H. Parnell, Burl. 
 
 M.P. 
 Rl. Hon. T. S. Rice, M. P. 
 
 F.A.S., Sec. to the Treasurv. 
 Dr. Roget, Sec, R.S., F.U.A..S. 
 Sir M. A.Shee, P.U.A., K.R.S 
 Rev. Richard Sheepshanks, 
 
 M.A 
 J. Smith, Esq., M.P. 
 Wm. Sturch, Esq. 
 Dr. A.T.Thomson, F.L.S. 
 N. A. Vigors, Esq., F.K.S. 
 John Ward, Esq. 
 H. VVavmouth, Esq. 
 J. Whiihaw, Esq., M.A ,F.R.S. 
 John Wrotlesley, Esq., M.A. 
 
 Sec, R.A,S. 
 
 Anglesea — Rev. E. Williams, 
 hiv. W. Johnson. 
 Mr. Miller. 
 A-flthurton — J.F.Kingston, Esq 
 Bihton—Kev. W. Leigh. 
 Birmingham.— Rev. John Cor- 
 rie, F.K.S., CliairTjian. 
 Paul Moon James, Esq., 
 
 Treasurer. 
 Jos. Parkes, Esq. ) Hon. 
 W. Redfern, Esa. f Sees. 
 Bonn — Leonard Homer, Esq. 
 
 F.R.S L&E. 
 Bristol— ]. N. Sanders, Esq., 
 Chaii-man. 
 J. Reynolds, Esq., Treas. 
 J. B.' Estlin, Esq., F.L.S., 
 Sec. 
 Bun/ S(. Edmunds.— v. Bevan, 
 
 Esq. 
 
 Cambridge — Rev. James Bow- 
 stead, M.A. 
 
 Rev. Prof Henslow, M.A., 
 F.L.S. &G.S. 
 
 Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A,, 
 
 Rev. John Lodie. M.A. 
 Rev. Gen. Peacock, M.A., 
 
 F.K.S.4G.S. 
 Rev. Prol. Se<|.-wick. M.A., 
 
 F.R S. S G.S. 
 Profi'ssor Snivih, M.A. 
 R»v. C ThirUvHll, M.A. 
 K. \V Rothman. Esq., M.A. 
 
 F.H.A.S, & G.S. 
 Rev. Georue Waddingion. 
 Canleibury — Alex.B. Higgins, 
 
 Esq. 
 
 Canton— J. F. Da 
 F.R.S. 
 
 Esq., 
 
 Carnanon—n. A. Poole, Esq. 
 
 William Hoberts, Esq. 
 C;.M(er— Haves Lvon, Esq. 
 
 Hev. Mr. Aspland. 
 
 W. Cole, Jun.. Esq. 
 
 Dr. Cnmming 
 
 Dr. Jones. 
 
 Henry Potts, Esq. 
 
 Dr. Thackery. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Thorp. 
 
 — Warden, Esq. 
 
 — Wedge, Esq. 
 Chichester— Dr. Forbes. F.R.S 
 
 Dr. Sanden. 
 
 C. C. Dendy, Esq. 
 Coventry— Ar. G-egorv, Esq. 
 Denbigh — John Madocks, Esq 
 
 Thos Evans, Esq. 
 Dfrtv— .loseph Strutt, Esq. 
 Devonoort — Lt.-Col. J. Hamil- 
 ton Smith, F.R. & L.S. 
 John Coles, Esq. 
 EJrurm— Jos. Wedgwood, Esq. 
 Ezeter—Rev. J. P. Jones. 
 
 J.TvrrelUEsq. 
 Glasgoir—K. Finlav, Esq. 
 
 D. Bannalvne, Esq. 
 Rt. Grahame, Esq. 
 Profes.sor Mvlne. 
 Alexander McG rigor, Esq. 
 Charles Icniirmt, Esq. 
 
 Mr. T. Atkinson, Hon. Sec. 
 G tamorgans}t ire — 
 
 Dr. Malkin, Cowbridge. 
 Rev. R R. Paul, Lantwit. 
 W. Williams, Esq., Aber- 
 l.eruwm. 
 HoIi/rccH— The Rev. J. Black- 
 mail. 
 
 \KeigHei/, Yorkshire— Rev. T. 
 1 Dury, M.A. 
 
 Launcffsion — Key. J. Barfitt. 
 Leamington Spa — Dr. Loudon, 
 
 M.IJ. 
 Im*— J. Marshal?, Esq. 
 
 Benjamin Gotl, Esq. 
 
 J. Marshall, Jun., Esq. 
 Lewes— J. W. Woollgar, Esq. 
 Liverpool Local .issociation— 
 
 Dr. Traill Chairman. 
 
 J. Mulleneux, Esq., Treas. 
 
 Rev. W. Shepherd. 
 
 J. Ashtnn Vales, Esq. 
 Ludlmc—T. A. Knight, Esq., 
 
 P.H.S. 
 Maideniiead — R.Gnolden, Esq., 
 
 F.L.S. 
 Manchester Local As ociation — 
 
 G. W.Wood, Esq., Chairman. 
 
 Benj. Hevwood, Esq., Treas. 
 
 T. W. Winstanlcy, Esq., 
 Hon. Sec. 
 
 SirG.Philips, Bart., M.P. 
 Monmouth — J. H. Moggridge, 
 
 Esq. 
 A«a(/i— John Rowland. Esq. 
 Neiccastte — James Losh, Esq. 
 
 Rev. W. Turner. 
 A'(n/-;Mr(— Ab. Clarke, Esq. 
 
 T. Cooke, Jan., Esq. 
 
 R G. Kirkpatrick, Esq. 
 Nmcimt I agnelt—.t.yi illar.Esq 
 Nfnrton Montgomerijshire — 
 
 William Pimh, Ksq. 
 A'ortniWi— Ht Hon. Ld.Suffield 
 
 Rich. Bacon, Esq. 
 Pturwtuth — Geo. Harvey, Esq., 
 F.R.S. 
 
 Rippon— RcT. H. P. Hamilton. 
 A.M., F.R.S.. and G.S. 
 Kev. P. Ewart, M.A. 
 nuf/iCT— Rev. The Warden of. 
 
 Humphreys Jones, Esq. 
 SlKfT'eld—i.'H. Abraham, Esq. 
 Shetrsbury — R. A. Slaney 
 
 Esq., M.P. 
 South Petherlon — John Nicho- 
 
 letts, Esq. 
 St. A'aph—Rev. Geo. Strong. 
 Stockport-Hrnrv Marsland. 
 Esq.. Treosiirer 
 Henrv Coppock, Esq., .See 
 rarisloH— Rev. W. :.van=. 
 
 John Hundle, Esq. 
 UVinoia— Dt. Conol Iv. 
 The Rev William Field, 
 a^am) 
 nater/ord—S'n John Newport, 
 
 Bart., iM.P. 
 JToheihampton — J. Pearson , 
 
 Esq. 
 norcesfei— Dr. Corbett, M.D. 
 Di. Hastings, M.D. 
 C. H. Hebh, Esq. 
 Tiejftam— Thomas Edgworlli 
 
 J. E.to 
 
 Trci 
 
 , Esq., F.L.S. 
 
 Major William Llovd. 
 yarmoulh — C. E. Rumbold, 
 Esq., M.P. 
 D.iwaoa Turner, Esq. 
 rnri— Rev.J Kenrick, A.M. 
 John Wood, Esq., .M.I-. 
 
 THOMAS COATES, Secretary, 59, Lincoln's Inn Fieldt. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting . , 2 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Of the structure of Trees, and of the natural Agents which influence and 
 govern the growth of the Plants fiom the period of germination, until 
 the Trees arrive at full maturity ••.... 2 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 Of the different modes of rearing Forest-Trees : — By sowing the seeds on 
 the spot where they are to remain for Timber. By sowing the seeds on 
 nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their 
 timber sites. Modes of propagating, and of transplantmg, preserving, 
 and training proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or 
 stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different 
 modes ; and of simple and mixed Plantations .... 22 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber; 
 intimate nature of different soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of 
 particular species of Forest-Trees ...... 46 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Of the mc^t approved modes of preparinsr different Soils for the reception 
 of the Plants — Fencinsr, Draininsj, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the 
 formation of rides or oarriaije-vvays into the interior of plantations. Of 
 the best mode of coverins; these with Herbage .... 56 
 
IV CONTENTS, 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Page, 
 
 Of the culture of Plantations; Soil; Pruning; Thinning; remedips for 
 accidental injuries, and the natural diseases of Forest-Trees. Of the 
 Tanning afforded by the bark of different species of Trees . . 60 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Of the progressive increase of size or produce of Wood in different species 
 of Forest-Trees. Of the mode of valuing Plantations — present value — 
 prospective value of certain individual Trees, which have attained to 
 great maturity. Of the products of Plantations, and of the terms used 
 by foresters to denote these products . . . . , 76 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 Enumeration of the different Species of Forest-Trees ; their uses, and the 
 method of cultivation ........ 93 
 
 Ornamental Planting 129 
 
 Index 146 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 The subject of ])lanting' may, with propriety, be divideil into three parts: 
 useful or forest-tree planting, ornamental or garden planting, and 
 orchaid or fruit-tree planting. Each of these divisions of the subject, 
 from its importance and interest, in a national point of view, as welt 
 as to individuals, seems to demand a distinct treatise. 
 
 The first of these, forest-tree planting, is proposed for the subject of the 
 following pages ; and the details of the theory and practice of the art 
 discussed under the following heads : 
 
 I. Of some of the advantages resulting from judicious planting. 
 
 If. Of the structure of trees ; and of the natural agents which influence 
 and govern the growth of the plant from the period of germination 
 to its full maturity. Of the seeds of forest-trees ; and of the processes 
 of vegetation. 
 
 III. Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees: — by sowing the seeds 
 on the spot where they are to remain for timber ; of sowing the seeds 
 on nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young plants to 
 their timber sites ; by preserving and training proper shoots or suckers, 
 produced by coppice roots or stools. Comparative advantages and 
 disadvantages of these different modes. Of simple and of mixed 
 plantations. 
 
 IV. Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the growth of 
 timber. Intimate nature of the different soils peculiarly adapted for 
 the growth of particular species of forest trees. 
 
 V. Of the most approved modes of preparing different soils for the re- 
 ception of the plants : fencing, draining, ploughing, trenching. Of 
 the formation of rides or carriage-ways into the interior of plantations. 
 Of the best mode of covering these with herbage. 
 
 VI. Of the culture of plantations: soil, pruning, thinning. Remedies for 
 accidental injuries, and natural diseases of forest-trees. Seasons for 
 felling trees. Of the tannin in the bark of different species of trees. 
 
 VII. Of the progressive increase of the size or produce of wood in 
 different species of trees. Of the mode of valuing plantations: 
 present value; prospective value. Of the products of plantations. 
 Of some individual trees which have attained to great perfection. 
 Of the terms used to denote certain products of plantations. 
 
 VIII. An enumeration of the different species : those of large growth, 
 those of under growth tor copse wood, ornament, or shelter. Ths 
 generic botanical characters. Their natural soils ; mode of propa- 
 gation ; and the uses to which their timber is more generally applied. 
 
 B 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting. 
 
 Judicious planting and the skilful culture of plantations combine national 
 and private interests in an eminent degree; for, besides the real or intrinsic 
 value of the timber or ostensible crop, with other produce of woods, 
 available for the arts and comforts of life, judicious forest-tree planting 
 improves the general climate of the neighbourhood, the staple of the soil, 
 as regards the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter, affords shelter to 
 live stock, promotes the growth of pasture and of corn crops, beautifies 
 the landscape, and thus greatly and permanently increases the value of 
 the fee simple of the estate and adjoining lands. 
 
 Tf we turn to those soils emphi-.ticaliy termed wastes — exposed, elevated 
 lands, moors, bogs, and sterile sands — composing so large a portion of the 
 British euipire, and naturally clothed by the lowest and least valuable 
 products of the vegetable kingdom, the inferior grasses, mosses, rushes, 
 sedges, ferns, and heaths — we find that upon them the more valuable do- 
 mestic animals cannot exist. If we consider the reason why they are so 
 barren, waste, and unproductive, when comj)ared with other lands not 
 more favoured by nature, and under similar circumstances of latitude and 
 elevation, the cause will, in many instances, be found in the want of the 
 shelter and shade of trees, and of the ameliorating influence which 
 plantations exercise on ungenial local climates. 
 
 'I'he essential, permanent pasture grasses cannot be established on naked 
 exposed situations; but when assisted by the shelter of forest-trees they 
 become permanent and jn-oduclive. Plantations siipply us with fuel, 
 with materials for fencing, enclosing, building; corn crops, soiling plants, 
 and root crops are obtained in succession under their genial protection. 
 Many thousands of acres now unprofitable to the owners and to the 
 community, might, by judicious plaiuing, be reclaimed, and rendered 
 highly productive ; and it may be safely affirmed, that there is hardly a 
 spot of waste land in the kingdom so barren, wliich by the exercise of 
 skill in planting, and selection of proper species of forest-trees adapted to 
 the soil and exposure, might not be covered with profitable plantations. 
 
 Numerous instances might be cited from diHerent parts of the kingdom 
 where exposed and sterile lands have, by phuiting, been made capable of 
 producing valuable arable crops and the best pasture grasses, and of 
 rearing and fattening stock of improved breeds. This, in effect, is adding 
 to the territorial extent of a country, to its wealth and strength, by conquest 
 over the natural defects of local climate, soil, and exposure. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Of the Structure of Trees, and of the Natural Agents which influence and 
 govern the growth of the Plants, from the period of Germination 
 iintil the Trees arrive at full viaiurity. 
 
 Plants being living organized bodies, a just knowledge of the functions 
 of their vital organs, and of the principal natural agents which influence 
 their progress of growth to maturity, will be found a useful, if not an indis- 
 pensable assistant to guide the practical planter in rearing trees in the most 
 
PLANTING. 8 
 
 judicious and successful manner. Tliis pnvt of the subject properly belong-s to 
 vcgotiible physioloy-y ; and as the limits of an essay do not allow of entering 
 into minute details, we shall here only notice tho;^e leading- features of the 
 structure of trees, and those functions of their vital orgjans, which more 
 immediately influence the practical operations of the planter. In con- 
 sidering- the progress of vegetable life, physiologists have disting-uislied 
 six ])rincipal parts of a tree : the root, the stem, the branches, the leaves^ 
 ihejiowers, and the fniit or seed. 
 
 'i'he varieties of the root of forest-trees are characterised by the names 
 of tap root, fibrous root, and creeping- root, these may be considered rather 
 as indicating- particnlar states of the same organ at different stages of 
 growth than as permanent or specific distinctions*. 
 
 The tap root is that which first appears on the vegetation of a healthy 
 seed, and penetrates perpendicularly into the soil. From it issne nu- 
 merous minute radicles ; and as the proper leaves are developed, lateral 
 roots or fibres are formed and sent out from the sides of the tap I'oot, 
 particularly at the point of junction situated between the radicle and stem. 
 
 As the plant advances in age the distinction of the tap root is lost, either 
 by decay or by its taking a horizontal direction in common with the 
 general mass of roots, and from which in a few years it is not to be 
 distinguished. Other leading- roots are frequently formed from the first 
 delicate lateral fibres, which pervade the tap root, and sometimes from its 
 extremity when it happens to divide into parts, which always takes place 
 when the extremity comes in contact with a richer or more genial soil, or, 
 on the contrary extreme when it meets with obstructions in its first or 
 early descent liom whatever cause, rocks, gravel, &c., or by injury from 
 insects : if the tap root be taken from tlie seed leaves before the plumula 
 appears, or before the development of the proper leaves, the young- 
 seedling dies ; and, again, should the tap root be deprived of the seed leaves 
 before the production and expansion of the proper leaves, no farther 
 reproduction or growth takes place. The uses of the tap root, it will 
 readily be perceived from these facts, are of great importance to the plant 
 in its first stages of growth, and may be compared to the equally essential 
 and important uses of the seminal leaves, at the same period ; but its 
 subsequent destruction does not, as it has been supposed, influence 
 injuriously the ultimate produce or value of the tree. 
 
 Two or any ecpial number of trees, for instance, of the same age, of the 
 like constitution, and reared on a soil of the same nature, the one from 
 seed on the spot, the other being transplanted from a nursery bed, without, 
 or with a portion only of its tap-root, will give results wliich prove that 
 trees, when transplanted at a certain age and size, and in all other respects 
 of cultine under the same circumstances, produce timber in quantity and 
 in quality equal, if not superior to untransplanted seedlings. Whether, 
 therefore, to raise forest-trees from seed on the spot where they are to 
 
 * In practical planting, as well as in practical botany, the root is considered fo be that 
 part of a plant which is hid underground, and the varieties of it are characterized ac- 
 cording to the shape and mode of growth, as bulbous, tuberous, fibrous, or creeping; 
 these again are susceptible of subdivision as they vary from the type. In physiology, 
 however, the fibres or radicles are alone recognised as the roots, as it is they only which 
 take up the food of the plant supplied by the soil. 
 
 The tuber of the turnip, potato, &c. and the bulb of the hyacinth, kc. are properly 
 reservoirs iu which to deposit the food of the plant until wanted in season for tlie pro- 
 duction of leaves, fiuwers, and fruit, or seed. Indeed, bulbs and tubers may be considered 
 the plant itself in cirtain stages of its progress to maturity. A deciduous tbrest-tree in 
 winter, when without its leaves, flowers, and seed, may be compared to a bulb or tuber, 
 when destitute at the same time of these parts of a plant. Routs, in general, arc also 
 distinguished in practice as to diu:atiou, being annual, biennial; and perennial. 
 
 B2 
 
4 PLANTIXG. 
 
 produce limber, or in nursery beds, and afterwards transplant them, 
 is a question of mere expediency. 
 
 Wliere seeds of the kinds of forest-trees desired can be had at httle 
 cost; where the soil is friable, is in a ]ierfectly clean state, and consequently 
 adapted to the plough culture ; where such animals as are destructive of 
 seeds and young- plants, as mice, rooks, and game, particularly hares and 
 rabbits, are not likely to be greatly destructive; and where the cost of 
 labour is not comparatively high, then sowing the seeds of forest trees on 
 their timber sites, may be the best practice and be adopted with success. 
 But where, on the contrary, these obstructions exist or are probable, 
 transplanting select healthy trees from nursery beds, though the plants be 
 deprived of their tap roots, will be found more economical in the first 
 outlay, and in the subsequent cost of culture; and the most profitable, as 
 affording a quicker return of profit in prunings and thinnings, and will 
 produce timber in a less number of years from the time of occupying the 
 land for that purpose. 
 
 The fibrous root is that which is most common to forest-trees. It 
 consists of lumierous divisions or bundles of fibres, furnished with 
 minute spongeols, and nearly representing the divisions or ramifications 
 of the large and smaller branches and buds of the tree. 
 
 The variety of creeping root is chiefly confined to those trees which 
 have the roots running horizontally, as in some species of poplar, elm, &c. 
 
 The organization of the root is similar to that of the stem and branches, 
 from the j^Hh which forms the centre of the body to the epidermis which 
 covers the bark. Each part may be traced in uninterrupted continuation, 
 from the minutest radicle of the root to the extremity of the smallest 
 branch or bud of a tree. 
 
 When a root of whatever kind is divided, its horizontal section exhibits 
 three distinct jjarts, the ]>ith, i\\e %cood, dAu\ the bark ; and a transverse 
 section of the iri/nk of the tree, or of a branch, exhibits exactly the same 
 parts. 
 
 The ])ilh forms the central circle of a i-oot, stem, or branch : it is a 
 cellular membraneous body of a silvery white colour. As the tree or root 
 advances in age and the timber is perfected, the pith gradually loses its 
 original spongy texture, the cells of which it is composed becoming more 
 and more compressed until all appearance of it is lost in the wood, 
 excepting that the concentric circle which it occupied appears whiter than 
 the other annual layers. But although the pith thus disappears in the old, 
 it still continues in progress with the young wood of the root, stem, or 
 branches ; and the periodical fibres or radicles of the former, and the buds 
 or embryo branches of the latter, will on examination be found to originate 
 from it. When a branch is pruned off close to a stem wherein, from 
 age, the pith has disappeared for some distance above and altogether from 
 below the origin of the amputated branch, no reproduction of shoots takes 
 place in whatever season the pruning may be performed, but should a 
 portion of the branch be left to the stem, from that buds and shoots will 
 spring. It also happens that when a branch is pruned off close to a 
 young healthy stem containing perfect and active pith, before or shortly 
 after the completion of the midsummer growth, which usually takes place 
 before the end of July, no reproduction of shoots follows the operation, but 
 the efforts of the vital functions of the plant appear to be wholly directed 
 to cover the wound with fresh bark. Should the pruning, however, be 
 performed in spring before or shortly after the expansion of the leaves, or 
 after their fall in autumn, a reproduction of buds and shoots ensues, and a 
 .slower progress in the formation of new bark is apparent. 
 
PLANTING. 5 
 
 The presence of leaves is essential to the growth of buds and branches, 
 and consequently to that of the pith in these and in the roots ; but the 
 leaves are not otherwise necessary to the formation and growth of the 
 fibres or radicles of the root, as these are produced in abundance when the 
 plant or tree is leafless, and even during winter when the ground is covered, 
 with frost and snow, the reservoir of nourishment in the pith being 
 probably sufficient for that purpose. 
 
 From these facts and others which might be brought forward, it is clear 
 that the uses of the pith in the formation of buds in the branches of the 
 tree, and of fibres or radicles in the root, and in the supjiort of these 
 during the first stages of growth, are analogous to the important functions 
 of the seed leaves in the first stages of growth of the seedling plant. The 
 pith of a radicle or fibre may readily be traced into that of the root, and 
 the same is precisely the case in a branch with relation to the stem of the 
 tree. The respective uses of these organs are only for the first and early 
 stages of growth ; and, after that, they may be lost without any apparent 
 injury to the further progress of the parts in question: the cotyledons dry 
 up and fall away as the healthy progress of the roots and leaves advances, 
 and the pith disappears, or its identity is lost in the wood, as that part of 
 the structure which surrounds it approximates to maturity. * 
 
 The wood stands next in order to the pith, it is formed of indurated 
 vegetable fibre, and occupies the space between the pith and the bark ; it 
 constitutes the bulk and strength of the subject. The yearly growth or 
 increase of the wood is defined by circular lines or concentric layers clear 
 to common observation in a transverse section of any root, branch, or 
 stem. The discriminating characters of the wood being more obvious in 
 the stem, than in the root or rootlets, we shall consider it more particularly 
 when mentioning the stem. 
 
 The bark covers the wood in every part of the tree, and is the most 
 important organ of vegetable life, for the pith may be lessened, the wood 
 may be partially or even wholly taken away, and, the leaves may be 
 stripped off, and yet the tree may recover, but when deprived of its 
 bark, the root, stem, or branch of a tree dies. It is therefore of the 
 greatest importance to the practical planter, that the bark of the roots and 
 of the exposed system of his plants should be preserved free from the 
 slightest injury. 
 
 The bark when divided horizontally shews three distinct parts, the liber, 
 or inner bark, which lies next to the wood ; the cellular tissue, or paren- 
 chyma, which is distinguished in the bark of the exposed system of the 
 plant by its fine green colour, but which is colourless in the bark of the 
 root ; and, lastly, the epidermis, or outer bark, which is the universal 
 covering of every part of a tree. 
 
 * A scion grafted on a stock, and a bud separated from its parent shoot and inserted 
 into the bark of another tree, may at first sight offer proofs going to invaU<late the opinion 
 of the important uses of the pith in the formation of buds and fibres ; but before the scion 
 and the bud are taken off; or are in a fit state for the purposes of budding and grafting, the 
 pith of the parent stock has already performed its offices. The important experiments of 
 Mr, Knight on this subject prove that the pith may be removed in part withoiit effiicting 
 the general health of the tree, just as the cotyledons may be removed from the young 
 plant after having established its root and stem, with a continuation of pith to originate 
 new buds, or embryo branches and radicles. We often meet with roots, which from severe 
 injuries by mutilation at an advanced age of the tree, or by the injurious effects of a 
 damp ungenial soil at an earlier period of growth, have lost the entire substance of the 
 pith and wood, and present the appearance of a hollow tube, have yet young fibres or 
 radicles issuing from their sides and continued as in roots where the pith and wood is 
 perfect ; on examination, however, these young fibres may be traced through the bark into 
 the hollow of the root, demonstrating the origin of the radicle from the pith. 
 
6 PLANTING. 
 
 On youns; slioots and stems the epidermis appears membraneons, or as 
 a thin transparent membrane without vessels; but late researches, aided 
 by powerful glasses, have shewn that it is partially furnished with minute 
 retiform vessels, particularly in the leaves. 
 
 When casually displaced off young shoots it is reproduced with little 
 apparent injury to the part, unless it happen on the annual parts of the 
 tree, as the leaves and flowers. In old stems and branches the epidermis 
 often attains to considerable thickness, becominp; hard, rough, or granulated, 
 as seen in tlie trunk of elm, oak, and most kinds of forest-trees, and in the 
 trunk of the apricot, pear, &c., among fruit-trees. When in this latter 
 state, the epidermis may be removed without injury, and, in some instances, 
 it has been cleared away from these fruit trees with evident advantage to 
 their general health and fertility *. 
 
 The parenchyma is composed of hexagonal cells, containing juice, which 
 in the stems and branches is of a green colour, even when covered by a 
 thick indurated epidermis; but in the root, as before alluded to, the juice 
 of the parenchyma is colourless. 
 
 The inner bark consists of cortical layers, constituted of longitudinal 
 fibres or vessels, which are supposed to return the sap from the leaves 
 after their undergoing certain changes by the action of solar light, heat, 
 and air. The medullary rays which pass from the pith to the cellular tex- 
 tures of the inner bark and parenchyma in a horizontal direction, appear to 
 be the medium of a lateral intercommunication of sap and air throughout 
 the entire structure of the treef. 
 
 The green colour of the 'parenchyma depends on the exposure of its 
 epidermis to light and air; for when a portion of the stem of a tree is ex- 
 cluded from light, as is sometimes done in planting when the tree is 
 placed deeper in the soil than it stood before transplanting, the green 
 colour is destroyed in that part of it which is covered with the soil, and 
 which in course of time assumes the colour of the root ; and, if much 
 moisture exists in the soil and the tree be not young, the bark so covered 
 decays, and the tree dies. Should the soil be dry, however, and the plant 
 
 * In 1813 the following trial was made to ascertain the efFects of removing the rough, 
 hardened epidermis from the trunk and limbs of a very large and aged Crassane pear- 
 tree. The tree was trained horizontally on a v/est wall, the branches extended twenty 
 feet on each side of the large trunk in the most perfect order. The stem was cleared of 
 the roiifh epidermis entirely, and the branches on one side also were treated in like man- 
 ner. The branches which extended on the other side of the stem, had only every alternate 
 branch stripped of the rough, hardened epidermis. Previously to this, the tree had for 
 many years ceased to bear fruit, except occasionally one or two at the extremities of the 
 upper branches. The first season after the above operation, the foliage assumed a more 
 healthy appearance on the decorticated branches, and in the coui-se of the second year 
 many fruit buds were formed, which afterwards produced fruit of very good quality. The 
 branches which were suffered to remain with their hardened epidermis, continued barren. 
 Adjoining to this tree was another of the same species, apparently of the like age and of 
 nearly the same dimensions. In this instance every second branch was pruned off near 
 to the stem, and young grafts of the crassane, colmar, brown beurrie, and St. Germain, 
 united to stumps of those branches respectively. These grafts all succeeded so well that 
 in four years from the period of grafting they had nearly attained to the length of the 
 old branches, and produced full crops of fruit of a very superior quality. The old 
 branches, which had purpjsely been left, remained in the same barren state as before. 
 The branches produced from the grafts were superior at the end of thetifth year, in regard 
 to health and produce, to the decorticated branches ; and these last were in a like pro- 
 portion superior to those branches which were left untouched. These facts go to prove 
 clearly that the thickening and hardening of the epidermis has a very considerable in- 
 fluence on the health and fertility of a tree. 
 
 t It IS contrary to every known law of the vital power, to suppose that any part of tli 
 Btructure of a living organized body can resist decomposition or decay, if it be cut ol 
 from a reciprocal commimicatiou witlj the circulating vital juices, 
 
 off 
 
PLANTING. " 
 
 young-, the bark in question is jvradually converted into root-bark ; during* 
 this conversion of the stem-bark to that of the root, the plant advances 
 but Httle, if any, in growth, but exhibits an unhealthy appearance by the 
 paleness of its leaves, and the weak growth of slioots. The same effects 
 are in a great degree observable from the opposite error, of planting too 
 shallow, which is when a portion of the root nearest to the stem is left 
 above the g-round. This exposed portion of the rool-bark in time gains 
 the green colour in its parenchyma ; and although no portion of it is 
 ever found to decay, as in the former instance, yet, for a time, the plant 
 makes but little progress in the growth of wood : if a fruit tree, the effect 
 appears to be to increase the formation of fruit buds, and to stimulate the 
 functions of the tree to bear fruit. It may not be devoid of interest to re- 
 mark here, that this is a more efficacious mode of inducing a free grow- 
 ing though barren fruit-tree to bear fruit, than any of those recommended 
 for that purpose, such as ringing, or placing an iron ring round a branch 
 to prevent the annual increase of bark on the space occupied by the ring, 
 cutting the bark in the manner of a circular incision of a branch, dividing 
 the roots, and by reversing the natural direction of the branches. It may 
 be unnecessary to add, that the above facts point out the importance of 
 planting every tree not deeper in the ground, nor farther out of the surface, 
 than the root occupied in the soil previous to transplantation ; most essen- 
 tially when the produce of wood or of timber is the primary object desired. 
 
 The steiti, trunk, or bole, constitutes the principal body of a forest-tree. 
 It is the medium of communication between the root and the branches, 
 leaves, flowers, and fruit or seed. By the exercise of this function it ob- 
 tains its vearly increase of substance, marked by the white circular lines 
 apparent on the surface of a transverse section of the stem of every species 
 of tbrest-tree. By counting the number of these circles the age of the tree 
 may with certainty be determined. 
 
 It was before observed that the structure of the root was similar to that 
 of the organization of the stem and branches ; but a more particular 
 notice of the constitution of the wood was referred to this place. 
 
 A close examination * of a horizontal section of the wood of a trunk or 
 branch of a tree, will exhibit two very distinct appearances. 
 
 1st. A series of white and shining laminee, which radiate from the pith 
 to the bark (_/§-. b, ])t. These generally straight, or sometimes interrupted, 
 lines are termed the silver grain or medullary rays of the wood. These 
 vary as to size and arrangement, termed primary or secondary rays, con- 
 tinued in one straight line from the pilh to the bark, or interrupted and 
 broken in the course of their direction, according to the species of tree 
 which affords the wood in question. They appear to be composed of 
 cellular tissue, and to originate from the pitii, or, in a word, are a linear 
 lateral extension of that organ. " These medullary rays are elastic and con- 
 tractile, as is evident to every one who has observed the effects of the 
 extremes of dry and of moist weather on the section of a felled tree. 
 
 2d. A series of concentric layers, or circles, termed the spurious grain. 
 These consist of tubular vessels of smaller or larger diameters, arranged 
 in lines or groups varying according to the genus and species of the tree 
 to which the wood belongs. 
 
 * With a common or four-power microscope. A tliiu slice of the siihstance is, perhaps, 
 the most conveuiont for examining. When placed nudcr a high magnifying p.iwer the 
 beauty, order, and arrangement of the tubular and cellular texture, will reward the observer. 
 
 f these should be examined with a magnifying glass, for the texture of the different 
 woods exhibited will thereby be more satisfactorily compared with the descnptious 
 which accompany them. 
 
PL \NT1NG. 
 
 An examination of many (liferent kinds of wood proves that these 
 characters of distinction are constant, and, therefore, afford a certain means 
 of distino-uishing the wood or timber of one .species of tree from that of 
 another. 
 
 'J'he followin": discriminating characters of the woods of the principal 
 timber trees will be found constant: — 
 
 The wood of the elm (fg. a) is distinguished by having the medullary 
 rays, or silver grain, equal, and not crowded. 'J'he concentric layers are 
 composed of a series of cells of nearly unequal diameter, arranged in an 
 almost simple curved line. The spaces between the layers are furnished 
 with cells of a smaller diameter, and rather thinly scattered over the 
 surface. 
 
 The oak {Jig- b) has two series of medullary rays ; the primary ones 
 are large and strongly marked, distant from each other, and are uninter- 
 rupted in their course from the pith to the bark (^g. b, 1). The secondary 
 rays are numerous between the primary, bist not crowded. 
 
 The concentric layers, or circles, are distinguished by the arrangement 
 of the cells. They are grouped in somewhat triangular masses, forming 
 a wavy circular outline. The structure of the concentric layers or annual 
 rings, distinguish at once with certainty the wood of the oak from that of 
 the chestnut, with which it has often been confounded. 
 
 The wood of the ash (c) has the places of those rays so prominent on 
 the wood of the oak, supplied by twin rays (1) placed in wide intervals over 
 the surface, and between these double rays are smaller ones, placed in 
 regular order. In the narrow spaces between the individuals which con- 
 stitute the twin rays are wanting those apparent remains of the cellular 
 texture which are so remarkable in the spaces between the single rays. 
 
 The wood of the beech (fZ) has the primary" rays (2) dispersed pretty 
 regularly over the surface of a horizontal section of the wood ; the secon- 
 dary rays are not continuous from the pith to the bark, but interrupted, 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 and exhibit a numerous series of fraf;ments of rays, filling- up the spaces 
 between the primary ones, obvious to the naked eye, and renderinf^ the 
 silver grain, as it is called, of the beech very distinct from any other kind 
 of wood. 
 
 The wood of the Spanish or sweet chestnut (e) has often been con- 
 founded with that of the oak ; but its characters of distinction are very 
 obvious. It agrees with the oak in having; the secondary rays equally 
 disposed, almost straight, and, though close to each other, yet not crowded 
 as in the elm and beech ; itditiers, in the primary rays being- scarcely to be 
 distinguished from the secondary, whilst in the oak these are prominent 
 and obvious to the naked eye on the slightest inspection. The concentric 
 layers are regularly curved, whilst in the oak they are strikingly waved. 
 The mouths of the tubular vessels, which constitute so obvious a part of 
 these annual rings, or layers, are disposed in triangular masses in the oak ; 
 on the contrary, in the chestnut they are in regular order. 
 
 .^^ 
 
 ,0^^^§§tf 
 
 The hornbeam (/) has the rays of the wood nearly equal, but may 
 readily be distinguished from that of the beech, to which it bears the 
 greatest resemblance, by the simple arrangement of the tubular structure 
 accompanying the concentric layers, which in the hornbeam are distant and 
 oval shaped, the narrow sides pointing to the pith and to the bark ; in the 
 beech they are circular shaped, more numerous, and equal sized. 
 
 The birch (g) has all the medullary rays nearly equal, arranged closely, 
 and having the concentric circles minute, but marked with a row of equal 
 cells. 
 
 The horse chestnut (h) has all the rays very minute, few of them np- 
 paiently continuous, but interrupted, and in substance varying m breadth. 
 The cells are numerous and minute. 
 
 Alder (i) has the wood with lar-e primary rays, thmly arranged, but 
 in nearly regular order; the secondary rays are slender, numerous, and 
 interrupted.^ The cells of the concentric layers are nearly . regular. Ihe 
 spaces between the rays are crowded with cells. 
 
(10 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 Oriental plane (A-) has the pnmary rays regular but closely arranged; 
 they are somewhat wavy ; the cellular texture of the concentric layers 
 but slightly marked. 
 
 The sycamore (/) in texture approximates to the plane: still, however, 
 it is very distinct in its straight lined rays, which are very minute or slender. 
 The cellular texture is composed of such minute ceils as scarcely to be 
 perceptible under a four power microscope ; these cells are, however, very 
 numerous. 
 
 The poplar (???) has the wood composed of rays so slender as not to be 
 obvious to the naked eye. The concentric layers are composed of ex- 
 ceedingly minute cells. This wood is extremely porous ; the cells of 
 which it is composed are so numerous that a very thin slice of the wood, 
 taken horizontally, exhibits the appearance of the finest possible open 
 net-work. 
 
 Common acacia, or locust, (?i) has wood which bears some resemblance 
 to that of the oak ; but it is very distinct from any other kind mentioned 
 here ; it wants the distinct primary rays so prominent in the oak, the 
 rays of the locust being all nearly of equal breadth, and as slender as the 
 secondary rays of the oak ; here they are somewhat wavy. The cellular 
 or tubular structure is also very different from that of the oak, being 
 
 # 
 
 \ 
 
 ^: 
 
PLANTING. ai 
 
 arrant^ed in more regular order wliere they mark the concentric layers, and 
 the spaces between the rays are fiirnislied witli many cells irregularly 
 scattered over, of a size equal to those marking tlie concentric layers. 
 
 The wood of the fir (o) is distinguished from all others here enumerated 
 by having very prominent coloured concentric layers, arranged very 
 regularly throughout ; and the cellular texture, though composed of cells 
 sulhciently large to be seen with the naked eye, is not to be distinguished 
 without very close observation. 
 
 The lime (p) lias very slender equal rays and a minute celhilar texture 
 pervading the whole body of the wood. Tlie concentric layers are 
 scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. It may be compared to the wood 
 of the poplar, but the network-like arrangement of the cellular texture is 
 not so obvious in the former ; the presence of the rays in the lime distin- 
 guishes it at once irom the poplar. 
 
 mm 
 
 
 The wood of the laburnum (7) is distinguished by its minute, regular, 
 uninterrupted medullary rays, and by the broken beaded longitudinal lines 
 of the tubular structure. 
 
 These characters of distinction being permanent and constant in all these 
 ditFerent kinds of wood, will be found useful in cases where it is desirable 
 to ascertain the kind of timber which may have continued sound for the 
 longest period in any particular building or situation, and the contrary 
 where its duration has been limited*. 
 
 ' The leaves constitute one of the most important conservative organs of 
 vegetable growth ; for on the free and healthy exercise of their functions 
 depend the life of the plant and its progress to maturity, to say nothing of 
 that universal interest and pleasure which is afforded by the diversified 
 beauty of their forms and tints. The green colour of the leaves of trees 
 has been proved, beyond all doubt, to depend chiefly on the Influence of 
 solar light and atmospheric air. Almost every distinct species and variety 
 of plant, in its most healthy state, has its own peculiar shade of green : 
 the yellovv-green tint of the foliage of a healthy larch, would in that of a 
 pine, spruce, fir, and cedar of Lebanon, be certain indications of disease 
 and decay. The dissection of a leaf shews that it is composed of vessels, 
 cellular tissue, and an epidermis. The green part of a leaf is, in fact, a 
 continuation of the parenchyma of the bark before mentioned ; and the mid- 
 rib and nerves of the leaf are a continuation of the conducting and returning 
 sap, and air vessels of the bark and alburnum. The under and upper 
 surfaces of the leaf may be separated in an entire state from each other. 
 These appear to perform different offices ; the under surface is provided 
 
 * It \voiild be of the greatest utility to the interests of plautiup^ were registers kept 
 of the kinds of timber used in particular buildings; also the age of the tree which pro- 
 duced it, when felled, and the soil, and situation or climate, in which the trees were 
 reared. Posterity would be grateful for such records of facts. 
 
12 PLANTING. 
 
 with numerous minute pores by which moisture and air are emitted and 
 absorbed. The upper surface of the leaves of trees is supposed to be 
 destitute of pores: this part always turns its surface to solar light*. 
 
 The leaves of forest-trees are either simple or compound; simple as in 
 the common beech, and compound as in the ash, where several smaller 
 leaves are attached to one foot-stalk. The foot-stalk of the leaf is ter- 
 minated by a gland, which in deciduous trees, or those that shed their 
 leaves in autumn, becomes indurated, and at that season readily separates 
 from the branch or twig\ 
 
 The midrib of the leaf is merely a continuation of the footstalk ; this 
 divides the body of the leaf longitudinally ; it may be compared to the stem 
 of the tree, for from it issue branches of various sizes, dispersed through 
 the substance of the leaf in order resembling those of the tree. The first 
 or largest series of fibres issue from the sides of the midrib, either in 
 an opposite direction, alternately, or irregularly, according to the species of 
 tree; from these secondary branches proceed a third and a fourth series, 
 not however in such straight lines as in the former, but curving and 
 anastomising, or opening into each other in all directions, and, in this last 
 particular, they have a resemblance to the disposition of the minute blood- 
 vessels of the animal economy. The difference in the disposition of the 
 first and secondary fibres of the leaves is so constant in the individual 
 plants of different natural genera, that it affords a very clear discriminating 
 character by wliich they maybe distinguished from each other, in the same 
 manner as the wood of different kinds are identified by the concentric 
 circles and medullary rays before mentioned. 
 
 The leaves of the oak (Quercus) have the secondary fibres few in num- 
 ber, and curved towards the sinuosities of the leaf; the third series of fibres 
 are very prominently marked, and the fourth series extremely minute. The 
 leaves of the Spanish chestnut (Castanea), belonging to the same natural 
 order but to a different genus, have the secondary fibres nearly straight, 
 the third series very numerous and curved alternately, the fourth series 
 nearly as large as the third, and if we examine and compare the wood of 
 the oak and the chestnut, we shall find equally marked distinctions between 
 them. 
 
 In the beech (Fagus), which likewise belongs to the same natural order, 
 but to a different genus to the above, the secondary fibres of the leaves are 
 very prominent, and the third and fourth series minute, and of nearly an 
 equal size, and the texture of the wood is equally distinct from that of the 
 oak and the chestnut. 
 
 That the leaves of plants during the day emit oxygen gas or vital air, 
 and absorb carbonic acid gas or impure air, has long since been jjroved. 
 In the night or during darkness, vital air is absorbed by plants and un- 
 healthy air emitted, and it would appear by various experiments on this 
 important point, that when the supply of carbonic acid gas from the air 
 and soil is greater, the emission of oxygen gas by the leaves during their 
 exjiosure to siinshine is also greater, hence another cause of healthy plan- 
 tations improving the climate of their neighbourhood besides that of shelter. 
 
 The leaves of trees being the great organs for elaborating the sap and 
 fitting it to become converted into all and every product of the tree, whether 
 timber, bark, seeds or fruit, render the facts relating to their structure and 
 fimctions of higii interest to the planter and forester; for they point out tiie 
 danger of lessening their muuber beyond a certain extent, as in excessive 
 
 * Fur a minute and interesting account of the varied forms of these pores, and of tlieir 
 uumber on difierent plauts, see Part I. ' of Vegetable Physiolog\,' published in the Library 
 of Useful Knowledge. 
 
PLANTING. 13 
 
 prnnincr, or of siifTcrin^ the leaves 1o be crouded (oo mucli, so as to ex- 
 cliule a free admission of lig^lit and air, as happens when trees are planted 
 too close ton;ether, and judicious thiiuiing- and pruning- are nep^lected. 
 
 The seeds of forest trees. Seed consists of three principal parts: 
 1st. The cotyledons, or seed leaves; — 2dly. The rostel, or first radicle, 
 which descends into the soil, and becomes the root of the tree; — 
 3dly. The pli/77ii/la, which ascends, and becomes the stem, bole, or trunk. 
 The rostel and plumula are closely united in the seed, and there constitute 
 what is termed the p,erm, or embryo of the future tree. This is an essential 
 part of the seed, for however healthy in appearance the seed may appear, 
 if the germ be injured, the seed never vegetates. The cotyledons or seed- 
 leaves contain a farinaceous substance which is the source of nourishment 
 to the radicle, until established in the soil and fitted to perform its proper 
 office in the development of the stem and proper leaves of the plant. It 
 may be useful in this place to mention, that the seeds of forest trees may 
 be classed under the following- heads or general characters, indicating 
 peculiar points to be observed in the practice of sowing them. 
 
 1st. Seeds farinaceous, and covered with shells, ?int-seeds. To this class 
 belong the oak, Spanish-chestnut, beech, horse-chestnut, walnut, hazel, 
 hornbeam, plane, sycamore, maple, and ash, to which may be added, though 
 not strictly belonging to the group, the birch, alder, and lime. The first 
 seven kinds, from the farina they contain, are least adapted for keeping 
 out of the soil, and the same cause renders them more difficult to pre- 
 serve in the soil when sown, by inducing the attacks of mice, birds, and 
 other vermin. The spring is considered the best season for sowing, and 
 the seeds must therefore be preserved carefully during winter; the most 
 approved mode is to spread them out in their layers on a cool dry floor, but 
 previously to this they should be thoroughly dried by the sun and air. Tlie 
 smaller kinds of seeds after being sufficiently dried, may be kept in a 
 .smaller space. The seed of the oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), however, 
 succeed best when sown immediately as it is perfected. When sown, these 
 seeds require different degrees of covering in the soil. The larger seeds, as 
 those of the chestnut, oak, &c., should be covered with two inches of 
 mould ; for the smaller seeds of the plane, sycamore, hornbeam, maple, 
 and ash, it will be proper to mix with them sand, in quantity about equal 
 to their bulk, placing the mixture on the ground a foot in thickness, and 
 covering that with an inch thick of mould. The birch may be sown im- 
 mediately as it is taken from the tree, or preserved in the seed-loft until 
 spring. When sown, the birch is generally covered half an inch with 
 mould, the former seeds with one inch. 
 
 2nd. Hard seeds, or stones covered with a pulpy fruit. The proper 
 covering of these seeds is so hard, as to have acquired for them the name 
 of stones. In this class are the cherry-tree, mountain-ash, whitebeam, 
 yew, holly, pear, crab, and thorn. With the exception of the cherry-tree, 
 all these remain in the soil one or two years before they vegetate. To 
 obviate the irregular vegetation of these seeds, which is attended with 
 loss of time and inconvenience, the practice of preparing them for sowing 
 by what is called pitting has been adopted ; this is done in the manner 
 above mentioned for the hornbeam, plane, &c. ; but as one, two, or even 
 three years in the pit or preparatory bed are wanted for some of these seeds, 
 it is requisite after they have lain a certain time in the pit to uncover them 
 and turn them over, so as to assist in the separation of the pulp from the 
 stones. Holly berries require one year at least to prepare them for sow- 
 ing ; mountain ash, whitebeam, yew, and ash lie one year; the cherry 
 readily vegetates in the same spring in which it is sown. 
 
14 PLANTING 
 
 3rcl. Lcgv?7nno7is, or bccni seeds. These, as rep;ards forest-trees are 
 confined to the common acacia, or !ocnst-tree {Robinia Psa/d-Jcacia), 
 the olutinous Robinia (Robinia viscosa), and the laburnum. These seeds 
 veffetate freely when sown from the tree, but it is the jjeneral practice 
 to preserve them until spring in a dry, cool place. \Vhen sown, they 
 require to be covered with about three-fourths of an inch of mould. If 
 sown too thickly, that is, less than one inch seed from seed, the plants 
 soon injure one another and become diseased. 
 
 4th. Light seeds. Under this head we enumerate smooth elm, and 
 mountain elm, the poplar, and the tree willows. These seeds being- light, 
 and separating freely from the tree when ripe, require care in collecting, as 
 otherwise they are liable to be dispersed and carried away by the wind. 
 They vegetate quickly and may 1)e sown so soon as they are ripe. Spring 
 however is preferred, as tender seedling plants are subject to injury from 
 severe weather in w inter. They should be covered to the depth of one 
 fourth of an inch of fine sifted mould. 
 
 5lh. Resi}wvs seeds are those of coniferous or fir-trees. Their vegeta- 
 tive power when cleaned or separated from the cones, is not to be pre- 
 served if they are kept out of the ground for any considerable length of 
 time, and they require particular care in sowing. The soil of the beds 
 ought to be of a light sandy nature, enriched with the vegetable mould of 
 decayed tree leaves, or well decomposed dung. If a proper cpiantity of 
 the former manure be added, and well incorporated with the sandy loam 
 above described, it will bring that soil to a suitable texture. The seeds 
 are borne in cones furnished with scales of a hard woody consistence. The 
 cones of the larch with much difficulty part from the seeds, and various 
 means have been adopted to effect that object. The best is that of first 
 opening the cone, or dividing it lengthways into two or four parts, then 
 placing them on a kiln and drying by a very gentle heat until the valves 
 b( "in to open, when they should be taken to a proper floor and threshed : 
 the seeds may then be separated by a sieve. The cones of the Scotch tir 
 and the spruce require also the aid of the kiln ; but the seeds part from 
 the cones easily, and the splitting of the cones is superfluous. The spring* is 
 the best season for sowing these seeds. The soil of the seedling beds 
 should be in as finely a pulverised state as possible for their reception. 
 
 The seed of the stone ])ine requires to be covered with one and a quarter 
 inches of soil, the silver fir and jjinaster with one inch, the Weymouth pine 
 with three-fourths of an inch; the Scotch fir, Norway spruce, bahu of 
 Gilead, and cedar of Lebanon with half an inch of soil. The cedar of 
 I^^banon is best sown in boxes placed in a warm or sheltered situation. 
 The larch should not be sown so deep; a covering of a quarter of an inch of 
 soil suffices. The white, red, and American sjiruce firs, having smaller 
 seeds, require a slighter covering of a fifth of an inch deep, and the tex- 
 ture of the soil should be even lighter, which can be easily effected by 
 adding sand or a larger proportion of the mould of decayed tree leaves. 
 Heath soil, or bog soil, containing a good proportion of fine siliceous sand, 
 has been found very congenial to the vegetation of these seeds. f Shading 
 
 * If the winter happened to be favourable, and the depredations of vemiin were com- 
 pletely prevented, the balance would be in favour of sewing- the teeds of the fir and pine 
 in autumn, and which would be the case also with every description of forest-tree seeds, 
 the hard or stone seeds probably excepted. 
 
 -j- This description of suil has been erroncouslj' supposed to be injurious to transplanted 
 firs, and implements are used to remove the heath soil from the intended sites of the plants, 
 in order ihat the roots may be inserted iu the subsoil of gravel or sand, of which the sub- 
 soil almost always consists. The roots of the heath while alive are the cause of injury, 
 not the uature of the soil. 
 
PLANTING. 15 
 
 from hot sunshine is liighly beneficial to them, indeed, indispensable in 
 some states of the weather, for the thin coverinn; of soil vviiicii is neces- 
 sarily allowed them is soon affected by tlie action of the sun's rays, and 
 s\id(len droup;ht quickly destroys the tender seedlings. The thickness in 
 which the seeds should be sown, according to the respective kinds, is on 
 an average from three to four on a square inch, so that the plants when 
 produced stand not nearer to each other than that scale of distances. 
 
 The artificial fine state of culture of the soil in the seedbeds, rendering 
 it less retentive of the due degree of moisture than is required, the beds 
 should be consolidated before and after the seeds are sown, either by the 
 use of a roller, or by the spade. 
 
 In concluding this practical view of the structure of forest trees, and of 
 those natural agents, which obviously influence the growth of plants, it may 
 be useful to take a similar view of the process of vegetation. A perfect 
 and healthy seed consists of an outer covering, cotyledons, radicle, and 
 ])lumula. When sown in perfectly dry earth, it remains unchanged ; if in 
 an excess of moisture, it loses its vegetative powers and decays : in neither 
 case it vegetates. When the temperature of the soil is below a certain point, 
 all vegetation is suspended. Should the soil and the temperature be per- 
 fectly favourable to vegetation, yet if the seed be not planted shallow 
 enough to be within the influence of atmospherical air, no vegetation takes 
 place. Different species of seeds require different degrees of moisture, 
 temperatvu'e, and atmospheric influence, to render tlieir vegetation the most 
 healthy and perfect. The natural constitution of different soils, as regards 
 their respective properties of retaining or easily parting- with moisture ; the 
 proper season of sowing", as regards the temperature of the soil and the 
 atmospliere, by whatever local causes subject to be influenced; and the re- 
 S])ective depths to which the seeds should be deposited in the ground, as 
 above mentioned, apply directly to the skill of the cultivator to aid, modify, 
 and assist these primary essential agents of vegetation ; and on the right 
 adjustment of these depend the success and just reward of the planter in 
 this first stage of the process of his art. 
 
 In whatever position the seed is placed, the radicle first biu'sts the cover- 
 ing, and takes a downward direction into the soil, where it becomes fixed, 
 and protrudes, at right angles from its sides, numerous rootlets, which in 
 their turn emit others ; then, and not till then, the cotyledons rise above the 
 surface and expand, shewing tlie plumula or bud of the stem, which now 
 advances in growth and unfolds the proper leaves. After the leaves are 
 fully expanded, the communication of the pith with the buds, formed or 
 forming, at the base of each leaf-stalk in the angle made by that and the 
 stem, may be traced. The loss of either of these organs of the seed at an 
 earlier period would have prevented farther growth ; for if the cotyledons 
 had been seriously injured or taken away, the radicle and plumula would 
 have died; if the radicle had been removed, the same effect would have 
 followed; or if the plumula had been taken away, the plant would have 
 made no farther progress. But as soon as the formation of the germ of 
 buds is effected, as now stated, the cotyledons may be removed; the sum- 
 mit of the stem and the lower extremity of the radicle may be taken away, 
 and the plant will reproduce others. It is during the previous stage of 
 growth that the attacks of insects prove so fatal to seedling plants, and re- 
 quire the utmost care of the planter; and hence also the greater care and 
 attention that is demanded in the preparation of the soil for seeds than 
 for the reception of transplanted trees. Tliis also points out the danger 
 of injury to the vegetating seeds, by disturbing the seed beds before the 
 
Ifi PLANriNG. 
 
 plants are perfected. It is in these early staG:es of (growth, that the 
 foundation is laid for the future healtli, beauty, and vigorous growth of the 
 tree. Tlie fibres of the root, with the minute spono-eols before mentioned, 
 now imbibe and send uj) the food of the plant to the leaves, where beina: 
 s])read out to the influence of solar light, lieat, and atmospheric air, it is 
 elaborated and returned through the foot-stalk by the longitudinal vessels 
 of the inner bark to the root, depositing^ in its course, or in conjunction 
 with the original fluids of the ceUular texture forming, the various sub- 
 stances and secretions peculiar to the tree. That tlie sap ascends by the 
 longitijdinal vessels of the alburnum, saj), or soft wood, and descends by 
 those of the inner bark, seems to be proved by the experiments of Mr. 
 Knight and others, who have more intimately investigated this part of the 
 subject. That a lateral movement of the sap goes on at the same time, 
 and in conjunction with the ascending and descending movement, appears 
 equally certain*. Every individual leaf of a tree is furnished with its own 
 particular series of vessels for the course of the sap, and not only prejiares 
 and elaborates the sap lor the increase of substance of its own branch, 
 but also for that of the parent stem and root. Hence it is that trees re- 
 "•ularly furnished with branches from the base upwards have more taper- 
 in"- stems, than trees with branches confined to the upper half of the stem, 
 the increase being equal, from the point where the branches begin, down- 
 wards to the root; or, in other words, whatever length of stem from the root 
 upwards is destitute of branches, tliat part of it from the period of losing 
 them increases in size equally throughoutf. Without a just knowledge of 
 this principle in the economy of vegetable life, the important process of 
 pruning in the culture of forest-trees cannot safely be performed by the 
 forester: that the sap never ceases wholly to move | is evident in the in- 
 crease of the roots and buds during winter when the plant is leafless; but 
 its ascent is particularly distinguished for greater force and activity at two 
 periods of the year, spring and midsummer. The ascent in spring is 
 the strono-est,'and continues until midsummer, gradually diminishing in 
 force as the new branches and leaves are perfected. This generally takes 
 place about the beginning of July, when an apparent cessation of asccnd- 
 in<v motion in the sap iinmediately succeeds, and continues usually for the 
 
 * The sap in ascending is farthest removed from the action of solar lif^ht, heat, and 
 atmospheric air, in descending it is nearest to these important agents, receiving their im- 
 pulse tlirongh the medium of the green cellular tissue or parenchyma. The offices of this 
 organ in transpiration and inhalation, may be compared to that of an universal leaf cover- 
 ing every part of the stem and branches of a tree. 
 
 f This fact may be demonstrated most conveniently, by pruning the lateral branches 
 ofl' quite close to the stem of a young fast-growing tree, leaving a certain number to form 
 a top, and to keep up the growth of the plant. 
 
 I The term circulation has been objected to as improper for describing the course of the 
 movement of the sap in plants ; because a point from wlience the movement begins, and to 
 which it again returns (as for instance, the heart in animals,) has not been discovered in 
 plants ; for in these the sap is periodically exhausted in the increase of the substance of the 
 tree, and its place periodically supplied from the soil to the spongeols of the roots. The term 
 periodical is here mulcrstood to apply to the effiicts observed, by the practical planter, of 
 the spring growth, midsummer growth, and leafless or winter cessation of growth, an- 
 nually in the progress of every forest-tree. That the roots of these plants (as long as 
 their vital powers continue to act) continue, without intermission, to imbibe fluid or pabu- 
 lum from the soil, however small in tpiantity that may be at certain seasons, seems highly 
 probable ; as also that a movement or circulation of the fluids of the cellular texture, how- 
 ever languid it may be, exists even in the leafless tree. But there are plants, such as the 
 hyacinth, potatoe, onion, kc. &c., which remain two or three months annually during 
 their progress of existence, without a possibility of imbibing anything whatever by their 
 roots, rootlets, or spongeols, inasmuch as during that period of their existence they are 
 destitute of these organs wherewith to imbibe. 
 
PLANTING. 17 
 
 space of afortniglit. or three weeks, accordiiii^ to the aj^e of the plant and 
 the state of the weather. A second ascent of the sap, and growth of shoots 
 now take place, but with diminished vigour ; unless from accident, dis- 
 ease, or unfavourable weather, the spring growth has been checked, and 
 the first flow of sap prevented from being exhausted in the production of 
 branches, leaves, and blossoms. It is worthy of remark, that those shoots 
 which form fruit, flower, or seed buds, have seldom if ever any second 
 growth ; but remain without increasing in length until the next spring. 
 The midsummer growth is almost always confined to those branches which 
 carry wood buds only. After the second growth is completed, the effects 
 of tlie descending sap in the formation of new bark and wood is very 
 apparent in the healing up of wounded parts of the stem and branches, 
 which now proceeds with more activity than during any other period of 
 the year. Branches pruned off after the midsummer flow, seldom are 
 followed by shoots from the edges of the wounds caused by their removal, 
 which always happens, more or less, when pruning is performed on free 
 growing trees after the fall of the leaf, and before the full development of 
 the spring shoots and leaves : it is to be observed, however, that the repro- 
 duction of branches froni the edges of a wound is greatly assisted by 
 leaving a portion of the branch or shoot, or its parent branch or stem, 
 but impeded when a branch is pruned off close to the stem. What was 
 before stated regarding the offices of the pith and medullary rays in 
 originating the buds of shoots and branches, will be confirmed by these facts. 
 Food of Plants. — Those substances which the roots of plants take up 
 from the soil, and those which the leaves or green system of the plant 
 inhale or imbibe from atmospheric air are comprehended under the 
 name of the food of plants. This part of vegetable physiology has long 
 engaged the anxious inquiries of science, as well as of practice. The 
 question is one of much importance, inasmuch as a perfect knowledge of 
 what constitutes the food of plants generally, and individually, would vvitli 
 unerring certainty point out the means of fertilizing soils, defective in any 
 respect for bringing to perfection the species of tree most desired ; would 
 indicate at the same time the most proper substances to be used with the 
 greatest advantage, the exact proportions in which they should be mixed, 
 the mode of applying them, and the best process of manual culture or 
 working the soil, for elaborating and preparing them for absorption by the 
 roots. Of late years great progress has been made in the investigation of 
 this part of vegetable physiology ; the labours of T. A. Knight and M. 
 Dutrouhet are, in particular, highly valuable, but much still is required 
 before even an approximation to the solution of this important question can 
 be attained. The structure of the root shewed us that whatever kinds of 
 substances are conveyed or by it introduced into the plant, such substances 
 must be in a minute state of division, or dissolved in water. The analysis 
 of a soil demonstrates the soluble substances it contains. These have been 
 found to be chiefly vegetable extract, combined with smaller proportions of 
 a few of the neutral salts, as sulphates of potash and lime, muriates of 
 lime and soda, or common salt; this last, in every instance of our own 
 individual experience, is always in a larger proportion to the other saline 
 matters, and is never altogether wanting, as is the case sometimes with 
 the sulphates and muriates of lime. The vegetable extract, except as 
 regards its presence in poor clays and siliceous sands*, is always in a 
 
 * The soils here alluded to, the results of whose chemical examinations have led to 
 the above conclusions, were of almost every kind or description to be met with in practice, 
 comprising the various degrees of fertility intermediate between the poorest sand and 
 the most tenacious clay. 
 
 C 
 
13 PLANTING. 
 
 lara:er proportion to the saline matters. It contains the elements of which 
 the substance of a tree is composed, viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
 azote. The extract, however, obtained from soils is never ])erfectly pure, 
 but is always more or less (in all our experience) combined with mucilage, 
 and frequently with soluble animal matters. In alluvial soils distin- 
 guished for fertility, the soluble extract is found in the largest propor- 
 tion ; five parts of vegetable extract in four hundred of the soil is considered 
 the maximum for healthy vegetation. 
 
 The soils called alluvial have the power, it is evident, of preserving this 
 substance in the decomposing vegetable matters which supply it, and of 
 giving it out to the roots of plants, or rather to the water of the soil, 
 slowly, but in that seasonable and regular manner which is the most con- 
 ducive to the healthy exercise of the functions of the roots. It is evident 
 that in some alluvial soils this extractive vegetable matter must have re- 
 mained from a remote period uninjured for the purposes of vegetation**. 
 In siliceous, sandy, and gravelly soils, the reverse of this takes place, for 
 the manures applied to these is speedily decomposed, and the extractive 
 matter given out, comparatively, at once: hence the constant repetition 
 of manures required by these kinds of soil to keep them productive. When 
 clay, mild lime, or chalk, fine siliceous and calcareous sand, and im])al- 
 pable vegetable matters are so intimately combined as to constitute what is 
 termed the best loam, the extractive matter, whether of long duration in 
 the soil or in recently supplied manure, is economized and given out to 
 \\ater, and to the roots of plants, in a similar degree of effectiveness as in 
 the alluvial soil : on the contrary, when clay is the chief earthy ingredient 
 of a soil, the vegetable matter is either retained in the manure, or given 
 out partially ; the lower temperature of the clay, its great adhesive powers, 
 and compact texture, uniting to produce this result t- The food of plants 
 supplied by atmospheric air, whatever proportion it may bear to that 
 supplied by the soil, is at least equally essential to the growth of plants, 
 fur they can no more exist without that, than they can exist without the 
 soil. The curious structure of the leaves shews how admirably they are 
 
 • Extractive matter, when separated from the saline compounds with which it is usually 
 accompanied in soils and in vegetable manures, and exposed to the air, soon decomposes or 
 pntrities. It also loses its solubility in water after two or three solutions in and evapora- 
 tions of the water. It is a constituent of the nutritive matter of the food of the larger domestic 
 animals, but in the process of digestion it is not retained in the body of the animal for 
 the purposes of life, but is voided with the faeces. The pasture grasses^ corn, or annual 
 grasses, green or soiling plants, as clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, vetches, turnips, mangel 
 wurzel, and carrots, all contain extract as an essential constituent, which, with the woody 
 fibre and saline matters of the vegetable, are returned again to the soil. 
 
 f The great benefit i-esulting to clayey soils from the process of paring and burning, is 
 that of improving their textiue, and, even in some degree, their temperature or latent 
 heat. A certain degree of what may be called a circulation of the water and air of a soil 
 is essential to its power of preparing the food of plants depending on the soil. "Where 
 this power is wanting, as in the case of a perfectly stagnant clay or peat, or a sandy soil, 
 with a subsoil impervious to water, vegetable matter, however ample, in these soils will 
 r..Mnain inert and afford no support to trees, or, at least, thej' will not long exist if planted 
 under such circumstances. So obvious is the eftect of this principle of circulation of 
 water and ah, (if we may be allowed the expression,) that some have undertaken to prove 
 that the fertility of soils depended on it aione^ and that water and air constitute the 
 sok? food of plants ; and that even animal and vegetable matters were no farther useful 
 than as contributing to the temperature and texture of the soil, fitting it for the more 
 ready circulation of these, and more readily jiresenting them to the roots of plants. 
 However erroneous the conclusion may be, the principle of practice inculcated by it is 
 essential to the successful cultivation of trees, for on it depend the processes of jiaring 
 and Ijurning, draining, trenching, digging, and in a word the judicious adoption of the 
 various means which are employed for pulverizing and comminuting soils. 
 
PLANTING. cl9 
 
 fitted to imbibe air and moisture. The essential constituents of atmos- 
 pherical air are oxygen and nitrogen or azote ; and it holds in solution car- 
 bonic acid gas and water ; they are elastic and invisible, but can be 
 separated from each other, and their bulk, or volume, and weight can be 
 determined, and their properties satisfactorily ascertained*. Oxygen 
 has received the name of pure or vital air, because animals cannot respire 
 if the air they breathe be deprived of it, nor can seeds vegetate unless it 
 be present in the soil and air in which they are placed. It enters into 
 the composition of the vegetable and most other acids, and largely into 
 that of sugar and extract. It forms about one-fifth of the air of the 
 atmosphere. Carbonic acid gas constitutes about a thousandth part of 
 atmospherical air, its basis carbon is well known in the state of charcoal, 
 and is tlie fundamental constituent of wood. Nitrogen, or azote, con- 
 stitutes about four-fiftiis of the atmospherical air. Its offices have not 
 been so clearly discovered : with much reason, however, it appears to be 
 employed in the formation of several products of vegetation, as gluten and 
 albumen, and in modifying the actions of the other components of the 
 air. It is remarkable that carbonic acid gas being- so largely produced 
 by numerous artificial and natural processes constantly going on, as in the 
 putrefaction of substances of every kind, in fermentation, combustion, 
 respiration of animals, and, during darkness, by the green system of the 
 whole vegetable kingdom, so small a portion only of it should be found 
 permanent in the air, varying from -^l^-^j to ^oVo P^*'- ^^ ^^^^' minimum and 
 maximum. It is heavier than the other constituents of air, and it is lost 
 from the atmosphere, or from wherever it may exist in plants only, and 
 forms the bulk or basis of every kind of wood ; it m\ist be at pre- 
 sent considered as being largely taken up by the roots of plants. Water, 
 the last mentioned constituent of atmospheric air, enters into it in the 
 state of vapour. The quantity of it suspended in the air is supposed to 
 
 * The elasticity of the constituents of atmospheric air is so powerful, that when, from 
 local causes, one ingredient is generated in undue proportion to the others, the most perfect 
 nnalj'sis of the general air in the immediate neighbourhood of the spot where this circum- 
 stance happens cannot detect any difference in the proportions of the proper constituents 
 from that of the air of the most healthy region. The atmosphere of a crowded city and 
 that of an open or moderately sheltered alpine region, afford by analysis the like number and. 
 proportion of ingredients or elements ; but notwithstanding this, the influence of the air 
 of these two situations on vegetation is very different. There are certain plants which 
 will not grow in the atmosphere of a crowded city, and there are others which thrive in the 
 former, and will not continue long in that of an alpine air. Some of the following plants 
 grow freely in the atmosphere of the crowded parts of the city of London. 
 
 Plants that grow freeli/. Plants that exist fur oyihj a few years in perfect health. 
 
 Sycamore. Laburnum. 
 
 Elms. 
 
 Mulberries That exist in health only a limited time. 
 
 Ivies Privets 
 
 Virginian Creepers China Roses 
 
 Vines Alpine Plants, scarcely ever produce 
 
 Oriental Planes, bulbous and tuberous- flowers, 
 
 rooted plants, except Snowdrops. 
 
 Since the above list was written, the Bedford Conservatory, or new flovv'er and plant 
 market, Covent Garden, London, has been erected by John I^uke of Bedford, and this 
 interesting feature to the ornament of the metropolis will afford extensive nuans to 
 determine what species of hardy as well as of tender plants will thrive in the atmosphere of 
 so large and crowded a city as that of London. Since this part of the market was com- 
 jikted in the month of June last year, the following plants may he mentioned as having 
 thriven best. The orange, Ci7n« aurantium; ca.mi:\\\a., Camellia Juponica ; rhododendrons, 
 R. ponticum, R. madimum, R. punctatum. Some kinds of pelargoniums, Gcranacece. 
 Heaths, particularly Erica titlijlora, E. cijlindriia, E. persoluta, E. ciiprcssina, E. odora- 
 rom ; Acacia vcrticilluta^ A. armuta, Epachris ijrandijlora, E, puugcns rosea. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 PLANTING. 
 
 vary from j.}^ to ^J^ part of the atmosphere, being jyreater as the weather 
 is dry and hot, at which time it is most useful to the growth and health of 
 plants, being absorbed by the leaves *. It is clear that water constitutes 
 immeasurably the largest portion of what is taken up by the roots and 
 furnished to the plant by the soil ; and when it is considered that water 
 is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, it cannot be supposed to act merely 
 as a vehicle of the food of the tree ; it contributes, probably, to the in- 
 crease of the solid parts of the living structure by decomposition into its 
 elements, through the agency of the vital powers. 
 
 Such are the general facts disclosed by chemical examinations of the 
 soil and atmospherical air, with respect to the substances supplied by them 
 to plants as food. An analysis of the sap itself immediately after its 
 absorption by tiie spongeols of the rootlets, and before it enters the 
 ascending vessels of the alburnum, t would probably leave nothing more to 
 be desired on this important subject, that might apply to the operations of 
 the practical planter. The sap hitherto examined chemically, has been taken 
 from the albiu'num of the tree, and consequently after it had undergone a 
 change in its original constitution, or that which characterised it at the mo- 
 ment of its entering the spongeols of the rootlets immediately from the soil. 
 That the sap undergoes a change in the ascending vessels of the alburnum 
 before it is acted upon by the leaves, has been proved by Knight and others. 
 In these instances, the sap extracted from the lower part of the tree, con- 
 tained much less saccharine matter, than that taken from a more elevated 
 part of the stem. According to Vauquelin, water, extract, mucilage, sugar, 
 and acetic acid, combined with potash or lime, are found in sap taken from 
 the alburnum or ascending sap vessels of the birch, elm, and beech ; but 
 these vary in the sap of different species of trees. Saccharine matter is most 
 abundant in the birch and sugar maple. These results, however, afford but 
 little light in the investigation of the question, as we know that the same 
 sap which produces the acid, astringent crab, produces also the saccharine, 
 aromatic pippin. By the action of heat, light, air, and the peculiar 
 organic structure in different species of trees, under the influence of the 
 vital power, are those substances which are soluble in water, or saccharine 
 and nuicilaginous fluids converted into insoluble or resinous and oily 
 substances. 
 
 * Tlio vaUie of vapour in air to the health of plants, is well known and appreciaied by 
 every skilful cultivator of tropical plants in an artificial atmosphere, as well as by the 
 successful forcing fruit and flower j^ardener in the hothouse. Plants are enabled by 
 vapour in the air to withstand the efiects of extreme heat and drought, which otherwise 
 would destroy the organization of the leaves. We ourselves have found the leaves of the 
 province rose, when in an artificial atmosphere, at an early season (and when its vital 
 powers could not be so strongly exerted, as when under the circumstances of its natural 
 season of growth and exposure) to unfold and increase in healthy growth when subjected 
 for a certain time, each day for the space of a fortnight, to hot air strongly charged with 
 vapour, while leaves of the same species did not imfuld, or when unfolded previously to 
 the application, shrivelled up and perished under the application of a dry current of air, of 
 the like temperature, and though all other circumstances were equal. 
 
 f The rapid communication which exists between the spongeols of the rootlets and the 
 leaves at the extremity of the tree, as evidenced by the sudden effects produced on the latter 
 by the application of water to the roots of a tree whose leaves have become flaccid or 
 drooping from the want of it, warrants the idea that the ascent of fluids from the roots to 
 the leaves is more direct than our knowledge of the structure of the vessels will allow, or 
 that a principle exists in the vegetable structure analogous to that of the irritability of the 
 animal fibre. The well known ex-periments of Hales to ascertain the force with which the 
 sap of trees ascends, shew that the sap of a vine branch four or five years old rises with a 
 force considerably superior to atmospherical pressure. Plants having the leaves firm and 
 glossy, exhibited proportionally less force in their ascending sap, Vide regetdhle Statics, 
 vol. 1., p. 114. 
 
