ESTABLISHED and conducted according to the 
 -^ EEGrxATioxs adopted by tlie Counril .f ,^ublk 
 ^..trurfon for Spp^ Cann.a. dated the 2nd of Augu 
 18o3 under the authority of the 4th and llth difXs 
 he X eth, the 4th and oth clauses of the 9t^Tnd 
 the 2nd clause of the 120th section of the Upper 
 
 ^C ^4 ^°'"'°°" ^'''"°^ ^<=*' 22nd vfct, 
 
 XoTE.-This Book shall always be known by the 
 
 number entered above. If it be lost, its nameTnd n«^! 
 
 ber must stiU remain on the Catalogue and its n?ac^„ 
 
 as possible. (See Library Regulations, No. tt.) 
 *f Every Work must be retur,ied to the Librae,, 
 
 J2d^ 
 
*^ 
 
 Urbana: 1 3 APR 1970 
 
 Prof. Peter R. Knights 
 Department of History 
 York University 
 Downsview, Ontario M3J 1 P3 
 
w 
 
THE 
 
 AMERICAN FARM BOOK: 
 
 OK 
 
 COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE : 
 
 PRACTICAL TREATISE ON SOILS, MANURES, DRAINLmG 
 
 IRRIGATION, GRASSES, GRAIN, ROOTS, FRUITS, 
 
 COTTON, TOBACCO, SUGAR CANE, RICE, 
 
 AND EVERY 
 
 STAPLE PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 BEST METHODS 
 OP PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY MORE THAN 100 ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 By R. L. ALLEN. 
 
 AUTHOK or DliEAlES OF -' DOMEtTIC ANIMALS." AM EDITOB CW 
 THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST " 
 
 NEW YOEK: 
 C. M. SAXTON, BARKER & CO., 25 PARK ROW. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO: H. H. BANCROFT & CO. 
 1860. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by 
 
 RICHARD L. ALLEX, 
 
 lattie Clerk'i Office of the District Court of the United States fcr tne&>'ither» 
 
 DiMrict of Xew Yo-fc 
 
 # 
 
 C. "W. BENEDICT, Sttreotyper, 
 
 Ml Wtlliam ttreeU eor. of Frmnkftin. 
 
TO 
 
 THE FARMERS AND PLANTERS OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 This work is respectfully dedicated, with the hope that 
 it will add its mite in sustaining and carrying forward the 
 great agricultural improvements of the present day. To 
 agriculture, The most healthful, the most useful. 
 THE most noble EMPLOYMENT OF MAN, rather than to any 
 other, or perhaps, than to all others combined, must we 
 look for the permanent strength, the glory and happiness 
 of our great Republic, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Th« .V«w.»cvn Farm Book was first published two 
 years since, \.i Irr the title of " A Brief Compend op 
 American Agriculture." The favor with which it was 
 received by the public, and its extensive sale, have induced 
 a thorough revision, with the addition of several products 
 not previously mentioned. The Southern department of 
 the work has been enlarged from the personal observation 
 of the Author, during two years residence at the South. 
 
 For most of the Illustrations of southern plants, the author 
 is indebted to original drawings made for him by Don Jose 
 Maria de la Torre, of Havana ; and of those of the 
 shade trees to the Publishers of Browa<*'s Trees of 
 America. 
 
 New York, January, 1849. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following work on American Agriculture is intended 
 as one of the first in the series of lessons for the American 
 Farmer. The size precludes its embracing any thing be- 
 yond the shortest summary of the principles and practice 
 by which he should be guided, in the honorable career he 
 has selected. As a primary work, it is not desirable it 
 should comprise so much as to alarm the tyro in agriculture 
 with the magnitude of his subject. A concise and popular 
 exposition of the principal topics to which his attention will 
 necessarily be directed, will, it is believed, in connection with 
 his own observation and practice, give him a taste for fur- 
 iher research, which will lead him to the fullest attainment 
 sn agricultural knowledge that could be expected from his 
 ■rapacity and opportunities. 
 
 Much of what is detailed in the present volume, has been 
 tested by the writer's own experience and observation. For 
 the remainder, he is indebted to various oral and written in- 
 formation, derived from the best agriculturists, and especially 
 from the valuable foreign and domestic agricultural periodi- 
 cals of the present day. 
 
 "Whenever original authority could be known or recollect 
 ed, it has been credited ; but many even of the most recent 
 discoveries, have already passed through such numerous 
 hands, and received so many shades of alteration or improve- 
 ment, that their authors would hardly recognize their own 
 
▼1 PB.EPAC E . 
 
 offspring. It woulii nc t be strange, therefore, if they had 
 become incorporated in the mass of agricultural principles, 
 without any indication of their origin. The same or similar 
 discoveries and improvements, are also not unfrequently 
 made without any interchange, by different minds and at 
 remote distances. If any omissions of proper acknowledg- 
 ment have occurred, the writer will be happy to correct 
 them hereafter. 
 
 To the experienced and scientific, this work may appear 
 too commonplace — to the uninstructed, too enlargec^ or 
 abtruse. It was not intended to reconcile impossibiUtles. 
 The first must look to elaborate or complete treatises for the 
 fullest information on the various subjects comprehended in 
 this general summary. To the last, it must be answered, 
 that what is here commimicated, is important to be known ; 
 that modern agriculture, like all other progressive moderr 
 sciences and arts, has necessarily introduced new terms fo. 
 the explanation of new principles and new practices ; and 
 the former must be learned before it e latter caji be compre- 
 hended. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Agriculture, in its most extensive sense, rrjiy be defined 
 the cultivation of the earth with a reference to the produc- 
 tion of vegetables, and the conversion of portions of them 
 Lato animals, and a variety of forms, which are the best 
 adapted to the wants of mankind. It is appropriately dis- 
 tinguished by numerous subdivisions. 
 
 Tillage Husbandry consists in the raising of grain, roots 
 and other products, which require the extensive use of the 
 plow and harrow to prepare the ground for annual sowing 
 and planting. 
 
 Grazing is limited to the pasturing and winter feeding 
 of farm stock, and it requires that the land appropriated to 
 this purpose, should be kept in pasturage for summer food, 
 and in meadows to yield the hay necessary for winter's use. 
 In its strictly technical meaning, grazing implies the rear- 
 ing of farm stock till they have attained sufficient maturity 
 for a profitable market, as far as this maturity can be secured 
 051 grass and hay. It, however, properly embraces in its 
 minor divisions, the keeping of cows for the purposes of a 
 dairy, and the support of flocks for the production of wool. 
 
 Feeding, in its agricultural signification, consists in stall 
 fattening animals. It is properly connected with tallage 
 husbandry for the production of grain and roots, and by the 
 free use of which, animals can be brought to a higher con- 
 dition or ripeness, and they will thus command a much bet- 
 ter price in market, than if fed exclusively on grass and hay 
 
nil INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Breeding, technically defined, is restricted to the produc* 
 tion of choice animals for use as future breeders by the judi« 
 cious selection and crossing of the best specimens of the vari- 
 ous distinct breeds of domestic stock. 
 
 Horticulture embraces the entire department of garden- 
 ing, the cultivation of trees, shrubbery, and fruits ; and these 
 occupations are again variously subdivided. 
 
 By Planting (or the occupation of planters), is under- 
 stood the cultivation of extensive farms or plantations, for 
 the exclusive production of one or more commercial staples, 
 such as cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, &c., and their 
 preparation for a distant market. The term is peculiarly 
 sectional, and its use so far as adopted in this country, is 
 limited to the southern portion of it. 
 
 All of the foregoing and various other occupations con- 
 nected with the cultivation of the earth, are comprehended 
 under the general head of Agriculture. 
 
 Besides the varied practical knowledge which is indis- 
 pensable to the proper management of every department of 
 agriculture, its general principles and theoretical relations 
 require a familiarity with the elements of History, Geology, 
 Meteorology, Chemistry, Botany, Entomology, Anatomy, 
 Zoology, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, and Mechan- 
 ics ; and in their ultimate connection, they involve no incon- 
 siderable share of the entire circle of human knowledge and 
 science. 
 
 In view of its intricacy, its magnitude, and its importance 
 to the human race, we cannot fail to be struck with the 
 peculiar \visdom of Deity in assigning to man this occupa- 
 tion, when a far-seeing and vigorous intellect fitted him to 
 scan with unerring certainty and precision, the visible works 
 of his Creator, and trace their causes and effects through all 
 their varied lelations. It was while in the sinless perfection 
 of his original nature, when " the Lord God put him into 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 whe garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it," and ag- 
 riculture was his his sole occupation, that his godlike intel 
 ligence enabled him, instinctively to give appropriate names, 
 indicative of their true nature or character, " to all cattle, 
 and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field ;" 
 and so just and accurate was his perception, that " whatso- 
 ever he called every living creature, that was the name 
 thereof." 
 
 In our present imperfect condition, a beneficent Provi- 
 dence has not reserved a moderate success in Agriculture, 
 exclusively to the exercise of a high degree of intelligence. 
 His laws have been so kindly framed, that the hand even of 
 iminstructed toil, may receive some requital in remunerating 
 harvests ; while their utmost fulness ' can be anticipated, 
 only where corporeal efforts are directed by the highest 
 intelligence. 
 
 The indispensable necessity of an advanced agriculture to 
 the comforts and wealth, and indeed, to the very existenae 
 of a great nation, renders it an object peculiarly worthy the 
 attention and regard of the legislative power. In looking to 
 the history both of ancient and modern times, we find, that 
 wherever a people have risen to enduring eminence, they 
 have sedulously encouraged and protected this right arm of 
 Jtieir strength. Examples need not be given, for they abound 
 in every page of their civil polity. 
 
 Our own country has not been wanting in a moderate re- 
 gard for Agriculture. By wise legislation in our National 
 Congress, every item of extensive agricultural production 
 within the United States, with the single exception of the 
 inferior avooIs, is believed to be fully protected from foreign 
 competition, by an unyielding and perfectly adequate impost 
 on all such articles, as would otherwise enter into a success, 
 ful rivalry with them from abroad. Many of our subordi 
 nate, or state legislatrres, 1 ave also, by liberal provisions. 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 given such encouragement to various objects, as they deemed 
 necessary to develope the agricviltural resources within their 
 jurisdiction. S ach have been the appropriations for numer- 
 ous geological and other state surveys; the bounties on dif 
 ferent articles, as silk, hemp, and some others ; and occa- 
 sionally a small gratuity to encourage the formation and 
 support of State and County Agricultural Societies. 
 
 But while we "vvould not be unmindful of what has here- 
 tofore been effected, our duty compels us to assert, that much 
 yet remains to be done. A single suggestion for the action 
 of the general government and states, is all that our limits 
 will permit us to make. 
 
 The organization of a National Board of Agriculture, com- 
 posed of able and intelligent men, expressly selected for this 
 purpose, whose sole duty it should be, to collect all informa- 
 tion and statistics on the subject, and arrange and spread 
 them before the people ; to introduce new and valuable for- 
 eign plants., adapted to our soil and climate ; suggest im- 
 proved methods of cultivation ; recommend and disseminate 
 the most approved principles of breeding domestic animals ; 
 indicate those best adapted to particular purposes or peculiar 
 localities ; point out new avenues for the profitable disposal 
 of our surplus products ; and recommend such laws or their 
 modification, as might best subserve this interest ; in short, 
 who should stand as sentinels and defenders on the w^atch- 
 tower of this great citadel — this is the lofty duty, and 
 should be esteemed the peculiar privilege of American leg- 
 islation to accomplish. This was a favorite, yet not a fully 
 digested plan of Washington, the suggestions of whose be- 
 nevolent and comprehenscve mind were never followed but 
 for his country's good. 
 
 From the individual states, a ess commanding, but not 
 less beneficial duty is required. Restrictions wisely impo- 
 6P(J upon the general goven nent, limit its action to such 
 
INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 measures only as are essential to the general welfare, and 
 Buch as cannot properly be accomplished by any more cir- 
 cumscribe i authority. More liberal and enlarged grant? 
 from the people, give to ihe state legislatures the power of 
 doing all which their constituents choose to have effected 
 for their own benefit. 
 
 Education in all its branches, is under their exclusive 
 control ; and to endow and foster every institution which 
 has a tendency to raise and improve the intellectual, the 
 moral, and the social condition of the people, has ever been 
 their cherished policy. Yet up to this time, no institution 
 expressly designed for the professional education of farmers, 
 has ever been established in this country. That far-seeing 
 wisdom which characterizes the consummate statesman, and 
 which regards the future equally Avith the present and past, 
 has halted upon the threshold of the great temple of agri. 
 cultural science, whose ample and enduring foundations have 
 been commenced by the united efforts of the men of genius 
 throughout both hemispheres. To aid with every means in 
 their power in laying these foundations broad and deep, to 
 elevate its superstructure, to rear its mighty columns, and 
 adorn its graceful capitals, would seem most properly to 
 come entirely within the province of the representatives of 
 intelligent freemen, the great business of whose lives is the 
 practice of agriculture. 
 
 In addition to continuing and making more general and 
 comprehensive the encouragement for other objects hereto- 
 fore considered, it is the duty of each of the larger states of 
 ::he Union, liberally to endow and organize an Agricultural 
 College, and insure its successful operation within Its juris- 
 diction. Connected with these, should be example and ex- 
 perimental farms, where th^ suggestions of science should be 
 amply tested and carried out before submitting them to the 
 public. The mpjt competent men at home and abroad 
 
XI I INTRODUCTION. 
 
 should be invited to fill a professional chair ; and if money 
 would tempt a Liebig, a Boussingault, a Johnston, or a 
 Play fair, to leave the investigations of European soils and 
 products, and devote his mind and energies to the improve- 
 ment of American husbandry, it should be freely given. 
 
 These institutions should be schools for the teachers 
 equally with the taught ; and their liberally-appointed labo- 
 ratories and collections should contain every available means 
 for the discovery of whai is yet hidden, as well as for the 
 further development of what is already partially known. 
 Minor institutions should of course be established at differ- 
 ent and remote points, to scatter the elements of agricultural 
 knowledge broadcast over the land, and bring them within 
 the reach of the poorest citizens and the humblest capacities. 
 
 By such a liberal and enlightened course, we should not 
 only incalculably augment the productive agricultural ener- 
 gies of our own country, but we should also in part, repay 
 to the world at large, the obligations under which we now 
 rest for having appropriated numerous and important disco- 
 veries and improvements from abroad. If we have the ability 
 which none can doubt, we should make it a point of 
 honor to return in kind, the liberal advances we have thus 
 received. 
 
 It is to the rising generation these suggestions are made; 
 the risen are not yet prepared for their acceptance. The 
 latter have been educated, and become habituated to different 
 and more partial influences. By their industry, intelligence, 
 and energy, displayed in numberless ways, and especially by 
 their protection of American labor, they have accomplished 
 mwch for their own and their country's welfare — they are 
 resolved to leave this glory for their successes. 
 
 New York, J^ne, 184C 
 
AMEEICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 Soils are those portions of the earth's surface, which 
 contain a mixture of mineral and vegetable or animal sub- 
 stances, in such proportions as adapt them to the support of 
 vegetation. Rocks are the original basis of all soils, Avhich 
 by the convulsions of nature, or the less violent but lono* 
 continued and equally etficient action of air, moisture and 
 frost, have been broken into fragments more or less minute. 
 There are various gradations of these changes. 
 
 The Texture of Soils. — Some rocks exist in laro-e 
 boulders or rounded stones, which thickly overspread the 
 surface and mingle themselves with the earth beneath, o-ivino- 
 to it the character of a rocky soil. The smaller sizes, but an 
 equal prevalence of the same materials, distino-uish the sur- 
 face where they abound, as a stony soil. A third and more 
 mmute division is called a gravelly soil ; a fourth is a sandy 
 soil ; a fifth constitutes a loam ; and a sixth, in which the parti- 
 cles of earth are reduced to their greatest fineness, is known 
 under the name of a clay soil. 
 
 The two first mentioned, however, are not properly, dis- 
 tinct soils, as the only support of any profitable vegetation, 
 is to be found in the finer earth in which the rocks and 
 stones are embedded. In frequent instances, they materially 
 benefit the crops, by the influence produced from their shade, 
 moisture, and protection from winds ; and by the gradual 
 decomposition of such as contain lime, potash and other fer- 
 tiUzing materials, they enrich the soil and contribute to the 
 support of vegetation. Their decomposition is hastened by 
 trie apparently worthless vegetable life which ihey yield to 
 liio liviu'j; iiio.-ses that cling to tl '»ir .'-ides, nr.d every where* 
 
14 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 penetrate their fissures ; thus imperceptibly corroding the 
 solid structures and preparing them for future r.sefulness a? 
 soils. If Ave add to the above, a peat or vegetable soil, we 
 shall have the material divisions of soils, as distinguished by 
 their texture. 
 
 Besides these, soils are frequeii;ly to be seen, more or less 
 extensive, which possess peculiarities entitling them to a 
 distinct classification, and requiring a treatment, in some 
 respects, different from any others. Such are the prarte 
 soils, which, having been annually burnt over for ages, are 
 highly charged with ashes and the alkaline salts. Such 
 also, are the terre-gras lands in Louisiana, and the brick- 
 mold of the East and West Indies, each of which requires 
 peculiar management in plowing and cultivation. 
 
 Other Classifications of Soils. — Soils are also dis- 
 tinguished by their tendency to absorb and retain water, 
 gravel and sand holding very little, while clay and peat 
 readily absorb and retain a great deal ; by their constant satu- 
 ration from perennial springs, which are called springy soils ; 
 by the quantity of vegetable and animal matter they contain ; 
 by their porosity or adhesiveness ; by their chemical charac- 
 ter, whether silicious, argillaceous or calcareous ; by the 
 quality and nature of the vegetation they sustain ; and lastly, 
 and by far the most important, they are distinguished by their 
 fertility or barrenness, the result of the proper adjustment and 
 combination of most of the conditions enumerated. Deserts 
 of sands, layers of rocks, stone or pure gravel, and beds of 
 marl and peat are not soils, though containing many of their 
 most important elements. 
 
 It is apparent to the most casual observer, that soils fre- 
 quently, and by almost imperceptible degrees, change from 
 one character to another, and that no classification, however 
 minute, will suffice to distinguish each. Seme obvious yet 
 simple distinctions, which are usually recognized, must 
 nevertheless be assumed for future reference. For this pur- 
 pose, and to avoid unecessary deviations from Avhat should 
 be a common standard, we shall adopt the arrangements as 
 made by Professor Johnston, whicii is based principally 
 upon their chemical constituents. 
 
 " 1°. Pure clay (pipe-clay) consisting of about 60 of silica 
 and 40 of alumina and oxide of .ron. for the most part chem- 
 ically combined. It allows no silicious sand to subside when 
 diffused through water, and rarely forms any extent of soil. 
 
 2°. Stro7tgesT clay soil (tile-clay, "nctuous clay) consists of 
 
SOILS. 15 
 
 pure clay mixed with 5 to 15 per cent, of a silicious sand, 
 which can be separated from it by boilir g and decantation. 
 
 3'^. C/ay /oa7?i diifers from a clay soil, in allowing from 
 15 to 30 per cent, of fine sand to be separated from it by 
 washing, as above described. By this admixture of sand, 
 its parts are mechanically separated, and hence its freer and 
 more friable nature. 
 
 4°. A loamy soil deposits from 30 to 60 per cent, of sand, 
 by mechanical washing. 
 
 5°. A sa?idy loam leaves from 60 to 90 per cent, of sand, 
 and 
 
 6°. A sandy soil contains no more than ten per cent, of 
 pure clay. 
 
 The mode of examining, with the view of naming soils, 
 as above, is very simple. It is only necessary to spread a 
 weighed quantity of the soil in a thin layer upon writing 
 paper, and to dry it for an hour or two in an oven or upon a 
 hot plate, the heat of which is not sufficient to discolor the 
 paper — the loss of weight gives the water it contained. 
 While this is drying, a second weighed portion may be 
 boiled or otherwise thoroughly incorporated with water, and 
 the whole then poured into a vessel, in which the heavy sandy 
 j)arts are allowed to subside until the fine clay is beginning 
 to settle also. This point must be carefully watched, the 
 liquid then poured oft; the sand collected, dried as before 
 upon paper, and again weighed. This weight is the quan- 
 tity of sand in the known weight of moist soil, which by the 
 previous experiment has been found to contain a certain 
 quantity of water. 
 
 Thus, suppose two portions, each 200 grs., are weighed, 
 and the one in the oven loses 50 grs. of water, and the other 
 leaves 60 grs. of sand,— then, the 200 grs. of moist are equal 
 to 150 of dry, and this 150 of dry soil contain 60 of sand, or 
 40 in 100 (40 per cent.). It would, therefore, be properly 
 called a loam, or loami^ soil. 
 
 But the above classification has reference only to the clay 
 and sand, while we know that lime is an important constituent 
 of soils, of which they are seldom entirely destitute. We 
 have, therefore, 
 
 7°. Marly soils, in which the proportion of lime is more 
 than five but does not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight 
 of the dry soil. .The marl is a sandy, loainy, or clay marl, 
 according as the proportion of clay it contains would place it 
 under th^ one or other denomination, supposing it to be 
 
16 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 entirely free fiom lime, or not to contain more tlan five pe» 
 cent.," and 
 
 8°. Calcareous soils, in which the lime exceeding 20 pei 
 cent, becomes th-e distinguishing constituent. These are 
 also calcareous clays, calcareous loams, or calcareous sands 
 according to the proportion of clay and sand which are 
 present in them. 
 
 The determination of the lime also, when it exceeds five 
 per cent., is attended with no difficulty. 
 
 To 100 grs. of the dry soil diff"used through half a pint of 
 cold water, add half a wine glass-full of muriatic acid (the 
 spirit of salt of the shops), stir it occasionally during the day, 
 and let it stand over night to settle. Pour off' the cleai 
 liquor in the morning and fill up the vessel with water, to 
 wash away the excess of acid. When the water is again 
 clear, pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it — the loss wih 
 amount generally to about one per cent, more than the quan- 
 tity of lime present. The result will be sufficiently near, 
 however, for the purposes of classification. If the loss 
 exceed five grs. from 100 of the dry soil, it may be classed 
 among the marls, if more than 20 grs. among the calcareous 
 soils. 
 
 Lastly, vegetable matter is sometimes the characteristic 
 of a soil, which gives rise to a further division of 
 
 9-. Vegetable inolds, which are of various kinds, from 
 the garden mold, which contains from five to ten per cent., 
 to the peaty soil, in which the organic matter may amount 
 to 60 or 70. These soils also are clayey, loamy, or sandy, 
 according to the predominant character of the earthy ad- 
 mixtures. 
 
 The method of determining the amount of vegetable 
 matter for the purposes of classification, is to dry the soil well 
 in an oven, and weigh it ; then to heat it to dull redness over 
 a lamp or a bright fire till the combustible matter is burned 
 away. The loss on again weighing is the quantity of organic 
 matter." 
 
 The foregoing are only such general divisions, as possess 
 properties sufficiently common to each, to require a treatment 
 nearly similar. Besides their principal component parts, 
 every soil must contain in greater or less quantities, all the 
 elements which enter into the , composition of vegetables. 
 They may have certain substances which are not necessary 
 to vegetable life, and some one or all of such as are, may ba 
 contained in excess; yet to sustain a healthy prolific vegeta 
 
SOILS. 17 
 
 tion, they must hJd, and in a form fitted tc its support, silex, 
 alumina, carbonate of lime, sulphate of hme, potash, soda, 
 magnesia, sulphur, phosphorus, oxide of iron, manganese, 
 chlorine, and probably iodine. These are called the inor- 
 ganic or earthy parts of soils, as they are found almost 
 exclusively in combination with earths, salts, or minerals. 
 They however, constitute from less than 0.5 (one half of one) 
 to over 10 per cent, of all vegetables. In addition to these, 
 fertile soils must also contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and 
 hydrogen, which are called the organic parts of soils, from 
 their great preponderance in vegetables and animals, of 
 which they constitute from about 90, to over 99 per cent. 
 d their entire substance. 
 
 Clay Soils — their Characteristics and Treatment 
 — Clay soils are usually denominated cold and wet, from 
 their strong affinity to water, which they generally hold in 
 too great excess for rapid or luxuriant vegetation. The 
 alumina which exists in clay, not only combines with water 
 forming a chemical compound, but the minute division of 
 its particles and their consequent compactness, oppose seri- 
 ous obstacles to the escape of such as comes in contact with it. 
 Hence, the necessity of placing it in a condition to obviate 
 these essential defects. 
 
 The most effectual method of disposing of the surplus 
 water in clay soils, is by underd raining. This draws off 
 rapidly, yet by imperceptible degrees, all the excess of water, 
 and opens it to the free admission of atmospheric air ; and 
 this," in its passage through the soil, imparts heat and such of 
 the gases it contains, as are useful in sustaining vegetation. 
 When these are not constructed, open drains should be 
 formed wherever water stands after rains. The slight ele- 
 vation and depression of the surface made by careful plow- 
 ing, will probably be sufficient, if they terminate in some 
 ravine or artificial ditch, and have size and declivity enough 
 to pass off the water rapidly. 
 
 Clay soils are greatly improved by coarse vegeta,Lj# ma- 
 nures, straw, corn-stalks, chips, &c., which tend to the sepa- 
 ration of its particles. The addition of sand is very benefi- 
 cial, but this is too expensive for large fields. Lime is also 
 a valuable material for a clay soil, as by the chemical combi- 
 nations which are thereby induced, the extreme tenacity of 
 the soil is broken up ; while the lime adds an ingredient of 
 fertility, not before possessed by it, perhaps, to an adequate 
 extent. Gypsum has the same effect, in a more powerful 
 
18 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 degree. Paring and burning, (by which, the surface con 
 taining vegetable matter, is collected into heaps and fired, 
 reducing the mass to a charred heap, which is theu spread 
 over and mixed with the soil,) produce the same result. 
 This is a practice which has been long in use in different 
 parts of Europe ; but although attended Avith immediate and 
 powerful results, it :s too expensive for general introduction 
 into a country, where labor is high, and land and its product* 
 comparatively cheap. 
 
 Wherever frosts and snow abound, the plowing of clay 
 lands for spring crops, should be done in the autumn if prac- 
 ticable ; by which theii adhesiveness is temporarily destroyed, 
 the earth is enriched by the suoavs, and tinely pulverized 
 by the frost, and they are left in the finest condition for early 
 spring sowing, and without additional working. If plowed 
 in the spring, it should be done when they are neither too 
 wet nor dry ; if the former, the earth subsequently bakes, and 
 for a long time, it is almost impenetrable to the hoe or the 
 teeth of the harrow ; if too dry, they are so compact as to be 
 turned over only with great effort, and then in solid lumps. 
 The action of the atmosphere, will pulverize these masses 
 of baked earth after a time ; but not sufficiently early in most 
 of our northern states, for the convenience or advantage of 
 such crops as are immediately to follow the plowing. For 
 much of the South, plowing clay lands in the autumn is worse 
 than useless ; as the loose earth thus thrown up, is soon re- 
 duced by the heavy winter rains to a compact surface, ap- 
 parently as unfitted for cultivation, without subsequent plow- 
 ing, as the incrustations of lava from a volcano. 
 
 No soils are so tenacious of the manures which may be 
 incorporated with them as the clays. They form an inti 
 mate combination, both mechanical and chemical,* and hold 
 
 • By mechanical, in the sense above used, is understood the external 
 relation of bodies, which is nearly equivalent in its meaning in this 
 connection, to artificial. Thus the clay envelopes the manure, and 
 from its impervious character shields it from escape either by drainage 
 or evaporation, and almost as effectually, as if it were enclosed in an 
 earthen vessel. 
 
 By chemical is meant, its internal or constitutional character. Thus 
 clay not only absorbs the gases which are brought into contact with it 
 from manures, from moisture and from air, as a sponge absorbs water ; 
 but it also forms new combinations with them, which change the ori- 
 ginal nature of these elementary principles, and from light evanescent 
 gases, they become component parts of solid bodies, in which condi- 
 tion they are retained till exhausted by the growing vegetation. 
 
 These terras are important, and should be fully mderstood. Foi 
 
SOILS. 19 
 
 fhem securely against waste from drainage jt evRj^^)ration 
 for an indefinite time, till the growing crops demand them. 
 They also greedily seize upon and hoard up all such fertil- 
 izing principles as are conveyed to them by the air and 
 rains. We may mention as an example of their efficiency 
 in abstracting vegetable nutrition from the atmosphere, that 
 many of them, when thrown out from a great depth below 
 the surface, and entirely destitute of organic remains (vege- 
 table or animal matter), after an exposure for some months 
 to its meliorating influence, become capable of bearing large 
 crops, without the aid of manvxre. This is particularly true 
 of the clays which rest on the Onondaga limestone, an eX' 
 tensive group occupying the central and north-western part 
 of New York. 
 
 The clays are admirably adapted to the production of 
 most of the grains, and the red and white clovers cultivated 
 in the United States. These they yield in great profusion 
 and of the best quality ; and so peculiarly suited are they to 
 permanent meadows and pasturage, that they are styled by 
 way of eminence, grass lands. They are justly character- 
 ised as strong and lasting soils ; and when properly managed 
 
 the purpose of still more clearly elucidating the subject to the mind 
 of the young student, we give some further examples. If we take a 
 piece of crystalized marble, compact uncrystalized limestone, and 
 chalk, we shall have three substances exactly alike in their chemical 
 character ; for they are all chemical combinations of carbonic acid and 
 lime, associated together in precisely the same proportions. But in 
 their external arrangements, as they appear in a recent fracture to the 
 eye and touch, that is, in their mechanical arrangements, they are 
 totally dissimilar. 
 
 Again — If we take the pure lime, (quick lime), that is obtained from 
 each of the foregoing by subjecting them to an intense heat, by which 
 the carbonic acid is expelled, and pour upon it nearly one third of its 
 weight of water, great heat is developed, and the lime both mechanical- 
 ly absorbs, and chemically combines with it, forming a new compound, 
 or salt, which is a hydrate of lime. 
 
 If sand (mostly silex) be added to the lime with water, and mechan- 
 ically mixed or stirred together and allowed to remain for a sufficient 
 time, they will combine chemically, forming silicate of lime, the 
 common mortar of stone masons. 
 
 Sand (silex) stirred in with clay, (an impure alumina), is mechani- 
 cally mixed ; if then subject to a strong heat as in making brick, they 
 become chemically united, forming silicate of alumina, inseparable by 
 any human means short of the chemists crucible. If we divide or 
 separate a stick by splilting or cutting, it is a mechanical ; and if by 
 burning or charring, it is a chemical change. Thus every alteration, 
 either in nature or art, is referable to one of the above conditions oi 
 changes. 
 
20 AMERICAN AGRICCLTCRE. 
 
 and put to their appropriate use, they are esteemed as among 
 the choicest of the farmer's acres. 
 
 Saxdy Soils and their Management. — The character 
 and treatment of sandy soils, are in ahnost every particular 
 the reverse of those of clay. They do not possess the 
 property of adhesiveness, and they have but little affinity for 
 Waaler, which escapes from them almost as soon as it falls. 
 They have but a slight hold upon the manures which are 
 diffused through them ; they are loose in their texture, and 
 may be plowed at any time, but with most advantage when 
 wet. The sowing or planting should follow immediately. 
 
 As clay soils are much benefited by a mixture of sand, so 
 likewise are sandy soils greatly improved by the addition of 
 clay, yet in a much higher degree ; for though it would never 
 pay, as a general rule, to add sand to clay, yet the addition of 
 a few loads of the stiffest clay to a light sand, would in almost 
 every instance, much more than compensate for the trouble 
 and expense. For this purpose, the clay should be thinly 
 spread in autumn, upon sward land previously plowed, and 
 the winter's frost ■will effectually separate the particles. It 
 should then be harrowed thoroughly and deeply in the spring, 
 and subsequently plowed if necessary. Such a dressing on 
 a light crawling sand, is more than equivalent to an equal 
 quantity of the best manure, and will be permanent in its 
 effects. Clay and sand are necessary to each other, as they 
 both contain qualities which are essential to a good soil ; and 
 that will always be found the best, which has the proper 
 proportion of each. 
 
 Sandy soils are improved by the frequent use of a heavy 
 toiler ; it cannot be used too often. They require to be 
 made more compact, and any treatment that secures this 
 object, "will be advantageous. 
 
 Lime, by its chemical action on the constituents of soils, 
 while it separates clay, renders sand more adhesive ; and 
 when cheaply obtained, it is always a profitable dressing for 
 sandy soils, to the full amr ant they may require. Gj'psum, 
 in considerable quantities, has an effect similar to lime, both 
 on clay and sand ; and when added in smaller portions, pro- 
 duces a striking increase in the crops of sandy soils. Clay 
 marls, containing either carbonate, sulphate, or phosphate 
 of lime, are of great value to sandy soils. Equally bene- 
 ficial are ashes, leached or unleached, peat, or vegetable 
 manures of any kind. Some calcareous sands, containing 
 a large proportion of lime, like those of Egypt and exten- 
 
SOILS. 1^] 
 
 sive regions in the Bai oary States, will produce IniKuriantly, 
 if supplied with a sHght addition of manure and an abun- 
 dance of ■water. Sandy soils can never be profitably culti- 
 vated, till thsy have acquired sufficient compactness and fer- 
 tility, to sustain a good growth of grass or clover ; and 
 when once brought to this condition, they are among the 
 most valuable for tillage, especially for such crops as require 
 early maturity. 
 
 They are, at all times, easily plowed and worked ; they re- 
 quire no draining ; and tliough light and dry, are quick and 
 kindly soils, giving an immediate and full return for the labor 
 and manure bestowed upon them. When in a condition to 
 produce grass, sheep are admirably adapted to preserve and 
 augment their fertility, and by their incessant migrations 
 over it, their sharp hoofs pack the surface closely, producing 
 the same effect as the roller. 
 
 Gravelly Soils are in some respects similar to sand, but 
 much less desirable, being appropriately termed hungry. 
 Like the latter, they are peculiarly leachy, but in an increased 
 degree, permitting the rapid escape ot manures, both ly 
 evaporation and drainage. Such as are calcareous or com- 
 pocscd of limestone pebbles, are in a great measure not sub- 
 ject to these objections ; as the disposing affinities of the 
 lime, (of which enough will be found to exist in the soil in 
 a finely comminuted or divided state, and in this condition 
 is enabled to act efficiently,) have a tendency to retain the 
 vegetable matters, thus compacting the soil, and holding 
 whatever food of plants may from time to time be given to 
 it, for the wants of future crops. Unless of this latter de- 
 scription, gravelly soils should not be subjected to tillage, 
 but appi'opriated to pasturage, when sheep will keep them 
 in the best and most profitable condition of which they art 
 capable. 
 
 Loamy Soils being intermediate between clay and sand, 
 possess characteristics, and require a treatment approximating 
 to one or the other, according to the predominance of either 
 quality. They are among the most desirable soils for the 
 various purposes of agriculture. 
 
 Marly and Calcareous Soils have always a full supply 
 of lime, and like the loams, they frequently incline towards a 
 clay or sand, requiring a management corresponding to their 
 character. Putrescent and vegetable manures increase their 
 fertility, and these are held Avith great tenacity till exhausted 
 by ciops. In durability or lastingness, they cnniiot be ex- 
 
22 AMERICAN AGRK ULTUKE. 
 
 ceeded ; and ew are more profitable for cultivation oi 
 grazing. 
 
 Alluvial Soils, are such as have been formed from the 
 washing of streams. They vary in their characteristics, 
 from a mixed clay to an almost pure sand ; but generally, they 
 combine the components of soils in such proportions as are 
 designated by loamy soils, or sandy loams. When thus 
 formed they are exceedingly fertile ; and if subject to the an- 
 nual overflow of a stream, having its sources far above them, 
 they usually receive such an addition to their productiveness, 
 as enables them to yield large ■'•i-ops perpetually, without 
 further manuring. 
 
 They are for the most part easily worked, and are suited 
 to the various purposes of tillage and meadows ; but when 
 exposed to overflowing, it is safer to keep them in grass, as 
 this crop is less liable to injury by a freshet ; and where sub- 
 ject to washing from the same cause, a well-matted sod is 
 the best protection which can be offered against it. Many 
 of the natural grasses which are found in these meadows, 
 yield a fodder of the highest value. 
 
 Peaty Soils. These are composed almost wholly of peat, 
 and are frequently called vegetable soils. They are exten- 
 sively diffused between the latitudes of 40° and 60° north, 
 at a level with the ocean, and are frequently found in much 
 lower latitudes, when the elevation of the surface produces 
 a corresponding temperature. They generally occupy low 
 swampy levels, but sometimes exist on slight, northern 
 declivities, where the water in its descent is arrested by a 
 succession of basin-shaped cavities. 
 
 Their peaty character is acquired, by the growth and par- 
 tial decay, through successive ages, of various aquatic plants, 
 the principal being the sphagnums and lichens. In swamps, 
 many of which were probably small lakes in their origin, 
 the peat is found of an unknown depth, reaching in some 
 instances, beyond 30 and 40 feet. On declivities and occa- 
 sional levels, the peat is sometimes only a few inches in 
 thickness. It is of a blackish or dark brown color, and exists 
 in various stages of decay, from the almost perfect state of 
 fallen stumps and leaves, to an imperfectly defined, ligneous 
 mass, or even an impalpable powder. 
 
 In its natural state, it is totally unfit for any profitable 
 vegetation, being saturated with water, of an antiseptic na- 
 lure, whicii, for an almost indefinite time, resists putrefaction 
 or decay. When throvra out of its native bed and exposed 
 
SOILS. 23 
 
 to drain for a few months, much of it is fit for fuel ; and it 
 is always of advantage to the muck heaps, as an absorbent 
 of the liquid and gaseous portions of animal and other vola- 
 tile manures ; or it is of great utility when applied alone to 
 a dry, gravelly or sandy soil 
 
 Cultivation of Peat Soils. When it is desirable to culti- 
 vate a peaty soil, the first process is to drain it of all the 
 moisture which has given to it, and sustained its present 
 character. The drains must be made sufficiently near to 
 each other, and on every side of the bed ; or they must, at 
 least, be so located as effectually to intercept and carry off all 
 the springs or running water which saturates the soil ; jind 
 they should be deep enough to prevent any injurious capil- 
 lary attraction of the water to the surface. When it has 
 been thoroughly drained, the hommocs if any, must be cut 
 up with the mattoc or spade, and thrown into heaps, and 
 after they are sufficiently dried, they may be burned, and the 
 ^shes scattered over the surface. These afford the best top 
 dressing it can receive. Sand or fine gravel, with a large 
 quantity of barn- yard manure and effete lime, should then be 
 added. On some of these, according as their composition 
 approaches to ordinary soils, good crops of oats, corn, roots, 
 &c may be grown ; but they are better suited to meadows, 
 and vhen thus prepared, they will yield great burthens of 
 clovL r, timothy, red top, and such of the other grasses as are 
 adapted to moist soils. Subsequent dressings of sand, lime, 
 manure and wood ashes, or of all combined, may be after- 
 wards required, when the crops are deficient, or the grasses 
 degenerate. 
 
 Peat contains a large proportion of carbon, and the silicates 
 in which such soils are deficient, (and which they procure 
 only in small proportions from the farm-yard manure, but 
 more largely from the sand or gravel,) are essential to be 
 added, in order to furnish an adequate coating for corn stalks, 
 straw and the valuable grasses. As they are exhausted, 
 they must b^ again supplied or the crops will fail. Besides 
 yielding an important food to the crop, lime is essential to 
 produce decomposition in the mass of vegetable matter, as 
 Avell as to combine ■with and aid in furnishina; to the grow- 
 ing plants, such of their food as the atmosphere contains. 
 Ashes are among the best applications, as they possess the 
 Bilicates, lime, potash, and other inorganic materials of plants 
 in great abundance, and in a form readily adapted to vegeta^ 
 
24 AMERICAN AGEICULTURE. 
 
 We nutrition. Gypsum is also a valuable mant;re for peaty 
 soils. 
 
 SUBSOILS Airo THEIH MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The efficiency of soils in producing good crops, depends 
 much on the subsoil. If this consists of impervious clay or 
 hard-pan, which prevents the drainage of the water, it is 
 evident, the accumulation of heavy rains will materially in- 
 jure the vegetation above ; for it is certain, that while no- 
 thing is more essential to productiveness than an adequate 
 supply of moisture for the roots, nothing is more injurious 
 than their immersion in stagnant water. If this description 
 of subsoil be deep, the only remedy is thorough underdrain- 
 ing ; if shallow, the crust may be broken up with the subsoil 
 plow and gradually mixed Avith the surface soil, when the 
 water will readily escape below. 
 
 A variety of plows have been constructed for this purpose ; 
 but unless it be intended to deepen the soil by an admixture 
 of manures, they must not be used for bringing up the 
 subsoil too rapidly, to mix with that on the surface. In ad- 
 dition to the more ready escape of water, thus secured by 
 breaking it up, the air is also admitted, which enables the 
 roots to strike deeper, and draw their nourishment from a . 
 much greater depth. The increased distance through 
 which the roots penetrate, furnishes them with additional 
 moisture during a season of drought, thereby securing a lux- 
 uriant crop when it might otherwise be destroyed. This is 
 frequently a great item in the profit of the farmer ; as, be- 
 sides the increase of crop which follows a dry, hot season, 
 when a full supply of moisture is furnished, the product is 
 usually of better quality ; and the general deficiency of agri- 
 cultural produce, which ensues from seasons of drought, 
 makes his own more valuable. 
 
 As a result of this practice, there is also a gradual increase 
 in the depth of the soil ; as the fine and more soluble parti- 
 cles of the richer materials above, are constantly working 
 down and enriching the loosened earth below. In time, 
 this becomes good soil; and this, in proportion to its depth, 
 increases the area from which the roots derive their nutri- 
 ment. So manifest are the advantages which have followed 
 the use of subsoil plows, that they have been extensively 
 introduced of late years, among the indispensable tools of 
 file better class of asrricuiturisis. 
 
SOILS. 26 
 
 When ..le subsoil is loose and leachy, (consisting of an 
 excess oL sand or gravel,) thereby allowing the too ready 
 escape df moisture and the soluble portions of manures, the 
 subsoil plow is not only unnecessary, but positively injurious. 
 In this case, the surface soil should be somewhat deepened 
 by the addition of vegetable matters, so as to afford a greater 
 depth through which the soluble manures must settle, be- 
 fore they can get beyond the reach of the roots ; and the 
 eupply of moisture would thereby be much augmented. It 
 .s better, however, to keep lands of this character in wood or 
 permanent pasture. They are at best, ungrateful soils, and 
 make a poor return for the labor and manure bestowed upon 
 them. 
 
 If there be a diversity in the character of the surface and 
 subsoils, one being inclined to sand and gravel, and the 
 other to marl or clay, a great improvement will be secured, 
 by allowing the plow to reach so far down as to bring up 
 and incorporate with the soil, some of the ingredients in 
 which it is wanting. This admixture is also of^remarkable 
 benefit in old or long-cultivated fields, which have become 
 deficient in inorganic matters, and in their texture. 
 
 The effect ^ lojig continued cultivation, besides ex- 
 hausting what is essential to the earthy part of plants, is to 
 breakdown the coarser particles of the soil, by the mechani- 
 cal action of the plow, harrow, &c. ; and in a much more 
 rapid degree, by the chemical -combinations, which cultiva- 
 tion and manuring produce. A few years suffice to exhibit 
 striking examples in the formation and decomposition of 
 rocks and stones. Stalactites and various specimens of lime- 
 stone, indurated clays, sandstone and breccias or pudding 
 stones, are formed, in favorable circumstances, almost under 
 our eye; while some limestones, shales, sandstones, &c., 
 break down in large masses annually, from the combined 
 effect of moisture, heat, and frost. The same changes, on a 
 smaller scale, are constantly going forward in the soil, and 
 much more rapidly while under cultivation. The general 
 tendency of these surface changes, is towards pulverisation 
 The particles forming the soil, from the impalpable mite ol 
 dust to the large pebbles, and even the stones and rocks are 
 continually broken up by the combined action of the vital 
 roots, and the manures incorporated with the soil, by which 
 new elements of vegetable food are developed and become 
 available, and in a form so minute as to be imbibed by the 
 spongioles of the roots ; and by the absorbent vessels, they 
 
26 AMSRICAN AurRICULTURE. 
 
 are afterwards distributed in their appropriate places in the 
 plant. Wliere this action has been going on for a long 
 period, a manifestly beneficial efiect has immediately fol- 
 lowed, from bringing up and mixing with the superficial 
 earth, portions of the subsoil wliich have never before been 
 subject to cultivation. 
 
 A subsoil which is permeable by water, is sometimes 
 imperceptibly beneficial to vegetation, not only by allowing 
 the latent moisture to ascend and yield a necessary supply 
 to the plants; but a moisture frequently charged with lime 
 and various other salts, Avhich the capillary attraction 
 brings from remote depths below the surface. It is probably 
 from this cause, that some soils produce crops far beyond the 
 yield which might be reasonably looked for, from the fertili- 
 zing materials actually contained in them. This operation 
 is rapidly going forward during the heat of siunmer. The 
 water thus charged with saline matters, ascends and evapo- 
 rates at and below the surface, leaving them diffused 
 throughout the soil. After long continued dry weather, a 
 thin, whitish coatingof these salt.s, is frequently discernible 
 on the ground. The enriching effect of these deposites, is 
 one of the compensating results, seldom discovered or 
 acknowledged perhaps, yet Avisely designed by a beneficent 
 Providence, to secure a future and increased fertility from the 
 temporary loss occasioned by drought. 
 
 Where rain seldom or never falls, this result is noticeable 
 in numerous, and sometimes extensive beds of quiescent 
 (not shifting) sand. Deposits ofttimes occur several inches 
 in thickness. Such are the extensive beds of impure muri- 
 ate of soda and other salts, in the arid deserts of California ; 
 in the southern parts of Oregon ; the nitrates found in India, 
 Egypt, Peru, and various other parts of the world. 
 
 ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 
 
 Besides the qualities of soils already noticed, there are 
 Beveral physical conditions which affect their value. They 
 should be of sufficient depth, friable or easily pulverized ; 
 they should possess the right color, and be susceptible of the 
 proper admission and escape of heat, ai. anfl moisture. 
 
 Jethro Tull, who wrote more than a century ago on the 
 subject of agriculture, maintained that if a soil be worked to 
 a proper depth, and perfectly well pulverized, nothing more 
 is necessary to insure an indefinite succession of the rrost 
 
?Oii^. 27 
 
 (uxuriant c/ops, without the aid oi manures ; aud 'A mus ba 
 confessed, his practice gave some apparently strong confirnia 
 tions of his theory. By carrying tillage far below the surface, 
 thus se3uring the minute division of the earth to a great 
 depth, and rendering it permeable to the roots, he insured 
 the free access^of air and moisture, which are among the 
 first and most important requisites in the growth of ^'ege- 
 tables. 
 
 But Tull wrote before agriculture became a science, and 
 omitted to estimate the large amount of fertile ingredients, 
 which every crop takes out of the soil, and which can only be 
 supplied by the addition of fresh materials. A succession of 
 crops would therefore, so far reduce the soil, as to render it 
 necessary to add manures, or vegetation must inevitably fail. 
 This careful, laborious practice, could only, for the time being, 
 enhance the crop and prolong its available supplies ; yet in 
 accomplishing even this object, his example is w^orthy of 
 imitation by every tiller of the soil. 
 
 Friableness of the Soil is a quality equally removed 
 from the adhesiveness of strong clay, or the openness of loose 
 sand. Good loam, and fertile, alluvial soils always possess 
 this property. When stirred by the plow, the spade or the 
 hoe, the earth ought to fall and crumble readily, although 
 it should be Avet. Such a condition secures a ready admis- 
 sion to the roots, Avhich thus easily per^^ade the soil, and 
 draw their necessary support from it in every direction 
 Under draining, and the addition of coarse manures to clay, 
 fermented manures and ashes to sand, and lime and gypsum 
 to both, will materially enhance their friableness. 
 
 Color is an essential featiu-e in soils, and like friableness, 
 it has an important relation to their capacity for heat and 
 moisture. Dark-colored earths, and black in the highest 
 degree, absorb heat more rapidly than an j^ other when exposed 
 to a temperature above their own ; and it escapes with equal 
 readiness when their relative temperature is reversed. 
 
 A ?-ough pulverised surface, which is seen in the minute 
 inequalities of a friable and well cultivated soil, produces 
 the same result. During the heat of the day, and especially 
 when the sun's rays fall upon the earth, the dark, friable soil 
 imbibes the heat freely, and transmits it to the remotest roots ; 
 thiis securing that warmth to the plant, v.-hicli s one of the 
 necessary conditions of its growth. When the temperature 
 of the air falls on the approach of evening, a reversed action 
 »li the soil takes place, by which the heat as rapidly escapes 
 
'<iS AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Tliis immediately brings the surface to the dew point and 
 secm-es a copious deposit of moisture, which a friable soil 
 speedily conveys to every part of the roots. 
 
 Tfie dew point is attained \vhe,n the surface of any ob- 
 ject is below the temperature of the surrounding air. The 
 careful observer will not fail to discover the formation of 
 dew, not only for some time after the sun has risen, and 
 long before%e sinks below the horizon, when the condition 
 above indicated exists ; but sometimes even in the fervor of 
 a mid-day sun, when the thick corn, or any luxuriant vege- 
 table growth repels his fierce rays from the earth. In many 
 instances, the rank, dark growing crops themselves, Avhen 
 shielded from the sun's rays by their overspreading tops, 
 become rapid condensers of atmospheric vapor, and the plant 
 drinks in the "wholesome and nutritious aliment at every 
 pore, and frequently collects a surplus, which streams down 
 its sides to the thirsty soil be^j*h. T^e, principle is further 
 illustrated, by the deposit of moisture ah large globules on 
 the surface of any object in the shad|?f which is sensibly be- 
 low the surrounding temperature ; as is shoAvn by an earthen 
 or metallic vessel filled with cold water, and set in a warm 
 room on a summer's day. 
 
 The proper capacity of soils for imbibing ayid parting 
 with moisture, gives them another decided advantage over 
 others, which have it in an imperfect degree ; as it is found 
 by recent experiments, that rich, porous soils, which are 
 readily penetrated by water and air, absorb the nutritious 
 gases, (oxygen, nitrogen, and their compounds, nitric and 
 carbonic acid, ammonia, &c.) largely from the atmosphere ; 
 and that they do this to an appreciable extent, 07ily ichile 
 moist. The effect of this will readily be estimated, frori the 
 well-known, beneficial influence exerted on the growing 
 plant, by the presence of these important elements. 
 
 Light colored clays, viai'ls, and sands, are neither in their 
 mechanical texture, friableness, or color, the best suited to 
 promote the growth of plants. Peat soils, from a deficiency 
 of inorganic materials, and their too great affinity for water 
 in their natural condition, are even less adapted to the object 
 than either of i^ preceding. 
 
 Schubler has-lound, that during 12 hours in the night 
 when the air was moist, 1,000 lbs. of entirely dry quartz,* 
 
 ' Quartz, is analyzed by Bergman, gave 93 per cent, of silex ; 6 of 
 ftlumina ; and I of oxide of iron. It comes so near a pure silica, that 
 in treating of it agriculturally, we speak of it aa silex or silica. 
 
scir.s. 29 
 
 or common sand did not gain a pound ; calcareous sand 
 gained 2 lbs. ; loamy soil, 21 lbs. ; clay loam, 25 4bs. ; such 
 as were rich in vegetable mold, still more ; while peat ab- 
 sorbed a much larger per cent, than either, 
 
 Davy also found, th3,t the same quantity of very fertile 
 and perfectly dry soil, on exposure, gained 18 lbs. in one 
 hour ; a good sandy soil, under the same circumstances, ab- 
 sorbed 11 pounds; a coarse, inferior sand, 8 lbs., and an 
 almost worthless heath, (gravelly soil), gained but 3 pounds 
 
 The capacity of soils for retaining water, is somewhat 
 proportionate to that of absorbing it : — 
 
 Of its own weight. 
 Quartz sand is saturated when it contains 24 per cent. 
 Calcareous sand " " " 28 " 
 
 Loamy soil " " " 38 " 
 
 Clay loam " " " 47 " 
 
 Peat (about) " « " 80 " 
 
 1 1 is thus evident, that perfection is not obtained in either 
 sandy, gravelly, clay, or peat soils, as they are characterized 
 in the classification we have assumed. 1: is only when they 
 have been improved by partial admixture with each other, 
 and charged with the proper quantity of vegetable manures, 
 and the salts which are requisite for their fertility ; when 
 they have been drained, wherever necessary to free them 
 from stagnant water, whether upon or within the soil, or to 
 remove any noxious springs, which sometimes contain mat- 
 ters in solution, injurious to vegetation ; and finally, when the 
 subsoil is in the proper condition to facilitate the free admis- 
 sion and escape of moisture and air, and the extension of 
 the roots in every direction — it is only when all these con- 
 ditions exist, that the fullest products from soils can be 
 realized. 
 
 It is absolutely essential to profitable cultivation, that all 
 the earthy substances required by the crops, should exist in 
 the soil in sufficient quantities, and in an accessible form, to 
 supply their wants. The proportions may be various, one 
 sometimes greatly predominating over another, as is suffi- 
 ciently obvious in the equally-productive powers of good 
 clays, sands, and peats ; yet in every instance it will be 
 found, unless owing to a heavy coating of manures, and a 
 peculiarly favorable season, that a soil can be relied on fof 
 such constant results, only when it has been so ameliorated 
 as to approxima.:e towards the character of loams. 
 
30 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The following is an analysis of three specimens of very 
 fertile sfjils, made by Sprengel : — 
 
 Soil near From the banks of the Weser. 
 
 Osterbruch. near Hoya. near Weserbo. 
 
 Silica. Quartz, Sand, and Silicates 84.510 71.849 83.318 
 
 Alumina. 6.435 9.350 3.085 
 
 Oxides of Iron 2.395 6.410 5.840 
 
 Oxides of Manganese 0.450 0.935 0.630 
 
 Lime 0.740 0.987 0.720 
 
 Magnesia 0.525 0.245 0.120 
 
 Potash and Soda extracted by water.... 0.009 O.Offl 0.005 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 0.120 0.131 0.065 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 0.046 0.174 0.025 
 
 Chlorine in common Salt 0.006 0.002 0.006 
 
 Humio Acid 0780 1.270 0.800 
 
 Insoluble Humus 2.995 .550 4.126 
 
 Organic matters containing Nitrogen.. 0.960 2.000 1.220 
 
 Water 0.029 0.100 0.150 
 
 100. 100. 100. 
 
 The above had remained for a Icng time in pasture, and 
 the second was remarkable for the fattening qualities of its 
 grass when fed to cattle. 
 
 The following are arable lands of great fertility : 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 From Ohio. Soil 
 
 Soil from Moravia. Soil. Subsoil. From Belgium 
 
 Silica and fine Sand 77.209 87.143 94.261 64..517 
 
 Alumina 8.514 5.666 1.376 4.810 
 
 Oxides of Iron 6.592 2.220 2.336 8.316 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 1.520 0.360 1.200 0.800 
 
 Lime 0.927 l).564 0.243 ^11^^°^ 9.403 
 
 Magne.sia 1.160 ,,,,„ . ..g Carb. of .- .. 
 
 Potash, chiefly combined With -^"^ "•***" Mag. '"'*'' 
 
 Silica 0.140 0.120 > „ „ .„ < 0.100 
 
 Soda, ditto 0.640 0.025 J —^ ? 0.013 
 
 Phosphoric Acid combined 
 
 with Lime and Oxide of 
 
 iron 0.651 0.060 trace 1.221 
 
 Sulphuric Acid in Gypsum.. O.Oll 0.027 0.034 0.009 
 
 Chlorine in common Salt.... 0.010 0.036 trace 0.003 
 
 Carbonic Acid united to the 
 
 Lime 0.080 
 
 Humic Acid 0.978 1.304 0.44T 
 
 Insoluble Humus 0.540 1.072 
 
 Organic substances contain'g 
 
 nitrogen 1.108 1.011 
 
 100. 100. 100. 100. 
 
 " Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 years 
 successively, without either manure or naked fallow, The 
 second was a virgin soil, and celebrated for its fertility. The 
 third had been unmanured for twelve years, during the last 
 nine of whi(?h it had been cropped with beans, barley, pota- 
 toes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley 
 wheat, oats, naked fallow." — (Johnston.) 
 
 Bergman found that one of the most fertile soils in Swe« 
 
SOILS. 31 
 
 den centained 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Chaptal 
 analyzed a very productive soil in France, which gave near 
 25 per cent of the same, and seven of organic matter. Tillet 
 even found one, and that the most fertile, which yielded 
 37.5 of carbonate of lime. Some of the best in the Missis- 
 sippi valley, have yielded upon analysis, 20 per cent, of mag- 
 nesian lime ; and of phosphate of lime, two to three per cent. 
 Many other soils throughout the United States, contain an 
 equal proportion of carbonate of lime. Such are ahvays the 
 last to wear out, and the first to recover by the addition of 
 manures, when suifered to remain uncultivated, or in a state 
 of rest. 
 
 4^^ 
 
32 AMERICAN AGRICULTTIRB. 
 
 CHAPTERII. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 While soils are permitted to remain in their » t^oTh state, 
 or if denuded of their original foliage and used only i«r pas- 
 lure, little or no change is perceptible either in tnei^ charac- 
 ter or productive powers. A slight change, liowever, is 
 gradually wrought in their texture and capacity for produc- 
 tion, which is fully revealed in the lapse of centuries. The 
 elevated mountain's side, and the steep declivities of hills, 
 support an annual vegetation of more or less luxuriance ; 
 and a portion of this, together with the broken twigs and the 
 ■wasting trunks of fallen trees, are carried down by the rains, 
 and become a rich addition to the lower soils on which they 
 ultimately rest. Beside the vegetable matter thus annually 
 removed from one spot and accumulated upon another, 
 many of the fertilizing salts, which the action of the roots, or 
 exposure to the atmosphere has rendered soluble, and the 
 finer particles of earth, which the alternations of heat and frost, 
 of rain and drought, have reduced to dust, are also washed 
 out of the higher soils and deposited on the plains and val- 
 leys below. Such doubtless, was once the condition of those 
 secondary bottom-lands, which for ages, probably, received 
 the rich deposits from other soils ; but whose present situa- 
 tions, elevated beyond even the extraordinary rise of the 
 rivers whose course is near, show some radical alteration of 
 their respective levels, by which the inundations no longer 
 contribute to their fertilization. 
 
 These soils being well stored with the food of plants, and 
 frequently to a great depth, will bear large suocessive crops 
 for a long period : and they have in manv ipstances, been 
 treated by their first occupants as if thev were inexhausti- 
 ble. Of this description, were the James Hivet and other 
 alluvial lands in Virginia, some of ^vhich Avere continued in 
 uninterrupted crops of corn and tobacco for more than a f'en- 
 tury, without the addition of manures. But they have 'oug 
 since become exhausted ; and the more careful planters ar** 
 
MANURES. 33 
 
 now endeavoring to resuscitate those worn-out lands, which 
 ought never to have become impoverished. Of the same 
 character are most of the secondary bottoms on tlie Con 
 necticut, the Scioto, the Miami, and otlier rivers. The first, 
 although imder cultivation for more than two centuries, has 
 fully maintained its productiveness, the necessary result of its 
 minute subdivisions among intelligent farmers ; and the two 
 latter, if properly managed, are capable of perpetual fertility. 
 Although but a little more than half a century has elapsed 
 since these last have been subject to the white man, they 
 have, in too many instances, already been severely cropped. 
 The writer has seen fields, which he was assured have 
 yielded forty-seven large successive crops of corn, and ex- 
 clusively from their own resources. A more careful tillage, 
 however, is now becoming general. 
 
 The lower alluvial bottoms that are frequently overflowed, 
 and thus receive large coatings of manures, which are fully 
 equivalent to the products taken off, are the only soils which 
 will permanently sustain heavy crops Avithout the aid of 
 man. Such are the banks of the Nile and the Ganges, and 
 many of our own rivers, Avhich by the overflowing of their 
 waters alone,, have continued to yield large annual burthens; 
 the two former, probably for more than 4,000 years ; but 
 they are thus supported, at the expense of a natural drainage 
 of thousands of acres, which by this means, are proportion- 
 ally impoverished. Manures, then, in some form, must be 
 considered as absolutely essential to sustaining soils sub- 
 jected to tillage. 
 
 In their broadest sense, manures embrace every material, 
 which if added to the soil, tends to its fertilization. They 
 are appropriately divided into organic and inorganic ; the 
 first embracing animal and vegetable substances, which have 
 an appreciable quantity of nitrogen ; the last, comprehending 
 only such as are purely mineral or earthy, and which in 
 general, contain no nitrogen. These characteristics are 
 sometimes partially blended, but they are sufficiently distinct 
 for general classification. 
 
 Much pertinacity has been exhibited by some highly intel- 
 ligent minds, who should have entertained more liberal 
 views, as to the peculiar kinds of manures necessary to 
 support a satisfactory productiveness. We have seen that 
 TuU maintained, that the deepening and thorough pulveriza- 
 tion of the soil ^vas alone sufficient to secure perpetual fer-" 
 tility. But this crude notion, it is evident to the most super* 
 
 9*- 
 
34 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ficjal modem reader, is wholly untenable. Some agricul- 
 turists of the present day, howi?'/er, while they scout Tull's 
 theory, (who was, nevsrtheless, a very shrewd man for his 
 time), will yet claim as essential to successful vegetation, 
 the existence in the soil, of but a part only of the food of 
 plants. Thus, one asserts that the salts alone will secure 
 good crops ; others maintain that the nitrogenous substances 
 are the true source of fertility; while still another class refer 
 to the presence of humus or geine, (the available product of 
 vegetable and animal decay in the soil), as the only valuable 
 foundation of vegetable nutriment in all manures. Truth 
 and sound practice lie between, or rather in the combination 
 of all these opinions. 
 
 It has been shown in a preceding page (17th), that all 
 fertile soils must have not less than fifteen, and more pro- 
 bably sixteen, different simple or elementary substances, in 
 various combinations with each other. All of the ordinary 
 cultivated plants, contain potash, soda, lime, magnesia, 
 alumina, silica, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, suU 
 phuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and frequently 
 iodine ; each of which, excepting the two last, are in com- 
 bination with oxygen. In addition to these, they also have 
 carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. Other substances 
 or ultimate principles may possibly exist in plants, which 
 analysis may hereafter detect, but which have hitherto elu- 
 ded the closest investigation. 
 
 It is therefore obvious, that such principles as all fertile 
 soils furnish to vegetables, must be contained in manures. 
 It is no satisfactory answer to this position, to assert, that 
 numerous experiments have apparently been successful, of 
 growing plants in pure sand and water ; or with charcoal 
 and the salts added ; or even that there are some atmosphe- 
 ric plants, that fulfill their zoophytic existence in air. 
 Growth may continue for a long time under such circum- 
 stances ; but full maturity never arrives, and probably 
 never can, withotit the available presence in the soil, of 
 every element xohich enters into the composition of plants. 
 
 Profitable farming requires, that manures embodying al 
 these elements, should be added in sufficient quantities to the 
 soil, to develope fully and rapidly, such crops as are sought 
 from it. It becomes then, a matter of the highest consequence 
 to the farmer, to understand not only what substances may be 
 useful as rnac 'es ; but also, how r^ api^ly them in the bes* 
 
MANURES. 
 
 35 
 
 manner to his urops, so far as they can be made profitable. 
 We shall first speak of the inorganic manures. 
 
 ASHES. 
 
 If any organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, be 
 burned, an incombustible substance remains behind, called 
 the ash or ashes. This varies in different plants, from less 
 than one, to over twelve per cent, of their whole weight. 
 It also varies with the different soils upon which they are 
 found, with the different parts of the same plant, and in the 
 different stages of its maturity. Thus, plants which grow 
 on peaty or low wet soils, give a less proportion of ashes than 
 those which mature upon soils that are dry, or rich in the sili- 
 cates and salts. The bark, leaves and twigs, give much more 
 of ash than the trunks of trees and stems of plants ; and in 
 their early growth, they yield a much larger proportion than 
 after they have attained maturity. 
 
 The following table, constructed from several reliable 
 sources, but principally from Spreugel, arranged in part by 
 Johnston, will show the relative quantity of ashes found in 
 Bome of the more important objects of cultivation. 
 
 • 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 05 
 
 •a 
 o 
 tn 
 
 6 
 
 «) 
 
 c 
 to 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 3, 
 
 
 o 
 '^< 
 
 3 
 EC 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 o <u 
 
 o 
 
 V . 
 
 is 
 
 Wheat— Gr'n 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.26 
 
 4.00 
 
 0-50 
 
 0.4o!o.l0 
 
 trace 
 
 
 11.77 
 
 " St'w 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.29 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.90 
 
 28 70 
 
 0.37 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.30 
 
 
 
 35.18 
 
 Barley— Gr'n 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.23 
 
 11.82 
 
 .59 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.19 
 
 trace 
 
 
 23.49 
 
 " St'w 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.48 
 
 6.54 
 
 0.76 
 
 1.46 
 
 38.56 
 
 MS 
 
 1.60 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.20 
 
 52.42 
 
 Oats — Grain 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.32 
 
 0.86 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.14 
 
 19.76 
 
 0.35 
 
 0,70 
 
 10 
 
 0.40 
 
 
 25.80 
 
 " Straw 
 
 8.70 
 
 0.02 
 
 1.52 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.06 
 
 45,88 
 
 0.79 
 
 0,loj0.05 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 57.40 
 
 Rye — Grain 
 
 5.3-2 
 
 ♦ 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.24 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.4610.09 
 
 42 
 
 0.34 
 
 10.40 
 
 " Straw 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.11 
 
 1.78 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.26 
 
 22.97 
 
 1.70 
 
 0,51 
 
 0.17 
 
 
 
 27.93 
 
 Field) Bean 
 
 4.15 
 
 8.16 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.5810.34 
 
 1.26 
 
 89 
 
 2,92 
 
 0.41 
 
 
 
 21.36 
 
 Bean ) Straw 
 
 16.56 
 
 0.50 
 
 6.24 
 
 2.09 
 
 0.10 
 
 2.20 
 
 0.34 
 
 2,26 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.05 
 
 31.21 
 
 Field I Pea 
 
 8.10 
 
 7.39 
 
 0.58 
 
 1.36 
 
 0.20 
 
 4.10 
 
 0.53 
 
 1.90 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 24.64 
 
 Pea) Straw 
 
 2.35 
 
 
 27.30 
 
 3.42 
 
 0.60 
 
 9.96 
 
 3.37 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.07 
 
 49.71 
 
 Pota- } Roots 
 
 4.028 
 
 2.334 
 
 .331 
 
 .324 
 
 .050 
 
 .084 
 
 .540 
 
 .401 
 
 .160 
 
 .032 
 
 
 8.284 
 
 toes I Tops 
 
 8.19 
 
 .09 
 
 12.97 
 
 1.70 
 
 .04 
 
 4.94 
 
 .42 
 
 1.97 
 
 .60 
 
 .02 
 
 
 30.84 
 
 Tur- ( Roots 
 
 2.386 
 
 1.048 
 
 .752 
 
 .254 
 
 .036 
 
 .388 
 
 .801 
 
 .367 
 
 .239 
 
 .032 
 
 
 6.303 
 
 neps ( Leav'sl 3.23 
 
 Z22 
 
 6.20 
 
 .69 
 
 .03 
 
 1.28 
 
 2.52 
 
 .98 
 
 .87 
 
 .17 
 
 
 VS. 09 
 
 Carrots 3.533 
 
 .922 
 
 .667 
 
 .384 
 
 .039 
 
 .137 
 
 .270 
 
 514 
 
 .070 
 
 .033 
 
 .060 
 
 6.619 
 
 Parsneps |2.079 
 
 .J02 
 
 .468 .270 
 
 .024 
 
 .162 
 
 .192 
 
 100 
 
 .178 
 
 .005 
 
 ? 
 
 4.180 
 
 Rye Grass 
 
 8.S1 
 
 3.94 
 
 7.34 0.9010.31 
 
 27.72 
 
 3.53 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.06 
 
 
 
 52.86 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 19.95 
 
 5.29 
 
 27.80 
 
 3.330.14 
 
 3.61 
 
 4.47 
 
 6..57 
 
 3.62 
 
 
 
 74.78 
 
 White Clover 
 
 31.05 
 
 5.79 
 
 23,48 
 
 3.05:190 
 
 14.73 
 
 3.53 
 
 5.06 
 
 2.11 
 
 0.63 
 
 
 91.32 
 
 Lucern 
 
 13.40 
 
 6.15 
 
 48.31 
 
 3.43030 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.04 
 
 13.07 
 
 3.18 
 
 0.30 
 
 
 95.52 
 
 Bainfoin !20 57 
 
 4.37 
 
 21.95 2.8310.66 
 
 5.00 
 
 3.41 
 
 9.16 
 
 1.57 
 
 
 
 69.57 
 
 In the foregoing tal::le, the grain, beans, peas, straw and 
 
 ^ Included in Potaili 
 
36 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 l.ay are estimated after they have been dried in the air th* 
 roots as they are taken from the field. The clovers and 
 grass lose from 55 to 75 per cent, of their entire weight 
 when full of sap, lessening of course, as they approach to 
 the state of ripening their seed. The potato loses in drying, 
 69 per cent, of water ; the turnep, 91 ; the carrot, S7 ; the 
 turnep leaf, 86 ; the carrot leaf, parsnep and parsnep leaf, 
 each 81 ; and the cabbage, 93. 
 
 There is much variation in the different specimens of the 
 above substances subjected to examination, according to the 
 peculiar variety, the different circumstances and various 
 stages of their srrowth. The oat is the most variable of the 
 grains, one specimen sometimes containing three times the 
 quantity of ash afforded by others. The roots also, sometimes 
 vary as three to one in their quantity of ash. As the grain 
 and most of the other crops approach maturity, the quan- 
 tity of some of the principles constituting the ash, lessens, 
 as of potash and soda, their presence being no longer neces- 
 sary in the sap, to aid the formation of the various products 
 of the plants. 
 
 Later and probably more accurate analyses, give consider- 
 able variations in the relative quantities of the elements of 
 the ash of different plants. Thus, an average of six of these, 
 gave of peas with the pod, about 35 per cent, of phosphoric 
 acid, and of beans, about 32 per cent. But the table is 
 given to illustrate principles in the organization of plants, 
 rather than to define the precise relative proportions of the 
 constituents of each. 
 
 The farmer will perceive from this table, the great value 
 of ashes to his crops. The quantity seems small in compari- 
 son with the total weight of the vegetable ; yet small as it 
 is, the aggregate of a few years will so far exhaust the soil 
 of one or more of the principles necessary to sustain a luxuri- 
 ant vegetation, that it Avill cease to yield remunerating re- 
 turns. The annual exhaustion of salts from large crops of 
 grain, roots and grass, is from 180 to more than 250 lbs. in 
 every acre of soil. The ashes of vegetables, consist of such 
 elements as are always required for their perfect maturity, 
 and it is evident, they must furnish one of the best saline 
 manures, which can be supplied for their growth. They 
 are to the earthy parts of vegetables, what milk is to the ani- 
 mal system, or iDarn-yard manures to the entire crop ; the) 
 contain every element, and generally in the right proper 
 tipns, for ins-zriiig a fu.l and rapid gi pwtU. 
 
xanub.es. o7 
 
 Asl 3s are also among the most economical manures , as 
 from tr.e free use of fuel in the United States, they are pro- 
 duced by almost every household. Good husbandry dictates, 
 that not a pound of ashes should be wasted, but all should 
 be saved and applied to the land ; and where they can be 
 procured at a reasonable price, they should be purchased for 
 manure. Leached ashes, though less valuable, contain all 
 the elements of the unleached, having been deprived only of 
 a part of their potash and soda. They may be drilled into the 
 soil with roots and grain, sown broadcast on meadows or pas- 
 tures, or mixed with the muck-heap. They improve all soils 
 pot already saturated with the principles which they contain. 
 
 The quantity of Ashes that should be applied to the acre^ 
 must depend on the soil and the crops-cultivated. Potatoes, 
 turneps and all roots ; clover, lucern, peas, beans, grain and the 
 grasses are great exhausters of the salts, and they are con- 
 sequently much benefitted by ashes. They are used with 
 decided advantage for the above crops in connection with 
 bone-dust ; and for clover, peas and roots, their effects are 
 much enhanced when mixed with gypsum. Light soils 
 should have a smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier 
 dressing. From 20 to 30 bushels per acre for the former, 
 and 50 for the latter, is a moderate application ; or if they 
 are leached, the quantity may be doubled with decided bene- 
 fit, as they act with less energy. Repeated dressings of ashes, 
 like those of lime and gypsum, without a corresponding ad- 
 dition of vegetable or barn-yard manures, will eventually ex- 
 haust tillage lands of their carbonaceous and organic matters. 
 
 Ashes may be applied to meadoiv-lands, for a longer time 
 than to any other crops, and for this obvious reason. The 
 whole surface of the soil is closely covered with vegetable 
 agents, "which are actively employed in drawing carbon from 
 the air and soil, a large portion of which is stored up in the 
 stubble and roots, which thus makes it less important that 
 the organic matters should be given back to the soil, in the 
 shape of vegetable or animal manures. As an instance of 
 the rapidity with which this operation goes forward, it has 
 been found, that the dried roots and stubble of a clover-field 
 the second year, and after one crop for the first, and two 
 for the second season had been taken off, yielded 56 lbs. for 
 every 100 lbs. of the aggregate crops of hay. An old mea- 
 dow has yielded 400 lbs. of roots for every 100 of hay for 
 ihe season. 
 
 The carbon is cons'.antly increasing in the soil of well- 
 
38 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 managed pat; aires, and it also increases for a t..me in mea- 
 dows. It v/ill continue to do so for an indefinite period, if 
 the ashes of plants are adc'^d to the soil, nearly to the amount 
 of the mineral ingredients taken off. With this increase in 
 the organic elements of vegf tation, (if we were certain that 
 nitrogen is accvmiulated in the same ratio, which we are not), 
 It is evident that the salts alone would then be Avanting to 
 give the utmost luxuriance ; and these are found combined in 
 the most convenient and generally the most economical 
 form as ashes. But care is necessary that they be not added 
 in excess. 
 
 Coal Ashes. — The bituminous and :»^nthracite coals afford 
 ashes, and although inferior in quality to those made from 
 wood and vegetables, are like them, a valuable manure, and 
 they should be applied to the land in a similar manner. If 
 they contain many cinders, from not having been thoroughly 
 burned, they are more suited to heavy than to light soils, as 
 they tend to their mechanical division, which though benefi- 
 cial to the former, are injurious to the latter. 
 
 Ashes of Sea Weeds or Marine Plants. — When from 
 its quantity or' remoteness, it is inconvenient to carry the 
 sea-weed to the soil, which abounds on most of our sea- 
 coasts, it can be burned ; when it will be found to yield a 
 large proportion of ash, which is peculiarly rich in soda. 
 This is of great value to the farmer. Several species of the 
 fuci have for a long period been collected and burned on the 
 northern coasts of Scotland, Norway and the Baltic, forming 
 an article of commerce under the name of kelp. Its value 
 consisted in its alkaline properties, for which it was much 
 used by the glass and soap-makers, the bleachers, and for 
 other uses in the arts. For these purposes, it is now nearly 
 superseded by soda ash, a crude carbonate of soda, extracted 
 by the decomposition of sea-salt ; and the price it now bears 
 in market, will bring it within the reach of farmers for some 
 of the economical purposes of husbandry. 
 
 Peat Ashes. — Nearly all peat approaching to purity, when 
 thrown out of its bed and thoroughly dried, will admit of 
 being burned to an imperfect ash ; and when it does not 
 reach this point, it will become thoroughly charred, and re- 
 duced to cinders. In both of these forms, it is a valuable 
 drf?ssing for the soil. It is always better for dry uplands, to 
 use the unburned peat after it has been properly composted 
 in a, miuokheap ; as the organic matters which it contains, 
 and which are expvlled by burning, are of great benefit to 
 
MANURES. '39 
 
 the soil. But when they are remote, the peat may be burn- 
 id at a trifling' cost, and the ashes appUed with manifest 
 profit. The principal use hitherto made of them by farmers, 
 has been in spreading them directly over the surface of tl:.o 
 reclaimed bed from which they were taken. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 Lime is the product of limestone, marble, chalk, or marl, 
 after it has been burned, or subjected to an intense heat. In 
 either of the foregoing forms, it is a carbonate, and contains 
 from 43 to 46 per cent, of its weight of carbonic acid, which 
 is expelled by calcination. After the acid has been driven 
 off, it exists in its quick or caustic state ; and in that condi- 
 tion, its affinity for moisture and carbon is so great, that it 
 greedily combines with both, on exposure to water, earth, or 
 even to the atmosphere, passing again into a carbonate and 
 hydrate. It is in these latter conditions, that it is applied to 
 soils and miick heaps. If reduced to an impalpable powder, 
 (the condition in which chalks and marls generally exist,) 
 limestone would act with equal efficiency as if burnt. 
 
 Lime, next to ashes, either as a carbonate or sulphate, has 
 been instrumental in the improvement of our soils, beyond 
 any other saline manures. Like ashes, too, its application is 
 beneficial to every soil, not already sufficiently charged 
 with it. It makes heavy land lighter, and light land hea- 
 vier ; it gives adhesiveness to creeping sands or leachy 
 gravel, and comparative openness and porosity to tenacious 
 clays ; and it has a permanently beneficial effect, where 
 generally used, in disinfecting the atmosphere of any noxious 
 vapors existing in it. It not only condenses and retains the 
 volatile gases brought into contact with it by the air and 
 rains, but it has the further effect, of converting the insoluble 
 matters in the soil, into available food for plants. It has 
 proved, in many instances, the wand of Midas, changing 
 everything it touched into gold. It is the key to the strong 
 box of the farmer, securely locking up his treasure till de- 
 manded for hi:s own use, and yielding it profusely to his de- 
 mands whenever required. In its influence in drying the 
 land, and accelerating the growth of plants, the use of lime is 
 equivalent to an increase of temperature ; and the farmer 
 sometimes experiences in effect, the same benefit from it, as 
 if his land were removed a degree or two to the south. 
 The influence of lirae in resuscitating soils after they have 
 been exbavisted, lias been frequent and striking; and it mat 
 
40 OIERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 be stated as an in<iontrovertible truth, that wherever procu* 
 table at lov/ prices, lime is one of the most economical and 
 efficient agents in securing fertility, within the farmer's 
 reach. 
 
 It has been falsely said to be an exhauster of soils ; that 
 it enriches the fathers and impoverishes the sons. So far as 
 it gives the occupant of the land the control over its latent 
 fertility, this is true ; but if he squanders the rich products 
 when within his reach, it will be his own fault. Lime gives 
 him the power of exhausting his principal ; if he uses 
 aught beyond the interest, his prodigality is chargeable to 
 his own folly, not to the liberality of his agent. By the ad- 
 dition of lime to the soil, the insoluble ingredients contained 
 in it are set free, and they are thus enabled to aid in the for- 
 mation of plants ; and larger crops, and of better quality, 
 are the results. If these be taken from the soil without a 
 corresponding return of manure, exhaustion must follow. 
 In the preceding table, it is seen, that lime constitutes, in 
 all cases, only a very minute part of the entire plant ; all the 
 other ingredients must be added, or the fertility of the soil 
 cannot be sustained. But in the very abundance of the 
 crops which lime affords, means are jDrovided for the main- 
 tainence of the highest fertility. If they are consumed on 
 the farm, their manure should be returned to the fields ; and 
 if sold, other manures should be procured to replace the sub- 
 stances from ^vhich they are formed. 
 
 A practice vs^hich has extensively prevailed for many 
 years, in sections of the eastern states, consists in alternating 
 wheat and clover on strongly limed-lands. The plan usu- 
 ally adopted, is to give one year to wheat, and one or two 
 following,to clover ; sometimes taking off the first clover crop 
 for hay, and feeding off upon the ground, and plowing in, 
 the after growth for manure ; and upon this, wheat is again 
 sown. This course has succeeded in bringing into fine con- 
 dition, many unprofitable fields. It may work well for 
 years, but it is nevertheless faulty and improvident. Lime 
 only is added directly to the soil, but the clover draws from 
 the air and moisture, whatever food it can attract from them. 
 There remain to be supplied, potash, soda, the phosphates 
 and silicates, (which the soil will soon cease to furnish suffi- 
 cient for the wants of the wheat and clover removed), or 
 aterility must inevitably follow^ 
 
 The best method is to add in some form, the full 
 amount of all the materials abstracted by the annual erop 
 
VIANURES 4 1 
 
 When this is done, the jarge dressing of lime will retain the 
 accumulating fertility, far beyond what the soil would be 
 capable of were it not for its agency ; and it is in this that 
 the great profit of farming consists. 
 
 Large crops only are profitable. The market value of 
 many indifferent ones, will hardly meet the expense of cul- 
 tivation, and it is only the excess beyond this, which is pro- 
 fit. It is evident that if 15 bushels per acre of wheat, be 
 an average crop, and it requires 12 bushels to pay all ex- 
 penses of production, three bushels is the amount of profit. 
 But if by the use of lime and ordinary manures, the product 
 can be raised to 30 bushels per acre, the profit would be near 
 the value of 12 or 15 bushels, after paying for the manures. 
 Thus the advantage from good management, may be five 
 times that of neglect. This example is given as illustrating 
 a principle, and not as an exact measure of the difference be- 
 tween limed and unlimed fields. 
 
 Ap2)lication of Lime. — Lime may be carried on to the 
 ground immediately after burning, and placed in small heaps. 
 There it may be left to slack by rams and the air ; after which 
 spread it preparatory to plowing. A good practice is to 
 place it in large piles, and cover it thickly with earth, which 
 gradually reduces it to powder. It may then be carried 
 where it is wanted, and spread from the cart. It is still bet- 
 ter, Avhen small quantities only are wanted, to add it to the 
 compost, after it has been thoroughly air-slacked, avoiding 
 fermentation, as far as practicable, after it has beert added ; as 
 its avidity for carbon expels the ammonia, which is the most 
 valuable of the volatile ingredients of the muck heap. A 
 thick coating of earth over the whole, will arrest and retain 
 much of the gas that Avould otherwise escape. Fresh burnt 
 lime does not act beneficially upon the crops during the first 
 year of its application, unless prepareu. ^ v adding it to three 
 or four times its bulk cf earth, in which condition it should 
 remain for a long time. If it be mixed with rich mold 
 when first taken hot from he kiln, it will decompose or libe- 
 rate the alkalies containec in the earth to such a degree, as 
 to render this compost a powerful manure. 
 
 Nearly all limestones yield lime sufficiently pure for agri 
 cultural purposes. When required of greater purity, it may 
 always be obtained by burning oysl sr shells, or others of ma- 
 rine origin. 
 
 Magnesian Lime. — Many of the limestones contain mag- 
 nesia, and are called magnesian lime Tlie effect of tliis, is 
 
42 AMBR.JAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 a more energetic action, and where it is found in lime, the 
 same result will be produced by the application of a less 
 quantity. 
 
 The amount of Lime to he used, depends entirely on the 
 soil. Some fertile lands contain over 30 per cent, in their 
 natural state. The large amount, of more than 600 bushels 
 of lime per acre, has been applied at one time, to heavy 
 clays, and such soils as were full of vegetable mold, wth de- 
 cided benefit to the land. But equally beneficial results 
 would have been produced, had one half the quantity been 
 first added, and 50 bushels every third or fourth year subse- 
 quently. In the United States, the average for a first dress- 
 ing, is from 50 to 120 bushels per acre. This may be re- 
 newed every four or five years, at the rate of 20 to 40 bush- 
 els. If an overdose has been aj)plied, time, or the addition 
 of putrescent or green manures, are the only correctives. 
 
 To give lime its fullest etfect, it should be kept as near the 
 surface as possible ; and for this reason, it is well to spread 
 it after plowing, takmg care to harrow it well in. Allow it 
 then to remain in grass as long as profitable. Its weight and 
 minuteness give it a tendency to sink ; and after a few years 
 of cultivation, a large portion of it will be found to have got 
 beyond the depth of its most efl^cient action. Where lime 
 is used, this tendency gives additional value to the system 
 of imderdraining and subsoil plowing, which enables the 
 atmosphere and roots to follow it, thus prolonging its effect, 
 and greatly augmenting the benefit to crops. It should be 
 fpread upon the ground immediately after taking off the last 
 crop, so as to allow the longest time for its action before 
 the next planting. 
 
 Application to Meadows. — In addition to its other good 
 effects, lime, like ashes, is useful to meadows in destroying 
 the mosses, and decomposing the accmnulated vegetable 
 matters on the surface. For this pm-pose, it may be spread 
 on them unmixed, after having first passed into the state of 
 carbonate or effete lime, to prevent injury to the grass. If 
 no such necessity rsquire its use in this form, it may be com- 
 bined advantageously with the muck and scattered broad 
 cast o\'er the meadow, 
 
 MARLS. 
 
 Marls are composed of carbonate of lime, mixed with clay, 
 sand, or loam, and frequently with sulphate and phospnaie 
 of lime They ar? a useful app ica*'.on to land in proportion 
 
MANURES 43 
 
 to the lime they yield ; and when containing the phoephate 
 in addition, their value is largely increased. The quantity 
 that may be advantageously used, is even more variable than 
 that of pure lime, inasmuch as the quality varies with every 
 bed in which it is found. They are adapted to the improve- 
 ment of all soils, unless such as are already sufficiently filled 
 with lime, and they are more generally useful to meadows 
 <;han the pure carbonate. Their benefits will be greatly en- 
 hanced, if the clay marl be used on light or sandy soils, and 
 sandy marls on clays and heavy lands. Marl has sometimes 
 been applied at the rate of 200 cubic yards per acre ; but 
 where it approaches to purity, and the soil is in the proper 
 condition to be benefitted, even four or five cubic yards may 
 be sufficient to produce the best efi'ects. Circumstances 
 alone must determine the proper quantity to be used. Marl 
 should be carried out and exposed in small heaps, before 
 spreading on the land. Exposure to the sun, and especially 
 to the frosts of winter, is necessary to prepare it for use. 
 
 Analysis of M.arls. — Marls maybe readily analyzed by 
 any one, with a pair of accurate scales and weights and a 
 large-mouthed vial. To one part muriatic acid, add two 
 parts water, fill the vial to about one third, and balance it 
 on the scales. Theji slowly add 100 grains of the pulver- 
 ized marl, thoroughly dried over the fire. When the effer- 
 vescence has subsided, expel the carbonic acid from the vial, 
 by pouring off, or blowing into the vial througli a reed or with 
 a bellows, its greater weight causing it to retain its place 
 to the exclusion of the air. Now add weights to the oppo- 
 site scale till balanced, and the deficiency of grains under 
 100, will show the amount of carbonic acid expelled; and 
 as this is combined in the proportion of 46 to 54 of qicick or 
 pure lime, in every 100, the loss indicates 46 per cent, of 
 the carbonate of lime contained in the marl. 
 
 From the frequent presence of phosphate and sulphate 
 of lime, and sometimes potash and animalized matters in 
 marls, this kind of analysis seldom indicates the value of a 
 marl bed for agricultural purposes. If its exact worth is to 
 be ascertained, there must be a more perfect analysis, by an 
 experienced chemist. 
 
 SHELL SAND. 
 
 This is a calcareous sand, sometimes mixed with animal 
 matter and the phosphates. It abounds on some parts of the 
 .joast of Cornwal., and on tho western shores of Scotland, 
 
44 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and Ireland. It is also found on the coast of France, and 
 particularly in Brittany, where it is known by the name of 
 trez. This produces prodigious effects on peaty, clay and 
 other soils, to which it is applied at the rate of 10 to 15 tons 
 per acre. It is so much esteemed for the form"'T, that it is 
 sometimes carried to a distance of 100 miles. It is proba- 
 ble, there are similar deposits on the coast of some of the At- 
 lantic States, though i am not aware of its application for 
 agricultural objects. Its great value as a top dressing, will 
 fully justify exploration, for the purpose of detecting it 
 wherever it may exist. 
 
 G^REEN SAND MARL. 
 
 There are extensive beds of a green sand, (generally 
 though ixTiproperly termed marl), which run through a sec- 
 tion of New Jersey, from which farmers have derived an 
 astonishing addition to their crops. Much of it is found by 
 analysis, to contain scarcely an appreciable quantity of 
 hme, but it readily yields a large amount of potash, varying 
 from six to 15 pel: cent. From a careful analysis of eight 
 different specimens, Professor Rodgers found in it an aver- 
 age of 10 per cent, of potassa. The effect of this applied 
 to the barren sands, which abound in that neighborhood, 
 has been so favorable, that lands which before could be 
 bought for three dollars per acre, would afterwards bring $40. 
 Several deposits of green sand in the counties of Plymouth 
 and Barnstable, Mass., similar in external appearance to the 
 foregoing, were explored by Professor Hitchcock, and speci- 
 mens were analyzed by Dr. Dana, without, however, de- 
 tecting any qualities of decided advantage to agriculture. 
 
 GYPSUM-PLASTER OF PARIS— OR SULPHATE OP LIME. 
 
 This is a combination of lime with sulphuric acid and water, 
 in the proportion of 28 of lime, 40 of acid, and 18 of water. 
 It is frequently found in connection with carbonate of lime, 
 clay, &c. The use of gypsum has been attended with great 
 benefit in most parts of the United States ; and by many 
 of the most experienced farmers in certain localities, it is 
 justly considered as indispensable to good farming. Like 
 other saline, and indeed all manures, it acts beneficially only 
 on soils which are naturally dry, or have been made so by 
 artificial drainage. It is felt most on sands and loams ; but 
 generally, it is advantageously added to clay soils, requiring 
 more for the lat*^ei, and for all such as contain a large pro- 
 
MANURES. 45 
 
 portion ot vegetable matter. From two pecks on sandy, to 
 fifteen bushels on clay soil, have been applied per acre ; but 
 from Uvo to four bushels is the usual quantity. 
 
 The crops on tvhich it jvoduces the greatest effect, are the 
 red and white clover, lucern and sainfoin, and the legumi- 
 nous plants, peas, beans, &c. On natural meadows and the 
 cereal grains, it has little perceptible influence. 
 
 Gypsum should be sown broadcast on meadows, as soon as 
 the first leaves have expanded in the spring. It requires 460 
 times its weight of M'ater to dissolve it, whicli shows the ne- 
 cessity of applying it while the early ra'.ns are abundant. For 
 corn, potatoes and turneps, it is usually put in with the seed, 
 or sprinkled upon the leaves after the first hoeing ; and it is 
 advantageously applied in both waj^s, during the same season. 
 
 From its great effect on the clovers, increasing them 
 sometimes to twice, and in rare instances, to thrice the quan- 
 tity produced without it, it is manifest that gypsum is the 
 most profitable manure which can be used, as it can be gen- 
 erally procured by farmers at from $3 to ^6 per ton. Yet 
 it shouici be fully understood, that like lime, sail, or other 
 mineral manures, it furnishes a part onl)^ of the food ot 
 plants ; and like them too, the addition of vegetable and ani- 
 mal manures, is indispensable to secure permanent fertility. 
 
 Some sections of this and other countries, particularly in 
 Great Britain, apparently derive no benefit from the applica- 
 tion of gypsum. This failure has been variously ascribed, 
 to there being already enough in the soil, or to the presence 
 of a marine atmosphere. Its great usefulness, however, on 
 many parts of our Atlantic coast, would seem to require 
 some other explanation than the last, as the cause of its in- 
 efficiency. Experiments alone can determine the circum- 
 stances which will justify its application, and to this test 
 should not only this, but all other practices rf the farmer be 
 rigidly subjected. 
 
 BOIfES. 
 
