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J^^* 
 
 THE BISHOP OF VICTORIA'S WORK ON JAPAN. 
 
 One Volume, 8vo. with a Map and 8 Illustrations 
 in Chromoxylography, price 14s, 
 
 TEN WEEKS IN JAl>AN. 
 
 By GEOEaE SMITH, D.D. 
 
 Bishop of Victoria (Hong Kong). 
 
 " T OOKINa at the book as a 
 work of art, there is a brilliancy 
 of colour about it that would charm a 
 pre-Raphaelite. The Bishop has an eye 
 to the picturesque and a dash of ro- 
 mance in his composition, rarely dis- 
 played by an ecclesiastical dignitary. 
 His book is pregnant with ideas as well 
 as facts, and the style so attractive 
 that it cannot fail to allure general 
 readers as well as those who take a 
 special interest in Japan." 
 
 Liter arp Gazette. 
 
 " THE work has the charm of 
 abounding in pictures of the 
 habits, manners, and customs which 
 prevail amongst this peculiar and long- 
 isolated people, drawn by the hand of 
 a keen but benevolent observer, and 
 traced in lines of singular grace and 
 beauty. A more interesting volume 
 can hardly be opened.*' Observer. 
 
 «' "HE. SMITH'S book is, in most 
 respects, an excellent one. It 
 is in part compiled, no doubt, — for 
 Japan is not yet the country in which 
 a flying visit will supply original ma- 
 terials for a considerable volume ; but 
 so much of narrative as there is is 
 vivid and natural, marked by strong 
 common sense, and written in a tone 
 balanced between sympathy and enthu- 
 siasm. The Bishop sympathises with 
 the Japanese, but he is not thrown 
 into raptures by their paper pocket- 
 handkerchiefs and public baths. He 
 saw them, we suspect, as they were, 
 and not as they have appeared to 
 
 young oflEicers of the Eoyal "Naxj 
 who, when writing home from Naga- 
 saki, mistook nudity for innocence, 
 and fancied that because people bathed 
 in the streets they must necessarily be 
 
 angels of Paradise The Bishop's 
 
 sketches are more than ordinarily 
 bright in colour and animated in de- 
 tail. His description of the Nagasaki 
 market is admirable. Respecting the 
 new relations o! Japan with foreign 
 merchants, he has an illustration of an 
 
 interesting character The Bishop's 
 
 commentary is distressing in its real- 
 istic cruelty. The Japanese, he re- 
 marks, are praised for their frugality, 
 but they are the most drunken people 
 in the world. They are reputed to 
 tolerate no mendicancy, yet the most 
 loathsome beggars infest the public 
 highways. They have been eulogised 
 for cultivating no toliacco, but " in no 
 part of the world is tobacco more uni- 
 versally consumed." As to gambling, 
 they will bet upon the feats of a tame 
 
 mouse We have not met with 
 
 many books on Japan so readable a8_ 
 this. The author, considering the ni 
 rowness of his opportunities, wasj 
 surprising sight-seer; and whatever ! 
 did see, he at once sketched in gofi 
 faith, good taste and good feeling. Tl 
 volume is really an insight into tl 
 domestic life and manners of Japal 
 because Dr. Smith made his trip in tl 
 spirit of a genuine traveller, a man 
 the world, and a missionary really dj 
 serving the title, in the highest sen^ 
 in which it can be enjoyed." 
 
 AthenteumA 
 
 London : LONGMAN, GREEN, and CO. Paternoster Row. 
 1 
 
i 
 
 
 LIBRARY OF 
 
 1885- IQ56 
 
^ ^i/^"" 
 
 J 
 i 
 
THE 
 
 NATUEAL HISTORY OF CEYLO>( 
 
LONDON 
 PHINTED BT SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. 
 NEW-STKEET SQUAEE 
 
SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MTUEAL HISTOET OF CEYLON 
 
 NAEEATIYES AND ANECDOTES 
 
 Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the 
 
 MAMMALIA, BIEDS, EEPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c. 
 
 INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF 
 
 THE ELEPHANT 
 
 AND A DESCEIPTIOir OF THE MODES OF CAPTUEING AlfD TEAINING IT 
 
 WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS 
 
 BY 
 
 SIE J. EMEESON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c. 
 
 Author of 
 
 ' Ceylon, an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical, and Topographical " &c. &c. 
 
 LONDON 
 LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS 
 
 1861 
 
mTKODUCTION. 
 
 A CONSIDEEABLE poi'tion of the contents of the present 
 volume formed the zoological section of a much more 
 comprehensive work recently published, on the history 
 and present condition of Ceylon.^ But its inclusion 
 there was a matter of difficulty ; for to have altogether 
 omitted the chapters on Natural History would have 
 impaired the completeness of the plan on which I had 
 attempted to describe the island ; whilst to insert them 
 as they here appear, without curtailment, would have 
 encroached unduly on the space required for other 
 essential topics. In this dilemma, I was obliged to 
 adopt the alternative of so condensing the matter as to 
 bring the whole within the prescribed proportions. 
 
 But this operation necessarily diminished the general 
 interest of the subjects treated, as well by the omission 
 of incidents which would otherwise have been retained, 
 as by the exclusion of anecdotes calculated to illustrate 
 the habits and instincts of the animals described. 
 
 ^ Ceylon: An Account of the son Tennent, K.C.S., LL.D., &c. 
 
 Island, Physical, Historical, and Illustrated by Maps, Plans, and 
 
 Topographical ; with Notices of its Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo. Longman 
 
 Natural History, Antiquities, and and Co., 1859. 
 Productions. By Sir James Emek- 
 
 A 8 
 
vi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an inde- 
 pendent form has afforded an opportunity for repairing 
 some of these defects by revising the entire, restoring 
 omitted passages, and introducing fresh materials col- 
 lected in Ceylon; the additional matter occupying a 
 very large portion of the present volume. 
 
 I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail my- 
 self of the corrections and communications of scientific 
 friends; and thus to compensate, in some degree for 
 what is still incomplete, by increased accuracy in minute 
 particulars. 
 
 In the Introduction to the First Edition of the 
 original work I alluded, in the following terms, to that 
 portion of it which is now reproduced in an extended 
 form : — 
 
 *^ Eegarding the fauna of Ceylon, little has been 
 published in any collective form, with the exception of 
 a volume by Dr. Kelaaet entitled Prodromus Faunae 
 Zeilanicoe ; several valuable papers by Mr. Edgar L. 
 Layard in the Annals and Magazine of Natural His- 
 tory for 1852 and 1853 ; and some very imperfect lists 
 appended to Pridham's compiled account of the island.^ 
 ICnox, in the charming narrative of his captivity, pub- 
 lished in the reign of Charles II., has devoted a chapter 
 to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. Davy has described 
 some of the reptiles : but with these exceptions the 
 subject is almost untouched in works relating to the 
 colony. Yet a more than ordinary interest attaches to 
 
 ^ An Historical, Political, and its Dependencies, by C. Peidham, 
 Statistical Account of Ceylon and Esq. 2to1s. 8vo. London, 1849. 
 
INTRODUCTIOX. Vll 
 
 the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of presenting, as is 
 generally assumed, an identity between its fauna and 
 that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable diversity, 
 taken in connection with the limited area over which 
 the animals included in it are distributed. The island, 
 in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a geographical 
 circle, possessing within itself forms, whose allied species 
 radiate far into the temperate regions of the north, as 
 well as into Africa, Australia, and the isles of the Eastern 
 Archipelago. 
 
 " In the chapters that I have devoted to its eluci- 
 dation, I have endeavoured to interest others in the 
 subject, by describing my own observations and impres- 
 sions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracy as may 
 be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greater 
 knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences 
 than is ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman. 
 It was my good fortune, however, in my journeys to 
 have the companionship of friends familiar with many 
 branches of natural science : the late Dr. GtAEDner, 
 Mr. Edgar L. Layard, an accomplished zoologist. 
 Dr. Templeton, and others; and I was thus enabled 
 to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative 
 to the structure and habits of the numerous tribes. 
 These, chastened by the corrections of my fellow-tra- 
 vellers, and established by the examination of collec- 
 tions made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison 
 with specimens contained in museums at home, I have 
 ventured to submit as faithful outlines of the fauna of 
 Ceylon. 
 
 A 4 
 
vm IXTEODUCTIOX. 
 
 '^ The sections descriptive of the several classes are 
 accompanied by lists, prepared with the assistance of 
 scientific friends, showing the extent to which each par- 
 ticular branch had been investigated by naturalists, up 
 to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the close 
 of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I 
 trast, stimulate others to engage in the same pursuit, 
 by exhibiting chasms, which it remains for future in- 
 dustry and research to fill up ; — and the study of the 
 zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for 
 that of Continental India, embracing, as the former 
 does, much that is common to both, as well as possess- 
 ing a fauna peculiar to the island, that in itself will 
 amply repay more extended scrutiny. 
 
 " From these lists have been excluded all species 
 regarding the authenticity of which reasonable doubts 
 could be entertained ^, and of some of them, a very few 
 have been printed in italics^ in order to denote the 
 desirability of more minute comparison with well-de- 
 termined specimens in the great national depositories 
 before finally incorporating them with the Singhalese 
 catalogues. 
 
 '' In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts 
 embodied in these sections, I cannot too warmly ex- 
 press my thanks for the aid I have received from 
 gentlemen interested in similar studies in Ceylon : from 
 
 ^ An exception occurs in the list lities are doubtful hare been ad- 
 of shells, prepared by Mr.. SYLVAxrs mitted for reasons adduced. (See 
 Hanley, in which some whose loca- p. 387.) 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 Dr. Kelaaet* and Mr. Edgar L. Latard, as well as 
 from officers of the Ceylon Civil Service; the Hon. 
 Gerald C. Talbot, Mr. C. E. Buller, Mr. Mercer, 
 Mr. Morris, Mr. Whiting, Major Skinner, and Mr. 
 
 MiTFORD. 
 
 " Before venturing to commit these chapters of my 
 work to the press, I have had the advantage of having 
 portions of them read by Professor Huxley, Mr. Moore, 
 of the East India House Museum ; Mr. E. Patterson, 
 F.E.S., author of the Introduction to Zoology ; and by 
 Mr. Adam White, of the British Museum ; to each of 
 whom I am exceedingly indebted for the care they have 
 bestowed. In an especial degree I have to acknowledge 
 the kindness of Dr. J. E. Gtrat, F.E.S., for valuable 
 additions and corrections in the list of the Ceylon Eep- 
 tilia ; and to Professor Faraday for some i^otes on the 
 nature and qualities of the " Serpent Stone," ^ submitted 
 to him. 
 
 " The extent to which my observations on the Ele- 
 phant have been carried, requires some explanation. 
 The existing notices of this noble creature are chiefly 
 devoted to its habits and capabilities in captivity ; and 
 very few works, with which I am acquainted, contain 
 illustrations of its instincts and functions when wild 
 in its native woods. Opportunities for observing the 
 latter, and for collecting facts in connection with them, 
 are abundant in Ceylon ; and from the moment of my 
 
 ^ It is with deep regret that I accomplished gentleman, which oc- 
 have to record the death of this curred in 1860. - See p. 312. 
 
X INTRODUCTIOX. 
 
 arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for 
 observing the elephant in a state of nature, and obtain- 
 ing from hunters and natives correct information as to 
 its ceconomy and disposition. Anecdotes in connection 
 with this subject, I received from some of the most 
 experienced residents in the island ; amongst others, 
 from Major Skinner, -Captain Philip Payne G-allwet, 
 Mr. Faieholme, Mr. Ceipps, and Mr. Moeeis. Nor can 
 I omit to express my acknowledgments to Professor 
 Owen, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of 
 my manuscript was submitted previous to its committal 
 to the press." 
 
 To the foregoing observations I have little to add 
 beyond my acknowledgment to Dr. Albeet GtUNTHer, of 
 the British Museum, for the communication of im- 
 portant facts in illustration of the ichthyology of Ceylon, 
 as well as of the reptiles of the island. 
 
 Mr. Bltth, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully 
 revised the Catalogue of Birds, and supplied me with 
 much useful information in regard to their geographical 
 distribution. To his experienced scrutiny is due the 
 perfected state in which the list is now presented. It 
 will be seen, however, from the italicised names still 
 retained, that inquiry is far from being exhausted. 
 
 Mr. Thwaites, the able Director of the Royal Botanic 
 Gardens at Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me 
 many valuable observations, not only in connection with 
 the botany, but the zoology of the mountain region. 
 The latter I have here embodied in their appropriate 
 
INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 places, and those relating to plants and vegetation will 
 appear in a future edition of my large work. 
 
 To M. NiETNEE, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted 
 for many particulars regarding Singhalese Entomology, 
 a department to which his attention has been given, 
 with equal earnestness and success. 
 
 Through the Hon. Eichaed Morgan, acting Senior 
 Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court at Colombo, I 
 have received from his Interpreter, M. D. de Silva 
 GoONERATNE MoDLiAR, a Singhalese gentleman of learn- 
 ing and observation, many important notes, of which 
 I have largely availed myself, in relation to the wild 
 animals, and the folk-lore and superstitions of the 
 natives in connection with them. 
 
 Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples ; in 
 the conviction that, notwithstanding their obvious errors 
 in many instances, these popular legends and traditions 
 occasionally embody traces of actual observation, and 
 may contain hints and materials deserving of minuter 
 inquiry. 
 
 I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present 
 volume as a compendium of the Natural History of 
 Ceylon. I present it merely as a *' memoir e pour 
 servir," materials to assist some future inquirer in the 
 formation of a more detailed and systematic account of 
 the fauna of the island. My design has been to point 
 out to others the extreme richness and variety of the 
 field, the facility of exploring it, and the charms and 
 attractions of the undertaking. I am eager to show 
 
Xll IXTEODUCTIOK 
 
 how much remains to do by exhibiting the little that 
 has as yet been done^ 
 
 The departments of Mammalia and Birds are the 
 only two which can be said to have as yet under- 
 gone tolerably close investigation; although even in 
 these it is probable that large additions still remain to 
 be made to the ascertained species. But, independently 
 of forms and specific characteristics, the more interesting 
 inquiry into habits and instincts is still open for obser- 
 vation and remark ; and for the investigation of these 
 no country can possibly afford more inviting oppor- 
 tunities than Ceylon. 
 
 Concerning the Beptilia a considerable amount of 
 information has been amassed. The Batrachians and 
 smaller Lizards have, I apprehend, been imperfectly in- 
 vestigated ; but the Tortoises are well known, and the 
 Serpents, from the fearful interest attaching to the race, 
 and stimulating their destruction, have been so vigilantly 
 pursued, that there is reason to believe that few, if any, 
 varieties exist which have not been carefully examined. 
 In a very large collection, made by Mr. Charles 
 Reginald Buller during many years' residence in 
 Kandy, and recently submitted by him to Dr. Griinther, 
 only one single specimen proved to be new or previously 
 unknown to belong to the island. 
 