PLANTING. 21 
 
 From these facts we may conclude that soluble substances, chiefly 
 vegetable extract, mucilag-e and carbon, with water as a vehicle and a 
 component, presented to the roots of plants under circumstances varying 
 according- to the chemical constitution, and mechanical texture of soils, 
 adapted to the peculiar habits or natural wants of different species of trees, 
 as the oak for instance, and the larch, constitute the food of trees supplied 
 by the soil to the roots; and that atmospheric air of a certain temperature, 
 and degree of moisture, and with freedom of circulation, constitutes that 
 other essential part of the nourishment of trees, which is taken up by the 
 leaves or green system of the plant. 
 
 Air, like water, requires a certain freedom from stagnation or confinement 
 to render its nourishing and invigorating properties available to the leaves 
 of trees; when comparatively stagnant, its valuable properties become lost 
 to plants. This is indicated by the disappearance of the green colour from 
 the leaves, which soon drop off, and are not reproduced, but the branches 
 die ; a few remaining alive at the top of the stem, may continue the 
 existence of the tree for a few years, but without adding to its girth or 
 solidity of contents. These are the invariable effects of stagnant air, the 
 most common and indeed the only cause of which in plantations is the 
 neglect of seasonable thinning of the trees, and the removal of dead and 
 decaying vegetable matter as it is produced. 
 
 The putrefactive fermentation of spray and brushwood left in close 
 plantations where the circulation of the air is confined, produces fetid 
 gaseous matters, alike hurtful to animal and to vegetable life ; the growth 
 of moss on the bark of trees is promoted by it, and whenever this becomes 
 general in a plantation, the progress of the trees is greatly retarded. 
 We cannot better illustrate the importance of attending to this principle of 
 practice in the planter's art, than by stating an instance kindly com- 
 municated to us by high authority* on the subject: in many places over 
 an extent of upwards of a thousand acres of the plantations at Blair Adam 
 the prunings of spray and brushwood, and the lo])pings of the trees 
 thinned out, for which there is no sale in this country, had been allowed 
 to accumulate for many years. The injurious effect was so remarkable, 
 that the proprietor determined to have the accumulation removed. This 
 was done at an expense not very considerable. Ever since the accumulation 
 has been prevented by having a squad of women and boys, to clear away 
 and brush after the woodcutters or pruners. The expense of this operation 
 has been overpaid by the increase of growth, and it is evident that it has 
 added greatly to the value and beauty of the woods, as well as to the 
 growth of underwood t- 
 
 To have entered more minutely into the details of the vegetable 
 physiology would have been incompatible with the scope and design of 
 this essay, and to have dwelt less on those principles which bear directly 
 upon every operation of the planter's art, would have rendered the practical 
 details which follow, more obscure and less instructive. 
 
 * The Right Hon. Lord Chief Commissioner Adam. 
 
 t We have had the gratification lately of examining a considerable part of these 
 plantations, and at the same time of witnessing the triumph of art in rearing valuable 
 timber on situations of great elevation, and in many places more or less elevated, in 
 which wet and undrained land presented ditHculties to be encountered and overcome. 
 
22 PLANTING. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees : — By sowing the seeds on the 
 spot ivhere they are to remain for timber. By sowing the seeds on 
 nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their 
 timber sites. Modes of propagating and of transplanting, preserving, 
 and training, proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or 
 stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different 
 modes ; and of simple and mixed plantations. 
 Before the seeds of forest-trees are sown on the spots where the plants 
 are to remain for the produce of timber, or tlie young' trees are trans- 
 planted from nursery beds to their timber sites, the land should be fenced 
 and properly prepared for their reception. As fences, however, are con- 
 structed of various materials, turf, or earth, stones, wood, and thorns, or 
 other armed shrubs, and the judicious adoption of the best kind offence 
 depending' on local circumstances, this part of the subject, perhaps, may 
 be more conveniently discussed under a separate head. It has been 
 supposed, with good reason, but certainly without the evidence of such 
 clear and undisputable facts as are absolutely necessary to bring full con- 
 viction to practical men, that when forest-trees are reared immediately 
 from seed, and consequently whose lap roots, proper roots, and rootlets 
 have never been disturbed or curtailed, they grow faster, attain to earlier 
 maturity, and produce sounder timber, than such as are transplanted from 
 nurseries. The facts brought forward respecting the structure and growth 
 of trees confirm this opinion ; but when useful or profitable planting is the 
 object of the planter, it is necessary to inquire whether these apparent 
 advantages are not lost for the most part, or entirely, in the extra cost or 
 expense which attends the execution of this method, in comparison to that 
 of transplanting ; or whether the extra feet of timber, that may be thus 
 gained, will repay with profit the increased cost of production. A detail 
 of the different processes of these two first-mentioned modes of rearing 
 Ibrest-trees may assist materially in coming to a just conclusion on this 
 important question. The oak being one of the most valuable of forest- 
 trees, and its i-oots penetrating more directly, and to a greater dejjth in the 
 subsoil than those of any other tree approximating to it in value, it has been 
 thought to sutler great injury by transplanting, and has, therefore, been 
 chiefiy insisted upon to be raised immediately from seed on its timber site. 
 Should the land on which it is intended to rear oak immediately from 
 seed, be not in a clear state of tillage, it must be brought into that state 
 by the most eligible means; these, of course, will depend on the nature 
 of the soil and condition of its surface. If the soil to be sown is clayey 
 and tenacious, retentive of moisture, and covered with coarse plants, as 
 sedges (carix), rushes (juncus), thistles (carduus), and turfy hair-grass 
 (aiia cajspitosa), the surface should be pared and burnt, the ashes care- 
 fully applied, and the soil ploughed as deep as the nature of the subsoil 
 will permit. It should have a clear out summer fallow, with repetitions of 
 cross ploughings and harrowings, as often as is necessary, to bring 
 the land to a friable and deep tilth. It should be ploughed into ridges 
 twelve feet wide, sufficiently high to give an inclination from the 
 crowns of the ridges on each hand to carry ofl' all surface water, and be 
 well water-furrowed. A dressing should be applied of compost of dung, 
 coal ashes, road scrapings, sand, &c., or any other manure that can be 
 procured, which may have a tendency to divide the texture of the tenacious 
 soil, and make the tilth friable and deep. This part of the process will 
 be found highly useful, and also necessary to insure a well-founded hope 
 
PLANTING. 23 
 
 of success. An application of lime, when it can be procured at a rea- 
 sonable cost, will also he foinid hi£>-hly useful. 
 
 Should the effects of these operations have been powerful enou<^h to 
 brino- the land to the essential condition of cleanness, depth, and fineness 
 of tilth required, the soil will be ready for the reception of the acorns in 
 the spring;. Unreclaimed lands, however, of this description can seldom 
 be prepared as above by the out summer's fallow only; and in such cases 
 it will be necessary to continue the process of fallowing for another season. 
 A o-reen crop fallow may be now adopted ; and should the weather be 
 favourable, the crop will probably cover the expense of cleaning- for that 
 season, or at all events considerably lessen the cost of fallowing;. The 
 choice of the croj) to be employed must be determined by the condition 
 or adaptation of the soil to certain kinds of green crops, and the g-reater 
 local demand that may be tor one kind of produce more than another. 
 The following- may be pointed out: Swedish turnips, rape, potatoes, 
 cabbages, and winter vetches. For these crops it may be unnecessary to add, 
 that the row and ridge system of culture should be adopted, as affordingthe 
 greatest facilities for cleaning and pulverizing the land, either by the hand 
 or horse-hoe, and thereby obtaining the great objects in view in their 
 most perfect state, and at the least comparative cost. Green crops are 
 here mentioned for fallow, because they exhaust the soil less than corn 
 crops, and also afford the means of destroying every kind of weed much 
 better ; but if a corn crop should promise better advantages than a green 
 crop, and secure the cleaning and pulverization of the soil, there can be 
 no possible objection to it, the extra manure given with the corn crop 
 supplying the loss supposed to be caused to the soil. As soon as the 
 croj), of whatever kind, is reaped and carried, advantage should be taken 
 of the first favourable weather to have the surface scarified, horse-hoed, 
 or skim coulter ploughed (according to circumstances of convenience, in 
 the possession of one or other of these implements), and the weeds collected 
 by the harrow, and by the hand if necessary. It is, in this case, the 
 safest mode to burn the weeds, for their seeds and the eggs of insects 
 are thereby more certainly destroyed. The land should now be ploughed 
 up to stand the winter's exposure. The mode of ploughing is of im- 
 portance at all times, but most particularly so when the full effect of 
 frost and winter weather is required to divide and ameliorate an adhe- 
 sive clayey soil. When the furrow slice of a soil of this description is 
 reversed, or laid quite flat, the weight and tenacity of the soil consolidate 
 its surface almost immediately, and obstruct the action of the weather 
 in breaking down the texture of the soil, as well as that of the harrows 
 in raising a tilth, or the greatest depth of mould for covering the seeds. 
 But when the furrow slice is raised up so as to lie at about an angle of 
 45°, the greatest possible surface of tlie soil that ploughing can accom- 
 plish is exposed to the direct influence of the atmosphere in the most 
 effective maimer*. As soon as the weather will permit in February, the 
 barrows should be used to raise as deep a tilth as possible ; and when 
 this mould is in its driest state, the last ploughing should be given : the 
 reversing of this comparatively dry and ameliorated mould to the bottom 
 of the staple of the soil is of great advantage to the growth of the plants. 
 
 * ' Rally's plough' is admirably constructed for this mode of ploughing. 
 
 It may be supposed that the preparation of the soil has here been too minutely dwelt 
 upon; l)ut being a part of the subject of considerable importance, iu many instances too 
 little attended to, and from the neglect of which failures of considerable extent have had 
 their origin, as regards this mode of rearing oak trees, we have ventured to state thus 
 much ou the point. 
 
24 PLANTING. 
 
 By the beoinuing' of March favourable weather will have occurred to 
 use the harrows so as to obtain a proper depth of surface mould in which 
 to sow the seeds; but it is essential that the greatest possible depth of 
 mould be obtained, though the time of sowing be delayed until the middle 
 of that month, but which should be avoided if possible. 
 
 There are two distinct varieties of the British oak, differing in the quality 
 of the limber and quickness of growth. In collecting the acorns for sow- 
 ing, therefore, it is of consequence to select those of the most valuable 
 variety. The discriminating characters of these will be pointed out here- 
 after, when we enumerate all the different species and varieties of forest- 
 trees : here it will be sufficient to mention, that the most valuable variety of 
 the oak is distinguished by having the acorns on footstalks (Quercus 
 Robur pedimcnlala), and the less valuable variety by bearing the acorns 
 without footstalks (Qticrcus Robur Sessili flora). If it were possible to 
 have the land in a fit state for sowing in autumn, as soon as the acorns 
 were ripe, and the attacks of mice, birds, and insects upon them could be 
 securely guarded against during the winter, the autumn would be doubt- 
 less the most favourable season for sowing ; but as this can seldom be 
 done, the acorns must be carefully preserved until spring, by spreading 
 them out in a thin layer on a dry, cool floor. When placed in sand, unless 
 the same be perfectly dry, the acorns are apt to vegetate ; and the same thing 
 hap])ens when they are placed in heaps, or in too thick a layer. 
 
 The land being thus prepared for the reception of the seed, and the 
 acorns ready, drills or furrows should be drawn with the hand-hoe two 
 inches deep, and at intervals of four feet. In order that the rows of plants 
 may not obstruct the surface-water from passing off by the declining sides 
 of the ridges, a point of great importance in this kind of soil ; the fur- 
 rows for the seed should be at right angles to the ridges. The one-horse 
 drill which, under other circumstances, would be the most economical mode 
 of drawing the drills, is inconvenient here, on account of the curve of the 
 ridges and the open drains in the furrows, over which the drill would have 
 to pass*. The acorns should be dropped in the furrows at about two 
 inches apart: this thick sowing is to guard against the numberless ca- 
 sualties which thin them in the course of their vegetation in an exjjosed field 
 or common, and also to allow the selection of the strongest seedlings to 
 stand for timber — a part of the duty of the planter requiring great atten- 
 tion, and which hitherto has scarcely been attended to, or but incidentally. 
 The acorns should be carefully covered with two inches depth of mould. 
 The back of a large wood-rake will be found to fill up the drills effectually 
 and with dispatch. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, the 
 soil should be hoed, and every appearance of weeds destroyed. Hand 
 lioeing must be repeated as often as weeds appear, or the surface of the 
 ground becomes hardened ; in fact the land must he kept in as clean a 
 state, and as free from weeds, as the best managed seedling beds in a 
 nursery garden, or disappointment and failure in a greater or less degree 
 is certain to follow. The surface of a soil of this description, as regards 
 the successful germination of seeds and growth of seedling plants, requires 
 to be ke])t always in a friable, loose state ; for if once it becomes hardened 
 aiul cracks, the seedling plants will be injured, tlieir leaves assume a pale 
 sickly hue, and their growth will be greatly retarded. Where the plants are 
 suffered to remain long in this state, the sap vessels become contracted in 
 the bark and leaves, and the plants never regain that vigour of constitution 
 which, in this stage of their growth, is so essential to their future perfec- 
 
 * These drains are recommended to be made immediately after the ridges are formed, 
 tliat the land may have the benefit of their free action a tweh'emonth at least before the 
 sowing of the seeds. 
 
PLANTING. 25 
 
 tion. The stem and branches remain stationary, until the roots, by the in- 
 fluence of a favourable season or two, sometimes force anew stem from 
 the base of the stinted one, which in tlie course of one year overtops it, 
 and becomes the stem or body of the tree ; the oris^inal stem, takino- the 
 place of a secondary branch, soon disappears altogether. This is the inva- 
 riable consequence when the growth of the plant, under these circumstances, 
 is left to the unassisted efforts of nature — a fact upon which is founded 
 the j)ractice of cutting down to the surface of the ground stinted youno- 
 plants, in order to produce superior stems, which always succeeds with 
 the oak, chestnut, and ash, but never with coniferous trees of pine and fir. 
 
 During the summer of the second year, the plants which have escaped 
 the attacks of the enemies before alluded to will be strongly marked in the 
 rows, and the horse-hoe may now in consequence be substituted for the 
 hand-hoe : this will be found very beneficial as attaining the great objects 
 of perfect weeding, pulverizing, and rendering friable and porous the sur- 
 face of the soil at a diminished expense. The rows, however, will require 
 to be looked over and handweeded with care. 
 
 Should the plants stand nearer to each other than one foot, they must be 
 thinned out to that distance in the spring of the third year of their growth. 
 In this process it is of the utmost importance that the smaller and least 
 healthy looking plants should be taken out, and those left which indicate 
 the possession of a vigorous constitution, without regard to the mere cir- 
 cumstance of exact distances. When a plant has a robust stem, clear bark, 
 and a plump leading bud, we may consider it as certain to produce a fine 
 tree, or to contend with most success against natural defects of soil and 
 climate, and accidental injuries. To protect young oaks against uncon- 
 genial climates, the best method is to plant nurse-trees of quick growth, 
 and well adapted to the soil, amongst them. An artificial climate is thus 
 produced, and to a certain extent, also, the soil is ameliorated by the roots 
 of these nurse-trees running near its surface, while the oak has its roots 
 obtaining nourishment from below ; the former, acting as drains, assist the 
 growth of the oak, until its own roots and stem have acquired sufficient 
 strength and dimensions to resist with effect the various unfavourable cir- 
 cumstances above alluded to. In soils suitable to oak this is not always 
 necessary ; but deficiencies of soil and climate are generally remedied by 
 the judicious planting of nurse-trees, of which we shall treat more parti- 
 cularly hereafter. The keeping down of the weeds, and the pulverizing of 
 the soil by the hoe, being unweariedly attended to, the young trees will make 
 rapid progress, and will require to be thinned out to four or five feet on 
 an average in the rows, in the fifth year from sowing-, when they will have 
 reached that period at which the opposite and more general practice, that of 
 transplanting from seed beds to the timber sites, begins; and as the subse- 
 quent culture, pruning and thinning, is the same in both instances, to be 
 treated of separately, we shall proceed to consider the rearing of forest 
 trees by transplanting. No greater error exists in the planter's art than 
 the doctrine that trees should be raised on the same quality of soil as that 
 to which they are to be transplanted, — as if a robust, healthy plant were less 
 likely to withstand its subsequent casualties of situation, soil, and local 
 climate, than a weaker plant with contracted sap vessels — the invariable 
 consequence of a poor seed-bed soil. What is the intention of all the 
 various processes of culture which have been just described as essentially 
 necessary to the raising of oak from the acorn on a damp, cold, clayey soil, 
 but to enrich the soil, and render the seedling plants vigorous and healthy? 
 and with how much less labour and expense can this be effected in a nur- 
 sery bed of clean fresh soil, of whatever nature or texture, than on the 
 extensive site of an intended plantation of forest trees' 
 
26 PLANTING. 
 
 Experience fully confirms that principle of vep:etable ])liysio]og'y 
 wliich teaches that robust, healthy plants, whether in the seedliiip; stage of 
 Growth or of a larger size, succeed better than those of stinted growth, even 
 when transjjlanted to the least favourable soil and exposure.* 
 
 Where the land to be planted with forest-trees is an extensive tract and 
 remotely situated, and where the seeds of the several kinds can be procured 
 o-enuine, of g;ood quality, and at a small cost, the formation of a private 
 nursery may be advisable ; but where the ))]ants can be procured from a 
 reasonable distance, it will be found the most economical and effective to 
 purchase them from the nurseryman, and even in the former case one or 
 two years' seedlings should be procured in j)lace of seeds, as a saving of 
 time and expense. The following are essential points to be considered in 
 establishing an effective nursery: fencing, shelter, aspect, soil, and 
 management. The fence of a forest-tree nursery requires to be rabbit- 
 proof, or h)ss and disappointment are almost certain to follow. A founda- 
 tion of brick-work should be made for a superstructure of close paling. 
 "Where shelter is not an object, a very cheap and excellent substitute is 
 found in iron wire-netting, which is manufactured for the general purposes 
 of fences to young i)lants. Shelter is indispensable to the free growth of 
 seedling plants, the injurious consequences resulting to which from sudden 
 checks have alreaily been mentioned, as also the bad effects of confined 
 air to the health and prosperity of trees in every stage of growth ; and 
 therefore, at the same time that a full protection against cold, bleak winds 
 and unfavourable aspects is necessary, a full and free circulation of 
 atmospheric air must be secured, to allow of a well-grounded hope of 
 success. 
 
 The soil of the nursery must be of an intermediate quality as to mois- 
 ture and dryness, not less than eighteen inches deep to the subsoil, and 
 under a south, east, or west exposure, or intermediate points of these. 
 The varieties of soil required for particular kinds of trees will have to be 
 su])i)lied where the natural soil is deficient, as has already been_ specified 
 when speaking of the seeds of trees, (p. 13.) 
 
 Management. — This head comprehends an ample degree of practical 
 skill in the superintendent and workmen ; the erection of proper sheds, 
 the means of carriage for composts, soils, plants, &c., immediately when 
 needed, A quantity of compost and different soils should always be in 
 readiness when wanted for the seedling beds, layer stools, and cutting 
 beds, and a proper assortment of nursery garden tools, which shall be 
 specified hereafter. The preparation of the soil, the mode of sow^ing, and 
 the different kinds of forest-tree seeds, have already been described. All 
 kinds of forest trees, however, are not raised from seeds, either because 
 
 * It is difficult to give a definition of what is termed a robust, kca/llnj plant, so as to apply 
 to every species of tree wherein the habits of growth vary in every individual species. Tlie 
 points of excellence cannot be estimated statically, or by weight and measure, but compa- 
 rativel)'. A number of minute discriminating characters, collectively, are readily distin- 
 guished by the eye, but when taken separately cannot be usefidlj' described in words. A 
 robust, b.ealthy plant, not exceeding five years' growth, may be said to have equally divided 
 roots, the principal ones of moderate length well furnished with secondary rootlets, and 
 these with numerous fibres ; the stem straight, and possessing a girth or diameter pro- 
 portionate to its length; the bark clean, with an epidermis on the young wood exhibiting 
 fissures, as if bursting or giving way to the increasing size of the parenchyma, par- 
 ticularly in the season of spring or auUnnn ; the buds full in size and not crowded ; the 
 leaves perfectly shaped, and of the natural colour. The opposite of this state, from the 
 efiects of a poor or imgenial soil, exhibits all these characteristics in a diminished form 
 and number ; the opposite extreme or unhealthy state of a plant, from the effects of over- 
 richness of soil, may be supposed ; for in our experience we have never met with an instance 
 of the kind, to have all these parts of the structure in an enlarged excess. 
 
PLANTING. 27 
 
 they do not perfect a sufficient quantity for the g^eneral purposes of propa- 
 g-ation, or are accidental varieties only of a species losint>* their cliaracters 
 of distinction when reproduced from seed. The following modes of i)ro- 
 pagation are found etfectual when seeds cannot be obtained : first by 
 suckers, second by layers, third by cuttings, and fourth by grafting. 
 
 1st. Suckers are shoots produced by the creeping- roots of a tree, which, 
 when separated from the parent root and transplanted, become perfect 
 trees. They are generally sufficiently rooted in the first season of their 
 production, and they should not be suffered to remain longer than two 
 seasons attached to the root of the tree ; for if continued longer, the sup- 
 port they derive from the parent root ])revents them from making inde- 
 pendent roots of their own in such abundance as they do when separated 
 or taken up at an earlier period. The spring is the most proper season for 
 taking them from the parent roots. When a sufficient number of rootlets 
 appear on the sucker, no part of the root from whence the sucker sprang 
 should be left attached to it ; but where the proper rootlets are deficient 
 in number, a small portion of the parent root may be left with advantage. 
 The plants should be planted in rows in fresh soil, and treated in all re- 
 spects afterwards as directed for seedling transplanted trees. The kinds 
 of trees chiefly reared in this mode are; 
 
 The abele tree, Populus alba. 
 
 Common white poplar, PojJulus canescens. 
 
 Aspen, Populus tremula. 
 
 Chinese ailanthus, AilantMis glandulosa. 
 
 The first three kinds may also be propagated by layers. 
 2nd. Layers. — The process of layering is well known : it consists in bend- 
 ing a young branch (a,Jig. 2) into the soil to a certain depth, and elevating 
 the top part of it out of the soil in an upright direction ; in time the buried 
 part takes root, and the shoot becomes a perfect plant. The root which 
 produces the young shoots for layering is called the stool. Stools are 
 l)lanted about six feet apart every way in a deep fresh soil. The stem at 
 first is either bent down into the ground as a layer, or cut over a fev/ 
 inches from the root. The shoots which are produced from its sides form 
 ^^ .9 the layers (d). The rooting of the 
 
 *" "' layers is much facilitated by ob- 
 
 structing in part the descending sap ; 
 this is essential to some kinds of 
 layei's, though not to all : the com- 
 mon laurel, privet, &c., strike root 
 readily without any artificial stop- 
 page of the descending sap. The 
 — -- — - most expeditious mode of effecting 
 
 this, is to cut a notch, slanting upwards to the origin of the layer, about 
 half a diameter in length (/), and securing the position of the layer in the 
 ground by a wooden peg (g). Where the shoot is of a nature that roots 
 with difiiculty, it is useful to split the tongue oCihe notch halfway up, and 
 to insert a small wedge of potsherd or wood to keep the division open. 
 Rings of wire are also sometimes used for the same purpose, and cutting 
 the bark round the part to within a little of the complete circumference of 
 the shoot. In all ordinary cases, however, the slit or notching mode is 
 perfectly effective. The ground should be kept quite clean of weeds, and 
 watered in dry weather. When sufficiently rooted, the layers should be 
 carefully cut away from the shoots, with all the fibrous roots attached to 
 them, and planted in rows in fresh, well-prepared soil. The stools should 
 have all the stumps of the branches cut away, and left to produce a fresh 
 
28 PLANTING. 
 
 series of shoots for next autumn's layering. The following trees are pro- 
 pagated by layers. 
 
 Maple, silver striped maple, Acer campestre, fol. ar^. 
 
 Sir G. Wager's, A. dasycarpnm. 
 
 bastard, A. hyhridum. 
 
 lobe leaved, A. lobatum. 
 
 mountain, A. moiitanum. 
 
 ash leaved, A. negundo. 
 
 Italian, A. opaliis. 
 
 striped barked, A. Pennsylvanicum. 
 
 cut leaved, A. platanoides laciniatum. 
 
 gold striped, A. pseudoplataynis, fol. aur. 
 
 silver striped, A. pseitdoplat. fol. org. 
 
 Tartarian, A. Tartaricum. 
 
 Montpellier, A. monspessulanum. 
 Alder, cut leaved, AJmis laciniata. 
 
 oak leaved, AL qnercifolia. 
 
 prickly leaved, AL. glulinosa spinuhsa. 
 
 Turkey, A I. oblongata. 
 
 oval leaved, AL oblong, elliptica. 
 Birch, daurian, Beli/la daurica. 
 
 Canada, B. lenta. 
 
 •black, B. nigra. 
 
 paper, B. papyracea 
 
 poplar leaved, B. populifolia. 
 
 red, B. rubra. 
 Hornbeam, cut leaved, Carpinus bet. incisa. 
 
 Judas tree, American white flowered, Cercis silig.Jl. alba. 
 
 Date plum tree, Dio.tpyrJis lotus. 
 Spindle tree. 
 
 gold blotched, Euonymua Europ. fol. aur. 
 
 silver, yb^. arg. 
 
 white, fruc. alb. 
 
 Y>a.\e,fruc. pal.* 
 Beech, broad leaved, Fagus femiginea. 
 
 purple leaved, F. sylvatica purpurea. 
 
 copjier leaved, F. sylvatica cujjrca.f 
 Ash, weeping Fraxiniis pendula.\ 
 
 curled leaved ash, F. atra 
 
 flowering ash, F. ornus. 
 
 manna ash, F. rotundijolia. 
 
 striped barked ash, F. striata. 
 Mulberry, white, Blorus alba. 
 
 common, M. nigra. 
 Tufelo tree, Nyssa aquatica. 
 
 mountain, N. montana. 
 Bird cherry, Frunus padus. 
 
 Cornish, P. juid. rubra. 
 Buckthorn, sea, Rhamnus catharticus. 
 Lime tree, white, Tilia alba. 
 
 broad leaved, T. Americana. 
 
 * These four trees are of low growth, and only for ornament 
 
 ■f- Propagated also by grafting. 
 
 I When grafted on the common or tall ash, the pendulous branches have a striking effect . 
 
PLANTING. 29 
 
 common, T. Enropeea. 
 red tniji;ged, T. Etirop. corallina. 
 downy leaved, T. piibescens. 
 Elm, Eng-Iish, U. campeatris. 
 
 striped leaved, U.fol. var, 
 Cornish, [/. sativa. 
 liornbeam, leaved U. ne)7iorali.i. 
 Dutch, U. suberosa. 
 
 3rd. Cuttings. — Shoots of one year's growth are the most proper to be 
 used in this mode of propagating several kinds of forest trees. The shoots 
 should be selected from the most healthy and free-grown branches, and 
 cut into lengths of from six to eighteen inches, according to the kind of 
 tree. If evergreens (a, fig. 3), the leaves should be cut off half way up 
 from the root-end of the cutting (6). Deciduous trees should have shed 
 their leaves before the cuttings (c) are taken from them. The root-ends 
 of the cuttings should be cut finely smooth, and inserted from about 
 a half to three parts of their length into the soil. For every species 
 of cutting, the soil should be light, and composed, at least, of half of 
 fine siliceous sand. There are many species of exotic plants, whose 
 cuttings will only strike root in pure siliceous sand. It need hardly be 
 Fig. 3. remarked, that in this mode of propagating, 
 
 watering is more particularly required to be 
 attended to than in any other. The utility of 
 the sandy nature of the soil consists in its 
 retaining no stagnant moisture, but just suf- 
 ficient for the wants of the shoot during the 
 process of rooting. As soon as the cuttings 
 are well rooted, if in a light soil of the above 
 description, they should be carefully taken up 
 and transplanted to their proper soil ; for 
 although the shoots produce roots more quickly 
 and in greater abundance in the siliceous 
 sandy soil, yet it is unable to support the 
 growth of the plant after the proper functions 
 of the roots begin. Next to that of propagation by seeds, plants may be 
 increased by cuttings more generally than by any other mode: the pro- 
 cess, however, requires more time, skill, and attention, than is demanded 
 for rearing trees from suckers, or by layers or grafting, and it is therefore 
 chiefly practised for the increase of exotic ornamental plants ; but the fol- 
 lowing forest trees are most advantageously raised from cuttings : 
 
 Plane, American, Platanus occidentalis. 
 
 Spanish var., P. acerifolia. 
 
 Oriental, P. orientalis. 
 
 waved leaved, P. cuneata. 
 Poplar, Carolina, Popnlus Carolina 
 
 Lombardy, P. dilatata. 
 
 Athenian, P. Grceca. 
 
 Canadian, P. monolifera. 
 
 black, P. nigra. 
 
 weeping, P. pendula. 
 
 trembling, P. tremula. 
 Maiden-hair tree, Salisburia adiantifolia. 
 Willow tree, common, Salix alba. 
 
 Peach leaved, y^mygdalina. 
 
30 PLANTING. 
 
 Duke of Bedford's, Russelliana. 
 
 weeping-, Babylonica. 
 
 round leaved, Capera. 
 
 gray, Cineria. 
 
 crack, Fragilis. 
 
 spear leaved, Hastata. 
 
 common. Helix. 
 
 fine stemmed or smooth leaved, pentandria. 
 
 triandrous, triandra. 
 
 golden osier, vitelliiia*. 
 
 4th. Grafting, in forest-tree propagation, is chiefly had recourse to for 
 those varieties of trees which lose their distinctive characters when repro- 
 duced from seed, and which make finer trees when grafted on free grow- 
 ing stocks of their own species. The scionsf take more freely when not 
 more than of one year's growth, but those of much older growth will succeed. 
 Tlie most perfect grafting is where the scion and the part of the stock to 
 which it is to be united are nearly of an equal size, for on the perfect con- 
 tact of tiie inner bark of the scion and stock depend the perfect union of 
 the two in the shortest space of time, and consequent equal healing of the 
 wound. The month of March is the best season for forest-tree gratting*. 
 The modes of grafting are numerous. French authors enumerate up- 
 wards of forty ; for the purposes now under consideration, however, that 
 termed whip or tongue grafting is generally followed. The scions should 
 be selected from the more upright, free-growing branches ; the middle 
 portion of the shoot is the best; but where there is a scarcity of grafts, the 
 top and bottom may be used, as these will succeed, though not likely to 
 produce such fine trees. From two to five buds should be left for the 
 production of a leading stem and branches. The stock should be cut in 
 an oblique direction (a, fig. 4), and the scion in like manner at a corre- 
 sponding angle fbj ; a slit should then be made in the 
 stock about the middle of the wound, passing down- 
 wards (c), and a similar slit upwards in the scion {d) ; 
 the upper division of the scion made by the slit, termed 
 the tongue or wedge, is then inserted into the clet\ of 
 the stock, and the inner barks of the stock and scion 
 brought into perfect contact, at least on one side. Tliis 
 should be effected with as little delay as possible. The 
 parts are then to be bound with a riband of bass, and 
 particular care should be taken that, in this part of the 
 process, the junction of the two barks is not in the 
 ~ least displaced. To protect the grafted parts from 
 
 drought and moisture, and from the action of the air, various means have 
 been adopted, but the most direct and useful is well-worked clay, cleaned 
 of gravel or small stones, and horse-droppings, well incorporated and 
 mixed in the proportions of three parts of the former to one of the latter; 
 a little finely-chopped straw is added with advantage. The clay should be 
 
 * This numerous and highly interesting trihe of forest plants, from the useful and 
 varied properties which the different species evidently possess, demand more of the notice 
 of the forest planter tlian they have yet received. The extensive and important trials in- 
 stituted by John Duke of Bedford, now in progress, to investigate the comparative merit 
 of all the different species of willows, will afford much usefid information on the subject. 
 
 f Scions may be separated from the parent stock some time before grafting, without 
 suffering injury from being kept, but the root-ends should be placed in eartli to prevent 
 the bark from shrivelling. The ascent of the sap in the stock being more advanced in the 
 stock thau in the graft, is sometimes advantageous. 
 
PLANTING, 
 
 31 
 
 placed on tlie grafted parts an inch thick on every side, and extend about 
 half an inch above and below the union of the stock with the graft*. 
 Jig. 3. Another mode, called saddle grafting, is perhaps 
 
 better adapted for forest trees than the foregoing, 
 but it takes up more time in the performance. 
 The stock should be cut so as to leave the top in the 
 form of a wedge (a, Jig. 5) ; the scion split at the 
 lower end, and each side of the incision pared obliquely, 
 so as to form the two divisions into tongue-like pro- 
 cesses (b) ; these are then seated on the wedge and 
 made to fit accurately to each side of it. The after 
 operations of tying and claying are the same as in 
 the former mode. The trees which come under the 
 forester's care that require to be reared by grafting- 
 are the following : 
 
 Broad-leaved evergreen oak, Querci/s ilex hdifolia. 
 
 entire leaved, Q. ilex integrifolia, 
 
 Lucomb's, Q. Exonicnsis. 
 
 Turner's, Q. Exoniensis Turneri. 
 
 broad-leaved Lucomb's, Q. Exoniensis latifolius. 
 Sweet crab tree, Pi/riis coronaria. 
 
 Siberian crab, P. pninifolia. 
 
 willow leaved, P. salicifolia. 
 
 Chinese, P. spe.ctahilis. 
 
 wild service, P. terniinalis. 
 
 white beam, P. aria. 
 
 Swedish white beam, P. aria dentaia. 
 
 small fruited crab, P. haccatn. 
 Heart-leaved poplar, Popuhis candicans. 
 
 various leaved, P. helerophylla. 
 
 smooth leaved, P. heter. Iccvigata. 
 Upright medlar, Mespilus germanica. 
 
 weeping medlar, M. ger. diffusa. 
 Entire leaved ash, Fraxinns simplicifolia. 
 
 striped barked, F. striata. 
 
 variegated, F. variegata. 
 
 white American, F. Americanus. 
 
 black, F. Amer. puhesce.ns. 
 
 red, F. Amer. rubriis. 
 Gold striped beech, Fagiis sylvatica fol. aur. 
 
 silver striped, F. sylv. fol. arg. 
 
 copper coloured, F. sylv. ciiprea. 
 
 purple leaved, F. sylv. purpurea. 
 Gold striped Spanish chestnut, Castanea vesca, fol. aur. 
 
 silver, C. ves. fol. arg. 
 various leaved, C. vcs. heterophylla. 
 shining leaved, C. ves. lucida. 
 Gold striped horse chestnut, jEfculus hippocastaiunn, fol. aur. 
 silver, 7E. hipp.fol. arg. 
 yellow horsechestnut, JE.fava. 
 
 scarlet, JE. paria. 
 
 * It is a hig'nly useful practice to draw earth up round the clay so as to cover it 
 entirely from the sun and air. 
 
32 PLANTING. 
 
 The stoclcs for these trees should be raised from seed of the common 
 species, to which each variety is nearest aUied.for the nearer the connection 
 of the stuck with the graft the more lasting- is the union and more perfect 
 the "-rowth. In trees that have been grafted on unsuitable stocks, we 
 frequently see the base of the stem abruptly contracted to a smaller cir- 
 cumference than the upper portion, and vice versa, just as the stock or the 
 graft hapjiens to possess the freest habit of growth. The stocks sliould 
 be planted in rows two feet apart, and should be one foot distant plant from 
 plant. When arrived at two years of transplanted growth they will be in 
 a fit state to graft. Tlie grafts should be united to the stock as near to 
 the root as convenient. This facilitates the vigorous growth of the tree, and 
 allows of the earth being drawn up on each side to cover the clayed 
 portion of the graft. The clay should be removed from the grafts, and 
 the ties or bandages loosened when the progress of the new shoots of the 
 graft indicates the perfect completion of the process. In the spring tbl- 
 lowing that in which the trees were grafted, many of them may be 
 transplanted to their permanent sites ; but it is better, as a general rule, to 
 defer transplanting until the second autumn or spring. The size of the 
 different kinds of trees most suitable for final transplanting is a point of 
 some importance, particularly when the planting is on a large scale, and 
 where the preservation of every fibre of the roots of the plants cannot be 
 accomplished without an unnecessary e.\pense of time and labour. A 
 very young plant may be readily taken up and triinsplanted with its roots 
 entire; but a plant of several feet in height requires considerable care in 
 taking it up to preserve its roots from injury. The structure and the 
 functions of the roots of trees, as connected with the produce and support 
 of the plant were before described, and clearly point out the essential use 
 of the minute rootlets and their accompanying spongeols or glands to 
 the noin-ishment of the plant in every stage of its growth, and under every 
 change of circumstance. Accordingly we find that, if a plant is taken up 
 and transplanted witli all its roots entire and uninjured, it experiences 
 scarcely any perceptible check, unless its roots are exposed to the effects 
 of the sun and wind for any considerable time, in which case it makes little, 
 if any progress for a season. A moderate degree of pruning, however, 
 of the overgrown and straggling roots of young trees, possessing the 
 reproductive power in a full degree, and of the branches of their stems, is 
 often expedient, and, when judiciously performed, is beneficial: it prevents 
 the accident of doubling up tlie roots, or improperly disposing them in 
 the soil, an evil of worse consequences to the plant than the shortening 
 of an overgrown root, or lateral branch. To trees which possess the 
 reproductive power in a very imperfect degree, pruning the roots or 
 branches preparatory to transplanting is injurious. Tlie facility with 
 which young plants of any kind can be taken up without hurting the 
 roots, and the slight pruning which they require at that stage of 
 growth, point out as a general rule in deciding on the most ])roper size 
 of the different species of trees for final transplanting, that the non-re- 
 productive kinds should be of the smallest size or earliest stage of growth, 
 and those in which the reproductive power is greatest of the largest size. 
 If we divide the stem of a Scotch fir, or a larch, a corresponding stem is 
 not rejjroduced; but if we cut down, in like luanner, a willow, or even a 
 chestnut, or an oak, a vigorous stem will follow. Where the habit of the 
 roots is to divide into large branches, and run deep into the ground, as in 
 the case of the oak, younger plants are required for transplanting than 
 in those instances where the habit of the root is to produce numerous 
 fibres. The nature of the soil also dictates, in some measure, the size of 
 
PLANTING. Sy 
 
 the plants. In rocky, elevated soils that cannot be ploiighed or trenched, 
 nor can allow of proper sized holes being made with the spade, plants of 
 one or two years growth, or such as have small roots, can only be 
 planted: when exposed to severe winds, plants above one foot in height 
 are loosened in the soil, and never prosper. P'or the purposes of general 
 or extensive works of forest planting, the best sizes of the plants of the 
 different species of trees at the period of transplanting to their timber 
 sites, may be thus enumerated : 
 
 1st. NoN-REPRODUCTIVE OR RESINOUS TREES. iicigbt • 
 
 Pinus abies, common spruce fir, from . . 6 to 20 inches. 
 
 alba, white spruce. 
 rubra, red spruce. 
 nigra, black spruce. 
 sylvestris, Scotch fir. 
 
 laricis, Corsican fir . .24 
 
 unciiiata, hooked fir . . . 18 
 
 pumila, upright coned fir , . 12 
 
 Mughus, nodding coned fir. 
 piingens, prickly coned fir. 
 
 Baiiksiana, Hudson's Bay fir, in pots* . 24 
 
 Pallasiana, Prof. Pallas's fir. 
 pinaster, cluster fir 
 pinea, stone pine 
 maritima, sea-side pine . 
 Halepensis, Aleppo pine 
 inops, Jersey pine . 
 
 resinosa, pitch pine 
 variabilis, various leaved pine. 
 Clanbrassiliana, dwarf pine. 
 tteda, frankincense pine, in pots. 
 serotina, fox-tail pine. 
 
 rigida, three-leaved pine . . 6 20 
 
 palustris, swamp pine, in pots. 
 longifolia, long leaved pine. 
 
 Cembra, Siberian pine . . 6 18 
 
 strobus, Weymouth . . . 12 36 
 
 excelsa, Bhotan, in pots. 
 cedrus. Cedar of Lebanon, in pots. 
 deodara, Indian cedar. 
 
 pendula, black larch. . . 6 24 
 
 microcorjja, red larch. 
 larix, common larch. 
 
 Canadensis, hemlock spruce • . 9 20 
 
 dumosa, bushy pine, in pots. 
 iaxifolia, yew leaved, in pots. 
 
 picea, silver fir . . . 9 20 
 
 spectabilis, purple coned, in pots. 
 
 balsamea, balm of Gilead . . 9 20 
 
 Fraseri, double balsam, in pots. 
 adunca, crooked. 
 Romana, Roman. 
 
 * By this is meant such sorts of forest-trees as from their rarity, or recent introduction of 
 very small quantities of their seeds, have rendered the utmost care and caution necessary 
 in the first attempt to cultivate them here ; by and by, instead of being raised in pots, the 
 seeds may be found to succeed equally well in the open ground. 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
34. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 Height. 
 
 9 to 20 inches. 
 
 Pinus Siftmcfl, Siberian pine 
 
 pichta, pigmy pine, in pots. 
 orientalis, oriental pine. 
 Lambertiana, Lambert's pine, in pots. 
 ponderosa, heavy wooded. 
 Araucaria imbricata. Chili pine. 
 Taxodium dislichum, deciduous cypress. 
 Cupressus sempervirens, upright evergreen cypress. 
 
 thyoides, while cedar. 
 Juniperus Virginiana, red cedar. 
 Thuja occidentalis, American arbor-vitae, 
 orientalis, Chinese. 
 plicata, Nee's. 
 Caroliniana, Lucas's arbor-vitae. 
 
 2d. Reproductive trees. 
 Quercus, oak, different species of . from 
 
 Fraxinus, ash, different species of 
 Castana, Spanish chestnut 
 jEsculus, horse chestnut 
 Fagus, beech 
 
 Betula, birch . . . . 
 
 Alnus, alder . . . 
 
 Carpinus, hornbeam 
 
 Platanus, plane . " . . 
 
 Acer, sycamore . . 
 
 Maple common 
 
 Norway . . . . 
 
 Grafted and layer reared species 
 Tilia, lime, common, and others . 
 
 Ulmus, elm, wych 
 
 Grafted and layer reared species 
 Populus, poplar, different species of 
 Salix, willow tree, species of 
 
 Those species which are mentioned as raised in pots for transplanting, 
 except the cedars and a few others, are as yet considered merely orna- 
 mental trees, the period of their introduction not having allowed sufficient 
 time to prove their properties or comparative value as timber trees. It 
 is highly desirable to plant them, with a view to ascertain that point, 
 several of them being highly valuable in their native countries. The 
 pinus Lambertiana has been found to have attained to the growth of 200 
 feet in height, and 57 feet in circumference*. 
 
 Modes of transplanting. Much difference of opinion prevails on the 
 comparative merits of the different methods of planting from time to time 
 introduced, and more or less practised. Trenching is held by some to be 
 essential to success, without considering that there are situations and soils 
 where timber of the most valuable quality may be produced that cannot 
 be dug or trenched. Others again infer, that to insert seedling plants into 
 the soil in its natural state is all that is required for the production of 
 timber and underwood possessing every requisite value. 
 
 These opinions are too exclusive; they have led to baneful effects, and still 
 are the cause why many extensive tracts of land lie waste, which other- 
 wise might have been covered with profitable plantations. But in more 
 
 * Transactions of the Linnean Society of Loudon, vol. xv. Part II. p. 498, 
 
 Height. 
 
 6 to 
 
 30 mches. 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
W.ANTING. 
 
 3« 
 
 numerous instances, from the same cause, {]jreat and unnecessary 
 expenses have been incurred, only to result in a total failure of the 
 plantation, with the consequent loss of time and property. Instances 
 illustrative of these points have been too frequent in the management of 
 the forest lands of the Crown, (which ought to shew an example of practical 
 planting worthy of imitation by the community,) as well as on private 
 estates, to require to be cited here. Well regulated economy in the expense, 
 or first outlay, is one of the principles of the art important to be attended 
 to in practice. Accordingly it is not surprising to find some modes of 
 planting invented, and others misapplied, under the mistaken impression 
 of furthering this principle, at the serious risk of retarding the healthy 
 growth and prosperity of the trees, and of producing results completely 
 subversive of the intention. 
 
 The great object of transplanting trees from seed-beds, layer-stools, 
 cutting grounds, &c. to nursery rows, or beds previous to their final trans- 
 plantation for good, is to increase the number of fibres and rootlets ; and, 
 by ensuring the free uninterrupted formation of healthy stems and buds, to 
 lay the foundation of a vigorous constitution in each individual plant before 
 it be finally transplanted to its timber site. 
 
 The different modes of planting trees on their timber sites are denomi- 
 nated, first, slit-planting; second, holing or pitting; third, trench-plant- 
 ing ; fourth, furrow-planting. There are also varieties of these characterised 
 by the instruments or tools used for inserting the roots of the plants into 
 the soil. 
 
 Slit planting is the most simple mode, and is practised on soils in their 
 natural state without, any preparation of holing, ploughing, or trenching. 
 It is performed by three different kinds of instruments : viz. by the moor 
 planter (Jig. 6. a), by the diamond dibble (6), and byj the ^common 
 garden spade. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 1st. The moor planter (a) is a heavy instrument, consisting of a wooden 
 shaft and handle two feet nine inches in length, terminated by a single 
 slightly curved prong of well tempered iron or steel fifteen inches in 
 length, two and a half inches broad at the insertion of the shaft, and 
 gradually tapering to the point. The handle is made sufficiently large to 
 be grasped by both hands, and the operator with one stroke drives the 
 prong into the ground to the depth required for seedling trees, and by 
 depressing the handle, the point of the instrument raises up the earth, 
 leaving a vacuity or opening in loose earth, into which a person, holding 
 a plant in readiness, places the root, and with the foot fixes it in the soil. 
 A stout active workman with this instrument, and the aid of a boy, will 
 transplant a greater number of seedling trees on light moor soils than by 
 any other method at present known. 
 
 2d. The diamond dibble (b) is recommended by Sang* : it is made of a 
 
 , • Planter's Kalendar, p. 170. ' 
 
 D 2 
 
36 PLANTING. 
 
 triann-iilar shaped plate of steel, furnished with an iron shaft and wooden 
 handle. The sides are each four inches long, and the upper part or side 
 four inches and a half broad. It is used for planting on sandy and gravelly 
 soils where the surface produce of herbage is short. In this case the 
 planter makes the ground ready with the instrument in one hand, and 
 inserts the plant with the other. He carries the plants in a bag or basket sus- 
 pended from his waist ; he strikes the dibble into the ground in a slanting 
 direction so as to direct the point inwards, and, by drawing the handle 
 towards himself, an opening is made, and kept open by the steel plate for 
 the reception of the roots of the plant by the other hand. The instrument 
 is tlien removed, and the earth made firm about the roots of the plant by 
 a stroke with the heel of the instrument. 
 
 .3d. By the spade, a cut is made in the turf with the spade and crossed 
 by another at a right angle: the two cuts thus made resemble the figure of 
 the letter T. The handle of the spade being depressed backwards forces 
 open the edges of the cuts, and in the opening thus made the roots of the 
 plant are inserted ; the spade is then withdrawn, and the turf replaced by 
 pressure with the foot. 
 
 Sir John Sinclair describes an improved mode of slit-planting, as 
 follows: The operator with his spade makes three cuts, twelve or fifteen 
 inches long, crossing each other in the centre, at an angle of sixty degrees, 
 the whole having the form of a star. He inserts his spade across one of 
 the rays (a), a few inches from the centre, and on the side next himself; 
 Fiz-7. then bending the handle towards himself and almost to the 
 
 ground, the earth opening in fissures from the centre in 
 the direction of the cuts that had been made, he, at the 
 same instant, inserts his plant at the point where the spade, 
 intersected the ray (o), pushing it forward to the centre, 
 and assisting the roots in rambling through the fissures. 
 He then lets down the earth by removing liis spade, hav- 
 a ing compressed it into a compact state with his heel; the 
 
 operation is finished by adding a little earth with the grass side down, 
 completely covering the fissures, for the purpose of retaining the moisture 
 at the root, and likewise as a top dressing, which greatly encourages the 
 plant to push fresh roots between the swards'*^. 
 
 4th. The defects of the slit mode of planting are, that the earth is not 
 properly reduced in its texture to suit the tender fibres of the roots of seed- 
 ling plants, and the natural plants of the surface are left to contend with 
 ihem for the nourishment aftbrded by the soil, nor can the rootlets of the 
 young trees be disposed and placed in their right positions. The least 
 objectionable practice is to cut a circular piece of the turf, a foot in dia- 
 meter, and lay it on one side with the surface downwards ; the workman 
 tlien with his spade loosens and breaks down the texture of the uncovered 
 soil, and, by making ample space for the extension of the roots of his plant 
 in every direction, inserts it in the pulverized eartl). The turf which had 
 been reversed and laid on one side, is then with a stroke of the spade 
 divided into two equal parts, and replaced on each side of the plant in its 
 reversed position. The reversed turf supports the plant against the effects 
 of the wind, retains the proper moisture of the soil, and prevents the evil 
 consequences resulting to the lateral branches of the young tree, and to 
 the healthy progress of the stem, from the imcontroUed growth of the 
 herbage natural to the soil, — all of which, by the former modes, are rather 
 encouraged than checked. In uninclosed commons or moors, the natural 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 283. 
 
PLANTING. ZT 
 
 herbage and shrubby plants are kept under by cattle, &c. ; but when such 
 lands are inclosed for planting-, and thereby protected from stock, the 
 natural plants, which before appeared diminutive and slow of growth, sud- 
 denly attain a size and vigorous vegetation highly detrimental to the 
 young forest trees. 
 
 2. Matlonk planting is confined chiefly to rocky ground, and to soils 
 containing many coarse, tough roots of herbage, heath, &c. ; and under 
 these circumstances the mattock is an indispensable instrument. It is 
 tluis described in the Planter's Kalendar: — 'The handle is three feet six 
 inches long; the mouth is five inches broad, and is made sharp; the 
 length of it to the eye or shaft is sixteen inches, the small end or pick is 
 seventeen inches long' (c, fig. 6). It may be unnecessary to mention that 
 the broad or hoe end should be faced with steel and kept well sharpened ; 
 it is perfectly effective in cutting or paring the heath, furze, &c., and 
 the pick end is equally so for thoroughly loosening and fitting the soil to 
 be operated uj^on with the spade or planter (d). The Hackle prongs are 
 recommended for clayey, tenacious soils*, which are difficult to work 
 with the spade. It is made with two or three prongs ; the former of two 
 for the soil just mentioned, and the latter of three prongs for stony or 
 gravelly soils. 
 
 3. Holing. — Holes or pits are dug out, and the loosened soil left for 
 a season to the action of the weather, to ameliorate and reduce its texture. 
 Time should be afforded for the rotting or decomposition of the turf or 
 surface produce taken off the space which is opened, previous to the period 
 of planting. The size of the holes should vary according to the size of the 
 plants to be planted, and to the nature of the subsoil. Plants from 
 one and a half to two feet high should have the holes two feet wide and 
 eighteen inches deep, prejiared in the summer or autumn for the reception 
 of the plants in spring. For trees of larger growth, the extent of the 
 roots must determine the size of the holes, making an allowance of from 
 six inches to a foot of extra width beyond the extreme points of the 
 roots. Holes made in tenacious clays retain the water which falls into 
 them, and rots the roots of the trees ; dry, light, sandy soils cannot be 
 benefited by the pulveriziug action of the sun and air; rocky soils admit 
 but imperfectly of holing; and some kinds of binding gravelly soils are 
 as liable to the retention of moisture as stiff clays. The practice of holing 
 is therefore never attended with success on these kinds of soil. 
 
 Spade planting applies to land prepared for the reception of the plants 
 by trenching. Although this mode of planting is the most common in 
 use, and may appear to require but little exercise of skill on the part of 
 the oi)erator, it is nevertheless often very badly executed. It is best 
 performed when the holes are made a few inches wider than the roots of 
 the plant extend; the earth of the bottom of the hole should be broken 
 down with the sjjade, the sides all round should be made to slope inwards, 
 so as to cause the bottom to be wider than the top. The person who holds the 
 plant should then place it in the centre of the pit, and the operator with 
 the spade should have ready some fine surface soil to cover the bottom 
 and raise it up to the proper height, the person holding the plant raising 
 it at the same time, so tliat it may stand not deeper in the soil than it 
 previously stood. The earth should then be carefully thrown in a finely 
 divided state, and the plant during the operation slightly moved, so as to 
 prevent the roots from being covered in bundles, and to afford each root 
 and rootlet to have a portion of soil intervening between it and the rest. 
 
 * Pontey's Profitable Planter. 
 
88 PLANTING. 
 
 Treading should be avoided, as it renders the soil cohesive, which in stiff or 
 heavy land is an evil of great magnitude to newly-planted roots. In light 
 soils, however, a slight pressure with the foot to keep the plant steady 
 in its place is necessary, particularly if the weather is dry during the 
 season of planting; but in cases where it is practicable, it is much more 
 beneficial to settle the earth about the roots of the plants by a free 
 application of water ia the usual manner. 
 
 It is the best and most expeditious practice to have one set of men 
 to make the holes, and another to finish the planting. When different 
 species of trees are to be mixed in the plantation, and in unequal 
 proportions, each species is successively distributed and planted. What 
 we have already stated respecting the great importance to the success of 
 the plants of not suffering the roots to be dried by exposure to the sun 
 or wind, may render it unnecessary to urge here, that the distribution of 
 the plants on the ground should not be farther in advance than just to 
 keep the planters fully employed. Before laying the plants out on the 
 spots where they are to be planted, it is a most useful practice to dip 
 the roots in water, or in a puddle made of water and rich mould. In 
 planting on a confined scale, the plants may be distributed as before, 
 and two workmen may proceed to open the pits on the spots. As soon 
 as the hole is opened, one of the operators places the roots of the 
 plant in the hole, while the other with his spade finishes the process as 
 above directed. By this method the holes can be made proportionate 
 to the size of the roots of the different plants, which, when of various 
 species, are oftentimes also of different sizes. When circumstances war- 
 rant the previous preparation of the soil necessary to this mode of 
 planting, it should be adopted, as being the most perfect and effective. ' 
 
 Furrow planting is performed by opening a furrow with the trenching 
 plough, or with two common ploughs ; the one succeeding the other in 
 the same trench or furrow, and opening it to the depth required by the 
 roots of the trees. The roots being placed in the furrow at the proper 
 distances, the workman with the spade finds no difficulty in obtaining the 
 necessary quantity of pulverized soil to complete the work. This mode 
 of planting has been practised with success on the Duke of Bedford's 
 estates in Bedfordshire, and in Buckinghamshire in the neighbourhood of 
 Woburn. The implement employed was a very strong plough, drawn by 
 six horses, and opening a furrow from twelve to sixteen inches deep, 
 turning the sward or heath over on each side. This was followed by a 
 scuffler or grubber of three tines, which completely stiiTed and pulverized 
 the soil. On light land eight acres a day was done in this way, but the 
 soil must be light and free from large stones or other obstructions. 
 
 That extensive and valuable plantations have been made by slit planting 
 there are abundant proofs, and on elevated, thin, light soils incumbent on 
 rock, or where trenching cannot be effected or the furrow plough be used, 
 this mode maybe adopted with economy and success. Before planting by 
 this method, however, it is essential to know the precise nature of the 
 subsoil, and that there does not exist a hardened stratum, impervious to 
 water, beneath the surface, which frequently happens in heaths, or siliceous 
 sandy moorlands, it generally consists of the heath-soil in a compact layer 
 about an inch thick, containing a large proportion of oxide of iron, and 
 impervious to water. Beneath, and next to this, is generally grey or white 
 sand, surcharged with water ; and whenever trees are planted, by the slit 
 mode, on soils so constituted, they never make any healthy growth, but 
 perish so soon as the roots reach the hardened stratum: trenciiing, or the 
 furrow plough must be em])loyed in such cases- to destroy the impervious 
 
PLANTING. 39 
 
 stratum, and render free the circulation of water and air, otherwise the 
 attempt to establish trees will be. vain. When the land is clean, friable, mo- 
 derately deep, free from, and not retentive of stag-nant moisture, the mode of 
 plantings by holing; may be adopted witii propriety. Lands of a tenacious, 
 clayey nature, and also those of the best quality, employed for forest 
 planting, oufj^ht to be trenched, as beinp; the most economical ultimately, 
 and the most etfectual, for these kinds of soil. The preparation of tenacious 
 clayey soils by paring', and burnino-, and trenching-, has already been stated. 
 Since the above was y)repared lijr the press, we have perused the able 
 tracts * on ])lanting' by W. Withers, Esq., of Holt, in Norfolk. This gen- 
 tleman, besides shewing-, by facts not to be doubted, the superior advantag-es 
 of trenching-, compared to that of holing or slit planting-, in the more 
 speedy returns of profits from thinnings, and e.xtra annual increase of 
 timber in the trees left for that purpose, lias likewise proved the value of 
 manure to poor soils in conjunction with this mode of jireparation That 
 such a mode of preparation with the application of manure should be 
 highly advantageous for the growth of the more valuable limber trees on 
 soils of the nature now alluded to, will be instantly seen by every one who 
 has examined carefully the natural habits of these trees by the principles of 
 vegetable physiology already discussed ; and such as may f€e\ reluctant, 
 or have not leisure, to employ this mode of arrivincc at a perfect convic- 
 tion, may be amply convinced by comparing that soil on which the oak, 
 for instance, or any other of the more valuable timber trees, invariably 
 attains the highest perfection, with that on which it or they are always 
 inferior. Compare the constitution of the soil No. 2, at page 7, with that 
 of the soil No. 5, undthe almost total absence of clay, chalk, and vegetable 
 matter, will be evident in the former. Now, on this soil the oak, according 
 to our experience and observation, is never found in a natural state, audi 
 when planted in it, never attains to any value as a timber tree even with 
 the aid, as nurses, of the |)ine, birch, and sycamore, which here succeed. 
 On the soil No. 5, where the constituents of the soil are ditferent from 
 those of No. 2, the oak attains to the highest perfection. To supply 
 manure, therefore, composed of clay (burnt or recent), chalk, and vegetable 
 matter, or rotten dung, in the requisite proportions, and by deep trenching 
 (remedying, in some measure, the defects of the subsoil), and by combining 
 and comminuting the whole as intimately as possible, the soil No. 2 would 
 approximate to that of No. 5, and the oak might then be planted with a 
 certainty of its successful produce of timber. Any smaller application 
 than the requisite quantities of these ingredients will, of course, give a 
 diminished result as to the crop of timber, but still it will give an increase 
 in proportion to the quantity applied. 
 
 The principle on which manure is objected to for the rearing of forest- 
 trees, is, that it will force the growth of the tree beyond its natural st;ite, 
 and render the deposit of vegetable fibre soft, and of diminished strength 
 and durability. This, however, is carrying the point to an extreme to 
 which it is never likely to be in the power of any planter to arrive, were 
 he even willing to attempt it. To maimre a poor soil, for it should be 
 here kept in view that this and not a rich, or even moderately rich soil, is 
 intended, can have but one effect, and that is to improve the growth of 
 the trees. But the great, immediate, and important object of maiuire here, 
 is to furnish a liberal supply of food while the plant is in its first stages of 
 growth, thereby giving it the means to lorm a strong constitution, enlarg- 
 
 * ' A Memoir on the Rearing, &c., of Forest-trees.' ' A Letter to Sir WaMer Scott, 
 Barf., &c.' * A Letter to Sir H. Steuart, Bart., &c.' By W. Withers, of Holt, Norfolk. ' 
 
40 PLANTING. 
 
 ing its number of roots and rootlets, and, at the same time, improving the 
 quality of the exhalations from the soil, for absorption by the leaves, which 
 is, in fact, an amelioration of the local climate or air. All these important 
 points to the health of the tree, to the value of its timber, and to the 
 attainment of the object in view, a valuable return in the shortest space of 
 time for the capital expended, are thus highly promoted, and, in a great 
 measure, secured by trenching, manuring, and keeping clean of weeds or 
 surface culture for a limited period after planting. As an answer to 
 the important question, will the sum expended in trenching and manuring 
 be returned with interest and profit in proportion to those of the lesser 
 sum required for planting on unprepared land, INlr. Withers has brought 
 forward facts and observations to which we shall revert when discussing 
 the subject of tlie valuation of timber trees. 
 
 The proper distances at which young forest trees should be planted on 
 their timber sites depends on the natural habits of growth of the different 
 species, the nature and preparation of the soil, and the size of the plants 
 to be planted. 
 
 The larch, spruce, and pine require less space than the oak, chestnut, 
 elm, &c. The nature of tlie soil will determine the peculiar species of 
 trees which should predominate in the plantation, and point out the dis- 
 tances at which they should be placed. If the soil is tliin and of a light 
 texture, the fir tribe should occupy the largest proportion, if not the whole 
 space of land ; if clayey, the oak, elm, ash, &c., should be the principal trees 
 in the design ; and, if a deep sandy soil, or if the soil be calcareous, elevated 
 land, the beech, hornbeam, &c., ought to have the preference — all with 
 the view to the ultimate produce of timber. The following table may be 
 useful for readily pointing out the number of trees required for a statute 
 acre of land, when planted at any of the uudermentioned distances: — 
 
 Number of Plants. 
 
 435 
 360 
 302 
 257 
 222 
 193 
 170 
 150 
 134 
 122 
 108 
 69 
 49 
 
 In profitable forest-tree planting, the nearest distance at which young 
 trees should be planted on their timber sites, is a yard, or three feet, and 
 the widest space tive feet ; the medium distance of four feet jdant from 
 plant is, or ought to be, that most generally adopted. Seedlings of three 
 years' growth, or jilants which have remained two years in the seed-bed 
 and one year in transplanted nursery rows, should be planted on their timber 
 sites three feet apart every way, it being understood at the same time that the 
 soil is thin, light, or sandy, and that the slit or holing in method of plant- 
 ing is used. But should the soil have been prepared by ploughing and 
 trenching, and be in a clean fallow state, the medium distance of four 
 feet, or three and a half feet, if the species of trees to be planted are ex- 
 clusively of the fir or pine tribe, will be the most proper. Trees of the 
 age now alluded to will vary in size from nine to twenty inches in 
 height, exclusive of some species of poplar, elm, &c., which grow faster 
 than the generality of forest trees. In well-prepared Ian dof a deeper surface 
 
 Distance apart. 
 
 1 foot 
 
 Number of Flsints. 
 
 . 43,560 
 
 Distance apait. 
 
 10 feet 
 
 H 
 
 J) 
 
 . 19,360 
 
 11 
 
 ?) 
 
 2 
 
 ?> 
 
 . 10,890 
 
 12 
 
 
 2i 
 
 JJ 
 
 6,969 
 
 13 
 
 )J 
 
 3 
 
 )> 
 
 . 4,840 
 
 14 
 
 ^) 
 
 ? 
 
 J) 
 
 3,556 
 . 2,722 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 
 2,232 
 1,742 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 33 . 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3> 
 
 3> 
 
 1,210 
 
 889 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 33 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 3) 
 
 680 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 J) 
 
 537 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
PLANTING. 41 
 
 soil than the above, plants from eic^hteen to twenty-fonr inches in heig^ht 
 of the fir tribes may be planted with advantac:e ; and deciduous trees, as 
 the oak, chestnut, elm, &c., from three to four feet in hei{jht, may be 
 planted at the distance of five feet apart. In tlie last case a return of 
 profits from thinnings will be obtained at least two years earlier than from 
 transplanted seedlings, under the like circumstances of soil. Trees 
 planted as nurses for assistinj^ the progress of those intended for timber 
 are of quick growth, and in the course of from seven to twelve years will 
 have attained to a size fit for the purposes of fencing", or to be used as 
 poles, coopers' ware, &c., according to local demand. When the nurse 
 trees have arrived at this stage of growth, they will require to be partially 
 thinned, to make room for the timber trees, or pri»c/j!;«/s of the planta- 
 tion, as they are termed. Whenever the branches of the former interfere 
 with those of the latter, no time should be lost in remedying the evil, by 
 pruning- the nurse trees, or cutting' them down. If the different operations 
 of planting- have been judiciously performed, the value of the trees thinned 
 out at this ])eriod will cover the rent of the land, with compound interest 
 on the capital expended in planting it. Hence the importance of nurse trees, 
 and the propriety of furnishing the ground at first with a sufficient number 
 of young plants to be cut down and taken away periodically, until the 
 principal timber trees have attained to maturity. In poor soils, where the 
 original outlay of capital and the rent of the land are both small, the ex- 
 penditure will be covered by the periodical crop of thinnings, and vice 
 versa in better soils, authorizing a larger expenditure in the prejjaration, in 
 the size of the plants, and in the mode of planting, a comparatively 
 superior number of trees of increased value will be produced at each 
 periodical thinning. These results are certain to follow judicious planting. 
 
 The third and last mode of rearing forest trees proposed to be discussed 
 at the head of this chapter, is that of selecting the superior shoots of 
 coppice stools, and training them to full-grown timber trees. The oak, 
 on account of the value of its bark, is more frequently reared in this way 
 than the elm*, ash, and chestnut. The timber of coppice trees is in 
 general faulty, and of inferior quality to that reared from seeds. Where 
 care, however, is taken in the selection of the shoots from healthy and 
 not over-aged coppice stools, timber of the best quality may be obtained 
 from them. 
 
 The produce of coppice stools consists of materials for fence wood, fuel, 
 besoms, &c. Poles and bark are the most valuable of this produce, where 
 the practice is to leave no standards, or saplings for timber. It is, how- 
 ever, perfectly clear, that when a wood or coppice offers to the purchaser 
 produce of various sizes convertible to various uses, along with full-grown 
 timber for navy purposes, the sale is more readily effected, and generally 
 on better terms, than when the produce consists of smaller wood only. 
 In making choice of the shoots of coppice stools to be trained for timber 
 trees, great care should be had to select none but such as are straight and 
 vigorous, and which originate as near to the roots of the stool as pos- 
 sible. The neglect of this latter circumstance is the chief cause of the 
 unsoundness of coppice-reared timber, particularly at the root or butt end 
 of the bole. The parent wood of coppice stools is most frequently suffered 
 to rise too high from the roots, consequently the shoots emitted from it never 
 grow with so much vigour, or attain to so great a size in a given space of 
 
 * ^ great pari of Ike elms (ulmus campestris) reared in Devonshire are from layers, 
 and frequently defective at Ike most valuable part. — Fide Vancouver' s Survey of Devon. 
 
 One or two fertile tracts in Devon, where the soil is of the nature termed red sand- 
 stone, is more favourable to the growth of the elm than to any other tree. — Mr, Kingston. 
 
42 PLANTING. 
 
 time, as when the stool is kept within an inch or two of the surface of the 
 ground. When the parent stool is a foot or more in heii>ht from the root, 
 it becomes divided into pointed rug-g'ed parts, and if a tiller or shoot, left 
 for a tree, is situated near to one or other of these, the stub is in time 
 encompassed by the bark of the young tree wholly or partially, which 
 causes blemish and unsoundness in the timber, as well as obstruction to 
 its prosperous growth. The stum))s of coppice stools should, therefore, 
 be cut near to the surface of the ground, and the face of the stubs as 
 level and free from fractures as can be. The kinds of trees most 
 profitable for coppice produce are those which possess the reproductive 
 power in the highest degree ; these were before enumerated at pai^e 34. 
 It may be unnecessary here to observe that the non-reproductive trees, such 
 as all the pine and fir tribes, are unfit for the purposes of co))])ice. The 
 shoot, or tiller, being selected with due attention to these essential points, 
 all other shoots belonging to the parent stool should be cut away close to 
 the root. The young tree should then receive the same treatment as other 
 trees reared by seed or transplanting. Although, under any circumstances, 
 it cannot be recommended to convert a coppice wood into a timber grove, 
 nevei tlieless, should the circumstance of local demand for timbt-r trees be 
 considerable, it is a highly profilal)le practice to allow a certain number of 
 the most select oak tillers to remain for timber. Sliould the number 
 finally left to become timber trees not exceed thirty on the space of an 
 acre, the coppice produce will not receive any injury to be put in competi- 
 tion with the value of the trees retained. Were one hundred select 
 tillers left on the cutting or fall of a coppice, and were the periodical 
 falls made at eighteen years intervals of time, on the second cutting 
 these tillers would be thirty-six years old, and worth from 10s. to 12s. 
 each. At this period of growth twenty-five of the number should be 
 taken away, leaving an average distance between those that remain of 
 about twenty-four feet. At the next fall the trees will have attained to 
 filty-six years' growth, and will aflbrd seventeen trees to be thinned out, 
 of the value of 22s. each. At seventy-two years' growth the value will be 
 increased to 38s. each tree, and allowing fifteen trees to be thinned out. 
 At the fourth, or last thinning, the trees will be ninety years of growth, 
 and worth at least 50s. each, leaving thirty timber trees, of which a part 
 will be fit for ship-building, and exceed in value the fee-simple of the 
 land. Land requiring a period of eighteen years to produce coppice-wood 
 fit for cutting or a fall, cannot be worth more yearly than 10s. per acre in 
 husbandry ; consequently the rent of the land and cost of culture of the 
 coppice is covered by these thinnings of the timber trees, leaving periodi- 
 cally the proper coppice produce, and at the termination of one hundred 
 years the valuable trees above mentioned as clear profit. 
 
 The age at which coppices should be cut down varies according to the 
 soil and their quickness of growth. Nine years may be considered the 
 sliortest period, and thirty years the longest, as oak-bark, which constitutes 
 a valuable part of the produce, does not improve in quality alter that age. 
 Eighteen years' growth is about an average period for coppice-wood, and 
 the average returns from bark and wood 21/. an acre*. 
 
 The comparative n\erits of the three difierent modes of rearing forest 
 trees, proposed to be considered at the head of this chapter, will have 
 appeared, from the facts brought forward, to be greatly in favour of 
 transplanting young trees of proper sizes and age, from nursery beds to 
 their timber sites, whether in regard to economy in the first and subse-i 
 
 There are instances of coppices affording returns of 50/, sterling profit per acre. 
 
]?LANTING; 45 
 
 quentoutlayoif capital, in malviriG^ and rearing' the plantation, or in respect 
 to the quantity and quality of tiuiher produced on a piven space of land, 
 and in a given space of time. The rearing' of oak timber from seed on (he 
 spots where the trees are to remain for timber is, however, an exception to 
 the above conclusion under the following' restrictions ; namely, that the 
 acorns of the best variety of oak (^Qverais robur vel lovgipeduncvlata) can 
 be obtained of good quality, at a reasonable cost, in siifhcient quantities ; 
 that the land to be sown is in a perfectly clean state of culture, in good 
 heart on the surface, and free from stagnant moisture ; that labour is 
 cheap ; and that ample and complete protection from the attacks of vermin 
 can be ensured to the acorns, and to the seedling- plants till ihey equal in 
 size three years' old nursery plants. When all these circumstances can be 
 combined, then the mode of rearing the oak on its timber site from seed 
 should be adopted, but not otherwise, or disappointment will be certain to 
 follow. 
 