 About 33 per cent, of fresh bone, consists of animal mat- 
 ter, (oil, gelatine, &c.,) from 53 to 56 per cent, of phosphate 
 of lime, and tlie remainder is principally carbonate of .ime, 
 soda and magnesia. There is no part of the bone that is 
 not useful to vegetation; and it is especially so to the various 
 kinds of grain, potatoes, turneps, the clovers, ]ieas and 
 beans. The bones should be crushed or ground, and hen 
 drilled in with the seed, or scaY.ered broadcast, at the rate o! 
 
16 iMERicAN agricult; re. 
 
 25 bushels per acre. They may be repeated in less quant, 
 lies every four or five years, or till the soil cecises to be im- 
 proved by them, when they should be withheld till addition- 
 al cropping shall have so far exhausted them, as to justify a 
 further application. 
 
 Bones are generally boiled before using for manure, to 
 extract the oil and glue. This does not lessen their value 
 for agricultural purposes, beyond the diminution of their 
 weight, while it hastens their action. They are sometimes 
 burned, which drives otf all the organic matter, leaving only 
 the lime and other bases, to benefit the soil. This is a 
 wasteful practice, though the effect is more immediate on the 
 crops ; but it is also more transient, and they require to be 
 more frequently renewed. 
 
 Bones ought always to be saved ; and if not practicable 
 to crush them, they may be thrown upon the land, where 
 they will gradually corrode and impart their fertilizing pro- 
 perties. When partially decomposed and buried just beneath 
 the surface, the roots of the luxuriant plants above, will 
 twine arovmd them in all directions, to suck out the rich food 
 which ministers so freely to their growth. Crushed bones 
 are advantageously used Avith nearly an equal amount of 
 ashes, or with one third their weight of gypsum ; or they 
 may very properly, be added to the muck heap, where de 
 composition will be hastened, and they will sooner be pre- 
 pared to impart all their fertility to the crops. 
 
 The effect of ground bones is greatly hastened and aug- 
 mented by dissolving them in sulphuric acid. This is done 
 by placing the bones in tight casks or large kettles, and then 
 addmg one third their weight of acid, diluted with half its 
 weight of water. This mixture immediately raises the tem- 
 perature to 300° Far., and decomposition of the bones soon 
 results. Then add to this product, two or three times its 
 bulk of light mold, and when dried, it may be drilled in with 
 the seed by a machine, or scattered broadcast. Or a heap 
 of fine mold may be formed like a basin, the bones thrown 
 into the centre and the diluted acid added ; when dissolved 
 all may be mixed together. The whole nutritive matter 
 contained in the bones, is thus set free for the use of the 
 plants, which would otherwise require years to accomplish, 
 from the great insolubility of bones. Less than one fourth 
 the quantity usually applied, will thus be equally beneficial 
 for the first season, though the prolonged effects of the larger 
 quantity will be greater. 
 
MANURES. 47 
 
 Bones may be dissolved rapidly, by throwing into a com- 
 pact heap, moistening, and then covering them with earth, 
 lu this condition they soon heat and crumble, and when thua 
 reduced, they may be applied to the land. 
 
 PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 
 
 Tliis exists in a fossil state, and is knowTi in some of its 
 forms as apatite, phosphorite, &c. An extensive quarry is 
 foiuad in Estramadura, Spain ; large beds of it exist m vari- 
 ous parts of England and on the Continent of Europe, asso- 
 ciated with carbonate and other forms of lime ; and small de- 
 jiosites of it have been discovered in various parts of the 
 United States. It is probable, it may yet be found in such 
 localities and in such abundance, as to be useful to the 
 fanner. It has been shown, that more than half of the whole 
 weight of bones consists of pure phosphate of lime ; its value 
 for agricultural purposes is therefore apparent, since the 
 I)rincipal benefit of bones is derived from the large propor- 
 tion of phosphate they contain. 
 
 SALT-OR CHLORIDE OF SODIUM 
 
 Is variously obtained, either as fossil or rock salt ; from 
 boiling or evaporation of salt springs ; and from the waters 
 of the ocean. In a pure state, it consists of 60 of chlorine 
 and 40 of sodium, in every 100 parts. Sodium chemically 
 combined with oxygen, forms soda ; and it will be seen by 
 referring to the table, (page 35), that salt furnishes two 
 of the important constituents in the ash of every vegetable. 
 Its advantages to vegetation are to be inferred from a know- 
 ledge of its composition, and this inference is fully corrobo- 
 rated by experience. The merits of salt as a manure, were 
 imderstood and appreciated by the ancients, and by them it 
 \vas extensively used on their fields. It has continued to 
 be employed for the same purposes, by intelligent agricultu- 
 rists to the present time. On some soils, it yields no appa- 
 rent benefit. Such as are near the sea-coast, and occasion- 
 ally receive deposits from the salt spray, which is often 
 carried far inland by the ocean storms ; or such as contain 
 chlorine and soda in any other form, and in sufficient abun- 
 dance for the wants of the crops, are not affected by it. But 
 in other situations, when used at the rate of three to sixteen 
 bushels per acre, the crops of grains, roots or grasses have 
 been increased from 20 to 50 per cent. It may be applied 
 in minute portions in the hill, or scattered bredcast, oj 
 
48 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 mixed \vith the muck heap. Its great aflinity for water, has 
 the eflfect, like that of gypsum, of attracting dews and at- 
 mospheric vapor to the growing vegetation, but in a still 
 greater degree. By this means, a copious supply of moisture 
 is secured to those plants which have been thus manured, 
 and far beyond what is experienced in adjoining fields. Salt 
 is also useful in destroying slugs, worms, and larvse, which 
 frequently do much injury to the crops. 
 
 SULPHATE OrsODA.fGlauber Salts.) SULPHATE GE MAGNESIA, 
 (Epsom Salt6,)AND SULPHATE OF POTASH. 
 
 These are all useful raamures, and they act on vegetation 
 in a manner similar to g\-psum. This was to have been ex- 
 pected, so far as the sulphuric acid is concerned, which is 
 common to each ; but their action is modified to a certain 
 degree, by the influence which the bases or alkaline ingredi 
 ents of these several salts exert upon the plants. The gene- 
 rally-increased price which they bear over gj'psum, will pre- 
 vent their use, when remote from those localities where they 
 exist in a state of nature ; or where they may be procinred 
 at low rates, near the laborator" " ^hich they are manu 
 factured. 
 
 NITRATE OF POTASH, ^Saltpetre,) AND NITRATE OF SODA. 
 
 These are both extensively found in a crude state in na- 
 tive beds, or as an efflorescence ; and in this condition, they 
 can frequently be bought at a price that will justify their 
 use. The first contains potash,46.o, and nitric acid, 53. 5 ; the 
 second, in its dry state, soda, 36.5, and nitric acid, 63.5, in 
 every 100 parts. Numerous experiments have been tried 
 with them on various crops; but they have not thus far, af- 
 forded very accurate or satisfactory results. In general, they 
 give a darker color and more rapid growth, and they in- 
 crease the weight of clover, the grasses and the straw of 
 grain ; and the forage is also more relished by cattle. But 
 in the average effects upon grain and roots, the statements 
 are too much at A^ariance to deduce any well-settled princi- 
 ples, which we might safely assume as a reliable guide to the 
 practical agriculturist. From the decidedly beneficial ef- 
 fects produced in numerous instances, may we not reasona- 
 bly infer, that they have generally been successful where 
 there has been a deficiency of them in the soil ? 
 
 As a soak or steep for seeds, and especially when dis- 
 solved and added to the bed where they are planted, there 
 is no doubt of their possessing some value in giving an early 
 
MANURES 49 
 
 and vigorous growth to most seeds, besides securing them 
 from the depredation of insects and marauders of various kinds. 
 This enables them rapidly to pusli forward their roots, stems 
 and leaves ; thus obtaining a greater range for the roots, and 
 more mouths for the leaves to draw their nourishment from 
 the atmosphere, by which vegetation is accelerated, and 
 where the period for maturity is limited, materially increasing 
 the product. 
 
 CARROKTATES, NITRATES, SULPHATES, PHOSPHATES, SILICATES, 
 
 ANY> CHLORIDES. 
 
 Several of these have just been particularly enumerated. 
 The remainder are composed of carbonic, nitric, sulphuric 
 and phosphoric acids, silica and chlorine, in chemical com- 
 bination Avith potash, soda, lime and the other bases or 
 ash of plants. Although no one of these can fail to benefit 
 crops, when rightly applied, yet the expense of most of 
 them, will prevent their extended use. This can only be 
 looked for, from those which are procurable at a cheap rate. 
 The chemical laboratories, glass Avorks, and some other 
 manufactories, afford in their refuse materials, more or less 
 of these mineral manures, \vhich would well repay the 
 farmer for removing and applying to his land. The most 
 obvious that occur in this country, are all that will be here 
 mentioned. 
 
 OLD PLASTER. 
 
 This is a true silicate of lime ; being formed mostly ct 
 siliceous sand and lime,' chemically combined. For mea» 
 dows, and for most other crops, especially on clays and 
 loams, this is worth twice its weight in hay ; as it will pro- 
 duce a large growth of grass for years in succession, and 
 without other manure. This efi'ect is due, not only to the 
 lime and sand, but to the nitric acid which they have ab- 
 stracted from the atmosphere, and which they continue 
 alternately (while in combination) to absorb from the air 
 and give out to the growing plant. But the farmer cannot 
 too carefully remember, that with this, as with all other 
 saline manures, but a part of the ingredients only is thus 
 supplied to vegetables ; and without the addition of the 
 '^thers, the soil will sooner or later become exhausted. 
 
 BROKEN BRICK AND BURNT CLAY. 
 
 These are composed mostly of silicate of alumma, but they 
 are generally mixed with a small quantitv of silicate of pot 
 3 
 
50 AMERICAN AGRICtJ: TVRE. 
 
 ash and other substance?. They are of much value as a 
 top-dressing for meadows. In addition to their furnishing 
 in themselves, a minute quantity of the food of plants, like 
 old plaster, they serve a much more extended purpose, by 
 condensing ammonia, nitric and carbonic acid, which they 
 give up to the demands of vegetation. They seem to fulfil the 
 same part as conductors, between the nutritive gases that 
 abound in the atmosphere and the vegetables which they 
 nourish, as the lighrning rods in leading the electricity 
 from the clouds to the earth. 
 
 CHARCOAL. 
 
 When charcoal is scattered over the grou.-l, it produces 
 the same effect as the foregoing, and probably in a greater 
 degree ; as it absorbs and condenses t-lie va'"'ous gases 
 within its pores, to the amount of from 20 to over 80 times 
 its own bulk. The economy and benefit of such applica- 
 tions, can be readily understood, as they are continually 
 gleaning these floating materials from tlie air, and storing 
 '.hem up as food for plants. Charcoal as well as lime, often 
 checks rust in wheat, and mildew in other crops ; and in all 
 cases, mitigates their ravages, where it does n^t wholly 
 prevent them. 
 
 BROKEN GLASS 
 
 Is a silicate of potash or soda, according as either of these 
 alkalies are used in its manufacture. Silicate of potnsh, 
 (silex and potash chemically united,) is that material in 
 plants, which constitutes the flinty, exterior coating of the 
 grasses, straw, cornstalks, &c. ; and it is found in varying 
 quantity in all plants. I^ is most abundant in the bamboos, 
 cane, Indian corn, tlie stings of nettles, and the prickly 
 spikes in burs and thistles. Some species of the marsh- 
 grasses have these silicates so finely, yet firmly adjusted, 
 like saw-teeth, on their outer edges, as to cut the flesh to the 
 bone when drawn across the finger. Every farmer's boy 
 has experienced a yet more formidable weapon, in the sli- 
 vers from a cornstalk. 
 
 It is to the absence of this material in peats and such other 
 soils, as have an undue proportion of animal or vegetable 
 manures, that we may attribute the imperfect maturity of 
 the grains and cultivated grasses grown upon them, causing 
 them to crinkle and fall, from the want of adequate support 
 to the steni , and it is to the^ .• excess in sandy and cal- 
 
MANURES. 61 
 
 careous soils, that the straAV is always firm a..A upright, 
 whatever may be the weight of the bending ear at the top. 
 By a deficiency of silicates, we mean, that they do not exist 
 in a soluble form, which is the only state in wliich plants 
 can seize upon aiii appropriate them. The efforts of some 
 roots in procuring this indispensable food, have been so irre- 
 sistible, as to have decomposed the glass vessels in which 
 they have been grown. Before using it as a manure, the 
 glass shouH be reduced to powder by grinding. 
 
 CRUSHED MICA, FELDSPAR, LAVA, THE TRAP ROOKS, &c. 
 
 Feldspar contains 66.75 of silica; 17.50, alumina; 12, 
 potash ; 1.25, lime ; and 0.75, oxide of iron. Mica consists 
 of silica, 46.22; ahmiina, 34.52; peroxide of iron, 6.04, 
 potash, 8.22; magnesia and manganese, 2.11. Most of the 
 lavas and trap-rocks hold large quantities of potash, lime, 
 and other fertilizing ingredients. The last frequently form 
 the entire soils in volcanic countries, as in Sicily, and around 
 Mount Vesuvius in Italy, in tlie Azores and Sandwich 
 Islands ; and their A'alue for grains and all cultivated plants, 
 is seen in the luxuriance of their crops and the durability of 
 their soils. These examples illustrate the great influence 
 of saline manures, and their near approach to an entire in- 
 dependence in sustaining vegetation. Whenever they be- 
 come exhausted by the severe usage they undergo, two or 
 three years of rest enables them again to yield a remune- 
 rating crop to the improvident husbandman. 
 
 Granite, sienite, and some other rocks, yielding large 
 proportions of potash and some lime, abound throughout 
 the eastern portion of this country. The potash in them, is 
 however, firmly held in an insoluble state ; but if they are 
 subjected to a strong heat, they may then be easily crushed, 
 when they yield the potash freely by solution. In this con- 
 dition, they constitute a valuable top-dressing for almost 
 every soil and crop. 
 
 It is a subject of frequent remark, that the soil underneath, 
 or in immediate contact Avith certain Avails, which have 
 been erected for a long period, is much richer than the ad- 
 joining parts of the same fields. This difference is probably 
 due, in some measure, to the slow decomposition of import- 
 ant fertilizers in the stone, which are washed dov/n by the 
 rains, and become incorporated in the soil. The removal of 
 stones from a fertile field, has been deprecated by many an 
 observing farmer, as materially impairing it v productiveness. 
 
52 america:< a. »riculture. 
 
 In addition to the shade afforded by them agair^st an intense 
 6nn and protection from cold %vinds, their influence in con- 
 densing moisture, and the beneficial effects which perhaps 
 ensue, as in fibrous covering, the difference may be attribut- 
 able to the same cause. 
 
 SPENT LYE or THE ASHERIES 
 
 Is the liquid which remains, after the combination of the 
 lye and grease, in manufacturing soap. It is of great value 
 for plants. Before applying it to the land, it should be 
 mixed with peat or turf, or diluted with ten times its bulk of 
 water. Five gallons of this lye, is estimated to contain as 
 much potash or soda, according as either is used, a? would 
 be furnished by three barrels of ashes. It has besides, a 
 large quantity of nitrogen, the most valuable ingredient of 
 animal manure, which, by judicious application, is either 
 converted into ammonia, or serves the same purpose in yield- 
 ing nutrition to plants. 
 
 AMMONIACAIi LIQUOR (from the gas hoixses). 
 
 This liquid is the residuum of bituminous coal and tar used 
 m making gas, and holds large quantities of nitrogen, from 
 which ammonia is frequently extracted. When used for 
 laud near by, it may be carried to the muck heap in barrels ; 
 and Vviien at remote distances, gypsum or charcoal dust may 
 be added to the barrel, stirrmg it well for some time, and 
 then closely covering i»^. The gypsum and charcoal soon 
 combine with the ammonia, when the liquid may be drawn 
 off, and the solid contents removed. It is a powerful manure 
 and shotild be sparingly used. 
 
 GUANO. 
 
 GuaTio is derived exclusively irom the animal creation; 
 but from its existence in a highly-condensed state, and in 
 combination with large proportions of the salts, and having, 
 by its accumulation through thousands of years, lost the dis- 
 tinguishmg characteristics of recent animal matter, it may 
 be almost considered as a fossil, and as properly enough 
 classed under the head of inorganic manures. It is the re- 
 mains of the excrements, food and carcasses of innumerable 
 flocks of marine birds and seals, Avhich have made some of 
 the islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, places of resort 
 for rearing their young, through unknown ages. 
 
 Peruvian Guano is fotmd on the islands of the Pacific, 
 
MANTRES. 
 
 5b 
 
 near the coast of Peru and some of the headlands on the adja- 
 cent shores, between latitudes 13° and 21° South. It is here 
 deposited to the depth, sometimes, of 50 or 60 feet. Within 
 the degrees above named, rain seldom falls; and there is 
 little waste, either of the substance or quality of these vast 
 accumulations, from the lapse of time or the action of the 
 elements. 
 
 The water-fowl which resort to this coast and the islands 
 near it, subsist principally on fish ; and their feces are con- 
 sequently, much richer in nitrogen than those of any species 
 of the feathered tribes, excepting such as are exclusively 
 carniverous. 
 
 Peruvian guano is of a light, browi. color, resembling the 
 yellowish earths or loam ; and it is beyond all comparison, su- 
 perior to any other guano yet discovered, or than other 
 manures hitherto known. The following average analysis 
 of Dr. Ure, shows that this description of guano, contains the 
 important and rarer portions of animal manure, in propor- 
 tions far beyond that of any animal matter in its natural 
 combinations. In every 100 parts, there are, of 
 
 Organic matter containing nitrogen, including urate 
 of ammonia, and capable of affording from 8 to 17 per 
 cent, of ammonia by slow change in the soil, 50 
 
 Water 11. Phosphate of lime 25 36 
 
 Ammonia, phosphate of magnesia, phosphate of am- 
 monia and oxalate of ammonia, containing from 4 to 9 
 per cent, of ammonia, 13 
 
 Silicious matter from the crops of birds, 1 
 
 Its character, as correctly indicated by such an analysis as 
 the above, and which is fully sustained by the astonishing, 
 and generally profitable results that follow its application 
 has rendered it, though of recent introduction, one of the 
 most popular manures, both in America and Europe. It 
 has been known and appreciated by the Peruvians from 
 time immemorial ; and by its liberal use alone, combined 
 with irrigation, they have for ages, produced the most abun- 
 dant crops of Indian corn and wheat. It was scarcely 
 known in Europe till 1840. Extensive experiments were 
 then made with it in Great Britain. These were so satis- 
 factory, that over 375,000 tons have since been imported mto 
 that country in a single year, 
 
 African or Ichaboe and Fatagonian Guano have been 
 brouofht into this conntrv to a limited amount. They have 
 
54 AMERICAN AGKICULTURE, 
 
 been used with some advantage, but theii value is far below 
 that of the Peruvian. 
 
 The first introduciio7i ofGiuxno into this country, was in 
 1825. It was used in a few gardens to a limited extent, 
 and then forgotten. Soon af'.^r its succ^essful appearance in 
 England, its importa ;ion was commenced in the United States. 
 Owing to the diminished value of our agricultural products 
 as compared with those of England, the progress of our im- 
 portation has been slow ; but it has been steadily advancinjr. 
 and will probably reach the amount of 20,000 tons for the 
 ensuing year (1850). It already occupies the rank of a 
 staple import ; and its constantly-increasing use hereafter, 
 along the Atlantic and Pacific borders of t^e United States, 
 may with certainty be predicted. 
 
 Giiano is ajjplied upon nearly all crops and soils ; but it 
 is, perhaps, most suited to such of the latter, as approach to 
 sandy loams. " From 200 to 500 pounds per acre, is a proper 
 dressing, the largest quantity being required for the more 
 sterile soils. It should be thoroughly mixed for a few days, 
 with five times its bulk of vegetable mold or loam, and some 
 charcoal or gypsum, after breaking the lumps and sifting in 
 alternate layers. Avoid the use of lime or ashes in the com- 
 post, as they tend to expel the ammonia ; and keep it under 
 cover, beyond the reach of w^ater or rains till used. It may 
 then be scattered broadcast, upon meadows or grain, or 
 placed near the seeds, or young plants in the hill. A double 
 application has been attended with the best effects ; tht 
 earliest, producing a rapid and luxuriant growth of stalk, and 
 a later one, filling out the grain, far beyond what could have 
 otherwise been expected. The white or small grains, corn, 
 potatoes and other roots, melons and other fruits, flowers, 
 &c.,&c., are all susceptible of the presence of guano, and are 
 greatly benefited by it, whenever there is sufficient moisture, 
 fully to develope its ingredients. 
 
 When used for steeps, one pound of guano is added to 
 ten or fifteen gallons of water, then stirred well together 
 and closely covered, (to prevent the escape of the ammonia,) 
 for 24 hours or more, when it will be ready for use. In 
 watering the plants, avoid sprinkling the liquid upon the 
 stems or leaves, or it may burn or injure the plants. Tue 
 surface should be freshly stirred, to admit the liquid near the 
 roots. 
 
 As a soak for seeds previous to planting or sowing, it is 
 frequently of great benefit \xi hastening germination and pro 
 
MANURES. 
 
 8d 
 
 motiug growth ; but great care should be used that it be not 
 made too strong. 
 
 SOOT. 
 
 Like ashes, soot has its origin exclusively from vegetables, 
 but may, with them, be properly treated under the present 
 head. It holds ammonia, charcoal and other important fer- 
 tilizers, and is used at the rate of 50 to 200 bushels per acre. 
 Soot produces its greatest effects in moist weather, and in dry 
 seasons it has sometixnes proved positively injurious. I* 
 may be sown broadcast over the field, and harrowed in ; or 
 mixed with such other manures in the muck heap, as are in- 
 tended for immediate use. The ammonia has a great ten- 
 dency to escape, which can only be prevented by adequate 
 absorbents, such as peat, muck, rich turf, tan bark or other 
 vegetable remains. Many experiments made with it, have 
 proved contradictory. In some, it has been .shown to be 
 useless for clovers ; while it has proved of great service to 
 several of the grasses. Salt, when mixed with it, enhances 
 its effects. In an experiment made in England with pota- 
 toes, on three separate acres of land of equal quality, one 
 ■without manure gave 160 bushels; one manured with 30 
 bushels of soot yielded 196; and the third, which received 
 the same quantity of soot and seven bushels of salt, yielded 
 236. The salt insures for it that degree of moisture, which 
 is prcbabl)' essential to its most beneficial action. 
 
56 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE, 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 ORGANIC MANURES. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES CONSTITUTING ANIMAL AND VEaETABLB— 
 PUTRESCENT OR ORGANIC MANURES. 
 
 From the table in the foregoing pages on the ashes of 
 plants, it is shown, that in burning dried vegetables, they 
 lose from about 95 to 99 per cent, of their whole weight. 
 The matter that has been expelled by heat, consists of four 
 substances or ultimate principles ; carbon, oxygen, hydrogen 
 and nitrogen, of Avhich carbon makes up from 40 to 50 per 
 cent., or about one half of the whole. 
 
 Carbon constitutes all of charcoal but the ash ; nearly 
 all of mineral coal, and plumbago or black lead ; and even 
 the brilliant diamond is but another form of carbon. The 
 properties and uses of carbon are various and important ; 
 its agency in the growth of plants alone, concerns us at the 
 present time. 
 
 Carbonic Acid. — When any matter containing carbon is 
 burned, its ultimate particles or atoms combine with the 
 oxygen which exists in the atmosphere, and form carbonic 
 acid, consisting by weight, of six of the former and sixteen 
 of the latter. When animals inhale air into their lungs, a 
 similar union takes place ; the carbon contained in the sys- 
 tem being brought to the surface of the lungs, and after 
 uniting with the oxygen, is expelled as carbonic acid. Pure 
 limestone or marble loses 46 per cent, of its weight by 
 burning ; and all of this loss is carbonic acid, which the 
 lime slowly absorbs again on exposure to the aii, or to such 
 substances as contain it. It is evolved by fermentation ; and 
 if the surface of a brewer's vat in full activity, be closely 
 observed in a clear light, it may be seen falling over the 
 edges, when it is gradually absorbed by the air. Its dersity 
 is such, that it may be poured from one open vessel 'nto 
 another, withou* material loss. It is this which gives to 
 
CROANIC MANURES. 67 
 
 artificial soda water and to mineral springs, (as the Sara- 
 toga,) their sparkling appearance and acid flavor. It 
 abounds in certain caves, stinken pits, and wells, which de- 
 stroy animal life, not from any intrinsic poisonous qualities, 
 but from its excluding oxygen, which is essential to respi- 
 ration. And it is from the same cause, that death ensues 
 to such as are confined in a . "nse room where charcoal is 
 burnt. 
 
 This acid is an active and important agent in the inces- 
 sant changes of nature. It is everywhere formed in vast 
 quantities, by subterranean fires and volcanoes. Though 
 heavier than atmospheric air, it mingles with it, and is car- 
 ried as high as examinations have yet been made, consti- 
 tuting in bulk, about one part in 1,000 of the atmosphere, 
 and something more than this in weight. Gay Lussac 
 ascended in a balloon 21,735 feet, and there filled a bottle 
 with air, which analysis showed to be identical in composi- 
 tion with that on the surface of the earth. Carbon is one 
 of the great principles of vegetation, and it is only as car- 
 bonic acid, that it is absorbed by the roots, leaves and stems 
 of vegetables, and by them is condensed and retained as 
 solid matter. 
 
 Oxygen, hj'^drogen and nitrogen, when uncombined with 
 other substances, exist only as gases. The first makes up 
 nearly one half of all the substances of the globe ; and with 
 the exception of chlorine and iodine, it constitutes a large 
 part of every material in the ash of plants. It forms rather 
 over 21 per cent, by measure, and 23 by weight, of the whole 
 atmosphere ; and about eight parts out of nine, by weight, of 
 water, hydrogen making up the remaindep-. It is absorbed 
 and changed into new pioducts by the respiration of animals, 
 and it is au essential agent in combustion. Oxides are com- 
 posed of it, in union with the metals and alkalies ; and most 
 of the acids, when it is combined with other substances, as 
 nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Its presence, indeed, is 
 almost itniversal, and the agency which it exerts in vegeta- 
 ble nutrition, is among the most varied and intricate mani- 
 fested in vegetable life. 
 
 Hydrogen is the lightest of all the gases. It is but n 
 the weight of the atmosphere, and re the weight of oxy- 
 gen ; and from its great levity, it is used for filling balloons 
 On applying a lighted taper, when brought into contact 
 with atmospheric air, it burns with a light flame, the corn- 
 bustion forming water. 
 3* 
 
A8 A^rERiCAN agricul: jre. 
 
 It is largely evolved from certain springs, in connection 
 witli carbon or sulphur. This is called carburetled and sul 
 phuretted hydrogen, an offensively pungent and inflamma- 
 ble gas. So abundantly is this emitted from the earth in 
 some places, that it is used fo: economical purposes. The 
 inhabitants in the village of Fi edonia, New York, light their 
 buildings with it ; and some of the salt manufacturers in 
 the valley of the Ohio, apply it to evaporating the water of 
 the saline springs. Carburetted hydrogen is the gas now 
 employed for lighting cities. It is manufactured from oils, 
 fat, tar, rosin and bituminous coal, all of which yield large 
 quantities of carbon and hydrogen. Both the carbon and 
 hydrogen are entirely consumed with a briiliant light, when 
 inflamed and exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere. It 
 is the residuum of the volatile portion of these substances, 
 after driving off the gas, which makes the ammoniacal 
 liquor so useful as a manure ; all the nitrogen, with a part 
 of the hydrogen, remaining in the liquid. In combination 
 with chlorine, one of the elements of salt, it constitutes the 
 muriatic, one of the strongest of the acids. 
 
 Ammonia. — The most frequent condition in which hy- 
 drogen is mentioned, in connection with vegetation, besides 
 water, is when combined with nitrogen, in the proportion of 
 three of the former in bulk, to one of the latter ; and by 
 weight, 17.47 of the first, to 82.53 of the last, in every 100 
 parts, composing the volatile alkali, ammonia, which is 
 about xs the density of the atmosphere. By strong com- 
 pression at a low temperature, it may be condensed to a 
 liquid, having rather more than f the specific weight of 
 water. It is never found in a tangible shape, except in 
 combination with acids, formimg carbonates, nitrates, sul- 
 phates, and muriates of ammonia. 
 
 Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere to the extent of about 
 79 per cent. The principal purpose it appears to fulfil in 
 this connection, is in diluting the oxygen, which in its pure 
 state, acts with too great intensity on animal life, in com- 
 bustion, and all its varying combinations. So great is the 
 attraction of undiluted oxygen for iron, that a wire, plunged 
 into a jar of oxygen gas and ignited by a taper, will readily 
 take tire and melt into irregular drops. This is nothing 
 more than an illustration of the principle, exhibited in an 
 intense degree, in the gradual rusting which takes place in 
 the air at its ordinal y temperature ; or the more rapid for- 
 mation of the scales under the heat of the blacksmith's forgo. 
 
OaGANIC MANURES. 69 
 
 AH are simple oxidations of the metal, or the combination 
 of oxygen with iron ; and we see in the comparison, the 
 immensely-accelerated effect produced by the absence of 
 nitrogen and an augmented temperature. 
 
 Nitric acid is another compound of great importance to 
 vegetation. It is simply nitrogen and oxygen, the identical 
 materials which compose the atmosphere, combined in differ- 
 ent proportions, 26.15 parts by weight of the former, and 
 73.85 of the latter, in every 100. This acid, in union with 
 potash, forms nitrate of potash or saltpetre ; and with soda, 
 forms nitrate of soda. The last is found in immense beds, 
 and lies upon and immediately under the surface of the earth, 
 in China, India, Spain and elsewhere. From Cniliit is ex- 
 ported in large quantities ; and has been of late years, exten- 
 sively used in Ezigland, as a manure. 
 
 It has been deemed relevant to our subject, to say thus much, 
 respecting some of the most striking characteristics of those 
 four simple principles, which make up an average of more 
 than 98 per cent, of all living vegetables. And here, a mo- 
 ment's reflection irresistibly forces from us, an expression of 
 wonder and admiration at that Wisdom and Omnipotence, 
 which, out of such limited means, has wrought such varied 
 and beautiful results. Every plant that exists, from the ob- 
 scure sea-weed 100 fathoms below the surface of the' ocean, 
 to the lofty pines that shoot up 300 feet in mid-air ; and 
 from the clinging moss that seems almos^t a part of the rock 
 on which it grows, to the expanded banyan tree of India, with 
 its innumerably-connected trunks, overshadowing acres ; 
 every thing that is pleasant to the taste, delightful to the eye, 
 and grateful to the smell, equally with whatever is nauseous, 
 revolting and loathsome, are only products of the same ma- 
 terials, slightly differing in association and arrangement. 
 
 BARN-TAKD MANURE. 
 
 The first consideration in the management of manures is, 
 to secure them against all waste. The bulk, solubility, and 
 peculiar tendency to fermentation, of barn-yard manure, ren- 
 ders it a matter of no little study, so to arrange it, as to 
 preserve all its good qualities, and apply it, undiminished, to 
 the soil. A part of the droppings of the cattle, are neces- 
 sarily left in the pastures or about the stacks where they are 
 fed ; though it is better, for various reasons, that they should 
 never receive their food fror.i the stack. The manure thus 
 left in the fields, fchould be beate^ uj) and scattered with UghU 
 
60 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 long -handled mallets, immediately after the grass shoots ip 
 the spring, and again before the rains commence in the au- 
 tumn. With these exceptions, and the slight waste Avhidi 
 may occur in driving cattle to and from the pasture, all the 
 manure should be dropped either in the stables or yards. 
 These ought to be so arranged, that cattle may pass from one 
 directly into the other ; and the yard should, if possible, be 
 furnished with running water. There is twice the value of 
 manure wasted annually, on some farms, in sending the cat- 
 tle abroad to water, that would be required to provide it for 
 them in the yard for fifty years. 
 
 Keep the premises where the manure is dropped, as dry 
 as possible ; and for this purpose, the eaves may project seve- 
 ral feet beyond the sides of the building, so as to protect the ma- 
 nure thrown oiit of the stables from the Avash of rains. The 
 barns and all the sheds should have eave troughs to carry off 
 the v/ater, which if saved in a sufficiently capacious cistern, 
 would furnish a supply for the cattle. The form of the yard 
 ought to be dishing towards the centre ; and if on sandy or 
 gravelly soil, it should be puddled or covered with clay to 
 prevent the leakage and escape of the liquid manure. The 
 floors of the stables may be so made, as to permit the urine 
 to fall on a properly prepared bed of turf, placed under them 
 for its reception, by which it would be effectually retained, 
 till removed ; or it should be led off by troughs into the yard, 
 or what is more desirable, to a muck heap. 
 
 It is better to feed the stra\v and coarse fodder, which can 
 always be advantageously done by cutting them with a 
 straw-cutter, and mixing it with meal or roots. When it is 
 not thus consumed, it may first be used as litter for the cat- 
 tle, and as it becomes saturated with the droppings it should 
 be thrown into the yard. 
 
 If the cattle are fed under sheds, the whole surface ought 
 to be covered with such straw and refuse forage as can 
 be collected ; and if there is a deficiency of these, peat or any 
 turf, which is well filled Avith the root** of grass, and espe- 
 cially the rich wash from the road side may be substituted 
 The manure may be allowed to accumulate through the win 
 ter, unless it be more convenient to carry it on to the fields 
 When the Avarm weather appproaches, a close attention to 
 the manure is necessary. The escape cf the frost permits 
 circulation of the air through it, and the increasing heat of 
 the sun promotes fermentation and decomposition. 
 
 JLong and Short Manure. — The question has beepi ofteo 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. 6r 
 
 mooted, as to the comparative advantages of long and short 
 manure — the fermented aiid unfermented. This must de- 
 pend on the use for './hich they are designed. If intended for 
 Ihe garden beds, for loose, light soils, or as a lop dressing for 
 meadows or any Jirops, or if needed to kill any noxious seeds 
 incorporated with the heap, it should be fermented ; if for 
 hoed crops in clay or loamy soils, it should be used in aa 
 fresh or unchanged a condition as possible. Loose soils are 
 still further loosened for a time, by long manure, and much 
 of its volatile parts is.lost before it is reduced to mold. Ad- 
 hesive and compact soils, on the contrary, are improved by the 
 coarsest manures. These tend to the separation of the earth ; 
 and all the gases which are set free in fermentation, are 
 combined and firmly held in the soil. 
 
 Decomposition of Manures. — Three conditions are essen- 
 tial to produce rapid decomposition in manure ; air, mois- 
 ture, and a temperature above 65° ; and these, except in 
 frosty weather, are generally present in the heap. The 
 gradual chemical changes going on in all manures, but most 
 actively in the excrements of the horse and sheep, when they 
 have sufficient air and moisture, induce an elevation, which 
 keeps them always above the temperature of the sur- 
 rounding air. If the manure be trodden compactly, and satu- 
 rated with water, the air cannot circulate ; and if its tempera- 
 ture be likewise kept down, it will be preserved a long time 
 unchanged. The fermentation of manure should go forward, 
 when thoroughly blended with all the vegetable and liquid fer- 
 tilizers about the premises, and also including ashes, charcoal, 
 gypsum and coal-dust ; the last three substances combining 
 with and retaining the ammonia as it is formed. Over 
 all these should be placed a good coating of turf, peal, or fine 
 mold, which will absorb any gases that escape the gypsum, 
 and other absorbents. 
 
 Old mortar or effete lime may also be added, for the iorma- 
 tion of nitric acid. It draws this not only from the materials 
 in the heap, but largely also from the nitrogen of the an- ; it 
 having been ascertained in the manufactm^e of sali-petre, 
 (nitrate of potash,) that the amount of nitrogen in the salt, 
 is greatly increased above that in the manure used. The 
 fibsorption of nitre by lime, in a course of years, is very large. 
 as is shown by the practice of the Chinese farmers, who to 
 secure it for manure, will gratuitously remove the oid plan- 
 ter on walls and replace it with new. 
 
 Tf required to hasten decay -smd especially, if there be in 
 
62 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tractabJe vegetables, as broom and other corn-stalks, or such 
 as have seeds that ought to be destroyed, they may be well 
 moistened and thrown together in layers, three or four inches 
 thick ; and on each may be strewn a liberal coating of fresh, 
 unslacked lime, reduced to powder. This promotes decompo- 
 sition, and when it is far enough advanced, the whole may 
 be sparingly added to the general mass, as the lime will by 
 that time have become mild. When remote from the cattle 
 yard, these coarse materials may be at once burned, and the 
 ashes added to the soil ; or they may be buried in furrows, 
 where the ground will not be disturbed till they are entirely 
 rotted. 
 
 When thoroughly decomposed, the manure heap will have 
 lost half its original weight, most of which has escaped as 
 water and carbonic acid. It may then be carted on to the 
 ground, and at once incorporated with it ; or if intended for 
 a top dressing, it should be scattered over it, immediately 
 before or during wet weather For the protection of the 
 manure, it would be well to cover it with a roof, and convey 
 off all the Avater from the eaves. This will prevent any 
 waste of the soluble portions and promote the escape of mois- 
 ture, by the free circulation of air, which to the extent of this 
 evaporation, will lessen the labor of hauling. 
 
 Tanks for holding Liquid Manure have long been in 
 use. They should be convenient to the stalls and yards, and 
 with tight drains, convey into them every particle of the 
 urine and drainage from the manure. Incompact clay, they 
 may be made by simply excavating the earth, and the sides 
 can be kept from falling in, by a rough wall, or by planks sup- 
 ported in an upright position, by a frame-work of joice. But 
 lu all cases, the cisterns should be closely covered, to prevent 
 the escape of the ammonia, which is developed while fer- 
 menting. In porous soils, it is necessary to construct them 
 with stone or brick, laid in water-lime or cement. 
 
 When partially filled, fermentation will soon take place in 
 the tank, and especially in warm weather ; gypsum or char- 
 coal should then be thrown in to absorb the ammonia. A 
 few days after decorr.position commences, it should be pumped 
 into casks and carried upon the land. If intended for water- 
 ing plants, it must be diluted sufficiently to prevent injury 
 to them. The qumtity of water required, will depend o*:^ 
 the strength of the liquid, and the time it is applied ; mucl 
 less water being necessary to dilute it in a wet, than 
 in a dry time. By fernnnting in thi open air and undiluted. 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. Od 
 
 it has been foul. d, that in six weeks, cow's urine will lose 
 nearly one-half of its solid matter or salts, and ^ of its 
 ammonia ; while that which had been mixed with an equal 
 quantity of water, lost only A of the former, and | 
 of the latter. The stables and troughs leading to the tank, 
 should be frequently Avashed down and sprinkled with 
 gypsum. This last will absorb much of the ammonia, which 
 would othe. wise escape. Some loss of the volatile matter 
 must be expected, and the sooner it is used after proper fer- 
 mentation or ripeness, as it is termed, the greater will be the 
 economy. 
 
 Liquid Manure applied to the Muck Heap). — As a gene- 
 ral rule, it is more economical and a great saving of labo^ 
 to keep the urine above ground, and mix it at once with the 
 manure ; but in this case vegetable or earthy absorbents 
 must be adequately supplied ; and in addition, the heap ought 
 frequently to be sprinkled with gypsum or charcoal. Rich 
 turf, the wash of the road -side, tan bark or saw-dust, and all 
 refuse vegetables may be used for this purpose, being so 
 placed that the liquid can run on to them, or be deposited 
 where it can be poured over the heap. The same protec- 
 tion, of a rough, open shed, should be given to tliis, as to the 
 other heaps, to facilitate evaporation and prevent drenching 
 from rains. When fully saturated with the urinary salts, and 
 all is properly decomposed, it may be carried out for use,' 
 or closely covered with earth till wanted. The decomposi- 
 tion is in a great measure arrested, by covering with com- 
 pact earth, thoroughly trodden together ; this prevents the 
 access of air, which is essential to its progress. 
 
 A simple yet economical mode of saving the liquid manure, 
 is sometimes adopted in Scotland, and is thus detailed : 
 
 " We divide a shed into two compartments ; one of which 
 we make water-tight, by puddling the side walls Avith clay 
 to the height of two feet, and separated from the other 
 compartment by a low, water-tight wall or boarding. This 
 is the fermenting tank, which is filled half or three-fourths 
 full of pulverized burnt peat, and the liquid manure from the 
 stables and pig-styes, directed into it. This is mixed up 
 vvith the pulverized peat, and allowed to remain three or 
 four weeks, till the decomposition seems about completed 
 being occasionally stirred after the composition has become 
 about the consistency of gruel. The whole is then ladlea 
 with a pole and bucket, over the low partition into the se- 
 cond floor, which is also three parts filled with the carboc* 
 
64 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ized peat ; and as the second floor is meant merely as a filtei, 
 we have it lower on one side than the other, by Avhich means, 
 in the course of a day or two, the carbonized peat is left 
 comparatively dry. The water having passed ofi" at the 
 lower side, the first or fermenting floor is again tilled as be- 
 fore, and the contents of the second floor, if considered satu« 
 rated enough, are then shovelled up into a corner, and al- 
 lowed to dry till used, which may be either immediately, or 
 at the end of twenty years, as scarcely anything will eff"ect 
 it, if not exposed to the continued washing of pure water, or 
 exposed to the influence of tlie roots of growing plants. By 
 being thinly spread on a granary floor, it soon becomes per- 
 fectly dry, and suited to pass through drill machines. 
 
 The mixing of the carbonized peat with the liquid ma- 
 nure, on the first or fermenting floor, is for laying hold of the 
 gaseous matters, as they escape during the fermentation ; 
 perhaps other substances may secure these more eff"ectually, 
 but none so cheaply. By this plan, a great many desiderata 
 are at once obtained. You get free of over 900 parts out of 
 every 1,000 of the weight and bulk of manure, by the ex- 
 pulsion of the water; ^vhile at th-e same time, all the fer- 
 tilizing properties contained in it, are combined with light, 
 cleanly, and portable mjiterials, and possessed of the peculiar 
 property of holding together the most volatile substances, till 
 gradually called forth by the exigencies of the growing 
 plants. Lastly, you get free of the tank, hogshead, and 
 watering cart, with all its appendages, and are no more 
 bothered with overflowing tank, or overfermented liquid, 
 with weather unsuited to its application. You have merely 
 to shovel past the saturated charcoal, and shovel in a little 
 fresh, and the process goes on again, while the prepared 
 peat lies ready for all crops, all seasons and all times." 
 
 Value of Liquid Manures. — The urine voided from a 
 single cow, is considered worth $10 per annum, in Flanders, 
 where agricultural practice has reached a high state of ad- 
 vancement. It furnishes 900 lbs. of solid matter, and at the 
 price of $50 per ton, for Avhich guano is frequently sold, the 
 urine of a cow for one year is worth $20. And yet eco- 
 nomical farmers will continue to waste urine and buy 
 guano I "The urine of a cow for a year will manure 1| 
 acres of land, and is more vahiable than its dung, in the ratio 
 by bulk, of seven to six ; and in real value as two to one." — 
 {Dana ) How important, then, that every particle of it be 
 carefully husbanded for ths crops. 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. 65 
 
 The average urine of the cow, as analyzed by Sprengel, 
 contains 92.6 per cent, of water ; that of the horse, 94 ; the 
 sheep, 96 ; the hog, 92.6 ; and the human, 93.3. The re- 
 mainder is composed of salts and rich food for vegetables ; 
 but the human is far richer in these than any other. The 
 ouantity and value of urine, varies much in different speci- 
 mens from the same or similar subjects, and depends on the 
 food and liquid taken into the stomach, the loss by perspira- 
 tion and other circumstances. 
 
 SOLID ANIMAL MAITORES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 
 
 Of these. Horse dung is the most valuable and the easiest to 
 decompose. If in heaps, fermentation will sometimes com- 
 mence in 24 hours; and even in mid- winter, if a large pile of fresh 
 manure be accumulated, it will proceed with great rapidity. 
 If this is not arrested, a few weeks, under favorable circum- 
 stances, are sufficient to reduce it to a small part of its origi- 
 nal weight and value. Boussingault, one of the most care- 
 ful observers of nature, as Avell as an accurate, experimental 
 chemist, states the nitrogen in fresh dried— horse dung to 
 be, 2.7 per cent, of its Avhole weight. The same manure 
 laid in a thick stratum and permitted to vindergo thorough de- 
 composition, loses Jo of its entire Aveight, and the remain- 
 ing tenth when dried, gives only one per cent, of nitrogen. 
 Such are the losses which follow the neglect of inconsider- 
 ate farmers. Peculiar care should therefore be taken, to 
 arrest this action at the precise point desired. Salt scattered 
 through the heap, Avill materially lessen the activity of de- 
 composition. It is better, however, to add turf as it accu- 
 mulates, in addition to the salt, if it is to remain long before 
 being composted or carried on the land. 
 
 The manure of Sheep is strong and very active, and next 
 to that of the horse, is the most subject to heat and decom- 
 pose. The manure of Cattle and Stvine being of a colder 
 nature, may be thrown in with that of the horse and sheep 
 in alternate layers, or it may remain in heaps by itself if 
 more convenient. 
 
 - If fresh manure be intermixed with straw and othef ab- 
 sorbents, (sea- weed, peat, turf, tan-bark and the like,) and 
 over this a thick covering of earth or peat be placed, this ex- 
 ternal coating will combine with any volatile matters, which 
 fermentation developes in the lower part of the mass, and 
 preserve most of it from waste. Frequen' .Earning of the 
 
66 amer:ca» a&riculture. 
 
 manures, is a practice attended with no benefit, but with the 
 certainty of the escape of much of its valuable properties. 
 
 Many farmers assign a distinct or peculiar merit to the 
 different manures. Much of this opinion is fanciful ; for 
 there is frequently more difference in the comparative value 
 of that from the same species, and even the same individual, 
 at different times and under different circumstances, than 
 from those of different species. 
 
 The diversity in mamires tnay arise horn several causes. 
 The more thoroughly the food is digested and its nutritive 
 qualities extracted, the less is the value o/ the manure. 
 Thus, on the same quantit)'^ and quality of food, a growing 
 animal, or a cow in calf or giving milk, yields a poorer qual- 
 ity of feces and urine, than such as are not increasing in 
 weight ; and if the animal be actually losing condition, the 
 richness of the manure is very much increased. 
 
 T^ie quality of food adds materially to this difference, the 
 richest giving by far the most valuable manure. Those 
 animals which are kept on a scanty supply of straw or refuse 
 hay, yield manure little better than good turf, and far infe- 
 rior to the droppings of such as are highly fed. The imper- 
 fect mastication and digestion of the horse and mule, in 
 comparison with the ruminating animals, the ox and sheep, 
 their generally better quality of food, and the fact, that for 
 the greater part of their lives they are not adding to their 
 carcass, is the cause of the increased value of their manure. 
 Their solid feoes are also much richer than those of the cow, 
 as they void less urine and this is of an indifferent character. 
 In a long series of careful experiments, made at Dresden 
 and Berlin by order of the Saxon and Prussian governments, 
 it was ascertained, that uumanured soil which would yield 
 three for one sown, when dressed with cow dung, would 
 give seven ; with horse dung, ten ; and with human, fourteen. 
 
 For the purpose of showing the proportions of the various 
 elements which compose the farmer's manure heaj), an analy- 
 sis from jMr. Richardson is subjoined, of some taken frona 
 the farm yard in tie condition usually applied to the field. 
 
 Water 
 
 Organic matter 
 Inorganic sa)t( 
 
 Fresh 
 
 64.96 
 24.71 
 10.33 
 
 100.00 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen . 
 Oxygen 
 Nitrogen . 
 Ashes 
 
 Di 
 
 ried at 212". 
 
 37.40 
 
 5.27 
 25 62 
 
 1.76 
 SO.Od 
 
 lOCUW 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. 
 
 67 
 
 INORGANIC MATTERS. 
 
 Portion solubl 
 
 e in muriatic acid. 
 
 Solub; 
 
 e in wat** 
 
 Silica 
 
 27.01 
 
 Potash 
 
 . 322 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 7.11 
 
 Soda 
 
 . 2.73 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 
 
 2.26 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 0.34 
 
 Phosphate of iron 
 
 4.63 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . 0.26 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 9.34 
 
 Sulphuric atld 
 
 . 3.27 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 
 1.63 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 . 3.15 
 
 Sand 
 
 30.99 
 
 Silica 
 
 . 0.04 
 
 Carbon 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 Alkali, and loss 
 
 3.14 
 
 
 13.01 
 86.99 
 
 The following is from other specimens of fresh farm 
 yard manures, analyzed by Messrs. Allen and Greenhill. 
 
 
 
 
 Farmyard 
 
 Farmyard 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 JIanure 
 from Kent. 
 
 Manure 
 from Surrey 
 
 Per-Centage of Ash 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 Silica 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 70.79 
 
 71.32 
 
 Potash 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 3.32 
 
 5.14 
 
 Soda ... 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 0.92 
 
 1.68 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 6.90 
 
 12.3-2 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.82 
 
 Common salt 
 
 
 - 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.22 
 
 Pho.<;phate of iron 
 
 . 
 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.03 
 
 Phosphate of alumina 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1.53 
 
 2.54 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 i.yg 
 
 1.57 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 
 1.5S 
 
 1.27 
 
 Manganese 
 
 
 
 a trace 
 
 
 
 99.76 
 
 99.91 
 
 By knowing the composition of the added manures and 
 the subtracted crops, the farmer can keep an intelligent 
 account of debt and credit with his fields. If he could make 
 an exact estimate of the portion of the soil that might be- 
 come soluble in the course of the growing season, (available 
 for the present crop), and carry into this account also, the 
 sum of the elements exhausted by drainage and evaporation, 
 as ^vell as those added from the atmosphere, rains and dews, 
 and appropriated to vegetation or permanently fixed in the 
 soil, he would then be able, at all times to know, precisely 
 what additional ingredients {special manures) would be 
 necessary, and in what proportions, to secure the largest 
 amount of aay required crop, 
 
 POXJDRETTE AND URATE. 
 
 Poudrette is the name given to the human feces after 
 being mixed with charcoal dust or charred peat. By these 
 it is disinfecled of its effluvia, and when dried, it becomes p 
 
68 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 convenient article for use, and even for remote transpovtation. 
 The odor is sometimes expelled by adding quick lime, but 
 this removes with it much of the ammonia, and on this 
 account should always be avoided. 
 
 Urate as well as poudrette, has become an article of 
 commerce. It is manufactured in large cities by collecting 
 the urine, and mixing with it l-6th or l-7th of its weight of 
 ground gypsum, and allowing it to stand several days. The 
 urine combines with a portion of the ammonia, after which it 
 is dried and the liquid is throAvn away. Only a part of the 
 value is secured by this operation. It is sijmetimes prepared 
 by the use of sulphuric acid, which is gradually added to 
 urine and forms sulphate of ammonia, which is afterwards 
 dried. This secures a greater amoiint of the valuable prop- 
 erties of the urine ; but even this is not withoL waste. 
 
 NigJit Soil. — From the analysis of Berzelius, the excre- 
 ments of a healthy man, yielded water, 733 ; albumen, nine ; 
 bile, nine ; mucilage, fat and the animal matters, 167 ; saline 
 matters, twelve ; and undecomposedfood, 70 — in 1,000 parts. 
 When freed from Avater, 1,000 parts left, of ash, 132 ; and 
 this yielded, carbonate of soda, eight ; sulphate of soda, with 
 a little sulphate of potash, and phosphate of soda, eight ; 
 phosphate of lime and magnesia, and a trace of gypsum, 
 100; silica, sixteen. 
 
 Human -urine, according to the same authority, gives in 
 every 1,000 parts, of water, 933 ; urea, 30.1;uric acid, 1.0 ; 
 free acetic acid, lactate of ammonia, and inseparable animal 
 matter, 17.1 ; mucus of the bladder, 0.3 ; sulphate of potash, 
 3.7 ; sulphate of soda, 3.2 ; phosphate of soda, 2.9 ; phos- 
 phate of ammonia, 1.6 ; common salt, 4.5 ; sal-ammoniac 
 1.5 ; phosphates of lime and magnesia, Avith a trace of silica 
 and of fluoride of calcium, 1.1. 
 
 Urea is a solid product of urine, and according to Prout, 
 gives of carbon, 19.99; oxygen, 26.63; hydrogen, 6.65; 
 nitrogen, 46.65 — in 100 parts. The analysis of Woehler 
 and Liebig differs immaterially from this. Such are the 
 materials, abounding in every ingredient that can minister 
 to the production of plants, which are suffered to waste in 
 the air, and taint its purity and healthfulness ; or they are 
 buried deep in the earth beyond the reach of any useful 
 application ; and even in this position, (frequently in villa- 
 ges, and always in cities), they pollute the waters with 
 their disgusting am^ p ^isonous exudations. The water from 
 
ORttANJC MANURES, 69 
 
 ;TUe of the wells in constant use in Boston, examined by 
 Dr. Jackson, fiave an appreciable per centage of night soil ! 
 
 Treatment of Night Soil. — No perfect mode has yet 
 been devised of managing night soil. For compactness and 
 facility of remo\al, we suggest, that in cities, metallic boxes 
 of sufficient capacity be placed in the privies, so arranged as 
 to be easily taken out in the rear, for the purpose of empty 
 ing their contents. To prevent corrosion, they may be made 
 of composite or galvanized metal. In the country where it 
 can be at once applied, tight wooden boxes may be used with 
 hooks on the outer side, to which a team may be attached 
 for drawing it out wherever required. The boxes should 
 have a layer of charcoal dust, charred peat or gypsum at the 
 bottom, and others successively as they become filled. 
 These materials are cheap, compact, and readily combine 
 with the volatile gases. Sulphuric acid is more efficient 
 than either, but more expensive. Quick-lime will neutralize 
 the odor, but it expels the enriching qualities ; and if it be 
 intended to use the night soil, lime should never be jnixed 
 with it. Both the charcoal and peat condense and retain 
 the gases in their pores, and the sulphuric acid of the gyp- 
 sum leaves the lime, and like the free acid, combines with 
 the ammonia, forming sulphate of ammonia, an inodorous 
 and poAverful fertilizer. Ra^v peat, turf, dry tan-bark, saw- 
 dust and ashes are all good ; but as more bulk is needed to 
 effect the object, their use is attended with greater incon- 
 venience. From its great tendency to decompose, night soil 
 should be immediately covered with earth, when exposed to 
 the air. It is always saved by the Flemings and Chinese ; 
 the former generally using it liquid, and the latter, either as 
 a liquid, or mixed with clay and dried like brick. 
 
 The sole use of this manure, guano, ashes, charcoal, lime, 
 gypsum and other salts, effectually prevents the propagation 
 of all weeds. Its value, like all others, depends much on the 
 food from which it is derived ; it being richest when large 
 quantities of meat and other nutritive food is consumed. 
 The difference in the products from the best hotels and poor- 
 ly supplied work-houses, though not in proportion 1 1 the first 
 cost of the food consumed, yet bears no inconsiderable ratio 
 to it. 
 
 THE EXCREMENTS OF FOWLS. 
 
 These contain both the feces and urine combined, and are 
 neyt to night soil in value. They should be kept dry, or 
 
70 AMERICAN AGr>.:OULTURE. 
 
 what is better, mixed at once with the soil, or with i com- 
 post where their volatile matters will be retained. They 
 are very soluble, and when exposed to moisture, are He ble to 
 waste. Since these contain the essential elements of guano, 
 the economy of saving them must be apparent, to tiiose who 
 buy the imported fertilizers at so large a cost. 
 
 FLESH, BLOOD, &c. 
 
 When decomposed, these substances afford all the mate- 
 rials of manure in its most condensed form. Whenever pro- 
 curable, they should be mixed with eight or ten times their 
 weight of dry peat, turf, tan-bark or rich garden mold. A 
 dead cow or horse thus buried in a bed of peat, will yield 12 
 or 15 loads of the richest manvire. Butchers' offal when 
 thus treated, will yield ten times its weight of more valuable 
 manure than any from the cattle yards. 
 
 HAIR, BRISTLES, HORNS, HOOFS, PELTS, THE FLOCKS AND 
 WASTE OF WOOLEN MANUFACTORIES AND TANNERIES. 
 
 These are all rich in every organic material required by 
 plants ; and when mingled with the soil, they gradually 
 yield them, and afford a permanent and luxuriant growth to 
 every cultivated crop. Most animal substances contain from 
 15 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen; and when it is considered, that 
 this is a greater amount than is afforded by an equal quanti- 
 ty of saltpetre, and about two-thirds of that contained in ni- 
 tric acid, (one of the most condensed and powerful manures), 
 the recklessness and waste is apparent, of throwing dead ani- 
 mals and similar manures by the road-side, and allowing them 
 to decay above ground ; thus robbing the soil of its just dues, 
 and afflicting the nostrils of the community with what if 
 rightly appropriated, might minister to the necessaries and 
 even to the luxuries of mankind. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Fish are extensively used in this and other countries for 
 manure. The moss-banker, alewives and other fish frequent 
 the Atlantic coast in countless numbers in the spring and 
 summer, and are there caught in seines, and sold to the far- 
 mers by the wagon-load. They are sometimes plowed into 
 the soil with a spring crop ; or they are more frequently used 
 for growing corn, for which purpose, one or two fish are 
 placed in each hill and buried with the seed ; or they are 
 turned under near the young corn, at the first running of the 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. 71 
 
 plow in cultivating. This was the system adopted by the 
 Aborigines of our country, in raising their maize on exhaust- 
 ed lands, long before their occupancy or even discovery by 
 the whites. There is waste in this practice, as the soils 
 used for corn are generally light and sandy ; and the slight, 
 silicious covering imperfectly combines with the putrefying 
 fish, and much of their gases thereby eludes the plant, to the 
 excessive annoyance of the olfactories of the residents, for 
 miles around. 
 
 The proper method of using them, is by composting with 
 dry peat, in alternate layers of about three inches in thick- 
 ness of fish to nine of peat, and over the whole, a coating of 
 two or three feet of peat is placed. A few weeks of warm 
 weather suffice to decompose the fish, which unite with the 
 peat, no perceptible effluvia escaping from the heap, so ef- 
 fectual is its absorption. A strong acid smell is, however, 
 noticeable, originating in the escape of the acidifying or an- 
 tiseptic principle contained in the peat, which has kept it for 
 ages in a state of preservation, and whose expulsion is the 
 signal for breaking up its own structure. It now passes 
 rapidly into decay, and is soon lost in a mass of undis- 
 tinguishable, vegetable mold, the fruitful bed of new and 
 varied vegetable forms. This compost may remain without 
 injury or waste for years. Two or three ^veeks before using, 
 it should be overhauled and intimately mixed, when another 
 fermentation commences witli an elevation of temperature. 
 When this ceases, it may be applied to the land. This com- 
 post will be found adapted to nearly all soils and crops. 
 
 COTTON SEED. 
 
 This is yielded at the rate of 200 to 400 lbs. per acre, and 
 is a valuable manure. It would doubtless be more profitable 
 if first made to yield the oil which it contains, to the amount 
 of about 20 per cent, and use the residuum as a manure ; or 
 to feed it, when properly prepared, to the stock, and use 
 their manure for the fields. Where this is not done, how- 
 ever, the seed ought carefully to be saved and applied to the 
 land, at the rate of 60 to 80, or even 100 bushels per acre. 
 
 It may be scattered broadcast, and plowed in during the 
 winter, where it will rot before spring ; or it may be thrown 
 into heaps and allowed to heat, and when vitality is 
 destroyed, it may be plowed or drilled in, or thrown upon the 
 corn hills and buried with the hoe or plow. 
 
72 ■ AMEB.ICAN AGRICtTLTUSlE. 
 
 SEA WEED 
 
 Is a powerful aid to the farmer, when within convenienf 
 distances. It is thrown upon the sea-coast by the waves in 
 large winrows ; or it is carefully raked up from the rocks or 
 bottom of the bays, either by farmers or those who make it 
 a business to procure and sell it. It may be used as beddinif 
 for cattle or litter for the barnyard, or added directly to tne 
 compost heap. Where the distance for carrying it would 
 prevent its use, it may be burned, and the ashes removed to 
 the land. It has much more saline matter than vegetables 
 which grow on land, and yields a more valuable manure. 
 
 PEAT. 
 
 This substance is seldom found in this country, in the 
 purity that characterizes it in many parts of northern 
 Europe. There, its nearly pure carbonaceous quality admits 
 of its extensive use as fuel. In the United States, it is 
 generally mixed with the wash from the adjacent elevations, 
 which renders it more easily susceptible of profitable cultiva- 
 tion in its native bed, and scarcely less valuable as a fer- 
 tilizer when applied to other lands. In six different speci- 
 mens from Northampton, and four from other localities in 
 Massachusetts, Dr. Dana found an average of 29.41 soluble, 
 and 55.03 insoluble vegetable matter; and 15.55 of salts and 
 silicates, in every 100 parts. His researches have led him 
 to recommend the mixture of 30 lbs. potash, or 20 lbs. soda 
 ash ; or what is more economical and equally efficacious, 
 eight bushels of unleached wood ashes with one cord of peat 
 as it is dug from its bed ; or if leached ashes be used, they 
 should be mixed in the proportion of one to three of peat. 
 This he considers fully equivalent to pure cow dung in value. 
 He also estunates the salts and organic matter of four cords 
 of peat, as equal to the manure of a cow for one year. The 
 opinion of Mr. Phinney, of Lexington, Mass., founded on 
 close observation and long practice, is, that one part of green 
 cattle dung, composted with twice its bulk of peat, will 
 make the whole equal in value to the unmixed dimg. 
 
 Peat in its natural condition, contains from 70 to over 90 
 per cent, of water. It should be dug from its bed in the fall 
 or winter, for the purpose of draining and exposing it to the 
 action of the atmosphere, when it will be found to have lost 
 about two-thirds of its bulk. In this state, it still holds 
 about 65 per cent, of water. It may then be carried into 
 the cattle yards, and used for making composts in any wa:^ 
 desired. 
 
ORGANIC MANURES. 73 
 
 RICH TURF. 
 
 Much of this is full of the roots of grasses and decayed 
 vegetables, and is a valuable absorbent of every species of 
 animal or other manures. Whenever it can be procured 
 oy the road-side or other waste places, it should be used for 
 this purpose. It is frequently filled with the seeas or roots 
 of weeds, which ought to be killed preparatory to using as 
 manure. A mutually beneficial effect is produced, by mix- 
 mg turf with lime, by which the turf is speedily rotted, and 
 tne obnoxious ^veeds killed ; and the lime is thus becoming 
 equally fitted to act beneficially when applied to the soil, as if 
 already incorporated with it. Some weeks after mixing to- 
 gether, the heap will be in a fit condition to receive every 
 description of manure. 
 
 SWAMP MXTCK OR POND MUD. 
 
 Under certain conditions, this is a more valuable addition 
 to the muck heap, or more properly, a foundation for it, than 
 either of the preceding. Especially is this the case, when 
 there is no outlet for the water and sediment ; and the mud, 
 besides containing a large proportion of salts, the result of 
 ages of evaporation, is the receptacle of the remains of 
 myriads of minute shell fish, animalculee, infusorias, the spawn 
 and exuvise of frogs and other occupants. Ducks and vari- 
 ous aquatic birds fill themselves to repletion, when ranging 
 through a pond thus daintily supplied ; the contents of 
 which are even much more adapted to the promotion of 
 vegetable than animal life. Such reservoirs of vegetable nu- 
 trition, are mines of wealth to the farmer, if judiciously ap- 
 plied ; nor can he justify meagre returns from his fields, while 
 this remedy is within his reach. 
 
 MANXTRINa WITH GREEN CROPS. 
 
 This system has within a few years, been extensively 
 adopted in some of the older-settled portions of the United 
 States. The comparative cheapness of land and its pro- 
 ducts, the high price of labor, and the consequent expense of 
 making artificial manures, renders this at present, the most 
 economical plan which can be pursued. The design in this 
 practice is primarily, fertilization ; and connected with it, is 
 the clearing of the ground from noxious weeds, as in fallows, 
 by plowing in the vegetation before the seed is ripened ; and 
 finally.the object is to loosen the soil and place it in the mel- 
 Imvest condition for the crops which are to succeed. Its re- 
 4 
 
74 AMERICAN AGRICU- Ut fi. 
 
 suits have been entirely successful, when steadi.y pu.sued, and 
 with a due consideration of the objects sought and the means 
 by which they are to be accomplished. Lands in many of our 
 eastern States, which have been worn out by improvident 
 cultivation, and unsalaeble at .$10 an acre, have by this 
 system, while steadily remunerating their proprietors by their 
 returning crops, for all the outlay of labor and expense, 
 been brought up in value to $50 per acre. 
 
 The full benelit of green crops as manures seems only to 
 De reahzed where there is sufficient lime in the soil. Cal- 
 careous soils, or such as have a large proportion of lime, 
 however they may have become exhausted, when put under 
 a thorough course of treatment, in which green croj^s at 
 proper intervals are returned to them, are soon restored to 
 fertility ; and when lime does not exist in the soil, the appli- 
 cation of it in the proper manner and quantity, will produce) 
 the same effect. Gypsum and ashes are the best substitutes, 
 when lime or marl is difficult to be procured. 
 
 This system of improvement, varies with almost every indi- 
 vidual who practices it, according to the quality of his land, 
 the kind of crops to be raised, the facility of procuring ma- 
 nures, the luxuriance of particular crops, and other conside- 
 rations. We shall state merely, the general principles in 
 this, as in most other subjects, and leave to the farmer's judg- 
 ment, to apply them according to his circumstances. It is 
 always better to commence this system, while the land is in 
 good condition, as a luxuriant growth of vegetation is as 
 profitable for turning in, as for cropping. Buckwheat, oats, 
 rye, and some of the grasses, have been used for this purpose 
 in this country; and spurry, the white lupine, the vetch and 
 rape in Europe ; but for the northern portion of the Union, 
 nothing has been hitherto tried, Avliich is so well fitted for 
 the object, as red clover. 
 
 CLOVER rOR GREEN MANURES. 
 
 This is Sv ited to all soils, that will grow anything profita- 
 bly, from sand, if possessing an adequate amount of fertility, 
 to the heaviest clay, if drained of its superfluous Avater. 
 The seed is not expensive, its growth certain and rapid, and 
 the expense of its cultivation trifling ; wliile the return, on a 
 kindly soil, and with proper treatment, is large. Added to 
 this, and very much increasing its merits, is the abundance 
 of its long tap roots, which penetrate the ground to a great 
 depth, anc". l)reak up the stiff soils, in a nanner peculiarly bene* 
 
ORGAN.C MANUKES. . 75 
 
 ficial to suc^ oeding crops. The material yieldec ay the roots 
 and stubble, is of itself equal to a good dressing of manure. 
 It has the further advantage, of giving two or more years of 
 growth from one sowing, and of maintaining itself in the 
 ground thereafter, by self seeding, when not too closely crop 
 ped ; and it is equally suited to profitable pasturage and.win 
 ter forage. 
 
 If the first season's growth be luxuriant, after the re- 
 moval of the grain upon which it was sown, clover may be 
 pastured in the autumn, or suffered to fall and waste on the 
 ground, the first being the most economical. The following 
 year, the early crops may be taken off for hay, and the se- 
 cond, after partially ripening its seeds, may be plowed in ; and 
 thus it carries with it, a full crop of seed for future growth. 
 It is usual when wheat is cultivated, to turn in the clover 
 when in full flow-erin July, and allow the ground to remain 
 undisturbed till the proper time for sowing the grain ; when 
 it may be cross-plowed if necessary, or the wheat may be 
 sown directly on the ground and harrowed in. This system 
 gives alternate crops of grain and clover, and with the use ot 
 such saline manures, as may be necessary to replace those 
 abstracted from the soil; it will sustain the greatest fertility. 
 "With a slight dressing of these, when the land is in good con- 
 dition, the first crop of clover may be taken off, and yet al- 
 low a sufficient growth for turning in. 
 
 It is customary, however, to adopt a three or four years 
 course of cropping, in which grain, roots, corn, &c. alternate 
 with clover and barn-yard manures ; and this we think the 
 most judicious practice, when the land is within convenient dis- 
 tance of the manure. If the fields are remote, a still longer 
 course would be preferable, where stock and particularly sheep 
 are'kept ; as they might be allowed to pasture the field during 
 a much greater time. Sheep would remove only so much of 
 the forage as remains in their carcass ; while milch coavs 
 and working animals would, of course, carry off a greater 
 amount, the first in the milk, and the last in their manure, 
 dropped while out of the field. 
 
 THE cow PEA, 
 
 Like the pole bean, of which it seems to be a kindred 
 genus, grows with a long vine and abundance of leaves. It 
 is deemed the best of the fertilizers for the Soiith. It v,'ill 
 there mature in the same field with the corn, after that has 
 ripened ; or it wL. grow two crops in one season, from tM^o 
 
76 AMERICAN AGRICr I TORE 
 
 succt-ssive plantings. This is also a valuable fodder for cat- 
 tle and sheep, and the ripe peas are a profitable crop. Like 
 a luxuriant growth of clover, it requires the roller to pre- 
 pare it properly for the plow, when turned under previous 
 to the decay of the vines. The cow pea is an economical fer- 
 tilizer, in consequence of its broad, succulent, bean-like 
 leaves, drawing nitrogen and carbonic acid largely from the air , 
 but its slight fusiform roots, do not effect that mechanical divi- 
 sion so beneficial to many adhesive soils, which is produced 
 by the long tap roots of the clover. 
 
 Spurry is extensively used as a fertilizer in the north of 
 Europe, (Flanders, Germany and Denmark), and as forage for 
 cattle, both in its green and dry state. It is admirably adapt- 
 ed to the lightest sands, where it is said to grow with more 
 luxuriance and profit, than any other of the cultivated plants. 
 It may be sown in the fall, after grain or early roots, and plow- 
 ed under the following spring. Three crops may be grown 
 on the same land in one season. Van Voght says, by alter- 
 nating these crops Avith rye, it will reclaim the worst sands, 
 and yield nearly the same benefits, if pastured off by cattle ; 
 while it adds materially to the advantages of other manures 
 applied at the same time. It grows spontaneously in many 
 of our fields, as a weed ; and its cultivation on our lightest 
 eands, which are too poor for clover, might be attended with 
 the best effects. Like the cow pea, however, it is deficient 
 in the deep, tap roots, which give much of their efficiency to 
 the clover and Avhite lupine. 
 
 WHITE LUPINE (Lupinus albus.) 
 
 This plant has not, to my knowledge, been introduced as 
 a field crop in this country ; but from the great success 
 which has attended its cultivation in Europe, it is a proper 
 subject of consideration, wiiether it might not be advanta- 
 geously introduced among us as a fertilizer. It grows freely 
 in all except calcareous soils, and is best suited to such as have 
 a subsoil charged with iron. It is hardy, not liable to in- 
 jury from insects, grows rapidly and with an abundance of 
 stems, leaves and roots. The latter protect the plants from 
 drought, by penetrating throvigh the sv;bsoil for a depth of 
 more than two feet, which they break up and prepare, in the 
 most efficient manner, for succeeding crops 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES Or GREEN MANTTRES 
 
 Consist pit' :i xpally in the addition of vegetable matter. 
 
ORG^^MO MANT3RES. 77 
 
 which they furnish to the soil. The presence of this, aids in 
 the liberation of those mineral ingredients, Avhich are there 
 locked up, and which on being set free, act with so much 
 advantage to the '•'•op. The roots also, exert a power in ef- 
 fecting this decomposition, beyond any other known agents, 
 either of nature or ai :. Their minute fibres are brought into 
 contact with the eleme.its of the soil, and they act upon 
 them with a force peculiar to themselves alone. Theii 
 agency is far more efficacious for this purpose than the in 
 tensest heat or strongest acids, persuading the elements to 
 give up for their own use, Avhat is essential to their maturity 
 and perfection. By substituting a crop for a naked fallow, 
 we have all the fibres of the roots throughout the field, aid- 
 ing the decomposition which is slowly going forward in 
 every soil. 
 
 Clover and most broad-leaved plants, draw largely for 
 their sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the 
 application of gypsum. By its long tap roots, clover also 
 draws much from the subsoil ; as all plants appropriate such 
 saline substances as are necessary to their maturity, and 
 which are brought to their roots in a slate of solution, by 
 the up-welling moisture from beneath. This last is fre- 
 quently a great source of improvement to the soil. The 
 amount of carbon drawn from the air in the state of carbonic 
 acid, and of ammonia and nitric acid, imder favorable cir- 
 cumstances of soil and crop, is very great ; and when buried 
 beneath the sxu-face, all are saved and yield their fertility to 
 the land ; ^vhile such vegetation as decays on the surface, 
 loses much of its value by evaporation and drainage. In 
 the green state, fermentation is rapid, and by resolving the 
 matter of plants into their elements, it fits the ground at once 
 for a succeeding crop. 
 
 Additional manures cannot be more particularly specified 
 here. It is sufficient to add, that every portion of vegeta- 
 ble or animal substances, and many "vvhich are purely mine- 
 ral, may be used on the fields with the utmost advantage to 
 the farmer. Intelligent observation, experience, and that 
 knowledge which he will acquire from the best modern ag- 
 ricultural writings of the present day, will enable him to adapt 
 them in the most judicious manner, to his soil and crops. 
 
 THE FALLOW SYSTEM. 
 
 As a means of enriching lands, this was formerly much 
 practised, but it is now em rsly discarded by intelligent 
 
78 AMERPCAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 farmers It consists in plowing ap the land and exposing it 
 naked to the elements, ^vhenevel• the exhaustion by tillage 
 requires it. This practice is founded on the principle, that 
 plants 'gradually exhaust the soil of such soluble food, potash, 
 soda, and other materials, as are necessary to their support ; 
 and unless they are again given to it in manures, in a form suit- 
 ed to their immediate appropriation by plants, time is requisite 
 for dissolving them in the soil, so as to enable them again to 
 support vegetation profitably. Besides the loss resulting 
 from the frequent idleness of the land, naked fallows have this 
 further disadvantage, and especially in light and loose soils ; 
 they are exposed to the full action of the svm and rains, and 
 by evaporation and drainage, are exhausted of much of their 
 soluble, vegetable food. 
 
 This system, bad as it is, may yet be absolutely necessary, 
 where grain alone is iraised and no inaniire is applied. But 
 it is always avoidable, by substituting fallow crops, as they 
 are termed, potatoes, swede turneps, and other well-hoed 
 crops, with manure ; or clover, or other green crops, as above 
 detailed ; by w^hich the land is cleared of weeds and suffi- 
 ciently enriched for succeeding cultivation. If they have 
 been kept in good condition by top-dressing, meadows are 
 equally fitted for the ditferent species of grains or other crops, 
 as if the land had been fallowed ; and pastures ansvyer the 
 same purpose, without the aid of other manures than such 
 as have incidentally accumulated apon them. 
 
TERIGATION AND DRAINING. 79 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IRUrGATION AND DRAINING. 
 
 Irrigation may properly enough be classed under the 
 head of manures; as the materials which it provides are 
 not only food for plants, but they aid also in procuring it 
 from other sources. "Water is of indispensable necessity to 
 vegetable life ; and the great quantity of it demanded for 
 this purpose, is in most climates, amply provided by nature 
 in the stores of rain and dew which moisten the earth, and 
 especially during the early growth of vegetation, when it is 
 most required. In countries where rain seldom or never 
 falls, as in parts of South America, Egypt, and elsewhere, 
 the radiation of heat from the surface, is so rapid under their 
 clear skies, that excessive deposites of dew, generally supply 
 the plants with all the moisture which they need. The 
 same effect takes place in our transparent, summer atmos- 
 phere, throughout most of the United States ; and it is to 
 the presence of copious dews, on our rich, well cultivated 
 fields, that much of the luxuriance and success is due, 
 which has ever attended enlightened and judicious American 
 husbandry. 
 
 Besides the moisture that abounds in the atmosphere, (but 
 which is not always available in rains and dews to the 
 extent desired for the wants of vegetation), and that wi.ich 
 imperceptibly ascends from remote depths in the earth, and 
 contributes to the support of plants ; it is a practice coeval 
 with the earliest history of agriculture, to bring artificial 
 waters upon the cultivated fields and make them tributary 
 to the support of the crops. In many countries this sys- 
 tem is indispensable to secure their maturity ; for although 
 dews accomplish the object in a measure, they do not sup- 
 ply it in the quantity required to sustain a vigorous growth. 
 We find, in looking to the practice of Egypt and the B?^bary 
 States in Africa ; of Syria, Babylon, and other parts of 
 Asia ; Italy, Spain ai:d elsewhere in Europe, in each of 
 which husbandry ear/^.y attained a high rank, that irrigation 
 
80 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 was extensively introduced. Damascus is one of the most 
 ancient cities on record, (for it is mentioned in Genesis as 
 existing nearly 4,000 years ago); and notwithstanding its 
 numerous successive masters, and its frequent plunder and 
 devastation, it is still a flourishing city, though in the midst 
 of deserts. This is no doubt owng to the waters derived 
 f"rom the " Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus," which 
 are conducted above the city, where they gush from the 
 fountains, and thence overspread the gardens and water all 
 the adjacent plain. Had it not been for irrigation, Damas- 
 cus Avould doubtless, ages ago, have followed Palmyra, the 
 Tadmor of the wilderness, into utter abandonment and ruin. 
 On no other principle than a systematic and extensive prac- 
 tice of irrigation, can we account for the once populous 
 condition of Jiidea, Idumea, and other vast regions in the 
 East ; many of which, to the eye of the modern traveller, 
 present nothing but the idea of irreclaimable sterility and 
 desolation. The possession of the ♦' upper and nether 
 springs," "was as necessary to the occupant, as possession 
 of the soil. 
 
 In those countries where the drought is excessive, and 
 rains are seldom to be dejieuded upon, \vater is led on to the 
 fields containing all the cultivated crops, and is made subser- 
 vient to the growth of each. But in the United States, and 
 in the middle and northern part of Europe, where the vege- 
 tation ordinarily attains a satisfactory size without its aid, 
 irrigation is confined almost exclusively to grass or meadow 
 lands. 
 
 All ivaters are suitable for irrigatio7i, excepting those 
 containing an excess of some mineral substances, deleterious 
 to vegetable life. Such are the drainage from peat swamps, 
 from saline and mineral springs, and from ore beds of various 
 kinds ; but those are most frequent, in which iron is held in 
 solution. Of tilt spring or ordinary river waters, those are 
 the best which are denominated hard, and which owe this 
 quality to the presence of sulphate or carbonate of lime or 
 magnesia. Such waters as are cnarged with fertilizing sub- 
 stances, that have been Avashed out of soils by recent floods, 
 are admirably suited to irrigation. Dr. Dana, est'.mates the 
 quantity of salts in solution, and geine or humus 'vegetable 
 matters), which were borne sea-ward past Lowell, on the 
 Merrimac Rive' in 1838, (a season of unusual freshets), as 
 reachUig the enormous amount of 810,000 tons; enough to 
 have given a good dressing to 100,000 acres of land. Turbit^ 
 
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING. 81 
 
 Waters that nave flowed out of the sewers of cities, or past 
 slaughter-houses and certain manufactories, and received the 
 rich contributions of vegetable food thereby afforded, are the 
 most beneficial. Meadows thus irrigated, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Edinburgh, have rented by the acre, at the large 
 sum of $250 per annum ; a price predicated not only on the 
 enormous amount of grass yielded, but on the high prices at 
 which it was retailed in that city. But when none of these 
 can be procured, pure spring water, apparently destitute of 
 any soluble matters, may be advantageously used. 
 
 Additional effects of Irrigation. Besides its drainage oi 
 fertile matters from remote distances, which are deposited 
 on the fields overflown, water freely absorbs the gases, (car- 
 bonic acid, oxygen and nitrogen, &c.,) in proportions alto? 
 gether different from those existing in the air, and brings 
 them to the roots, by which they are greedily appropriated; 
 and in its onward, agitated progress over the field, it again 
 absorbs them from the air, again to be given up when de- 
 manded by the roots. When the water is permitted to 
 remain stagnant on the surface, this good effect ceases ; and 
 so far from its promoting the growth of the useful and cul- 
 tivated grasses, they speedily perish, and a race of sour 
 and worthless aquatic plants spring up to supply their 
 place. 
 
 Another and i'niportant office that water fulfils in minis- 
 tering to the groicth of vegetation, is in disposing the soil 
 Jo those changes, which are essential to its greatest fertility. 
 Gypsum requires 460, and lime 778 times its bulk of water 
 at 60° Far. to dissolve them. Others among the mineral 
 constituents of plants, also require the presence of large 
 quantities of water, to fit them for acting on the soil, and to 
 adapt them for vegetable assimilation. 
 
 TIME FOR APPLYING WATER TO MEADOWS. 
 
 In those regions where the winters are not severe, water 
 may be kept on the fields during the entire season of frosts. 
 This prevents their access to the ground, and on the ap- 
 proach of warm weather, the grasses at once start into life, 
 and yield an early and abundant growth. But in general, 
 this system cannot be successfully practiced. The water 
 may be admitted at proper intervals, freely during the spring 
 and early part of the summer, when vegetation is either 
 just commencing or going forward rapidly. It is sufficient 
 to flood the surface thoroughly, and then shut off the watej 
 K* 
 
62 AMERICAN AGRICULTtTRE. 
 
 for a time. In very dry weather, this may be done with 
 advantage every night. Continued watering under a bright 
 6un, is an umiatural condition with upland grasses, and 
 can never be long persisted in without proving fatal to 
 the ji. Neither should the water be applied after the grasses 
 have conuneuced ripening. Nature is the proper guide in 
 this, as in mos -f the operations of the farmer ; and it will 
 be seen, how careful she is, in ordinary seasons, to provide 
 an affluence of rains for the tommencement of vegetation, 
 while she as carefully withholds them when it approaches 
 maturity. Immediately after the grass is cut, the water may 
 be again let on as occasion requires, till the approach of cold 
 weather. Pastures may be irrigated from time to time, as 
 the weather may demand, throughout the entire season. 
 
 THE MANNER OF IRRIGATING. 
 
 This must depend on the situation of the surface and the 
 supply of water. Sometimes, reservoirs are made for its 
 reception from rains or inundations ; and at others, they 
 are collected at vast expense, from springs found by deep 
 excavations, and led out by extensive subterraneous ditching. 
 The usual source of supply, however, is from streams or 
 rivulets, or copious springs, which discharge their water on 
 elevated ground. The former are dammed up, to turn the 
 water into ditches or aqueducts, through which it is con- 
 ducted to the fields, where it is divided into smaller rills, 
 till it finally disappears. When it is desirable tp bring more 
 water upou meadows than is required for saturating the 
 ground, and its escape to fields below is to be avoided, other 
 ditches should be made on the lou'er sides, to arrest and 
 convey away the surplus water. 
 
 The advantages of irrigation are so manifest, that they 
 should never be neglected, when the means for securing them 
 are within economical reach. To detennine what economy 
 in this case is, we have to estimate from careful experiment, 
 the equivalent needed in annual dressing with manures, to 
 produce the same amount of grass as would be gained by 
 irrigation ; and to offset the cost of the manure, we must 
 reckon the interest on the permanent fixtures of the dam and 
 sluices, and the annual expense of attention and repair. 
 
 The quality of grass from irrigated meadows is but 
 slightly inferior to that grown upon dry soils ; and for pas- 
 turage, it is found that animals do better in dry seasons upon 
 the former, and in wet. upoi the atter. In Europe, where 
 
IRRIGATION AND DRAINING. 8S 
 
 the disease is common, sheep are more liable to ''■ot upoa 
 irrigated and marshy lands, than on such as are free from 
 excessive moisture. 
 
 The kind of Soils suited to Irrigation — Light porous 
 soils, and particularly gravels and sands, are the most bene- 
 fitted by irrigation. Tenacious and clay soils are but slight 
 ly improved by it, unless first made porous by underdraining. 
 It is not only important that water be brought on to the 
 ground, but it is almost equally important, that it should pass 
 off immediately after accomplishing the objects sought. 
 
 The increase from the. application of icater, is sometimes 
 fourfold, when the soil, the season and the water are all 
 favorable, and it is seldom less than doubled. Many fields, 
 which in their natural condition, scarcely yield a bite of 
 grass for cattle, when thoroughly irrigated, will give a good 
 growth for years, and without the aid of any manures. 
 
 UNDER DRAINING HEAVY AND TENACIOUS CLAY LANDS. 
 
 The advancement of agriculture in this country during 
 the few last years, and the high price of farming lands and 
 their products, within convenient distances of our larger 
 markets, fully justify the commencement of an intelligent 
 system of draining on such lands as require it. This system 
 has for many years been introduced and largely practiced in 
 England and Scotland, and has resulted in the most signal 
 success. 
 
 The plan first adopted was, to excavate the land in paral- 
 lel lines, at intervals of 16 to 25 feet, and to a depth of two 
 or three feet, forming a slightly-inclined plane on the bottom, 
 which was from three to six inches wide, and gradually en- 
 larging as it approached the surface. The narrowest drains 
 were arched with inverted turf and clay, at such distance 
 from the bottom, as wovtld leave the requisite space for the 
 escape of whatever water might filter through the soil. 
 Others were formed with continuous arched tiles, laid on a 
 sole, (a flat tile of the same material,) or on a board placed on 
 the bottom, forming an uninterrupted conductor. Larger 
 ditches were filled with rubble-stone, in some instances 
 brush, to a sufficient depth, and then covered with soil. In 
 all cases, the smaller ones communicated by their outlets, 
 with a large, open drain, which led the water from the field. 
 These drains were always below the reach of the ploAV, thug 
 leaving the whole surface c ■ the lands free from any obsiruc 
 tion to cultivatioji 
 
Si AMERICAN AGRICULTLRIsr. ' 
 
 Two recent improvements have been introduced, which 
 materially diminish the expense, while they enhance the 
 benefits of the system. They consist in sinking the drain 
 to four feet, and using burnt clay or tile pipes, one and a half 
 to three inches in diameter, and 12 to 18 inches in length, 
 connected together, by allowing the descending end to enter 
 the next beloAV it, as a socket, or by placing the ends close to 
 each other. The slight opening at each joint, with small 
 holes perforating the top of the tiles, is found to be sufficient 
 to admit all the water which falls into tlie drain ; Avhile the 
 increased depth at which the drainage takes place, draws 
 the water from a much greater distance. With the depth 
 indicated, it has been found, that the drains instead of being 
 required once in 16 feet, may be placed at intervals of 35 
 to 40, and accomplish the object with equal success, a?id in 
 less time. Tlie expense -of the former plan, was from $20 to 
 330 per acre, while the last is only from $12 to SI 8. For 
 some of the stifTest clays and loosest gravels, these deep drains 
 are not so well suited ; as the water scarcely filters through 
 the stiff sttbsoil of the former, and drains too deeply from the 
 latter. 
 
 The advantages of nnflerdraining ^xe numerous and im- 
 portant. Tlley take away all the surplus water which exists 
 in heavy or tenacious soils, and which in wet seasons, is a seri- 
 ous impediment to the successful growth and perfection of 
 vegetation ; thus always hisuring a ftiU crop, when frequently, 
 not one-fourth of a crop is matured on similar uudrained 
 soils. They are susceptible of earlier preparation for the re- 
 ception of crops in spring, by furnishing a dry, warm soil, 
 ^vhich would otherwise not admit of cultivation, except in 
 an advanced stage of the season ; thus enabling the 
 farmer to raise a greater variety of products, where only a 
 few were adapted to the soil before ; and to these, it gives 
 several weeks additional growth, and an improved quality. 
 The soil is also more porous and friable, and therefore, much 
 more easily tilled. It saves all the trouble and ^vaste of sur- 
 face drai'js and open furrows, which require that much ol 
 the field be left almost in an unproductive state, to serve as 
 conductors of the surplus ■u^ater. The rains falling on the 
 convex surfaces of the lands, run olf rapidly into the fur- 
 rows, and not only withhold from the soil those benefit, 
 which would result from their absorption, but they carry with 
 them much of the fine soil, which is thus allowed to Avaste. 
 
 Rain water is o* arged with some of the most importaui 
 
IRRIGATION ANU DRAINING. &0 
 
 elements of nutrition for plants, and especially contains cxuv 
 siderable proportions of carbonic acid and ammonia, li 
 these be permitted to percolate through the soil, the roots of 
 the plants, or in their absence, the elements of the soil itself 
 aDsorb and form permanent combinations with them. Air 
 also holds vegetable food, and it is necessary that this should 
 penetrate through every portion of the soil where the fibres 
 of the roots exist. Soils which are saturated with Avater, do 
 not admit of any air, unless the small proportion combined 
 with the water ; and from all such, this vital adjunct of 
 vegetation is excluded. The porosity of the land thus se- 
 cured, facilitates the admission and escape of heat, and this 
 last condition is of the utmost consequence iu promoting the 
 deposition of dews. 
 
 The dense mass of saturated soil is impervious to air, and 
 remains cold and clammy. By draining it below the soil, 
 the warm rains penetrate the entire mass, and there diffuse 
 their genial temperature through the roots. Immediately 
 pressing after these, the Avarm air rushes in, and supplies its 
 portion of augmented heat to the land. Porous soils thus 
 readily imbibe heat, and they as readily part with it ; every 
 portion of their own surfaces radiating it, when the air in 
 contact with them is below their own temperature. This 
 condition is precisely what is adapted to secure the 
 deposit of the dews, so refreshing, and during a season of 
 drought, so indispensable to the progress of vegetation. 
 Dew can only be condensed on surfaces, which are beloAV the 
 temperature of the surrounding air ; and rapid radiation of 
 the heat imbibed during the warmth of a summer's day, is 
 necessary to secure it in profusion for the demands of luxu- 
 riant vegetation, in the absence of frequent showers. 
 
 An insensible deposit of moisture, precisely analogous to 
 dew, is constantly going forward in deep, rich, porous soils. 
 Wherever the air penetrates them, at a higher temperature 
 than the soils themselves possess, it not only imparts to them 
 a portion of its exccess of heat, but with it also, so much ot 
 its combined moisture, as its thus lessened capacity for re- 
 taining latent heat, compels it to relinquish. To the reflect- 
 ing mind, imbued with even the first principles of science, 
 these considerations will be justly deemed of the highest con- 
 sequence to the rapii and luxuriant growth, and full devel- 
 opment of vegetable life. 
 
 Another essential henejit derivable from drained Lands, 
 consists in the advantageous u»« which can be made of tht 
 
86 AMER JAN AGRICrLTURE. 
 
 subsoil plow. If there be no escape for the moisture which 
 may have set- led below the surface, the subsoil plow has 
 been fouud inj u-ious ra.;her than beneficial. By loosening 
 the earth, it admits a larger deposit of Avater, which requires 
 a longer time for evaporation and insensible drainage to 
 discharge. When the -water escapes freely, the use of the 
 subsoil plow is attended with the best results. The earth 
 being thus pulverized to a much greater depth, and incorpo- 
 rated with the descending pa tides of vegetable sustenance, 
 affords an, enlarged range for i le roots of plants; and in pro- 
 poriion to its extent, furnishes thorn with additional means of 
 growth. The farmer thus has a means of augmenting his 
 soil, and its capacity for production, wholly independent of 
 increasing his superficial acres ; for with many crops, it mat- 
 ters not in the quantity of their production, whether he OAvns 
 and cultivates 100 acres of soil, one foot deep, or 200 acres 
 of soil, half a foot in depth. With the latter, however, he 
 has to provide twice the capital in the first purchase, is at 
 twice the cost in fencing, planting and tillage, and pays 
 twice the taxes. The underdrainedand subsoiled fields have 
 the further advantage, of securing the groAvth and steady de- 
 velopement of their crops during a season of drought ; as 
 they derive their moisture from the atmosphere in part, as 
 before explained, and from greater depths, which are fre- 
 quently unaffected by the parching heat. This secures to 
 them a large yield, while all around is parched and withered.* 
 A more enlarged and general, or what may justly be 
 termed, a philanthropic view of this system, will readily de- 
 tect considerations of g;reat moment ; in the general heathful- 
 ness of climate, which would result from the drainage of 
 large areas, that are now saturated, and in many instances 
 covered with stagnant waters, and which are suffered to pol- 
 lute the atmosphere by their pestilential exhalations. 
 