 Of the IcJdhyology of Ceylon I am obliged to 
 speak in very different terms ; for although the mate- 
 rials are abundant almost to profusion, little has yet 
 been done to bring them under thoroughly scientific 
 scrutiny. In the following pages I have alluded to the 
 
IJs^TRODUCTION. XUl 
 
 large collection of examples of Fishes sent home by 
 officers of the Medical Staff, and which still remain 
 unopened, in the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham ; but 
 I am not without hope that these may shortly undergo 
 comparison with the drawings which exist of each, and 
 that this branch of the island fauna may at last attract 
 the attention to which its richness so eminently en- 
 titles it. 
 
 In the department of Entomology much has already 
 been achieved ; but an extended area still invites future 
 explorers ; and one which the Notes of Mr. Walker 
 prefixed to the List of Insects in this volume, show to 
 be of extraordinary interest, from the unexpected con- 
 vergence in Ceylon of characteristics heretofore sup- 
 posed to have been kept distinct by the broad lines 
 of geographical distribution. 
 
 Eelative to the inferior classes of Tnvertebrata very 
 little has as yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, espe- 
 cially the lacustrine and fluviatile, have been most 
 imperfectly investigated ; and of the land-shells, a 
 large proportion have yet to be submitted to scientific 
 examination. 
 
 The same may be said of the Arachnida and Crus^ 
 tacea. The jungle is frequented by sipidexs, phalangia^, 
 and acarids, of which nothing is known with certainty ; 
 and the sea-shore and sands have been equally over- 
 looked, so far as concerns the infinite variety of lobsters, 
 crayfish, crabs, and all their minor congeners. The 
 
 > Commonly called *' harvest-men." 
 
XIV IXTRODUCTIOK 
 
 polypif echini, asterias, and other radiata of the coast, 
 as well as the acalephce of the deeper waters, have 
 shared the same neglect ; and literally nothing has been 
 done to collect and classify the infusorise and minuter 
 zoophytes, the labours of Dr. Kelaart amongst the Dia- 
 tomacese being the solitary exception. 
 
 Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future 
 research as an accurate conception of what has already 
 been achieved. With equal terseness and truth Dr. 
 Johnson has observed that the traveller who would bring 
 back knowledge from any country must carry know- 
 ledge with him at setting out ; and I am not mthout 
 hope that the demonstration I now venture to offer, oT 
 the little that has already been done for zoology in 
 Ceylon, may serve to inspire others with a desire to 
 resume and complete the inquiry. 
 
 J. EMEKSON TENNENT. 
 
 London: November 1st, 1861, 
 
CONTEOTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Neglect of zoology in Ceylon 
 
 Labours of Dr. Davy 
 
 Followed by Dr. Templeton and 
 others . . . . . 
 
 Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E. L. Layard 
 
 Monkeys • . . . . 
 The Eilawa, Macacus pileatus 
 Wanderoos . . . . 
 
 Knox's account of them . 
 Error regarding the Silenvs 
 Veter . . (iiote) 
 Presbytes Cephalopterus 
 Fond of eating flowers . 
 A white monkey . 
 ^lethod of the flight of monkeys 
 P. Ursinus in the Hills . 
 P. Thersites in the Wanny 
 P. Priam us, Jaffna and Trinco 
 
 malie 
 No dead monkey ever found 
 
 Loris .... 
 
 Bats .... 
 Flying Fox, Pteropus Ed- 
 
 wardsii 
 Their numbers at Peradenia 
 Singularity of their attitudes 
 Food and mode of eating 
 Horse-shoe bat, Rhinolophus 
 Faculty of smell in bat . 
 A tiny bat, Scotophilvs foro- 
 
 mandelicus 
 Extraordinary parasite of th 
 bat, the Nycteribia . 
 
 Camivora. — Bears . 
 Their ferocity 
 
 Singhalese belief in the efficacy of 
 charms . . {note) 
 
 Page 
 
 3 
 
 ih. 
 
 4 
 
 ih. 
 5 I 
 ih 
 ih 
 ih. 
 
 ih. 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 ih 
 
 10 
 
 ih. 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 
 14 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 ih. 
 
 20 
 
 ih. 
 22 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 Page 
 
 Leopards . . . . .25 
 Erroneously confounded with 
 
 the Indian cheetah . . ih. 
 Curicus belief . , .26 
 Anecdotes of leopards . . 27 
 Their attraction by the small- 
 pox 28 
 
 Native superstition . . ih. 
 
 Encounter with a leopard . 29 
 
 Monkeys killed by leopards . 31 
 Alleged peculiarity of the claws 32 
 
 Palm-cat .... ih. 
 
 Civet . . . . . ih. 
 
 Dogs 33 
 
 Ciuel mode of destroying dogs ih. 
 Their republican instincts . 34 
 
 Jackal . . . . . ih. 
 
 Cunning, anecdotes of . .35 
 The horn of the jackal . . 36 
 
 Mungoos . . . .37 
 
 Its fights with serpents . . 38 
 Theory of its antidote . . 40 
 
 Squirrels . . . . .41 
 
 Flying squirrel . . . ib. 
 
 Tree-rat . . . . .42 
 
 Story of a rat and a snake . 43 
 
 Cofiee-rat .... ih. 
 
 Bandicoot . . . .44 
 
 Porcupine . . . .45 
 
 Pengolin 46 
 
 Its habits and gentleness . 47 
 Its skeleton . . . .48 
 
 Ruminantia. — The Gaur . . 49 
 
 Oxen 50 
 
 Humped cattle . . .51 
 Encounter of a cow and a leo- 
 pard .... ih. 
 Draft oxen . . . .52 
 Their treatment . . .53 
 A Tavalam .... ib. 
 
XVI 
 
 COXTEXTS. 
 
 Page 
 Attempt to introduce the camel 
 
 (note) 53 
 
 Buffaloes . . . .54 
 
 Sporting buffaloes . . .55 
 
 Peculiar structure of the foot . 56 
 
 Deer ... . . 57 
 
 Meminna . . . . . ib. 
 
 Elk 59 
 
 Wild-boar . . . . ib. 
 
 Elephants . . . .60 
 
 Recent discovery of a new species ib. 
 Geological speculations as to 
 
 the island of Ceylon . .61 
 Ancient tradition . . . ib. 
 Opinion of Professor Ansted . ib. 
 Peculiarities in Ceylon mam- 
 malia . . . .63 
 The same in Ceylon birds and 
 
 insects .... ib. 
 Temminck's discovery of a new 
 species of elephant in Suma- 
 tra ..... 
 Points of distinction between it 
 and the elephant of India . 
 Professor Schlegel's description 
 Cetacea ..... 
 Whales .... 
 
 The Dugong 
 
 Origin of the fable of the mer- 
 maid .... 
 Credulity of the Portuguese . 
 Belief of the Dutch 
 Testimony of Valentyn 
 List of Ceylon mammalia . 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Its Structure. 
 Vast numbers in Ceylon 
 Derivation of the word "elephant" 
 (^note) 
 Antiquity of the trade in elephants 
 Numbers now diminishing . 
 Iklischief done by them to crops 
 Ivory scarce in Ceylon 
 Conjectures as to the absence of 
 
 tusks .... 
 Elephant a harmless animal 
 Alleged antipathies to other ani 
 
 mals .... 
 Fights with each other 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 66 
 68 
 ib. 
 69 
 
 70 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 71 
 73 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 79 
 81 
 
 82 
 86 
 
 The foot its chief weapon . 
 
 Use of the tusks in a wild state 
 doubtful . . . . 
 
 Anecdote of sagacity in an ele- 
 phant at Kandy 
 
 Difference between African and 
 Indian species 
 
 Native ideas of perfection in an 
 elephant . . . . 
 
 Blotches on the skin . 
 
 White elephants not unknown in 
 Ceylon . . . . 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Pajie 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 Its Habits. 
 
 Water, but not heat, essential to 
 elephants 
 
 Sight limited . 
 
 Smell acute 
 
 Caution . 
 
 Hearing, good . 
 
 Cries of the elephant 
 
 Trumpeting 
 
 Booming noise . 
 
 Height, exaggerated . 
 
 Facility of stealthy motion 
 
 Ancient delusion as to the joints 
 of the leg 
 
 Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne 
 
 Its perpetuation by poets and 
 others . . . . . 
 
 Position of the elephant in sleep . 
 
 An elephant killed on its feet 
 
 Mode of lying down . 
 
 Its gait a shuiEe 
 
 Power of climbing mountains 
 
 I'acilitated by the joint of the knee 
 
 Mode of descending declivities . 
 
 A " herd " is a family 
 
 Attachment to their young 
 
 Suckled indifferently by the fe- 
 males . 
 
 A '' rogue " elephant . 
 
 Their cunning and vice 
 
 Injuries done by them 
 
 The leader of a herd a tusker 
 
 Bathing and nocturnal gambols, 
 description of a scene by ^lajor 
 Skinner . . . . 
 
 94 
 95 
 96 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 97 
 ib. 
 98 
 99 
 100 
 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 102 
 105 
 107 
 ib. 
 108 
 109 
 110 
 111 
 112 
 113 
 
 ib. 
 114 
 115 
 
 ib. 
 117 
 
 118 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XVU 
 
 Method of swimming . 
 
 Internal anatomy imperfectly 
 known . . . . 
 
 Faculty of storing water . 
 
 Peculiarity of the stomach . 
 
 The food of the elephant 
 
 Sagacity in search of it . 
 
 Unexplained dread of fences 
 
 Its spirit of inquisitiveness 
 
 Anecdotes illustrative of its curi- 
 osity . . . . . 
 
 Estimate of sagacity 
 
 Singular conduct of a herd during 
 thunder . . . . 
 
 An elephant feigning death 
 
 Appendix. — Narratives of natives, 
 as to encounters with rogue 
 elephants .... 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Elephant Shooting. 
 
 Vast numbers shot in Ceylon 
 Revolting details of elephant kill- 
 ing in Africa . (note) 
 Fatal spots at which to aim 
 Structure of the bones of the head 
 Wounds which are certain to kill 
 Attitudes when surprised . 
 Peculiar movements when reposing 
 Habits when attacked 
 Sagacity of native trackers . 
 Courage and agility of the ele- 
 phants in escape . 
 Worthlessness of the carcass 
 Singular recovery from a wound 
 . (woie) 
 
 CHAP, V. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Page 
 121 
 
 ]22 
 124 
 125 
 129 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 
 ih. 
 133 
 
 134 
 135 
 
 136 
 
 An Elephant Corral. 
 
 Early method of catching ele- 
 phants ..... 
 
 Capture in pit-falls . (jiote) 
 
 By means of decoys . 
 
 Panickeas — their courage and 
 address .... 
 
 Their sagacity in following the 
 elephant .... 
 
 142 
 
 ib. 
 143 
 144 
 145 
 148 
 
 ib. 
 150 
 
 ib. 
 
 151 
 153 
 
 154 
 
 156 
 
 ib. 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 
 Mode of capture by the noose 
 
 Mode of taming 
 
 Method of leading the elephants 
 to the coast . . . . 
 
 Process of embarking them at Jla- 
 naar . . . . . 
 
 Method of capturing a whole herd 
 
 The " keddah " in Bengal de- 
 scribed. . . . . 
 
 Process of enclosing a herd 
 
 Pi'ocess of capture in Ceylon 
 
 An elephant corral and its con- 
 struction . . . . 
 
 An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847 
 
 The town and district of Korne- 
 galle . . . . . 
 
 The rock of Aetagalla 
 
 Forced labour of the corral in 
 former times. 
 
 Now given voluntarily 
 
 Form of the enclosure 
 
 Method of securing a wild herd . 
 
 Scene when driving them into the 
 corral 
 
 A failure ..... 
 
 An elephant drove by night 
 
 Singular scene in the corral 
 
 Excitement of the tame elephants 
 (iiote') 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Page 
 IGO 
 161 
 
 162 
 
 ih. 
 163 
 
 164 
 
 165 
 
 ib. 
 
 166 
 167 
 
 ih. 
 168 
 
 170 
 171 
 
 172 
 173 
 
 174 
 176 
 177 
 178 
 
 ih. 
 
 The Captives. 
 
 A night scene . . . .180 
 Morning in the corral . .181 
 Preparations for securing the cap- 
 tives ih. 
 
 The " cooroowe," or noosers . ih. 
 The tame decoys . . .182 
 First captive tied up . . .183 
 Singular conduct of the wild ele- 
 phants . . . . .184 
 Furious attempts of the herd to 
 
 escape 186 
 
 Courageous conduct of the natives IS 7 
 Variety of disposition exhibited by 
 
 the herd . . . - . 189 
 Extraordinary contortions of the 
 captives . . . .190 
 
 a 
 
XVlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Water withdrawn from the sto- 
 
 
 Working elephants, delicate 
 
 225 
 
 mach . . . . . 
 
 191 
 
 Deaths in government stud 
 
 226 
 
 Instinct of the decoys 
 
 ih. 
 
 Diseases . . . 
 
 227 
 
 Conduct of the noosers 
 
 194 
 
 Subject to tooth-ache 
 
 ih. 
 
 The young ones and their actions 
 
 lb. 
 
 Question of the value of labour of 
 
 
 Noosinc a " roorue," and his death 
 
 196 
 
 an elephant . . . . 
 
 229 
 
 Instinct of flies in searcii of car- 
 
 
 Food in captivity, and cost . 
 
 230 
 
 rion . . . (note) 
 
 ih. 
 
 Breed in captivity . . . 
 
 231 
 
 Strange scene .... 
 
 197 
 
 Age 
 
 232 
 
 A second herd captured 
 
 199 
 
 Theory of M. Fleurens 
 
 ih. 
 
 Their treatment of a sohtary ele- 
 
 
 No dead elephants found 
 
 234 
 
 phant 
 
 200 
 
 Sindbad's story . . . . 
 
 236 
 
 A magnificent female elephant . 
 
 201 
 
 Passage from ^Elian . 
 
 237 
 
 Her extraordinary attitudes 
 
 ih. 
 
 
 
 Wonderful contortions 
 
 203 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 
 Taking the captives out of the 
 
 
 
 
 O i 
 
 corral . . . . . 
 
 204 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 
 Their subsequent treatment and 
 
 
 Their numbers 
 
 241 
 
 training . . . . 
 
 205 
 
 Songsters . . . . 
 
 ih. 
 
 Grandeur of the scene 
 
 ih. 
 
 Hornbills, the " bird with two 
 
 
 Story of young pet elephant 
 
 206 
 
 heads" . . . . 
 
 242 
 
 
 
 Pea fowl 
 
 244 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 
 Sea birds, their number 
 
 245 
 
 
 
 \. Accipitres. — Eagles 
 
 ih. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 
 Falcons and hawks . 
 Owls — the devil bird 
 
 246 
 
 
 
 247 
 
 Conduct in Captivity. 
 
 
 II. Passeres. — Swallows . 
 
 248 
 
 Alleged superiority of the Indian 
 
 
 Kingfishers — sunbirds 
 
 249 
 
 to the African elephant — not 
 
 
 The cotton-thief 
 
 250 
 
 true . . . . . 
 
 207 
 
 Bul-bul — tailor bird — and 
 
 
 Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian 
 
 209 
 
 weaver . . . . 
 
 251 
 
 Process of training in Ceylon 
 
 211 
 
 The mountain jay 
 
 253 
 
 Allowed to batl.e 
 
 213 
 
 Crows, anecdotes of . 
 
 ih. 
 