 Simple plantations consist of one or two species of trees only ; mixed 
 plantations of many diflerent species. The latter, on suitable soils, are 
 the most profitable ; they afford an earlier, more permanent, and a larger 
 return for capital than simple plantations. The judicious arrangement 
 of the different forest trees, not only promotes the greatest returns of pro- 
 fit from the plantations, but likewise effects the highest embellishment to 
 the estate and surrounding country*. 
 
 Shelter in winter and shade in summer are also important points. 
 Evergreen trees, and such deciduous ones as retain their leaves to a later 
 period of the year (the hornbeam, beech, and some varieties of the oak) 
 aflbrd much greater shelter in winter and in early spring-, when it is most 
 wanted, than those which lose their leaves early in autumn, and should, 
 tlierefore, be planted wherever shelter is most desired. Shade is best 
 afforded by trees which, rising with naked stems to a certain height, after- 
 wards send out an extended series of branches, as the oak, beech, chestnut, 
 and elm, which can be readily trained to that state by pruning, and their 
 spreading branches and umbrageous foliage are highly superior for this 
 intention than those of the ash, sycamore, plane, &c. 
 
 Although mixed planting, as just now observed, is the most profitable, 
 and, under skilful massing and grouping, the most embellishing- to the 
 landscape, yet there are certain circumstances connected with the growth 
 of the various species of forest-trees, which, when lliey occur, eflectually 
 control the choice of the planter in his modes of arrangement: tliese are, 
 first, the peculiar nature of the soil to be planted ; secondly, the climate, or 
 the exposure and elevation of the site of the j^lantation. In planting, soils 
 may be divided into simple and mixed. The latter allows of the fullest 
 scope to mixed planting. Siniple soils are those which contain the 
 smallest number of ingredients in their composition, or which consist 
 chiefly of one substance ; as sandy soils, containing from nine-tenths of 
 
 * Planting the same sort of trees in masses was originally jiractised at Blair Adam, 
 e. g. Halt' an acre of oaks, half an acre of beeches, half an acre of elms, half an acre of 
 Si)anish chestnuts, &c. This was altered for a mixture of different forest-trees, but Lord 
 Chief (Commissioner Adam has resorted recently to the original practice, especially on the 
 sides of hdls. His reason for this is, that mixing trees of dilferent sorts (their growths 
 being unequal) leads in thinning to sparing the more forward tree, though the tree of less 
 vaUie : whereas, uniting the same species of tree in masses, insured tlieir growing pretty 
 nearly in an e([ual degree, so that the choice in thinning secured the preservation of the 
 best growing tree; and with regard to the effect of embellisliment, the large masses of 
 different colours, especially on the slope of a hill, apjjcars to have more effect jn jjoint of 
 grandeur than intermixture, the latter being more adapted to pleasure-grounds and the 
 woodlands near a residence. 
 
44 PLANTING. 
 
 sand (the maximum at which the successful culture of the white field- 
 turnip is supposed to be limited) to one-twentieth, the supposed point of 
 absolute sterility for even common herbage, are properly termed simple 
 sandy soils, and on which the pine, fir, larch, and perhaps the birch, can 
 only be planted. Soils consisting of from seven-eig-hths lo a larger pro- 
 portion of chalk will rear the beech chiefly; and when the proportion of 
 one-half of vegetable matter to one-half of sand and loam meet in a soil, it 
 i:, projjerly simple vegetable earth, and comes under the denomination of 
 peat, of which there are several kinds, but which will be more particularly 
 mentioned under the head of soils. On this last-mentioned soil the 
 planter is chiefly confined to the abele, poplar, and alder : the willow and 
 birch only partially succeed, or when the vegetable matter is in a less pro- 
 poi tion to the other ingredients above stated. 
 
 The elevation of the site of the intended jilantation above the level of 
 the sea, where that is considerable, influences the local climate so much as 
 often to confine the choice of the planter to one or two species of trees 
 only, even though the soil should be otherwise favourable for mixed 
 planting. 
 
 It is calculated that an elevation of six hundred feet diminishes the 
 temperature of a site equal to that of one degree of north latitude ; the 
 degree of dryness or humidity of the atmosphere, and the force of the 
 winds seem also to increase in proportion to the elevation of the land. 
 Accordingly we find that ditterent species of trees occupy different regions 
 and degrees of elevation on the mountains of the torrid, temperate, and 
 frigid zones. 
 
 According to Humboldt, the trees which grow in the highest elevation 
 are the pine and the birch, (these also it may be observed will flourish in 
 the lowest situations, the birch in particular will grow in soils periodically 
 overflowed or covered with water for two or three months in a year). The 
 highest altitude of the growth of the pine is stated to be from twelve 
 thousand to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 
 20° ; and the limits of the growth of the oak appears to be confined to ten 
 thousand three hundred. The last species of trees found nearest to the 
 limits of perpetual snow on Mount Caucasus, in latitude 42^°, and on the 
 Pyrenees, are the common birch (Belula alba), and the hooked pine 
 (Pi/n/s vnciiiata), and the red spruce fir (Pinus rubra). On the Aljjs, 
 latitude from 45° to 46°, the common spruce appears limited to an elevation 
 of about five thousand nine hundred feet. In Lapland the birch is foimd 
 at the altitude of one thousand six hundred feet in latitude 67° and 7U°, 
 
 The influence of different altitudes on the distribution and growth of 
 forest trees, is evident even in the inferior elevations of the forests of 
 Britain. The pine, fir, and birch occupy the highest points* ; next the 
 sycamore and mountain elm ; lastly, the oak, beech, poplar, ash, and 
 chestnut. When the ground to be planted is, therefore, so high above the 
 level of the sea, as to influence materially the nature of the climate, the 
 forest trees to be planted should be selected according to the above 
 principles. In practice this may be termed region planting. By imitat- 
 ing the natural process in this respect, not only the most profitable returns 
 which the site and soil are capable of producing will be secured, but also 
 the most ornamental effects produced on the landscape, and the useful ones 
 of judicious shelter obtained. It generally happens in extensive planting 
 that the soil varies in different parts of the site in its properties and fitness 
 
 * The Mountain ath »ccupies some of the most exposed^ of the Dartmoor Fens. — Mr. 
 Kingston. 
 
PLANTING. 45 
 
 to rear one species of tree better than another. When these difTerent soils 
 are, therefore, planted with the different trees best adapted to eacli, masses 
 of diversified outUne will adorn the landsca[)e, having all the effect of a 
 tastefid design, and the trees will be individnally of the most healthy 
 gTowth, a point of the last importance in ornamental effect. 
 
 Experience proves that, for elevated situations, the Scotch fir, Pinu/i 
 sylvestris, the Norway spruce, Pinvs abies, the larch, Pi/ntx larix, the 
 hooked pine, Pinux juicinatus, the birch, Betula alba, the sycamore, Acer 
 pxevdo-platanus, and the mountain ash, Pyrus aucuparia, are the most 
 profitable : these, with the silver fir, Piiius picea, black Italian poplar, 
 Populus nigra, the alder, Alnus gbdinosa, and the Bedford Willow, Salix 
 Russelliana, according to the soil, are also the best adapted to plant as 
 nurses for rearing the more valuable timber trees. 
 
 For low, damp, and boggy soils, the alder, ash, birch, abele-tree, and 
 the willow, are the best. 
 
 To resist the effects of the sea-blasts, the sycamore, pinaster, yew, and 
 laburnum have all been found superior to most kinds of trees. The live 
 oak is a very tender tree, and will not exist in England. The habits of 
 the live oak (Quercus virens) offer a prospect of this tree being serviceable 
 for the above important purpose. It is a native of South Carolina, and 
 there it is seldom found above twelve miles from the sea-coast. It thrives 
 best when growing on isolated spots or little islands entirely surrounded 
 by salt water. On the estate of Middleburg, situated on the Cooper river, 
 twenty-four miles from Charlton, South Carolina, belonging to J. Lucas, 
 Esq. of New Cross, Surrey, live oak trees averaging twenty-five feet in 
 height, and nine inches in diameter, were selected from the woods by that 
 gentleman and planted in the form of an avenue to his residence. The 
 trees were taken up with as many of the fibrous roots as possible. The 
 tops were lightened by partially reducing the size and number of the 
 branches. Every tree succeeded well, and in the space of two or three 
 years from the time of transplanting they were not to be distinguished from 
 those in the neighbourhood which had grown unmolested. These facts 
 shew that this tree is of hardy vivacious habits, and being also an ever- 
 green, warrants a fair trial of its merits on the coasts of England. 
 
 Transplanting trees of large growth for immediate effect properly belongs 
 to another division of the subject, ornamental planting. It may not be un- 
 necessary, however, to state shortly the principles of the practice as lately 
 brought forward by Sir H. Stewart, in his Planters* Guide. These are to 
 take up the tree, with all its roots, fibres, and rootlets, and also the green 
 or external system of branches and buds entire and unbroken, then to 
 transplant these roots, rootlets, and external system of the tree in the same 
 perfect state. The soil into which such trees are transplanted should be 
 of a superior quality to that from whence they were taken, or at least that 
 portion of it applied immediately to the rootlets should have an addition of 
 very rotten manure. A point of great importance to success is the selec- 
 tion of the subjects. 1st. The tree should have a superior thickness and 
 induration of the bark compared to that of trees which have grown up in a 
 crowded state. 2d. Stoutness and superior girt of stem. 3d. Numerous- 
 ness of roots, fibres, and rootlets. And, 4th, extent, balance, and closeness 
 of branches. Where a tree, otherwise desirable, possesses not these pro- 
 tecting properties, it should be provided with them previous to transplant- 
 ing by uncovering the roots partially, so as not to injure the stability of the 
 tree during the process. To these exposed roots is applied a compost of 
 fine earth, into which they shoot, and produce in two or three years nume- 
 rous rootlets fit for transplanting. The overgrown branches are reduced so 
 
<6 PLANTING; 
 
 as to balance the top on every side, if it require it. To assist the bark, 
 such trees as intercept the air and solar rays are removed. These effects 
 are also produced to the roots by cutting a trench at a proper distance 
 from the stem round the roots, and filling up the trench with good soil ; in 
 two or three years, the roots will be increased in numerous ramifications as 
 in the former mode. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Of the Soils and Sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber ; 
 intimate Nature of different Soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of 
 particular species of Forest Trees. 
 
 From what has been said respecting the advantages of judicious planting, 
 the lands and sites most proper for the growth of timber will have been 
 generally understood. There has been a difference of opinion whether 
 land under woods or under tillage is the most profitable and beneficial 
 to the proprietors and the public ; the question is similar to that which 
 exists respecting the comparative value of tillage land and permanent 
 pasture, and may be solved in the same manner, viz., that the prosperity, 
 if not the absolute existence, of the one is dependent on the other, and the 
 interests of individuals as well as the public on both. The occupiers of 
 land where woods are scarce, or wanting altogether, and those where they 
 are in too great abundance, will coincide in the truth of this observation. 
 The proportion which woods should bear to tillage and pasture lands in 
 any one district of country depends on the nature of the soil, and the 
 local demand for certain kinds of produce. 
 
 I" , There can be but one opinion as to the advantages of planting exposed 
 waste lands, and those that are steep, rocky, or precipitous. The loss to 
 individuals and to the nation, by such large tracts of lands as those now 
 alluded to lying utterly unproductive, is incalculable. 
 
 Lands of rather a superior quality to those, or which are accessible to 
 the plough, and the barrenness of which is owing to exposure and ungenial 
 climate, offer great inducements to forest-tree planting. For when the 
 improvement is completed it is, to its extent, so much added to the 
 territorial extent of the empire, in affording the means of sustenance as well 
 as the enjoyment of human life*. 
 ^ Lastly, where the local climate and soil are good, but where, at the 
 
 * From among the many instances to be found in Scotland of these effects produced 
 hy judicious planting in changing the face of nature from that of a desolate waste to 
 comparative fertility and riches, may be particularly mentioned Blair Adam, the seat of 
 the Lord Chief Commissioner Adam. Here land which, in its natural state, would 
 scarcely afford any rent, has been so much improved by the skilful adaption of the 
 different species of forest trees to the soil and site, the subsequent culture, and, above 
 all, the judicious disposition or arrangement of the masses and narrower spaces of the 
 plantations, as to render the shelter and amelioration of the local climate so genial as 
 to produce coru and green crops as well as permanent pasture capable of rearing 
 and fattening the improved breeds of stock («). In England, barren moor soils have, 
 in many instances of late years, been successfully planted. At East Court, in Berkshire, 
 the seat of Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq., M.P., a tract of extremely poor heath soil has 
 been successfully planted by that gentleman. In a few years the aspect and climate 
 of this before dreary, barren tract of land, will be completely changed. The plantations 
 of Robert Denison, Esq., at Kilnwick Percy, Yorkshire, are arranged in the most judi- 
 cious manner for shelter and improvement of the local climate. Mr. Hazlewood's larch 
 plantations at Slaugham Park, in Sussex, are also arranged in the most effective manner 
 for the improvement of the local climate. But there is scarcely a county in England 
 where such barren soils existed, where examples may not be found of the beneficial effects 
 of judicious planting. 
 
 (a) Fide Appendix to ihe Agricultural Report of Kinroi$hin, 
 
PLANTING. 4f 
 
 same time, a scarcity of limber exists for the periodical wants of afrrlcnltural 
 and manufacturing' operations, as for the various purposes of buildings, 
 implements of husbandry, fencing, poles, machinery, fuel, &c., planting is 
 of great importance and utility to the community *. In many cases, 
 where the soil is of greater value, the planting may be confined to the 
 angles of enclosures, and to hedge-rows. 
 
 In this last case it may be necessary to observe, that the land of the 
 lowest comparative value for corn crops, and the most eligible for shelter 
 and shade where required, should be chosen for planting. 
 
 When it happens that not all of these peculiarities of soil and site call 
 imperiously for planting, it is proper to consider whether the value of 
 timber or of coppice produce will not be greater from a given space of 
 ground than that of corn or grass. The rent of the land will assist in 
 determining the point, with the local demand for these crops. From 
 numerous estimates of the returns from woodlands, compared to those of 
 corn and pasture lands, under a variety of different circumstances, as to 
 market for the produce, soils, and situations, 10s. per acre, per annum, of 
 rent is considered the general maximum value of land, above which it ought 
 not to be planted, but retained in corn or grass, and all land which rents 
 under that value affords a very superior revenue under woods or plan- 
 tations. There are undoubtedly many local circumstances which make 
 exceptions to this rule; as where timber is scarce, or where the demand for 
 certain kinds is unusually great, as in the neighbourhood of mines, hop- 
 plantations, &c. There are instances on record of produce of the value 
 of from 201. to 60^. per acre, per annum, being afforded by woodlands; 
 these, however, are extreme cases, and are here mentioned merely to show 
 that exceptions may occur to the above mentioned rule ; and that such 
 returns are greater than can be expected from any other kind of crop what- 
 ever, particularly considering that the cost of culture, as repairs of fences, 
 cutting down, and perhaps carting, is comparatively trifling to that of tillage 
 and manuring, which every other crop of value besides wood requires. 
 
 It may be useful to take a more intimate view of the nature or compo- 
 sition of those varieties of soil which have now been alluded to. It is 
 proper, however, to observe, that the following statements of the nature 
 or constituents of these soils are not intended to convey the idea that 
 they are the best sorts respectively for the different kinds of forest-trees, 
 but principally to show that on such soils these trees have attained to 
 great perfection of growth. The soils were selected from the spots 
 where the trees mentioned in connexion with the soils were found by 
 the writer of this treatise, and the trees were, on an average, the finest 
 of the respective kinds which have come under his observation. 
 
 * The plantations made by the present Duke of Bedford are highly worthy of notice 
 under this head of the subject, as being planned and executed in the most judicious 
 manner. A statement of the number of trees and quantity of ground planted by John, 
 Duke of Bedford, from the year 1802 to the present period, 1829 ; viz. 
 
 Quantity of Ground. "^ Number of | 
 
 A. R. P. Tices. 
 
 ■ Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire . f>33 2 24 2,545,357 
 
 Exclusive of 400 bushels of acorns 
 and other seeds dibbled in. 
 
 A. R. p. Trees. 
 
 • Devonshire and Cornwall . .819 2,859,754 
 
 Huntingdon and Northamptonshire . 94 1 34 330,750 
 
 Exclusive of 280 bushels of acorus 
 dibbled in. 
 
 • " A. R. P. Trees. 
 
 Total quantity of ground planted . 1547. 18 . 5,735,861 
 
 Exclusive of 680 bushels of acorns, 
 and uther seeds dibbled in. 
 
48 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 The f^reat importance of precision in the nomenclature of soils, whether 
 in the details of plantings or in husbandry, must be so clear and evident 
 to every person who may be desirous to profit by the results of others' 
 experience in these subjects, that it would be superfluous here to add more 
 on the point. 
 
 1st. — Heath soil, or siliceous sandy moor soil, incumbent on shale or 
 ferruginous stones, and frequently on siliceous sand of great depth. 
 
 400 parts consisted of fine siliceous sand . , 320 
 
 Carbonate of lime . . . . 2 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia . ... 1 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter, chiefly composed of the de- 
 caying leaves of heath . . .55 
 Silex, or impalpable earth of flints . . .11 
 Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .3 
 Oxide of iron . . . . . 4 
 Soluble matter, principally common salt, or muriate of soda . 4 
 
 400 
 The Scotch fir, Pinus sylvestris, the birch, and the beech, are found to 
 succeed better on a soil of the above description than any other kind of tree. 
 For the latter, however, it is necessary that the subsoil should be a deep 
 sand. The larch and spruce, under the like circumstances as to subsoil, 
 will also attain to good perfection on heath soil ; but where the subsoil is 
 rocky, or impervious to a free circulation of moisture by indurated sand, 
 which is sometimes the case, these last-mentioned trees never succeed ; the 
 Scotch fir only maintains its growth. 
 
 2nd. — 400 parts of poor sandy soil, incumbent on shale, or very coarse 
 gravel. 
 
 Fine sand, principally siliceous . . . 360 
 
 Impalpable earthy matter, 40 consisting of carbonate of lime . 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter, destructible by fire . 4 
 
 Silex, or pure earth of flints . . . 22 
 
 Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . . 7 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . .5 
 
 Soluble saline matters, chiefly muriate of soda . . 2 
 
 400 
 The pine, larch, spruce, birch, and sycamore are the most proper for 
 this kind of soil. 
 
 3rd. — Sandy loam, incumbent on siliceous sand, containing a 
 proportion of oxide of iron. — 400 parts. 
 
 Fine sand, partly calcareous, and partly siliceous 
 
 Coarse sand ... 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter 
 
 Silex, or the earth of flints 
 
 Alumina . . . 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . 
 
 Soluble vegetable matter, containing sulphate of potash 
 
 vegetable extract, and common salt , 
 
 Loss , , 
 
 large 
 
 200 
 84 
 
 6 
 15 
 56 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 400 
 
rLANTING/ 49 
 
 The larcli, pine, and fir tribe in g'eneral will siicoeetl well oiv a soil of 
 this texture, although the beech comes to the g-reatest perfection, or is, 
 perhaps, the plant most profitable to employ in planting soils of tliis 
 nature, particularly when the subsoil happens to be deep sand, as is the 
 case of the soil on which tlie celebrated beech trees grow in AV'oburn 
 Abbey Parle. A figure of one of the finest of these trees is given in Pontey's 
 Forest Pruner. 
 
 4th. — Light sandy siliceous soil, incumbent on a damp clayey subsoil. 
 
 Siliceous sand, of various degrees of fineness . , 290 
 
 Gravel partly calcareous . . . .40 
 
 Impalpable loamy matter, consisting of carbonate of lime . 5 
 
 Silica, or earth of flints . . . .38 
 
 Alumina or clay . . . . .9 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . . 5 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter . . .8 
 
 Moisture and loss . . • 5 
 
 400 
 The oak grows rapidly on tliis soil, and should constitute the principal 
 timber tree of the plantation. The sweet chestnut also attains to great 
 maturity in the same kind of soil. The nurse trees most proper are the 
 larch, spruce, and particularly the silver fir. The elm planted on this 
 soil had not attained to the size of the above mentioned trees in the 
 same period from planting, but the timber was considered of a superior 
 quality. 
 
 5th. — Clayey loam, incumbent on a clay subsoil. 
 
 Coarse gravel, partly calcareous . . .40 
 
 Fine sand '. . . .190 
 
 Carbonate of lime * . . , . 16 
 
 Decomposing vegetable fibre . . .14 
 
 Silex, or pure matter of flints . . . . 90 
 
 Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .30 
 
 Oxide of iron , . . .7 
 Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, containing 
 
 gypsum, common salt, and sulphate of potash . 5 
 
 Loss and moisture . . . .8 
 
 400 
 This soil brings the oak to the highest state of perfoction. The above 
 results of analysis w'ere aifordcd by an average sample of the soil of a part 
 of Woburn Abbey Park, where some of the finest oaks proliably in Eng- 
 land mav be seen, excepting those of Lord Bagot at lilylhfield Park. 
 The following nine trees grow^iear together on the soil above described, 
 and are therefore here selected to show the powers of a soil so constituted 
 in the production of oak tiuiber. 
 
 Oak No. 1. — The bole or stem measures, in timber, upwards of 50 feet in 
 height, and the limbs extend from the stem 40 feet. j-,. i,,. 
 At 3^ feet from the ground 
 
 
 
 At 10 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 At 20 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 Ocl 
 
 ,k>]o.-2. 
 
 —At 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 At 7 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 At 13 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 At 20 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 17 
 
 3 circimiference. 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 E 
 
60 
 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ook No. 2. — At 35 foet from the p;ro(nKl 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 Oak No. 3.— At 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 13 
 
 oi 
 
 At 10 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 At 20 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 12 
 
 0^ 
 
 Oak No. 4.— At 3 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 12 
 
 01 
 
 At 18 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 At 66 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 oi 
 
 OakNo. 5.— At 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 At 20 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 12 
 
 01 
 
 At 56 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 9 
 
 01 
 
 Oak No. 6.— At 3 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 At 34 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 The limbs extend from 40 to 46 feet 
 
 Vom the bole. 
 
 Oak No. 7.— At 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 At 50 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 H 
 
 OakNo. 8.— At 4 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 13 
 
 01 
 
 At 12 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 11 
 
 Of 
 
 At 50 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 01 
 
 Oak No. 9.— At 3 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 . 13 
 
 H 
 
 At 20 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 . 12 
 
 
 
 At 48 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 . 8 
 
 Of 
 
 The lowest estimate of timber in these nine trees is 3,200 cubic feet of 
 the very best quality for naval architecture. It is remarkable, that though 
 they must be of a great age, no symptoms of decay appear in the growth 
 of these trees ; they are perfectly sound and free from blemish*. 
 
 6th. — Damp clayey soil incumbent on clay. 
 
 Coarse siliceous gravel . . . 
 
 Fine sand . " . 
 
 Vegetable tnatter, destructible by fire . ■ 
 
 Carbonate of lime . 
 
 Silica, or earth of flirtts ' . 
 
 Alumina, or pure clay ° . . . 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Soluble saline matter, with vegetable extract, and gypsum 
 
 60 
 
 120 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 130 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 400 
 The oak, elm, ash, and hornbeam attain to greater perfection here than 
 any other kind of forest-tree. The tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipiferci) grows 
 freely on this soil when it is properly prepared by trenching. The 
 Norway spruce, pinaster, and Weymouth pine appear to be the only 
 species of the resinous tribe of trees that make tolerable growth on a soil of 
 the nature above described. 
 
 * Lord Cowper's Pensanger Park oak, near Hertford, grows in a clay and sand soil 
 or sandy loam. 
 
 Cubic measure. 
 
 In 1814, the stem of this tree measured G4 feet high . . 629 feet. 
 
 One limb, 54 feet long . . . . . . G7 
 
 Other limbs measured 
 
 696 
 290 
 
 986 
 
 This tree was again 'measured in 1826, and had increased to 1100 feet cubic measure. 
 The first length of the tree, up to the first branch, is 17 feet, and 19 feet 6 inches in cir- 
 cumference, measuring in cubic contents about 400 feet. 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 «1 
 
 7th. — Fertile peat moss, incumbent on clay or marl. 
 Fine siliceous sand 
 Undecomjiounded veg'ctable fibre 
 Decomposing- vegetable fibre 
 Silica, or impalpable earth of Hints 
 AJumina, or pure mattej' of clay , . 
 Soluble matter, principally veg-etable extract 
 O^tidc of iroij . ^ . , • 
 
 Moisture and loss • . 
 
 . 231 
 
 13 
 
 57 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 . 25 
 
 400 
 This variety of -peat soil when prepared for planting by draining- off the 
 superfluous moisture, with whieh it is found almost always saturated, is 
 capable of growing- very profitable trees, as the birch, abele, poplar, willow, 
 and even the Scotch fir. A piece of ground of this nature, prepared by 
 cutting- open drains at such distances from each other, as to leave a sufficient 
 breadth or body of earth to retain a due proportion of moistin-e in dry 
 weathei-, and yet- prevent saturation of» moisture in the wettest weather, 
 was planted with a variety of trees. The trees above mentioned 
 succeeded remarkably well, and made an improved return of a hundred 
 per cent, in comparison to that afforded by the natural produce of the 
 surface. The following variety of peat, which is not uncommon, is to be 
 carefullv distinguished from the above : — 
 
 8th. — Inert* peat soil. 
 
 Fine pure siliceous sand . • 
 
 Inert vegetable matter destructible by fire 
 
 Alumina . . , 
 
 Oxide of iron . . 
 
 Soluble vegetable extractive matter, sulphate of iron, and 
 
 sulphate of potash . , 
 
 Sulphate of lime . , 
 
 Loss and moisture • . 
 
 29 
 
 289 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 II 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 "ioo 
 
 The outward characters or appearance of this soil is so similar to those 
 of the first-mentioned variety of peat, that they are scarcely to be dis- 
 tinguished by common observation. The above soil, in its natural state, 
 is absolutely sterile. Large applications of caustic lime and of common 
 salt, in a smaller proportion, had the effect of improving the nature of this 
 soil so much, as to render it capable of vegetating- turnip seed, and of 
 bringing the roots to the size of small turnips. It has not been proved, 
 however, what the results of planting- forest-trees might be on this soil, 
 improved in the manner now stated. 
 
 9th. — Chalky soil, incumbent on chalk-rock. 
 
 Calcareous sand . . . 280 
 
 Carbonate of lime • 
 
 Decomposing vegetable fibre 
 
 Silica . . 
 
 Alumina , 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Vegetable and saline soluble matters 
 
 Moisture and loss 
 
 60 
 5 
 28 
 10 
 8 
 4 
 5 
 
 400 
 
 * The inert or sterile property of this peat appears to arise chiefly from the excess of 
 siilpliate of iron and sulpluite of jiotash and Inne which it contains. When burnt, the 
 ashes are found to be a valuable manure for chalky soils. 
 
 E 2 
 
5^ PLANTING. 
 
 The beecli, ash, and oak thrive better on a soil of ll)e above composition, 
 than any of the resinous or fir species of trees. 
 
 10th. — Rich alluvial or marsh soil, on the estate of Lord Saye and 
 
 Sele at Belvidere, near Erith, in Kent, situated partly below and partly 
 
 above the level of the river Thames. g„i„3 
 
 Fine sand . . • , ,98 
 
 Aluminous f>;pit or stones . . .68 
 
 Carbonate of lime ' . -■ , - . ,15 
 
 Decomposing animal and ven;etable matter . . 40 
 
 Silica or impalpable earth of Hints . .115 
 
 Alumina or pure matter of clay , . ,32 
 
 Oxide of iron . . . .12 
 
 Sulphate of lime or gypsum . . .3 
 
 Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, givino- indication 
 
 of not more, or rather less, than the usual quantity found in 
 
 soils generally of the muriate of soda or common salt . 6 
 
 Moisture and loss , , , ,11 
 
 400 
 
 This soil had the character in the neighbourhood of being incapable of 
 growing any kind of tree : it was supposed to contain an excess of common 
 salt. The Hon. Twisleton Fiennes has put this interesting question to the 
 test of trial. We examined this soil chemically as above, and found that 
 common salt entered but little into its composition. The stagnant moisture 
 with which it was surcharged appeared to be the chief, if not the only defect 
 of the soil. The subsoil in part is peaty and incumbent on a clayey marl. 
 A large open drain was made so as to command the water in the space 
 set apart to be planted. The ground was properly trenched and thrown 
 up into broad ridges, as recommended at p. 22 of this Treatise, with 
 secondary drains between each ridge, communicating with the principal 
 one. The ground was planted with a numerous variety of trees for the 
 purpose of experiment. The results now obtained show that the poplar 
 (^Poplusjiigra), willow {Salix alba et Riisselliana), elm (Ulniim montana), 
 sycamore (Acer psctido-platajins), ash {Fraxinus excelsior), alder (Alnus 
 glutiosa), locust (Robinia pseucio- acacia), birch {Bctula), oak (Qiiercus 
 robur), horse-chestnut (JEsculus /lippocasfajiiuyi), Spanish chestnut (Cas- 
 tanea vesca), hornbeam (Carpi/uis betulus), lime (Tilia eiir popci), spruce 
 fir (Pi?27ts abie.t), with dog-wood {Cornus coccinea), privet {Ligustnim 
 vnlgare), \\o\\y {Ilex aquifolium), and hazel (Corylus aveUara), as un- 
 derwood ; — these different species of trees have succeeded in the order 
 nearly as they have been enumerated, the first eight-mentioned sorts 
 having, up to this period, a decided advantage over the others. The Hon. 
 Mr. Fiennes purposes to continue and extend this interesting investigation ; 
 the results of v;hich will decide the question, which is one of importance 
 to the owners of soils of this naturcv. 
 
 Of the above varieties of soils, if we except the sandy loam No. 3, and 
 the clayey loam No. 5, there is not one which, on its natural site, could 
 be profitably cultivated under corn or green crops, but which, by skilful 
 planting, might be made to^ return considerable profits to the owners, and 
 also to the public the. many advantages which judicious planting always 
 confers. 
 
 Although there may be found shades of diiference in the proportions 
 of the constituents of soils receiving the same designation, such, for 
 instance, as the poor sandy soil, containing ten per cent, more or less of 
 sand in one situation more than another, yet the actual produce of timber. 
 
PLANTING. 53 
 
 all other circumstances being* equal, will be found to vary but little, if any. 
 But wliere the ditreronce in the proportions of the ingredients is found so 
 great as exists belwceu the sandy loam No. 3, and the poor sandy soil 
 No, 2, or, in a wood as between any two of the soils now attempted to 
 be described from practical experience in their culture, as well as from a 
 careful chemical examination of their properties and constitution, a very 
 marked and decisive diilerence will be found in the comparative produce 
 of timber, and in the peculiar species or kinds of trees which should have 
 been planted in the greatest number, or in preference to others. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Of the inost approved Modes ofineparing different Soils for the reception 
 of the Plants — Fencing, Draining, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the for- 
 mation of Rides or Carriage-Ways into the interior of Plantations. O 
 the best Mode of covering these with Herbage. 
 
 In no improvement of landed property is economy in the first outlay of 
 capital more essentially required than in forest planting. Want of attention 
 to this important point has caused much loss to the country as well as to 
 individuals, it having had the effect of discouraging forest planting generally, 
 and more particularly of those lands emphatically termed wastes. The evil 
 is perpetuated by statements confounding- the expenses of planting different 
 descriptions of land, such as that of a superior soil immediately connected 
 perhaps with a mansion, and that of a distant hill or waste heath. In the 
 former case the return of produce is early, great, and fully ample for every 
 expense judiciously incurred in the plantation ; while, at the same time, 
 something must be allowed for obtaining the more immediate ornamental 
 effect of wood. In the latter case the returns of profit are more distant, 
 though equally certain, and the outlay of capital or expense of formation 
 proportionally less. To estimate or make them equal to those of the first 
 description of land, would be absurd, because unnecessary, and, in fact, 
 impracticable, as in the case of rocky sites or thin heath soils, where the 
 more expensive processes of the preparations of soils cannot be carried 
 into effect. To say, therefore, that land cannot be profitably planted 
 under a first outlay of ten pounds sterling an acre, or that the expense of 
 planting should not exceed two, or at most three, is equally erroneous ; 
 althougli both statements, individually with reference to local circumstances, 
 may be perfectly true and accurate. 
 
 Fencing is one of the most expensive but essential concomitants of 
 planting; for unless young trees are completely protected by proper 
 fences, extensive failure will be the certain consequence. 
 
 In general the materials fit for constructing plantation fences may be 
 found on the spot. On sandy heath soils, the turf interwoven Avith the 
 roots of heath or coarse herbage affords a ready and cheap material. We 
 have seen a wall or dyke, built entirely of turf, last for a great number of 
 years without wanting any repairs whatever. The turfs were cut to the 
 depth of from three to five inches; according to the depth they were per- 
 vaded with the tough roots of grasses and heath, which tend to keep them 
 firm and less assailable by the weather. This wall of turf was two feet 
 wide at the foundation, and four feet and a half high, terminating at sixteen 
 inches in thickness at the top. The turfs were built in rows alternately 
 edgeways, and flat with the turf side downwards. The coping consisted 
 of a row of turfs laid with the grass side upwards, and this continued per- 
 manent for many years. When the soil is clayey, or of a texture liable to 
 
54 PLANTING. 
 
 crumble by the effects of the weather, banks are thrown up four feet wide 
 at bottom, four feet and a half hifi;h, and eighteen inches wide at the top. , 
 On the top a double row of furze should be sown, and the face of the bank 
 defended from cattle by drivina; in stakes of forked larch or thorns, from 
 two to two feet and a half in leno-th. These stakes may be fixed in the 
 bank about a fourth of the whole height of the bank from tlie furze, and 
 pointing- obliquely upwards. Where these stakes could be conveniently 
 procured about the thickness of an inch and a half or upwards, we have 
 found them to answer the purposes of a protection to the furze remarkably 
 well : these are the cheapest modes of fencing a plantation. Where 
 stones fit for building a dry stone wall prevail on the site, they may be 
 used with great advantage for constructing the fence. In building a dry 
 stone wall, i. e., without mortar or cement of any kind, it is of importance 
 that occasional courses of stones of a size to reach across the thickness of 
 the wall should be laid in ; these act as ties, and render the wall strong and 
 lasting. The coping is another point of importance to be attended to : 
 the best coping is that composed of flat stones placed edgeways, and 
 made compact and immovable by driving in wedges of stone at such dis- 
 tances from each other in the coping as will produce the desired effect, 
 and a very little experience or practice will teach the workman to place 
 these wedges in their proper points. The expense of constructing this 
 kind offence varies according to local circumstances. The cost of fences 
 of tliis description is stated by Sir John Sinclair in his highly valuable 
 work, the Code of Agriculture, to vary from 4s. Grf. to 6.9. the perch, which 
 agrees with the results of our inquiries and experience on the subject. 
 
 When neither of the above simple fences can be conveniently adopted, a 
 quick or thorn hedge is the most generally used, and in fact is the best and 
 cheapest. There are several kinds of quick fences, which differ merely in 
 the mode of planting the thorns {Cratcegus oxycanthm). The white thorn 
 is a plant much checked in growth by every other, whether herbace- 
 ous weed or shub, that mingles with it in the soil. It delights in a 
 strong loam, on poor sands, or damp clay ; its growth is much slower, 
 and requires great attention in the preparation of the soil, in the selection 
 of the plants, and in the mode of planting. It must be carefully protected 
 from cattle and rabbits, which, by nipping off the tender first shoots of the 
 spring, seriously injure its growth, and defeat the intention of raising an 
 effective fence at the least cost, and in the sliortest space of time. 
 
 On poor sandy soils, the depth of earth for the reception of the plants 
 shoidd be made as great as possible, and they should be placed on the top 
 "of the bank*. Manure of rotten leaves, compost of marl or clay, and dung, 
 ashes, or any substance that will enrich the line of planting, should be dug 
 in if possible for the encouragement of the roots of the young quick, 
 "Where the soil is damp and clayey, planting tlie thorns on the face of the 
 bank is tlie best practice. The ground should be perfectly clean, or the 
 cost of weeding it afterwards will be considerable, and the fence will make 
 little progress, if it do not fail altogether. 
 
 The cost of the manure above alluded to will be amply repaid by the 
 more rapirl growth of the quick, saving much of the expense of weeding, 
 and of filling up blanks and gaps in the hedge, which always accompanies 
 the rearing of this kind of fence on poor or badly prepared ungenial land. 
 The size of the plants deserves particular attention, for by planting strong 
 three year old transplanted thorns, the success of the fence is secured, 
 and the distance of time for its completion shortened by three years. To 
 
 The Salix cinerea and one or tiuo kindred species make ttseful and hardy fences if cut 
 in the form of stakes, and driven in on the top lattice-form, seldom fail to strike root, a/iU 
 in the mean time form an effectual barrier.— J\h\ Kinyston. 
 
planting: 55 
 
 protect the thorns from cattle, a ditch with post and rails are ado])ted. 
 (Fig. 8. a). When rabbits abound in the nein-libourhood of a young; quick 
 fence, they are often very destructive to the plants. The means of pre- 
 venting' tliese animals from havinij; access to the \onni>- thorns is too ex- 
 pensive to be adopted for ibrest fences*. A row of tliickly planted dead 
 hedge on each side of the row of quick, is, perhaps, the best temporary 
 protection; but the most effectual mode is to keep down the number of 
 t!ie rabbits, or, if possible, to take them away altogether. 
 
 When stones can conveniently be had, the facing of tlie bank with these, 
 and planting the quick so as to spring through the wall, (Jig. 8. 6,) 
 forms the most secure and lasting fence. The expense of weeding is saved 
 by it ; and, under such circumstances, the plants generally make great 
 j)rogress. 
 
 In the management of the hedges wlien planted, weeding is most 
 
 essential, for if coarse grass or rampant weeds are suffered to mingle with 
 
 the lower branches and foliage of the quick, tlie injury is very considerable. 
 
 The top of the hedge should be kept level from the first cutting, until the 
 
 p.^ o plants have attained to the desired 
 
 °' ' height. The sides of the hedge ought 
 
 i &, A a to be kept also of an even surface ; 
 
 /^t j fi ^1^' V by shortening the side branches every 
 
 1|~ ^5 year to within an inch more or less 
 " J of the preceding year's wood, the 
 
 bottom of the hedge is maintained 
 equally thick and impenetrable with the upper portion. The most gene- 
 rally approved form of a hedge, is that of the hog's mane ; however, if the 
 soil has been properly prepared, the plants selected of the largest size, 
 and the keeping clear of weeds, and most judicious mode of pruning 
 persevered in, the hedge will flourish in every shape. 
 
 By keeping the top of a hedge level, it is not meant that all the plants 
 shoidd be shortened in the leading shoot of the stem, but only those which 
 overtop their thin neighbours. If this be properly attended to, the evil 
 effects which follow the practice of shortening without exception the lead- 
 ing shoots of every plant of the hedge will be avoided, as well as those 
 which occur when the upright growth of any plant is left uncontrolled 
 until it reach to the desired height. 
 
 Where a hedge has been neglected, is overgrown and irregular, the best 
 mode is to cut it down level with the soil, and then to dig the earth about 
 the stumps, inserting plants of strong quick in the gaps where they occur. 
 It may happen that the fence cannot be dispensed with, for the time the 
 young shoots from the old roots require to renew the fence. In this case, 
 tlie mode of cutting a fourth part of the stems to the desired height, and 
 another fourth part a few inches from the ground, and warping' the 
 remainder with these, is found a useful practice. 
 
 Besides the white thorn or (juick, and the furze (Ulex eiiropeeus), there 
 are many other shrubs which may be planted under certain circumstances 
 with effect as fences. In exposed cold soils, the Huntingdon willow, 
 beech, birch, and alder, may be used with advantage. ' 
 
 It may be unnecessary to mention, that where larch poles can be had, 
 they afford an excellent material for fencing, particularly when used with 
 
 * For protection fo gardens against the depredations of rabbits, or turnip crops exposed 
 
 in the fields, &c., a wire netting has been invented, which completelj' answers the purpose. 
 
 The expense for these pur[H)Ses is so moderate, as to render the ad<.ptii.)n of ihe wire netting 
 
 no matter of ditficulty. ^^Vc witnessjd the eHl-cts of tlu'- practice at Ciuitley Hall, the seat 
 
 f Johu W. Childers, Esf^. ' ' 
 
56 PLANTING. 
 
 the bark, which tends to preserve the wood from the effects of moisture 
 and air*. 
 
 Drainiiig is essential wherever stagnant moisture prevails in the soil. 
 Boi^ijy lands and tenaceons clays are chiefly the soils which require it, for 
 trees will thrive in a degree of moisture that would be highly hurtful to the 
 nutritive grasses, and to corn crops. Under drains are of little service 
 for forest-trees, as their roots soon render these ineffective. In general, 
 therefore, open cuts should be used. Where the excess of dampness is 
 caused by springs, as in most bogs and morasses, it is essential to ascer- 
 tain the source of the principal springs which feed the secondary ones, and 
 their numerous outlets over the surface. Sub-aquatic plants, as the alder, 
 rushes, &c., often point out the spots where the search should be made, 
 although these plants are frequently supported by stagnant surface water. 
 Boring with the auger is the best mode of ascertaining the source of the 
 spring, or at least that level of its course in the strata which conducts the 
 water to the boggy land, and where it can be effectually cut off from sup- 
 plying the secondary springs and outlets in the lower levels. When the 
 source is ascertained, a drain should be cut to the depth of the strata 
 through which it passes, so as to obstruct its progress. It should be 
 made sufficiently deep, or the water will continue to jiass under it, and the 
 work will be useless. From this main drain formed across the declivity, 
 other secondary drains shoidd be made to conduct the water thus collected, 
 from the source to the most convenient outlet. It would be incompatible 
 with the space of these pages to enter into details of this subject. Elking- 
 ton's mode of draining, as given in Johnstone's Treatise on the subject, is 
 on the above principle, and shews with precision the advantages of it, and 
 with how much facility lands, which by the old method of draining were 
 considered incapable of being profitably improved, may be made fit for 
 planting and returning a valuable produce of timber. 
 
 Clayey soils which are rendered barren by surface water stagnating upon 
 them, may be made to produce valuable timber by the simple process of 
 constructing open drains, and forming the surface between these into 
 ridges, as before mentioned in Chapter III. 
 
 On steep acclivities, rocky soils, and thin heath, or moor lands, incum- 
 bent on rock or shale, where ploughing or trenching is impracticable, a 
 depth of pulverized soil cannot be obtained for the reception of the roots 
 of trees of more than two, or at most three years' growth ; the mattock 
 planter, diamond dibble, and spade, can be used with the best effect. To 
 attempt any more expensive preparation on such lands, than may be made 
 by these implements for the reception of the individual plants, would be 
 injudicious. The number of valuable woods which have been reared in 
 this way, are too generally known to need particular mention here. The 
 cost may be stated to be from two to five pounds per acre. For the pre- 
 paration of heath soils, incumbent on sand or loose gravel, an improved 
 paring plough (7?^. 9 and 10), which we call Fyshe Palmer's planting 
 ploughf, is a valuable implement. 
 
 The plough consists of two mold boards as in common use, but resting 
 on a triangular and somewhat convex plate of iron {fig. 9). Tliis iron 
 
 * It is the opinion of some practical persons, that the bark being left on larch poles, 
 encourages or attracts insects to nestle under it, and thereby hastens the decay of the 
 wood, unless it happen that the trees are cut down in winter, or when the sap is down. — 
 A/r. Lance. 
 
 •f Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq. M.P., in planting a large tract of waste land on his 
 estate of East Court in Berkshire, after various trials, found this plough wliich he invented 
 a most efiective implement in paring off the heath-turf. It economises time as well as 
 expense. 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 57 
 
 Fis. 9, 
 
 Fi'r. 10. 
 
 ])lale is furnished with sharp steel edj;es riveted to it (^^. 10, c). The 
 iixed share (a, Jig. 10), which divides the turf ibr each side of the double 
 
 nioldhoard, is six inches hig;h at the 
 shoulder, with a sharp edge taperinjv 
 to a point at (6). The sole of the 
 ])loui>h is screwed and bolted to the 
 instrument by the bolt sockets (e), 
 and the nut screw sockets (rf). The 
 f baseof the triangular plate/"(y?|g-. 9) 
 is twenty-one inches, willi a curve 
 of one inch, which facilitates the 
 action of the instrument when paring 
 in gravelly or stony ground. The 
 whole length of the plate is thirty- 
 five inches from the base (/) to the 
 point of the share (i>). Wherever 
 the land is of a moderately level 
 surface, and when paring is de- 
 sirable, this plough will be found 
 a valuable implement. The whole 
 surface may be pared as in clayey 
 soils, where burning the turf is 
 essential ; or spaces of twenty-one 
 inches, as in heath soils, may be pared off with intervals of thirteen 
 inches, on which the reversed turf may rest to decay, and become food 
 for the roots of the trees. When the soil is of sufficient depth to allow 
 of trenching, the common plough, following the track of the paring 
 plough, will effect this object at a comparatively small expense. 
 
 Much difference of opinion prevails on the comparative advantages and 
 disadvantages of trenching ground for forest trees ; nothing is more certain 
 than that trenching and manuring is more advantageous to the trees than 
 holing, or any other mode of preparation. But there are certain soils which 
 will produce valuable timber, and that cannot be ploughed or trenched ; these 
 have already been mentioned: there are others whicli are capable of re- 
 ceiving benefit from this mode of preparation, but where it would be inex- 
 pedient to bestow it. There is one instance in which trenching cannot 
 on any account be dispensed with, which is that of ground near a mansion, 
 where the value of trees in respect to landscape effect, shelter, sliade, 
 concealment, and the improvement of local climate, have equal if not 
 superior claims to that of the actual value of the timber produced by 
 the individual trees of the plantation. The question as regards other sites 
 and soils, intermediate between these two now mentioned, and of a nature 
 as regards texture and quality similar to tlie soils described in Chapter IV., 
 under the numbers 3, 4, 5 and 6, which are capable of rearing mixed plan- 
 tation, or a variety of different species of forest trees in perfection, tlie 
 process of trenching or ploughing, and also manuring when possible, 
 ought to be adopted. In this instance, however, it is highly necessary, 
 before adopting the more expensive preparation, to ascertain exactly the 
 cost of each mode of planting, and the probable return of jjrofit from 
 the outlay. As many local circumstances interfere with the performance 
 of these different ])rocesses, as the comparative cheapness of labour, of 
 manure, the facility of obtaining the most proper sized plants, to anticipate 
 two or three years' earlier return of produce, &c., it woidd be of little use 
 here to give any calculations of expense and profits, as data by which to 
 estimate the results of either mode of practice, that would be applicable 
 
58 planting: 
 
 to every soil and site alluded to. Where the local demand for the smaller 
 sized products of plantations are "Teat, the more expensive process of 
 trenchiiio; should be adopted, inasmuch as the p;rovvth of forest-trees to the 
 size of poles, and of materials for fencing-, &c., is highly promoted by 
 trenching- and manuring-, and the returns of profits from these products 
 of planting are in proportion earlier and larger. That this superiority 
 extends in the same proportion to the ultimate produce of timber in 
 trees, may not appear so clear, because it may be urged by those who 
 vmdervalue trenching- and manuring as preparation of the soil for 
 planting forest-trees, tliat there are no satisfactory records of the com- 
 parative rate of increase of timber, or of solid vegetable fibre, after the 
 first twenty or thirty years' growth of the diflerent species of forest-trees, 
 which have been planted on trenched and manured grounds, and the 
 contrary, being under all other circumstances the same vuitil their last 
 stage of perfection ; and yet the truth of such continued superiority of 
 increase, is the only test by which the question can be decided, and 
 an unerring rule of practice be obtained. The results of mere observation, 
 or conclusions drawn from the apparent contents of trees, will not be 
 found to warrant the adoption of any new mode of practice. But the 
 comparative increase and ultimate produce of timber should be ascertained 
 up to the period of the trees attaining to perfect maturity in the most 
 satisfactory manner, by actual admeasurement ; and correct records kept 
 of the age of the trees, comparative value of the plants when planted as 
 to their size, roots, and constitutional vigour at the time of planting- ; as 
 also the intimate nature of the soil, subsoil, and local climate. lu the 
 oak, after the first fifty or sixty years' growth, the annual rate of increase 
 of the diameter diminishes greatly. The Lambert pine-tree {Pi/ius 
 Lambertiana), mentioned in the Trans. Linn. Society, vol. xv. p. 497, 
 exhibited an increase of diameter of four inches and a half only at the 
 base, during the last fifty-six years of its growth. 
 
 These last remarks apply to the question generally ; but in all cases of 
 exception before mentioned, and in the instances of clayey, tenacious soils, 
 and compact gravelly loams, trenching ought doubtless to be adopted as a 
 preparation for the reception of forest-trees*. 
 
 * The advantages of trenching have been zealously and ably advocated in a late publi- 
 cation by Mr. Withers, to which we have already referred, and the proofs brought forward 
 in support of his arguments are satisfactory as far as they go ; but the most important 
 facts are those of the superior increase, and the comparative quality of the timber when 
 the trees have attained to full maturity. Registers of the facts stated by Mr. Withers, 
 continued until the trees attain to full timber size, and of the buildings or pur- 
 poses to which, in certain cases, the timber is applied, are what would afford invaluable 
 information, and for which posterity would be grateful. A distinguished writer asserts 
 that after the first twelve or twenty years of growth of trees planted on land jirejiared by 
 trenching, all distinction is lost between the apparent growth of these and of those which 
 maj' have been planted by the simple process of holing. In general cases, the observations 
 of the writer of this have led to precise!)' the same conclusions. It is improbable, how- 
 ever, that the superior growth which so distinctly marked the progress of the plants on the 
 trenched ground during the first years of growth should wholly cease, but that it diminishes 
 in proportion as the soil, which had been loosened hy the process, becomes consolidated to 
 its original state, and in proportion as the roots advance in the subsoil which had remained 
 equally undisturbed in the execution of lioth modes of preparation, is quite ' certain. 
 Whether this superior rate of produce, though reduced in degree, continues until the tree 
 attains to perfect maturity, or ceases before that period, we have certainly no records of 
 facts to shew. Farther, as regards the progressive increase of wood in trees, difFerent 
 species vary in this particular. The loctist, for instance, will make shoots of six feet in 
 length for a few of the first years of its growth, or, if cut down when in a healthy state, 
 will jiroduce in one season shoots of three yards or more in length; but to conclude from 
 this circum.stauce that the locust is one of the fastest growing trees, or even that it is equal 
 in this respect to the slow growing oak, would be erroneous, inasmuch as. at its fifteenth 
 
PLANTING. 6§ 
 
 In order to have at all times the most convenient as well as the most 
 pleasant access to the interior of the plantation, rides or broad drives 
 should be marked out and left implanted. On heaths and gravelly soils 
 the surface is in general so level and unbroken as to require the lines or 
 edges of the rides merely to be cut out iu the form of a shallow water-course, 
 any inequalities of the surface to be made good with the turf or earth taken 
 out. In damp, clayey soils, the rides should be made higher in the middle 
 and sloping on each side to an open drain, marking the line of each side*. 
 The earth should be made fine and sown with the following grass seeds, 
 viz., Alopecurus prateiisis, Daclylis glo?nerata, Lolitim pere}i/ie, Cynosurns 
 crisfalus, Phlcujn pratense, Anthoxaidhum ndoratum, Poairiviatis, Festuca 
 pralcnsis, with red and white clovers combined, at the rate of four bushels 
 and a half to an acre. For dry, sandy, heath soils, which can scarcely be 
 covered with verdure, the following will be found effectual : — Festuca 
 
 year of growth, the annual rate of increase in heif^lit is found to be reduced to inches 
 instead of yards or feet, and at the age of thirty cir forty years it may be said to cease 
 altogether to advance in stature ; while the oak, which has before this period overtopped 
 the locust, continues its comparatively steady annual increase for a century. And, with 
 certain moditications of the rate of annual increase between the first and subsequent stages 
 of growth to perfection, the same principles will apply to the willow (a), pojilar, alder, 
 birch and the pine tribe, on the one hand, and to the oak, chestnut, elm, beech, ash, &c., 
 on the other. 
 
 (a) The Bedford willow (Salix Russelliana") when planted on a damp, cla3rey loam on 
 a rising site, has been observed by the writer of this to attain to the height of thirty feet in. 
 five j'ears, but after that the annual rate of increase diminislied to inches, and tlien the 
 tree became in appearance stationary. The celebrated willow in Staffordshire, known 
 imder the name of Doctor Johnson's Willow, is of this species. Since the above was 
 sent to the press we have had the gratification of perusing the Saiic/iim JFohurnense, or 
 a catalogue of the willows indigenous and foreign in the collection of the Duke of Bedford 
 at Woburn Abbey. This contains the fullest accoimt of all the dirierent species of this 
 interesting tribe of plants that has yet appeared. As regards the willow above alluded to il 
 is observedin the introduction to the work by the noble author, that ' the Rev. I\Ir. Dickenson 
 assured Sir James Smith and myself that the great willow at Lichfield (commonly called 
 Johnson's willow, from a belief that it had been planted by him) was of this species. 
 Dr. Johnson never failed to visit this willow when he went to Lichfield.' In 1781 it was 
 reporteil to be nearlj' eighty years old, and Mr. Dickenson says, ' the venerable sage de- 
 lighted to recline under its shade.' The noble author further observes, ' I can state another 
 instance from my own personal knowledge of this species of willow attaining a <'-reat size 
 within the ordinary period of a man's life. A willow-tree on the south lawn at Gordon 
 Castle, in Scotland, was planted by the late Duke of Gordon about 1765 ; it was then in 
 a small box four feet square, floating on the surface of the lake, and shortly sank on the 
 spot, where it took root. The lake has long since disappeared, and the tree was blown 
 down iu a storm on the 24th November, lS2fi, the tree being then sixty-one years old. I 
 examined this tree a few years ago, and found it to be the Salix Russelliana of Sir J. E. 
 Smith.' — Salictum IVuburnense, Introduction, vi. 
 
 * At Blair Adam, in many instances, the plantations were originally made with broad 
 rides; in others where that was omitted in the original planting, it has been accomplished 
 by cutting out the trees. These, while the plantations were young, served the double 
 purpose of access, for the convenience of carrying out the thinnings and fur pleasin-e, 
 because then it was possible to proportion the loading of the carriage, by putting a greater 
 or smaller number of trees, according to the state of the rides in point of moisture or 
 distance; but now that one tree makes a load, and that its weight cannot be diminished, 
 the injmy done to the ridings was so great as to impede both the convenience and the 
 pleasure of the rides, and great expense was incurred in putting them in repair. To 
 avoid this, what are called wood or thinning lanes have been adojited, by cutting out 
 trees in proper lines for them ; this shortens distances to the place of deposit (for rides 
 are always circuitous) and is of benefit to the woods by admitting air more generally, care 
 being taken that they are so twisted as not to incur tlie risk of being blown down. It is 
 proposed (as they are easily got) to fill the rutts with bruken stones. AVhere stones are 
 not easily to be got, the rutts mi;,'ht be filled with trees not otherwise useful, so as to 
 make a sort of coarse railwaj'. This plan will, in the end, save a great deal of expense 
 and labour, and secures at all times the proprietor's access to the woods and his seein" 
 Ifhat is going on. . . 
 
CO PLANTING 
 
 oviiia, Fcsliica dinivscula, Alia cocspitosa, Aira Jlcxuosa, Cynosurus 
 crisldd/s, Jposds slalonifera and vulgaris^ Achillea millefolium, Trifulium 
 vri/ius, and ^^hite clover. Game are fond of these "grasses. 
 
 Chapter YI. 
 
 Of the Culture of Plantations ; Soil; Pnniiiig; Thinning; reinedica for 
 accidental injuries and Natural Diseases of Forest Trees. Of the 
 Tanning afforded by the Bark of different Species of Trees. 
 
 The judicious culture of plantations is a point of the last importance to 
 secure a full return of profits from the capital expended in their formation, 
 as well as for every other advantage that judicious planting confers ; for let 
 the care and skill employed in their formation have been ever so great, if 
 the proper culture be not continued from the period of planting to maturity 
 of growth, disappointment in obtaining the effects of wood, and loss of 
 jnofits will be the certain results. The numerous instances to be seen 
 almost everywhere of the bad effects resulting from the neglect of judicious 
 ])riming' and thinning of the trees of plantations, and the great loss caused 
 thereby to the proprietors, evince fully the importance of this branch of the 
 subject, which embraces the following points : — 
 
 1st. Culture of the soil. 
 
 2d. Pruning. 
 
 3d. Tliinning. 
 
 4th. Remedies for accidental injuries, or natural diseases. 
 First. The culture of a trenched soil of a newly-formed plantation, consists 
 in keeping the surface clean of weeds until the shade of the trees prevents 
 their growth. It is true that these weeds take a portion of nourishment 
 from the soil, but from what was before stated regarding the food supplied 
 to the plants by the soil, it is clear that the growth of herbaceous weeds 
 can injure but little, if in any degree, the growth of forest-trees. When 
 the trees are young and of a small size, however, the mechanical effects of 
 tViese weeds are extremely hurtful when they are sutfered to grow and 
 mingle their shoots with the lower branches of the young trees, by ob- 
 structing the free circulation of air, and preventing the genial influence of 
 the solar rays from reaching to their tender shoots, and this is evident to 
 common observation in the decay or death of the branches subjected to 
 contact with them, and in the consequent unhealthy appearance of the 
 leading shoot of tlie tree. 
 
 i Hoeing the surface as often as may be required to prevent perennial 
 weeds from forming perfect leaves and new roots, and annual weeds from 
 perfecting seeds, is all tliat is required. Two seasons of strict adherence 
 to this rule, even in the worst cases, will render the labour or expense of 
 future years comparatively trifling, and the healthy progress of the trees 
 will reward the care and attention. 
 
 On soils planted by the slit, or holing-in mode of planting-, it is essentially 
 necessary to prevent the natural herbage of the soil from mingling with the 
 lateral branches of the young tree. An active workman with a steel 
 mattock-hoe will clean round the plants on a large space of ground in a 
 day. Summer is the best season for the work, as the weeds are more 
 effectually destroyed, and the partial stirring of the soil about the roots of 
 such plants as require cleaning benefits their growth. 
 
 Should the planting and culture now described have, been faithfully 
 
PLANTING. (51 
 
 executed, tlicrc will l)o few failures. Wlien (liese happen, liowevcr, the 
 vacancies must be filled uj), at the proper season, with stout plants, and 
 the holes be properly prepared for the reception of the roots. It is a p^ood 
 practice for the first two or three years of a trenched ])lantation to take a 
 crop of potatoes, nuuii^'el wurzel, or carrots, according- to circumstances. 
 The rule, which must be strictly adhered to in the introduction of these 
 crops, is, that no part of the foliage or tops of the g-reeu croj) touch or even 
 approximate near to the young trees ; a rule of practice which, if broken 
 through, produces equal damage as from a rampant crop of weeds to 
 the plantation. 
 
 Second. There are three difierent kinds or modes of pruning, which, in 
 practice, have been named close pruning (a, Jig. 11). Snag pruning (6), and 
 foreshortening (c). 
 
 By leaving a snag (6) of the branch, it in 
 time forms a blemish in the timber, in con- 
 sequence of young wood forming round the 
 stump, and embedding it in the tree. Snag 
 pruning is the most rude and injudicious 
 mode that can be practised, being invariably 
 attended with injury to the quality of the 
 timber: it should never be adopted under 
 any circumstances whatever. Close pruning 
 (a) is performed by sawing or cutting off a 
 branch close to its parent stem or primary 
 leading branch (c). This is the only mode 
 to be adopted in training, or rather improving, the stem or bole of a tree, 
 or wherever it is desirable that iio reproduction of branches from the point 
 should ibllow. The most perfect manner of executing the work is to saw 
 the branch off close to the parent stem, and smooth any roughness that 
 may be left on the surface of the wound with a sharp knife, taking care 
 not to reduce the edges of the bark which surroimd the wound more than 
 is actually necessary to remove the lacerated surface. To prevent the 
 action of air and moistiue on the naked wood, a dressing should be applied, 
 composed of ingredients that will adhere to the spot, and resist the action 
 of drought and rain. Three parts of cow-dung and one of sifted lime will 
 be found a very effective substitute for the more compound dressing of 
 Forsyth. Tlie dressing should be laid on one-quarter of an iiicli in 
 thickness, or more when the wound is large : when rendered smooth and 
 firmly pressed to the i)art, powdered lime should be thrown over the sur- 
 face, and pressed into it by the flat side of the pruning knife, or a spatula. 
 The bark will sooner cover the wound when protected from the influence 
 of the weather by this or by any similar means, than wlien left naked and 
 exposed*. 
 
 In general forest pruning this process is unnecessary, or rather the 
 benefit is not sufficiently great to warrant its cost; but for particular trees 
 connected with ornamental effects it is well worth the trouble. 
 
 Fore-shorleni/ig pruning (r) is the only one that can be usefully practised 
 
 * The fate of Mr. Forsytli's discovery of a composifion applietl to heal tlie wounds of 
 trees, and to renovate decaying vital functions of vegetable growth, is similar to that of 
 all other discoveries where the principles of such are pushed too far. Henre, one party- 
 ridicules it as good for nothing, and another pronounces it as infallible ; while the truth 
 lies between. In a long practice the writer of this has always used it with beneficial 
 effects in every case where it was more than usually desired to have the bark speedily 
 closed over a wound in a tree, but for the ordinary cases of forest-tree pruning it has never 
 been used, and for the reasons before stated. 
 
C2, PLANNING.' 
 
 in reducing- the size of lateral branches. When these become tod crowded, 
 or when particular ones assume a disproportionate vigour of growth and 
 increase, it is hig'lily useful to reduce the number or size of sucli over- 
 luxuriant branches. The chief point to be attended to in the operation is 
 that of dividing- the branch at a point from whence a healthy secondary 
 branchlet springs, that it may become the leader to that branch. When 
 the shoot is of one year's growth only, and has no lateral shoots, as in 
 stone-fruits trained on walls, the division is made near to a strong healthy 
 bud, which will become the conducting shoot. 
 
 For young forest-trees which require the branches to be regulated and 
 balanced, so that one side may not have a disproportionate number or weight 
 of branches to the other, and for trees in hedge-rows whose lateral branches 
 extend too far on either side, injuring the quick fence or the crops of the 
 field, fore-shortening is the most useful mode of pruning. 
 
 For non-rej)roductive trees, such as all the different species of the pine 
 or fir tribe of forest-trees, this mode of pruning is improper, as the 
 branch thus shortened does not produce a second slioot, but remains with 
 all the objectionable properties of a snag, to the great injury, in time, of the 
 quality of the timber. Where the purposes of evergreen masks, near the 
 ground, in the margins of plantations are desirable, the foreshortening of 
 the leading shoots of spruce firs, &c., is highly useful, as these trees do not 
 afterwards increase in height, but only extend laterally by thin side 
 branches. 
 
 The most effectual pruning instruments are a strong- knife, hook, saw, 
 
 and chisel. For pruning elevated branches a small saw firmly fixed to a 
 
 Fig. 12. long handle is highly useful (^g-. 12, c) ; 
 
 a chisel, likewise furnished with a long 
 
 ,^^^^j;zz::;:zzjs:^:::z=z=z — -T rrrr-r-=zz=r=:z: handle (6), and driven by a hand mallet, 
 
 ^ is very effective in taking off branches 
 
 close to the stem or bole, in circum- 
 
 [ ->- ^ _ _^ stances where the saw cannot be freely 
 
 '^ - -ii r— — used from the upright direction of the 
 
 branch, or the situation of the adjoining branches. Such are the manuals 
 of forest-pruning. It may be justly said that in no one process of the 
 culture of forest-trees is a just knowledge of vegetable physiology, or that 
 of the structure and functions of the organs of vegetable life of more 
 importance than in this one of pruning', which directly and especially 
 applies to the assisting and directing-, as well as the checking, of these 
 functions in the production of wood as in forest-trees, and in that as well 
 as of flowers and fruit in garden-trees. Some of the leading points of 
 vegetable physiok)gy which bear directly on the practice of pruning, have 
 been mentioned in Chapter III., and full details may be obtained in the 
 work there cited. 
 
 A timber tree, as before observed, is valued for the length, straightness, 
 and solidity of its stem. Judicious pruning tends greatly to assist nature 
 in the formation of the stem in this perfect state. In natural forests, boles 
 or stems possessing properties of the most valuable kind are found, where 
 no pruning-, trenching, or any other process of culture ever was applied 
 to the rearing of the trees. It should not, however, be concluded from 
 this circumstance that these processes are of little value. If we examine 
 the growth of trees in this climate, when left to the unassisted efforts of nature 
 by the neglect of pruning and thinning, we find that but a small number 
 only, on any given space of planted ground, attain to perfect maturity, com- 
 pared to those which never arrive at any value but for fuel. The like results, 
 though varying- according to local advantages, are exhibited in the produce. 
 
PLANTING 63 
 
 of self- pi anted forest?. Hence, instead of an averag'G of two or tliree perfect 
 trees on any given space (suppose an acre) left by the unassisted elibrts 
 of nature, we shall have irom Ibrty to three hundred perfect trees, accord- 
 ini^ to the species of timber, by the judicious application of art in the pre- 
 paration of the soil and the after culture of the trees, and probably on 
 soils, too, which, without such assistance, could never have reared a single 
 tree. 
 
 But though judicious pruning greatly assists in the production of a tall, 
 straight bole, free from blemish, yet unless those circumstances before 
 mentioned are favourable, as a vigorous, healthy constitution of the plant 
 in its seedling stage of growth, transplantation to its timber sites at a 
 proper age, and a soil suitably prepared and adapted to the species of tree, 
 pruning will be found but of small efficacy*. 
 
 It was supposed that when branches are taken from a tree, so many 
 organs of waste are cut off; and ii has been practically insisted upon that, 
 by tiie removal of large branches, the supply of sap and notu-ishment which 
 went to their support would go to a proportionate increase of the stem. 
 From what has already been stated respecting the course and movement 
 of the sap, it may be unnecessary to add that this opinion is erroneous in 
 principle, and that when a branch is cut off a portion of nourishment to 
 the stem is cut off also specifically from that part of it which lies between 
 the origin of the branch and the root, downwards to the root. Every 
 branch of a tree, of whatever size it may be, not only draws nourishment 
 and increase of substance from that part of the stem which stands under 
 it, and from the roots, but also supplies these with a due proportion of 
 nourishment in return, and by which their substance is increased. If the 
 branch, whether large or small, acted merely as a drain on the vessels of 
 the stem, and that the sap it derived from it was elevated to the leaves of 
 the branch, and from thence returned no farther than to the origin or point 
 of its union with the stem, then the above opinion would be correct: on 
 the contrary, however, when it is found that the existence and increase of 
 every twig-, branch, and leaf, depends on a communication with the root, 
 and that this communication passes through the stem downwards to that 
 organ, and from it upwards periodically, and, moreover, that every 
 periodical series of new vessels thus formed in the branch has a corre- 
 
 * At Blair Adam pruning was resorted to, in some instances, where the trees were too 
 far advanced in age for that operation, bnt it was rendered necessary, in those instances, 
 by due attention not having been paid to those portions of the wood at an earlier period. 
 The ruU^ tlien and there followed was, not to cut off any branch which left a horizontal 
 surface exposed : they were cut so as to have the surface of the cut in the line of the stem, 
 with a very sharp heavy bill, at the time the sap was rising : the effect of this was 
 uniformly to secure a considerable growth of the bark over the wound before winter 
 set in. This has obtained stem for the trees that were so treated, but it is greatly feared 
 that when they are put to use, there may be weaknesses (in the dockyards called blanks) 
 at the parts where the pruning has taken place. 
 
 To make valuable wood, length of stem is essential, and the practice at Blair Adam, in 
 consequence of experience, has been to obtain this by knife pruning in the earlier years, 
 by bill pruning as they grow older (say to twenty-five years, when the lateral branches are 
 easily cut and soon barked over), then by leaving them to press upon each other more 
 severely than vigorous thinners would permit. 
 
 Two effects seem to be produced by this : — First, they draw each other up to stem ; — 
 secondly, they produce a certain decay in the lower lateral branches. When those effecta 
 are sufficiently attained, and before any risk is incurred to the power of the tree to obtain 
 thickness, the thinning is commenced by gradually, and according to the best judgment 
 that can be Ibrmed, taking out the inferior trees and those best grown trees which injure 
 each other, but taking care to do this so gradually as to secure against any chill or 
 sudden effect of cold, so as to bring about (what may be called) the injury of being 
 bark-bound, — the most effectual impediment to growth either in height or thickness. 
 
6i PLANTING. 
 
 spnndinp; series of vessels formed in the stem from its point of emiltin|]^ 
 the branch to the root, it is clear that a branch not only increases in sub- 
 stance by the functions of its own org-anization, but must, of a necessity, 
 periodically increase the substance or diameter of the trunk. 
 
 The results of practice agree with this ; for if an overgrown limb or 
 branch of a free-growing tree be pruned off, the annual increase of the 
 diameter of the stem is not found to exceed its previous rate of increase ; 
 or the excess, if any, is not equal to the contents of wood which had 
 been periodically formed by the branch or branches thus separated from 
 the stem*. 
 
 It is reasonable to inquire, if the sap or nutritive fluid, periodically sup- 
 plied by the roots immediately connected with the large branch taken off 
 goes not to a proportionate increase of the stem, to what channel is it 
 directed? It has already been mentioned (in Chapter III.) that the 
 vessels which convey the periodical supplj', and tlie roots which collect it, 
 are annually produced ; and the fact is, that when the primary organs and 
 stimulus of production, (i. e. the leaves and green system of the plant,) 
 are taken away, the annual rootlets and spongeols connected with these 
 vessels cease to be renewed, until another branch, or series of branches, 
 are reproduced by the vital power acting on the sap in the vessels of the 
 stem connected with (he numerous latent germs of buds in the bark near 
 to the wound, or those dispersed in its neighbourhood. Hence it is, also, 
 that should the season of the year of pruning the branch be that in which 
 the sap is accumulated in the largest quantity in the leaves, and in the 
 smallest proportion in the vessels, scarcely any reproduction of branches 
 follows the operation of pruning ; and hence, also, the dillerent elfects of 
 summer and of winter pruning as regards this point. 
 
 When branches are not allowed to perfect one year's growth, but are 
 pruned off annually within a bud or two of their origin with the stem, they 
 act rather as organs of waste than those of increase of wood to the stem. 
 But although the rate of periodical increase of the diameter of a tree 
 be thus lessened, in a certain extent, by the loss of a full grown lateral 
 branch, yet the increase of the stem in height or length is not thereby 
 retarded, the ligneous vessels of the root corresponding with those of the 
 stem or wood, probably act Vvith but little diminished force in sending up 
 sap to the higher extremities of the treef. 
 