 SPRING AND SWAMP DRAINING. 
 
 Springs are sometimes discovered, not by a free or open 
 discharge of their water, but in extensive plats of wet, boggy 
 lands, which are of no further use than to mire the cattle, and 
 bear a small quantity of inferior, bog hay. These springs 
 
 * The ex; erienced reader will sometimes notice the same ideas, re- 
 jeated under different heads. He must bear in mind, that this work is 
 intended /or learners; and that it \3 of more consequence, thoroug;hly 
 to impress their minds with imj ortant principles, that to study brf vi* 
 ty in communicating them. 
 
ir.ItlG^TION AND DRAINING. 8/* 
 
 should be sought, at the highest point where the ground 
 appears moistened, and led away to a ravine or rivulet, by a 
 drain, sufficiently deep to prevent the escape of any of the 
 water into the adjacent soil ; unless, as it sometimes happens, 
 the position and quality of water are suited to irrigation, 
 when it may be condu«ted over the field for that purpose. 
 
 Siccoyij^s and Peat beds occur frequently in a hilly country - 
 These aie low, level, Avet lands, whose constant saturation 
 with water, prevents their cultivation with any useful plants 
 The first object in etfecting their improvement, is to find an 
 outlet for the escape of the water, to a depth of three to five 
 feet below the general surface, according to the area to be re^ 
 clainz^vl ; the greatest depth above specified, being frequently 
 necessary to the effectual drainage, a ^ all times, of an extend- 
 ed field. If the water in the swamp has its origin in numer- 
 ous springs from the adjoining hills, a ditch should be dug 
 around the entire outer edge, where it meets the ascending 
 land. If the water be derive.d from a rivvilet, a broad ditch 
 should be made as direct as possible from the entrance to its 
 outlet, and deep enough to lead off" all the water. If this 
 is found insufficient, additional ones may be made wherever 
 required. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 
 
 SPADING. 
 
 After selecting a proper soil and placing it in a proper 
 condition, by manuring, draining, &c., the next most import- 
 ant consideration is, the further preparation of the land fo» 
 the reception of the seed. In small patches of highly-culti- 
 vated land, spading is resorted to, for breaking up and pul- 
 verizina; the ground more effectually than can be done witn 
 the plow. This is the case with many of the market 
 gardens, in tha neighborhood of our large cities, and with 
 large portions of Holland, Flanders and other countries of 
 Europe. It L» even contended b; many intelligent and 
 
88 AMEPaCAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 practical farmers in Great Britain, where labor is about half, 
 and land and agricultural products are nearly twice the 
 average prices ^vith us, that spade-husbandry can be adopted 
 for general tillage crops, with decided advantage to the 
 farmer. However this may be abroad, it is certain it cannot 
 be practised in this cciintry, to any extent, imtil some very 
 remote period. 
 
 There are many important advantages in the deep and 
 minute division of the soil, resviltiug from the very thorough 
 spading practised by the best gardeners, which we should 
 endeavor to incorporate in every tillage system, Avith the 
 use of the plow alone. This may be done, and the advan- 
 tages of spade-husbandrj'^ measurably secured, and at one 
 fourth the expense, b}." the use of the best surface and sub- 
 soil plows, if strong teams and skilful ploAvmen are employed 
 to work them. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 This is the most important of the mechanical operations of 
 the farm. The time, the depth and the manner of plowing 
 must depend on the crops to be raised, the fertility and char- 
 acter of the soil, and other circumstances. 
 
 The above is a cut of the Eagle plow. This is a good 
 model of a two-horse plow ; being easy of draught to 
 the team, and turning a deep, wide furrow, with little effort to 
 the plowman. It is made with a cast-iron mold-board, share 
 and land-side, all in detached parts, which are easily re- 
 placed when worn. It has the dial-clevis at the end of the 
 beam, which is an important improvement for controlling 
 the direction of the plow and regulating its depth. Also 
 the draft-rod, which is guided by -he clevis, ajid attached 
 to the beair. near *,he handles. The wheel lessens the 
 
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 89 
 
 draught, facilitates turning the ploAv at the end of the fur- 
 row, and regufiates its depth. The cutter or coulter, which 
 is made of "wrought iron, "vvith steel edge, divides the sod or 
 earth before the plow, thus lessening the draught, and giving 
 a smoother edge to the furrow. 
 
 Plowing Clay lands. — Whenever practicable, these 
 should be plowed in the fall, for planting and sowing the 
 ensuing spring. (Foi exceptions, see page 18; and for fur- 
 ther directions and observations on the subject of plowing, 
 see management of soils preceding, and various subsequent 
 tillage crops.) The tenacity of the soil may thus be tem- 
 porarily broken up by the winter frosts, its particles more 
 thoroughly separated, and the whole mass reduced to a finer 
 tilth than can possibly be effected in any other manner. 
 A still further and important advantage from this practice 
 ensues, from the attraction existing between the clay and 
 those gases that are furnished from the atmosphere, snow, 
 rains and dews. In consequence of being thus thrown up 
 and coming in contact, with them, it seizes upon the ammo- 
 nia and carbonic and ni'i^ric acids, which are in the air, and 
 holds them for the future'use of the crops ; while their great 
 affinity for manures, effectually prevents the waste of such 
 as are in it. There is an additional benefit sometimes deri- 
 vable from this practice, in turning over the soil late in the 
 season, and after such worms and insects as are injurious 
 to the crops, have taken up their winter quarters. They 
 are thus thrown out and exposed to the elements, when 
 they are too chilled to seek seclusion again, and are thus 
 destroyed. 
 
 The furrows of clay soils, should be turned over so as to 
 lap on the preceding, and lie at an angle of 45°, as il'ustra- 
 ted by ♦^he following cut : 
 
 w 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 and for this purpose, the depth of the furrow slice should be 
 about 1 wo thirds its width. Thus a furrow six inches deep, 
 should be about nine inches wide ; or if eight inches deep, 
 it should be twelve inches wide. This will allow of the 
 furrows lying regularly and evenly, and in the proper posi- 
 tion for the drainage of the soil, the fres circulation of air, 
 and the most etHcient action of frosts, which in this way, 
 have access to every sid? of them. Land tluxs thrown up. 
 
90 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is found to be finely pulverized after the frosts leave it, and it 
 is comparatively dry and ready for use, some time earlier 
 than such as is not plowed till spring. For sowing, land 
 prepared in this manner requires no additional plowing, but 
 it is better fitted for the reception of seed that it can be by 
 any further operation, unless by a slight harrowing, if the 
 surface is too rough. The different kinds of grain or peas 
 may be dibbled in, or sown broad-cast and covered by the 
 narro^v. If soAvn. very early, the grass and clover seeds 
 require no covering, but find their best position in the slight 
 depressions which are everywhere made by the frost, and 
 which the subsequent rains and winds* fill up, and cover 
 sufficiently to secure a certain growth. When a field is 
 intended for planting, and is thus plowed in the preceding 
 autumn, in some instances, and especially Avhen the soil is 
 full of vegetable manures, (as from a rich green sward), a 
 single furrow, where the seed is to be dropped, is all that is 
 necessary to be plowed in the spring. 
 
 If the land has been previously cultivated, (not in SAvard), 
 and is designed for planting, a stiff clay is sometimes ridged 
 up, by turning a double furrow, one on each side, and so 
 close together, a^ partially to lap upon a narrow and unbro- 
 ken surface ; thus leaving tlie greatest elevations and de- 
 pressions, which can conveniently be made with the plow. 
 This is shown by the annexed cut. 
 
 a, a, is surface of the unplowed ground, b, b, h, portions of 
 earth not turned by the plow, c, c, c, furrows turned over, 
 d, d, d, furrows lapped on the preceding. By this means, 
 the frost and air have a greater surface to act upon, than is 
 afforded by thorough plowing, unless it be in a firm sod, 
 Avhich will maintain its position Avithout crumbling. The 
 advantage of a dry surface and early working, are equally 
 secured by this latter method ; and to prepare for planting, 
 the furrows need only to be split, by running a double-mold- 
 board plow through their centre, when they are ready for 
 the reception of the seed. 
 
 Flowing sandy or dry Soils. — These require flat plowing, 
 and this may be done when they are either quite wet or dry, 
 but never till wanted for use. By exposure taieat, rains and 
 
MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 91 
 
 winds, the light soluble manures are exhaled or washed out, 
 and they receive little compensation for this waste, in any- 
 corresponding fertility tl .ey derive from the atmosphere in 
 return. To insure tlat plowing on an old sward, the depth 
 of the furrow should be about one half its width, and the 
 lands or ridges, should be made as wide as possible. This will 
 give more evenness and uniformity of surface, and is an object 
 of importance, where it is to be again laid down as a meadow. 
 Some prefer for this purpose, to use the shifting mold-board, 
 side-hill or swivel plow, by all of which names it is 
 known. This can throw the furrow always in the same di- 
 rection, and is a right or left hand plow as may be required. 
 
 Depth of Ploiving. — All cultivated plants are benefitted 
 by a deep, permeable soil, through which their roots can 
 penetrate in search of food ; and although depth of soil is not. 
 fully equivalent to its superficial extension, it is evident, that 
 there must be a great increase of product from this cause. 
 For general tillage crops, the depth of soil may be gradually 
 augmented to about twelve inches, with decided advantage. 
 Such as are appropriated to gardens and horticultural pur- 
 poses, may be deepened fifteen, and even eighteen inches, to 
 the manifest profit of their occupants. But whatever is the 
 depth of the soil, the ploAV ought to turn up the entire mass, 
 if within its reach ; and what is beyond it, should be thorough- 
 ly broken up by the subsoil plow, and some of it occasional- 
 ly incorporated with that upon the surface. 
 
 The subsoil ought not to be brought out of its bed, except 
 in small quantities. It should then be exposed to the atmos- 
 phere during the fall, winter and .spring, or in a summer fal- 
 low ; after which, and as a necessary preparation for a crop, 
 it should receive such mam" ss as are necessary to put it 
 at once into a productive condition. The depth of the soil 
 can alone determine the depth which the plow should work ; 
 and when the former is too shallow, the gradual deepening 
 of it should be sought, by the use of proper materials for im- 
 provement, till the object is fully attained. Two indift'erent 
 soils of opposite characters, as of a stiff clay and sliding sand, 
 sometimes occupy the relation of surface and subsoil towards 
 each other" and when intimately mixed, as they may fre- 
 quently be oy deep plowing alone, and then subjected to the 
 meliorating influence of cultivation, they will frequently 
 produce a soil of great value. 
 
 Cross ploiving is seldom necessary, except to break up 
 tough s\\ ard or tenacious soils, and the former is more ef- 
 
92 AMERICAN AGRICUHtrtvE. 
 
 fectually subdued by one thorough plowing, in which the 
 sod is so placed, that decomposition Avill rapidly ensue ; and 
 the latter is more certainly pulverized, by incorporal ing with 
 it such vegetables, and fibrous or iinfermented manures, as 
 will produce the same result as the decaying sod. The pre- 
 sence of these in the soil lessens the labor of cultivation, 
 and greatly increases the product. 
 
 Subsoil Ploiving . — This is a practice of comparatively 
 recent introduction, and it has been £.;tended with signal 
 benefit, from the increase and certainty of the crop. It is per- 
 formed by subsoil plows, made exclusively for this purpose. 
 The objects to be accomplished, are to loosen the hard earth 
 below the reach of the ordinary plow, and permit the ready 
 escape of the water, which falls upon the surface ; the circu- 
 lation of air ; and a more extended range for the roots of the 
 plants, by which they procure additional nourishment, and 
 secure the crop agamst drought, by peneirating into the re- 
 gions of perpetual moisture. 
 
 An. important additional advantage results from their con- 
 tinued use, m the deepening of the soil This inevitably 
 follows from opening the subsoil to the meliorating influence 
 of the elements, and from the accumulation of vegetable' 
 matter in the roots. These penetrate deeply into the earth, 
 and are left to decay in the bed where they originate. An 
 increased value in the soil has been noticed bv observins: ao-- 
 nculturists, to the extent, in many instances, of over five per 
 cent, per annum, from the use of this imnlement. In the 
 rich, compact, deltal lands of Louisiana and elsewhere, the 
 writer has seen the soil made loose, elastic and friable, 
 throughout the whole field, by running a laxge subsoil plow 
 to its utmost depth, at a distance of four feet between the 
 furrows. The entire mass of soil, seemed to be thoroughly 
 worked {mellowed), io the depth which the plow reached, al- 
 though run at these comparatively remote distances. 
 
 When all the circumstances are favorable to the use of the 
 subsoil plow, an increase in the crop of 20 or 30 and some- 
 times even 50 per cent, has been attributed to its ooerations. 
 Its maximum influence on stiff soils is reached, onlv where 
 uuderdraining has been thoroughlj^ carried out. Its benefits 
 have been more than doubtful, when used in an impervious 
 clay subsoil, where it makes further room for storins; up 
 stagnant water ; and i' is evident they can only aggravate th* 
 faults of such subsoil' as are naturally too loose and leachy 
 
MECHANICAL V VISION OF SOILS. 93 
 
 PLOWS, AND OTHER FARM IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 There are plows for almost every situation and soil, in ad- 
 dition to several varieties which are exclusively used for the 
 subsoil. Some are for heavy lands and some for light ; some 
 for stony soils, others for such as are full of roots ; while seve- 
 ral varieties of plows are expressly made, for breaking up the 
 hitherto untilled prairies of the West. Some are adapted to 
 deep and some to shallow plowing ; and some are for plowing 
 around a hill and throwing the furrows either up or down, or 
 both ways alternately ; others throw the soil on both sides, 
 and are used for furrowing and plowing between the rows of 
 3orn or roots. Every farm should be supplied with all that 
 are entirely suited to the various operations required. 
 There is frequently great economy in having a diversity of im- 
 plements for all the different purposes to be accomplished ; and 
 although one of unusual construction may seldom be called 
 for, yet its use for a few days or even for a few hours, may 
 sometimes repay its full cost. 
 
 The farmer will fiiad in the best agricultural ware-houses, 
 all the implements necessary to his operations, with such 
 descriptions as will enable him to judge of their merits. 
 Great attention has been bestOAved on this subject, by skil- 
 ful and intelligent persons, and great success has followed 
 their efforts. The United States may safely challenge the 
 world, to exhibit better specimens of farming tools than they 
 now furnish, and their course is still one of improvement. 
 There are numerous competitors for public favor, in every 
 description of farm implements ; and an intelligent farmer 
 cannot fail to select such as are best suited to his own situa- 
 tion and purposes. 
 
 The best only should be used.— There has been a " penny 
 wise and a pound foolish" policy adopted by many farmers, 
 in their neglect or refusal to supply themselves with good 
 tools to work with. They thus save a few shillings in the 
 first outlay, but frequently lose ten times as much by the 
 use of indifferent ones, from the waste of labor and the ineffi- 
 ciency of their operations. A farmer should estimate the 
 value of his own and his laborer's time, as well as that of his 
 teams, by dollars and cents ; and if it requires thirty, ten, or 
 even one "per cent, more, to accomplish a given object with 
 one instrument than with another, he should, before buying 
 one of inferior quality, carefully compute the amount his 
 false ecnumy in the purchase will cost him before he has 
 done v( .th it. Poor men, or those who wish to thrive can ill 
 
yi AMERICAN ii J-.ICULTI RE 
 
 afford the extravag^tice of buying inferior tools, at howevei 
 low a price. The best are always the cheapest ; not those 
 of high or extravagant finish, or in any respect nnneccssari- 
 ly costly ; but such as are plain and substantial, made on the 
 best principles and of the most durable materials. To no 
 tools do these remarks apply with so much force, as to plows 
 The improvements in these have been greater than in any 
 other instruments ; the best saving fully one half the labor 
 formerly bestowed in accomplishing the same work. 
 
 HARROWING. 
 
 The object of the harrow, is three fold ; to pulverize the 
 land, to cover the seed, and to extirpate weeds. Unless 
 the land be verj"^ light and sandy, the operation should never 
 be performed for either object, except when sufficiently dry 
 to allo"\v of its crumbling down into a fine, mellow surffvce, 
 under the action of ihe harrow. There are several varieties 
 of harrows in use ; the triangular and the sqttare, both 
 sometimes hinged and sometimes double ; with long teeth 
 and Avith short ones, some thickly set together, and some 
 wide apart. For pitlverizing firmly-sodded or still clay 
 lands, a heavy, compact harrow is required, Avith strong 
 teeth, sufficiently spread ; and for lighter lands, or for cover- 
 ing seed, the more expanded harroAv, with numerous small 
 and thickly-set teeth. To pulverize well, the harroAV should 
 move as quickly as possible, so as to strike the lumps forci- 
 bly, and knock them to pieces ; and for this purpose an active 
 team is required. When the land sinks much under the 
 pressure of the horses' feet, 1 ght animals, as mules or ponies, 
 are preferable. 
 
 THE ROLLER. 
 
 This is an important implement for many fields. It is al- 
 ways usefitl for pulveriziu!! the soil, w^hich it does by breaking- 
 down such clods and Ivimps as escape the harrow, and tliu.« 
 renders the field smooth for the scythe or cradle ; and it is 
 equally so on meadows, Avhich have become uneven from 
 the infiitence of frost, ant-.\ills, or other causes. It :'s ser- 
 viceable in covering seed, by pressing the earth firmly 
 around it ; thus securing moisture enoitgh for germination. 
 
 But its greatest benefit is with such sandy soils, as are 
 not sufficiently compact to hold the roots of plants firmly 
 and retain a suitable moisture. With these it is invaluable ; 
 and the proper use of the roller has, in some instances 
 
MECHANICAL. DIVISION OF SOILS. 95 
 
 doubled the product. Its effect is similar to that produced 
 by the frequent treading in a foot-path; and the observhig 
 farmer will not have failed to notice, the single tliread of 
 thick, green sward, which marks its course over an other- 
 wise almost barren field of sand or loose gravel. The thick- 
 ly- woven, emerald net- work, that indicates the sheep-walks 
 on similar soils, is principally due to the same cause. Those 
 portions of the pasture which have been thus compressed, 
 will be found to contain a thicker, greener herbage, which 
 > earlier in spring and later in autumn, and much more 
 relished by the animals cropping it, and apparently more 
 nutritive, than that on other parts of the field. 
 
 ivoUers are variously constructed. The simplest form is 
 a single wooden shaft, with gudgeons at each end, which rest 
 in a square frame, made by fastening four joists together; a 
 tongue for drawing it being placed in one of its sides. A 
 box may be attached to this frame, for tlie purpose of hold- 
 ing stones and weeds picked up in the field, and for weight- 
 ing the roller according to the work required. The best 
 rollers, however, are of cast iron, made in sections of about 
 a foot in length. As many of these may be placed on a 
 single axle as are required. This division into short sections, 
 facilitates turning on the axle, either back or forward, and 
 prevents the unsightly and objectionable furrowing of the 
 earth, Avhich occurs in turning with the long, solid roller. 
 Some are made of stone, but these are very liable to break, 
 and are equally objectionable in turning, as those made 
 of wood. 
 
 The larger the roller, the greater is the surface brought 
 into contact with the ground, and consequently the more 
 level it leaves it. To accomplish this object without too 
 much increase of weight, rollers are frequently constructed 
 with heads at the ends, and closely covered like a drum. For 
 dividing compact, clay lumps, or scarifying meadows, they 
 are sometimes made with large numbers of short, stout, 
 ingular teeth, projecting from the outer or rolling surface, 
 which penetrate and ciash the clods, and tear up and loosen 
 ♦^he old turf and moss of meadows. 
 
 THE CULTIVATOR 
 
 Has a light frame, in the form of a triangular or wedge- 
 harrow, with handles behind, like those of a plow, and with 
 several small iron teeth in the frame, somewhat resembling 
 a doubie share plow. The teeth are usually of cast iron, and 
 
96 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 when properly made 2i\\^ chill-hardened, as is the case with 
 those portions of the plow most liable to \vear, they are un- 
 doubtedly the most economical and best. They are rarely 
 made of wrought iron, but more frequently of steel. 
 
 They are of various sizes, slightly differing in construc- 
 tion, and are of great utility in stirring the surface of the 
 ground and destroying weeds. By an expanding attachment, 
 they are capable of being adapted to any width of row. 
 
 THE CORNPLANTER AND DRILL BARROW 
 
 Are useful for dibbling iji seeds, and when the surface ia 
 mellow, they will open the furrows for the reception of the 
 seed, which it drops, covers, and then rolls the earth firmly 
 over it. The small drills are trmidled along like a wheel- 
 barrow, by hand ; and the larger, for field sowing, having 
 several fixtures for drilling, are drawn by a horse. These 
 are suited to the smaller seeds. Cornplantersare made to plant 
 corn, beans and peas, which they do at the rate of ten acres 
 per day, and Avith entire uniformity as to quantity of seed 
 in a hill, depth of covering and distance. 
 
 STTRFACE OR SHOVEL PLOWS. 
 
 These are a cheap and light instrument, much used in 
 England, and to some extent in this country, for paring the 
 stubble and grass roots on the surfaces of old meadows. 
 These are raked together into heaps, and "with whatever 
 addition there may be of earth or clay, are burnt, and the 
 ashes and roasted earth scattered over the soil. There is 
 an apparent objection to this practice, from the expulsion of 
 the carbon and nitrogen stored up in the plants ; and from the 
 \vaste of the coarse material of the decaying vegetables, 
 which is so useful in effecting the proper mechanical divi 
 sions of clay soils. But by a reference to what has been 
 said, on the efficiency of burnt clay or broken bricks, their 
 great utility as fertilizers \v\\\ be seen. This and the ash 
 of the plants remain ; and both are useful in quickening the 
 action of soils, and accelerating those changes, so beneficial 
 to vegetation ; and even the re-absorption of the atmosphe- 
 ric gases, it is probable, will more *han compensate for those 
 expelled in burning. The effect is further salutary, in de- 
 stroying grubs, insects and their larvae, and the seeds oi 
 aoxious weeds. 
 
THK GRA3SKS MEADOWS. ETC. 97 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE GRASSES, CLOVERS, MEADOW'S AND PASTURES 
 
 The order designated by naturalists as GramincB, is one 
 of the largest and most universally diffused in the vegetable 
 kingdom. It is also the most important to man, and to all 
 the different tribes of graminiverous animals. It includes 
 not only what are usually cultivated as grasses, but also 
 rice, millet, Avheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, sugar-cane, 
 broom-corn, the wild cane and the bamboos, the last sometimes 
 reaching 60 or 80 feet in height. They are invariably charac- 
 terized as having a cylindrical stem ; hollow, or sometimes as 
 in the sugar-cane and bamboos, filled with a pith-like sub- 
 stance ; Avith solid joints and alternate leaves, originating at 
 each joint, and surrounding the stem at their base and form- 
 ing a sheath upwards, of greater or loss extent ; and the 
 flowers and seed are protected with a firm, straw-like cover- 
 ing, which is the chaflf in the grains and grass seeds, and the 
 husk in Indian corn. They yield large proportions of sugar, 
 starch and fatty matter, besides those peculiarly animal pro- 
 ducts, albumen and fibrin, not only in the seeds, but also, 
 and especially before the latter are fully matured, in the 
 stems, joints and leaves. These qualities give to them the 
 great value which they possess in agriculture. 
 
 Of the grasses cultivated for the use of animals in England, 
 there are said to be no less than 200 varieties ; while in the 
 occupied portion of this country, embracing an indefinitely 
 greater variety of latitude, climate and situation, we hardly 
 cultivate twenty. The number and excellence of our 
 natural grasses, are probably unsurpassed in any quarter of 
 the globe, for a similar extent of country ; but this is a de- 
 partment of our natural history, hitherto but partially ex- 
 plored, and we are left mostly to conjecture, as to their num 
 bers and comparative quality. Their superior -ichness and 
 enduringness may be inferred, from the health and thrift o 
 the butfalo, deer and ofher wild herbivora^ ; as well as from 
 t>-- g-owth and fine conditiop of our lomestic animals 
 5 
 
98 
 
 AMERlCAy AGRICULTL'RS. 
 
 throughout the year, when ]>ern.itled to raiige over tue 
 woods, and through the natural prairies and bottom lands, 
 where these grasses abound. The Avriter has seen large 
 droves of the French and InJian ponies come into the set- 
 tlements about Green Say and tiie Fox River in Wisconsin, 
 in the spring, in good working condition, after winteriijg, 
 entirely on the natural grasses and browse north of lat. 44°. 
 Timothy, Cat's Tail dr Herd's Grass (Phleunipratense.) 
 -For cultivation in the nortl em portion ol 
 I the United States, I am inclir ^d to place the 
 Timothy first in the list of tte irrasses. It 
 is indigenous to this country, and flourishes in 
 all soils except such as are wet, too light, 
 dry, or sandy ; and it is found in perfection 
 on the rich clays and clay loams, \vhich lie 
 between 38*^ and 4-i° north latitude. It is a 
 perennial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of 
 luxuriant growth, and on its favorite soil, 
 yields from one and a half to two tons of hay 
 per acre, at one cutting. 
 
 Sinclair estimates its value for hay ^vhen 
 in seed, to be double that cut in flower. 
 From its increased value Avhen ripe, it is cut 
 late ; and in consequence of the exhaustion from maturing its 
 seed, it produces but little aftermath or rowen. For milch 
 cows or young stock, it should be cut when going into 
 fioAver, and before the seeds have been developed, as it is then 
 more succulent. It vegetates early in the spring, and when 
 pastured, yields abundantly throughout the season. Both 
 the grass and hay are hiahly relished by cattle, sheep, and 
 horses ; and its nutritive quality, in the opinion of practical 
 men, stands decidedly before any other. It is also a valua- 
 ble crop for seed an acre of prime grass yielding from 15 
 to 25 bushels of iJean seed, which is worth in the market 
 from $1 50 to $4 50 per bushel ; and the stalks and the 
 chaff that remain, make a useful fodder for most kinds ol 
 stock. 
 
 It may be sown upon ^vheat or rye, in August or Septem- 
 ber :r in the spring. When sown either alone, or with other 
 grasses, early in the season, and on a rich soil, it Avill pro- 
 duce a good crop the same j'-ear. From its late ripening, it 
 is not advantageously groAvn Avit'i clover, unless upon heavy 
 clays, which holcl back the clove:. I have tried it with the 
 northern or mam-.:oth clover, or :lay, and found the latter 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
T7IE g; 
 
 ::s, MEADOW ^, etc 
 
 thougn iiostly m full blossom, still pushing out new .ranches 
 and buds, when the former was fit to cut.'^ The quantity o 
 seed required per acre, depends on the soil and its condition 
 iwelve quarts on a fine mellow tilth, are sufficient, and 
 equal to twice this quantity on a stiff clay. Heavier seed- 
 ing than this may be practised with advantage, and especial- 
 ly, where it is desirable to cover the surface at once with a 
 thick sward. 
 
 Fig. 5. Fig. 6 Fig. 7. 
 
 _ Meadow Fox Tail {Alopecurus pratensis Fig. 5) This 
 IS a favorite grass in England, both for meadows and 
 pasture. It grows early and abundantly, and gives a lar^e 
 quantity of aftermath. It is best suited to a moi.st soil, bog 
 clay or loam. It is indigenous to the middle States. 
 
 feMooTH Stalk Meadow, Green, Spear or June Grass. 
 he erroneously called Blue Grass of Kentucky (Poaprd 
 temis Fig. 6), is highly e.<teemed for hay and pasture It 
 IS indigenous and abounds through the country, but does not 
 appear to reach its highest perfection north of the valley of 
 the Ohio. It IS seen in its glory in Kentucky and Tennes- 
 see. 1 he seed ripens in June and is self-sown upon the 
 ground, where the succeeding rains give it vitality ; and it 
 pushes out Its long, rich slender leaves, two feet in lieio-ht 
 which in autumn, fail over in thick windrows, mattino-^he 
 whole surface with luscious herbage. Upon these fields, which 
 nave been carefully protected till the other fora-e is exhaust- 
 ed, the cattle are turned and fatten through the whiter It 
 maintains its freshness and nutritive properties in spite o. 
 irost and Jie cattle easily reach it through the light snowa 
 which fall m that climate. A warm, dry, calcareoi^ soil, 
 
too 
 
 4MERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 seoms to be '-ts natural element, and it flourishes only in a 
 rich upland. 
 
 The Pvoughish Meadow Grass (P. trivialis Fig. 7), 
 oas the appearance of the poa pratensis, but its stalk feela 
 rough to the touch, while the other is smooth. It has the 
 further difference, of pre '"erring moist or wet loams or clay. 
 It yields ■well and affords gKjod hay and pasture. 
 
 Flat-Stalked Meadow or Blue Grass (P. compressa)^ 
 is an early dwarfish grass, which abounds in the middle and 
 northern States. It is tenacious of its foothold wherever it 
 ir.tr udes. It possesses little merit as hay, but is valuable for 
 pasture, affording as it does, a close covering to the ground, 
 and yielding much in a small compass. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 The Annual Meadow Grass (P. annua. Fig. 8). — This 
 ^rass flourishes in most soils, and in nearly alt situations. 
 It affords an early and nutritive herbage, and is relished by 
 ail animals. It is perpetually flowering, and affords an 
 abundance of rich seeds. It is hardy and self-propagatin"-, 
 and seldom requires to be sown, but springs up wherever 
 the ground is uncukivated. 
 
 Narrow-Leaved Meadow (P. angustifolia, Fig. 9). — 
 This is an early pasture grass, throwing out a profusion of 
 slender leaves. It flowers late, and before it ha,? reached this 
 point of its maturity, it is liable to rust, which diminishes its 
 value for hay. It is for this reason, as well as its diminu- 
 tive size, much bettat' adapted to pasture. 
 
 Red Top. Herds' Grass, Foul Meadow, or Fine Bent 
 {Agrostis vulgaris, Fig. 10), is a hardy, luxuriant grass, 
 
THE GRASSES, MSADOWS, ETC. 
 
 101 
 
 loviiif a very moist soil, and somewhat indiffereix is to its 
 texture. The scale of its nutritive properties is pnt down in 
 the Woburn experiments, at a remarkably low rate, being 
 iess than one fourteenth of the value per acre of Timothy in 
 the seed. We .hink tk 3re must be an error in this esti- 
 mate, as it grows luxuriantly under favorable circumstances, 
 and is relished by cattle. It is seldom cultivated by observ- 
 ing farmers, where the better grasse? will grow. 
 
 Upright Bent Grass, Herds' Grass or Fotjl Meadow 
 (y1. stricta) is similar to the foregoing, and by some is deem- 
 ed only a variety. 
 
 Tall Oat Grass (^Avena elatior) is an early luxuriant 
 grass, growing to the height, sometimes, of five feet. It 
 makes good hay, but is better suited to pasture. It flour- 
 ishes in a loam or clay soil. 
 
 Fio. 12. 
 
 Fio. li. 
 
 Fio. 13. 
 
 The Tall Fescue [Festuca elatior, Fig. 11) would 
 appear by the Woburn experiments, to yield more nutritive 
 matter per acre, when cut in flower, than any other grass cut 
 either in flower or seed. This is a native of the United 
 States, and is best suited to a rich loam. It is not extensively 
 cultivated in this country. 
 
 Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis, Fig. 12) hkes a rich 
 bogo;y soil, bears well and produces an early grass, much 
 relished by cattle, either green, or cured as hay. 
 
 Spiked Fescue (F. loleacea Fig. 13) is adapted to a 
 rich loam, and produces the best of hay and pasture. 
 
 ThE Purple Fescue {F. rubra). Sheep's Fescue [F 
 ovina Fig. 14) Ti:e Hard Fescue {F. durinscula 
 
102 
 
 AHEKICAS AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 15), anci The Floating Fescue (P. ^2«Ya;w, Fig. 16) 
 are all indigenous to this country, and good pasture grasses. 
 The two last are g-ood hay grasses, though the former is rathei 
 diminutive. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Fio. IC. 
 
 The floating fescue requires to grow in a very wet and 
 strong clay soil, "w^hen it will be found to yield a large burthen 
 of nutritive forage. The seeds are small but abundant, 
 sweet and fattening. All fowls are fond of the seed, and all 
 animals of the seed and herbage. 
 
 Orchard or Cock's Foot Grass [Dactylis glonierata, 
 Fig. 17) is indigenous, and for good ara- 
 ble soils, and especially for such as are 
 shaded, it is one of the most profitable 
 grasses grown. It shoiild be cut for hay 
 before it is ripe, as in seeding it becomes 
 coarse and hard, and is less acceptable to 
 cattle. It is ready for the scythe with the 
 clover, and -after cutting, it immediately 
 sprinss up and furnishes three or four crops 
 of hay, or constant pasturage throughout 
 the season. It should be fed closeh', to se- 
 cure a tender, succulent herbage. The 
 seed is remarkably hght, weighing 12 or 
 Fio. 17. 1 5 Ibs. per bushel. Twenty to thirty pounds 
 
 are usually sown upon one acre ; yet ten pounds on finely- 
 prepared soils have been known to produce a good sod, ove' 
 the entire ground. It flourishes from Maine to Georgia. 
 American or Swamp Cock's Foot {D. cyTWSunndes) is 
 
THE GEASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 
 
 103 
 
 an indigenous swamp grass, yielding a large amount of grass 
 or haj'^ of inferior quality. 
 
 Biennial Rye Grass, or frequently called, Ray Grass 
 {Lolium perenneox bienne, Fig. 18) and Ital- 
 ian Rye Grass are highly esteemed grasses in 
 Europe. They have been more or less cultiva- 
 ted in this country for many years. They were 
 not successful on their first introduction here, 
 owing to our severe frosts. Recent experi- 
 ments, however, have shown them to be suffi- 
 ciently hardy for the middle States ; and they 
 are now extensively cultivated in the neighbor- 
 hood of New York, where they are highly es- 
 teemed both for hay and pasturage. On good 
 soils, they yield large returns of valuable for- 
 age. It is better to sow early in the spring, 
 either by itself or with barley. With oats or 
 wheat, it does not succeed so well. When put in with Tim- 
 othy and orchard grass, the latter has usurped the place ot 
 both the others in a few years. Heavy clay lands are liable 
 to throw out the roots by frost, and thus winter-kill. 
 
 FioRiN Grass {Agrostis stolonifera. Fig. 19) has 
 been much lauded in England of late, but it has made 
 little progress in the estimation of 
 '/> American farmers, and probably 
 with sufficient reason. It is a di- 
 minutive grass, affording conside- 
 rable nutriment in a condensed 
 form, and is adapted to a winter 
 pasture. It growls on a moist clay 
 or boggy soil. It is probably on 
 / such, and in moist climdies only, 
 /| that it attains its full size, charac- 
 ^ ter and value. Many results have 
 ^J. , been attained with it in England 
 "y^ and Ireland, wliich would seem to 
 commend it, as a valuable forage 
 Fia. 19. plant, in its appropriate soil and 
 
 elimate. Several of the florin family abound in this coun- 
 try, among which is the squitch, couch, or quick grass, 
 which are considered as jests m the cultivated fields. 
 
i04 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Sweet-scented Vernal Grass [Anthoxanthum 
 odoratum, Fig. 20) is an early and valuable 
 grass, which exhales that delightful per- 
 fume so characteristic of much of the east- 
 ern meadow hay. It is also a late as well 
 as an early grass, and luxuriates in a dry 
 sandy loam. It affords two, and some- 
 times three crops in a season. 
 
 Poa Alpina (Fig. 21), Aira caspitosa 
 (Fig. 22), Briza media (Fig. 23), and the 
 Agrostis humilis, and Agrostis vulgaris, 
 as well as the Hard and Sheep's Fescue, 
 before noticed, are all sweet, pasture 
 grasses, and excellent for lawns. These, 
 Fig. 20. and a large variety of other dwarf grasses, 
 
 abound on our uncultivated uplands, mountains and wood- 
 lands, creeping in through the neglect, rather than the care 
 
 Fig. 21. Fio. 22. Fig. 23. 
 
 of the husbandman. They yield a nutritive herbage for the 
 herds and flocks ; and an almost perennial verdure to the 
 landscape, equally grateful to the rustic eye, or a cultivated 
 taste. 
 
 Ribbon Grass (Phalaris afnericana) is the beautiful stri- 
 ped grass, occasionally used for garden borders. It has been 
 highly recommended for swamps, to which, if transplanted, 
 it is alleged that it will supersede all other grasses, and af 
 ford a fine quality of hay, of an appearance quite dfferent 
 from the upland growth. The writer tried several exper: 
 ments, both with the seed and roots, on a clay marsh, but witli 
 
THE GRASSES, MEAIOWS, ETC, 105 
 
 out success. Its proper pabulum is probably a rich carbona- 
 ceous soil, such as is found in an alluvial s^vamp or peat 
 bed. 
 
 Gama Grass ( Tripsaciim dactyloides) is found growing 
 spontaneously on a naked sand beach, in Stratford, Ct., and 
 in other places on our eastern coasts. It has occasionally 
 been much lauded at the North, M'here it is a coarse, rough 
 grass ; and it seems generally, to be little prized at the South. 
 But we have recently, the opinion of some iirtelligent men 
 in that section, that it is much relished by stock ; as they 
 frequently eat it so close to the ground, as soon to extirpate 
 it. We .«ihould conclude, therefore, that it is a valuable grass 
 for some sections of the United States, v.?' pre the soil and 
 locality are suited to it. 
 
 The Egyptian, Syrian or Guinka Grass {Sorghum 
 halpense, Fig. 24), known by various 
 other names, is a native of our 
 southern States, in many of its va- 
 rieties, although it has been import- 
 ed from abroad. I have seen it 
 growing in profusion on Long 
 Island, Charleston, S. C, and in 
 southern Mississippi. It grows 
 like a very slender, miniature Corli- 
 ss stalk, from four to six feet high, 
 with a strong stem, a large grassy 
 ^""■- 24. leaf, and bears a stately seed-stalk, 
 
 tufted with flowrets, which, however, so far as they have 
 come within my knowledge, do not bear a fully-ripened seed 
 in this country. That imported from the Mediterranean, 
 grows with great vigor. Its roots are tuberous, large and 
 prolific ; and equally Avith the rich, succulent leaves and 
 stalks, when the latter are young, they are at all times 
 greedily devoured by stock. Dr. Bachman, of South Caro- 
 lina, considers it a stock-sustaining plant, far superior to any 
 other grown at the South. It is difficult to remove when 
 once embedded in the soil, and the cotton planters look upon 
 its introduction into their cultivated fields, with unmingled 
 apprehension. 
 
 Bermuda Grass (Cynodmi dactylon, Lin. — Paspaluni 
 dactylon, Deccan., Fig. 17). — This is considered by Mr. 
 Spalding, an experienced planter in Georgia, who examined 
 them both critically, from specimens which he raised to- 
 gether, as che Doub grass of India, so much commended 
 5* 
 
lOG AMERICAN AGRICTJI TURE. 
 
 by Sir William Jones, and so highly prized by the Brah- 
 mins. It is by the agriculturists of the South, deemed an 
 invaluable grass, yielding four or five tons per acre on good 
 meadow. Mr. Atileck, of Mississippi, states the yield of three 
 
 Fig 25. 
 
 cuttings, at five to six tons i)er acre on common meadow, 
 that it loses only 50 per cent, of its weight in drying, and is 
 consequently the hardest grass to cut. It is one of the most 
 nutritive grasses known, and is of great value to the river 
 planter. It loves a warm and moist, but not wet soil. 
 
 Crab Grass is considered (unjustly as I think) a pest by 
 the cotton-planters, for equally, perhaps, with the Bermuda, 
 it is a rich and nutritious grass. It comes up after the crops 
 are laid by (received their last plowing and hoeing), and 
 grows rapidly as the cotton or corn matures and dries ; and 
 by the time they are ready to remove from the field, has 
 frequently attained so large a growth, as to afford a crop of 
 hay. Even considered as a fertilizer alone, it is a valuable 
 assistant to the planter. When the corn or cotton is young, 
 the ground requires working to an extent sufficient to 
 keep down this grass, solely Avith a reference to preserving 
 its porosity — its dew-condensing, dew-absorbing proper- 
 ties. When the crop is sufficiently matured to need no fur- 
 ther care, the grass shoots forward rapidly, and absorbs 
 largely from the floating elements of the air. 
 
 Winter Grass is known on the low, moist fertile soils of 
 Mississippi and adjoining States. It springs up in the au- 
 tumn, grows all Avinter, and seeds in the spring. It fattens 
 all animals that feed upon it. 
 
 The Muskeet Grass, found growing on the plains of Mex- 
 ico and Texas, is considered one of /he best of the indigenous 
 grasses. I \\: 'e seen it growing on the plantations of Louisi- 
 ana, where it has been successfully transplanted. 
 
 Grama [La Grama, or the grass of grasses) is held in 
 the highest estimation b}'' the Mexicans. It attains a me- 
 dium height, and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural 
 grasses in oar southwestern, frontier prairies, in California, 
 and parts of Mexico. It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, 
 on side hills, the SAye^ls of the prairies, and the gentle eleva- 
 
THE GRvSSES, ITEADO'iVS, ETC 107 
 
 tions in the valleys. The principal value is found in the 
 numerous seeds, whi ih are retained in the pods with great 
 tenacity, long after the> are ripe, serving as a luxurious 
 food for all the graniverous beasts and fowls of the regions 
 where it is grown. 
 
 The Buffalo G/riss is found intermixed with the Grama 
 and seldom grows more than a few inches in height. It 
 forms a thick, sOft herbage, on which the traveller walks 
 with ease, and reposes when weary, Avith delight. It yields 
 a rich sustenance to countless herds of wild horses and cat- 
 tle, butfaloes, leer and antelopes. 
 
 Tornillo or Screio Grass. — This grows in great profu- 
 sion in the region of the two last grasses ; but is most con- 
 spicuous on the table lands, and between the rivers and 
 creeks, the tall grass of the lower levels, giving place to it as 
 the surface ascends. It is taller than the buffalo, with 
 broader leaves. It bears a seed-stock eight or ten inches 
 high, surmounted by a spiral-shaped pod, an inch long and 
 one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which contains ten or 
 twelve roundish, flattened seeds. The herbage is not re- 
 lished by animals, but the ripened seeds yield a food of great 
 richness, on which umumerable herds of wild cattle fatten 
 for slaughter. Horses, mules and most other animals and 
 fowls subsist upon it. — (Z);-. Lyman.) 
 
 The Prairie Grasses abound in the western prairies, and 
 are of great variety, according to the latitude and circum- 
 stances under which they are found. They afford large sup- 
 plies of nutritive food both as pasturage and hay. They 
 possess different merits for stock, but as a general rule, they 
 are coarse when they have reached maturity, and are easily 
 injured by the early frosts of autumn. Some of the le- 
 guminosae or wild pea vines, which are frequently found 
 among them, yield the richest herbage. We are not aware 
 that any of these grasses have been cultivated with success. 
 
 The Pony Grass (Fig 26) may be mentioned, as one of the 
 
 best of the winter grasses in our western States. It 
 grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green all 
 winter. It is easily detected under the snow by ammals, from 
 the little hommocs Avhich everywhere indent its surface, 
 Tkc Wild Rtct which lines <he still, s'\allow waters of 
 
108 AMERICAN AORICUl-TirRE. 
 
 the streams and small inland lakes of many of the western 
 States, affords a palatable forage when 2,Teen, or if early cut 
 and dried ; and the grain, which is prwiuced in great profu- 
 sion, is an exhaustless store to the Indians, Avho push into 
 the thickest of it, and bending over the ripe heads, W'thtwo 
 or three strokes of the paddle on the dry stalks, rattle the grain 
 into their light canoes. The wild ducks, geese and swazs, 
 which yet frequent those waters, fatten on this grain t'^.rough- 
 out the fall and winter. 
 
 TussAC Grass {T)actijlis cesjjitosa) is a laxuriant, salt- 
 marsh grass, groAving in large tufts, and is found in perfec- 
 tion on its native soil, in the Falkland Islands, between 51° 
 and 52° South, and about 8"^ east of the Straits of Magellan. 
 Capt. Ross describes it, as '* the gold and glory of those 
 islands. Every animal feeds upon it with avidity, and ftit- 
 tens in a short time. The blades are about six feet long, and 
 from 200 to 300 shoots spring from a single plant. About 
 four inches of the root eats like the mountain cabbage. It 
 loves a rank, wet peat bog, with the sea spray over it." 
 Governor Hood of those islands sa^'-s, " to cultivate the tus- 
 sac, I would reconmiend that the seed be sown in patches, 
 just below the surface of the ground, and at distances of 
 about two feet apart, and afterwards weeded out, as it grows 
 very luxuriantly, and to the height of six or seven feet. It 
 should not b? izrazed. but reaped or cut in bimdles. If cut, 
 it quickly shoots up, l)Ut is injured by grazing, particularly 
 by pi iS, who tear it up to get at the sweet nutty root." 
 
 Arundo Grass (^Arundo alopecurus). — Mr. Hooker 
 from the same islands says : "another grass, however, far 
 more abundant and universally distributed ov'er the whole 
 country, scarcely yields in its nutritious qualities to the tus- 
 sac ; I mean the Arundo alopecurus, which covers every 
 peat bog with a dense and rich clothing of green in sum- 
 mer, and a pale, A^ellow, good hay in the winter season. 
 This hay, though formed by nature without being mown and 
 dried, keeps those cattle which have not access to the former 
 grass, in excellent condition. No bog, however rank, seems 
 too bad for this plant to luxuriate in ; and as we remarked 
 during our survey of Port William, although the soil on the 
 quartz districts was very unprolific in many good grasses, 
 which flourish on the clay slate, and generally speaking, of 
 the worst description, still the Arundo did not appear to feel 
 the change ; nor did the cattle fail to eat down large tracts 
 of this pasturage." 
 
 J have purposely devoted several pages to the description 
 
THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. ,09 
 
 of such new grasses as are indigenous to this continent, ani'' 
 which, by their superior vakie in their native locahties, 
 would seem to commend themselves to a thorough trial in 
 similar situations elsewhere. There are doul:less, others ot 
 great merit, which experiment hereafter, will demonstrate 
 to be of singular benefit to the American farmer. Most o( 
 these, yet remain to be classified by the botanists ; and what 
 is of much more utility, to be thoroughly tested by the cru- 
 cibles of intelligent chemists and the experiments of en- 
 lightened agriculturists, to determine their absolute and rela- 
 tive value for economical purposes. The subject of grasses 
 has been but slightly investigated in this country, in 
 comparison with its immense importance ; and for this 
 reason, with few exceptions, Ave are at a loss for the 
 true comparative value, of the foreign and indigenous 
 grasses, to American husbandry. 
 
 As an instance of the want of a well-established character 
 to some of our most generally-cultivated grasses, we quote 
 the opinions of Dr. Muhlenburgh, of Pa., who has written 
 ably on the subject ; and the late John Taylor, a distin- 
 guished agriculturist of Virginia, both of whom place the 
 tall oat grass [Avena elatior) at the head of the grasses ; 
 yet from the investigations made at Woburn, it appears 
 among the poorest in the amount of nutritive matter yielded 
 per acre. Dr. Darlington, also of Pennsylvania, does not 
 mention it, but gives the following, as comprehending " those 
 species which are considered of chief value in our meadows 
 and pastures, naming them in what T consider the order of 
 their excellence : 1. MeadoAV or green grass (Pofl pratensis) 
 2. Timothy (^Phleum j)rate?ise). 3. Orchard grass (^Dac- 
 tylis glomerata.) 4. Meadow fescue (^Festuca pratensit). 
 5. Blue grass (^Poa coinjoressa). 6. R-ay grass {Lolium 
 peremte.) 7. Red top [Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet- 
 scented vernal grass [Anthoxajithuvi odoratum)." 
 
 The Siveet- Scented, Soft Grass, or Holy Grass, [Holcus 
 odoratus), according to the Woburn table, is next to the tall 
 fescue and Timothy in point of }n;tritive matter to the acre, 
 when cut in seed, and it is placed as far in advance of all 
 others, in the value of its aftermath ; yet scarcely any other 
 authority mentions it Avith commendation. 
 
 Without relying on these experiments, as an unerring 
 guide for the American farmer, we append the table on the 
 two following pages, as the fullest and most correct we have 
 on the subject, and as affording a useful reference to some 
 of the leading and most desirable of the English grasses 
 T.niiv of u'hifth am niore or lew cnlfivnted in tiii* conntrv 
 
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112 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 SOWING GRASS SEEDS. 
 
 As a general rile, grass seeds do best when sown early 1b 
 the spring, ou a fine tilth or mellow soil. If this is done 
 while the frost is leaving the ground, no harrowing will be 
 necessary, as the spring rains wash tlie seed into the honey- 
 comb left by the frost, and secure to it an early germination. 
 They are also successfully so^vn in August or September, 
 when the fall rains will generally give them sufficient growth, 
 to withstand the effects of the succeeding winter, if the land 
 be free from standing or surface water. 
 
 It has recently been the practice of many judicious far 
 mers, to renovate their old, worn-out meadows, by giving 
 them a coating of unfermented manure, and then turn the 
 sod completely over. On the surface thus plowed, a dress- 
 ing of well-rotted manure or compost with ashes, is spread 
 and thoroughly harrowed lemrthwise of the furrows. The 
 seed is then sown and slightly harrowed in, and the decom- 
 posing manure and the stubble and roots of the sod give an 
 immediate and Itixuriant growth. 
 
 Grass seed is generally sown with the white grains, wheat, 
 rye and oats ; but if the grass be sown alone and sufficiently 
 thick, the young plants will exclude the weeds, and occupy 
 the soil as profitably as can be done with the grain. Thotigh 
 the moisture and shade, which are secured by the presence 
 of the grain, are sometimes an advantage to the grass seed, 
 yet it often fails when thus sown, from the absence, per- 
 haps, of sufficient sun and air ; or more probably, from the 
 exhausting crop of grain, u^hich precedes it. We do not 
 sutficiently appreciate the violation of one of the essential 
 principles of rotation in this practice, as the grass is of the 
 same class of plants as the grain, which has just been taken 
 from the field. When followed by clover, this objection fails 
 
 There is usually a great deficiency of grass seed sown, 
 when permanent meadows or pastures are required. The 
 'English method is, to mix together and sow on a single acre 
 without any grain, t^vo to four bushels of various seeds, 
 w^hich are the best adapted to the purpose. A quick and 
 full growth -^pidly covers the surface Avith a rich herbage, 
 frequently surpassing in value, that of the best natural pas- 
 tures or meadows. 
 
 LANDS THAT SHOULD BE KEPT IN PERPETUAl GBAS8, 
 
 Are such as are frequently under w^ater, a« salt and fresb 
 
TUE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ET X 113 
 
 water meadows ; such as are liable to overflow, as the rich 
 bottom or interval lands upon a river bank ; heavy, tenacious 
 clays, and mountain or steep hill-side land, which is pecu 
 liarly liable to wash from rains. The low, bottom lands 
 generally receive one or more annual dressings from the over- 
 flowing waters. The fertilizing matters thus deposited, are 
 converted into hay, and become a reliable source for increas- 
 ing the muck heap for other parts of the farm, without de- 
 manding aiiy thing in return. The thick sward of nutritious 
 grasses, which nature has so lavishly supplied to them, is an 
 effectual protection against abrasion and waste from the 
 overflowing water, while the crop, if at any time submerged, 
 can receive comparatively little injury. If plowed and the 
 fine loose earth is exposed to a sweeping current, much of 
 the soil and all the crop may be lost. 
 
 Strong clay lands cannot be properly worked without much 
 labor, unless when under-drained and well filled with manure ; 
 and they seldom exist in the former condition in this country. 
 Yet these soils, next to the fertile, self-sustaining, bottom 
 lands, are the most profitable for the various grasses. When 
 thus appropriated, immediately after clearing off the native 
 growth of wood, the fine vegetable mold at the surface, aided 
 by the magazine of supplies contained in the clay below, 
 gives to them the most certain and permanent growth. If 
 once plowed, this mold is turned under, and the intractable 
 clay takes its place on the surface ; and lacking those pecu- 
 liarities of color, texture and chemical composition, which we 
 have before shown, are essential to the most successful vegeta- 
 tion, th& grass is thin, and for years, comparatively unproduc- 
 tive. When necessary to break up such lands, they ought to be 
 thoroughly manured, evenly laid down, and heavily seeded to 
 grass ; and if any deficiency of seed or growth is manifested, 
 they should receive an addition of seed, with a compost 
 dressing. 
 
 The injury to plowing steep side-hills, is sufficiently ap- 
 parent, as not only the soluble matters, but many of the finer 
 particles of the soil, are washed out and carried far beyond 
 reach. Such lands should be kept in permanent pasture, if 
 not suitable for mowing. If fed off by sheep, they drop most 
 of their manure on the higher points, which is partially 
 washed down and sustains the fertility of every part. There 
 is still another class of lands that should not be broken up fot 
 meadows. These are such as are filled Avith small stones 
 from the siuface of which they have once been cleared ; bu 
 
114 AMERICAN AORICrLTtJRE. 
 
 which plowing and harrowing will again bring to it, and 
 here they will remain, a perpetual annoyance to the mower, 
 unless removed at no little trouble and expense. 
 
 MEANS OF RENOVATING PERMANENT MEADOWS AND PASTURES. 
 
 The general theory adopted in regard to pasture lands, is, 
 that they are manured sufficiently by the animals feeding on 
 them. This opinion is only partially correct. Pastures 
 wear out less than other lands ; but when milch cows and 
 working animals are fed upon them, they carry off much 
 of the produce of the soil, which is never again return- 
 ed to it. Even the wool and carcass of sheep, with the 
 ordinary escape of the salts by the washing of the rains, 
 will, after a long time, impoverish the land. How much 
 more rapidly then, if much of the manure and all the milk, 
 which is rich in all the elements of plants, is daily carried 
 from the soil. To such an extent have the permanent, clay 
 pastures of Cheshire (England) been impoverished, that it 
 has been found necessary to manure them with crushed 
 bones, which at once brought up their value more than 100 
 per cent. There is much phosphate of lime in milk, and 
 bones, which are mostly of the same material, are the best 
 manure that could be used for dairy pastures. Wool con- 
 tains a large proportion of sulphur, and sulphate of lime 
 (gypsum) is therefore a proper manure for sheep pastures. 
 Whatever has a tendency to develope vegetation, will gen- 
 erally accomplish the object by yielding all the needful pro- 
 perties. Ashes and salt are of the highest value for pasture 
 lands, and with the addition in some instances, of lime, bones 
 and gypsum, are all that Avould ever be necessary for perma- 
 nent pastures. Fio.n the peculiar action of these, instead 
 of growing poorer, pastures may become richer through 
 every successive year. 
 
 Permanent meadow lands, if tviistantly cropped loithout 
 ma?iures, may be exhausted with much greater rapidity 
 than pastures, though this depreciation is much more gradual 
 than with tillage lands. There is no greater mistake than 
 to suppose they will keep in condition, by taking off one 
 annual crop only, and either pasturing the aftermath, or 
 leaving it to decay on the ground. By recurring to the ta- 
 ble of the ash of plants, page 35, it will be seen, that the 
 analysis of hay there given, shows over five per cent., Avhile 
 dried clover yields from seven to nine per cent, of earthy 
 tnalter, Every particl.^ of this is essential to the success of 
 
THE GRASSES, MEArOWS, ETC, 115 
 
 the plant ; and yet, if the land produces at the rate of tWO 
 tons per acre, the salts are taken out of it, to the amount of 
 upwards of 300 lbs. per annum. No soils but such as are 
 periodically flooded with enriching waters, can long suffer 
 such a drain with impunity. They initst be renewed with 
 theproper manures, or barrenness ivill ensue. Ashes, lime, 
 bones, and gypsum (the latter especially to be applied to 
 clovers, its good eifects not being so marked on the grasses), 
 are essential to maintain fertility ; and to insure the greatest 
 product, animal or vegetable manures must also be added. 
 
 The proper manner of applying manure, is by mixing in 
 a compost and scattering it over the surface, when the grass 
 .s just commencing a vigorous growth in spring, or simul- 
 taneovxsly witli the fii'st rains after mowing. The growing 
 vegetation soon buries the manure under its thick foliage, 
 and the refreshing showers Avash its soluble portions into the 
 roots; and even the gases that would otherwise escape, are 
 immediately absorbed by the dense leaves and stalks, which 
 everywhere surround it. When scattered broadcast, imder 
 such circumstances, the loss of manure is trilling, even in a 
 state of active decomposition. 
 
 Pasturing Meadoios. — It is an established principle with 
 some, that close feeding, as often at least, as once a year, 
 is essential to the permanent productiveness of all meadows. 
 There is certainly no objection to feeding them soon after 
 being mown, and while the ground is dry and the sod firm. 
 The roots of the grass are rather benefitted than injured by 
 the browsing, and the land is improved by the droppings 
 from the cattle. But they should never be pastured in early 
 spring or late autunui. It is economy to purchase hay at 
 any price, rather than to spring-pastiire meadows, or feed 
 tliem too late. 
 
 Rotation on Grass Lands. — Most soils admit of a profitable 
 rotation or change of crops ; and where this is the case, it is 
 generally better to allow grasses to make up one of the 
 items in this rotation. Where these are successfully grow« 
 in permanent meadows, this change or breaking up is less 
 to be sought on their own account, than for the other crops, 
 which do better for having a rich, fresh turf to revel in. 
 Thus, potatoes are sounder and better, and yield more on 
 turf than on old plowed ground ; and the grain crops are 
 generr 'y more certain and abundant on this, than on other 
 lands But many of the light soils retain the grasses only 
 
116 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 for a sl'ort time. These sJjould be placed in a rotation, 
 which never assigns more than two years to grass. 
 
 Time for cutting Grass. — This must depend on the kinds 
 of grass cultivated. We have seen, that Timothy affords 
 nearly double the quantity of nutriment, if cut after the seed 
 has formed, instead of \vhile in flower, and it is then much 
 morr relished by horses and a poition of the stock. Timo- 
 thy .tierefore should never be cut for them, until after the 
 se( i has filled. The proper time for harvesting, is between 
 the milk and dough state, when it will nearly ripen after 
 cutting. Orchard grass, on the other hand, although pos- 
 sessing two-sevenths more nutritive value for hay in the 
 seed, yet as it is more tender, and much preferred by stock 
 when cut in flower, and as it continues to grow rapidly 
 afterwards, should be always cut at that time. Even a 
 few days Avill make an important difference in the value of 
 grass, ^vhen cut for hay. The kind of grass, and the stock 
 to which it is to be fed, cannot, therefore, be too closely no- 
 ted, to detect the precise moment when the grass will best 
 subserve the purpose for which it is intended. 
 
 Ctwing Grass. — Many farmers do not consider the scorch- 
 ing effects of our cloudless July suns, and the consequence 
 is, that hay is too much dried in this country. Unless the 
 grass be A^ery thick and heavy, it will generally cure suffi- 
 ciently, when exposed in the swath for two days. When 
 shook or stirred out, it should not remain in this condition 
 beyond the first day, or it will thus lose much of its nutri- 
 tive juices ; nor should dew or rain be permitted to fall upon 
 it, unless in cocks. It is better, after partially dtying, to ex- 
 pose it for three or four days in this way, and as soon as 
 properly cured, place it under cover. It is a good practice, 
 to salt hay when put up, as it is thus secured against damage 
 from occasional greenness ; ai d there is no waste of the 
 salt, as it serves the double object after curing the hay, of 
 furnishing salt to the cattle and the manure heap. 
 
 There is a loss of available, nutritive matter, in the ordi- 
 nary mode of curing hay, u'h ch is obvious to ever)"" care- 
 ful feeder. This is conspicuously evident, in the dimin- 
 ished quantity of milk yielded by cows, when taken from 
 the pasture and put upon the hay made from grass, similar 
 to that before consumed. To v.'hat this difference is owing, 
 is not yet fully ascertained ; but it is uidoubtedly the result 
 of several causes combined. 
 
 The tender, suosulent grass, in the process of excessive 
 
THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 117 
 
 dryitig, is par; ally converted into woody fibre, a form in 
 some degree, equally removed from the nutritive properties 
 of the green lierbage, as slabs or saw dixst from the life-sus- 
 taining principles, yielded by fresh, young boughs and twigs. 
 When there is mismanagement in the curing process, result- 
 ing in fermentation, the saccharine matter, so abundant in 
 the juices of good grass, and so essential to soine of the con- 
 stituents of milk, is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, 
 both of \\'hich rapidly escape, and would be useless to the 
 animal if retained. A series of careful experiments has 
 been made, which showed the important fact, that a cow, 
 thriving on 100 to 120 lbs. grass per day, required nine 
 pounds of barley or malt in addition to this quantity, when 
 converted into hay. This is stated as illustrating a general 
 principle, without assigning to it any definite or uniform ra- 
 tio of deterioration, which varies with every variety of grass. 
 and the period and manner of curing. 
 
 THE CLOVERS, 
 
 Sometimes, improperly called grasses, are botanically ar- 
 ranged in the order, legtiminosa:, under the same head Avith 
 the bean, pea, locust and vetches. More than 160 species 
 of clover have been detected by naturalists. Their proper- 
 ties and characteristics are totally unlike tlie grasses, with 
 Avhich they agree, only in their contributing in a similar 
 manner to the support of farm-stock. There are many va- 
 rieties cultivated abroad, but the attention of farmers in this 
 country, has been limited to a very few. 
 
 The Common Red or Northern Clover, ( Trifoliiim 
 pratense,) a biennial, and occasionally, on calcareous soils, a 
 triennial, is the species most generally in use in the United 
 States. This is a hardy, easily-cultivated variety, growing 
 luxuriantly on every properly-drained soil, of sufficient 
 strength to afford it nutriment. It has numerous, strong, 
 well-developed stems, branching outwardly and vertically 
 from a single seed, each bearing broad, thick leaves, which 
 are surmounted by a large, reddish, or purple flower. By the 
 analysis of Davy, the whole plant yields an amount of nu- 
 tritive matter, fully equal to any other of the clovers. 
 
 Mode of Cultivation. — Clover may be sown broadcast, 
 either in August or September, or early in the spring, with 
 most of '.he cereal grains, or the cultivated grasses ; or it 
 may profitably constitute a crop by itself. The quantity of 
 seed required per acre, depends on t.:?kind of soil. On wclJ 
 
118 AMERICAN AGE CULTURE. 
 
 prepared loams, ten or twelve pcunds of gooi seed will fre* 
 queutly give a full covering to the land, Avhile on clay 
 tu'elve to sixteen pounds are necessary per acre. When 
 sown Avith the grasses, six on the first, and eight to twelve 
 poimds on the last soil will suffice. An additional amount 
 of seed, as with the grasses, will give a finer quality of hay, 
 in consequence of multiplying the number of stalks ; and 
 for this purpose, as Avell as to insure it on every spot of the 
 field, it shoitld always be liberally sown. The covering, 
 like that of grass seeds, should he of the slightest kmd ; and 
 when sown very early in the spring, or on Avell pulverized 
 grounds and followed by rains, it will germinate freely with- 
 out harrowing. 
 
 After the leaves are developed in the spruig, an applica- 
 tion of gypsum should be made by sowing broadcast, at the 
 rate of one to three or four bushels per acre. The effect of 
 this on clover, is singularly great, and it seems to be aitgmented 
 by applying it on the leaves. This may perhaps be account- 
 ed for, in the fact, that besides its other tises, g^'psum yields a 
 considerable proportion both of its sulphuric acid and lime 
 to the plant, and thus constitutes a direct food. The influ- 
 ence of gj'psmn is almost incredible, in bringing up the clo- 
 vers on fields where they were hardly discernible before. This 
 may be -u-itnessed in almost every soil where gypsum has any ef- 
 fect. By sowing a quantity over the grass plat containing either 
 the seeds or plants of the clover, however thin or meagre 
 they may be, an immediate and luxuriant growth distinguishes 
 the spot which has received it, from all the surrounding field. 
 
 Bones are invaluable manure for the clovers. The table 
 of the ashes (page 35), shows the great quantity of lime and 
 phosporic acid (the leading elements of bones), which the 
 clovers contain, in comparison with the rye grass, which is a 
 type of the other grasses. Thus, the red clover has about 
 four times as much lime, twenty-six times as much phos- 
 phoric acid, more soda and sulph.iric acid, and nearly twice 
 and a half as much potash as the grass. The white clover 
 has about four times the potash ; the lucem, nearly seven 
 times the lime, and fifty-two times the sulphuric acid, con- 
 tained in the grass. 
 
 Such are the various demands of plants, ani the necessity 
 of providing each with its specific food. And hence, the 
 advantage of cultivating a variety of grasses and clovers on 
 the same spot. Each, it is true, draws its nutriment from 
 the same elements, but in suck unlike proportions, that whea 
 
TtlR GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 119 
 
 •hey cease to yield adequate support to one, the soil may 
 still be rich in those which will give luxuriant growth to others. 
 Thus, two or more of the forage plants, when growing toge- 
 ther, may each yield a large crop, swelling the aggregate 
 product far beyond wiiat would be realized in the separate 
 cultivation of either. This is a conspicuous and satisfac- 
 tory illustration of the utility of good husbandry, as shown in 
 the cultivation of the mixed grasses and forage. 
 
 Time for cutting and mode of curing Clover. — Clover 
 ehould be cut after having fully blossomed and assumed a 
 brownish hue. By close cutting, more forage is secured, and 
 the clover afterwards springs up more rapidly and evenly. 
 The swath unless very heavy, ought never to be stirred open, 
 but allowed to Avilt on the top. It may then be carefully 
 turned over, and w'hen thus partially cured, placed in high 
 slender cocks, and remain till sufficiently dry to remove into 
 the barn. Those who are very careful in curing their hay, 
 provide cheap cotton covers (tarpaulins are better), which 
 are thrown over the cocks when exposed to the rain, the 
 corners of which are weighted, to prevent being blown up 
 by the wind. The long exposure of clover to the weather, 
 when thus cured, renders this precaution peculiarly desirable. 
 The clover may be housed in a much greener state, by spread- 
 mg evenly over it in the mow, from ten to twenty quarts of 
 salt per ton. Some add a bushel, but this is more than is 
 either necessary for the clover, or judicious for the stock con- 
 suming it ; as the purgative effects of too much salt, induce 
 a wasteful consumption of the forage. A mixture of alter- 
 nate layers of dry straw with the clover, by absorbing its 
 juices, answ^ers the same purpose, whi^e it materially im- 
 proves the tiavor of the straw for fodder. 
 
 After-management of Clover fields. — The second crop ol 
 clover may be either saved for seed, mown, pastured, or 
 tm'ned under for maiuu-e. As this is a biennial when allow- 
 ed to ripen, the socks generally die after the second year ; and 
 the crop is only partially sustained afterwards, by the seed 
 which may have germinated the second year from the first sow- 
 ing, or from such as has been shed upon the surface, from the 
 seed matured on the ground. The maximum of benefit deriva- 
 ble to the soil, in the manure of the stubble and roots, is at- 
 tained the second year ; as we have seen that the dried roots 
 of the clover at that time, are sometimes in the proporlion oi 
 56 for every 100 pounds of clover hay produced from them 
 in two years. But the ground is tlaen so full of tlie roots, a.« 
 
120 A.MERIG,v> AGRICI r^TrHE. 
 
 to check further accumulatio i. This is then the proper time 
 for plowing up the field, and renewing again its accustomed 
 round of crojDs. If desirable, the clover may be imperfectlj'' 
 sustained on some soils, for a few years, by the addition of 
 gypsum, bone-dust, ashes and other manures, which will de- 
 velop and mature the ripened seeds ; but the greater tena- 
 city of otlier plants and grasses, will soon reduce it to a 
 minor product in the field. 
 
 Complaijit is sometimes made among farmers in England, 
 whose fields have been often in this crop, that their land is 
 clover sick. This arises, simply, from the exhaustion of the 
 land of some of those principles peculiar to clover, Avhich are 
 needed to prepare them again for bearing good crops, Ro- 
 tations and judicious manuring are the only remedies for this, 
 or similar deficiencies with other crops. 
 
 Importance of the Clovers. — The great value of the dif- 
 ferent clovers as forage, was well known to the ancients. 
 They were extensively cultivated by the early Romans, and 
 since that period, they have been extended throughout a large 
 part of Europe. They were not introduced into Great Bri- 
 tain till the 16th century, but have since constituted a profita- 
 ble branch of its husbandry. Their importance has long 
 been acknowledged in tho United States. The nutritive 
 matter, altl\ough rc«»atively less than fromsome of the grasses, 
 is yet, in the amount per acre, fully equal to the average 
 of any other forage crop, which is produced at the same ex- 
 pense. It is easily and cheaply raised ; it is liable to few 
 or no casualties or insect enemies in this country ; and its 
 long tap roots are powerful auxiliaries in the divi.sion 
 and improvement of soils. Its broad, succulent leaves 
 derive a large portion of their nutriment from the atmosphere ; 
 and while it aff'ords a product equal to the best grasses, it 
 draws a large part of it from the common store-house of 
 nature, without subjecting the farmer to the expense of pro- 
 viding it in his manures. 
 
 It is as a fertilizer, however, that it is so decidedly supe- 
 rior to other crops. In addition to the advantages before 
 enumerated, the facility and economy of its cultivation, the 
 great amount yielded ; and lastly, the convenient form it offers 
 for covering with the plow, contribute to place it far above 
 any other species of vegetation for this purpose. All the 
 grains and roots do well after clover ; and wheat especially, 
 which foil nvs it, is more generally free from disease than 
 when sown with an} :)the: manure. The introduction oi 
 
THE GRxVSSKS, MEADOWS, ETC. 121 
 
 clover and lime in connection, has carried up the price of 
 many extensive tracts of land, from $10 to $50 per acre, 
 and has enabled the occupant to raise large crops of wheat, 
 where he could get only small crops of rye ; and it has fre- 
 quently increased his crop of wheat three-fold, where it had 
 been previously an object of attention. 
 
 It is a common observation of intelligent farmers, that 
 they are never at a loss to renovate such lands as will pro- 
 duce even a moderate crop of clover. Poor clay lands have 
 been brought to a clover-bearing state, by sowing an early 
 and late crop of oats in the same season, and feeding them 
 off on the ground. Poor, sandy soils may be made to sus- 
 tain clover, with the aid of manure, ashes and gypsum, com- 
 bined with the free use of -the roller. This object is much 
 facilitated by scattering dry straw over the surface, which 
 affords shade, increases the deposit of dew, and prolongs 
 its effects. Whenever the period of clover-producing is at- 
 tained, the improvement of the soil may be pushed, with a 
 rapidity commensurate with the inclination and means of 
 the owner. 
 
 Harvesting Clover Seed. — After taking off one crop, or 
 pasturing the field till June, or to such time as experience 
 shows to be the most proper, the clover should be kept un- 
 molested, to mature a full crop of seed. Early mowing re- 
 moves the first weeds, and the second growth of the clover 
 is so rapid, as to smother them and prevent their seeding, 
 and the clover is thus saved comparatively clean. It is then 
 mown and raked into very small cocks, and when dried at 
 the top, they are turned completely over without breaking ; 
 and as soon as well dried, they may be carried to the 
 threshing floor, and the seeds beaten out with sticks, light 
 flails, or with a threshing machine. 
 
 An instrument with closelj^-set teeth and drawn by a 
 horse, is sometimes used for collecting the clover heads from 
 the standing stalks, from which the seed is afterwards sepa- 
 rated. If wanted for use on the farm, these heads are some- 
 times sown without threshing. The calyx of the clovers is 
 so firmly attached to the seed, as to be removed with difh 
 culty ; but if thrown into a heap after threshing, and gently 
 pressed together, a slight fermentation takes place, and the 
 seed is afterwards readily cleaned. A fan or clover machine 
 may be used for cleaning the seed for market. The pro- 
 duce is from three to six bushels per acre, which is worth to 
 the farmer, from $3 to $5 per bushel, of 60 pounds. 
 6 
 
122 
 
 AMERICAN AGH.ICULT.-RE. 
 
 Southern Clover (T. fnedium) is a smaller specieii tluii 
 the T. pratense, and matures ten or fourteen days earlier. 
 The soil best suited to it, is nearly similar to that required 
 by the northern clover ; but it succeeds much better on a 
 light, thin soil than the latter, and it should be sown thicker. 
 Strong clay or rich, loamy soils will produce much heavier 
 crops of the larger kind. Experience alone will determme 
 which of these kinds should be adopted, under all the cir- 
 cumstances of soil and fertility, and the uses for which ii is 
 designed. 
 
 White Creeping Clover ( T. repens, Fig. 27). — There are 
 several varieties of white clover, all 
 of Avhich a;e hardy, nutritious and 
 self-propagating. Wherever they 
 have once been, the ground becomes 
 filled ^vith the seed, which spring up 
 whenever an opportunity is afforded 
 them for growth. They are pecu- 
 liarly partial to clay lands having a 
 rich vegetable mold on the surface ; 
 and the addition of gypsum, Avill at 
 all times give them great luxuriance. 
 Their dwarf character renders them 
 unfit for the scythe, while the dense- 
 ly-matted mass of sweet, rich food, 
 ^'°- 27. ever growing and ever abundant, 
 
 makes them most valuable for pasture herbage. 
 
 The Yellow Clover, Hop Trefoil or Shamrock ( T. 
 procumbens), like the white, is of spontaneous growth, very 
 hardy and prolific. It bears a yellow flower and black seeds. 
 It is one of those unostentatious plants, which though never 
 so^vn and little heeded, help to make up that useful variety, 
 w^hich gives so much value and permanence to our best 
 pasture lands. 
 
 Another variety of the yellow clover grows to the heigh', 
 of 24 to 30 inches, in most of the States, and bears a pro- 
 fusion of flowers and seeds. This is a good forage for sheep, 
 and an excellent fertilizer for the land, but is not mucli 
 relished by cattle or horses. 
 
 Many other of the minute Clovers and LEauMiNos.E, 
 THE Wild Pea, and other species of this family, abomid in 
 our untilled lands, and add greatly to the nutr tive character 
 of the forage, although their merits and even their existence 
 are scarcely known. 
 
THE GRASSES, MEADJWS, ETC. 
 
 123 
 
 Cetmson or, Scarlet Clover (T. i?icarnat'irii, tig. 
 28) is a native of Italy, and mucl. cul- 
 tivated in France. It bears a long head, 
 of bright scarlet flowers, and in southern 
 Europe is a profitable crop. Although it 
 was introduced into this country many 
 years since, it has not hitherto commended 
 itself to particular attention as an object of 
 agriculture. 
 
 LucERN (Medicago sativa, Fig. 29) is 
 'one of the most productive plants for forage, 
 ever grown. It was extensively cultivated 
 by the Greeks, and other nations of antiqui- 
 ty ; and it has been a prominent object of 
 attention in Italy, Spain, France, Holland 
 and Flanders. Its relative value as 
 compared with clover ( T. pratense), 
 is decidedly inferior, while its abso- 
 lute value per acre, is much greater. 
 It was early introduced into this 
 country. Chancellor Livingston 
 published his experiments with it 
 from 1791 to '91, by which he esti- 
 mates that he cut in one season, at 
 the rate of 6| tons per acre, in five 
 cuttings, yielding a profit of ovef 
 §.35 an acre. It bears three or foui 
 crops per annum, containing from 
 three to eight tons of hay. Those 
 who have cultivated it, pronounce 
 Flo. 59. it hardy, and as npable of successful 
 
 growth in this country as clover ; but tu reach the highest 
 product, it requires a richness of soil and carefulness of culti- 
 vation, which would give an enormous produce to its more 
 humble rival. 
 
 Manner of Cultivation. — It must have a deep, dry, loamy 
 soil, free from weeds, and Avell filled with manure. A suita- 
 ble crop to precede it is corn or potatoes, heavily manured 
 and kept clean. Tlien plow in the fall, and add 40 bushels 
 crushed bones per acre ; and early in April, harrow tho- 
 roughly, and sow in dril»ls, from one to two and a half feet 
 apart, at the rate of eight to ten pounds of seed per acre. 
 Stir the ground and extirpate the weeds with the ?ultivatoi 
 
124 
 
 AMli:RIC;.N A<5RICULilJEE. 
 
 and hoe, carefully pulling out by hand any that may l« 
 found in the drills. It may be lightly cropped the first year, 
 and more freely the second, but it does not attain full maturi- 
 ty till the third. The roots strike deep into the ground, and 
 being a perennial, it requires no renewal except from the 
 loss of the plants by casualties. It should be cut before 
 growing too large, and cured like clover. 
 
 Liquid manure is good for it, as are also gypsum and ashes. 
 Barn-yard manure is occasionally necessary ; but to avoid 
 weeds, it must be thoroughly fermented to destroy the seeds. 
 It is sometimes sown broadcast, but the rapid progress of 
 weeds and grass in the soil, "will soon extirpate it if they are 
 suffered to aroAv ; and there is no means of effectually eradi- 
 cating them but by cultivating the iucern in drills, and the 
 hoe and cultivator can then Iceep the weeds in subjection. It 
 is one of the most desirable plants for soiling. From the care 
 and attention required, the cultivation of Iucern is properly 
 limited to an advanced state of agriculture and a dense 
 population, wiiere labor is cheap and products high. In 
 the neighborhood of large cities, it may be advantageously 
 grown and in all places where soiling is practiced. 
 
 San-Foin {Hedysarum onohrycliis. Fig. 30), the esparcette 
 of the French, is a native of the chalk 
 soils of Europe, and is best adapted 
 to strong calcareous lands. On such, 
 it is a profitable herbage, as the roots 
 penetrate to a great depth, and yield 
 large burdens of nutritious fodder. 
 It will also grow successfully in deep 
 garden molds. Though often at- 
 teiupted, we are not aware that it has 
 been raised to any extent in this coun- 
 try. 
 
 Bokhara or Sweet-scented Clo- 
 ver [Melilotus major) is a tall, shrub- 
 like plan', growing to the height of 
 1''%. four to six feet with branches, whose 
 
 Fig. 30. extremities bear uumerous smo'l white 
 
 flowers of great fragrance. When full grown, it is too 
 coarse for forage, but if thick and cut young, it yields a pro- 
 fusion of green or winter fodder. It should be sown in the 
 spring, with about two pounds of seed per acre, i i drills 16 
 to 20 inches apart. It must be kept clear of weeds and cul- 
 tivated like Iucern It requires a rich, mellow, loamy soil 
 
THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 
 
 12a 
 
 Spitrry {Spergnla arvensis. Fig. 31) might probably be 
 introduced into American husbandry 
 for forage, Avith decided advantage. 
 It is a hardy plant, and grows spon- 
 taneously in the rnddle States. Its 
 chief merit consists, in its growing 
 on soils too thin to bear clover. On 
 such, it can be judiciously used to 
 bring them up to the clover-bearing 
 point, from which they can be taken, 
 and carried forward much more 
 rapidly by the clovers. Van Voght 
 says, " it is better than red or white 
 Fig. 31. clover ; the cows give more and bet- 
 
 ter milk when fed on it, and it improves the land in an ex- 
 traordinary degree. If the land is to lie several years in 
 pasture, white clover must be sown with it. When sown 
 in the middle of April, it is ripe for pasture by the end of 
 .May. If eaten off in June, the land is turned flat and ano- 
 ther crop is sown, which affords fine pasture in August and 
 September. This operation is equivalent to a dressing of 
 ten loads of manure per acre. The blessing of spurry, the 
 clover of sandy lands, is incredible when rightly em.ployed." 
 Three crops can be gro\vn upon land in one season, Avhich, if 
 turned in or fed on the ground, can be made a means of 
 rapid improvement to the soil. 
 
 PASTURES. 
 
 It is too often the case, that pastures are neglected, and 
 like woodlands, are allowed to run to such vegetation as un- 
 assisted nature may dictate. As a necessary consequence, 
 their forage is frequently meagre and coarse, and incapable, 
 either in quantity or quality, of supporting half the number 
 of cattle in a poor condition, that might otherwise be full- 
 fed from the same surface. But if "we consider, that pastures 
 furnish most of the domestic stock with their only food, for 
 seven months of the year at the North, and generally for 
 nine or ten months at the South, they may well be deemed 
 worthy the particular attention of the farmer. 
 
 Pastures ought to be properly divided, and it is a diffi- 
 cult point to determine between the comparative advantages 
 of small ranges, and the expense and inconvenience of keep- 
 ing up numerous divisions. The latter require a large out 
 lay on every farm, not only for the first cost of :viftexials and 
 
126 AMERICAN AGRICTTLTTTRE. 
 
 the ajinual repairs, but from the loss of land occupied by 
 them ; and they are further objectionable from their harbor- 
 ing weeds and vermin. Yet it is beneficial to give animals 
 a change of feed ; and the grass comes up evenly and grows 
 iindisturbed. if the cattle be removed for a while. There is 
 a iuri-her advantage, in being able to favor some particular 
 individuals oi .'.asses of animals. Thus, fattening stock 
 ought to have the best feed ; milch cows and working ani- 
 mals the next ; then young stock ; while sheep will thrive 
 on shorter feed than either, and greedily consume most 
 plants which the others reject. By this means, a field will 
 be thoroughly cleansed of all plants ^vhich animals will eat, 
 and the remainder should be extirpated. The same care 
 ought to be taken to prevent the propagation of weeds in pas- 
 tures as in other fields. Many of these, mullen, thistles and 
 the like, multiply prodigiously from sufferance, and if un- 
 checked, will soon overspread the farm. 
 
 Every pasture, if possible, should be provided with run- 
 ning water and shade trees, or other ample protection against 
 a summer's sun. The last can at all times be secured by a 
 few boards, supported on a light, temporary frame. Exces- 
 sive heat exhausts, and sometimes sickens animals ; conse- 
 quently, it materially diminishes the effects of food in promo- 
 ting the secretion of milk, and the growth of wool and flesh. 
 All grounds immediately after long rains, whether in early 
 spring or late autumn, and especially, after the winter's 
 frosts have just left them, are much injured by the poaching 
 of cattle, if allowed to run upon them. Clay lands and those 
 which have been recently seeded, are peculiarly susceptible 
 of injury from this cause ; and from such fields and at such 
 times, every animal should be rigidly excluded. On late 
 and off early, is a good rule to be adopted for spring and 
 fall pasturing. 
 
 Wherever the grasses disapjiear, fresh seeds should be 
 added and harrowed in ; mosses must be destroyed ; they 
 should be properly drained, and every attention paid to them 
 that is bestowed on the mowing lands, except that they sel- 
 dom reqixire manures. But ashes, gypsum, lime and bone 
 dust may sometimes be applied to them with great profit. 
 Pastures should take their course in rotation, when they get 
 bare of good herbaae or full of weeds, and it is possible to 
 break them up advantageously. Though many choice, 
 natural forage plants may thus be destroyed, yet if again 
 turned into grass at the ps')per period, and they are sown 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 
 
 127 
 
 with a plentiful stock of assorted grass seeds, on a rich and 
 well-prepared surface, they will soon place themselves in a 
 productive state. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 
 
 WHEAT (Triticnm). 
 
 Fie. 32. Fig. 3S. Fig. 34. 
 
 Spring Ba.ld AVheat. Winter B&ld Whc.w Wi>-rER Bearded Wheat. 
 
 This is one of the most important and most generally 
 cultivated of the cereal grains (or gra?.?es as they are bo- 
 tanieally termed), thou2:h both rice and maize or Indian 
 corn, contribute to the support of a larger population. It is 
 found in every latitude, excepting tho.~e which approach too 
 "learly to the poj'esor equator ; but it can be profitably raised, 
 
128 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 only within such as are strictly denominated temperate 
 Linnseus describes but six varieties, yet later botanists enu 
 merate about thirty, whi'** of the sub-varieties, there aie 
 several hundred. 
 
 The only division necessary for our present purpose, is of 
 the winter wheat [Triticuni hyber7iicm), and spring or 
 summer wheat ( T. cBStivum). The former requires the ac- 
 tion of frost to bring it ^o full maturity, and is sown in au- 
 tumn. Germination befv^re exposure to frost, does not, how- 
 ever, seem absolutely essential to its success, as fine crops 
 have been raised from seed sown early in the spring, after 
 having been saturated with w^ater and frozen for some weeks. 
 It has also been successfully raised, when sowed early in the 
 season, v/hile the frost yet occupied the ground. 
 
 Spring and winter wheat may be changed from one to the 
 other, by sowing at the proper time through successive sea- 
 sons, and without material injury to their character. The 
 latter grain is by far the most productive ; the straw is stouter ; 
 the head more erect and full ; the grain plumper and heavi- 
 er, and the price it bears in market, from eight to fifteen per 
 cent, higher than that of spring wheat. This difi'erence of 
 price depends rather on the appearance of the flour and its 
 greater whiteness, than on any intrinsic deficiency in its 
 substantial qualities. The analysis of Davy gave in 100 
 parts of 
 
 CJluten, 
 
 Spring wheat of 1801, 24 
 
 Best Sicilian winter wheat, 21 
 
 Good English winter wheat of 1803, 19 
 
 Blighted wheat of 1804, 13 
 
 The above analysis gives the greatest nutritive value to 
 the spring v/heat, as the gluten (animalized matter) cons i- 
 tutes the most important element in flour. It will also le 
 noti jed, that the Sicilian yields about two per cent, more 
 gluten than the English, which enables the flour to absorb 
 and retain a much larger proportion of water when made 
 into bread. This is what is termed by the bakers, strength ; 
 and when gluten is present in large proportions, other qual- 
 ities being equal, it adds materially to the value of flour. 
 American Avheat also contains more gluten than English, 
 and that from the southern States, still more than that from 
 the northern. An eminent baker of London .'■ays, American 
 flour will absorb f: Dm eight to fourteen per cent, more of it* 
 
 
 Insoluble 
 
 starch, 
 
 , matter. 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 
 5 
 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 34 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION, 129 
 
 owr. weight of water, when manufactured into bread or bis- 
 cuit, than their own ; and another reUable authority asserts, 
 that wliile 14 lbs. of American flour will make 21 5 lbs of 
 bread, the same quantity of English flour will make only 
 18i lbs. 
 
 As a general rule, the drier or hotter the climate in which 
 the grain is raised, the greater is the evaporation, and the 
 more condensed is the farina of the grain, and consequently 
 the more moisture it is capable of absorbing when again ex- 
 posed to it. Certain varieties of wheat possess this quality 
 in a higher degree than others. Some manures and some 
 soils also give a diff'erence with the same seed ; but for or- 
 dinary consumption, the market value (which is the great 
 consideration with the farmer), is highest for such wheat as 
 gives the largest quantity of bright flour, with a due pro- 
 portion of gluten. Other prominent differences exist among 
 the leading cultivated varieties of wheat, such as the bearded 
 and bald or beardless ; the white and red chaff; those hav- 
 ing large and strong stalks ; or a greater or a less tendency 
 to tiller or to send out new shoots. There is great room for 
 selection in the several varieties, to adapt them to the differ- 
 ent soils, situations, and climate for which they are desifrned. 
 
 P reparation of t}tela7id for soioing. Wheat is partial to 
 a well-prepared clay or heavy loam, and this is improved, 
 when it contains either naturally or artificially, a large pro- 
 portion of lime. Many light, and all marly or calcareous 
 soils, if in proper condition, will give a good yield of wheat. 
 Lime is an important aid to the full and certain growth of 
 wheat, checking its exuberance of straw and liability to 
 rust, and steadily aiding to fill out the grain. A rich, mel- 
 low turf or clover ley is a good bed for it ; or land which 
 has been well manured and cleanly cultivated in roots or 
 corn the preceding year. 
 
 Fresh barn-yard manure applied directly to the wheat crop, 
 is objectionable, not only from its containing many foreign 
 seeds, but from its tendency to excite a rapid growth of weak 
 straw, thus causing the grain both to lodge and rust. The 
 same objection lies against sowing it on rich, alluvial or veo-e- 
 lable soils ; and in each, the addition of lime or ashes, or both, 
 will correct these evils. A dressing; of charcoal, ha^in 
 many instances been found an adequate preventive ; anu so 
 beneficial has it proved in France, that it has been extensive- 
 ly introduced there for the wheat crop. A successful exam- 
 ple of uninterrupted cropping with wheat, through severaJ 
 6* 
 
i3C AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 years, has li een furnished by a Maryland farmer, who used 
 fresh barn -yard manure, with lime. But this is an exception, 
 not a rule ; and it will be found that profitable cultivation 
 requires, that wheat should take its place in a judicious ro- 
 tation. The great proportion of silica in the straw of cereal 
 grains, (amounting in wheat, barley, oats and rye, to about 
 four fifths of the total of ash from the grain and straw), 
 shows the necessity of having ample provision made for it in 
 the soil, and in a form susceptible of ready assimilation by 
 the plant. This is afforded by ashes, and from the action of 
 lime upon the soil. 
 
 Depth of Soil is indispensable to large Crops. — The 
 wheat plant has two sets of roots, the first springing from 
 the seed and penetrating downwards, while the second push 
 themselves laterally, near the surface of the ground, from the 
 first joint. They are thus enabled to extract their food from 
 every part of the soil, and the product \vill be found to be in 
 the ratio of its extent and fertility. Under-draining ana 
 sub-soil plowing contribute greatly to the increase of crops, 
 and it is essential that all surface water be entirely removed. 
 Wheat, on heavy clay lands, is peculiarly liable to winter 
 kill, unless they are \vell-drained. This is owing to suc- 
 cessive freezing and thawing, by ■which the roots are broken 
 or thrown out. When this is done to a degree that will 
 materially diminish the crop, the naked spots may be sown 
 with spring wheat. Any considerable portion of the latter, 
 will lessen the value for sale, but it is equally good for do- 
 mestic use. The land should be duly prepared for the recep- 
 tion of the seed, by early and thorough plowing, and harrow- 
 ing, if necessary. 
 
 Selection and preparation of Seed. — Many persons se- 
 lect their seed by casting, or throwing the grain to some 
 distance on the floor, using only such as reaches the farthest. 
 This is a summary way of selecting the heaviest, plumpest 
 grain, which if Sprengel's theory be correct, is attended with 
 no advantage, beyond that of separating it from the lighter 
 Beeds of chess or weeds. It is certain, that the utmost 
 care should be taken in removing everything from it but 
 pure wheat, and this should be exclusively of the kind re- 
 quired. When wheat is not thoroughly clea:, ""d by casting, 
 a si^fe or riddle may be used ; or it should eve,, be picked 
 over by hand, rather than sow anything but the pure seed. 
 
 Previous to sowing, a strong brine ought to be made of 
 salt and water, and in this the grain is to be wrshed foT 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 131 
 
 five minuter, taking care to skim off all liglit ar.d foreign 
 seeds. If the grain be smutty, tlis washing should be re- 
 peated in another clean brine, when it may be taken 
 out and intimately mixed with one twelfth its bulk of fresh 
 pulverized quick-Hnie. This kills all smut, cleans out 
 weeds from the grain, and insures early and rapid growth 
 When the seed is not smutty, it may be prepared by soak- 
 ing or sprinkling with stale urine, and afterwards mixed with 
 the lime ; and if well done, this also will prevent smut, 
 though the first is most certain. (See varieties of seed fol- 
 lowing, for further directions.) 
 
 Quantity of Seed and time of sowing. — On well pul- 
 verized, ordinary wheat soils, about live pecks of seed are 
 sown to the acre, while rough laud, clay soils and such as are 
 very fertile, require from six to eight. In Maryland, but three 
 pecks are frequently sown, and some of the best crops have 
 been raised from only two pecks of seed to the acre, on a 
 finely-pulverized soil. It takes more seed when full and 
 plump than wheii shrunken, as there may be nearly two of 
 the latter to one of the former, in the same measure. A dif- 
 ference is to be observed according to the wheat, some need- 
 ing more than others. A large quantity of seed, produces an 
 earlier groAVth of light stra^v and head, but does not usually 
 increase the aggregate crop. There is always a tendency 
 in wheat and most of the cereal grasses, to tiller or send out 
 new shoots for future stalks. This is a law of these plants, 
 which comijels them to make the greatest effort to cover the 
 whole ground ; and sometimes a single seed will throw 
 out more than 100 stalks. In early sowing, the wheat tillers 
 in the autumn; in late sowing this is done in part only, till 
 the ensuing spring. Thick sowing, is a substitute for tiller- 
 ing, to the extent that would other wise be induced, and is equi- 
 valent to an earlier sowing of a smaller quantity. The time 
 for sowing in the northern States, is from the 10th to 20th 
 September. If sown earlier, it is liable to attack from the 
 Hessian fly, and if later, it does not have time to root as well ; 
 and is in more danger of being thrown out by the frosts or oi 
 winter killing. Late sowing is also more subject to rust the 
 following season, from its later ripening. 
 