 Difference of disposition 
 
 214 
 
 III. Scansores. — Parroquets . 
 
 256 
 
 Sudden death of " broken heart " 
 
 216 
 
 IV. Columhidoe. — Pigeons 
 
 257 
 
 First employment treading clay . 
 
 217 
 
 V. Gallince. — Jungle- fowl 
 
 259 
 
 Drawing a wairgon . 
 
 ih. 
 
 VI. Grallce. — Ibis, stork, &c. . 
 
 260 
 
 Dragging timber 
 
 218 
 
 VII. Anseres. — Flamingoes 
 
 261 
 
 Sagacity in labour 
 
 ih. 
 
 Pelicans . . . . 
 
 262 
 
 Mode of raising stones 
 
 ih. 
 
 Strange scene . .262, 
 
 263 
 
 Strength in throwing down trees 
 
 
 Game — Partridges, &c. 
 
 265 
 
 exaggerated . . . . 
 
 219 
 
 List of Ceylon birds . 
 
 ih. 
 
 Piling timber . . . . 
 
 ih. 
 
 List of birds peculiar to Ceylon . 
 
 269 
 
 Not uniform in habits of work . 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 Lazy if not watched . 
 
 ih. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 
 Obedience to keeper from affection, 
 
 
 
 
 not fear .... 
 
 221 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 
 Change of keeper — story of child 
 
 222 
 
 Lizards. — Iguana . 
 
 271 
 
 Ear for sounds and music . 
 
 223 
 
 Kabara-goya,barbarous custom 
 
 
 Hurra! . . . (note) 
 
 ih. 
 
 in preparing the kabara-tel 
 
 
 Endurance of pain . 
 
 224 
 
 poison . . . 272- 
 
 -274 
 
 Docility 
 
 225 
 
 Blood-suckers 
 
 275 
 
COXTEJS^TS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 The green calotes 
 
 The lyre-headed lizard . 
 
 Chameleon . . . . 
 
 Ceratophora . . . . 
 
 Geckoes, — their power of re- 
 producing limbs 
 Crocodiles . . . . 
 
 Their sensitiveness to tickling 
 
 Anecdotes of crocodiles . 
 
 Their power of burying them- 
 selves in the mud 
 Tortoises. — Curious parasite . 
 
 Terrapins . . . . 
 
 Edible turtle 
 
 Cruel mode of cutting it up 
 alive . . . . 
 
 Huge Indian tortoises (note) 
 
 Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous 
 mode of stripping it of the 
 tortoise-shell 
 Serpents. — Venomous species rare 
 
 Tic polonga and carawala 
 
 Cobra de capello . 
 
 Tame snakes . {note') 
 
 Anecdotes of the cobra de ca- 
 pello . . . 298, 
 
 Legends concerning it . 
 
 Instance of land snakes found 
 at sea .... 
 
 Singular tradition regarding 
 the cobra de capello . 
 
 Uropeltidse. — Xew species dis- 
 covered in Ceylon 
 
 Buddhist veneration for the 
 cobra de capello 
 
 The Python 
 
 Tree snakes 
 
 "Water snakes 
 
 Sea snakes . 
 
 Snake stones 
 
 Analysis of one 
 
 Csecilia 
 
 Frogs . 
 
 Tree frogs . 
 List of Ceylon reptiles 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 Ichthyology of Ceylon, little 
 known .... 
 
 Fish for table, seir fish 
 
 Page 
 276 
 277 
 278 
 279 
 
 281 
 
 282 
 285 
 286 
 
 ib. 
 289 
 290 
 291 
 
 ih. 
 293 
 
 ib. 
 294 
 296 
 297 
 298 
 
 305 
 299 
 
 300 
 
 ih. 
 
 302 
 
 303 
 
 ih. 
 
 305 
 
 306 
 
 ih. 
 
 312 
 
 315 
 
 317 
 
 ib. 
 
 320 
 
 321 
 
 323 
 324 
 
 Sardines, poisonous ? 
 
 Sharks 
 
 Saw-fish . . . . . 
 
 Fish of brilliant colours 
 
 The ray . . . . . 
 
 The sword-fish 
 
 Curious fish described by ^lian 
 
 Salarias alticus 
 
 Beautifully coloured fishes . 
 
 Fresh-water fish, little known, — 
 not much eaten 
 
 Fresh -water fish in Colombo Lake 
 
 Perches 
 
 Eels 
 
 Immense profusion of fish in the 
 rivers and lakes 
 
 Their re- appearance after rain . 
 
 Mode of fishing in the ponds 
 
 Showers of fish 
 
 Conjecture that the ova are pre- 
 served, not tenable 
 
 Fish moving on dry land . 
 Ancient authorities, Greek and 
 Eoman . . . . 
 Aristotle and Theophrastus 
 Athenseus ai)d Pulybins . 
 Livy, Poniponms, Mela, and 
 Juvenal . . . . 
 Seneca and Pliny . 
 Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &c. 
 Instances in Guiana (note) 
 Perca Scandtns, ascends trees 
 Doubts as to the story of 
 Daldorf . . . . 
 
 Fishes burying themselves during 
 the dry season . 
 The protopterus of the Gambia 
 Instances in the fish of the 
 Nile .... 
 
 Instances in the fish of South 
 America .... 
 Living fish dug out of the 
 ground in the dry tanks in 
 Ceylon .... 
 Molluscs that bury themselves 
 The animals tliat so bury them- 
 selves in India . 
 Analogous case of 
 Theory of aestivation and 
 hybernation 
 
 Fish in hot water in Ceylon 
 
 List of Ceylon fishes 
 
 Page 
 324 
 325 
 
 ib. 
 326 
 
 ib. 
 328 
 330 
 332 
 
 ib. 
 
 335 
 
 336 
 
 ib. 
 
 337 
 
 339 
 
 340 
 
 ib. 
 
 341 
 
 342 
 344 
 
 345 
 
 346 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 347 
 
 ib. 
 348 
 
 350 
 
 351 
 352 
 
 ib. 
 
 353 
 
 354 
 355 
 
 357 
 358 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 359 
 
 a2 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Instances of fishes falling from 
 the clouds . . . .362 
 
 Note on Ceylon fishes by Pro- 
 fessor Huxley . . . 364 
 
 Comparative note by Dr. Gray, 
 Brit. Mus 366 
 
 Note on the Bora-chung . . 367 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 VOLI.USCA, RADIATA, AND ACA- 
 LEPH^. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 Ill 
 
 369 
 
 ih. 
 
 370 
 
 372 
 
 Conchology. — General cha- 
 racter of Ceylon shells 
 
 Confusion regarding them in 
 scientific works and col- 
 lections 
 
 Ancient export of shells 
 from Ceylon . 
 
 Special forms confined to 
 particular localities 
 
 The pearl fishery of Aripo. 373 
 
 Frequent suspensions of . 374 
 
 Experiment to create beds of 
 the pearl oyster . .375 
 
 Process of diving for pearls 377 
 
 Danger from sharks . . 379 
 
 The transparent pearl oyster 
 (^Placuna placenta) 
 
 The " musical fish " at Bal- 
 licaloa 
 
 A similar phenomenon at 
 other places . (note) 383 
 
 Faculty of uttering sounds 
 in fishes 
 
 Instance in the Tritonia 
 arborescens . 
 
 Difficulty in forming a fist 
 of Ceylon shells 
 
 List of Ceylon shells 
 Radiata. — Star fish 
 
 Sea slugs 
 
 Parasitic worms 
 
 Plaiiaria . 
 
 Acalephoe, abundant 
 
 The Portuguese man-of-war 400 
 
 Eed infusoria . . . ib. 
 
 Note on the Tritonia arho- 
 rescem . . .401 
 
 380 
 
 381 
 
 384 
 
 385 
 
 . 386 
 388—395 
 . 395 
 . 396 
 . ib. 
 . 398 
 . ib. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 Page 
 403 
 404 
 405 
 ib. 
 407 
 408 
 
 Profusion of insects in Ceylon 
 Imperfect knowledge of . 
 
 I. Culeoptera. — Beetles . 
 
 Scavenger beetles 
 Coco-nut beetles 
 Tortoise beetles . 
 
 II. Orthoptera. — Mantis and leaf- 
 
 insects .... ib. 
 Stick-insects . . .410 
 
 III. Neuroptera. — Dragon flies 411 
 
 Ant-lion .... ib. 
 White ants . . . ib. 
 Anecdotes of their instinct 
 and ravages . .412 — 416 
 
 IV. Hymenoptera. — Mason wasps 416 
 Wasps . . . .417 
 Bees . . . .418 
 Carpenter Bee . . . ib. 
 Ants .... 420 
 Burrowing ants . . . 424 
 
 V. Lepidoptera. — Butterflies . ib. 
 
 The spectre . . .426 
 Lycaenidse .... ib. 
 Moths .... 427 
 Silk worms . . . 428 
 Stinging caterpillars . . 429 
 Wood- carrying moths. . 430 
 Pterophorus . . 432 
 
 VI. Homoptera . . . ib. 
 
 Cicada .... ib. 
 
 VII. Hemiptera . . . 433 
 Bugs .... ib. 
 
 VIII. Aphaniptera . . . ib. 
 
 IX. Diptera. — Mosquitoes . 434 
 
 Mosquitoes the "plague of 
 
 flies" . . (iiote) ib. 
 The coffee bug . .436—441 
 General character of Ceylon in- 
 sects 442 
 
 List of insects in Ceylon 442 — 46 
 
 CHAP. XIIL 
 
 ARACHNIDJE, MYRIOPODA, 
 CRUSTACEA, ETC. 
 
 Spiders 464 
 
 Strange nets of the wood spi- 
 ders ib. 
 
 The mygale .... 465 
 

 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Birds killed by it . 
 
 . 467 
 
 Crtistacea 
 
 . 477 
 
 Olios Taprobaniiis 
 
 . 469 
 
 Calling crabs 
 
 . ib. 
 
 The galeodes 
 
 470 
 
 Sand crabs . 
 
 . 478 
 
 Gregarious spiders 
 
 471 
 
 Painted crabs 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Ticks .... 
 
 ih. 
 
 Paddling crabs 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Mites. — Trombldlum tinctorun 
 
 I 472 
 
 Amielidre, Leeches. — 
 
 The land 
 
 Myriapods. — Centipedes . 
 
 . ib. 
 
 leech 
 
 . 479 
 
 Cermatiu 
 
 . 473 
 
 Medicinal leech 
 
 . 483 
 
 Scolopendra crassa. 
 
 474 
 
 Cattle leech . 
 
 . 484 
 
 S. pollipes 
 
 ib. 
 
 List of Articulata, &c. 
 
 . 485 
 
 The fish insect 
 
 ib. 
 
 Note. — On the revivi 
 
 fication of 
 
 MilUpeds. — Julus . 
 
 476 
 
 the Rotiiera and Paste-eels . 486 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 View of an Elephant Corral ....... Frontispiece 
 
 Groupof Ceylon Monkeys ....... to face 5 
 
 Hhe hovh (^Loris gracilis) . . . . . . . . .12 
 
 Gvovi'p of F\y'mgFox&s (^Pteropus Edwardsii) . . . to face 14 
 
 Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (i?%«o/op/iM5) . . . . . .19 
 
 Nycteribia. ........... 21 
 
 Indian Bear (Proc%?MS Za&zaf2is). ....... 23 
 
 Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah ....... 26 
 
 Jackal's Skull and " Horn " 36 
 
 Mongoos of Neura-ellia {Herpesles vitticoUis) . . . . .38 
 
 Flying Squirrel (^Pteromys oral) ........ 41 
 
 Coflfee Rat (Goiunda Elliotli) ........ 44 
 
 Bandicoot Rat (J7«s bandicota) ........ 45 
 
 Pengolin (^Alanis pentadactylus) . . . . . . . .47 
 
 Skeleton of the Pengolin ......... 48 
 
 Moose -deer {Moschus meminna) . . . . , . . .58 
 
 The Dugong (Balicore dugung) ........ 69 
 
 The Mermaid, from Valentyn 72 
 
 Brain of the Elephant ......... 95 
 
 Bones of the Foie- leg. . . . . , . . . .108 
 
 Elephant descending a Hill . . . . . . . . .111 
 
 Elephant's Well 122 
 
 Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells . . . . .125 
 
 Elephant's Trachea 126 
 
 Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel . . . . . .128 
 
 Section of the Elephant's Skull ........ 145 
 
 Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral . . . . . . .172 
 
 Mode of tying an Elephant . . . . . . . . .184 
 
 His Struggles for Freedom ......... 185 
 
 Impotent Fury . . . . . . . . . . .188 
 
 Obstinate Resistance . . . . . . . . . .189 
 
 Attitude for Defence .......... 203 
 
 Singular Contortions of an Elephant 204 
 
 Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and Roman Coins . 208 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 xxni 
 
 Page 
 Medal of Numidia 212 
 
 Modern " Hendoo" .......... ib. 
 
 The Horn-bill (^Bticeros pica) ........ 243 
 
 The "■ DevW-hivd'' (Syrnium Indi^anee) . ...... 247 
 
 The " Cotton-thief" (Tchitrea paradisi) 250 
 
 Layard Mountain Jay (Cissa/>?/e//a) ....... 252 
 
 The "Double-spur" (GaWo-jjerti/a: 6«co/caraiMs) ..... 260 
 
 The Flamingo (^Phcenicopterus roseus) . . . . . . .261 
 
 The Kabara-goya Lizard (Hydrosaurus salvator) ..... 273 
 
 The Green Calotes {Calotes opkiomachiis) . . . . . .276 
 
 Tongue of the Chameleon ......... 278 
 
 Ceatophora ....... . . to face 280 
 
 Skulls of tlie Crocodile and Alligator 283 
 
 Terrapin {Emys trijugd) ......... 290 
 
 Shield-tailed Serpent ( Uropeltis grandis) ...... 302 
 
 Tree Snake (Passerita Jusca) ...... to face 307 
 
 Sea. Sn-dke {Hydrophis siiblcevis) . ..... to face 311 
 
 Saw of the Saw-fish (^Pristis antiquomm) .... to face 326 
 
 Ray (^Aetobaies nariaari) . . . . . . . .327 
 
 Sword-fish (^Histiophorus immaculatus) ...... 330 
 
 Cheironectes ....... ... 331 
 
 Pterois volitans .......... 334 
 
 Scartis harid ........... 335 
 
 Perch (Therapon quadriUneatus ........ 337 
 
 Eel (^Mastacembelus armatus) ........ 338 
 
 Mode of Fisliina, after Rain 340 
 
 rian of a Fish Decoy 342 
 
 The Anabas of the dry Tanks ........ 354 
 
 The Violet lanthina and its Shell 370 
 
 Bullia vittata ........... ib. 
 
 Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth .... to face 380 
 
 Pearl Oyster, full grown ....... „ 381 
 
 Cerithium palustre .......... ib. 
 