 It is of great importance that branches which indicate an over-luxuriant 
 growth should never be sulfered to become large, or to exceed the 
 medium size of the majority of the boughs of the tree, but should be 
 pruned off close to the stem when the general interests of the plant will 
 admit of it. These over-luxuriant branches, which, when suffered to take 
 the lead in growth of the general boughs, become so hurtful to the per- 
 fection of growth of the stem, are evidently produced and supported by the 
 accidental circumstance of a superior portion of soil being in the way of, 
 
 * 111 numerous and varied trials made by the writer to ascertain this point, the results 
 have alwa3's gone to prove the above facts. 
 
 f In a few instances, for tlie sake of particular cfTect, and to enable carrlap^es to pass, 
 there have been, at Blair Adam, limbs of considerable size cut from oaks of fifty years 
 old and upwards. The cut would have been horizontal ; but by making the surface of 
 much greater size, thcj' were made perpendicular. By great attention, all injury was 
 prevented to the trunk, and the wounds are now healed over (at the distance of twelve 
 or fifteen years from the date of the operation). Whether it has accelerated or retarded 
 the diameter-growth or thickness of the trees cannot be stated, as observatian was not 
 called lo it, but they have certainly increased as much in that respect as the trees around 
 them of the same sort and age. In one instance, the cutting of a limb, where the tree 
 cleft, has had the effect of setting the other stem upright, so that it appears now exactly 
 in the perpendicular line, and like the original stem of the tree. 
 
PLANTING. 65 
 
 and into which the roots immediately connected with these bouj^hs pene- 
 trate and afterwards keep possession. By taking- off such branches earlj', 
 therefore, the extra supply of nourishment afforded by such local circum- 
 stance of soil is directed to the stem and useful lateral branches. 
 ii It has been already observed, that, by depriving- a tree, to a certain extent, 
 of its side branches, the g-rowth of the stem in length is promoted, but 
 the diameter, strength, or thickness of it is not increasetl in the same 
 proportion. When the side branches are destroyed by natural causes, or 
 by the neglect of judicious thinning-, the like injurious effects ensue to the 
 primary object here in view, that of obtaining- the largest quantity of timber 
 of the best quality on a given space of land. 
 
 When the lateral branches perish or cease to be produced, except 
 towards the top of the tree, from the want of pure air and of the vital 
 influence of the solar rays on the foliage, the existence of the tree may 
 continue for years, but the produce or increase of timber of any value 
 ceases, and it dies prematurely, affording at last a produce comparatively 
 of no value, after having obstructed the profitable and healthy growth 
 of the adjoining- trees during- its latter unprofitable stages of life. In 
 the contest for the preservation of existence which takes place after a 
 certain period of growth among the individual trees of a plantation which 
 has been neglected, or left without the aid of judicious pruning or 
 thinning, there will be found trees which, from the accidental circumstance 
 of having originally a vigorous, healthy constitution, and from partially 
 escaping the numerous injuries and obstructions of g-rowth that accrue 
 to trees by neglect of culture, have attained to a valuable timber size. 
 The timber of the few such trees, however, as have thus gained the su- 
 ])remacy, is frequently much blemished by the stumps of the dead branches 
 having become imbedded in the wood; and this serious injury to the 
 quality of the timber and value of the tree, is the invariable consequence 
 of neglecting to prune off these stumps as soon as they appear, or rather 
 neglecting to cut away close to the stem such branches as indicate decay, 
 and before they cease growing. 
 
 The time at which pruning should begin, depends entirely on the 
 growth of the young- trees. In some instances of favourable soil and 
 quick growth of the plants, branches will be found in the course of four or 
 five years to require foreshortening, and in case of the formation of forked 
 leaders, to be pruned off close to the stem. When the lateral branches of 
 different trees interfere with each other's growth, pruning, so as to fore- 
 shorten, should be freely applied in every case, in order to prevent the 
 stagnation of air among the branches, or the undue prepoiulerance of 
 branches on one side of the tree. Perfect culture, in this respect, 
 requires that the plantation should be examined every year, and by keeping 
 the trees thus in perfect order there will never be any danger of nudung 
 too great an opening, or depriving a tree too suddenly of a large pro- 
 portion of branches. The operation will also be so much more quickly 
 performed, as to render the expense of management less than if the 
 pruning were delayed, or only performed at intervals of years, as is too 
 frequently practised. By this management there will be little, if any, 
 necessity for pruning close to the stem, until the tree attain to twenty feet 
 in height, or even more than that, provided tlie stem be clear of lateral 
 branches from five to eight feet from the root. When the lateral branches. 
 are regular and moderately large, the smaller length of clear stem may be 
 adopted, and where the branches are larger towards the top, tiie greater 
 space of close pruning. Five years from the first close pruning will not be 
 too long before the second is performed ; one, or at most, two tire of branches 
 
 F 
 
66 PLANTING. 
 
 may then be displaced in like manner. The increase of diameter of 
 the stem, is the only certain test for deciding: whether the larger or 
 smaller ninnber of branches may be pruned oif to most advantage, or 
 •whether it may be prudent to take any away from the stem until it attain 
 greater strength and thickness. By examining the trees of a plantation 
 annually, the critical time for pruning every branch for the best interest of 
 the trees is secured. Some trees may be pruned with great advantage 
 successively for years, whilst others may only require it every three or 
 five years, and others again not at all. 
 
 It has been disputed whether resinous or non re-productive trees are 
 benefited by pruning ; but the value of judicious close pruning to that 
 tribe of trees cannot be doubted : at the same time it is but too true that, in 
 numerous instances, it has been carried to a mischievous excess. Young 
 firs and larch trees, when deprived of their lateral branches, to within four 
 or five tire of shoots of the top, are frequently seriously injured by the 
 winds acting on the tuft of branches, which become as a lever loosening the 
 roots, and producing all the evils of a suddenly checked growth, besides 
 those of excessive bleeding or loss of the resinous sap, and the want of 
 the periodical supply of nourishment to the stem afforded by these 
 branches. At sixteen years of growth, larches standing at four feet apart, 
 will be benefited by moderate pruning; i.e., of two or three tire of the 
 lowermost branches, particularly should these appear to be decreasing in 
 their former vigour of growth ; and afterwards in every third or fourth 
 year, successively, the like treatment should be adopted to these lowermost 
 branches evincing a decline of healthy growth. The same rule applies to 
 the pine or Scotch fir and the spruce ; but the former, having large and 
 compound branches, should be pruned at an earlier age than the latter, or 
 before the lateral shoots are more than two inches in diameter. When 
 the branch to be taken off is several inches in diameter, the wound is so 
 large, the excavation of resinous sap so great, and the heart-wood, or the 
 vessels which constitute it, so indura'ed, as to render the perfect union of 
 the new and the old wood less certain than in young branches, all which 
 make the removal of large branches productive of more evil than service t 
 the growth of the tree and quality of the timber. On the contrary, when 
 the pruning of the pine is altogether neglected, and the dead or rotten 
 stumps or snags of branches are left to be embedded in the wood, or to 
 form cavities for the accumulation of water or other extraneous matters 
 in the substance of the stem, all the purposes of profit and of pleasure are 
 sacrificed to neglect or imskilful culture. 
 
 Judicious thinning may be said to be productive of the same valuable 
 effects to a plantation of timber-trees in the aggregate, as those which 
 judicious pruning produces on every individual tree composing it: by the 
 admission of a proper circulation of air and the solar rays, and permitting 
 the free expansion of the essential lateral branches of the trees, as well as 
 by preventing an unnecessary waste or exhaustion of the soil by the roots 
 of all supernumerary trees. 
 
 The great advantages of judicious thinning are not confined to the 
 object of obtaining the largest quantity of timber of the best quality on a 
 given space of land in the shortest space of time ; but the produce of the 
 trees thus thinned out ought to alford a return sufficient to pay the ex- 
 penses of culture, interest of capital, and the value of the rent of the land. 
 In many instances the profits arising from the thinnings of well managed 
 woods have covered these charges before the period of twenty years from 
 the time of planting. The time at which the process of thinning should 
 be commenced, depends on the like causes as those which regulate pruning, 
 and need not here be repeated. 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 67 
 
 In general 'the freest pjrowing plantations require to have a certain 
 number of trees taken out by tlie time they have attained to eig^ht years of 
 growth from planting. On forest-tree soils of a medium quality, the 
 age often or twelve years may be attained by the young trees before thinning 
 is necessary ; but sliould fifteen years elapse before the trees demand 
 thinning, it will be found that tiie plantation has been im])crfectly formed. 
 
 No certain rule can be given to determine the number of trees to be 
 thinned out periodically, which will apply to all plantations and to every kind 
 of forest-tree in them. A well-grounded knowledge of the principles ot 
 vegetable physiology, and of the habits of trees, is absolutely essential, to 
 execute with success this very important branch of arboriculture. We may, 
 however, quote the following statement from practice as one example, taken 
 from an average of acres on an extensive plantation in Sussex : 
 
 One acre of siliceous sandy soil, worth 7s. per acre, when under pas- 
 turage, being properly prepared and planted with larch, at three feet and 
 a half apart, required thinning for the first time, when the trees had 
 attained to ten years of growth. 
 
 Number of trees when planted 3555 on one acre, of which 100 had 
 failed during the first ten years of growth ; therefore when the thinning 
 commenced the number was 3455, 
 
 Number of Number of Trees Distance of 
 
 Years Growth left on eacb occasion the Trees, 
 
 when thinned. of thinninij. Ft. In. 
 
 10 3097 3 9 
 
 15 2722 4 
 
 20 2411 4 3 
 
 27 2073 4 7 
 
 35 1440 5 6 
 
 43 1031 6 6 
 
 51 680 8 
 
 Number of 
 
 Trees 
 
 tbinneit out. s. <l. 
 
 100 worth 4 each. 
 
 200 3 !> 4 13 
 
 58 2 
 
 100 vacancies from accidents 
 
 7 4 2 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 91 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 fuel 6 
 
 8 
 
 £0 worth 2 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 275 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 . 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 worth 3 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 129 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 17 8 
 
 13 14 
 
 ^32 3 3 
 
 y3g 4 
 
 ^37 II 
 
 The future returns of income from the plantation, now rest on six hun- 
 dred and eighty trees nearly arrived at their perfection of growth. The 
 distance of nine feet apart is considered a sufhcient space for the larch, 
 
 F 2 
 
68 PLANTING. 
 
 spruce, and silver firs, to attain to their maximum of timber e;rowth, on 
 soils of an averap:e quality adapted to their habits ; and as the above trees 
 may profitably occupy the soil for twenty or thirty years more, or without 
 ceasina: tr> produce timber annually for that period, the thinninf^ now 
 should depend on, or be reg-ulated by, the circumstances of demand for 
 the produce, more than for the benefit of the individual trees which 
 remain. 
 
 In the above details of thinning, it will seem to demand an explanation, 
 why certain trees of the lowest value at fifty years' n;rowth should have 
 been left apparently to encumber the grcfund, while trees of a value equal 
 to these are cut down at ten years' of growth. The answer to this question 
 brings us back again to the difficulties before alluded to, of giving any 
 data, or rules applicable in all cases, founded on number, size, dis- 
 tance and time, for the execution of the different processes of culture, 
 relative to assisting and controlling the functions of vegetable life, so as 
 to produce a given result, or obtain a specified quantity of timber from 
 certain trees under different circumstances of soil, site, local climate, and 
 culture. 
 
 If all trees were produced from seed with the same degree of constitu- 
 tional strength, and were the soils on which they might be planted of the 
 like nature throughout, and vuider equal circumstances with regard to 
 moisture and exposure, as well as to every other iniluential point, then 
 statical rules of practice for the culture of trees might with equal certainty be 
 given, and of as general an application to suit every variety of case, as 
 those for the execution of any mechanical art : but the reverse of all this is 
 the fact ; and every variation in the soil, and in the exposure and growth 
 of the trees, must be met with a corresponding variation in the process of 
 culture, as regards the number of trees to be thinned out, the distances at 
 which they should stand, and their size and age. The trees above 
 mentioned, which at fifty years' growth were not of greater value for the 
 purposes of timber, than several trees thinned out at ten, assisted the 
 growth of the more valuable trees, which immediately or more remotely 
 adjoined them, by the shelter they afforded against cutting winds, and 
 by ameliorating the local climate, to that degree as to fully warrant 
 their continuance. Those trees which were of equal value to these wlien 
 cut down at ten years' of growth, stood so close to others of greater pro- 
 mising value as to injure the growth of both, and had they been suffered 
 to remain, would have prevented some of the most valuable trees of the 
 plantation from attaining to perfection. Thus, on tlie one hand, by re- 
 moving the former description of plants, the most valuable trees are 
 promoted in growth, and on the other preserved from injury, by suffering 
 less valuable ones to remain. 
 
 Various tables have been calculated to assist in deciding on the number 
 of trees to be thinned out of plantations at stated periods; one of these by 
 Mr. Waistell*, appears to be brought to as near a correct average, as the 
 nature of the suljject will permit. 
 
 ' The following table shews the number of trees to be cut out in thinning 
 woods, and the number left standing at every period of four years, from 
 twenty to sixty-four years, reckoning that the distance of trees from each 
 other should be one-fifth of their height, and that the trees should have 
 increased twelve inches in height, and one inch in circumference annually, 
 and to have been at first planted four feet apart.' 
 
 * Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxvi., and Withers's ' Memoir on planting 
 and rearing Forest-trees,' p. 37. 
 

 
 
 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 
 
 
 Years old 
 
 and 
 foot hi^h. 
 
 20 
 
 Gill. 
 
 21 
 
 Conlen 
 Ft. In. 
 
 10 
 
 SI. 
 
 ris. 
 5 
 
 Distances. 
 
 4. 
 
 Number of Tfecs 
 on an 
 
 2722 
 
 Contents 
 oftliu 
 
 wliolu 
 in IVel. 
 
 2362 
 
 Number 
 
 to be 
 cut out. 
 
 839 
 
 Contents 
 Feet. 
 
 727 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 1SS3 
 
 2824 
 
 494 
 
 741 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5.6 
 
 1389 
 
 3308 
 
 326 
 
 776 
 
 32 
 
 4~ 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6.4 
 
 1063 
 
 3779 
 
 223 
 
 792 
 
 36 
 
 4^ 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 7.2 
 
 840 
 
 4252 
 
 160 
 
 810 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 8. 
 
 680 
 
 4722 
 
 118 
 
 819 
 
 44 
 
 51 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 8.8 
 
 562 
 
 5194 
 
 90 
 
 831 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.6 
 
 472 
 
 5664 
 
 70 
 
 840 
 
 52 
 
 61 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 10.4 
 
 402 
 
 6130 
 
 55 
 
 838 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 11.2 
 
 347 
 
 6611 
 
 45 
 
 857 
 
 GO 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12. 
 
 302 
 
 7076 
 
 37 
 
 866 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12.8 
 
 265 
 
 7537 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 When there is a deficiency of access to certain parts of the plantation, 
 and additional rides or drives must be made, the lines should be marked 
 out by barking the trees in the course of it, or, what is better, by a circular 
 mark with whitewash or lime. The roots should be grubbed up, and the 
 surface of the ground prepared and sown with the seeds mentioned in 
 Chapter V. When there are steeps or hills, the drives should be formed 
 wiUi the most easy ascent for the convenience of timber carts. The ascent 
 ought not to be greater than one foot in thirty. The most useful instru- 
 ment for determining the ascent or descent of forest drives, is constructed 
 in the form of the common level, furnished with an index divided into 
 ninety degrees. When the plummet line hangs at the forty-fifth degree, 
 iQ the legs of the instrument indicate a perfect 
 
 level {fig. 10), and when it hangs at a lesser 
 or greater number, it indicates the degree of 
 ascent or descent accordingly. In plantations 
 the thinning of which has been neglected, the 
 trees next the sides ofthe drives are always the 
 largest and most valuable, and afford a test at 
 all times to judge how far judicious thinning 
 has been practised or neglected. When this 
 essential part of culture has been neglected, 
 the greatest caution is necessary in perform- 
 ing the work. The trees being grown up slender, weak, and deficient of 
 side branches, a too sudden exposure to the winds or currents of air, will 
 be found injurious, if not fatal. The outside trees should be continued in 
 their thicket state for several years after the first relief is given to the 
 interior trees, and even then should only be deprived of decaying com- 
 panions, or of branches unnecessary for the purposes of shelter, but 
 which it may be advantageous for the trees to lose. Trees weakened by 
 growing in a crowded state, become more obnoxious to disease, and to 
 the attacks of insects, and to that of parasitic plants, such as mosses 
 and lichens, which rarely or never appear on healthy and vigorous frees. 
 The number of trees to be taken out on the first occasion of the thin- 
 ning of a neglected plantation should be very limited, and confined 
 to those which have become the most exhausted. The process should 
 be carried on for six or seven years, until completed. The pruning 
 of such trees should be confined to the removal of decaying or dead 
 branches, until the gradual introduction of fresh air, and the solar rays by 
 the thinning process has renewed lateral shoots and invigorated the 
 branches*. Forest-trees are, like other organized bodies, confined to a 
 
 * It is a great error to suppose, that by leaving trees in an individually crowded state, 
 the object of a close cover is secured ; on the contrary, tliis object will only be gaiutid for 
 
76 PLANTING. 
 
 certain period of existence, in which the stages of growth are distinctly 
 marked, from the first development of the plant in its seedling state, until 
 its ultimate decay by the course of nature. Diflerent species of trees have 
 different periods of existence. The oak is considered to be of the longest 
 duration, and, perhaps, the larch of the shortest. The oaks in AVoburn 
 Park, mentioned at page liO, as being of such large dimensions and in per- 
 fect health, cannot be supposed to be under three hundred years of age. 
 The elm may be placed next in order with the chestnut, ash, beech, and 
 hornbeam, the pine, and lastly the larch*. These estimates of the compa- 
 rative duration of different species of trees are, however, given from 
 observation only, and are not founded on such certain data as to render 
 them more than an approximation to the truth ; for soils, local climates, 
 and the various other causes which promote or retard the progress of 
 veo-etable health and growth, interfere with the completion of the perfect, 
 natural term of vegetable life in numerous instances. Under the most 
 favourable circumstances, however, of soil and culture, trees are subject to 
 various diseases and accidents, and from what has already been mentioned, 
 as to their structure and living functions, this will be no matter of surprise. 
 The diseases of forest-trees may be comprised under those of a general 
 nature, wherein the internal functions are interrupted or partially de- 
 stroyed ; and secondl}', those of a local nature arising from external 
 causes, as accidents of various kinds, and the attacks of insects. Neglect 
 of judicious planting and of after culture, are the chief causes of the first 
 mentioned kinds of disease, and tend to aggravate the bad effects of other 
 accidents. When a tree puts forth leaves of paler tint than their natural 
 green colour, and never assumes it again during that and succeeding sea- 
 sons, and when the growth of the branches is very small and frequently 
 imperceptible, some of them also decaying at the extremities, the disease 
 is termed chlorosis. It originates principally from an ungenial subsoil. 
 The effects of confined air by a crowded state of the plantation, or a too 
 sudden exposure to sharp blasts, will also induce this disease. Topical 
 remedies are of no use, and the means of prevention should be used in 
 planting, and in the after culture. 
 
 Spontaneous bleeding, or great loss of sap, generally ends in the disease 
 termed tabes, which, when once confirmed, is incapable of being cured. 
 The elm is of all forest-trees the most subject to this disease. Whenever 
 the branches become disproportionate to the stem and roots, or the foliage 
 too scanty to receive and elaborate the periodical flow of sap, spontaneous 
 bleeding takes place. The neglected stumps of dead branches having 
 formed cavities, afford ready outlets to the sap. Branches which have been 
 suffered to grow too large in proportion to the rest of the tree, and are bent 
 down or project in an horizontal direction from the stem, are frequently 
 attacked with hcsinorrhagy, which, according to our observation and ex- 
 perience, never heals, but continues periodically until the death of the tree. 
 The fluid which is thus discharged by the elm, appears to ditl'er in no respect 
 from the ascending sap of the plant, affording extractive and mucilaginous 
 matters, combined witli potassa and lime; the solid matter deposited by 
 the fluid in its course of descent over the bark, leaves a whitish tract at 
 first, but in time becomes blackened by the weather, smoke, &c. The 
 track thus marked out by the haemorrhage, will point out the wound with 
 certainty and readiness. Grass and herbage on which this fluid drops 
 
 a few years at first, or until the trees interfere with each other's healthy growth, and hegin 
 fo contend for existence. Bj- judicious pruning and thinning, or by keeping any individual 
 tree in its most perfect healthy state, a perpetual cover will he obtained, as complete as the 
 species of tree and the nature of the soil will admit. 
 
 * The Pinus Lambertia before iDcutioned, found on the north-west coast of America, 
 was estimated of nine hundred years' growth, although sound in the timber. 
 
PLANTING. 71 
 
 is destroyed by it. When there is made a strong efFort of the functions of 
 the plant to heal np the wound, and, after it is ahnost wholly closed with 
 healthy bark, a substance of a dark coloiir and resinous appearance is 
 exuded. This substance is termed ulmin ; as a pigment it produces 
 the most beautiful brown, and appears to consist of u pecidiar extractive 
 matter and potassa*. The oak, under the like circumstances, exudes a 
 substance having- similar external characters. The birch and maple, 
 when cut or lacerated through the bark into the wood, suffer much i'rom 
 the loss of sap which flows from such wounds. 
 
 The pine and fir tribe of trees have a resinous juice, which exudes freely 
 from wounds of the bark. When larg'e branches are injudiciously pruned 
 off, the injury is considerable from the waste of sap. In the cases of fuU- 
 gTown trees of the elm being- affected with this disease, the best course is 
 to take them down for timber; but where it is desirable to preserve the 
 tree for landscape or ornamental effect, the decayed stumps should be cut 
 away close to the sound bark, and the wound dressed carefully to protect 
 it from the weather. If a cavity exists out of which the sap has, for a con- 
 siderable period, been in the habit of exuding, the aperture should be 
 cleared of the dead bark covering its sides, and then the mouth should be 
 securely closed by the composition before recommended, or by any other 
 substance that may be found more effectual to prevent the admission of 
 rain, and of air. Whatever tends to increase the number of healthy branches 
 and leaves on the tree, will tlie most effectually restrain the disease. 
 
 Tabes, or the wasting of trees, is brought on not unfrequently by para- 
 sitical plants, as ivj% covering- the cutis of the barks, and preventing the 
 healthy functions of that organ. The loss of the green colour of the 
 leaves, the gradual wasting of the branches, and diminution of the 
 foliage, indicate the confirmation of the disease. If taken in time the 
 remedy of cutting the ivy at the root is speedy and effectual. When 
 lichens pervade not only the stems but the branches of trees, the functions 
 of the bark are disturbed, and disease ensues. On damp soils, where 
 proper thinning is neglected, lichens and mosses propagate to the ex- 
 tremities of the branches, and flourish in a surprising degree. Caustic 
 lime water thrown upon the parasites will destroy them without injuring 
 the tree, provided it be done during the fall of the leaf A hand-engine 
 will apply the lime water to a great many trees in the course of one day. 
 The necessity of topical applications, however, of this sort for forest-trees, 
 ought to be avoided by timely thinning and pruning, thereby admitting 
 a circulation of pure air, and the solar rays into the interior of the jilanta- 
 tion, which check the propagation and growth of parasites. 
 
 The number of different species of insects which infest forest-trees is 
 
 very great; they are all productive of more or less injury to the growth of 
 
 the plants. The most destructive are : — 
 
 *Noctua pinastri, Lin. xyhna. Hub. 
 
 fimbria oak moth 
 
 j)yra7nidca copper underwing 
 
 macileiita brickmoth 
 
 citrago sallow moth 
 
 alniaria canary-shouldered moth limes 
 
 erosaria 
 
 olivaria green carpet moth 
 
 hetuUtana . . . . ,, 
 
 * AjrricuUural Chemistry, p. 105. Ulmin is elsewhere stated to be an acid sui generis, 
 and, like other ve^etal)le acids, to be a comjiound of carbon, hydroijen, and oxygen — that 
 it combines with potassa like an acid, and is again precipitated from it by acids having a 
 stronger affinity for potassa. 
 
 
 
 Ihcy appear. 
 
 pine mo 
 
 ith 
 
 June. 
 August. 
 
 oaks 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 elms 
 
 
 » 
 
 limes 
 
 
 j» 
 
 limes 
 
 
 >? 
 
 limes 
 
 
 September, 
 
 birch 
 
 
 August. 
 
72-. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 
 
 Noctua rapezana 
 
 diamond-back moth 
 
 , ^ 
 
 August 
 
 iciana 
 
 white backed 
 
 willow 
 
 >> 
 
 upsilon 
 
 dismal moth 
 
 . 
 
 >> 
 
 retma 
 
 double kidney moth 
 
 . 
 
 j> 
 
 niipta 
 
 red iindervving 
 
 . 
 
 )5 
 
 *Scolylus destructor 
 
 bark beetle 
 
 oak and elm 
 
 March. 
 
 *Lasiocam2)a quercus 
 
 efTger moth 
 
 oak 
 
 July. 
 
 crataegi 
 
 hawthorn moth 
 
 white thorn 
 
 5> 
 
 '^Coccus lariceo 
 
 larch scale 
 
 larch 
 
 >> 
 
 abietis 
 
 spruce fir bufj 
 
 . fir 
 
 >> 
 
 aceris 
 
 maple bug 
 
 maple 
 
 »» 
 
 at id 
 
 alder bug 
 
 alder 
 
 J> 
 
 hetulce 
 
 birch bug 
 
 birch 
 
 
 quercus 
 
 oak bug, 
 
 oaks 
 
 June, July. 
 
 salicis 
 
 willow bug 
 
 willows . 
 
 June, July. 
 
 til ice 
 
 lime bug 
 
 limes 
 
 June, July. 
 
 car pint 
 
 hornbeam bug 
 
 hornbeams 
 
 June, July. 
 
 caprecB 
 
 crack willow bug 
 
 salix caprea 
 
 June, July, 
 
 oxycanllice 
 
 thorn fly 
 
 white thoru 
 
 >> 
 
 Apihis iilini 
 
 elm fly 
 
 elm 
 
 June, Aug. 
 
 quercus 
 
 oak fly 
 
 oaks 
 
 
 pini 
 
 pine fly 
 
 pines 
 
 
 tilicB 
 
 lime fly 
 
 limes 
 
 
 fraxini 
 
 ash fly 
 
 ash-tree . 
 
 
 betulo} 
 
 birch fly 
 
 birch-tree 
 
 
 fugi 
 
 beech fly . 
 
 beech-tree 
 
 
 alii 
 
 alder fly 
 
 alders 
 
 
 salicis 
 
 willow fly 
 
 willows 
 
 
 hursaria 
 
 black poplar fly 
 
 black poplar 
 
 
 aceris platanoides 
 
 maple fly 
 
 maples 
 
 
 Cynips quercus folii 
 
 gall fly 
 
 oak 
 
 
 The pine moth nestles in the leading bud of the pine, and destroys its 
 principal shoot. The attack of this insect often injures a whole plantation, 
 as they propagate fast, and prefer the terminal bud of the stem. If on 
 the first appearance of the insect, or before it had affected more than two 
 or three trees, means were immediately had recourse to for destroying 
 them, and guarding every season to prevent them from establishing them- 
 selves in numbers, the prevention of their ravages would be thus effected 
 at a moderate cost of laboiw or expense. 
 
 The scolytus destructor is a formidable insect. It penetrates through 
 the bark into the alburnum, on which it feeds, destroying the organization 
 of the bark, and annihilating its functions. In time the bark separates in 
 large masses li'om the wood, and the tree dies. The elm is most obnoxious 
 to this insect *. The pine is also subject to attacks of the same kind, and 
 attended with the like fatal effects. 
 
 * It has been supposied to be the effect of tlisease rather than the cause of it, or of Hving 
 on the dead and decayhig juices ; but when we never find the insect in hfe on a dead 
 tree, but always on a living one, and that oftentimes in the full vigour of health, we 
 cannot conclude otherwise than that the scu/i/fus destructor, if not the only cause of labcs 
 or a wasting of the plant, is one of the primary ones, and is never an effect. \'ery re- 
 cently a ninnber of elm trees, of a considerable age and size, in the neighbourhood of 
 Camberwell, died in a very rapid manner. The bark became detached from the stem, 
 and fell ofi' in large pieces, or could with small force be removed by the fingers for a space 
 of five feet from the root upwards. 
 
 The bark was jierforated by the scolytus in numerous instances, and their ravages on 
 the alburnum were evident by crowded tracks through its substance. There were a veiy 
 few of the trees which escaped destruction ; but even these had perforations of the bark, 
 
" PLANTING. 73 
 
 The larva of the lasiocampa quercus sometimes strip the leaves entirely 
 of the branches of the oak. When the trees are young, and the attack 
 is perceived before it has made great prog'ress, the application of caustic 
 lime water, served by the hand-engine before mentioned, is the only 
 topical application we have found practicable, as regards cost, time, and 
 effectiveness. 
 
 The different species of coccus or scale-like insects which infest most 
 trees, seldom attain to such numbers as to endanger seriously the health 
 of forest-trees. 
 
 The aphis or fly is more common and injurious. Almost every distinct 
 species of tree has a species of aphis peculiar to itself. The glutinous 
 substance which, in hot arid weather, apjjcars so general on the upper 
 surface of the leaves of trees, is produced by these insects. This sub- 
 stance, by attracting other insects, and by arresting smoke and dust 
 on the surface of the leaves, prevents the leaves from perlbrming their 
 healthy functions. For large trees and extensive plantations topical 
 remedies are of course out of the question. In confined cases a solution of 
 soft soap, or of water impregnated with caustic lime and sulphur, are either 
 of tliem very effectual cures. 
 
 The gall fly {cynlps quercus folii) deposits its eggs in the membrane 
 of the leaves of the oak, and produces those tumours on the leaves called 
 oak galls. The extent of injury inflicted on the general health of the tree 
 has never been observed to be great, or such as to warrant any expensive 
 trial for a cure. 
 
 The last disease, or rather defect, that may be mentioned here, is 
 termed shake, and should be carefully guarded against in the culture of 
 forest-trees. Trees, though outwardly to all appearance sound in the 
 stem, are often found with splits of 'several feet in height from the root 
 upwards. This is frequently caused by strongly bending the stem of a 
 tree from the top when young. The stem of trees in plantations which 
 have been neglected in judicious thinning and pruning, being tall and 
 slender in proportion to the branches of the top, these act as a lever to 
 the wind, and in time produce this blemish in the timber. In carrying out 
 
 although in smaller number. Before the bark began to peel off, gas pipes had been laid 
 near the foot of one row of the elms, the time had been only about six weeks, and the 
 mischief was imputed to the escape of the gas among the roots. This reason, however, 
 was untenable, inasmuch as trees removed to a considerable distance from the gas pipes 
 were equally affected; while a few already mentioned adjoining it escaped. Besides, the 
 foliage shewed no signs of being affected, which all gaseous poisons have the imme- 
 diate effect of shewing first on the leaves. In this instance the state of the trees, previous 
 to the introduction of the gas pipes near to the roots, showed that the sco////us destruclor 
 had been one of the several causes that produced the death of the trees. These elms were in 
 rows, and formed an avenue. They had been planted too close in the rows, and had also 
 been neglected in thinning and pruning. The remains of dead stumps, and the numerous 
 cavities left by others, marked out by the discoloured traces on the bark of the long 
 existence of an yearly hcemorrhage of sap, and also the scanty tops in proportion to the 
 size of the stems, all proved that the disease tabes had been confirmed. Add to this the 
 bad effects of drains, and deep foundations cut out in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
 trees, accompanied by two excessively dry seasons (1S25 and IbJG) so favourable for the 
 propagation of the sco/i/tus destructor, and the crisis and results of the disease will not be 
 any subject of wonder. A tree of the pinus pinaster, which had been reared in a pot, was 
 subjected to the influence of gas the same as that supplied to the routs of the elm, but withoiit 
 producing any perceptible efiect. A large ox bladder was tilled by the writer of this with 
 the carburetted hydrogen gas, and connected by a pipe with the draining aperture of the 
 pot, in which the roots of the pine were confined. This quantity of gas was made to pass 
 through the earth in the pot during the space of forty-eight hours, and renewed and 
 continued for three weeks ; but, as just now observed, without producing any ill etfects on 
 the health of the plant. The pine is liable to be injured and destroyed by the insectg 
 before mentioned, in the same manner as the elm. 
 
74 PLANTING. 
 
 the produce of the thinnin^ of a plantation, as well as in executincf the 
 work in a careless manner, the same bad effects are not unfrequently 
 produced in young' saplings. The decay which is observed at the lower 
 end of the stems of larch trees, when planted on chalk, or on very damp 
 clay, is clearly the fault of the subsoil, and sometimes appears when 
 the tree is only eig'hteen years old. In numerous instances we have 
 found it commence at the seventh year's annual layer of wood, and 
 never earlier, and to extend to the thirty-fifth year's layer, but not beyond 
 that growth. In all our observations it appeared to be either within seven 
 and thirty, or thirty and thirty-five years' layers. The fungus, which 
 appears in the defective wood, commences at the higher portion of the 
 main branch of the root connected with the annual layer affected, and 
 proceeds upwards. Its characters are extremely similar to those of the 
 dry rot (jmeruliiis dcstntdens), so much so, that until more minute ob- 
 servation determine to the contrary, they must be considered identical. It 
 is highly probable, therefore, that the dry rot exists in the interior of 
 timber, while the tree is yet growing, although possibly in too inert a state 
 to be distinguished by the naked eye. In the living plant no remedy has 
 yet been discovered for this disease. Judicious planting will ensure pre- 
 vention by furnishing each distinct variety of soil and subsoil witli 
 those species of forest-trees only which are best adapted to them ; and this 
 ))rinciple, whether in the herbaceous plants of liusbandry, in fruit trees in 
 gardening, or in timber trees in forest planting, is never violated with im- 
 punity. Various means have been tried, from time to time, to prevent the 
 appearance of dry rot in timber, as well as to arrest its progress when 
 once begun. The first of these objects is suj)posed to be gained by 
 scasoiiiig the timber previously to using' it. Some recommend tlie bark to 
 be taken off the tree to a certain height a year before it is felled, and the 
 practice has been tried long ago on the oak*, and more recently with the 
 larch. It would appear, however, in the latter case, that when the trees 
 are young, the alburnum or sap wood becomes soft rather than hard under 
 the process. 
 
 Another mode of seasoning* timber is by immersing the trees in water 
 for a period of one or more years. This practice is considered vei'y bene- 
 ficial, but it is clear that the necessary proofs cannot be obtained under a 
 period of many years comparative trials of seasoned and unseasoned wood 
 in the same building, and under the same circumstances in the building. 
 The seasoning of wood by subjecting it to a strong heat by means of 
 steam has also been tried, but, as in the former case, time is required to 
 determine its efficacy. When wood is left to the process of nature to be- 
 come seasoned, the desired effects are more perfectly produced by pro- 
 tecting the wood from rain and sun. Knowles, in his Essay on Dry Rot, 
 recommends the timber to be ' kept in air neither very dry nor very moist ; 
 and to protect it from the sun and rain by a roof raised sufficiently high 
 over it, so as to prevent by this, and other means, a rapid rush of air.' Con- 
 fined air and a moist temperature encourage the propagation and growth 
 of the ?nerulius desirnctem in a high degree. When unseasoned wood is 
 painted, the latent seeds of the dry rot are thereby encouraged and assisted 
 in vegetating and spreading the fungus or alga) with destructive 
 rapidity. 
 
 The proper season for cutting down timber-trees is that in which the sap 
 is most quiescent, viz., midwinter and midsummer ; but particularly the 
 
 * In 1737 BufiFon disbarked three oak-trees, forty feet in height, where they stood, and 
 they remained in that state for three years; they were then cut down, and tlie results were 
 found to be in favour of the practice. 
 
PLi\NTING. 75 
 
 former. Trees whose bark is valuable require to be felled before the 
 complete expansion of the leaf From the middle of April to the end of 
 June is the proper time for the oak; the larch should be peeled earlier. 
 The birch havins; a touj^h outer cuticle of no use to the tanner, and as 
 this is more easily separated from the proper bark after the sap has par- 
 tially circulated in the leaves, it is g-euerally left standing until the other 
 species of trees are felled and barked. 
 
 The ])rocess of barking- is, in g-eneral, well understood. The harvesting 
 of the bark is of the greatest importamce, for if it be suffered to heat or 
 ferment, it loses its colour, becomes mouldy and of little value. The 
 best mode is to make what the foresters term temporary lofts of about two 
 feet in width, and of a length sufficient to hold a day's peeling of bark. 
 These lofts are formed by driving forked stakes into the ground for 
 bearers, about three feet in height in the back row, and two and a half feet 
 in the front; a sloping floor is then constructed by laying lop])ings between 
 the forks of the bearers. The bark is then placed on the sloping floor 
 with the thick ends towards the top or higher side, the smaller bark is laid 
 on to the depth of six or ten inches, and the broad pieces placed over the 
 vrhole as a covering to carry otf the wet, should rain happen before the 
 bark is sufficiently dry to be stacked. In three or four days it should be 
 turned to prevent heating or moulding, and in ten days, more or less, it 
 will be sufficiently dry to be stacked until wanted for the tanner. In order 
 to prevent fermenting when stacked, the width of the pile should not 
 exceed eight feet. The roof should be formed and thatched as a corn or 
 hay stack. In preparing the bark when ready for the tanner, it is cut into 
 pieces about three inches in length, and weighed. It is sold by weight. 
 
 The quantity of tannin contained in the bark of different forest-trees has 
 been ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy, and although the proportion of 
 tannin afforded by the bark varies according as the spring may be 
 favourable in temperature, the following numbers will be found to express 
 nearly their relative values, if the larch cut in autumn be excepted : — 
 Average of entire bark of middle-sized oak, cut in spring 29 
 
 of Spanish chestnut . . 21 
 
 of Leicester willow, large size . '33 
 
 ofelm ... . 13 
 
 of common willow, large , 11 
 
 of ash ... . 16 
 
 of beech ... 10 
 
 of horse-chestnut . . 9 
 
 of sycamore . , . 11 
 
 of Lombardy poplar . , 15 
 
 of birch ... 8 
 
 of hazel ... 14 
 
 of black thorn ... 16 
 
 of coppice oak ... 32 
 
 of oak cut in autumn . , 21 
 
 of larch cut in autumn . . 8 
 
 white interior cortical layers of oak bark . 72* 
 
 In general the bark of the larch is not worth more than half the price of 
 oak bark, and the proportion given to larch in the above table may, there- 
 fore, be considered too small. The great disproportion between the pro- 
 duce of tannin aflbrded by the inner bark and that of outer layers, shevvs 
 with what care the harvesting of the bark should be performed to prevent 
 
 • Agricultural Chemistry, p. 79. 
 
of timber affords i 
 lbs. Ib3. 
 
 at bark 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 i> 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 9 
 
 i» 
 
 11 
 
 
 76 PLANTING. 
 
 fermentation, which destroys the tannin principle first in that portion of the 
 bark containing- it in the largest quantity. 
 
 The weight of bark afforded by given contents of timber, varies accord- 
 ing to circumstances connected with the growth of particular trees, as 
 whether grown in confined air, or in healthy, open situations, also as regards 
 the age of the trees. The statements given by Mr. Monteith, in his 
 ' Planter's Guide,' are, perhaps, as near to the truth of an average as the 
 nature of the subject will admit, at least they are consonant with the results 
 of our own practical experience. 
 
 Every cubic foot < 
 
 An oak 40 years old . . from 
 
 Ditto from SO to 100 ditto . „ 
 
 Larch timber, per foot . . ,, 
 
 Birch timber, large ditto . . ,, 
 
 Willow, ditto . . . „ 
 
 The most judicious mode of felling forest-trees is by grubbing up, or 
 taking the solid part of the root with the bole, in every case where coppice 
 stools are not wanted, for the expense of taking up the roots afterwards 
 when either planting or tillage may be demanded on the sites of the felled 
 trees, will be found to exceed that of taking up the root with the stem in 
 the first instance, besides the injury to the immediate fertility of the soil 
 by the introduction of fungi and insects, the first agents generally of 
 decomposition of the roots of felled trees which do not stole or reproduce 
 shoots. Besides the advantages now alluded to, there is another, that of 
 the value of the solid part of the roots of trees. The peculiar structure of 
 many roots afford the best materials for what is termed ornamental rustic 
 work ; and also the compact texture of the wood, and the diversified lines 
 of the medullary rays and concentric circles, fit it for the manufacture of 
 very interesting cabinet works. 
 
 The root of the larch affords a valuable material for forming knees of 
 boats. Admiral Fleming was the first, we believe, to point out this pro- 
 perty of the larch. The lower part of the stem, with the solid root attached, 
 is quartered, and, when joined, form knees of a lasting nature, — that 
 part of the wood, the solid root produced under ground, and always in 
 contact with damp, being probably more adapted to withstand the effects 
 of moisture than the proper wood produced in the open air. 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Of the. progressive increase of size or produce of wood in di^e rent species 
 of forest-trees. Of the mode of valuing 2}l(tntations — present value 
 — j)rospectivc value of certain individual trees lohich have attained to 
 great inaturity . Ofthe2)roductsofj)lantations,and of the terms used 
 by foresters to denote these products. 
 
 It is a common observation, that the slower a tree grows the harder 
 is its wood. This statement, as applicable to trees of different species 
 or genera, as, for instance, between the poplar and the oak, is gene- 
 rally correct, but between individual trees of the same species, two 
 oaks, for example, the observation will be found not to apply; indeed 
 the reverse will be found proved if we examine into the facts which 
 bear directly on the point. In every plantation we find that the individual 
 trees composing it vary considerably in what is termed quick or slow growth. 
 
PLANTING. ^-7 
 
 and that in all plantations where the pruninr^ and thinning- have not been 
 judiciously executed, the trees wliich stand on the outside of the plantation, 
 or on the sides of the drives, are larfj^er, say double the size, or have been 
 of much quicker growth than those in the interior of tlie plantation. Now 
 the g'reatest comparative degree of streno-th and hardness of the woods of 
 the two trees is proved to be in that of the larger, or the tree whose growth 
 was most rapid and \igorous — the sap wood being of course larger in 
 the fast-growing tree, as are all the annual layers of the heart wood. If the 
 reader will look back to page 8, where the structure of the wood of different 
 species of trees is described and figured, it will be seen that the wood of 
 the oak, a comparatively slow-growing tree, is distinguished from the wood 
 of the poplar, a fast-growing tree, by having the cellular structure compa- 
 ratively confined to the concentric circles which mark the annual increase 
 of wood ; that the number of cells between these concentric circles are 
 few, though of a larger diameter, while in the wood of the poplar they are 
 dispersed in great number, or crowd the whole surface of a section of the 
 wood. If the hard wood of the locust (Jig. 7i, p. 10) be compared to the soft 
 wood of the fir (Jig. o), to the laburnum (Jig. q), the lime (Ji<:.j),p. 11), 
 sweet chestnut (Jig. e), to the horse-chestnut (jfig. h), and every hard and 
 durable ^vood to the soft and non-lasting kinds, the same clear and marked 
 distinction will be evident, z.e. the hard, tough, and durable woods have 
 the cells chiefly confined to the annual rings, or thinly scattered in irren-ular 
 groups, leaving comparatively wide intervals of apparently solid fibre, while 
 all the soft or non-lasting woods have the entire substance pervaded with 
 minuter cells, in number and regularity that may be compared to the texture 
 of fine lace or network. 
 
 These then are the external discriminating characters of hard and of 
 soft woods ; and let us now apply these to distinguish the woods of fast 
 and of slow growing trees of the fta77ie .<ipecies, and we find that the 
 wood of the fast-growing tree has wider intervals between the concentric 
 circles, or congeries of cells, or, in a word, fewer cells to the size or diameter 
 of the wood, and is consequently wood of greater strength, toughness, and 
 durability. The experiments of Professor Barlow on the strength of dif- 
 ferent woods confirm the above conclusions*. The opinion of Thomas 
 
 ■ * Mr. Withers, in his Letter to Sir H. Stewart, p. 115, states, that he received from Mr. 
 Boorne, of Erpingham, a respectable timber-merchant, two specimens of oak, one taken from 
 a fast, and the other from a slow growing tree. No. 1. was grown upon a very stnmg yood 
 soi/, the age of the tree about sixty yeai-s, and it contained from thirty-eight to forty feet 
 of timber. No. 2 was about one hundred and twenty years old, and was grown upon a 
 light soil, with gravel about two fi^et below the surface. These specimens being submitted 
 to Professor Barlow, of the Royal Academj^, Woolwich, were tried, and gave the follow 
 ing results : — 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Deflected one-fiftieth of Comparative 
 
 Spetific gravity. its length with Broken miih strength. 
 
 903 6601bs. ygyibs. 15G1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 856 4141bs. G771bs. lO.jSlbs. 
 
 No. 1, it appears, is, therefore, of about medium strength, my mean number beino- for 
 English oak, 1470. 
 
 No. 2 is very weak, my weakest specimen being 1205. (See Essay on Strength cf 
 Timber.) 
 
 Mr. S. Farrow, timber-merchant, Diss, Norfolk, states to Mr. Withers, that ' It has 
 always been a custom with me when I wanted a mild, tender piece of oak for any purpose, 
 to look out for a slow-growing tree to cut it out of; and, on tlie contrary, when hard wood 
 was wanted, to take the fast-growing tree, one which, before being felled, was in fidl and 
 rapid growth, and I have ever found the latter much the most durable wood.' Two speci- 
 mens of oak commiuiicated by Mr. Farrow, No. 1, of a tree reared close to the rick-yard of 
 the farm, and by the side of a ditch into which ran a great deal of moisture from the yard. 
 
78 PLANTING, 
 
 Andrew Knig'ht, F.R.S., on this important subject is, tliat the toughest 
 and most durable oak timber is obtained from trees of vigorous, rapid 
 growth. Tlie property of quick growth, in some species of trees, however, 
 is confined to tlieir earlier stages ; in others it is not developed until they 
 have stood several years in the soil, and in several the rate of annual 
 increase of wood continues steady comparatively until the trees attain full 
 maturity. 
 
 The \ocust-iree (Robinia psei/do-acacia), for instance, will outstrip the 
 oak in the first ten years of their growth by a rate of increase at least 
 double that of the latter, but afterwards the oak will gain upon the locust, 
 
 This tree grew rapidlj', and, contained, when taken down, one hundred and sixty cubic 
 feet of timber. The tree from which No. 2 was cut grew in the same fielJ, and beheved 
 to have been planted at the same time. Tliis tree grew well, but not in any degree so fast 
 as the other, and contained about ninety cubic feet of timber. The age of the trees was 
 estimated at one hundred and twenty years growth. These specimens were forwarded by 
 Mr. lAVithers to Professor Barlow, for examination as to their comparative strength, and 
 the following interesting results were obtained : — 
 
 No. 1. — Fast Grown Oak, Manureu. 
 
 Weight wben deflected the Comparative 
 
 Specific gravity. piece l-50th ofits length. Broken with strength. 
 
 972 6061bs. 9'J91bs. 156 libs. 
 
 No. 2. — Slow Grown Oak, Natural Soil. 
 
 835 4391bs. 9431bs. 1473. 
 
 The strength of the fast-grown oak timber is, therefore, in this instance, superior to that 
 of slower growth, as 15 to 14 nearly. 
 
 On these facts Mr. Withers observes, that ' the tree, which had no support but the 
 natural soil, produced ninety feet of timber in one hundred and twenty years ; the other, 
 whose roots were continually nourished by manure, made one hundred and sixty feet in 
 the same period, being a difference of seventy feet. The manured tree made, on an 
 average, one foot one-third of timber in each year. Estimating, therefore, according to 
 that rate of increase, this tree was, fifty years ago, of equail size, and of greater value, to the 
 unmanured tree at the time it was cut down. Now, if we reckon the value of the timber at 
 only 8/. a load, and allow compound interest for the fifty years, the difierence of value 
 between the manured and unmanured tree amounts to upwards of 165/. This,' continues 
 Mr. Withers, ' is the amount of profit arising upon one tree ; let a calculation, founded 
 upon such data, be applied to the millions of acres which might be covered with forest- 
 trees; and then let land-owners and statesmen reflect, whether o?/r o?i'« coim/r// does not 
 afford ample and profitable employment for all the " surplus agricultural labourers." ' 
 The cost of trenching and manuring, according to Mr. Withers' own experience, is stated 
 to be as follows : — 
 
 Planted in April, 1824. 
 
 Twenty loads of marl, at Is. 3t^. .... 
 
 Twenty ditto muck, at 5*. , . 
 
 Ploughing land ...... 
 
 Trees, carriage, and planting .... 
 
 Total cost per acre . . , . . 15 5 
 
 The results afforded to Mr. Withers by the above preparation of the soil, and by subse- 
 quent culture of the surface of the soil, were such as to be perfectly conclusive in favour 
 of trenching and manuring to ko/ing in unprepared soils. Now making every rea- 
 sonable deduction for the uncertainty of the two oaks last alluded to having been 
 reared under the same circumstances in every particular, which influences and governs the 
 growth and progress to perfection of forest trees, (as already mentioned in Chapter II.,) 
 except that of the sujiply of liquid manure to the tree No. 1, and making a similar deduc- 
 tion for the uncertainty of obtaining manure, and also that of the comparative rate of 
 increase of timber between trees planted in the mode Mr. AVithers recommends, or by the 
 cheaper mode of holing, after the first twenty or thirty years of their growth, there are 
 evidently advantages left sufficient to warrant the adoption of this mode of planting all 
 soils of the nature mentioned at p. 39, whether on private estates Or in the royal forests. 
 In either case a certain sum can only be afforded, and it is then to be considered whether 
 that suni had better be employed on a limited space of land annually, by which a speedier 
 return of profit will be obtained, and the ultimate object, tliat of a stronger and more 
 valuable quality of timber reared to perfection in a shorter period of time, or by covering a 
 larger space of land with plants which will give inferior returns in a much longer 
 extended period of growth. 
 
 /. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 7 10 
 
 
 
25 
 
 ditto.. 
 
 20 
 
 ditto. 
 
 60 
 
 ditto. 
 
 50 
 
 ditto. 
 
 60 
 
 ditto. 
 
 30 
 
 ditto. 
 
 25 
 
 ditto. 
 
 15 
 
 ditto. 
 
 PLANTING. 79 
 
 and"its rate of progress will continue superior. The silver fir increases 
 comparatively at a much inferior rate to the larcli and other fast-Q,Towing 
 trees, for ten or more years, but in general it passes all these Irees in 
 heig-ht and in circnmlerence by the thiitieth or fortieth years of its growth. 
 The comparative rate of increase annually of the following forest-trees is, 
 in the average of cases, nearly in the following order: 
 
 Poplar, for the first 50 years of growth. 
 
 Bedford willow . do. 
 
 Birch . . do. 
 
 Larch . do. 
 
 Sycamore . do. 
 
 Pine , . do. 
 
 Silver fir, after the first 
 
 Alder . . do. 
 
 Locust . . do. 
 
 Trees of slower growth, but more equal in the rate of annual increase 
 throughout their progress, are 
 
 Elm, asli, beech, sweet chestnut, oak. 
 
 On comparing a variety of measurements made of different trees on the 
 same soil, and also of these in soils of different natures, the increase of the 
 oak to that of the larch, at sixty-five years of growth, proved to be as 
 6 to 3.6 neariv. The silver fir stood to these in the proportions of 8 to 6 
 and of 8 to 3*6 *. 
 
 When a tree has attained to full maturity, or to as large a size as 
 the nature of the soil and situation are capable of inducing, the annual 
 production of shoots from the extremities of the top branches is scarcely 
 perceptible. When these begin to decay, and the tree gives indications 
 of soon becoming what is called stag headed, the profitable increase 
 of timber has ceased in that tree, and it no longer occupies the ground 
 profitably. The most profitable stage of growth, however, at which a tree 
 may be taken, must be determined by the state of the market and the 
 demand for particular produce. The only certain rule is, to ascertain the 
 annual increase of timber in the tree, and determine thereby whether the 
 value of that increase be ecpial to the annual interest of the sum the tree 
 would bring, if felled, in addition to the charges of the land it occupies. 
 
 The following statement of the increase of trees at seventeen years of 
 growth in the cfmiate of Devonshire, on a porous soil, prepared by 
 trenching, and planted in the most judicious manner, according to in- 
 structions by the Duke of Bedford, will show the comparative value of 
 different species of forest-trees, as regards their property of affording early 
 produce on a soil of the nature mentioned. 
 
 Girt or Circumlcrcnce at Girl or Circumference at 
 
 Two Feet from the Root. Seven Feet from the Koot. 
 
 In. In. 
 
 . 37 
 
 • 32i: 
 
 . 251 
 
 . 26 
 
 . 25 
 
 . 22 
 
 . 23 
 
 * Well-autlienticated facts relative to the comparative rate of increase of wood in the 
 different species of forest-trees are much wanted. Without such facts, ascertained by 
 carefid and minute consideration of all circumstances influencing the growtli of the trees, 
 as soil, local climate, age, and cultuix', unerring or scientific priaciides cannot be obtained 
 to guide the practical planter. 
 
 Popla 
 
 . 41 
 
 Larch 
 
 . 37 
 
 Pine 
 
 . 321 
 
 English elm 
 
 . 32 
 
 Silver fir 
 
 . 28i 
 
 Spruce 
 
 . 27 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 . 27 
 
go 
 
 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 
 
 
 Girt 
 
 or Circumference at 
 
 Girt or 
 
 Circumference nt 
 
 
 Two 
 
 ■ Feet from the Root. 
 In 
 
 Seven Feet from the Root. 
 
 Birch 
 
 
 . 25 . 
 
 
 20 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 
 . 24 . 
 
 
 20 
 
 Beech 
 
 
 . 23 . 
 
 
 21 
 
 Oak 
 
 
 . 23 . 
 
 
 13 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 . 20 . 
 
 
 17 
 
 The heights of the trees were in full proportion to the girth, and the 
 measurements are an average of the dimensions of six trees of each of the 
 species respectively ; there were numerous instances of individual trees 
 exceeding any of the above in girth and length *. 
 
 Comparing the above with the former order of the rate of annual 
 increase, the silver fir is found to be much lower in the rate of early 
 produce in the first instance, but the genial climate in which the trees 
 mentioned in the latter statement were cultivated will readily account 
 for the discrepancy. In the higher grounds of Blair Adam before referred 
 to, the silver fir is of slower growth than any of the trees mentioned in its 
 early stages, hut after that overtops them to a considerable height. 
 The sweet chestnut, in the soil and local climate which thus rear the 
 silver fir ultimately to such a high superiority, stands at the lowest 
 point on the scale, while, in the more southern latitude and lower 
 elevation, the chestnut takes precedence of the birch, sycamore, beech, oak, 
 and ash. Local circumstances connected with soil, climate, and culture 
 interfere with the idea of drawing general conclusions from these facts to 
 he considered as data to guide the practical planter in every case ; but to 
 the valuer of plantations, which have only reached to their first stages of 
 o-rowth, these facts are of more extensive application, as showing the im- 
 portance of estimating justly the etfects of these agents in the progressive 
 or annual rate of produce of timber in different species of forest trees. 
 
 The present value of a plantation is that which the market will afford 
 for its produce at the time tlie valuation is made. 
 
 Prospective value is that to which the trees will attain at a remote 
 period, or that to which they may arrive at full maturity, according to 
 their respective species, and best fit the purposes for which they are most 
 esteemed. 
 
 When a plantation is only of a few years growth, the value of the pro- 
 <luce is too insignificant to be estimated, and the growth of the trees is 
 often then so undeterminate as to render it diflicult to calculate the ultimate 
 results in this case ; and when property is to be transferred, the cost of 
 planting and the rent of the land occupied, with the sum of compound 
 interest on the amount of these, must he taken as a just valuation. 
 
 When trees have reached to eight years of growth, their value is so 
 small as to be below estimating ; they will, however, by this time afford 
 certain evidences on which to found calculations of their ultimate produce 
 and value Until trees have attained to a full timber size, the valuation of 
 a plantation ought to proceed on the principle of prospective value. This 
 includes, first, the nmnber of years the trees will require to arrive at full 
 maturity ; secondly, the marketable value of the trees when at that perfec- 
 tion of growth ; thirdly, the value of the periodical thinnings and of under- 
 wood. From the total amount of these sums must be deducted compound 
 interest for the period the trees require to attain maturity ; the remainder 
 will represent the present transferable value of the plantation. 
 
 Thus on three and a quarter statute acres of a sandy soil, worth from five 
 to twelve shillings per acre per annum when under pasturage, larch had 
 
 * Communicated \>y Mr. John Forester, at Endblcigh, Devousbire, from the Duke of 
 Bedford's plantations. 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 81 
 
 been i)lantC(I in 1810, and in 18-20 il was desired to ascertain the prospec- 
 tive value of the plantation for 1851 *. 
 
 The trees amounted to 3311, of which 1€00 were fit for fuel only, and 
 required to be removed for tlie benefit of tlie healthy trees. The periodical 
 thinnings being estimated every five years, tliis plantation would adbrd 
 in 
 
 Trees. .v. d. 
 
 1831, thinnings GOO worth 10 each 
 1836, '560 16 . . 
 
 1841, 504 2 6 . . 
 
 1846, 212 6 . . 
 
 Underwood cut at three periods, including 1000 
 stunted trees, fit only lor fuel 
 
 £ 
 
 a. 
 
 d. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 119 12 
 Timber Trees sta?idiiig in 1851, 
 
 Largest sized trees 68, containing", on an average, 
 
 each 30 feet of timber, at Is. per foot • . 102 
 
 Second size 238 worth lOs. Od. . . 119 
 
 Third size 129 do. 6s. 3d. , . 40 
 
 
 
 Total value of periodical thinnings, and of standing 
 timber in 1851 
 
 Deductions. 
 Deductions for present payment. 
 £. s. 
 
 value of cuttings in 
 ditto 
 
 for thinnings in 
 ditto ^ 
 
 ditto 
 
 380 12 
 
 •iscomit on 3 
 
 Ditto 
 
 3 
 
 Ditto 
 
 25 
 
 Ditto 
 
 42 
 
 Ditto 
 
 63 
 
 Ditto 
 
 63 12 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 £. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 9 years 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 8 3 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 4 4 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 
 16 8 
 
 
 96 
 
 5 11 
 
 . 
 
 380 
 
 12 
 
 • 
 
 96 
 
 5 11 
 
 Therefore prospective value as before 
 Deductions as above 
 
 Present or transferable value of the above plantation 284 6 1 
 From these details it will appear that an intimate knowledge of the 
 habits of growth of the different species of forest-trees, and of the influence 
 of soil and local climate on their periodical increase of timl)er, is absolutely 
 required in the business of valuing plantations prospectively. 
 
 In settlements and divisions of landed property an accurate knowledn-e 
 of the prospective value of all the plantations under full grown timber on 
 the estates, is doubtless of great importance. The question of the com- 
 parative advantages and disadvantages of the occupation of land by forest- 
 trees, and by corn and herbage, is one about which there has been much 
 difference of opinion. There are those who contend that the former is 
 
 * The plantation in question formed a part of an extensive wood. From various 
 causes, as the attacks of vermin, and the nej^lect of judicious culture, in suflerini^ the 
 natural produce of the soil to injure the young trees, and allowing trees of a more vigorous 
 growth to injure those of a weaker, and partly also, from many of the plants having had 
 an originally weak constitution, the failures had been considerable, but where the trees 
 had escaped the effects of these evils, they had made good progress, and afforded evidence 
 of future value as above detailed. 
 
 G 
 
/ 
 
 82 PLANTING. 
 
 most advantapreous, and others ag-aiu ar^ue, that for every purpose of 
 private and public advantat^e, the latter is immeasurably superior. The 
 truth Hcs between ; for the flict is, neither of the two can profitably exist 
 without the aid of the other, and the question becomes then narrowed to 
 that of the proportions in which each should stand to the other. This 
 point, however, has already been discussed as far as the limits of these 
 pages permit, and it may be further only necessary to add, that the produce 
 of timber in the United Kingdoms is very far from being siifficient to meet 
 the demand for it. From a report of a select committee of the House of 
 Lords, relative to the timber trade, made in 1820, it appears that the 
 average quantity of foreign timber and deals imported into Great Britain 
 during the four j)receding years, amounted to 322,069 loads ; the duty 
 alone on which, in the last year of that average, 1S19, amounted to 
 1,019,31H. 18s. l^fZ. The statements of extraordinary profits from wood- 
 lands must be considered rather of a local than of a general interest; 
 that of Lord Barham's chestnut plantation in Kent, which at nine years 
 growth afforded a produce for hop-poles, which sold for 104Z. per acre ; a 
 plantation of larch, for the same purpose, but on a soil not worth more 
 than from 6s. to 7s. per acre, for cultivation, produced at the rate of 9n. 
 per acre*. Of the willow, oak, &c, numerous instances of the like great 
 profits might be adduced. 
 
 As a general estimate of the profits arising from forest- planting may not 
 be uninteresting, the opinions of three professional planters of considerable 
 experience on the subject are here mentioned. 
 
 Mr. Pontey of Huddersfield, the author of several esteemed treatises on 
 planting, states, that from careful calculations of what might be reasonably 
 expected from an acre of land suitable in itself, tolerably favourably situated, 
 and in every respect well managed as a plantation of larch, the result is, 
 a net profit — after paying for the rent of the land and every ordinary ex- 
 pense — of much nearer five than four hundred pounds in forty-two years. 
 
 Mr. Monteath, the well known author of the Planter's Guide, estimates 
 the entire cost of planting, after the establishment of a nursery, at 22s. to 
 30.S. per acre, with that of enclosing in large clusters, at about 10s. The 
 periodical returns from an acre of larch only, after payment of the expenses 
 of cutting, he calculates at from 5/. to 71. at the expiration of the first ten 
 years ; 
 
 at least . £2b ditto second ditto. 
 
 if300 at forty years growth. 
 And assuming the average rent and annual cliarges on an acre of light sand 
 adapted to the growth of larch to be 12*., the amount of profit and loss 
 ■will stand as follows : 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Enclosing and planting . . .200 
 
 Compound interest at five per cent, during ten 
 
 years . . . . 1 12 6 
 
 Charges at 12s. per annum, with compound in- 
 terest at five per cent, for ten years . .7110 
 
 11 3 6 
 
 Deduct the medium value of the first thinnings ; 
 
 i.e. bio 7 . . .600 
 
 Balance 5 3 6 
 * Kent Keport, p. 146. 
 
PLANTING. 83 
 
 £. s. d. 
 Compound interest, at five per cent, on balance for 
 
 ten years . . . .346 
 
 Annual charges, with componnd interest during 
 
 ditto . . . . 7 11 
 
 15 19 
 
 Vahie of thinnings at twenty years growth .2500 
 
 Profit per acre 9 10 
 
 Tims, according to this estimate, doubling the capital, with compound 
 interest, in twenty years, besides leaving timber standing ou the groundi 
 which in twenty years more is calculated to be worth 300^. 
 
 Mr. George Sinclair, F.L.S., calculates, that the thinnings on an acre 
 of land, of the value of from 5s. to 10s. per acre, planted with a mixed 
 proportion of larch, beech, pines, hazel, birch, and oak — the latter with a 
 view to the growth of navy timber, will, at the end of ten or fifteen 
 years, according to local circumstances, repay the average expense of 
 planting, rent, and management during that period, together with com- 
 pound interest at five per cent. ; and he estimates the clear profits of the 
 future falls as follows : 
 
 In thirteen years, or at twenty-three years growth £2^ 10 per acre. 
 In thirteen years, or at thirty-six years growth 39 do. 
 
 And after that period a triennial profit of about 12/. per acre, until the 
 oak left standing may be supposed fit for the naval yards, and worth at 
 the present prices, 264Z., which leaves a balance superior in the proportion 
 of 300 to 7 to the fee simple of the land*. But let it be remembered, 
 that these calculations are all founded on the supposition of judicious 
 planting and subsequent culture. 
 
 M. Chaptalt estimates the forests or woodlands of France to occupy 
 about sixteen millions nine hundred and four thousand acres, or about 
 one-seventh of the whole productive land of that kingdom. According 
 to M. Herbiu de Halle, there are of forest lands belonging to 
 
 The State . . . 2,802,652 
 
 Crown . . . 164,565 
 
 Princes of the Royal Family . 479,348 
 
 Public Bodies , . 4,834,284 
 
 Private Individuals . . 8,623,555 
 
 The produce is estimated at five millions three hundred and forty- 
 seven thousand poimds sterling, or about from six shillings and four- 
 pence to seven shillings and fourpence per acre. Compared to this of 
 woodland, the production of arable land is estimated at ten shillings, 
 and grass land is placed on a level with that under the vine, vix. thirty- 
 three shillings and eightpence an acre + . 
 
 * These calculations were made at the same time by the three individuals mentioned, 
 but unknown to each other ; and as the results agree in all material points, except as 
 regards the cost of planting in the second statement, which is very low, the general coa- 
 clusion receives mucli weight. — Prospectus of British Forest Plunling, lb'26. 
 
 -j- Journal des Forils, tome premier. A Paris, 18'29. 
 
 X ' Les pn's sont places sur la meme ligne, malgrg le proverbe populaire qui dit que la 
 vigao rachete le pre,' — Ibid, 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 The royal forests of Britain occupy about 125,000 acres of land * ; but 
 of these the i^reater portion are subject to claims of various sorts for 
 common of pasture, turbary, &c. There are 3:2,768 acres of forest-land 
 enclosed and planted principally with oak, and with other trees where the 
 soil is not adapted to oak. Of these 13,700 acres may be laid open when 
 
 * A Return, showing the number of acres in each of the Royal Forests, distinguishing 
 the open commonable Jaiuls, and the lands appropriated to the growth of timber, in each 
 forest ; also, the number of acres of other lands, the property of the Crown, appropriated 
 to the like purpose. 
 
 Xumc of tlie Forest. 
 
 New Forest, in the county of\ 
 
 Southampton . . .J 
 
 Dean Foiest, in the county of ( 
 
 Gloucester . . . .1 
 Woolmer Poorest, in the county ) 
 
 of Southampton . . . ) 
 Waltham Forest, in the county } 
 
 of Essex . . . . j 
 Alice Holt Forest, in the county ] 
 
 of Southampton . . . ) 
 Bere Forest, in the same county . 
 Salcey Forest, in the county of ( 
 
 Northampton , . . ) 
 Windsor Forest, in the county of ) 
 
 Berks . . . . ) 
 
 Delamere Forest, in the county \ 
 
 of Chester . . . . ) 
 Parkhurst Forest, in the county | 
 
 of Southampton . . . j 
 
 Whitf]pwoodForest,in the county ■) 
 of Northampton . . . J 
 
 WhichwooJ Forest, in the county 1 
 of Oxford . . • . ) 
 
 Olhn- Lands approprialedpr Ihc 
 Biowlh of Navy Timber. 
 
 Freehold lands in New Forest, 1 
 in the county of Southampton J 
 
 Do. inandadjoitiingDean Forest, | 
 in the county of Gloucester . ; 
 
 Do. do. Woolmer Forest, in the | 
 county of Southampton . . j 
 
 Do. do. Bere Forest, in the same \ 
 county . . . . j 
 
 Woodlands at Eltham, Gining-"j 
 ham, &c. in the county of [ 
 Kent ) 
 
 Parcels of the Crown Estate at "| 
 Chopwell, in the county of ! 
 Duriiam . . . .J 
 
 Uninclosed Lands, arising partly' 
 from inclosures thrown open, 
 and partly from woods of 
 spontaneous growth, which 
 are so stocked with trees as 
 to be reckoned in the quantity 
 of productive timber, esti- 
 mated at about . 
 
 Lands now appropriated for the^ 
 growth of Timber . . jl 
 
 Acres. 
 C.6,678 
 
 21,473 
 
 5,949 
 
 3,273 
 1,892 
 1,417 
 1,285 
 
 4,402 
 
 4,C41 
 900 
 
 3,709 
 
 Acres. 
 
 60,678 
 
 10,473 
 
 4,249 
 
 3,278 
 
 1,122 
 
 1,808 
 
 Lands 
 
 appropri 
 
 ated foi 
 
 the groH-l 
 
 of fimbc 
 
 6,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,892 
 1,417 
 
 1,285 
 
 4,402 
 4,641 
 
 3,378 
 
 1,811 
 
 971 
 
 3,708 
 
 183 
 
 132 
 
 1,000 
 896 
 
 7,500 
 
 52.850 
 
 . Subject to rights of common, the in- 
 I closed lands to be thrown open when 
 I the trees are past danger of deer or 
 r rattle, when an equal quantity may 
 I be inclosed out of the waste in lieu of 
 ) what shall be restored to common. 
 
 Subject to rights of common. 
 
 >The property of the Crown in fee. 
 
 , 517 a. 3 r. 31 ;)., the property of the 
 Crown in fee remainder, subject to 
 rightsof common'; the inclosed lands 
 in tliis and in Whichwood Forest 
 consist partly of coppices, which are 
 by law thrown open to deer and cat- 
 ' tie at the end of 7or 9 vears from the 
 timewhen first inclosed,ar.d at which 
 period the young trees are not past 
 danger of deer and cattle, and are, 
 in consequence, in a great measure, 
 destroyed. 
 
 Subject to rights of common. 
 
 An 
 
PLANTING. 85 
 
 the trees are past danger of deer or cattle ; and an equal number of acres 
 to tliose thus laid open, may be enclosed and planted. The remainhig 
 14,068 acres belong- to the crown in tee, and will always be kept enclosed. 
 There are 6211 acres of other freehold land bcloniring; to the crown, which 
 are also appro])riated to the (growth of timber, makiiio- in all 38,979 acres, 
 the whole of which liave been enclosed and ])lanted within the last twenty 
 years. In Nesv and Dean forests, Hainault forest, Whiltlevvood forest, 
 and Wychwood tbrest, there are open woods or coppices of considerable 
 extent, containing trees of all descriptions, from shi|) timber down to sap* 
 lings ; but the number of acres so covered, or the number of trees occu* 
 pying the surface, appear to be unknown. 
 
 Tlie soil of the royal forests of Britain contain almost every variety of 
 soil, — deep strong clay, rich deep loam, light loam on freestone gravel, 
 bog, &C. The quantities of these ditfercnt soils should be estimated. It 
 is quite true that a field of ten acres may contain two or three different 
 varieties of soil ; but that is no substantial reason for not classifying the 
 quantities on which to found a practical plan of management, so as to 
 obtain the largest and speediest return of produce of the best quality, 
 and that every portion of the land be occupied to the best advantage. 
 Without an estimate of the spaces of the different soils, no accurate calcu- 
 lation can possibly be made of the produce the lands in question ought to 
 and would afford under the most judicious culture ; and consequently 
 there is no check whatever to the practical management, but that of vague 
 opinion. 
 
 As the most judicious, because the most profitable and certain in the 
 result of obtaining the largest quantity of timber of the best quality in the 
 shortest space of time, on a given space of land, the preparation of the 
 soil for the reception of the plants by paring and burning the surface, 
 afterwards trenching, and manuring when possible, and taking from' the 
 soil thus prepared an ameliorating fallow crop the season before planting, 
 has been urged at pages 22, 27, and 39, as a general principle of culture 
 for the soils of the nature specified. But if this mode of culture be there- 
 fore so superior as it is proved to be for planting lands under ordinary 
 freehold tenure, how much more beneficial, or latlier essential, must the 
 adoption of it be in cases such as of those belonging to the crown, where 
 the rights of common render it imperative to open the fences of the young- 
 plantations to stock or to sheep and deer in seven or nine years from the 
 period of planting. The trees so cultivated will in that period be com- 
 paratively out of danger, and the ultimate object, that of timber of the best 
 quality the soil is capable of rearing, secured. But besides these advan- 
 tages, that of atlbrding profitable employment to labourers out of work, 
 in the parishes adjoining the lands in question, and at a season of the 
 year when labour is most scarce, cannot but add powerfully to the reasons, 
 sufficient of themselves, already offered on this head ; besides the valuable 
 example for imitation by the public which the Government would, in this 
 important branch of rural economy, afford, and by it encourage those 
 
 All account of the quantity of land, cultivated and waste, in the Biitibh Dominions, 
 including Scotland.and Ireland, and the British Isles, according to the evidence of Mr. 
 AVilliam Cowling, before the Emigration Committee, in 18'-7. 
 