 Sowing. — When the ground has been well mellowed, the 
 seed may be sown broadcast and thoroughly harrowed in 
 Rolling is a good practice, as it presses the earth closely up 
 on the seed and facilitates germination ; and as soon as the 
 seed is covereC, the water furrows should be cleaned out. 
 
i32 AMERICAN AGKltULTUKE. 
 
 and again late in autumn, and early in the following spnnir 
 In northern Europe, it has been found a preventive against 
 winter killing on strong clays, to sow the wheat in the bot- 
 tom of each furrow, six inches deep, and cover it with tiie 
 succeeding one. The wheat thus planted, comes up as soon 
 as on the fields sown broad-cast and harrowed, grows more 
 vigorously, withstands the winters and produces large crop*. 
 Plowing in wheat with a light furrow, is perhaps, under any 
 circumstances, better than harrowing, as the wheat is there- 
 by all buried, and at a more suitable depth than can be done 
 by the harroAV. The roughness of the furrows when lefr 
 without harrowing, is advantageous in heavy or clay lands, 
 and only injurious in light qr sandy. 
 
 After Culture. — Harrowing in the spring, adds to the 
 growth of the crop, by loosening the soil; and the loss of 
 the few plants thus destroyed, is much more than compensa- 
 ted by the rapid tillering and vigor of those \vhich remain. 
 Sowing in drills and hoeing between them, is much prac- 
 ticed in Europe. The additional amount thus frequently 
 raised, would seem to justify the adoption of this mode of 
 cultivation in this country; and it should at least be done, 
 so far as to give it a fair trial. On light soils, rolling the 
 Avheat both in fall and spring, is highly advantageous. 
 When the growth is luxuriant, decided benefit has attended 
 feeding oif the wheat on the field in the fall or spring, tak- 
 ing care to permit the animals to go on, only when the 
 ground is firm. 
 
 Enemies of Wheat. — These are numerous. It is subject 
 to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown too early in the 
 fall, and again the ensuinir spring, there being two annual 
 swarms of the fly, early in ]May and September. When 
 thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the maggots 
 or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of 
 much avail. Occasionally, other flies, and sometimes wheat 
 worms commit great depredation. There is no effectual 
 remedy Icnown against any of these marauders, beyond roll- 
 ing, brushing and harrowing. Dtisting the grain with lime, 
 ashes and soot, have been frequently tried, as have also the 
 sprinkling them with urine, dilute acids and other liquids oi 
 steeps. Fumigating them in the evening, when the sinoke 
 creeps along through the standing grain, has been often t "ied, 
 but without decided success. For this last purpose, a sn; ■>ul- 
 dering heap of damp brush, weeds or chips, is placed on the 
 v.'indward side of he fiel ! ; and its efficacy may be increasejJ 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 133 
 
 by the addit'on of brimstone. Whenever obnoxious to these 
 attacks, the only safety is, to place the crop in the best con- 
 dition \ D withstand them, by hastening its growth, and by 
 the propagation of the most hardy varieties. An application 
 of nnleached ashes in damp Aveather, will sometimes dimin- 
 ish the ravages of worms at the root. Quick-lime has the 
 same effect on all insects with which it comes in contact ; 
 but it should be carefully applied to avoid injury to the 
 plants. 
 
 Smut is a dark brown or blackish, parasitic fungus, which 
 grows upon the head and destroys the grain. The only 
 remedy fur this, is washing the seed in two or three succes- 
 sive strong brines, and intimately mixing and coating it with 
 quick-lime before sowing. 
 
 Rust atfects the straw of wheat while the grain is form- 
 ing, and before it is fully matured. It is almost always 
 present in the field, but is not extensively injurious except 
 in close, showery and hot (muggy) weather. The straw then 
 bursts from the exuberance of the sap, which is seen to 
 exude, and a crust or iron-colored rust is formed in longitu- 
 dinal ridges on the stalk. It is generally conceded, that 
 this rust is a fungus or minute parasitic plant Avhich subsists 
 on the sap ; but whether it be the cause or consequence of 
 this exudation is not fully determined. There is no remedy 
 for this when it appears, and the only mitigation of its ef- 
 fects, is to cut and harvest the grain at once. The straw in 
 this case will be saved, and frequently, a tolerable crop of 
 grain, which partially matures after cutting ; w^hile if suffer- 
 ed to stand, both straw and grain will be almost totally lost. 
 The only i^reventives experience has hitherto found, are the 
 selection of hardy varieties of grain, which partially resist 
 the effects of rust ; sowing on elevated lands where the air 
 has a free circulation ; the abundant use of saline manures, 
 salt, lime, gypsum, and charcoal; the absence of recent 
 animal manures ; and early sowing, Avhich matures the plant 
 before the disease commences its attack. 
 
 Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after 
 the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain 
 is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between 
 the thumb and linger. Hepeated experiments have demon- 
 strated, that wheat cut at this time, will yield more in meas- 
 ure, of heavier Aveight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white 
 flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing bp 
 fore storing or threshi'\gr. 
 
134 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Threshing is usualh' done among extens.ve farmers, with 
 some one of tlie large machines taken into the field, and 
 driven by horse power. The vise of these enables the farmer 
 to raise some of the choicest kinds of grain, whose propaga- 
 tion before their introduction was limited from the great 
 difiicuLy of separating the grain from the head. He can 
 also push his wheat into market at once, if the price is high, 
 \vhich is frequently the case immediately after harvest ; and 
 he saves all expense and trouble of moving, storing, loss 
 from shelling and vermin, interest and insurance. For the 
 moderate farmer, a small single or double horse machine, or 
 hand threshing in whiter, where there is leisure for it, is 
 more economical than the six or eight horse-thresher. 
 
 Mowing or Stacking. — When stored in the straw, the 
 grain should be so placed as to prevent b*^^<^'ng or mouldin*^. 
 
 Fig. 35. Fig. 36. 
 
 Unless very drj% when carried into the barn, this can only 
 be avoided by laying it on scaffolds, ^vhere there is a free 
 circulation of air around and partially through it. If placed 
 in a stack, it should be well elevated from the ground ; and 
 if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice or open ^vork 
 should be left from the bottom, extending through the centre 
 to the top ; or a large bundle may be kept at the surface in 
 the middle, and drawn upwards as the slack rises, thus leav 
 ing an opening for circulation, entirely through the centre of 
 the grain. Additional security would be aftbrded bysimilai 
 
GRAIN AND ITS .'TJLTIVATION. 136 
 
 openings at suitable intervals, in a horizontal direction. Mice 
 and rats may be avoided, by laying the foundation of the 
 stack on posts or stones, elevated leyond their reach, and 
 covered at the top with projecting caps. Weevils sometime-s 
 affect the grain after storing. These may be almost if net 
 wholly prevented, by thorough cleanliness of the premises 
 where the grain is stored. 
 
 The cut on the preceding page, Fig. 35, shows a frame 
 for stacking, combining the advantages of circulation through 
 the centre, and an elevation which secures the grain from 
 the depredations of vermin. Fig. 36, shows a stack com- 
 plete, which is better made and more neatly finished than i<^ 
 too often done in this country. It is an important item of 
 husbandry, so to stack grain as to avoid loss from the ad- 
 mission of rain. No inconsiderable share of the stack, is 
 thus frequently destroyed. 
 
 The straw and chajf of wheat should never be wasted. 
 This is the most nutritious of the cereal straws. It yields 
 good fodder to cattle in time of scarcity, and is always good 
 for this object, Avhen cut and mixed Avith meal or roots ; 
 and particularly, when early harvested and well cured. 
 Turneps and straw are the only food of half the cattle, and 
 most of the sheep, throughout Great Britain, and no where 
 do they thrive more rapidly, or better remunerate their own- 
 ers, than in that country. It is of great use also, as bedding 
 for cattle and as an absorbent of animal and liquid manures. 
 It furnishes in itself the best manure for succeding grain 
 crops ; containing large proportions of the salts or ash required. 
 When threshed on the field and not wanted for cattle, it 
 should be scattered over the ground, and either plowed in or 
 suffered to decay on the surface. 
 
 VARIETIES OF SEED. 
 
 Much depends on the judicious selection of seed. Some 
 ioils are peculiarly adapted to wheat growing, and on these 
 should be sown tiie finest varieties, which are generally of a 
 more delicate character. Wheat on other soils is liable to 
 many casualties, and on such, only the hardier kinds should 
 be propagated. Careful and repeated trials with different 
 varieties of seeds, on each field or on those which are simi- 
 lar, will alone determine their adaptation to the soil. There 
 are several choice varieties of winter wheat in cultivation 
 in the United States, some of which stand higher in one, 
 and some in another se-ition Some in high repute abr^d 
 
136 AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 have been introduced into this country, and proved to be 
 valuable acquisitions ; while others have been found decided- 
 ly inferior to many of the long adopted varieties. Experi- 
 ment alone Avill enable the farmer to decide as to their value 
 for his OAvn grounds, however high they may stand else- 
 where. When of a fine quality, and found to produce well 
 on any given soils, their place should not be usurped by 
 others, till repeated trials have shown their superiority, either 
 in yield or character. But when the acclimated grain is infe- 
 rior, other seed from remote distances, even if no better in 
 quality, may properly be substituted for it, as a decided 
 benefit has been found to follow a change. 
 
 Wheat and nearly all seeds are found to be more produc 
 tive, when taken from a soil inferior to the one intended for 
 sowing ; and it is claimed that such as havo been produced, 
 either in a warmer or colder climate, will ma :ure earlier. It 
 is not essential that the fullest, heaviest grain be sown. 
 Sprengel affirms, that seed somewhat shrunken, is more cer« 
 tain to give a good yield thau the choicest seed ; and numer- 
 ous trials would seem to favor this conclusion. The grain 
 designed for seed should be well ripened before harvesting. 
 From the ever-varying character of the different kinds of 
 seed, their superiority at one time and on one locality, and 
 their inferiority at other times and in other situations, it 
 seems almost superfluous to give a particular enumeration 
 of the present most popular kinds. A brief mention of such 
 only, as stand high in public favor in this country, with 
 some of their most striking peculiarities, is all that our limits 
 will admit. 
 
 The Improved Flint is extensively cultivated in the fine 
 wheat-growing country of western New York, where it 
 was introduced in 1822. It is hardy, and withstands the 
 winters remarkably well. A striking improvement in the 
 strength of its straw has been observed, which at first in- 
 clined to lodge, but it is now erect and firm till fully ripened. 
 The heads are also fuller and longer than when first intro- 
 duced ; thdM^erry is plump and Avhite, yielding a large pro- 
 oortion of choice flour ; and it is retained in the head with 
 greater tenacity, Avhich is a decided advantage in harvest- 
 ing, ■w^here threshing machines are substituted for the flail. 
 
 The Old Genesee Red Chaff is a bald, white wheat, first 
 cultivated in the same region, in 1798 ; and for a long time it 
 was the decided favorite. Since 1820, however, it has been 
 ver^ubject to ru^ t and blast ; but when circumstances arp 
 
GRAIN AND ITS 3ULTIVATION. 137 
 
 lavorable, it is still found to be highly productive. In other 
 localities, its cultivation may be attended with the most satis, 
 factory success. 
 
 The White May of Virgi?iia was a choice variety, and 
 extensively raised in the neighborhood of the Chesapeake 
 Bay, in 1800, but is now nearly extinct there. It has been 
 cultivated in New York for ten years, is a good bearer and 
 very heavy, weighing frequently 66 lbs. per bushel. It 
 ripens early, in consequence of which, it escapes rust. 
 
 The Wheatland Red is a new variety, discovered and 
 propagated by Gen. Harmon, of Monroe Co., N. Y., by 
 whom it Is held in high estimation. It produces well and 
 ripens early. 
 
 The Ke7itticky White- Bearded, Hutchinson or Canor- 
 dian Flint is very popular in western New York, where it 
 has been rapidly disseminated since its first introduction, 
 some twelve or fifteen years since. It is hardy, a good 
 yielder, with a short, plump berry, weighing 64 lbs. per 
 bushel. It requires thicker sowing (about 25 per cent, more 
 seed) than the improved flint, as it does not tiller as well, 
 and unlike that, it shells easily, wasting much unless cut 
 quite early. 
 
 The English Velvet Beard or Crate Wheat has a coarse 
 straw, large heads, a good berry of a reddish hue, and is well 
 suited to the rich, alluvial, bottom lands, where its firm straw 
 prevents its lodging. It is a fair yielder and tolerably hardy; 
 but its long beard is a great objection to its introduction on 
 such lands as are suited to the finer kinds. 
 
 The Yorkshire or E7iglish Flint or Soules Wheat has 
 been recently introduced, and is similar in its leading features 
 to the old Genesee. 
 
 The White Provence is a new and favorite variety, but 
 its slender stalk frequently subjects it to lodging. It is only 
 suited to the finest calcareous wheat soils. 
 
 The Blue Stent has been raised with great success in 
 Pennsylvania, where it resisted smut and rust when all other 
 kinds in the vicmity, ^vere affected by it. 
 
 The Mediterranean is a coarse wheat with a thick skin, 
 yielding a dark floiu:. It resists rust and the fly, is a good 
 bearer, and may be profitably grown where other choice 
 kinds fail. 
 
 The Egyptian, Smyrna, B,eed, Many-Spiked, or Wild 
 Goose Wheat is also a hardy variety, with t thick straw, 
 which prevents its lodging. 
 
133 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PRODUCTION or NEW VARIETIES OE WHEAT. 
 
 Besides introducing valuable kinds from abroad, and the 
 improvement of such as we now have by careful cultivation, 
 neAv varieties may be secured by hybridizing or crossing. 
 This is done by impregnating the female organs of the floAvers 
 on one plant, by the pollen from the male organ of another. 
 The progeny sometimes differs materially from both parents, 
 and occasionally partakes of the leading qualities of each. 
 Among those thus produced, some may be found of peculiar 
 excellence, and worthy of supplanting others, whose value is 
 declining. The effect of this crossing, is striking in the ear 
 of corn, where the red and white, the blue and yellow ker- 
 nels are seen to blend in singular confusion over the whole 
 ear, each differing, too, in size, shape and general qualities. 
 Observation will sometimes detect a new variety of wheat 
 in the field, self-hybridized, the result of an accidental cross. 
 If this has superior merit, it should be carefully secured and 
 planted in a bed by itself for future seed. 
 
 Propagation may be extended with incredible rapidity 
 by dividing the plant. The English Philosophical Trans- 
 actions ffive the result of a trial, made bv plantina; a single 
 grain on the 2d of June. On the 8th of August, it was taken 
 up and separated into 18 parts, and each planted by itself. 
 These were subdivided and planted, between 15th of Sep- 
 tember and 1.5th of October, and again the following spring. 
 From this careful attention, in a fertile soil, 500 plants were 
 obtained, some containing 100 stalks bearing heads of a 
 large size ; and the total produce within the year, was 
 386,840 grains from the single one planted. 
 
 SPRING WHEAT. 
 
 This requires a soil similar to that of winter grain, but it 
 should be of a quick and kindly character, as the grain has 
 a much shorter time to mature. The ground must be well 
 pulverized and fertile. The best crops are raised on land 
 that has been plowed in the fall, and sown ^vithout addi- 
 tional plowing, taking care to harrow in thoroughly. When 
 planted early, the Avheat rarely suffers from the fly, as it at- 
 tains a size and vigor that Avithstands any injury from the 
 fly when it appears. In certain locaUties, where the fly 
 abounds and the M'heat has not been early sown, it is found 
 necessary to keep back the young plants, till the disappear- 
 ance of the fly. Large crops have been obtained under fa- 
 vorable circumstances, wlier sowi'. a? late as the 20th May. 
 
ORAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 139 
 
 VAEIETIES. 
 
 The Black Sea Wheat is oue of the most popular kind'- 
 at present cultivated. Of this there are two varieties, the 
 red and the white chaff, both of which are bearded. The 
 former is generally preferred. This wheat has yielded very 
 profitable crops. The flour from this, like that from the 
 Mediterranean wheat, is of a dark color. 
 
 The Siberian is an excellent wheat, and has been much 
 raised in this country. It produces a full, fine grain, is hardy 
 and a good bearer. The Italian has also been extensively 
 cultivated, and held in high estimation ; but it is now generally 
 giving place to the preceding, where both have been tried. 
 
 There are some other varieties which bear well and are 
 tolerably hardy. Excellent spring grahi has been produced, 
 by early sowing from choice winter Avheat, which has re- 
 tained most of the characteristics of the original, under its 
 new summer culture. In large sections of this country, 
 wheat has been seriously injured by winter-killing and other 
 casualties ; and wherever tliese prevail, and the soil is suited 
 to it, .spring or summer wheat may be advantageously intro- 
 duced. A proper attention to the selection of seed and the 
 preparation of the soil, will generally insure a profitable re- 
 turn. If the market value of this wheat is not as high as 
 the winter grain, it may at least afford all that the farmei 
 and his laborers require as food ; and he will generally find, 
 if not in a wheat-growing region, that he can dispose of his 
 surplus crop among his neighbors before the next harvest 
 comes round, and at satisfactory prices. 
 
 RYE (Secale seroale). 
 
 This is extensively cultivated in the northeastern and 
 middle Atlantic States. It is grown on the light lands of 
 Ohio and Michigan, and as the supporting elements of wheat 
 become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural States 
 of the West, rye will take its place in a great measure on 
 their lighter soils. Most of the eastern States produced 
 wheat when first subjected to culti\'ation ; but where lime 
 did not exist in the soil, the Avheat crop soon failed, and it 
 gradually receded from the Atlantic border, except in marly 
 or calcareous soils, rye almost universally succeeding it. 
 But the liberal use of lime, connected with an intelligent ap- 
 plication of the agricultural impi-ovements of the present 
 day, are regaining for wheat, much of its ancient territory. 
 Rye resembles wheat in its bread-making properties, and 
 
140 AMERICAN AGRICULTCRE. 
 
 for this purpose it is only second to wheat, in those countries 
 where it is cultivated. There is a peculiar aroma connected 
 with the husk of the iirain, which is not found in the finely- 
 bolted flour. The grain Avhen ground and unbolted, is much 
 used in the New England States, for mixing into loaves wiih 
 scalded Indian meal ; it is then baked for a long time, and is 
 known as rye-and-Indian or hroicn bread. This possesses 
 a sweetness and flavor peculiar to itself, which is doubtless 
 owing in no small degree, to the quality above mentioned. 
 Von Thaer says " this substance appears »o facilitate diges- 
 tion, and has a singularly strengthening, refreshing and 
 beneficial effect on the animal frame." E-ye is more 
 hardy than wheat, and is a substitute for it on those 
 soils which will not grow the latter grain with certainty 
 and profit. 
 
 Soil and C ultivation. — Neither strong clay nor calcareous 
 iands are well suited to it. A rich sandy ioam is the natural 
 soil for rye, though it grows freely on light sands and 
 gravels, which refuse to produce either wheat, barley, or oats. 
 Loamy soils that are too rich for Avheat, and on which it 
 almost invariably lodges, will frequently raise an excellent 
 crop of rye, its stronger stem enabling it to sustain itse ' 
 under the luxuriant growth. 
 
 The preparation of the Soil for Rye, is similar to tha 
 for "vvheat; and it may be advantageously sown upon a 
 rich old turf or clover ley, or after corn or roots where the 
 land has been well manured, and thoroughly cleansed from 
 weeds. There is not an equal necessity for using a brine- 
 steep for rye as for wheat, yet if allowed to remain a iew hours 
 in a weak solution of saltpetre or some of the other salts, it 
 promotes speedy germination and subsequent growth. 
 
 C ultivation. — There is but one species of rye ; but to this 
 cultivation has given two loading varieties, the spring and 
 winter. Like wheal, they are easily transformed into each 
 other, by sowing the winter continually later through suc- 
 cessive generations, to change it into spring rye, and the 
 opposite course will ensure its re-conversion into winter 
 grain. The last should be sown from the 20th of August to 
 the 20th of September, the earliest requiring less seed, as it 
 has a longer time to tiller and fill up the ground. Five pecks 
 is the usual quantity sown, but it varies from one to two 
 bushels according to the quality of the soil, the richest lands 
 demanding most. 
 
 It is a practice among many farmers, to sow rye on light 
 lands, among their standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULT1\ iTION. 141 
 
 the grovrnd as level as possible. On such lands, this is 
 attended with several advantages ; as it gives the grain 
 an early start, anc a moist, sheltered position, at a time 
 when drought and a hot sun would check or prevent vegeta- 
 tion. As soon as the corn is matured, it is cut up by the 
 roots and placed in compact shocks, or removed to one side 
 of the field, when the rye is thoroughly rolled. "When sown 
 on a fresh plowed field, it should be harrowed in before roll- 
 ing. 
 
 Great success has attended the turning in of green crops, 
 and following the fresh plowing with immediate sowing of 
 the seed. This brings it forward at once. No after cultiva- 
 tion is needed, except harrowing in the spring, and again roll- 
 ing, if the land is light, both of which are beneficial ; for though 
 some of the stools may be thus destroyed, the w'orking of 
 the gromid assists the remaining plants, so as to leave a great 
 advantage in favor of the practice. A friend of the writei 
 had occasion to plow some land in the spring, Avhich joined 
 a field of rye belonging to a neighbor. The owner claim- 
 ed damages for supposed injury by the team and plow, which 
 it was agreed should be assessed, on examination after har- 
 vesting, when it appeared that the damaged part was the 
 best of the whole field. An honest English yeoman receiv- 
 ed several pounds from a liberal squire, for alleged injury to 
 his ycung grain, from the trampling of horses and hounds in 
 a fox chase ; but at harvest, he found the crop so much benefit- 
 ted by the operation, that he voluntarily returned the money. 
 If the rye is luxuriant, it maybe fed both in the fall and 
 spring. Early cutting, as in wheat, produces more weight, 
 larger measure and whiter flour. But whatever is intended 
 for seed, must be allowed to ripen fully on the ground. 
 
 Southern Rije differs materially in its manner of groAvth. 
 from that cultivated in the North. I believe, however, this 
 difference arises exclusively from dissimilarity of climate , 
 and that, like the sectional sub-varieties of corn or maize, a 
 few years' successive growth in a peculiar latitude, Avill give 
 to either sprnes, the same characteristics as the longer accli- 
 mated grain. It tillers remarkably, and grows with great 
 luxuriance during fall and a part of winter, affording excel- 
 lent forage for cattle, sheep, and other animals When the 
 animals are taken off the following spring, the grain runs up 
 to seed, yielding from 10 to 15 bushels of ripened grain to 
 the acre. I saw a beautiful field of this, late in November, 
 adjoining the mansion of Col. Wade Hampton, of South 
 Carolina, which was devoted to the pets of the stables and 
 
142 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 yards ; and especially to the numerous vari eties of fowls 
 (aquatic and others), that seemed to revel on their fresh green 
 pastures, in the absence of other herbage. 
 
 Diseases. — Rye is subject to fewer casualties than wheat. 
 Ergot or cockspur frequently affects it. This fungus is dis- 
 covered, not only on rye, but on other plants of the order 
 gramince. Several of these elongated, curved and brownish 
 spurs appear on a single head, and they are most frequent in 
 hot, wet seasons. They are poisonous to both man and beast ; 
 and when eaten freely, they have generated fatal epidemics in 
 the community, and emaciation, debility, and in some cases 
 death, to animals consuming it. The sloiaghing of the hoofs 
 and horns of cattle, has been attributed to ergot in their grass 
 and grain. Rust like that which affects the wheat crop, 
 and owing probably to the same causes, attacks rye. When 
 this happens, it should be cut and harvested without delay. 
 
 Rye for Soiling is sometimes sown by those who wish 
 forage late in autumn and early in spring. For this purpose, 
 it should be sown at the rate of three or four bushels per 
 acre. If on a fertile soil and not too closely pastured, it will 
 bear a good crop of grain ; and in some cases when too rank, 
 early feeding will strengthen the stalk and increase the grain 
 
 BARLEY (Hordeum, Fig. 33). 
 
 Barley is a grain of extensive cultivation and 
 great value. Like wheat and rye, it is both a 
 winter and spring grain, though in this coun- 
 try, it is alruost universally sown in the spring. 
 There are six varieties, differing in no essential 
 points, and all originating from the same 
 source. Loudon says, in choosing for seed, 
 " the best is that which is free from blackness 
 at the tail, and is of a pale, lively yellow, in- 
 termixed with a bright, whitish cast ; and if the 
 rind be a little shrivelled, so much the better, 
 as it indicates thin skin. The husk of thick- 
 rinded barley is too stiff to shrink, and will lie 
 smooth and hollow, even when the flour is 
 shrunk "vvithin. The necessity of a change of 
 seed from time to time, for that grj)wn in a dif- 
 ferent soil, is in no instance more evident than 
 in this grain, which otherwise becomes cc arse: 
 every successive year. But in this, as in all othei 
 grain, the utmost care should be taken thai 
 the ieed is full bodied." 
 
GBAIN AND ITS ULTIVATION. 143 
 
 The principal varieties are the two and six rmved; the 
 last being preferred for hardiness and productiveness in En- 
 rope. The first is generally cultivated in this country, from its 
 superior fullness and freedom from smut. There are nume- 
 rous sub-varieties, such as the Hudson's Bay, which ripens 
 very early and bears abundantly ; the Chevalier and Provi- 
 dence, both accidental, of which a single stalk was first dis- 
 covered among others of the ordinary kinds, and proving su- 
 perior and of luxuriant growth, they were widely propagated : 
 X\ie Peruvian, EgyjJtian, 2indoih.ex?'. New varieties may 
 be produced by crossing, as with Avheat. 
 
 Soil. — Barley requires a lighter soil than will grow good 
 wheat, and a heavier than will bear tolerable rye ; but 
 in all cases it must be one that is well drained. A mellow 
 rich loam, ranging between light sand O- gravel, and heavy 
 clay is best ^nited to it. 
 
 Cultivation. — It may be sown as soon as the ground is 
 siiriiciently dry in spring, on a grass or a clover ley turned 
 over the preceding fall ; or it may follow a well-manured and 
 cleanly-hoed crop. If sown on a sod, it should be lightly 
 plowed in, but not so deep as to disturb the sod, and after- 
 tvards harrowed or rolled. The soil must always be well pul- 
 ferized. From 1| to 2^ bushels per acre is the usual allow- 
 ance of seed, poor and mellow soils and early sown, requiring 
 the least. Barley ought never to follow the other white grains, 
 nor should they succeed each other, unless upon very rich 
 soil. No farmer can long depart from this rule, without seri- 
 ous detriment to his soil and crops. Barnyard manures must 
 never be api>lied directly to this grain, unless it be a lio-ht 
 dressing of compost on indifferent soils ; or in moderate 
 quantity after the plants have commenced growing insprino". 
 When the plants are four or five inches high, rolling will be 
 of service if the ground is dry and not compact. This opera- 
 tion gives support to the roots, destroys insects multiplies 
 seed-stalks, and increases their vigor. 
 
 Destroying Weeds in Grain. — When grain is infested with 
 cockle, wild mustard or other weeds, they should be extirpat- 
 ed by hand before they are fairly in blossom. If neglected 
 till sometime after this, the seed is so well matured as to 
 ripen after pulling, and if then thrown upjn the ground, 
 they Avill defeat the effort for their removal. When too lux- 
 jriant, barley like rye, may be fed off for a few days, but not 
 too closely. 
 
 The Harvesting cf barley must be seasonably done 
 
144 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICU: lURE 
 
 More caution is requisite in cutting it at the propc: time, 
 than is necessarjf to observe with any other grain ; for if cut 
 too late, its extreme liability to shell will cause much waste, 
 and it will shrivel, if cut before it is fully matured. It may 
 be stacked like wheat. 
 
 The uses of Barley are various and important. In Eu- 
 rope, it forms no inconsiderable part of the food of the in- 
 habitants. The grain yields from 80 to 86 per cent, of flour, 
 which, however, contains but six per cent, of gluten ; seven 
 per cent, being saccharine matter, and 79, mucilage or starch. 
 It is inferior in n 'trimeut to ■wheat and rye, but superior to 
 oats. In this country, it is principall}'^ used for malting and 
 brewing, and in some cases for distilling. When ground, it 
 is more generally appropriated to fattening swine, though 
 sometimes used for other stock. 
 
 THE OAT (Avena sativa, Fig. 34). 
 
 This grain is cultivated through- 
 out a larger range of latitude, and 
 on a greater variety of soil than 
 any cereal. It \v\\\ grow on rich 
 or poor, and on dry or moist soils ; 
 on the heaviest clays and the light- 
 est sands ; and it will generally pay 
 as well on rich lands as any other 
 crop. The average yield on good 
 soils, is from 30 to 40 bushels per 
 acre, and on the richest, when 
 well cultivated, it has exceeded 
 120 bushels. It is exposed to 
 fewer injuries than other grain, 
 being seldom affected by rust, 
 smut or insects. The wire worm 
 is most destructive to it, espe- 
 cially when sown on fresh sod. 
 The most effectual mode of extir- 
 pating these and other troublesome 
 insects, is to turn the sod over, late 
 in the fall, iust before the severe 
 winter frosts. They thus become 
 p,(; 34 chilled, and incapable of seeking 
 
 a safe retreat from their fatal effects. If not plowed at that 
 time, it should be done immediately before sowing in spring, 
 when by turning them into the bottom of the furrow, they 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 145 
 
 cannot find their way to the surface in time to injure the 
 plant seriously, before it gets beyond the reach of their 
 attacks. 
 
 Varieties. — Of these, Loudon mentions nine as being 
 well defined and entirely distinct, besides which there are 
 many local or recent sub-varieties. He says, 
 
 " The White or Common oat is in most general cultiva- 
 tion in England and Scotland, and is known by its white 
 husk and kernel. 
 
 The Black oat, known by its black husk and cultivated 
 on poor soils in the north of England and Scotland. 
 
 The Red oat, known by its brownish red husk, thinner 
 and more flexible stem and firmly-attached grains. It is 
 early, sufi'ers little from winds, meals well, and suits windy 
 situations and a late climate. 
 
 The Poland oat, known by its thick -white husk, awnless 
 chaff, solitary grains, short white kernel, and short stiff straw. 
 It requires a dry warm soil, but is very prolific. 
 
 The Black Poland oat is one of the best varieties ; it 
 sometimes weighs 50 lbs. to the bushel. 
 
 The Friezland or Dutch oat has plump thin-skinned 
 white grains mostly double, and the large ones sometimes 
 awned. It has longer straw than the Poland, but in other 
 respects resembles it. 
 
 The Potato oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, 
 white grains, double and treble, with longer straw than 
 either of the two last. It is now almost the only kind 
 raised in the north of England and south of Scotland, and 
 brings a higher price in London than any other variety. 
 
 The Georgian oat is a large-grained, remarkably profita- 
 ble variety and on rich soil, in good tilth, has produced more 
 than any other variety. 
 
 The Siberian or Tartarian, is by some conceded a distinct 
 species. The grains are black or brown, thin and small, and 
 turned mostly to one side of the panicle, and the straw is 
 corjrse and reedy. It is little cultivated in England, but is 
 found very suitable for poor soils and exposed situations. 
 
 The Winter oat is sown at the rate of two bushels per 
 acre in October, the plants are luxuriant and tiller well, and 
 afibrd good winter and spring pasture for ewes and lambs, 
 and when these are shut out, it affords an ample crop of 
 grain in August." 
 
 The Imperial oat is the heaviest raised in the United 
 States, and by many is preferred tc all others. It is a clean, 
 
 7 
 
i 
 
 146 AHEB.ICAN AGRICULTTJKE. 
 
 bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large j/roportion of 
 flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy and prolific in the 
 northern and middle States. 
 
 The Hopetown oat originated from a single stalk, first 
 discovered in 1S24, by Mr. Sheiiff, in a field of potato oats. 
 It is distinguished by its exceeding height, and superior pro- 
 duce when sown on rich soUs. 
 
 The Dyock oat is a recent sub-variety of the Potato oat, 
 and it is claimed for it, that it exceeds the last in the num- 
 ber of bushels yielded per acre, and also in the weight of 
 the grain and the quantity of meai. 
 
 The Skinless oats, greatly commended in Ireland, have 
 been tried in this country ^vithout much success. They 
 have shown a tendency to degenerate rapidly, the necessary 
 eflfect of previous highly-artificial cultivation. 
 
 There are many other varieties which have a partial or 
 local popularity. From the readiness with which new kinds 
 are produced, careful attention and observation on the part 
 of the farmer, will enable him to detect from time to time, 
 such as may have a decided value over others for particular 
 localities. A superior kind was discovered in a field of com- 
 mon oats in Oneida County, N. Y., some years since, and 
 *tom the produce of one stool, it became \videly disseminated, 
 and has uniformly proved both hardy and prolific. 
 
 The variet}' most cultivated in the United States is the Com- 
 mo?i Wliiteoat, which is hardv and a ffood bearer, weisrhing 
 from 30 to 34 lbs. per bushel. The Black oat is preferred in 
 •western New York, aud some other sections of the country. 
 Repeated trials have been made with the Potato oat, a heavy 
 grain, weighing from 3-5 to 45 lbs per bushel, but its merits 
 have not hitherto proved conspicuous, enough to justify its 
 usurpiuff the place of the older and long-tried varieties. 
 
 The Egyptian oat is much cultivated south of Tennessee, 
 and is said to be the onl)^ oat that will mature with certainty 
 in the southern States. It is a grain of medium size, but 
 plump and hea\y ; sound, hardy and moderately prolific. 
 It is sown in autumn, and after yielding winter and sprng 
 pastutage, gives from 10 to 20 bushels of ripened grain to 
 an acre. 
 
 Cultivation. — In this country, oavS are sov.ti at the rate 
 of two to four bushels per acre, during all the spring months, 
 and sometimes, though rarely, in June. The earliest sown 
 are usually the heaviest and n.ost productive. They may 
 occupy a turf, or follow any of tie well-man" xred, hoed crops. 
 
GRAIN AND n-S CULTIVATION. 1 47 
 
 as mentioned in the preceding grains. No appaitn^ advan- 
 tage has been derived from steeps for the prevention of smut 
 as in wheat, the impervious husk of the oat, apparently 
 arresting the hquid, and preventing its penetration to tho 
 kernol. Sowing salt broadcast over the land, at the rate of 
 two to six bushels per acre, has been found of use to tho 
 crop, both in furnishing it with a necessary manure and by 
 kilhng insects. The seed should be well harrowed in and 
 rolled, and no after attention is required, except to destroy 
 the prominent weeds. 
 
 Harvesting. — Oats frequently ripen unevenly, and if there 
 is a large proportion of such as are backward, the proper 
 time for cutting \vill be, as soon as the grain in the latest, 
 may be rubbed out of the straw by hand. The oat is suffi- 
 ciently matured for harvesting after it has passed the milk 
 state, and is easily compressed between the thumb and finger. 
 The lower part of the stalk will then have assumed a yel- 
 low color, and ceases to draw nutriment from the soil. If 
 cut at this time, the straw is better for fodder and other uses , 
 the grain is fuller ; the husk lighter ; and the loss from 
 shelling, which is frequently a great item when left too late, 
 is avoided. Oats, when very tall, are most profitably cut 
 with the sickle, and when lodged, Avith the scythe ; but 
 when erect and of medium height, with the cradle, or an ap- 
 proved reaping machine, which is by far the most speedy 
 and economical ; and this leaves them in a suitable position 
 for binding into sheaves. They may be stacked like wheat. 
 The uses of oats are various, and differ materially in dif- 
 ferent countries. In Scotland, Ireland and many other 
 countries, oat meal is much used as human food; and for 
 this, the Imperial oat or some one of the heavy kinds is pre- 
 ferred, as they aflbrd a larger pre portion of meal and less of 
 husk. Scotland draws no inconsiderable part of the support 
 for her entire laboring population, from this meal. It is 
 formed into small thin cakes and eaten with milk, butter or 
 molasses, or it is mixed with Avater or milk and made into a 
 kind of pudding, under the name of stirabout, a favorite 
 dish, which is said to be palatable to those accustomed to it. 
 They are but little used for human food in this country, 
 and only by emigrants, Avho bring their early habits with 
 them. They are prepared by kiln-drying and hulling, then 
 grinding and bolting, when required to i'eparate the flour. 
 The meal -s scalded before using, and mixed with about half 
 its weight of wheat flour, when made into bread. It is sold 
 by the apothecaries to invalids, iix whom it is valuable, from 
 
(48 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 its light, digestible character. It is also stured into water, 
 making an excellent beverage for laborers in hot weather. 
 The principal nse of oats in the United States, is as food 
 for working animals, for which they are unrivalled. Oafs 
 are sometimes used when ground for fattening cattle, sheep 
 and swine; b.:t for this puipose.they are surpassed by corn 
 barley, peas or boiled potatoes. They are an excellent fod 
 der for stock sheep, and for them, are mosi economically fed 
 in the straw. All stock will do well upon them, when har- 
 vested early, and cut previous to feeding, in a suitable cut- 
 ting box. 
 
 Anali/sis. — Davy found in 1,000 parts of Scotch oats, 743 
 of soluble or nutritiv-e matter, containing 641 of mucilage 
 or starch, 15 saccharine matter, and 87 gluten or albumen. 
 Those of England, gave 59 of starch, six of gluten, two of 
 saccharine matter, and 33 of husk in 100 parts. 
 
 INDIAN CORN, (Zea maize). 
 
 This next to the grasses, is by far 
 the most important crop of the 
 United States. The quantity this 
 country is capable of raising, Avould 
 fail to command belief, even if fairly 
 stated. Its capacity \vill never be 
 fully known, till a demand from 
 abroad shall stimulate production 
 much beyond u'hat it has ever per- 
 manently realized heretofore. The 
 census return for 1840, gave 387,- 
 000,000 bushels ; and for 1843, the 
 estimate of the whole product of 
 Indian corn in this country, was over 
 400,000,000 bushels. The effect 
 of this immense production of a sta- 
 ple article, is felt in every depart- 
 ment of our agriculture ; and is 
 conclusively shown by the Ioav pri- 
 ces of beef, pork, mutton, human 
 food, whiskey and high wines, to all of which, corn is made 
 largely to contribute. Nearly all the beef and pork of the 
 vast and fertile West, and much m the North and South is 
 made from it. 
 
 Corn seems to have been created for this western hemis- 
 phere. It is raise.d ir. boundless luxurinnce, from the frozen 
 
 ss^^=- 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 149 
 
 regions of Canada, almosi lo the Straits of Magellan. It 
 riots in the fierce blaze a'^ our cloudless western sun, and it 
 is here that it attains the highest perfection. Its most pro- 
 lific area on this continent, lies between 42° North, and 
 SB'' South latitude, deducting a limited portion of the equa 
 torial regions. Close attention in its cultivation is necessary, 
 when receding from these limits towards the poles, on ac 
 count of a deficiency of sun for ripening it. In such locali- 
 ties, the smaller and earlier kinds should be planted on a 
 warm soil, so as to mature before, the first frosts. 
 
 Varieties. — There is no one of the cereal grains or grasses, 
 which manifests itself under such multiplied forms as maize. 
 From the little shrubby stalk that grows on the shores of 
 Lake Superior, to the palmetto-lU f" corn of the Mexican val- 
 leys ; and from the tiny ears ana flattened, oJosely clinging 
 grains of the former, the brilliant rounded little pearl, or the 
 thickly-wedged rice corn, to the magnificently elongated, 
 swelling ear of the Kentucky, \vith its deeply-indented 
 gourd-seed, it is developed in every grade of sub-variety. 
 The kernels are long, round or flat, or shriveled like the 
 sweet ; and their color is white, yellow, blue, red or striated ; 
 yet each contains the same principles of nutriment, combined 
 in somewhat difiereut proportions, and contributes for equal 
 weights, nearly in the same ratio, to the support of man and 
 the lower orders of the animal creation. 
 
 The analysis of corn as given by Dr. Dana, is in 100 parts, 
 of flesh-forming principles, (gluten and albumen) 12.60 ; fat 
 forming, (gum, sugar, starch, oil, woody fibre,) 77.09 ; salts, 
 1.31 ; water 9. The yellow contains more oil or fatty mat- 
 ter than the \vhite, and therefore yields a stronger or richer, 
 food. This quality gives greater intensity to the peculiari- 
 ties of flavor ; and by those not accustomed to its use, it is 
 not relished so well as the white. This is shown by the 
 preference given to the latter in England and Ireland, where 
 it has been recently introduced as a staple article of food. 
 The large proportion of oil in this grain, increases its tend- 
 ency to rancidity, Avhen exposed to a hot and moist climate, un- 
 less previously prepared to resist this influence by kiln-drying. 
 
 Besides the kinds in general cultivation in this country, 
 varieties have been occasionally introduced from abroad, of 
 a character so diff"erent, as almost to entitle them to the dis- 
 tinction of independent species. Such are the Chinese tree 
 mm, bearing its slender ears at the extremiti.-s of several 
 expanded branches ; th( Egyptian, witl;its iiJ^'i^jt-hke head ; 
 
160 AMERICAN AGRICTTLTURB. 
 
 the Oregon, with its separate husk or envelope fcr every dis- 
 tinct kernel. But if we narrowly watch the vagaries of 
 nature, ^ve shall detect deviations from the ordinary stand- 
 ards of our domesticated varieties, ^vhich approximate so 
 closely to the most fanciful of the exotics, that we are com- 
 pelled to believe, that all those which have hitherto come 
 \vithin our notice, originated from one common head ; and 
 that the peculiarities of every description, are OAving to the 
 difference of soil, climate and culture, and the carefully- 
 cherished eccentricities of nature, aided by a skillful science 
 or well practiced art. It is needless to particularize the many 
 popular kinds of corn under successful cultivation in thiJs 
 country. They are found to vary with almost every degree 
 of latitude and longitude ; and there are not unfrequently, 
 nmnerous kinds held in deservedly high estiination within 
 a single district. From these, there will be no difficulty in 
 selecting such as will best repay the farmer's attention. 
 
 The Soil for Corn must be dry, rich and well-pulverized. 
 Neither strong clay or poor wet lands will jield good crops 
 of corn. Land can scarcely be too rich for it ; and the 
 fresher and less fermented the manure a^jplied to it, unless 
 on liffht, sandy soils, 'he better it will be for the crop. A 
 great error is committed in raising corn, as with most of our 
 tillage crops, from not having the soil sufficiently enriched ; 
 though this error is diminished in the case of such as will 
 not bear an excess of manure. Corn is a gross feeder, and 
 necessarily ranges over a great space in search of food. It 
 has a large amount of stalk, leaves and grain to provide for 
 in a few weeks, and its increase vvill be commensurate with 
 the supply of food. 
 
 A clover ley or rich grass sod is an excellent preparation 
 for corn, with the addition of manure when required. But 
 the manure should always be scattered broadcast, plowed 
 and well harrowed in. The roots will be certain to find it, 
 and in consequence of its general diffusion and consequent 
 gradual absorption by the crop, the development of the ear 
 and grain will correspond with that of the stalk and leaves. 
 When manured in the hill on poor soil, it comes forward 
 rapidly, and this induces an extension of the roots and foliage, 
 entirely disproportioned to the elements contained in the 
 eol' ; and finding a support wholly inadequate to a corres- 
 ponding maturity, the crop is limited to the overgrown stalks 
 and leaves and a small proportion of grain. 
 
 The Selection of Seed should be made with the utmost 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. \5\ 
 
 care, not only from the best varieties, but the best seed of 
 the particular kind desired. Some of the choicest have 
 been brought to their present perfection, by selecting only 
 the earliest and largest ears from the most prolific stalks. 
 This ought always to be done before the corn is gathered in 
 the field, where there is an opportunity for comparison. 
 
 Hyhridizmg Corn, like that of other grain, is easily ac- 
 complished, and its results are marked and frequently bene- 
 ficial. The probable identity in origin of all the varieties, 
 is evinced by the rapid change exhibited in the most di- 
 verse kinds when their locality is changed. The small, 
 early corn of the North, becomes the tall, later-maturing 
 corn of the South, after being cultivated for two or three 
 seasons in Louisiana ; and the Oregon, with every kernel 
 safely encased in its separate calyx, in the climate of New 
 York, soon exchanges this partial covering for the more com- 
 prehensive husk. Similar changes are characteristic of every 
 variety ever coming within our notice. 
 
 Preparation of Seed. — Repeated experiments have de 
 monstrated the great utility of steeping corn for one or two 
 days before planting, in a solution of saltpetre. This accele- 
 rates the growth of the plant, and is a protection against birds, 
 squirrels and mice, and for a while it will keep ofi" worms. 
 An effectual remedy against these depredations, is to add 
 half a pint of boiling tar to a peck of seed, stirring the corn 
 briskly for several minutes, as the tar is added, till every ker- 
 nel is thinly coated with it. This supersedes the necessity 
 of the worse tlian absurd remedy of scare-crows. The crows 
 and other birds are of great advantage to the farmer on all 
 his fields, as they pick up numberless insects, grubs and 
 worms, which infest the ground and destroy, or seriously in- 
 jure the vegetation. Instead of driving them from the corn 
 grounds, they should be enticed there, by every proper 
 means ; and by rendering the grain distasteful, their appe- 
 tites are sharpened for the Avorms and insects, the less con- 
 spicuous, but more fatal enem.ies of the grain. 
 
 Planting. — Corn may be planted in hills three to five feet 
 asimder, leaving from three to five stalks well spread in 
 each hill, according to the kind of seed and quality of land 
 Some plant in drills, but this is objectionable when raised for 
 the grain, as the trouble of cultivation is greater, without 
 increasing the yield. Thick planting gives fewer ears upon 
 a stalk and those of less size. The time of planting at the 
 North, ifi usually the first three weeks of May, depending 
 
I5S AMERICAN AGRICULTXTKE. 
 
 much on the season, liate frosts will sometimes cut down 
 the first leaves, without destroying the germ ; but it is al- 
 ways best to defer planting till all apprehensions of it are 
 removed. In the more southern States, earlier planting is 
 desirable, and it is there put into the groiuid from February 
 to April. To give regulari:y to the rows and facilitate after 
 culture, the furrows for the seed should be struck out each 
 way ^vith the utmost exactness, and twice the corn planted 
 that is necessary to remain. It requires to be covered about 
 two inches deep. The surplus plants can be pulled up a 
 the second hoeing, ■u'hen all fear of injury is past. If the 
 land is light, it should be laid flat before planting, and after 
 this, rolled compactly. 
 
 Planting machines have been recently invented for putting 
 in this srain, which greatly diminish the labor, -while they 
 perform the operation more perfectly. A light horse, or 
 mule and boy can furrow and drop the seed, cover and roll, 
 from eight to twelve acres per day ; and with entire uni- 
 formity as to distance, depth of covering, and quantity of 
 seed in each hill. 
 
 Cultivation. — The ground may be stirred when the 
 plants first show themselves. This is most economically 
 done with the cultivator or light plow, and if the operation 
 be frequent and thorough, there will be httle use for the hoe. 
 Hilling or heaping the earth around the plants should al- 
 ways be avoided, except with very heavy soils, or such as 
 are liable to an excess of i. Disture ; in all other cases it 
 should remain flat. Stirring the groimd in dry weather, is 
 peculiar}^ beneficial to corn and all hoed crops. Some omii 
 it then from fear of the escape of moisture, but its efi'ect is 
 precisely the reverse, for nothing so certainly produces fria- 
 bleuess, porosity and unevenness in the soil ; and this we 
 have shown, under the heads of soils and draining, facili- 
 tates the admission and escape of heat, v.'hich inevitably 
 secures the deposit of large quantities of moisture, even in 
 the driest and most sultry weather. Corn and other crops 
 that were withering from excessive drought, have been at 
 once rescued from its eifects, by a thorough use of the plow 
 and cultivator. Well-drained, dark-colored, and rich porous 
 fioUs will be found to sufl"er much less in drought, than others 
 which lack these characteristics. 
 
 Harves'ing. — If there be no danger of early frost, the 
 com may be suflTered to stand till fully ripe ; though if the 
 stalks are designed foi fodd^'-, they are better to be cut wiiei? 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION 153 
 
 the grain is well glazed, and this should be done in all cases 
 where frost is expected. Scarcely any injury occurs either 
 to the leaf or grain, if the corn be cut and stooked, when 
 both would be seriously damaged from the same exposure it 
 standmg. 
 
 The stalks of corn ought never to be cut above the 
 ear, but always near the ground, and for this obvious reason. 
 The sap which nourishes the grain, is drawn from the earth, 
 and passing through the stem, enters the leaf, where a 
 change is effected, analogous to what takes place in the 
 blood when brought to the surface of the lungs, in the ani- 
 mal system ; but with this peculiar difference, however, that 
 while tht blood gives out carbon and absorbs oxygen, plants, 
 under the influence of light and heat, give out oxygen and 
 absorb carbon. This change prepares the sap. for condensa- 
 tion and conversion into the grain. But the leaves which 
 thus digest the food for the grain are above it, and it is while 
 passing downward, that the change of the sap into grain 
 principally takes place. If the stalk be cut above the ear, 
 nourishment is at an end. It may then become firm and 
 dry, but it will not increase in quantity ; while if cut near 
 the root, it not only appropriates the sap already in the plant, 
 but it also absorbs additional matter from the atmosphere 
 which contributes to its weight and perfection. 
 
 Corn must be perfectly dried in the field, and after this 
 husked and carried into an airy loft, or stored in latticed or 
 open barracks. The stalks may be housed, or carefully 
 stacked for fodder. Many of our western farmers allow 
 both grain and stalks to stand in the field till wanted for use, 
 when they are fed in an adjoining enclosure. This is a 
 wasteful practice, and cu i only be justified by the very low 
 price of grain. Where labor is not relatively too high, it is 
 better to grind or crush the corn and cob, and cut the stalk : 
 then mix all together, dampening and slightly salting the 
 mixture some time before feeding it. Could a comprehen- 
 sive machine be invented for grinding the whole mass of 
 stalk, husk, cob and grain together, it would save much of 
 the food, and the labor both in preparing and digesting it. 
 When fodder is high, the stalks and leaves will repay the 
 expense of cultivation. 
 
 Freparat.ion of Corn for a distant viarket requires that 
 the grain be not only well cured, sound and dry, but that it 
 be properly kiln-dried. This expels tho moisture, and de. 
 7# 
 
164 AMERICAN AGRICULTITRE. 
 
 eiroys that vitality, which impels it to absorb dampnct%6 when- 
 ever exposed to it, as a preliminary aid to germination ; thus 
 carrying out that great law of reproduction, impressed by 
 Deity on every organic structure, Avhether animal or vege- 
 table, " whose seed is in itself." By the operation of kiln- 
 drying, it becomes mere matter divested of vitality, and 
 may then be carried into all climates with impunity. 
 
 Corn for Soili?tg. — Corn has recently been much culti- 
 vated for fodder, and for this p:rpose, the soil must be in high 
 condition and well pulverized. It may be sown broadcast 
 and harrowed in, at the rate of three or four bushels per acre. 
 But a much better method is, to sow thickly in drills, and 
 stir the ground Avith a light plow or cultivator. The sowing 
 may be done early or late, though the first is most success- 
 ful. It should be cut before the frosts touch it, and dried 
 previous to housing. Several tons of excellent forage have 
 been raised in this way, from a single acre. In a report to 
 the Pedee Agricultural Society of South Carolina, it is as- 
 serted, that 138,816 lbs. of green corn stalks have been cut 
 from one, acre in a season, weighing when dry, 27.297 lbs. 
 
 The Uses of Corn in this country are numerous. It is 
 largely fed to fattening and working animals, but must be 
 cautiously given to the latter, and especially in hot weather. 
 It is extensively manufactured into high Avines and whiskey, 
 the consumption of Avhich as a beverage, evinces a sad per- 
 version of one of the best gifts of nature. It is converted 
 into oil, molasses and sugar to a very limited extent ; and is 
 variously and largely applied to domestic uses. While green 
 it is boiled or roasted in the ear ; or it is cut from the cob 
 and cooked with the garden or kidney bean, which forms the 
 Indian succotash. Wnen ripe, it is hulled in a weak ley, 
 then boiled and known as hulled corn, a most convenient 
 and acceptable dish in the frontier settlements, remote from 
 mills ; or it is parched over a hot tire, affording a delicious 
 lunch, and a convenient provision for hunters, as popped 
 corn. Hominy or "iamp is a favorite dish, and consists 
 of corn coarsely ground and boiled in water ; and hasty j^ud- 
 ding Ai^exs from this, only in being made of fine meaJ. The 
 meal may be compounded Avith milk and eggs into jonny- 
 cakes, puddings, griddles and other delicacies, universally 
 esteemed for the table ; and when scalded and mixed witli 
 the flour of wheat or rye, it imparts additional swuetness to 
 bread, wiiil ^ it scarcely diminishes its proportionate nutritive 
 properties 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 
 
 155 
 
 RICE (Oryza sativa, Fig. 38). 
 
 This grain probably contributes directly 
 to the support of a larger iiumber of the 
 human family than any other plant. In 
 China, and nearly the whole length of the 
 southern part of Asia ; throughout the in- 
 numerable and densely populated islands of 
 the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; in the south- 
 ern part of Europe, and a large extent of 
 Africa ; and through no inconsiderable por- 
 tion of the North and South American con- 
 tinent and its central islands, it is extensive- 
 ly grown, and forms the staple food of the 
 inhabitants. Rice requires a moist soil, and 
 is much more productive when subject to in- 
 undation. A hot sun is also necessary to 
 mature it ; and as a result of these two es- 
 sential conditions, its culture is limited to 
 regions much more circumscribed than are 
 Fig. S8. allotted to Avheat, maize, or some of the 
 
 usually cultivated plants. I subjoin, from an excellent 
 article on rice and its cultivation, addressed to the Avriter 
 by Dr. Cartwright, a practical planter of Mississippi. 
 
 Varieties of Rice. — " Of these there are many, but I am in- 
 duced to believe that they are all essezitially aquatic. All the 
 varieties, yet discovered, flourish best uzider the inundation sys- 
 tem of culture ; yield more to the acre, give less trouble, and re- 
 quire less labor. But each variety grows well on light, moist 
 uplands without irrigation, when cultivated with the hoe or 
 plow. The product, however, is so mvieh less than by the irri- 
 gation system, and the laborof tillage so much more, that the 
 upland producer never can compete successfully with the low- 
 lander. The former may curtail his expenses by growing 
 rice for domestic uses, but he cannot profitably, produce 
 it for sale. Besides the ten-fold labor ^vhich rice on upland 
 requires in comparison Avith that cultivated by the irrigation 
 system, it cannot be so\vn thick enough to make a large yield 
 per acre. Space must be left for the plow or hoe to till the 
 rice, which is not necessary in those localities where it can 
 be overflowed at will, and the Avater drawn off as occasion 
 may require. 
 
 Cultivation of hcMand Rice. — The method pursued ou 
 the rice lands of thi lower Mississippi, is 6.: sow the rica 
 
156 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 broadcast about as thick as wheat, and harrow -t in with a 
 hght harrow having many teeth ; the ground being first well 
 plou'ed and prepared b}^ ditches and e nbankments for inunda- 
 tion. It is generally sown in March, and immediately after 
 sowing the water is let on, so as barely to overflow 
 the ground. The water is withdraAvn on the second, third, 
 or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to swell. The 
 rice very soon after comes up and grows finely. "When it 
 has attained about three inches in height, the water is again 
 let oil, the top leaves being left a little above the Avater. Com- 
 plete immersion would kill the plant. A fortnight previous 
 to harvest, the water is drawn off to give the stalks strength, 
 and to dry the ground for the convenience of the reapers. 
 
 A different method is practiced in the northern part of 
 Italy. The seed is sown in April, previously to which it is 
 soaked a day or two in water. After .sowing, about two 
 inches of water is let in upon the ground. The rice comes 
 up through the water, which is then dravv^n off to give the 
 plant strength, and after some days, is again let on. The 
 rice is more apt to mildew under this practice, than our meth- 
 od, of letting the water on about the time the Italians draw it 
 off. 
 
 The same measure of ground yields three times as much 
 Mice as tcheat. The only labor after sowing, is to seo 
 that the rice is properly irrigated ; except in some localities 
 where aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectual- 
 ly destroying all others. The rice grounds of the lower 
 Mississippi produce about seventy-five dollars worth of rice 
 per acre. The variety called the Creole white rice, is con- 
 sidered to be the best. 
 
 Cultivation of Upland Rice. — In the eastern part of the 
 State of Mississipi, called the Piney woods, rice is very 
 generally cultivated on the uplands. Although it cannot be 
 made a profitable article of export, yet it affords the people 
 of the interior an abundant supply of a healthy food for them- 
 selves, and a good provender for their cattle, and makos them 
 independent of the foreign market. Unlike other kinds ol 
 gram, it can be kept for many years in a warm climate, 
 without spoiling, by winnowing it semi-annually, which 
 prevents the weevil and a small black insect that sometimes 
 attacks it. 
 
 It is cultivated entirely with the plow and harrow, and 
 grows well on the pine barrens. A kind of shovel plow 
 ilrawn by one horse, is driven tl rough the unbroken 
 
GRA N AND ITS CULTIVATION. 157 
 
 pine-forest ; not a tree being cut or belted, and no grubbing 
 being necessary, as there is little or no undergrowth. The 
 plow makes a shallow furrow about an inch or two deep, the 
 furrows about three feet apart. The rice is dropped into 
 them and covered with a harrow. The middles, or spaces be- 
 tween the furroAvs, are not broken up until the rice attains 
 several inches in height. One ox two plowings suthce in the 
 Piney woods for its. cultivation — weeds and grass, OAving to 
 the nature of the soil, not being troublesome. A similar 
 method of cultivation obtains on the prairie land of the north- 
 western States. Rice, like hemp, does not impoverish the 
 soil.* On the contrary, it is a good preparatory crop for 
 some others, as Indian corn. The pine barrens of Missis- 
 sipi would produce rice ad infinitum, if it were not that the 
 land, after a few years, owing to the sandy nature of the 
 soil, becomes too dry for it. 
 
 It has been ascertained by Arnal, that twelve pounds of 
 wheat flour and two pounds of rice will make twenty-four 
 pounds of an excellent bread, very white and good ; whereas, 
 without the addition of rice, 14 pounds of flour will only 
 make 18 pounds of bread. Like other kinds of grain, rice 
 adapts itself to the soil and climate, and particular mode of 
 cultivation ; but if the seed be not changed, or selected from 
 the best specimens of the plant, it will ultimately degene- 
 rate. Thus in Piedmont, after a long series of years, the 
 rice became so much affected with a kind of blight called the 
 brusone, as ro compel the Piedmontese to import fresh seed 
 in 1829, from South Carolina. The American rice intro- 
 duced into Piedmont, escaped the brusone, but it was seve- 
 ral years before it adapted itself to the soil and climate. 
 
 Some years ago, a traveller, finding rice growing in great 
 perfection on the mountains and highlands of Asia, particu- 
 
 • If this remark be limited to the lowland rice, we fully agree with 
 it ; as the water and the materials it holds, either in suspension or 
 solution, and to which it is exposed through so long a period of its 
 growth, afford the greater part of the nutritive matter appropriated by 
 the plant. But if applied to upland rice, we must dissent in toto ; 
 for the rich, life-sustaining principles of this grain, draw largely on 
 the soils where water is not present; for like the white grains, the 
 wheat, oats, and barley., its narrow, grass-like leaves do not draw 
 much from the atmosphere. The intelligent writer indirectly concedes 
 this in the followlni; sentence but one. The soil becomes too dry for 
 it, simply because it is exhausted of those vital, fertilizing principles, 
 the salts and carbonaceous Clatters, which help to sustain the re- 
 quisite moisture in the soil, and which is one of the beneficial results 
 of their presence in it 
 
158 A^rERTCAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 larly Cochin China, named it Hz sec or dry rice, and seni 
 the seed to Europe, where n.any experiments were made with 
 it. It yielded no better than any other kind of rice, and was 
 found Uke all others to succeed best when inundated. The 
 reason why it yielded so much more in Asia than in Europe 
 can be readily accounted for, by the natural inundations it 
 receives from the excessive rains during the monsoons. 
 
 No variety has been discovered which yields as much 
 out of the water as it does in it. There are many localities 
 in the United States, where the culture of dee by the irriga- 
 ting system, would rather serve to make ",he surrounding 
 neighborhoods healthy instead of sickly. 1' is generally ad- 
 mitted, that a given surface of ground completely inundated, 
 is much less unhealthy than the same surface partially in- 
 undated, or in transitu between the wet and the dry state. 
 Hence mill-ponds which partially dry up in the summer, are 
 fruitful sources of disease. Some of the best rice is said to 
 grow on the bottom of mill-ponds. Nothing more is ne- 
 cessary, than to make the bottom perfectly level, and 
 then to overflow the whole surface just deep enough to keep 
 the top leaves above water. As if to show that unhealthi- 
 ness is not necessarily connected with, the culture of this 
 valuable grain, nature has imposed a law upon it, ordering 
 that it should flourish better when overflowed with pure 
 running water than with the stagnant waters of impure lakes 
 and marshes. 
 
 There are two kinds of rice, which are said to succeed 
 best on uplands, the long and the round. The former has a 
 red chaff, and is vejry difficult to beat. The latter shakes 
 out, if not cut as soon as ripe. They nevertheless succeed 
 best under the inundation system of culture. In the eastern 
 hemisphere, rice is cultivated as far North as the 46th degree 
 of latitude. The climate of the United States is better suit- 
 ed to it than that of Europe, because our summers are hotter. 
 In the northern part of China, the variety called the imperial 
 rice, or riz sec de la Chine (the oriza sativa mutica), is more 
 precocious than any other, is said to yield a heavy harvest, 
 and to constitute the principal food for the people of that 
 populous region. But it has succeeded no better in Europe 
 than any other kind of rice. 
 
 The best rice lands of South Carolina are valued at five 
 hundred dollars per acre, while the best cotton lands sell for 
 a tenth part ci" that sum, proving that rice is more profitable 
 than cotton The profits of a crop should no so much bees- 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. loO 
 
 timated by the yield per acre, as the number cf acres a labor- 
 er can till. After the land is properly prepared for inunda- 
 tion, by levelling, ditching, and embankments, a single indi- 
 vidual can grow almost an indefinite quantity of rice. Rice 
 is no doubt ultimately destined to supersede cotton in a large 
 portion of Mississippi and Louisiana." 
 
 The varieties of Rice most grown in South Carolina and 
 Georgia, whi"h have hitherto been the greatest rice-produc- 
 ing States of he Union, are the Gold-seed rice, the Guinea, 
 the Common White, and the White-hear ded. There are 
 several other /arieties, but generally inferior to the foregoing. 
 The best are produced by careful cultivation on soils suited to 
 this grain, and by a careful selection of seed. 
 
 In 1839, South Carolina produced over 66,000,000 lbs.; 
 Georgia, 13,400,000 ; Louisiana, 3,765,000 ; and North Caro- 
 lina, 3,324,000, no other State producing one million pounds. 
 Rice will keep for years uninjured, if allowed to remain in 
 the chaff or husk as it is gathered, in which condition it is 
 called paddy. 
 
 From the immense extent of our lowlands throughout the 
 delta of the Mississippi, which, if subjected to the wet tillage 
 of rice, may be considered of inexhaustible fertility, we may 
 expect at some future day, to surpass every other portion of 
 the globe in the quantity, as we noAV do in the quality ot 
 our rice. 
 
 MILLET (Panicum milliaceum) . 
 
 This is the species of millet usually grown in the United 
 States. In its form and the manner of bearing its seeds, 
 the millet strongly resembles a miniature broom corn. It 
 grows to the height of two to four feet, with a profusion of 
 stalks, heads and leaves, which furnish excellent forage for 
 cattle. From 60 to 80 bushels of seed per acre have been 
 raised, and with straw equivalent to one or two tons of hay ; 
 but an average crop may be estimated at about one third 
 of this quantity. Owing to the great waste during the 
 ripening of the seed, from the shelling of the earliest of it 
 before the last is matured, and the frequent depredations ot 
 birds which are very fond of it, millet is more profitably cut 
 when the first seeds have begun to ripen, and then harvest- 
 ed for fodder. It is cured like hay, and on the best lands 
 yields from two to four tons per acre. All cattle relish it, 
 and experience has shown it to be fully equal to good hay. 
 
 Cultivation. — Millet requires a dry, rich, and well pul- 
 verized soil It will grow on thiit soil, but best repays on 
 
160 
 
 AMERICAN AQRICULTUEE. 
 
 the most fertile. It should be sown 
 broadcast or in drills from the 1st of 
 May to 1st of July. If for hay and 
 sown broadcast, 40 quarts per acre 
 will be required ; if sown in drills for 
 the grain, eight quarts of seed will suf- 
 fice. It will ripen in 60 to 75 days 
 with favorable Aveather. Whende- 
 .signed for fodder, the nearer it can 
 approach to ripening, without waste 
 in harvesting, the more valuable will 
 he the crop. 
 
 Indian or Grand Millet (Sor- 
 ghu7)i vulgare, Fig. 38).^ — This mil- 
 let is much cultivated in Asia Minor, 
 Egypt, Arabia, the West Indies, and 
 elsewhere. It grows from four to 
 six feet high, affording a large quan- 
 tity of forage, and much seed or 
 giain, which is known as Guinea 
 corn. This is gromid into flour and 
 used by the laborers where grown. 
 It is also an economical food for cat- 
 t.e, swine, and fo\vls. It is not 
 raix'd to any extent in the United 
 States, but might be advantageously 
 F,G.38. introduced into the southern States. 
 
 Buck- Wheat, or Beech- Wheat {Polygonum fa gopy rum. 
 Fig. 39), is a grain much cultivated in this 
 country. It grows freely on light soils, but 
 yields a remunerating crop only on those 
 which are fertile. Fresh manure is partic- 
 ularly injurious to this grain. Sandy loams 
 are its favorite soils, especially such as have 
 lain long in pasture, and these should be well 
 plowed and harrowed. It may be sown 
 from the 1st of May to the 10th of August, 
 but in the northern States, this ought to be 
 done as early as June or July, or it may be 
 injured by early frosts, which are fatal to it. 
 It is sown broadcast, at the rate of three to 
 six pecks per acre, and harvested when the 
 earliest seed is fully ripe. The plant often 
 Fio. 39 continues flowering after this, and when the 
 
GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 
 
 161 
 
 early seed is blighted, as is often the case, the plant may be 
 left till these last have matured. As it is liable to heat, 
 it should be placed in small stacks of two or three tons 
 each, but it is better to thresh out the grain at once. If not 
 perfectly dry, the straw may be stacked with layers of other 
 straw, and when well cured, it will be a valuable fodder for 
 cattle. Sheep will feed and thrive as well on this straw as 
 on good hay. 
 
 Uses. — This grain is ground and bolted and the flour is 
 much used for human food. Before grinding, the hull or 
 outer covering should be removed. When thus prepared, 
 the flour is as white and delicate in appearance as the best 
 rye, it is equally light and digestible, and is scarcely inferior 
 to wheat in its nutritive properties. The grain is used for 
 fattening swine, but is most profitable when mixed with 
 corn. Poultry thrive upon it. Buckwheat was formerly 
 employed as a fertilizer, but for this object it is inferior to 
 the clovers, in all cases where the soil is capa- 
 ble of sustaining them. Its rapid growth 
 will insure the maturing and turning under 
 of two crops in one season. There are other 
 varieties than the one specified, but none of 
 equal value for general cultivation in this 
 country. 
 
 Canary Grass {^Phalaris canariensis. 
 Fig. 40). — This, like the millet, is an annual, 
 and is used like many other species of 
 the family of grasses, both for the seed and 
 forage. Its chief use, however, is as a food 
 for the canary, and other feathered pets. 
 
 It is sown quite early in the season, in drills, 
 12 to 18 inches apart, at the rate of two or three 
 pecks per acre; in a rich, well-pulverized loam ; 
 lightly covered, and kept clear of weeds by 
 the cultivator and hoe. It is cut when fully 
 ripe, and allowed to remain for some time ex- 
 posed to the dews or rain, to loosen the chaff, 
 which otherwise is very dill 3u't of removal. 
 
162 iMERICAN AGRICULTITRE. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 THE PEA (Pisnm satiTXun). 
 
 The pea, bean, tare or vetch, lupine, the clovers, and 
 some other plants, are all embraced in the botanical order 
 LeguniinoscB. The pea is valuable for cultivation, not only 
 for the table, but for many of the domestic animals. It is 
 largely fed to swine, sheep and poultry. For the former, it 
 should be soaked, boiled or ground. If land is adapted to it, 
 few crops can be more profitably raised for their use. It 
 ripens early, and when beginning to harden, they may be fed 
 with the vines, and the animals will masticate the whole, 
 and fatten rapidly. 
 
 The Soil. — The heaviest clays will bear good peas, but 
 a calcareous or Miieat soil is better. Strong lands produce 
 the best crops, but these should be made so by manures pre- 
 viously applied, as the addition of such as are fresh, increases 
 the growth of haulm or straw, and sometimes dim.inishes 
 both the quantity and quality of the pea. WhensoM-n on a 
 poor sward, the manure should be spread before plowing. A 
 dressing of well-rotted manure increases the crop, and is a 
 good preparation whe^i intended to be followed by wheat. 
 
 Varieties. — Of these there are many. The earlier kinds 
 are generally indifferent bearers, and their cultivation is 
 Mmited almost exclusively to the garden. Of those for 
 field culture, the marrow-fat are among the richest of the peas, 
 and they are preferred for good lands. The small yellow 
 are perhaps the best for poorer soils. There is a very pro- 
 lific husli-pca grown in Georgia, bearing pods six or seven 
 inches long, which hang in clusters, on a short upright stem. 
 The pods are filled with a white pea, which is highly es- 
 teemed for the table, either green or dry. In that latitude, 
 they bear two or three crops in one season. 
 
 Cultivation. — Peas should have a clean fallow or fresh, 
 rich sod, Avell harrowed. They are not affected by frosts, 
 and may be sown as soon as the ground is dry. This will 
 enable them to ripen in season to plow for Avheat. They 
 
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 163 
 
 are very liable to attack from the pea-bug, which deposits its 
 eo-g in the pea while in its green state, where it hatches; and 
 the worm, by feeding on the pea, diminishes its weiglit nearljr 
 one half. Here it remains through the winter, and comes 
 out as a bug the following season. To avoid this pest, some 
 sow only such seed as has been kept oy»r two years, while 
 others sow as late as tlie 15th to the 25th of May, which delays 
 the pea till after the period of its attacks, but this latter prac- 
 tice seldom gives a large crop. It may be killed by pouring 
 boiling water upon the seed, stirring for a few minutes, and 
 then draining it off. Peas are sometimes sown in drills, but 
 most usually broadcast, at the rate of two or three bushels 
 per acre. It is better to plow them in, to the depth of three 
 inches, and afterwards roll the ground smooth, to facilitate 
 gathering. When sown in drills, they may b^ worked by 
 the cultivator, soon after coming up. The growth is pro- 
 moted by steeping the seed for twenty or thirty hours in 
 urine, and then rolling in ashes or plaster. 
 
 Harvesting is accomplished by cutting with the sickle 
 or scythe, or what is more expeditious, when fully ripe so 
 that the roots pull easily, with the horse rake. When thus 
 gathered into heaps and dried, they may be threshed, and 
 the haulm carefully stacked for sheep fodder. If this is se- 
 cured in good condition, cattle and sheep will thrive upon 
 it. Peas are frequently sown with oats, and when thus 
 grown, they may be fed to sheep or horses as harvested or 
 threshed, or made into meal for swine. 
 
 The Cow or Indian Pea, freqiiently called the Stock Pea. 
 The Southern Bean would be a more appropriate name for 
 it, as it is grown exclusively in the southern States. It is a 
 desirable crop, either as a fertilizer, or as food for domestic 
 animals. Its long vines and succulent leaves, which draw 
 much of their substance from the air, and its rapid and lux- 
 uriant growth, particularly adapt it to the first object ; while 
 its numerous and well-filled pods, and its great redundancy 
 of stem and leaf, afibrd large quantities of forage. This is 
 improved for cattle, when harvested before the seed is fully 
 ripe. It is sown broadcast, in drills, or hoed in among corn, 
 when the latter is laid by for the season. If in drills, it may 
 be cultivated in its early stages by the plow, shovel-harrow, 
 or cultivator. It can be cut with the scythe, or drawn to- 
 gether with a heavy iron-toothed harrow, or horse rake, as 
 with the common pea. It requires a dry, mellow soil, and is 
 (.veil suited to clays 
 
164 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE, 
 
 THE BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris). 
 
 The bean is often a field crop in this country, and espe 
 cially in the northern and middle Statos. It is principally 
 used for the table, either green or dry. It is a palatable and 
 highly condensed f(3od, containing much in a small compass. 
 In proportion to its weight, it gives more nutriment than 
 any of the ordinary vegetables ; according to Einhof, yield- 
 ing 84 per cent, of nutritive matter, while wheat gives only 
 74. It has, in common with the pea and vetch, though in a 
 greater proportion, a peculiar principle, termed legumin, 
 which is analogous to casein, the animal principle in milk. 
 This is convertible into cheese, and in its nutritive proper- 
 ties, it is essentially the same as the fibrin of lean meat, the 
 albumen of eggs, and other animal matters. There is no 
 vegetable we produce, which so nearly supplies the place 
 of animal food, as the bean. 
 
 Soil. — The bean is partial to a quick, dry soil. Too great 
 strength of soil, or fresh manuring, gives a large quantity 
 of vine, without a corresponding quantity of fruit. 
 
 C%dtivation. — The land should be finely pulverized, and 
 if at all inclined to wet, it should be ridged. Beans are 
 tender plants and will not bear the slightest frost, and as they 
 grow rapidly, they will be sure to ripen, if planted when 
 this is no longer to be apprehended. The seed is exposed 
 to rot if put into the ground in cold, wet weather, and the 
 land should, therefore, be previously well warmed by the sun. 
 The bush beans are the only kind used for field planting, 
 and of these there are several sub-varieties. The long gar- 
 den beans, white, red or mottled, are great bearers, of fine 
 quality, and early in maturing. This is important, when 
 other crops are to succeed the same season. They are usu- 
 ally planted in hills, about two feet apart, and also in drills, 
 and covered with two inches of fine earth. They have been 
 sown broadcast, on clean, dry soils, and produced largely. 
 When planted in drills, from five to eight plants should be 
 left in each, according to their proximity ; or if in drills, they 
 need from six to eight pecks of seed to the acre. 
 
 Harvesting. — When the beans are fully formed, and 
 there is danger of frost, pull and throw them into heaps, in 
 which condition the frost scarcely affects them. If the 
 ground is not wanted for other vises, they may stand till the 
 latest pods assume a yellow color. They are pulled with 
 ease when the plant is mature, as the fibres of the root are 
 
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 16S 
 
 b 
 
 by that time dea.^. This is more quickly accomplished with 
 an iron hook-rake, or if the stalks are partially green, they 
 can be mown. If the vines are not dry, let them remain for 
 a while in small heaps, and afterwards collect in larger piles, 
 around stakes set at com-enient distances, with the roots in 
 the centre and secured at the top by a wisp of straw. "When 
 well dried, thresh, clean and spread them till they are quite 
 tree from dampness. 
 
 Uses for Farm stock. — The straw or haulm is an excel- 
 lent fodder for sheep, and it ought always to be stacked for 
 their use. Sheep are the only animals which eat them raw ; 
 and for them, no species of grain is better suited than the 
 bean, when fed in moderate quantities. Swine, cattle and 
 poultry, will thrive on them when boiled. Sixty bushels 
 have been raised on an acre, worth from one to two dollars 
 per bushel. 
 
 THE ENGLISH FIELD BEAN (Vicia faba). 
 
 Is cultivated under many varieties in Europe, and partic- 
 ularly in Great Britain, as a field crop for the use of horses 
 and other animals. Among these are tlie Windsor, the tick, 
 the long pods and others. Arthur Young prefers " the 
 common little horse-bean as being more generally marketa- 
 ble." I have raised several of these varieties, and although 
 entirely successful, have found them less adapted to our cli- 
 mate and agriculture, than the ordinary crops. They prefer 
 a strong clay, or loamy clay soils. 
 
 THE TARE, VETCH OR FITCH ^V. sativa, Fig. 41). 
 
 Of this there are two kinds, the 
 winter and the spring, both of 
 which are hardy and productive. 
 It is deemed an important crop in 
 Europe, where it is much cultiva- 
 ted for green fodder or soilino- and 
 frequently it is used as pasturage, 
 or cut and cured for hay. It is par- 
 tial to clay, but grows indifferently 
 on any rich soil which is not too 
 dry. It is sown broad -ast or in 
 drills, but generally the rormer, on 
 Avell-pulverized lands, and covered 
 with the harrow, demanding no 
 after attention except the exter- 
 mination of weeds. Tares have 
 
 Fia. 41. 
 
166 
 
 aXEKIOAN agricitlturb. 
 
 hitherto been little grown in this country, but in certain 
 soils and situations, they may be introduced as a substitute 
 for clover, where, from any cause, the latter does not grow 
 successfully. All domestic stock are fond of them. 
 
 THE PINDAR, GROUND PEA, OR PEA-NTTT (Arachis hTpogcea). 
 
 This is a legumen and is cultivated with profit in the south- 
 ern States, on light, loamy or sandy lands, where it yields 
 from 30 to 60, or even 80 bushels per acre, besides furnish- 
 ing much haulm for forage. It is planted in hills, or sown 
 in drills four to five feet apart, and worked with a light plow 
 or cultivator, immediately after the plants thow themselves 
 above ground. They soon overspread the whole surface. 
 When properly matured, the roots are loosened by a fork 
 and pulled up by hand, and after curing, are put under cover 
 for winter's use. They contain a large quantity of oil of a 
 superior quality and flavor, which is suitable for the table 
 and various purposes in the arts. 
 
 The peat-nut is in high repute for its fattening qualities, 
 when fed to stock. Swine are particularly partial to them ; 
 and if allowed to run on a field containing both them and 
 corn, they vr'M remain among the pea-nuts till entirely ex- 
 hausted, resorting to the grain occasionally, for a change of 
 food. They can lie in the ground all winter, uninjured by 
 frosts or rains. They are much used for human food, after 
 drying and baking. 
 
 THE WHITE LUPINB (Lnpinus albns, Fig. 42). 
 
 This plant is sometimes raised 
 in southern Europe, where the 
 seed is used as human food. It 
 was cultivated by the Romans, and 
 others among the ancients, for the 
 same purpose. It is frequently 
 used as a forage plant, for which 
 purpose the whole plant is cut and 
 fed green, rr cured as hay. It is 
 sometimes made use of as a fertili- 
 zer, for which it is well adapted. 
 It requires a similar soil and culti* 
 vation with the rea. 
 
 Fia 4S. 
 
&OOT8. 107 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 THE POTATO, (Solanum tuberosum). 
 
 The potato is a native of the American Continent. It is 
 found in a wild state both in Buenos Ayres and Chili, and 
 was probably discovered in the same condition by the early 
 settlers of North America. It was supposed to have been 
 taken into Spain and Italy, early in the 16th century, by 
 Spanish adventurers, as it "was cultivated in those countries 
 in 1550. In 1588, it was introduced into Vienna from Italy ; 
 and also into Eng-land, probably as early as 1586, by the 
 colonists of Virginia, who were sent out by Sir "Walter Ra- 
 \eigh. On its first introduction into Europe, it was con- 
 sidered a delicacy ; and it is not until ^vithin a comparatively 
 recent period, that it has found its way into both conti- 
 nents as an article of agricultural attention, and an almost 
 indispensable food for man and beast. 
 
 Yarieties. — These are almost illimitable. In form they 
 are round, oblong, flat and curved or kidney-shaped ; they 
 vary in size from the delicate lady-finger to the gigantic 
 blue-nose ; their exterior is rough or polished, and of nearly 
 every hue, white, yellow, red, and almost black ; and the 
 surface is sometimes smooth and even, with the eye scarcely 
 discernible ; or deeply indented with innumerable sunken 
 eyes, like the Pvohan and Merino. The interior is equally 
 diversified in color ; and is mealy, glutinous or watery ; 
 sometimes pleasant and sometimes disagreeable to the taste. 
 They likewise differ in ripening earlier or later, and in beinc 
 adapted in some of their varieties to almost every peculiarity 
 of soil. 
 
 New kinds are produced at pleasiire, by planting the 
 seed found in the balls. The tubers obtained in this way, 
 are small the first season, but with careful culture, will be 
 large enough the second year to determine their quality, 
 when the best may be selected for propagation. The earliest 
 are easily designated by the premature decay of the tops. 
 
 The varieties may also be increased from tlie seed bv 
 
168 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 hybridizing, or impregnating the pistils of one flower by the 
 pollen from another ; and in this "way, some of the best and 
 most valuable kinds have been procured. Such as haA'e no 
 flowers are more productive of tubers, as there is no expendi- 
 ture of vitality in forming the seed. They may be compelled 
 to flower, by removing the small tubers from the roots as 
 they form. 
 
 The best Soil for Potatoes is a rich loam, neither too 
 wet nor too dry. Cool and moist soils, like those of Maine, 
 Nova Scotia and Ireland, and especially, if in rich, fresh sod, 
 give the best flavored potatoes, and such as are the least 
 liable to disease. A calcareous soil yields good potatoes, 
 and generally sure crops, and Avhere there is little lime in the 
 soil, it should be added. Ashes, salt and gypsum are excel- 
 lent manures, and in certain instances, have astonishingly 
 increased the product. Crushed bones also greatly improve 
 a potato soil. Fresh manures will often affect the taste of 
 the potato unpleasantly, and when necessary to apply them, 
 they should be scattered broadcast and plowed in. 
 
 Select such seed as experience has decided is best adapted 
 to the soil, and the use for which they are to be appropriated. 
 Some are careful to cultivate the most mealj^ for the table, 
 and plant those which give the greatest yield for their cat- 
 tle. This is sometimes mistaken policy, as what are best 
 for man, are generally best for cattle ; and although the 
 farmer may get a much greater weight and bulk, on a given 
 quantity of land of one kind, these may yield a less quantity 
 of fat and flesh-forming materials, than those afforded by a 
 smaller quantity of some other variety. Experiment has 
 shouTa, that of " three varieties grown in Scotland, in 1842, 
 ih.e cups gave 13| tons per acre, containing 2 -,\ tons of 
 starch; the red dons yielded 14i, tons and Ifo of starch ; the 
 white dons,\'a\ tons, and 2iV of starch, and the kidney has 
 even given as much as 32 per cent, of staroli." — [Johnston.) 
 
 There is also a difl^erence in the relative proportions ol 
 gluten. The potato contains in its new and ripe state, about 
 2\ per cent., which diminishes by long keeping. It is im- 
 portant for this, as for an indefinite number of other practical 
 matters, to have agricultural laboratories of unquestionable 
 rehability, where the errors of superficial observation may 
 be detected ; and where the real superiority of one product 
 over another, and theii variations induced by soils, manures 
 and treatment, may be established beyond the possibility of 
 a doubt. 
 
ROOTS. 16> 
 
 Planting. — To produce abundantly, potatoes re([uire a 
 fertile soil, and if not already sufficiently rich, spread manure 
 on the surface before plowing. If a tough sod, plow the 
 preceding fall ; or if friable, it may be done just before plant- 
 ino" ; but in all cases, the land must be put in such condition 
 as to be perfectly loose and mellow. Hills are the most con- 
 venient for tillage, as they admit of more thorough stirring of 
 the ground with tlie cultivator or plow. Medium size, uncut 
 potatoes have been ascertained, from numerous experiments, 
 to be the best for planting, but when seed is scarce, it is 
 sometimes economical to divide them. Two potatoes should 
 be placed in each hill ; or if in drills, they should be planted 
 singly, ten inches apart. The distance both of hills and 
 drills must depend on the strength of the soil and the size of 
 the tops, some varieties growing much larger than others. 
 Cover with light mold to the depth of fom" or six inches, 
 and if the soil be light, leave the ground perfectly level ; if 
 cold, heavy or moist, let the hill be raised when finished. 
 Subsoil plowing is of great benefit to potatoes, as to most 
 other crops, whenever the soil will justify its use. The sets 
 cut from the seed-end, give a much earlier crop than those 
 from the root. 
 
 Cultivation. — When the shoots tirst appear above the 
 ground, run the plow through them and throw the earth 
 well to the plants ; and no injury results, if the tops are par- 
 tially, or even entirely covered. The hoe is scarcely required, 
 except to destroy such weeds as may have escaped the 
 plow. The ground should be several times stirred before the 
 tops interfere with the operation, but never after they come 
 mto blossom. Very large crops have been produced by top- 
 dressing with compost, or well- rotted chip manure, soon 
 after the plants make their appearance. This is carried to 
 the field and spread from a light, one horse cart, the wheels 
 passing between the rows ; but the same results would pro- 
 bably be attained, by placing the land in the best condition 
 before planting, if followed by the nicest cultivation after- 
 wards. There is some gain to the crop, when the buds are 
 plucked before they come into blossom. 
 
 Harvesting and Storing should not be commenced until 
 the tops are mostly dead, as the tuber has not arrived at full 
 maturity before this time. They may then be thrown out 
 of the hills by a double mold-board plow, or by a potato 
 hook, or some other hand implement. They ought not to be 
 exposed to the .«un for any length of time, but may dry on 
 8 
 
170 AMEillCAN iGRlCULTUKE. 
 
 the surface in u. cloudy day, or be gathered intc sm&J nenps, 
 with some of the tops spread over them, until freed from the 
 surface moisture, when the}'' may be stored. Thost; selected 
 for seed, should be placed in small piles in the field ; or in thin 
 layers in a cool, dry place in the cellar, where the air is ex- 
 cluded and no heating' or injui-y can occur. Those intended 
 for winter consumption, may be put in dry bins or barrels in 
 the store-room, and covered with straw and dry sand, or loose 
 earth, to prevent the circulation of air. Such as are not 
 wanted till the following spring, may be kept on the field, if 
 there be not sufficient room in the cellars. It is better Avhen 
 thus stored, that they occupy an excavation on the north 
 side of a hill, iu a porous soil. If shaded by trees, it will 
 lend to shield them longer from the heat of the sun, and they 
 may thus be kept till Jmie, before opening. They are gen- 
 erally stored in the level field, in an excavation one or two 
 feet deep, four or five wide, and of any length required. 
 They are piled as high as they can be conveniently ridged up, 
 then covered with straw, carefully placed over them like 
 shingles on a house, and covered lightly with earth till the 
 severe frosts, when they should be adequately covered to 
 protect them from rains and frost during winter. A partial 
 heating and sweating take place soon after storing, and till 
 this is complete, a loose covering of straw is all they re- 
 quire. A ditch lower than the base must encircle the heap 
 when the soil consists of clay, from which dn outlet conducts 
 away all the water, as any left upon them will inevitably 
 produce decay. 
 
 Diseases. — The potato has long been subject to the curl. 
 From nvimerous experiments made in Scotland to a'void this 
 disease, it has been found, that seed from potatoes which 
 ■were gathered before fully ripe, gave a much better and 
 surer crop. It would be well to try the experiment in this 
 country'', where there is any deficiency of product from want 
 of full and healthy development. Potatoes are also affected 
 by the scab and gruh, against whose attacks there is no 
 remedy, unless in a change of seed and locality. 
 
 The rot has for scA^eral years produced serious and in 
 creasing injury to the potato crop, threatening starvation in 
 Ireland, and causing great loss and suffering in several otiiei 
 coimtries in Europe. Its effects have also been extensively 
 felt in the United States. Numerous and scientific examina- 
 tions have been made on Jhe subject. The proximate cause 
 '■s supposed to be a fungus, but what are the reasons for it» 
 
ROOTS. 171 
 
 late rapid extensicn, and .he remedy for its ravages, have not 
 yet been satisfaclorily ascertained. 
 
 Preventives of Rot. — Under the following circumstances rot 
 has not appeared, when adjoining fields have been nearly de- 
 stroyed by it. 1. By using unripe seed, or seed which has 
 been exposed to the sun, light and air, and well dried for ten 
 days after digging, and afterwards stored in a dry place in 
 small parcels, where air is excluded till the moment of plant- 
 ing. 2. By the use of lime, some of which is placed in the 
 hill and the potatoes dvisted with it, and also from the use of 
 charcoal and salt, gypsum or other salts. 3. By the absence 
 of fresh barn-yard maniu'e, or if used, by adding largely of 
 lime or saline manures. 4. The use of fresh sod, which has 
 long been untilled. This has been found more efficacious 
 than any other preventive, although it has occasionally failed. 
 The sod may be plowed in the fall, or lefc till late in May 
 or early in June, when it has a good coating of grass; 
 then turn over the ground and furrow it lightly, to receive 
 the seed without disturbing the sod. Or they may be planted 
 by using a sharpened stake three inches in diameter, with a pin 
 or shoulder ten inches from the bottom, on which the foot may 
 be placed for sinking the holes. These should be made be- 
 tween the furrow slices at the proper distance for drills, and 
 a single potato placed in each, which may be covered with 
 the heel. 5. Sound, early varieties, early planted, have also 
 escaped. I have thus secured a good yield, almost wholly 
 ■free from disease ; and even those affected did not appear to 
 commimicate disease to others. It has also been found that 
 some very late planted have escape! rot ; and if it be an epi- 
 demic, it may be, that both by early and late planting, the 
 peculiar stage of vegetation when fhe fungus appears, is in a 
 great measure avoided. But tiie investigations on this impor- 
 tant subject are still in their infa?^cy, and nothing has thus 
 far been ascertained, which can \*'^. justly considered as hav- 
 ing determined principles of univfir.sal application; yet it is 
 to be hoped that the zeal, intellii>euce and general interest 
 which are now combined for this object, will ere long de- 
 tect, what has hitherto evaded the severest scruiiiy of scien- 
 tific research. 
 
 Arresting the disease has in some iostances '-leen su :cessfi.il. 
 by mowi'ia: off the tops when they arp. found defective. This 
 practice would be injurious to laealthy plants, but may be 
 adopted, like that of cutting grain when struck by rust, if it 
 will secure even a part of the crop. When disease appears 
 
172 AMI irCAN AGR CULTURE 
 
 in such ELS are dug, they should be carefully sorted and the 
 sound ones well dried, then placed separately in layers and 
 covered with ashes, burnt clay, or fine dry mold. These act 
 as absorbents of moisture, and prevent contagion from such 
 as may be imperceptibly affected. They may also be cut in 
 slices and dried, or crushed and the farinaceous part ex- 
 tracted. By this means the potato will be made to yield 
 nearly all its nutriment. It is found that this disease affects 
 the tissues (the nitrogenized or albumenous part) of the potato 
 only ; and for this reason, potatoes which have not been 
 too long or too deeply injured, will yield nearly their full 
 amount of fat for animals or storch for the manufacturer. 
 
 Uses. — Besides being on almost indispensable vegetable 
 for the table, potatoes are boiled and mixed Avith flour or 
 bread, to which the,y impart a desirable moisture and an 
 agreeable flavor. They are sliced, dried and ground, and 
 much used in Europe as flour, and by the confectioners in 
 their various products. They are also manufactured into 
 tapioca, and when nicely prepared, it is scarcely distinguisha- 
 ble from that of the manioc. In all of these and some 
 other forms, they enter into consumption as human food. 
 They are also used in large quantities by the manufac- 
 turers of starch ; to some extent for distilling ; nnd in a 
 less degree for making sugar. The refuse of tht pulp, after 
 extracting the starch and the liquor drained from it, are 
 used for cleansing Avoolens and silks, which they efiect with- 
 out injury to the color. But by far the greatest use of pota- 
 toes in this country, is for stock-feeding. They are eaten 
 with avidity by all the brute creation, either cooked or raw. 
 For cattle and sheep, they are equally nutritious in either 
 condition. For horses, they are improved by steaming or 
 baking. Swine and most poultry will subsist on them raw, 
 but will fatten on them only when cooked. Their good ef- 
 fects are much enhanced by mixing with meal when they are 
 hot, v.^hich partially cooks it. 
 