 The Portuguese JNIan-of-war (Physahs urticulus) ..... 399 
 
 Longicorn Beetle (^Batocera rubus) ....... 406 
 
 Leaf Insects, &c. .......... 409 
 
 Eggs of the Leaf Insect (P^^&MWi stccyb&m) . . . . .410 
 
 The Carpenter Bee (^Xylocapa tenniscapd) . . . . . .419 
 
 Wood-carrying I\Ioths . . . . . . . . .431 
 
 The " Knife-grinder" {Cicada) 432 
 
 Flata {Elidiptera Eviersoniana and Pceciloptera Tennentii) . . . 433 
 The ^'Coffee-hug" (Lecanium caffece) ..... to face 436 
 
 Spider {Mygale fasciata) ....... „ 465 
 
 Cermatia ............ 473 
 
 The Calling Crab {Gelasimus) ........ 477 
 
 Eyes and Teeth of the Leech ........ 480 
 
 Land Leeches preparing to attack . . . . . . . .481 
 
 Medicinal Leech of Ceylon ......... 483 
 
ERRATUM. 
 Page 104. for " Theoraldos" read " Theobaldus.' 
 
Errata. 
 
 In List of Illustrations, p. xxiii. line 12, for Ceatophora read CeratopJwra. 
 P. 433, note, /or Foeciloptera read Pceciloptera. 
 
 ^^■i.*..X. \J AVa.J 
 
THE 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the 
 fauna of Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive 
 that systematic attention to which its richness and va- 
 riety most amply entitle it. The Singhalese themselves, 
 habitually indolent, and singularly unobservant of nature 
 and her operations, are at the same time restrained 
 from the study of natural history by the tenet of their 
 religion which forbids the taking of life under any cir- 
 cumstances. From the nature of their avocations, the 
 majority of the European residents, engaged in plant- 
 ing and commerce, are discouraged by want of leisure 
 from cultivating the taste ; and it is to be regretted 
 that, with few exceptions, the civil servants of the 
 government, whose position and duties would have 
 afforded them influence and extended opportunities for 
 successful investigation, have never seen the importance 
 of encouraging such studies. 
 
 The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural 
 science in Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when 
 connected with the medical staffs of the army from 
 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated some of the 
 assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make col- 
 
 ^ Dr. Davy, brother to the il- tants, which contains the earliest 
 
 Instrious Sir Humphry Davy, pub- notice of the Natural History of 
 
 lished, in 1821, hiii Account of the the island, and especially of its 
 
 Interior of Ceylon and its Inhabi- ophidian reptiles. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 lections in illustration of the productions of the colony. 
 Of these the late Dr. Kinnis was one of the most ener- 
 getic and successful. He was seconded by Dr. Tem- 
 pleton of the Eoyal Artillery, who engaged assiduously 
 in the investigation of various orders, and commenced 
 an interchange of specimens with Mr. Bl3rth ^, the dis- 
 tinguished naturalist and curator of the Calcutta 
 Museum. The birds and rarer vertebrata of the island 
 were thus compared with their peninsular congeners, 
 and a tolerable knowledge of those belonging to the 
 island, so far as regards the higher classes of animals, 
 has been the result. The example so set was perse- 
 veringly followed by Mr. E. L. Layard and the late Dr. 
 Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the 
 zealous and untiring energy with which he has devoted 
 his attention and leisure to the identification of the 
 specimens forwarded from Ceylon, and to their descrip- 
 tion in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and to the gen- 
 tlemen I have named, we are mainly indebted for what- 
 ever accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology 
 of the colony. 
 
 The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first 
 scientific description in an able work published in 1852 
 by Dr. Kelaart of the army medical staff 2, which is by 
 far the most valuable that has yet appeared on the 
 Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard 
 has supplied a fund of information especially in ornitho- 
 logy and conchology. The zoophytes and Crustacea 
 have I believe been partially investigated by Professor 
 Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more re- 
 
 ' Joxi.rn. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. of Ceylon, by F. Kelaart, Esq., 
 
 • XV. p. 280, 314. M.D., F.L. S., &c. &c. 2 vols. 
 
 * Frodromvs Faunce Zeylaniccs ; Colombo and London, 1852. 
 being Contributions to the Zoology 
 
CEYl.uN MOiNKl-VS, 
 
 1. Prcsbytcs cepkaluplaus. 
 -'. /■. Tlursiles. 
 
 7,. r. /•,/,(»( MS. 
 
 1. .V'lrncu.-i j/ilcUuf 
 
Chap. I.] MOXKEYS. 5 
 
 cently by Professor Sctimarda, of the University of 
 Prague. From the united labours of these gentlemen 
 and others interested in the same pursuits, we may 
 hope at an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the 
 zoology of Ceylon as will to some extent compensate 
 for the long indifference of the government officers. 
 
 I. QuADKUMANA. 1. Moukeys. — To a stranger in the 
 tropics, among the most attractive creatures in the 
 forests are the troops of monkeys that career in cease- 
 less chase among the loftiest trees. In Ceylon there 
 are five species, four of which belong to one group, the 
 Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing 
 rilawa ^ which is the universal pet and favourite of 
 both natives and Europeans. The Tamil conjurors teach 
 it to dance, and in their wanderings carry it from village 
 to village, clad in a grotesque dress, to exhibit its lively 
 performances. It does not object to smoke tobacco. 
 The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained 
 to these drolleries. 
 
 Knox, in his captivating account of the island, gives 
 an accurate description of both ; the Rilawas, with " no 
 beards, white faces, and long hair on the top of their 
 heads, which parteth and hangeth down like a man's, 
 and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so 
 impudent that they will come into their gardens and eat 
 such fruit as grows there. And the Wanderoos, some 
 
 ^ Macacus pileatus, Shaw and radiating from the cro-mi of the 
 
 Desmarest. The " bonneted Ma- head. A spectacled monkey is 
 
 caque " is common in the south and said to inhabit the low country 
 
 west ; it is replaced on the neigh- near to Bintenne ; but I have never 
 
 bouring coast of the Peninsula of seen one brought thence. A paper 
 
 India by the Toque, M. radiatus, by Dr. Templeton, in the Mag. 
 
 which closely resembles it in size, Isat. Hist. n. s. xiv. p. 361, contains 
 
 habit, and form, and in the peculiar some interesting facts relative to 
 
 appearance occasioned by the hairs the Rilawa of Ceylon. 
 
 B 3 
 
6 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 as large as our English spaniel dogs, of a darkish grey 
 colour, and black faces with great white beards round 
 from ear to ear, which makes them show just like old 
 men. This sort does but little mischief, keeping in the 
 woods, eating only leaves and buds of trees, but when 
 they are catched they will eat anything."^ 
 
 Knox, whose experience during his long captivity was 
 confined almost exclusively to the hill country around 
 Kandy, spoke in all probability of one large and com- 
 paratively pow^erful species, Presbytes ursinus, which 
 inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another 
 of the same group, P. Thersites, was, till recently, un- 
 known to European naturalists. The Singhalese word 
 Ouandura has a generic sense, and being in every 
 respect the equivalent for our own term of '' monkey," 
 it necessarily comprehends the low country species, as 
 well as those which inhabit other parts of the island. 
 In point of fact, there are no less than four animals 
 in the island, each of w^hich is entitled to the name of 
 " wanderoo." ^ Each separate species has appropriated 
 
 ' EJNOX, Historical Relation of Europe ; but in the absence of in- 
 
 Ccylon, an Island in the East In- formation in this country as to 
 
 dies. — P. i. ch. vi. p, 25. Fol. their actual habitat, they were de- 
 
 Lond. 1681. See an account of his scribed, first by Zimmerman, on 
 
 captivity in Sm J. Emerson Ten- the continent, under the name of 
 
 nent's Ceylon, etc., Vol. II. p. Leiicoprymnus ce])halopterus, and 
 
 66 n. subsequently by Mr. E. Bennett, 
 
 2 Down to a very late period, a under that of Scmnopithecus Nestor 
 large and somewhat repulsive-look- (Proc. Zool. Soc. pt. i. p. 67 : 1833) ; 
 ing monkey, common to the Mala- the generic and specific characters 
 bar coast, the Silenus veter, Linn., being on this occasion most care- 
 was, from the circumstance of his fully pointed out by that eminent 
 possessing a " great white beard," naturalist. Eleven years later Dr. 
 incorrectly assiimed to be the Templeton forwarded to the Zoo- 
 " wanderoo " of Ceylon, described logical Society a description, ac- 
 by Knox ; and under that usurped companied by drawings, of the 
 "name it has figured in every author wanderoo of the western maritime 
 from BufFon to the present time, districts of Ceylon, and noticed 
 Specimens of the true Singhalese the fact that the wanderoo of au- 
 species were, however, received in thors {S. veter) was not to be found 
 
Chap. I.] MOXKEYS. 7 
 
 to itself a different district of the wooded country, and 
 seldom encroaches on the domain of its neighbours. 
 
 1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most 
 numerous in the island, and the one best known in 
 Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low country, the P. 
 cephalopterus of Zimmerman.^ Although common in 
 the southern and western provinces, it is never found 
 at a higher elevation than 1300 feet. It is an active 
 and intelligent creature, little larger than the common 
 bonneted Macaque, and far from being so mischievous 
 as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it 
 is remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for 
 an air of melancholy in its expression and movements 
 which are completely in character with its snowy beard 
 and venerable aspect. In disposition it is gentle and 
 confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness, 
 and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plain- 
 tive cry when its sympathies are excited. It is particu- 
 larly cleanly in its habits when domesticated, and spends 
 much of its time in trimming its fur, and carefully 
 divesting its hair of particles of dust. 
 
 Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were 
 chiefly fed upon plantains and bananas, but for no- 
 thing did they evince a greater partiality than the 
 rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (H. rosa- 
 
 in the island except as an intro- was believed to truly represent the 
 
 duced species in the custody of the wanderoo of Knox. The later dis- 
 
 Arab horse-dealers, who visit the covery, however, of the P. ur sinus 
 
 port of Colombo at stated periods, by Dr. Kelaart, in the mountains 
 
 Mr. Waterhoiise, at the meeting amongst which we are assured that 
 
 {Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 1: 1844) at Knox spent so many years of cap- 
 
 which this communication was tivity, reopens the question, but 
 
 read, recognised the identity of the at the same time appears to me 
 
 subject of Dr. Templeton's descrip- clearly to demonstrate that in this 
 
 tion ^vith that already laid before latter we have in reality the animal 
 
 them by Mr. Bennett ; and from to which his narrative refers. 
 this period the species in question ^ Leucoprymnus Nestor, Bennett. 
 
 B 4 
 
8 MAAIMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 sinensis). These they devoured with unequivocal gusto ; 
 they likewise relished the leaves of many other trees, 
 and even the bark of a few of the more succulent ones. 
 A hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance 
 for improving the regimen of monkeys in menageries, 
 by the occasional admixtm-e of a few fresh leaves and 
 flowers with their solid and substantial dietary. 
 
 A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kor- 
 negalle, where they are said to be numerous, was 
 brought to me to Colombo. Except in colour, it had 
 all the characteristics of Preshytes cephalopterus. So 
 striking was its whiteness that it might have been con- 
 jectured to be an albino, but for the circumstance that 
 its eyes and face were black. I have heard that white 
 monkeys have been seen near the Eidi-galle Wihara in 
 Seven Korles and also at Tangalle ; but I never saw 
 another specimen. The natives say they are not un- 
 common, and Knox that they are " milk-white both in 
 body and face ; but of this sort there is not such 
 plenty." ^ The Kev. E. Spence Hardy mentions, in his 
 learned work on Eastern Monachism, that on the oc- 
 casion of his visit to the great temple of Dambool, he 
 encountered a troop of white monkeys on the rock in 
 which it is situated — which were, doubtless, a variety 
 of the Wanderoo.^ Pliny was aware of the fact that 
 white monkeys are occasionally found in India.^ 
 
 When observed in their native wilds, a party of 
 twenty or thirty of these creatures is generally busily 
 engaged in the search for berries and buds. They 
 are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when 
 
 * Knox, pt. i. c. vi. p. 25. 
 
 2 Eastern Monachis7n, c. xix. p. 204. 
 
 * Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. viii. c. xxxii. 
 
Chap. I.] MONKEYS. 9 
 
 they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit 
 which have fallen at the foot of their favourite trees. 
 "WTien disturbed, their leaps are prodigious : but, ge- 
 nerally speaking, their progi'ess is made not so much 
 by leaping as by swinging from branch to branch, 
 using their powerful arms alternately ; and when 
 baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as 
 to catch the lower boughs of an opposite tree, the mo- 
 mentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to 
 cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them up- 
 wards again, till they can grasp a higher and more 
 distant one, and thus continue their headlong flight. In 
 these perilous achievements, wonder is excited less by 
 the surpassing agility of these little creatures, frequently 
 encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to 
 them in their career, than by the quickness of their eye 
 and the unerring accuracy with which they seem almost 
 to calculate the angle at which a descent will enable 
 them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to attain 
 a higher altitude. 
 
 2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills 
 by the larger species, P. ursinus, which inhabits the 
 mountain zone. The natives, who designate the latter 
 the Maha or Grreat Wanderoo, to distinguish it from 
 the KaloOf or black one, with which they are familiar, 
 describe it as much wilder and more powerful than its 
 congener of the lowland forests. It is rarely seen by 
 Europeans, this portion of the country having till very 
 recently been but partially opened ; and even now it is 
 difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches 
 the few roads which wind through these deep solitudes. 
 At early morning, ere the day begins to dawn, its loud 
 and peculiar howl, which consists of a quick repetition 
 
10 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 of the sounds hoiu hoiv I may be frequently heard in the 
 mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic 
 noises of these lofty situations. It was first captured 
 by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near Nuera-ellia, and from 
 its peculiar appearance it has been named P. ursinus 
 by Mr. Blyth.^ 
 
 3. The P. Ther sites, which is chiefly distinguished 
 from the others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that 
 it was for some time doubtful whether the single 
 specimen procured by Dr. Templeton from the Nuera- 
 kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth 
 conferred this new name, was in reality native ; but the 
 occurrence of a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, 
 has established its existence as a separate species. Like 
 the common wanderoo, the one obtained by Dr. Temple- 
 ton was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains, and fruit ; 
 but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was 
 fond of being noticed and petted, stretching out his 
 limbs in succession to be scratched, drawing himself up 
 so that his ribs might be reached by the finger, closing 
 his eyes during the operation, and evincing his satis- 
 faction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous. 
 
 4. The P. Priamus inhabits the northern and eastern 
 provinces, and the wooded hills which occur in these 
 portions of the island. In appearance it differs both in 
 size and in colour from the common wanderoo, being 
 larger and more inclined to grey ; and in habits it is 
 much less reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of 
 the island where the population is comparatively nu- 
 
 ' Mr, Blyth quotes as authority — " A species of very large monkey, 
 
 for this triyial name a passage that passed some distance before 
 
 from Major Forbes' Eleven Years me, when resting on all fours, looked 
 
 in Ceylon ; and I can vouch for so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly 
 
 the graphic accuracy of the remark, took him for one." 
 
Chap. T.] MONKEYS. 11 
 
 merous, these monke3"s become so familiarised with the 
 presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring and 
 indifference. A flock of them will take possession of 
 a Palmyra palm; and so effectually can they crouch 
 and conceal themselves among the leaves that, on the 
 slightest alarm, the whole party becomes invisible in an 
 instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such 
 an irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his 
 movements, they never fail to betray themselves. They 
 may be frequently seen congregated on the roof of a 
 native hut : and, some years ago, the child of a Euro- 
 pean clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left 
 on the ground by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by 
 them as to cause its death. 
 