 
 Cultivated acres. 
 
 Uncultivated acres. 
 
 Unprofitable acres. 
 
 Total. 
 
 England . . . 
 
 25,63-2,000 
 
 3,454,000 
 
 3,25G,J00 
 
 32,342.400 
 
 Wales . . . 
 
 3.117,300 
 
 530,000 
 
 1,105,000 
 
 4.752,000 
 
 ScutlanJ , , . 
 
 5,265,000 
 
 5,950,0U0 
 
 8,523,9;» 
 
 19,73S,930 
 
 Ireland . . , 
 
 12,125,280 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 2,416.6G4 
 
 19,441,944 
 
 British Islands . 
 
 3S3,G90 
 
 lt'6.000 
 
 5G9,46'J 
 
 1,119,159 
 
 46,522,970 15,000,000 15,b71,4G3 77,394,43a 
 
86 PLANTING. 
 
 who may possess waste or unproductive land to plant it, for a present 
 benefit to the unemployed labourer, and as an accumulating capital for 
 the young-er branches of his family and posterity, as well as for the general 
 good of his country. 
 
 The following statements will shew that the cost of preparing the dif- 
 ferent soils of the nature and properties described at pages 48, 49, and 50 
 of this Essay, and numbered 3, 4, 5, 6, for planting forest-trees in the 
 best manner, that is to say, by paring and burning the coarse surface, 
 trenching, draining, and manuring when expedient, and afterwards taking 
 a green fallow, or ameliorating esculent crop as a precursor to the forest- 
 tree plants, will be repaid by a judicious choice and culture of the kind of 
 crop best adapted to the soil, and the produce of which is in a greater 
 local request. It may be perhaps unnecessary to observe here, that the 
 nature of different varieties of soil, comprehending their texture, chemical 
 properties, the nature of the subsoil or mineral stratum on which they are 
 incumbent, and their local climate and site, have all a great and active 
 influence in determining the probable cost of the culture of the crops best 
 adapted to be raised or cultivated upon them. 
 
 The local demand for the produce of particular species of husbandry 
 crops have also a considerable influence on the comparative marketable 
 value of these crops: hence it is impracticable to make a perfectly clear 
 comparative estimate of value of different crops in the present case appli- 
 cable to every different soil, unless those different circumstances alluded to 
 under which each is placed were accurately known ; but which, under 
 ordinary circumstances, may be readily ascertained in the locality. The 
 potato, Swedish turnip, cabbage, carrots, mangel worzel, khol rabi, tares, 
 or vetches, &c., have each a superior local value, according to circum- 
 stances, besides that of their absolute or intrinsic value generally, as crops 
 in husbandry. We may take the first-mentioned crop, therefore, as an 
 example, its culture, comparative value as a fallow-crop, and the 
 marketable value of its produce being, perhaps, more generally under- 
 stood than that of the others. The soil is, taken of a second-rate quality, 
 worth a rent of from fifteen to twenty shillings per acre. 
 
 Paring and burning 
 
 Trenching 
 
 Draining or grubbing up 
 
 Potato sets or seed, 16 bushels 
 
 at Is. 6d. 
 Planting, ditto . 
 Hoeing and earthing up 
 Reaping 
 
 £. s. 
 1 16 
 4 
 15 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 
 — ^10 
 
 17 
 
 Produce 
 
 6 tons of potatoes from a virgin soil,"! 
 
 1 I 
 
 prepared by paring, burning, and > . 13 4 
 
 trenching, at 44s . . J > 
 
 Balance remaining . . . .270 
 
 after preparing the soil in the best manner for planting, to go towards 
 paying the purchase of plants and planting, as in the case of lands 
 belonging to the crown, or, in other cases, towards the charges of rent, 
 interest of capital laid out in fencing, payment of tithes, taxes, and other 
 public imposts. 
 
PLANTING. 87. 
 
 T)\e above mode of preparing the soil would afford seventy-three days 
 work an acre to labourers, at two shillings a day, chiefly in that portion of 
 the year when labour is least in demand, viz., from the middle of Sep- 
 tember until April. Were fifty acres set apart every year on an average 
 from each of the royal forests, and planted according to the plan now 
 recommended, there being twelve royal forests situated in the counties of 
 Southampton, Gloucester, Essex, Northampton, Berks, Chester, Oxford, 
 Durham, and Kent, labour or work alike profitable to the unemployed and 
 to the country would thus be given to six hundred men in the parislies and 
 neighbourhood in which such lands are situated. The profitable results, 
 as regards the attainment of the principal object in view, viz., timber of 
 the best quality tlie soils employed are capable of affording, and that in 
 the largest quantity on a given space of land, and in the shortest period 
 of time, have already been discussed and shewn to follow the mode of cul- 
 ture described. 
 
 There is stated to be but one-sixteenth part of the timber used at the 
 royal yards supplied by the extensive forests of the crown, the other fifteen- 
 sixteenths having to be purchased from private estates, and from abroad. 
 There is good reason to believe the planting and rearing of oak and of hard 
 wood in general have not kept pace in England with the consumption of 
 that article. The policy of depending on foreign countries for an article of 
 such paramount importance as that of timber for naval and civil architec- 
 ture, need not be discussed in these pages. But let us consider, however, 
 whether the forests abroad are always to remain unexhausted for our 
 demands, or the supply of our wants herein, while the neglect of planting 
 continues ; — we believe not ; and that other countries will, at no very 
 distant period, be in the condition that the North American states now 
 are, as regards the supply of timber from their natural forests. That 
 condition is described by an accurate observer, A. H. Hillhouse, a citizen 
 of the United States, and the translator of Michaux's ' North American 
 Sylva.' His words are, ' Though three-fourths of our soil (North 
 America) are still veiled from the eye of day by primeval forests, the best 
 materials for building are nearly exhausted. With all the projected im- 
 provements in our internal navigation, whence shall we procure supplies 
 of timber fifty years hence for the continuance of our marine? The most 
 urgent motives call imperiously upon government to provide a seasonable 
 remedy for the evil : from a government like ours, which is a faithful 
 expression of the public will, and which has no concern but the prosperity 
 and honour of the nation, and from which prospective wisdom is reason- 
 ably demanded.' 
 
 It is observed by Mr. Loudon, in his EncyclopEedia of Gardening, 
 that in planting, as in every other branch of culture, extraordinary profit is 
 attended by extraordinary production, which soon sinks the market value 
 of the article ; and also, that in a commercial, free, and highly taxed 
 country, whenever any article attains a very high price, substitutes are 
 found at home, or imported from abroad, so that no particular crop should 
 be considered the be.st to cultivate without exception, nor extraordinary 
 profits calculated prospectively on any crop vvhatever. 
 
 This opinion, however ju.st, as applied to annual or biennial crops, is 
 but slightly applicable to forest planting, and, indeed, not at all as regards 
 the planting of waste or inferior soils, because, as before stated, the value 
 of a crop of timber or of a forest plantation depends not alone on the rela- 
 tive or positive worth of the timber itself, as is the case with the kinds of 
 crops alluded to, but also greatly on the circumstances of improving the 
 climate and the soil of the adjoining lauds, fitting them for the growth of 
 
88 PLANTING. 
 
 the more valuable husbandry crops, and the rearing and fattening of the 
 more valuable domestic animals, which, without the aids that judicious 
 forest-planting confers, would be withheld, and the land continue waste 
 and unprofitable to the owner and to the nation. 
 
 The high perfection to which some individual trees of the different 
 species have attained, is an object of much interest to the profitable 
 planter of forest-trees as well as to all ; for who does not derive pleasure 
 of the highest order from the contemplation of woodland scenery ? The 
 limits of these pages admit but of a few short notices on this point. 
 
 The oak which was felled in April, 1791, in the park of Sir John 
 Rushout, Bart., at Northwich, in Worcestershire, and judged to be about 
 three hundred years old, and perfectly sound and fine timber, measured 
 
 Feet. 
 
 In circumference, or girt, at five feet from the ground . 21 
 
 Smallest girt . . . . . . . 18 
 
 Length to the branches . . . .30 
 
 Solid contents of the body .... 634 
 
 Estimated timber in the arms .... 200 
 
 Cubic feet of timber . . 834 
 
 The celebrated Fairlop oak, in Hainault Forest, Essex, is stated to have 
 measured at three feet from the ground about thirty-six feet in circum- 
 ference, and the extremities of the branches gave a circle of three hundred 
 feet. 
 
 In Welbeck Park an oak is mentioned as one hundred and eleven feet 
 in height, seventy feet up to the branches, and the circumference at the 
 bottom twenty-one feet. 
 
 In Ilolt Forest, near Farnham, an oak in 1759 girted thirty-four feet 
 at seven feet I'rom the ground ; in 1778, or in nineteen years, it had in- 
 creased only half an inch. 
 
 At Oakley, in Bedfordshire, the seat of the Martpiis of Tavistock, there 
 is an oak now in perfect health, which contains about five hundred and 
 twenty-seven cubic feet of timber, and the branches overspread a s})ace 
 of five thousand eight hundred and fifty superficial l(2et of ground. 
 
 Mr. I\ookes, in his account of the oaks of Welbeck, mentions that an oak 
 cut down in Birchland, had the letters I. 11. more than a foot within the 
 tree, and about a foot from the centre. It was supposed to be two hun- 
 dred and ninety-two years old. It was perfectly sound, and measured 
 about twelve feet in circumference. 
 
 The oaks in Woburn Park have already been alluded to as being trees 
 of remarkably fine growth. There is one situated in the park, to the 
 east of the Abbey, which measures ninety feet in height, the main stem of 
 which is fifty feet, and head above the forks forty feet. This tree contains 
 four hundred and ninety-two cubic feet of timber. The circumference at 
 four feet from the ground is fifteen feet two inches. 
 
 There is another fine oak, in perfect health, which contains six hundred 
 and sixty-six cubic feet of timber, on the west of the Abbey. The circum- 
 ference near the ground is thirty feet, and the height to the boughs sixty- 
 six feet. Four of these oaks measures two thousaiul and sixty-eight cubic 
 feet of timber, after deducting one-eighth, the allowance for the bark. The 
 variety of oak in this park is chiefly of that called the foot-stalked oak, 
 Qiiercus robur peduiiculata. 
 
 The elm may be placed next to the oak for utility and ornament. The 
 ■wych elm is the most hardy. There is one mentioned by Evelyn in Sir 
 Walter Bagot's Park, in Staffordshire, which measured forty yards in 
 
PLANTING. 8D 
 
 leno'th, and at the stool seventeen feet in diameter. The weight was 
 estimated at ninety-seven tons. 
 
 The ehestnut (Castaiiea vesca) may dispute the order of precedence 
 witli tlie elm, but tliat it is less hardy, and recpiires a milder climate, and 
 more c^eiiial soil. On the banks of the Tamar, in Cornwall, there are 
 some of the finest specimens of this tree. A very remarkable tree of this 
 kind in England is at Tortworth, in Gloncestershire. A figure of it 
 is given in tlie Gentleman's Magazine for 17G6, ]>. 321. The age of this 
 tree is supposed to be upwards of one thousand years. In 1791 it mea- 
 sured forty-four feet four inches in circumference. The soil in which it 
 grows is described as being a soft loamy clay. 
 
 The finest tree on record of tlie beech appears to be that in Woburn 
 Park, situated on a rising ground south of the Abbey, in a fine grove of 
 that species of tree. The height of the tree at this period is one hundred 
 feet. It has a clear and nearly equally cylindrical stem of the height of 
 fifty feet, and the top, which is of the most graceful proportion in every 
 respect, occupies fifty feet in height. Tiie solid contents are four hun- 
 dred feet. Tlie soil in which this remarkable tree grows has already 
 been described at p. 48. 
 
 Of the larch (Pinus larix), the finest specimens have been produced in 
 the extensive woods of the Duke of Athol, at Diinkeld, in Perthshire. 
 One tree of fifty years of age measured eighty-six feet and a half in height, 
 and contained eighty-two feet of solid wood. There are instances of the 
 larch attaining to upwards of one lumdred feet in height, and of twelve 
 feet in circumference. 
 
 The s])ecimens of the silver fir (Pinus picea) at Blair Adam before 
 mentioned are remarkable for size and symmetry ; but the finest specimen, 
 perhaps, in Britain grows in Woburn Park. The height of this tree is 
 one hundred and ten feet, and the circumference at four feet from the 
 ground, ten feet six inches ; the solid contents or cubic feet of timber 
 contained in it being three hundred and seventy-five feet. The age of the 
 tree is about one hundred and ten years, and the average increase of 
 heig-ht has, therefore, been exactly one foot every year, and the periodical 
 produce of timber upwards of three, or nearly three and a half, cubic feet 
 per annum. This appears to be the largest periodical increase of timber, 
 continued for so many years, that is recorded. 
 
 Three black Italian poplars, planted by the present Duke of Bedford 
 in 1806, are now of twenty-three years growth, and measure as follows : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. Solid Contents. 
 
 No. 1. Height . . . 31 1 gy ^^^^ 
 
 Circumference or girth .67] 
 
 The stem at fifteen feet \ girt, 19^ in. 
 
 Ditto at sixteen feet above -L, 13^ in. 
 No. 2. Lost its top in a blast in 1828. 
 
 Measures — Height . 23 \ i- *• . 
 
 One- fourth girt . . 16f J * 
 
 No. 3. Height . . . 26 \ ^^ r . 
 
 One-fourth "irt . . 16 | ^^ '^*^^- 
 
 These trees were planted on a light soil, but well prepared by trenching. 
 
 The jjroducls ojf plantations have already been incidentally mentioned. 
 The terms used by practical men to denote these products are not the 
 same in all places, but frequently the same term is used in dilferent coun- 
 ties to mean dilferent products, and sometimes a term used in one place is 
 totally unknown in another. As in legal instruments, relative to the 
 transfer or holding of woodlands, the nusuuderstanding of these terms has 
 
90! PLANTING. 
 
 not unfrequently been the cause of serious inconvenience, it may be of use, 
 therefore, to enumerate these names and synonyma. 
 
 Butt-end. — That portion of the stem of a tree which is situated nearest to 
 the root. 
 
 Bush, in gardening and planting, applies exclusively to every perennial 
 ligneous plant (mostly with several stems from its root), which in its 
 natural state seldom attains to a timber size, e.g. having a stem girting 
 six inches. We understand currant-bush, gooseberry-bush, rose-bush, 
 holly-bush, laurel-bush, &c., but never oak, elm, or ash-bush, &c. The 
 limits between a shrub or bush and a tree cannot be more precisely defined 
 than by the girt or diameter of the stem, under ordinary circumstances of 
 culture, never attaining to, or exceeding the above dimensions. 
 
 Bavins. — House-faggots, bound with two withers or weefs, chiefly used 
 by bakers for the oven. 
 
 Binders. — Long pliant shoots of hazel, ash, &c., which have pliancy 
 and length enough for binding down newly-plashed hedges, making close 
 fences round rabbit-warrens, sheep-folds, hurdles, and binding faggots. 
 
 Bole. — The stem, trunk, or body of a tree, after it has attained to upwards 
 of eight inches in diameter, or to that size which constitutes timber. Vide 
 Timber. 
 
 Cane, Smart-hoops. — Shoots of the hazel, six feet in length ; they are 
 cleft for hoops, and are used by sugar-refiners for their earthen pots ; also 
 for salmon kits, small tubs, and other purposes of the cooper. 
 
 Cio7i, scion. — Properly a shoot one or two years old, or a cutting of a 
 branch of that age for the purpose of grafting. Used sometimes to denote 
 the shoots of a coppice stool. (Worlidge.) 
 
 Coojjers' ware. — The lower ends of ash poles cut from six to eighteen 
 feet long, according to the length of the shoot. They are cleft for the use 
 of the cooper, waggon-tilts, &c. 
 
 Dead woods. — The same as kiln-faggots, which see. 
 
 Edders, Roders. — The same as binders, which see. 
 
 House-faggots. — Tlie long branches of the hop and fence poles. The 
 tops of hedge-stakes, coopers' ware, &c., bound with one wither or tcef. 
 Vide Bavins. 
 
 Kiln-faggots. — The lowest product of a plantation, being made of the 
 brushings of the wood previous to the commencement of cutting the copse, 
 and are made of brambles, dead-wood in the stubs, and refuse of plants 
 on the surface of the ground ; used for burning lime, bricks, &c. 
 
 Girt, girth, of the bole — Is sometimes understood as the circumference 
 of the stem, but more generally as the fourth part of the circumference or 
 side of the square of the stem. Gilpin (in ' Forest Scenery,' vol. i. p. 59 
 and p. 141) uses it in the former sense, when he says, 'at Wimly, near 
 Hitchin Priory, Herts, a chestnut-tree, in 1789, girted somewhat more 
 than fourteen yards.' He could not mean the tree to square forty-two 
 feet in the side. Grose also appears to use the term girt in the same sense, 
 when speaking of the limb of a chestnut-tree at Forlworth, in Gloucester- 
 shire : — ' One limb measured twenty-eight feet and a half in girt, five feet 
 above the crown.' — Philosophical Account, p. 17G. Of the same tree he 
 says the stem ' girted fifty-one feet at six feet from the ground.' And 
 Professor Martin quotes from an inscription placed under an etching of it, 
 stating that 'the tree measures nineteen yards in circumference,^ \y\\\c\\ suf- 
 ficiently proves 'the sense in which the word ' girt' is understood by the 
 above. The word girt is doubtless derived from girth, quasi, to gird or 
 encompass, notwitlistanding its general acceptation is to denote the 
 fourth part only of the circumference, or side of the stem when squared. 
 
PLANTING. 91 
 
 Log. — The trunk or body of a timber-tree prepared for the sawyer. 
 
 Maiden-'plant. — A yount^ tree raised from seed, in opposition to one 
 produced from an old root or stub. 
 
 Moot, in Devonshire, is the same with stool in other counties. Vide 
 Stool. 
 
 Nascent stem. — The development of the stem of a seedling' plant, just 
 previous to the exhibition of the first leaves. 
 
 Poles. — Shoots from coppice-stools on the stems of young- trees of various 
 lengths, according- to the ])urpose for which they are wanted ; those for hops 
 should be from ten to eighteen feet long. 
 
 Red- hearted. — A discoloration of the central point or heart-wood of a 
 tree, most frequently arising from bad management in the early culture of 
 the tree, by neglecting to prevent or remove every cause of stunting the 
 growth in the earliest stages of culture. An ungenial soil produces this 
 defect likewise. 
 
 Sapling. — A young tree under six inches diameter at four feet from the 
 ground ; in some places it is used to denote a young tree raised imme- 
 diately from the seed, which is then termed a maiden-tree ; in others it is 
 considered a young tree, the produce of a coppice-stool, old root, or stub, 
 and, by a few, a long young tree, the produce of either. 
 
 Sears, or low faggots. — Made similar to bavins (which see), but longer, 
 and generally bound with three withs : used for sheltering- farm-yards, 
 hovels, and for various other purposes. 
 
 Fall cutting. — A term used to denote the period of cutting a copse, 
 which varies from twelve to eighteen and thirty years, according- to the soil 
 or produce of the copjjice, and the judgment of the proprietor. 
 
 Shaky — shakes. — The fissures, cracks, or longitudinal openings often 
 found in the timber of trees which have suffered from injudicious culture 
 and an ungenial soil, vide p. 73. 
 
 Shoot. — Indifferently used for the young, lateral branch of astern, or that 
 of a coppice-stool or stub. 
 
 Sprig of wood. — In some instances understood as the branches of a 
 tree. Vide act. 
 
 Stajidard. — The shoots of a coppice stool, selected from those cut down 
 as underwood to remain for large poles or timber-trees. 
 
 Slivery. — Small, straight shoots of large ash, &c., cleft into hoops for 
 the purposes of the cooper. Vide Cane and Coopers' ware. 
 
 Stem. — The body of a tree in all its stages of growth, from a seedling 
 to that of a full-grown tree. See Bole. 
 
 Stole. — The first stage of growth of a shoot emitted or sent out from 
 the sides of a root or stub or coppice-stool. See Tiller. 
 
 Stool. — The root of a tree which has been left in the ground, the pro- 
 duce of another tree, or shoot for saplings, underwood, &c. 
 
 Stub. — See Stool. 
 
 Sucker. — Properly the young plants sent up by creeping-rooted trees, as 
 in the poplar, elm, &c. These suckers are oftentimes very troublesome, 
 under the circumstance of their often appearing- in lawns, or grass fields 
 near a mansion. The term sucker is also applied in some places, to 
 denote the side shoots from a stool or stub. See Stool. 
 
 Tap-root. — The first root produced by the seed of a tree, which descends 
 at first perpendicularly into the earth, and supports the plant until the pro- 
 per leaves are produced, which, in their turn, assist in the production of 
 fibres or proper roots. 
 
 Tellow.—See Tiller. 
 
92 PLANTING. 
 
 Tidar.—See Tiller. 
 
 Tilar.—See Tiller. 
 
 Tiller, or Tdlar, a shoot selected for its superior streiig-th and healthy 
 habit from those produced by a coppice-stool to stand for a timl)er-tree, 
 or for maiden bark, if an oak, to stand for the space of two or three falls. 
 
 Timber. — When the wood of a stem or branch of any species of plant 
 attains to the dimensions of 24 inches in circumference, or ui)vvards of 
 ei<'ht inches in diameter, it is termed timber. Those plants whose wood 
 never, or but seldom., attains to the size now meniioned, come vuider the 
 denomination of shrubs or bushes, poles, &c. Hence the popular dis- 
 tinction between tree and shrub or bush. 
 
 Here it may be proper to state the usual mode of determining the 
 quantity of timber in trees. The customary method of measuring timber 
 is by fjirtiitg the piece in the middle, i.e. from the butt-end or root to the 
 top, where it terminates, at 24 inches in circumference. The mean be- 
 tween these two points atfords the nearest average of the circumference or 
 diameter. The fourth of this circumference, squared and multiplied by 
 the len"th, gives the contents. Thus suppose a stem or bole measures 
 75 4 inches in circumference, or 24 inches in diameter, and 15 feet in 
 length : then 75^5-^4 = 18/^ x 18f^^=2ft. 5.5 X length 15ft.= 36ft. 9.3 in. 
 But by taking ^ of the circumference and twice the length, the result is 
 more accurate, thus — 75y^jj -f- 5 = 15 ; then 15 X 15 X 30ft. = 46ft. 10.6. 
 But it need hardly be remarked that neither the fourth nor the fifth of the 
 circumference can be used to determine accurately the cubic contents, 
 although in common practice the first is considered sufficiently so. The 
 nearest approach to the truth of the contents is to multiply the square of 
 the circumference of the stem by its length, and that multiplied by .07958 
 will give the number representing the solid contents, thus — 'J'S^'g- X 
 .079574 X 15ft. r= 47 1.5. Or square the diameter thus, — 24 X 24 
 X .7854 X 15 = 47 1.5. But whatever mode of measurement and 
 calculation be adopted, an allowance must be made for the thickness 
 of the bark. Different species of trees differ much in this respect, and the 
 ao-e of individuals of the same species diifer likewise, according to the age 
 of the tree. It is customary in the oak, elm, and trees having a rough 
 bark, to deduct at the late of one inch for every foot of quarter girt, 
 that is, if the circumference is four feet, the quarter girt is one foot or 
 12 inches, and the allowance for the bark will reduce it to 11 inches. 
 IjCSS than one foot quarter girt down to six inches, the allowance is made 
 at the same rate, and so for any increase above the example quoted. 
 In ash, and other trees having a thin bark, the allowance is half an inch 
 for every foot of quarter girt. In Scotland, according to Mr. Monteath, 
 the rule is to allow for bark two inches in circumference from 12 to 24 
 inches ; three inches in a circumference of from 24 to 36 ; fVom 36 to 48, 
 four inches ; from 48 to 72, five inches, and above 72 inches in circum- 
 ference, to deduct six inches. 
 
 Trunk. — The body or stem of a forest-tree. See Bole. 
 JFil/iers or weefs. — The pliant shoots of hazel, ash, willow, &c., for 
 binding the spray and prunings of trees into faggots, brooms, &.c. See 
 Binders. 
 
( 03 ) 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 Enumeration of the different species of Fore.s-t Trees. 
 
 In tlie foUowiiio; list the trees are arraiii^'ed in the order in whicli tliey are 
 supposed to stand in natural alliance with each other ; but being* a selec- 
 tion from the whole vegetable kingdom as regards one properly, oidy that 
 of producing' timber in the climate of Great Britain, there will be found 
 therefore g^reat breaches in the natural connexion between many of the 
 individuals comprising- a list so formed ; and on this account, and the want 
 of space, as well as that the Linnean botanical descriptions are equally 
 eflicient in distinguishing" one family of plants from every other, and dif- 
 ferent species of plants from each other, the Linnean descriptions only are 
 civen. 
 
 MAGNOLIACE^. 
 Polyandria Poly. Linn. 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 CUCVMBER-TREE OV M.VGNOI.I.i. M.\C;n6lIA. 
 
 Generic Character — Calyx, three-leaved ; 
 petals, nine ; capsule, two-valved, imbri- 
 cated • seed, berry, pendulous. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — as soon as it can 
 be procured from abroad. Sow in 
 pots filled with a mixture of loam 
 and peat, and plunge them into an 
 old hot-bed of tanner's bark. They 
 may also be propagated by layers. 
 
 Uses — Veneering, the purposes of the 
 turner, and those of timber in general 
 for in-door works. 
 
 Species /or Ornament, Shelter, or Underwood. 
 
 MAGNOLI.A. CrCUMBER-TREE. N.ntive of Ft. 
 
 Umbrella-leaved . tripclala . . . N. Amer. . . ;iO 
 
 Bluish flowered. .ncK?«;»"/«. . 25 
 
 Heart-leaved ... .co7v/rt/r(. .. . — 
 
 Great flowered. . .[/randiJJora. — 
 
 Loni!;-'ieaved cu-) . , , 
 ° , . >auriculata . 
 
 cumber-tree. . j 
 Large-leaved. . . .macrophylla 
 
 60-70 
 20 
 30 
 
 Mag7i6Iia grandijii'ra. Big laurel and 
 lariremasnolia of America, andlaurier 
 tulipier of the French, is first seen in 
 North Carolina, near the river Nuse, 
 in the latitude of 35° 31'; and pro- 
 ceeding from this point, it is found in 
 the maritime parts of the southern 
 States and of the Floridas, and as far 
 up the Mississippi as Natcher, 300 
 miles above New Orleans, which em- 
 braces an extent of 20 00 miles. Accord- 
 ing to Michaux, the magnoUu gnmdi - 
 flora claims a place among the largest 
 trees of the United States, as it some- 
 times reaches ninety feet in height and 
 two or three in diameter, but its ordi- 
 
 nary stature is from sixty to seventy 
 feet. Its trunk is described as being 
 commonly straight, and its summit 
 nearly in the shape of a regular py- 
 ramid. The same author observes, 
 that they who have seen this tree in 
 its native soil, bioominii with its large 
 white fragrant flowers disposed amidst 
 the ricii foliage of the tree, agree in 
 considering it one of the most beauti- 
 ful productions of the vegetable king- 
 dom. In Carolina it blossoms in I\Iay, 
 and the seeds are ripe about the be- 
 ginning of Octol)er. The wood is 
 soft, and remarkable for its whiteness, 
 which it preserves even after being 
 seasoned ; it is said to be easily 
 wrought, and not subject to warp, but 
 that it is not durable when exposed to 
 the weather ; for this reason the boards 
 of the magnulia graiidiftura are used 
 only in jouiery in the interior of build- 
 ings. In its native climate it grows 
 only in cool shady places, where the 
 soil is composed of Inown mould, and 
 is loose, deep, and fertile. The seeds 
 preserve their vegetative powers seve- 
 ral months out of the ground. A 
 single tree sometimes yields four hun- 
 dred cones, each of which contains 
 from 40 to 50 seeds. The most north- 
 ern point which this tree passes the 
 winter in the open air, is about Nantes, 
 in lat. 4 7° 13', but it begins to bear 
 ripe fruit about Grenoble, in lat. 45°. 
 In a garden near Philadelphia, l\Ii- 
 chaeux saw a tree of this species, which 
 bore uninjured tiie rigorousclimate of 
 this part of Pennsylvania, which is 
 much more severe than that of Paris 
 or London. In J^ngland the niagndtia 
 gruiidijUra is more injured by being 
 
94 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES, 
 
 planted in an ungenial soil than from 
 the severity of the climate. The fact 
 is, the soil should be that above de- 
 scribed, but not an insulated portion, 
 as is mostly the case in practice, by 
 digging a hole and supplying it to the 
 plant merely to that extent, whereas 
 it shovdd be general over a large extent 
 of surface, so as to effect the atmo- 
 sphere by its peculiar exhalations, thus 
 acting on the leaves as well as on the 
 roots. The inagnoliagrandiJlorawA^ 
 introduced into England about 1731. 
 
 Magnvlia giduca. — This tiee is found 
 common in Lower Jersey, but is also 
 found in latitude 45° 50', near Cape 
 Anne, in Massachussets, N.America. 
 In the Carolinas and in Georgia it 
 does not ordinarily exceed twenty or 
 thirty feet, although it sometimes at- 
 tains to forty feet in height. At New 
 York it yields fruit at the height of 
 five or six feet. The wood is not con- 
 sidered to be of any value in building. 
 The flowers are flagrant, and the bark 
 of the roots has an aromatic odour 
 and a bitter taste. The country people 
 in Lower Jersey drink an infusion of 
 this bark in brandy as a remedy in 
 rheumatic affections, and an infusion 
 of the cones in whiskey is regarded 
 by them also as a preventive against 
 autumnal fevers. (Michaux, 1 1 .) This 
 tree appears to have been introduced 
 into England in 1GS8. 
 
 MagnuHa acumvitita is common in all 
 parts of the United States of America, 
 where it is generally known under the 
 name of the cucumber-tree. Its sta- 
 ture is similar to the magnolia grandi- 
 flora, rising to sixty or seventy feet, 
 and sometimes even as high as ninety 
 feet. It is found as far north as the 
 43rd degree of north latitude, near the 
 celebrated cataract of the Niagara 
 river. The inhabitants of the coun- 
 tries bordering on the Alleghanies ga- 
 ther the cones about midsummer, 
 when they arc half ripe, and steep 
 them in whiskev : a glass or two of 
 this liquor, which is extremely bitter, 
 is a preservative against autumnal fe- 
 vers: on this Michaux remarks, that 
 though he does not deny the efficacy, 
 the remedy has not been made suffi- 
 ciently evident to induce any physician 
 to attempt its verification. In its na- 
 tive soil, Michaux describes the trunk 
 as perfectly straight, of an uniform 
 size, and often destitute of branches 
 
 for two-thirds of its length, the sum- 
 mit ample, and regularly shaped ; the 
 flowers are five to six inches diameter, 
 of a bluish white, having a feeble 
 odour, but as they are so large and 
 are numerous, they have a fine effect 
 in the midst of the super-foliage. The 
 wood is soft, and like that of the poplar, 
 is fine grained, and susceptible of a 
 brilliant polish, but it is neither strong 
 nor durable when exposed to the wea- 
 ther. In England this tree is perfectly 
 hardy, and attains to a considerable 
 size. Introduced into England in 
 1736. 
 
 Magnolia corddta, heart-leaved cucum- 
 ber-tree, in its native soil of the banks 
 of the river Savannah in Upper 
 Georgia, and those of the streams 
 which traverse the back parts of South 
 Carolina, attains to forty and fifty feet 
 in height, and from twelve to fifteen 
 inches in diameter. The leaves are 
 from five to six inches in length, and 
 from three to five in width ; the flowers, 
 which appear in April, are yellow, and 
 are nearly four inches in diameter. 
 The wood is of no determinate use, 
 but the tree is very hardy and orna- 
 mental in parks. Introduced into 
 England in 1801, 
 
 Magnolia tripvtala, umbrella-tree, is 
 found in soils deep and fertile in the 
 northern parts of New York, and is 
 common on some of the islands of the 
 river Susquehanna. Near the great 
 swamps of South Carolina and Georgia 
 it is almost invariably accompanied 
 by the magnolia grandiflora and swamp 
 chestnut oak. It is of humblergrowth 
 than the magnolia grandiflora, seldom 
 attaining to thirty or thirty-five feet 
 in height, with a diameter of five or 
 six inches. The leaves are eighteen 
 or twenty inches long, and seven or 
 eight broad ; the flowers are white, 
 and seven or eight inches in diameter. 
 The fruit is four or five inches long 
 and two inches in diameter. The 
 wood is light and porous, and unfit for 
 use. The tree is highly ornamental 
 and very hardy. Introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1 752. 
 
 Magnolia auriculata, long-leaved cu- 
 cumber-tree, is equally remarkable 
 with the magnolia tripetala, for the 
 beauty of its loliage and the size of its 
 flowers, which are also of an agreeable 
 odour, and is found, Michaux observes, 
 only in a small tract far retired in the 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 95 
 
 country, at the distance of 300 miles 
 from the sea, on a part of the Alle- 
 phany mountains. In its native soil 
 it attains to forty or forty-five feet, and 
 a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches. 
 The leaves are of a liuht green colour, 
 of a fine texture, eii^ht or nine inches 
 Jouij, and from four to six inches 
 broad ; the base of the leaf is divided 
 info roiuided lobes, whence the name 
 ear-leaved. The flowers are white, 
 and from three to four inches diameter. 
 The wood is lioht and spongy, and 
 luifit for tlie purposes of the carpenter. 
 The bark is stated to have an agree- 
 able aromatic odour, and an infusion 
 of it in ardent spirits is employed as 
 an excellent sudorific in rheumatic 
 affections. It is a hardy tree, and very 
 ornamental for parks. Introduced 
 into England in 1786. 
 Magnolia macrophy'lla, vel Michaiixii, 
 large-leaved cucumber-tree, is more 
 remarkable for the superior size of its 
 leaves and flowers than any other 
 species of tliis genus. It resembles 
 most the magnolia tripetala in its ge- 
 neral habit of growth, and it is gene- 
 rally found g)owing in company with 
 it. The leaves are sometimes thirty- 
 five inches long, and nine or ten inches 
 broad. The flowers are white, fra- 
 grant, and larger than those of any 
 other species of magnolia, being some- 
 times eight or nine inches in diameter ; 
 the buds are compressed, instead of 
 being rounded at the end, as in the 
 magnolia tripetala, and they are co- 
 vered with a soft and silvery down: 
 this circumstance affords a ready dis- 
 tinction between these species at that 
 season when the flowers and leaves are 
 absent. The wood is of an inferior 
 quality. The tree is highly ornamental. 
 In its native soil, accordnig to Mi- 
 chaux, it grows to the height of 
 thirty-five feet. Introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1800. 
 
 The other species of magnolia or cu- 
 cumber-tree in the gardens of England, 
 come at present, or as far as experience 
 of their habits in this climate indicates, 
 exclusively under the head of ornamental 
 plants or shrubs, and consequently they 
 are omitted in this enumeration. 
 
 Time of sowing .ye^t/— spring. Soil, 
 lisrht earth, to be shaded from the 
 heat of the mid-day sun. 
 
 Uses — The wood is esteemed for its 
 lightness and durability, and in the 
 western states of North America it is 
 used as a substitute, in building, for 
 the wood of the pine. The inner bark 
 of the branches and root is used as a 
 substitute for the Peruvian in remit- 
 tent ,and intermittent fevers. It de- 
 lights in a light rich loamy soil. It 
 has been known to measure 22 feet in 
 circumference, and to rise to 120 feet 
 in height. Introduced into England 
 in 1688. 
 
 Species forOr-namail, Shelter, or Underwood. 
 
 Common tulipifera . .N. Amer. . .60 
 
 Var. Entire Ivd. ./rt/e^rjyb/i'a — 
 
 TILIACE^. 
 
 Polyamlria Polygynia. 
 
 Linn, 
 
 Tulip-tree. 
 
 LiRIODENDRON. 
 
 Calyx, three-leaved ; petals, six ; seeds, into 
 a strobule, or cone. 
 
 Trees of the habits atid general appearance 
 of the common Lime or Linden-tree. 
 
 LniE-TREE, TlI,IA. 
 
 Calyx, five-parted ; corolla, five-petaled ; cap- 
 sule, coriaceous, pflobular, five-celled, and 
 five-valved, openinj:^ at the base ; seed, 
 one or two iu each cell, roundish, covered 
 with a coriaceous globular-sliaped capsule, 
 which has five valves, five cells, and open- 
 ing at the base. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — Autumn, in a 
 shady border of moist, light soil ; but 
 the usual mode of propagation is bv 
 layers. Soil — in almost any kind of 
 soil, if moderately damp. 
 
 Uses — The wood is light, delicately white, 
 and of an uniform texture, useful for 
 some domestic purposes, and for those 
 of the carver. Gibbon's inimitable 
 carvings of flowers, dead game, &c., 
 were of this wood, Br. Fl., vol. iii. p. 
 18. The bark of this, and probably 
 of other species of lime, makes the 
 Russian mats called bust. As an 
 ornamental tree, the lime is esteemed 
 for the fragrance of its flowers, of 
 which bees are very fond. 
 
 Mr. Boutcher says, at eleven years old 
 the plants will be twenty feet high ; 
 and at sixteen years old, from thirty 
 to thirty-five feet hi>;h. Tiie com- 
 mon yellow twiirged lime, called also 
 linden tree, and smooth -leaved lime, 
 was formerly more than now a great 
 favourite with planters. Whether it 
 be properly a native of Britain, seems 
 
9G 
 
 LIST OF rOREST-TREES. 
 
 to be unccrlain, but that it has been 
 long- naturalized in this country is cer- 
 tain. A lime tree is described by Dr. 
 Turner as e;ro\ving near Colchester, 
 Avhich must have been cultivated in 
 Euirland before 1562. Du Hamel 
 states that the French, in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., growingtired of the horse 
 chestnut, adopted this tree ; and Sir 
 James Smith, in his English Flora, 
 observes that it generally composes 
 the avenues about the residences of 
 the French as well as English gentry 
 of that date, and that Fenelon, in 
 conformity to this taste, decorates 
 with ' flow-ery lime trees' his enchanted 
 isle of Calypso. The fragrance of the 
 flowers are well known ; they consti- 
 tute an useful ingredient in pot-pourri. 
 Bees are attracted, in great numbers, 
 to collect honey from the flowers, in 
 the season of flowering. The wood is 
 smooth, delicately white, and uniform 
 in its texture (vide p. 11, fig. p.) ; it is 
 oljserved to be little subject to the 
 attacks of insects. The beautiful 
 carvings of Gibbon, before mentioned, 
 which are dispersed about the king- 
 dom, as in the choir of St. Paul's, 
 Trinity College Library, at Cambridge, 
 the Duke of Devonshire's, Chats- 
 worth, &c. are stated to be of this 
 wood*. It is also used by the turner 
 in manufacturing light bowls, and 
 boxes tor the apothecary. The bark 
 contains much mucilage ; by macera- 
 tion it separates into thin tough layers, 
 which are manufactured into garden- 
 mats, sometimes termed bast mats. 
 These are well known to form a con- 
 siderable part of the exports from 
 Kussia. 
 The broad-leaved lime, titia grandifnlia, 
 attains to as large a size as the com- 
 mon linden ; the young wood of the 
 shoots is often red. The leaves have 
 rather longer foot-stalks, the ribs and 
 vei7is minutely hairy, or curiously 
 fringed above the origin of each ; all 
 the under side of the leaves is finely 
 downv, but not glaucous, as in the 
 tilia parvifoHa and American limes 
 This species, or, perhaps, variety, has 
 been found in woods and hed<:es at 
 Whitstable, Surrey; on the banks of 
 the Mole, near Boxhill, by l\Ir. E. Fors- 
 ter ; near Streatham Wells, Surrey, 
 by Mr. Dubois; and in Stoken-church 
 
 ♦ Evelyn's Sylva, 
 
 woods by Mr. Bicheno, but appa- 
 rently planted*. This is stated to be 
 the wild lime of Switzerland and the 
 south of Europe, as the common spe- 
 cies, luropcsa, is of the north. The 
 coral lime is so nearly allied to this 
 species, as to be considered by some 
 botanists a variety cnl}'. 
 The small-leaved lime, tilia parvifulia, 
 flowers about a month later than the 
 last-mentioned tree. It is supposed 
 to be the only true native species of 
 lime. It is to be found frequent in 
 Essex, Sussex, and Lincolnshu-e, and 
 elsewhere, according to Ray. The 
 leaves are much smaller than those of 
 the above, being about two inches 
 broad, dark green, and quite smooth 
 above, glaucous underneath, with 
 brown hairy tufts at the origin of each 
 of their principal veins, as well as 
 broad hairy blotches frequently found 
 scattered over their surface. The 
 comparative value of the timber of 
 these last-mentioned species has not 
 yet been determined. Among the 
 American species of this tree the 
 smooth or bass-wood, tilia America7ia, 
 is distinguished. Michaux informs 
 us that he found it most abundant in 
 Gennesse, which borders on Lake Erie 
 and Ontario. In some districts be- 
 tween Batavia and New Amsterdam, 
 it constitutes two-thirds, and some- 
 times the v.hole of the forests. It 
 attains to the largest size in a loose 
 deep fertile soil. It is found 80 feet in 
 height, and 4 feet in diameter. The 
 wood is white and tender, and is, in 
 some places, substituted for that of 
 the tulip-tree for the panels of car- 
 riage bodies, and the seats of Windsor 
 chairs. 
 
 The white lime, tilia alba, is chiefly 
 found on the Ijanks of the Ohio, Sus- 
 quehanna, and those of the streams 
 which empty into them. The same 
 authority observes, that it rarely ex- 
 ceeds 40 feet in height, and \1 or 18 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 The downy lime, tilia fubescens, is a 
 native of the Floridas, and Southern 
 parts of the United States. It re- 
 sembles the American lime tree more 
 than the preceding. The leaves are 
 very downy on their under side, ob- 
 liquely truncated at the base, and 
 edged with fewer teeth than the other 
 
 * Engl, Fl., vol. iii. p. It). 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 97 
 
 species. The flowers are also more 
 numerous, and produced in hu-<:er 
 bunches. The wood has not been 
 jn-oved as to its properties. All these 
 trees are ornamental, and afford a coo! 
 shade in summer. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 LnrE-TREE. TII.IA. Native of Ft. 
 
 Red-twigged Liine- 
 
 tree riibrii Britiiin ... .50 
 
 Yellow eiiropaa. . . Britain .... .'JO 
 
 Var. Jagged-lvd../<JCi/»a/a. . .Britain. . . .30 
 
 White a/ba ..... .Europe ... .30 
 
 Downy-leaved . . .piibc'sc.'n^ . . Carolina. . .20 
 
 Smooth grandifoliu Britain — 
 
 \ ar. coral-twigged C()rfl///«a . . Britain • — 
 
 Broad-leaved . . . .glabra . . . . N. Amer. . .30 
 Silvery-leaved . . .argentea . . Hungary — 
 
 Species for Ornament , ifc. 
 
 Long-petaled, . . .pf/iy/ii>'js — 
 
 ACERINE^.— A'a;. Sijs. 
 Polygamia Monoecia. Linn. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 JIapi.e-tree. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Acer. 
 
 Sycamore ;>seii(/o-p/a/a«;« Britain. 50 
 
 On ScotLiiid, riane-tree.) 
 
 Su":ar* saccharmum^. Amer. 40 — 70 
 
 Species for Ornament, Shelter, or Underwood 
 
 Striped-leaved, oripscudo-pldtanus^r,,-. ■ 
 
 variegated . . . ( varicgdtum, J 
 
 Blunt-leaved . . . .obtusttin . . . 
 
 Sir C. Wager's. . .dasycdrpum N. Amer. 
 
 Bastard hyhridum . . .Hybrid 
 
 ,, . , , (platunoides \-rf 
 
 Cut-leaved i', ■ ., >Jiiurope 
 
 \l(icintutum ) ' 
 
 Mountain rnontdnum. .N. Amer. . . 8 
 
 Ash-leaved . . . . i r^""''",.,. \— 30-40 
 
 Scarlet-leaved . . .ritbrum .... 
 
 Tartarian latdricum . .Tartary 
 
 Calyx, five-cleft ; corolla, five-petaled ; germs. 
 two or three superior ; style, simple ; sced^ 
 single, roundish shaped, its capsule termi- 
 nated by a wing-like membrane. 
 
 Time of solving — as soon as possible 
 after the seeds are ripe : some are of 
 opinion that the seed should be pre- 
 served in dry sand until February or 
 the beginning of March. Soil — This 
 genus will thrive in coarse land, but 
 the European species attains the 
 greatest size in a deep, moist soil, 
 free of stagnant moisture ; those 
 which are natives of America re- 
 quire a drier soil than the above. 
 
 Uses — The wood of the common maple 
 or sycamore is considered superior to 
 tliat of the beech for the uses of the 
 turner, in making domestic utensils, 
 and also for the uses of the joiner 
 for inlaying. It is sometimes also 
 used by musical instrument-makers ; 
 but it is chiefly valued for its })ro- 
 perty of quick growth as coppice or 
 underwood. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 Polygamia Moncpcia, Linn, 
 
 MAPLE-TREE. ACER. Native of Ft. 
 
 Common camp£stre . .Britain . . .3:3 
 
 Italian upalus Italy 50 
 
 Horway pUUanoides .Europe . . .50 
 
 * In America this tree is called rock maple, hard 
 maple as well as sugar maple. It is no where more 
 abundant than between the 4(;th and 43d degrees 
 of latitude, which comprise Canada. According 
 to Dr. Rush, there are ten milUons uf acns in the 
 northern parts of the states of New Yorkand Penn- 
 sylvania, which contain these trees in the propor- 
 tion of tliirty to an acre. The wood is rejected in 
 civil and naval architecture, but the wood of old 
 trees is esJteemed for inlaying mahogany, and is 
 termed bird's-eye mnple. To obtain the finest etfect 
 caused by the i n flection of the medullary rays, which 
 I produce spots resembling the eye of birds, the log 
 should be sawn in a direction as nearly as possible 
 parallel to the concentric circles. The ashes are 
 rich in alkaline principle ; and it is asserted that 
 t'ourfifths of tha potash exported to Europe from 
 Hoston and New York, are furnished by the sugar 
 maple. The sugar maple begins to be found wild 
 in Canada, near the 4»th degree of latitude, a little 
 north of Lake St. John, and, as above stated, is most 
 abundant between the 4fith and 43rd degree. It is 
 very rare in the lower parts of Virginia, the Caro- 
 linas, and Georgia. It flourishes best where the 
 soil, though rich, is cold and humid, and situated 
 on elevated declivities. But the great value of the 
 sugar maple in America consists in the superior 
 quantity of sugar afforded by the sap of the tree. 
 In February or March, while the ground is covered 
 with snow, and the cold is still intense, the tree is 
 bored to the depth of half an inch within the wood, 
 with an auger three-quarters of an inch in diame- 
 ter, and in an obliquely ascending direction, on the 
 south side of the tree, and at about eighteen or 
 twenty inches from the ground. There are two 
 holes made in this manner, four or live inches 
 apart. Tubes of eight or ten inches long, and three, 
 quarters of an inch in diameter, made of elder or 
 sumac, having a portion of their length laid open, 
 are inserted into them to conduct the sap into 
 troughs, which are made to contain two or three 
 gallons. The sap continues to flow or yield sugar, 
 Michaux observes, for six weeks, after which it de- 
 clines in quantity and quality. Four gallons of 
 sap are considered to give one pound of sugar, and 
 from two to four pounds is mentioned as the pro- 
 duce of a tree. Sheds are erected near the trees, 
 where the persons who conduct the process of 
 l)oilingthe sap and extracting the sugar, are shel- 
 tered. 'J'hree persons are allowed to be sufficient 
 to tend S.^O trees, which give lf»00 lbs. of sugar. It 
 is stated that eighty millions of pounds of sugar are 
 consumed in the United States, of which fifty mil- 
 lions are imported, ten millions furnished by the 
 sugar cane of Louisiana, and ten mil'linns from the 
 maple. Of the other maples above enumerated, 
 their comparative value, as timber trees, has not 
 been sufficiently proved to allow of separate notices 
 in the limits of these puges, 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 Moiitpelier monspessulamim France 
 
 Oblong-leaved . . . ohlomjitm . . . Nepaul 
 Striped-barked . . .striatum . . .N. Amer. 
 Opalus-leaved . . . .opa/i/oUum.S. Emope 
 
 Hunj^arian obtitsdtum . .Hungary 
 
 Cretan crtticum . . . Levant 
 
 Evergreen heterophyllum 
 
 Bearded barbdtum . . N. Amer. 
 
 Black Sugar nigrum .... 
 
 Palmate pa/mntum . . China 
 
 Large-leaved. . . .macropfii//liiin. Columbia 
 
 Iberian il^i-icum Iberia 
 
 Round-leaved . . . circinnatum . . Columbia 
 
 HIPPOCASTANE^. Nat. S>/s. 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name, 
 
 Horse-Chestnut. j^SCULUS. 
 
 Heptandria Monogynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx, one-leaved, five-toothed, ventricose ; 
 corolla, five-petaled, irregularly-coloured, 
 inserted into the culijx ; capsule, three- 
 celled ; seeds, two, sub-globular, enclosed 
 in a roundish-shaped capsule, containing 
 three cells, and opening with three valves 
 to emit the seeds. 
 
 The seeds should be preserved in dr)' 
 sand till spring, and sown early in that 
 season ; but should the soil be dry, 
 and free from the attacks of vermin, 
 it is advantageous to sow as soon as 
 the seeds are ripe. Soil — The horse- 
 chestnut grows to the largest size in a 
 sandy loam, but will grow in almost 
 any kind of soil. 
 
 Uses — for fuel ; but chiefly planted for 
 the beauty of its flowers and its habit 
 of growth. The common horse-chest- 
 nut, though a native of the northern 
 parts of Asia, is never injured by cold 
 in Britain, into which it was intro- 
 duced about 1689, or, according to 
 some, in 1683. It is sufficiently known 
 for the beauty of its form when in full 
 foliage and in flower, particularly 
 when planted singly or in rounded 
 groups, in lawns, and parks. For 
 avenues it is less desirable, or where 
 it overshadows roads, as the leaves 
 fall early in the autumn. The spe- 
 cies enumerated below, natives of 
 North America, are all more or less 
 ornamental, and deserving of a sta- 
 tion in the margins of forest planta- 
 tions. The comparative value of their 
 timber has not yet been proved. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species, 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT. A;SCULUS. 
 
 Common, ...... .kippocastdnumAsia, , , .40 
 
 Species for Ornament, ^c. 
 
 nORSE-CHESNUT. .ffiSCULUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Golden-striped. . .hippocastanum, fol.aur. 
 
 Silver-striped . . , , fol. arg. 
 
 Double-flowered. .Jlore plino . . 
 
 Flesh-coloured. . .caniea 
 
 Ohio ohioensis . . .Nor.Amer. 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 Bl'CKS-EvK-TrF.E. PAVl.i. 
 
 Pale-flowered pallida .... N. Amer. 
 
 Smooth-leaved . . .gldbra 
 
 Long-spiked macrostachya -^— 
 
 Variegated-flowered hybrida . . . 
 
 Dwarf discolor .... 
 
 Neglected negUcia .... 
 
 Red flowered .... rubra 1 — 8 
 
 Yellow-flowered, .fidva 40 
 
 RHAMNEACEiE. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Ciirist's-thorn. Zizyphus. 
 
 Peniandria Monogynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx., tubular ; the scales of the corolla are 
 inserted in the calyx, and support the sta- 
 mina. Seed, a two-celled uut, ^covered by 
 a berry. 
 
 Time of sowing seeds — Autumn, in pots. 
 So//— Sandy loam. Uses — Chiefly 
 planted for the singularity of its spines 
 or thorns. 
 
 Species for Ornament, SfC. 
 
 Common paliuriis . , S.Europe, In- 
 troduced in 1640. 
 
 Holly. 
 
 Ilex. 
 
 Tetandria Tetragynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx, four-toothed ; corolla, wheel-shaped ; 
 style, wanting ; seeds, four, solitarj-, horny, 
 oblong, rounded on one side, cornered on 
 the other, enclosed in a roundish four- 
 celled berry. 
 
 Time of soumtg — The berries should be 
 placed under ground m a pot or large 
 tub for one year, and then sown in the 
 autumn upon a bed of sandy loam. 
 Soil — The holly flourishes best in a 
 dry, sandy soil, but will grow on land 
 of almost any description. Uses — for 
 the purposes of the turner, the inlayer, 
 mill-wright, and engineer. The tree 
 is in great esteem for the ornament of 
 its evergreen foliage. Bird-lime is 
 manufactured from its bark. The 
 common holly, besides being a native 
 of England, is also found wild in 
 many parts of Europe, Japan, Co- 
 chmchiua, North America, &c. As 
 an evergreen fence it is superior to 
 every other plant. It bears clipping 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 99 
 
 well, and is nevev injured by flie 
 severest frost. When reared to the 
 heiffht of two feet, by transplant insr 
 from the seed bed to a rich sandv 
 soil, (he plants may be removed, and 
 planted as a hed2;e with perfect safety 
 on well trenched and manured ground ; 
 this removes the only objection to the 
 holly for fences, which is its slow 
 growth. "We have moved plants four 
 feet in height successfully, and thus 
 made a comparatively impenetrable 
 live-fence the first season. 
 The Carolina, or American Holly, at- 
 tains to a gi-eat height in its native 
 soil. Its wood is held in great esti- 
 mation, but in this respect it is not 
 considered superior to that of our 
 native species. 
 
 Species for Ornament , 8fc. 
 
 HOLLY. ILEX. 
 
 Common aqiiiJ'6liitm..'Br\i. , 20 — 30 
 
 Var.\'arious-lvfl-. ./teterophylla — 
 ,. Thick-leaved . crflTssjyo/j'a . . — 
 
 ,, Hedgehog . . .ferox — 
 
 3, Striped do.. . .echinata ... — 
 
 „ Yelio\v-berried../fnia — 
 
 „ White-mar- i d/ba marffi-\ 
 
 gined \ nata ... J 
 
 ';, Gold-edged . .dureamargindia 
 
 ., Painted media picta. — 
 
 ,, Spineless . . . .sentscens. . . — 
 ., Milk-maid . . Jactdria. ... — 
 j_, Carolina opdca. .N. Amer, 30 
 
 JUGLANDE^. Nat. Si/s. 
 Monoccia PolyanJria. Linn. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 "Wai.nlt-tree. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 JUGLANS. 
 
 Male Flower — ament or catkin, imbricated 
 — ca/yr, scaly ; corolla, six-parted ; Jila- 
 nients, manj-, seven or more. Female 
 Flower — ca/yj-, of four divisions, superior; 
 corolla, with four divisions ; styles, two ; 
 seed, a nut with four divisions, marked by 
 inti'r\'ening membranes, substance of the 
 seed grooved — it is covered by a corticated, 
 dr}', oval-shaped, two-valved drupe. 
 
 Time of sowing — Preserve the nuts until 
 February in their outer coverin<r, after 
 which they may be sown. Soil — A 
 rich loamy soil is that in which the 
 walnut attains the largest size, but it 
 will succeed in very light, siliceous, 
 sandy soils, as well as in clayey ones. 
 Uses — The wood of the walnut is 
 highly valued for many puqioses, such 
 as gun-stocks, domestic utensils, fur- 
 niture, wainscoting, &c. Among the 
 American Walnuts, the black, Juglans 
 
 nigra, is considered to have wood of 
 a more valuable quality than the 
 common walnut, but this latter has 
 a decided superiority in the excellence 
 of its fruit and properties of its oil. 
 The black walnut is considered to be 
 one of the largest trees of America. 
 On the banks of the Ohio, and on 
 the islands of that river, Michaux 
 states that he has found them from 
 sixty to seventy feet in height and four 
 feet in diameter, and that it is not 
 rare to find them six or seven feet. Of 
 the Hiccories, the Pignut, or Carya 
 porcina, is perhaps the most valuable, 
 not for its fruit, but for its wood, 
 being comparatively the best. The 
 comparative value of these trees has 
 not yet been proved in England — 
 hitherto they have been looked upon 
 as merely ornamental park trees, or 
 subjects for botanical investigation. 
 Some of them, however, rank among 
 the largest trees in North America, 
 where, according to Michaux, the 
 general opinion there formed of the 
 wood of the different species cut out 
 from the natural forests is, that it is 
 ofgreat weight, strength, and tenacity, 
 but liable to a speedy decay when ex- 
 posed to damp, heat, and to worms 
 
 Forest or Timber Species. 
 Filaments of the female flower many. 
 
 WALNl'T-TREE. JUGLANS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Common rtc/ia Persia. . . .50 
 
 \'a.r. Dhle.-iruited. rer/Midxima. — — 
 
 „ Late-fruited, .reg.serotina. — 30 
 
 Black nigra N.Amer.. . — 
 
 Shell-bark cinerea .... 
 
 Ash-leaved fraxinifolia 
 
 Winged- fruited . .pterocdrpa .Caucasus 
 Hiccorj'-nut cdrya 
 
 Filaments of the female flower 4 to G 
 
 W hite hickery, or 1 ,,, 
 
 Shagback.. .. j' " *' 
 
 Olive-friiitedor. . 1 ,-• ^, 
 „ . }o(tvccturmis. 
 
 Pecan nut . j 
 
 Flat-fruited compi-essa . . 
 
 Smooth-leaved . . .gldbra. 
 
 Narrow-leaved . . .angustifulia . 
 
 Bitter nut anidra. 70to80 
 
 Pig nut porcina .... 
 
 CONNARACEyE. aw. Sys. 
 Polygamia Monwcia. Linn. 
 
 Eng. .Name. BoU Name. 
 
 Tree ok Heaven, Ailantuus, 
 
 Male Flower — calyx, one-leafed, five- 
 
 • Michaux gives the character of the fruit as 
 
 the finest tiavoured of all the American walnpts, 
 
 and to be more delicate than the European s-pecies. 
 
 lie advises it to be grafted ou the common walnut, 
 
 il -• 
 
 60* 
 
m 
 
 List of I'OkES'f.TREfiS. 
 
 parted, very small ; corolla, five petals, 
 acute, convolute at the base ; stamina, fila- 
 ments tea, compressed, the lengtli of the 
 corolla. 
 
 Female Flower — calyx, as in the male ; 
 corolla, as in the male ; pistil, germs 3 — 5 ; 
 styles lateral ; capsules, compressed ; seeds, 
 solitary; lens-shaped. ^Bisexual flowers 
 as iu the above. 
 
 Naliveof Ft. 
 
 Tall Ailanthus, or) , , ,, ^, • r,^ 
 
 r,, c TT iqlandulosus Clima oU 
 
 ireeot Heaven J^ 
 
 Though a native of China, this tree bears 
 our winters without injury. It grows 
 fast, and attains to a great height ; 
 there are many trees of this kind in 
 England from thirty to forty feet and 
 more in height. It is a handsome 
 tree, and the wood is said to be hard, 
 heavy, and glossy, like satin, and 
 susceptible of the finest polish. It is 
 well worthy the attention of those who 
 have it in their power to benefit them- 
 selves and the nation, by determining 
 the comparative value of the different 
 species of forest-trees. Some remark- 
 able fine specimens of this and of com- 
 paratively rare American forest-trees, 
 are in the grounds of the Duke of 
 Northumberland at Syon. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — As soon as 
 they are received from abroad in 
 boxes of light earth, or sand and peat, 
 protected under glasses. 
 
 LEGUMINOS^. Nat. Sys. 
 Gleditschia, ot Sweet Locust. 
 
 Bisexual Flower — calyx, four-cleft ; co- 
 rolla, four-petaled ; stamina, six; pistil, 
 one. Male Flovvlr — ca/yxjthree-petaled; 
 stamina, six. Female Floweh — calyx, 
 five-leaved ; to/-o//rt, five-petaled ; }jisiil,onii 
 
 Seeds, solitary, roundish, hard, shinin}^, en- 
 closed in a legume or pod, which is broad, 
 much flatted, and divided by several trans- 
 verse partitions. 
 
 Time of sowi?ig the seed — Seeds pro- 
 cured from America, sow half an inch 
 deep; they frequently remain two 
 years in the ground before they vege- 
 tate. Soil — A sandy loam. Uses— 
 This plant is valued for the beauty of 
 its habit of growth. If planted in ex- 
 posed situations, the branches are apt 
 to be broken by the winds. 
 
 Polygamia Diacia, Linn. 
 
 sweet locust, gleditschia. Native of Ft. 
 
 Thr.-thoruedacacia/H(uu«//»/* ..N.A.40 to CO 
 
 Var. Spineless . . .intrmts, . . . 30 to 40 
 
 Sintrle-seeded, orl 
 
 " , • > monospcrma 
 
 water acacia J '^ 
 
 Strong-spined acacia horrida. , . Cliina 
 (^Subordo, PapilioTiacece.') Nat. Sys, 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 SOPHORA. SoPHOKA. 
 
 Decandria Monogamia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx, four-toothed; corolla, pea-flowered; 
 seed, pod, long, slender, one-celled, nume- 
 rous, I'urming prominent knobs on the sur- 
 face of the pod. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — as soon as it can 
 be procured ; sow in pots filled with 
 light earth. Plant in a sandy loam, 
 and in a sheltered situation. Use — 
 Valued for its handsome foliage and 
 habit of growth. 
 
 SOPHORA. SOPHORA. 
 
 Japanese sophora .japonica . . . Japan .... 40 
 
 The wood of this tree, when fresh cut, 
 emits an odour offensive to insects. 
 In England we have seen it attain to 
 upwards of 20 feet in height, with a 
 proportionate diameter. Its pinnated 
 leaves, which are smooth and of a 
 beautiful green, give to the tree a 
 graceful appearance. It is a native of 
 Japan, and was introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1 753. 
 
 Furze, Whin, GosE. Ulex. 
 
 Munadelphia Decandria. — Linn. 
 Calyx, of two ovate-oblong concave leaves, 
 rather shorter than tlie keel ; the upper 
 with two small teeth, the lower with three ; 
 corolla, of five petals ; standard, ovate- 
 cloven ; wings, oblong, rather shorter 
 than the standard ; keel, of two petals, 
 straight, obtuse, cohering by their lower 
 edges ; filaments, in two sets, both united 
 at the base ; anthers, roundish, of two 
 lobes ; germen, oblong, nearly cylindrical, 
 hairy ; legi/me, or seed-pod, oblong, turgid, 
 scarcely longer than the calyx of one cell, 
 and two rigid elastic concave valves; seeds, 
 from six to eight, polished, somewhat an- 
 gular, slightly compressed, with a cloven 
 tumid crest. 
 
 Species for Underwood, Fencing, S,-c. 
 
 furze. ulex. Native of Ft. 
 
 European, or Com- 
 mon europof'us . . Britain. 
 
 Dwarf nanus 
 
 Provence provincidlis, S. Europe. 
 
 Time of sowing the seed — as soon as 
 ripe m the autumn, or in March. Soil. 
 — Dry, sandy, and gravelly soils suit 
 best the growth of furze. It does not 
 
LIST OF FOREST TREES. 
 
 101 
 
 however p;row well on very thin heath 
 soil, nor on damp clays. In Cornwall 
 the common sort (idex europenus) at- 
 tains to 8 feet in height. In Devon- 
 shire, accordinj; to Vancouver, this 
 species is termed French furze, al- 
 though we suspect the ulex prnvin- 
 cialis is the species which ought to 
 come under this name. In some places 
 the u/px nana is called French furze. 
 The botanical distinctions are as fol- 
 low : — 
 
 The Common Furze, Ulex Europerus, 
 Branches, erect, somewhat villous ; calijx, 
 pubescent, teeth obsolete converging, brac- 
 teas densely downy, oval, loose. 
 
 French Furze, Ulex Provincidlis. 
 Branches, erect, somewhat smooth ; cn/yx, a 
 little pubescent, nearly as long as the co- 
 rollii, teeth lanceolate, distant, bracteas 
 minute, compressed. 
 
 Dwarf Whin, or Furze, Uiex nana. 
 Branches, decumbent, hairy ; teeth of the 
 calyx, lanceolate, distant, and spreading ; 
 bracteas, xaimxie, rounded, and close pressed. 
 
 From the above it is evident that the 
 common furze and the French species 
 are nearly allied ; the dwarf furze has 
 the leaves or spines shorter and closer, 
 and the branches decumbent. These 
 points of structure distinguish this spe- 
 cies lYom the others at the first sight. 
 Its value is estimated, in comparison 
 to that of the common, as two to one 
 inferior. 
 The common furze generally attains to 
 its full size in four years, and it ought 
 not to be cut more frequently. In 
 V , local cases, as in the neighbourhood 
 V of potteries, Vancouver observes it 
 ' " makes a return of from 15*. to 20*. an 
 acre annually. The wood is very hard, 
 but never attains to a size available 
 for the business of the carpenter. It 
 is chiefly used for fuel, fences, and 
 food for cows, horses, and sheep. On 
 soils suchasnow alluded to, it makes a 
 good fence, but requires peculiar ma- 
 nagement to prevent it becomingnaked 
 at the root. Sowing in three tiers on a 
 bank is perhaps the best mode, as it 
 allows of one to be kept low by the 
 shears or bill, the second of higher 
 growth, and the last to attain its natu- 
 ral stature. Respecting its merits as an 
 article of fodder, a good deal has been 
 written; as, for instance, by Duhamel in 
 France, Evelyn in England, and Doc- 
 tor Anderson in Scotland ; and at this 
 
 time, and for that purpose, ai? we are 
 informed, it is cultivated successfully 
 by Mr. Attwood of Birmingham. It 
 requires to be chopped or bruised, as 
 a preparative to its mastication. It 
 would be valuable information to know 
 the comparative value of the Whin to 
 that of Lucern, Turnip, Red Clover, 
 cultivated separately, or a combination 
 of Ddctylis glomerata, Lolium pe- 
 rhine, Festuca duriuscula, Pua pra- 
 ti'nsis, Cynosurus cristiitus, Lotus 
 corniculdtus, Phh'um pratense, Trifd- 
 liuni repens, Trifulium minus, Medi- 
 cugn lupulina, and a small portion of 
 Achillea millefolium. The produce of 
 plants constituting the richest pasture 
 plants, when combined on a furze soil, 
 are proper to compare with the pro- 
 duce of furze, to ascertain the most 
 profitable crop with which to occupy 
 the soil in question, and this point has 
 not yet been determined. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Laburnum. 
 
 Bot. Name, 
 
 Cytisus. 
 
 Calyx, labiate ; legume, or seed-pod, tapering 
 at the base ; seed, kidney-shaped, com- 
 pressed. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — March. Soil — 
 This tree attains the greatest perfec- 
 tion on a sandy loam, but it may be 
 planted in almost any kind of soil, 
 except where stagnant moisture pre- 
 vails. Uses — Although an ornamental 
 tree, yet its wood or timber is valuable 
 for various kinds of fimcy wood- works, 
 such as musical instruments, handles 
 of knives, &c. The wood is very hard, 
 takes a fine polish, and, when of suffi- 
 cient size, may he manufactured into 
 the most elegant kinds of furniture. 
 
 In the species here enumerated, the pods 
 are one or two-jointed, joints glo- 
 bular. 
 
 Species for Timber as well as for 
 Ornament, <^c. 
 
 Monade.lpkia Decandria. Linn. 
 
 LABURNUM. CYTISUS. 
 
 Com. laburnum . . luburnuni . .Eur. . 10 — 25 
 
 Scotch laburnum .ulpinus. . . . 
 
 RoBiNiA, or Locust-tree, 
 
 False Acacia, &c. Robinia *. 
 
 Calyx, one-leafed, four-cleft; legume, com- 
 pressed, long, gibbous ; seed, kidney-form. 
 
 Time of sowing the seed. — The end of 
 March, on a bed of light earth. The 
 
 • So named by Liniireus in honour of J. Robin, 
 a French botanist, who lirst introduced the tree 
 into France from Canada, in the rcigi^ of Henry 
 lY,, about the year 1601.— Mich. 
 
102 
 
 LIST OF FOREST- TREES. 
 
 following spring transplant the seed- 
 lings in nursery rows about the end 
 of March, the rows to be three feet 
 apart, and the plants a foot and a half 
 asunder in the rows. In one or at 
 most two years they shovild be planted 
 out where they are intended tinally to 
 remain. Soil — It will grow in almost 
 any soil, but attains to most perfection 
 in such as is light and sandy. Uses 
 — The wood is hard and very durable. 
 It is esteemed, in America, preferable 
 to the best white oak for axle-trees of 
 carriages, trenails for ships, posts for 
 rail-fencing, and for withstanding the 
 bad effects of moisture when fixed in 
 damp ground. It is frequently sub- 
 stituted for box by the turners, for the 
 manufacture of sugar-bowls, salt-cel- 
 lars, candlesticks, forks, spoons, &c. 
 It was cultivated in England in 1640, 
 by Mr. John Tradescant, or nearly 
 two hundred years ago. But the 
 only satisfactory authenticated state- 
 ments we can find of the greatest age 
 of Locust trees now growing in Eng- 
 land (with that of their produce of 
 timber) does not exceed sixty years. 
 A locust-tree, in the grounds of the 
 late Charles Bloomfield, Esq., Bury 
 St. Edmond's, of sixty years growth, 
 in 1829, measured in height from 
 forty to fifty feet, and the circum- 
 ference at three feet from the ground 
 six feet seven inches, the solid con- 
 tents being fifty-four feet of tim- 
 ber*. The limits of these pages do 
 not permit further details, except to 
 observe that, owing to the brittle na- 
 ture of the wood when young, the 
 leading shoots of the stems, as well as 
 the branches, are very liable to be 
 broken by the wind, and probably 
 it is from injuries of this kind that 
 many trees are found unsound even 
 before forty years of growth : great 
 attention to early training or pruning 
 appears to be required by the locust. 
 The comparative strengtli as to frac- 
 ture of its timber compared to that of 
 oak, appears to be in favour of the 
 former, according to Professor Barlow, 
 fine Eniilish oak 1G72 to locust 1867. 
 The comparative value of the timber 
 of the other different species of lio- 
 binia mentioned below, has not yet 
 been ascertained: their value for 
 ornament is well known. 
 
 • Withers MS. Correspoodence. 
 
 Diadelphia Decandria. Linn, 
 
 ROBINIA. ROBINIA. Native of Ft. 
 
 Locust-tree, or) , ^ ■ xt a or t;^ 
 
 p, . '• tpseudo acacia^i .Am. 3b-b0 
 
 Clammy visciisa 30-40 
 
 Spineless inirmis .... — ^— — 
 
 Long-leaved macrophy/la Siberia — 
 
 Parasol utnbrnculijera — 
 
 Upright stricta — 
 
 Pendulous pindula . . . — 
 
 Ornamental only. 
 
 Rose Acacia kispida .... Carolina 60 
 
 Purple purpurea. . . — 
 
 Smooth-branched . rosea Carolina — 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 Kentuckv Cokfee-Tree, 
 
 OR Hardy Bonduc. Gymnocladus. 
 
 Dicecia Decandria. Linn. 
 Male Flower — Calyx., five-toothed ; corolla, 
 five petalled. Female Flower — the same 
 as the male ; stile, one ; legumen, one- 
 celled ; seeds, several, embedded in a pulp. 
 Propagated by suckers from the root, as 
 well as from seed. 
 