 THE SWEET POTATO (.Convolvulus batatas, Fig. 4i) 
 
 Is a root of very general growth, in the southern, and it is 
 much cultivated in the middle sections of the United States. 
 It is scarcely surpassed by any esculent for the table, and it is 
 greadily eaten, and with great advantage, by every species of 
 stock. 
 
 Soil. — A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best fo 
 them ; and this should be well manured with compost scatter 
 ed broadcast, bef :)re working the ground, and thoroughly pul 
 6 
 
ROOTS. 
 
 173 
 
 verized by repeated plowing and harrowing. It should 
 then be thrown into beds four feet wide with the plow, 
 and in the centre of these, strike a light furrow to receive the 
 seed, if the soil is dry, or plant it on the surface, if moist. 
 The use of a subsoil plow in the beds before being thrown 
 up. if of great benefit to the plant. 
 
 FiQ. 42. 
 
 Cultivation. — When the season is sufficiently long to 
 mature them, the potato may be most conveniently planted, 
 by cutting the seed into slips, and laying them six or eight 
 inches apart in the place where they are to mature. Large 
 potatoes divided into pieces of a proper size, are better for 
 seed than small ones uncut. These should be covered about 
 two inches with light mold. When they begin to sprout, the 
 plow may be run close to the rows on either side, to remove 
 the earth and allow the full benefit of the sun and air to the 
 roots, and as the plant advances in its growth, the earth may 
 be gradually restored to them by the plow and hoe. Where 
 the vines are so large as to be injured by the plow, the hoe 
 alone should be used. The hill or drills may then be made 
 broadly around the plants, hollowing towards them, to afford 
 a full bed of rich, mellow earth, and to retain the rain which 
 falls. They are fit for scatherino- when the vines are dead. 
 
 W hen the .seas :)n is short or early potatoes are wanted , plapt 
 
J 74 AMERICAN AGRICUL fURE. 
 
 on a hot bed, i jlIs of warm manure, with a covering of four 
 inches of fine mold. After splitting the potatoes, place them 
 on this and cover with three inches of light earth. As the 
 sprouts appear, draw and transplant them after a rain, in 
 the same manner as before suggested with the roots. When 
 early vegetated, a bushel of seed will, in this manner, supply 
 plants for an acre. 
 
 The preservation of the Siveet Potato thi jugh the tvinter 
 is often difficult. A careful seclusion from air and light, 
 and the absence of frost and absolute dryness seem to be 
 essential to their preservation. They are frequently kept, 
 by piling in heaps on dry earth, which are siill more secure 
 with a layer beneath of corn stalks or dry pine boughs, 
 six or eight inches deep. On this, pack the roots in piles 
 six feet in diameter. Cover with corn stalks and dry earth, 
 and protect this with a roof of boards, and a ditch deep enough 
 to carry off all water. There must be a hole at the top, slight- 
 ly stopped with straw, to permit the escape of heated air, and 
 to preserve uniformity of temperature. There are numerous 
 varieties of the sweet potato, -white, red, yellow, &c. They 
 yield from 200 to 300 bushels per acre, and under favorable 
 circumstances, sometimes double this quantity. 
 
 THE TCJIINEP (Erassica rapa). 
 
 The flat English Txirnep was introduced into this 
 country with our English ancestry, and has ever since been 
 an object of cultivation. When boiled, it is an agreeable 
 vegetable for the table. Its principal value, however, is as a 
 food for cattle and sheep, by which it is eaten uncooked. Its 
 comparitive nutritive properties are small ; but the great bulk 
 which can be raised on a given piece of ground, and the fa- 
 cility and economy of its cultivation, have always rendered it a 
 favorite with such farmers, as have soil and stock adapted 
 to its profitable production and use. 
 
 The proper soil for it is a fertile sand or well-drained loam. 
 Any soil adapted to Indian corn will produce good turneps. 
 But it is only on new land, or freshly-turned sod, that they are 
 most successful. An untilled, virgin earth, with the rich dress- 
 ing of ashes left after the rece it burning of accumulated vege- 
 table matter, and free from weeds and insects, is the surest 
 and most productive for a turnep crop. Such land needs 
 no manure. For a sward ground, or clover ley, there should 
 be a heavy dressing of fresh, unfermented manure, before 
 plowing. 
 
ROOTS. 175 
 
 Cultivation. — Turneps are sown from the 15th of .iune 
 to the 1st of August. The first give a greater yield ; the last, 
 generally a sounder root, and capable of longer preservation. 
 The ground should be plowed and harrowed immediately be- 
 fore sowing, as the moi.'^ture of the freshly-turned earth in- 
 sures rapid germination of the seed, which is of great import- 
 ance to get the plants beyond the reach of insects as soon as 
 possible. They may be sown broadcast, at the rate of one or 
 two pounds per acre, and lightly harrowed, or brushed and 
 rolled ; or :t is better that the seed be sown in drills, when a 
 less quantity will suffice. A turnep drill will speedily ac- 
 complish the furrowing, sowing, covering and rolling at a 
 single operation. The crop will be materially assistetl by a 
 top dressing of lime, ashes, and plaster, at the rate of fifteen 
 or 20 busliels of the first two, and one and a half to three 
 bushels of the last per acre. When the plants show them- 
 selves and the leaves are partially expanded, the cultivator 
 or hoe may be freely used, stirring the ground well, and ex- 
 terminating all weeds. 
 
 Ruta-Baga or Sicedes Tur?iep. — The introduction of 
 this is comparatively recent, and it proves to be more worthy 
 of attention than the English or white turnep. It will 
 grow in a heavier soil, yield as well, give a richer root, and 
 it has the great advantage of keeping lono-er in o-ood condi- 
 tion ; thus prolonging the winter food of cattle when they 
 most need it. 
 
 Cultivation. — It is usually planted after Avheat or corn ; 
 but if a virgin soil or old pasture sward is chosen, it will 
 materially lessen its liability to insects and other enemies. 
 It is generally sown in drills, about two feet apart ; and on 
 heavy lands, these shoula be slightly ridged. The plants 
 must be successively thinned, to prevent interfering with such 
 as are intended to mature, but enough should remain to pro- 
 vide for casualties. Where there is a deficiency, they may 
 be supplied by transplanting during showery weather. 
 They^ should be left six or eight inches apart m the drills, 
 The Swede turnep is a gross feeder, and requires either a 
 rich soil or heavy manuring ; though the use of fresh ma- 
 nures, has been supposed to facilitate the multiplication ot 
 enemies. Bones, ground and drilled in with the seed, or a 
 dressing of lime, ashes, gypsum and salt, are the best applica- 
 tions that can be made. The Swede should be sown from 
 the 20th May to the 15th June, and earlier than the English 
 t'lxnep. as it takes longej to mature ; and two or three weeks 
 
176 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 inort; of growth, frequently adds largely to the product. An 
 early sowing also gives time to plant for another crop in case 
 of failure of the first. 
 
 Enei7iies. — The turnep is exposed to numerous depreda- 
 tors, of which the turnep flea-beetle is the most inveterate. 
 It attacks the plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and 
 oftei destroys two or three successive sowino-s. The 
 black caterpillar, sLigs, wire-worms, and numerous other 
 insects, grubs and aphides prey upon and greatly diminish 
 the crop. 
 
 Remedies have been tried to an almost indefinite extent, 
 but none hitherto, with more than very partial success. 
 Liberal sowing and rapid growth best insure the plant from 
 injury ; and to eflTect this, the seed should be plentifully sown 
 in a rich soil, and if possible, when the ground is moist. 
 Before sowing, the seed should be steeped in some prepara- 
 tion, which experience has shown will the most quickly de- 
 velop the germ. Solutions of the nitrates or sulphates, 
 urine, soot-water, liquid guano, or currier's oil, impregnate 
 the first leaves with substances distasteful to their early ene- 
 mies, and thus a short respite from their attacks will be se- 
 cured. Gypsum, ashes, bone-dust and poudrette drilled in 
 with the seed, are excellent forcers for the young roots. 
 Charcoal dust applied in the same way, has been found to 
 increase the early growth from four to ten-fold. When the 
 fly or bug is discovered, the application of lime, ashes or 
 soot, or all combined, should be made upon the leaves, while 
 the dew or a slight moisture is on them. This leads the 
 young plant along, and kills such enemies as it reaches. 
 Stale urine, diluted sulphuric acid, (oil of vitrol,) and other 
 liquid manures will have the same eftect. Ducks, chickens, 
 young turkeys and birds will devour innumerable quantities, 
 and their presence should always be encouraged not only on 
 this, but on most of the fields. Dragging the surface with 
 fine, light brush, will lessen the slugs aiid insects. The 
 ground should be plowed just before winter sets in, which 
 exposes the worms and the larvae of insects to the frost, 
 when they are unable to work themselves into a place oi 
 safety. The seed should not be planted on ground recently 
 occupied by any of the order of plants cr«c//er^, (cabbage, 
 radish, mustard, charlock and water-cress), as they all afi'ord 
 food for the enemies of turne]->s, and thereby tend to their 
 multiplication. 
 
 Harvesting may be defi^rral till the approach of cal*5 
 
ROC rs. 177 
 
 weather ; and in those sections of the country not affected by 
 severe frosts, when on dry soils, they may be allowed to win- 
 ter on the field. Otherwise, they should be pulled during 
 the clear autumnal weather. This is accomplished most 
 expeditiously with a root hook, which is made with two or 
 more iron prongs attached to a hoe-handle. The use of a 
 bill hook ->r sharp knife will enable the operator to lop off 
 the leaves with a single blow, when they are thrown 
 into convenient piles, and afterwards collected for storage. 
 
 The Storing may be in cellars or in heaps, similar to po- 
 tatoes, but in a cooler temperature, as slight heat injures 
 them, while frost does not. If stored in heaps, one or more 
 holes should be left at the top, which may be partially 
 stopped by a wisp of hay or straw, to allow the escape of 
 the gases which are generated. 
 
 The feeding of Muta-Bagas to cattle and ^Zfeejo is always 
 in their uncooked state. They arc better steamed or boiled 
 for swine ; but food for these, should be sought from the 
 more fattening products of the farm. They may be fed to 
 horses in moderate quantities, but they cannot be relied upon 
 for them, as they are too bulky for working animals. Their 
 place is much better supplied for horses, by the carrot or 
 potato. Their true value is as food for store and fattening 
 cattle, milch cows and sheep, as they furnish a salutary 
 change from dry hay ; being nearly equivalent as fodder, to 
 green summer food. They should be washed before feeding, 
 if too much dirt adheres to them ; but if grown on a light 
 soil, the tap roots lopped off, and otherwise properly cleaned, 
 they will not reqviire it. They may be sliced with a heavy 
 knife, or more summarily cut up while lying on the barn- 
 floor, with a sharp spade, or root sheer, which is made with 
 a socket handle and two blades crossing each other in the 
 centre at right angles, or by some of the numerous improved 
 cutting machines. With an abundance of turneps and a 
 small supply of stra^v, hay may be entirely dispensed with 
 for cattle and sheep, except during very cold weather. 
 Many of the best English breeds, are kept exclusively on 
 turneps with a little straw, till ready for the shambles. 
 
 The varieties of turneps are numerous. After selecting 
 such as will give the largest crop of the most nutritous roots, 
 the next object in the choice of particular varieties, should 
 be to adapt them to the most economical use. Some will 
 keep much longer than others, and if wanted to feed late in 
 the ssasoK, it may be necessary t") take a variety, intrinsically 
 8* / 
 
178 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 less valuable than another, which must be earlier con- 
 sumed. The English turnep should be first led, as it soonest 
 wilts and becomes pit! y; then follow with the others accord- 
 ing to their order of maturity and decay. The leaves yield 
 good forage, and if unmixed with earth 'nay be fed green or 
 dry to cattle. 
 
 The value of turneps to th.s country .s trifling in compari- 
 son with that of many parts of Europe. In Great Britain 
 alone, this value probably exceeds one hundred millions of 
 dollars annually. But its culture here is much less desirable ; 
 as our drier climate and early and severe winters are not as 
 well adapted to its production, and economical preservation 
 and feeding as those of England, and its numerous enemies 
 render it an uncertain crop. These objections are increased 
 by the important fact, that it enters into competition with 
 Indian corn, which generally gives a certain and highly re- 
 munerating return. It may sometimes, however, take the 
 place of corn with advantage ; and the turnep or some of the 
 other roots should always occupy a conspicuous place as a 
 change, in part, for the winter food of cattle and sheep, 
 
 THE CAEROT (D?acu8 carota). 
 
 This is one of our mo^t valuable roots. It is a hardy, easi- 
 ly-cultivated plant; it grows in almost every soil, and is next 
 to the potato in its nutritive properties. 
 
 The soil which best suits it is a fertile sand or light loam; 
 but it will grow on such as are more tenacious, if well 
 drained, and deeply worked. The success of this and the 
 parsnep, depends much on the depth to which their roots 
 can reach. Deep spading or subsoil plowing is, therefore, 
 mdisp&nsable to secure large crops, and the ground should 
 be thoroughly pulverized. Barnyard manures, composted 
 with the ditTerent salts or ashes, or chip dung, are best for 
 them. It is desirable to have the manures well rotted, for 
 the double object of killing obnoxious seeds, and mixing in- 
 tunately with the soil. 
 
 The varieties chiefly %ised for field culture are the long 
 red, the orange, and white Belgian. The last, under favora- 
 ble circumstances, attains huge dimensions ; and from its 
 roots growing high out of the ground, it is supposed to draw 
 more of its nourishment from the air, and consequently, to 
 exhaust the ground less, while it is more easily harvested. 
 But it is conside»-ably below the others in comparative 
 value 
 
ROOTS. 179 
 
 Planting. — The carrot should be sown in drills, 16 to 20 
 Inches apart, when the ground has become warm and dry. 
 The seed is best prepared by mixing with fine mold or pou- 
 drette, and stiiring it well together to break off the fine 
 beards ; then sprinkle with water and allow it to remain in 
 a warm place, and occasionally turn it to produce equal de- 
 velopment in the seed. It may remain 10 or 15 davs before 
 sowing, and till nearly ready to sprout. It then readily germi- 
 nates, and does not allow the weeds to get the start. The 
 frequent use of the cultivator and entire cleanliness from 
 weeds, are all that is necessary to insure a crop ; unless it 
 be convenient to give it a top dressing of liquid manure, 
 which the Flemings always do, and which no crop better 
 repays. Two pounds of good seed will sow an acre. Any 
 deficiency of plants may be supplied by transplanting in 
 moist weather. Six inches is near enough for the smaller 
 kind to stand, and eight for the larger. They are subject to 
 few diseases or enemies, excepting such as can be avoided 
 by judicious selection of soil and careful tillage. 
 
 The harvesting may be facilitated by running a plow on 
 one side of the rows, when the roots are easily removed by 
 hand. The tops are then cut and the surface moisture upon 
 the roots dried, when they may be stored like turneps and 
 potatoes. They ought to be kept at as low a temperature as 
 possible, yet above tlie freezing point. On the approach of 
 warm weather, they will spxout early if left in heaps ; and if 
 important to preserve them longer, the crown should be cut 
 off and the roots spread in a cool, dry place. 
 
 Uses. — Carrots are chiefly grown for domestic stock. 
 Horses thrive remarkably on them, and some judicious 
 farmers feed them as a substitute for oats. But their intrin- 
 sic value in weight, for their fat and flesh-forming properties, 
 is less, in the proportion of about five to one. For their 
 medicinal properties, however, and the healthful effects re- 
 sulting from their regular, but moderate use, they would be 
 advantageously purchased at the same price as oats, or even 
 corn, if they could be procured no cheaper. They are good 
 for working cattle, and unsurpassed for milch cows, produ- 
 cmg a great flow of milk, and a rich yellow cream. Sheep 
 and swine greedily devour them, and soon fatten, if plenti- 
 fully supplied. The Dutch sometimes grate them, and with 
 siigar and salt, make a pickle Or their choicest table butter 
 They are also employed in distilling. The average yield, 
 on good land, may be estimated at about .300 bushels of tha 
 
180 AilERICAN AGRICULTtTRB. 
 
 smaller, and 450 of the Belgian or white, pur acre ; but 
 with extra cu.'ivation, 1,000 bushels of the last have been 
 raised. 
 
 THE PARSNEP cPastitiaca sativa). 
 
 The parsnep is frequently cultivated as a field crop, and il 
 is nearly equal to the carrot in its value. The soil may ht 
 heavier for par sneps than for carrots, and they will even 
 thrive on a strong clay, if rich, well pulverized and dry. 
 Large crops can only be obtained on deeply fertile and well 
 pulverized soil. They should be sown early, as frosts do 
 not affect them, and they require a long time to come to ma- 
 turity. Drilling, at a distance of 20 inches apart, is the 
 proper mode of planting, and they should be thinned to a 
 space of six or eight inches. It requires four or five pounds of 
 seed per acre, Avhich must be of the previous year's growth, 
 as older does not readily vegetate. No preparation of the 
 seed is necessary. The subsequent cultivation is similar to 
 that of carrots, and they will generally yield more under the 
 same circumstances of soil and tillage. They are little sub- 
 ject to disease or enemies. 
 
 The best variety for field culture, is the Isle of Jersey. 
 The gathering should be deferred till the following spring, 
 unless wanted for u'inter's use ; as they keep best in the 
 ground, where they are uninjured by the intensest frost. 
 But particular care must be observed in allowing no stand- 
 ing water on them, or they will rot. When taken up in the 
 fall, the roots should neither be trimmed nor broken, nor 
 should the tops be cut too near the root. They must be 
 stored in a cool place and covered carefully with earth, as 
 exposure to air or even moderate heat wilts them. 
 
 Uses. — The parsnep is one of our most delicious table 
 vegetables. It is an excellent food for swine, either raw or 
 cooked, and for cattle, milch cows and sheep, it is highly 
 prized. Qualey says, "it is not as valuable for horses, for 
 though it produces fat and a fine appearance, it causes them 
 to sweat profusel}^ ; and if eaten when the shoot starts in 
 the spring, it produces inflamation in the eyes and epiphora, 
 or weeping." The leaves of both carrots and parsneps are 
 good for cattle, either green or dried. Gerarde, who wrote 
 in 1593, says, "an excellent bread was made from them in 
 his time." They have also, like the carrot, been used for 
 distillation, and are said to affo-d a very good vinous beverage 
 
ROOTS 181 
 
 THE BEET (Beta). 
 
 Thero are but two varieties of the beet in general usefoi 
 the field, thz Sugar beet and Mangold-wicrzel, both of 
 which have several sub-varieties. They are of various 
 colors, red, pink, yellow, white or mottled, but color does 
 not seem to affect their quality. The conditions under 
 which they grow are similar. Beets do well in any soil of 
 sufficient depth and fertility, but they are perhaps, most par- 
 tial to a strong loam. If well tilled, they will produce large 
 crops on a tenacious clay. We have raised at the rate of 
 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which had been well 
 supplied with unfermented manure. The soil, camaot be 
 made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh or un- 
 fermented manures are much the best. 
 
 The planting should be in drills, 20 to 24 inches asunder, 
 at the rate of four to six pounds of seed per acre, buried not 
 over an inch deep. The seed should be early planted, or as 
 soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly ; but it mu.st first be 
 soaked, by pouring soft, scalding water on it, allowing it to 
 cool to blood heat, and remain for one or two days, then 
 roll in plaster and drill it in. The husk of the seed is thick 
 and scarcely pervious to moisture, and without previous tho- 
 rough saturation the seed will not readily germinate. 
 
 TJie culture is similar to that of carrots and parsneps. 
 They should be thinned to a distance of about eight inches, 
 and all vacancies filled with strong thrifty plants. It is bet- 
 ter to sow thick enough to avoid the necessity of transplant- 
 ing, for in addition to the time and expense of this operation, 
 the new plants will not thrive as well as those which grow 
 in their ranks from the seed. The above distances are suit- 
 able for the sugar beet. The mangold-wurzel attains a larger 
 size, and the spaces may be increased. The practice of 
 plucking off the leaves for cattle-feeding, is objectionable, as 
 it materially interferes with the growth of the plants. 
 Scarcely any disease or enemy troubles it, except when 
 young. It is then sometimes, though rarely, attacked by 
 grubs or small insects. 
 
 Harvesting may be commenced soon after the first leaves 
 turn yellow, and before the frosts have injured them. The 
 tops must not be too closely trimmed, nor the crown of the 
 roots or its fibrous prongs cut from such as are destined for 
 iate keeping. If intended for early winter use, they maybe 
 abrid{jed a trifle, and af ter i he surface is d'y, stored like othe-» 
 
182 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 roots They do not need as effectual protection as potatoes ; 
 for if the frost reaches them under a covering of earth, it 
 will gradually nitlidraw on the approach of Avarm weather, 
 and leave the roots uninjured; but they will not keep as 
 long as ff untouched by the frost. A slight opening for the 
 escape of the gas, as with other roots, should be left at the 
 top, and partially guarded with straw. 
 
 Uses. — The beet is a universal favorite for the table, and 
 of great value for stock. Domestic animals never tire of it, 
 and swine prefer it to any other root excepting the parsnep. 
 I have kept a large herd in the best condition through the 
 winter, on no other food thai^ the rav/ sugar beet. They 
 possess additional merit, from their capa>>ility of resisting 
 decay longer than the turnep, and frequently beyond the 
 carrot and parsnep. They will be solid, fresh and juicy, 
 late in the spring, if properly stored ; and at a time too when 
 they are most wanted for ailing sheep or cattle, milch cows 
 or ewes, or for contri ^ning to the support and health of any 
 of the farm stock. 
 
 When fed to fattening animals, they should follow, and 
 never precede the turnep. It has been found, that animals 
 continue steadily to advance in flesh, after being carried to a 
 certain point with turneps, if shifted on to the beet ; but in 
 repeated instances, they have fallen back, if changed from 
 beets to turneps. 
 
 Davy found in 1,000 parts, the following quantity of nu- 
 Iritive or soluble matter. — AVhite or English turnips, 42; 
 Swede, 64 ; mangold-wurzel, 136; sugar beet, 146. This 
 order of nutritive quality is followed by Boussinjrault, though 
 he places the field beet and Swede turnep, at nearly the 
 same point. Einhof and Thaer, on the contrary, place the 
 Swede before mangold-wurzel. But in feeding to animals, 
 unless for an occasional change, the roots should be given out 
 in the order named. 
 
 The sugar beet is seen to be more nutritious than the 
 Jtiangold-wurzel ; it is equally hardy and productive, and 
 more palatable to stock, and of course is to be preferred as a 
 farm crop. The former has been largely cultivated in France 
 and Germany, for making into sugar, where it has been en- 
 tirely successful, because protected by an adequate impost 
 on the imported article. Their conversion into sugar, has 
 repeatedly been attempted in^ this country, but it cannot 
 sustain a sue jessful competition with the sugar cane. 
 
 From tl e experiments of Darracq, it has been found that 
 
ROOTS 183 
 
 in summer, the beet yielded from 85 lo 4 per cent, of sugar; 
 but in October, after the commencement of frost, it gave 
 only syrup and saltpetre, and no crystalizable sugar. When 
 used for this purpose, the residiuim of the pulp, after ex- 
 pressing the juice, is given to cattle. When wilted, the 
 leaves are also fed to them, but caution, and the use of dry 
 food in connection, is necessary to prevent their scouring. 
 What are not thus used, are plowed in for manure. The 
 beet is also distilled prnd yield.'- ibout half the product of 
 potatoes. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 On the following pages, I append the table of nutritive 
 equivalents of food, compiled by Boussingault, as a conve- 
 nient refereiace, though not entirely reliable in all cases. For 
 it will be seen, from what has before been said, that the par- 
 ticular plants, vary, not only according to the season and 
 soil, but frequently also, according to the particular variety, 
 subject to analysis. He says : " In the following table, to 
 the numbers assigned by the theory, I have added those of 
 the whole, which I find in the entire series of observations 
 that have come to my knowledge. I have also given the 
 standard quantity of water, and the quantity of azote, con- 
 tained in each species of food. W^hen tlie theoretical equi- 
 valents do not differ too Avidelyfrom those supplied by direct 
 observation, I believe that they ought to be preferred. The 
 details of my experiments, and the precautions needful ni 
 entering on, and carrying them through, must have satisfied 
 every one of the difficulties attending their conduct ; yet all 
 allow how little these have been attentively contemplated, 
 and Avhat slender measures of precaution against error have 
 been taken. In my opinion, direct observation or experi- 
 ment is indispensable, but mainly, solely as a means of 
 checking, withi:: rather wile limits, the results of chemical 
 analysis," 
 
184 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
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IB6 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 THE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthns tnberosns). 
 
 This plant is a native of Brazil, but it has hitherto been 
 little cultivated in this country. Loudon says the name Jeru- 
 Balem is a corruption of the Italian word girasole, (sun- 
 flower), the blossom of which it closely resembles, except 
 in size. It fiorurishes in a moist, loose soil or sandy loam, 
 with little care except to thin out the plants and prevent 
 weeds. It is hardy, very productive and easily cultiva- 
 ted in drills, three or four feet apart. The planting may be 
 done in March or April. As it is not injured by frost and 
 is prolific, it will spread rapidly and often becomes a nui- 
 sance in the garden. The product is enormous, sometimes 
 overrumiing 2,000 bushels per acre. Its nutritive qualities 
 are much less than those of the potato ; but its greater pro- 
 ductiveness and the facility of raising it, ^vould seem to en- 
 title it to more g-^neral favor. Boussingault considers it an 
 improving and profitable crop, from its drawing its nitrogen 
 largely from the atmosphere. It is pecuiiarlj^ fitted for 
 spring food, as the fodts lie uninjured by the vicissitudes of 
 the weather, and may be taken out in perfection after most 
 other roots are gone. 
 
 The artichoke is used in this country, both for human and 
 animal food. The roots are generally eaten as a pickle or 
 salad. Loudon says, " they may also be.eaten boiled, mashed 
 in butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor." 
 The tops when cut and cured as hay, afford a good fodder 
 for cattle, and the roots are excellent for sheep and other 
 stock. Swine will thrive upon them through the winter, 
 and do their own harvesting wien the ground is not locked 
 up by frost. 
 
3R00M CORN. 187 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 mSCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION 
 
 ' BROOM COHN (Sorghum saccharatnm). 
 
 So far as I am acquainted with its history, this is a pro- 
 duct peculiar to America. In its early growth and general 
 appearance, it resembles Indian corn. It grows to the 
 height of ten or twelve feet, with a perfectly upright stalk, 
 from which an occasional leaf appears ; and at the top, a 
 long compact bunch of slender, graceful stems is thrown out, 
 familiarly termed the brush, which sustain the seed at and 
 near their extremities. 
 
 Soil. — The best soil for broom corn, is similar to that 
 required for Indian corn or maize. It should be rich, 
 warm, loamy land, not liable to early or late frosts. Spring 
 frosts injure broom corn more than maize, as the roots do 
 not strike so deep, nor has it the power of recovering from 
 ne effects of frost equally with the latter. The best crops are 
 ..sually raised on a green s"ward, turned over as late as possi- 
 ble in the fall, to kill the Avorms. Clay lands are not suita- 
 ble for it. 
 
 M.anure. — Horse or sheep manure is the best for this 
 plant ; and if mixed with much straw or other vegetables, 
 they shovild be well rotted before applying. If the land is 
 in good condition, three cords or eight to ten loads to the 
 acre, is enough for one dressing. This is usually placed in 
 hills, and 12 to 15 bushels of ashes per acre may be added 
 with great advantage. Plaster, at the rate of two to four 
 bushels per acre, is also beneficial. The addition of slacked 
 lime helps the ground, affords some food to the crop, and is 
 destructive to worms. Poudrette, at the rate of half a 
 pint to each hill at planting, or Peruvian guano at the rate 
 of a table-spoonful mixed in a compost with ten times its 
 quantity of good soil, is an excellent application, especially it 
 the land is not already rich enough. Repeating the above 
 quantities awund the stalks in each hill, after the last hoeing, 
 v^ill add materially to the crop. 
 
188 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Planting. — Broom corn should be planted in hills two feel 
 apart, in rows two and a half to three feet distant. If the seed 
 is good, drop 15 to 20 seeds in a hill, an inch and a half deep, to 
 ensure eight or ten thrifty plants, which are all that must be 
 left after the second hoeing. The time of planting must de- 
 pend on the climate and season. The 1st of May is about 
 the time in latitude 40°, ■and 10th to lothin42'^; but let it be 
 as early as possible, yet late enough to escape spring frost. 
 Mellow the ground well with a harrow before putting in the 
 seed. Thick planting gives the finest, toughest Iwush. 
 
 After Culture. — As soon as the plants are visible, run a 
 ctiltivator between the rows, and follow \vith a hand hoe. 
 Many neglect this till the weeds get a start, which is highly 
 prejudicial to the crop. The cultivator or light plow should 
 be used afterwards, followed with a hoe, and this may be 
 repeated four or five times with advantage. Break the tops 
 before fuUj^ ripe, or when the seed is a little past the milk ; 
 or if frost appears, then immediately after it. This is 
 done by bending down the tops of two rows towards each 
 other, for the convenience of cutting afterAvards. They should 
 be broken some 14 inches below the brush, and allowed to 
 hang till fully ripe, -when they may be cut and carried un- 
 der cover, and spread till entirely dry. The stalks remain- 
 ing on the ground, may be cut close, or pulled up and buried 
 in the furrows for manure, or burned, and thus be restored 
 to the earth to enrich it ; or they may be carried to the yard 
 to mix in a compost, with the droppings of the cattle. 
 
 Cleaning the Brush. — Unless some larger machine is 
 used, this is most rapidly accomplished by passing it through 
 a kind of hetchel, made by setting upright knives near to- 
 gether, or it may be cleaned by a long-toothed currycomb. 
 By the use of the hetchel, none of the little branches are 
 broken, and the brush makes a finer, better broom. We 
 have seen horse power machines used for cleaning the seed 
 with great rapidity, in the Miami Valley. The average 
 yield is about 500 lbs. of brush per acre. It varies according 
 to season or soil, from 300 to 1,000 lbs. The price also va- 
 ries materially, ranging from three to sixteen cents per 
 pound ; the last being seldom obtained unless in extreme 
 scarcity, A good crop of seed is matured in the Connecti- 
 cut Valley, about tvv o years out of five. When well ripened, 
 the seed will average three or four pounds for every 
 pound of the brush. A single acre has produced 150 bush- 
 els of seed, though 25 to 50 i« i more common vield. It 
 
189 
 
 weighs about 50 lbs. per bushel, and is usually sold at 25 
 to 35 cents. 
 
 The uses of Broom Corn are limited to the manufacture 
 of brooms from the brush ; and the consumption of the seed 
 when ground and mixed with other grain, in feeding to fat- 
 tening or working cattle, sheep and swine, and occasionally 
 to horses. Brooms manufactured from it, have superseded 
 every other kind for general use in the United States, and 
 within a few years, they have become an article of extensive 
 export to England and other countries. The brush and wood 
 for the handles are imported separately, to avoid high duties, 
 and are there put together, and form a profitable branch of 
 agricultural commerce to those engaged in the traffic. The 
 cultivation of broom corn has, till quite recently, been almost 
 exclusively confined to the northeastern States ; but it is now 
 largely raised in the Western. Their fresh, rich soil, how- 
 ever, does not yield so fine and tough a brush as that grown 
 in the longer cultivated fields. 
 
 FLAX (Linum usitatissimum, Fig. 43). 
 
 This is one of the oldest cultivated plants of which wo 
 have any record ; and its habitat or re- 
 gion of naturalization, extends from the 
 torrid to the frigid zones. Its long, 
 silken fibres, which come from the outer 
 coating or bark of the stem, have been 
 used for the manufacture of linen, from 
 time immemorial. The absolute quanti- 
 ty at present grow:., is probably equal 
 to any preceding age ; but relatively, it 
 is falling behind the product of cotton, 
 which is rapidly on the increase. Flax 
 is still a profitable crop, for in addition 
 to its use as a material of clothing, the 
 seed is of great value for its oil, and the 
 food it yields to cattle ; and for the latter 
 ''■"' '"'■ purpose, the whole plant is sometimes 
 
 fed with decided advantage. 
 
 The proper soil for Flax, is a good alhivial or vegetable 
 loam, equally removed from a loose sand or tenacious clay. 
 In a very rich soil, the fibres grow too coarse, and on a poor 
 soil, the crop will not make a profitable return. Fresh barn- 
 ^'ard manures are not suited to it, and they should, in all casea 
 where necessary for a proper fertility, be added to the pre- 
 
190 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ceding crop. A rich sod which has long lain i;: pasture or 
 meadow, well plowed and rotted, is the best for :t. Lime in 
 small quantities, may be incorporated with the soil, but the 
 Flemings who raise flax extensively, never allow it to follow 
 a heavy liming till seven years intervene, as they consider 
 it injures the fibre. A good wheat, is generally a good flax 
 soil. Salt, ashes and gypsum are proper manures for it. 
 The last has the greatest effect, if applied after the plant is 
 developed and while covered with dew or moisture. All 
 the saline manures used as a top-dressing, benefit the plant 
 and check the ravages of worms, which frequently attack 
 the young plants. 
 
 Cultivation. — On a finely-prepared surface, either of fresh 
 sod or after corn or roots, w^hich have been well manured 
 and kept clear of weeds, sow broadcast, from sixteen to thirty 
 quarts per acre, if wanted for seed, or two bushels, if wanted 
 for the fibre. When thin, it branches very much, and every 
 sucker or offshoot is terminated by a boll well loaded with 
 seed. When thickly sown, the stem grows single, and with- 
 out branches, and gives a long, fine fibre. If the soil be 
 very rich, and fibre is the object of cultivation, it may be 
 sown at the rate of three bushels per acre. There is a 
 great difference in seed ; the heaviest is the best, and it 
 should be of a bright brownish cast and oily to the touch. 
 It must be lightly harrowed or brushed in and rolled. 
 When three or four inches high, it may be carefully weeded 
 by hand, and for this, it is best to employ children ; or if 
 adults are put on the field, they should be barefoot. Any de- 
 pression of the plants by the feet will soon be recovered by 
 the subsequent growth, which, on good soil, will be sufficient- 
 ly rapid to prevent the weeds again interfering with it 
 Grass seed or clover may be sown with flax without any 
 detriment to it, but the flax ought to be too thick on the 
 field to allow them to grow well ; and in pulling the flax, 
 they will be very likely to be uprooted. 
 
 Harvesting. — When designed for cambrics and tha 
 finest linen, flax is pulled in flower ; but in this country it 
 is seldom harvested for the fibre till the seed is entirely 
 formed, and although not ripe, most of it will mature on the 
 stalk without any prejudice to the fibre. If required for 
 seed, it must be left standing till the first seeds are well 
 ripened. It is then gathered and bound in small bundles, 
 and when properly dried, is placed under cover. If it falls 
 
HEMP. 191 
 
 ^efore ripening, it should be pulled at once, whatever its 
 stage of growth, as this is Ihe only means of saving it. 
 
 After Management. — After removing the seed by draw- 
 ing the heads through a comb or rake of finely-set teeth, 
 called rippling, the usual method of preparing flax in tnis 
 country, is by dew-rotting, or spreading it thinly on a clean 
 sward, and turning it occasionally till properly prepared, 
 after which it is put into bundles and stored till a convenient 
 period for cleaning it. This is a wasteful practice and gives 
 an inferior quality of fibre. 
 
 WatcV'Totting is the best plan of preparing it, which 
 is done in vats or small ponds of soft water, similar to those 
 used for hemp. This gives a strong, smooth, silky fibre, 
 and without waste, and worth much more either for sale or 
 for manufacturing, than the dew-rotted. Various steeps for 
 macerating, and machines for preparing it have been used, 
 which materially increase its marketable value ; but it is 
 generally got out on the brake by hand, Avhcn the farmer is 
 most at leisure. A crop of the fibre may be estimated at 
 300 to 1,000 lbs.; and of seed, from 15 to 30 bushels per 
 acre. 
 
 There are no varieties worthy of particular notice for 
 ordinary cultivation. Great benefit is found to result from 
 a frequent change of seed, to soils and situations differing 
 from those where it has been raised. The seed is always 
 valuable for the linseed-oil it yields, and the residuum of the 
 seed or oil-cake, stands deservedly high as a feed for all ani- 
 mals. The entire seed when boiled, is among the most fat- 
 tening substances which the farmer can use for animal food. 
 Flax, like most other plants grown for seed, is an exhaust- 
 mg crop, but is not when pulled or harvested before the seed 
 matures. The Flemings think flax ought not to be raised 
 on the same soil ofteyer than once in eight years. 
 
 As a means of promoting the industrial interests of the 
 country, the raismg of flax, like that of hemp, cotton, wool 
 and raw-silk, is an object of national importanci This 
 value does not, like wheat, pork, butter, &c., end with thei! 
 preparation for market, but constitutes a basis for other in 
 dustrial occupations, after leaving the hands of the fannar 
 Each should be produced to the extent, at least, of supplyin" 
 our own maimfactures with the raw material, for making 
 the fullest amount of fabrics we can consume at home oi 
 profitably export abroad. 
 
 HEMP (Cannabis sativa). 
 large portions of our western soils and elinutu, are pecu- 
 
192 
 
 A^MB&ICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 liarly adapted to the production of 
 hemp, aud for many yeais it has been 
 a conspicuous object of agricultural 
 attention. We have not yet brought 
 the supply to our full consumption ; as 
 we have till recently, imported several 
 millions annually, either in its raw 
 state, or as cordage, twine, sail-duck, 
 osnaburgs and other manitfactured ar- 
 ticles. But the increased attention 
 and skill bestowed on its cultivation, 
 combined with our means for its in- 
 definite production, will doubtless soon 
 constitute us one of the largest of the 
 hemp-exporting countries. 
 
 The Soil for hemp may be similar 
 to that of flax, but with a much wider 
 range, from a uniform standard ; for it 
 will thrive in moderately tenacious 
 clay, if fertile, and well pulverized ; and it will do equally 
 well on reclaimed muck beds, when properly treated. New 
 land is not suited to it till after two or three years of culti- 
 vation. A grass sod or clover bed is best for it, v\'hen plowed 
 in the fall or early in winter. This secures fine pulveriza- 
 tion by frost and the destruction of insects, and especially the 
 cut- worm, which is very injurious to it. If not already suffi- 
 ciently mellow, it should be re-plowed iu the spring, as a 
 deep, fertile tilth is essential to its full vigor and large 
 growth. 
 
 CtUtivation. — Early sowing produces the best crop, yet 
 it should not be put in so early as to be exposed to severe 
 frost ; aud where there is a large quantity planted, conveni- 
 ence in harvesting requires that it should ripen at different 
 periods. The farmer may select his time for sowing, ac- 
 cording to his latitude, and the quantity cultivated. From 
 the 10th of April to lOtli June is the fullest range allowed. 
 The choice of seed is material, as it s important to have a 
 full set of plants on the ground ; yet an excess is injurious, 
 as a part are necessarily smothered after absorbing the 
 strensrth of the soil, and thev are besides, in the wav of the 
 harvesting, without contributing anything to the value ol 
 the crop. Seed of the last year's growth is best, as it gene- 
 rally heats by being kept over, which can be avoided only 
 by spreadin'T; tliiu. From four to six pecks per acre of good 
 
UBMP. 93 
 
 seed is sutiicieiii. The best is indicated by its weight and 
 bright reddisli color. It is usual to sow broadcast, harrow 
 in lightly both ways, and roll it. A smooth surface is mate- 
 rial in facilitating the cutting. Sowing in drills would re- 
 quire less seed, give an equal amount of crop, and materially 
 expedite the planting. This should always be done before 
 moist weather if possible, as rapid and uniform germination 
 of the seed is thus more certainly secured. If the soil be 
 very dry, it is better to place the seed deeper in the ground, 
 to reach a proper moisture, which can be done with the 
 plow. If sown in drills and well covered, it might be pre- 
 viously soaked so as to secure early germination in the ab- 
 sence of rains. I quote from an excellent article on hemp 
 raising, in the American Agriculturist, by the editor, A. B. 
 Allen. 
 
 Cutting. — " No after cultivation is necessary. When the 
 blossoms turn a little yellow, and begin to drop their leaves, 
 which usually happens from three to three and a half months 
 after sowing, it is time to cut the hemp ; if it stands a week 
 or ten days longer than this, no other detriment will ensue 
 except that it will not rot so evenly, and becomes more la- 
 borious to break. Cutting is now almost universally prac- 
 ticed in preference to pulling. Not quite so much lint is 
 saved, but the labor is easier and all subsequent operations, 
 such as spreading, stacking and rotting. The lint also is of 
 a better color and finer fibre, and the roots and stubble left in 
 the ground and plowed under, tend to lighten the soil, and 
 are equivalent to a light dressing of manure. If the hemp 
 i.« not above seven feet high, it can be cut with large and 
 sf^cong cradles, at the rate of an acre or two per day ; but if 
 !»nove this height, strong brush scythes must be used, about 
 txvo and a half feet long. 
 
 Drying and Securing. — As fa-t a^; cut, spread the hemp 
 on the ground, taking care lo keep the butts even, when if 
 tne weather be dry and warm, it \v\\\ be cured in three days. 
 As soon as dry, couimence binding into sheaves, and if des- 
 tined for water rotting, it ought to be transported to dry 
 jfiound convenient to the pools, and then secured in round 
 stacks, carefully thatched on the top to keep out the rain ; 
 t)ut if designed for dew rotting, it should be secured in large 
 ricks, in the same field where grown. The reason why these 
 are to be preferred is, that less of the hemp is thus exposed 
 to the weather, and the more and better the lint when rotted 
 and broken out. 
 
194 AM'f-nCAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Ricks should be 30 to 40 feet long, and 15 to 20 
 feet wide, the best foundation for which is logs laid down 
 for the bottom course, six feet from each other, then lay 
 across these, rails or poles one foot apart. As the hemp is 
 bound in sheaves, let it be thrown into two rows, with suf- 
 ficient space for a wagon to pass between. While the 
 process of taking up and binding is going on, a wagon and 
 three hands, two to pitch and one to load, is engaged in 
 hauling the hemp to the rick, and stacking it. Thus the pro- 
 cess of taking up, binding, haulirg, and ricking, all proceed 
 together. In this way five handf^ Avill put up a large rick in 
 two days and cover it. For rr.aking the roof of the rick, it 
 is necessary to have long homp, from which the leaves 
 should be beaten off. In this state only will hemp make a 
 secure roof. 
 
 In laying down the hemr,, begin with the top ends of the 
 bundle inside, and if they do not fill up fast enough to keep 
 the inside of the rick level, add, as occasion may require, 
 whole bundles. Give it a rounded fonnat each end, and, 
 as it rises, it must be widened, so as to riia^ke the top courses 
 shelter the bottom ones. After it is twelve feet high, com- 
 mence for the roof, by laying the bundles crosswise, within 
 a foot of the edges of the rick, building the top up roof- 
 shaped, and of a slope at an angle of about forty-five de- 
 grees. For the covering of the roof lay up the bundles at 
 right angles to its length, the butt ends down, and the firsi 
 course resting on the rim of the rick as left, one foot in 
 width. Lap the bundles in covering the roof in courses, as 
 if shingling a house. Commence the second course by re- 
 versing the bundles, placing the .op ends down, and then 
 go on lapping them as before. Begin the third course of 
 shingling with the butt ends down, letting the first hang 
 at least one foot below the edge of the roof, to shed off the 
 rain from the body of the stack. Unbind the bundles, and 
 lay the covering at least one foot thick uith the loose hemp, 
 lapping well as before, and for a weather board, let the top 
 course come up above the peak of the roof about three feet 
 and be then bent aver it, towards that point of the compass 
 from wliich the wind blows least. If the work has been 
 faithfully performed, the rick may be considered as finished, 
 and weather proof, and it requires no further binding. The 
 rick should be made when the weather is settled, for if rain 
 falls upon it during the process, it will materially injure the 
 aemp. There ought always to be a sufficient number of 
 
vEMP. l9a 
 
 hands : i the field to gather, bind the shocks, an-\ nnish the 
 ricking n a single day. 
 
 Time of dew rotting. — The best time for spreading hemp 
 for dew rotting, is in the month of December. ' It then re- 
 ceives what is called a Avinter rot, and makes the lint of the 
 hemp a light color, and its quality better than if spread out 
 early. But where a farmer has a large crop, it is desirable 
 to have a part of his hemp ready to take up late in Decem- 
 ber, so that he may commence breaking in January. Tu 
 accomplish this object, a part of his crop may be spread 
 about the middle of October. It would not be prudent to 
 spread earlier, as hemp will not obtain a good rot if spread 
 when the weather is warm. The experienced hemp- 
 grower is at no loss to tell when the hemp is sufficiently 
 watered. A trial of a portion of it on the break will be the 
 best test for those who have not had much experience. 
 When sufficiently watered, the stalks of the hemp lose that 
 hard, sticky appearance or feel, which they retain till the 
 process is completed. The lint also begin;' to separate from 
 the stalk, and the fibres will show themselves, like the strings 
 of a fiddle-bow, attached to the stalk at two distant points, 
 and separate in t«he middle. This is a sure indication that 
 the hemp has a good rot. 
 
 Shocking after breaking and rotting. — When the hemp 
 is dry, put in siiocks of suitable size, without binding. Tie 
 all the shocks together with a hemp-band, by drawing the 
 tops closely, to prevent the rain from wetting the inside. 
 Each shock should be large enough to produce from fifty to 
 sixty pounds of lint. If the hemp be considerably damp 
 when taken up, leave the shocks untied at the tops until 
 they have time to dry. If not well put up, they are liable to 
 blow down by a strong Avind. To guard against this, it is 
 desirable, when commencing a shock, to tie a band around 
 the first armful or two that may be set up and then raise up 
 the parcel so tied, and beat it Avell against the ground so as 
 to make it stand firmly, in a perpendicular direction. The 
 balance of the shock should now be set regularly around the 
 part as hereii:i directed. If hemp be carefully shocked, it 
 will receive little or no injury till the weather becomes 
 warm. In the meantime it should be broke out as rapidly 
 as possible. If the operation be completed by the middle of 
 April, no material loss will be sustained. If delayed to a 
 later period, loss of lint will be the consequence. Cool, 
 frosty weather is much the best for hemp-breaking. If the 
 
l96 AMERICAN AGUICULTURE. 
 
 fiemp is good, tirst-iate liaixls on the the common hemp 
 break, Avill clean two hundred pounds per day. The ordina- 
 ry task for hands is one hundred pounds.' — Beatty. 
 
 HemjJ-brake. — The hand hemp-break is made like that 
 for flax, only much larger ; the under slats on the hinder end 
 are 16 to 18 inches apart, at the fore-end they approach 
 within three inches of each other. The slats in the upper 
 jaw are so placed as to break joints into the lower as it is 
 brought down on to the hemp. After breaking out the hemp, 
 it is twisted into bunches, and sent to the press-house to be 
 bailed, and is then transported to market. 
 
 Water rotting. — The best plan for water rotting is in 
 vats under cover, the water in which is kept at an equal 
 temperature. The hemp thus gets a perfect rot at all sea- 
 sons of the year, in seven or ten days, and when dried, is of 
 a bright, greenish, fiaxen color, and is considered by many, 
 of a better qualitj^ than the finest Russian, and it brings as 
 high a price in market. These Aats may be easily con- 
 structed and managed, and if built in a central position, by 
 a company of planters on joint account, they would be but 
 of small expense to each, and all in turn could be accommo- 
 dated by them. The hemp is first broken previous to rot- 
 ting, in a machine, Avhich is moved by steam power ; this 
 lessens the bulk greatly, by ridding it of most of its woody 
 fibre ; but the process is not essential to rotting in vats. If 
 to be rotted in spring or river Avater, artificial pools or vats 
 must be formed for this purpose, which should not be over 
 three feet deep, otherwise the hemp is liable to an unequal 
 rot. It will require plank placed upon it weighted down 
 with timbers or stones, in order to keep it \vell under Avater. 
 Mr. Myerle recommends vats 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 
 two feet deep. The hemp is thus kept cleaner Avhile rot- 
 ting, and the hands can lay it down in the vats and take it 
 out without getting wet, which is important to the health 
 of the laborer. These vats greatly facilitate the operation, 
 and they can be fed with water and ha^e it run off at plea- 
 sure, without loss from the hemp. AVater rotting in streams, 
 requires a longer or shorter period, according to the season. 
 In September, Avhen the water is warm, ten days is general- 
 ly sufficient ; in October, about fifteen, and in December, 
 thirty days or more. For the latitude of Kentucky, October 
 and November are considered the best months for the opera- 
 tion; and it is then easiest done, gives more lint, and as 
 good a sample as if deferred later." 
 
 Raising Hemp Seed. — This requires another system ol 
 
HEMP. 197 
 
 cultivation, but on a siinilar soil, whic' should be in the 
 finest condition as to fertility an 1 pulverizat:()n. An old 
 pasture or meadow heavily manured and plowed in the fall, 
 and well pulverized in ftie spring, furnishes the best soil. 
 I quote from Judge Beatty's essay on practical agricul- 
 ture : 
 
 " The seed should be planted either in hills or drills. 1 
 prefer the former, because it admits of easier and better cul- 
 tivation, as the plow can be used both ways. It is usual to 
 plant five feet apart, each way, and suffer four or five stalks 
 to stand in a hill until tlie blossom hemp is removed, aiid 
 then reduce the number so as not to exceed two stalks in a 
 hill. Thus there would be two seed plants for each twenty- 
 five square feet. It would be a better practice to make the 
 hills three feet six inches apart, each way, and thin theliemp 
 to three stalks in a hill, till the blossom hemp appears ; at the 
 proper time, cut out the blossom or male hemp ; and if ne- 
 cessary a part of the seed hemp, so as to reduce the latter to 
 one stalk in the hiil. 
 
 The ground for hemp seed, having been well pulverized 
 by plowing twice, and running the harrow, lay off as above 
 directed, and plant in the same manner as corn. Twelve 
 or fifteen seed should be scattered in each hill. Soon after 
 the hemp comes up, run a small plow both ways, once in a 
 row. If the groimd is not foul, the plowing may be delayed 
 till the hemp is a few inches high, which will enable the 
 plowman to avoid throwing the dirt on the tender plants. 
 The hoes should follow the second plowing, and clean away 
 the weeds, in or near the hill, and thin out the hemp to seven 
 or eight stalks. These should be the most thrifty plants, 
 and somewhat separated from each other. Repeat the 
 plowing to keep the ground light and free from weeds. 
 When the plants are about a foot liigh, the hoes slio aid again 
 go over the ground and carefully cut down any weeds or 
 grass which may have escaped the plow. The plants should 
 be still further thinned out at this time, leaving but four in 
 a hill, and some fine mold drawn around the plants, so as to 
 cover any small weeds that may have come up around 
 them. After seed hemp has attained the height of a foot 
 and a half, it will soon be too large to plow, but it ought to 
 have one plowing after the last hoeing. The ground, by 
 this time, will hav3 become so mrch shaded by the hemp 
 plants, as to prevent the weeds from growing, and nothing 
 morj need to be done but for a man to follow the plow, and 
 
198 iMERlCAN AGRICULTCRE. 
 
 if three and a haiT feet be the distance of the hills apart, re- 
 diice the number of plants invariably to three, taking care 
 to remove those which the last plowing may have broken. 
 
 When the seed hemp has so far advanced as readily to 
 distinguish the male from the female plants, let all the blos- 
 som hemp be cut ou*, except one stalk in every other hill, 
 each way. This will leave one stalk of male hemp for every 
 four hills. These, together with the stalks which after- 
 wards blossom, will be sufficient to fertilize all the seed- 
 bearing plants, aud secure a crop of perfect seed. After the 
 blossom plants have remained until they have discharged 
 their pollen, which can be easily ascertained by dust ceasing 
 to flow from them when agitated, they, also, should be cut 
 down. Some top the seed plants when five or six feet high, 
 to make them branch more freely, but this is not necessary 
 where but one or two seed-bearing plants are suffered to re- 
 main in each hill." 
 
 A seed-beannsr hemp crop is a great exhauster of land, 
 while such as is grown only for the fibre, takes but a moder- 
 ate amount of fertilizing matter from the soil. Unlike most 
 crops sown broadcast, it grows with such strength and luxu- 
 riance, as to keep the weeds completely smothered ; and it 
 may, therefore, be 2TO'«ti for many successive seasons on the 
 same field, without the latter becoming foul. Its entire 
 monopoly of the ground, prevents the growth of clover or 
 the grasses in connection with it. 
 
 The seed yields an oiloi inferior value, but when cooked, 
 it affords a fattening food for animals. 
 
 COTTON (Gossypium, Fig. 44). 
 
 Within the last few years, this has become the leading 
 agricultural export of the United States. The total amount 
 of the cotton crop in this couutrv, in 1845, was estimated at 
 about 850,000,000 lbs., and for 'l 848, nearly 1,000,000,000. 
 This enoimous product has mainly grown up within the 
 last 60 years. Even as late as 1825, our total production 
 was within 170,000,000. The introduction of Whitney's 
 cotton gin, in the latter part of the last century, gave the first 
 decided movement towards the growth of American cotton. 
 Previous to this, the separation of the cotton seed from the 
 fibre was mostly dene by hand ; and the process was so slow 
 and expensive, as to prevent any successful competition "with 
 the foreign article. This incomparable invention, which 
 clea'aes.'. 1,000 lbs. i: the same tin:? a few pounds could be 
 
COTTON. 
 
 199 
 
 eleaii?i without it, overcame the only obstacle to complete 
 success ; and millions of acres of the fertile lauds of the 
 South and West are now annually covered with the snowy 
 product. The increase seems to know no check or abate- 
 ment ; as with the lessening price and increasing quantity, 
 the demand seems constantly to augment. 
 
 Climate and Soil. — Cotton will grow in some of the 
 middle States, but with little profit north of the Carolinas 
 and Tennessee. The soil required is a dry, rich loam. Light 
 sands and tolerably heavy clays will produce cotton, but 
 with much less profit than the loams. 
 
 Fig 44.. 
 
 Planting. — During the winter, the land intended foe 
 planting should be thrown up in beds, by turning several fur- 
 rows together. These beds may be four feet from centre to 
 centre for a moderate quality of upland soil, and tive feet for 
 the lowlands. But these distances should be increased with 
 tiie increasing strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet, 
 and in some instances, even to a greater distance for the 
 strongest lands. These may lie until the time of planting, 
 from 20tl- of JNIarch to 20 th of April, when no further danger 
 
200 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from frost is apprehended ; then harroTv, and w:th a light 
 plow, mark the centre of the beds and soav at the rate ol 
 two to five bushels per acre. A drilling machine might be 
 made to answer this purpose better, and save much time. An 
 excess of seed is necessary, to provide for the enemies of the 
 plant and other contingencies. If all the seed germinates, 
 there will be a large surplus of plants, -which must be re- 
 moved by thinning. There is an advantage in mixing the seed 
 before it is so^vn, with moistened ashes or gypsi^m, as it 
 facilitates sowing and germination. It should be buried 
 about an inch deep, and the earth pressed closely over it. 
 
 The cotton plant, in the opinion of Dr. Philips, is hardier, 
 even, than corn, when properly treated. He contends, and I 
 must say, with a great deal of apparent reason, that thick 
 planting is to be deprecated, and that but two or three 
 pecks of prime seed should be sown to the acre. This 
 ^vould expose each plant to the atmosphere, and give it op- 
 portunity and room to deA-elop a strong stalk with abundant 
 foliase ; and he asserts, when thus grown, a frost that will 
 cut down corn, will leave the youeg cotton plant uninjured. 
 There is a great disadvantage in exposing the long, spindling 
 shoots, that have grown up among a croAvd of others, to the 
 sun, wind and frost, when they are thinned out. A tempo- 
 rar}' check is thus always given to the plant, and frequently, 
 a permanent injury is sustained in consequence of it. 
 
 The varieties of seed used for uplands are the Mexican 
 and Petit-Gulf, both of similar origin, but the latter is better 
 selected and has been kept pure. New seed -n'hich has been 
 brought from a distance, ought to be substituted for the old 
 as often as once in three years. The beneficial effects of 
 this practice would probably be enhanced by bringing it 
 from a different soil, and more especially, such as had grown 
 upon one of inferior quality to that intended to be planted. 
 
 The Petit-Gulf, raised near Rodney, in Mississippi, is 
 universally esteemed the best seed, and it will frequently 
 yield from one to tAvo hundred pounds more of cotton per 
 acre than the average of such as is produced elseAvhere 
 This difference has arisen, in part at least, from the great 
 care used in the selection nnd management of the seed 
 and it may be, and probabh is, in part due to some peculiai 
 difference in soil or localitv, that better prepares the seed foi 
 an abundant yield when transferred to remote fields. 
 
 The cultivation is performed with various instruments, the 
 bull-tonffue or scooter, the shovel, double shovel, the sweeu 
 
COTTON. 20 
 
 the harrow, the cultivator and the hoe. One or rriore of the 
 former must be used to pulverize the land and uproot and 
 clean off the weeds ; while the last is necessary to carry this 
 operation directly up to the stem of the plants. The culture 
 is thus summarily stated by Dr. M. W. Philips, of Missis- 
 sippi ; " Commence cleaning the cotton early, and cleaji it 
 well; return to it as sooy as possible, throw earth or mold 
 :o the young plants, and _f the ground be hard give it a 
 thorough plowing ; keep the earth light and mellow and the 
 plants clear of grass and weeds." The plants are thinned 
 at every hoeing, till they attain a height of three or four 
 inches, when they are allowed to stand at intervals of about 
 eight or ten inches for a medium quality of soil. This dis- 
 tance should be largely increased when it is richer. 
 
 Enemies and Diseases. — Cotton is subject to the cut- 
 worm, the army-worm, and boU-Avorm, the slug, the cater- 
 pillar, cotton lice, gTa>&hoppers, rot, sore shin anJ rust. 1 
 have seen no remedies prescribed for either, but suggest 
 for experiment, the exposure of the two former to fros'tf by 
 plowing just before its appearance. Late planting, and 
 when the season is so well advanced as to give a rapM and 
 uniform growth, is one of the most effectual preventives 
 against disease or injury from insect enemies. The free use 
 of lime and salt, and similar manures might arrest or miti- 
 gate the effects of all. Birds should also be encouraged 
 upon the fields, as they would destroy numbers of the worm 
 and insect tribes. It has been claimed that the introduc- 
 tion of the Mexican and Petit-Gulf varieties, is the most ef- 
 fectual remedy, as they are hardier kinds, are less the object 
 of attack and have a greater ability to withstand it. 
 
 Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have beo-un to 
 expand, and the cotton is protruded. This is continued as 
 the bolls successively ripen and burst their capsules. It is 
 done entirely by hand, the picker passing between two rows 
 and gleaning from each. The cotton is placed in a bag cap- 
 able of containing fifteen or twenty pounds, which is^huno- 
 upon his shoulders or strapped upon his breast. — These are 
 emptied into large baskets which are taken, when filled, to 
 tlie gin-house. I quote the above authority : " Having 
 all things ready for picking cotton, I commence early, and 
 as soon as the hands can gather even twenty pounds each. 
 This is advisable, not only in savinir a portion of that from 
 being destroyed, if rains should fall,' which often do at this 
 season, (al)out the middle of August), but for another reason ; 
 
202 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (.assiug through the cotton has a tendencj'^ to open out to 
 sun and air, the limbs that have interlocked across the rows, 
 and hastens the early opening. On low grounds, especially, 
 much loss is incurred in some seasons from the want of the 
 sun to cause an expansion of the fibre within the boll, so as 
 to cause it to open. The boll is composed of five divisions, 
 in each of which there is a parcel of cotton wool surround- 
 ing each seed, there being several in each lock of cotton. 
 When green, these fibres lie close to the seed, and as it r: 
 pens, the fibres become elastic, the boll be:;oming hard and 
 brownish. The Sea Island has only three divisions, as also 
 the Egv'ptian, which is only the Sea Island of the best va- 
 riety, with black seed, smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres 
 on the small end ; they are both from Pernambuco. Some 
 of the cotton we plant has only four divisions, but I think 
 five gene ally. 
 
 Tliere is a peculiar art in gathering the cotton from the 
 boll, which can only be acquired by practice ; manj^ gather 
 equally fast Avith either hand. The left hand seizes the stem 
 near the open boll, or the boll between the two middle fin- 
 gers, the palm of the hand up ; the fingers of the right hand 
 are inserted tolerably low down in the boll, a finger on each 
 lock of cotton ; then, as the fingers grasp it, there is a slight 
 twisting motion, and a quick pull, which, if done well, w^ill 
 extract the contents. 
 
 Cotton should be gathered frotn the field as clean as 
 possible, taken to the scaffolds and dried until the seed will 
 crack Avhen pressed between the teeth, not crush or mash, 
 but crack with some noise. It should be frequently turned 
 over and stirred, and all the trash and rotten pods taken out, 
 while this is done, to insure its drying earlier. 
 
 If seeds are wanted for planting, gin the cotton imme- 
 diately, and spread the seed over the floor some five inches 
 thick, until perfectly dry. If the cotton-seed be not- wanted, 
 pack the seed-cotton away in the house, to remain until a 
 gentle heat is discovered, or until sufficient for ginning. 
 After it has become heated, until there is a sensible feeling 
 of warmth to the hand, and it looks as if pressed together, 
 open and scatter to cool. This cotton will gin faster, have 
 A softer feel, is not so brittle, therefore not so liable to break 
 by rapidity of gin, and has a creamy color ; the wool has 
 imbibed a part of the oil that has exuded by the warmth of 
 seed, and is in fact restored to the original color. I have 
 known of "> \;umber of sales made of this description of cot- 
 
COTTON. 203 
 
 ♦on, and even those who are most strenuous against the 
 seating, admit it bore a better price." The cotton is theu 
 ginned and baled, when it is ready for market. 
 
 Topping Cotton between the 20th July and 20th August 
 \s practiced by many planters with decided success. It is 
 generally considered highly beneficial in dry seasons, but 
 not in wet, and that in tluoe years ovit of five it is attended 
 with particular advantage to the crop. 
 
 SEA-ISLAND COTTON, 
 
 This crop is raised on the islands and low lands that bor- 
 der the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. If removed 
 from this locality, the fibre seems immediately to degene- 
 rate. It requires, in many respects, a treatment unlike that 
 of the upland. I insert an article by Thomas Spalding, 
 Esq., an experienced and intelligent planter, who has lono- 
 been engaged in its cultivation : " The Sea-Island cotton 
 was introduced into Georgia from the Bahamas. The seed 
 was from a small island near St. Domingo, known as Ar- 
 guilla, then producing the bestcotton of the western world. 
 It in no way resembles the Brazil cotton, which is the 
 kidney-seed kind, introduced some years later, and which, 
 after trial, Avas rejected in Georgia. It came in small par- 
 cels from the Bahamas, in the winter of 1785 ; and gradually 
 made its way along the coast of Georgia, and passed into 
 Carolina. The winter of 1786 in Georgia was a mild one, 
 and although the plants of the Sea-Island that year had not 
 ripened their seed, it being a perennial, and subject only to 
 be killed by frost, it started the next season from the roots 
 of the previous year, its seed ripened, and the plants became 
 acclimated. Many changes have come over this seed since 
 that time, from difference of soil, culture, and local position, 
 and above all, from careful selection of seed. But the 
 cause is yet to be discovered, why the gain in finenses of 
 Avool, is lost in the quality and weight of the product ; for 
 in spite of a zeal and intelligence brought to act upon the 
 subject without parallel, the crops are yearly diminishino", 
 until to grow Sea-Island cotton is one of the most profitless 
 pursuits within the I'-iiits of the United States. 
 
 Planting. — When the first seed was introduced, it was 
 planted in hills prepared upon the level field, at five feet 
 each way ; but it was soon found to be a very tender plant, 
 liable to suffsr by storms, by wind, by drought, and by ex- 
 cess of rail: The quantity -^^ seed was therefore increased^ 
 
204 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and the plants multiplied. If the seed is at first covered 
 more than two inches, it will not feel the influence of the 
 sun, and will not vegetate later in the season ; that is, in 
 April. You must give from three to four inches of covering 
 to preserve the moisture, or you ftill from an opposite cause, 
 the wind and sun drying the soil too much for vegetation. 
 In most countries, after sowing the seed, the roller is applied ; 
 but in cotton-planting, in our ridge-husbandry, the foot in 
 covering the seed and pressing down the earth, well supplies 
 its place. 
 
 Preparing the land. — Early in February, clean the 
 rested fields, and either burn off the fennel-weeds and grass 
 of the previous year, or list them in at five feet apart, to 
 serve as the base of the future ridges or bed. There is much 
 difference of opinion upon the subject of burning or listing 
 in. I am inclined to take the first opinion, believing that 
 the light dressing of ashes the field receives from burning 
 off, is more beneficial to the soil than the decay of the vege- 
 table matter, and renders it less liable to produce what is a 
 growing evil, the rust; a species of blight, much resembling 
 the rust or blight upon wheat, and which takes place about 
 the same period, just as the plant is putting out, and pre- 
 paring to ripen its fruit. For many years it has been the 
 practice, among experienced planters, to divide the enclosed 
 fields into two portions ; the one at rest, the other in culture. 
 
 Ridging. — The land being listed in short lines across the 
 entire field, at five feet apart, the operation of ridging is ccm- 
 nienced about the first of March. The ridges occupy the 
 entire surface, the foot of one ridge coniiuencing where the 
 other ends, and rising about eight inches above the natural 
 level of the land, thus presenting a surface almost as smooth, 
 and almost a* deeply worked, as a garden-bed. This is done 
 but a few days ahead of the planting, and the ridge Is from 
 two to two and a half feet broad at top ; it is then trenched 
 on the upper surface with the hoe, six inches wide, and from 
 three to six inches deep, depending upon the period of 
 planting. 
 
 (Quantity of seed per acre. — A bushel of seed is gener- 
 ally sown to the acre, I believe half a bushel is better ; for 
 where the evil comes, whether the worm, wind, drought, or 
 wet, there is no security in the many, but where they come up 
 thin, they soon grow out of the way of injury. 
 
 After-culture. — The cultivation of Sea-Island cotton is 
 carried on by the hand -oe, and the qiianuty is always lim- 
 
COTTON. 205 
 
 ited to foul acres to the laborer. The operation ol weedin<T 
 commences as soon as we finish planting, because in our 
 flat and sandy soils the grass-seed springs with tlie lirst 
 growth of the cotton, and by the time we finish planting, 
 say the 1st of May, what we planted in March requires the 
 hoe. In the operation of hoeing and Aveeding, the land is 
 kept, as far as )nay be, at its original level, the beds neither 
 increased nor diminished, that the heavy rains which o-ener- 
 ally fall in August, may injure the growing plants, Avhich 
 are then in full bearing, as little as possible. The youn" 
 cotton is thinned out slowly at from six to twelve inches 
 apart on the ridge, by the 10th of June. As soon as the 
 rains commence, which is about the last of July, it is wise 
 to leave nature to herself, and no longer disturb the soil. 
 Four hoeings, if well done, and the grass well picked at 
 each hoeing, is enough; nor does any aftergrowth of gra.ss 
 do injury. 
 
 Manures and soiling stock. — For ten years past, great 
 efforts have been made by the Sea-Island planters in ma- 
 nurmg. Much of the alluvion of our salt rivers has been 
 collected, and sometimes placed directly in heaps throuo-h 
 the fields at rest, and at other times placed in cattle-pens on 
 which cotton seed and all waste materials are strewn, and 
 the cattle penned upon it. But what is preferred, is to per 
 our cattle near the river at night, and cut salt-grass, which 
 covers these alluvion lands, and which is as nutritious as so 
 much clover. Great benefits will hereafter, undoubtedly 
 result from the use of marl. 
 
 Aynoimt of crop per acre and picking. — It has been sta- 
 ted already, that 500 pounds to the acre, is about the medi- 
 um crop, which at 20 cents per pound (more than the actual 
 price for the last three years), is to the planter, $100 for 
 gross crop; and from this $100 dollars, is to be subtracted 
 bagging, freight, expenses of sale, clothing for his people, 
 medical attention, and too often provisions." 
 
 The varieties of Cotton in the United States, which have 
 been cultivated with success in addition to those enumera- 
 ted, are the Rio, with a staple about three inches in length, 
 of a glossy, silky texture, brought from South America -^the 
 Egyptian, received from the garden of Mehemet Ali, and 
 grown in Louisiana 15 feet in height ; the Mastadoti, lately 
 mtroduced from Mexico, firm in texture and quite produc- 
 tive ; the Chinese Silk Cotton, white, soft, fine and silky; 
 the Ea.'it India, orowing to a height of 1 i feet, and prr^lu- 
 
206 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 cing a beatiful fibre ; and the Nankeen, a handsome staple 
 of a {iiie uankeen color, raised by the late Hon. John Foi 
 syth, of Georgia, and some other planters. 
 
 Cotton seed, like most of our cultivated plants, is the 
 creature of circumstances, and improves or deteriorates 
 within certain limits, according to climate, soil, manner of 
 selecting, &:c. Even the long, silken fibre, and the black 
 seeds of the Sea-Island, assume the shorter, coarser staple, 
 and the green seed of the upland, "when exposed for two or 
 three years to the same soil and position ; and a correspond- 
 ing change takes place, when the upland is made to grow on 
 the low sea-girt islands of South Carolina and Georgia. 
 The sea-muck, which is full of minute shells (lime), decom- 
 posed animal matter, including many of the phosphates and 
 salt, is one of the best applications for improving the qual- 
 ity of staple, as well as augmenting the quantity of fibre. 
 Salt, by many experienced planters, is deemed the principal 
 ingredient in effecting this improvement. It is believed that 
 ■t may be applied with equal success to the upland varieties. 
 
 The amount of seed in cotton is large, being nearlj' 70 
 per cent, of the entire gathering, the fibre being about 28. 
 This is used for various purposes. Sometimes it is pressed 
 for the oil, of which it yields from 15 to 20 per cent, of its 
 own weight. When thus treated, the cake is used for cat- 
 tle food. The seed is frequently, though improperly fed 
 raw to stock ; and this often proves fatal, especially to s-w ino 
 when fed before the adhering fibre has been decomposed, 
 besides being attended with much Avast^. It is most advan- 
 tageously prepared by boiling for half an hour, when it will 
 benefit all descriptions of stock. By adding an equal quan- 
 tity of corn, and boiling them together, it will fatten swine 
 rapidly. It is also useful to land as a manure. 
 
 SITGAR CANE (Saccharum officinarum, Fig. 45). 
 
 This plant icas cultivated in Louisiana, on the present 
 site of the city of New Orleans, a.s early as 1726. For more 
 ithan half a century, however, its use was almost wholly 
 .imited to the conversion of its juice into syrup and molas- 
 ■«s. Sugar was not made within the State of Louisiana, 
 ill after 1760. In 796, the second sugar mill was erected 
 in the plantation now occupied by the town of Carrolton. 
 ^Jwing to the revolQtion in St. Domingo, and the emigration 
 ot large numbers of her planters to Louisiana, the cultiva- 
 tion of the cane was largely extended soon afta this period ; 
 
THE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 207 
 
 Fio. 48. 
 
 jret so late as 1813, the entire crop of the State amo anted only 
 to 25,000 hogsheads. 
 
 Steam power was first applied to grinding the cane, in 
 1822, and since that period, its cul- 
 tivation has been rapidly spreading 
 over the delta of the Mississippi, 
 and the adjoining territory. The 
 product of Louisiana in 1845, 
 reached the enormous quantity of 
 207,337,000 pounds, and about 
 9,000,000 gallons of molasses, 
 worth nearly $15,000,000 ; being 
 an increase of over ten times the 
 quantity yielded but 30 years be 
 fore. 
 
 Its introduction into other 
 States. — The cane Avas introduced 
 into Georgia from Otaheite, in 
 1805, and sugar was for some- 
 time produced for export. It was 
 an object of attention \vhile it 
 commanded ten cents per pound ; 
 but when the prices declined to five and six cents, it ceased 
 to be manufactured as an article of commerce, though still 
 extensively produced for domestic consumption. It has re- 
 cently engrossed the attention of planters to some extent, 
 in Florida and Texas ; and there are portions of these States 
 eminently calculated, both in soil and climate, to rival the 
 best sections of Louisiana in its culture. The southern 
 portions of Alabama and Mississippi, as well as the Caro- 
 linas, have also begun to plant the car.e for the supply of 
 their own syrup, and they have thus far proved it an object 
 well worthy their pursuit. 
 
 The i/itroduction of the Ribbon Cane, from Georgia into 
 the adjoining States, in 1817, by giving a much hardier variety, 
 has largely extended the area of its cultivation, and render- 
 ed it a desirable crop, v/here it would not otherwise have 
 been an object of attention. It is probable, too, that it is 
 gradually becoming acclimated, and that hereafter, it Avill 
 endure an exposure, and yield profitable returns far north of 
 »iiy point where it has hitherto been successfully grown. 
 The total product of sugar has not yet reached over 60 pet 
 cent, of o ir own consumption. But this interest is rapidly 
 extending throughout those portions of the southern States 
 
208 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 adapted to it; and v/ith the immense area, capable of being 
 reclaimed from the swamps of the Gulf coast and elsewhere, 
 devoted to this object, there is no improbability that the 
 energies of American planters, will soon carry our produc- 
 tion beyond the total of the world, in 1844, which was be- 
 low 780,000 tons, or about 1,500,000 hogsheads. 
 
 Varieties. — The kind most cultivated in the United 
 States, is the strvped Ribbon or Java, which is by far the 
 hardiest and most enduring cane. It grows rapidly, is of 
 large size, and resists the effects of early and late frosts, 
 and the excess of rains or drought and disease, better than 
 any other. It has, however, a hard, coarse rind, and yields 
 juice of only a medium quality. The outer coating is beau- 
 tifully striped with alternate blue and yellow, of varying 
 widths, and changing in every successive joint. Tlie red 
 ribbon, or violet, from Ja^-a, is much like the foregoing, ex- 
 cept in having a uniform color, and by many it is preferred 
 for ncAv land. 
 
 The Creole, crystaline or Malabar, was the first introdu- 
 ced, and though of diminutive size, is a cane of great rich- 
 ness and value. Several varieties of the Otaheite, the pur- 
 ple, the yellow, and the pur2:>le-ba7ided, are more or less cul- 
 tivated. Some of these were brought into Georgia at an 
 early day, and thence transferred to Louisiana. Those I 
 have seen have a large stalk of great succulency, but yield- 
 ing a juice decidedly inferior to the Creole. Some additional 
 varieties, such as ?/ie^reyca??es, intermixed with the ribbon, 
 and occasionally others have been introduced, but they are 
 not of superior quality, or of general cultivation. 
 
 S>oil. — The cane will flourish in a great variety of soils, 
 varying between the extremes of a stiff clay and a light 
 sandy loam, provided the former be Avell drained and fertile. 
 The soil best suited to it is a fertile loam, well supplied with 
 lime, and such as will yield the best crops of Indian corn. 
 Some of the best and most enduring soils in the "West In- 
 dies and elsewhere, contain large quantities of lime and 
 the phosphates. The most profitable sugar plantation in 
 Louisiana, has a profusion of shells scattered over it, in every 
 stage of decomposition. 
 
 &eed Cane. — This plant is always propagated by cuttings. 
 These ought to be provided from the best cane of the pre- 
 ceding season. From the use of the um"ipe tops and close, 
 negligent planting, it is supposed the Creole cane has degen- 
 eiuted to its present diminutive size. There is lea* vigoi 
 
I 
 
 THE SUGAR CANE. 209 
 
 and giowth usually from tops than from the ripened cane; 
 thoug 1 where these are matured and a portion of the ripe 
 stalk is left with it, the resulting crops, under the most 
 fa^orable circumstances, are scarcely distinguishable. Fine 
 growth frequently follows planting ilie tops, where the land 
 is new and fertile ; but it is the exception and not the rule ; 
 and good husbandry dictates a reliance on sound, mature 
 cane only, for general use. There is no doubt, that in ac- 
 cordance with the general laws of vegetation, the cane crop 
 would be benefitted by a change of the plant cane from one 
 section of country to another. But as this would be at- 
 tended with so much trouble and expense as to preclude the 
 undertaking, the only remaining means available for secur- 
 ing improvement or preventing deterioration, is to be found 
 in planting the best qualities of seed cane. 
 
 preservation of the Cane. — This is kept from the period 
 of cutting till planting, by simply placing it on the dry sur- 
 face of the field, in beds or mattresses, as they are techni- 
 cally termed, of about two feet in depth, and having the 
 tops shingling or overlying the ripe portion of the stalk. 
 The tops should lie towards the soi;th, to prevent their being 
 Ufted and frozen from severe north winds, which sometimes 
 occur. Thick beds preserve a more uniform temperature, 
 and repel the approach both of frost and the sun's rays ; 
 thus serving the double purpose, besides their preservation 
 from frost, of preventing fermicntation during fall and winter, 
 and germination on the approach of spring. 
 
 It is well to preserve an excess of seed cane, as continued 
 and severe spring frosts may cut do^vn and destroy so many 
 young shoots, as to leave a deficiency, unless partially re- 
 planted. Many assert the cane will keep better by being cut 
 soon after a rain, so as to be bedded Avith the sap vessels 
 full, and that dry rot follows when cut after a lonsr drouo-ht. 
 Some, however, allow it to lie on the ground and wilt for 
 two or three days after cutting, and think when thus treated, 
 it keeps equally well. 
 
 Cane u-Jtich is intended for grindi?7g is often thus se- 
 cured, when severe frosts are anticipated. It requires ad- 
 ditional labor to top and trim it when thus harvested ; but 
 a good yield of sugar is in this Avay often secured, which 
 might otherwise be lost. 
 
 Preparation for planting. — Wliere the land is new (as 
 much of it is, that is noAV appropriated to cane), it is inva- 
 riably light and full of vegetable matter. Shallow plowing, 
 
2l0 AMERICAN AGKIOULTURE. 
 
 and wide distances between the rows, are here justified 
 The cane grows luxuriantly in such soils, and where there 
 is a deiiciency of warm weather to mature it fully, as in 
 Louisia .la, room is required to allow a free circulation of 
 air, and the full benefit of the sun, to ripen it before the ap- 
 proach of frosts. From seven to ten feet is near enough fox 
 the rows, but these should contain from two to three con- 
 tinuous lines of good plant cane. Where the land is fertile, 
 wide row^s, if well cultivated, will produce an equal quan- 
 tity as if planted closer, and there is much less expense and 
 labor in planting and tending the crop. 
 
 Land that has been long in cultivation, may be planted 
 nearer ; but if sufficiently fertile, as it ought always to be, 
 it should never be nearer than six feet, and under certain 
 circumstances, may extend to nine. It was formerly the 
 practice to plant a single line of seed cane, in rows from two 
 and a half to four feet apart ; but this system has been given 
 up, as it was found troublesome in cultivating, slower in 
 ripening, and it is believed materially and permanently to 
 have lessened the size of the cane first introduced. 
 
 Some planters make their cane beds every sixteen feet, 
 planting in each, two rows at a distance of four feet, and 
 leaving a space between every alternate row of eleven feet. 
 
 There is a great advantage in these wide spaces, as the 
 trash (tops, leaves, and all dead vegetable matter left on the 
 ground), and bagasse (megasse, [Fr.] the residuum of the 
 cane after expressing the juice), can all be buried between 
 the widest spaces, and remain undisturbed till decomposed, 
 without prejudice to the growing crop. On light or sandy 
 lands, these materials may be burned and the ashes applied 
 to the soil ; but in adhesive or clay lands, good husbandry 
 requiies that all this should be buried, as the vegetable de- 
 cay (carbonaceous matter or humus), not only contains every 
 element for the reproduction of the future crop, but it effects 
 a mechanical division in the soil, of great value to its poro- 
 sity, friability and productiveness. Occasionally, the trash 
 is buried at the foot of the plant, in which situation the 
 earth is kept constantly uj^on it. Some place the cane at a 
 distance of ten or twelve feet, and plant corn between the 
 rows, which matures and withers before the cane reaches 
 its full size. Others sow the cow pea, while still occupied 
 with cane, to renovate the land ; but neither practice seems 
 to meet with general favor, as they interfere with the main 
 purpose of planting, which is to produce the greatest quau- 
 
THE SUGAR CANE. 211 
 
 tity of mature cane, an object that can only be secured bv 
 its thorough and exclusive cultivation on the field. 
 
 The land should be deeply broken up with a two or four 
 horse plow. If light or sandy, it may be plowed flat ; but 
 if stiff, or too much inclined to wet, it should be thrown into 
 beds. Great advantages have generally followed the use 
 of the subsoil plo^v, when run a foot below the bottom of 
 the turning furrow, and immediately under the rou's to be 
 occupied by the cane. This is the more important, as no 
 opportunity will again occur for breaking up this portion 
 of the field, till the plant is renewed. The plowing may 
 be done at any convenient time between October and March ; 
 but on plantations where the har resting and grinding are 
 going forward, it is seldom the plows can be started before 
 the last of December, or early in January. The plowing 
 should never long precede the planting, unless in stiff soils, 
 which need the meliorating influence of the atmosphere to 
 crumble the massive clods ; nor in the.'^e, beyond the period 
 necessary to effect this object. A fine bed of well-pulver- 
 ized earth is thus secured for the plants to root in, and afford 
 its nourishment to the young shoots. 
 
 Planting. — This may be done any time between Octo- 
 ber and April. There is a greater certainty of a good crop 
 if in the ground by the first of March. The occupations of 
 harvesting, grinding, plowing, &c., will usually postpone the 
 commencement of planting till January. On the land pre- 
 viously well plowed, open a wide furrow with the fluke or 
 double mold-board plow. Clean this out \vith the hoe of a 
 uniform width, by the removal of any clods that may have 
 fallen in after the plow. With the increased width now 
 usually adopted by the best planters, not less than three 
 parallel seed stalks should be planted. These ought to be 
 precisely in line, and at least four inches apart ; and it is 
 better to place them so that the eyes may shoot out horizon- 
 tally, and thus come up at the same time and on opposite 
 sides of the stalk. Cover with sufficient earth to prevent 
 freezing from any weather that may follow. On the ap- 
 proach of spring, remove the earth to the depth of one or 
 two inches. Light spring frosts "will not otherwise injure 
 the cane, than to cut down the young shoots, and thus de- 
 lay the grow'h till new leaves appear. The danger is in re- 
 moving so much of the earth as to expose the roots to 
 freezing. 
 
 Cultivating — Throughout most of X«ouisiana, the cane 
 
SI 2 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 yields three crops from one planting. The first season it is 
 called plant cane and subsequently, ratootis. In the tro- 
 pical climates, the West Indies and elsewhere, ratoons will 
 frequently continue to yield profusely for twelve or fifteen 
 years. On new and peculiarly favorable spots in this coun- 
 try, the ratoons will produce equal to the plant cane for 
 several years, occasionally for six or eight ; and sometimes, 
 as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the 
 higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be 
 replanted every year. The cultivation is alike in each, after 
 the young shoots make their appearance ; previous to which, 
 the ratoons shovild be barred off and scraped on the approach 
 of settled warm weather. The former consists in running 
 the plow near the rows and throwing the earth from them ; 
 and the latter, in removing the soil from the surface. The 
 sun's influence is thus sooner felt upon the roots, and an 
 earlier and more prolonged growth is secured to the cane. 
 But if these operations are performed too early or too closely, 
 subsequent frosts may seriously injure the plants. Scrap- 
 ing has in some instances been partially accomplished by a 
 large and cumbersome machine, but thus far it seems not to 
 have been generally adopted. One could probably be con- 
 structed for the accomplishment of both purposes, that would 
 save much labor and produce a uniformly beneficial result. 
 
 Soon after the young plants have made their appearance, 
 the earth is gradually thrown to them by repeated plowings, 
 and the hoes are made auxiliary to this object, and to keep- 
 ing the cane clear of weeds. There is a great advantage in 
 wide planting, as the two-horse plow can be used for culti- 
 vatino-. With these, a greater width and depth of furrow 
 is secured, by which one plowman with two mules, will 
 perform nearly double the amount of work, and do it much 
 more thoroughly, than with the single ploAv. There is 
 generally a larger growth from this deep and efiicient plow- 
 ing ; and where weeds, and especially the coco grass abound, 
 great economy in subdr ing these is secured by the use of 
 the large plow, as it is thus so deeply bvu-ied, as to find its 
 way to the surface only after long intervals. 
 
 When the cane has acquired such a height and expansion 
 of leaves as to shade the ground effectually, w^hich if all 
 preliminary operations have been well performed, will be by 
 the first of June, the last furrows are thrown to the roots and 
 the earth slopes gradually to the centre ; forming an eleva- 
 ted support lo -'is plcr.ts, and a depression between, which 
 
THE 8^aA3. CANE. 213 
 
 serves as a drain for the surplus rains. Many intelligent 
 planters run a large subsoil plow two or three times be- 
 tween the rows, which serves to loosen the soil for the 
 greater extension of the roots, and this also more effectually 
 drains the land. Throughout the operation of cultivating, 
 after the ratoons have been barred otF in the spring, care 
 should be observed to avoid catting or breaking the roots. 
 This caution is applicable to all plants, but especially to the 
 cane, which requires all the aid from its roots to mature be- 
 fore the approach of cold weather. 
 
 Deep plowing, both in breaking up and in cultivating, is 
 essential to good sugar crops, on all lands that have long 
 been subject to tillage. On the alluvial lands of the Missis- 
 sippi, fresh upturned soil, exposed to the surface for the first 
 time, always brinies with it new supplies of food for the 
 plants ; and the more perfect and general the pulverization 
 of the soil, the greater is the space afforded for a range 
 to the roots. Good implements and good plowmen are essen- 
 tial preliminaries to a good sugar crop. 
 
 Harvesting. — In the West Indies and most other foreign 
 States where grown, the cane fully ripens. This is true, 
 also, with some of that on Tampa Bay, Florida, the cultiva- 
 tion of which has recently been considerably extended. 
 But in Louisiana, the cane never fully matures. It begins 
 to ripen at the foot of the stalks in August or September, 
 and advances upwards at the rate of about six inches per 
 week. The proper period for cutting, would be just previ- 
 ous to the heavy or black frosts {^freezes they are generally 
 called) ; but as it requires several weeks to secure tli£ crop, 
 much of which would be liable to great injury if left beyond 
 the proper period, the harvesting is generally commenced 
 by the middle of October, and steadily followed up till com- 
 pleted. This is done by striking off the top (unripened 
 stalks), then stripping the leaves by a single downward 
 stroke of the knife on either side, and another blow severs 
 one or more stalks at the foot. The cane is then thrown 
 into carts and hauled to the mill, where it should at once 
 be ground, boiled, granulated and put up for market. 
 
 The moment of interference with the nat\ al condition oi 
 .he plant, is the signal for breaking up its normal or healthy 
 condition, and sending its elements rapidly forward on a 
 new ca.reer of change. The exquisitely-arranged crystals 
 of sugar, which may be seen with the microit«cope, closely 
 wedged in their appropriate cells withii the siliciouB rind of 
 
214 AMERICAN AGRICCLTCEE. 
 
 the Stalk, are susceptible to the slightest alteration in any 
 portion of the plant. By cutting it at the bottom, the ail 
 gains access to the exposed cells, the sugar combines with 
 the oxygen of the atmosphere and induces the first step to- 
 wards decomposition, called the vinous fermentation, by 
 which alcohol is developed. A second speedily follows, 
 termed the acetic (the distinguishing peculiarity of vinegar), 
 and this, if not arrested, soon terminates in the destructive 
 or putrefactive fermentation, by which a!' the useful or nu- 
 tritive properties of the cane are destroyec, and its materials 
 are converted into their original elements, or are Avorthless 
 for any purpose but manure. This change goes forward 
 slowly \vith the sugar cane, while the temperature is low, 
 but rapidly as it becomes elevated. 
 
 Slight frosts in autumn are beneficial rather than injurious, 
 as by deadening the leaves and tops they check vegetation, 
 and stimulate rather than retard the ripening of the plant. 
 When severe frosts are apprehended, it will justify cutting 
 the cane as rapidly as possible, and matrassing as before de- 
 scribed, under the head of the preservation of cane. When 
 thus shielded from the approach of the elements by the over- 
 lying cane, and at a period when the average temperature is 
 near the freezing point, scarcely any change is perceptible 
 for many weeks. The same result follows when remaining 
 slightly frozen for an indefinite period. But the mo- 
 ment a thaw commences, the nitrogenized matter of the 
 stalk mingles with the sugar, through the rupture caused 
 by the expansion of the cells from frost, the oxygen of the air 
 gains access, and fermentation begins, after which it is im- 
 possible to convert the saccharine matter into sugar. Molas- 
 ses, alcohol and vineofar are the only forms Avhich the crys- 
 taline matter of the cane can then be made to assume. 
 
 The amount of the products of cane, depends on several 
 circmnstances, the kinds planted, the soil, the season, man- 
 ner of grinding, and the subsequent treatment in its conver- 
 sion into stigar. 
 
 The quantity of the crop of sugar varies from 500 to -3,000 
 pounds per acre, the last amount only being realized under the 
 most favorable circumstances. In good seasons, and \vith 
 skillful treatment, 2,000 pounds are often obtained ; but owing 
 to adverse causes, and negligent management, it is doubtful 
 whether the average crop of the country comes up to 800 
 pounds per acre. 
 
 Tlie composition of cane of a medium quality, is water. 
 
THE SUGAR CANE. 215 
 
 72; woody fibre, 10; and sugar, 18; in ever j' 10 J parts; 
 yet, notwithstanding the water and sugar (juice) constitute 
 90 per cent, of the cane, the best horizontal rollers have 
 been made to express from 70 to 75 per cent, only, while 
 '.he more imperfect grinding often reduces this below 50 
 per cent. It is estimated that the average product is about 
 oG per cent, of juice, leaving 34-90ths or more than one 
 third of the entire quantity still m the bagasse, and wholly 
 unavailable for any economical purpose. This shows a great 
 deficiency in the mechanical operations of sugar-making ; 
 and it is the more to be regretted, as we knoAV that the mi- 
 nute grains of sugar exist as perfec. in the cane, as in any 
 subsequent state of its granulation. Boussingault asserti, 
 t hat he has seen the juice of the cane, iindei the skillful treat 
 nient of the chemist yield nothing but crystalizable sugar. 
 
 Value of the products of cane for animal food. — Large 
 quantities of the molasses have heretofore been used for dis- 
 tilling into alcohol, but the manufacture of this has mate- 
 rially lessened of late, and a salutary change has been made 
 in its disposal. When it would not bring a remunerating 
 price for exportation, as has sometimes been the case in the 
 West Indies, it has been mixed with other materials, and 
 fed to stock. It is healthful and exceedingly fattening to 
 animals. Its great value for conversion into fat will be 
 readily seen, by comparing the elements of eacli. Sugar, 
 which is identical Avith syrup and molasses, except that the 
 two latter contain more ^vater, and often some salts and 
 other impurities, in suspension, has been analyzed by several 
 chemists, with slightly varying results. According to the 
 following authorities, it consists in every 100 parts, of 
 
 Lussac St, Thenard. Berzelius. Prout. Ure. 
 
 Oxygen, 50.63 49.856 53.35 50.33 
 
 Carbon, 42.47 43.265 39.99 46.38 
 
 Hydrogen, 6.90 6.875 %.&& 6.29 
 
 Fat, according to Chevreul, consists of 79 carbon ; 11.4 hy- 
 drogen ; and 9.6 of oxygen. Thus, it will be seen, that fat 
 and molasses, are identical in their constituents, though va 
 rjing in their relative proportions ; and it Avould be fairly 
 inferable from theory, as it has been found in practice, that no 
 food is better suited to the easy and rapid conversion into 
 animal fat, than sugar and molasses. 
 