 The Singhalese have the impression that the remains 
 of a monkey are never to be found in the forest ; a 
 belief which they have embodied in the proverb that 
 "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddi 
 bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is 
 certain to live for ever." This piece of folk-lore has 
 evidently reached Ceylon from India, where it is be- 
 lieved that persons dwelling on the spot where a hanu- 
 man monkey, Semnopithecus entellus, has been killed, 
 will die, that even its bones are unlucky, and that no 
 house erected where they are hid under ground can 
 prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be built, it is 
 one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers to 
 ascertain by their science that none such are concealed ; 
 and Buchanan observes that ^' it is, perhaps, owing to 
 this fear of ill-luck that no native will acknowledsfe his 
 having seen a dead hanuman." ^ 
 
 * Buchanan's Survey/ ofBkagid- monTccy has never been found on 
 foor, p. 142. At GilDraltar it is the rock, 
 believed that the body of a dead , 
 
12 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 The only other quadrumanous animal found in Cey- 
 lon is the little loris ^, which, from its sluggish move- 
 ments, nocturnal habits, and consequent inaction during 
 the day, has acquired the name of the " Ceylon Sloth." 
 
 THE LORIS. 
 
 There are two varieties in the island ; one of the ordi- 
 nary fulvous brown, and another larger, whose fur is 
 entirely black, A specimen of the former was sent to 
 me from Chilaw, on the western coast, and lived for 
 some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit, and vege- 
 tables. It was partial to ants and other insects, and 
 was always eager for milk or the bone of a fowl. The 
 naturally slow motion of its limbs enables the loris to 
 
 * Loris gracilis, Geof. 
 
Chap. L] BATS. 13 
 
 approach its prey so stealthil}^ that it seizes birds before 
 they can be alarmed by its presence. The natives assert 
 that it has been known to strangle the pea-fowl at night, 
 to feast on the brain. During the day the one which I 
 kept was usually asleep in the strange position repre- 
 sented on the last page ; its perch firmly grasped with 
 both hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and 
 its head hidden deep between its legs. The singularly- 
 large and intense eyes of the loris have attracted the at- 
 tention of the Singhalese, who capture the creature for 
 the purpose of extracting them as charms and love- 
 potions, and this they are said to effect by holding the 
 little animal to the fire till its eyeballs burst. Its 
 Tamil name is thavangu, or " thin-bodied ; " and hence 
 a deformed child or an emaciated person has acquired 
 in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light- 
 coloured variety of the loris in Ceylon has a spot on 
 its forehead, somewhat resembling the naniami, or 
 mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and, from 
 this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the Nama-tha- 
 vangu} 
 
 II. Cheiroptera. Bats. — The multitude of hats is one 
 of the features of the evening landscape ; they abound 
 in every cave and subterranean passage, in the tunnels 
 on the highways, in the galleries of the fortifications, 
 in the roofs of the bungalows, and the ruins of every 
 temple and building. At sunset they are seen issuing 
 from their diurnal retreats to roam throuofh the twilio-ht 
 in search of crepuscular insects, and as night approaches 
 and the lights in the rooms attract the night-flying 
 lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and 
 
 * There is an interesting notice pletox, in the Mag. Nat. Hist. 
 of the Loris of Ceylon by Dr. Tem- 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362. 
 
14 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 carry off their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. 
 Including the frugivorous section about sixteen species 
 have been identified in Ceylon; and remarkable va- 
 rieties of two of these are peculiar to the island. The 
 colours of some of them are as brilliant as the plumage 
 of a bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich ferru- 
 ginous brown inclining to red.^ 
 
 But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its 
 size and numbers, and the most interesting from its 
 habits, is the rousette of Ceylon ^ ; — the " flying fox," as 
 it is called by Europeans, from the similarity to that 
 animal in its head and ears, its bright eyes, and intel- 
 ligent little face. In its aspect it has nothing of the 
 disagreeable and repulsive look so common amongst the 
 ordinary vespertilionidse ; it likewise differs from them 
 in the want of the nose-leaf, as well as of the tail. In 
 the absence of the latter, its flight is directed by means 
 of a membrane attached to the inner side of each of the 
 hind legs, and kept distended at the lower extremity 
 by a projecting bone, just as a fore-and-aft sail is dis- 
 tended by a " gaff." 
 
 In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in 
 length, but the arms are prolonged, and especially the 
 metacarpal bones and phalanges of the four fingers over 
 which the leathery wings are distended, till the alar 
 expanse measures between four and five feet, ^^^lilst 
 the function of these metamorphosed limbs in sustain- 
 ing flight entitles them to the designation of "wings," 
 they are endowed with another faculty, the existence of 
 
 ^ Rhinolophus affinis ? var. ru- Hipposideros speoris, var. aureus, 
 bidus, Kelaart. Kclaart. 
 
 _.. . , . „ , Kerivoula picta, Pallas. 
 
 Hipposideros murinus, Mr. M- Scotopliilus Heathii, Horsf. 
 Tus, Kelaart. 2 pteropus Edwardsii, Geoff. 
 

 FLYING FOXES. 
 
 Pteropus Edwardsii. 
 
Chap. I.] BATS. 15 
 
 which essentially distinguishes them from the feathery 
 wings of a bird, and vindicates the appropriateness of 
 the term Cheiro-ptera ^, or " mnged hands," by which 
 the bats are designated. Over the entire surface of the 
 thin membrane of which they are formed, sentient nerves 
 of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means of which 
 the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its 
 motions with security, avoiding objects against contact 
 with which at such times its eyes and other senses 
 would be insufficient to protect it.^ Spallanzani ascer- 
 tained the perfection of this faculty by a series of cruel 
 experiments, by which he demonstrated that bats, even 
 after their eyes had been destroyed, and their external 
 organs of smell and hearing obliterated, were still 
 enabled to direct their flight with unhesitating con- 
 fidence, avoiding even threads suspended to intercept 
 them. But after ascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was 
 slow to arrive at its origin ; and ascribed the surprising 
 power to the existence of some sixth supplementary 
 sense, the enjoyment of which was withheld from other 
 animals. Cuvier, however, dissipated the obscurity by 
 showing the seat of this extraordinary endowment to 
 be in the wings, the superficies of which retains the 
 exquisite sensitiveness to touch that is inherent in 
 the palms of the human hand and the extremities of the 
 fingers, as well as in the feet of some of the mammalia.^ 
 The face and head of the Pteropus are covered with 
 brownish-grey hairs, the neck and chest are dark ferru- 
 ginous grey_, and the rest of the body brown, inclining 
 to black. 
 
 ' X^lp, the '"hand," and xrepbi/, * See article on Cheirojptera, in 
 
 a "wing." Todd's Cyclopcedia of Anatomy 
 
 ^ See Bell On the Hand, ch. iii. and Physiology, vol. i. p. 599. 
 p. 70. 
 
16 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly 
 frugivorous, are to some extent insectivorous also, as at- 
 tested by their teeth ^, as well as by their habits. They 
 feed, amongst other things, on the guava, the plantain, 
 the rose-apple, and the fruit of the various fig-trees. 
 Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts, 
 especially at the season when the pulum-imhul^, one 
 of the silk-cotton trees, is putting forth its flower-buds, 
 of which they are singularly fond. By day they sus- 
 pend themselves from the highest branches, hanging by 
 the claws of the hind legs, with the head turned up- 
 wards, and pressing the chin against the breast. At 
 sunset taking wing, they hover, with a murmuring sound 
 occasioned by the beating of their broad membranous 
 wings, around the fruit trees, on which they feed till 
 morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as 
 before. 
 
 A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty 
 india-rubber trees, which on one side overhang the 
 Botanic Grardens of Paradenia in the vicinity of Kandy. 
 Thither for some years past, they have congregated, 
 chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when 
 the figs of the jiens elastica are consumed. Here 
 they hang in such prodigious numbers, that frequently, 
 large branches give way beneath their accumulated weight. 
 Every forenoon, generally between the hours of 9 and 
 11a. m., they take to wing, apparently for exercise, and 
 possibly to sun their wings and fur, and dry them after 
 the dews of the early morning. On these occasions, their 
 numbers are quite surprising, flying in clouds as thick as 
 
 * Those which I have examined the upper jaw and ten in the lower, 
 
 • have four minute incisors in each longitudinally grooved, and with a 
 
 jaw, with two canines and a very cutting edge directed backwards, 
 
 minute pointed tooth behind each ^ Eriodendron Orientale, Stead. 
 canine. They have six molars in 
 
Chap. I.] BATS. 17 
 
 bees or midges. After these recreations, they hurry back 
 to their favourite trees, chattering and screaming like 
 monkeys, and always wrangling and contending angrily 
 for the most shady and comfortable places in which 
 to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun. 
 The branches they resort to soon become almost di- 
 vested of leaves, these being stripped off by the action 
 of the bats, attaching and detaching themselves by 
 means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they fly off to 
 their feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable dis- 
 tance, as it requires a large area to furnish sufficient 
 food for such multitudes. 
 
 In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the 
 Pteropus is highly interesting. If placed upon the 
 ground, it is almost helpless, none of its limbs being 
 calculated for progressive motion ; it drags itself along 
 by means of the hook attached to each of its extended 
 thumbs, pushing at the same time with those of its hind 
 feet. Its natural position is exclusively pensile ; it moves 
 laterally from branch to branch with great ease, by using 
 each foot alternately, and climbs, when necessary, by 
 means of its claws. 
 
 When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs 
 is most curious. At such times it suspends itself by one 
 foot only, bringing the other close to its side, and thus it 
 is enabled to wrap itself in the ample folds of its wings, 
 which envelop it like a mantle, leaving only its up- 
 turned head uncovered. Its fur is thus protected from 
 damp and rain, and to some extent its body is sheltered 
 from the sun. 
 
 As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either 
 when on the wing, or when suspended within reach of 
 it, the flying-fox is always more or less liable to 
 
 c 
 
18 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 have the spoil wrested from it by its intrusive com- 
 jDanions, before it can make good its way to some secure 
 retreat in which to devour it unmolested. In such 
 conflicts they bite viciously, tear each other with their 
 hooks, and scream incessantly, till, taking to flight, the 
 persecuted one reaches some place of safety, where he 
 hangs b}^ one foot, and grasping the fruit he has secured 
 in the claws and opposable thumb of the other, he 
 hastily reduces it to lumps, with which he stuffs his 
 cheek pouches till they become distended like those of 
 a monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to 
 chew and suck the pieces, rejecting the refuse with his 
 tongue. 
 
 To drink, which it does by lapping, the Pteropus 
 suspends itself head downwards from a branch above the 
 water. 
 
 Insects, caterpillars, birds' eggs, and young birds are 
 devoured by them ; and the Singhalese say that the 
 flying-fox will even attack a tree snake. It is killed 
 by the natives for the sake of its flesh, which, I have 
 been told by a gentleman who has eaten of it, resembles 
 that of the hare.^ It is strongly attracted to the coco- 
 nut trees during the period when toddy is drawn for 
 distillation, and exhibits, it is said, at such times, symp- 
 toms resembling intoxication. 
 
 Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know 
 of in Ceylon, ever hybernates. 
 
 There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to 
 the island) of the horse-shoe-headed Rhinolophus, with 
 the strange leaf-like appendage erected on the extremity 
 of the nose. 
 
 * In "Western India the native pronounce it delicate, and far fron* 
 Portuguese eat the flying-fox, and disagreeable in flavour. 
 
Chap. I.] BATS. 19 
 
 It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, 
 thousfh nocturnal, are deficient in that keen vision cha- 
 racteristic of animals which take their prey by night. 
 
 EHINOLOPflUb. 
 
 I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded ; it 
 certainly does not apply to the Pteropus and the other 
 frugivorous species, in which the faculty of sight is sin- 
 gularly clear. As regards the others, it is possible that 
 in their peculiar oeconomy some additional power may 
 be required to act in concert with that of vision, as in in- 
 sects, touch is superadded, in its most sensitive develop- 
 ment, to that of sight. It is probable that the nose- 
 leaf, which forms an extended screen stretched behind 
 the nostrils in some of the bats, may be intended by 
 nature to facilitate the collection and conduction of 
 odours, just as the vast expansion of the shell of the ear 
 in the same family is designed to assist in the collection 
 of sounds — and thus to supplement their vision when 
 in pursuit of prey in the dusk by the superior sensi- 
 tiveness of the organs of hearing and smell. 
 
 One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble 
 
 C 2 
 
20 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 bee S and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be 
 seen about Colombo. It is so familiar and gentle that 
 it will alight on the cloth during dinner, and manifests 
 so little alarm that it seldom makes any effort to escape 
 before a wine glass can be inverted to secure it. 
 
 Although not strictly in order, this seems not an in- 
 appropriate place to notice one of the most curious pe- 
 culiarities connected with the bats — their singular 
 parasite, the Nycteribia.^ On cursory observation this 
 creature appears to have neither head, antennae, eyes, nor 
 mouth ; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied 
 themselves that the place of the latter was supplied 
 by a cylmdrical sucker, which, being placed between 
 the shoulders, the insect had no option but to turn on 
 its back to feed. Another anomaly was thought to com- 
 pensate for this apparent inconvenience ; — its three 
 pairs of legs, armed with claws, are so arranged that 
 they seem to be equally distributed over its upper and 
 under sides, the creature being thus enabled to use 
 them like hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it 
 while extracting its nourishment. 
 
 It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, ro- 
 tating like a wheel on the extremities of its spokes, or 
 like the clown in a pantomime, hurling himself forward 
 on hands and feet alternately. Its celerity is so great 
 that Colonel Montague, who was one of the first to 
 describe it minutely ^, says its speed exceeds that of any 
 
 1 It is a very small Singhalese of the same family. Dr. Temple- 
 variety of Scotophilus Coromande- ton observed them in Ceylon in 
 licus, F. Cuv. great abundance on the fur of the 
 
 2 This extraordinary creature Scotophilus Coromandclicus, and 
 had formerly been discovered only they will, no doubt, be found on 
 on a few European bats. Joinville many others. 
 
 figured one which he found on the ^ Celeripes vespertilionis, Mont. 
 large roussette (the€ying-fox), and Lin. Trails, xi. p. 11. 
 says he had seen another on a bat 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 NYCTERIBIA. 
 
 21 
 
 nycterib;a. 
 
 known insect, and as its joints are so flexible as to yield 
 in every direction (like what mechanics call a " ball and 
 socket "), its motions are ex- 
 ceedingly grotesque as it tum- 
 bles through the fur of the 
 bat. 
 
 To enable it to attain its 
 marvellous velocity, each foot 
 is armed with two sharp hooks, 
 with elastic opposable pads, so 
 that the hair can not only be 
 rapidly seized and firmly held, 
 but as quickly disengaged, as 
 the creature whirls away in its headlong career. 
 
 The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are 
 the Hippohoscidce, or " spider flies," that infest birds and 
 horses ; but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fl}^ 
 
 Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to 
 the belief that it was headless, is its faculty when at rest 
 of throwing back its head and pressing it close between 
 its shoulders till the under side becomes uppermost, not 
 a vestige of head beino: discernible where we would 
 naturally look for it, and the whole seeming but a 
 casual inequality on its back. 
 