 Kentucky Coffee-tree Canadensis N.Amer. 40 
 
 There is only'one species of this tree. In 
 its native soil of that part of Genesee 
 which borders on lake Ontario and 
 lake Erie, and in the states of Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee, Michaux states 
 it to attain to fifty or sixty feet in 
 height, and that the stem is often 
 destitute of branches for thirty feet, 
 while the diameter seldom exceeds 
 twelve or fifteen inches. In summer, 
 when it is fully grown, it has a fine 
 appearance. On young trees the 
 leaves, which are doubly compound, 
 are three feet long and twenty inches 
 wide. The bark is very rough, and 
 detaches itself in small vertical strips. 
 The name of coffee was given to this 
 tree by the early emigrants to Ken- 
 tuckj^ The seeds appear to possess 
 no culinary value. The wood is very 
 compact and of a rosy hue, which fits 
 it for the use of the cabinet-maker. 
 Michaux observes that, like the locust, 
 it exhibits almost nothing but heart- 
 wood, for that six inches in diameter 
 has only six lines of sap-wood. These 
 qualities, he observes, recommend it 
 for culture in the forests of the north 
 and centre of Europe. It was intro- 
 duced into England, in 1748, by 
 Archibald Duke of Ar^yle, but its 
 culture appears not to have extended 
 beyond the garden. 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 m 
 
 AMYGDALIN^E. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name, 
 AlMONl>-TREE. 
 
 Hot, Name. 
 
 Amyodalus. 
 
 Eng. Name 
 
 Peak-tree, 
 
 Bol. Name. 
 Pyrus. 
 
 Icosandria Monogyinit. Li>in. 
 
 Caly.T, five-cleft, inferior ; pefa/s, five ; seed, 
 a nut, oval-shaped, compressed, acute, with 
 ])rominent sutures on each side, netted in 
 four rows and dotted, enclosed in a villose 
 or woolly drupe. 
 
 Time of souing seed — Autumn ; cover 
 with light dry earth, three inches deep. 
 Soil — A sandy loam, in a sheltered 
 situation. Uses — Gay and ornamental 
 flowers in the spring: : the naked seed 
 of the almond, properly so called, yields 
 an essential oil, and, by trituration, 
 forms an emulsion, or cooling bever- 
 age, much used. 
 
 The naked seed or almond of the Amyg- 
 dalus amara affords an oil of similar 
 properties to that of the Amygdalus 
 communis, but the bitter prmciple 
 contained in the farinaceous part of 
 the seed is deleterious, containing 
 prussic acid. 
 
 Species for Ornament, ^-c. 
 
 ALMOND-TREE. AMYGDALUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Sweet almond. . . . communis . .Barbary . . 18 
 Bitter almond. . . .amara — 
 
 Double blossomed-^ -vL' '^"^ IPersia . . . . — 
 t i^Ptrsica) ) 
 
 Chinese cochinchintnsis China 
 
 POMACES. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Mespilus. Mespilus. 
 
 Icosandria Di-pentagynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx, five-cleft ; petals, five ; berry, inferior ; 
 
 seeds, five, bone-like, enclosed in a globu. 
 
 lar berry. 
 
 Time of sowing the seed — autumn, or 
 as soon as ripe. Soil — a rich loam ; 
 but it will succeed in any description 
 of soil free from the extremes of mois- 
 ture and dryness. Uses — for its orna- 
 mental habit of growth and its fruit. 
 
 Species for Ornament, ^c. 
 
 mespilus. mespilus. 
 
 Medlar, common. . Germanica England . 12 
 
 Var.Lprt. medlar. i/rk/a — 
 
 „ Dutch diffusa — 
 
 Quince-leaved mes-1, ,, ( 
 
 ^ ., uomentusa J 
 
 pilus j \ 
 
 '^Thom'''^!'^^.''''.'}'''''""''^"'^^*"^'"''"^ . . .12 
 
 Large-flowered 1 ,■„. r, -c 
 
 ° ., >«ra«aj/?ora S.Europe. — 
 
 mespilus )^ •' * 
 
 Calyx, five-cleft ; petals, five ; seeds, several, 
 oblong, blunt, accuminate at the base, con- 
 vex on one side, flat on the other, enclosed 
 in a pome or apple, fleshy, with five mem- 
 branous cells. 
 
 Time of sowing the seed — Spring: pre- 
 serve the seed during winter in dry 
 sand. Soil — rich clayey loam, but 
 also on gravelly and chalky soils on 
 elevated, exposed situations. Uses — 
 for underwood, ornamental blossoms 
 and fruit: the white beam (pyrus 
 aria), however, is considered by some 
 to rank as a timber-tree ; the wood, 
 tough and hard, is sometimes used for 
 axletrees, handles of tools, &c. The 
 wood of the wild service-tree (tormi- 
 nalis) is likewise applied to the same 
 purposes, and its fruit is frequently 
 brought to market. 
 
 Species for Ornament, Sfc. 
 
 pear-tree. 
 
 Arbutus-leaved . . . 
 
 Var. Red-fruited 
 
 arbutus-leaved 
 
 „ White-fruited 
 
 arbutus-leaved 
 
 „ Black-fruited 
 
 arbutus-leaved 
 
 Snowy 
 
 Wild pear-tree . . . 
 
 Woolly-leaved . . . 
 
 Crab-tree 
 
 Chinese apple . . . 
 
 Siberian crab . . . . 
 
 Sraall-iruited crab 
 
 Sweet-scented crab 
 
 Narrow-lvd. crab . 
 
 Com. quince-tree. . 
 
 Willow-lvd.crab. . 
 
 Wliite beam-tree . 
 
 Swedish do 
 
 Wild service pear- 
 tree 
 
 Amelanchier. 
 
 PYKUS. 
 
 .arhutiful. 
 \ rubra , . . 
 
 NatiTe of 
 
 . Virginia 
 
 yd/ba — ^ 
 
 \ nigra .... 
 
 nivalis . . . . 
 communis . . 
 pollveria . . . 
 mdlus 
 
 spectabilis . 
 prunifolia . , 
 baccuta . . . , 
 corondria . . 
 angustifolia 
 cyddnia ... 
 sulicifolia . , 
 
 Austria. 
 
 England 
 
 Germany 
 
 Britain 
 
 China 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Virginia 
 , N. Amer.' 
 Austria 
 Levant 
 Britain 
 , Sweden 
 
 .30 
 
 intermedia. , 
 tormindlis Eng. .30 — 40 
 
 Amelanchier. 
 
 Icosandria Pentagynia^ Linn. 
 Snowy Amelanchier. io/rya/»»M»».N. Amer. 
 
 CrATjEQUS. 
 
 Calyx, five-cleft ; berry, inferior ; seeds, two, 
 roundish, umbilicated, body somewhat long, 
 distinct, cartilaginous. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — Autumn. Soil — 
 will succeed in almost any kind of 
 soil of intermediate quality as to mois- 
 ture and dryness : the most ornamental 
 and useful of the species are the vari- 
 
104 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 eties of the common hawthorn (oxya- 
 cantha), the Glastonbury is remarkable 
 for the season of the year in which it 
 comes into flower, which is usually in 
 January or February, and sometimes 
 at Christmas, accordinj^ to the state of 
 the weather then, and of that during 
 the previous summer and autumn. 
 The wood of the common Hawthorn 
 is hard and tough, and is esteemed 
 for axle-trees, handles of tools, &c. 
 When planted singly it not unfre- 
 quently rises to 20 or even 30 feet in 
 height ; and we have measured stems 
 of individual trees of this species, 
 varying from 3 to 7 feet in circum- 
 ference. The merits of this and the 
 interesting species and varieties men- 
 tioned below, for ornament in park 
 scenery, come more properly for dis- 
 cussion under the second division of 
 the subject of Planting, proposed in 
 the introduction to this treatise : but 
 though their value, in an economical 
 point of view, has not yet been deter- 
 mined, their natural habits and growth 
 offer matter well worthy the attention 
 and'investigation of the forest -planter, 
 and they are therefore here enume- 
 rated. Uses — The common hawthorn, 
 it is well known, is used for making 
 quick or live fences. It is of great 
 importance to have the plant strong 
 and large before finally planting it in 
 the hedge-row. This plant delights in 
 a deep soil, and where it is not natu- 
 rally such, its depth ought to be in- 
 creased. When the plants or quicks 
 are large, they produce a fence in a 
 short space of time, and save much 
 expense in weeding, nursing, and tem- 
 porary fencing. 
 
 Species for Ornament, S^c. 
 
 ;:) 
 
 Native of 
 
 N. Amer. 
 
 CRATAEGUS. 
 
 G reat American i cratcp(jus coc- 
 
 hawtborn . . . .\ cinea.. 
 Maple-leaved . . . . — corddta . , 
 
 Pear-leaved — pijrifolia 
 
 Oval-leaved — elliptica , 
 
 Hollow-leaved . . . — glandulosa 
 
 Yellow-berried . . . — Jldva . . . • 
 
 Goosuberry-loaved — parvifolia 
 
 Great red-fruited . . — punctata . 
 
 Var .Yellow-fruited — durea . . . 
 
 Common cocksjmr — crusgdlU 
 
 Var. Py racautha- f — pyrucan- \ 
 leaved \ tIdfoUa . ) 
 
 „ Willow-leaved — sa/icifilla 
 
 White-thorn — oxijacdntha'Bviia.m 
 
 Var. Common. . . .-^vulgdris. 
 
 CRAT^GUS. 
 
 Var. Great-fniited. 
 
 „ Glastonbury . 
 
 ,, Dbl.-flowered. 
 Yellow-berried . 
 Parslej'-leaved . 
 
 Elegant red 
 
 Sweet-scented . . . 
 Woolly-fruited . . . 
 
 Sloe-leaved 
 
 Cut-leaved , 
 
 Comb-shaped . . . . 
 
 Frosted 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Black-berried . . . , 
 
 Native of Ft, 
 
 — major . . . 
 
 — pra-cox., 
 
 — p/ena . . . 
 
 — durea . . , 
 
 — azarolus .S.Europe 
 
 — (■legaris 
 
 — Of/o/'fl^/ssi/na. Crimea 
 — eriocdrpa. .Britain 
 — priiji e//i/()/i(/ .N . Amer. 
 , — dissect a. . . .Persia 
 
 — pectindta . . 
 
 . — pruinosa. . . — ^ 
 
 — punicea . Dahuria 
 
 , — me/anocd7-pa.T!Xuviis, 
 
 OLEIN^. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 ASH-TIIEE. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Fkaxinus. 
 
 Folygamia Dicecia. Linn. 
 
 Bisexual. Male Flower — calyx, none, or 
 a four-parted perianth ; corolla, none, or 
 four petals ; stamina, two ; pistil, one ; 
 capsule., one-seeded, terminated by a spear- 
 shaped membranous wing. Female 
 Flower — calyx., none, or a four-parted 
 perianth ; corolla, none, or four petals ; 
 pistil, one ; capsule and seed, the same 
 as in the bisexual flower. 
 
 Time of sowing the seed — Autumn, as 
 soon as ripe, or dry the seed in a cool 
 airy loft, and preserve them in sand 
 during the winter : and then in April 
 sow them on beds of fresh mellow 
 soil ; the plants will appear in the 
 following spring; but if sown in the 
 autumn as soon as ripe, most of the 
 plants will appear in the same season. 
 
 Soil — Clayey loam brings the ash to the 
 greatest perfection, but it will grow 
 on every description of soil. Evelyn 
 mentions an ash-tree of 132 feet in 
 height, and Young, in his Irish Tour, 
 states the length of an ash, at thirty- 
 five years growth, to be 70 feet. 
 
 Uses — This wood is hard and tough, 
 and much esteemed for implements 
 of husbandry, and also for the pur- 
 poses of the coach-maker, cooper, 
 turner, &c. It makes a profitable 
 kind of underwood, and may be cut 
 every eight years for hoops, and every 
 fourteen years for hop-poles, &c. It 
 is said that the leaves, when eaten by 
 cows, give the butter which is made 
 of their milk a rank taste; butter, 
 however, in the spring, and towards 
 autumn, has frequently a rank taste, 
 when the cows yielding it are com- 
 pletely out of the reach of leaves of 
 any kind of forest-trees whatsoever. 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 105 
 
 When planted in hed2:e-rows, the ash 
 is apt to impoverish the soil around it 
 in a greater degree than most other 
 trees. This tree is by many con- 
 sidered to stand next in value to the 
 oak. It is mentioned as such by the 
 oldest writers*. Where pollard trees 
 are permitted, the ash makes one of 
 the most profitable. Dr. Withering 
 states, that a decoction of two drachms 
 of the bark has been used to cure 
 agues. The Manna Ash, Fraxinus 
 rotundifdlia, in England seldom 
 attains to more than 20 feet in 
 height ; the leaflets are shorter, of a 
 deeper green colour, and more deeply 
 serrated on the margins than those 
 of the common ash. It is a native 
 of Italy, and is most abundant in Ca- 
 labria, where it grows spontaneously 
 on the lower parts of the mountains. 
 This tree affords the 'well known 
 medicinal laxative substance termed 
 mayina. It is obtained by making a 
 horizontal incision in the stem of the 
 tree towards the end of July. The 
 fluid gum is received into cups formed 
 of the leaves of the maple, and con- 
 ducted into them by the foot-stalks of 
 the leaf, or by straws inserted into 
 the incisions. The manna continues 
 to exude from the wounds of the 
 bole for about a month after the in- 
 cision is first madet. The compa- 
 rative merits and value of the other fo- 
 rei£:n species of ash mentioned below, 
 remain yet to be proved by the British 
 forester ; and we shall here, therefore, 
 only observe, that the white ash of 
 North America, among those enu- 
 merated below, is the only species 
 that at present is considered to ap- 
 proximate to, and rival the common 
 ash in value. In New Brunswick 
 and Canada it most abounds, and is 
 most multiplied in the United States, 
 north of the river Hudson. Its most 
 favourable sites are the banks of 
 rivers and the edges and surrounding 
 acclivities of swamps ; it there some- 
 times attains to eighty feet in height. 
 
 • Vide Gentleman's Magazine, 1"85; Hunter's 
 Evelyn ; Withering's Arrangement of Britisli 
 Plants; Pennant's Tour, 1772, p. "29 ; Gilpin's 
 Forest Scenery, Vol. II., p. 280; Martyu's Ed. 
 Miller's Gard. ijict. ; Art. Fraxinus. 
 
 t See Traas. Royal Soc, vol. Ix, 
 
 Timher or Forest Species. 
 
 ASII-TREE, FRAXINUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Common excC/xior . . . Britain ... 70 
 
 V^ntWa-leiLVcd ., . .simp/icifolia 30 
 
 White American .amencnMa. . N.Amer... 40 
 
 Var. Black do. . . .puhiscens. . . — 
 
 „ Red do rubra — 
 
 Species for Ornament, S^-c. 
 
 Weeping excpLptaduUiUxWaXw ... "0 
 
 Horizontal ,, horizontalis 
 
 Erose-leavcd ,, ei-osa.. 
 
 Striped bark. ... „ striata. 30 
 
 W^alnut-leaved . . .juglandifolia 
 
 Aleppo lent iscif cilia . Aleppo 
 
 Flowering ornus Italy 
 
 Many-dowered . . .fioribiimla . Nepaul 
 
 Manna rotundifolia Italy 
 
 Cloth-leaved pannosa . . .N.Amer. ] 
 
 Four-sided quudrangidata 
 
 Flat-seeded platacarpa. , 
 
 Long-leaved longifoha . . 
 
 Red-veined ruhicunda , . 
 
 Green-branched . . viridis 
 
 Cinereous cmirca .... 
 
 Grey-branched . . .alba • 
 
 Richards' Richardi . . ■ 
 
 Sharp-leaved oxycurpa 
 
 Klder-leaved sambiicifolia N.Amer. 
 
 Silver-leaved argtntea . . .Corsica 
 
 Elliptic-leaved .. .e////)^'ca. . . N.Amer. 
 
 Oval-leaved ovdta 
 
 Mexican mexicana . . .Mexico 
 
 Dotted-.stalked . . .epip/era. . . . N. Amer. 
 
 Red-veined rubicu/ida . . . 
 
 Powdered pulverulenta . 
 
 Mixed mixta 
 
 Expanded expansa 
 
 ELi^AGNEiE. Nat. S>/s. 
 
 £ng. Name. 
 
 Oleaster-tuee. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 El^agnus. 
 
 Telrandria Monogynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx, four-cleft, bell-shaped ; corolla, none ; 
 drupe^ inferior ; seed, a nut, oblong, obtuse. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — Autumn : may be 
 sown in pots or propagated by layers. 
 Soil — A sandy loam is what it aftects 
 most. Uses — It is admired for the, 
 fragrance of its foliage. The compa- 
 rative value of its wood has not yet 
 been proved. 
 
 Species for Ornament, 8jC. 
 
 OLEASTER-TREE. EL.EAGNUS. Native of t. 
 
 Narrow-leaved . . .angustifolia.S. Europe . 18 
 
106 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 URTICE^. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 Mui.BERRY-TREE. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 MORUS. 
 
 Monoecia Tetrandr'ia. Linn. 
 Male Flower — calyx, four divisions; co- 
 roUa,no\\e. Female Flower — calyx, ionr- 
 leaviid ; corolla, none ; style, two ; seed, 
 sinf^le, ovate, acute, covered by the calyx, 
 which ripens into a large fleshy berry. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — March, f^in light 
 earth, with gentle artificial heat ; or 
 propagate by layers, ^oil — It flou- 
 rishes best on a rich sandy loam ; but 
 it will thrive even on very sandy soils, 
 if of proper depth. Uses — The black 
 mulberry is chiefly cultivated for its 
 fruit, and the white mulberry for its 
 leaves, which are considered the best 
 food for the silk- worm. It has been 
 long ago recommended that, instead 
 of pulling the leaves off singly for the 
 food of the silk- worm, they should be 
 shorn off, together with their young 
 branches, by which the tree is much 
 less injured. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 MULBERRY-TREE. MORUS. 
 
 Common nigra Italy 30 
 
 Red rubra .... .N.Amer.. . — 
 
 Species for Ornament, 8fc. 
 
 White alba ...China 20 
 
 Paper . . ._ papyrfera. .Japan 
 
 LoTE or Nettle-Tree. Celtis. 
 
 Polygamia Monaicia, Linn. 
 
 Bisexual Flower — calyx, five-parted ; co- 
 rolla, none ; stamina, five ; styles, two ; 
 drupe, one-seeded. 
 
 Male Flower — calyx, six-parted ; corolla, 
 none ; sta7nina, six ; seed, a nut, roundish. 
 
 LOTE or NETTLE-TREE. CELTIS. 
 
 EuropeanNet-1 ^^^^^^.^ S.Eu..20to40 
 
 tie-tree .... J 
 
 Eastern orientdlis Levant — — 
 
 American occidentalis ...N.Am. — 50 
 
 Willileuow's. . . ^Fi//f/e?Jotf!a/ia China — — 
 
 Chinese ..... .sinensis — 
 
 Tournefort's . . . Tourneforlia . . Levant — — 
 
 . Time of sowing the seed — March, or, 
 if it can be procured in time, sow in 
 the autumn, in a mixture of peat and 
 loam, placed in pots or boxes, shel- 
 tered from the frost, and shaded in 
 hot weather from the sun. These trees 
 require protection for the first two 
 years, or while young ; afterwards 
 they may be planted in any moderately 
 exj;osed situation. The soil best 
 adapted to them is a sandy loam. 
 
 Uses. — the wood of the European 
 nettle-tree is considered to be one of 
 the hardest ; and Evelyn says, that in 
 former times it was used for the ma- 
 nufacture of musical instruments. 
 The American nettle-tree is similar 
 in its foliage and general appearance 
 to the European species ; the branches 
 of both are numerous and slender, 
 and the limbs take their rise at a 
 small distance from the ground, 
 and grow in a horizontal or an in- 
 clined direction. Michaux observes, 
 that the comparative value of the 
 wood has not been proved in Ame- 
 rica, but that it is similar in proper- 
 ties to the former species. As yet 
 those other species enumerated above 
 are considered as merely ornamental. 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 Elm-Tree. Ulmus. 
 
 Pentandria Digynia. Linn. 
 
 Calyx — five-cleft, inferior, permanent; co- 
 iolla, none ; seed-vessel, compressed, flat, 
 one-seeded; seed, roundish, slightly com- 
 pressed. 
 
 Ti7ne of sowing the seed — As soon as 
 ripe in May, on a bed of fresh loamy 
 earth to be shaded from the mid-day 
 sun, until the plants appear to be well 
 rooted. The Wych elm is almost the 
 only species raised from seed ; the 
 other species are raised by layers. 
 The American elms produce seed, but 
 it seldom retains its vegetative powers 
 long enough to be brought to Eng- 
 land. A deep loam grows the elm to 
 the greatest perfection. Uses — The 
 wood is hard and tough, and resists 
 the effects of moisture better than 
 most other kinds of wood. Its tena- 
 cious adhesive quality renders it va- 
 luable for many important purpose.s, 
 keels of ships, naves of wheels, &c. 
 
 ELM-TREE. ULMUS. Natiie of Ft. 
 
 English campeslris.BntMn.80 100 
 
 Cork-barked subenisa. . . ■ — — 
 
 Dutch cork-barkedwn/o;- . 
 
 Wych inontana. .. __ — 
 
 Smooth .glabra .... — — 
 
 Pendulous, or . .7 , ,, 
 
 ( pendulum. — — 
 
 weeping.. ..j*^ 
 
 American Americana N.Am. 
 
 White Hungarian alba Hung. 
 
 Curled crispa. . . . N.Am. 
 
 Dwarf pumila . . . Siberia 
 
 Slippery .fulva . 
 
 Chichester vegela . . . .N.Am. — — . 
 
 Winged aldta — — 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 107 
 
 There are new varieties of the elm of re- 
 cent introduction, as the Huntin<rdon, 
 Chichester, fan-leaved, &c. These 
 exhibit a more rapid and luxuriant 
 growth than the other species men- 
 tioned ; but their comparative value, 
 as regards the quality of the timber, 
 has not yet, as far as we know, been 
 satisfactorily determined. There is a 
 difference of opinion as respects the 
 comparative value of the wych and 
 the English elms. The weight of 
 opinion is in favour of the Enslish 
 elm, ulmus campestris. The corked 
 barked elm is held on all hands to be 
 very inferior, particularly the Dutch 
 species. Where hedge-row timber is 
 at all admissible, the elm is perhaps 
 of all other trees the most to be pre- 
 ferred. The practice of lopping and 
 pollarding these trees sadly disfigures 
 the general appearance of the coun- 
 try where it is practised to any ex- 
 tent, and the timber of such pollards 
 is almost always found defective. The 
 wych elm attains to a great size; 
 Marshall (on Planting, vol. ii.) men- 
 tions a tree of this kind near Bradley 
 church, in Suffolk, which, in 1754, 
 measured twenty-five feet five inches 
 in circumference, and in thirteen years 
 after measured twenty- six feet three 
 inches, at five feet from the ground. 
 
 AMENTACEiE. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng, Name. 
 
 Willow-tree. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Salix. 
 
 Dicscia 1,2, 3, 5, Andria. Linn. 
 Calyx, aments composed of scales ; corolla, 
 none. In the Male Flower, the nectary 
 consists of a meUiferous gland ; in the 
 Female Flower, the style is bifid. Seed 
 ~— vessel or capsule one-celled, two-valved, 
 downy, numerous, ovate, very small. 
 
 Time of sowing seed — March ; but ge 
 nerally propagated by cuttings or sets 
 in the spring. Soil — Moist soils of 
 almost every description will suit this 
 tree. Uses — The osier (salix vimina- 
 lis) affords the materials of the basket- 
 maker ; also binders, thatching-rods, 
 rakes, scythe-handles, &c. The other 
 species enumerated, but especially the 
 Salix Russelliana, which is perhaps of 
 more rapid growth than the rest, af- 
 fords poles and rails, and is made use 
 of for a great variety of other purposes. 
 
 The bark of the sulix alba, Doctor A. 
 T. Thompson observes, supplies the 
 place of the Peruvian bark, in the 
 
 case of intermittent fevers. It owes 
 its efficacy to a peculiar alkaline prin- 
 ciple which has been termed sulicina, 
 and which can be separated from the 
 other components of the bark. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 Species, with subserratc villose leaves, 
 
 willow-trees. salix. Naiiteof Ft. 
 
 Common white , . . alba Britain ... 40 
 
 Ash-coloured .... cinerea .... 20 
 
 Osier (bushy). . . .viminalis . . 
 
 Round-leaved .... caprea 30 
 
 Species with leaves smooth, serrate. 
 
 Lonp--leaved tri-) . •/ , ■ -n i ■ on 
 
 °, \frmndria . . .lintaiu ... JO 
 
 androus . . . . J 
 
 Peach-leaved amygdalina. ■ — 
 
 Duke of Bedford's Russelliiina . — 
 
 Sweet, or bay-lvd. penlandria . 
 
 Crack .fragilis .... 1 5 
 
 Halbert-leaved . . . hastata .... — 
 
 Rose htlix — 
 
 Golden Vitellina. . . . — 
 
 Weeping babylonica. . 40 
 
 Eng. Name. { Bot. Name. 
 
 Poplar. Populus. 
 
 Dimcia Octandria. Linn. 
 
 Calyx of the ament, a flat scale, torn at the 
 edge ; corolla, turbinated, oblique, entire ; 
 stigma of the Female Flower, fuui-cleft ; 
 seeds, many, ovate, furnished with capillary 
 pappas, which act as wings to carry the 
 seeds by the wind, enclosed in a one-celled 
 capsule. 
 
 Time of solving seed — Propagated by 
 cuttings, suckers, and layers; the 
 first mode preferred. Soil — It af- 
 fects a moist soil, but will grow in 
 almost every description of soil. Uses 
 — The chief use of the wood of the 
 forest species is for the turner in the 
 manufacture of trays, bellows, and 
 various domestic utensils. The wood 
 of the Abele poplar is found to be 
 very useful for water-works, having 
 been proved to keep sound for a long 
 series of years when so used*. 
 
 The common grey poplar is sometimes 
 confounded with tiie abele or white 
 species. The leaves of the former are 
 smaller and rounder shaped, and but 
 little cottony underneath, sometimes 
 smooth. The bark of the stem be- 
 comes of a beautiful silvery grey hue. 
 This species is of slower growlii, but, 
 
 • Notwithstanding the general disrepute of the 
 wood of tlie Loinbardy poplar lor ont-door works, 
 there are instances of its durability being proved, 
 in mal<ing close palings, wlien well saturated with 
 coal-gas tar. 
 
108 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 in time, becomes a handsome tree, 
 with the branches of the top more 
 compact than in that of the abele. 
 The leaves of the abele are densely 
 cottony underneath, as are also the 
 young shoots and footstalks of the 
 leaves. The root is powerfully creep- 
 ing, which unfits the tree to be planted 
 in fields where pasturage or tillage 
 exists. The creeping roots send up 
 suckers, used in propagating the tree. 
 Layers are also used, as well as cuttings 
 of the branches, for the same purpose. 
 It having been doubted whether this 
 or the former was the true abele of 
 the Dutch, where in Holland the abele 
 is highly valued, we procured speci- 
 mens from a celebrated grower in that 
 country, and these proved, beyond a 
 doubt, that the abele of Holland is the 
 Populus alba, or abele of Britain, and 
 not the Populus canescens, or grey 
 ; poplar. The value of this tree, in peaty 
 J and low damp soils, is well worthy the 
 I attention of the forest-tree planter. 
 f Besides the uses of the wood before 
 remarked, it is considered good for 
 ■wainscoting, floors, laths, and pack- 
 ing cases, indeed, from the boards of 
 it not splitting by, but closing on, the 
 heads of nails, it is considered superior 
 to deal for the latter purpose- The 
 wood of the Lombardy poplar is held 
 in esteem for the like purpose. The 
 bark of the abele is recommended in 
 the cure of intermittent fevers. It 
 should be gathered in summer, when 
 full of sap, and dried by a gentle heat. 
 When powdered, a dram of it is given 
 every four hours between the fits. A 
 white poplar in St. John's College 
 Walks, Cambridge, blovvn down in a 
 hurricane, Nov. 6, 179.5, was forty- 
 two feet in length, and nine feet ten 
 inches in circumference, which, with 
 the limbs, gave 328 cubic feet of timber. 
 The black Italian poplar attains to a 
 large size in a comparatively short 
 space of time, as is proved at page 89. 
 It delights in moist situations, but 
 grows fast in almost every kind of 
 soil. It is a more valuable tree than 
 the Lombardy poplar, and for up- 
 land soils superior to the abele. The 
 timber is used for the like purposes 
 as those of the former. The pro- 
 perty of slow combustion seems 
 general in the wood of all the different 
 species of poplar, and this property, 
 which renders the wood valuable for 
 
 floors and internal works in buildings 
 in case of accidents by fire, renders it 
 of inferior value for fuel. 
 
 The]aspen, aspe, or trembling poplar, at- 
 tains to a large size and succeeds well 
 in almost every description of soil, ex- 
 cept clay. The roots are very im- 
 poverishing to the land, and the aspen 
 is, therefore, confined to local sites. 
 The well-known property of being 
 moved by the slightest current of air 
 possessed by the leaves of this tree, 
 appears to originate in the structure 
 of the petiole, or footstalk of the leaf, 
 the planes of which (being a com- 
 pressed petiole) are at right angles to 
 those of the body of the leaf, which is 
 itself furnished with two glands, run- 
 ning one into the other. Such are the 
 opinions of Linnaeus and of Dr. Stoke 
 regardino; this point. But the flatiened 
 footstalk is common to all the poplars 
 with which we are acquainted, and all 
 are more or less subject to have the 
 
 ~: leaves easily put in motion ; in fact ther 
 structure of the petiole, as now de- 
 
 5 -scribed, will readily explain the matter 
 to the observer, and that in proportion 
 to the length and slender structure of 
 a petiole so constituted to that of the 
 body of the leaf, depends its sensi- 
 bility of any cause of motion. Light- 
 foot mentions, that this almost con- 
 stant trembling of the leaves of the 
 aspen had given rise to a superstitious 
 opinion in some parts of the High- 
 lands of Scotland, that our Saviour's 
 cross was made of the wood of this 
 tree, and that therefore its leaves could 
 never rest. 
 
 Among the North American species of 
 poplar, the Canadian {monilifera) of- 
 fers great merits, as far as experience 
 in its culture in Britain affords the 
 means of drawing satisfactory con- 
 clusions. It affects a moist, deep, 
 rich soil ; such are fertile peat and 
 alluvial soils. Mr. Hursthouse of 
 Tydd, near Wisbeach, planted trees 
 of W\*i. Populus monilifera; in 1822, 
 and nine years after he had trees of a 
 size to saw into scantlings, which, for 
 toughness of texture, his carpenter 
 stated to exceed any he had before 
 met with. This species is more nearly 
 allied to the Populus anguli'da, or Ca- 
 nada poplar, than to any other species. 
 The Canada poplar is distinguished 
 at first sight by its angular branches. 
 These arise from the lower side of the 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 100 
 
 base of each footstalk, one from the 
 centre of the base, and one from each 
 side of it. The leaves being arranp;c'd 
 alternately on the shoot, and these 
 anjiles or wings falling or proceeding 
 from the base of each, and terminating 
 at or just before they reach the next 
 bud, or leaf, form five angles of the 
 shoot. "Wlien a shoot is divided, the 
 pith exhibits five angles, corresponding 
 to these nerves of tlie leaf-stalk. A 
 similar arrangement takes place on the 
 shoots of the Canadian poplar, with 
 this exception, that the angles are 
 seven in number instead of five ; they 
 are also much less prominent. The 
 botanical characters are specifically 
 distinct ; but as these are not often 
 within the reach of the inquirer, the 
 above may be found useful in distin- 
 guishing these two species, often con- 
 founded together. The magnificent 
 broad shining leaves of the Carolina 
 poplar, with the peculiar habit alluded 
 to, its rapid growth, and general ap- 
 pearance, when advanced to the size 
 of a timber tree, render it well worthy 
 a place in sheltered glades of planta- 
 tions. The lower part of Virginia, Mi- 
 chaux informs us, is the most northern 
 point at which this species is found 
 in America, it being more common in 
 the two Carolinas, in Georgia and 
 Lower Jjouisiana, on the marshy banks 
 of the great rivers, where it attains to 
 eighty feet in heiirht, with a propor- 
 tional diameter. He terms the Ca- 
 nadian poplar Populus Canadirnsis: 
 and he gives our monil'ifera to another 
 species, having a smooth cylindrical 
 stem, but similar to the Pi'ipulus Icpvi- 
 giita. He calls our Canadian poplar 
 cotton-wood, and states that it rises 
 to seventy or eighty feet in height, and 
 three or four feet in diameter ; and it 
 is })referred as a useful tree. The 
 Ontario, or smooth-leaved poyjlar, may 
 rank next in order to those just now 
 mentioned, for rapidity of growth and 
 beauty of its foliage. The compara- 
 tive value of its timber remains to be 
 determined by time. Those other 
 species enumerated below are all de- 
 serving of a place in plantations to 
 prove the comparative value of each. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 POPLAR. POfULUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Com. grey, sue. .canescens. , .Britain . , .40 
 
 Black, sue. cut.. . . nif/ra 30 
 
 J-ombiirily, cut. ,,Ui(aldta, , , .Italy 70 
 
 POPL.VU. 
 
 Balsam „ 
 
 Atheuian ,, 
 Canadian „ 
 Aspen ,, 
 
 Abele-tree, sue. 
 
 POPITLUS. Native of 
 
 . hahamifera . N. Anier. . , 
 . Grcrca . . . .Greece . . 
 . munili/era . . N . Amer. . 
 .tremula. . . .Britain . . 
 . d/ba —— 
 
 Ornamental Species. 
 
 Carolina, lay. anguldta . . . N. Amer. . 
 
 Heart-leaved ,, cnndicans , . 
 
 V'arious-leaved „ heteruphijlla • 
 
 Smooth-leaved „ lesvigata . . . ■ 
 
 Weeping ,, pindula .... . 
 
 Treniljling „ trtpida .... 
 
 Large-dented „ grandidentata 
 
 Laurel-leaved „ /(iM/'i/o/i«. . . . Altay. 
 Slender-twigged „ viminai. . , .N.Amer. 
 
 (^Subordo, BetulincB.) Nat. Sys. 
 
 .40 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 Eng. Narae. 
 
 Aluer-tkee. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Alnus. 
 
 Moncecia Tetrandria. Linn. 
 
 Male Flower — receptacle of the ament, 
 wedge-shaped, truncated, composed of three 
 flowers ; calyx, scaly ; corolla, four-parted ; 
 stamina, four. Female Flower — Ament 
 calyx, scaly, or two-flowered ; corolla, none ; 
 seed, compressed, oval, naked. 
 
 Time of solving seed — Autumn or spring: 
 if left until spring, preserve them in 
 dry sand. Soil — Moist or damp soils 
 are the most fit for the growth of the 
 alder. Uses — This tree is the most 
 valuable of the sub aquatic forest-trees. 
 The wood (see p. 9, tig. 1.) is esteemed 
 for under-water-work, as piles, pipes, 
 pumps, sluices, &c. The charcoal 
 made of its wood is highly valued for 
 the manufacture of gunpowder. The 
 bark and young shoots afford a yel- 
 low dye, and also afford a basis for 
 black colours. 
 
 Besides the uses just mentioned of the 
 wood of the common alder, the roots 
 and knots furnish a valuable material 
 for cabinets, tliis part of the wood 
 being often beautifully veined. The 
 bark is used by dyers, tanners, and 
 leather dressers, and for tanning nets. 
 An ounce of the bark powdered and 
 boiled in three- fourths of a pint of 
 water, with an equal quantity of log- 
 wood and solution of copper, tin, and 
 bismuth, six grains each, and two 
 drops of solution of sulphate of iron, 
 will dye a strong deep Ooue da Pca-is. 
 The Laplanders are said to chew the 
 bark, and dye tlieir leathern garments 
 with their saliva. The shoots cut in 
 March are said to dye a line cinna- 
 mon colour and a handsome drab or 
 tawney when preyiyusly dried and 
 
110 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 powdered. The value of the charcoal 
 in the manufacture of gunpowder is 
 well known. 
 
 Linnaeus says that horses, cows, sheep, 
 and iroats eat it, but that swine refuse 
 it. The tongues of horses feeding 
 upon it are said to turn black during 
 its use. It is very astringent, and most 
 probably unwholesome to animals as 
 food. In low damp situations, by the 
 sides of streams, &c., it makes the 
 best hedges, as it grows in such situa 
 tions freely, where the thorn or quick 
 will make little or no progress. In 
 damp situations it is an useful coppice 
 wood. The economical properties of 
 the varieties of the common alder 
 enumerated below have not hitherto 
 been proved ; they are ornamental, and 
 deserving of a position iu the damp 
 margins of woods. 
 
 The American species are considered to 
 be inferior to the common alder as 
 regards the uses of the wood and the 
 bark ; nor as yet are there any proofs 
 of the comparative value of the Si- 
 berian and European species, beyond 
 that of giving variety to the effects of 
 foliage in plantations. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species, and for Orna- 
 ment, 8[c. 
 
 ALDER-TKEE ALNUS Native of Ft. 
 
 Common glutimm. . .Britain . . .25 
 
 Var. Silver-striped /d/iisor^cH/eis — 
 
 „ Emarginate e«ia?'^ma/a.. > — 
 
 ,, Cut-leaved .iwc/sa — 
 
 5, Jagged-lvd. lacinidta .... ■ — 
 
 \,, Oak-ieaved .ry?<ercJ/o//a ,. — 
 
 „ Oblong-lvd. oblonyala . . .S. Europe — 
 
 „ Elliptic-lvd. e///p/fca — 
 
 Koarj'-leaved . . Ancana Europe — 
 
 Var. Angular-leaved — 
 
 ., Winged — 
 
 Eroad-leaved . . .?n«fro/)A^//a . — 
 
 Siberian Siberica .... Siberia — 
 
 Saw-leaved serruldta. . . .N. Amer. — 
 
 "Wave-leaved , . . .unduldta. . ..Canada — 
 
 Glaucous ylauca N. Amer. — 
 
 Red rubra — 
 
 Dwarf pamila — 
 
 Heart-leaved .... cordifolia. . . — 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 Birch-tree. Betui.a. 
 
 Moncecia Polijandria. Linn. 
 Ai.E Flower — scales of the ament, imbri- 
 cated, shield-shaped, and three-flowered ; 
 calyx, one scale ; corolla, none ; staviina, 
 ten to twelve. Female Flower — ament, 
 
 ^ imbricated ; scales of the calyx, two-flow- 
 ered ; corolla, none ; seed, one, winged. 
 
 Timeqf sowing seed— Aviiwmw or spring ; 
 to be kept m dry, cool sand, from the 
 
 time it is ripe until it is sown. Soil — 
 The birch will grow in every descrip- 
 tion of soil, from the wettest to the 
 driest. Uses — The wood is chiefly 
 used by the wheelwright and turner ; 
 it affords good charcoal ; its soot is 
 esteemed as an insiredient in printers' 
 ink ; the bark is of use in dyeing wool 
 yellow; but the chief use of the tree 
 is for underwood. The spring sap of 
 the birch-tree has a saccharine qua- 
 lity, and is sometimes made into wine. 
 The weeping birch is a very orna- 
 mental plant. 
 The common birch is found in the 
 highest latitude or limits of the growth 
 of trees. In the 70th decree of north 
 latitude, its stature is reduced to that 
 of a shrub, and it is singular that the 
 opposite extreme of a warm or dry 
 atmosphere has a similar effect in 
 preventing its growth. Michaux as- 
 sumes the 45th parallel as the limit 
 below which the common birch is only 
 accidentally found in forests, unless on 
 high elevated sites where the tempera- 
 ture is sufficiently low. Although the 
 merits of the wood of the birch will 
 not allow of its ranking as one fit for 
 planting on soils where the more 
 valuable forest-trees will attain to due 
 perfection of growth, yet for certain 
 poor elevated soils it is highly valuable, 
 and on very wet or springy land it will 
 be productive ; there are instances 
 known of its produce on soils so poor 
 as scarcely to carry any thing else but 
 moss, affording in ten years growth 
 the value of ten pounds per acre. In 
 the northern parts of Europe it attains 
 to seventy feet in height, and two feet 
 in diameter. In Sweden, Norway, 
 and Finland the inhabitants avail 
 themselves of its wood, bark, leaves, 
 and sap, for a great variety of eco- 
 nomical uses, for almost all the 
 implements of husbandry, elegant 
 articles of furniture, for bowls, plates, 
 spoons, chairs, &c. The bark is used 
 for the manufacture of boxes, baskets, 
 and sandals ; its durability is so great 
 that it is used in preserving parts from 
 decay by wrapping it round them. 
 The Laplanders prepare the skin of 
 the rein-deer with the bark. They 
 cut the bark into small pieces, which 
 they macerate, and afterwards boil in 
 water, with the addition of a little salt. 
 The skins are plunged repeatedly into 
 this decoction warmed, and are allowed 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 to remain in it several days. They are 
 then taken out, and rendered plial)le 
 and soft, and in this state they are 
 scarcely permeable to \vater. In 
 Russia, by slowly burning: the bark in 
 kilns, an empj-reumafic oil is obtained 
 with which leather is prepared, highly 
 esteemed for durability. |^velyn enu- 
 merates a great variety of uses to 
 wiiich the birch is applicable, and 
 Lightfoot gives details of its uses in 
 the Highlands of Scotland. In Ame- 
 rica, the black birch is considered the 
 most interesting of the species of that 
 country. In some parts of the United 
 States, it goes by the name of black 
 birch ; in Virginia, mountain maho- 
 gany; and in Connecticut, sweet 
 birch ; and in Canada, cherry birch. 
 In deep loose soils Michaux has ob- 
 served some seventy feet high, and 
 two to three feet in diameter. The 
 habit of this species is admired for its 
 foliage, and its odoriferous flowers. 
 In the Annals of the Arts a stock of 
 this species is stated to have attained 
 the height of forty-five feet in nineteen 
 years. It is highly deserving a place 
 in British forests. 
 The white birch, as it is called in Ame- 
 rica, or Betula Populifolia, seldom 
 rises to more than twenty-five feet in 
 height. The distinctness of its foliage 
 is its only recommendation at present 
 known, for its wood is considered of 
 inferior quality. The red birch of 
 i\Iichaux, or the Betula Icmulosa of our 
 list, is chiefly found in Maryland, 
 Virginia, and the upper parts of the 
 Carolinas and of Georgia ; it is seldom 
 found farther north than New York 
 The epidermis of the bark of trees 
 not exceeding eight or ten inches in 
 diameter, is of a red or cinnamon 
 colour, but on large trees (it some- 
 times attains to seventy feet in height) 
 the bark is of a greenish hue. The 
 twigs of this species are considered 
 superior to those of any other species 
 for the purpose of making brooms 
 The paper birch is considered by some 
 to surpass the common species in size 
 and value of its wood. In Canada, 
 and the district of Maine, the 
 country people place large pieces of 
 the bark immediately below the shin- 
 gles of the roofs of their houses, as it 
 forms a lasting and very impenetral^le 
 barrier to the rains. Various articles 
 are manufactured of it, such as port- 
 folios, Ssc. which are sometimes em- 
 
 broidered with silk of different colours. 
 When divided into very thin sheets, it 
 forms a substitute for writing pajjer ; 
 but the most important use, Michaux 
 observes, to which it is applied, is in 
 the construction of canoes. To pro- 
 cure proper pieces of the bark for 
 this purpose, the largest and smoothest 
 boles are selected. In the spring two 
 circular incisions are made several 
 feet apart, and two longitudinal ones 
 in opposite sides of the bole; after 
 which, by introducing a wooden wedge, 
 the bark is easily detached. These 
 plates are usually ten or twelve feet 
 long, and two feet nine inches broad. 
 To make the canoe, they are stitched 
 together with fibrous roots of the 
 white spruce, about the size of a quill, 
 which are deprived of the bark, split 
 and made supple by immersion in 
 water. The seams are coated with 
 resin of the balm of Gilead fir. Great 
 use is made of these canoes by the 
 natives and French Canadians in their 
 longjoarnies into the interior of the 
 country — they are very light, and are 
 easily transported on the shoulders 
 from one lake or river to another. A 
 canoe calculated to carry four per- 
 sons, with their baggage, weighs from 
 40 to 50lbs. — some of them are made 
 to carry as many as fifteen persons*. 
 Upon the whole, this species appears 
 to be well worthy the attention of the 
 British forest-planter of certain de- 
 scriptions of soil. Of the other species 
 of birch enumerated below, the last 
 seven are of dwarf stature, and fit 
 only for cover, or for the margins of 
 woods ; at least the experience that 
 has as yet been had of their culture 
 does not warrant any further recom- 
 mendation of them at present ; but 
 with these, as with numerous other 
 species of trees, extended experience, 
 and careful observation of their pro- 
 perties, and most suitable soils, are 
 wanted, before satisfactory conclu- 
 sions can be arrived at, as to their 
 relative or comparative values. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 BIRCH-TREE. BETULA. 1 NaUve of Ft. 
 
 Common d/ba Britain ... 40 
 
 * North American Sylva, vol. ii., p. 83. 
 t The Rhododendron ponticum is an instance to 
 shew that a plant may be long known only for its 
 ornamenlal properties. It was introduced into 
 Enwtlaiid in 1763, and it is only of late years tliat 
 its value for uuaerwood and cover, iu sandy and 
 peaty soils, has been discovered and talceu advaa» 
 tage of, 
 
112 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 BIUCH-TREE. BETULA. Native of Ft. 
 
 \ ar. Warted verrucosa,. ■ — 
 
 ,, Weepinfj . . . .ptnduki. . . , — 
 
 J, Palmate-lvd. .dalecdrlica . — 
 
 „ Eastern pontica . . . .Asia 
 
 ,, Large-fruitedwacrocnr/jfl 
 
 Pubescent pubtscens . . Europe 
 
 Poplar-leaved . . . .populifolia. . N. Amer. 
 
 Tall exctlsa — — 
 
 "Woolly Innulosa .... 
 
 Yellow liitea 
 
 Black nigra 
 
 Daurian davurica , . . Dauria 
 
 Paper papyrdcea .N. Amer. 
 
 Soft lenta 
 
 Hornbeam-leaved .carpinifoUa 
 
 Carpathian carpathica CarpatliianMt. 
 
 Species for Ornament, Shelter, &c. 
 
 Oval-leaved ovata Europe 
 
 Alnus viridis decand. — 
 
 Shrubby frulicosa. . Siberia 
 
 Glandular ff/atidu/6sa,N. Amer. 
 
 Hairj'-dwarf pumila .... 
 
 Smooth-dwarf . . . .nana Scotland 
 
 Var. large-leaved, .macrophylla 
 
 Dark tristis Kamtschatka 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 HoRNBEAM-TltEE. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Cakpinus. 
 
 Male Flower — amenl^ imbricated ; scale of 
 the calyx, ciliate ; corolla, none ; stamina, 
 ten. Female Flower — «?«(?«/, imbricated; 
 scale of the calyx, two-flowered ; corolla, 
 three-cleft ; seed, a nut, ovate, angular, 
 furrowed. 
 
 Time of soumig the seed — Autumn. 
 Soil — Poor clayey loams, incumbent 
 on sand, and chalky gravels, are well 
 adapted for the c:rowth of the horn- 
 beam. Uses — The wood (see page 9, 
 fg. f) of the hornbeam, as its name 
 would imply, is extremely tough, or 
 iiexible, and hard, and valuable for 
 many useful purposes ; but the tree 
 being chiefly cultivated for underwood, 
 few opportunities are offered to the 
 carpenter to prove its value in large 
 scantling. Its value for every purpose 
 where the properties above mentioned 
 are essential, such as mill -clogs, 
 lieads of beetles, stocks and handles 
 of tools, yokes, &c., is well-known. 
 Like the beech, it is good fuel, makes 
 superiorcharcoal, and affords excellent 
 potash. It grows in exposed situa- 
 tions, and on very poor, cold, thin, 
 damp soils, where many other species of 
 forest-trees would make little progress. 
 The leaves continue to adhere to the 
 branches long after vegetation in them 
 appears to have ceased. This pro- 
 
 perty renders the plant valuable for 
 tlie purposes of shelter, whether when 
 singly planted or in rows, to be cut as 
 a hedge. On soils of the nature men- 
 tioned, the hornbeam should always 
 have a place, if not exclusively, at least 
 in a considerable proportion to other 
 species (rf trees. The varieties of the 
 common hornbeam, mentioned below, 
 are not otherwise interesting to the 
 forest-planter than as regards the ef- 
 fect of foliage, and as subjects il- 
 lustrative of the laws of vegetable 
 economy. 
 The American hornbeam is found wild 
 as far north as Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, and Lower Canada. By 
 the French inhabitants of Upper 
 Louisiana it is called Charme. It 
 never exceeds thirty feet in height, 
 and its more ordinary dimensions 
 scarcely entitle it to rank as a timber 
 tree. The trunk is similarly fluted 
 as that of the foregoing species. 
 
 Timber or Forest Speciis. 
 Betulin^. Nat. Sys. 
 
 HORNBEAM-TREE. CAKPINUS. NaUve of Ft. 
 
 Monaecia Polyandria, Linn. 
 
 Common betulus Britain . . .30 
 
 Var. Oak-leaved . , (jue?-cif6lia . . 
 
 ., Striped-leavedi'arief/a/a. . . 
 
 ,, Cut-leaved . .incisa 15 
 
 American americana . .N. Amer... 20 
 
 Species for Ornament, Sfc. 
 Eastern orientdlis . . Levant ... 1 2 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 HoP-HORNBEAM. OsTRYA. 
 
 Monvecia Polyandria. Linn. 
 
 Male Flower — ament, imbricated ; calyx, 
 one scale ; corolla, none ; filaments, ra- 
 mose. Female Flower — ament, naked; 
 calyx, none ; corolla, none ; capsule, in- 
 flated, imbricated ; seed, one at the base. 
 
 Propagated in England by grafting on the 
 common hornbeam and by layers. 
 Uses — The wood oft he hop-hornbeam, 
 or iron wood of America, is heavy, 
 compact, and tough, and is used in 
 America, Michaux informs us, for le- 
 vers, brooms, and scrubbing brushes ; 
 the latter are made by rolling back 
 very thin slices of the wood, adhering 
 to a piece of suitable dimensions. In 
 America it is considered a tree of the 
 third order as to size, rarely exceeding 
 thirty-five feet in height, and twelve 
 or fifteen inches in diameter. It is 
 never found in masses, but scattered 
 
LIST OP FOREST-TREES. 
 
 113 
 
 in the forests, and is more common 
 near Lakes Ontario and Erie, than 
 elsewhere. TiieViri^inian or flowerinc; 
 hop-hornbeam attains to a greater 
 height than tlie former, It is a more 
 ornamental tree, the leaves beinglarger 
 and of a finer tint of green • the value 
 of the wood is similar tcT that now 
 mentioned. 
 
 Species for Ornament, S(C. 
 
 ! HOP-HOnNBEAjr, 
 
 oil I RON- WOOD. OSTRYA. Native of 
 
 Common vulgaris . . . Italy . . . 
 
 Virginian vhyinica . . .N.Amer. 
 
 CupuLiFER.5:. Aat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Hazi.e-thee. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 CoKYLUS. 
 
 Moncecia Polijandria. Linn. 
 Male Flower — anient., imbricated ; calyx, a 
 scale ; corolla, none ; stamina, eight. Fe- 
 male Flowek — calyx, two-parted, lace- 
 rated ; corolla, none ; styles, two ; seed, an 
 oval nut, fixed in the calyx, which remains 
 permanent. 
 
 Time of solving— Fehruairy : should be 
 preserved in sand moderately dry, 
 during the winter. If the fruit be an 
 object, the best kmds must be propa- 
 gated by layers. L^se*— Underwood 
 or coppice, which, being of under size, 
 is applied to the purposes of making 
 hoops, spars, forks, hurdles, withes, 
 wattling, crates, &c., for which it is 
 esteemed. It may be cut every seven 
 years. Mr. Belcher, in Young's 
 Annals, vol. viii. p. 186, mentions, 
 that in Kent the best soil for the 
 tilbert is a strong loam, the fruit pro- 
 duced ? on which is large and not 
 maggoty ; and that an acre has some- 
 times been sold for 50/. They are 
 generally planted at 12 feet apart, 
 the intervening gi-ound being occu- 
 pied with green crops, the culture of 
 which requiring the frequent use of 
 the hoe, is productive of benefit to 
 the filbert plant, which is kept pruned 
 to the height of six feet, and the 
 diameter of the bush thus formed to 
 about the same dimensions. The 
 Constantmople hazel attains to the 
 size of a tree. It was introduced 
 into Enirland in 1665, by Mr. .John 
 Kea. Linnaeus mentions a very large 
 tree of it in the Leyden Garden, m 
 1736, sown there by Clusius, above 
 a century before. It is too much 
 neglected by planters in England. 
 The raceme, or fruit-bunch, is' very 
 large in this species, and the indi- 
 
 vidual nuts are twice the size of those 
 of the common hazel. 
 
 Species for Ornament, S(C. 
 hazletree. corvlus. 
 
 Common avelldna . . .Britain 
 
 Var. White filbert alba 
 
 „ Red filbert . . rubra . . 
 
 „ Oval-fruited , oviita . 
 
 „ Barcelona . . . barceloucnsis Spain 
 
 „ Cobnut griindis .... Britain 
 
 „ Clustered . . .ylomerdta . . 
 
 Lambert's tiibulosa . . . S. Europe 
 
 Dwarf American Jmmilts ....N.Amer. 
 
 Cuckold americuna , . . 
 
 Common do rostrdta. . . . . 
 
 Constantinople. ..colunia . . . .Constan. 
 
 CuP'JLiFER.E (subordo third). Nut. Si/s, 
 
 Oak-tree. Quercus. 
 
 Moncecia Polyandria. ~Linn. 
 
 Male Flower— ca/y.r, bell-shaped, half fine- 
 cleft ; corolla, none ; stamina, five to ten. 
 Female Flower — calyx, bell-shaped, en- 
 tire, rough; corolla, none; style, one; 
 stigma, ihve& ; seed, a nut (acorn), ovate, 
 cylindrical, fixed in a short hemispherical 
 cup. 
 
 Time of m«'?V?^— Beginning of Novem- 
 ber ; or if deferred till spring, lay them 
 upon a cool dry floor, to prevent their 
 sprouting or vegetating. Soil— A rich 
 loam, with a clayey subsoil, brings the 
 oak to the greatest perfection ; but it 
 may be profitably cultivated on al- 
 most every description of soil, except 
 boggy or peaty. Uses— The value of 
 oak timber is too well known to need 
 any description here. It has already 
 been mentioned at p. 24, that there 
 are two species or varieties of the 
 British oak, Quercus robur, which 
 differ considerably from each other in 
 the value of their timber. They are 
 considered by some botanists as 
 merely varieties, Quercus robur ped- 
 unculata, et Quercus robur sessili- 
 flora; while others, as Sir James 
 Smith, makes them distinct species, 
 Quercus robur et Quercus sessiliflora. 
 The footstalks of the fertile flowers, 
 acorns, and leaves, afford the most 
 obvious character of distinction : in the 
 former or more valuable variety, the 
 footstalks of the flowers and acorns 
 are longer, while in the inferior variety 
 the footstalks are very short, or scarce- 
 ly perceptible. On the contrary, as 
 regards the leaves, the footstalks of 
 the Quercus robur are shorter than 
 in those of the Quercus sessiliflora, 
 and the body of the leaf is likewise 
 
114 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 less equally and regularly divided. 
 The Durmast oak, Quercus pubescens, 
 lias been considered a variety also, 
 but having an inferior quality of wood, 
 it is perhaps better to consider it a 
 distinct species. The distinguishing 
 character of this species is in having 
 the under side of the leaf pubescent ; 
 in other respects it nearly agrees with 
 the Quercus sessilifiora, in having 
 the leaf and fruitstalks almost sitting, 
 and the leaves less deeply indented. 
 The leaves of the inferior species are 
 also observed to hang longer on the 
 tree ; sometimes they continue all the 
 winter, approaching towards the cha- 
 racter of an evergreen. This last 
 distinction, however, is not always 
 to be depended on, as the soil and 
 health of the individual tree influence 
 its habit in this respect. In our own 
 experience we have by no means found 
 this inferior species, Quercus sessili- 
 flora, and its near ally to the Dur- 
 mast oak, Quercus pubescens, so com- 
 mon as the foot-stalked oak, Quercus 
 robur ; but, on the contrary, compara- 
 tively uncommon. Although there 
 are not such clear and specific facts 
 recorded of the comparative difference 
 of vaUie between the quality of these 
 two species of oak, as to determine 
 the exact amount of loss which is 
 occasioned every time the acorns of 
 the inferior species are used for plant- 
 ing, instead of those of the more valu- 
 able above mentioned, yet the general 
 opinion being so strong in favour of the 
 superiority of the foot-stalked oak, 
 that it is of much importance to col- 
 lect and sow the acorns of that species 
 only*. We have already, at p. 23, 
 24, 25, described the mode of rearing 
 the oak from the acorn on the spot 
 where it is to remain for the produc- 
 tion of timber ; the soil on which it 
 attains to great perfection (p. 49), 
 ■ and the best size of plants, from nur- 
 sery rows, when the more general 
 mode of rearing oak by transplanting 
 is adopted (p. 34.) We have before 
 
 * The specific botanical characters are, accord- 
 ing to Sir J. Smith, as follows : — ' Quercus ri/hur — 
 Leaves, decidnous, oblong, wider towards the ex- 
 tremity; their sinuses rather acute ; lobes obtuse. 
 Fruitstalks, elongated.' — ' Quercus sessilijlurit — 
 /.tores on elongated stalks, deciduous, oblong, with 
 opposite acute sinuses. Fruit, sessile.' — Engl. Fl. 
 p. 149—150. 
 
 The above discriminating characters are, ac- 
 cording to our experience, as clear as the nature 
 of the distinctions described will admit, but 
 scarcely sufficient to constitute species. 
 
 also mentioned some oak trees re- 
 markable for the perfection of growth 
 they had attained ; and did the limits 
 of these pages permit, we could add 
 greatly to the number from specimens 
 which were, or are now in Earl 
 Povvis's Park, near Ludlow ; Earl of 
 Surrey's, AVorksop ; Lord Bagofs in 
 Staffordshire ; Lord Holland's, Ampt- 
 hill Park*, Bedfordshire; WTthy Park, 
 Shropshire, Dennington Park, Berk- 
 shire, in the weald of Kent, New 
 Forest, Hampshire, &c. These two 
 species of oak constitute a consider- 
 able portion of the forests, from the 
 sixtieth to the thirty-fifth degree of 
 north latitude, extending over a por- 
 tion of the north of Asia, and the 
 northern point of Africa. 
 The common oak is considered to be 
 the longest lived tree of the British 
 forests. Those in the New Forest, 
 mentioned by Mr. Gilpin in his Forest 
 Scenery, v. ii, p. C3, which • chronicle 
 on their furrowed trunks, ages before 
 the Conquest,' give an idea of the very 
 great length of existence this species 
 of tree is capable of maintaining ; but 
 for facts, on which to found a satisfac- 
 tory conclusion of the average dura- 
 tion of vegetable life in this, and other 
 forest-trees, we have only the test 
 mentioned at p. 5, that of ascertaining 
 the number of the concentric circles 
 in the transverse section of the root, 
 stem, or branch of the tree, and how- 
 
 * The circumference of one of these oaks at its 
 base measures upwards of 40 feet, at its mean 
 height about 30 feet : it is nearly hollow, and exhi- 
 bits a concavity apjiarently sufficient to contain 
 four or five middle-sized persons standing together 
 withinside. The branches have been of very large 
 dimensions, and one that still remains is equal in 
 size to many a parent oak. The age of this tree 
 must be very great, but the loss of the central wood 
 will prevent the period of its age or duration bein^ 
 ascertained ; and we believe there are no records of 
 the planting of these oaks otherwise to determine 
 this interesting point. The following lines are in. 
 scribed on a plate affixed to this remarkable oak : 
 Majestic tree ! whose wrinkled form hath stood. 
 Age after age, the Patriarch of the wood ; 
 Thou who hast seen a thousand springs unfold 
 Their ravel'd buds, and dip their liowers in gold. 
 Ten thousand times yon moon relight her horn. 
 And that bright star of evening gild the morn; — 
 Gigantic oak ! thy hoary head sublime 
 Erewhile must perish in the wrecks of time. 
 Should round thy head innocuous lightnings shoot, 
 And no fierce whirlwind shake thy steadfast root, 
 Vet shalt thou fall ; thy leafy tresses fade. 
 And those bare, scatter'd antlers strew the glade : 
 Arm after arm shall leave the mould'ring bust. 
 And thy firm fibres crumble into dust. 
 The Bluse alone shall consecrate thy name. 
 And by her powerful art prolong thy fame ; 
 Green shall ihy leaves expand, thy iiranches play, 
 And bloom for ever in th' immortal lay ! 
 
LIST OF FORE&T-TRKES. 
 
 ]1!j 
 
 ever satisfactory this tost may be for 
 this important object, it is but too 
 seldom employed, if we are to judire 
 by the few records of the ages of 
 valuable trees, not only of the oak, 
 but of all others of the first class of 
 timber that are to be found. Were 
 records of planting kept in the family 
 archives of those who plant; contain- 
 ing the facts of the age of the plants, 
 \vhen transplanted to their timber 
 sites, the nature and preparation of 
 the soil at the period of planting, and 
 the after culture until the trees at- 
 tained to a timber size, the benefit to 
 science and to practice would be great. 
 (See note, *p. 11.) 
 
 The Turkey oak, Quercus arris, was 
 introduced into England in 1739. It 
 is a handsome growing tree, and is 
 perhaps the most valuable species 
 next to the British oak. It will thrive 
 on most kinds of soil ; but a strong 
 loam is that which it most affects. 
 The wood exhibits all the good pro- 
 perties of that of the common oak ; 
 but the period of its introduction into 
 England has not allowed of any suffi- 
 
 ,' cient trial to determine its compara- 
 tive durability. It is highly deserving 
 of a place in every plantation of fo- 
 rest-trees, where the soil is adapted to 
 the growth of the oak, elm, and chest- 
 nut. The acorns are oblong, and the 
 cup mossy. The leaves are deciduous, 
 and readily distinguished from those of 
 the common oak by their ovate-oblong 
 shape and slightly flat sinuate margins. 
 
 Michaux informs us, that there are forty- 
 four species of oak found in America 
 between the iOth and 48th degree of 
 north latitude : of these he has de- 
 scribed and figured twenty- six spe- 
 cies*, which are all interesting for 
 their different habits of foliage and 
 growth ; for general utility, however, 
 there appears to be not one equal to 
 
 • His arrangement is as follows : — First, fructifi- 
 cation annual, with lobed leaves. 
 
 White-oak quercus dlba. 
 
 European oak rulur. 
 
 European white oak. . .rubur jiedunculuta. ] 
 
 Jlossy-cup white odk. .uUvaJurmis. 
 
 Over-cup oak viacnudrpa. 
 
 Post oak ubtitsil'Jba. 
 
 Over-cup oak lyrdta. 
 
 Second : — Leaves toothed. 
 
 .Swamp-white oak dlscnlor vel Michauxii. 
 
 Chestnut-white paltislris. 
 
 Kock-chestnut muntana vel munticola. 
 
 Yellow oak acuminata vel castunca. 
 
 Small chestnut oak.. ..prinus veiprinoides. 
 
 Division 2d. Fructilication biennial; leaves 
 
 our own native species, Quercus ro- 
 bur. The white oak before noted ap- 
 proximates nearer in valuable pro- 
 perties to the British oak than any 
 other. In favourable situations it 
 rises to seventy or eighty feet in height, 
 and six or seven feet in diameter. To 
 inquiries made to English, French, 
 and American shipwrights, this in- 
 telligent author learnt that the gene- 
 ral opinion agreed in the conclusion, 
 that European oak was tougher and 
 more durable from the superior close- 
 ness of its grain, but that the Ameri- 
 can species was more elastic, and re- 
 quired a shorter time, and only half 
 the weight to bend it ; and he judi- 
 ciously adds, that this advantage, 
 though important in ship-building, 
 does not compensate for the openness 
 of its pores. In America it is much 
 used in the construction of mills and 
 dams, where it is exposed to be al- 
 ternately wet and dry. The wooden 
 bridge — nearly three thousand feet 
 long, that unites Boston and Cam- 
 bridge — is supported by posts of white 
 oak, from sixteen to twenty feet in 
 length, which have replaced those of 
 white pine, on which it originally- 
 stood. 
 
 The American mossy-cup oak has the 
 lobe of the leaves so deeply indented 
 as to give them the appearance of 
 pinnate-leaves. The branches of the 
 first and secondary limbs have a pen- 
 dulous habit, which, with its generally 
 handsome top, claims for this spe- 
 cies a place in plantations. The qua- 
 lity of its timber has not been proved 
 in England. In America it attains 
 to sixty or seventy feet in height. 
 
 The over-cup white oak is distinguished 
 for the largeness of the leaves. In 
 
 mucronated, except the thirteenth species. 
 Section lirst — leaves obtuse or entire : — 
 
 Live oak virens 
 
 Cork oak suber. 
 
 M'illow-leaved phellos. 
 
 '•'^"rel imbricdria vel laurifolia, 
 
 Upland cinerca. 
 
 Running pumila. 
 
 Section second — leaves lobed : — 
 
 Bartram oak hctcrophylla. 
 
 Water oak aqiiatiia. 
 
 Black oak iiiyra \c\ferruginca. 
 
 Bear oak Banht^H. 
 
 Third section— leaves multifid, or many cleft :— 
 
 Barren-scrub oak qiicrcus CaUsbcei. 
 
 Spanish oak Julcdta. 
 
 Black oak tinctdria. 
 
 Scarlet oak cucciiiea. 
 
 Grey oak ambic/ua. 
 
 Pin oak palustris. 
 
 Ked oak rubra. 
 
 I 2 
 
IIG 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 the United States they are found to 
 measure frequently fifteen inches long 
 and eiijht broad. The acorns are 
 large, and the lips of the cup are fre- 
 
 • quently fringed with a series of flexi- 
 ble filaments. This tree is also de- 
 serving of a place in British planta- 
 tions. 
 
 The lobed-leaved, or post oak, is a tree 
 of a secondary size. Michaux states, 
 that the preference given in the West 
 Indies to the staves from Baltimore 
 and Norfolk is due, in a great mea- 
 sure, to their being made of the wood 
 of this species. It is an ornamental 
 tree, but its merits for the produce of 
 timber have not yet been proved in 
 England. 
 
 The over-cup oak, or lyre-leaved, affects 
 a moist soil, and is of a large habit 
 of growth. The shape of the leaves 
 and general habit of the tree render 
 it interesting. It has not yet received 
 in England the requisite time and 
 culture to prove its properties for the 
 produce of timber. In America Mi- 
 chaux states its height to be eighty 
 feet, and its circumference eight to 
 twelve feet. 
 
 The swamp oak, Quercus discolor, is 
 much less common in America than 
 many of the other oaks. We have 
 seen only one plant of it in England. 
 Michaux describes it as a beautiful 
 tree, more than seventy feet high ; 
 the leaves six or eight inches long 
 and four broad, smooth and of a dark 
 green above, and downy underneath. 
 We believe this species to be nearly 
 allied to the British durmast oak, 
 Quercus pubescens. 
 
 The chestnut white, or marsh oak, Quh-- 
 cus Michaiixii, is considered to be 
 one of the most majestic trees of the 
 American forests. It is described, 
 according to the above, as rising to 
 ninety feet in stature, with a straight 
 clear stem of fifty feet, crowned with 
 an expansive summit. The timber of 
 it is considered inferior to the white 
 oak, though superior to some other 
 species. We have seen young trees 
 only of it in England. 
 
 The rock chestnut leaved yellow oaks 
 are as yet only distinguished for the 
 shape of their leaves, which more or 
 less resemble those of the sweet chest- 
 nut. The last mentioned is considered 
 the most interesting. The acorns are 
 of an inferior size, but of a sweeter 
 
 quality than those of the other species 
 mentioned. The small chestnut oak 
 rarely exceeds thirty inches in height, 
 and ought perhaps to have been passed 
 over here without notice ; however, 
 it is very prolific, and where acorns 
 are in request for the food of game, 
 pheasants for instance, this dwarf oak 
 may be planted with advantage. The 
 acorns are very sweet. ' Of its ha- 
 bits in its native soil,' Michaux re- 
 marks, that ' Nature seems to have 
 sought a compensation for the dimi- 
 nutive size of this shrub in the abund- 
 ance of its fruit ; the stem, which is 
 sometimes no bigger than a quill, is 
 stretched at full length upon the 
 ground by the weight of its thickly 
 clustering acorns.' 
 
 The live oak, Quercus vlrens, was men- 
 tioned at p. 45,* as highly deserving 
 of a trial in situations on the southern 
 coast. Michaux remarks, that it is 
 never found farther than from fifteen 
 to twenty miles from the shore. The 
 eminent success of Mr. Lucas in trans- 
 planting trees of large growth of this 
 species selected from the woods, oa 
 his estate at Middleburg, prove clearly 
 its vivacious habits. It appears to 
 be confined to the southern states of 
 North America, viz. the Floridas 
 and Louisiana, as its natural soil and 
 climate, extending no farther north 
 than Norfolk in Virginia. He further 
 mentions, that in the course of four or 
 five hundred miles between Cape Ca- 
 naveral in East Florida, to Savannah 
 in Georgia, he frequently saw it on the 
 beach, or half buried in the movable 
 sands on the downs, where it had 
 preserved its freshness and vigour, 
 though exposed during a long lapse 
 of time to the fury of the wintry tem- 
 pest, and to the ardour of the sum- 
 mer's sun. Its usual height in its 
 native soil is from forty to forty-five 
 feet, and one foot in diameter. The 
 leaves are evergreen. The wood 
 is extremely hard, tough, and very 
 lasting. It is used for ship-building, 
 screws, cogs for mill wheels, and other 
 purposes, for all which it is preferred 
 to the white oak. 
 