 TJie process of Sugar-making , is one ratlier belonging 
 to the arts, than to agriculture ; and r.y limits will prevenl 
 
<316 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 any description of it. Much attention has been devoted to 
 the subject within the last few years, and great improve- 
 ments have been the result. But when fully carried out in 
 detail, so large an expenditure is required, as to preclude 
 their adoption by the mass of moderate planters. The ap- 
 paratus of Messrs. Degrand, Derosne, Cail, E-illieux, and 
 others, including defecators, steam-jackets, Dumout filters, 
 vacuum pans, steam-j)ipes, and other improvements, may in 
 whole or in part be advantageous to the large planters, and 
 by many of these they have been adopted. 
 
 It is much to be desired, that the two objects of raising 
 the cane and converting it into sugar, could be separated, 
 like most other purely agricultural and mechanical opera- 
 tions. This change in the arrangement of sugar produc- 
 tion, would effectually break up the aristocratic feature 
 which characterizes our present sugar estates, and which is 
 at such utter variance with nearly all the other branches of 
 our agricultural pursuits. Sugar estates might then be 
 divided among smaller proprietors, each of whom, by hav- 
 ing a common market for his cane, would receive its full 
 value, whether it were one or one thousand acres. We 
 should thus witness an improvement in both the rearing of 
 the cane and its manufacture, which is not likely to be so 
 fully or speedily attained in any other way. 
 
 Manures for the cane. — If the alluvial bottoms of Louis- 
 iana and other fertile lands are properly managed, they will 
 never become exhausted by the cultivation of cane. Tired 
 of it they may be, as land is of any one constantly-recurring 
 crop ; but exhaustion will never be realized, if the elements 
 constituting the stalk, and not converted into sugar, be re- 
 turned to the soil. This is done, simply by burying the ba- 
 gasse and trash. If the former is burned, as is sometimes 
 the case \vhere there is deficiency of fuel, the ashes should 
 be carried to the field. The elements of the sugar, which 
 is the only portion necessarily or permanently Avithdrawn 
 from the field, are sitch as abound in the atmosphere, rains 
 and dews, and are profusely brought to it, by every passing 
 breeze and every falling shower. The inorganic or earthy 
 portions are, therefore, the essential constituents to be return- 
 ed to it. To show the proportions of these, the analysis of 
 \he ash of the cave is subjoined, as given by Mr. StenhousS; 
 
THK SUSAR CANE, 
 
 217 
 
 ANALYSIS OR THE ASHES OF THE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Silicia 
 
 Phonph'c acid 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Potassa 
 
 Soda ! .... ! 
 
 Chlo'. potass'm 3.27) 
 Chlo'. sodium.. 2.02 
 
 1 
 
 45.P 
 3.76 
 6.66 
 9.16 
 3.66 
 
 •2o.o0 
 
 42.90 
 7.99 
 
 10.94 
 
 13.20 
 9.88 
 
 12.01 
 1.39 
 
 1.69 
 
 3 
 
 46.46 
 8.23 
 4.65 
 8.91 
 4.50 
 
 10.63 
 
 7.41 
 9.21 
 
 41.37 
 4.09 
 
 10.93 
 9.11 
 6.92 
 
 15.99 
 
 8.96 
 2.13 
 
 o I 6 
 
 4'6i49|.'j0.00 
 S.lOl 6.56 
 7..52 6 40 
 5 78 5.09 
 15.61]13.01 
 11.93 13.69 
 0.57 1.33 
 
 , 3.95! 3.92 
 
 8 I 9 
 
 45.13 
 
 4.88 
 7.74 
 4.49 
 11.90 
 16.97 
 1.64 
 
 7 25 
 
 17.64 
 
 7.371 
 7.97 
 2.34 
 3.93 
 32.93 
 
 16.70! 
 17.12! 
 
 26.38 
 6.20 
 6.03 
 5.8' 
 5.48 
 
 31.21 
 
 11.14 
 7.64 
 
 10 j 11 
 
 ~~aO 48.73 
 04 2.90 
 .31: 5.35 
 64 11.62 
 63 5.61 
 09 7.46 
 
 ... 16.06 
 4.29 2.271 
 
 12 
 
 8.01 
 1.93 
 
 14.36 
 5.30 
 11.14 
 
 0.84 
 3.83 
 
 " Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, were very fine, full-grown canes, from 
 Trinidad, consisting of stalks and leaves, but without the roots, 
 Nos. 5, 6, and 7, were similar canes from Berbice ; No. 8, from 
 Demarara ; No. 9, of full-grown canes, but with leaves, from 
 the Island of Grenada; No. 10, from Trelawny, Jamaica, 
 consisting of transparent canes in full blossom, grown about 
 six miles from the sea, and manured with cattle dung ; No. 
 11, of transparent canes, from St. James', Jamaica, growing 
 about two hundred yards from the sea, being old ratoons, 
 and also manured with cattle dung ; No. 12, young, trans- 
 parent canes, three and a half miles from the sea, and ma- 
 nured with cattle dung, guano and marl. — Pi'of. Shepard.'^ 
 
 Herapath foimd that 1,000 grains of the cane when burned, 
 left but 7i grains of a.sh, which was made up of inorganic 
 bases, in nearly the following proportions, viz. : silicia, 1.8; 
 phcsphate of lime, 3.4 ; oxide of iron and clay, .2 ; carbonate 
 of potash, 1.5 ; sulphate of potash, .15 ; carbonate of magne- 
 sia, .4; and sulphate of lime, .1. 
 
 • The amount of fresh cut cane from an acre is sometimes 
 enormous, exceding, probably, in some instances, 30 tons ; 
 but where the trash and bagasse are restored to the. soil, 
 nothing more is required to sustain its fertility ; yet there 
 may still be a failure of the crop from the neglect of rota- 
 tion. Many throw out their land to accomplish this object 
 by rest; and while thus lying apparently idle, an important 
 change is wrought in the soil by the action of a new class 
 of vegetable roots, the ^veeds and such chance vegetation 
 as may happen to occupy the field, which rapidly prepares 
 it for its accustomed crop. But this end is attained more 
 certainly, by a dense covering of such plants as may be best 
 adapted to the purpose. Some alternate with corn, but this 
 will be seen to violate a cardinal principle laid down under 
 the head of rotation, as it approaches too nearly to the cane 
 in its character. Corn may take its place in the fields, but 
 
 10 
 
218 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 with far less benefit, regarded as a feature of 'ix>tation, tk ji 
 if they were occupied 1 y the cow pea or some other plants, 
 widely differing in their peculiarities from the cane. When 
 the pea has been on the ground for one or two years, and 
 especially if the crop has been turned under, an immense 
 growth of the cane has followed. 
 
 Where manures are sought for exhausted fields, the table 
 of the ash of cane would indicate that potash, in some form, 
 is highly essential, as well as lime, salt, the sulphates and 
 phosphates. These, and the other fertilizing materials, can 
 generally be procured in adequate proportions from stable 
 manures, if the latter are to be had ; but where there is a 
 deficiency of them, the land may be restored, by adding most 
 or all of the following materials. 
 
 Potash is one of the leading manures required by the 
 cane ; and this may be procured from various sources. 
 Ashes will afford it with the most economy, and in the 
 greatest abundance. It is yielded by the slow decay of 
 vegetable matters, and stable manures. It is also procured 
 from the decomposition of many species of rocks and 
 stones. Lime, marl or ground shells. These are mostly 
 pure carbonate, with sometimes a slight addition of the 
 phosphate of lime. Immense quantities of these exist in 
 large deposUes, throughout the lower delta of the Missis- 
 sippi, and with such a tendency towards decomposition, as 
 to be easily broken down by an efiicient mill. Gypsum 
 (sulphate of lime) is an ap^iropriate and economical manure, 
 Ground bones (phosphate of lime) ; salt (chloride of so- 
 dium), and charcoal, are all etticient manures for cane. 
 
 Drainage, deep, thorough under-drainage, is peculiarly 
 necessary in preparing the sugar lands of Louisiana to yield 
 their utmost burthen, and choicest quality of sugar canii. 
 Drainage should not be limited to surface ditches. It should 
 embrace a systematic net-work of nnder-drains, Avith tiles 
 deeply laid below the surface, and beyond the reach of the 
 sub-soil plow, even when buried in he deepest depressions 
 between the rows. All ""he advantages enumerated under the 
 head of draining (Chap. IV.) will apply here. The cane 
 on such thoroughly-drained lands, will commence growing 
 earlier in the spring than on tlie undrained ; it will grow 
 faster during summer, it will continue growing longer in au- 
 tumn, ripen earlier and mature a larger portion of the stalk, 
 and yield a sounder, richer juice. Tiie expense and constan; 
 repair of s iiface drains will be saved ; the large proportion 
 
MAPLE SUGAR. 2111 
 
 of the field now taken up by them and their banks, wjl be 
 avoided ; there will be no damage lo the crop from exces- 
 sive rains ; no baking on the surface, or washing ot the fmei 
 particles of the earth into the ditches. The land taved by 
 this system would pay for carrying it out ; and sometimes, 
 even a single crop would full) repay it, which might other- 
 wise be lost by long continued rains. The cane would 
 always be better, and could by no possibility be worse than 
 it now is. Where there are stiff lands, and the object could 
 be achieved by no other means than by the disposal of one 
 half the plantation, it is probable the annual net profit de- 
 rivable from the remainder, when thus improved, would be 
 greater than the whole without it. A system of under- 
 drainage, would of course, necessarily imply the use of lead- 
 ing ditches and draining wheels, wherever adopted through- 
 out the low-lands of the Mississippi Valley. Until this greai 
 desideratum can be accomplished, the most complete arrano^e- 
 ment of surface drains should be fully carried out. 
 
 MAPLE SUGAR. 
 
 The Sugar, Rock, or Hard Maple Tree (Acer sacckart' 
 num, Fig. 46), is among our most beautiful 
 shade, and most valuable forest trees ; and it 
 stands next to the sugar cane in the readi- 
 ness and abundance with which it yields 
 the materials for cane sugar. When refined, 
 there is no difference either in appearance 
 or quality, between the sugar from the cane, 
 the maple or the beet. In the brown state, 
 Fig. 46. tliG Condition in which it is sent to market, 
 
 when made with care and formed into solid cakes, it retains 
 its peculiar moisture and rich aromatic flavor, which makes 
 it more acceptable to the nibblers ol sweets, than the most 
 refined and highly scented bon-bons of the confectioner. The 
 quantity made in this country is very large ; thouo-h from the 
 fact of its domestic consumption, and its se'dom reachino- 
 the principal markets, there is no estimate of he ao-oregate 
 production which will come very near the truth. The 
 product for Vermont alone, for 184-5, was estimated at over 
 10,000,000 lbs. The quantity supposed to be annually sold 
 in the city of New York exceeds 10,000 hhds.. Both the 
 sugar and syrup are used for every purpose for which the 
 sugar from the cane is employed. 
 
 The sugar maple extends from the most northerly limits 
 
«!20 AMERICAN AGE.ICULTURB. 
 
 of Maine and the shores of Lake Superior, to .he banks of 
 tlie Ohio. Farther south it is rarely found. The cane and 
 maple approach each other, but scarcely meet ; and never 
 intermingle as rivals in the peculiar region which nature 
 has assigned to each. In some sections of the country, the 
 sugar maple usurps almost the entire soil, standing side by 
 side like thick ranks of corn, yet large and lofty, and among 
 the noblest specimens of the forest. Immense quantities of 
 these are to be found throughout the original forests of our 
 northern, western, and middle States. I have seen them for 
 miles in extent, near the borders of Lake Superior — a con- 
 tinuous wilderness of the sugar maple. I have also seen 
 them in Wisconsiji, near Lake Michigan, as they are found 
 in the natural sugar orchards of that beautiful State. In 
 these, they grow in open laud among the rich native grasses, 
 their tops graceful and bushy, like the cultivated tree ; and 
 but for their greater numbers and extent, and their more 
 picturesque grouping, one "would think the hand of taste and 
 civilization had directed, Avhat nature alone has there ac- 
 complished. Amidst those beautiful orchards, or in the 
 depths of those dense dark woods, the Indian wigwam and 
 the settler's rude cabin may be seen, filled with the solid 
 cakes and mo-koks,* each of M'hich contain from 30 to 60 
 lbs., of their coarse-grained, luscious sugar. 
 
 The season for draiving and crystalizing the sap is in 
 early spring, u'heu the bright sunn)'' days and clear frosty 
 Qights give it a full and rapid circulation. The larger 
 trees should be selected, and tapped by an inch augur, to the 
 depth of an inch and a half, the hole inclining downward to 
 hold the sap. At the base of this, another should be made 
 from three eighths to half an inch diameter, in which a tube 
 of elder or sumach should be closely fitted to lead it off. A 
 lude contrivance for catching the sap is by troughs, gen- 
 erally made of the easily-wrought poplar ; but it is better to 
 use vessels which admit of thorough cleaning, and these 
 may be suspended by a bail or ] andle from a peg driven 
 into the tree above. When the sugar season is over, the 
 holes ought to be closely plugged, and the head cut off 
 
 * I\Io-kok — -\n Indian sack or basket, with flatti^^h sides and rounded 
 ends, similar in ashion to a lady's travelling satchel. They are 
 made perfectly tiijht, from strips of white birch bark, sowed with 
 thongs of elm. Many of ;he sap buckets are made of the same 
 material, but different in form. The small mo-koks, tastefully crna- 
 mented with various-colored porcupine quills and filled with maple 
 sugar, are sold as toys. 
 
MAPLE SUGAR. 2%k 
 
 evenly with the bark, which thus soon grcws over the 
 wound. If carefully managed, several holes m«,y be made 
 in a thrifty tree without any apparent injuiy to it. The 
 barbarous, slovenly mode of half girdling ihe trunk with an 
 axe, soon destroys the tree. 
 
 The sap is collected daily with buckets, which are carried 
 to the boilers on the neck, by a milk-man's yoke. Ifthequan 
 tity be great and remote from the sugar fires, a hogshead may 
 be used for this purpose. This is placed on a sled, with a 
 large hole at the top, covered with a cloth strainer, or a 
 tunnel similarly guarded, is inserted in the bungl ole. The 
 primitive mode of arranging the sugary, is with large re- 
 ceiving troughs placed near or partially within the cabin, 
 and capable of holding several hundred gallons of sap. The 
 boiling kettles are .suspended over the fires, on long poles 
 supported by crotches. 
 
 The process of sugar making 1 give from the statement 
 of Mr. Wood worth, of Watertown, N. Y., who obtained the 
 premium from the State Agricultural Society, for the best 
 sample of maple sugar, exhibited at the annual fair of 1844. 
 The committee, who awarded the premium, say " they have 
 never seen so fine a sample, either in the perfection of the 
 granulation, or in the extent to which the refining process 
 has been carried ; the whole coloring matter is extracted, 
 and the peculiar flavor of maple sugar is completely eradi- 
 cated, leaving the sugar fully equal to the double refined 
 cane loaf sugar. The statement says : " In the first place, 
 I make my buckets, tubs and kettles all perfectly clean. I 
 boil the sap in a potash kettle, set in an arch in such a man- 
 ner that the edge of the kettle is defended all around from 
 the fire. This is continued through the day, taking care not 
 to have anything in the kettle that will give color to the 
 sap, and to keep it Avell skimmed. At night I leave fire 
 enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly, or quite to 
 syrup, by the next morning. I then take it out of the kettle, 
 and strain it through a flannel cloth into a tub, if it is sweet 
 enough ; if not, I put it 'n a caldron kettle, which I have 
 hung on a pole in such a manner that I can swing it on and 
 off" the fire at pleasure, and finish boiling, then strain it into 
 the tub, and let it stand till the next morning. I then take 
 this, and the syrup in the kettle, and put it altogether in the 
 caldron, and sugar it off. To clarify 100 lbs. of sugar, I use 
 the whites of five or six eggs, well beaten, about one quart 
 oi new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, all well mixed 
 
222 AMERICAN AGKIJULTURE. 
 
 with syrup before it is scalding hot. I keep a moderate fire 
 directly under the caldron until the scum is all raised ; then 
 skim it off clean, taking care not to let it boil so as to rise 
 in the kettle before I have done skimming it ; when it is 
 sugared off, leaving it so damp that it will drain a little. 1 
 let it remain in the kettle until it is well granulated ; I then 
 put it into boxes, made smallest at the bottom, that will hold 
 from 50 to 70 lbs., having a thm piece of bo.' .-d fitted in, two 
 or three inches above the bottom, which is bored full of 
 small holes to let the molasses drain through, which I keep 
 drawn off by a tap through the bottom. I put on the top of 
 the sugar in the box, two or three thicknesses of clean, damp 
 cloth, and over that a board well fitted in, so as to exclude 
 the air from the sugar. After it has nearly done draining, 
 I dissolve it, and sugar it off a2;ain, wing through the same 
 process in clarifying and draining as before." 
 
 When sap is not immediately boiled, a small quantity of 
 lime water should be added to check fermentation, which 
 prevents the granulation of the syrup. A single tree has 
 yielded 24 gallons of sap in one day, making over seven 
 pounds of sugar ; and in one season it made 33 lbs. Trees 
 will give an average of two to six pounds annually. 
 
 TOBACCO cNicotiana, Fig. 47). 
 
 This narcotic is a native of 
 North America, and has been an 
 object of extensive use and culti- 
 vation in this country since the 
 first settlementjOf Virginia, in the 
 latter part of the 16th century. It 
 formed for a long time the princi- 
 pal export from that colony and 
 Maryland. It is still largely cul- 
 tivated there, and has since become 
 an object of considerable attention 
 in the middle and western States, 
 and to some extent in the northern. 
 Fig747.^' ""^ '^^^^ ^^^^ ""'^y ^^ ^ light, loainy 
 sand or alluvial earth, well drained and fertile. New land, 
 free from weeds and full of saline matters, is best for it ; 
 and next ta this, is a rich grass sod which has long remained 
 untilled. The seed should be sown in beds which must be 
 kept clean, as the plant is small and slow of growth in the 
 emly stages of i i existence, and easilj smothered by weeds. 
 
TOBACCO. 223 
 
 l( not ncv. iy cleared, the beds ought tj ie burned with a 
 heavy coating of brush. 
 
 Cultivatiori. — Pulverize the beds .'inely, and sow the seed 
 at the rate of a table spoonful to every two square rods. 
 I'he seeds are so minute, that sowing evenly is scarcely 
 attainable, luiless by first mixing with three or four times 
 their bulk of fine moid. This should be done sufficiei.+ly early, 
 to secure proper maturity to the plants in time for trans- 
 planting, (by the last of February or early in March south 
 of the Ohio, and about the first of April north of it), cover- 
 ing lightly and completely rolling or treading down the 
 earth. The plant appears in 15 or 20 days, and will be fit 
 for transplanting in six or eight weeks. This should be 
 done in damp weather, and the plants set singly, at a dis- 
 tance of two and a half to three feet each way. The after 
 culture is like that of corn, and consists in frequently stirring 
 the ground with the plow or cultivator and hoe, and keep- 
 ing down weeds. The places of such plants as fail, or are 
 blighted, should be at once filled up, and all worms de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Tlie pi-iming, topinng, suckering and uvrming are 
 necessary operations. The first consists in breaking ofi 
 four or five of the leaves next the ground which are value- 
 less ; the second is taking off the top to prevent the seed 
 stalk from developing, and is regulated by the kind of tobac- 
 co. " The first topping will always admit of a greater num- 
 ber of leaves being left ; and in proportion as the season ad- 
 vances, fewer leaves should be left. The heavier kinds of 
 tobacco are generally topped early in the season, to twelve 
 leaves, then to ten, and still later to eight. The lighter kinds 
 are topped to a greater number of leaves. If the soil is 
 light, fewer leaves should be left." (^Beatty.) Suckering 
 consists in breaking off the young side shoots, which should 
 be done immediately after they make their appearance. 
 Worms of very large size and peculiarly destructive to the 
 finer qualities of tobacco, abound during a part of the sea- 
 son. These can only be removed by repeatedly picking off 
 by hand. 
 
 • Harvesting may be commenced with such plants as nave 
 matured, which is indicated by greenish yellow spots on the 
 leaves. This will generally occur in August at the South, 
 and in September at the North. The stem of the plant is 
 cut near the surface and allowed to 'vilt on the ground, but 
 ttot 'ji'posed to a hot sun. If there is danger of this, cut 
 
224 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 only in the morniLg or evening, and when pi »pei y wilted, 
 which will be in a few hours, it may be carefully carried to 
 the drying house, where it should be hung up by twine tied 
 to the butt end of the stalk, and suspended over poles at dry- 
 ing distances with the head downwards. The ckculation of 
 air is necessary in the dry houses, but there n ast be entire 
 safety against storms or winds, as the leaves are liable to 
 break by agitation, and rain seriously injures them. AVhen 
 the stem in the leaf has become hard, it is sufficiently dried. 
 This takes place in good weather, in two or three months. 
 The leaves may be stripped in damp Aveather when they will 
 not crumble, and carefully bound in small bundles, termed 
 hands, and then boxed for shipment. 
 
 The varieties of tobacco are numerous, not less than 
 twelve being cultivated in America. They soon adapt them- 
 selves to the different soils and climates where they are 
 grown. The most fragrant are produced in Cuba, and these 
 are exclusively used for cigars. They command several 
 times the j)rice of ordinary kinds. The tobacco of Maryland 
 and the adjoining States is peculiarly rich and high flavored, 
 and is most esteemed for chewing. 
 
 Much of the peculiarity of tastf^ and aroma, and the con- 
 sequent value of tobacco, depends on the soil, and the prepa- 
 ration or sweating of the plant after drying. The former 
 should not be too rich, and never highly manured, as the 
 flavor is thereby materially injured, though the product will 
 be increased. Yet it is an exhausting crop, as is seen by 
 the large quantity and the analysis of the ash ; and the soil 
 requires a constant renewal of well-fermented manures, and 
 particularly the saline ingredients, to j)revent exhaustion. 
 , Tobacco contains nitrogen and the alkalies in large quanti- 
 ties, and but very little of the phosphates. The ash is shown 
 in the analysis of Fresenius and Will, to consist, of potash, 
 30.67 ; lime (mostly with a little magnesia), 33.36 ; gyp- 
 Euiu, 5.60 ; common salt, 5.95 ; phosphates, 6.03 ; sihca, 
 18.39; in 100 parts of the ash. The inferior kinds contain 
 a large proportion of lime, and the superior [ualities, the 
 largest of potash. 
 
 The customary method of burning fuel on the beds de- 
 Bigued for tobacco, and the use of freshly cleared and burnt 
 lands, by which the largest crops of the best quality are ob- 
 tained, shows conclusively the proper treatment required. 
 By each of these operations, the gromid is not only loosened 
 in the best possible manner, ;.! d all insects and weeds di' 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 225 
 
 etroyed, but the salts and especiaLy potash in an available 
 form, are produced in the greatest abundance. Some ot the 
 best soils in Virginia have been ruined by a constant succession 
 of tobacco crops, the necessary result of neglect in supplying 
 them with the constituents of fertility so largely abstracted. 
 The yield per acre is generally from 1,500 to 2,500 lbs. Ifis 
 a profitable crop when the besi kinds are cultivated, under 
 favorable circumstances of soil and climate. The total esti- 
 mated product of the United States for 1843, was over i8o,- 
 000,000 lbs., of which Kentucky furnished 52,000,000, and 
 Virginia nearly 42,000,000 lbs. Missouri, Ohio and other 
 western States are rapidly becoming large producers. 
 
 INDIGO (Indigofera tinctoria, Fig. 48). 
 
 Indigo was formerly cultivated in the southerj States, to a 
 limited degree, but the introduction of 
 cotton, the great profits Avhich it yield- 
 ed, and its consequent rapid extension, 
 drove the culture almost entirely on ta 
 foreign soils. The decline in the price 
 of cotton from large productioh, the 
 increasing consumption of indigo in 
 this country, together with the dimia- 
 ished price of other southern staple.?, 
 will probably again make it an object 
 of agricultural attention in those States 
 where the soil and climate are suited 
 to it. We have no detailed history of 
 its cultivation in the United States, 
 f'«- -i^- and I quote from Lo don. 
 
 He says, " it is one of tlie most profitable crops in Hindostan, 
 because labor and land here are cheaper than any where else ; • 
 and because the raising of the plant and its manufacture 
 may be carried on without even the aid of a house. The 
 first step in the culture of the plant is to render the ground, 
 •wliich should be friable and rich, perfectly free from weeds 
 and dry, if naturally moist. The seeds are then sown in 
 shallow dr Us about a foot apart. The rainy- season must 
 be chosen :'or sowing, otherwise if the seed is deposited in 
 dry soil, it heats, corrupts, and is lost. The crop being kept 
 clear of weeds is fit for cutting in two or three months, and 
 this may be repeated in rainy seasons every six weeks. The 
 plants must not be allowed to come into flower, as the leaves 
 in that case become dry and hard and the indigo produced is 
 10* 
 
226 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of less val ie ; -or must they be cut in dry weather, as they 
 would not fpriug again. A crop generally lasts two years. 
 Being cut, the herb is first steeped in a vat till it has become 
 macerated, and has parted with its coloring matter ; then the 
 liquor is let off into another, in which it undergoes the pe- 
 culiar process of beati.ig, to cause the fecula to separate from 
 the water. The fecula is let off into a third vat, where U 
 remains some time, and is then strained through cloth bags, 
 and evaporated in shallow wooden boxes placed in the shade. 
 Before it is perfectly dry it is cut in small pieces of an inch 
 square ; and is then packed in barrels, or sowed up in sacks, 
 for sale." 
 
 Indigo can only be raised to advantage in our most south- 
 ern States. The soil requires to be dry, finely pulverized, 
 and rich. The seed is sown early in April, in drills about 
 eighteen inches apart, and the weeds are kept down by the 
 hoe. It should be cut with the sickle or scythe, when the 
 lower leaves begin to turn, and just before the plant is going 
 into flower. This period occurs in this country, about the 
 middle of summer. A second crop may be taken the first of 
 autumn, and in hotter climates, even a third. 
 
 The consumption of indigo in this country already amounts 
 lo betAveen two and three millions of dollars annually. 
 There are several varieties indigenous to the southern 
 States, and one or more in the northern, which yield inferior 
 dye. 
 
 MADDER (Rubia tinctorum. Fig. 49). 
 
 The root of this 
 
 plant is Tised for several dyes, but principal- 
 ly for the rich madder red ; and it has 
 been recently an object of attention 
 in the United States. The intro- 
 duction of this, with numerous other 
 articles consequent upon the ex- 
 tended growth of our manufactures, 
 shows the intimate and mutually 
 beneficial effects of as&r^ciating the 
 two leading industrial occupations 
 of agriculture and manufactures. 
 The principal cause which has pre- 
 vented its cultivation among us thus 
 far, has been the long time required 
 for maturing a crop. I subjoin 
 a description of its culture from M'' 
 )>a'.eliara. 
 
HADDER. 227 
 
 Soil and preparation. — " The soil should be a deep, 
 rich, sandy loam, free from weeds, roots and stones. Al- 
 luvial bottom laiid is the most suitable, but it must not be 
 wet. If old upland is used, it should receive a heavy coat- 
 ing of vegetable earth, from decayed wood and leaves. The 
 laud should be j)lowed very deep in the fall, and early in the 
 spring apply about one hundred loads of wtll-rotted manure 
 per acre, spread evenl) azid plowed in deeply, then harrow 
 till quite fine and free from lumps. Next, plow the land 
 into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys between three feet 
 Avide, then harrow the beds with a fine light harrow, or rake 
 them by hand so as to leave them smooth and even with the 
 alleys; they are then ready for planting. 
 
 Preparing sets and plaiiting. — Madder sets or seed 
 roots are best selected when the crop is dug in the fall. The 
 horizontal uppermost roots with eyes are the kind to be 
 used ; these should be separated from the bottom roots and 
 buried in sand, in a cellar or pit. If not done in the fall, 
 the sets may be dug early in the spring, before they begin to 
 sprout. They should be cut or braken into pieces, contain- 
 ing from two to five eyes each. The time for planting is as 
 early in spring as the ground can be got in good order, and 
 severe frosts are over, which in this climate is usually about 
 the middle of April. With the beds prepared as directed, 
 stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and with the corner of a 
 hoe make a drill two inches deep along each edge and down 
 the middle, so as to ^ ^ve three rows to each bed, about two 
 feet apart. Into these kills drop the sets, ten inches apart, 
 covering them two inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of sets 
 are requisite for an acre. 
 
 After-culture. — As soon as the plants can be seen, the 
 ground should be carefully hoed, so as to destroy the weeds 
 and not injure the plants ; and the hoi ing and weeding 
 must be repeated as often as weeds make their appearance. 
 If any of the sets have failed to grow, the vacancies should 
 be filled by taking up parts of the strongest roots and trans- 
 planting them ; this is best done in June. As soon as the 
 madder plants are ten or twelve inches high, the tops are 
 to be bent down on to the surface of the ground, and all ex- 
 cept the tip end, covered with earth shoveled from the 
 middle of the alleys. Bend the shoots outward and inward, 
 in every direction, so as to fill all the vacant space on the beds, 
 and about one foct on each side. After the first time cover- 
 ).ijg, repgaf. the v ceding when necessary, and run a single 
 
228 AMERICAN AGRIC ULTtTRE. 
 
 norse plow through the alleys several times to keep Ih ? 
 earth clean and mellow. As soon as the plants again be 
 come ton or twelve inches high, bend down and cover them 
 as before, repeating the operation as often as necessary, 
 which is commonly three times the first season. The lasf 
 time may be as late as September, or later if no frosts occur. 
 Bv covering the tops in this manner, they change to roots, 
 and the design is to fill the gromad as full of roots as possi^ 
 ble. When the vacant spaces are all full, there will be but 
 little chance for weeds to grow; but all that appear must be 
 pulled out. 
 
 The second year. — Keep the beds free from weeds ; plow 
 the alleys and cover the tops, as before directed, two or 
 three times during fhe season. The alleys will now form 
 deep and narrow ditches, and if it becomes difficult to ob- 
 tain good earth for covering the tops, that operation may be 
 omitted after the second time this season. Care should be 
 taken when covering the tops, to keep the edges of the beds 
 as high as the middle, otherwise the water from heavy 
 showers Avill. rim off, and the crop suffer from drought. 
 
 The third year. — Very little labor or attention is required. 
 The plants will now cover the whole ground. If any weeds 
 are seen, they must be pulled out ; otherwise their roots 
 will cause trouble when harvesting the madder. The crop 
 is sometimes dug the third year ; and if the soil and culti- 
 vation have been good, and the seasons warm and favorable, 
 the madder will be of good quality ; bat generally, it is much 
 better in quality, and more in quantity, when left until the 
 fourth year. 
 
 DiggiJig and harvesting. — This should be done between 
 the 20th of August and the 20th of Sei^tember. Take g 
 sharp shovel, and cut off and remove the tops with half an 
 inch of the surface of the earth ; then take a plow of ihe 
 largest size, with a sharp coulter and a double team, and 
 plow a furrow outward, beam-deep, around the edge of the 
 bed ; stir the eartii with forks, and carefully pick out all the 
 roots, removing the earth from the bottom of the furrow ; 
 then plow another fiirrow beam-deep, as before, and pick 
 over and remove the earth in the same manner ; thus pro- 
 ceeding until the whole is completed. 
 
 WasJiing and drying. — As soon as possible after digging, 
 take the roots to some running stream or pump to be washed. 
 Take large, round sieves, two and a half or three feet in 
 diameter, with the wire about ns fine as whea". sieves ' or. 
 
MADDER. 229 
 
 if these cannot be had, get screen-wire of the rigLt f.neness 
 and make frames or boxes about two and a half feet long, 
 and the width of the wire, on the bottom of which nail the 
 wire. In these sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of roots 
 at a time, and stir them about in the water, pulling the 
 buncnes apart so as to Avash them clean ; then, having a 
 platform at hand, spread the roots about two inches thick 
 for drying in the sun. Carry the platforms to a convenient 
 place, not far from the house, and place them side by side, 
 in rows east and west, and Avith their ends north and south, 
 leaving room to walk between the rows. Elevate the 
 south ends of the platforms about eighteen inches, and the 
 north ends about six inches from the groinid, putting poles 
 or sticks to support them — this will greatly facilitate drying. 
 After the second or third day drying, the madder must be 
 protected from the dews at night, and from rain, placing 
 the platforms one upon another to a convenient height, and 
 covering the uppermost one wiUi boards. Spread them 
 out again in the morning, or as soon as the danger is over. 
 Five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the mad- 
 der sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is conve- 
 nient to kiln dry and grind it. 
 
 Kiln drying. — The size and mode of constructing the 
 kiln may be varied to suit circumstances. The following is 
 a very cheap plan, and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at 
 a time. Place four strong posts in the ground, twelve feet 
 apart one way, and eighteen the other ; the front two four- 
 teen feet high, and the others eighteen ; put girts across 
 the bottom, middle and top; and nail boards perpendiciilarly 
 on the outside, as for a comanon barn. The boards must be 
 well-seasoned, and all cracks or holes should be plastered, 
 or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed-roof of common 
 boards. In the inside put upright standards about five feet 
 apart, "vvith cross-pieces, to support the scaffislding. The 
 first cross-pieces to be four feet from the floor ; the next two 
 feet higher, and so on to the top. On these cross-pieces, 
 lay small poles about six feet long and two inches thick, 
 four or five inches apart. On these scaffolds the madder is 
 to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid at the bottom 
 to keep all dry and clean. "When the kiln is filled, take six 
 or eight small kettles or hand furnaces, and place them four 
 or five feet apart on the floor (first securing it from the fire 
 with bricks or stones), and make fires in them with charcoal, 
 *>eing careful not to make any of the fires so lar^e as to 
 
230 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ecorc.i ll.e madder over them. A person mua: be in con- 
 ^ant attendance to watch and replenish tlie fires. The 
 heat wil. ascend through the whole, and in ten or twelve 
 hours it vill all be sufiiciently dried, which is known by its 
 becomins; brittle like pipe-stems.* 
 
 Breaking and grinding. — Inmiediately after being dried, 
 the madder must be broken and ground immediately, or it 
 will gather dampness so as to prevent its grinding freely. 
 Any common grist-mill can grind madder properly ; and 
 when ground it is fit for use, and may be packed in l3arrels, 
 like flour, for market." 
 
 Quantity per acre. — Mr. Swift, of Ohio, has raised 2,000 
 barrels per acre in one crop of four years growth, at a nett 
 profit, including all charges of rent, labor, &c., of $200 per 
 acre. The roots of madder are also a good food for cattle, 
 but the expense and delay of producing it, will preclude its 
 use for that purpose in this country. • 
 
 wo AD (Isatis tinctoria, Fig. 50). 
 
 Woad is largely used in this 
 country for dyeing, but generally, as 
 a base for blues, blacks and some other 
 colors, and for these it supplies the 
 place of indigo. There are several 
 varieties of woad, but the common 
 biennial plant is the only one culti- 
 vated. • Loudon says: — 
 
 " The soil for ivoad should be 
 deep and perfectly fresh, such as 
 those of the rich, mellow, loamy, and 
 deep vegetable kind. Where this 
 culture is carried to a considerable 
 degree of perfection, the deep, rich, 
 putrid, allvivial soils on the flat tracts 
 fjo. 50. extending upon the borders of the 
 
 large rivers, are chiefly employed for the growth of this sort 
 of crop ; and it has been shown by repeated trials, that it 
 answers most perfectly when they are broken up for it im- 
 mediately from a state of sward. 
 
 * This seems to be a simple way of accomplishing the object, and 
 within every one's reach ; but as carbonic acid gas is thus constantly 
 generated and closely confined, and by its gravity will occupy the 
 lower strata of air, the greatest caution will be necessary for the per- 
 son attending or the kiln drying, to preven' injury to himself 
 
VVOAD. 231 
 
 The preparation of the soil, wlie:.i woad is lo be grown 
 on gras> land, may either be effected by deep plowings, 
 with the aid of the winter's frost, cross plowing and harrow- 
 ing in spring ; by deep plo\ving and harrowing in spring ; 
 by paring and burning ; or by trenclr-plowing, or spade- 
 tienching. The first mode appears the worst, as it is next 
 to impossible to reduce old turf in one year ; and, even if this 
 is done, the danger from the grub and ^vire-worm is a suffi- 
 cient argument against it. By plo\ving deep in February, 
 and soon afterwards sowing, the plants may germinate before 
 tlie grub is able to rise to the surface ; by trench-plowing, 
 the same purpose will be better attained ; and, best of all, 
 by spade trenching. But a method equally effectual with 
 the first, more expeditious, and more destructive to grubs, 
 insects, and other vermin, which are apt to feed on the 
 plants in their early growth, is that of paring and burning 
 This is, however, chiefly practiced where the sward is rough 
 and abounds with rushes, sedge, and other plants of the 
 coarse kind, but it might be had recourse to on others, with 
 benefit. 
 
 The mode of sowing is generally broad-cast, but the 
 plant might be most advantageously grown in rows, and 
 cultivated with the horse hoe. The rows may be nine 
 inches or a foot apart, and the seed deposited two inches 
 deep. The quantity of seed for the broad-cast method is 
 five or six pounds to the acre ; for the drill mode, two 
 pounds are more than sufficient, the seed being smaller than 
 that of the turnep. New seed, where it can be procured, 
 should always be sown in preference to old ; but, when of 
 the latter kind, it should be steeped for some time before it 
 is put into the ground.— The time of sow^ing may be ex- 
 tended from February to July. Early sowing, however, is 
 <o be preferred, as in that case the plants come up stronger 
 and afford more produce the first season. The after-culture 
 of the woad consists in hoeing, thinning, prong-stirring, and 
 weeding, which operations may be practiced by hand or 
 horse tools. 
 
 Gathering the crops. — The leaves of the spring-sown 
 plants will generally be ready towards the latter end of June 
 or beginning of July, according to the nature of the soil, sea- 
 son and climate ; the leaves of those put in at a later period 
 in the sivmmer are often fit to be gathered earlier. This 
 busL'iess should, however, constantly be executed as soon as 
 the leaves are frlly grown, while they retain their perfect 
 
232 AMERICAN ;.GR 3ULT1 RE. 
 
 green color and are highly succulent ; as when they are lei 
 remain till they begin to turn pale, much of their goodnesa 
 is said to be expended, and they become less in quantity, and 
 of an inferior quality foi the purjioses of the dyer. Where 
 the lands are Avell managed they will often afford two or 
 three gatherings, but the best cultivators seldom take more 
 than two, Avhich are sometimes mixed together in the manu- 
 facturing. It is necessary that the after-croppings, when 
 they are taken, should be constantly kept separate from the 
 others, as they \vould injure the whole if blended, and con- 
 siderably diminish the value of the produce. It is said that 
 the best method, where a thhd cropping is either wholly 
 or partially made, is to keep it separate, forming it into an 
 inferior kind of woad. In the execution of this sort of busi- 
 ness, a number of baskets are usually provided in proportion 
 to the extent of the crop, and into these the leaves are thrown 
 as they are taken from the plants. The leaves are detached 
 from the plants, by grasping them firmly Avith the hand, and 
 giving them a sort of a sudden twist. In favorable seasons, 
 where the soils are rich, the plants will often rise to the 
 height of eight or ten inches ; but in other cicumstances, 
 they seldom attain more than four or five. 
 
 The quantity produced is from a ton to a ton and a half 
 of green leaves. The price varies considerably ; but for 
 woad of the prime quality, it is often from twenty-five to 
 thirty pounds* the ton, and for that of an inferior quality, six 
 or seven, and sometimes much more. 
 
 To prepare it for the dyer, it is bruised by machinery to 
 express the watery part ; it is afterwards formed into balls 
 and fermented, re-ground, and fermented in vats, where it is 
 evaporated into cakes in the manner of indigo. The haulm 
 is burned for manure or spread over the straAV-yard, to be fer- 
 mented along with straw-dung. To save seed, leave some 
 of the plants undenuded of their leaves the second year, and 
 ,when it is ripe, in July or August, treat it like turnep seed. 
 The only diseases to which the woad is liable, are the mildew 
 and rust. When voung, it is often attacked by the fly, and 
 the ground is obliged to be re-sown, and this more than once, 
 even on winter-plowed grass-lands." 
 
 WELD OR DYER'S WEED (Reseda lateola, Fig. 61). 
 
 Weld is much used by the manufacturers of varioui 
 • The pound sterling n-ay be reckoned at about five dollar* 
 
WSLD. 
 
 233 
 
 fabrics, as a dye It has not to my 
 knowledge been cultivated in this 
 country. I again quote from 
 Loudon : " Weld is an imperfect 
 biennial, with small fusiform roots, 
 and a leafy stem from one to three 
 feet in height. It is a native of 
 Britain, flowers in June and July, 
 and ripens its seeds in August an ^' 
 September. Its culture may bt 
 considered thu same as that of woad. 
 only being a smaller plant it is not 
 'thinned out to so great a distance. 
 It has this advantage for the farmei 
 over all other coloring plants, that 
 it only requires to be taken up and 
 Fio. 51. dried, when it is fit for the dyer. It 
 
 /S an exhausting crop. 
 
 Weld ivill grow on any soil, but fertile loams produce 
 the best crops. The soil being brought to a fine tilth, the 
 seed IS sown ni April or the beginning of May, generally 
 broadcast. ° -^ ° ' 
 
 The quantity of seed used, is from two quarts to a gallon 
 per acre and u should either be fresh, or if two or three 
 years old steeped a few days in water previously to being 
 T^^fi" =.^ biennial, and no advantage obtained from i^ 
 
 the first year, it is sometimes sown with grain crops in the 
 manner of clover, which when the soil is in a very rich state, 
 may answer, provided that hoeing, weeding and stirring take 
 p ace a^ soon as the grain crop is cut. The best crops will 
 obviously be the result of driUin^r and cultivatmg the crop 
 alone. '" ° ^ 
 
 Sowing.— T\\Q drills mav be a foot asunder, and the plants 
 chinned to six inches in the row. In the broadcast mode, it 
 is usual to thin them to six or eight inches' distance every 
 way. Often, Avhen weld succeeds grain crops, it is never 
 either thinned, weeded, or hoed, but left to itself till the 
 plants are in full blossom. 
 
 The crop is taken by pulling itp the entire plant ; and 
 tlie ])roper period for this purpose is when the bloom has 
 been produced the whole length of the stems, and the plants 
 are just beginning lo turn of p. light or yellowish color; as 
 m the beginning or middle of July in tlie second year. The 
 plants are usually from one focit to two feet and a half in 
 
234 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 height. It is thought by some, advantageous to pull it rather 
 early, \vithout waiting for the ripening of the seeds ; as by 
 this means there will not only be the greatest proportion of 
 dye, but the land will be left at liberty for the reception of a 
 crop of wheat or turneps ; in thi? case, a small part must be 
 left solely for the purpose of seed In the execution of the 
 work, the plants are drawn up by the roots in smail hand- 
 fuls ; and after each handful had been tied up with one of 
 the stalks, they are set up in fours in an erec* position, and 
 left to dry. Sometimes, however, they become sufficiently 
 dry by turning, without being set up. When dry, which is 
 effected in the course of a week or two, they are bound up 
 into larger bundles, each containing sixty handfuls, and weigh- 
 ins; fifty-six poimds. Sixty of these bundles constitute a 
 load, and in places where this kind of crop is much grown, 
 are tied up by a string made for this purpose. 
 
 The jJ rod lice of iceld depends much on the nature of the 
 eeason ; and from half a load to a load and a half per acre is 
 the quantity most commonly afforded. It is usually sold to 
 the dyers at from five or six to ten or twelve pounds ($25 to 
 §60) the load, and sometimes at considerably more. It is 
 sometimes gathered green and treated like woad or indigo ; 
 but in general the dried herb is used by the dyers in a state 
 of decoction. 
 
 The use of weld in dying is for giving a yellow color to 
 cotton, woollen, mohair, silk and linen. Blue cloths are 
 dipped in a decoction of it, wliich renders them green ; and 
 the yellow color of the paint called Dutch pink, is obtained 
 from weld. 
 
 To save seed, se\ecX. 2i few of the largest and healthiest 
 plants, and leave them to ripen. The seed is easily sepa- 
 rated. The chief disease of weld is the mildew, to which it 
 is very liable when young, and this is the reason that it is 
 often sown with other crops." 
 
 STJMACH (Rhus glabmm, R. coriaria and R. cotiims). 
 
 The Rhus glabru77i is the common sumach of the United 
 States which grows spontaneously on fertile soils. It is con- 
 siderably used by dyers, and the tanners of light leather. 
 It is, however, much inferior to the R. coriaria or Sicilian 
 sumach, which is imported into this coimtry from Spain, 
 Portugal, Sicily, Syria and elsewhere, and sells at from $50 
 to $120 per tin. It is a dwarf, bushy shrub, smaller than 
 the American but with much larger leaves. These with 
 
 t* 
 
THE TEASEL. 235 
 
 the seed cones and young stems, are al' ased by the manu- 
 facturers. The R. cotinus or Venice sumach, is th.e fringe 
 tree or burning bush, a shrub for ornamental grounds, bear- 
 ing a flossy, drab-colored blossom. It is known in England 
 as young fustic, and is much used in the arts. 
 
 Cultivation and treatment. — All the sumachs are propa- 
 gated by layers, though it is probable they might, under 
 favorable circumstances, be raised from the seed. On good 
 soils they grow in great profusion. The harvesting consists 
 simply in cutting off the young branches with the leaves 
 and seed cones attached, in clear weather, drying them thor- 
 oughly, without exposure to either rain or dew, and packing 
 them in bales of about 160 lbs., for market. 
 
 The sumach is highly astringent, often taking the place 
 of galls. This quality is much enhanced by warmth of cli- 
 mate ; and the most valuable article is brought from the 
 more southern regions. There is no doubt this species of 
 plants might be cultivated with great profit in the southern 
 States, and thus save the large amount annually expended 
 in its importation, which is constantly increasing. The 
 total importation is now estimated at between one and two 
 millions of dollars per annum. 
 
 THE TEASEL OR FULLER'S THISTLE (Dipsacus fuIlontiin> 
 
 Is another article exclusively used by the manufacturers for 
 the purpose of raising a nap, or combing out the fibres, upon 
 the dressed surface of woollen cloth or flannels. The consump- 
 tion cannot of course be extensive, being limited exclusively 
 to this demand. There is but one kind cultivated. A 
 bastard variety of spontaneous growth exists in portions of 
 our middle States, which resembles the useful teasel, with 
 this peculiar difl"erence, that the ends of the awns or chaff 
 on the heads are straight, instead of hooked, which renders 
 them perfectly worthless. 
 
 Cultivation. — The teasel is a biennial, requiring two 
 years to mature. It is sown on a deep, loamy clay, previ- 
 ously well plowed and harrowed, in drills 20 inches asunder, 
 leaving a plant in every 10 inches; or, if planted in hills, 
 they maybe about 16 inches apart. The ground should be 
 kept light by occasional stirring, and free from weeds. The 
 plants are generally stronger and more thrifty if alloued to 
 mature where sown ; and to accomplish this, the interme- 
 •liate spaces between the hills may be annually planted 
 •v'th new seed. Many adopt the plan of sowing in beds 
 
236 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and transplanting. — Although hardy, there is sometimes an 
 advantage in covering the young plants with straw during 
 the winter, v/hich can be conveniently done only when 
 they are compactly placed in beds. 
 
 Gathering. — Those intended for use should be cut with 
 a stem eight inches long below the head, just as it is going 
 out of flower when the awns are the toughest ; and as these 
 mature at diiferent times in the same plant, they should be 
 cut successively as they come forward. Those intended for 
 seed, which should always be the largest, strongest heads, 
 must be suffered to remain till ripe, when they can be 
 gathered and threshed with a flail. Spread the others thinly, 
 and dry under cover where no moisture can reach them. 
 They may then be assorted into three parcels, according to 
 size and quality, and packed in large sacks, when they are 
 ready for market. The crop on good soils \vell cultivated, 
 may be stated at 150,000 to 200,000 per acre, worth from 
 $1,50 to $2.00 per thousand. 
 
 The use of teasels has been to a considerable extent su- 
 perseded in this country, within a fe^v years, by the intro- 
 duction of metallic nappers. These consist of thin, steel 
 plates, with fine teeth arranged compactly on a shaft, 
 forming a continuous cylinder of slightly projecting teeth, 
 which are almost indestructible by use. 
 
 MTJSTAHD.. 
 
 There are two speoies of mustard raised in the United 
 States ; tlie white [Sinapis 
 alba, Fig. 52), which is most 
 usually cultivated as a forage 
 plant ; and the black (S. nigra, 
 Fig. 53), generally raised foi 
 the seed. It require^ a rich, 
 loamy soil, deeply plowed and 
 well harrowed. It may be 
 sown either broad-cast, in 
 drills about two feet apart, or 
 in hills. Mr. Parmelee, of 
 Ohio, thus raised on 27 acres, 
 23,850 lbs., which brought in 
 the Philadelphia market, $2,- 
 908 ; an average of over $100 
 per acre. The ground on which 
 it is planted must be frequently 
 
 Fia. 62. 
 
 Fig. 
 
HOIS, 
 
 237 
 
 stirred and kept clear of weeds. Wher, matured, it should ba 
 careiuDy cut with the scythe or sickle, and if so ripe as to 
 shell, laid into a wairon box with tight canvas over the 
 bottom and sides, so as to prevent waste. As soon as it is 
 perfectly dry, it may be threshed and cleaned, when it is 
 ready for market. 
 
 The white mustard is a valuable crop as green food for 
 cattle or sheep, or for plowing in as a fertilizer. For feed- 
 ing, the white is much preferred to the black, as the seed 
 of the latter is so tenacious of life, as to be eradicated with 
 difficulty when once in the ground. The amount of seed 
 required per acre is from eight to tAventy quarts, according 
 to the kind and quality of the land, and the mode of planting 
 or sowing. It may be sown from early spring till August, 
 for the northern and middle States, and till the latter part 
 of September for the southern. 
 
 The crops yield from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. Both 
 are excellent fertilizers for the soil. 
 
 THE HOP, (Humulus lupulus, Fig. 54). 
 
 There are several varieties of hops, indigenous to this 
 
 country. They groAV best 
 on a strong loam or well- 
 drained clay, with light 
 sub-soil. If the latter be 
 retentive of water, the hop 
 will soon dwindle or die. 
 If made sufficiently rich, 
 it will flourish on light 
 loam or gravels ; but a new, 
 strong soil is better, and 
 ilu's requires little or no 
 manure. The most de- 
 sirable exposure is a gentle 
 slope to the south : but 
 this shosld be where there 
 can be a free circulation 
 of air amidst fhe tall vege- 
 table growth, which characterizes the luxuriant hop field be- 
 yond every other northern crop. 
 
 Cultivation. — If the land has been long in use, it should 
 be dressed with compost and alkaline manures ; or what is 
 nearly equivalent, with fresh, barnyard manures, on a pre- 
 viously well-hoed crop, made perfectly fr-je of all weeds, and 
 
 Fig. 54, 
 
AMERICVN AGRICULTTTB-E. 
 
 deeply plowed and harrowed. Then mark out :he groiiud 
 at intervals of six feet each way and plant in the intersection 
 of the furrows, and unless the ground be already rich enough, 
 place three or four shovels of compost in each hill. The 
 planting is done with the new roots taken from the old hills, 
 which are laid bare by the plow . Each root should be six 
 or eight inches long and must contain two or more eyes, one 
 to form the root, and the other the vine. Six plants are put 
 in a hill, all of which should be Avithin the compass of about 
 a foot, and covered to a depth of five inches, leaving the 
 ground level when planted. The first season, the interme- 
 diate spaces between the hills may be planted with corn or 
 potatoes, and the ground carefully cleared of weeds, and 
 frequently stirred. No poles are necessary the first year, as 
 the product will not repay the cost. The ground should re- 
 ceive a dressing of compost the following spring, and the 
 plants be kept well hoed and clean. 
 
 Poles may he prepared at the rate of two or three to each 
 hill, 20 to 24 feet long, and selected from a straight, smooth 
 under-growth of tough and durable wood, from four to seven 
 inches diameter at the butt end. These are sharpened and 
 firmly set with an iron bar, or socket bar with a wooden 
 handle, in such a position as will allow the fullest effect of 
 the sun upon the hills or roots. When the plants have run 
 to the length of three or four feet in the spring, train them 
 around the poles, winding in the direction of the sun's 
 course, and fasten below the second or third set of leaves, 
 where there is sufficient strength of vine to sustain them- 
 selves. They may be confined with rushes, tough grass, or 
 more easily \vith AvooUen yarn. This operation is needed 
 again in a few days, to secure such as may have got loose 
 by the winds or oth '.r causes, and to train up the new 
 shoots. 
 
 T)ie gathering of h vs takes place when they have ac- 
 quired a strong" scent, at which time the seed becomes firm 
 and brown, and the lowest leaves begfiu to change color. 
 This precedes the frosts in September. The vines must first 
 be cut at the surface of the ground, and the poles pulled up 
 and laid in convenient piles, when they may be stripped of 
 the hops, which are thrown into large, light baskets. Or 
 the poles may be laid on long, slender boxes with handles at 
 each end, (to admit of being carried by ^wo persons), and as 
 the hops are stripped they fall into the box. Be careful to 
 select them free from leaves, stems and iirt. 
 
HOPS 239 
 
 Cultivating the second year. — After gathering in the fall, 
 iii-e hops should be hilled or covered with compost and all 
 tue vines removed. The following spring when the ground 
 i^- dry, the surface is scraped from the hiJ, and additional 
 compost is added, when a plow is run on four sides, as near 
 as possible without injury to the plants. All the running 
 roots are laid bare and cut with a sharp knife within two or 
 three inches of the main root, and the latter are trimmed if 
 spreadhig too far. It is well to break or twist down the 
 first shoots and allow those which succeed to run, as they 
 are likely to be stronger and more productive. Cutting 
 sliould be avoided unless in a sunny day, as the profuse 
 bleeding injures them. The poles will keep much longer, if 
 laid away under cover till again "wanted the following spring. 
 
 Curing or drying. — This is an important operation. It 
 may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade and 
 stirring them often enough to prevent heating. But when 
 there is a large quantity, they can be safely cured only in a 
 iviln. The following mode is recommended by Mr. 
 Blanchard : 
 
 " For the convenience of putting the hops on the kiln, the 
 side of a hill is generally chosen. The kiln should be dug 
 out the same bigness at the bottom as at the top ; the side 
 walls laid up perpendicularly, and filled in solid with stone, 
 to give it a tunnel form. Twelve feet square at the top, 
 two feet square at the bottom, and at least eight feet deep, 
 is deemed a coiavenient size. Sills are laid on the top of the 
 walls, having joists let into them like a floor ; on which laths, 
 about one and a half inches ^vide are nailed, leaving open 
 spaces between them three-fourths of an inch, over which a 
 thin linen cloth is spread and nailed at the edges of the sills. 
 A board about twelve inches wide is set up on each side of 
 the kiln, on the inner edge of the sill, to form a bin to re- 
 ceive the hops. The larger the stones made use of in the 
 construction of the kiln, the better; as it will give a more 
 steady and dense heat. The inside of the kiln should be 
 well plastered with mortar to make it completely air-tight. 
 Charcoal made from yellow birch, sound hickory or maple is 
 the only fuel proper to be used in drying hops. The kiln 
 should be well heated before any hops are put on, and care- 
 fully attended, to keep a steady and regular heat. Fifty 
 pounds of hops, when dried, is the largest quantity that 
 should be dried at one time, on a kiln of this size, a:id unless 
 >j<'cessary to put on that quantity, a less would dry cetter. 
 
MO AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The green hops should be spread as evenly and as light 
 as possible over the kiln. The fire at first should be mode- 
 rate, but it may be increased as the hops dry and the steam 
 is evaporated. 
 
 The hops, after lying a few days, will gather a partial 
 moisture, called a sweat. The sweat will probably begin to 
 SHbside in about eight days, at which time, and before the 
 sweat is off, they ought to be bagged in clear dry weather. As 
 the exact time when the hops will begin to sweat, and when 
 the sweat will begin to subside or dry off" (the proper time 
 to bag them), will vary with the state of the atmosphere, 
 it will be necessary to examine the hops from day to day, 
 which is easily done by taking some of them from the centre 
 of the heap. If on examination you find the hops to be 
 very damp, and their color altering, which Avill be the case 
 if they were not completely dried on the kiln, overhaul and 
 dry them in the air. 
 
 Hops should not remain long in the bin or bag after they 
 are picked, as they Avill very soon heat and become insipid. 
 The hops should not be stirred on the kiln until they are 
 completely and fully dried. Then remove them from the 
 xiln into a dry room and lay in a heap unstirred until bag- 
 ged. This in done ^vith a screw, having a box made of 
 plank the size of the bag into ^vhich the cloth is laid and 
 the hops screwed into the box, so constructed that the sides 
 may be removed and the bag sewed together while in the 
 press. The most convenient size for a bag is about five feet 
 in length, and to contain ajpout two hundred and fifty pounds. 
 The best material is coarse, strong, domestic tow cloth ; next 
 to that, Russia hemp bagging. 
 
 Those who have entered considerably into the cultivation 
 of hops, build houses over their kihis, which are convenient 
 in wet weather, otherwise, a kiln in the open air would be 
 preferable. It is necessary to have these buildings well ven- 
 tilated with doors and windows ; and to have them kept 
 open night and day, except in wet weather, and then shut 
 those only which are necessary to keep out the rain. Or if 
 a ventilator was put in the roof it -would be found advan- 
 tageous. I have seen many hops injured bo-th in color and 
 flavor by being dried in close buildings. Where the houses 
 over the kilns are large for the purpose of storing the hops, 
 make a close partition between the kilns and the room in 
 
CASTOR BEAN. 
 
 241 
 
 which the hops are stored, to prevent the damp steam from the 
 kilns as it will color them, and injure the flavor and quality." 
 Diseases. — Hops are liable to attack from variovis insects, 
 blight, mildew, &;c. There is no effective remedy of general 
 application for either. The best preventives are new or 
 fresh soil, which is rich in ashes and the inorganic manures, 
 and in a fine tillable condition to insure a rapid growth, by 
 which the hops may partially defy attack ; and open plant- 
 ing, on such positions as will secure free circulation of air. 
 When properly managed, hops are one of the most produc- 
 tive crops ; but their very limited use will always make them 
 a minor object of cultivation. 
 
 THE CASTOR BEAN, (Ricinus communis, usually called Falma 
 
 Christi, Fig. 55), 
 
 Is a native of the West India islands, where it grows 
 
 with great luxuri- 
 ance. It is culti- 
 vated as a field 
 crop in our mid- 
 dle States, and in 
 those bordering 
 the Ohio River on 
 the North. It 
 likes a rich, mel- 
 low bed, and is 
 planted and hoed 
 like corn. It at- 
 tains the height of 
 Fig. 65. five or six feet, and 
 
 bears at the rate of 20 to 28 bushels per acre. The seed is 
 separated from the pods, bruised and subjected to a great 
 pressure, by which it yields nearly a gallon to the bushel, 
 of cold-pressed castor oil, which is very much superior to that 
 extracted by boiling and skimming. The last is done, either 
 with or Avithout, first slightly roasting. This oil forms not 
 only a mild cathartic, but with some is an article of food. 
 Its separation or conversion into a limpid oil for machinery 
 and lamps, and into stearine for candles, has lately much in- 
 creased its valuable uses. 
 
 ARROW ROOT (Maranta arundinaoea. Fig. 56). 
 
 This plant is very extensively cultivated in South Ameri- 
 11 
 
242 
 
 AMERICAM AGRIC'JL . UEK. 
 
 ca, the West India 
 Islands and in 1' Idiida. 
 It requires a lights 
 loamy, fertile soil of 
 good depth. It is pro- 
 pagatecl by dividing 
 ;the roots and planting 
 'in drill?, 12 to 18 
 inches apart. The 
 ground requires stir- 
 ring occasionally, and 
 to be kept clear of 
 weeds. When a yeai 
 old, the roots are taken 
 up, well washed, then 
 reduced to a pulp by 
 bruising or grinding. 
 The pulp is then pass* 
 ed throv;gh a sieve, 
 and after the fecula 
 or starch has settled, 
 FJg'5*- the water is poured 
 
 pflF. The sediment is again washed in pure water, then 
 dried, in which condition it forms the arrow root of com- 
 merce. This constitutes a light digestible food for invalids, 
 but affords little nourishment. It is essentially the same as 
 potato flour and tapioca, o;- the product of Manchot or sweet 
 cassava. 
 
 G-INSING- (Panax quinquefoliam, Fig 57). 
 
 This plant is indigenous to the northern, middle and 
 western States, where it grows 
 spomaueously on the hill-sides 
 when shaded by the forest trees. 
 It yields jmmerous fleshy roots, of a 
 yellowish color, from one to three 
 inches long, which are dug, washed 
 and dried, when th^y are ready for 
 ."iiarket. It has a sweetish and 
 slightly aromatic taste, and con- 
 tains considerable proportions ol 
 gum and starch. It possesses little 
 merit as a medicine, though highly 
 esteemed for its imaginary virtues 
 by the Chinese. The shipments 
 
TEA lLANT. 
 
 243 
 
 from this country for China have sometimes reached nearly 
 half a million of dollars for a single year. It has not been 
 cultivated to any extent in this country. 
 
 THE TEA PLANT (Thea bohea and T. viridis, Fig. 58). 
 
 This planthas been introduced to some extent, into various 
 parts of the United States within the 
 last few years, x. grows extensively 
 in China, between the latitudes 27° 
 and 32° ; and in the Island of Japan, 
 it flourishes as far north as 45°. 
 
 It is propagated by planting two 
 
 or three seeds together, at a distance 
 
 of four or five feet apart each way, in 
 
 the bed where they are to grow, in a 
 
 dry, silicious soil, of moderate fertility, 
 
 and general!}^ on the hill-sides. In 
 
 the northern provinces of China, the tea 
 
 plant occupies a rich, sandy loam. It 
 
 requires little attention, except to be 
 
 ^ '°- ^^- kept clear of weeds. The leaves 
 
 are plucked when the planthas attained a three years growth, 
 
 and when dried, constitute the tea of commerce. 
 
 The leaves are picked three times in a season. The first, 
 and but partially expanded leaflets, yield the best quality of 
 tea, known in Europe and America as the Imperial. The 
 next picking gives an inferior quality ; and the third yields the 
 lowest in value. These are again subdivided, into an almost 
 endless variety of sorts or chojys. 
 
 The leaves are cured by heating them under cover, on iron 
 pans, from which they are taken while hot and carefully 
 rolled by hand. This operation is performed tAvo or three 
 times, and all the moisture thoroughly expelled, when it is 
 assorted into various qualities and put up for sale or use. 
 
 The tea plant becomes unthrifty and stunted under the 
 close harvesting of the leaves ; and at the age of six to ten 
 years, requires to be partially cut down, to secure a fresh 
 growth of thrifty shoots. The immense and increasino" con- 
 sumption of this article will justify the fullest exppriments 
 at the South, with the view of adding this to our exces.-ively 
 limited list of soutliern staples. An extensive effort is at 
 this moment made in Georgia and the Carolinas, by a gentle- 
 man from New York, for the establishment of tea planta 
 tions in each of those States. I saw several thousand choice 
 
^44 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 plants juSt imported from Europe, on their way to those 
 States, and which, I learn, have been subsequently trans- 
 planted and are growing finely. 
 
 The plant has been cultivated in Brazil, France and 
 Algiers, for many years, but it has succeeded only in the 
 former country, to much extent. The soil of Algiers has 
 been found too dry and the climate too hot ; while in France, 
 little attention has thus far been devoted to it. 
 
 SILK. 
 
 This valuable product has been more or less an object of 
 attention in this country, since its early settlement. It was 
 raised on a limited scale in the then southern Provinces, 
 lonf before their separation from Great Britain ; and for 
 more than a century, good sewing silks hav;^ been made, to 
 a small amount, in various places in New England. Occa- 
 sionally, strong, domestic silk fabrics have been manufac- 
 tured, which had the merits of comfort and almost perpe- 
 tual durability, but with little pretension to style or conven- 
 tional taste. 
 
 The enormous importations of silk into this country, in 
 1836, exceeding $20,000,000, awakened the attention of 
 our countrymen to the great value of this material ; and a 
 speculation in the morus multicaulis mulberry, at that time 
 thouo-ht to be the best species for the silk worm, was the 
 result, w^hich, for a time, almost rivalled the tulip mania of 
 Holland. The general effect, however, was beneficial. It 
 scattered the material for the support of the silk worm 
 throughout the country, and induced an attention to the 
 rearing of this useful but humble servant of the pride and 
 luxury of mankind, that might not have been realized to 
 the same extent for many years subsequent.- There is a 
 large and increasing attention to this subject, but I regret 
 to add, the production of our raw material is far below the 
 demand in this countiy, while the manufactured article is 
 largely imported. 
 
 My limits will not admit of minute directions for the 
 management of a cocoonery, nor is this essential to a suc- 
 cessful result. Moderate intelligence and skill, with close 
 attention, will enable almost any one to produce the raw 
 silk to a profit. 
 
 Varieties of the Mulberry for feediyig. — The kinds of 
 trees best suited to the health of the worm, and the weight 
 and value of its product, are the Alpine and Canton The 
 
SILK. 245 
 
 foliage of these is more solid and nutritious than the raulti- 
 caulis, and on rich or wet ground, they are far preferable to 
 any other. The multicavxlis, though very succulent and 
 watery in moist land, and therefore liable to induce disease 
 in the worms, is still a prolific and healthful food for them 
 Avhere grown on dry or upland soils. Many others of the 
 mulberry family are more or less suited to the object ; and 
 even some of the indigenous, uncultivated varieties of this 
 country, have been found to answer a very good purpose for 
 'ceding, where other sources of supply had failed. 
 
 Manner of planting the Mulberry. — The usual system 
 noAV adopted, is not to raise the trees in orchards to theii 
 full size as formerly practiced, but to sow or plant tJiickly, 
 in drills or hills, and cut the sprouts and young branches as 
 they shoot out. This gives an immediate return for the 
 planting ; and it enables the person engaged in this enterprise, 
 to commence his operations, without the long delay conse- 
 quent upon the remote maturity of the trees. 
 
 Variety of ivorms. — The peamit is usually esteemed the 
 best variety, being more hardy and productive, and yielding 
 generally a finer quality of silk. There are several 
 others, as the white, the sulphur, &c., which possess much 
 merit. 
 
 Reari?ig and mayiagement. — The eggs must be kept in 
 a cool, dry place, till ready to be hatched, the temperature 
 not exceeding about 50^ Far. When the mulberry leaves 
 begin to make their appearance in the spring, the eggs may 
 be exposed to a temperature of about 65°, then gradually 
 raised to 75°. At this last degree of heat, from seven to ten 
 days will be sufficient to hatch the eggs. 
 
 Immediately commence feeding with fresh, but not wet 
 leaves ; and supply them as wanted, till the worm has at- 
 tained maturity and is ready to wind the cocoon. During 
 the period of moulting, Avhich occurs four times in the life 
 of the worm, their customary food should be withheld from 
 them. Some wilt the leaves partially before feeding, which 
 is well enough as a preventive to an excess of water in 
 their food. 
 
 The temperature of the room occupied by the Avorms, 
 should be kept at about 75°. A slight variation from this 
 is not objectionable ; but where it varies materially, artifi- 
 cial means must be resorted to for maintaining a nearly \\n\- 
 form temperature. Cleanliness in feeding and removing 
 the excrements and deaJt wo ms i'- '.mportaut ; aud there 
 
246 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICC- TURE. 
 
 ehould be a frje circulation of air, without exposing them to 
 moisture and the depredations .of birds, rats, or mice. Chlo- 
 ride of lime is an excellent purifier for \he cocoonery. 
 
 When ready to spin, which may be known by their ceas- 
 ing to eat, raising their lieads, and clambering about their 
 feeding boards, the Avorms may be supplied with poplar or 
 other branches ; or wisps «f straw tied at the upper end, and 
 spread at the bottom, for the worm to crawl upon and at- 
 tach his cocoon. The straw may be secured by bracing it 
 between two shelves. 
 
 Breeding. — After remaining about eight days, a sufficient 
 number of the best cocoons should be first selected for 
 breeding. These must be nearly equal in the quantities of 
 male and female worms, the first being generally indicated 
 by a pointed end, and somewhat drawn in at the middle ; 
 while the latter is nearly alike at either end. In about 
 fourteen days the millers come forth and couple. After a 
 connection of twelve hours, throw away the males, unless 
 there is a deficiency, when they may be retained for further 
 use ; but the progeny is not generally so strong as wlien the 
 male is used but once. Soon after, the female voids a 
 brownish matter, when she is placed on a clean paper or 
 muslin, and put away in a dark place, where she lays her 
 eggs and dies. 
 
 From 100 to 120 pairs of millers will produce an ounce 
 of eggs. Each female lays from 300 to 500 Qggs^, averaging 
 about 350. An ounce of eggs contains about 40,000. If 
 well saved from good millers, and safely kept, they will 
 nearly all hatch and produce good worms. Our climate is 
 admirably adapted to the production of the silk-worm, as is 
 
 shown by the fact, 
 that while an average 
 of 30 to 60 per cent, 
 of the whole worms 
 are lost in Europe, 
 from climate, food, 
 and irremediable dis- 
 ease, scarcely five per 
 cent, are lost in this 
 country, under care- 
 ful management, from 
 
 Piedmontese Reel. Fig. 53. the same Causes. 
 
 Reeling. — The cocoons may be reeled immediately after 
 they are formed, if ©jnvenieut. If to be kept foi any time, 
 
SILK REELS. 
 
 247 
 
 the chrysalis must be stifled, which is done by exposure to 
 a hot sun for two or three days, or baking in an oven at a 
 temperature of about 200°. 
 
 sin 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Fig. 59 is tlie most approved Piedmontese reel. Fig. 60 
 and 61 is a lately adopted French reel, represented in twt 
 views. A simple reel may, however, be made by any me- 
 chanic, that will an^ver tlfe purpose for making domestic silk, 
 but not if designed for sale. The reeling for market is a very 
 nice operation, and requires a good reel and an experienced 
 reeler, though both are easily procured with a little atten- 
 tion. When ready for reeling, place the cocoons in clear, 
 soft water, raised nearly to the boiling point, then gently 
 press them under with a light brush of broom-corn, and the 
 fibres of the silk will adhere. After taking off the outer co- 
 vering or tow, the silk is run rapidly on the reel, wath enough 
 threads to make the fibre of the required size. Keep the 
 Avater pure by skimming, and changing as often as necessa- 
 ry. The silk is then allowec. to dry immediately, when it 
 may be packet": for market. 
 
248 AMERICAN AGRICULTUllB. 
 
 CHAPTER XI, 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 The production of a variety of fruits, to the extent at least 
 of his own wants, ought to occupy th*.- attention of every 
 farmer. The soil and climate of the United States, are al- 
 most everywhere suited to their cheap and easy propaga- 
 tion. They are a source of profit for the marliet, they are 
 useful for stock, and they afford some of the choicest and 
 most economical luxuries for domestic use. Success in their 
 cultivation may at all tunes be secured, by a judicious selec- 
 tion of trees, soil and location, and by an intelligent and pro- 
 per attention thereafter. 
 
 THE APPLE. 
 
 The locality for the apple orchard must depend entirely 
 on the climate and soil. In warm latitudes, a northerly ex- 
 posure is best when not subject to violent ^vinds, as these 
 from any quarter, are liable to blast the fruit while in blos- 
 som, and blow it from the tree before it is ripe. It is im- 
 portant to protect an orchard from the bleak winds which 
 prevail in its immediate neighborhood, by n judicious selec- 
 tion of the ground. A warm and sunny exposure subjects 
 the buds in spring to premature swelling, and these are often 
 cut off by the severe spring frosts that follow ; when a colder 
 position would retard their budding until the season was 
 sufiiciently advanced for their protection. 
 
 Soil. — All the varieties of soil between a stiff, unyielding 
 clay and a light, shifting sand, are friendly to the apple. 
 The soil best suited to the perfection of fruit is a moist, fria- 
 ble, calcareous loam, slightly intermixed with fine gravel. 
 This may run either into a sandy loam, which usually rests 
 upon a sub-soil of sand or gravel, or into a clayey loam 
 with a sub-soil of stiff clay. Either of these is a good soil 
 for the orchard. The ground should be rich enough for the 
 production of good :;rops of grain, roots or grass. This degre* 
 11* 
 
FRUITS. 249 
 
 cf fertility is absolutely necessary for the thrifty growth of 
 the tree, and its existence in a healthy and vigcfois state. 
 Springy or wet laud is decidedly objectionable, and if the 
 farmer can appropriate no other for this purpose, it should be 
 well drained, either by under-ground ditches or open 
 trenches, sufficiently deep to carry off the water for a depth 
 at least of two feet below the surface, so as to leave the soil 
 which is perforated by the roots, in a warm and active state. 
 Rocky and stony soils of the above descriptions, are usually 
 well suited to the growth of fruit trees. The stones keep 
 the ground moist, loose and light. Some of the finest fruits 
 grow where there is scarcely room to place the roots of the 
 tree between the rocks. But a sufficient area of earth is ne- 
 cessary for an ample growth of wood, and the full size of the 
 tree at maturity. 
 
 Stiff clays and light blowing sands, under very nice culti- 
 vation, will grow fruits ; but they require active manures. 
 Clays should be often plowed, particularly in the fall, that 
 the soil may be ameliorated by the winter frosts. The sands 
 require compact culture and appropriate manures. All such 
 as are suited to ordinary crops on these lands, will promote 
 the growth of trees. But it is preferable to appropriate soils 
 more suitble for the orchard, as the fruit will be larger, fairer 
 and better flavored, and the trees of much longer duration. 
 
 Planting. — The soil shoulU be prepared by deep plowing, 
 before planting the trees. The sub-soil plow will accom- 
 plish this more effectually than can otherwise be done. 
 Then dig the holes from three to six feet in diameter and 
 twelve to eighteen inches deep, according to the kind of soil 
 and the size of the tree. The more compact the soil the 
 deeper and larger should be the hole. When ready to plant, 
 let enough of the best or top soil be thrown into the bot- 
 tom of the hole, so that the tree may stand about one inch 
 lower than when removed from the nursery. Take vip the 
 tree so as to injure the roots as little as possible. If any be 
 broken cut them off, either square or obliquely, with a fine 
 saw or sharp knife. When left in a bruised or broken con- 
 ditition they will canker and decay in the ground ; but if 
 thus cut off, numerous rootlets will spring out at the termi- 
 nation of the amputated root, which strike into the soft 
 earth and give increased support to the tree. Should the 
 soil be poor, the roots must be covered and the holes filled 
 with good earth. If the hole be small, the surrounding land 
 hard, and the roo .s bent up and cramped, the tree cannot 
 11* 
 
2o0 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 grow ; tut if it finally survives after a long time of doubt and 
 delay, it creeps along with a snail's pace, making little re- 
 turn to the owner. When the tree is crooked, confine it 
 with a strau' band to a stake firmly planted in the ground. 
 This is the best ligature, as it does not cut the bark, which 
 small cords often do, and it gradually gives waj" as the tree 
 increases in size. When thus planted, Avell manured and 
 well looked after, the tree thrives, and in a few years, re- 
 wards the owner with its delicious and abundant fruit. 
 
 The season of pla}iting may be any time after the fall of 
 the leaf in autumn, till its re-appearance in the spring, pro- 
 vided the ground be not frozen. Early spring is to be pre- 
 ferred for planting stone fruits. They may be removed 
 while in embryo leaf and blossom with entire success, but it 
 is better to do this before the bud is much swollen. If one 
 time be equally convenient Avith another, fall planting is to 
 be preferred for fruit generally, as the earth then becomes 
 settled about the roots early in the following season. This 
 is particularly advantageous when the spring is succeeded 
 by a severe summer's drought. The transplanting of trees 
 is an operation of the greatest importance to their success 
 More fruit may be reasonably anticipated for the first ten 
 years, if not forever, from one tree Avell planted, than from 
 three indifferently done. 
 
 It sometimes occurs in removing trees from a distance, 
 that they arrive at their destination after the ground is 
 frozen. In such cases, a trench should be dug in soft earth 
 and the trees laid in it, at an angle of about 45°, three or 
 four inches apart, the roots, carefully placed to prevent 
 breaking, and the earth piled on them for a foot up the trunk, 
 and eight or ten inches over the roots. This will preserve 
 them until spring without detriment to their future growth, 
 and it is often done by nurserymen and others, who re- 
 move their trees from one location to another without loss 
 Apple trees should never be planted in the orchard at a less 
 distance than from thirty to forty feet ; the distance to de- 
 pend on the fertiiitj- of the soil and the kind of tree, some 
 growing much larger and throwing out their tranches more 
 laterally than others. If too near, the trees do not receive 
 the requisite quantity of sun and a free circulation of air, 
 both of which are essential to the size, flavor and perfection 
 of fruit. 
 
 Cultivation. — A pre ;iousI y uncultivated or virgin soil is 
 !he best for an orcharfl ; but if such is not available, thep 
 
FRUITS. 251 
 
 Buch as has beei. long in pasture or meadow is jnost suitable. 
 The most efficient manures are swamp muck, decayed 
 leaves and vegetables, rotten wood, chip manure, lime, 
 ashes, gypsum and charcoal. Trees draAV their food mostly 
 (rom the soil, and to supply the elements of their growth in 
 abundance, the earth must occasionally be renewed with 
 those materials which may have become partially or wliolly 
 exhausted. When carefully plowed and cultivated in hoed 
 crops, orchards thrive most rapidly, if care be taken to pro* 
 tect the trees from damage either to the trunks or roots. 
 All tearing of the roots is objectionable. The ground should 
 be kept rich and open, so as to be pervious to the rains, the 
 sun, and the atmosphere. Under these conditions the trees 
 will thrive vigorously. 
 
 When lands are in meadow, a space of three to six feet 
 in diameter around the trunk, according to the age and size 
 of the tree, ought always to be kept free from turf. Pastures 
 are so bared by the tread of animals, and the closeness of 
 their cropping, that the roots of the trees get their share of 
 benefit from the sun and rains. From this cause, pastures 
 are better suited to orchards than mowing lands ; for the 
 latter are so completely covered by the rank growth of 
 grass, that the tree suffers, and without the aid of manures, 
 and the annual loosening of the ground for afev/ feet around, 
 the tree in some cases dies from exhaustion. All kinds of 
 cereal grains are bad for orchards, except, perhaps, buck- 
 wheat. The preparation of the ground for this crop, by 
 early summer plowing, is highly conducive to the growth 
 of trees; and its nutriment being drawn largely from the air, 
 it rol)S the roots of a small amount only of the materials in 
 the soil. 
 
 A neighboring farmer, whose management many years 
 since came under my notice, had a small mowing lot ad- 
 joining his barn and cattle sheds, which was surrounded 
 With a stone wall. The soil was a moist, gravelly loam, 
 every way fitted for the growth of the apple, as was shown 
 by there having been several flourishing orchards on similar 
 soils in the immediate vicinity. He filled this with apple 
 trees set in small holes at the proper distances, the rows 
 terminating close to the wall on each side, and also near his 
 barn and sheds. Afte* setting ou;, the trees were staked, 
 and then left to grow as best they could without further 
 cultivation. Those remote from the wall and buildings re- 
 mained stationary for aever^' years, while those under their 
 
252 AMERICAN AGRIC ; LTURE. 
 
 influence, after two or three years, liegan to show a 'vigorous 
 growth. The grass was ren oved annually, and the trees 
 received no cultivation, save perhaps a bushel or two of 
 chip manure occasionally thrown around them. Twe:ity 
 years after they were planted, the trees next to the wall and 
 buildings were thrifty and had attained a large size, while 
 many of the others had died, a few had grown to one fourth 
 the size of the outer ones, and others were still smaller, 
 mossy, and showing signs of a premature old age. Not one 
 third of the trees gave any return of fruit. The wall and 
 buildings kept the soil next them light and moist, while that 
 in the more open field spent all its energy upon the grass. To 
 make an orchard profitable, the soil must be properly culti- 
 vated, till the trees have attained a considerable growth, 
 and show so much vigor and thrift, that their expanded 
 roots may be safely left to provide their own nutriment. 
 
 Priming. — This operation must commence at the plant- 
 ing of the tree, the top of which should always be in pro- 
 portion to the size and number of the roots. If the top be 
 high and spindling, shorten it so as to throw the lateral 
 shoots into a graceful and branching form. The limbs 
 may commence about six feet from the ground. Pruning 
 should be done aimually, as the labor is then trifling ; and 
 the expenditure of vital force in maturing wood which is 
 afterwards to be cut off, is thus saved, and the branches to 
 be removed being small, the wounds readil)' heal. In this 
 case, no covering is required for the Avouud, as one season's 
 growth will heal it. The top should be sufiiciently open 
 to admit the sun and air. 
 
 The best time for trimming is when the f-ee is in blooin, 
 and the sap in full flow. The proper instrument is a fin? 
 saw or sharp knife, and the limb should be cut ofl" close to 
 the remaining branch. The sap at this time is active, and 
 is readily converted into new bark and Avood, which speed- 
 ily forms over the cut. But this is a busy season with the 
 farmer, and if he cannot then prune his trees, he may do 
 it when more convenient, taking care to secure the wounds 
 by an efficient covering of salve. Old trees, or such as 
 are growing vigorously and have been long neglected, often 
 require severe trimming, which should always be done in 
 May or June ; and when the ^vounds are large, they must 
 be covered with a coat of thick, Spanish-brown paint or 
 grafting wax. If they are Irft exposed, and the growth of 
 the t/ee be sl:w, decay will often take place before thev 
 
FRtnTs. 253 
 
 are healed Too much care cannot be used in these ope- 
 rations. In large trees, a ladder ought always to be ai 
 hand, to avoid breaking the limbs by the weight of tho 
 operator. If by too close planting the branches of dilfer- 
 ent tress be brought into contact, thorough pruning is ab- 
 solutely necessary, as without it, good fruit cannot be 
 obtained. 
 
 Grafting ayid budding. — These operations are so simple, 
 and usually so w^ell known by some individual in every 
 farming neighborhood, that no description of either opera- 
 tion is necessary. Graftiyig xoax of the best kind is made 
 with four parts of rosin, one of tallow and one of beeswax, 
 melted and stirred together, then poured into a vessel of cold 
 water. As soon as cool enough, work and draw it out by 
 hand, like shoe-makers' wax, until it is entirely pliable. It 
 may then be used immediately, or laid up and kept for years. 
 The mode of applying it is known to every grafter. 
 
 Scioyis must be the growth of the preceding year, and 
 cut from well ripened, thrifty wood, in the months of Janu- 
 ary, February or March, before the buds begin to swell with 
 the flow of the spring sap. Tie them up and keep in a 
 moist, cool place, a cellar bottom, or box of moss or earth 
 till ready for use. When circumstances require it, grafts 
 may be cut at any time after the fall of the leaf, but the 
 months indicated are best in all localities north of lat. 40°. 
 The best time for budding is in July and August. This sliould 
 be done while the sap is in flow and the bark is loose, as at 
 no other time is success certain. 
 
 Selection of trees. — Select these from seedlings. Suck- 
 ers from the roots of mature trees are objectionable, as tend- 
 ing to throw up suckers themselves, which are always 
 troublesome. When they appear, cut them close to the 
 root or stem, and if properly done they will rarely sprout 
 anew. 
 
 Planting the seed. — If the farmer wish to raise his own 
 trees, he can sow the seed or pomace in rows in the fall. 
 After they come up in the spring, weed and hoe them like 
 aay vegetable. When a year old they should be carefully 
 taken up, the tap root cut ofl" and replanted in rows four 
 feet apart, and at least a foot distant in the rows. They 
 should be regularly cultivated till they are one and a half or 
 two inches diameter at the base, at which time they are fit 
 for the orchard. These operations are, however, the appro- 
 priate business of the nurseryman, for ^^•llose guidance thevo 
 
854 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 should alwa/s be at hand some standard ■work :>n the culti- 
 vation of fruits. Of these, Kenrick's, Downing's and Hovey's 
 are at present the best American treatises. 
 
 Gatheri/:g and preserving . — For immediate use, apples 
 may be shaken from the tree. For winter consumption or 
 packing for market, they should be carefully picked by hand 
 with the aid of ladders, to avoid bruising the fruit and injur- 
 ing the limbs. To preserve apples, the best method is to lay 
 them carefully into tight barrels or boxes immediately after 
 picking, with a thin layer of perfectly dry chaff on the bottom , 
 fl,nd after being lightly shaken together, another layer of 
 chaff on the tojD may be added, though this is not essential. 
 They may then be tightly headed or covered so as to exclude 
 the air. Then put the boxes or barrels away into a dry 
 place, and keep as cold as possible above the freezing point. 
 But if slightly frozen, they will not be injured if suffered to 
 remain unpacked till the frost leaves them. When thus 
 managed, the^ will keep as long as they are capable of pre- 
 servation. Bins in the cellar are good for ordinary use, if 
 closely covered. When exposed to the air, warmth or 
 moisture, apples soon decay. If too dry, they wilt and 
 become tasteless. They are sometimes buried in the earth 
 like potatoes, but this impairs the flavor and gives them an 
 earthy taste ; and they seldom keep so well after removal 
 in the spring as Avhen they have been stored in barrels. 
 
 For farm stock, apples are healthful and fattening, and 
 the better the quality of fruit the more valuable are they for 
 this object. A variety of both sweet and sub-acid should 
 be cultivated. The saccharine matter of the apple is essen- 
 tially the fattening property, and this abounds in some kinds 
 of the sub-acid. Animals like a change in their food as well 
 as man, and both sweet and sour may be fed to them alter- 
 nately. When the soil and climate are adapted to them, 
 food from apples can probably be more cheaply supplied to 
 stock in the northern States, than from any other plants of 
 artificial cultivation, excepting grass and clover. Swine 
 have been often fatted upon them with an occasional change 
 to grain ; and when fed to horses, cattle and sheep, with hay, 
 ihey are almost equivalent to roots. That tree must be 
 badly cultivated, which in ten years after planting, will not 
 produce five bushels of apples in a season, and these at ten 
 cents a bushel give an annual revenue of fifty cents a tree, 
 or twenty dollars pjr acre for stock-feeding alone. At 
 twenty years old, tht tre^ will double that product casual- 
 
Fnrr_*. 255 
 
 ties excepted ; and as tins estinate is based on their least 
 valuable use, an increased profit may be anticipated from 
 their conversion to other purposes. Good apples are rarely 
 worth less than twjnty-five cents a bushel ; often three or 
 four times that amount. The presence of swine among any 
 kind of fruit trees, greatly conduces to their thrift. Besides 
 the support of the swine derived from the fruit, their con- 
 sumption of windfalls secures the destruction of such insects 
 as are injurious to the trees or fruit, and the manure they 
 drop, together with the loosening of the earth, resulting 
 from constant rooting and the tread of their sharp hoofs, is 
 of essential advantage to the growth and healthfulness of 
 the trees. Sheep, turkeys, ducks and chickens answer the 
 same purpose in a considerable degree, when suffered to fre- 
 quent the orchards in sufficient numbers. 
 
 Making cider. — Good fruit is indispensable to the making 
 of good cider. The suitable time fo^ grinding is in October 
 and November, and apples designed to be thus appropriated 
 should ripen in these months. Such as are slightly acid are 
 preferable for this purpose. As far as practicable, the fruit 
 should be of one kind, fully ripe, but sound and undecayed. 
 The mill must be thoroughly cleansed with hot water, and 
 capable of grinding the pomace fine. This should lie in the 
 vat at least forty-eight hours after grinding, and be turned 
 once or twice before its removal into the cheese. Pomace 
 so exposed, absorbs large quantities of oxygen, thus under- 
 going a necessary preparation for its conversion into good 
 cider. All fruits are subject to this change, to a certain 
 extent, just before ripening. When their juices are express- 
 ed or the pulp broken and exposed to the air, this effect is 
 increased, and constitutes the saccharine fermentatio7i. In 
 both cases, the result is to increase the palatable and nutri- 
 tive properties of the fruit, by converting their starch, gum 
 and other vegetable matters into sugar. 
 
 When the pomace has been sufficiently pressed, it may be 
 fed to cattle, sheep or swine, and the liquor put into barrels 
 under cover, and allowed to remain till the pulp or fecu- 
 lant matter has been thrown out at the bung ; and to aid its 
 removal the barrel should be kept full. The second fermen- 
 tation is the vinous, and by it a portion of alcohol is 
 developed. This fermentation is slowly continued afterwards 
 in the enclosed cask, until it reaches from six to nine pei 
 sent. When fer rientation apparently subsides, take a clean 
 cask, in which a smtU quaJitityof sulphur has been burned. 
 
256 ' AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to arrest any subsequent tendency of the liquid to change, 
 draw the cider into this and buna; tightly to exclude the air. 
 The addition of charcoal, raisins, mustard seed or fresh meat 
 produces the same effect as the ignited sulphur. After 
 standing two or three months, closely confined, and in a cool 
 place, it may be drawn off and tightly bottled for use. Its 
 long preservation and improvement will depend on its being 
 kept cool and well corko-i. In addition to its possessing a 
 small proportion of alcohol, it then contains large quantities 
 of carbonic acid gas, ■which occasions its rapid effervescence 
 when uncorked, and gives to it that peculiarly pungent and 
 agreeable flavor, so highly relished in the best spo ■"'mens of 
 the Newark cider. 
 
 Vinegar. — If the cider be allowed to remain in the cask 
 in which it is first placed, and exposed to a warm temperature, 
 it continues greedily to absorb oxygen, and quickly under- 
 goes another fermentation, called the acetic, by which it is 
 converted into vinegar. If intended solely for this purpose, 
 the best and richest fruits give the strongest, best-flavored 
 and soundest (most reliable) vinegar. When it has acquired 
 its perfection, the vinegar should be kept air-tight and at a 
 low temperature. 
 
 Best varieties of apples for cultivation. — Almost every 
 section of the apple-growing regions of America, has a 
 greater or less variety peculiar to itself; and their valuable 
 properties appear more fully developed in these localities 
 than when removed to others. Such should of course be 
 retained when of extraordinary excellence. There are some, 
 however, which are of more general cultivation, cosmopolites 
 throughout the apple climates, of fine quality, and possess- 
 ing all the excellence of which the genus is capable. Thirty 
 different kinds for each section or State will probably include 
 all which it is desirable to cultivate, and for any one location 
 perhaps twenty is sufficient. I mention below, the names 
 of 30 standard varieties, all of which are now in successful 
 cultivation in different parts of the United States and Canada. 
 They are described by Downing, in his late work on the 
 fruit trees of America, 1845. 
 
 Sitmmer Apples. — Early Harvest, Red Astracan, Large 
 Yellow Bough, Williams' Favorite. 
 
 Autumn Apples. — Golden Sweet, Fall Pippin, Graven- 
 stein, Jersey Sweeting, Pumpkin Russet (by some, the 
 Bellebonne), and Rambo. 
 
 Winter Apples. --'Wesi^elA Seek-no-farther, Baldwin, 
 
FRUITS. 25T 
 
 Black Apple, Yellow Belle fleur, Detroit, Hubbardston 
 Nonesuch, Green and Yellow Newtown Pipf in. Northern 
 Spy, Blue Pearmain, Peck's Pleasant, Rhode Island Green 
 Jng, American Golden Russet, English Russet, Roxburs 
 Russet, Swaar, Ladies' Sweeting, Talman's Sweeting, Esq 
 p^is Spitzenberg, Waxen A^iple, Wine Apple. 
 
 THE PEAR. 
 
 The pear is one of the most luscious, wholesome and pro- 
 fitable of the market fruits, though not comparable to the 
 apple for variety and general use. In a good soil and under 
 proper cultivation, it is both vigorous and hardy. It is bud- 
 ded and grafted like the apple, and requires the same treat- 
 ment ; it is as easy of propagation, frequently attains a 
 greater size and age, and although longer arriving at matu- 
 rity, it is a more abundant bearer. Its" favorite soil is a clay 
 loam. It needs little pruning, but usually it throws out an 
 upright, graceful head, free from excessive bushiness. The 
 trees may be planted 30 feet apart, an abundance of sun 
 being requisite to full bearing and the perfection of the fruit. 
 