 On closer examination this apparent tubercle is 
 found to have a leathery attachment like a flexible neck, 
 and by a sudden jerk the little creature is enabled to 
 project it forward into its normal position, when it is 
 discovered to be furnished with a mouth, antennge, and 
 four eyes, two on each side. 
 
 The ororanisation of such an insect is a marvellous 
 adaptation of physical form to special circumstances. 
 As the nycteribia has to make its way through fur and 
 
 c 3 
 
22 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 hairs, its feet are furnished with prehensile hooks that 
 almost convert them into hands ; and being obliged to 
 conform to the sudden flights of its patron, and ac- 
 commodate itself to inverted positions, all attitudes are 
 rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its limbs, 
 which enables it, after every possible gyration, to find 
 itself always on its feet. 
 
 III. Carnivora. — Bears. — Of the carnivora, the one 
 most dreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only one 
 of the larger animals that makes the depths of the forest 
 its habitual retreat, is the bear ^, attracted chiefly by 
 the honey which is found in the hollow trees and 
 clefts of the rocks. Occasionally spots of fresh earth 
 are observed which have been turned up by the bears 
 in search of some favourite root. They feed also on 
 the termites and ants. A friend of mine traversing the 
 forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had his attention at- 
 tracted by the growling of a bear, that was seated 
 upon a lofty branch, thrusting portions of a red-ants' 
 nest into his mouth with one paw, whilst with the other 
 he endeavoured to clear his eyebrows and lips of the 
 angry inmates, which bit and tortured him in their rage. 
 The Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts 
 of the northern and south-eastern coast, and is seldom 
 met with on the mountains or the moist and damp 
 plains of the west. It is furnished with a bushy tuft of 
 hair on the back, between the shoulders, by which the 
 young are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to 
 provide for their own safety. During a severe drought 
 that prevailed in the northern province in 1850, the 
 district of Caretchy was so infested by bears that the 
 
 * Prochilus labiatus, Blainville. 
 
Chap. J.] 
 
 BEARS. 
 
 23 
 
 Oriental custom of the women resorting to the wells was 
 altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence 
 to find one of these animals in the water, unable to 
 climb up the yielding and slippery soil, down which its 
 thirst had impelled it to slide during the night. 
 
 Although the structure of the bear shows him to be 
 natui'ally omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in 
 
 INDIAN BEAR. 
 
 Ceylon, and his solitary habits whilst in search of honey 
 and fruits render him timid and retirinor. Hence he 
 evinces alarm on the approach of man or other animals, 
 and, unable to make a rapid retreat, his panic, rather 
 than any vicious disposition, leads him to become an 
 assailant in self-defence. But so furious are his assaults 
 under such circumstances that the Singhalese have a 
 terror of his attack greater than that created by any 
 
 c 4 
 
24 MAMMALIA. [Chap. Tj 
 
 other beast of the forest. If not armed with a gun, a 
 native, in the places where bears abound, usually carries 
 a light axe, called " kodelly," with which to strike them 
 on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always aims 
 at the face, and, if successful in prostrating his victim, 
 usually commences by assailing the eyes. I have met 
 numerous individuals on our journeys who exhibited 
 frightful scars from such encounters, the white seams of 
 their wounds contrasting hideously with the dark colour 
 of the rest of their bodies. 
 
 The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores con- 
 sist of honey, live in dread of the bears, because, at- 
 tracted by the perfume, they will not hesitate to attack 
 their rude dwellings, when allured by this irresistible 
 temptation. The Post-office runners, who always travel 
 by night, are frequently exposed to danger from these 
 animals, especially along the coast from Putlam to 
 Aripo, where they are found in considerable numbers ; 
 and, to guard against surprise, they are accustomed to 
 carry flambeaux, to give warning to the bears, and en- 
 able them to shuffle out of the path.^ 
 
 ' Amongst the Singhalese there ceeding, we saw him suddenly turn 
 
 is a belief that certain charms are from an old tree and run back with 
 
 efficacious in protecting them from aR speed, his hair becoming un- 
 
 the violence of bears, and those fastened and like his clothes stream- 
 
 whose avocations expose them to ing in the wind. It soon became 
 
 encounters of this kind are accus- evident that he was flying from 
 
 tomed to carry a talisman either some terrific object, for he had 
 
 attached to their neck or enveloped thrown down his gun, and, in his 
 
 in the folds of their luxuriant hair, panic, he was taking the shortest 
 
 A friend of mine, writing of an ad- line towards us, which lay across a 
 
 venture which occurred at Anara- swamp covered with sedge and 
 
 japoora, thus describes an occasion rushes that greatly impeded his 
 
 on which a Moor, who attended progress, and prevented us ap- 
 
 him, was somewhat rudely dis- proaching him, or seeing what was 
 
 abused of his belief in the efficacy the cause of his flight. Missing 
 
 of charms upon bears: — "Desiring his steps from one hard spot to 
 
 to change the position of a herd of another he repeatedly fell into the 
 
 deer, the Moorman (with his charm) water, but he rose and resumed 
 
 was sent across some swampy land his flight. I advanced as far as 
 
 to disturb them. As he was pro- the sods would bear my weight, 
 
Chap. I.j 
 
 BEARS. 
 
 25 
 
 Leopards ^ are the only formidable members of the 
 tiger race in Ceylon ^, and they are neither very nume- 
 rous nor very dangerous, as they seldom attack man. 
 By the Europeans, the Ceylon leopard is erroneously 
 called a cheetah, hnt the true "cheetah" { fells juhata), 
 the hunting leopard of India, does not exist in the 
 island.^ 
 
 There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been 
 found in various parts of the island, in which the skin, 
 instead of being spotted, is of a uniform black.'* Leo- 
 pards frequent the vicinity of pasture lands in quest 
 of the deer and other peaceful animals which resort to 
 them ; and the villagers often complain of the destruc- 
 
 but to go further was impracticable. 
 Just within ball-range there was an 
 open space, and, as the man gained 
 it, I saw that he was pursued by a 
 bear and two cubs. As the person 
 of the fugitive covered the bear, it 
 was impossible to fire without risk. 
 At last he fell exhausted, and the 
 bear being close upon him, I dis- 
 charged both barrels. The first 
 broke the bear's shoulder, but this 
 only made her more savage, and 
 rising on her hind legs she ad- 
 vanced with ferocious growls, when 
 the second barrel, though I do not 
 think it took effect, served to frigh- 
 ten her, for turning round she re- 
 treated, followed by the cubs. Some 
 natives then waded through the 
 mud to the Moorman, who was 
 just exhausted, and would have 
 been di'owned but that he fell with 
 his head upon a tuft of grass : the 
 poor man was unable to speak, 
 and for several weeks his intellect 
 seemed confused. The adventure 
 sufficed to satisfy him that he could 
 not again depend upon a charm to 
 protect him from bears, though he 
 always insisted that but for its 
 having fallen from his hair where 
 he had fastened it under his tur- 
 
 ban, the bear would not have ven- 
 tured to attack him." 
 
 ' Felis pardus, Linn. What is 
 called a leopard, or a cheetah, in 
 Ceylon, is in reality the true pan- 
 ther, 
 
 - A belief is prevalent at Trin- 
 comalie that a Bengal tiger inhabits 
 the jungle in its vicinity ; and the 
 story runs that it escaped from the 
 wreck of a vessel on which it had 
 been embarked for England. Offi- 
 cers of the Government state posi- 
 tively that they have more than 
 once come on it whilst hunting ; 
 and one gentleman of the Eoyal 
 Engineers, who had seen it, assured 
 me that he could not be mistaken 
 as to its being a tiger of India, and 
 one of the largest description. 
 
 ^ Mr. Bakek, in his Eight Years 
 in Ceylon, has stated that there 
 are two species of leopard in the 
 island, one of which he implies is 
 the Indian cheetah. But although 
 he specifies discrepancies in size, 
 weight, and marking between the 
 varieties which he has examined, 
 his data are not sufficient to iden- 
 tify any of them with the true felis 
 Juhata. 
 
 * F. melas, Peron and Leseur. ' 
 
26 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. T. 
 
 tion of their cattle by these formidable marauders. In 
 relation to them, the natives have a curious but firm 
 
 LEOPARD AKD CHEETAE. 
 
 conviction that when a bullock is killed by a leopard, 
 and, in expiring, falls so that its right side is under- 
 most, the leopard will not return to devour it. I have 
 been told by English sportsmen (some of whom share 
 in the popular belief), that sometimes, when they have 
 proposed to watch by the carcase of a bullock recently 
 killed by a leopard, in the hope of shooting the spoiler 
 on his return in search of his prey, the native owner of 
 the slaughtered animal, though earnestly desiring to be 
 a-venged, has assured them that it would be in vain, as, 
 the beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard 
 would not return. 
 
Chap. I.] LEOPAEDS. 27 
 
 The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their ex- 
 tremely beautiful skins, but prefer taking them in traps 
 and pitfalls, and occasionally in spring cages formed of 
 poles driven firmly into the ground, within which a kid 
 is generally fastened as a bait ; the door being held open 
 by a sapling bent down by the united force of several 
 men, and so arranged as to act as a spring, to which a 
 noose is ingeniously attached, formed of plaited deer's 
 hide. The cries of the kid attract the leopard, which 
 being tempted to enter, is enclosed by the liberation of 
 the spring, and grasped firmly round the body by the 
 noose. 
 
 Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and 
 cowardly in the presence of man, never intruding on 
 him voluntarily, and making a hasty retreat w^hen ap- 
 proached. Instances have, however, occurred of indi- 
 viduals having been slain by them ; and it is believed, 
 that, having once tasted human blood, they, like the 
 tiger, acquire an habitual relish for it. A peon, on duty 
 by night at the court-house of Anarajapoora, was some 
 years ago carried off by a leopard from a table in the 
 verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep. 
 At Batticaloa a '^ cheetah " in two instances in succession 
 was known to carry off men placed on a stage erected 
 in a tree to drive away elephants from rice-land : but 
 such cases are rare, and, as compared with their dread 
 of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but slight 
 apprehensions of the " cheetah." It is, however, the 
 dread of sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the 
 jungle are especially exposed to its attacks ; and I am 
 aware of an instance in which a party having tied their 
 dogs to the tent-pole for security, and fallen asleep 
 round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and carried 
 
28 MAMMALIA. IChap. t 
 
 off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. 
 On one occasion being in the mountains near Kandy, a 
 messenger despatched to me through the jungle ex- 
 cused his delay by stating that a " cheetah " had seated 
 itself in the only practicable path, and remained 
 quietly licking its fore paws and rubbing them over 
 its face, till he was forced to drive it, with stones, into 
 the forest. 
 
 Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour 
 which accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the 
 natives to submit themselves or their children to vac- 
 cination exposes the island to frightful visitations of 
 this disease ; and in the villages in the interior it is 
 usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle to 
 serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leo- 
 pards are certain to be allured ; and the medical officers 
 are obliged to resort to increased precautions in con- 
 sequence. This fact is connected with a curious native 
 superstition. Amongst the avenging scourges sent direct 
 from the gods, the Singhalese regard both the ravages 
 of the leopard, and the visitation of the small-pox. The 
 latter they call pai' excellence " maha ledda,^'' the great 
 "sickness;" they look upon it as a special manifes- 
 tation of devidosay, " the displeasure of the gods ; " and 
 the attraction of the cheetahs to the bed of the sufferer 
 they attribute to the same indignant agency. A few 
 years ago, the capua, or demon-priest of a " dewale," 
 at Oggalbodda, a village near, Caltura, when suffering 
 under small-pox, was devoured by a cheetah, and his 
 fate was regarded by those of an opposite faith as a 
 special judgment from heaven. 
 
 Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection 
 with the small-pox, that a person afflicted with it is 
 
Chap. I.] LEOPAEDS; 29. 
 
 always approached as one in immediate communication 
 with the deity ; his attendants address him as " my 
 lord," and "your lordship," and exhaust on him the 
 whole series of honorific epithets in which their language 
 abounds for approaching personages of the most exalted 
 rank. At evening and morning, a lamp is lighted before 
 him, and invoked with prayers to protect his family from 
 the dire calamity which has befallen himself. And after 
 his recovery, his former associates refrain from commu- 
 nication with him until a ceremony shall have been 
 performed by the capua, called aivasara-pandema, or 
 *^ the offering of lights for permission," the object of 
 which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard 
 him as freed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to 
 his friends to renew their intercourse as before. 
 
 Major Skinnee, who for upwards of forty years has 
 had occasionally to live for long periods in the interior, 
 occupied in the prosecution of surveys and the con- 
 struction of roads, is strongly of opinion that the dis- 
 position of the leopard towards man is essentially 
 pacific, and that, when discovered, its natural impulse 
 is to effect its escape. In illustration of this I insert an 
 extract from one of his letters, which describes an ad- 
 venture highly characteristic of this instinctive timi- 
 dity : — 
 
 " On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak, 
 in the prosecution of my military reconnoissances of the 
 mountain zone, I fixed on a pretty little patena {i, e., 
 meadow) in the midst of an extensive and dense forest 
 in the southern segment of the Peak Eange, as a 
 favourable spot for operations. It would have been 
 difficult, after descending from the cone of the peak, to 
 have found one's way to this point, in the midst of so 
 
30 MA^iMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 vast a wilderness of trees, had not long experience as- 
 sured me that good game tracks would be found lead- 
 ing to it, and by one of them I reached it. It was in 
 the afternoon, just after one of those tropical sun- 
 showers that decorate every branch and blade with 
 pendant brilliants, and the little patena was covered 
 with game, either driven to the open space by the drip- 
 pings from the leaves or tempted by the freshness of the 
 pasture : there were several pairs of elk, the bearded 
 antlered male contrasting finely with his mate ; and 
 other varieties of game in a profusion not to be found 
 in any place frequented by man. It was some time 
 before I would allow them to be disturbed by the rude 
 fall of the axe, in our necessity to establish our bivouac 
 for the night, and they were so unaccustomed to danger 
 that it was long before they took alarm at our noises. 
 
 " The following morning, anxious to gain a height for 
 my observations in time to avail myself of the clear 
 atmosphere of sunrise, I started off by myself through 
 the jungle, leaving orders for my men, with my sur- 
 veying instruments, to follow my track by the notches 
 which I cut in the bark of the trees. On leavinof the 
 plain, I availed myself of a fine wide game track which 
 lay in my direction, and had gone, perhaps, half a mile 
 from the camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling 
 in the nilloo ^ to my right, and in another instant, by 
 the spring of a magnificent leopard, which, in a bound 
 of full eight feet in height over the lower brushwood, 
 lighted at my feet within eighteen inches of the spot 
 whereon I stood, and lay in a crouching position, his 
 fiery gleaming eyes fixed on me. 
 
 * A species of one of the suffni- which grows abundantly in the 
 ticose Acanthacece (Strobilanthes), mountain ranges of Ceylon. 
 