 The cork-tree, or cork oak, is a native 
 of the south of Europe ; it was intro- 
 duced into England about ninety or a 
 
 • We here beg to correct a passage by inserting 
 an omission at page 45, line 18 from tlie top ; after 
 the words,' tlie live oak will not exist in England,' 
 add, ' in elevated exposed iituations,' 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 117 
 
 hundred years ago*. It is found 
 growing naturally in the south of 
 France, in Spain, Portugal, and in 
 some parts of the states of Barbary. 
 It rarely exceeds forty feet in height 
 and three feet in diameter. The wood 
 is considered to be less durable than 
 the common oak, although it is com- 
 pact and heavy. Its growth in Eng- 
 land is confined to warm sheltered 
 situations. In exposed situations it 
 cannot be reared. The largest we have 
 seen in England is in the Royal Gar- 
 dens, Kew,where its characteristic pro- 
 perty, that of producing in perfection 
 cork-bark, was, when we saw it a few 
 years since, very evident and interest- 
 in?. Abroad the cork is considered 
 fit to be first taken from the tree when 
 it reaches twenty-five years of growth, 
 but this product is not of a quality 
 to be used for better purposes. In 
 ten years it is renewed, but it is not 
 imtil the tree has attained to the age 
 of forty-five or fifty years that the 
 bark possesses all the requisite pro- 
 perty for good corks. July and Au- 
 gust are the seasons for taking it from 
 the trees, which is carefully done, so 
 as not to wound the alburnum ; for 
 should this happen (it may be unne- 
 cessary here to state), the cork bark 
 is not asfain renewed on that part. 
 The acorns should be sown as soon 
 as received from abroad in small sin- 
 gle pots, and shifted into larger as 
 the roots increase, until the plants are 
 from one to two feet high, when they 
 may be transplanted for good ; they 
 may, however, be kept until they are 
 six feet or more in height, provided 
 care be taken to prevent the tap- 
 root from passing down below the pot 
 to any great length. The ilex, or 
 evergreen oak, may be reared with 
 advantage in the same manner as 
 that now described. It is more hardy 
 than the preceding tree. Its merits 
 for ornament and shelter are well 
 known ; it appears to have been in- 
 troduced into England from the south 
 of France in 1581. 
 The kermes oak, Qi/t'rctis cnccifera, is 
 worthy of remark here, although of 
 so humble a habit of growth as not 
 to attain the size which constitutes a 
 timber tree. The scarlet, or red pur- 
 
 • The Hortiis Kewensis states it to have been 
 introduced into England in 1699, by the Duchess 
 of Beeutort. 
 
 pie dye of the name, which supplanted 
 the substitute obtained from a species 
 of the mure.r, shell-fish, and used for 
 the anciently celebrated Phoenician 
 purple dye, is afforded by this oak- 
 shrub (for the plant seldom rises above 
 five feet, and often does not exceed 
 two,) in the form of small red galls, 
 caused by the puncture and subse- 
 quent deposition of the egirs of an 
 insect, called coccus ilicis. This dye, 
 in its turn, however, has been sup- 
 planted by the cochineal coccus cacti, 
 an insect itself, found on one or more 
 species of the cactus, or Indian fig, 
 but more particularly the Cactus cochi- 
 mllifer or the Opimtia cochinilllfera. 
 The kermes oak is a native of the 
 south of Europe, and was introduced 
 into England about 1683. 
 Of the other species of oak enumerated 
 below, the dyers' oak, Quercus tincto- 
 ria, demands notice, on account of 
 its bark furnishingthe yellow dye, </Mer- 
 citron, a substance much used in 
 dyeing wool, silk, and paper-hangings 
 It is I the cellular integument of the 
 bark that supplies the colouring mat- 
 ter. Doctor Barncroft states, that 
 one part of quercitron is equal to ten 
 parts of woad. It is stated, that to 
 dye wool it is sufficient to boil the 
 quercitron with an equal weight of 
 alum ; in dipping the stuff the deepest 
 shade is given at first, and afterwards 
 the straw-colour*. This species of oak 
 appears to have been introduced into 
 England as early as 1 739 ; but its 
 useful property now alluded to seems 
 not to have been proved, or, in fact, 
 tested in this climate. Its wood is 
 considered inferior to that of the com- 
 mon oak. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 OAK-TREE. QUERCUS. Nati»eof Ft. 
 
 ~ (robur pe-lr> -i • m 
 
 ^'""""on I duncuhita P"*^"* ' • '^^ 
 
 40 
 
 England. . — 
 S. Europe . 50 
 
 Sitting acomed . .sessilijlora 
 
 ^Voolly-petioled, j „^^,,„„ 
 or Durmast . . J' 
 
 Tiu-key-mossy-ciipsc^r»-is . . . 
 
 Var. Rough-lvd do.bulldta . . . 
 
 J, Nar.-lvd. do.. «(«««/« .... — 
 
 „ Fulham dcntala .... 
 
 Everojreen Hex — 
 
 Var. Notch-lvd. do. serruta .... — 
 
 J, Long-leaved .ot/ow^ff ... , — 
 
 „ Lucomb's . . .liicombediM. Levant — 
 
 Champion red. . . .riibra N.Ainer.. .80 
 
 Var. Mountain red vionldna . . . — . 
 
 « North American Sylva., i. p. 93. 
 
118 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 . ....40 
 
 . S. Europe 
 
 . 2 to 15 
 
 . ....80 
 
 Species /<»• Ornament, or whose value for 
 Timber of British growth has not yet been 
 usc°rt(tinecl. 
 
 OAK-TREE. QUERCUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 White* alba c N.Amer. . . 70 
 
 Willow-leaved. . . .phtl/os .... .... 50 
 
 Live virens 40 to 45 
 
 Ash-coloured ....cincrea .... ■ 18.. '20 
 
 Laurel-leaved . . . .laurifolia, . . . . . .40 
 
 Var. Blunt do. . . .<ibtasa 
 
 Tile-cupped imbricdta . 
 
 Holly-leaved . . . .gramiLiitia 
 
 Cork-tree suber . . . . 
 
 Kermes coccifera. 
 
 Broad chestnut-lvd./iy/««s . . 
 
 Var. Long leaved .oblongata. . . 
 
 Common water. . .aqudtica . . .N.Amer 
 
 Var.Vari-lvd. do. .heterophylla . . 
 
 J, Lon<;-lvd. do..e/owy«i'a ... .. 
 
 J, Entire-lvd. do. i«i:/a'(saf. . . . 
 
 „ Nar.-lvd. do.. .o/^''WMrt/«. . . 
 
 Black nigra 
 
 Three-lobed triloba. . . . 
 
 Downy-leaved .... elongdta . » 
 
 Dyers tinctoria . . 
 
 Scarlet coccineu . . 
 
 Marsh paliistris . . 
 
 Ilex-leaved ilicifolia . . 
 
 Gt. prickly-cupped 1 , ., 
 orVelanida .. ]'^9^loP' • 
 
 Italian ^sculus .... 
 
 Starred stelldta . .N. Amer. 40, 50 
 
 Lyre-leaved lijnita ■ 80 
 
 Grey boredlis .... 50 
 
 Bear-oak banistcri . . . 3, 4 
 
 Beech-like faginea . . . .S.Europe 
 
 Hisped-cupped lialiphleos . .France 
 
 Soft-ja<^ged-leaved Tauzin . . . . S. Europe 
 
 Austrian Austriaca . .Austria 
 
 Amer.-mossy-cup .ovalcefdrmis N. Amer. 
 
 Clustred conglo)nerdtaHuro^& 
 
 Cypress .fastigidta . . . Pyrenees 
 
 Repaud repdndn . . . . N. Amer. 
 
 Cork-like pseudo-suber S[)aia 
 
 Over-cup-white . . .macrocdrpa .N.Amer. .60 
 
 30 
 
 .S. E 
 
 urope 
 
 Barren-scrub .... cutesbcei 
 
 Dwarf nana .... 
 
 Spiny-leaved agrifdlia . , 
 
 Dwarf-chestnut . . .prinoides . . 
 Yellow-chestnut , 
 Swamp-white . . , 
 Rock-chestnut. . 
 Two-coloured . . 
 
 Turner's Tumerii . 
 
 Levant infectoria 
 
 , .castaneu. . 
 .michduxii 
 . . montdna . 
 , . bicolor . . . 
 
 10, 20 
 
 ....70 
 
 ....80 
 
 40, 60 
 
 70 
 
 . Levant 
 
 * The white oak is in high estim.ition in North 
 America. Michaux states that the vahie of staves 
 made of this species of oak received by England 
 in 1S08 amounted to 146,000 dollars, and the num- 
 ber of staves sent to the West Indies exceeded 
 .')3,O00,000. The price has varied greatly within 
 the last hundred years : 1/20, three dollars a thou- 
 sand ; in 17!)ri, eighteen dollars; and in 1808, 
 thirty dollars. In 1807, before the American em- 
 bargo, they were advertised at fifty-five dollars, 
 and in 1803, after that municipal regulation, at 
 one hundred dollars I 
 
 0.\K-TREE. QUERCUS. Native of 
 
 Subdeciduous . . . .castelldna . . S. Europe 
 
 Glossy-leaved . . . .lezermidna . 
 
 Spreading expdnsa . . . 
 
 Calycine calyci/ia . . . 
 
 Portugal lusitdnica . 
 
 Crenated crendta . . . 
 
 Running sericea . . . 
 
 Sea maritima . 
 
 . Portugal 
 . S. Europe 
 .N.Amer.20in. 
 . *3,8 
 
 CupulifercB. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Beech-tree. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 F.A.GUS. 
 
 Alonoecia Pulyandria. Linn. 
 Male Flower — cn/yx, bell-shaped, five-cleft; 
 corolla, none ; stamina, five to twelve. Fe- 
 male Flower — calyx, four-cleft ; corolla, 
 none ; styles, two or three, three-cleft ; 
 seeds, an angular or three-corner shaped 
 nut, one or two contained in each muricate 
 capsule, which opens with four valves, and 
 emits the seeds or nuts. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — from October 
 to February : they require particular 
 protection from -field-mice and other 
 vermin. Soil — Sihceous, sandy soils 
 are well adapted for the growth of the 
 beech ; or it will attain a great size in 
 elevated clayey loams incumbent on 
 sand : it will prosper on chalky, stony, 
 barren soils. Uses — It is used by 
 cabinet-makers, turners, mill and 
 wheel-wrights, for cogs, spokes, and 
 felloes. In the dockyards it is used 
 for wedges, &c. It is also used by 
 musical-instrument-makers for sound- 
 ing-boards, &c. ; by coopers for clap- 
 boards. Near large towns it is in 
 great demand for billet-wood. It 
 affords a large quantity of potash 
 and good charcoal. 
 
 In Devonshire, where the severity of the 
 western winds is great, the beech ap- 
 pears to withstand the bad effects bet- 
 ter than most other kinds of trees, and 
 this hardy habit of it renders it valu- 
 able for planting in high chalky and 
 gravelly soils, where shelter is of so 
 much importance to the surrounding 
 lands. According to Vancouvert, the 
 beech and sycamore are found most 
 powerful to resist the rigour of the 
 westerly gales. The nuts, or must, of 
 the beech afford an oil % by expression, 
 
 * Michaux, in his ' North American Sylva,' 
 states, that there are found forty-four species of 
 oak between tlie 20tli and 48th degrees of north 
 latitude of that continent. 
 
 t Survey of Devon, p. 251, 
 
 X It is considered next in fineness to the olive 
 oil. According to Michaux, the forests of Eu and 
 Cr^cy, in the department of the Oise, have yielded 
 in a single season two millions of bushels of beecU- 
 nuts. — Ibid. 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 119 
 
 which the poorer inhabitants of Silesia 
 are said to use as a substitute for but- 
 ter. The nuts are sonielimes roasted, 
 and used for cotfee. This tree is a 
 native of tlie greater part of Europe, 
 but is not found so far north as the 
 northern pi-ovinces of Sweden. In 
 England it prevails most in the range 
 of chalk hills which run from Dorset- 
 shire, through Wiltshire, Hampshire, 
 Surre}', Sussex, and Kent, and more 
 partially in Berkshire, Buckingham- 
 shire, and Hertfordshire. It is not 
 imcommon also ontheCotswold Hills 
 in Gloucestershire, and in some parts 
 of Monmouth. In Scotland, where 
 its being indigenous is doubled, large 
 plantations have been made, particu- 
 larly by the Earl of Fife in Murray- 
 shire, and by George Ross, Esq., of 
 Cromarty. In certain cantons of Bel- 
 gium, particularly near the village of 
 St.Nicholas, between Ghent and Ant- 
 werp, very solid and elegant fences 
 are made by planting young beeches 
 seven or eight inches apart, and bent 
 in opposite directions, so as to cross 
 each other, and form a trellis. During 
 the first season they are bound toge- 
 ther by osiers at the points of inter- 
 section, and in time become grafted, 
 forming apertures of four or five inches 
 in diameter. 
 The bark of the American white beech 
 is used for tanning leather, when there 
 is a scarcity of oak bark : the leather 
 made from it is white and durable, but 
 inferior in this last respect to that 
 tanned with oak bark. The purple 
 or broad-leaved American beech is 
 held in higher esteem in North Ame- 
 rica than the former. It is a hardier 
 and a larger-growing tree. The tim- 
 ber is described as being less compact 
 or solid than that of the English 
 beech ; planks of it, however, three 
 inches thick, are exported to England. 
 In summer, while the sap is in the 
 vessels of the wood, it is considered a 
 superior season for felling the beech 
 to that of winter ; and Michaux states 
 that experience has demonstrated the 
 fact, that the timber felled in the for- 
 mer season is greatly more durable 
 than that which is felled in winter. 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 Cupidiferce. Nat. S>/s. 
 
 BEECH-TBEE. FAGUS. 
 
 Monacia Folyandria. Linn. 
 Common. ...... .sylvdtica . . .Britain . . .70 
 
 Species /or Ornament, 8^'c. 
 
 BEECH-TREE. FAGUS. Nativeof Ft. 
 
 Var. Purple purpurea . .Germany .i^O 
 
 ,, Golden stripe! „.,•■ 
 ' , , ^ ifolus aiireis 
 leaved y 
 
 Copjier-leaved .... cuprea 
 
 Broad-leavud. . . . .ferruginea .N.Amer.. ,40 
 
 White sijlvtsiris. , . ... ,30 
 
 Fern-leaved comptoniafol. • 
 
 Cupuliferce. Nat. Sijs. 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 CaoTANEA. 
 
 Moncecia Polyandria. Linn. 
 
 Male Flower — «we??<, naked; rn/yj*. naked; 
 ccii-olla, five petals ; stamina, ten to twenty. 
 Female Flower — cnA/.r, five or six-leaved, 
 muricate, or covered with soft spines ; co- 
 rolla, none ; stigma, pencil-shaped ; seeds, 
 nuts, three, ovate, three-sided, enclosed in 
 a roundish capsule, covered with soft spines. 
 
 Time of soioing the seeds — February, 
 Soil — A rich sandy loam raises the 
 chestnut to the greatest perfection as a 
 timber-tree ; but it appears to come 
 to great maturity in clayey soils, if 
 free from stagnant moisture. It will 
 thrive also in gravel or sand, if not in 
 too bleak or exposed a situation. 
 Uses — The timber of the castanea 
 vesca, or sweet chestnut (see page 9, 
 Jjg. e), is said to be equal to that of 
 the oak. For underwood or shelter, 
 in a favourable climate, there can 
 be no doubt of its great value, af- 
 fording a fall in every ten or twelve 
 years for hop-poles, hoops, &c. The 
 chestnut, if not originally a native 
 of Britain, has at least been long na- 
 turalized in the climate. The most 
 ancient tree of this species on record is 
 probably that mentioned by Bradley* 
 in Lord Ducie's park, at Totworth, 
 Gloucestershire, He states that, in 
 1150, it was styled the great chestnut 
 of Totworth; and that, in 1720, it 
 measured fifty-one feet in circum- 
 ference at six feet from the ground. 
 The same tree is mentioned, in 1791, 
 by Lysons, who etched two views of 
 it. This chestnut, it is highly probable, 
 had lived a thousand years, and hence 
 we may conclude its long duration 
 in the soil. At Buckland, the seat of 
 Robert Throckmorton, Esq., M. P., are 
 to be seen some remarkably fine speci- 
 mens of this tree ; in several places in 
 Kent, and on the banks of the Tamer, 
 
 * Gentleman's JIagazine for 1706, p. 321, See 
 also Martyu's Miller's Gurd. Diet. 
 
120 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 in Cornwall, all evincino; the great per- 
 fection to which it arrives on a sandy, 
 gravelly, or clayey loam. The wood, 
 as already mentioned, is considered to 
 be of equal value to that of the oak, 
 and is applied to the same purposes: 
 opinions, however, vary on the subject, 
 and it is probable that the conclusions 
 drawn from the supposed facts of the 
 .-woodofthechestnut being found sound 
 in very old buildins^s, are liable to 
 some degree of doubt, inasmuch as a 
 decisive proof of such wood being 
 chestnut and not oak does not appear 
 to have been brought forward. We 
 have at pages 8 to 1 1 pointed out a 
 certain means of identifying the wood 
 of different species of trees. The value 
 of the bark of the chestnut for tanning 
 is inferior to oak bark, and the tree is 
 not so hardy ; with these deductions, 
 and they are considerable, the two spe- 
 ' cies of trees may be considered of equal 
 interest to the planter. The value of 
 the chestnut for coppice wood for the 
 produce of hop poles, is well known. 
 The varieties of the common chestnut 
 mentioned below are very ornamental 
 trees. The American chestnut differs 
 but little from the English. It is most 
 common in the mountainous districts 
 of the Carolinas and of Georgia, and 
 it does not appear beyond the 44th 
 degree of north latitude. It flourishes, 
 Michaux states, on the sides of moun- 
 tains, where the soil in general is gra- 
 velly. The nuts are smaller and sw^eeter 
 than those of the European species, 
 and are sold at three dollars per 
 bushel in the markets of New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The 
 wood is thought to be inferior to the 
 European species. In France that of 
 the common chestnut is held in high 
 esteem for coppice wood : it is cut 
 every seven years for small hoops, 
 &c. ; at fourteen years for large hoops, 
 and at twenty-five for posts and light 
 timber. Land so occupied, it is stated, 
 yields a rent superior to that under 
 other kinds of crops in the propor- 
 tion of four to one. The Chmcapin 
 chestnut is not otherwise remarkable 
 than for the beauty of its foliage and 
 the diminutive size of its fruit. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 CHESTNUT. CASTANEA. | Native of Ft. 
 
 Sweet or Spanish . I't'sca England. .50 
 
 American , Americana .America >— 
 
 Species for Ornament, S^-c, 
 
 CHESTNUT, CASTANEA. Nativ of Ft. 
 
 Var. Gold-striped .vtsca England.', 50 
 
 „ Fern-leaved. . — 
 
 „ Shining-leaved > — 
 
 „ Dwf. orChin-1 / ., „ « 
 
 cjjpin "^pumila N.Amer.. .— 
 
 PLATANE.E. Nat. Sys. 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name, 
 
 PhANE-TKEE. PlaTaNLS. 
 
 Monwcia Pohjandria. Linn. 
 
 Male Flower — anient, j^lobe-shaped ; calyx, 
 none ; corolla, scarcely perceptible ; «»- 
 thers, growing around filament. Female 
 Flower — calyx, ; ament, globular ; 
 
 corolla, many-petalled ; stigma, recurved ; 
 seed, roundish, with a foot-stalk, terminated 
 by an awl-shaped style, with a capillary 
 pappas at the base. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — immediately 
 after they are ripe, in a moist, shady 
 situation, or by layers and cuttings in 
 March. Soil — This tree pi'efers moist 
 loam, but free from stagnant moisture. 
 Uses — Except for fuel, the timber ap- 
 pears to be of little value. The trees 
 are admired for their beautiful shade. 
 The oriental plane is hghly praised by 
 ancient writers. yElian and Pliny 
 extol it for the magnitude of its growth 
 and beauty of form. It is generally 
 believed that this tree was introduced 
 into En<rland by the great Lord 
 Chancellor Bacon, although its intro- 
 duction, according to Turners Herbal, 
 is set down as in 1562, or one year 
 before the birth of that illustrious man ; 
 one thing is certain, that his plantation 
 of it at Verulam first brought this 
 tree into public notice. Its culture of 
 late years has fallen into disrepute 
 from the inferior quality of its timber. 
 The American plane, or button-wood, 
 is also a tree of large growth. Mi- 
 chaux measured one on the banks 
 of the Ohio, whose stem, at five feet 
 from the ground, gave forty-seven 
 feet in circumference. This tree being 
 more tender, or liable to be injured by 
 the late spring frosts, has been spar- 
 ingly planted of late years in England, 
 and its wood is not of more value 
 than the former. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 PLANE-TREE. PLATANUS. 
 
 Oriental oiientalis. . . Levant ... 50 
 
 American occidentdlis ,N .Amer . . ,70 
 
 Spanish acerifolia , , Levant 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 121 
 
 Species /of Onianicnf,^-c. 
 
 I'tANE-TREE. PLATANUS. 
 
 Wave-leaved cuneata . . 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Sweet Gum-tree. 
 
 Native of Ft- 
 
 . .Levant . . .50 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 LlQUIDAMBEK. 
 
 Mai.f. Flower — ament, conical, common ; 
 calyx, or invulucre, foiir-leavcd ; corolla, 
 none ; Jilamenls, numerous. Female 
 Flower — calyj', in a globe, four-luaved ; 
 corolla^ none ; styles, two ; capsules, two, 
 enclosed at the base by the calyx, one- 
 celled ; seeds, many. 
 
 Ti7ne of solving; the seeds — Spring.in pots 
 or boxes of light earth ; to be shaded 
 during summer, and protected from 
 severe frost in winter : may be pro- 
 pagated also by layers. Soil — It will 
 succeed best in a sandy loam, but 
 will thrive in most kinds of soils of 
 an intermediate quality between mois- 
 ture and dryness. Use — Ornamental. 
 
 Species for Ornament, 8fc. 
 
 SWEET GUM-TREE. LIOUIDAMBER. 
 
 Maple-leaved . . . .sfyracifora.'N.Amev,. .30 
 Oriental imbtrbe .... — 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 Suhordo TaxinecE. I'J'at, Sys. 
 
 Maidenhaired-tree. Salisburia. 
 
 Monoecia Polyandria. Liitn. 
 
 Male Flower — ament, naked, filiform ; co- 
 rolla, none ; anthers, incumbent, deltoida ; 
 Female Flower — solitary ; calyx, i'our- 
 
 ■ cleft ; seed, a drupe with a triangular shell. 
 Propagated by cuttings. 
 
 Time of sowing — Propagated by layers. 
 Soil — A sandy loam. Uses — Habit 
 of growth and ornamental foliage. 
 
 Species for Orna?nenl, ^'c. 
 Maidenhair-tree . .adiantifolia ..Tapan . . .20 
 
 Yew-tree, Taxus, 
 
 Diacia Monadelphia. Linn, 
 
 Male Flower — calyx, none, except a four- 
 leaved perianth like a bud ; corolla, none ; 
 stamina, many ; anthers, buckler-shajied, 
 eight-cleft. Female Flower — corolla, 
 none ; style, none ; seed, ovate, oblong, 
 projecting with its apex beyond the berry, 
 which is seated in a globular cup. 
 
 Time of soicing seeds — Autumn, as soon 
 as they are ripe. Soil — Sandy loam ; 
 but it will also grow in most kinds of 
 soil, particularly such as are chalky. 
 Uses — Hedges for shelter. The wood 
 is used by turners, inlayers, and cabi- 
 
 net-makers. It i.s much valued for 
 flood-gates for fish-ponds, axletrees, 
 cogs of mills, &c., ])owls, wheels, and 
 pins for puUies, and by turners for 
 spoons, cups, &c. It has been dis- 
 puted whether the yew is poisonous or 
 not : the facts, however, in confirma- 
 tion of the poisonous nature of the 
 whole plant are too numerous to 
 admit of rational doubt, and, conse- 
 quently, great caution should be em- 
 ployed in plant in<r it out of the reach 
 of the more valuable domestic animals. 
 That the berries have been eaten in 
 very small Iquantities with impunity 
 seems to be admitted; and also that 
 sheep and goats, according to Lin- 
 naeus, are less alfected by taking it 
 into the stomach, than horses and 
 cows. The yew is a native of Britain, 
 as well as of other parts of Europe, 
 of North America, and Japan. The 
 yew tree was formerly what the oak 
 now is, the basis of our strength, for 
 of it the old English yeoman made 
 his bow,* as he now makes of the oak 
 his seventy-four gun man of war. 
 The number of remarkable yew trees in 
 different parts of the country are very 
 interesting; and how much more so 
 would they be rendered, had we re- 
 cords of the periods when they were 
 planted I but we must, from want of 
 space, refer the reader to Evelyn, Gil- 
 pin, Barrington in Archa;ologia. vii., 
 xlviii., and liii., and to Martyn"s Edi- 
 tion of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary 
 on this point. 
 
 Species for Ortiament , S^c. 
 
 YEW-TREE. taxus. Native of Ft. 
 
 Common baccdta .... Britain ... 20 
 
 Var. Striped-leaved 
 
 Upright or Irish . Hibernica. . . ■ 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 JUNIPER-TREE. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Jlnu-erus, 
 
 Subordo Ciiprcssince. 
 
 Male Flower — calyx of the ament, a scale; 
 corolla, none ; stamina, three. Female 
 Flower — Cff/ya*, three-parted; /Je/a/s, three; 
 styles, three; pericarp, or covering of the 
 seed, a fleshy berry, irregular with the 
 three tubercles of the calyx ; seeds, three, 
 bonelike, convex on one side and cornered 
 on the other, oblong-shaped. 
 
 Soil — Light, silicious, sandy soils. Uses 
 — The common juniper-bush is es- 
 teemed for its beauty as a shrub, and 
 
 • Gilpin's Forest Scenery, vol. i. p. 92. 
 
122 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 likewise for its berries, which are used 
 by disiillfrs and rectifiers of ardent 
 spirits. Tiie plants are useful for 
 ornament, when planted by the mar- 
 gins of woods. The red cedar, Jun'i- 
 perus Virgi/ma, attains to the size of 
 a timber tree in deep sandy loam 
 soils. In that part of Woburn Abbey 
 Park called the Everjrreens, said to 
 have been planted by Miller, the cele- 
 brated author of the Gardener's Dic- 
 tionary, are to be seen some remark- 
 ably fine specimens of this tree. In 
 North America it is found wild as far 
 as the foriy-fourth and forty-fifth de- 
 grees. Michaux observes, that it be- 
 comes less common, and diminishes in 
 size as it retires from the sea-coast. In 
 favourable situations, as in the middle 
 of small islands, and on the borders 
 of the narrow sounds that flow be- 
 tween them and the main, it is forty 
 and forty-five feet in height, and 
 twelve or fourteen inches in diameter. 
 The wood is fragrant and fine grained, 
 strong and durable. In America, the 
 wood is not plentiful, and is reserved 
 for those more important purposes 
 for which these properties are most 
 required. 
 The white cedar* grows naturally in 
 wet grounds in the marine lands of 
 Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey. 
 There it attains to seventy and eighty 
 feet in height. The wood is lighter 
 than that of the red cedar, and is less 
 durable. It is of slow growth in 
 England, and even in its native soil, 
 for Michaux counted two hundred 
 and seventy-seven annual growths in 
 a stem only twenty-one inches in dia- 
 meter. The wood is fabricated into 
 pails, wash-tubs, and churns. 
 
 Specise for Ornament, Sfc. 
 
 JUNIPER-TEEE. JUNIPERUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Spanish thurifera . . . S. Europe 
 
 Tall exctha .... Siberia ... 20 
 
 Red cedar virginidna . . N.Amer. . . 30 
 
 Savin sabina S.Europe 
 
 Var. Striped-leav'd vuriegata . . . • 
 
 „ Tamarisk-lvd. tamariscifo/ia 
 
 Dauriau daurica .... Dauria 
 
 Common communis . . Britain 
 
 Var. Swedish .... suecica N. Europe. 
 
 „ Brown-berried oxyctdrus . . Spain 
 
 Phcsnician phamicia . . . S.Europe 
 
 Lycian lycia 
 
 * Properly belongs to Thuja sphceroldea of 
 Sprenge/,hal ranked here according to Willdenow, 
 under Viipressus thyoides. 
 
 JUNIPER-TREE, JUNIPERVS. Kative of Ft. 
 
 Scaly-branched. . .sqiunndta. . .Nepal 
 Pn)strate-Juniper.;j/-osi/Y(7c( . . .N. Amer. 
 Hemispherical. . .hemisphdnca'^icWy. 
 
 Oblong oblonga Armenia 
 
 Daurian ddurica . . . .Dauria 
 
 Eng. Name. Bot. Name. 
 
 Arbor-Vit.b. TllUJ.l. 
 
 Calyx, five-parted ; petals, five ; capsule, three- 
 celled ; seeds, solitary, very smooth, obtuse 
 at the base, mucronate, and curved inwards. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — Spring, or as 
 soon as the seeds are ripe. Sow in 
 pots filled with a mixture of peat and 
 loam. The plants are, however, gene- 
 rally propagated by layers — the first 
 sort .sometimes by cuttings. Soil — 
 Moist, sandy loams suit these trees 
 best : they however attain to fine trees 
 even in damp clayey soils, or in dry 
 sandy soils. Uses — They are orna- 
 mental evergi-eens for the fronts of 
 plantations. The American arbor- 
 vitse is the only species which comes 
 properly under the notice of the forest- 
 planter. The value of the wood is 
 considerable ; it is slightly odorous, 
 very lisrht and soft grained. In Canada, 
 according to Michaux, it holds the 
 first place for durability. Fences 
 made of it last three or four times as 
 long as those of any other species. 
 The leaves are made into a salve with 
 hog's lard, and used in Canada for 
 rheumatic pains. 
 
 Species for Ornament, S^-c. 
 
 ARBOR-VIT.E. THUJA. 
 
 American occide?itulis ,ii. Amer. . .25 
 
 Var.Close-branchedf/ewsa — 
 
 Chinese oritntdlis . .China — 
 
 Plaited plicdta NootkaSnd. 
 
 Weeping pindula. . . .Tartary 
 
 Lucas's Caroliniana Carolina 
 
 Cyphess-tkee. Cl'PUESSUS. 
 
 Male Flower — amcnt, imbricated ; calyx, 
 of one scale ; corolla, none ; anthers, four, 
 and sitting, without filaments. Female 
 Fi-ower — anient, changing to a strobile ; 
 calyx, one-flowered ; corolla, none ; stigma, 
 two, concave, points : seed, an angular nut. 
 
 Time of sowing the ^eerfs— Spring, in a 
 warm situation, or in pots, in dry- 
 light earth : to be kept in the cones 
 until the period of sowing. Soil — 
 This tree delights most in a sandy 
 loam, but it will also thrive and grow 
 to a considerable height in clayey 
 soils. Use — Ornamental and econo- 
 mical, as regards the wood of the 
 
LIST OF FOREST.TREES. 
 
 123 
 
 evergreen and deciduous cypresses. 
 The wood of the upriijht evero-reen 
 cypress is said to resist the attaciis 
 of worms, and all putrefaction for 
 many years. Professor Martyn says, 
 that the doors of St. Peter's Church 
 at Rome were built of tliis wood, and 
 which lasted eleven hundred years, or 
 from Constantine to Pope Euiz;enius 
 the Fourth's time. This tree deserves 
 to be more attended to by the British 
 planter than it is at present. The 
 deciduous cypress attains to a timber 
 size in Eniiland, althousjh it is of slow 
 growth. Havinti been hitherto planted 
 with a view to ornament rather than 
 to economy for timber, its merits 
 have not been proved in England. In 
 North America its wood is highly 
 valued, and in Louisiana, it is said to 
 be profitably substituted for the white 
 oak and pine. It attains to the largest 
 size in low, damp, or swampy soils, 
 in the southern states, rising to one 
 hundred and twenty feet in height, 
 and from twenty-five to forty in cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 Species for Ornament, Sfc. 
 
 CYPRESS-TREE. CUPRESSUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Upright sempervirensCundia. , . .20 
 
 Var. Spreading. . ./iorjso«/a/is. — 
 
 Portugal, or Ce-1, ■., ■ „ , , 
 J f p tlusiiamca . .Portugal . . — 
 
 White thyoides . . . N. Amer. 
 
 Com. deciduous . . distichum . . 
 
 Var. Long-leaved. «u/a«s 
 
 Twisting furulusa Nepal 
 
 Eng. Name. 
 
 Norfolk Island Pine. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 
 Aral'caria. 
 
 Dioecia Monade/phia. Linn. 
 
 Male Flower — anient., imbricated ; calyx 
 a woolly scale ; corolla, none ; anthers, teti 
 to tweh'e, ia the scale connate. Female 
 Flower — ainent, strobile-shaped ; calyc _ 
 one-scale, spear-shaped, leathery ; corolla, 
 none ; .stamina, none ; seed, a nut, leathery, 
 wedge-shaped. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — In pots as 
 soon as obtained. Soil — A sandy 
 loam, in a warm sheltered situation. 
 Use — Ornamental. The Norfolk 
 island pine is a most magnificent tree 
 in its native climate. In England it 
 is properly a conservatory plant. How 
 far it may be capable of being accli- 
 mated has not yet been determined. 
 Of the Chilian species of Araucaria, 
 planted in the open air, there is a fine 
 specimen in the Royal Gardens, Kew, 
 and one atLordGrenville's,Dropmore. 
 
 Governor King states, that he mea- 
 sured some of the former species in 
 Norfolk Island, which were two hun- 
 dred and twenty- eight feet in height 
 and eleven in diameter. 
 The wood is white, close grained, and 
 tough, and it appears to contain no 
 resin. The bark, however, aflbrds a 
 fluid partaking of the properties of 
 that substance. Lamb. Pin. 
 Species for Ornament, 8(C. 
 
 NORFOLK-ISLAND PINE. ARAUCARIA. 
 
 SirJosephBanks's.i?wi/-/c«/a . . Chili 
 
 Brazilian hrazilidna .Brazil 
 
 Norfolk Island . . . excelsa Norf. Isl, 
 
 ^ Eng. Name. 
 
 Pine-tree. 
 
 Bot. Name. 
 PiNUS. 
 
 Monoecia Monadelphia. Linn, 
 Male Flower — calyx, four-leaved ; corolla 
 none ; stamina, numerous ; anthers, naked. 
 Female Flower — calyx, scale of the 
 strobile two-flowered ; corolla, none ; pis- 
 iil-, none. Male Flower — scales of the 
 a?«e«/, buckler-shaped ; corolla, noim; an. 
 titers, adhering to the scales, sitting, or 
 without filaments. Female Flower — ea- 
 lijx , scales of the ament, two-flowered ; eo- 
 rolla, none ; pistil, none. Seed*, a wing 
 nut. 
 
 Time of sowing the seeds — March : the 
 seeds should not be taken out of the 
 cones until the time of sowing arrives. 
 »Soz7— All the fir and pine tribe affect 
 siliceous, sandy soils, but they will 
 flourish on rocky, and comparatively 
 barren soils, for which they are pe- 
 culiarly adapted. The/r*, pi7ies, and 
 larches constitute a perfectly natural 
 genus, or family of trees. The most 
 obvious or ready character of distinc- 
 tion between them is to be found in 
 the natural arrangement of the leaves. 
 The firs have the leaves solitary, or 
 issuing from one scale or sheath on 
 the bark of the branches, over which 
 they are scattered. The larches have 
 their leaves in tufts, or little bundles, 
 which are deciduous, and the pines 
 have from two to five leaves issuing 
 from one sheath at their base, and 
 have the habit of an evergreen. One 
 property is common to all the species 
 of this genus, that of affording resin- 
 ous matter, either from the wood, 
 bark, or cones. The property of re- 
 producing a leading stem or branch 
 when divided, common to all other 
 trees more or less, is wanting in this 
 family of trees ; and hence they are 
 
 • Sir J. Smith, in Cortip, H.B. 
 
124 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 called non-reprorluefive trees (see 
 p. 33.) The universal use of the 
 wood (patre 10,/'o-.o.) renders its pro- 
 perties and comparative value so well 
 known as to relieve the reader from de- 
 tails here on that point. The species 
 which experience hitherto has proved 
 to he most deserving: of the attention 
 of the profitable British planter are — 
 
 The silver fir, which attains to the height 
 of one hundred and ten feet and up- 
 wards, with a proportionate diameter, 
 in this climate. — (See pages 80 — 89.) 
 It is very apt, during its first stages 
 of growth, to have its young shoots 
 cut by the spring frosts ; and this cir- 
 cumstance, we believe, is the cause of 
 the great neglect of planting this va- 
 luable fir. It has already been re- 
 marked, that it takes the lead of the 
 larch, Scotch pine, and spruce after 
 the first fifteen years of growth, and 
 therefore its slower progress at first 
 ought not to prevent its being more 
 extensively planted than it has hitherto 
 been in every situation where the fir, 
 pine, or larch are proper to be planted 
 for profit or ornament. 
 
 The 13ubn of Gilead fir in habit and 
 api)earance approaches near to the 
 silver fir, but it is evidently inferior 
 in every respect, although a very hand- 
 some evergreen tree. These two species 
 are often confoimded together*. The 
 leaves of the silver fir are arranged 
 nearly on opposite sides of the branch, 
 comb-like. The under sides of the 
 leaves have two white lines running 
 lengthways, which give them a silvery 
 hue. The leaves of the balm of Gilead 
 are shorter, blunter, and stand nearly 
 upright, in double rows, on the upper 
 side of the branches ; while, in the 
 silver fir, they are flattened and irre- 
 gularly single-rowed. According to 
 Michaux, the resin of this tree is col- 
 lected in America, and sold under the 
 name of Balm of Gilead. 
 
 The Norway spruce is considered to at- 
 tain from one hundred and twenty-five 
 to one hundred and fifty feet in height. 
 With the Scotch pine it is said to con- 
 stitute the greatest proportion of the 
 vast woods of Denmark, Sweden, and 
 
 * Silver Fir — Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate, 
 pectinate ; scales of the cone, very blunt, pressed 
 close. 
 
 Balm of Gilead Fir — Leaves solitary, flat, emargi- 
 nate, subpectinate, almost upright above, never 
 flat , scales of the co7ies, when in flower, acumi- 
 nate ,reflex. 
 
 Norway. The timber is held to be 
 inferior to that of the Scotch pine. 
 The latter is called red deal, and the 
 former white deal. This tree attains 
 to a large size on cold damp clays, 
 situated on declivities*. The white, 
 black, and red spruces are of inferior 
 value to the Norway. In America 
 the wood of the black spruce is sawn 
 into boards, and exported to the West 
 Indies and to England ; Michaux 
 states that they are sold at one-fourth 
 cheaper than those of the white pine. 
 
 The Scotch pine, Finns si/lresfris, whe- 
 ther as regards its hardy habits, grow- 
 ing in severe climates and in soils 
 ungenial to almost every other kind 
 of tree, or to its value in the produc- 
 tion of useful timber, must .stand in 
 the fir,st rank of forest -trees. The 
 great elevation in which this tree will 
 grow was mentioned before at page 
 44. A large exportation of the tim- 
 ber takes place from Riga, Memel, 
 and Dantzic to England. In the 
 former places, according to Mr. Lam- 
 bert, it is called red deal, and in Lon- 
 don yellow deal. According to re- 
 spectable authority, this species fur- 
 nishes four fifths of the tar consumed 
 in the dockyards of Europef. 
 
 The pinaster, having an inferior timber, 
 claims but httle notice from the pro- 
 fitable planter ; however, it will grow 
 in situations exposed to the sea air, 
 and is an ornamental tree. 
 
 • The resin, which concretes on the bark after 
 a wound, being boiled in water, and strained 
 through a linen cloth, is then called Burgundy 
 pitch. By boiling tbe resin until the water is 
 evaporated, and by then adding wine vinegar, the 
 substance known under the name of colophonium 
 is formed. 
 
 t In 180/ tar and pitch were exported to Eng- 
 land from the United States to the amount of 
 2t!.'),000 dollars. The process of extracting the tar 
 is nearly as follows : — The wood is stripped of the 
 sap, and cut into billets two or three feet long, and 
 about three inches thick. A circular mound is 
 prepared, slightly declining from the centre to the 
 circumference, which forms a shallow ditch. The 
 diameter of the pile is proportioned to the quantity 
 of the wood; to obtain one hundred barrels of 
 tar the diameter should be eighteen or twenty feet. 
 In the middle a conduit is made to the ditch, in 
 which is a reservoir to receive the resin as it 
 (lows from the ignited mass. The top of the 
 mound is coated with clay, and made hard and 
 smooth, and on which the wood is laid in rays. 
 The pile, when finished, is twenty feet at the 
 l)ase, and, at eight feet in height, twenty-five or 
 thirty feet in diameter, terminating in a cone four 
 feet above. It is then strewed with pine leaves, 
 and covered with earth. It is ignited at the top 
 similar to the process of charcoal making. The 
 fire should act slowly, so that a pile of the above 
 dimensions should continue burning eight or nine 
 days. Pitch is tar reduced by evaporation. — Wic, 
 Amer. Sylva., vol. iii. p. 142. 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 125 
 
 The stone pine is more celebrated for 
 its seed, which is eaten as a fruit, than 
 for the value of its timber. In Italy 
 and the South of France the seed is 
 served up in the dessert ; andaccordine; 
 to Sir Geor2;e Staunton it is known 
 and relished by the Chinese. It is a 
 handsome tree. 
 
 The hooked pine, Plnus uncinuta, is re- 
 markable for the very hij^h elevation 
 of the site on which it will grow, men- 
 tioned at page 44. Those other pines 
 belonging to this group, enumerated 
 below, are all more or less interesting 
 and deserving of notice, but as the 
 facts relative to the comparative value 
 of their timber are not yet sufficiently 
 numerous to lead to satisfactory con- 
 clusions, we must necessarily omit 
 any further mention of them here. 
 The frankincense, Virginian, or pitch, 
 swamp, and pond pines are all natives 
 of North America. The most va- 
 luable of these in their native climate 
 appears to be the swamp, or long- 
 leaved pine, as Michaux terms it. He 
 remarks, that its mean height is from 
 sixty to seventy feet, with a diameter 
 of fifteen or eighteen inches for three- 
 fourths of its length. The timber of 
 the swamp pine is extensively used in 
 the Floridas, Georgia, and the Caro- 
 linas. It has not yet exhibited any 
 merits as a forest-tree in the climate 
 of Britain. 
 
 The Weymouth pine is of very quick 
 growth in sheltered situations, and 
 moderately moist sandy soils ; but 
 the timber is of a very inferior quality. 
 It is extensively used in America, un- 
 der the name of white pine ; it is 
 considered to have little strength, and 
 atlbrdmg but a feeble hold to nails. 
 It is stated to reach the height of one 
 hundred and fifty feet, and five in 
 diameter.* It was cultivated in 1705, 
 by the Duchess of Beaufort. 
 
 The Siberian stone or Cembra pine, is a 
 highly ornamental species in England ; 
 but its merits for timber have not 
 been satisfactorily determined. It 
 abounds in the Tyrol, where the wood 
 
 * The quantity of timber of this species of pine 
 which passed down the Sorel for Quebec, betwi-en 
 the 1st of Slay, 1807, and the 30tti of July follow- 
 ing, was 132,7^0 cubic feet of square wood, KJO.UUO 
 of common boards, (>7,U0u feetof planks two inclies 
 thick, 'M masts, and 4.')-15 logs. It is brouglit to 
 the market of New Orleans from a distance of 
 29U0 miles. At Liveri)ool, in 1808, the cubic foot 
 was 60 cents, and planks of two inches by twelve 
 four cents a foot, — N. A, Sylva, toI, iii. y. 171. 
 
 is preferred to common deal for floor- 
 ing, wainscoting, and other kinds of 
 joiner's work. It appears to have 
 been confounded with the Pinus pyg- 
 meca, but the species are very distinct. 
 
 The Pinus Lambertiana was introduced 
 in 18'27, by Mr. Douglas, collector to 
 the Horticultural Society of London. 
 In its native soil, the north-west 
 coast of America, it appears to be a 
 tree of gigantic growth, and of great 
 longevity. See (*) p. 70. 
 
 We come now to consider the last group 
 or section of the pine tribe, or those 
 with leaves disposed in tufts or little 
 bundles surrounding a bud. The 
 first and most valuable of these is the 
 common larch. Scarcely any species 
 of forest-tree has received so much 
 attention and favour from planters, 
 in a given series of years, as this tree ; 
 and our space will not allow of the 
 simple mention of the names of the 
 numerous eminent individuals, who 
 have put its real and assumed merits 
 to the test of trial, much less enable 
 us to detail the various facts and opi- 
 nions brought forward on the subject. 
 Its merits are stated to have been 
 known so early as the time of Julius 
 Caesar, vvlio calls it lig7ium igni im- 
 penetrabile* It is a native of the 
 South of Europe and of Siberia, in- 
 habiting the sides of the mountains, 
 in the local hollows of which it attains 
 to the largest dimensions. The first 
 mention of its culture in England is 
 given in Parkinson's Paradisus in 
 1629 ; and Evelyn, in 1664, mentions 
 a larch tree of good stature at Chelms- 
 ford, in Essex. It further appears to 
 have been introduced into Scotland 
 in 1734 by Lord Karnes. But the 
 merit of making known its valuable 
 properties as a timber tree for the cli- 
 mate of Britain, appears to be due to 
 the Duke of Athol, who planted it 
 at Dunkekl in 1741. The rapid growth 
 of these and of other trees of the same 
 species planted successively by that 
 nobleman, and the valuable properties 
 of the timber of such as were felled, 
 realized the high character previously 
 bestowed upon it by foreign and 
 British authors, who were followed by 
 others, such as Doctor Anderson, 
 Watson, Bishop of Landaff, Marshall, 
 Professor Martyn, Nicol, Ponty, Sang, 
 
 • Hnrte's Essays, Professor Martyn in Mill, 
 Gard. iiict. 
 
126 
 
 LIST OF FOREST-TREES. 
 
 and Monteith, all confirmins: and fur- 
 ther extolling: the valuable properties 
 of the tree, which has induced a some- 
 what general belief, that the larch is 
 the most valuable of forest-trees, even 
 takiriir precedence of the oak. It is 
 no wonder, therefore, that the larch 
 has been planted, and largely, in al- 
 most every kind of soil ; and as it is 
 not exempted from the influence of 
 that natural law to which every other 
 species of tree is subject, namely, that 
 which restricts to peculiar soils the 
 perfect development of all the parts 
 of their structure and successful pro- 
 gress of growth to the state of full 
 maturity or perfection — in many in- 
 stances plantations of it have failed 
 in making a return of the expected 
 advantages, inferior even to the Scotch 
 pine, not to mention the oak, elm, 
 and ash, of greater value on a similar 
 soil. On soils of the nature alluded 
 to, namely, wet clays, springy gravels, 
 and wherever stagnant moisture could 
 not escape, the larch, after attaining 
 to eighteen or twenty-five years 
 growth, gives evidence of premature 
 decay, or a suspension of healthy pro- 
 gress of growth, and when felled ex- 
 hibits unsound timber, commencing 
 in the centre of the leading roots, and 
 penetrating upwards into the body of 
 the tree. — (See page 74.) The in- 
 stances are numerous which have 
 come under our own observation of the 
 fact now stated ; and we mention it, 
 not with a view to detract from its 
 intrinsic value, or to discourage its 
 propagation, but as a caution against 
 the indiscriminate planting of it in 
 soils without exception or without due 
 examination. On declivities, and even 
 in hollows, where clays abound, but 
 where there is also a drainage for the 
 superfluous water, the larch we have 
 found to attain to great perfection*. 
 The pruning of larch and other non- 
 reproductive trees was mentioned at 
 page 66. 
 The comparative value of the red and 
 black species of larch has not yet been 
 sufficiently proved; so far, however, 
 as the trials have proceeded, the opi- 
 
 * Where stagnant moisture of the soil prevails, 
 a comparatively great humidity of the atmosphere 
 accompanies it, lience it is that the had efl'ects of 
 unseasonable frosts or such as happen late in 
 spring or early in autumn are always most severe 
 on trees in such situations, andto which the larch 
 is very obnoxious at that season when its shoots 
 are in a young and tender state. 
 
 nion is greatly ia favour of the com- 
 mon or white larch. 
 The Cedar of Lebanon, P/w«5 cedrns, so 
 celebrated by the ancients for the va- 
 luable properties of its wood, such as 
 continuing sound for a thousand or two 
 thousand years, yielding an oil famous 
 for preserving books and writings, de- 
 stroying noxious insects, &c. has not 
 been proved in the climate of Britain 
 to afford timber of a valuable quality ; 
 it is also more difficult to propagate 
 and of slower growth in its first stages 
 from seed than the firs, pines, and 
 larches to which it is allied : its cul- 
 ture, therefore, appears to have been 
 confined in this country to parks and 
 lawns, and doubtless there is no fo- 
 rest-tree that, when placed singly, or 
 in small groups, confers such an air 
 or impression of ancient grandeur and 
 dignity upon a mansion and its grounds 
 as a full grown Cedar of Lebanon. 
 It is a native of the coldest parts of 
 Mount Libanus, where now% accord- 
 ing to the accounts of travellers, it is 
 found in small numbers, Rauwolf, 
 in 1575, saw only twenty-four sound 
 trees and two old decayed ones. 
 Maundrell, who visited the supposed 
 site of this most ancient forest in 1696, 
 could reckon only sixteen large trees, 
 but many small ones. The largest mea- 
 sured twelve yards six inches in gi7-ih 
 and thirty-seven yards in the spread of 
 its branches. Professor IVIartyn re- 
 marks that Solomons four-score thou- 
 sand hewers must have considerably 
 thinned the forest of Libanus. The 
 same excellent author further observes, 
 that we have now probably more ce- 
 dars in England than are left on Mount 
 Libanus— a fact which, whenconjoined 
 with that regarding the present state 
 of the natural forests of America, men- 
 tioned at page 87, should afford matter 
 for deep and serious reflection to those 
 who have it in their power to plant 
 land, comparatively waste or unpro- 
 ductive, in a judicious manner, but 
 who hesitate thus to benefit their 
 posterity and their country, from the 
 fallacious impression that the natural 
 forests of America and of the north of 
 Europe, unrenovated, as they continue 
 to be from the neglect of planting, 
 are inexhaustible, and will continue 
 to supply the wants of the civil and 
 naval architectural sciences and arts 
 of this country. 
 
LIST OF FOREST-TREES, 
 
 127 
 
 Forest or Timber Species. 
 
 First — ^Those with leaves solitary, scattered 
 round the branches. 
 
 riNVS. Naliveof Fl. 
 
 .picea Switz.30— 80 
 
 FIR-TREE. 
 
 Silver 
 
 Balm of Gilead . 
 Hemlock spruce . 
 Norway „ 
 White „ . 
 Black „ . 
 
 Red „ . 
 
 Dwarf 
 
 Oriental 
 
 Bushy 
 
 Yew-leaved 
 
 Pnriile-coned . . . 
 
 Fischer's 
 
 Douglas's 
 
 Double balsam. . 
 
 .ba/samica . . Viririnia . .50 
 .ranaJe lists. .N.Am. 10 — 30 
 
 .dfjies N.EuropelOO 
 
 .a/ba N.Am.50— 80 
 
 .nigra 45 — 50 
 
 .rfibra _. 30—50 
 
 .clanbrassiliana — 
 
 . orienttUis . . . lievant — 
 .f/;/OTiis«. .. .Nepal — 
 
 ./rtTi/o/ia .. .Columbia — 
 .s/jpc/nW/s. .Nepal — 
 
 .pichta Altay — 
 
 . DovgUisii . . N . Amer. — 
 . Frasiri .... — 
 
 Second — Those with leaves in pairs, or two 
 proceeding from the base of a sheath. 
 
 PINE-TREE. riNUS. 
 
 Scotch sylvhtris. . . Scot.30_100 
 
 Cluster pinaster. . . . S. Europe (iO 
 
 Stone pinea 40 
 
 Ornamental, or whose value as Timher-trees 
 has not yet been ascertained in England. 
 
 Upright-coned . . .pumilio. . . . Caruiola 
 
 Nodding-coned . . .milghus. . . . 
 
 Pungent pungens . . .N.Am.40 — 60 
 
 Hudson's Bay . . .banksidna . . 60 
 
 Sea-side maritima . . S. Europe . 40 
 
 Aleppo halepensis. . Alep. .20 — 30 
 
 Jersey inops N.Am.40 — 50 
 
 American pitch- 1 . . rn 
 
 ^ tresinvsa . . . . • JW 
 
 tree J 
 
 Corsican laricio .... Corsica — 
 
 Hooked uncindia . . .Pyrenees — 
 
 Pallas' s Pallasidna . Crimea — 
 
 Yellow liitea N.Amer. — 
 
 PINE-TREE. PINT'S. Katirc of Ft. 
 
 Ileavy-wooded. . .ponderosa . .N.W.Am. 50 
 
 Gerard's Gerdrdi . . .Nepal — 
 
 Oooked adu/ica. . . . — • 
 
 Roman Romdna . . . Italy — 
 
 Siberian Siberica . . . Siberia — 
 
 Third — ^Those with leaves varying from 
 two to three. 
 
 Two and i^^ree-^^^bm, ,,UAmA0-6Q 
 leaved J 
 
 Fourth — Tliose with leaves in threes. 
 
 Frankincense .... t'ada N.Amer. . . 30 
 
 Virginian, or 1 , . , nn 
 
 Pitch-pine *. . J ^ 
 
 Swamp palustris .N.Amer.60 — 70 
 
 Pond, or fox-tail . . serotina .... ■ -^ 
 
 Fifth— Those with leaves in fives. 
 
 Weymouth strobus . . . .N. Amer. 100 
 
 -,., . . Icembra, or I Sib. I-^ ^^ 
 
 Siberian stone .. •{ , ' , fc •♦ f^O — 60 
 {aphernousu^awn.) 
 
 Lambert's lambertidna N.AV. Am. 
 
 Pigmy pijgmcEa . . . Siberia — • 
 
 Bhotan. . excilsa . . . .Nepal — 
 
 Leaves numerous in little bundles from the 
 bottom or base of a sheath. 
 
 Timber or Forest Species. 
 
 PINE-TREE. PINUS. Native of Ft. 
 
 Com. white larch . Idrix Switz. 50 — 80 
 
 Intermediate . . . .inter midia. .Altay 
 Dahurian dakurica . . . Dahuria 
 
 Species /or Ornament, ^c. 
 
 Black larch pendula N.Amer.. .30 
 
 Red larch microcdrpa . 80 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon ctdrus Levant — ■ 
 
 Indian cedar .... deodara .... Nepal — 
 
 * Cultivated before 1759 by the Duke of Bedford 
 Mill. Diet. Ed. 7. D. 10. 
 
 Inlookino; over the above list of forest-trees, it may seem to require a reason 
 for not arranginffthe names of the trees in alphabetical order, instead of adopting 
 the natural system of classification mentioned at the commencement of this 
 enumeration, at page 93 ; particularly as such a mode, under the circumstances 
 of a partial selection from the whole of the vegetal:)le kingdom, must necessarily, 
 as there slated, exhibit a broken series of connexion between the individual 
 families or groups of trees brought forward. The index, however, will supply 
 this apparent inconvenience, and the advantages to the young forest-planter of 
 1 eing early acquainted with the affinities or natural connexions of different 
 families and species of trees with each other, will, by a little experience in the 
 practice of planting, be fully appreciated by him, should he even confine his 
 examination to the structure of the seed, which is givimin the botanical character 
 of each genus or family of trees. The classes and orders of the Natural and 
 Linnean systems, under which eacli genus of forest-trees stand, will also point 
 out to him where may be found the discriminating characters of distinction of 
 the different species, as in the Species Piantarum, or in systematically arranged 
 
128 LIST OF F0RE5;T-TREES. 
 
 Floras, where such have been published, of the plants of different countries ; and 
 in tlie perusal of tliese, should a doubt occur, the above enumeration will show 
 Avhether the tree or trees in question have been introduced into British planhn^. 
 The heii^ht of the trees mentioned in the list is either such as we have ascer- 
 tained by actual measurement, or have been assured of by respectable authority. 
 
 The advantages resulting to individuals locally, and to the whole community, 
 from judicious planting, have been noticed at page 2, and subsequently in the 
 course of these pages ; and what judicious planting consists in, and what are the 
 consequent profitable results from it, have :ilso been pointed out by an appeal to 
 facts obtained from culture, observation, and experience ; which, if examined, can 
 hardly fail to arrest the attention of those who have given little of it to this im- 
 portant subject, but who, nevertheless, possess the means thus to enrich their 
 landed possessions in their own life-time, benefit their posterity, and their 
 country. But it is not planting judiciously at first, it has been shown, that will 
 accomplish those important results, without the essential addition of subseque-nt 
 attention to skilful culture and management of the plantations throughout the 
 entire progress of the trees to maturity, according to the purposes for which the 
 produce of individual trees or species of trees are most valuable, and consequently 
 their proper period of duration in the soil ; these important points have been 
 dwelt .upon, and frequently urged in the course of these pages (16, 32, 61, 64, 
 C6, and 45, 50, 67, 68, 71); and it may be here added, that there is more 
 absolute loss to individuals who possess plantations, but who neglect the applica- 
 tion of judicious cvdture to such, than accrues from the like neglect of the 
 healthy progress of any other agricultural crop whatever. Besides, it is an evil, 
 that this neglect leads to an erroneous opinion of the utility, and important 
 private and public value of judicious planting, and induces many who have it in 
 their power to plant extensively to omit it, and leave that land barren and waste, 
 which might otherwise be so beneficially occupied in the growth of timber, and 
 amelioration of defective local climates. The great extent of waste-land in this 
 kingdom has been stated at page 85. 
 
 By referring to the county surveys, and to other sources of information, it will 
 be found that a large portion of the waste, or comparatively unproductive lands, 
 in this kingdom, is capable of being profitably employed in the growth of timber ; 
 and, taking the proportion of one-twentieth part only of the whole, there will be 
 upwards of three millions and a half of acres available for the purpose, or say, 
 one million and a half of acres for trees, and two millions of acres for conversion 
 to down-pasture, or partly tillage, by the aid of the shelter and amelioration of the 
 local climates produced by the judicious disposition of the plantations. The 
 facts and observations brought forward in evidence of the public necessity for the 
 extension of forest-tree planting, as well as the advantages accruing from it to 
 private estates, need not here be repeated ; neither need it be recalled to mind, 
 that the perpetual consumption of timber from the natural forests of this country, 
 without any aid being aftbrded in return to renovate or keep up a succession of 
 trees by plantinsj, at last caused that scarcity of timber for civil and naval archi- 
 tecture which first led to the culture of timber-trees as an article of profit, and 
 which has brought the art of arboriculture to a higher degree of perfection in 
 Britain than in any other country. But a similar consumption without renovation 
 is now going on in those countries from which we fallaciously expect an inex- 
 haustible supply of timber; and we cannot but press upon the attention of those 
 in whose power it rests, and whose duty it is to provide more largely for posterity 
 than our ancestry has provided for us, that with the more perfect knowledge now 
 possessed of the art of planting, the large extent of fit, but unoccupied soil, and 
 the superabundance of unemployed labourers, to effect the work to its fullest 
 extent, — this important object ought to be forwarded with that zeal, energy, and 
 skill, which have been already displayedby some few individuals, and have been 
 unitbrinly attended with success. 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 In the preceding parts of this treatise we have confined ourselves almost 
 entirely to planting for profit, and have merely enumerated with brief 
 remarks those trees, which, though incapable of being cultivated with 
 advantage in our climate for economical purposes, produce striking efFecls 
 in landscape scenery, and are of great value in the adornment of parks 
 and pleasure grounds. They are not for the most part scarce in the 
 nurseries of Great Britain, yet as we have observed that the planting of 
 exotic trees is comparatively neglected, a few pages may be not unpro- 
 fitably occupied, in pointing out such as seem peculiarly deserving of 
 attention. 
 
 The beauty of English park scenery is universally admitted : the con- 
 stant source of fresh admiration to foreigners, and of delight to our- 
 selves, it may, perhaps, be briefly described, as the art of imitating, in 
 small compass, the most lovely scenes of external nature. In a pursuit so 
 fascinating, the most elegant mind may find amusement, the most active 
 benevolence room in which to dilate. In eliciting from crude materials 
 new forms of beauty ; in opening the valley ; converting the barren hill- 
 side into wood ; in expanding the lake, and clothing a once naked district 
 with luxuriance, the worth of an estate is increased, health improved, and 
 charity the most useful dispensed, for 
 
 ' Hence the poor are clothed, the hungry fed, 
 
 Health to himself, and to his children bread, 
 
 The labourer bears.' 
 
 The general practice cannot be much improved, but some beauties of 
 detail may be gained, by a more frequent employment of foreign vege- 
 tation. Every one is aware of the charming effect of the weeping willow: 
 this is a case in point. The light ramifications of the Robinia contrast 
 beautifully with the bolder form of the oak ; the hiccory, or black 
 American walnut, relieves the heavy masses of the elm; the lucid green 
 of the Spanish chestnut is well opposed to the dinginess of the beech ; 
 and the brilliant tints of many North American trees when in decay add a 
 new and remarkable feature to the autumnal landscape. But the interest 
 arising from the adoption of foreign trees into domestic scenery is not 
 confined to their picturesque efiects. They remind us of the climes 
 whence they come, of the scenes with which they were associated. In 
 exploring a well-selected arboretum, the eternal snows of the Himalaya, 
 the savannahs of the Missouri, the untrodden forests of Patao-onia, the 
 vallies of Lebanon, pass in review before us : we seem to wander in 
 other climes, to converse with other nations. 
 
 Although few foreign trees become permanent with us, many bear our 
 climate well, yet, tried by the test of spontaneous propagation seem 
 not to be capable of perfect naturalization. No genus is of more frequent 
 occurrence in England than the hardy lime-tree, of which at least three 
 nearly allied species inhabit the continent. In European Russia they 
 abound, and supply the bark from which the mats so largely used in our 
 gardens are made. Here, though with attention the lime may be raised 
 from seeds, nothing is rarer than to meet with a spontaneous seedling, 
 even near individuals of great size, covered with myriads of seeds, ma- 
 ture, but, l)y some unsuitableness of climate, bereaved of competent vigour 
 
 K 
 
130 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 to rear themselves unaided by art. The common English elm, (Ulmus 
 campestris,) which peoples the hedge-rows of our southern counties, 
 rarely perfects its seeds in England, and propagates itself by suckers. So 
 near to us as Paris, it finds a congenial climate, and ripens them 
 plentifully. The horse-chestnut, a native of the mountain-chains of 
 Asia Minor, tried by the same test as the lime-tree, that of spontaneous 
 propagation from seeds, appears to be one of the few instances of an 
 exotic tree perfectly acclimatized in England. Perhaps another instance 
 may be found in the Turkey oak, (Quercus cerris,) and some cases exist 
 among coniferous trees. But though the laws of nature forbid us to hope 
 for the perfect naturalization of many trees of other climates differing but 
 little from our own, they allow us to embellish our domains with the rich 
 variety resulting from the elegance of their forms, and the diversity of their 
 tints. We have already alluded to the tree usually called the Turkey oak, 
 (Q. cerris,) a native of the middle elevations of the Papal states, 
 Tuscany, and southern Italy: it is always distinguished by the Italian 
 writers from the common oak, (Q. robur,) as the cerro. About the 
 lake of Perugia, and the scene of the memorable battle of Thrasymene, it 
 attains to enormous bulk, and is very picturesque in its form, though 
 its branches are not so abrupt and angular as those of our native oaks. 
 In England it seems to be perfectly at home, grows fast, and produces 
 abundance of acorns, bears bleak exposures, and thrives in lighter and 
 more silicious soils than suit the oaks of England. It retains its leaves 
 far into the winter, a valuable property when shelter is desirable. 
 There is, perhaps, cause for apprehending that it will not thrive so well 
 in a confined or crowded, as in an airy situation. Mr. Atkinson, the 
 eminent architect, having converted a specimen of good size, which he 
 found at the seat of the Marquis of Downshire in Berkshire, has proved 
 ex|)eritnentally its valuable properties for ornamental purposes in domestic 
 architecture. Its wood is closer in its grain, bears a higher polish, is 
 richer in colour, and more varied in its markings than the wood of our 
 indigenous oaks, or that which is brought down the Rhine from the forests 
 of southern Germany, and imported into this country by the name of 
 wainscoat oak, being, in point of fact, the produce of the Q. robur, 
 and Q. sessiliflora, and owing its peculiarities to a more rapid 
 growth in a more genial climate. We cannot too strongly recommend this 
 beautiful and fast growing tree to our readers, combining as it does beauty 
 of form, rapidity of growth, and much indifference about its soil, with a 
 constitution of singular hardihood. We have seen it thrive in exposures 
 where our own native oak and beech became stinted. A sub-variety of the 
 Tin-key oak, or more probably a distinct species, is known in the nurseries 
 by the name of the Fulliam oak, (Q. dentata, page 111,) after the parent 
 tree, a magnificent specimen, now growing in the nursery ground of 
 Messrs. Whitley and Co. at Fulham : it is highly deserving of cultivation. 
 The Luccombe oak, supposed by some to be a hybrid production 
 between the Turkey and Cork oaks, but more probably an indigenous 
 Spanish species, is a pyramidal tree, apparently of moderate growth, and 
 almost an evergreen. The Cypress oak, (Quercus fasligiata, page 111,) 
 a native of the Pyrenees, and of the mountains of Portugal, resembles the 
 English oak in leaf; but is of habit probably unique in this genus, carry- 
 ing all its branches upright like a Cypress or Lombardy poplar, a circum- 
 stance of some value in landsca])e planting. Q. tauza or toza, the 
 Chene taussin of the French, indigenous to the landes of Bourdeaux and 
 sandy soils of the south of France, is of low growth, with a very indented 
 leaf, pubescent on its under surface ; it is said to trace much from its root. 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 131 
 
 The ornamental qualities of the ilex are universally appreciated ; the cork- 
 tree, whose siniiular beauty of form and foliaa:e are tlie admiration of all 
 travellers in southern Spain, too tender to thrive except in a few favoured 
 spots in our southern counties, is sufficiently described in the list of forest- 
 trees, (pajre 111.) But the oaks of North America claim the deepest 
 attention from the ornamental planter. Ilanpfinp; throug;li many degrees 
 of latitude, and jrrowing at very ditferent elevations, consequently under 
 much variety of climate, some of them are hardy with us, some tender; 
 but all abhorrent of wet or clayey soils. Deprived of the cloudless sun 
 and higli temperature of an American summer and autumn, they cannot 
 ripen their shoots sufficiently to be frost-proof, except upon soils of a light 
 and warm nature. Their foliage is beautiful, frecpiently singular : with the 
 effect of their autumnal tints of crimson every British tree fails in compa- 
 rison. We shall only advert to snch of those described by Michaux and 
 Pursh, as we believe to be calculated to succeed in this country. In the 
 garden of the Petit Trianon, at Versailles, the favourite retreat of the ill- 
 fated MarieAntoinette, a fine specimen ofthe willow-leaved oak, (Q. phellos,) 
 is very ornamental ; it is not unusual in sheltered villa gardens in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London, but in an inland situation in Hampshire, elevated 
 about 600 feet above the sea, its shoots have been killed every winter. 
 Q. humilis, maritima, sericea, cinerea, (Pursh,) are all related to Quercus 
 phellos, and probably tender. Q. imbricaria is hardy and very de- 
 serving of notice, on account of its beautiful, shining, almost entire leaves, 
 little resembling the familiar appearance of the oak. Q. tinctoria, 
 discolor, coccinea, alba, rubra, montana, olivseformis, all hardy upon light 
 soils, all attaining to large size, all beautiful in their perfect foliage, are 
 superb during its decay. Q- tinctoria, one of the largest and finest trees 
 of the North American forests, produces the valuable material so well 
 known in commerce as quercitro-n bark. An oak of great size and pro- 
 mise, with fine broad leaves, and immense acorns, (Q. macrocarpa,) was 
 introduced by the late Mr. Lyon, from the state of Tenessee. We have 
 seen it only in the high situation in Hampshire before mentioned, where 
 it has been unable to ripen its shoots. Most of the oaks enumerated by 
 Michaux, as varieties of Q. prinos, but by Pursh as distinct species, 
 must be tender in England, except under very favourable circumstances ; 
 perhaps by grafting them upon the Turkey oak, thus furnishing them with 
 roots of hardier constitution than tlieir own, their shoots may be ripened 
 with greater certainty. The oaks of Spain, upper Italy, Croatia, Bosnia, 
 and Turkey, are very imperfectly known; some of them are allied to 
 Q. cerris, but are sufficiently distinct to make it desirable that we 
 should possess them. Mr. Walsh, in the Transactions of the Horticultural 
 Society of London, vol. vi., describes an oak growing near Constan- 
 tinople, (Q. pubescens,) as a fine and beautiful tree ; its leaves covered 
 ■with down beneath, and its branches when young, pendulous, like those 
 of weeping willows. It is probable that interesting species exist in 
 the unexplored and classical regions of Asia Minor, now by the advancing 
 civilization of the Ottomans, and the improvement in their government, 
 laid open to the researches of travellers. But by far the most curious 
 additions to ouroaks, perha|)s to the arboretum generally, are to be derived 
 from the mountains of the Himalaya. We earnestly invite the attention 
 of individuals connected with India, to the vegetable treasures of this 
 region ; whose valleys, more elevated above the sea than the top of Mont 
 Blanc, contain within their bosoms most interesting species of oak, birch, 
 walnut, fir, cedar, and other genera of cold climates, calculated by 
 their beauty to adorn our parks and gardens in the highest degree. Some 
 
 K2 
 
132 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 of these have been made known to us by the active researches of Enghsh 
 botanists. Q. grandifolia, with immense shining; leaves, equalh'ng those 
 of INTag-noha grandifolia in size and texture, has been figured in Mr. 
 Lambert's splendid work on the genus Finns. Q. .spicata, with entire 
 leaves from six inches to a foot long, and acorns numerously crowded 
 upon an upright spike from ten to eighteen inches in length ; Q. 
 lamellosa, with firm leathery leaves, smooth and glossy above, mealy and 
 nearly white beneath, sometimes a foot in length, and as much as five 
 inches in breadth, are both figured in Dr. Wallich's magnificent work, the 
 Plantse rariores Asiaticae, now in course of publication, and we hope of 
 encouragement, commensurate to its extraordinary claims upon every 
 lover of natural history. 
 
 The coarse foliage of the elm, in our opinion, degrades it from the first 
 class of ornamental trees, but in some situations, particularly in deep and 
 somewhat damp soils, it succeeds better than many, and grows to vast size. 
 Its varieties are curious — the variegated leaved elm is not without merit — 
 the weeping elm is sometimes picturesque — the small leaved Cornish 
 elm is perhaps the most elegant. The American elms seem to be de- 
 serving of attention. Mr. Hodgson, a recent traveller in the United 
 States, was much impressed with the stupendous stature of specimens of 
 the ulmus Americana around the neat villages of New England. 
 
 The giant bulk and extraordinary beauty of the oriental plane tree 
 (Platanus orientalis) have made it, in all ages, the object of marked at- 
 tention. Every classical reader is aware of the favour with which it was 
 regarded by the Greeks and Romans, the latter of whom, according to 
 the Latin writers, carried their admiration of this beautiful tree so far as 
 to occasionally irrigate it with wine. Hardly less beloved by the Turks in 
 modern days, it is with them a usual practice to plant one at the birth 
 of a son. In the court of the Seraglio, as we are told by Mr. Walsh, is 
 a venerable specimen, planted by Mahomet the Second, afier the conquest 
 of Constantinople, in commemoration of the birth of his son Bajazet the 
 Second ; it is now fifty feet in girth, the increment of three hundred and 
 seventy years. At Buyukdere, on the Bosphorus, is another of almost un- 
 equalled size : it stands in a valley, and is forty-five yards in circumference, 
 but, in fact, now consists of fourteen large trees, growing from the same 
 root-stock, coalescing near the ground, but, at some distance from it, di- 
 verging into distinct trunks. The oriental plane is indigenous throughout 
 Asia Minor, ranging to a considerable elevation, but attaining its greatest 
 size upon low levels and in deep soils. The specimens, whose remarkable 
 bulk has conferred upon them an almost historical notoriety, are all situated 
 not much above the level of the sea. In England this tree is perfectly 
 hardy, and of the first beauty. It is remarkable, tliat though intro- 
 duced here three hundred years ago, under the auspices of Lord Chancellor 
 Bacon, it has been comparatively neglected since the introduction of the 
 North American plane (Platanus occidentalis), which, being propagated 
 with much greater facility from cuttin<>s, has long been in almost undi- 
 vided possession of the nurseries. Much inferior to the Oriental in 
 beauty of leaf, though, according to American writers, not in size or 
 majesty, the occidental plane, which attains its utmost luxuriance in the 
 "warm valleys of the Ohio, and upon the limestone soils of Kentucky and 
 Tenessee, has proved incompetent to contend with our spring frosts, our 
 sunless summers, and our clouded autumns. About twenty years ago, 
 a great proportion of all the individuals in England, without respect of 
 age or bulk, were killed outright by a late spring frost. Since then we 
 have seen them repeatedly injured, and, when half recovered by the 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. I33 
 
 operation of a summer of more than averai^e warmth, again replunged 
 into the same state of debility, whilst the oriental plane has remained 
 quite uninjured. The intermediate species (P. cuneata, P. acerifolia) seem 
 to be hardier than the American plane, but less so than the oriental piano. 
 Another American tree, of large stature, hij^h beauty, and hardihood, 
 is the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), which, as its name imports, 
 unites the charm of abundant pale yellow flowers, bearing* some resem- 
 blance to tulips, with beautiful broad leaves, of very ornamental form and 
 colour. When placed near the American oaks, its foliage contrasts with 
 them finely, particidarly when, in autumn, it opposes its yellow tint to 
 their shades of crimson. It is perfectly hardy, and becomes a larg'e tree 
 in England when planted in dry and deep soil. 
 