 Diseases. — The pear is seldom subject to more than one 
 formidable disease, the fire blight, and to this, it is more ex- 
 posed in some localities than others. The disease manifests 
 itself generally in mid-summer, in the sudden witherino- of 
 the leaves on one or more branches. The only effec°ual 
 remedy is to cut off and burn the diseased limb, immediately 
 upon its discovery. The causes are imperfectly known, but 
 it has been variously ascribed to the presence of minute in- 
 sects, to the excessive flow of sap, and to the severity of the 
 winter. 
 
 Gathering and preserving the fruit. — Many pears re- 
 quire to be picked just before they are ripe, and allowed to 
 mature in the shade. They thus acquire a rich, juicy 
 character they would not otherwise attain. Those intended 
 for market or for long keeping, should be hand-picked and 
 laid in a cool place ; and when perfectly dry, put up in casks 
 like apples. Winter pears may be packed for preservation 
 like winter apples. 
 
 The varieties to be selected depend entirely on the object 
 of their cultivation. For market, the best and most popu- 
 lar kinds only should be chosen ; and for family use, an 
 equally good selection should be made of those maturint' 
 throughout the entire season. '^ 
 
 I subj( in, i'j their order of ripKiing, a dozen cho ce kinds, 
 
858 AMERICAN A3RICULTITRE. 
 
 the cultivation of which has thus far been thoroughly suc- 
 cessful, and the qualities universally approved. The most 
 of these are pears of American origin, which are to be pre- 
 ferred as promising more durability, hardiness and perfect 
 adaptation to our climate and soils. I quote from Downing 
 on fruits. 
 
 Sumyner a?id Early Autumn Pears. — Bloodgood, Dear- 
 born's Seedlings, Bartlett or Williams' Bon Chretien, 
 Ste^'%ns' Genesee. 
 
 Autumn Pears. — Beurre Diel, Seckel, Dix, White Doy- 
 enne or Virgalieu, Duchess D'Angouleme. 
 
 Winter Pears. — Beurre D'Aramberg, Columbia, Winter 
 Nelis, Priuce's St. Germain. 
 
 THE QUINCE. 
 
 This is also a valuable market fruit. It makes a rich, 
 highly-flavored sweetmeat, and to this use it is entirely 
 limited. The tree is easily raised by suckers and cuttings, 
 and should be planted fifteen feet apart, in a rich, warm, 
 heavy soil (a clayey loam is the best), rather moist, and in a 
 sunny exposure where it will be sheltered from cold and 
 severe winds. The wash of a barn-yard is its best manure, 
 and it repays equally with the apple, for good cultivation. 
 The fruit is large, sometimes weighing a pound, of h rich, 
 golden color, and generally free from worms and other 
 imperfections. It ripens in October and November. The 
 oransfe quince is the best variety for common cultivation. 
 The tree requires but little pruning. The trunk may be 
 entire for tv/o or three feet, or branch from the ground by 
 two or more stems. The top should be kept open to admit 
 the sun and air, and the trunk freed from suckers. When 
 thus treated, it will live long and produce abundantly. 
 
 THE CHERRY. 
 
 Aside from the value of its fruit, the cherry is an orna- 
 mental shade tree, hardy and vigorous in its growth, and 
 easy of propagation. It should be planted like the apple. 
 For 'culinary purposes, the common red cherry is perhaps 
 the best. This may stand sixteen or twenty feet apart, 
 according to the soil and situation. The large Mazard or the 
 English cherry requires more room, and if on a deep, warm, 
 sandy loam, its favorite soil, it should be planted two rods 
 apart as it grows to a large size. It will flourish luxuri- 
 antly on a clay loai'. or an opea gravel, provided the soil be 
 
FRUITS. 259 
 
 rich and deep ; but on these, it demands more careful culti- 
 vation. It seldom requires much pruning. Care must be 
 used with this as with all other fruit trees, to give it an open 
 head and to keep the limbs from crossing and chafing each 
 other. The varieties most in use are the Common Red, 
 Kentish or Pie Cherry, almost universally cultivated, the 
 English Mayduke, Bktck Tartarian (Grafiion or Yellov/ 
 Spanish,) the largi Red Bigarreau, Elton, Belle de Choisy 
 and the late Duke. These will form a succession of six 
 weeks in ripening and embrace their entire season. The 
 cherry is remarkably free from disease, and usually requires 
 but ordinary care in its cultivation. 
 
 THE PLUM. 
 
 The plum affords some of the most delicious of our culti- 
 vated fruits. It prefers a strong clay loam, but does well in 
 nearly all soils, except a light sand. It should be planted 
 like the apple, though on a more limited scale, as it has a 
 smaller and less vigorous growth. The proper distance is 
 sixteen to twenty feet. There are two formidable impedi- 
 ments in the cultivation of the plum. One is an insect, 
 which attacks the "wood, and deposits its g.^^ in the smaller 
 branches. This is followed by a large swelling or excres- 
 cence and if suffered to remain, will soon destroy its produc- 
 tiveness. The surest remedy is to cut off the branch at 
 once and burn it. 
 
 The Curculio commits its depredations on the young 
 fruit, soon after the blossoms disappear. These are frequent- 
 ly so destructive as to kill the fruit of an entire orchard. 
 Several methods of destroying them have been suggested, 
 of Avhich the most simple and effectual is, to plant the trees 
 in such places as will admit the swine and poultry to feed 
 upon the fallen fruit and insects. Salt sprinkled around the 
 tree in the spring, is said to destroy them. The smoke of 
 rotten wood, leaves and rubbish which have been burned 
 under the trees when in blossom, has sometimes proved 
 beneficial. Paving the earth under the limbs to prevent the 
 burrowing of the insects, and some other remedies are re- 
 commended. This is a serious evil, requiring more obser- 
 vation and experiment than it has yet received. 
 
 Varieties. — The common Blue or Horse plum is cultiva 
 ted in numerous sub- varieties. Some of these are very goo^ 
 others uf^erly worthless. Good plums are as easily raised 
 as poor ones, and these only ought to hi cultivated. Young 
 
260 AMEE.CAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 trees bearing an indifferent fruit, can be headed down and 
 grafted as readily a.i apples, but this requires to be done a 
 month earlier in the spring, and before the buds begin to swell. 
 The best kinds are the Yellow, Green, Autumn, Bleecker's, 
 Imperial, Prince's Yellow, Frost, Purple and the Red 
 Gages ; Coe's Golden Drop, the Jefferson, the Grange, the 
 Washington, the Columbia, Smith's Orle?is, and the Red 
 Magnum Bonum. 
 
 This last variety is more Uable to the attacks of the curcu- 
 lio than many others. But its vigorous growth, great pro- 
 ductiveness when not attacked, and its excellent quality lor 
 the table render it a desirable fruit. For dryi?ig, the Ger- 
 man prune is perhaps the best, although several of the plums 
 above named answer an excellent purpose. I have enume- 
 rated a larger variety of plums from the ditficult}' of cultiva- 
 ting the peach successfully in many parts of the northern 
 States. They ripen nearly at the same time, and though 
 not as delicious nor generally as popular, they are the best sub- 
 stitutes for it. Although liable to several diseases, the pium 
 is more hardy and durable than the peach, and its cultivation 
 is comparatively easy. 
 
 THE PEACH. 
 
 In the early settlement of our country and on virgin 
 soil, the peach was easily propagated, free from disease, an 
 abundant bearer and comparatively long-lived. If we ex- 
 cept tlie first feature in its early history, we shall find it 
 generally, differing widely in each of the others at the present 
 day. It has become subject to so many casualties, as to have 
 been almost entirely discarded in large sections of the United 
 States, where it once flourished in the highest perfection. 
 It is now most frequently reared on an extensive scale for 
 market, by those wlio make it an exclusive business. 
 
 Its favorite soil is a light, warm, sandy or gravelly loam, 
 in a sunny exposure, protected from severe bleak winds. 
 Thus situated and in favorable latitudes, it grows with great 
 luxuriance and produces the most luscious fruit. In western 
 New York, and on most of the southern borders of the great 
 lakes, the peach grows more vigorously and lives longer than 
 in any other sections of flie United States, frequently lasting 
 20 to 30 years, and bearing constantly and in abundance. 
 Peaches are produced in immense quantities on the light 
 soils near the Atlantic coast, m the States of New Jersey 
 
FRUITS. 861 
 
 and Dela ware. The crop of a single proprietor often amounts 
 to $5,000, and sometimes exceeds $20,000 annually. 
 
 None but the choicest kinds are there cultivated, and 
 these are innoculated upon the seedling when a year old. 
 They are transplanted at two and three, and are worn out, 
 cut down and burned at the age of from six to twelve years. 
 The proper distance for them to stand, is sixteen to twenty 
 feet apart, according to situation, soil and exposure. Con- 
 stant cultivation of the ground is necessary for their best 
 growth and bearing. 
 
 Diseases. — The peach is liable to many diseases, and to 
 the depredations of numerous enemies. The Yellows is the 
 most fatal in its attacks, and this can only be checked by 
 the immediate removal of the diseased tree from the orchard 
 Of the insects, the grub or peach worm is the most destruc- 
 tive. It punctures the bark, and lays its egg beneath it at 
 the surface of the earth. When discovered, it should be 
 killed with a penknife or pointed wire. A good preventive 
 is to form a cone of earth a foot high around the trunk about 
 the first of June ; or if made of leached ashes, it would be 
 better. Remove this heap in October, and the bark wil . 
 harden below the reach of the fly the following year. 
 
 Varieties. — The best kinds in succession, from early to 
 late, are the Red and Yellow Rareripes, Malacatune, Early 
 York, Early Tillotson, George the Fourth, Morris' Red and 
 White Rareripes, Malta and Royal George. These succeed 
 each other from August to October. 
 
 THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE. 
 
 These are of the peach family, but generally inferior as a 
 fruit and much more difficult of cultivation, being peculiarly 
 liable to casualties and insects. They require the same 
 kinds of soil and cultivation as the peach, with a warmer 
 exposure. As they are propagated solely as an article of 
 luxury and are not wanted or general use, I omit further 
 notice of them. 
 
 THE OlATE (Olea europaea). 
 
 This, next to <he fig and goplier. is the eafrliest tree men- 
 tioned in history. (Gen. 8, 11.) It was ever a favorite with 
 sacred and profane writers, and it is consecrated by both, and 
 among all nations Avherever cultivated, as the cherished 
 emblem of peace, prosperity and abundance. 
 
 It grows spomaneously in the temperate regions of Asia 
 
262 AMERIC/-N AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and Africa; and from the earliest period, it lias beer ji-pa- 
 gated in the soutberu part of Europe. It has contributed 
 largely to the support of the human race, in every age of 
 the world ; and it continues at the present time, to yield large 
 quantities of food, materials for the arts, and immense reve- 
 nues wherever it is made an object of attention. The small 
 kingdom of Naples exports yearly 7,000,000 gallons of olive 
 oil. The value of the aimual production in France as early 
 as 1788, was $15,000,000 ; yet she has since increased hei 
 consumption by importation from abroad, to the extent of 
 §6,000,000 in a single year. 
 
 The olive was introduced into the Carolinas soon after their 
 first settlement by European emigrants. Richard Blome, 
 an old ^\^:iter who describes the country in 1678, says, 
 " the olive trees brought from Portugal and Bermuda in- 
 crease exceedingly, and will produce a quantity of oil." 
 Gov. Glum, states that " he lost an olive by intense frost in 
 January, 1747, of 18 inches diameter;" and Dr. Milligan, 
 of Cliarleston, adds in 1763, " we have plenty of olives." 
 
 The tree is easily propagated by cuttings, layers or seeds ; 
 and it is a hardy, self-sustaining tree when not exposed to very 
 severe frosts. It will even remain uninjured in this country, 
 under an exposure that cuts down the sweet orange and 
 other trees reared among us successfully. It may perhaps, 
 find obstacles to its productiveness in our protracted, sultry 
 weather, remote from the sea ; yet vre have a long belt of 
 coast and sterile hilly lands at the South, adapted to its 
 growth, over much of whose area it will undoubtedly flour- 
 ish. It loves a thin, dry, calcareous soil, and when once 
 planted, it will, with little care, continue to yield large 
 arumal returns for centuries. The olive is among the 
 lonffest-lived trees, whether ^vild or domesticated, and though 
 hitherto comparatively but little cultivated among us, is wor- 
 thy of the particular attention of southern agriculturists. 
 
 Uses. — The olive furnishes more fixed oil than all other 
 vesctables combined, and this is of very extensive use, both 
 in the arts and as an article of diet. The fruit is crushed in a 
 mill and reduced to a pulp, and is then subjected to pressiire, 
 The oil floats on the surface :)f the expressed liquid, and 
 after being drawn off and clariiled, is fit for use. A portion 
 of tlie best is bottled for the table, and the remaindei 
 is put up in barrels for coarser uses. A few comparatively, 
 are reserved for pickling, and are much relished by those 
 accustomed tJ them 
 
FRUITS. J63 
 
 THE ORANGE . 
 
 The wild or hitter mange is found in Florida, in groves 
 60metimes of thirty miles in extent. From its existing in nc 
 other part of North America, in its natural state, it is sup- 
 posed to have been planted there by the Spaniards, in the 
 uarly settlement of the country. This is the more probable, 
 :.-o;n its ready propagation, and the deterioration of the fruit 
 from neglect. These native stocks are hardy, and are usu- 
 ally taken for grafting, or more frequently, innoculating 
 v/iih the best cultivated varieties. They afford a taller, har- 
 dier tree, and more vigorous and glossy foliage than the 
 cultivated. They bear a profusion of fruit which, however, is 
 worthless. 
 
 There are many choice kinds, among which, are the "Man- 
 darin, the Navel, the Chinese, the Blood-red, the Sweet- 
 skinned, the Pear-shaped and the Seedless. They grow 
 in profusion in Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, S. Carolina and 
 Texas, Avhere they afford a remunerating crop to the planter. 
 The soil most propitious to the orange, is moist yet not 
 wet, varying between a loamy sand and light clay, but 
 loose and fertile. 
 
 They are propagated by layers, suckers or seeds ; but are 
 usually innoculated or grafted. They require little attention 
 except to guard them from frost where the climate is severe. 
 Most of the orange groves in Florida, were killed down to 
 the roots by severe frosts, in the winter of 1834 and '35. B:it 
 they generally withstand the effects of frost near the Guif 
 coast. The worst enemy to tlie orange tree in this country, 
 has been the Coccidce or hark lice, which fasten themselves 
 by a thin pellicle or covering to the bark, beneath which a fa- 
 mily of these insects grow up, and gradually extend their pro- 
 geny by the same means, over the whole trunk and branches, 
 No effectual remedy has been discovered against their rava- 
 ges ; and many extensive plantations have been cut to the 
 ground, in the hope that fresh shoois and a more vigorous 
 growth would withstand their dele:;erious effects. 
 
 The produce from the orange tree is lar-^i-e, avera<'"ing in 
 the best specimens, under favorable circumstances, 2.000 
 per annum. "Mr. Alvarez had a tree on the St. Johns, in 
 Florida, which, in 1829, produced 6,500; and one tree in 
 the same neighborhood, is said to have yielded 10,000 m one 
 year." {Browne' s Trees of America) They yield a luscious. 
 healthful fruit, and their cultiva: an should be extended 
 
B64 AMERICAN VGRICULTURE. 
 
 wherever the soil and climat3 will admit of their successfo) 
 propagation. 
 
 THE FIG. 
 
 The fig is among the earliest cultivated and most popu- 
 lar fruits. It existed in Paradise, and its fruit was 
 undoubtedly among the choicest that ministered to the 
 support of our first parents. "VVe read of it in the oldest 
 historical writers, both sacred and profane ; and its popular- 
 ity has descended to the present day, wherever the soil and 
 climate admit of its cultivation. 
 
 It is readily propagated by suckers and cuttings, from 
 either roots or branches, or it may be grown from the seed. 
 It grows rapidly and Avith slight attention, but seldom reaches 
 a large size. From 20 to 25 feet in' height and diameter, 
 may be deemed the average size of American trees ; but 
 they have been knoA^Ti elscAvhere, when arrived at an advan- 
 ced age, to have doubled these dimensions. 
 
 The Banyan Tree of India {Ficus benghalensis), that 
 propagates itself by dropping its extended branches to the 
 ground, where they take root, and themselves become new 
 trunks, for their further almost indefinite extension, till they 
 overspread acres, is a species of fig, bearing an edible fruit 
 of the size of a hickory nut. This and some other of the 
 species furnish a gum from their sap, somewhat resembling 
 caoutchouc or India rubber. 
 
 The soil best suited to the fig, is light, rich and moist. 
 It is subject to few diseases and casualties, except from the 
 scorching efiects of too hot a sun. It loves a moist climate, 
 and flourishes best in the neighborhood of the sea coast. 
 
 Tlie Jig is extensively cultivated in the Gulf States, and 
 grows luxuriantly in the open air, as far north as 36° ; and 
 I have seen some of the hardier kinds flourishing in the open 
 grounds near Baltimore. When protected by walls in sum- 
 mer and the trunks guarded properly in Avinter, it matures 
 its fruit in New York. Florida, southern Mississippi, Lou 
 isiana and Texas, may be considered its most productive 
 locality Avithin the Uniau. Here it flourishes with scarcely 
 any attention, and is sii^ ject to iew casualties or diseases 
 The fruit ripens from June to October, according to the soil. 
 B-.tuation, and the varieties reared. They usually pro 
 duce two crops in one season, and in its most southerly habi 
 tat, three. The fruit pushes directly out from the branche» 
 
FRUITS. 266 
 
 and twigs, apparently without blossoming, though there is a 
 minute flower concealed within the fruit. 
 
 The varieties are almost innumerable, and most of them 
 delicious when grown under favorable circumstances. They 
 are also healthful, and unlike the orange, are a substantial 
 food. In other countries, among such people as subsist on 
 light, meagre diet, they materially contribute to the suste- 
 nance of the inhabitants. They are a gentle laxative, and 
 are frequently used as a mild emollient. 
 
 Their ijroduction is this country has been limited almost 
 entirely to their use while fresh. We lack the long-contin- 
 ued, hot, dry ^veather necessary to cure them in the open 
 air. It is not improbable, that artificial means may be used 
 for preparing them for profitable export to those sections of 
 the country where they are not raised. In this view, they 
 may be deemed an important addition to the exports of our 
 most southern territory, at some future day. 
 
 THE GRAPE. 
 
 The details for the proper rearing of this fruit demand a 
 volume, but I can only refer to some prominent points in its 
 cultivation. It grows wild and in abundance in many parts 
 of the United States, and of tolerable quality, climbing over 
 trees, rocks and fences in great luxuriance. I have seen 
 in the eastern States, a dozen excellent native varieties of 
 white, black and purple, of diff"erent .sizes, shapes and flavor, 
 growing within the space of a single furlong. So abundant 
 were the clustering vines on the Atlantic coast in the vicinity 
 of Narraganset Bay, that the old Northmen who discovered, 
 and for a short time occupied the country in the 12th century, 
 gave it the appropriate name of Vinland or the Land of 
 Vines. The choicer kinds require loose, marly soils, with 
 warm, sunny exposures and proper trimming. Thus culti- 
 vated, they are often raised with profit. The more choice 
 and delicate kinds of the imported varieties, must have pro- 
 tection in winter and glass heat in summer, and are therefore 
 o.'.Uy suited to a well-arranged conservatory. 
 
 Varieties. — The best American kinds are the Isabella and 
 Catawba for the middle, and the Scuppernong for the south- 
 ern States. North of latitude 41- 30, neither of the two 
 former ripen certainly, except in long and warm seasons; 
 and it is better for the cultivator within this range, to select 
 some of the hardiest and best wild grapes of his own lati- 
 tiide, for out door propagation. Grafting a foreign variety 
 12 
 
266 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 on a hardy, native stock, has been found to give a choic« 
 fruit, in great abundance, and with more certainty than iouid 
 be secured by au entire exotic. Of the European, the vari- 
 eties of Ciias.^elas, Black Hamburgh, and Wliite Muscat of 
 Alexandria, are the best. In a good grapery either with or 
 witliout artificial heat and proper attention, these can undoubt- 
 edly be raised at a price.which would yield to the horticulturist 
 an adequate return ; and for this purpose, they are the best 
 kinds to propagate, furnishing a long succession of fruit in its 
 finest variety. 
 
 THE CURRANT 
 
 Is the first in importance of the small garden fruits. In 
 the culinary department it has ma.^y valuable uses ; and it 
 is a wholesome and delicious fruit when ripe. It gro\vs 
 with the greatest certainty and luxuriance, either from the 
 suckers or cuttings. The ground should be rich and well 
 worked, and the bushes set at least six feet apart. They 
 require plenty of sun and air like all other frnirs. The red 
 is the most common kind, but the large Dutch AVhite is 
 sweeter and more delicious, a great bearer, larger and as 
 easily cultivated. The English Black is very productive, of 
 great size, and makes a fine jelly. It has peculiar efficacy 
 in sickness. The usual mode of planting currants near 
 fences, is objectionable. They should stand out where the 
 gardener can get around them, and be properly trimmed, or 
 they soon get too thick. This improves the fruit, and insects 
 and vermin are more eflectually prevented from harboring 
 among the bushes. 
 
 THE GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 This makes a palatable tart, and as a ripe fruil, possesses 
 some excellence. It is easily raised, and prefers a cool, 
 moist and rich soil in a sheltered position. It has beer 
 brought to the highest perfection in the north of England 
 and Scotland, under the influence of their cool weather and 
 interminable fogs and rains. It has long been cultivated in 
 America, but with little success ; for though frequently 
 abundant, the flavor is indifferent in compdrison with Amer- 
 ican fruits generally. For those who design to cultivate 
 them, the nursery catalogues are a s:. fficient reference. A^ 
 a tart, they are inferior to the rhubarb or pie-p'ant, which 
 can be grown with little trouble or expense, ui great profu- 
 sion iu every fertile and we]l-t.;lled garden ; and this is in 
 
FRUITS. 267 
 
 season from Mi^y till August, when appl^"*. are sufficiently 
 advanced to take its place. 
 
 THE RASPBERRY. 
 
 Both the Red and Black Raspberries are favorably known 
 as a wild American fruit. As a market fruit near the 
 large cities, it is very profitable. It prefers a light, warm, 
 dry soil, rich and thoroughly loosened. The best varieties 
 grown are the Red and Yellow Antwerps, which produce 
 abundantly, and are of fine flavor ; the Franconia, a fine, 
 large, purple fruit ; and the Fastolf, a late English Red va- 
 riety of superior size and flavor. The above kinds are all 
 hardy in latitude 43° north. They are propagated by 
 suckers, and should be planted three feet apart if in hills, 
 and four feet if in rows. The stalk lives but two years. 
 The first season it shoots up from the root, and makes its 
 growth. The next spring it should' be topped to three feet 
 in height, the old stock cut out, and the bearing ones 
 (which ought never to exceed three or four in a clump), 
 should be securely tied to a stake or trellis. If the ground 
 be well hoed, they will bear profusely. 
 
 THE STRAWBERRY. 
 
 This delicious and wholesome fruit is rapidly spreadino" 
 in garden cultivation throughout the United States. It will 
 flourish in almost any good soil which is not too cold oi 
 wet. The plants should be set in I'ows two feet asunder, 
 and one foot apart in the rows, kept clear from weeds, and 
 the runners cut off once or twice in the growing season. 
 Beds will last from three to six years, depending in a mea- 
 sure, on the mode of cultivation. The fruit is in season 
 from three to six weeks, according to their kinds. Many 
 horticulturists have found ditliculty in procurino- an abun- 
 dant supply of the strawberry, which is probably owine (when 
 other circumstances are favorable), to an improper arranoe- 
 ment of the male and female plants. Hovey's Seed lino- and 
 several others demand the presence ot the male plant from 
 some other variety, to fertilize them The most popular 
 for the market are sub-varieties of the Scarlet, Pine, Chili, 
 and Wood. The Methven Castle, Keene's, Hovey's Seed- 
 lings and Boston Pine are among the most highly celebrated 
 
 THE AMERICAN CRANBERRY (Oxycocns macrocarpus) 
 
 Yields one of the most dellciou; of our tarts. It is found 
 in great abundance in many low swampy grounds in ovj 
 
268 AMERICAN AGRICULTTRE. 
 
 northern and southern States ; and although it has been 
 gathered from its native haunts from the eail'est settlement 
 of the country, yet it is only within a few years that it has 
 become an object of cultivation. Experience has probably 
 not yet fully developed the most certain means of attaining 
 the greatest success, but enough is already known, to as- 
 sume that they are a profitable object of atrention to the 
 farmer. 
 
 There seems to be several varieties of the cranberry, 
 which differ in size, color, shape and flavor. Some of these 
 are worth much more in the market than others ; and, occa- 
 sionally, the choicest have sold as high as $3.50 per bushel. 
 
 Soil and cultivation. — They are generally planted on 
 low, moist meadows, which are prepared by thorough ploAV- 
 ing and harrowing. They are then set in drills by slips 
 and roots, usually in the spring, but sometimes in autunm, 
 about 20 inches apart, and at distances of about three inches. 
 They require to have the weeds kept out, and the ground 
 stirred with a light cultivator or hoe, and they will soon 
 overrim and occupy the whole ground. An occasional top 
 dressing of swamp muck is beneficial. In this way, 300 
 bushels per acre have been produced in Massachusetts, 
 which were worth in the market from one to two dollars 
 per bushel. Capt. Hall, of the same State, raises them in 
 a swamp, first giving it a top dressing of sand or gravel to 
 kill the grass, when he digs holes fottr feet apart, and inserts 
 in each, a sod of cranberry plants about one foot square. 
 From these sods they gradually spread till the whole sur- 
 face is occupied. 
 
 The cranberry is sometimes killed by late or early frosts ; 
 and it has been suggested, that these can be avoided by 
 having the fields so arranged, when frosts may be expected, 
 as to be slightly covered with water. The cranberry is 
 gathered when sutficiently ripe, by raking them from the 
 bushes. They are cleaued from the stems, leaves, and im- 
 perfect berries, by washing and rolling them over- smooth 
 boards set on an inclined plane, in the same manner as im- 
 perfect shot are assorted. After this, they are put into tight 
 casks and filled with water. If stored in a cool place, the 
 water changed at proper intervals, and the impeifect berries 
 occasionally thrown out, they will keep till the following 
 summer. They will frequently bring $20 per barrel in 
 European markets. The raking of the plant in harvesting 
 
ROTATION OP UilOPS. 26J 
 
 is beneficial rather than otherwise ; for though some of the 
 plants are pulled out and others broken, their places are 
 more than supplied by the subsequent growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XII, 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS AIDS' AND OBJECTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 I HAVE thus far treated of soils and manures, the prepara- 
 tion of the irround, and the ordinary cultivated field crops, as 
 fully as my limits permit. It remains briefly to add such 
 incidental aids and objects of agriculture, as could not ap- 
 propriately be embraced under either of the foregoing heads. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS-ITS USES AND EFFECTS. 
 
 The practice of rotation in crops is an agricultural im^ 
 provement of very modern date. It is first mentioned in 
 Dickson's Treatise on Agriculture, published in Edinburgh, 
 in 1777. For more than a century it has been partially 
 practiced in Flanders, and perhaps in some other adjoining 
 and highly-cultivated countries. It was afterwards intro- 
 duced, and imperfectly carried out on a limited scale in the 
 Norfolk district in Great Britain ; but its general introduc- 
 tion did not take place till the beginning of the present 
 century. The system of rotation is one of the first and most 
 important principles of general husbandry, and it cannot be 
 omitted without manifest disadvantage and loss. Its place 
 was formerly supplied by naked fallows. This practice 
 consists, as I liave before shown, in giving the soil an occa- 
 sional or periodical rest, in which no crop is taken off, and 
 the soil is allowed to produce just what it pleases or nothing 
 at all, for one or more years, when it is refreshed and invig- 
 orated for the production of its accustomed useful crops. 
 This system, it will be perceived, implies the loss of the in- 
 come from the soil for a certain portion of the time, and it can 
 be tolerated only where there is more land t han can be cul- 
 tivated. 
 
870 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Modern agricultural science has detected, in part at least, 
 the true theory of the necessity for rotation. It has been 
 discovered, that every crop robs the soil of a part of its ele- 
 ments, (fiftesn or sixteen elementary substances combined in 
 various forms and proportions), and that no two dissimilar 
 crops abstract these elements or their compounds from the 
 soil, in the same proportions. Thus, if we consider the 
 amount of the salts taken out of the soil by a crop of turneps, 
 amounting to five tons of roots per acre ; of barley, 38 
 bushels ; one ton each of dry clover or rye grass ; and of 
 wheat, 25 bushels, we shall find the great disproportions of 
 the various elements, which the ditferent vegetables have 
 appropriated. As given by Johnston they will be in pounds 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Turnep 
 Roots. 
 
 BARLEV. 
 
 Red 
 Clover. 
 
 Rve 
 
 Grass. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash . . 
 
 145.0 
 
 5.6 
 5.8 
 2.1 
 3.6 
 0.5 
 23.6 
 1.2 
 4 2 
 0.4 
 
 4.0 
 1.1 
 
 12.9 
 1.8 
 3.4 
 
 90.0 
 2.8 
 3.7 
 1.5 
 
 45.0 
 12.0 
 63.0 
 7.5 
 0.3 
 80 
 100 
 15.0 
 8.0 
 
 23.5 
 9.0 
 
 16.5 
 2.0 
 0.3 
 
 62.0 
 80 
 0.6 
 0.1 
 
 3.3 
 3.5 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 0.4 
 6.0 
 0.3 
 0.6 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 0.9 
 7.2 
 1.0 
 2.7 
 86.0 
 1.0 
 5.0 
 0.9 
 
 233.0 
 
 
 64 3 
 
 96.6 
 
 
 • 45 3 
 
 149.0 
 
 Magnesia 
 Alumina . 
 
 15.5 
 
 2.-2 
 
 "^ fi 
 
 32.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 299.2 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 49.0 
 Phosphoric do.. 2-2.4 
 Chlorine 14.5 
 
 72.3 
 51.5 
 25.6 
 
 970 9* 
 
 Besides the elements above noted, all crops absorb oxide 
 of iron, and nearly all oxide of manganese and iodine ; and 
 of the organic elements associated in various combinations, 
 they appropriate about 97 per cent, of their entire dried 
 weight. Now, it is not only necessary that all the above 
 materials exist in the soil, but that they arc also to he found 
 ifi a form precisely adapted to the xoants cf the growing 
 pla7it. That they exist in every soil, in some condition, to 
 au amomit large enough to afford the quantity required by 
 the crop, can hardly be doubted ; but that they are all in a 
 form to supply the full demands of a luxuriant crop, is pro- 
 bably true of .such only as are found, under favorable cir- 
 cumstances of season and climate, to have produced the 
 largest burthens. 
 
 If a succession of any given crops are gathered and 
 carried off the land, without the occasional addition of 
 manures, they will be found gradually to diminish in quan- 
 tity, till they reach a point when they will scarcely pay the 
 expenses of cultivation. I mean to be understood as affirm- 
 ing this of all crops and all soils, however naturally fertile 
 • This is exclusive of the turnep tops. 
 
EOTATIOK OF CROPS. 271 
 
 the latter may be ; iinless they are such as receive an annual 
 or occasional dressing from the overflow of enriching floods, 
 or are artificially . rigated with such water as holds the 
 necessary fertilizing matters in solution ; and such are not 
 exceptions, but receive their manure in another form, 
 unaided by the hand of the husbandman. Neither are old 
 meadows (mowing lands filled Avith the natural or unculti- 
 vated grasses, or whatever of useful forage they choose to 
 bear), exceptions to this rule ; although they may part with 
 a portion of their annual crop in the hay, which is removed, 
 and which is not returned as manure, and by a partial rest 
 or pasturage, appear to sustain their original fertility. But 
 if the true character of the various plants which they pro- 
 duce, were accurately observed, aiid all of which are indis- 
 crimiiiately embraced under the general head of grass or 
 hay, it would be found that the plants gradually change 
 from year to year ; and while some predominate in one 
 season, others take their place the year succeeding, and 
 these again are supplanted by others in an unceasing round 
 of natural rotation. 
 
 Another illustration of rotation may be observed in the 
 succession of forest trees that shopt up on the same soil, to 
 supply the jjlaces of such of their predecessors as have de- 
 cayed or been cut down. Thus, the pine and other of the 
 conifercB, are frequently found to usurp the place of the oak, 
 chestnut, and other deciduous trees. This sometimes occurs 
 only partially, but in repeated instances which have come 
 within my notice, forests have been observed to pass entirely 
 from one order of the vegetable creation to its remote oppo- 
 site, the seeds or germs of wiiieh (tlie product of an ancient 
 rotation), had been lying dormant for centuries, perhaps, 
 waiting a favorable condition of circumstances and soil to 
 spring into life. 
 
 Many choice secondary bottom lands, and others munifi- 
 cently supplied by -ature with all the materials of fertility, 
 have, by a long succession of crops, been reduced to a con- 
 dition of comparative sterility. Yet it "will have been found 
 in the progress of this exhaustion, that after the soil ceased 
 to give an adequate return of one crop, as of wheat, corn, 
 or tobacco, it would still yield largely of some other genus 
 which was adapted to it. These lands, when thus reduced, 
 and turned out to commons for a few years, v/ill again give 
 crops much larger than those which closed their former 
 bearing career, proving that nature has been silently ai 
 
272 vMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 work in renovating the land for l jrther use. The whole 
 sourse of her operations is not yet known ; but it is satis- 
 factorily ascertained, that she is incessantly engaged in pro- 
 ducing those changes in the soil, which enable it to eontri- 
 bute to vegetable sustenance. Enough of lime, or potash, 
 or silica may have been disengaged to yield all that may be 
 required for one crop, which by that crop is principally 
 taken up, and if another of the same kind follows in quick 
 succession, there will be a deficiency ; yet if a different crop 
 succeed, there may be found enough of all the materials it 
 needs, fully to mature it. A third now takes its place, de- 
 manding materials for nutrition, in forms and proportions 
 unlike either which has preceded it, and by the time a re- 
 currence to the first is necessary, the soil may be in a con- 
 dition again to yield a remunerating return. These remarks 
 apply equally to such soils as have, and such as have not 
 received manures ; unless, as is seldom the case, an accurate 
 science should add them in quantity and character {specific 
 manures), fully to supply the exhaustion. The addition or 
 withholding of manures, only accelerates or retards this 
 effect. 
 
 Another prominent advantage of rotation, is in its en- 
 abling such crops to have the benefit of manure, as cannot 
 receive it without hazard or injury if applied directly upon 
 them. Thus wheat and the other white grains, are liable 
 to overgrowth of straw, rust, and mildew, if manured with 
 recent dung ; yet this is applied without risk to corn, roots 
 and most of the hoed crops ; and when tempered by one 
 season's exhaustion, and the various changes and combina- 
 tions which are effected in the soil, it safely ministers in 
 profusion to all the wants of the smaller cereal giains. An 
 additional beuetit of rotation is, by bringing the land into 
 hoed crops at proper intervals, it is cleared of any troublesome 
 weeds which may infest it. And a still further advantage 
 may be found, in cutting off the appropriate food of insects 
 and worms, which, in the course of time, by having a full 
 supply of their necessary aliment, and especially if undis- 
 turbed in their haunts, will ofttimes become so numerous 
 as seriously to interfere with the labors of the farmer. A 
 variation of the crop, exposure of the insects to the frosts, and 
 the change of cultivation which a rotation insures, will 
 make serious iuroads up:n their numbers, if 't does not ef- 
 fectually destroy them. 
 
 The noxious excretio..s of plants, a fancilul theory firsi 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 273 
 
 broached and ingeniously defended by the powerful name of 
 Decandolle, and which the closest scrutiny of scientific ob* 
 servers since, has pronounced unworthy of credit, does not 
 form another reason for rotatioi It is because principles 
 essential to successful vegetation have been abstracted, not 
 that others hurtful to it have beer added to the soil by pre- 
 ceding crops, which renders rotation necessary. 
 
 From all that has hitherto been learned on the subject 
 of rotation, either from science or practice, two general prin- 
 ciples may be assumed as proper to guide every farmer in 
 his course of cropping. First, to cultivate as great a variety 
 of plants as his soil, circumstances and market will justify ; 
 and second, to have the same or any similar species follow 
 each other at intervals as remote as may be consistent with 
 his interests. From the foregoing observations on the sub- 
 ject, it is evident that tiie proper system of rotation for 
 any farmer to adopt, must depend on all the conditions by 
 which he is surrounded, and that it should vary according 
 to these varying circumstances. 
 
 It is a practice with some to alternate wheat and clover, 
 giving only one year to the former and one or two years to 
 the latter. This will answer for a longtime on soils adapted 
 to each crop, provided there be added to the clover, suah 
 manures as contribute to its own growth, and such also, as 
 are exhausted by wheat. The saline manures, ashes, lime, 
 &c., may be added directly to the wheat without injury ; but 
 gypsum should be sown upon the clover, as its benefits are 
 scarcely perceptible on wheat, while upon clover, they are 
 of the greatest utility. But there are objections to this 
 limited variety, as it does not allow an economical or advan- 
 tageous use of barn-yard manures, which, from their com- 
 bining all the elements of fertility, are the most certain in 
 their general effect. In different countries of Europe, fields 
 which have been used for an oft-recurring clover crop, have 
 become clover-sick, as it is familiarly termed. The plant will 
 not grow luxuriantly, sometimes refusing to vegetate, or if 
 it starts upon its vegetable existence, it does so apparently 
 with the greatest reluctance and suffering, and ekes out a 
 puny, thriftless career, unattended with a single advantage 
 to its owner. This is simply the result of the exhaustion 
 of one or more of the indispensable elements of the plant. It 
 it be desirable to pursue this two-course system for any 
 length of time, nothing short of the application of all such 
 inorsanic matters ..i; are taken up by the crops, will sus' 
 12* 
 
274 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tain the land in a fertile condition. I subjoin, simply 
 for the purpose of illustration, and the guidance of such per- 
 sons as may have little experience in rotation, some sys- 
 tems which have been pursued with advantage in this country. 
 
 1°. On a grass sod broken up, with a heavy dressing of 
 barn-yard manure, or muck, ashes, and lime if necessary. 
 First year, corn with gypsum scattered over the plants after 
 the first hoeing, which should be done immediately upon its 
 making its appearance ; second year, roots with manure ; 
 third year, wheat if adapted to the soil, with guano ; if^ot 
 then barley, rye or oats, with grass or clover seed or both ; 
 fourth year, meadow, which may be continued at pleasure, or 
 till the grass or clover gives way. The meadows may be 
 followed by pasturing if desired. Clover alone should not 
 remain over two years as meadow, but for pasture it maybe 
 continued longer. 
 
 2°. First year, corn or roots on a grass or clover ley with 
 manure ; second, oats and clover, with a top dressing of 10 to 
 20 bushels of crushed bones per acre ; third, clover pastured 
 to last of June, then grown until fully matured in August, 
 when it is turned over, and a liglit dressing of compost and 
 40 to 80 bushels of leached ashes spread over it, and wheat 
 and Timothy seed sown about loth September. If desired, 
 clover is sown the following spring. This gives for the 
 fourth year, wheat ; fifth and sixth, and if the grass continues 
 good, the seventh year also, meadow. 
 
 3°. First, corn on a grass sod heavily manured, and a half 
 gill of ashes and gypsum mixed at the rate of two of the 
 former to one of the latter, and put in the hill, and a less 
 quantity of pure gypsum added after the corn is first hoed 
 second, oats or barley, with lime at the rate of 20 or 30 
 bushels per acre, sown broadcast after the oats and harrowed 
 in ;^third, peas or beans, removed early, and afterwards sown 
 with wheat ; fourth, wheat with a light top-dressing of com- 
 post, guano and saline manivres in the spring, and clover, or 
 grass and clover seed ; fifth, two or three years in meadow 
 and pastiue. 
 
 4°. First, wheat on a grass sod ; second, clover ; third, 
 [ndian corn, heavily manured ; fourth, barley or oats, with 
 grass or clover seed ; fifth, and following, grass or clover, 
 with guano. 
 
 5°. A good rotation for light, sandy lands, is first, corn 
 well manured and cut off ^arly and removed from the ground, 
 which i^im nfidiately so\' i with rjc, or the rye hoed in be- 
 
FRUITS. 275 
 
 tween the hills s^ .^oncl, rye with clovt/ sown in the spring, 
 and gypsum added when fairly up ; third, clover cut for hay. 
 or pastured, the latter being much more advantageous for 
 the land. 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 Whatever plants infest the farmer's grounds, and are 
 worthless as objects of cultivation, are embraced under the 
 general name of weeds. In a more comprehensive sense, all 
 plants, however useful they may be as distinct or separate ob- 
 je<7ts of attention, when scattered through a crop of other 
 useful plants to their manifest detriment, may be considered 
 a-nd treated as Aveeds. Perfect cultivation consists, in having 
 nothing upon the ground but what is intended for the benefit 
 of the farmer ; and it implies a total destruction of every spe- 
 cies of vegetation, which does not contribute directly to his 
 advantage. 
 
 In China and some parts of Flanders, the fields are en- 
 tirely free from weeds. This is the result of long-continued, 
 cleanly cultivation, by which every weed has been extirpa- 
 ted ; a scrupulous attention to the purity of the seed, and 
 the sole use of urine, poitdrette and saline manures. This 
 object is scarcely attainable in this country, except on fields 
 peculiarly situated. The principal causes of the propagation 
 of Aveeds among us, is the negligent system of tillage and 
 the use of unfermented vegetable manures. By heating or 
 decomposition, all the seeds incorporated in the manure heap 
 are destroyed. Btit there is a great loss in applying manure 
 thus changed, after having parted with large portions of its 
 active, nutritive gases, unless it has been protected by a 
 thick covering of turf or vegetable mold during the progress 
 of fermentation. For many soils and crops, undecomposed 
 manures are far the most valuable. But they should always 
 be applied to the hoed crops, and such as will receive the at- 
 tention of the farmer for the utter extinction of ""/cods. A 
 single weed which is allowed to mature, may become 500 
 the following year, and 10,000 the year after. 
 
 The cleansing of land from weeds, is almost the sole justi- 
 fication for naked fallows. When a large crop of them have 
 by any means obtained possession of the ground, they ought 
 to be turned into the soil with the plow before ripening their 
 eeed, and they thus become a means . of enriching rather 
 than of impoverishing the ground. Meadows which have 
 become foul with iiselegs plants, j .g.y be turned into pasture; 
 
276 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and if there are plants which cattle and horses will not eat, 
 let them first crop it closely, and then follow with sheep, 
 whiah are much more indiscriminate in their choice of food, 
 and consmne many plants which are rejected by other 
 animals. Whatever escapes the maw of sheep, should 
 be extirpated by the hand oi _oe before seeding. The 
 utmost care also, should be used in the selection of seed, 
 and none sown but such as has been entirely freed from any 
 foreign seeds. 
 
 The Canada thistle is the only weed which has taxed 
 the ingenuity of vigilant farmers in effecting its removal. 
 This is, however, within the power of every one, ■who will 
 bestow upon it a watchful attention for a single season. 
 The plant should be allowed to attain nearly its full growth, 
 or till it comes fully into flower, when it has drawn largely 
 itpon the vitality of its roots. If the bed be large, the plow 
 should be used to turn every particle of the plant under the 
 surface, and let the hoe or spade complete what has escaped 
 the plow. If small or difficult to reach with the plow, use 
 the hoe or spade to cut ofi' the crown of the root ; and if in 
 blossom, let the tops be burnt to prevent the possibility of 
 any of the seeds ripening. As soon as the tops again make 
 their appearance above ground, repeat the plo^viug or spading. 
 Continue this till the nnddle of autumn, when the land will 
 be free from them, and in fine condition to yield a crop of 
 wheat. If they harbor in fences or walls, these should 
 either be removed, or the thistle followed to its roots, and 
 kept constantly cut into the ground, when it will not long 
 survive. 
 
 An abundance of weeds implies negligence of cultivation 
 and generally, a deficiency of manures is equally conspicu- 
 ous. The weeds in this case are kindly provided by nature, 
 partially to sustain a fertility which could not otherwise long 
 subsist. When found in any considerable quantity, plow 
 them in before the seed is formed ; and they are frequently 
 equivalent u'hen thus treated, to a good crop of clover or 
 other dressing of green manures. 
 
 FIBROUS COVEEING OR GURNEYISM 
 
 Is the name given to the practice (conspicuously brought 
 into notice recently by Mr. Gurney of England) of cov^ering 
 grass lands with straw or any similar vegetable matter. It 
 has received the sanction of many eminent agriculturists 
 abroad ; and for the purpose of throwing every improvement 
 
FRUITS. an 
 
 Before Jtir readeis which may possibly benefit them, I sub- 
 join tlie followuio- from an article on the subject, in the 
 Britisli Farmer's Magazine, 
 
 " The fact of a remarkable increase of vegetation from 
 fibrous covermg, has now been fully confirmed by numerous 
 and careful experiments. In every instance where the rela- 
 tive quantities of grass were cut and weighed, that operated 
 on by this agency showed an increase of six to one over that 
 of other parts of the fields without manure, and of five to one 
 above that where guano, farm-yard manure, wood ashes, or 
 pigs'-house dung had been applied against it. The quantity 
 of hay obtained from the grass was in the same ratio ; the 
 mean of the results from different farms, shows that a ton and 
 a half was obtained where Gurneyism had been used, and 
 only from four to five hundred weight where it had not. In 
 many cases the grass was so slight on the parts of the fields 
 not covered, that it could with difhculty be mowed, and in 
 some cases was considered not worth cutting at all. 
 
 The question of quantity is indeed settled. The next 
 question, its comparative goodness, seems also determined. 
 Mr. Gurney, at former meetings, gave it as his opinion that 
 the quality was not inferior to that of other grass ; this 
 opinion, he said, was founded on botanical observation and 
 careful chemical analysis. In all eases, cattle eat this grass 
 as readily as they do that of ordinary production, and ap- 
 pear to do as well on it. It has moreover been observed 
 that the milk and cream of cows fed on it have both in- 
 creased in quantity and improved in quality. 
 
 Another \ery interesting and important fact is developed 
 that this action tends to improve the herbage, by favoring 
 the growth of the more valuable kinds of plants In 
 almost every instance it has very much increased the growth 
 of the Dutch clover. In Belgium, and many parts of the 
 midland counties of England, it is the common practice, in 
 order to destroy the couch grass, &e., to manure tAvice on 
 the green sod with active compost. The result of this prac- 
 tice is to bring up the more valuable grasses, Avhich, being 
 delicate, require the assistance of art to insure their vigor- 
 ous growth. The same results follow the action of fibrous 
 covering, but in a more rapid manner, and certainly the 
 quality of the herbage is improved. In many parts of fields 
 where the action had been induced, a beaiuiful floor of grass 
 now appears ; while on those parts left uncovered, the gi-ass 
 is very inferior 'U appearance, having a considerable qmr 
 
078 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tity of 30uch-gra5s and bent. There is no doubt, Viierefore, 
 that the quaUty of Gurneyized gras.s will be found in prac- 
 tice equal, if not superior, to that of ordinary growth. 
 
 It was thought that the action of fibrous covering wa.s 
 occasioned by retarding evaporation, and shading the soil 
 during the unusually dry season. This, however, is not the 
 case ; the .same proportional increase of vegetation has gone 
 on since the wet weather set in, and still continues. Mr. 
 Gurney stated at the last meeting that he has found fibrous 
 covering, in a late experiment dMviug the Avet weather, had 
 brought up the eaver and clovei in a barley arish, in which 
 the seeds had failed from the dry season." The kind of soil, 
 and the circumstances attending the application are not 
 stated, but I infer from the product on the ground, that it 
 was a very thin and light, and probably a dry soil. 
 
 The observation has been frequently made in this country, 
 that many half-cleared pastures, where the trees and brush 
 had been prostrated and partially burnt, leaving a heavy 
 covering of old logs and dead branches, gave a much larger 
 supply of feed than such as had been entirely cleared. All 
 the facts and attending circumstances, however, have not 
 been given with suiiicient particularity to draw any well- 
 settled conclusions ; yet from the generality of the remark 
 by observing and careful men, there is undoubtedly some 
 weight due to it. The same effect has been often claimed 
 from certain stony fields, which apparently give much larger 
 returns than others from wliich the stones had been removed. 
 
 If the results are as have been inferred, after deducting- 
 something for what observation or science may^ possibly not 
 yet have detected, I would ascribe them to two causes. 1°. 
 The gradual decomposition of the vegetable covering or 
 stone, as either may have occupied tljc ground, and the di- 
 rect food which they thus yield to the crop ; and 2"^. the 
 greater and more prolonged deposit of dew, which is going 
 forward through most of the twenty-four hours of every 
 day on large portions of the field. (Does the influence of 
 the shade and moisture promote an unusual deposits of am- 
 monia, nitric acid, or any of the fertilizing gases?) I am 
 inclined to think nitric acid is thus formed in considerable 
 quantities, and especially where there is an appreciable 
 quantity of lime in the so^'l. Both M. Longchamp, and Dr. 
 John Davy assert, '* that die presence of azotized matter is 
 not essen' ial for the generation of nitric acid or nitrous .salts, 
 but that the oxygen and azote o.' the atmosphere when con- 
 
ELECTRO CUtrVRE. 279 
 
 j}*>nsed by capillarity, will cofnbine in such proportions as to 
 form nitric acid through the agency of moisture and of neu- 
 tralizing bases, such as lime, magnesia, potash or soda." — 
 ( Urc). The condition of the soil is precisely analogous to 
 the artificial nitre beds, deducting their excess of manure 
 and calcareous matter. These exist to some extent in every 
 soil, and it is probable, i;nder similar circumstances they will 
 produce an amount of nitric acid proportionate to their 
 OAvn qiaantity, which in every case will be particularly felt 
 by the crops. We have the shade, moisture, and capillary 
 condition similar to those of the nitre beds, for the forma- 
 tion and condensing of the acid, ■which, in this instance, is 
 washed down into the soil by every successive rain, instead 
 of being carefully preserved, where formed, as is done by 
 the roofing of the beds. The question is one of sufficient 
 consequence to induce further trials, imder such circumstan- 
 ces as will be likely to afford data for estimating the precise 
 force or influence of these several causes and conditions of 
 the soil. 
 
 ELECTRO CULTTTEE. 
 
 The application of electricity to growing plants is a sub- 
 ject which has occupied the attention of scientific men for 
 many years, and apparently without arriving at any bene- 
 ficial result. That it is capable of producing unusually 
 rapid growth when applied to vegetation, we have too 
 many examples to admit of any doubt. A stream of elec 
 tricity from a galvanic battery, directed upon the seeds or 
 roots of plants under a favorable condition, has sometimes 
 produced an amount of vegetable development within a 
 few hours, which Avould have required as many days or 
 even weeks to produce, in the ordinary course of nature. 
 An egg has been hatched in one fourth the usual period of 
 incubation ; and every dairy maid is aware of the accel- 
 erated change in the milk, from the presence of a highly 
 electrical atmosphere. A thunder storm will sour milk in 
 two hours, that Avould otherwise have remained unchanged 
 fur as many days. B< t after all the efforts hitherto made 
 to secure this agent for the advancement of the farmer's 
 operations, a careful review of the entire results obtained, 
 compels us to acknowledge, that no application of electricity 
 is yet developed, which entitles it to the consideration of 
 practical agricultiuists. When we oonsider, however, the 
 power and alraos universal present • and agency of elen- 
 
280 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tricity, we must confess our confidence, that the leseawLci) 
 of science will hereafter detect some principles of its opera- 
 tion, which may be of immense value to the interests oi 
 agriculture. 
 
 Electricity is probably the principal, and perhaps the sole 
 agent in producing all chemical changes in inert matter ; 
 nor is it improbable, its agency is equally paramount in the 
 changes of vegetable, and to a certain extent also, of animal 
 life. Independent of human agency or control, it forms 
 nitric acid in the atmosphere during thunder showers, which 
 is brought down by the rain, and contributes greatly to the 
 growth of vegetables. It is also efficient in the deposit of 
 dews, and in numberless unseen ways, it silently aids in 
 those beneficent results, which gladden the heart, by fulfil- 
 ling the hopes of the careful and diligent husbandman. But 
 until something is more definitely established in relation to 
 its principles and eff'ects, the prudent agriculturist may 
 omit any atte)ition to the subject of electro culture. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS AMONG- FARMERS. 
 
 A great advantage would result to agriculture, if every 
 intelligent farmer would pursue some systematic course of 
 experiments, on such a scale, and with such variety as his 
 circumstances justified, and give the results if successful, to 
 the community. It is with experiments in farming, as was 
 said by Franklin, of a young man's owning wild lands ; " it 
 is well for every one to have some, if he don't have too 
 manyy They should be his servants, not his masters ; and 
 if intelligently managed and kept within due bounds, they 
 may be made to subserve his own interest, and by their pro- 
 mulgation, eminently promotive of the general good. It is 
 fully in accordance with another maxim of that wise head, 
 that when it is not within our power to return a favor to 
 our benefactor, it is our duty to confer one on the first ne- 
 cessitous person we meet, and thus the circle of good offices 
 will pass round. 
 
 The mutual communication of improvements of any kind 
 in agriculture, has the effect of benefiting not only the com- 
 munity generally, but even the authors themselves ; as they 
 frequently elicit corrections and modifications which mate 
 rially enhance the value of the disco\'ery. These experi 
 ments should embrace the whole subject of American agri- 
 culture ; soils and their amelioration ; manures of every 
 kind, alkaline, vegetable and pi;#:resceu;, and their effects oa 
 
THE UTILITY OF BIRDS. 281 
 
 iifFerent soils and crops ; plants of ever- -ariety, and theii 
 daptat-on to different soils, under different circumstances, 
 and with various manures ; and their relations to each other, 
 both as successors in rotation, their value for conversion into 
 animals and other forms, and their comparative ultimate 
 profit ; the production of new varieties by hybridizing and 
 otherwise ; drainins, both surface and covered ; the improve- 
 ment of implements and meclianical operations, &:c., &c. 
 They should also extend to the impartial and thorough trial 
 of the different breeds of all domestic animals, making ulti- 
 mate profit to the owner the sole test of their merits ; cross- 
 ing them in different ways, and under such general rules 
 as experience has determined as proper to be observed y 
 their treatment, food, management, &c. Although much 
 has been accomplished within the last few years, the science 
 and practice of agriculture may yet be considered almost in 
 its infancy. There is an unbounded field still open for ex- 
 ploration and research, in which the efforts of persevering 
 genius, may hereafter discover mines of immense value to 
 the human family. 
 
 THE UTILITY OF BIRDS. 
 
 These are among the most useful of the farmer's aids, in 
 securing his crops from insect depredations; and yet manifest 
 as this is to every observing man, they are frequently pursued 
 and hunted from the premises as if they were his worst ene- 
 mies. The martin, the swallow and the wren, which may 
 almost be considered among the domestics of the farm; and 
 the sparrow, tha robin, the blue bird, the wood-pecker, the 
 bob-a-link, the thrush, the oriole, and nearly all the songsters 
 of the field accomplish more for the destruction of noxious 
 flies, worms and insects, which are the real enemies of the 
 farmer, than all the nostrums ever invented. And hence 
 the folly of that absurd custom of scare-crows in the growing 
 corn-fields and orchards, to which I have before alluded. 
 The chickens and ducks do the farmer more benefit than 
 injury in the garden and pleasure grounds, if kept out of the 
 way while the young plants are coming up. A troop ol 
 .young turkeys in the field, will destroy their weight in grass- 
 hoppers every three days, duringtheiryrevalence in summer 
 or auiumn. A pair of sparrows, while feeding their youug, 
 consume over 3,000 caterpillars a week. One hundred 
 crows devour a ton and a half of grubs and ins3cts in a season. 
 Even the h?\"k and the 3wl, the objects of generil aversion. 
 
282 AMERICAN AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 rid the fields and woods of innumerable squir els, moles and 
 field mice. The last are frequently great de_)redators upon 
 the crops, after having exhausted the stores of worms aiad 
 insects which they first invariably devour, and to this ex- 
 tent these little quadrupeds are tliemselves benefactors. The 
 smaller species of the hawk and owl, when pressed by 
 hunger, will resort to grubs, beetles, crickets and grass- 
 hoppers, in the absence of larger game. That loathsome 
 monster the bat, in its hobgoblin flight, destroys his bulk of 
 flies in a single night. Slight injury may occasionally be 
 done to the gniin and fruit by the smaller birds, and when 
 thus intrusive, some temporary precaution will suffice to 
 prevent much loss. But whatever loss may thus occur, the 
 balance of benefit to the farmer from their presence, is 
 generally in their favor ; and instead of driving them from 
 his grounds, he should encourage their social, chatty visits by 
 kind and gentle treatment, and by providing trees and 
 pleasant shrubbery for their accommodation. 
 
 TOADS, FROGS, &c. 
 
 Shakspeare has said, ' 
 
 The toad, ugly and venomous, 
 Wears yet a precious jewel in its head. 
 
 Deducting the venom we shall find the poet right ; for we 
 can no more attempt the defence of his beauty, than that of 
 the muck heap ; but we can well excuse his unprepossessing 
 exterior, for the sake of the jewel which he wears in his 
 tongue. This, like that of the chamelion, of which he ;s a 
 cousin-gernian, he darts out with lightning rapidity, and 
 clasps the worm or insect prey within its glutinous folds, 
 which, with equal rapidity, is transformed to his capacious 
 maw. Apparently dull, squat, and of the soil's hue, what- 
 ever that may be ; he sits quiet and meditative, yet watchful 
 in the thick shade of some overgrown cabbage ; and as the 
 careless insects buzz by, or the grub or beetle crawl lazily 
 along, unheedful of danger, he loads his aldermanic carcass 
 with the savory repast. Sixteen fresh beetles, a pile equal 
 to his fasting buUc, have been found in the stomach of a 
 sinijle toad. 
 
 The frog, traipsing over the wet fields, amid the long 
 grass or thick weeds, procures his summer subsistence in 
 the same Avay as his seeming congener ■'.he toad, and with 
 equal benefit to the farmer. 
 
FENCES. 283 
 
 The striped snake is a harmless object about the farm 
 premises, and like the toad, he is als;) a great gormandiserot 
 worms and insects. The sole drawback to his merits, arises 
 from his frequently feasting on the toad and frog. The 
 black snake is sometimes destructive to young poultry, 
 and he is a fierce and formidable foe to all whom his 
 couiage induces him to attack. Jle charms the old birds 
 and robs their nests both of eggs and young; but his con- 
 sumption of superfluous squirrels and field mice, perhajjs, fully 
 atones for his OAvn delinquencies. 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 In many countries which have long been under cultivation, 
 with a dense population and little timber, as in China and 
 other parts of Asia, Italy, France, Belgium, Holland and 
 other parts of Europe, fences are seldom seen. In certain 
 sections of the older settled portions of the New England 
 States, a similar arrangement prevails. This is universally 
 the case over the wide intervals or bottom lands which 
 skirt the banks of the Connecticut River, where periodical 
 inundations would annually sweep them away. Wherever 
 this system is adopted, cultivation proceeds without obstruc- 
 tion, and a §teat saving is made not only in their original 
 cost, but in the interest, repairs and renewal ; all the land is 
 available for crops ; no weeds or bushes are permitted to hide 
 their annoying roots and scatter their seeds over the groimd ; 
 no secure harbors are made for mice, rats or other vermin; 
 the trouble and expense of keeping up bars or gates are 
 avoided ; and a free course is allowed by the conceded roads 
 or by-paths, for the removal of the crops, carrying on ma- 
 mires, and the necessary passing to and fro in their cultiva- 
 tion. These are important advantages, which it would be 
 well for every community to consider, and secure to the full 
 extent of their circumstances. 
 
 The inconveniences of this arrangement are trifling. 
 When cattle or sheep are pastured where fences are wanting, 
 they are placed under the guidance of a shepherd, who with 
 the aid of a well-trained dog, will keep a large herd of ani- 
 mals in perfect subjection within the prescribed limits. In 
 the unfenced parts of the Connecticut valley (where exten- 
 sive legislative powers reside in the separate to\vns, which 
 enable? each to adopt such regulations as best comport with 
 the'.r own interests), no animals are permitted to go upon 
 the "uifenc'jd fields till autumn; and the crops are requirefJ 
 
284 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to be removed at a designated time, when each occupant is 
 at liberty to turn upon the common premises, a number of 
 cattle proportionate to his standing forage, which is accurate- 
 ly ascertained by a supervisory board. A certain number of 
 fences are necessary for such fields as are continued in pas- 
 ture through the season, but unfortunately, custom in this 
 country has increased them beyond all necessity or reason. 
 It rests with the farmers to abate such as they deem con- 
 sistent with their interests. 
 
 The kind of fences required, must vary according to 
 the controlling circumstances of the farm. In those situa 
 tions u'here stone abounds, and especially if it is a nuisance, 
 heavy stone fences (broad and high) are undoubtedly the 
 most proper. AVhere these are not abundant, an economical 
 fence may be constructed, by a substantial foundation of stone, 
 reaching two or two and a half feet above ground, in 
 Avhich posts are placed at proper distances, with two or three 
 bar holes above the wall, in which an equal number of rails 
 are inserted. Post and rail, and post and board fences are 
 common where there is not a redundancy of timber. 
 
 The posts should be placed from two and a half to three 
 feet below the surface, in the centre of a large hole and sur- 
 rounded by fine stone, which must be well pounded down by 
 a heavy, iron-shod rammer, as they are filled in. The post 
 v/ill not stand as firmly at first as if surrounded by dirt, but 
 it will last much longer. The lower end should be pointed, 
 which prevents its heaving with the frost. If the position 
 of the post \vhi!e in the tree be reversed, or the upper end 
 of the split section of the trunk which is used for a post, be 
 placed in the earth, it will be more durable. Charring or 
 partially burning the part of the post which is buried, will 
 add to its duration. So also will imbedding it in ashes, 
 lime, charcoal or clay : or it may be bored at the surface 
 with a large auger, diagonally downwards and nearly 
 through, then filled with salt, and closely plugged. 
 
 The best timber for j^osts in the order of its durability, 
 is red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the 
 northern and middle States. I recently saw red cedar posts 
 in use for a porch which, I was assiired had been standing ex- 
 posed to the weather previous to the Revolution, a period 
 of over 70 years, and they were still perfectly sound. The 
 avidity with which silicio us sands and gravel act upon wood. 
 renders a post fence expensive for such soils. 
 
 There are large \x>rtions of our country where timbex 
 
FENCES. 
 
 285 
 
 abounds, especially in the iincleared parts of it, where the 
 zig-zag or worm fence is by far the most economical. The 
 timber is an incumbrance and therefore costs nothing ; and 
 the rails can be cut and split for 50 to 75 cents per 100, and 
 the hauling and placing is still less. With good rails, well 
 laid up from the ground on stones or durable blocks, and pro- 
 perly crossed at the ends and locked at the top, these fences 
 are firm and durable. 
 
 Sfaki?i.g the corner^ by projecting rails gives an unsightly 
 appearance at all times, and is particularly objectionable for 
 plowing, as it considerably increases the waste ground. 
 The same object is obtained by locking the fence when com- 
 pleted, with a lona: rail on each side, one end resting on the 
 ground and the other laid into the angle, in a line with the 
 fence. More symmetry and neatness is secured, and a trifiino" 
 amount of timber saved, by putting two small upright stakes, 
 one on each side of the angle, and securing them by a Avhite 
 oak plank, six inches wide by eighteen inches long, with 
 holes to slip over the posts, after most or all of the rails 
 have been laid. Any additional ones laid over this, keep 
 the yokes or caps in their place, and the whole is thus firmly 
 bound together. Besides the timber designated for posts, 
 rails may be made from any kind of oak, black walnut, black 
 and white ash, elm and hickory. 
 
 Ttirf and clay fences have been tried in this country 
 \vithout success. The frosts and rains a)'e so severe as to 
 break and crumble them down continually. Cattle tread 
 upon and gore them ; and against swine and sheep they 
 scarcely offer any resistance. 
 
 Wire feyices have been tried successfulhj . They are 
 Sja'le with a greater or less number of wires and of sizes 
 
 varying from No. G to No. 12, according to the style 
 of building and the purposes to be answered. If wanted 
 for the larger animals, the wires should be stronger, and 
 
286 
 
 AMERICAN GRICULTURE. 
 
 placed higher; if for the lesser, they may be of smaller 
 wires, run nearer together and closer to the ground. 
 
 Fig. 62 shows one of the plain fences, secured by iron or 
 wooden posts, as may be preferred. Fig. 63 is a Avire fence, 
 more elegant in design, but much niDre expeusive. In this, 
 the upright wires are secured by longitudinal iron bars. It 
 is equally efficient with the former, and much more orna- 
 mental, and is a pretty appendage about the pleasure grounds. 
 The wire may be prepared against rust from the elements, 
 by galvanizing, or they may be painted after being put up. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 Where wood abounds, rails may perhaps, make the most 
 ecoijomical fences. But where there is a deficiency, wire is 
 undoubtedly the cheape;;t. They possess, also, the further 
 advantage of much gro-.ter durability; and the facility for 
 removal, at little trouble or expense whenever required. 
 
 7" hurdle or light moveable fence is variously formed 
 of coitlage, wire or wicker work, in short panels, and 
 firmly set in the ground by sharpened stakes at the end of 
 each panel, and these are fastened together. This is a con- 
 venient addition to farms where heavy green crops of 
 clover, lucern, peas or turneps are required to be fed off in 
 successive lots, by sheep, swine or cattle. 
 
 The sunken fence or wall is by far the most agreeable to 
 good taste, and it is perfectly efficient. It consists of a ver- 
 tical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth, against 
 which a wall is built to the surface of the ground. The 
 opposite side is inclined at such an angle as "will preserve 
 the sod against sliding, from the effects of frost or rain, and 
 is then turfed over. A farm thus divided, presents no 
 obstruction to the vicAV, while it is everywhere properly 
 walled in, besides affording good ditches for the drainage of 
 water. These sunken fences are sometimes raised a conple 
 of feet above the ground, which increases the protection, and 
 at a less cost than deepening and widening the ditch. 
 
 Good fences, at all times kept in perfect repair, are the 
 cheapest. Most of the unru.y animals are taught their 
 
HEDGES. 
 
 287 
 
 habits through the neg.'.gence of their owiisrs Fences 
 that are half down or which will easily fall by tl e rubbing 
 of cattle, will soon teach them to jump, and throw down 
 such as they are unable *,o overleap. For the same reason, 
 gates are better than bars. When the last are used, they 
 hould be let down so near the ground that every animal 
 •an stejD over conveniently ; nor should they be hurried over 
 ;o fast as to induce any animal to jump. In driving a flock 
 of sheep through them, the lower bars ought to be taken 
 entirely out, or they be allowed to go over the bars in single 
 file. ' Animals will seldom become jumpers except through 
 their owner's fault, or from some bad example set them by 
 unruly associates ; and iinless the fences be perfectly secure, 
 such ought to be stalled till they can be disposed of. The 
 farmer will find that no animal will repay him the trouble 
 and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops. 
 
 HEDGES. 
 
 These have, from time immemorial, been used in Great 
 Britain and some parts of the European continent, but are 
 now growing unpopular with utilitarian agriculturists. 
 They occupy a great deal of ground, and harbor much ver- 
 min. A few only have been introduced in this country, and 
 they will probably never become favorites among us. For 
 those disposed to try them as a matter of taste or fancy, ] 
 enumerate as best suited to this object, the English haw- 
 thorn, beautiful and hardy; the holly, with an evergreen 
 handsomely variegated with yellow spots, and armed at the 
 edges with short stiff thorns ; the gorse or furze, a prickly 
 shrub growing to the height of five feet or more and bearing 
 a yellow blossom. These are much cultivated in Europe 
 as defences against the inroads of animals ; while numerou3 
 other less formidable shrubs, "ke the ivilloio s.ndi privet are 
 grown for protection against winds; and when sufficiently 
 large and strong, they aI?o serve for cattle enclosures. 
 
 Buckthorn Hedge (Fig. 04). 
 
 In America the huckthorn was first introduced bv Ml 
 
288 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Derby, of Massachusetts, and by him was considerably dis- 
 seminated through the United States. It has proved a hardy, 
 thrifty plant, entirely suited to the purpose. The foregoing 
 figure shows the thorn hedge, which is imperv^ious to any 
 intruder when properly trained. The Osage oraiige grou's 
 spontaneously in the southwestern States, and is successfully 
 cultivated in most of the eastern and portions of the north- 
 ern. Its rapid growth and numerous, thick, tough branches 
 and thorns, render it an effectual protection to fields. 
 
 The Cherokee rose, for the southern States, is by many 
 deemed the most economical and efficient. It grows with 
 great rapidity, some of the runners reaching forty feet or 
 more, and it is hardy and enduring ; but it occupies much room 
 and is frequently troublesome about the fields from its super- 
 abundant growth. The wild peach, which abounds in many 
 of the southern forests, furnishes one of the most beautiful 
 hedges when tastefully managed, as I have seen it in Mis- 
 sissippi. I have fenced with the native thorn of western 
 New York, with entire, success. The MicJiigan rose and 
 the siveet briar, both hardy and of luxuriant growth, and 
 some other species of the native rose, have been tried and 
 proved efficient. The crab apple and icild plum, with 
 their thick, tough branches and formidable thorns (especially 
 the latter), with proper vr-.5.ining; will be found a perfect stop- 
 page against animals ol' all kinds. The yellow locust and 
 acacia have been sometimes used ; and the wild laurel, an 
 evergreen of great beauty at all times, and especially so with 
 .*s magnificent blossoms, would form a beautiful hedge 
 wherever the soil will give it luxuriant growth. There are 
 a variety of other trees and shrubs of native growth, which 
 may be employed for hedges; but it is unnecessary to spe- 
 cify them, as each can best select for himself such as are 
 suited to his own peculiar soil and circumstances. 
 
 SHADE TREES. 
 
 In such situations and numbers as may be required around 
 the farm premises, these are both ornamental and profitable. 
 They have, too, a social and moral influence, far beyond the 
 mere gratification of the eye en* the consideration of dollars 
 and cents. In their freshness and simplicity, they impress 
 the young mind with sentiments of purity and loveliness as 
 enduring as life. From the cradle of infancy, consciousness 
 first dawns upon the beauty of nature beneath their grateful 
 .shade ; the more boisterous sports of childhood seek their 
 
SHAKE TREES. 289 
 
 keenest enjoyment amid their expanding foliage ; and they 
 become the favorite trysting place when the feelings assume 
 a graver hue, and the sentiments of approaching manhood 
 usurp the place of unthinking frolic. Their memory io 
 after life greets the lonely ^vande^er amid his trials and vicis- 
 situdes, inciting him to breast adversity till again welcomed 
 to their smiling presence. Their thousand associations 
 repress the unhallowed aspirations of ambition and vice; 
 and when the last sim of decrepid age is sinking to its rest, 
 these venerable monitors solace the expiring soul with the 
 assurance, that a returning spring shall renew its existence 
 beyond the winter of the tomb. 
 
 Trees ought not to be too near the buildings, but occupy 
 such a position as to give beauty and finish to the landscape 
 In addition to danger from lightning, blowing down, or the 
 breaking olT of heavy branches, there is an excessive damp- 
 ness from their proximity, which produces rapid decay in 
 such as are of vi^ood, besides its frequently affecting to a 
 serious degree the health of the inmates. Low shrubbery 
 that does not cluster too thickly, or immediately around the 
 house, is not objectionable. Trees are ornamental to the 
 streets and highways, but should be at such a distance from 
 the fences, as will prevent injury to the crops and afford a 
 kindly shade to the wayfarer. In certain sections of the 
 middle and southern States, where the soil is parched from 
 the long sultry summers, it has been found that shade trees 
 rather increases than diminishes the forage of the pastures ; 
 out through most of the middle and northern States, they 
 are decidedly disadvantageous, as the feed is found to be 
 sweeter and more abundant beyond their reach. For this 
 reason, such trees as are preserved exclusively for timber 
 should be kept together in the wood-lots, and even many 
 that are designed for necessary shade or ornament, may be 
 grouped in tasteful copses, with greater economy of ground 
 and manifest improvement to the landscape. In the selec- 
 tion of trees, regard should be had not only to the beauty of 
 the tree and its fitness for shade, but to its ultimate value 
 ds timber and fuel. 
 
 In the range of selection, no flora of either hemisphere 
 will compare with the number, variety, and beauty of our 
 North American forest trees. Of the oak, we have 50 
 species, while all Europe has but 30, Europe has 14 species 
 of pines and firs ; Asia, 19 ; Africa, South America, and 
 13 
 
290 
 
 AMERICAN AGKICOLTtTRE. 
 
 Polynesia — each, two ; Australia, one ; wh /le North Amer- 
 ica has 40, and the United States alone over 20. 
 
 The Oak, of which Fig. 65 affords a spier, did specimen, is 
 one of the most maguificent, as it is 
 one of the longest-lived of the forest 
 tribes. It 'S to be regretted that many 
 of the specios are so slow of groAvth, 
 that they seldom tempt their cultiva- 
 tion by the utilitarian of this country, 
 who looks only to the speedy enjoy- 
 ment of his labor. Many of those 
 which have descended to us from pre- 
 ceding generations, combine much of the beauty, and all of 
 the grandeur we can expect in a shade tree. 
 
 The Black Oak (Fig. 66), on soil adapted to it, is a tree 
 -r ^, of commandina; beauty and stalwart growth. 
 
 The foliage appears late, but is unsurpassed 
 for depth and richness of color, and highly- 
 polislied surface ; and it retains its summer 
 green, long after the early frosts have mot- 
 tled the ash, and streaked the maple with 
 ?s% their rainbow hues. When grown on dry 
 °" ■-' " and open land, both fuel and timber are 
 firm, compact and lasting. 
 
 (Figs. 67 and 68), of which two speci- 
 .. '/ - mens ^are o-iven, jrrows 
 
 The Pin Oak 
 
 lCT' 
 
 rapidly and with great 
 beauty, when transplanted 
 into an open space. It af- 
 fords a timber of great 
 strength and excellence. 
 Some others of our nor- 
 '.hern oaks yield a fine 
 . hade, and good timber 
 
 and fuel when grown in open grounds. 
 
 The Live Oak (Fig. 69) often flourishes as far as 35' 
 
 .^^ 
 
 ^M^ 
 
 north ; but is not found in perfection north of 
 ls.,^i^ Louisiana. It grows rapidly, and assumes a 
 ^ great variety of shapes in its earlier growth, 
 %^ but most frequently appears as in Fig. 69 
 Sometimes, though rarely, il branches stiffly 
 upwards like the ash ; occasionally t is 
 seen dipping its long, drooping boughs into 
 the water, some feet belcw the surface of 
 Pio.«9. the bank which supports its roots; and 
 
SHADE TREES. 291 
 
 more often it imitates the maple. B it it most frequently 
 tlirows its branches out abruptly, and nearly at right angler 
 witli the trunk, like the apple ; or gracefully arches upward 
 till the flexile twigs descend from the outer extremity, form- 
 ing a beautiful and usually flattened dome, Avith a diameter 
 sometimes exceeding 150 feet. It renews its foliage gen- 
 erally once in tAvo years, and then gradually, thus always 
 affording a dense niass of living green. Many other species 
 of evergreen oaks, which never grow nortii of about 37° 
 within the States, do not vary materially in appearance or 
 character from the live oak. For ship-building, the live 
 oak is esteemed the strongest and most durable timber. 
 
 TJie Elm when standing isolated, is one of our most beau- 
 tiful and imposing trees. It grows to an immense size, with 
 gracefully projecting limbs and long pendant branches. It 
 is liable to few diseases, and the fuel and timber are good 
 for most purposes. Every one who has seen the patriar- 
 chal elms Avhich grace the beautiful villages of the Connec- 
 ticiit valley, and other old towns of New England, must 
 wish to see them universally disseminated. 
 
 The Rock or Sugar Majyle, before mentioned on page 
 
 ,-s..,. 219, (Fig. 70), lias a straight trunk and reg- 
 
 vilar upward-branching limbs, forming a top 
 
 ,-~ of great symmetry and elegance. Besides 
 
 •. the ornament and thick shade it affords, it 
 
 gives an annual return in its sap, v/hich is 
 
 converted into syrup and sugar. The fuel is 
 
 not inferior to any of our native trees, the 
 
 timber is valuable, yielding the beautiful 
 
 glossy bird's eye maple so much esteemed 
 
 for furniture, and various other purposes. 
 
 The Black Walnut (Fig. 71) is a stately, graceful tree 
 yielding excellent wood and durable 
 timber ; and besides its extensive use for 
 plain, susbtantial furniture, the knots 
 and crotches make the ricn, dark veneer- 
 ing, which rivals the mahogany or rose 
 wood in brilliancy and lasting beauty. 
 In a fertile soil, where only it is found in 
 its native state, it bears a rich, highly 
 flavored nut. 
 
 The While Ash has a more slender and stiffer top than 
 either of the preceding, yet is light and graceful. The fuel 
 is good, and the timber unequalleu in value for the carriage 
 maker. 
 
892 AyERICAX AGE-ICrLTCRE. 
 
 There are two species of willow usually cu.tivated zb 
 shade trees. The White Wiliovc (Fig. 
 72, "vrhich is rather a superannuated spe- 
 cimen) generally occupies a lov/, moist 
 situation, on the brink of some rivulet or 
 stream It is nearly valueless except 
 in the shade it affords. The bright 
 orange twigs and branches furnish an 
 unfaili-ig supply of primitive whistles for 
 the youngsters in the spring. The 
 Weeping Willow is a tree of variegated foliage, and long 
 flexile twigs, sometimes trailing the ground for yards in 
 lengih. Its soft, silver}- leaves are among the earliest of 
 spring, and the last to maintain their verdure in autunm. 
 But its wood is of little value. 
 
 The Locust (Fig. 73) is a beautiful tree, of rapid growth, 
 flowering profusely, with its layers or massive 
 flakes of innumerable leaflets of ihe deepest 
 verdure. The wood is unrivalled for durabili- 
 ' ty as ship timber, except by the live-oak ; and 
 for jxjsts or exposure to the weather, it is ex- 
 ceeded only by the savin or red cedar. It has 
 ■"f late years, been subject to severe attacks and 
 Fig. 73. great injury from the borer, a ■tvorm against 
 whose ravages hitherto, there has been no successful remedy. 
 The Button-icood, Sycamore, Plane-tree or Water-beach, 
 by all of which names it is kno^vn in different parts of this 
 coimtry, is of gigantic dimensions when occupying a rich and 
 moist, alluvial soil. One found on the banks of the Ohio 
 measured 47 feet in circumference, at a height of four feet 
 from the ground. Its lofty mottled trunk, its huge irregular 
 limbs, and its numerous pendant bails (in which are com- 
 pressed myriads of seeds with their plumy tufts, that are 
 wafted to immense distances for propagation), have ren- 
 dered it occasionally a favorite. They are often seen on 
 the banks of our rivers, almost constituting a hedge ; and 
 sometimes they completely span streams of considerable 
 size. The wood is cross-grained, and intractable for work- 
 ing, and the timber is of little use except for fuel. 
 
 The Magnolia {Mag)iolia grandijlora) is a splendid south- 
 ern evergreen, with a beautiful fir or cone- like top, bearing 
 leaves greatly increased in size and thickness beyond those ol 
 the evergreen oaks, and of equally deep, perennial verdure. 
 Among these, the arge snow v.-hite blossoms, six or seven 
 ":n.ches in diamete. and of great fragrance, spangle.in leisure- 
 
SHADE TREES. 
 
 293 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fio. 76. 
 
 ly succession, the whole circumference, during mDst of the 
 *"*li months of May and June, Its timber is soft, 
 but useful for some purposes. • 
 
 The Pecan (Fig. 74) is a deciduous, nut- 
 bearing tree, of the wahiut tribe, and grows in 
 the same latitudes as the live-oak and maonolia. 
 It is much taller than either, and somewhat 
 resembles in its growth the rock maple of 
 the North. The nuts are of considerable value 
 as an article of food and export. 
 The Paper Mulbernj (Fig. 75) is a handsome shade 
 '-*"•■ tree. It is a native of Japan, and 
 
 was introduced into this country in 
 1784. Its wood and timber are of little 
 value ; but great merit is claimed for its 
 leaves as forage for cattle ; for its .sap as a 
 substitute for glue ; and for its bark as a 
 material for both cloth and paper. It is 
 hardy enough for any part of the United 
 States, south of 42=". 
 TAe Lomhardy Poplar (Fig. 76) is too well known to 
 need description. It is strictly a foreigner, 
 as its name imports, and was introducecf into 
 this country only in tlie latter part of the 
 last century, to any extent. For many 
 years it was popular, and being of rapid 
 growth and easily propagated by twigs of 
 cuttings, it was soon disseminated through 
 the country. Being short-lived, many of the 
 earUest trees have long since died ; and a 
 judicious taste has nearly exterminated the 
 remainder. It has a prim, grenadier-like 
 stiffnefis ; but their double files, which some- 
 times line the country reads, add a pleasant 
 feature to the distant landscape. Its wood and timber are 
 alniost worthless, being light, porous and unsubstantial. 
 The Tulip Tree (Fig. 77) is one of our most beautiful 
 .,^S^^ native shade trees. It abounds on this 
 
 •:' "~ ' \ continent, south of latitute 43", and a little 
 ;.' ,^ distance from the Atlantic coast. It grows 
 
 lofty and large, with a symmetrical top, 
 of great beauty. It has a smooth 
 polished trunk when young, which never 
 becomes very rough a: jagged by age. It 
 bears a profusion of delicate, greenish 
 
294 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICwLTURE. 
 
 colored, ."learly inodorous flowers, as large and not unlike the 
 outline of the cotton blossom. Its timber is light and soft, 
 but useful for .'nany purposes. 
 
 The Ailaxtus (A. glandulosa, Fig. 78) has not been ex- 
 tensively reared in t le United States, till 
 within the last few years. 1: is hardy, and 
 grows rapidly in latitude 42°, and south 
 of it, throwing out its long, pinnated, 
 sumach-like leaf, from 20 to 70 inches in 
 length. It forms a pleasant shade imme- 
 diately after transplanting, and will (con- 
 tinue to grow rapidly and with great beau- 
 ty till it attains a height of 50 to 70 feet. 
 Some even exceed this size. The Chinese, from whom we 
 get it, give to it the imposing name of the Tree oj Hea- 
 ven. Its wood i« hard and compact, and of a deep, reddish 
 color. It will receive some polish, and retains a slight lus- 
 tre, sufficient to justify its use for cabinet work. 
 
 TJic Ev.ropean Larch as shov.^n in fig. 79, is of many 
 varieties, and is sometimes used in this country 
 as a shade tree. For this object, the Recl- 
 conecl and Weeping varieties are esteemed 
 the most ornamental. There are several 
 other varieties indigenous to America, close- 
 ly resembling the former in all their peculiari- 
 ties. They are more generally known in this 
 country as the Hackmatack or Tamarack. 
 Fig. ;y. They are partial to moist or swampy and cold 
 soils. The timber is among the strongest and most durable. 
 They sometimes grow to the height of 80 or 100 feet, and two 
 to three feet in diameter. 
 
 The Cedar of Lebanon (Fig. 80) endeared to the memo- 
 ry of youth by a thousand incidents of 
 biblical and profane history, is a tree of 
 large size, and peculiar in its Avidely- 
 outspreading branches. It is frequently 
 vised as a shade tree in Europe, but sel- 
 dom in this country. The great value 
 of its timber may be inferred, from the 
 fact that it was almost exclusively used 
 in the building of the temple of Solomon, whose costly ma- 
 terials and elaborate finish has never been equalled before or 
 eince. There is one specimen growing at Throg's Neck, 
 N. Y., two fee/, in diameter, that produces an abundance of 
 cones annually, from which other trees can be grown. 
 
WOODLATTDS. 
 
 995 
 
 Fio. 81. 
 
 Tk9 Hemlock, (Fig. 81), is a native of all the middle and 
 northern States. It is an evergreen, slightly 
 resinous ; and when growing in an open spacp, 
 has a beautifully symmetrical top. It affords 
 a dense and agreeable shade from its innumer- 
 able leaflets. As fuel, it is better than the 
 white pines, but inferior to the resinous or pitch 
 pines, and for timber or lumber it is inferior to 
 either for most purposes. 
 
 The Balm of Gilcad (Fig. 82) is a native 
 of this continent, and abounds in low, moist situ 
 ations, among a great variety of other species ol 
 the fir tribe. It grows well Avlien transplanted 
 to open ground, where it is sufficiently moist, and 
 sustains a handsome, pyramidal top, of deep ver 
 dure. When young and thrifty, it has a thick 
 foliage, but becomes thin and unsightly when 
 old ; before which period, it should be removed 
 from the ornamental grounds. 
 
 Tloe Long-leaved Pine (Fig. 83) frequently 
 known as Georgia 2Jitch j^inc, grows in great 
 abundance from Virginia to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Immense quantities of pitch are an- 
 nually gathered from the original forests, 
 through the southern States ; but the princi- 
 pal product is derived from North Carolina. 
 Over 800,000 barrels have been exported from 
 that State in a year, worth nearly $2,000,000. 
 Fio. 83. When early transplanted into open grounds, it 
 forms a fine shade tree. While young, the tufts of leaves 
 are very long, bushy and graceful. 
 
 The White Pine of the North is also a beautiful shade 
 tree, when not too old. The foliage of all the pines and resin- 
 ous trees, becomes thin and scraggy as they advance beyond 
 middle aire. 
 
 WOOD LANDS. 
 
 There are few farms in the United States, where it is not 
 convenient and profitable to have one or more wood lots at- 
 tached. They supply the owner with his fuel, which he 
 can prepare at; his leisure; they furnish him with timber for 
 buildings, rails,r;posts and for his occasional demands for im- 
 plem'^uts; they require little attention, and if well managed, 
 will yield more or less forage for cattle and sheep. The 
 
896 AMI-aiCAN AGRICULTURE 
 
 trees should be kept in a vigorous, growing condition, as the 
 profits are as much enhanced from this cause as any of the 
 cultivated crops. 
 
 Few American fields require planting ^vith forest trees. 
 The soil is everywhere adapted to their growth, and being 
 full of seeds and roots, when not too long under cultivation, 
 it needs but to be left unoccupied for a time, and they will 
 everywhere spring up spontaneously. Even the oak open- 
 ings of the West, with here and there a scattered tree, and 
 such of the prairies as border upon woodlands, when rescued 
 from the destructive effects of the annual fires, will rapidly 
 shoot up into vigorous forests. I have repeatedly seen in- 
 stances of the re-covering of oak barrens and prairies with 
 young forests, which was undoubtedly their condition be- 
 fore the Indians subjected them to conflagration ; and they 
 have indeed, always maintained their foothold against these 
 desolating fires, wherever there was moisture enough in the 
 soil to arrest their progress. 
 
 In almost every instance, if the germs of forest vegetation 
 have not been extinguished in the soil, the Avood-lot may be 
 safely left to self-propagation, as it will be certain to produce 
 those trees which are best suited to the present state of the 
 soil. Slightly thinning the young wood may in some cases 
 be desirable, and especially by the removal of such Avorth- 
 less shrubbery as never attains a size or character to render 
 it of any value. Such are the alders, the blue-beach and 
 swamp-willow ; and where there is a redundance of the bet- 
 ter varieties of equal vigor, those may be removed that will 
 be worth the least when matured. In most woodlands, 
 however, nature is left to assert her own unaided preferences, 
 growing what and how she pleases, and it must be con- 
 fessed she is seldom at variance with the owner's interest. 
 Serious and permanent injury has often followed close 
 thinning. 
 
 In cutting over woodlands, it is generally best to remove 
 all the large trees on the premises at the same time. This 
 admits a fresh growth on an equal footing, and allows that 
 variety to get the ascendancy to which the soil is best suited. 
 En older settled States, where land and its productions are 
 comparatively high, many adopt the plan of clearing oflf 
 everything, even burning the old logs and brush, and then 
 SOAV one or more crops of wlieat or rye, for which the land 
 IS in admirable condition, from the long accumulation of 
 vegetable matter and the heavy dressing of ashes thus rt> 
 
WOODLANDS. Z97 
 
 reived. They then allow the forest to esume its origina 
 claims, which it is not slow to do, from the abundance of 
 seeds and roots in the ground. Bvit unless the crop be 
 valuable, the utility of this practice is doubtful ; as by the 
 destruction of all the young stuff which may be left, there is 
 a certain delay of some years in the after growth of the 
 wood ; and the gradual decay of the old trunks and brush, 
 may minister fully as much to its growth as the ash which 
 their combustion leaves ; and the fertility of the soil is di- 
 minished just in proportion to the amount of vegetable mat- 
 ter abstracted by the grain crops which may have been taken 
 off. 
 
 Tlie proper time for cutting over the wood must depend 
 on its character, the soil, and the uses to which it is to be 
 applied. For saw-logs or frame-timber, it should have a 
 thrifty growth of 40 or 50 years ; but in the mean time, 
 much scattering fuel may be taken from it, and occasionally 
 such mature timber trees as can be removed without injury 
 to the remainder. For fuel alone, a much earlier cutting has 
 been found most profitable. The Salisbury Iron Company 
 has several thousand acres of land, which have been reserved 
 exclusively for supplying their own charcoal. The intelli- 
 gent manager informed me, that from an experience of sixty 
 years, they had ascertained the most profitable period for cut- 
 ting, was once in about sixteen years, when everything was 
 removed of a proper size, and the wood was left entirely to 
 itself for renewed growth. It has been found that this 
 yielded a full equivalent to an annual interest on $16 to $20 
 an acre, which for a rough and rather indiff'erent soil, remote 
 from a wood or timber market, will pay fully as much as the 
 netl profits on cultivated land in the same neighborhoQj^^ 
 
 The wood should be kept entirely free from sheep-^nd 
 cattle, when young, as they feed upon the fresh shoots with 
 nearly the same avidity as they do upon grass or clover ; 
 and when it is desirable to thicken the standing trees by ap 
 additional growth, cattle should be kept from the range til! 
 such time as the new sprouts or seedlings may have attained 
 a height beyond their reach. When it is necessary to bi-ing 
 into woodland such fields as have not forest roots or seeds 
 already deposited in a condition for germination, the fields 
 should be sown or planted with all the different nuts or seeds 
 adapted to the soil, and which it is advantageous to culti- 
 vatje. 
 
 Transplanting trees for a forest in this coimtry, cannot al 
 13* 
 
'<SV6 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE, 
 
 present be made to pay, from its large expense ; and if the 
 trees will not glow naturally or by sowing, the land should 
 be continued in pastures or cultivation. There are some 
 lands so unfitted for tillage by their roughness or texture, 
 as to be much more profitable as woodland. It is better to 
 retain such in fores'^ and make from them whatever they 
 can thus produce, rather than by clearing and bringing 
 them into use, to add them to superfluous tillage fields, and 
 become a drain on labor and manures which they indiffer- 
 ently repay. 
 
 In clearing lands, when it is desirable to reserve trees for 
 a park or shade, a selection should be made of such as are 
 young and healthy, which have grown in the most open 
 places, Avith a short stem ^nd thick top. It will tend to in- 
 sure their continued and vigorous growth, if the top and 
 leading branches be sh >rtened. Large trees will seldom 
 thrive when subjected to the neu^ condition in which they 
 are placed, after the removal of the shade and moisture by 
 which they have been sun'ounded. They will generally 
 remain stationary or soon decay ; and the slight foothold 
 they have upon the earth by their roots, which was suffi- 
 cient for their protected situation while surrounded by other 
 trees, exposes them to destruction from violent gales ; and 
 they do not acquire or attain that beauty of top and .symme- 
 try of appearance which should entitle them to preservation. 
 If partiahties are to be indulged for any, they should be sur- 
 rounded by a copse ofyoimger trees, by which they will be 
 in a measure protected. Young stocks should be left in 
 numbers greater than are required, as many of them will 
 die, and from the remainder, selections can be made of such 
 as Avill best answer the purpose designed. 
 
 THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TIMBER. 
 
 Nine tenths of the community think winter the time for 
 this purpose, but the reason assigned that the sap is then in 
 the roots, shows its futility, as it is evident to the most su- 
 perficial observer, that there is nearly the same quantity of 
 sap in the tree at all seasox^s. It is less active in winter, 
 and like all other moisture, is congealed during the coldest 
 weather ; yet when not absolutely frozen, circulation is 
 never entirely stopped in the living tree. Reason would 
 seem to indicate, that the period of the maturity of the leaf, 
 or from the las' of June to the first of November, is the sea- 
 sen for cutting ','mber in its perfeyion. Certain it is, that 
 
PARilINO TOOLS. 299 
 
 W'e have numerous examples of the timber cut within this 
 period, which has exhibited a lurabiUty twice or three times 
 as great as that cut in winter when placed under precisely 
 the same circumstances. After it is felled, it should at once 
 be peeled, drawn from the woods, and elevated from the 
 ground to facilitate drying ; and if it is intended to be used 
 under cover, the sooner it is pr.t there the better. Wood 
 designed for fuel, will spend much better when cut within 
 the same periods, ana immediately housed ; but as this is 
 generally inconvenient, from the labor of the farm being then 
 required for the harvesting of the crops, it may be more 
 economical to cut it whenever there is most leisure. 
 
 Preservation of timber. — Various preparations of late 
 years, have been tried for the more elfectual preservation of 
 timber, which have proved quite succea»?ful, but the expense 
 precludes their adoption for general purposes. These are 
 kyanizing, or the use of carburetted azote (the base of prus- 
 sic acid) ; a solution of common salt ; the use of corrosive 
 sublimate, (a bi-chloride of mercury) ; pyrolignite of iron, 
 formed from ii'on dissolved in pyroligneous acid, which is 
 produced from the distillation of wood, or from the condensed 
 vapor that escapes from wood fuel while burning, and which 
 may be obtained in large quantities from a coal pit where 
 charcoal is made. These will be absorbed by the sap pores 
 and universally disseminated through the body of the tree, 
 by sawing or cutting the trunk partially off while erect, and 
 applying the solution to its base ; or it may be cut down, 
 leaving a part of the leafy branches above the point of satu- 
 ration, and apply the solution to the butt end. The leaves 
 will continue to sustain the natural flow of the sap, which 
 is both upward and downward, by the different conduits or 
 sap vessels, thus distributing the artificial solution through- 
 out the trunk. 
 
 Beautiful tints are given to timber which is used for cabi- 
 net work, by saturating it with various coloring matters. 
 Although the expense of these preparations may prevent their 
 nise for large, cheap structures, yet for all the lighter imple- 
 ments such as wagons, plows, and tools generally, where the 
 cost of the wood is inconsiderable in comparison with that 
 of making, it would be economy to use such timber only as 
 will give the longest duration, thougli its first price may be 
 ten-fold that of the more perishable material. 
 
 FARMING- TOOLS. 
 
 Tlvjse sliould fffrm an important item pi' the farmer's ftt> 
 
300 AMERICAN AGR '. JLTTJRE. 
 
 tention, as upon their p'-oper construction depends much of 
 the economy and success with which he can perform his 
 operations. There have been great and important improve- 
 menis within the past few years, in most implements, which 
 have diminished the expense, while they have greatly im- 
 proved the mechanical operations of agricultm-e. I have 
 studiously avoided a reference to any of these, as there are 
 many competitors for similar and about equally meritorious 
 improvements ; and in this career of sharp and commenda- 
 ble rivalry, what is the best to-day, may be supplanted by 
 something superior to-morrow. These implements may now 
 be found at the agricultural warehouses, of almost every 
 desirable variety. Of these, the best only should be pro- 
 cured ; such as are the most perfect in their principles and 
 of the most durable materials. Cover the wood work with 
 paint or oil, if to be exposed to the weather, and the iron or 
 steel with paint, or a coating of hot tar, unless kept bright- 
 ened by use. When required for cutting, they should al- 
 ways be sharp, even to the hoe, the spade and the share and 
 coulter of the plow. When not in use, keep them in a dry 
 place. Plows, harrows, carts and sleds should all be thus 
 protected, and by their longer durability they will amply 
 repay the expense of shed room. They ought also to be 
 kept in the best repair, which may be done at leisure times, 
 so as always to be ready for use. [Some additional remarks 
 on this subject Avill be found under the head of plows.] 
 
 THE AGRICULTCTRAL EDUCATION OF THE FARMER. 
 
 Though last mentioned, this is the first in importance to 
 the farmer's success. It should commence with the thor- 
 ouo-h, groundwork attainments everywhere to be acquired 
 in our primary schools ; and it should embrace an elemen- 
 tary knowledge of mechanics, botany, entomology, chemistry 
 and geology, nor can it be complete without some acquain- 
 tance with anatomy and physiology. The learner ought 
 then to have a complete, practical understanding of the 
 manual operations of the farm ; the best manner of planting, 
 cultivating and securing crops ; he should be familiar with 
 the proper management, feeding and breeding of animals ; 
 the treatment of soils, the application of manures, and all 
 the best practices and most approved principles connected 
 vith agriculture. This v/ill be but the commencement of 
 ihe farmer's educa/ion, and it should be steadily pursued 
 ..(ronorh the remainder of his life. 
 
AORlCrLTtTRAr, EDUCATION, 3U} 
 
 He muse hIso learn from his own experience, which is the 
 most certain and complete knowledge he can obtain, as he 
 is thus aware of all the circumstances which have led to 
 certain results ; and he should also learn from the experi- 
 ence of his neighbors, and from his personal observation on 
 every subject that comes Avithin his notice. He will be 
 particularly assisted by the agricultural journals of the 
 present day, which embrace the latest experience of some 
 of our best farmers, throughout remote sections of country, 
 on almost every subject pertaining to his occupation. To 
 these should be added, the selection of standard, reliable 
 works on the various topics of farming, and of the latest 
 authorities, which can be procured for direction and refer- 
 ence. 
 
 Agricultural colleges and schools should be added to 
 this list of aids to farming, where experienced and 
 gifted minds could be placed, surrounded by every means 
 for conveying instruction in the fullest, yet most simple 
 and effective manner, and with every requisite for practical 
 ilh^stration. It can hardly admit of a doubt, that this 
 neglected field will soon be efficiently occupied, and thus 
 supply the only link wanting to the thorough education 
 of the farmer. 
 
502 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIJl 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS 
 
 Great neglect is manifest iii this country, in the erection 
 of suitable farm buildings. The deficiency extends not only 
 to their number, which is often inadequate to the wants of 
 the farm, but more frequently to their location, arrangement 
 and manner of construction. The annual losses which oc- 
 cur in consequence of this neglect would, in a few years, 
 furnish every farm in the Union with barns and out-houses 
 fully adequate to the necessary demands for both. I will 
 give briefly in detail, the leading considerations which should 
 govern the farmer in their construction. 
 
 THE FARM HOUSE. 
 
 If this is required for the^occupation of the owner, it may 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 be of any form and .size his means and taste dictate. If for 
 a tenant, and to be employed solely with a reference to it? 
 value to the farm, it should be r.eat, comfortable and of cor' 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 303 
 
 
 
 renieiit size. It should especially contain a cool, airy and 
 
 ■ fio. 95 
 
 spacious dairy room, entirely free from access by any foul 
 air from any direction ; unless the owner prefers one inde- 
 pendent of the house, over a clear 
 spring or cool rivulet, where, par- 
 tially protected from the sun by a 
 sheltering bank, half buried in the 
 earth, and made, as it shoi;ld be, cf 
 stone, the cool atmosphere within 
 will afford the best safeguard against 
 [flies and other insects, and preserve 
 Pj^ g^ ' the butter and cheese in the finest 
 
 condition. 
 
 Stone or brick are the best materials for dwellings, as 
 they are cooler in summer and warmer in winter ; and if 
 comlbrt be the object of the farmer's toil, there is certainly 
 no place where it should be sooner cor.sulted or more amply 
 provided for, than in his own home. A. naked, scorching 
 
304 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 exposure, equally with a bleak and dreary one is to be 
 avoided. The design of a house is protection to its iiunates, 
 and if there be no adequate shelter from the elements, it 
 fails in its purpose. It should be tastefully birlt, as this need 
 not materially increase the expense, while it aids a pleasant 
 feature to the farm It ouiiiit to occupy a position easily 
 
 FiG. 88. 
 
 accessible to the other buildings and the fields, and yet be 
 within convenient distance of the highway. It is desirable 
 to have it so far removed as to admit of a light screen of 
 trees, and nature will thtis add an ornament and protection 
 in the surrounding foliage, which no skill of the architect 
 can equal. 
 
 Note. Per entg 84. 8.V s; in<i 91. the author is indebted to A J. Downing, Cu 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 306 
 
 Fig. 84 is a plain house, occupying an elevated position, 
 with a slignt drapery of trees and shrubbery attached. 
 
 Fig. 85 is the same house and grounds as the former, with 
 the house altered to conform to the Orne or Gothic style, 
 which has recently come into vogue. 
 
 "^igs. 86 and 87 are plain but neat and pretty cottages, 
 
 in appearance, are seen 
 
 Pig. 90. 
 
 many of which, nearly similar 
 throughout the country. 
 
 Figs. 88 and 89, of the Orne style, are of about equal pre- 
 
 Fio. 91. 
 
 tensions and cost. 
 
 Fig. 90 is a more imposing countrv cottage, in the 
 (xrecian style ; and fig. 91, a pretty ]odse, or tasteful cotao-e 
 for a Sinn;! family. ' ° 
 
306 AMERICA!! %ORlCULTrRE. 
 
 THE CELLAR. 
 
 This is an essential appendage to a house, particularly 
 wbere :oots are to be stored. Many appropriate a part of it 
 to the iairy, and if thus employed, it should be high, clean 
 and well ventilated, and wholly free from all earthy smell 
 or odor of any kind. The proper preservation of what is 
 contained in it, and the health of the inmates, demand a 
 suitable dryness and free circulation of air. The cellar is 
 frequently placed on -he side of a hill, which renders it more 
 accessible from w^ithcat. This is in no respect objectionable, 
 if the walls are made sufficiently tight to exclude the frosts. 
 When on level ground, it should be sunk only three or four 
 feet below the natural surface, and the walls raised high 
 enousli to give all the room wanted ; and the excavated earth 
 can be banked around the house, thus rendering it more ele- 
 vated and pleasant. It also provides for the admission of 
 light and air through small windows, which are placed above 
 ground. A wire gauze to exclude flies, ought to occupy the 
 place of the glass in warm weather, and if liable to frosts, 
 there should be double sashes in winter. 
 
 Ventilation is important at all times, and it may be se- 
 cured even in winter, by a large aperture connected with the 
 chimney. This may be increased in mild weather or during 
 the warmer part of the day, by throwing open the windows. 
 The cellar should be connected with the kitchen or sheds 
 above, by safe, well-lighted stairs ; and the entire building 
 should be rat-proof. This is easily accomplished. A\'hen 
 erectinii" a building, the carpenter and mason, for less than 
 the additional expense of a year's support for a troop of rats, 
 can forever exclude them from it, by the exercise of a little 
 ingenuity and trouble. A brick floor in a cellar is easily 
 broken up by these insidious, ever-busy vermin ; and a plank 
 or wooden floor is objectionable, from its speedy decay. 
 The most effective and permanent barrier to their inroads, is 
 afforded by a stone pavement, laid with large pieces in ce- 
 ment, closely fitted to each other and to the side walls. This 
 is also secured by placing a bed of small stones and pebbles 
 on the ground and grouting, or pouring over it a mortar 
 made of lime and sand, so thin as to run freely between the 
 stones. When dry, a t^light coating of water-iime cement is 
 added, which is smoothed over with the trowel. This can 
 be so laid as to admit of ready and perfect drainage, by a 
 Jepressica ia the centre or sides, which answers for gutters. 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 THE BAEN 
 
 307 
 
 Is the most important addition to the farm. Its size and 
 form and manner of construction nnist depend on the situa- 
 tion, the means of the owner, and the purposes for which it 
 is designed. It is sometimes essential to have more than 
 one on the premises, but in either case, they should be within 
 convenient distance of the house. They ought to be large 
 enou'vh to hold ail the fodder and animals on the farm. 
 Not a hoof about the premises, should be required to brave 
 our northern winters, unsheltered by a tight roof and a dry 
 bed. They will thrive so much faster and consume so much 
 less food w'hen thus protected, that the owner will be ten- 
 fold remunerated for the expense necessary to accomplish 
 this object. Disease is thus often prevented, and it" it oc- 
 curs, is more easily removed. The saving in fodder by pla- 
 cino- it at once under cover when cured, is another great 
 item of consideration. Besides the expense of stacking and 
 fencing, the waste of the exposed hay in small stacks, is 
 frequently one fourth of the whole, and if carelessly done, it 
 will be much greater. There is the further expense of 
 again moving it to the barn, or foddering it in the field 
 which greatly increases the waste. 
 
 It is a convenient mode, to jMace a barn on a side hill in- 
 clining to the south-east, whenever the position of the 
 ground admits of it. There are several advantages con- 
 nected with this plan. E.oom is obtained by excavation and 
 underpinning, more cheaply than in the building. An 
 extensive range of stabling may be made below, which will 
 be warmer than that atforded by a wooden building, and the 
 mano-ers are easily supplied with the fodder stored above. 
 Cellar room can be made next to the bank, in which all the 
 roots required for the cattle can be safely stored, in front of 
 their mangers, and where they are easily deposited from 
 carts, through windows arranged on the upper side, or scut- 
 tles in the barn-floor above. More room is afforded for hay, 
 in consequence of placing some of the stables below, and in 
 this way a large part of the labor of pitching it upon ele- 
 vated scaffolds is avoided. The barn and sheds ought to 
 be well raised on good underpinnings, to prevent the rotting 
 of sills, and to allow the free escape of moisture, as low% damp 
 premise- are injurious to the health of animals. 
 
 Fig. 92 is a barn placed on a side hill, which is a type of 
 tnJ»nv v^e see throughout the northern States. The under' 
 
S08 
 
 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ground space itiay be used either as a stercorary (a place 
 for housing manures), or as stables for the cattle or sheep 
 
 But one side of the floor is used for stabling, and the re 
 mainder is devoted to the storage of hay, grain, roots, o 
 other cattle food ; or it may be employed for storing wagons 
 plows, and other farm implements. Earns of this style art 
 among the most convenient of the farm buildings. 
 
 Fi"^. 100 is an end, and Fig. 101, a side view of an im 
 niense barn, capable of holding 100 tons of hay, and IOC 
 head of cattle and voung stock 
 
FARM e-j:ldings. 309 
 
 Fig 102 is a ground plan of the same building, with two 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 Fig. lOl. 
 
 sheds attached at each end ; a, main floor ; b, b, mows for 
 etoring hay ; c, c, c, c, c, c, stables ; d, d, d, d, passage ways ; 
 
 
 rt (ft 
 
 
 
 n n 
 
 
 
 L 1 
 
 
 ■>« 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 o< 
 
 
 & 
 
 O- 
 
 o. 
 
 
 
 ;'"' "> 
 
 
 ;> 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 <4 
 
 rk (% 
 
 ex, 
 
 w 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 o. 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 e, e, e, e, e. e, mangers for feeding ; g, g, g, g, g, doors. 
 This gives a large amount of room for the animals, forage, 
 grain, or implements, in a small compass. 
 
 Fig. 103 is an enclosed shed, suitable for cattle when the 
 weather is not too cold, and if boarded more closely, Avould 
 at all times afford desirable accommodations for sheep. It 
 
310 
 
 AMERICAN AGR:0ULTURE. 
 
 is not unlike many southern barns ; though these are mere 
 frequently made much wider, with the centre enclos td for 
 
 holding the grain and fodder. The roofs projecting far out 
 on either side, furnish shelter for the mules, horses and oxen. 
 Saving all the mam/re is one of the most important 
 considerations in the arrangement of the barns, sheds and 
 yards. The stables should have drains, that will carry off 
 the liquid evacuations to a muck-heap or tank, and whatever 
 manure is thrown out, should be carefully protected. The 
 manure contains the future crops of the farmer, and unless 
 he is willing to forego the latter, he must carefully husband 
 the former. A low roof, projecting several feet over the ma- 
 nure which is thrown from the stables, will do much to 
 prevent waste from sun and rains. The eaves must be 
 supplied with tight troughs to carry off the water, which 
 may all be saved for the use of the stock, by leading it into 
 tight cisterns or reservoirs. 
 
 The mangers ought to be so constructed as to econo- 
 mize the fodder. Box-feeding for cattle, I prefer, as in 
 addition to hay, roots and meal may be fed in them without 
 loss ; and v.'ith over-ripe hay, a great deal of seed may in 
 this -way be saved, which will diminish the quantity neces- 
 sary to be purchased for sowing. The fine leaves and small 
 fragments of hay are thus kept from waste, which in racks, 
 are generally lost by falling on the floor. Racks are objec- 
 tionable, unless provided with a shalloAV box underneath, 
 and they are especially to be avoided in foddering in the 
 open yards. There is a loss in dragging the forage to them ; 
 and too often this is done near a herd of hungry catt)e, thai 
 gore each other, and are scarcely to be kept at bay by the 
 
FARM BUILinNOS. 311 
 
 3se of the sLontest goad. There is also a waste of the hay 
 ;hat. falls while the cattle are feeding, and this is largely 
 increased in muddy yards ; -^dded to which, the animals are 
 exposed to whatever bad weather there may be while 
 eating, which is at all times to be deprecated. 
 
 SHEDS. 
 
 Feeding in sheds is far better, and in many instances may 
 tak':' the place of the stall or stable. They are frequently 
 and very properly arranged on two sides of the cattle yard, 
 ihe barn forming a third, and the fourth opening to the south, 
 unless this is exposed to the prevailing winds. This ar- 
 rangement forms a good protection for the cattle ; and con- 
 necting the sheds with the barn is of importance in econo- 
 mizing the labor in foddering. The racks or boxes are 
 placed on the boarded side of the shed, which forms the 
 outer side of the yard, and they are filled from the floor over- 
 head. If the space above is not sufficient to contain the 
 necessary quantity of fodder, it may be taken from the mows 
 or scaffolds of the barn, and carried or dragged over the 
 floor to the place wanted. The floors ought to be perfectly 
 tight to avoid waste, and the sifting of the particles of hay 
 or seed on the cattle and sheep. 
 
 Unless the ground under the shed be quite dry, it is better 
 to plank it, and it will then admit of cleaning with the same 
 facility as the stables. A portion of the shed may be par- 
 - titioned off for close or open stalls, for colts, calves or infirm 
 cattle, and cows or ewes that are heavy with young. A 
 little attention of this kind, will frequently save the life of an 
 animal, and add much to their comfort and the general econo- 
 my of farm management. The surplus straw, corn-stalks, 
 and coarse hay can be used for bedding, though it is gener- 
 ally preferable to have them cut and fed to the catile. 
 
 WATER FOR THE CATTLE YARD 
 
 Is an important item, and if the expense of driving the 
 animals to a i emote watering place, the waste of manure 
 thereby occasioned, the straying of cattle, and sometimea 
 loss of limbs or other injury resulting from their being 
 forced down icy slopes or through excessive m.id, to slake 
 their thirst — if all these coasiderations are taken into account, 
 7hey will be found animally to go far towards the expense 
 of supplying water in the yard, where it would at all timea 
 be accessible. All animals require water in v/intcr, exct-pl 
 
312 
 
 AMERICAN AG5.ICULTUUE. 
 
 such as have a full supply of roots ; and though they some- 
 times omit going to distant and inconvenient places where 
 it is to be had, they may, nevertheless, suffer materially for 
 the want of it. When it is not possible to bring water 
 into the yard from a spring, or by means of a water ram, 
 or it is not easily reached by digging, an effectual Avay of 
 procuring a supply through most of the year is by the con- 
 struction of 
 
 Cisterns. — Where there is a compact clay, no further pre- 
 paration is necessary for stock purposes, than to excavate the 
 cistern of a sufficient size and depth ; and to keep up the 
 banks on every side, place two frames of single joist around 
 ^, near the top and bottom, between which and the banks, 
 neavy boards or plank may be set in an upright position. 
 The earth keeps them in place on one side, and the joist 
 prevents their falling. They require to be only tight enough 
 to keep the clay from washing in, as no appreciable quan- 
 tity of water will escape from the sides or bottom. I have 
 used such for years, Avithout repairs or any material waste 
 of water. They should be made near the buildings ; and 
 the rains carefully conducted to them by the eaves-troughs 
 and pipes from an extensive range, will afford an ample 
 supply. 
 
 For household purposes, one should be made with more 
 
 care and expense, and so 
 constructed as to afford 
 pure filtered water at all 
 times. These may be 
 formed in various ways, 
 and of different materials, 
 stone, brick, or even 
 wood; though the two 
 former are preferable. 
 They should be perma- 
 nently divided into two 
 apartments, one to re- 
 ceive the water, and an- 
 p.,g 104. other for a reservoir to 
 
 contain such as is ready for use. Alternate layers of gravel, 
 sand, and charcoal at the bottom of the first, and sand and 
 gravel in the last, are sufficient; the water being allowed to 
 pass through the several layers mentioned, will be rendered 
 perfectly free from all impurities. Some who are particu- 
 larly choice in preparing water, make use. of filtering stones, 
 but this is not essential. Occasional cleaning may be ne- 
 
FARtn Ba^LDIMGS. '^13 
 
 ccrfsary, and the substitution of new filtering materials will 
 
 at all times keep them sweet. 
 
 THE CARRIAGE HOUSE, STABLE AND GRANARY. 
 
 The carriage house and horse stable sometimes occupy a 
 building distinct from the barns and other outhouses, which 
 is a good precaution against fire ; and where this is the case, 
 it is frequently convenient to have the upper loft for a gra- 
 nary. The propriety of having this proof against rats is 
 obvious. Yet it should be capable of thorough ventilation, 
 when the grain is damp or exposed to injury from -want of 
 air. Entire cleanliness of the premises is the best remedy 
 against weevil and other noxious insects. 
 
 The corn-crib. — If there be more Indian corn on the prem- 
 ises than can be thinly spread over an elevated, dry floor, 
 it may be stored in a corn-crib. This ought to occupy an 
 isolated position ; and must be made with upright lattice- 
 work, and a far projecting roof, with the sides inclining from 
 a vertical line towards each other, from the roof downwards, 
 to avoid the admission of rain. The corn in the cob is 
 stored in open bins on either side, leaving ample room in the 
 centre for threshing, or the use of the corn-sheller. Close 
 bins may occupy the ends for the reception of the shelled 
 grain. All approach from rats and other vermin may be 
 avoided, by placing the building on posts, with projecting 
 stones or sheet iron on the top, and so high that they cannot 
 reach it by jumping. 
 
 A TOOL HOUSE AND WORK SHOP 
 
 Ought always to have a place about the premises. In 
 this building, all the minor tools may be arranged on shelves, 
 or in appropriate niches, where they can at once be found, 
 and are not exposed to injury or theft. Here too the 
 various farming tools may be repaired, which can be done 
 in those leisure intervals that often occur. 
 
 Aynple shed room for every vehicle and implement about 
 tlu farm should always be provided. Their preservation 
 Avill. fully repay the cost of such slight structures, as may 
 be required to house them. A wagon, p]ow% or any wooden 
 implement, Avill wear out sooner by exposure to all 
 weathers, without use, than by careful usage with proper 
 protection. 
 
 A horse poxcer, either stationary or movable, can be made 
 to contribute greatly to the economy of farming operations. 
 
314 AMERICAN AGRICUI.~i;kE 
 
 where there is much grain lo thresh, or straw, hay or corn 
 stalks to cut. With the aid of this, some of the portable 
 mills may crusli and grind much of the grain required for 
 feeding. Even the water may be pumped by it into large 
 troughs for the use of cattle, the fuel sawed, and various 
 other operations performed, which may add much to the con- 
 venience of the farmer and save more expensive labor. 
 
 A STEAMING APPARATUS. 
 
 Where there are many swine to fatten, or grain is to be 
 fed to cattle or horses, this is at all times an economical ap- 
 pendage to the farm. It has been shown from several ex- 
 periments, that cattle and slieep will generally thrive as well 
 on raw as on cooked roots ; but horses do better on the lat- 
 ter, and swme will not fatten on any other. For all animals 
 excepting store sheep, and perhaps even they may be ex- 
 cepted, grain or meal is better when cooked. Food must be 
 broken up before the various anunal organs can appropriate 
 it to nutrition ; and whatever is done towards etfecting th 
 object before it is fed to the stock, diminishes the necessity 
 for the expenditure of vital force in accomplishing it, and 
 thereby enables the animal to thrive more rapidly and do 
 more labor, on a given amount. For this reason, I appre- 
 hend, there may have been some errors undetected in the 
 experiments in feeding sheep and cattle with raw and cooked 
 roots, which result in placing them apparently ok a paras to 
 their value for this purpose. 
 
 The crushing or grinding of ■the grain insures more perfect 
 mastication, and is performed by machinery at much less 
 expense, than by the animals consuming it. The steaming 
 or boiling is the final step towards its easy and profitable 
 assimilation in the animal economy. With a capacious 
 steaming-box for ilie reception of the food, the roots and 
 meal, and even cut-hay, straw and stalks may be thrown in 
 together, and all will thus be most effectually prepared for 
 nourishment. There is another advantage derivable from 
 this practice. The food may at all times be given at the 
 temperature of the anim: 1 system, (about 98'-' of Farenheii), 
 and the animal heat expended in warming the cold and 
 sometimes frozen food, would be avoided. 
 
 The steaming apparatus is variously constructed. I havu 
 used one consisting of a circular boiler five and a half feet 
 long by twenty inches diameter, made of boiler iron and laiJ 
 lengthwise on a brick arch. The lire is pla«ed underneatlj 
 
FARM BUILC;NGS. 
 
 315 
 
 and passes through the whole length and ovp ' one end, then 
 returns in contact with the boiler, through side flues or 
 pockets, Avhere it enters the chimney. This j'iA'es an ex- 
 posure to the flame and heated air of about 10 feet. The 
 upper part is coated with brick and mortar to retain the heat, 
 and three small test cocks are applied at the bottom, middle 
 and upper edge of the exposed end, to show the quantity ol 
 water in it ; and two large stop cocks on the upper side for 
 receiving the water and delivering the steam, completes the 
 boiler. 
 
 The steaming-box is oblong, sev'en or eight feet iu leno-th, 
 by about four feet in depth and width, capable of holdino- 60 
 or 70 bushels, made of plank grooved together, and clamped 
 and keyed with four sets of oak joist. A large circular tub, 
 strongly bound by wagon tire and keyed, and holdins?- about 
 25 bushels is also used. The tops of both are securely 
 fastened, but a two inch auger hole, protected by a leather 
 valve, permits the escape of any excess of steam. The 
 steam is conveyed from the boiler into these, by a copper 
 tube attached to the steam delivery-cock, and it is continued 
 into the bottom of the box and tub by a lead pipe, on ac 
 count of its flexibility, and to avoid injury to the food from 
 the corrosion of the copper. It is necessary to have the end 
 of the pipe in the steaming-box, properly guarded by a metal 
 strainer, to prevent its clogging from the contents of the 
 box. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 1 find no difficulty in cooking 15 bushels of unground 
 
316 AMERICAN AGEICULTURE. 
 
 Indian com in tha tub, in the course of three or four hours, 
 
 and with small expense of fuel. Fifty bushels of roots can 
 be perfectly cooked iu the box, in the same time. For swine, 
 fattening cattle and sheep, milch cows and working horses, 
 and perhaps oxen, a large amount of food may be saved by 
 the use of such or a similar cooking apparatus. The box 
 may be enlarged to treble the capacity of the foregoing, 
 without prejudicing the operation, and even with a boiler of 
 the same dimensions, but it would take a longer time to 
 effect the object. If the boiler were increased in proportion 
 to the box, the cooking process would of course be accom- 
 plished in the same time. 
 
 Fig. 105 is a good form of a steaming apparatus, essen- 
 tially similar in principle to the one described. 
 
 ICE HOUSES. 
 
 These, in the' rapid progress of improvement and the in- 
 creasing comforts and luxuries of this country, are justly 
 deemed an important addition to the farm buildings. They 
 are frequently essential to the operations of the dairy, and the 
 preservation of milk, butter and cream for a longer time, 
 and in better condition, than is otherwise attainable. They 
 are also useful for keeping meats, fruits, eggs and vegetables 
 unchanged, for an almost indefinite period. "Whether this 
 is done with reference to sending the articles to market at 
 the most convenient or advantageous time, or to their con- 
 siunption at home, it is equally consistent with economy. 
 
 It is not necessary to dig into the earth for the purpose 
 of securing a good ice house. Indeed, a large quantity of ice 
 can be stored more cheaply by constructing the ice house 
 above the surface of the ground. The main object is to secure 
 isolation of the ice, cuid surround it tcith an adequate bar- 
 rier of non-conducting materials. To do this effectually, a 
 triple wall of p. auk or boards must be made, from six to 
 eighteen inches apart, and the spaces between each compact- 
 ly filled with straw or tan bark. The bottom must be 
 equally Avell secured, and have drains for the escape of the 
 water, yet not for the admission of air. The top has a double 
 roof, and a thick coating of stra\v is spread over the ice. 
 
 The preservation of ice depends, in addition to the foregoing, 
 on the observance of principles, of which many are entirely 
 neglectful. There should be no access to the ice except on 
 the top, and the sides and ends must be perfectly tight 
 Cold air being heavier thai: warm, in the ratio of its dimin« 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 317 
 
 i8l\8d temperature ; it follows, that air which is near the 
 freezing point, if sustained by tight walls, cannot be displaced 
 by warmer air, unless a current is forced upon it from with- 
 ovit, which must be avoided. As well may mercury be 
 driven out of a vessel by pouring water into it. The cold 
 air settles upon the ice and remains there permanently, and 
 of course the ice has no tendency to melt even during the 
 hottest Aveather. By adhering to these principles, ice may 
 be kept for years, and almost without waste. It is important 
 to put up ice in the largest, most compact blocks, and in the 
 coldest weather. By the use of large pieces closely Avedged 
 together, there is security against the circulation of air 
 through the mass ; and by doing this in the severest weather, 
 the ice goes into store with a greatly augmented intensity of 
 cold. Some do not consider the difference in the tempera- 
 ture either of snow or ice, when each are equally susceptible 
 of degrees of temperature below 32°, as the atmosphere, 
 metals, or other substances. If put into the store room at 
 zero, ice must be elevated 32"^ before it rises to the melt- 
 ing point, and it has, therefore, all this stock of cold (priva- 
 tion of heat) which it must first exhaust, before it assumes 
 the form of a liquid. A rigid observance of the above rules, 
 will preserve ice anywhere, either above or below ground. 
 
 The materials for farm buildings I have assumed to be 
 of wood, from the abundance and cheapness of this material 
 generally in tiie United States. Yet when not too expen- 
 sive, or where capital can be spared for this purpose, brick 
 or stone should always take their place. They are more 
 durable, less exposed to fire, and they sustain a more equable 
 temperature in the extremes of the seasons. 
 
 Barns and sheds cannot, like houses, be conveniently made 
 rat proof, but they may be so constructed as to afford them 
 few hiding places, where they will be out of the reach of 
 cats and terriers, which are indispensable around infested 
 premises. These and an occasional dose of arsenic, care- 
 fully an'd variously disguised, will keep their numbers within 
 moderate bounds. If poison be given, it would be well 
 to shut up the cats and terriers for three or four days until 
 the object is effected, or they, too, might partake of it. 
 
 LIGHTNIN& RODS. 
 
 During the stiltry weather of American summers, thunder 
 showers are frequent and often destructive to buildings. 
 Tivis danger i.9 much increased for such barns as have just 
 
31 C AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 received their annual stores of newly cut hay and grain. 
 The humid gases, generated by the heating and sweating 
 of the hay, which immediately follows its accumulation in 
 closely-packed masses, offers a strong attraction to electri- 
 city, just at the time when it is most abundant. It is an 
 object of peculiar importance to the farmer, to guard hi« 
 buildings, at such times, with properly constructed lightning 
 rods ; and they are a cheap mode of insurance against fire 
 from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security 
 great. 
 
 It is a principle of general application, that a rod will 
 protect an object at twice the distance of its height above 
 any given point, in a line perpendicular to its upper termin- 
 ation. Thus a rod attached to one side of a chimney of 
 four feet diameter, must have its upper point two feet above 
 the chimney to protect it. Its height above the ridge of a 
 building, must be at least one half the greatest horizontal 
 distance of the ridge from the perpendicular rod. 
 
 Materials a7id manner of constructioyi. — The rod may 
 be constructed of soft, round or square iron (the latter being 
 preferable), in pieces of convenient length, and not less than 
 3-4ths of an inch in diameter. These should not be hooked 
 into each other, but attached either by screwing the ends 
 together, or forming a point and socket to be fastened by a 
 rivet, so that the rod \vhen complete, will appear as one 
 continuous surface of equal size throughout. If a square 
 rod be used, it will attract the electricity through its entire 
 length, if the corners be notched with a single downward 
 stroke of a sharp cold chisel, at intervals of two or three 
 inches. Each of these will thus become a point to attract 
 and conduct the electricity to the earth. A bimdie of wires, 
 thick ribbons, or tubes of metal, are more efficient con- 
 ductors, than an equal quantity of matter in the solid round 
 or square rods, as the conducting power of bodies, is in the 
 ratio of tlieir surfaces. No part of the rod must be 
 painted, as its efficiency is thereby greatly impaired. The 
 upper extremity may consist of one finely-drawn point, 
 which should be of copper or silver, or well-gilded iron, to 
 prevent rusting. The lower part of the rod, at the surface 
 of the ground, should terminate in tu'o or three flattened, 
 divergent branches, leading several feet outwardly from the 
 building, and biuried at the depth of perpetual moisture, in a 
 bed of charcoal. Both ths charcoal and moisture are good 
 ■conductors, and will ensure the passage of the electricity 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 319 
 
 :ato the ground, and away from the premises. The rod 
 may be fastened to the building by glass or well-seasoned 
 wood, boiled in l-nseed oil. then well baked and covered 
 with several coats of copal varnish. 
 
 The conductors of electricity in the ordei of their con- 
 ducting power, are copper, s'Ver, gold, iron, tvn, lead, zinc, 
 f iatina, charcoal, black lead ;^plumbago), strong acids, soot 
 and lampblack, metallic ores, metallic oxides, diluted acids, 
 saline solutions, animal fluids, sea water, fresh water, ice 
 above 0', living vegetables, living animals, flame, smoke, 
 vapor and humid gases, salts, rarified air, dry earth, an^d 
 massive minerals. The non-conductors in their order, are 
 shellac, amber, resins, sulphur, wax, asphaltum, glass, and 
 all vitrified bodies, including crystalized transparent mine- 
 rals, raw silk, bleached silk, dyed silk, wool, hair and 
 feathers, dry gases, dry paper, parchment and leather, baked 
 wood and dried vegetables. 
 
 Palladium, reckoned among the noble metals, was first 
 discovered by Dr. Wollaston, in 1803. It has been found 
 to possess a conducting power about 50 per cent, greater 
 than copper, and consequently, is the best conductor knoAvii. 
 This metal is not liable to oxidation, and is therefore, in every 
 respect the most desirable material for the points or upper 
 extremity of the rods, and for this purpose it has recently 
 been extensively introduced. 
 
 It will be ^een above, that water is a tolerable conductor 
 of electricity, and when exposed to rain, all the non-con- 
 ductors are liable to become temporary conductors. To 
 secure them as non-conductors, it is therefore necessary to 
 protect them from contact with rain or moisture. 
 
 Rust or the oxides of metals, destroy their conducting 
 power, and Vo secure them as conductors, it is essential to 
 keeji the rods free from rust, paint, oil or varnish, leaving 
 nothing on the exte br b"t the pure metal. 
 
r 
 
 INDEI. 
 
 Page 
 Agricultural education... . 11,300, 301 
 
 Agriculture defined ~ 
 
 importance of. ..« 9 — Vi 
 
 legislation for 9 
 
 NatioDfil Board of 10 
 
 Ailantus, see tries. 
 Air, essential to the roots of plants 85, 8G 
 Alluvial soils, cliaracter, and man- 
 agement of 22 
 
 Ammonia, how composed 58 
 
 Am.Tionical liquor, useful as manure 5i 
 
 Anal vzrr.g soils II 
 
 marls 23 
 
 Animal subsl:inc»-s for manure 70 
 
 Apatiie, see phosphate of lime. 
 
 Apple, see fruits. 
 
 Apricot, see FRriTs. 
 
 Arrow-root, liow cultivated... . 241, 242 
 
 Artichoke, the Jeiosalern ItO 
 
 cultivation and uses IJG 
 
 Ash, the White, sceTRKEs. 
 Ashes detinedand quantity in vegeta- 
 ble.-^ 35 
 
 of what composed. ••...• 35 
 
 quantitv abstracted from the soil 
 
 by criips 36, 270 
 
 economy of .IS manure 37 
 
 quantity to be applied 37 
 
 beneficial for grass and clover .. 37 
 
 coal, how applied 38 
 
 from marine plants 38 
 
 from peat how treated 38 
 
 B. 
 
 Balm of Gilead, see treks. 
 Banyan tree, see fevits. 
 
 Barley 142—144 
 
 varieties, soil, and cultivation.. . 143 
 
 harvesting and uses 143, 144 
 
 Earns, how made 307 — 311 
 
 Beans, soil and cultivation ifU 
 
 harvesting 164,165 
 
 uses 165 
 
 the English field 165 
 
 Beets, varieties, planting, and culti- 
 vating \ 181 
 
 harvesting 181, 182 
 
 uses and analysis of. 182, 183 
 
 Birds, utility of 281, 282 
 
 Bones, of what composed 45 
 
 how treated and applied. .. 45 — 47 
 
 Breeding dt-fined 8 
 
 Bricks, broken, useful .^s manure... 4U 
 Broom com, soil and manure for.... 187 
 
 planting and cultivating 188 
 
 «irepafing the brush and uses 1^8, 18J 
 
 Buckwheat, cult nation and uses 160,161 
 
 Buildings for the Farm 302—319 
 
 BMttonwood, see treks. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calcareous soils, see marls and 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 Canada thistle 276 
 
 Canary seed, cultivation and uses... 161 
 
 Canp, see scoiR cane. 
 
 Carbon, increases in meadows. ... 37, 38 
 
 described 56 
 
 Carbonates as manures 49 
 
 Carl>onic acid described 56 
 
 its properties 57 
 
 caution in u-sing 230 
 
 Carburetted hydrogen gas 58 
 
 Carriage house 313 
 
 Carrot, soil and varieties 178 
 
 planting and harvesting 178 
 
 its uses 179, 180 
 
 Castor bean, cultivation nf 241 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon, see trees. 
 
 Cellars, how eonslructed 306 
 
 Chalk is carbonate of lime 197 
 
 Charcoal for roanHre 50 
 
 Chemical changes illustrated 18, 19 
 
 Cherry, see pr.riTs. 
 Chloride of sndiara. see salt. 
 
 Chlorides as manures 49 
 
 Chlorine essential in soils 34 
 
 combined with soda 7 
 
 Cisterns, how nl.^de... 312,313 
 
 Clay soils described 14, 15 
 
 how managed 17 — 20 
 
 useful as manure when burned 49, 50 
 
 Clovers, cultivation of. 117—127 
 
 common red or northern 117 
 
 cultivating 117, 120 
 
 cutting and curing 119 
 
 importance of 120 
 
 as a fertiliser 120, 121 
 
 harvesting seed 121 
 
 southi-rn 122 
 
 white or creeping 122 
 
 yellow or shamrock 122 
 
 crimson or French 123 
 
 lucern 123,124 
 
 sainfoin 124 
 
 Bokhara or sweet scented 124 
 
 Com, see Isdias corn. 
 
 Cornplanter describfd 96 
 
 Corn crib, how made 313 
 
 Cotton, seed for manure 71 
 
 quantity raised in U. States 198, 199 
 
 climate and soil 190 
 
 planting 199, 20C 
 
 varieties of seed 20'* 
 
^ 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 ?age 
 
 Cotton, cultivation of 200, 2U I 
 
 enemies and diseases i20l 
 
 harvesting 201,20-2 
 
 saving seed 202,203 
 
 topping 203 
 
 jS«a-/s/u?id, wliere raised 203 
 
 preparation ot° land and planting 
 
 203, 204 
 
 afterculture 204,205 
 
 manuring and amount of crop.. 205 
 varieties of cotton seed .... 205, 206 
 
 changes in and uses of 206 
 
 Cultivator, use of. and how made 95, 96 
 Curculio described, how destroyed. . 259 
 Currant, see fruits. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dews, effects of 27, 28. 85 
 
 how secured 85 
 
 dew-point, when attained ... 27,28 
 
 Draining described, its advantages 83—86 
 spring and swamp 86, 87 
 
 Drill barrows, how used 96 
 
 E. 
 
 Education, agricultural 11, 300, 301 
 
 Electricity, conductors and non-con- 
 ductors of 319 
 
 Electro-culture considered 279, 280 
 
 Elm. see trees. 
 
 Ergot or cockspur 142 
 
 Experiments among farmers .. . 280, 281 
 
 Fallow system described 77, 78 
 
 Farming, good only profitable 41 
 
 Feeding defined 7 
 
 Feldspar useful as manure 51 
 
 Fences, excess of in U. Stales 283—288 
 varieties and materials of . . 284, 285 
 
 wire 285, 286 
 
 hurdle 286 
 
 Fibrous covering, its advantages 27G— 279 
 Figs, see fruits. 
 
 Fish for manure 70, 71 
 
 Flax, soil for 189, 190 
 
 cultivation and harvesting.. 190, 191 
 water-rotting and varieties of .. 191 
 its importance for manufacturing 191 
 
 Frogs, their utility - . 282 \ 
 
 Pruiu 248—269 
 
 the apple 248—257 
 
 soil fi)r 248,249 
 
 planting 249, 250 
 
 cultivation 250—252 
 
 pruning 252, 253 
 
 grafting and budding 253 ] 
 
 rearing and selecting trees. . 253, 254 i 
 gathering and preserving the fruit 254 j 
 
 value for farm stock 254, 255 
 
 making cider 255, 2.56 ' 
 
 making vinegar 256 i 
 
 best varieties 256,257 
 
 the pear 257,258 
 
 thequince 258! 
 
 thecberry 338,3591 
 
 Page 
 
 Fruits, the plum 259,260 
 
 the peach 200, 261 
 
 the apricot 261 
 
 the nectarine 261 
 
 the olive 261,2(>3 
 
 the orange 263, 264 
 
 the fig 204,265 
 
 the banyan 264 
 
 the grape 285,206 
 
 the currant 266 
 
 the gooseberry 266, 267 
 
 the raspberry 267 
 
 the strawberry 267 
 
 the cranberry 267,269 
 
 6. 
 
 Geine defiued 34 
 
 Ginseng described, how reared in 
 
 the United Slates 242.243 
 
 Gl.-iss, broken, for manure 50, 51 
 
 Gooseberry, see fruits. 
 
 Grain and its cultivation 127 — 166 
 
 Granite useful as manure 51 
 
 Grapes, see fruits. 
 
 Grasses defined 97 
 
 number cultivated 97 
 
 Timothy 98 
 
 meadow fox-tail 99 
 
 green (or blue) 99 
 
 roughish meadow 100 
 
 flat stalked meadow or blue.... 100 
 
 annual meadow 100 
 
 narrow leaved 100 
 
 redlop 100,101 
 
 upright bent 101 
 
 tall oat 101 
 
 the fescues 101,102 
 
 orchard or cock's foot 103 
 
 American or swamp 102, 130 
 
 biennial rye or ray 103 
 
 florin 103 
 
 sweet scented vernal 104 
 
 lawn and mountain 104 
 
 ribbon 104 
 
 ga^na 105 
 
 Egyptian or Guinea 105 
 
 Bermuda 105,106 
 
 crab 106 
 
 winter 106 
 
 muskeet 106 
 
 grama 106, 107 
 
 buffalo 107 
 
 tomillo or screw 107 
 
 prairie 107 
 
 poney 107 
 
 wild rice 108 
 
 tussac 108 
 
 arundo 108 
 
 value of American 108,109 
 
 sweet-scented, soft or holy 109 
 
 table of 110,111 
 
 sowing grass seeds 1 12 
 
 lands that should be in 112 — 114 
 
 means of renovating 114, 115 
 
 pasturing meadows IIS 
 
 rotation in grasses,..., 119 
 
S22 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Grassc, time for cutting > 115 
 
 lods in cuiing ■• 115 
 
 Gravelly soils, liow treated 21 
 
 Grazin}; defineii 7 
 
 Green crops for manure 71 
 
 Green sand, of wliat conipo*3d 44 
 
 its beneficial etfects 44 
 
 Guano, where found and from wliat 
 
 derived 52 
 
 Peruvian, analysis of 53 
 
 African or Ichaboe 53 
 
 Patagonian •• 53 
 
 how applied 54 
 
 used as steeps 54 
 
 Gurneyism, see fibrous covering. 
 
 Gypsum, if what composed 44 
 
 beneficial application of 44, 45 
 
 H. 
 
 Harrowing 94 
 
 Hedges 287,288 
 
 Hemlock, see trees. 
 
 Hemp 191—198 
 
 soil and cultivation 192 
 
 cutting', drying and securing 193 
 
 ricking 194 
 
 dew-rotting and shocking 195 
 
 brake and water-rotting 19(> 
 
 raising seed 190—198 
 
 \ts uses 198 
 
 Horse powers, for the farm 313, 314 
 
 Hops, cultivation 01 237,241 
 
 Horticulture defined 8 
 
 Houses for the farm 302-304 
 
 Humus defined 34 
 
 Hydrogen described 57,58 
 
 useful in ammonia 58 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice houses, utility of 316 
 
 how constructed 316,317 
 
 Implements for the farm 93, 94 
 
 Indian corn 1 48 — 154 
 
 quantity raised within the United 
 
 States • 148 
 
 varieties of 149, 150 
 
 analysis of. 149 
 
 soil and preparation for J 60 
 
 selection of seed 150,151 
 
 hybridizing 150 
 
 preparation of seed 151 
 
 planting 151 
 
 cultivation of 152 
 
 harvesting • 152, 153 
 
 kiln-drying 153 
 
 for soiling and other uses 154 
 
 Indigo, cultivation of 225,226 
 
 Introduction 7 — 12 
 
 Iodine essenliiil in soils 34 
 
 Irrigation 79 — 83 
 
 waters suitable for 80 
 
 eft'ects of 81 
 
 time for applying 81 
 
 manner of 82 
 
 advantages of. 82, 83 
 
 quantity of grass from 82, 83 
 
 kind of soils for... ■•■• • — • •• f3 
 
 Page 
 
 K. 
 Kelp described.... t... 38 
 
 L. 
 
 Larch, see trees. 
 
 Lava, useful as manure 51 
 
 Leguminous plants 162 — 166 
 
 Lightning rods 317 — 319 
 
 materials for, and how made 318, 319 
 conductors of electricity 319 
 
 Lime described 39 
 
 its value to soils 39 
 
 its use with clover 40 
 
 how applied 41, 42 
 
 magnesian, its effect 42 
 
 quantity for land 42 
 
 applied to meadows 42 
 
 phosphate of — see bones. 
 carlionate of, large quantity in 
 soils 31 
 
 Locust, see trees. 
 
 Loamy soils described 21 
 
 Lucern, how cultivated and value 
 
 of 123,124 
 
 Lupine, the white for manure 76 
 
 how cultivated for food 166 
 
 M. 
 
 Madder 226—230 
 
 soil, preparation and culture 
 
 227,228 
 
 harvesting 228,229 
 
 kiln-drying 229,230 
 
 preparation for market and pro- 
 fits of 230 
 
 Maize, see Indian corn. 
 
 Mangers, how made 300, 311 
 
 Magnolia, see trees. 
 
 Magnesian lime, its effects on land.. 42 
 
 Manures 32 — 76 
 
 their inartificial effects 32, 33 
 
 defined and classed 33 
 
 partial, insufficient 34 
 
 what is requisite in 34 
 
 various inorganic defined and ap- 
 plied 35 — 55 
 
 ashes 35 — 38 
 
 from coal, sea weed and peat... . 38 
 
 lime r 39-42 
 
 do. magnesian 41,42 
 
 marl 42,43 
 
 analysis of 43 
 
 shell sand 43,44 
 
 green sand 44 
 
 gypsum or plaster of Paris 44 
 
 bones 45 — 4T 
 
 phosphate of lime 47 
 
 salt 47, 48 
 
 sulphate of soda 48 
 
 sulphate of magnesia 48 
 
 sulphate of potash 48 
 
 nitrate of soda 48 
 
 nitrate of potash 48 
 
 carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, 
 phosphates, silicates, and chlo- 
 rides 49 
 
 old plaster 49 
 
 broken brick •••«• 49 
 
INDEX. 
 
 323 
 
 Page 
 
 Manures, burnt clay 49 
 
 charcoal 50 
 
 broken glass or silicate of potash 50 
 crushed mica, feldspar, lava, 
 the trap rocks, granite, slenite, 
 
 &c 51 
 
 spent lye of the asherie^i 52 
 
 ammoniacal liquor 53 
 
 guano 52 — 55 
 
 soot 55 
 
 *Jrganic matiures 56-78 
 
 of what composed....56— 59, 06, 67 
 barnyard how managed. .59 — 67, 310 
 
 analysed 60, 67 
 
 long and short 60, 61 
 
 decomposition of 61,6 2 
 
 tanks for holding liquid 63 
 
 management of 63, 04 
 
 value of 64, 65 
 
 quantity voided by different ani- 
 mals 65 
 
 various solid animal 65 — 67 
 
 quality of food affects 66 
 
 analysis of barnyard 66, 67 
 
 special manures defined 67 
 
 poudrette and urate 67,69 
 
 night soil 68, 69 
 
 excrements of fowls 69, 70 
 
 flesh, blood, hair, bristles, horns, 
 hoofs, pelts, the waste of wool- 
 en manufactories and tanneries 70 
 
 fish 70 
 
 cotton seed 7l 
 
 seaweed 72 
 
 peat 73 
 
 turf 73 
 
 Bwamp muck 73 
 
 green crops for 73 
 
 advantagesof. 76,77 
 
 clover for 74 
 
 the cowpea 75 
 
 spurry 76 
 
 white lupine 76 
 
 Maple sugar where made 219 
 
 quantity of in United States... 220 
 season for and manner of tapping 
 
 tiees 220, 221 
 
 mokoks for packmg it 220 
 
 making sugar 221, 222 
 
 Maple tree, see trees. 
 
 Marble is carbonate of lime 19 
 
 Marls of what composed, and how 
 
 applied 42,43 
 
 how analysed 43 
 
 green sand, see oreen sand. 
 Marly soils described, and how treat- 
 ed 15, 16, 21 
 
 Meadows how managed 97—127 
 
 Meadowlands should remain 112 — 114 
 
 Means of renovating 114, 115 
 
 See GRASSES. 
 Mechanical division of soils.... 87 — 96 
 
 Mica, useful as manure 51 
 
 Millet, cultivation of 159, 160 
 
 Indian or grand 160 
 
 Xuck from swamps as manure 73 
 
 liulb erry , varieties for silkworms 244, 245 
 
 Page 
 
 Mulberry for shade trees 236 
 
 Mustard, cultivation of the black... 293 
 the white 237 
 
 N. 
 
 Nectarine, see fruits. 
 
 Night soil, how treated 68,69 
 
 See POUDRETTE. 
 
 Nitrate of potash for manure 48 
 
 of soda for manure 48 
 
 for steeps 48 
 
 Nitric acid described, its utility 59 
 
 formed in the shade 278, 279 
 
 Nitrogen described 38 
 
 Nutritive equivalents of food 183 
 
 table of 184,185 
 
 O. 
 
 Oaks, see trees. 
 
 Oats 144—148 
 
 varieties 145, 146 
 
 cultivation 146,147 
 
 harvesting 147 
 
 uses 147,148 
 
 analysis of , 148 
 
 Olive, see fruits. 
 
 Orange, see fruits. 
 
 Oxides described . ..., 57 
 
 Oxygen described 57 
 
 P. 
 
 Parsnip cultivation anduses 180 
 
 Pastures 97 — 127 
 
 means of renovating 114, 115 
 
 how managed 125 — 127 
 
 Peach, see fruits. 
 
 Pear, see fruits. 
 
 Peas, soil for, and varieties 162 
 
 cultivation 162,163 
 
 harvesting 163 
 
 Pea, the cow or stock (Southern) 75, 163 
 
 Peanut, uses and cultivation of 161 
 
 Peat soils described 16 
 
 cultivating ^—24,87 
 
 analysed 72 
 
 for manure 72 
 
 ashes applied to laads 38 
 
 Pecan, see trees. 
 
 Phosphate of lime, see bones. « 
 
 used as a fossil 47 
 
 Phosphorite, see phosphate of lime. 
 
 Pindar, see pea nut. 
 
 Pine, the long leaved, see trees. 
 the while, see trees. 
 
 Planting defined 8 
 
 Plaster of Paris, see gypsum. 
 
 Plows described 88,93 
 
 shovel 96 
 
 Plowing, principles of 88—92 
 
 claylands 89 
 
 sandy lands 90 
 
 depth of. 91 
 
 subsoil 85,86,81,93 
 
 Plum, see fhoits. 
 
 Poplar, ee^ trees. 
 
324 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 Potato, varieties Df, and how pro- 
 duced •• 167,168 
 
 soil, and qualities of I'iS 
 
 planting and cultTvation IW 
 
 harvesting and storing 160, 1?0 
 
 diseases 170 — I /v. 
 
 prevention of rot. 171, 17'2 
 
 its uses 17'2 
 
 Potato, the sweet 172—174 
 
 soil 172,173 
 
 cultivation 173, 174 
 
 preservation of. 17'J 
 
 Poudrette, defined and applied 67 
 
 Preface 4, 5 
 
 Profits from Targe crops 40, 41 
 
 a 
 
 Quince, see fruits. 
 R. 
 
 Raspberry, see fruits. 
 
 Rice, varieties of 1 55 
 
 cultivation of lowland J55, 136 
 
 of upland 156, 157 
 
 varieties and value 157 — 159 
 
 quantity raised in United Slate» 159 
 
 Roller, how constructed and used 94, 95 
 
 Roots, cultivation of 167—186 
 
 Rotation of crops 269—275 
 
 systems of. 274, 275 
 
 Rust in wheat 133 
 
 Ruta baga, see turnip. 
 
 Rye 139—142 
 
 Soil, and cultivation of 140, 141 
 
 southern 141 
 
 forsoiling 141, 142 
 
 diseases in 142 
 
 S. 
 
 aainfoin, cultivation of 124 
 
 Salt, of what composed, and how 
 
 used for manure 47, 48 
 
 Saltpetre, of what composed 48 
 
 for sleeps.... 4ts, 49 
 
 Sandy soils, described and classed.. • 15 
 
 management of.. , . . 2i), 21 
 
 Seaweed as manure , 72 
 
 ashes from 38 
 
 Sheds, how made 311 
 
 necessity for 313 
 
 Shell sand, of what composed 43 
 
 its effects, and how applied.... 44 
 
 Sienite, useful as manure 51 
 
 Silicates, as manure 49 
 
 of lime defined and applied . . 19, 49 
 
 alumina 19 
 
 potash 50 
 
 Silk, quantity imported into the Uni 
 
 ted States 244 
 
 best mulberry for 244, 245 
 
 varieties of worms 245 
 
 rearing and management of 245, 246 
 
 reeling 246, 2t7 
 
 Smut in wheat 133 
 
 Snakes, utility of 283 
 
 Pag* 
 
 Soils, defined and texture of 13 
 
 classified and described 14 — 17 
 
 marly, classified and described 
 
 15-16 
 
 analysed 16 
 
 vegetable molds .... ifj 
 
 clay, treatment of 17 — 2t! 
 
 sand, described 1.1 
 
 how managed 20, 21 
 
 gravelly 21 
 
 loamy 2) 
 
 marly and calcareous 2) 
 
 alluvial 22 
 
 peats 22,23 
 
 subsoils and their management 
 
 24-26 
 
 made useful by subsoil plow 24 — 26 
 change in soils by cultivation. . . 25 
 change in soils witlwut cultiva- 
 tion 32, 33 
 
 additional properties of 26—29 
 
 Jethro Til 11 's management with 
 
 27 
 
 friableness and color of 27 
 
 surface of soil important 27 
 
 dew-point in, when attained. ... 29 
 
 best for imbiliing water 28, 29' 
 
 experiments with 28,29 
 
 necessity of fertilizing materials 
 
 in 2br 
 
 analysis of 30, 31 
 
 what all fertile soils must con- 
 tain 34 
 
 Sole defined 83 
 
 Soot, how applied as manure 55 
 
 Spading 87 
 
 Spint lye useful as manure 52 
 
 Spurry, for green manure 75 
 
 ciiliiyatinn and uses of 125 
 
 Steaming apparatus, its utility 314 
 
 how constructed 314—316 
 
 Strawberry, see fruits. 
 
 Subsoils and their management.. 24 — 26 
 
 Subsoil plowing 85,86,91, 92 
 
 Sugar, see maple sugar and suoar 
 
 CANE. 
 
 Sugar cane 206—219 
 
 history of in the United States 
 
 206—208 
 
 varieties of 208 
 
 soil for 208 
 
 seed cane 208, 209 
 
 preservation of cane 209 
 
 preparation for planting 209, 210 
 
 advantages of wide rows 210 
 
 renovating the land for.... 210, 211 
 
 planting 211 
 
 cultivating 211- -213 
 
 advantages of deep and thorough 
 
 plowing 213 
 
 harvesting. 213, 214 
 
 quaniity of suear from cane. ... 214 
 
 composition of cane 214, 215 
 
 value for animal food 215 
 
 analysis of sugar 215 
 
 makingsugar. 215, 216 
 
 manures for cane 216 — 21? 
 
INDEX. 
 
 320 
 
 Page 
 
 Sugar cane, analysis of the ash.... 217 
 
 quantity per acre -17 
 
 drainajieof cane fields 218, 219 
 
 Suipliate of lime, see oypsum. 
 
 of soda for manure 48 
 
 of magnesia 48 
 
 potash ■IB 
 
 Sumach, varieties of 234, 2,35 
 
 cultivation and preparing for 
 market 235 
 
 Swamps reclaimed 87 
 
 Sycamoi«,_ see trees. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tanks for liquid manure 62 
 
 Tares, uses and cultivation of 165 
 
 Tea plant, how cultivated 243, 244 
 
 Teasle, or fuller's thistle, how culti- 
 vated 2:15,236 
 
 Tillage, husbandry defined 7 
 
 Timber, time for cutting 2D8, 299 
 
 Timber, preservation and improve- 
 ment of 299 
 
 Toads, utility of 282 
 
 Tobacco, soil for 222, 223 
 
 cultivation, priming, topping, 
 
 worming, and suckering 223 
 
 harvesting 223,224 
 
 v.irieties, qualities, and analysis of 224 
 
 quantity produced 224, 225 
 
 Tools, the best, most economical, 299,300 
 
 Tool house for the farm 313 
 
 Frees, see fruits. 
 
 for shade 288—295 
 
 how arranged 289 
 
 varieties of trees in North Amer- 
 ica 289.290 
 
 the sugar maple 219—222,291 
 
 the mulberry 244,245,293 
 
 the oaks 290 
 
 the live oak 290,291 
 
 theelm 291 
 
 the black walnut 291 
 
 the white oak 291 
 
 the white and weeping willow . 292 
 
 the locust 292 
 
 the button wood or aycamore . . 292 
 
 the magnolia 293 
 
 the pecan 293 
 
 the paper mulberry 293 
 
 the Lombardy poplar 293 
 
 the tulip tree 293 
 
 the ailantus 294 
 
 the larch 294 
 
 the cedar of Lebanon 294 
 
 tbe bemlock 39£ 
 
 Page 
 
 Trees, the balm of Gi! cad 2H5 
 
 the long leaved pine 295 
 
 the white pine 29 "i 
 
 Tulip tree, fee trkks. 
 
 Tull, Jethro, histheory of cnltivalion 
 
 20, 27 
 
 Turf as manure 37 
 
 Turnip, flat EnglisI 174, I75 
 
 soil for 174 
 
 cultivation 175 
 
 Rutabaga 175-178 
 
 cultivation 175,176 
 
 enemies and remedies 176 
 
 harvesting 176^ 177 
 
 storing and feeding 177 
 
 varieties of 177, 178 
 
 value of. 178 
 
 U. 
 Under-draining, see draining. 
 
 Urate defined and applied 68 
 
 ITrea defined and applied 68 
 
 Urine analyzed 68 
 
 V. 
 
 Vegetable molds 76 
 
 Vegetables, loss in drying 36 
 
 Vetches, cultivation and uses 165 
 
 Vinegar, to make 256 
 
 W. 
 
 Walnut tree, the black, see trees. 
 
 Water useful as manure 79 — 83 
 
 rain, how beneficial 84, 85 
 
 dissolves minerals 81 
 
 time for applying to meadows ... 81 
 
 for the cattle yard 311, 312 
 
 Weeds, how treated 27j, 276 
 
 to destroy in grain 143 
 
 Weld, cultivation of 232—234 
 
 Wheat, qualities of 127—129 
 
 preparing land for 129, 130 
 
 selection and preparation of seed 130 
 quantity of seed and time of 
 
 sowing 131 
 
 manner of sowing 131, 132 
 
 after culture 132 
 
 enemies of 132.133 
 
 harvesting 133, 135 
 
 thrashing and stacking 135 
 
 varieties of seed 135, 138 
 
 spring 138,139 
 
 Woad, cultivation and use of. . 230—2.32 
 
 Woodlands, how managed 295 — 298 
 
 Woolen waste and rags, useful aa 
 manure 70 
 
J 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 J 
 
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 Crops : drawn from authontii^ sources, actual exp'rienco and person.al observation, as 
 combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture. 
 
 BRrDGEMANS (THOS.) YOUNG GARDENER'S ASSBTANT, - - 1 60 
 
 In Three Parts ; Containing Catalogues of Garden aud Flower 
 
 Seed, with Prajttal Directions under each head for the Caitivatioa of Cu nary Vege- 
 tables, Flowers, Fruit Trees, the Grape Vine, kc. ; to which is added a Calendar to each 
 part, showing the work necessary to be done in the various departments each inoulb 
 of the year. One volume octavo. 
 
 BRTDGEMANS KITCHEN GARDENER'S INSTRUCTOR, H Cloth, 60 
 
 •' •« " " (loth. 60 
 
 Hdile ! post paid upon receipt of price. 
 
BooJcs published hy C. ^f. P^ttov. Barker & Co. 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S FLORIST'S GUIDE, ..... >i Ooth, 60 
 
 " " " Cloth. 60 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S FRUIT CULTIVATOR'S MAJfUAL, - - y» Cloth, 50 
 " " ' " . . Cloth, 60 
 
 BRECK'S BOOK OF FLOWERS, 1 00 
 
 Ix WHICH ARE Described all the VAitictrs Hardy Herbaceous 
 
 Perennials, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions lor thoir 
 Cultivation. 
 
 BUIST'S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 26 
 
 Containing Practical Directions for the Culture of Plants, 
 
 in the Flower Garden, Hothouse, Greenhouse, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every 
 month in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the nature 
 - of the Soil and situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans- 
 planting, &c. ; with Instructions for erecting a Hothouse, Greenhonse, and Laying out 
 a Flower Garden ; the whole adapted to either Large or Small Gardens, with Instruc- 
 tions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruiting the 
 Grape Vine. 
 
 BUIsrS (ROBERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, ... 75 
 
 Containing Plain and Accurate Descriptions of all the 
 
 Different Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, 
 French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Cultivat- 
 ing them in the Garden or under Glass ; also Descriptions and Cliaracter of the most 
 Select Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By Robert Buist, author of the 
 "American Flower Garden Directory," kc. 
 
 CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, .... 25 
 
 Its History, Culture and Adaptation to the Soil, Climate, 
 
 and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manu- 
 facturing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources, by Charus F. Staxsbcrt, A. M., late 
 Commissiouer at the Exhibition of all Nations at I/iudon. 
 
 CHORLTON'S GRAPE-GROWER'S GUIDE, 60 
 
 Intended Especially for the American Climate. Being a 
 
 Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot- 
 house, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for the con- 
 struction of the Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the same. 
 Every department being fully illustrated. By William Chorlton. 
 
 COBBETT'S AMERICAN GARDENER, 50 
 
 A Treatise on the Situation, Soil and Laying-out of Gardens, 
 
 and the Making an 1 Managing of Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation 
 and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herl>s, Fruits and Flowers. 
 
 COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER, 50 
 
 A Practical Work, by a Counti-y Curate. 
 
 COLE'S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, 50 
 
 Containing Directions for Raising, Propagating and Manao- 
 
 ing Fruit Trees, Shrubs aud Plants ; with a Description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, 
 incln.liii- New and Valuable Kinds. 
 
 COLE'S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, 50 
 
 Containing Diseases of Domestic Animals, their Causes, Symp- 
 
 tom> and Reme.lies ; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Health by good managi.v 
 
 m.'iil : .I'.so for TrainiJig and Breediiig. 
 
 DADDS AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, 1 00 
 
 Containing the Necessary Information for Preserving the 
 
 Health and Curing the Diseases ol Oxen, Cows, Sheep and Swine, with a Great Variety 
 ofOrigi'.iul R ■ciiies a:i I V.iluable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy Manage- 
 ment, wliereljy every Man cm be his own Cattle Doctor. Tlie principles taught m this 
 work are, th.at all Medication shall be sub.servient to Nature — that all Medicines must be 
 sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the viuil powers, 
 Instead of depressing, as herefc/fore, with the lancet or by poison. By G. II. Dai>d, M. 1> 
 Veterinary practitioner. 
 
 Mailed post paid vjxm receifit of prirr. 
 
Books pitblished hy C. M. Saxtok, Barker & Co. 
 
 DADD'S MODEBN HOSSE DOCTOB, 1 00 
 
 An American Book for American Farmers ; Containing Practi« 
 
 cal Observations on the Causes, Nature and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of 
 Horses, embracing the Most Recent and Approved Methods, according to an euhghtened 
 system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Restoration of Health. With 
 illustrations. 
 
 DADD'S ANATOMT AND FH7SI0LO6T OF THE HOBSE, Plain, . 2 00 
 " " " '• '* Colored Plates, 4 00 
 
 "With Anatomical and Questional Illustritions ; Containing, 
 
 also, a Scries of Examinations on Equine Anatomy and Philosophy, with Instructions in 
 reference to Dissection and the mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which is 
 added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Tosicological Chart, and Dictionary of 
 Veterinary Science. 
 
 DANA'S UTJCK MANUAL, FOB THE XTSE OF FABHEBS, . . 1 00' 
 
 A Treatise on the Physical .*nd Chemical Properties of Soils 
 
 an 1 Cl)f^mi-try of Manures : including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures 
 and Irrigailiia. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates. 
 
 DANA'S FBIZE ESSAY ON MANUBES 36 
 
 Subm:tted to the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society fob 
 
 Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By SAimx H. Dasa. 
 DOMESTIC AND OBNAMENTAL POULTEY, Plain Plates, . . . 1 00 
 " " " Colored Plates, . - 2 00 
 
 A Treatise on the History and Management of Ornamental 
 
 and Domestic Poultrj-. By Rev. EoMrxn .^^Atn Dixox, .\. M., with large additions by 
 J. J. Kerr, M. D. Illustrated with sixty-five Original Portraits, engraved expressly for 
 this work. Fourth edition, revised. 
 
 DOWNINGS (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GABDENING, 3 50 
 
 Revised, Enlarged and Xewly Illustrated, by Henry "Win- 
 
 throp Sargent. This Great Work, which h:is accomplished so much in elevating the 
 •American TiiSle for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and 
 valuable by the experience of all the Prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the 
 United States, and by the descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central 
 Park, New York, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the Newer Decidu- 
 ous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. The illustratinns of this edition consist of ieeen 
 superb steel plate eitgravings, by Sjdlue, Hi.vshklwood, Dcthik and others ; besides <me 
 hundred engravings on voood and stone, of the best -American Residences and Parks, witll 
 Portraits of many New or Remarkable Trees and Shrubs. 
 
 DOWNING'S (A. J.) BUBAL ESSAYS, 3 00 
 
 On PIorticcxtlre, Landscape Gardening, Rural Architeoture, 
 
 Trees, Agnctilturc, Frnit. with his Letters from England. Edited, with a Memoir of the 
 Author, by Ge3RGE Wm. Ci-rtis, and a Letter to his Friends, by Frederika Brevier, and 
 an elegant Steel Portrait of the Author. 
 
 EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CBANBEBBY, 50 
 
 With a Description of the Best Varieties. By B. Eastwood, 
 
 " Septim IS," of the New York Tribune. Illustratei>. 
 ELLIOTT'S WESTERN FBUTT BOOB, 1 85 
 
 A Xew Edition of this "Work, Thoroughly Revised. Em- 
 bracing all the New and Valuable Fruits, with the Latest Improvements in their Cultiva- 
 tion, up to January, 1.S59. especially adapted to the wants of Western Fruit Growers ; 
 full of excellent illustrations. By F. R. Eluott, Pomologist, late of Oeveland, Ohio, now 
 of St. Lonts. 
 
 BVEBY LADY HEB OWN FLOWEB GABDENEB, .... 50 
 
 Addressed to the Industrious and Economical dnly ; containing 
 
 simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers : also. Hints for the 
 Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants aod 
 Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By LotnsA Johxsos. 
 
 Mailed po^ paid upon receipt of price. 
 
Boohs published by C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 5 
 
 FASM DEAINAGE, 1 qq 
 
 The Principles, Processes and Effects of Draining Land 
 
 with Sttmes, Wood, Drain-plows, Opon Ditches, aad especially with Tiles ; including 
 T.ibles of Rainrall, Evaporation Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and num- 
 ber to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. Bv the Hon. Henry F. French of 
 New Hampshire. " '^-•>y.a, ui 
 
 FESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMEKICAN KITCHEN GAEDENEB, - - 50 
 
 Containing Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetabi es and 
 
 (Guidon Fruits. Cloth. 
 
 FESSENDEN'S COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25 
 
 Rural EconoxMist and New American Gardener ; Containing 
 
 a Compeadious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural 
 hcoiiumy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, includ- 
 ing,' Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By Tuomas G. Fessenden. 2 vols, in 1. 
 
 FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE, 1 00 
 
 The Pear Garden ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and 
 
 Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seeillin<; to 
 the Bearing Tree. By Thomas W. Field. 
 
 FISH CULTURE, 100 
 
 A Treatise on the Artificial Propagation op Fish, and the 
 
 Construction of Ponds, with the Description and Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most 
 suitable for Pisciculture. By IBeodatus Gahuck, M. D., Vice-President of the Cleveland 
 Academy of Nat. Science. 
 
 FLINT ON GRASSES, 1 26 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Grasses and Forage Plants ; Com- 
 prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut- 
 ting, Curing and the Management of Grass I^nds. By Ch-irles L. Fllnt, A. M Sucre, 
 tary of the Mass. Stale Board of Agriculture. 
 
 GUENON ON MILCH COWS, 60 
 
 A Treatise on Milch Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of 
 
 Milk which any Cow will give may bo accurately determined by observing Natural 
 Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give Milk, 
 &c., &c. By M. Francis Guenon, of Libourne, France. Translated by Nictolas P. 
 Tri.st, Esq. ; with Introduction, Remarks and Observations on the Cow and the Dairy, 
 by John- S. Skinner. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Neatly done up in paper 
 covers, 37 cts. 
 
 HERBERT'S HINTS TO HORSE-KEEPERS, 1 25 
 
 Complete Manual for Horsemen ; Embracing : 
 
 How TO Breed a Hok.se. How to Physio a Horse. 
 
 How TO Buy a Horse. (Aixopatoy and HoMCEOPATHr 
 
 How to Break a Horse. How to Groom a Horse. 
 
 How TO Use a Hor.se. How to Dri\-e a Hor.«e. 
 
 How to Feed a Horse. How to Ride a Hor.se. 
 
 And Chapters on Mules and Ponies. By the late Hexky Wiluam Herrert (Fraxk 
 Forrester) ; with additions, including Rarey's Mcthod of Horse Tami.vg, and Baucher's 
 .'vsTEM OF HoR-^KiUNssup ; ulso, giving directions for the Selection and Care of Carriages 
 .vi ! Harness of every description, from the City " Turn Out" to the Farmer's '• Gear," 
 H.il a Bio,'raphy of the eccentric Author. Illustrated throughout. 
 
 HOOPER'S DOG AND GUN, 50 
 
 A Few Loose Chaptkrs on Shooting, among which will bo 
 
 found some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interest- 
 ing h'tler'i from Sportsmen. Dy A Bad Shot. 
 
 HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 26 
 
 Containing its History, Mode op Culture, Manupacture Of- 
 
 the Sugar, &x?. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States. 
 Mailed pout paid vpmi rceipi of pricf. 
 
6 Boohs puhh'shcd h/ C. '^^. Saxtov. Barker & Co. 
 
 JOHNSTON'S (JAMES F. W.) AGRICULTUEAL CHEMISTRli, - 1 26 
 
 Lectup'^s ox the Application* of Chemistry axd Geology to 
 
 Ag-icuiiure. X'-w Ediiiciii, w.tU uu AppeU'lix. co:ituiiiir,g the Author's Experimuuts in 
 Practical Asriciilwre. 
 
 JOHNSTON'S (J F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGEICIILTUEAl CHEM- 
 
 ISTEY AND GEOLOGY, 1 00 
 
 With a Complete Axalyticaj, axd Alphabetical Ixdex, and an 
 
 American Preface. Bj' Hon. Suiox Browx, Editor of the '■ New England Farmer." 
 
 JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGEICULTUSAL CHEM- 
 
 ISTBY AND GEOLOGY, 25 
 
 By James F. W. Johxston, Honorary Member of the Eoyal 
 
 Agricultural Society of England, and author of " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry 
 and Geoloiry." With an Introduction by Johs Pmos Nortox, M. A., late Professor of 
 Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, pre- 
 pared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Superintendent of 
 Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools. 
 
 LANGSTKOTH (BEY. L. L.) ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, - 1 25 
 
 A Practical Treatise ox the Hive axd Hoxey Bee, Third 
 
 edition, enlarged and illuslraled mtk numerous engravings.. This Work is, without a 
 doubt, the best work on the Bee published in any language, whether we consider its 
 scientific accuracy, the practical instructions it contains, or the beauty and completeness 
 of its illustrations. 
 
 LETJCHABS' HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOTHOUSES, • 1 25 
 
 A Practical Treatise ox the Coxstrcctiox, Heatixg axd 
 
 Ventilation of Hothouses, including Conservatories, Greenhouses. Graperies and other 
 kinds of Horticultural Structures ; with Practical Directions for their Management, in 
 regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous eDgravings. By P. B. 
 Lecchajis, Garden Architect. 
 
 LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAB LECTUEES ON CHEMISTEY, - 60 
 
 Axd its relatiox to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. 
 
 Edited by JoHX G.^rdexer, il. D., 
 
 UNSLEY'S MOBGAN HOBSES, 1 00 
 
 A Premium Essay ox the Origix, History, and Characteristics 
 
 of this remarkable American Breed of Horses : tracing the Pedigree from the original 
 Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. 
 With numerous portraits. To which are added Hints for Breeding, Breaking aad Gene- 
 ral Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for Training them for 
 Exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. Lixslet, Editor of the American Stock 
 Journal. 
 
 KOOBE'S BUBAL HAND BOOKS, 1 25 
 
 First Series, containing Treatises on — 
 TiiE Horse, The Pists of the Farm, 
 
 The Hog, Dojnamc Fowis, and 
 
 The Hoset Bee, The Cow. 
 
 Second Series, containing — . - . . i 25 
 
 E\THT Ladt her owx Flower Gahdexer, Essay ox Maitores, 
 
 •^LEMETIS OF AGEICrLlXTtE, AjtERICAX KrrCHEX GARDEXKR, 
 
 Bird Faxcler, Americax Rose Ccixtrist. 
 
 Third Series, containing — 1 25 
 
 IDLES OX THE Horse's Foot, Vixe-Dreser's JIaxtax, 
 
 Thb RABBrr F-ixcier, Bee-Keeper"s Chart, 
 
 Weeks ox Bees, Chejiistrt Made East. 
 
 Fourth Sfries, containing — - ... 1 26 
 
 P^isoz ox the Vixe, Hooper's Dog axd Gux, 
 
 LnsiG'.s Fasuliar Lettep_s, Skiilfcl Housewifk, 
 
 Browxe'8 Memoirs of Ixdiav Corji. 
 
 _£ Mailed post paid upon rM'npt of price. 
 
Books published hij C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 
 
 MINES'S BEE-KEEPER'S MANTJAL, .... - - 1 00 
 
 JJeixo, a I'ltAcricAL Tkkatise on the IlisTORy AND Domestic 
 
 Fcoiminy i,!' 111.' lldiicy li.'c, oiiiljruciiig a Full Illustration of the whole subject, with 
 the Jlost Appriivi'il iktlioils of Managing this Insect, through every branch of its 
 Oilturc ; tho result of many years" experience. Illustrated with many engravinea 
 By T. B. JLi.NKit. J t, b 
 
 MUES ON THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 60 
 
 With Cuts, Illustrating the Anatomy of the Foot, and contain- 
 ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, in Health and in Disease. By 
 
 \Vm. MilJES. 
 
 MUBTJRN ON THE COW AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, ... 26 
 
 By M. M. MiLBURN, and revised by H. D. Richardson and Ambrose 
 
 SxE'i'Kxs. With illustrations. 
 
 MUNN'S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER, 50 
 
 Being a Treatise on Draining Land, in which the Most Ap- 
 proved Systems of Drainage are lixplaineil, and their Differences and Coraparativo 
 Merits Discussed ; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with 
 Remarks upon the various materials of which they may be constructed. With many 
 illustrations. By B. MrxN, Lunlscape Gardener. 
 
 NASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, ---.*.. 60 
 
 A Scientific Treatise on Agricultural Chemistry, the Ge- 
 
 ulogy of Agriculture, on I'lauls and Ajnimal?, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical 
 Agriculture ; with a Catechism of .ScicntiHcand I'ractical Agriculture. By J. A. N.4SH. 
 
 NEILL'S PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER AND KITCHEN GARDEN- 
 ER'S COMPANION, 1 00 
 
 With a Calendar. By Patrick Neill, Secretary of the Royal 
 
 Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth 
 edition, revised and improved by the Author. Edited by (J. Emkr^ox, M. H., Ivlitor of 
 ' The American Farmer's Encyclopedia." With Notes and Additions by \\. (i. I'.tRDEB, 
 author of " Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations. 
 
 NORTON'S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60 
 
 Or, the Connection between Science and the Art of Practical 
 
 Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural .Societv. By .Joii.v P. Nor- 
 ton, M. A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the use of 
 Schools. 
 
 OLCOTT'S SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN 
 
 SUGAR CANES, 1 00 
 
 A Complete Treatise upon their Origin and Varieties, Culture ' 
 
 and Uses, their value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Molasses, 
 Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Ciiler, Vinegar, Paper, Starch and Dye Stuffs. 
 Fully illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; with an Appendix bv I.eo.nard 
 Wrav, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented Process of CrvsUUIizuig" the Juio 
 of the Imphee ; with the Uitest American Experiments. By Hexry S. OLCon. 
 
 PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE, 60 
 
 A Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Strawberry ; 
 
 wiUi a Description of the Best Varieties. 
 
 Also notices of tlie Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Goosi-berry am! Crape; with 
 Directions for their Cultivali(Ui, and the Selection of the Best Varieties'. " Fverv process 
 here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is hero 
 given." With a Valuable Appendix, containing the observations ,-ind experience of some 
 of the most sucees.<ful cultivators of these fruits in our country. 
 
 PEDDERS' (JAMES) FARMERS' LAND MEASURER, .... 5C 
 
 Or Pocket Companion ; Showing: at one view the Contents of 
 any Piece of l>ind, itixa Dimensions taken in Yards. With a Set of Useful Agricultural 
 TabV« 
 
 Mailed post paid upon receipt of price. 
 
8 Booiks published by C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 
 
 PEESOZ' CULTUEE OF THE VTKTE, 26 
 
 A Xk«' Process for the Cl'ltuee of the Vine, by Persoz, Pro- 
 fessor of t'l • Tac ilty ul' S-i -ic i< ijf Strxsboarg ; [liro'ctiiig Professor of the School of I'liar- 
 macy of the same city. Tiiiuslated by J. O'C. Bakclat, Surgeon U. S. X. 
 
 PHELPS' BEE KEXFEE'S CHABT, 25 
 
 Being a Brief Practical Treatise on the Instin'Ct, Habits and 
 
 Maiiiufcmout of thi; Hoaev Bc-e, iu all its various branches, the result of mauy years' 
 practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to -livest the subject of 
 much that has been considered mysterious and difficu!'- to overcome, and render it 
 more sure, profitable and interesting to evciv one, than it has heretofore been. V.\- E. 
 
 W. niEUV. 
 
 QTTINBT'S MTSTEBIES OE BZE-EXEFINa EXPLAINED, • - 1 00 
 Being a Complete Analysis of the Whole Subject, Consistiiij^ 
 
 of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the Greatest Amount of Pure 
 Surjilus Honey with the least possible expense ; Remedies for Losses Given, and tiia 
 Science of Luck fully illustrated ; the result of more than twenty years' experience lu 
 extensive Apiaries. By M. Qdtn-bt. 
 
 EANDALL'S (H. S.) SHSEP HXTSBAITDSY, 1 25 
 
 With an Account of the Different Breeds, and general direc- 
 tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding and the Treatment of 
 Diseases, with Portraits and other engravings. By Hejtry S. RljiBAix. 
 
 EEEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSEB'S MANUAL, ... 50 
 
 An Illustrated Treatise on Vineyards and Wine-Making, 
 
 containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection and 
 Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and 'Rainiag the 
 Vines, Manures and the Making of Wine. 
 
 SICHABOSON ON HOGS, 25 
 
 Their Origin, Varieties and Management, with a View to Profit 
 
 and Treatment under Disease ; also, plain Directions relative to the Most Approved 
 Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By H. D. Richardsox, author of " The Hive and the 
 Honey Bee," &c., ic. With illustrations. 
 
 EICHAEDSON ON THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, - - . 25 
 With Plain Directions for Obtaining a Considerable Annual 
 
 Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees 
 and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting 
 the Hives from thc'ir attacks. By H. D. Richardsox. With illustrations. 
 
 BICHABDSON ON DOMESTIC FOWLS, 25 
 
 Their Natur.ai. History, Breeding, Rearing, and Gener.u 
 
 Management. By H. D. RicaARDS0\. With illustrations. 
 BICHABDSON ON THE HOBSE, 25 
 
 Their Origin and Varieties ; with Plain Directions as to the 
 
 Breeding, Rearing and General .MaMnpemeiit. with Instructions as to the Treatmc:jt of 
 Disease. Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. Ri-THARnsox. 
 
 BICHABDSON ON THE PESTS OF THE FABM, .... 25 
 
 With Instructions for their Extirpation ; being a Manual of 
 
 Plain Iiirocf.ons for the C-rtain Destruction of every description of Vermin. W,ih 
 num -rous i!liistralion~ on Wool 
 
 BICHABDSON ON DOGS ; THEIB OBIGIN AND VABIETIES, - 50 
 
 Directions as to their General Management. With nnnjprim.s 
 
 Oripinal Anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. P..\ 11. 
 D. RiciiARnsoN. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 
 This IS not only a chvap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. 
 
 SCHENCK'S GABDENEB'S TEXT BOOK, . * 50 
 
 Containing Directions for the Formation and Management 
 
 of tb« Kitchen Garden, the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Hsrb» 
 Mailed po^f paid iipon receipt of price. 
 
Hooks rmblished hy 0. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. "^ 
 
 SHEPHERD'S OWN BOOK, 2c0 
 
 AVnii AX Account of the Different Breeds, Diseases and Ma<;- 
 
 aKciii.'ul of ^heep, and Gouural i)ircctious in regard to Summer and Winter Mauagemo it, 
 Rroeding and the Treatment of Diseases ; with illustrative engravings by Yoi"at» & 
 Raxdali. ; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in -'.o 
 Uii;Il-i1 Stales, and on the Culture of Fine Wool. 
 
 STEWART'S STABLE BOOK, 1 00 
 
 A Treatise ox the Management of Horses, in Relation to 
 
 Pt.il>:i!ig, (iroomiug, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventila- 
 ti'>i, A;i,i.'ndagi*s of Stables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and I'efective 
 Hiss. Dy John Stewart, Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes aad Additions, adapting 
 it Ui .^mericf u Food and Climate. By A. B. Allen, Editor of the American Agriculturist. 
 
 STRAY LEAVES FROM THE BOOK OF NATURE, - - - - 1 00 
 
 By ^[. yciiELE De Vere, of the University of Yirginia. 
 
 Co.TTE.VTS : I. O.VLY A PEBBLE. 
 
 n. Natcre in Motio.v. 
 in. The Ocean and rrs Lob. 
 IV. A Chat about Plants. 
 
 V. Younger Years of a PijlNX, 
 VI. Later Years of a Plant. 
 VU . PI.ANT llntmES. 
 
 Vm. U.VKNOWN TO.VGUES. 
 
 IX. A Trip to the Moon. 
 
 STEPHENS' (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM, 4 00 
 
 A Complete Guide to the Farmer, Steward, Plowman, Cattle- 
 
 m.Vi.--l]>'i'hi'i-i1, Field Worker asd Dairy Maid. By Henry Stephens. With Four Hun- 
 dri'l and Fil'ty illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks, &c., by 
 J. S. Sklvxkr. Really ona of the best books a farmer can possess. 
 
 SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 50 
 
 Or Complete Guide to Domestic Cookery, Tastf^ Comfort, and 
 
 Eco'.iomy, embracing 653 Recipes pertaining to Household Duties, Jbe Care of Health, 
 Gardening, Birds, Education uf Children, &c. , &c. By Mrs. L. G. Abell. 
 
 SKINNER'S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, 25 
 
 Adapted to toe Use of American Far.mers. By F. G. Skinner. 
 
 SMITH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARES AND 
 
 PLEASURE GROUNDS, 1 26 
 
 With Practical Xotes on Country Residences, Villas, Public 
 
 Parks and Gardens. By Cn.iKi.ES H. ,1. S>rrrH, Land.scape Gardener and Garden Archi 
 tect. With Notes and .\dditii)ii» by I.Kwis F. Alle.v, author of" Rural Architecture." 
 
 THAER'S (ALBERT D.) AGRICULTURE, 200 
 
 The Principles of Agriculture, by Albert D. Thaer ; Trans- 
 lated by WiLUAM SuAW and CiTuiuiRT W. Joilnson, Esq., F. R. S. W'th a Memoir of 
 the .Author. 1 vol. 8vo. 
 
 This work is regarded, by those who arc competent to judge, as one of the most 
 v.aluable works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same limo 
 that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, ami, even to tile general reader, re- 
 markably entertaining. 
 
 THOMAS' (J. J.) FARM IMPLEMENTS, 1 00 
 
 And the Principles of their Construction and Use ; an Ei.f, 
 
 raciuary and familiar Treatise cm M<'<hanics am; Natural Philosophy, as apphc<i to tlie 
 ordinary practices of Agriculture. With 200 illustrations. 
 
 THOMPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS, ■ - . 75 
 
 Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals and thb 
 
 Fattening of Cattle ; with Remarks ou the Food of Man. Rised upon Experim.Miia under- 
 taken by order of the British Government, by Robert Du.vdas 1'hompson. M. IX 
 Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow. 
 
 Mailed pod paid upon reeapt of price. 
 
10 Books puhlishfid by C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 
 
 THE BOSE CTTLTURIST, 60 
 
 Being a Practical Treatise on the Propagation, Cultivation, 
 
 and- Mauagomeut of the Koso in all scasous ; with a List of Choice aud Approved Varie- 
 ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States ; to which is added full directions for 
 the Treatment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by engravings. 
 
 TOPHAM'S CHEMISTEY MADE EASY, 25 
 
 For the Use of Iarmers. By J. Topham. 
 
 TUBNEE'S COTTON PLANTES'S MANUAL, 1 00 
 
 Being a Compilation of Facts from the Best Authorities on 
 
 the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption, 
 and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J. A. Tl'RXER. 
 
 WAEDEE'S (J. A.) HEDGES AND EVERGEEENS, .... 1 00 
 A Complete Manual for the Cultivation, Pruning and Man- 
 
 agement of all ri:i:its s iit.ible for American Hedging, especially the Maclura or Osago 
 Orange. Fully illustrated with engraving of plants, implements and processes. To 
 which is added a TrealUe on Ecergreens, \.'-•^.'<^ diCferent Varieties, their propagation, 
 transplanting and Culture in the L'nitcil Stiitjs 
 
 WAEING'S ELEMENTS OF AGEICULTUKjS, 75 
 
 A Book fo.^. Yolno Farmers, with Questions for the use of 
 
 Schools. 
 
 WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES-A MANUAL, 60 
 
 Or, an Easy Method op ^[anaging Bees in the most profit- 
 
 able manner to th jir Ow.ior ; witli Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by the 
 Moth. With an .\pjieaili.>;, by W-jo-^rER A. Ft-\.\i)KK.s. 
 
 WHITE'S (W. N.) GABDENING FOE THE SOUTH, - - - . 1 25 
 
 Or, the Kitchen and Fruit Garden, with the Best Methods 
 
 for their Cultivation : tog.lher with Hints upon l,audscape and Flower Gardening ; con- 
 taining Modes of Culture and Descriiitions of the Species and Varieties of the Culinary 
 Vegetiibles, Fruit Trees and Fruit.s, and a Select List of Ornamental Trees and Plants, 
 Adaoted to the Slates of the Union South of Pennsylvania, with Gardening Calendars for 
 the same. By Wm. N. Whfte, of Athens, Georgia. 
 
 YOUATT AND MABTIN ON CATTLE, 1 25 
 
 Being a Treatise on their Breeds, Manageme.vt, and Diseases, 
 
 comprising a Full History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits ; 
 their capacity for B ef an i Milk. P.y W. Vocatt and W. C. I,. Martix. The whole form- 
 inga Complete Gui Ic for th ■ Farm-r. the .■\mateur aud the Veterinary Surgeon, with 109 
 illustrations. E litod by Amhr.ise Stevtc.vs. 
 
 YOUATT ON THE HOBSE, 1 25 
 
 Youatt on the Structure and Diseases of the Horse, with 
 
 their Remedies : also. Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W. 
 C. Spoonor, M.R.C.V.S. With an Account of the Breeds in the United States, by Hexrt 
 S. Randall. 
 
 yOUATT ON SHEEP, ... 75 
 
 Their Breed, .Ma\.\ge.ment and Diseases, with Illustrative En- 
 gravings ; to which are a Id • 1 R.Mnarkson the Breeds aud .Management of Sheep in the 
 United Stiitcs, au 1 on tbj Culturi> of Fine Wool in Silesia. By Wm. Vocatt. 
 
 TOUATT AND MABTIN ON THE HOG, - 75 
 
 A Treatise ox the Breeds, M.a.nagement, and Medical Treat- 
 
 ment of Swine, with nirectiousfor Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By Wm. 
 YOUAXT, V. S., and W. C L. JLurn.v. Edited by .\mbrose Stevens. lUrstrated with 
 engravings drawn from life. 
 
 Mailed post paid upon receipt of price. 
 
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