Chap. I.] LEOPAEDS. 31 
 
 " The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no 
 weapon of defence, and with one spring or blow of his 
 paw the beast could have annihilated me. To move I 
 knew would only encourage his attack. It occurred to 
 me at the moment that I had heard of the power of 
 man's eye over wild animals, and accordingly I fixed 
 my gaze as intently as the agitation of such a moment 
 enabled me on his eyes : we stared at each other for 
 some seconds, when, to my inexpressible joy, the beast 
 turned and bounded down the straight open path before 
 me. This scene occurred just at that period of the 
 morning when the grazing animals retired from the open 
 patena to the cool shade of the forest: doubtless, the 
 leopard had taken my approach for that of a deer, or 
 some such animal. And if his spring had been at a 
 quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so well 
 measured, that it must have landed him on the neck of 
 a deer, an elk, or a buffalo ; as it was, one pace more 
 would have done for me. A bear would not have let 
 his victim off so easily." 
 
 Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the mon- 
 key, it falls a prey, and not unfrequently, to the leo- 
 pard. The latter, on approaching a tree on which a 
 troojD of monkeys have taken shelter, causes an instant 
 and fearful excitement, which they manifest by loud 
 and continued screams, and incessant restless leaps from 
 branch to branch. The leopard meanwhile walks round 
 and round the tree, with his eyes firmly fixed upon his 
 victims, till at last exhausted by terror, and prostrated 
 by vain exertions to escape, one or more falls a prey to 
 his voracity. So rivetted is the attention of both during 
 the struggle, that a sportsman, on one occasion, attracted 
 by the noise, was enabled to approach within an un- 
 
32. MAMMALIA. [Chap. L 
 
 comfortable distance oS the leopard, before he dis- 
 covered the cause of the unusual dismay amongst the 
 monke3^s overhead. 
 
 It is said, but I have never been able personally to 
 verify the fact, that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a 
 peculiarity in being unable entirely to retract its claws 
 within their sheaths. 
 
 ■ There is another piece of curious folk lore, in con- 
 nexion with the leopard. The natives assert that it 
 devours the kaolin clay called by them kiri-mattie ' 
 in a very peculiar way. They say that the cheetah 
 places it in lumps beside him, and then gazes intently 
 on the sun, till on turning his eyes on the clay, every 
 piece appears of a red colour like flesh, when he in- 
 stantly devours it. 
 
 They likewise allege that the female cheetah never 
 produces more than one litter of whelps. 
 
 Of the lesser feline species, the number and variety 
 in Ceylon is inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat ^ 
 lurks by day among the fronds of the coco-nut palms, 
 and by night makes destructive forays on the fowls of 
 the villagers ; and, in order to suck the blood of its 
 victim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imper- 
 ceptible. The glossy genette ^, the " Civet " of Euro- 
 peans, is common in the northern province, where the 
 Tamils confine it in cages for the sake of its musk, which 
 they collect from the w^ooden bars on which it rubs it- 
 self. Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the 
 twelfth century, enumerates musk as one of the pro- 
 ductions then exported from Ceylon.'* 
 
 * See Sir J. E. Tennent's Cei/- * Edrisi, Geogr. sec, rii. Jau- 
 
 . Zo7?, voL i. p. 31. terts's translation, t. ii, p. 72. In 
 
 2 Paradoxurus typus, F. Cuv. connexion with cats, a Singhalese 
 
 ' Viverra Indica, Geoffr., Hodgs, gentleman has described to me a 
 
Chap. I.] DOGS. 33 
 
 Dogs. — There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but 
 every village and towoi is haunted by mongrels of Eu- 
 ropean descent, that are known by the generic descrip- 
 tion of Pariahs. They are a miserable race, lean, 
 wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no owners, 
 livinof on the orarbasre of the streets and sewers, and if 
 spoken to unexpectedly, they shrink with an almost in- 
 voluntary cry. Yet in these persecuted outcasts there 
 survives that germ of instinctive affection which binds 
 the dog to the human race, and a gentle word, even a 
 look of compassionate kindness, is sufficient foundation 
 for a lasting attachment. 
 
 The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to 
 taking away life in any form, permit the increase of these 
 desolate creatures till in the hot season they become so 
 numerous as to be a nuisance ; and the only expedient 
 hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce their 
 numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for their 
 destruction, when the Tamils and Malays pursue them 
 in the streets with clubs (guns being forbidden by the 
 police for fear of accidents), and the unresisting dogs 
 are beaten to death on the side-paths and door-steps 
 where they had been taught to resort for food. Lord 
 Torrington, during his government of Ceylon, at- 
 tempted the more civilised experiment of putting some 
 check on their numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the 
 effect of which would have been to lead to the drownincr 
 of puppies ; whereas there is reason to believe that dogs 
 
 plant in Ceylon, called Cupjpa-may- it into the air, watching it till it 
 
 niya by the natives ; by which he falls, and crouching to see if it 
 
 says cats are so enchanted, that will move. It would be worth in- 
 
 they play with it as they would quiring into the truth of this ; and 
 
 with a captured mouse ; throwing the explanation of the attraction. 
 
34 MAMMALIA. [Chap. L 
 
 are at present bred by the horse-keepers to be killed 
 for sake of the reward. 
 
 The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the 
 same instinct, by which the dogs in other eastern cities 
 partition the towns into districts, each apportioned to a 
 separate pack, by whom it is jealously guarded from 
 the encroachments of all intruders. Travellers at Cairo 
 and Constantinople are often startled at night by the 
 racket occasioned by the demonstrations made by the 
 rightful possessors of a locality in repelling its invasion 
 by some straggling wanderer. At Alexandria, in 1844, 
 the dogs had multiplied to such an inconvenient extent, 
 that Mehemet Ali, to abate the nuisance, caused them 
 to be shipped in boats and conveyed to one of the is- 
 lands at the mouth of the Mle. But the streets, thus 
 deprived of their habitual patroles, were speedily in- 
 fested by dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers 
 that the evil became greater than before, and in the 
 following year, the legitimate denizens were recalled 
 from their exile in the Delta, and speedily drove back 
 the intruders within their original boundary. May 
 not this disposition of the dog be referable to the 
 impulse by which, in a state of nature, each pack ap- 
 propriates its own hunting-fields within a particular 
 area? and may not the impulse which, even in a 
 state of domestication, they still manifest to attack 
 a passing dog upon the road, be a remnant of this 
 localised instinct, and a concomitant dislike of in- 
 trusion ? 
 
 Jackal. — The Jackal ^ in the low country of Ceylon 
 hunts thus in packs, headed by a leader, and these 
 audacious prowlers have been seen to assault and pull 
 ' Canis Aureus, Linn. 
 
Chap. I.] JACKALS. 35 
 
 down a deer. The small number of hares in the dis- 
 tricts they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In 
 the legends of the natives, and in the literature of the 
 Buddhists, the jackal in Ceylon is as essentially the type 
 of cunning as the fox is the emblem of craft and ad- 
 roitness in the traditions of Europe. In fact, it is more 
 than doubtful whether the jackal of the East be not 
 the creature alluded to, in the various passages of the 
 Sacred Writings which make allusion to the artfulness 
 and subtlety of the " fox." 
 
 These faculties they display in a high degree in their 
 hunting expeditions, especially in the northern portions 
 of the island, where they are found in the greatest num- 
 bers. In these districts, where the wide sandy plains are 
 thinly covered with brushwood, the face of the country 
 is diversified by patches of thick jungle and detached 
 groups of trees, that form insulated groves and topes. 
 At dusk, or after nightfall, a pack of jackals, having 
 watched a hare or a small deer take refuge in one of 
 these retreats, immediately surround it on all sides ; and 
 having stationed a few to watch the path by which the 
 game entered, the leader commences the attack by 
 raising the unearthly cry peculiar to their race, and 
 which resembles the sound okkay ! loudly and rapidly 
 repeated. The whole party then rush into the jungle, 
 and drive out the victim, which generally falls into the 
 ambush previously laid to entrap it. 
 
 A native gentleman ^, who had favourable opportunities 
 of observing the movements of these animals, informed 
 me, that when a jackal has brought down his game and 
 killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the nearest 
 jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference 
 
 ' Mr. D, de Silva Gooneratne. 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 MA^IMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 to observe whether an}i:hing more powerful than him- 
 self may be at hand, from which he might encounter 
 the risk of being despoiled of his capture. If the 
 coast be clear, he returns to the concealed carcase, and 
 carries it away, followed by his companions. But if 
 a man be in sight, or any other animal to be avoided, 
 my informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nut husk 
 in his mouth, or any similar substance, and fly at full 
 speed, as if eager to carry off his pretended prize, 
 returning for the real booty at some more convenient 
 season. 
 
 They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are 
 frequent in Ceylon of cattle being bitten by them and 
 dying in consequence. 
 
 An excrescence is sometimes found on the head of 
 the jackal, consisting of a small horny cone about half 
 an inch in length, and concealed by a tuft of hair. 
 This the natives call Qiarric-coonhoo ; and they aver that 
 this " Jackal's Horn " only grows on the head of the 
 
 JACSAL'S SKULL AND HORN. 
 
 leader of the pack.^ Both the Singhalese and the 
 Tamils regard it as a talisman, and believe that its for- 
 
 1 In the Museum of the College 
 of Surgeons, London (No. 4362 a), 
 there is a cranium of a jackal 
 ■which exhibits this strange os- 
 seous process on the super-occi- 
 
 pital; and I hare placed along 
 \vdth it a specimen of the horny 
 sheath, which was presented to 
 me by Mr. Lavalliere, the late dis- 
 trict judge of Kandy. 
 
Chap. I.] JACKL\LS. 37 
 
 tunate possessor can command by its instrumentality 
 the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen or lost 
 by him, it will invariably return of its own accord. 
 Those who have jewels to conceal rest in perfect se- 
 curity if along with them they can deposit a narri- 
 comboo, fully convinced that its presence is an effectual 
 safeguard against robbers. 
 
 One fabulous virtue ascribed to the narric-comboo 
 by the Singhalese is absurdly characteristic of their 
 passion for litigation, as well as of their perceptions of 
 the " glorious imcertainty of the law." It is the po- 
 pular belief that the fortunate discoverer of a jackal's 
 horn becomes thereby invincible in every lawsuit, and 
 must irresistibly triumph over every opponent. A 
 gentleman connected with the Supreme Court of 
 Colombo has repeated to me a circumstance, within his 
 own knowledge, of a plaintiff who, after numerous de- 
 feats, eventually succeeded against his opponent by the 
 timely acquisition of this invaluable charm. Before 
 the final hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was 
 duly exhibited to his friends ; and the consequence was, 
 that the adverse witnesses, appalled by the belief that 
 no one could possibly give judgment against a person 
 so endowed, suddenly modified their previous evidence, 
 and secured an unforeseen victory for the happy owner 
 of the narric-comboo ! 
 
 The Mongoos. — Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four 
 species have been described ; and one, that frequents the 
 hills near Neuera-ellia ^, is so remarkable from its bushy 
 
 * Herpestes vitticollis. Mr. "W. the Gliat forests in 1829, and is now 
 
 Elliott, in his Catalogue of Mam- deposited in the British Muse\im ; 
 
 malia found in the Southern Mah- it is very rare, inhabiting only the 
 
 arata Country, Madras, 1840, says, thickest woods, and its habits are 
 
 that " One specimen of this Her- very little known," p. 9. In Ceylon 
 
 pestes was prociired by accident in it is comparatively common. 
 
 D 3 
 
39, 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 fur, that the invalid soldiers in the sanatarium there, to 
 whom it is familiar, have given it the name of the 
 « Ceylon Badger." 
 
 I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon 
 attach no credit to the European story of the Mongoos 
 {H, griseus) resorting to some plant, which no one has 
 yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote against the 
 
 
 HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS. 
 
 bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys. There 
 is no doubt that, in its conflicts with the cobra de capello 
 and other poisonous snakes, which it attacks with as 
 little hesitation as the harmless ones, it may be seen 
 occasionally to retreat, and even to retire into the jun- 
 gle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but a gen- 
 tleman, who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, 
 assures me that most usually the herb it resorted to was 
 
Chap. I.] MOXGOOS. 39 
 
 grass ; and if this were not at hand, almost any other 
 plant that grew near seemed equally acceptable. Hence 
 has probably arisen the long list of plants, such as the 
 Ophioxylon serpentinum and Ophiorhiza niungos, the 
 Aristolochia Indicaf the Mimosa octandria, and others, 
 each of which has been asserted to be the ichneumon's 
 specific; whilst their multiplicity is demonstrative of 
 the non-existence of any one in particular on which the 
 animal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth 
 in the tale as regards the mongoos, it would be difficult 
 to understand why creatures, such as the secretary bird 
 and the falcon, and others, which equally destroy serpents, 
 should be left defenceless, and the ichneumon alone 
 provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were the ich- 
 neumon inspired by that courage which would result 
 from the consciousness of security, it would be so in- 
 different to the bite of the serpent that we might con- 
 clude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it 
 would be utterly careless as to the precise mode of its 
 attack. Such, however, is far from being the case ; and 
 next to its audacity, nothing can be more surprising 
 than the adroitness with which it escapes the spring of 
 the snake under a due sense of danger, and the cunning 
 with which it makes its arrangements to leap upon the 
 back and fasten its teeth in the head of the cobra. It 
 is this display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan^ 
 celebrates where he paints the ichneumon diverting the 
 attention of the asp, by the motion of his bushy tail, 
 and then seizing it in the midst of its confusion : — 
 
 " Aspidas ut Pharias eauda, solertior hostis 
 Ludit, et iratas incerta provocat umbra : 
 
 * The passage in Lucan is aver- lated by Pliny, lib, viii. ch. o3 ; 
 sification of the same narrative re- and iEUan, lib. iii. ch. 22. 
 
 D 4 
 
40 MAIIMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras 
 EiFusae toto comprendit guttura morsu 
 Letiferam citra saniem ; tunc irrita pestis 
 Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno." 
 
 Pharsalia, lib. iv. t. 729. 
 
 The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has 
 been referred to the supposition that there may be some 
 peculiarity in its organisation which renders it proof 
 against the poison of the serpent. It remains for fu- 
 ture investigation to determine how far this conjecture 
 is founded in truth ; and whether in the blood of the 
 mongoos there exists any element or quality which acts 
 as a prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are not 
 without precedent in the animal oeconomy : the hornbill 
 feeds with impunity on the deadly fruit of the strych- 
 nos; the milky juice of some species of euphorbia, 
 which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to the 
 zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, 
 whose bite is mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, 
 is harmless to man and the untamed creatures of the 
 forest.^ 
 
 The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, 
 which they designate " Hotantbeya,'^ and which they 
 assert never preys upon serpents. A writer in the 
 Ceylon Miscellany mentions, that they are often to be 
 seen " crossing rivers and frequently mud-brooks near 
 Chilaw ; the adjacent thickets affording them shelter, 
 and their food consisting of aquatic reptiles, crabs, and 
 mollusca." ^ 
 
 ^ Dr. LiviNGSTONi:, Tour in 8. or mouse-cat of Behar, which preys 
 
 Africa, p. 80. Is it a fact that, in upon birds and fish. Can it be the 
 
 America, pigs extirpate the rattle- Urva of the Nepalese (Urva can- 
 
 snakes with impunity ? crivora, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodg- 
 
 ' This is possibly the "musbilai" son describes as dwelling in bur- 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 SQUIRRELS. 
 