 Though our ])rincipal object is to treat of exotics, yet we cannot avoid 
 mentioning the lime-tree, one of our most stately forest trees. Naturalists 
 decide that three species are natives of England ; but that which has the 
 fairest pretensions to be so considered, according to the authority of Sir 
 James Smith, Tilia parvifolia, is far less common in parks, than its 
 congeners, though, in our opinion, it excels them in beauty. The North 
 American species are very soft-wooded trees, and, in this country, of small 
 stature : we have observed a very extensive gangrene, sometimes extending 
 several inches down the trunk, to follow frequently upon the amputation 
 of one of their branches, even of moderate size. They deserve little 
 attention, except perhaps Tilia heterophylla, introduced about twenty years 
 ago by Lyon, the industrious collector. Tilia alba, said by some to be a 
 native of Hungary, a round-headed, thickly branching tree, of rapid 
 growth, and somewhat formal outline, with broad leaves, green on their 
 upper, and white on their lower surface, an attribute well displayed when 
 they are agitated by wind, possesses the merit of being almost the latest 
 deciduous tree to drop its leaves at the approach of winter. 
 
 We briefly advert to the Spanish chestnut, so superb in its stature, in one 
 memorable instance, in this country, reaching to a girth of above fifty feet*; 
 so beautiful in its foliage, so stately in its maturity, so venerable in its 
 age, so rapid in its progress on warm gravels or deep fertile sands, together 
 with its elegant variety the fern-leaved chestnut of the nurseries, and pass 
 on to that delightful exotic, whose tumid bud is the well-known harbinger 
 of spring, whose magnificence is perhaps undervalued, because it meets us 
 in every walk, the horse-chestnut, the x'Esculus hippocastanum of botanists. 
 A species nearly related to it, if indeed it be not a mere variety, /Esculus 
 rubicunda, with fine red flowers produced apparently in great abundance, 
 should be universally planted. It has been lately introduced, along with 
 /Esculus rosea, of nearly e([ual beauty, from the continent, where greater 
 attention appears 10 have been paid to trees than in this country. iEsculus 
 flavaand neglecta, with flowers of but moderate beauty, are elegant in foliage 
 and habit ; the flowers of Esculus Pavia are high coloured, though small ; 
 several other hardy species are rather shrubs than trees. But all of them 
 deserve distinguished places in the arboretum or garden, and should, if 
 possible, be raised from the nut. Generally they are propagated by budding 
 upon the common horse-chestnut — an operation of great facility ; but, 
 in such case, the stock is apt to swell in a ratio much greater than the 
 graft, becoming, not only unsightly, but rendering the specimen short-lived. 
 The whole genus Betula is ornamental, yet perhaps the most beau- 
 tiful species it contains is our common birch (Betula alba), and its variety 
 or kindred species, the weeping birch. These trees are of n)uch too 
 rare occurrence in park scenery ; they are picturesque ia outline, light 
 
 * Vide page 117. 
 
134 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 in foliag'e, silvery in bark, very effective when disposed in groups, and 
 contrasting' finely vpith the heavier forms of our native larj^er trees, but, 
 like almost all trees of small growth, too apt to be neglected. The 
 American species exceed them in size, but are inferior to them in elegance. 
 They are nevertheless most interesting trees, and should be in every col- 
 lection. With their tou^-h bark, which is readily detached in large 
 sections, the North American Indians roof their houses, and manufacture 
 a variety of domestic utensils. Of it are formed those light canoes which 
 float the Canadian over the vast lakes, or down the rapid rivers of his 
 native regions, at one moment bearing along the trader, his valuable 
 cargo, and adventurous companions ; at the next moment carried upon 
 their shoulders across the intervenient portage. It is not too much to 
 say, that, without the assistance of this invaluable material, the fur trade 
 would have been confined within narrow limits instead of pervading half 
 a continent; and the progress of geo2:raphical discovery, the long labours 
 of a Hearne, a Mackenzie, and a Franklin, would have been incom- 
 plete for another century. 
 
 A near relation to the birch is the neglected alder, neglected because 
 common, and rarely seen, except in the shape of coppice-wood, yet 
 reaching, in favourable situations, to a size not generally suspected. 
 At Gordon Castle, in Bamffshire, some exist of extraordinary stature, 
 when seen at a distance, having much the appearance of oaks. Three 
 of them, which are described by Joseph Sabine, Esq., in the Seventh 
 Volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, 
 measured, one, seventy-one feet high and nine feet four inches in girth ; 
 one, sixty-one feet and a half high and seven feet four inches in girth ; 
 and another, fifty-eight feet high and eight feet in girth, the girth being 
 taken at five and six feet from the ground. To those who wish for trees 
 capable of enduring abundant moisture, we recommend the cut-leaved 
 alder (Alnus glutinosa, var. laciniata) a derivative apparently of equal 
 size, and of growth as rapid as its type, which it greatly excels in elegance ; 
 several other curious varieties of the common alder are to be found in 
 the nurseries, Alnus quercifolia is probably of smaller growth, and the 
 habit of Alnus oxyacanthifolia appears to be feeble ; but Alnus cordifolia 
 of southern Italy is a fine ornamental and hardy tree. There are some 
 other species, rather shrubs than trees, which may be used advantageously 
 in moist localities, where a low growth of definite height is desirable. 
 
 We attribute the comparative disuse of the common ash in park scenery, 
 and its rare occurrence as an insulated specimen, to the extreme avidity 
 with which it is attacked and barked by deer, those enemies of the 
 planter. Yet it is a tree of singular elegance, both in itself, and contrasted 
 with trees of heavier foliage : it grows to immense size, attains to great 
 longevity, and when old is strikingly picturesque in outline, in bark, and 
 in the almost horizontal disposition of its main branches. The entire- 
 leaved ash (Fraxinus simplicifolia) is an interesting variety; the weeping 
 ash (F. excelsa, var. pendula) is well known, yet hardly enough appre- 
 ciated. When large, it is remarkably beautiful, but it must be planted in 
 an inclosed spot, free from the approach of cattle and sheep, who, by 
 browsing upon its pendulous branches, would destroy the whole beauty 
 of the specimen, and irretrievably check its growth. Fraxinus onuis, 
 the flowering ash, is a beautiful small tree, especially in early spring, when 
 in flower. Fraxinus lentiscifolia is a charming small tree; most of the 
 American ash are fine in foliage, and deserve a trial in the arboretum. 
 Many of them exist in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, where they cannot 
 fail to attract the attention of any person interested in forest trees. 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. l35 
 
 The common walnut — disfi^rnred in Enp:land by spring frosts, coming? late 
 into leaf, and losinn: the whole beauty of its folia<?e prematurely in autumn 
 — cannot be termed picturesque here, whatever it may be in the warm 
 valleys of Switzerland and Upper Italy ; but we hardly know a more 
 picturesque tree than the black American walnut (Juirlans nijira), which, 
 in North America, is one of the most stupendous inhabitants of the forest. 
 It is quhe hardy, and of moderately quick lirowth, but certainly possesses 
 the fault with which we have just reproached the common walnut, of tardy 
 leafan^e in the sprino-. Its pinnated foliane is much more dense and 
 tufted and of a livelier colour than that of the common ash. With the 
 remaining American species we are not acquainted, but it would appear, 
 from the statements of travellers, that none of them are trees of great 
 beauty. 
 
 Several species of maple claim the attention of the ornamental planter ; 
 a few are large trees ; the greater portion are of small growth, and upon 
 that account are, in our opinion, of great value in the creation of park 
 scenery, where the object being to produce much effect in moderate 
 space, it is frequently desirable to impart artificial height to small eleva- 
 tions, by crowning them with high trees, and, at the same time, to occupy 
 the low grounds and middle distances with trees of humbler stature. 
 It is in this point of view that the genus Maple, of which we are treating, 
 is of importance. The common maple (Acer campestre) is rarely 
 planted, and comparatively unknown as an ornamental tree, though few 
 objects are more beautiful than it is when old, and arrayed in its bright 
 yellow autumnal livery. The Norway maple (A. platanoides) excels 
 the common maple but little in height, and is rather remarkable for its 
 sturdy formal character. In early spring, just before the appearance of its 
 leaves, it is covered with a multitude of yellow flowers; in autumn, when in 
 incipient decline, few trees can contend with it in beauty ; its leaves assume 
 decided but various colours, singularly effective, owing to the distinct 
 masses in which ihey are apt to arrange themselves. Whilst the greater 
 part of the tree remains green but little faded, a whole branch suddenly 
 becomes dull red, then another mass bright yellow, a tint which, gradually 
 creeping over the whole foliage, is the forerunner of its fall. The ash- 
 leaved maple (A. negundo), somewhat loftier than the Norway maple, 
 and not possessing its formality, requires especial notice. Hardy, free 
 growing, and graceful, when placed, as we are in the habit of seeing it, 
 near trees of sombre hue, the very vivid green of its light foliage stands 
 out distinct and brilliant, oflering one of ihe best examples of the great 
 beauty to be attained, by bringing into contrast trees of different tints. 
 Set-eral of the American maples are beautiful small trees; the sugar maple 
 is of large growth, and curious from its valuable economical properties; 
 but the most interesting species of this genus is A. macrophyllum, a 
 huge tree, with broad leaves and most valuable dense timber, which has 
 been lately introduced from the banks of the Columbia in North Western 
 America, a region of stupendous vegetation, by Mr. David Douglas, the 
 enterprising collector of the Horticultural Society of London. A. cir- 
 cinatum of the same country, also introduced by him, is a very handsome 
 small tree, with deeply incised leaves, the graceful habit of which very 
 much attracted his attention during his investigation of these countries. 
 
 The merits and demerits of the common beech, its peculiar adaptation to 
 calcareous and dry gravelly soils, and the great bulk it attains upon them, 
 its somewhat formal and little varied outline, its heavy autumnal tint, are 
 too well known to detain us here ; but we must not pass, without notice. 
 
136 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 its curious but puny variety, the fern-leaved beech (Fas^us Comploniaefolia), 
 nor its very remarkable variety the purple beech, whose leaves in early 
 sprini^ of blood red hue, in suninier uniform dull purple, are too sina:»iiar, 
 (having-, we believe, no parallel amono,- hardy trees, except a remarkable 
 variety of hazel,) not to ensure it a place in every collection. Situations 
 may be found in the neighbourhood of ruins, or the recess of a se- 
 cluded grove, where it may be employed with happy effect. We have 
 found the North American beech not to succeed in our climate in dry 
 calcareous soils ; and they are described by Pursh as growing- upon rich 
 deep levels. Some most interesting; s])ecies exist in Patagonia and 
 in those regions, which every effort should be exerted to procure. 
 Perhaps the greatest desiderata in British parks are evergreen trees, 
 not being of spiral forms. The cedar of Lebanon, the evergreen oak, 
 and the yew, begin and end our list of such. But Captain King, in 
 his recent arduous survey of Terra Magellanica, that region of storm, 
 of snow, and glacier, found, we believe, three species of beech in 
 those countries ; two of them he mentions by name, Fagus anta- 
 rctica and Fagus betuloides. The latter, an evergreen tree of frequent 
 occurrence, was met with in peculiar abundance in the neighbourhood of 
 Cape Famine: trees of three feet in diameter were plentiful, of four feet 
 there were many, and one was measured by Captain King, which maintained 
 a ""irth of seven feet, as high as seventeen feet from the root, and then 
 diver"-ed into three immense limbs, each of them being three feet through. 
 Live specimens of those trees were brought to England by Captain King, 
 but have unfortunately, we hear, been lost. Every effort should be 
 made to re-introduce objects of such interest. The true Winter's bark, 
 (Wintera aromatica,) a native of the same inclement countries, is also an 
 evergreen tree of small stature, but on every account interesting. It is 
 most probable, that many important acquisitions to our shrubberies are 
 to be found in the same regions. Fuchsias of great beauty were dis- 
 covered growing to be considerable shrubs in the vicinity of perennial 
 snows ; barberries producing excellent fruit for tarts ; veronicas of great 
 size. We mention these facts, in the hope of directing attention of ama- 
 teurs to these countries generally, including the southern parts of Chili, 
 and the archipelago of Chiloe. 
 
 Pursuing our immediate subject, we must not omit to mention a very 
 beautiful tree resembling the sumach in leaf, Ailanthus glandulosa, a 
 native of China, which, to singular beauty of foliage, unites great hardi- 
 hood. It has the defect of coming into leaf perhaps the latest of any 
 hardy tree ; but compensates in some measure for this fault by its extraor- 
 dinary gracefulness. It is easily propagated by cuttings of the roots. 
 
 The Robinia pseudacacia, or locust tree, is universally known and appre- 
 ciated as being singularly well adapted to garden scenery. Rapid in its 
 n-rowth when young, it seems to lessen its pace materially, after twenty or 
 thirty years, apparently in consequence of its roots penetrating into a 
 colder subsoil, and it appears to be short lived on chalk soils. We do not 
 think it likely to become a large tree in England, except in a few very 
 favoured spots. Its timber possesses great durability. The various species 
 of sweet locust, or Gleditschia, are slender trees of elegant pinnated foliage, 
 and derive some interest from the very remarkable thorns investing some 
 of them: they are rather garden than park trees, and require deep soil, 
 to"-ether with a warm substratum. The same remarks as to soil apply to 
 the genus Celtis, or nettle tree. In England we have rarely met with a 
 good specimen ; in France we have seen them of great elegance. 
 
 The willow tribe affords us one exotic of pre-eminent beauty, the Salix 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 137 
 
 Babylonica, or weeping' willow. It adorned the banks of the Euphrates in 
 the days of prophecy, and has been rendered memorable by its connexion 
 with the captivity of the house of Israel. As might have been expected 
 from its Assyrian origin, it is somewhat tender, and in high situations is 
 liable to be injured by spring frosts. Nothing can exceed its beauly when 
 properly applied. Hanging over a rock, jutting from a promontory, or 
 reclining over an urn, few objects in nature more delight the eye of taste. 
 The common white willow, (Salix. alba,) is a tree also of great beauty, 
 but strangely overlooked, being generally degraded most unworthily to 
 the condition of a pollard. It grows, when indulged with its favourite 
 situation, a deep rich soil by the side of water, to a very large size ; and so 
 placed, we have seen it attract great notice by the fine contrast between 
 its slender silvery leaves, and the dark foliage, and dense masses of the 
 oaks and beeches which crowned the adjoining heights. Such an 
 example is to be found on the banks of the lake at the Grange in 
 Hampshire, the magnificent seat of A. Baring, Esq. 
 
 No other species of willow is of equal importance in ornamental plant- 
 ing; but the POPLAR tribe must not be overlooked. Amongst its species, 
 the most important, as an ornamental tree, is also the one Which, because 
 it is of the most common, hacknied occurrence, has hardly escaped the 
 reproach of vulgarity. Yet how beautiful is the spiral Lombardy poplar 
 when judiciously used, and when, being planted in rich deep soil, and forced 
 into something like the bulk which it reaches in its native climate, it is 
 tastefully contrasted with large trees of rounded forms, and its clear fine 
 green at the same time brought into opposition with their heavier tints ! 
 Next in point of ornament is the English black poplar. The aspen derives 
 some interest from its tremulous leaves, agitated by the slightest breath of 
 wind ; the Canadian pf)plar from its habit intermediate between the pyra- 
 midal Lombardy poplar, and the spreading black poplar ; and the Ontario 
 poplar, lately introduced, from its very ample leaves and singular rapidity of 
 growth. The other species are rather subjects for a general collection, and 
 cannot be described as decidedly trees of ornament ; but the very rapid 
 growth of the black Italian poplar, which is not a native of Italy, nor a 
 variety of Populus nigra, but an indigenous North American species, fits 
 it, in a peculiar manner, for many purposes of ornamental planting. The 
 hornbeam can scarcely be deemed an ornamental tree, yet, where indi- 
 viduals of small growth are requisite, it may be advantageously employed. 
 Its varieties are curious in foliage, and are more graceful than their type. 
 
 The few deciduous trees which remain for us to mention are rather garden 
 than park trees, and require every advantage of soil, shelter, and protection : 
 among these the genus Magnolia stands pre-eminent. Three species only 
 can be considered as trees in this climate, and one of them, (M. grandi- 
 flora,)the loveliest tree perhaps of temperate climates, whether for its lucid 
 foliage, or its superb and fragrant flowers, though growing in its native 
 climes to the stature of eighty feet, with us is a small tree, under twenty 
 feet in height, not reaching even this elevation except in sheltered spots, 
 and within the protection and reflected heat of walls. M. acuminata, 
 a deciduous tree, not gifted, as most of its race, with showy or fraarant 
 flowers, possesses a splendid leaf, is much hardier than M. grandiflora, 
 and grows in England to be a larger and loftier tree. M. auriculata, 
 strictly a garden tree, is slender in form, spiral in habit, and ele"ant 
 in foliage, every branch being terminated, in a healthy specimen, with a 
 handsome and fragrant flower. The other hardy species, except per- 
 haps Magnolia conspicua, are rather large shrubs than trees, thou"h 
 under favourable circumstances, some of them reach to considerable 
 
13d ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 hei"-ht. The Himalaya contains within its recesses a noble and lofty tree 
 of this g'enus, M. excelsa, magnificent in its foliag-e and bulk, and 
 covered, when in bloom, with innumerable splendid flowers. Liquidamber 
 styraciflua is a small, but interestinji; g;arden tree. Koelreuteria pinnata, 
 a native of China, comes under a similar class; but is entitled to much 
 consideration on account of its very elegant pinnated leaves, and feathery 
 flowers profusely produced in warm autumns, and occasionally succeeded 
 by ripe seeds, from which we have propagated it. The very exotic foliage 
 of Salisburia adianlifolia, the maidenhair tree, ought to ensure to it a place 
 on every lawn ; higher claims to distinction are possessed, in our opinion, 
 by Viroilia lutea, a small tree of peculiar beauty of form and foliage, in- 
 troduced about twenty years ago, from the mountains of Tenessee, by Mr. 
 Lyon, and still uncommon in the nurseries. It has not yet produced its 
 elegant papilionaceous flowers in this country, though we have heard that 
 they have been seen at Paris. We must not omit to mention an indi- 
 genous tree, which, delighting in chalky soils, should never be overlooked 
 by any person residing upon them, the white beam, (Pyrus aria.) The 
 whiteness of the under surface of its leaves and the wildness of its 
 habit are valuable properties, but indifferently shared by its near rela- 
 tion, Pyrus intermedia. The value of the common hawthorn in park 
 scenery, and the remarkable union which it exhibits of beauty of 
 flower with picturesque rudeness of form, need not be dwelt upon. Its 
 beautiful pink variety has been long known ; another pink variety, of 
 colour more intense, and scarcely to be surpassed in the loveliness of its 
 tint, has lately made its appearance in the nurseries, under the denomi- 
 nation of the new scarlet Thorn. The meritof the double-flowering variety 
 is great, uniting to luxuriance of the individual flower, equal luxuriance in 
 their produce. Several other curious varieties of hawthorn have been 
 collected by the Horticultural Society of London, at Fulham. Crataegus 
 grandiflora is a valuable small tree ; and many species of Pyrus, 
 Mespilus, and Crataegus, should find room in an extensive arboretum. 
 
 We have nearly concluded our remarks upon ornamental deciduous 
 trees : before we proceed to the Coniferae, so important in themselves, 
 and so interesting from the additions lately made, and still making, to 
 their number, we shall briefly advert to the mode of transplantuig 
 lar"-e trees, so well described by Sir Henry Stewart of AUanton in his 
 Planters Guide, and adverted to in page 45 of this treatise. By caretul 
 observance of the precautions laid down by Sir Henry Stewart, trees of very 
 lar«-e size may be safely transferred to new spots ; but the practice is not 
 new: it has Ijeen more or less followed in all ages. The Due de St. 
 Simon describes what Louis XIV. accomplished in this way at Ver- 
 sailles and Marly. Thirty-three years ago large and successfiil operations 
 of the same nature were performed by the late Earl of Carnarvon, at his 
 beautiful park at Highclere in Hampshire, principally upon limes, beech, 
 and horse-chestnuts. 
 
 We have ourselves removed large trees without failure, and have 
 seen reason to conclude, that notwithstanding the careful prepa- 
 ration of the tree, the preservation of its roots and rootlets, and the 
 careful adaptation of the soil, the success of the effort, and the immediate 
 <rrowth of the tree, will still depend much upon its removal at the be- 
 "■innino- of winter, and upon copious watering early in March, to be con- 
 tinued at least every fortnight during the first summer after transplan- 
 tation, and into the second summer if the leaves shall appear to flag in 
 Avarm weather. 
 
 We observed that the principal want experienced by the ornamental 
 
ORNAIMENTAL PLANTING!. 139 
 
 planfer in this climate, is the scarcity of evergreen trees, not being 
 coniferous. 
 
 The everfrreen or holm oak, is, in point of fact, our only park tree of 
 this description ; thoup,h of garden shrubs there is no want. The defi- 
 ciency is partially supplied by the very interesting^ tribe of coniferous trees. 
 But their forms being; fjcnerally spiral, they cannot contend, either sing^ly 
 with the bold and varying; outline, the extended, tortuous limbs, the swell- 
 in<r masses of tufted foliage, which give to a stately deciduous tree a cha- 
 racter of impressive grandeur; or when aggregated over a large surface, 
 in which case, their general monotony of tint, the tameness of their lights 
 and shadows, and the pyramidal termination of the majority of the indivi- 
 duals composing the mass, deprive it of much of the beauty so universally 
 felt in woodland scenery composed of deciduous trees. 
 
 One illustrious exception to the tirst clause of our proposition will at 
 once occur to many of our readers, in the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus 
 Cedrus, p. 127.) In our enumeration, we have said that no tree confers 
 such an air of grandeur and dignity upon the grounds surrounding a 
 mansion, as a full grown cedar of Lebanon, not only the most beautiful 
 of the whole tribe of hardy coniferous trees hitherto known to us, but 
 perhaps altogether the most majestic tree which can be cultivated with 
 perfect success in Great Britain, peculiarly suited to the character of park or 
 garden scenery, and harmonizing better than any other with architectural 
 objects. Thinly scattered in the more elevated vallies of Lebanon, of Taurus, 
 and of other lofty mountain chains and groups in Asia Minor, its somewhat 
 rare occurrence is to be accounted for, probably, by a peculiarity of constitu- 
 tion, which renders a free circulation of air around it quite essential to its 
 vigour. When planted in a wood, or even on a lawn, closely surrounded 
 by other trees, it becomes thin of leaves, feeble in habit, and incapable of 
 swelling to large size. To its full strength and beauty, it is indispensable 
 that no check should be opposed to the horizontal spread of its branches. 
 Even the operation of shortening its lateral shoots, for the purpose of 
 forcing up a leader, cannot be often repeated without injuring its health. 
 These peculiarities render it a scarce tree in a state of nature, where it is 
 only found in elevated, but sheltered vallies, whose vegetation is subdued by 
 the browzing of cattle. It will never abound but in the seats of civilization, 
 and it is exceedingly probable that the parks of England can show more 
 cedars than the whole of the wide range of its native regions. This most 
 interesting and majestic tree is sometimes neglected, in consequence of a 
 groundless apprehension of the slowness of its growth, — an apprehension 
 which we shall proceed, from authentic documents, to dispel. Highclere 
 park, in North Hampshire, the creation of the late and present Earls of 
 Carnarvon, claims a high rank among the most beautiful domains in our 
 southern counties. Some fine cedars of Lebanon adorn the immediate 
 vicinity of the mansion. Their history is interesting. The lawn on 
 which they stand, elevated about 600 feet above the level of the sea, 
 is at the foot of the bold northern escarpment of the Chalk Downs, 
 which rising about 400 feet above the house, extend for twenty miles to 
 the southward. The soil is thin and sterile ; the immediate subsoil hard 
 plastic clay, with flints ; its substratum chalk, not three feet from the surface. 
 The climate is cold, foggy, windy ; the spring very backward, the summer 
 temperature low. We shall proceed to give a tabular view of the progress 
 of the six largest trees, from authentic memoranda, to which we have been 
 allowed access. The two oldest specitnens. No. 1 and 2 in the table, 
 were raised from a cone gathered upon Mount Lebanon by Dr. Pococke, 
 the celebrated oriental traveller. The seeds were sown in 1739. Two 
 
J40 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 only came up, and being planted out, remained stinted plants. They were 
 transplanted to their present sites in 1767, being at that time about 17 
 inches in girth, at one foot from the ground. The other four trees were 
 raised from a cone brought from Wilton House, the well-known seat of 
 the Earl of Pembroke, in 1772, and were planted out where they now 
 stand in 1778. A very healthy beech, transplanted in 1777, to a spot near 
 these cedars, is of very inferior girth. The following table will afford 
 a view of their progress and present condition. 
 
 1787. 1799. 1812. 1827. 1832. 
 
 No 1 Cone from Lebanon, raised ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 3 feet from 
 1*739, measured in 1777, 1. 10| 2 11| 4 llj filOj 8 11 9 3^ ground. 
 
 No. 2. Cone from Lebanon . . 1 10| 3 11 6 0^ 7 10 8 6 Ditto. 
 
 No. 3, Cone from Wilton, planted 
 
 out in 1778, next to No. 2 . ... ^7 6 7* 9 4 10 Ditto. 
 
 No. 4. Cone ftom Wilton, oppo- 
 site north-east angle of house, 
 planted 1778 . • 3 7i 6 6 9 6 10 2a Ditto. 
 
 No. 5. Cone from Wilton, oppo- 
 site south-east angle of house, 
 planted 1778 6 6| 9 5 10 3 Ditto. 
 
 No 6. Cone from W^ilton, in the 
 
 park, planted 1778 9 6 10 6 Ditto. 
 
 ' A second species of cedar (Pinus Deodara) exists in the Himalayan 
 mountains. It attains to a great size, and in all ages has been regarded 
 with o-reat consideration by the natives of these countries : usually planted 
 by them around the temples of their gods, it would indeed seem, from 
 its name, (devadara or deodara, which means God's tree,) to be, in 
 some meas\He, dedicated to that especial purpose. It bears some resem- 
 blance to the cedar of Lebanon, equals it in size, but, judging from some 
 views of scenery in tlie Himalaya which we have seen, is, probably, of 
 more aspiring habit. Seedlings have been raised in this country, and its 
 hardihood has been ascertained by a specimen, several feet in height, 
 which thrives in the open ground at Hopetoun House. As it can only 
 be propao-ated from seed, we recommend this fine tree to the peculiar atten- 
 tion of individuals connected with the country of its growth. 
 
 Next in beauty to the cedar, as a park tree, we may, perhaps, reckon the 
 Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris.) Nothing can well be uglier than a dravvn-up 
 grove of Scotch firs. A large, undulating, and sloping wood, consisting of 
 this tree is, on the contrary, an object of striking beauty, — beauty indeed of 
 a peculiar and sombre character, suiting well with heathy forest land of 
 varied surface, and finely adapted to invest with an effect novel, and im- 
 pressive in this climate, a lake entirely surrounded by such a wood. Some 
 such effect of scenery may be seen around Virginia Water, in Windsor 
 park. The Scotch fir is also fine as a single specimen, when it becomes 
 broad and umbrageous, and tufted ; or condensed into small groups com- 
 posed of a few specimens only. But, upon the whole, we are of opinion 
 that the most appropriate application of coniferous trees, in our climate, 
 is not to intermix them with deciduous trees, but to assemble them into 
 what has been appropriately called a Pinetum. This has been admirably 
 done by Lord Grenville, at his beautifiil seat, Dropmore. Such an ever- 
 o-reen quarter is an invaluable winter refuge. The individuals composing 
 it are derived from many countries throughout the northern hemisphere ; 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 141 
 
 they possess a geographical interest; they are of great and diversified 
 value, for sundry economical purposes ; they differ much in habit, hue, 
 and general appearance. When all other trees are despoiled of their 
 leaves, these, unscathed by the vicissitudes of the seasons, remain un- 
 changed. In deciding upon the site of a Pinetum, attention should 
 be given to the nature of the soil ; for though pines, in their native 
 places, grow sometimes in very poor soils, — from the crevice of 
 the naked rock, on the barrenest hill side, or in the most sterile sands ; 
 here, where the natives of very different climates are assembled together 
 by human enterprise and ingenuity, to contend with conditions differing 
 much from those to which nature liad originally submitted ttiem, every 
 compensation that is possible should be made. Shelter is indis- 
 pensable, — many of the species are delicate, — variety of surface is desir- 
 able, — some prefer a less sunny situation than others ; depth of soil is 
 essential, — the last degree of vigour should be aimed at ; a deep sandy 
 loam is to be preferred, for almost all the species should be carefully 
 guarded from stagnant moisture, and on a cold subsoil few will thrive. 
 To describe in detail every coniferous tree, would be but to repeat what 
 has been already done in this work. We shall pass them in review rapidly, 
 glancing at those which are either new, neglected, or desirable to be added 
 to our vegetable wealth. 
 
 Among the species most generally known, the silver fir and the 
 Norsvay spruce fir are conspicuous. They are both of considerable 
 beauty, pyramidal in form, of great size and bulk, and are sometimes 
 very stately, when standing singly. The silver fir, in England much 
 the largest tree, grows slower than the Norway spruce, during the first 
 twenty years of its age, but then, continuing its growth with accelerated 
 pace, passes it by rapidly. The balm of Gilead fir (Pinus balsamea), 
 nearly allied to the silver fir, perhaps handsomer in foliage, is not worth 
 planting. During the first years of its existence in England, it grows with 
 sufficient quickness, but soon relaxes, becomes diseased, and dies. We are 
 inclined to attribute its premature fate to the average summer temperature 
 in our climate being insufficient to ripen its rootlets sufficiently ; for the 
 tree seems to die so soon as, in the natural progress of its growth, its roots 
 have penetrated some depth beneath the surface. The white spruce of 
 North America (Pinus alba) is sufficiently distinguished to merit a place 
 in the pleasure-ground ; it differs from the Norway spruce by the peculiar 
 blue hue of its foliage. Pinus nigra and rubra, spruce firs of much 
 humbler growth, are rather subjects for the Pinetum than for the park 
 generally. A most magnificent tree, resembling a silver fir upon a large 
 scale, (Pinus spectabilis,) has lately been introduced from the mountains 
 of the Himalaya. Nothing in the fir tribe can easily surpass in beauty 
 this fine tree, whose silvery bark, bright green leaves, white beneath, and 
 purple cones, studded with drops of transparent resin, render it an object 
 of high attraction. It grows to large size, and, in the south of England 
 at least, is hardy, though, owing to the earliness of its spring growtii, it 
 will be liable to receive injury from frost. It is still exceedingly scarce 
 in the nurseries, where it has been increased by cuttings, a mode of 
 propagation ill adapted to produce a fine tree. Every exertion should be 
 made to procure its cones ; no matter of difficulty now that the British 
 dominion has extended over the remotest recesses of the Himalaya. 
 
 We revert to the Norway spruce, so universally known, only to 
 mention the vast mischief done by squirrels in plantations of this va- 
 luable tree, and to caution all planters against allowing these animals 
 to multiply. In winter, when pressed by a deficiency of other food, 
 
142 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 
 
 they bite off the smaller shoots over the whole surface of the tree, finding-, 
 apparently, at the gibbous base of the shoot made in the preceding- 
 summer, a small portion of pith ; at least, we have never seen any but 
 the shoot of one season's growth to be bitten off, and always to have 
 been gnawed only at its base. Being astonished at the wide extent of 
 the ravages committed by these animals, in a large plantation of spruces, 
 scarcely a tree being untouched, we caused the shoots, which had been 
 bitten off and were lying under one tree, to be collected. They filled two 
 corn-sacks. The effect upon the specimen is extremely destructive to its 
 beauty and its growth. 
 
 Among the firs long introduced among us is the hemlock spruce 
 fir (Pinus Canadensis) a tree of vast growth in its native regions 
 in North America, and of beauty so striking that we wonder it should 
 still be rare in our gardens. In foliage it resembles the yew, but is 
 of a light and cheerful tint, and is free from that rigidity of habit, 
 which is the general fault of the trees of that section of the genus 
 Pinus, which bear solitary leaves, and are generally called firs in con- 
 tradistinction to the pines, which bear their leaves in distinct sheaths, 
 enveloping more or less crowded fascicles. A most interesting fir of 
 this section has been recently introduced into this country by the in- 
 defatigable collector of the Horticultural Society of London, Mr. David 
 Douglas, from the north-western regions of North America, where it is 
 found abundantly between the rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean. 
 Pinus Douglasii, which is, perhaps, the Pinus taxifolia of Menzies, is a 
 stupenduous tree, growing from 150 to 200 feet in height. One specimen 
 is said, by a traveller upon the Columbia, to have measured 230 feet 
 in height, and fifty feet in circumference. Its timber is singularly 
 close-grained and heavy, its bark surprisingly thick, its foliage very 
 elegant. It is quite hardy, and apparently of rapid growth. Judging 
 from the appearance of young specimens, we deem it the most lovely of 
 its class yet known to us. Reverting to the section, the leaves of which, like 
 the Scottish fir, are borne in sheaths, we must mention another fine hardy 
 tree, brought from the same regions by the same distinguished traveller, 
 Pinus ponderosa, so named from the great specific gravity of its valuable 
 wood. It appears to resemble the Scotch fir in habit, has longer leaves, 
 grows rapidly, but is understood not to arrive at the gigantic stature of 
 Pinus Douglassii. Its wood is singularly close in the grain, and of great 
 durability, probably excelling in value that of any other species of the whole 
 tribe ; and as it appears to us to grow as fast in this climate as the Scotch 
 fir, we are inclined to think that it ought everywhere to supersede that 
 species. But as the whole of the individuals among us were probably 
 raised from the cones imported by Mr. Douglas, a fresh importation is a 
 most desirable matter, to which we invite the attention of the public. A 
 tree well known to the Romans (Pinus Laricio) has lately travelled to our 
 collections from the mountains of Corsica. Though its native habitation 
 was so near to us, it had entirely esca])ed the notice of British collectors, 
 till the overthrow of Napoleon introduced to them a specimen thriving 
 conspicuously in the arboretum of the Jardiu des Plantes at Paris. Since 
 then it has been raised in considerable numbers in some of the London 
 nurseries. It is a native not only of the mountains of Corsica, but of the 
 loftier summits of the Grecian archipelago, and has been found upon 
 Mount Ida. Handsomer when young than the Scotch fir, it is equally 
 hardy, has longer and finer foliage, is of more elegant habit, produces 
 timber of greater specific gravity, and is very deserving of the marked 
 attention, not only of the ornamental planter, but also of the planter for 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 143 
 
 profit. Another very interesting tree from the East, introduced into 
 the country about twenty years ago, — Pinus Pallasiana, — has been 
 better known by the name of Pinus Taurica. In the central regions 
 of the Crimea, on the western declivities of the mountains, wliich stretch 
 along the shores of the Black Sea, this tree, called tzaam by the 
 natives, forms considerable forests, and grows to a great size. Its 
 Avood is very knotty, resinous and durable, but is not well adapted to the 
 purposes of the joiner, on account of the knottiness of its texture. It 
 throws out its branches, almost from the base of its trunk, in a horizontal 
 direction, and is said to be strikingly picturescjue in its habit. It abounds 
 with a resin singularly odorous, and will probably be one of the most 
 distinguished inhabitants of the Piuetum. But the experience of Mr. 
 Lambert has assigned to this tree a station of singular utility. He has 
 ascertained practically its capacity of flourishing upon the most barren 
 chalk downs, where the thinness and aridity of the soil combine to forbid 
 almost every other tree from succeeding. A few trees which he planted 
 at Boyton about twenty years ago, where the soil was little more than 
 two inches thick upon a bed of hard chalk, are now nearly thirty feet 
 high, and very luxuriant. Many were planted by the present Duke of 
 Marlborough at White Knights. Their cones produced in this country 
 have never perfected seeds, but it cannot be difficult to procure ihem from 
 the Western Coast of the Crimea. It maybe as well to remark here, that 
 in bringing home cones of any fir, peculiar care should be had in placing 
 the box containing them, in an airy situation, in the cabin or between the 
 decks. The high temperature and confined air of the hold of the ship 
 destroy the life of seeds speedily. A very magnificent pine was discovered 
 by Mr. David Douglas in sandy plains in Northern Calilbrnia, and appro- 
 priately named Pinus Lambertiana, in honour of the very distinguished 
 botanist, Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq., whose magnificent work on the 
 Genus Pinus, to which we have been largely indebted, has contributed in 
 a remarkable degree to elucidate the history of this extensive genus. It 
 is a plant of vast size, growing in its native plains from 150 to 200 feet 
 high: one specimen which Mr. Douglas measured was 215 feet in 
 length, and 19 feet in diameter. The cones of this splendid tree are 
 sixteen inches in length and nine inches in circumference. We apprehend, 
 from some observations which we have made, that in Great Britain it can 
 only be regarded as a specimen tree, confined to very sheltered and warm 
 spots. But the recent and still-pending researches of the same enter- 
 prising traveller and enthusiastic botanist, in the same regions of North 
 America, the regions which bound the Northern Pacific Ocean, bid fair 
 to enrich the Pinetum in no common degree. In the mountain valleys of 
 the Alps of New Albion, surrounded by snow peaks exceeding Mont 
 Blanc in elevation, he has lately discovered several most interesting 
 species, which must all be hardy in England: — Pinus nobilis, and Pinus 
 grandis, equalling Pinus Lambertiana and Pinus Douglasii in hugeness of 
 stature ; Pinus monlicola, two varieties, resembling in elegance of foliage 
 the Weymouth pine ; Pinus Menziesii, of smaller growth, but curious 
 habit ; Pinus Sabiniana, — are all plants of great interest, and will be 
 acquisitions of uncommon value. We suspect that mountain trees, 
 from elevations correspondent in temperature with the climate of Bri- 
 tain, will be found to succeed in it better than trees from lower regions, 
 even when situated more northerly. The larch of Switzerland and the 
 Tyrol countries, to the south of us, succeed better here than the larches of 
 Siberia and Canada. The Pinus Laricio of the mountains of the genial 
 countries of the Mediterranean is more at home in England than the 
 
144 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING 
 
 Pinus balsamea of Nova Scotia ; and it may be expected that the trees of 
 North Western America will do better with us than the trees of corre- 
 spondent latitudes in the United States, where the extremes of summer 
 and winter temperature are more violent than in the countries bordering 
 on the Northern Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In treating- of garden trees, we have omitted to mention Pinus cembra. 
 Even in its native climate and soil, among the mountains of Switzerland, 
 it is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, and in England the Swiss 
 variety preserves the same character; but it is also indigenous to Siberia; 
 and we have observed that the Siberian variety, which is not uncommon in 
 our nurseries, makes less rapid progress than its Swiss congener. Pinus 
 cembra, when it has attained to considerable size, is one of the most orna- 
 mental trees of the whole tribe, and should find a place upon every 
 extensive lawn. 
 
 It would be superfluous here to discourse upon trees so well known 
 as the larch, whose wood almost rivals the oak in durability, and whose 
 bark is about half the value of the bark of that tree; of the Weymouth 
 pine, whose stem furnishes masts ; of the Stone Pine, whose vast canopy, 
 supported upon a naked column of great height, forms one of the chief 
 and peculiar beauties in Italian scenery, and in the living landscapes of 
 Claude ; of the pinaster, whose clustering cones and fine foliage entitle it 
 to rank high among the most picturesque of its congeners; of the Mugho 
 pine, and Pinus pumilio, whose low dwarfish growth are of great value in 
 the picturesque arrangement of a Pinetum. There are several other species, 
 which, though neither of size nor of beauty to entitle them, in this brief sketch, 
 to a distinct notice, should be included in the range of a well-ordered 
 collection. We shall, however, pause a moment to advert to Pinus excelsa 
 and Pinus Gerardiana, both lately introduced from the regions of the Hima- 
 laya. The former is a tree of large size, growing from 90 to 120 feet high ; 
 the latter a fine tree, said to resemble the Stone Pine, and known to the natives 
 by the name of the Neoza pine, produces an abundance of edible seeds. Se- 
 veral other species exist upon the Cordillera of the Andes, stretching from 
 the northern side of the equator, through Mexico to New Albion, and at 
 intervals rising into the region of eternal snow ; some perhaps upon the 
 mountain chains of Caucasus and of Central Asia. A few coniferous trees 
 of other genera remained to be mentioned. A noble tree of most exotic 
 appearance (Auraucaria imbricata) graces the more southerly plains of 
 South America, and with slight protection endures the climate of the south 
 of Enn-land. Another species of too tender constitution (Auraucaria 
 Brasiliensis) is supplied by Brazil ; others exist upon the shores of Aus- 
 tralia : the noblest of all, and the fairest (Auraucaria excelsa), whose 
 beauty and stateliness are faintly represented by a few specimens con- 
 fined within !the narrow limits of our conservatories, is found, exclu- 
 sively we believe, in Norfolk Island, one of the loveliest spots in the 
 southern hemisphere, (the penal station of the penal colony of New 
 South Wales), where it rises to the magnificent height of more than 
 200 feet, and reaches to bulk correspondent with so vast a height. 
 A very pretty tree, nearly allied to Auraucaria, — CunniTighamia lanceolata, 
 — is becoming general in collections. It is a native of China, and 
 hardy in light soils. Being always in this country propagated from 
 cuttings, it requires some management to make it throw up a vigorous 
 leader, and assume the habit of a tree. If, however, it be planted out in 
 a sheltered situation, and in good soil, and if then, when it shall have made 
 a considerable mass of roots and is well established, its shoots be depressed 
 into a horizontal position, and so confined with pegs, it will ultimately 
 
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 145 
 
 throw up a strong: perpendiculur shoot from its roots, and make quick 
 proi>'ress. Sometimes these stronj;' shoots, after a year or two of rapid 
 growth, relax their speed, and discontinue tlie function of a leader; in 
 such cases they must be depressed as before, and the practice will be sure 
 to succeed at last. 
 
 The Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), so conspicuous and so 
 beautifully applied in the terraced scenery of Italian villas, cannot be said 
 to attain to full vig'our even in the south of England. It is essentially the 
 tree of architectural gardens, and ought never to be forgotten when the 
 climate and soil admit of its application. A tree nearly allied to it, but 
 deciduous (Cupressus disticha of our enumeration), now separated into 
 a distinct genus, under the name of Taxodium distichum, is one of the 
 largest and nu)st ornamental of all the trees which thrive in temperate 
 climates. Nothing can well surpass the loveliness of its light and deli- 
 cately-coloured foliage. Though a native of Mexico, and of the southern 
 sections of the United States, inhabiting the deepest deposits in the valleys 
 of their vast rivers, and luxuriating in the deadly swamps of the Mississippi, 
 yet in England it appears to be perfectly hardy, — affording one of many 
 instances, that trees vary in hardihood of constitution, and are not to be 
 absolutely tested by the latitudes, or even by the elevations, where nature 
 has originally placed them. It should have a deep, and, if possible, 
 humid soil. When we say that no pleasure-ground should be without it, 
 we but faintly express our sense of its elegance. Another species of 
 taxodium (Taxodium sempervirens), an evergreen tree, exists on the 
 North-Western shores of America, and should be introduced into this 
 country. One, if not two, true species of cypress are known to be found 
 on the same shores. In China and Japan several species of conifera are 
 among the most remarkable characteristics of their vegetation. Cupressus 
 pendula, which equals the weeping willow in the charms of its pendant 
 branches, in China is generally planted to hang over the tombs of the 
 departed. Nothing can be better in unison with this purpose than the 
 dark and weeping branches of this tree. Several species of thuya, 
 inhabitants of the same countries, are great desiderata. Amono" them 
 Thuya dolabrata calls upon us for the most earnest endeavours to intro- 
 duce it. This plant is described by KiEmpfer and Thunber-j-, who saw it 
 in its native soil, as a lofty, vast, and beautiful tree, of all evernreens the 
 fairest. It is unquestionably hardy. The policy of these remarkable 
 nations opposes the most inflexible resistance to European intercourse. 
 Still the perseverance of individuals, and of the Horticultural Society of 
 London, have procured us many of their beautiful plants. The camellia 
 is the chief spring ornament of our conservatories ; their mao-tiolias their 
 azaleas, their pa^onies, decorate our pleasure-grounds; the corchorus 
 and the numerous varieties of the china rose, adorn our humblest cottaires • 
 but scarcely a forest-tree has yei taken its station upon our lawns. We 
 cannot doubt that this may also be achieved. To China, to Japan, to the 
 Himalaya, and other mountain chains of Central Asia, — to the alpine 
 vallies of North-Westeru America, — to Patagonia, the hills of Southern 
 Chili, and the archii)elago of Cliiloe, — we look as to the sources almost 
 unexplored of additional vveallli to the arboretum. Our intercourse with 
 almost every corner of the habitable globe is so intimate, communications 
 with the most distant nations are so frequent, so many accomplished 
 individuals inhabit coimtries the most renu)te. that we are persuaded it 
 is only necessary to invite general attention to our favourite object, in 
 order to place it in a fair train lor accomplishment. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abele, 27. 
 
 Acer, 34 — general list of, species of, 97. 
 
 Acorns, how sown, 24. 
 
 Adam, the Right Honourable Lord Chief Com- 
 missioner, his judicious planting, 46. 
 
 jEsailiis, 34, 98. 
 
 AUdntlius, 27, 100. 
 
 Aildnlhiis ghntlulosa, merits of in ornamental 
 planting, 136 
 
 Air, atmospherical, free circulation of essen- 
 tial to the growth of trees, 19, 21. 
 
 Alder, uses of, 108 — species of, ib. — compara- 
 tive merits of in ornamental planting, 134 
 — fine specimens of at Gordon Castle, ib. 
 
 Almond-tree, 102 
 
 Alnus, 34, 109. 110. 
 
 Amelanchier, 103. 
 
 Ami/tjrlaltis, 103. 
 
 Arboretum, properties of the structure of cer- 
 tain trees have an interesting effect in, 129. 
 
 Arbor-vitac, 20. 
 
 Ash, uses of, 104 — species of, 105 — compara- 
 tive merits of different species of in orna- 
 mental planting, 134. 
 
 Aspen, 27. 
 
 Atmospheric air, importance of, to trees, 19 — 
 what composed of, 19 — plants that grow 
 best in the atmosphere of London, 19 — 
 to be free of stagnation essential to its 
 being useful to trees, 21 — when stagnant 
 affects the quantity and quality of bark of 
 trees, 76 — when surcharged with moisture 
 made more injurious by frosts to the ten- 
 der shoots of plants, 126*. 
 
 Auraiicaria, 34, species of, highly ornamental, 
 
 Bark, what, 5 — root bark, 7 — stem bark, 7 — 
 comparative value of in different species of 
 trees, 75. 
 
 Barlow, Professor, his important experiments 
 on the comparative strength of different 
 species of wood, 77. 
 
 Bedford Conservatories, 19 — Bedford, John, 
 Duke of, K. G., plantations made by him, 
 47 — plough for furrow planting, lieath-soils 
 used by, 38 — numberof trees planted by,*47. 
 
 Heech, different species of, 16, 117 — remark- 
 able specimen of the, 49, 89 — comparative 
 merits of, in ornamental planting, 133 — 
 three new species of discovered by Captain 
 King, ib. 
 
 5e<K/rt, .34, 108—110,133. 
 
 Birch, uses of, 109 — species of, 110 — compa- 
 rative merits of, in ornamental planting, 133 
 —134. 
 
 Blair Adam, plantations at, 21 — rides in, how 
 first planned, *59 — how afterwards im- 
 proved, ib. 
 
 Bole of trees, what, 7. 
 
 Bonduc-tree, 101 
 
 Branches of forest-trees, wlien to be pruned, 
 41 — effects of separating large ones from 
 the bole of a tree, 64 — of oaks fifty years 
 old ami upwards, mode of cutting at Blair 
 Adam, *64 
 
 Bucks-eye tree, 98 — general enumeration of 
 species of, ib. 
 
 Capital in the first outlay on planting, 53 — 
 calculations of the amount of required often 
 erroneous, ib. 
 
 Carbon, the basis of wood, 19. 
 
 Carnarvon, late and present Earls of, remark- 
 able cedars of Lebanon planted by, 140. 
 
 Carpinus, 34. 
 
 Castdna, 34, 
 
 Cedar, Indian, 125 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon, uses of, 124 — ancient and 
 modern state of the original site of, ib. — re- 
 markable specimens of, raised from cones 
 planted by the Earl of Carnarvon at High- 
 clerc Park, 140. 
 
 Cellis, 104. 
 
 Chaptal., M., his estimate of the extent of the 
 forest lands in France, 83. 
 
 Cktne /«MMi«, what, 130. 
 
 Chestnut, sweet, 17 — valuable properties of, 
 ib. — species of, 118 — Spanish, comparative 
 merits of, in ornamental planting, 133. 
 
 Childers, J. W., Esq., *55 — fences of wire- 
 netting effectual protection against rabbits, 
 &c. used on his estate at Cantley Hall. 
 
 Christ's Thorn, 98. 
 
 Clayey soils ought to be trenched for planting 
 forest-trees, 39 — with a coarse surface should 
 be pared and burnt previous to planting, 
 22, 23. 
 
 Coffee-tree of Kentucky, 102. 
 
 Coniferous trees, value of, to the ornamental 
 planter, 139 — 145. 
 
 Coppice stools, produce of what, 41 — should 
 be kept low, 41,42 — kinds of trees most 
 useful for, 42 — trees unfit for, ib. — tillers 
 of, how to be trained, ib. — comparative va- 
 lue of, ib. — land employed in, comparative 
 value of as regards husbandry crops, 42. 
 
 Cork-tree, 116 — mode of taking off the bark, 
 117. 
 
 Corylus, 113. 
 
 Cover, object of securing a close one how de- 
 feated, *69. 
 
 CratcBgus, 103, 104, 138. 
 
 Culture of plantations, 60 — of the soil pre- 
 parative to planting, 86. 
 
 Cunninyliiimiu lanceolataf merits of, in orna- 
 mental planting, 145, 
 
 Cuprissus, 34, 145. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Cyprus, deciduous, 34— list of species of, 120 
 
 — uprifiht evergreen, 34, 145, 
 Cyprus oak, what, 130 
 Cytisus, 101. 
 
 Diamond dibble, what, 35 — figure of, ib. — 
 (fig. 6.) 
 
 Diseases of trees, 70 — insects which induce, 
 71, 72 — case induced by the scolytus de- 
 structor, *72. 
 
 Distance at which forest-tree plants should stand 
 when planted, 40. 
 
 Draining, 56 — mode of required for soils to 
 rear forest-trees, ib. 
 
 Dutrochet, Mr., his labours to advance the 
 knowledge of vegetable physiology, 17, 
 
 Elevation, limits of the growth of different 
 species of trees, 44, 
 
 Elm, different species of, 105 — remarkable spe- 
 cimen of, 88 — comparative merits of, in or- 
 namental planting, 130. 
 
 . Engli>^li, seldom perfects seed in England, 
 
 but in the climate of Paris it ripens abun- 
 dantly, lb. 
 
 Epidermis of trees, what, 6 — experiment on 
 the effect of removing the, *6. 
 
 Extractive matter, contains the elements of the 
 substance of a tree, 18 — found in all fertile 
 soils, ib. — peculiar properties of, *18. 
 
 Fagus, 34. 
 
 Felling trees, most judicious mode of, 76. 
 
 Fences, materials for, often to be found on the 
 spot where wanted, 53 — cost of, 54 — dif- 
 ferent kinds of, 55. 
 
 Fiennes, Hon. Tsvisleton, his interesting trials 
 in planting marsh soil, 52. 
 
 Fir, common spruce, 33 — Scotch, ib. — size of 
 different species of for transplanting, ib. — 
 silver, remarkable specimen of, 89 — list of 
 different species of, 124 — in ornamental 
 planting, 141. 
 
 Fleming, the Right Hon. Admiral, a valuable 
 property of the larch pointed out by, 70. 
 
 Food of plants, what, 17 — atmospherical air an 
 essential ingredient in, 18 — soluble sub- 
 stances wliich chiefly constitute the, 21. 
 
 Forest lands belonging to the Crown of Bri- 
 tain, 84. 
 
 Forests of France, extent of, 83. 
 
 Forest-trees, diflerent modes of rearing, 22, 
 32 — management of a nurseryof, 2G — mode 
 of rearing by coppice-stools, 41 — manure 
 iiseful to in poor soils, 78 — valuation of, 80 
 — diflerent kinds of woods of, 8, 9, 10, — sec 
 Trees, general list of, 93. 
 
 Fraxinus, 34, 103, 104 — comparative merits 
 of, in ornamental planting, 134, 
 
 Fulham oak, what, 130. 
 
 Furrow planting, what, 38. 
 
 Furze, different species of, 100. 
 
 Game, certain grasses on rides in plantations 
 of which tliey are fond, CO — wire-netting 
 fence protection against, 55 *. 
 
 Gleditschia, 100. 
 
 Gorse, 100. 
 
 Grafting of foresl-trees, what, 30, 31 — kinds of 
 foresl-trees reared or propagated by, 31 — 
 stocks for, 32. 
 
 Grasses, the essential permanent pasture spe- 
 cies of cannot be established on certain ex- 
 posed soils without the aid of forest-trees, 
 2 — kinds best adapted to cover the surface 
 of rides permanently, 59. 
 
 Gtjmnocladus, 102. 
 
 Hawthorn, comparative merits of, in ornamen- 
 tal planting, 138. 
 
 Hazle-tree, 113. 
 
 Hiccory, 99 — species of, ib, 
 
 Himalaya Mountains, the vegetable produc- 
 tions of, offer valuable subjects for the ob- 
 jects of the ornamental planter, 132 — 145. 
 
 Holing, what, 37 — kinds of soil in which it is 
 never attended with success, ih. 
 
 Holm oak, comparative merits of, in ornamen- 
 tal planting, 139. 
 
 Holly common, 99 — American, ih. 
 
 Holland, Lord, his oaks in Ampthill Park, 1 12. 
 
 Hornbeam, 112 — different species of, 112 — 
 varieties of, advantageously employed in 
 ornamental planting, 138. 
 
 Hornbeam-hop, 112. 
 
 Horse-chestnut, 98 — general list of species of, 
 98 — comparative merits of, in ornamental 
 planting, 130. 
 
 Ilex, 98. 
 
 Insects which injure trees, 71, 72, 
 
 Italian cypress, 145. 
 
 Juglans, 99. 
 Juniper, 34, 121, 122. 
 Jnntperus, ib. 
 
 Kermes oak, 117. 
 
 King, Captain, his interesting notice respecting 
 
 three new species of beech found by him on 
 
 Terra Magellanica, 13G. 
 Knight, T. A. Esq.. his researches in vegetable 
 
 physiology, 10, 17, 78. 
 Koelreuteria, 138. 
 
 Laburnum, 101. 
 
 Lambert pine, increase of wood in the later 
 fifty-six years' of growth of, 58. 
 
 Lambert's pine, 34, 125. 
 
 Land, rent of, one test to determine the pro- 
 priety of planting it, 47 — extent of waste in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 85*. 
 
 Larch, 33 — disease of, 74 — comparative rate 
 of increase of, the wood of, and the silver 
 fir, 79 — of the oak, ib. — remarkable spe- 
 cimen of the, 89 — general list of speciesof 
 127 — pruning the, GO. 
 
 Layers, what kinds of trees chiefly propa- 
 gated by, 27, 28, 29. 
 
 Layering, process of, 27. 
 
 Leaves of trees, uses of, 11 — of what com- 
 posed, ib. — kinds of, 12, 
 
 Lime, 34, 97 — general list of species of, 95 — 
 
INDEX. 
 
 149 
 
 97, comparative merits of, in ornamental 
 plaining, 1.33. 
 
 Liquid aiulier, 121. 138. 
 
 Live oak, 116 — valuable properties of, ib. — 
 passage respecting the, corrected, ib. 
 
 Locust tree, its liabit of growtli at ditVerent 
 periods of its progress to maturity, 58* — 
 wood texture of, 10 — increase of growth of, 
 compared to that of the oak, 78 — uses and 
 some properties of, 102. 
 
 Lote-tree, 106. 
 
 Lucas's arbor-vitce, 34 — Lucas, Mr., his suc- 
 cessful transplantation of large plants of live 
 oak, 45. 
 
 Luccomb oakj what, 130. 
 
 Mai/no/ia, 93 — comparative merits of, in orna- 
 mental planting, 137. 
 
 Maiden-hair tree, 118 merits of, in ornamen- 
 tal planting, 138. 
 
 Management of a nursery of forest-trees what, 
 26. 
 
 Manna^ how obtained, 105 — Ash, tb. 
 
 Manure to forest-tree plants, important object 
 of, 39 — first brought fully into notice by 
 Mr. Withers, 58 — comparative trial of, * 78. 
 
 Maple, general list of species of, 97 — compa- 
 rative merits of tlie different species of, in 
 ornamental planting, 135. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, her favourite garden at Petit 
 Trianon, remarkable specimen of Quercus 
 phell'/s in, 131. 
 
 Mattock planting, what, 37. 
 
 Mespilus, 103. 
 
 Mixed planting, generally the most profitable 
 and ornamental, 43. 
 
 Modes of planting forest-trees, 34. 
 
 Moor-planter, what, 35 — figure of, 35 («). 
 
 Morns, 106. 
 
 Mulberry-tree, 106. 
 
 Neoza pine, 144. 
 
 Non-reproductive trees, list of, 33. 
 
 Norfolk Island pine, 123. 
 
 Northumberland, Duke of, K.G., fine specimens 
 
 of some species of American trees in his 
 
 grounds at Sion, 100. 
 Nurse-trees, when required to be thinned, 41 
 
 — importance of, ib. 
 Nursery for forest-trees, important points to 
 
 be considered in the formation of, 26. 
 
 Oak, mode of rearing from seed, 22 — pre- 
 paration of the soil for the, 22, 23 — two 
 varieties of the British, 24 — specific cha- 
 racters of, 114 — treatment of the plants of 
 in the second year's growth, 25 — of chemical 
 analysis of the soil on whicli it attains to great 
 perfection, 49 — best size of the plants for 
 transplanting the, 34 — comparative trials, 
 by Professor Barlow, to determine the 
 strength of the wood of slow, and of fast- 
 grown trees of, *78 — annual increase of the 
 wood of compared to the larch, 79 — 
 markahle trees of the, 88 — enumeration of 
 the diflcrent species of, 113 — 118. 
 
 Oaks, those described by Michanx and Pnrsh 
 adverted to, 131. 
 
 . of iurkey, where it attains to enormous 
 
 bulk, 130 — valuable properties of, ib. — ICx- 
 pcrimeut on the ciimparalixe value of the 
 timber of, by Mr. Alkitison, the architect, ib. 
 
 of North Ameri( a, claim the deepest at- 
 tention of the ornamental planter, and how, 
 131. 
 
 Ornamental planting, what, 129 — subjects, 
 pleasures and advantages of, I'i. 
 
 Palmer, Charles l<'ysshe,M.P., his improvement 
 in planting waste land*, 46 — planting 
 plough, 57, {fig. 9.) 
 
 Panshanger oak,* 50. 
 
 Parenchijyna, cause of the green colour of, G 
 — what composed of, ib. 
 
 Pear-tree, 103. 
 
 Pine, what, 12.3 — Scotch pruning of, ib., 66. 
 
 Piniis, species of, 33 — Lnmbertia, * 70 — 
 general list of, 127 — species of, highly or- 
 namental in park scenery, 141 144. 
 
 Pinus Deodarn, 140. 
 
 grandis, 143. 
 
 inonticola, ib. 
 
 menziesii, ib. 
 
 ^—— sahimann, ib. 
 
 nobi/is, ib. 
 
 Pith, what, 4 — uses of, 4, 5. 
 
 Plane, oriental, comparative merits of, in orna- 
 mental planting, 132 — remarkable specimen 
 of, in the Court of the Seraglio, ib. — North 
 American, inferior properties of, for the 
 climate of Britain, 133. 
 
 Planting, subject of, how divided, 1 — heads 
 of to be discussed in this Essay, ib. — judi- 
 cious, some of the advantages resulting from 
 diflerent modes of, 34, 36, 37 — the best and 
 most expeditious mode of, by the spade, 38 
 — judicious, beneficial results certain to 
 follow from, what, 41 — in masses, as ori- 
 ginally practised at Blair Adam, *43. 
 
 Plantations, simple, what, 43 — mixed, what, 
 ib. — products of, what, 89 — terms used to 
 denote the products of, 90 — mode of valu- 
 ing, 80 — extraordinary profits from, 82 — 
 estimates of the profits from, by three pro- 
 fessional planters, ib. 
 
 Plane, 34 — list of tlie diflcrent species of, 120. 
 
 Plants, best size of to plant in extensive works 
 in forest-planting, 33. 
 
 Platanus, 34, 1 20. 
 
 Populus, 27, 106, 107. 
 
 Poplar, 27 — rapid produce of timber bv the 
 black Italian {Popu/ux nigra), 89 — list of 
 the different species of, 108, 109 — compa- 
 rative value of the species of, in ornamental 
 planting, 137. 
 
 Povvis's, Karl, oaks in his Park, near Ludlow, 
 114. 
 
 Products of plantations, what. 89 — terms in 
 common use to denote the, 90. 
 
 Profits of thinnings, how early obtained, 41 — 
 estimates of the profits arising from judicious 
 planting, by three experienced planters, 82, 
 
150 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pruning forest-trees cannot safely be per- 
 formed by any one without a just knowledge 
 of vegetable physiology, 16 — a moderate 
 degree of for young plants possessing the 
 power of repro'luctioH useful, 32 — to non- 
 reproiliictive trees often hurtful, 32 — on 
 every occasion to be accompanied with a 
 requisite knowledge of vegetable physioiocry 
 — different kinds of, 61 — inquiry respectin;^ 
 the sap of the tree destined to support 
 branches pruned off, 64 — the period at which 
 to begin that of young trees, 65 — of resinous 
 trees, 66 — pine, ib. — fir, ib. — instrument 
 of, 62— practice of at Blair Adam *, 63. 
 
 P^/rus, 103. 
 
 Quercus, 34, 113—118. 
 
 gnmdifolia, merits of, in ornamental 
 
 planting, 132. 
 
 spicata, merits in ornamental planting, 
 
 132. 
 camellosa, ib. 
 
 Rearing of forest-trees by coppice-stools, 41 
 
 Red cedar, 34, 122. 
 
 Region planting what, 44, 
 
 Re-productive trees what, 34 — proper height 
 of plants of, for transplanting, ib. 
 
 Rides, how best covered with herbage in plan- 
 tations, 59 — formation of, 69. 
 
 Rhododendron ponticum, use of for cover and 
 underwood, fill. 
 
 Robima, species of, 101 — structure of valu- 
 able in ornamental planting, 129. 
 
 Robust or healthy plant, definition of*, 26. 
 
 Rocky and elevated soils, proper size of forest- 
 tree plants for, 33. 
 
 Root of forest-trees, kinds of, tap what, 3 — 
 creeping what, ib, — fibrous what, ib. 
 
 Salicina, 106. 
 
 Sa/isbtiria, 13S. 
 
 Salix, 34, 107. 
 
 Sap of trees, its ascent, 16, 17. 
 
 Seasoning timber, different modes of, 74. 
 
 Sea-blasts, species of trees which best resist 
 the, 45. 
 
 Seeds of scarce or recently-imported pines or 
 firs should be sown in pots, 33 — of what 
 composed, 13 — different kinds of, 13, 14 — 
 how preserved, 14 — covering required by 
 different species of, 14, 15. 
 
 Shade of forest-trees, its importance, 43. 
 
 Shelterof forest-trees, its importance, 43. 
 
 Silver-fir, valuable properties of, 80, 89. 
 
 Sinclair, the Rigiit Hon. Sir John, an improved 
 mode of slit-planting described by, 36. 
 
 Sinclair, George, F.L S., calculations on the 
 profit and loss of forest-tree planting, 83. 
 
 Slit-planting, what, 35 — defects of, what, 36 — 
 valuable plantations have been made by, 38. 
 
 Soi/.t, termed waste, inquiry proposed to de- 
 termine the question why unproductive to 
 individuals and the nation, 2— of a nur- 
 sery for forest-trees, what, 26 — rocky, the 
 
 limited size of plants for planting on, 33 — 
 on wliich the mode of planting by holing is 
 not successful, 37^nature of to determine 
 the kinds of trees to be planted on, 40 — and 
 distance of one from another when planted, 
 ib. — simple, what, 43 — mixed, what, ib. — 
 most profitably employed in the growth of 
 timber, 45 — analysis of, where trees have 
 attained to perfection, 47 — heath, what, 43 
 — poor sandy soil, what, (6. — light silicious 
 soil, what, j6. — clayey loam, what, 49 — damp 
 clayey soil, what, 50 — fertile peat moss, 
 
 what, 51 — inert-peat, what, ib chalky soil, 
 
 what, ib. — alluvial, or marsh soil, what, .52 
 — most approved mode of preparing for the 
 reception of forest-tree plants, 53 — by tak. 
 ing an ameliorating green crop as a pre- 
 cursor to that of forest-trees, profitable, 86. 
 
 Sophora, 100. 
 
 Spade-planting, 36 — to what state of the land 
 properly ap|)lied, 37. 
 
 Stem, what, 7. 
 
 Stewart, Sir Henry, his mode of transplanting 
 trees of large growth, 45, 46, 138. 
 
 Suckers, what, 26 — kinds of trees chiefly pro- 
 pagated by, 27. 
 
 Sweet gum-tree, 121. 
 
 Sweet locust, 100. 
 
 Tabes, disease, what, 70. 
 
 Tanning, different proportions of, in the bark 
 of different kinds of trees, 75. 
 
 Taxodium, 34. 
 
 Tamis, 121. 
 
 Terms in use to denote the products of plan- 
 tations, 90. 
 
 Thinning of forest plantations, table to assist 
 in determining the number of plants to be 
 taken away, 40, 69 — advantages of, 66 — pe- 
 riod to begin, 67 — statement of, from prac- 
 tice, 67 — why certain trees of little value 
 are sometimes left, and others of greater 
 value thinned out, 68 — bad consequences of 
 neglecting, 71. 
 
 Thomson, Dr. A. T., his remarks on a property 
 of the bark of the Salix alba, 107. 
 
 T^iya, 34, 122. 
 
 dulabrdla, merits of, its introduction to 
 
 the British garden greatly to be desired, 145. 
 
 Ti/ia, 34, 97. 
 
 Tillers what, 92 — value of trees reared from, 
 42. 
 
 Timber, proportions of supplied to the royal 
 dock yards by the royal forests, 87 — appre- 
 hended scarcity of in the forests of North 
 America, ib. 
 
 Timber, what, 92 — of different species of trees 
 how distinguished, 8, 9, 10 — how seasoned, 
 74. 
 
 Transplanting, inquiry respecting, 3 — advan- 
 tages of compared to those of culture from 
 seed, 4. 
 
 Transplanting of forest-trees, 32. 
 
 Trenching, as a preparation of land for forest- 
 trees of great value, 57 — where it ought 
 
INDEX. 
 
 151 
 
 particularly to be adopted, i6.— Mr. Withers' 
 
 successful advocacy of, *58. 
 Trees, natural agents which influence their 
 
 growth, 2 — age of a natural duration of dif- 
 ferent species, 70 — structure of, 'J — diseases 
 
 of, 70 — parts of their structure distinguislied 
 
 by physiologists, 3 — error to suppose a poor | 
 
 quality of soil in any case advantageous lo, 25 
 
 — iiindsof, propap;ated by layers, 28, 29 — by 
 
 cutting, 29, 30 — by grafting, 31 — spontane- 
 ous bleeding of, 70 — species of which best 
 
 resist the sea-blast, 45 — transplanting such as 
 
 are of large growth, 45, 138 — most judicious 
 
 modeof lelling, 7G— progressive and compara- 
 tive produce of wood in different species of, 
 
 ib. — individuals that have attained to great 
 
 perfection, 88 — fast growing supposed to 
 
 have soft wood, 77 — slow growing supposed 
 
 lo have harder wood, 76 — comparative rale 
 
 of increase of wood in different species of, 
 
 79 — most profitable stage of growth to fell 
 
 or cut down, ib. — foreign, picturesque effect 
 
 of, not confined to domestic scenery, 129. 
 Trunk of trees, what, 7. 
 Tulip-tree, soil on which it freely grows, 50 — 
 
 value of, in ornamental planting, 133. 
 
 Value, comparative of the different modes of 
 rearing forest-trees, 42 — prospective, what, 
 80 — present, what, ib. 
 
 Valuing plantations, 76, 80 — example of pro- 
 spective, from practice, 81. 
 
 Vapour, value of, to healthy vegetation, 20 — 
 experiment on the effect of, *20. 
 
 Vegetation, general view of the process of, 15. 
 
 TJlex, 101. 
 Ulmus, 34, 106. 
 Underwood, see Coppice. 
 
 Walnut, 99 — species of, ib. — comparative me- Zizyphus, 98. 
 
 rits of, different species of, in ornamental 
 planting, 135. 
 
 Wallich, Dr., oaks figured in his meritorious 
 work, Plantce rarwi-es Asialicce, 132. 
 
 Waste lands, extent of, in Britain, 85. 
 
 Whin, 101. 
 
 VViiiiebeam, 103 — 108 — merits of, ib. 
 
 White cedar, 34. 
 
 Willow, 34 — Dr. Johnson's, *59 — at Gordon 
 Castle, ib. — forest species of, 107. 
 
 Willow, Weeping, fine effect of the structure 
 of, in ornamental planting, 129 — tribe of, 
 137. 
 
 Wmtera aromalica, 136. 
 
 Winter's Bark, an interesting species of tree 
 for ornamental planting, 136. 
 
 Withers, William, of Holt, Norfolk, his tracts 
 on forest-planting, *39 — advocates success- 
 fully trenching and manuring as the best 
 preparation of certain soils for the reception 
 of forest-tree plants, 58 — results of his in- 
 quiries respecting the stiength of different 
 kinds of wood, ^77, 78. 
 
 Woburn Abbey Park, oaks in, 49 — silver-fir 
 in, ib. — Beech in, ib. 
 
 Wood, what, 5, 7 — examination of different 
 kinds of, 8, 9, 10, 11 — of the oriental plane, 
 
 10 — aider, ib sycamore, ib. — pophir, ib, 
 
 — locust, ib. — lime, 11 — laburnum, ib.-^ 
 elm, 8 — oak, ib. — ash, ib. — beerh, ib.—. 
 chestnut, 9 — hornbeam, ii.— birch, 26.— 
 
 horse-chestnut, tb yearly increase of, in 
 
 trees how ascertained, 5 — how far quick or 
 slow growth of trees influences the hardness 
 or softness of, 77, *. 
 
 Woodlands, great profits obtained from certain 
 kinds of, 47. 
 
 Yew-tree, 121. 
 
 London : W.Clowks, Stamford Street. 
 
■•',--5;?^