 41 
 
 IV. EoDENTiA. Squirrels. — Smaller animals in great 
 numbers enliven the forests and lowland plains with 
 
 FLYING SQUIREEL, 
 
 their graceful movements. Squirrels ^, of which there 
 are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call heard 
 
 rows, and being carnivorous and ^ Of two kinds which frequent 
 ranivorous ? — Vide Journ. As. Soc. the mountains, one which is pe- 
 Beng. vol. vi. p. 56. culiar to Ceylon was discovered 
 
42 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 at early morning in the woods ; and when sounding their 
 note of warning on the approach of a civet or a tree- 
 snake, the ears tingle with the loud trill of defiance, 
 which rings as clear and rapid as the running down of an 
 alarum, and is instantly caught up and re-echoed from 
 every side by their terrified playmates. 
 
 One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied sub- 
 genus, is known as the " Flying Squirrel," * from its 
 being assisted, in its prodigious leaps from tree to tree, 
 by a parachute formed by the skin of the flanks, which, 
 on the extension of the limbs front and rear, is laterally 
 expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed up in its 
 descent, the spring which it is enabled to make from 
 one lofty tree to another resembles the flight of a bird 
 rather than the bound of a quadruped. 
 
 Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one 
 common to Ceylon and India, the other {Sciuropterus 
 Layardii, Kelaart) is peculiar to the island, and by 
 far the most beautiful of the family. 
 
 Rats. — Among the multifarious inhabitants to which 
 the forest affords at once a home and provender is the 
 tree rat ■^, which forms its nest on the branches, and by 
 turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the natives, 
 frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts 
 of houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat- 
 snake ^, whose domestication is encouraged by the ser- 
 
 by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who lias at the base of the ears. 
 
 done me the honour to call it the * Pteromys oral., Tickel. P. pe- 
 
 Sciurus Tenncntii. Its dimensions taurista, Pallas. 
 
 are large, measuring upwards of ^ There are two species of the 
 
 two feet from head to tail. It is tree rat in Ceylon : M. rufescens, 
 
 distinguished from the S. macrurus Gray ; (M. flavescens, Elliot ;) and 
 
 by the predominant black colour of Mus nemoralis, Blyth. 
 
 the upper surface of the body, ^ Coryphodon Blumenbachii, 
 
 with the exception of a rusty spot Merr. 
 
Chap. I.] EATS. 43 
 
 vants, in consideration of its services in destroying 
 vermin. I had one day an opportunity of surprising a 
 snake that had just seized on a rat of this description, 
 and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it 
 had time to swallow its prey. The serpent, appeared 
 stunned by its own capture, and allowed the rat to 
 escape from its jaws, which cowered at one side of the 
 glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror. The 
 two were left alone for some moments, and on my re- 
 turn to them the snake was as before in the same atti- 
 tude of sullen stupor. On setting them at liberty, the 
 rat bounded towards the nearest fence ; but quick as 
 lightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized it 
 before it could gain the hedge, through which I saw the 
 snake glide with its victim in its jaws. In parts of the 
 central province, at Oovah and Bintenne, the house-rat 
 is eaten as a common article of food. The Singhalese 
 believe it and the mouse to be liable to hydrophobia. 
 
 Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which 
 made its appearance for the first time in the coffee plan- 
 tations on the Kandyan hills in the year 1847 ; and in 
 such swarms does it continue to infest them, at intervals, 
 that as many as a thousand have been killed in a single 
 day on one estate. In order to reach the buds and 
 blossoms of the coffee, it cuts such of the slender 
 branches as would not sustain its weight, and feeds on 
 them when fallen to the ground ; and so delicate and 
 sharp are its incisors, that the twigs thus destroyed are 
 detached by as clean a cut as if severed with a knife. 
 
 The coffee-rat ^ is an insular variety of the Mus hir~ 
 sutus of W, Elliot, found in Southern India. They in- 
 
 * Golunda EUioti, Grat/. 
 
44 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 habit the forests, making their nests among the roots of 
 the trees, and feeding, in the season, on the ripe seeds of 
 the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and Lapland, 
 
 COFFEE EAT. 
 
 they migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a 
 scarcity of their ordinary food. The Malabar coolies 
 are so fond of their flesh, that they evince a preference 
 for those districts in which the coffee plantations are 
 subject to their incursions, where they fry the rats in 
 coco-nut oil, or convert them into curry. 
 
 Bandicoot. — Another favourite article of food with 
 the coolies is the pig-rat or Bandicoot \ which attains on 
 those hills the weight of two or three pounds, and grows 
 to nearly the length of two feet. As it feeds on grain 
 and roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much re- 
 sembling young pork. 
 
 ' Mus bandicota, Beckst. The ruption of the Telinga name pan- 
 English term bandicoot is a cor- dikoku, literally ^?^-rfl^. 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 THE PORCUPIXE. 
 
 45 
 
 Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain 
 considerable quantities of rice, stored up against the 
 dry season. 
 
 BAKDICOOT 
 
 Porcupine. — The Porcupine ^ is another of the ro- 
 dentia which has drawn down upon itself the hostility 
 of the planters, from its destruction of the young coco- 
 nut palms, to which it is a pernicious and persevering, 
 but withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty 
 any trap can be so disguised, or any bait made so allur- 
 ing, as to lead to its capture. The usual expedient in 
 Ceylon is to place some of its favourite food at the ex- 
 tremity of a trench, so narrow as to prevent the porcu- 
 pine turning, whilst the direction of his quills etfectually 
 bars his retreat backwards. On a newly planted coco- 
 nut tope, at Hang-welle, within a few miles of Colombo, 
 
 ' Hystrix leucunis, Si//ces. 
 
46 MAMMALIA. [Chap. T. 
 
 I have heard of as many as twenty-seven being thus 
 captured in a single night ; but such success is rare. 
 The more ordinary expedient is to smoke them out by 
 burning straw at the apertures of their burrows. At 
 Ootacamund, on the continent of the Dekkan, spring- 
 guns have been used with great success by the Super- 
 intendent of the Horticultural Grardens ; placing them 
 so as to sweep the runs of the porcupines. The flesh 
 is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in consistenc}'', 
 colour, and flavour it very much resembles young pork. 
 
 V. Edentata. Pengolin. — Of the Edentata the only 
 example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the 
 Singhalese, Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay 
 name of Pengolin ^, a word indicative of its faculty, 
 when alarmed, of " rolling itself up " into a compact 
 ball, by bending its head towards its stomach, arching 
 its back into a circle, and securing all by a powerful 
 fold of its mail-covered tail. The feet of the pengolin 
 are armed with powerful claws, which in walking they 
 double in, like the ant-eater of Brazil. These they use 
 in extracting their favourite food from ant-hills and de- 
 caying wood. When at liberty, they burrow in the dry 
 ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where they re- 
 side in pairs, and produce annually one or two young. ^ 
 
 Of two specimens which I kept alive at different 
 times, one, about two feet in length, from the vicinity 
 of Kandy, was a gentle and affectionate creature, which, 
 
 ' Manis pentadactyla, Linn. me, in connexion with the state- 
 ^ I am assured that there is a ment, that its favourite dwelling is 
 hedge-hog in Ceylon ; but as I in the same biu-row with the pen- 
 have never seen it, I cannot tell golin. The popular belief in this 
 whether it belongs to either of the is attested by a Singhalese proverb, 
 two species known in India (Eri- in relation to an intrusive person- 
 naceusmentalis and E.collaris) — nor age; the import of which is that 
 can I vouch for its existence there he is like " a hedge-hog in the den 
 at all. But the fact was told to of a pengolinj* 
 
CHAr. I.] 
 
 THE PENGOLIN. 
 
 47 
 
 after wandering over the house in search of ants, would 
 attract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee, 
 laying hold of my leg with its prehensile tail. The 
 other, more than double that length, was caught in the 
 jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I 
 had always understood that the pengolin was unable to 
 climb trees ; but the one last mentioned frequently as- 
 
 THE PENGOLIN, 
 
 cended a tree in my garden, in search of ants ; and this 
 it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided by an 
 oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by ex- 
 tending its round and glutinous tongue along their 
 tracks ; and in the stomach of one which was opened 
 after death, I found a quantity of small stones and 
 gravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In 
 both specimens in my possession the scales of the back 
 
48 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 were a cream-coloured white, with a tinge of red in 
 that which came from Chilaw, probably acquired by the 
 insinuation of the Cabook dust which abounds along 
 the western coast of the island. 
 
 Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little 
 
 was known by the natives, 
 who regard it with aversion, 
 one name given to it being 
 the "Negombo Devil." Those 
 kept by me were, generally 
 speaking, quiet during the 
 day, and grew restless and 
 active as evening and night 
 approached. Both had been 
 taken near rocks, in the hol- 
 lows of which they had their 
 dwelling, but owing to their 
 slow power of motion, they 
 were unable to reach their 
 hiding place when overtaken. 
 When frightened, they rolled 
 themselves instantly into a 
 rounded ball ; and such was 
 the powerful force of muscle, 
 that the strength of a man 
 was insufficient to uncoil it. 
 In reconnoitring they made 
 important use of the tail, rest- 
 ing upon it and their hind 
 legs, and holding themselves 
 nearly erect, to command a 
 view of their object. The 
 strength of this powerful limb 
 will be perceived from the accompanying drawing of 
 
 SKELETON OF PKNGOLIN. 
 
Chap. I.] THE GAUR. 49 
 
 the skeleton of the Manis ; in which it will be seen 
 that the tail is equal in length to all the rest of the 
 body, whilst the vertebrae which compose it are stronger 
 by far than those of the back. 
 
 From the size and position of the bones of the leg, 
 the pengolin is endued with prodigious power; and 
 its faculty of exerting this vertically, was displayed 
 in overturning heavy cases, by insinuating itself under 
 them, between the supports, by which it is customary 
 in Ceylon to raise trunks a few inches above the 
 floor, in order to prevent the attacks of white ants. 
 
 VI. EuMiNANTiA. The Gaur. — Besides the deer, and 
 some varieties of the humped ox, that have been intro- 
 duced from the opposite continent of India, Ceylon has 
 probably but one other indigenous bovine ruminantf the 
 buffalo.^ There is a tradition that the gaur, found in 
 the extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one period 
 . a native of the Kandyan Mountains ; but as Knox speaks 
 of one which in his time " was kept among the king's 
 creatures " at Kandy ^ and his account of it tallies with 
 that of the Bos Gaurus of Hindustan, it would appear 
 even then to have been a rarity. A place between 
 Neuera-ellia and Adam's Peak bears the name of " Grow- 
 ra-ellia," and it is not impossible that the animal may 
 yet be discovered in some of the imperfectly explored 
 regions of the island.^ I have heard of an instance in 
 which a very old Kandyan, residing in the mountains 
 near the Horton Plains, asserted that when young he 
 had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he 
 described it as between an elk and a buffalo in size. 
 
 ' Bubalus buflfelus, Gray. Cei/lon, ^^c, A..Ti. 1681. Booki. c. 6. 
 
 ^ Knox, Historical Belation of ' Kelaamt:, Fau7iaZe^lan.,Tp.87 . 
 
 E 
 
50 MAMMALIA. [Chap. T. 
 
 dark brown in colour, and very scantily provided with 
 hair. 
 
 Oxen. — Oxen are used by the peasantry both in 
 ploughing and in tempering the mud in the wet paddi 
 fields before sowing the rice ; and when the harvest is 
 reaped they "tread out the corn," after the imme- 
 morial custom of the East. The wealth of the native 
 chiefs and landed proprietors frequently consists in their 
 herds of bullocks, which they hire out to their depend- 
 ents during the seasons for agricultural labour ; and as 
 they already supply them with land to be tilled, and 
 lend the seed which is to crop it, the further contribu- 
 tion of this portion of the labour serves to render the 
 dependence of the peasantry on the chiefs and head- 
 men complete. 
 
 The cows are often worked as well as the oxen ; and 
 as the calves are always permitted to suck them, milk 
 is an article which the traveller can rarely hope to pro- 
 cure in a Kandyan village. From their constant ex- 
 posure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both those 
 employed in agriculture and those on the roads, are 
 subject to devastating murrains, that sweep them away 
 by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence of these 
 calamities, and so extended their ravages, that they 
 exercise a serious influence upon the commercial in- 
 terests of the colony, by reducing the facilities of agri- 
 culture, and augmenting the cost of carriage during the 
 most critical periods of the coffee harvest. 
 
 A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, fre- 
 quently carries off the cattle in Assam and other hill 
 countries on the continent of India ; and there, as in 
 Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the lungs and 
 throat, and the internal derangement and external 
 
Chap. L] OXE^nT. 51 
 
 eruptive appearances, seem to indicate that the disease 
 is a feverish influenza, attributable to neglect and ex- 
 posure in a moist and variable climate ; and that its 
 prevention might be hoped for, and the cattle pre- 
 served, by the simple expedient of more humane and 
 considerate treatment, especially by affording them 
 cover at night. 
 
 During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred 
 at Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty 
 animals with an heroic interest. A little cow, belong- 
 ing to an English gentleman, was housed, together with 
 her calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and being 
 aroused during the night by her furious bellowing, the 
 servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a 
 leopard, which had stolen in to attack the calf. She 
 had got it into a corner, and whilst lowing incessantly 
 to call for help, she continued to pound it Avith her 
 horns. The wild animal, apparently stupified by her 
 unexpected violence, was detained by her till despatched 
 by a bullet. 
 
 The number of bullock-carts encountered between 
 Colombo and Kandy, laden with coffee from the interior, 
 or carrying up rice and stores for the supply of the 
 plantations in the hill-country, is quite surprising. The 
 oxen thus employed on this single road, about seventy 
 miles long, are estimated at upwards of twenty thou- 
 sand. The bandy to which they are yoked is a barbar- 
 ous two-wheeled waggon, with a covering of plaited 
 coco-nut leaves, in which a pair of strong bullocks will 
 draw from five to ten hundred weight, according to the 
 nature of the country ; and with this load on a level 
 they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day. 
 
 A few of the large humped cattle of India are an- 
 
 E 2 
 
52 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 nually imported for draught ; but the vast majority of 
 those in use are small and dark-coloured, with a grace- 
 ful head and neck, and elevated hump, a deep silky 
 dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer. They appear 
 to have neither the strength nor weight requisite for 
 this service ; and yet the entire coffee crop of Ceylon, 
 amounting annually to upwards of half a million hun- 
 dred weight, is year after year brought down from the 
 mountains to the coast by these indefatigable little 
 creatures, which, on returning, carry up proportionally 
 heavy loads of rice and implements for the estates.^ 
 There are two varieties of the native bullock ; one a 
 somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red colour ; the 
 other, the high-bred black one I have just described. So 
 rare was a white one of this species, under the native 
 kings, that the Kandyans were compelled to set them 
 apart for the royal herd.^ 
 
 Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals 
 of draught and burden in Ceylon (horses being rarely 
 used except in spring carriages), no attempt has been 
 made to improve the breed, or even to better the con- 
 dition and treatment of those in use. Their food is in- 
 different, pasture in all parts of the island being rare, 
 and cattle are seldom housed under any vicissitudes of 
 weather. 
 
 The labour for which they are best adapted, and in 
 which, before the opening of roads, these cattle were 
 formerly employed, is in traversing the jungle paths of 
 
 * A pair of these little bullocks 1763, he saw in Ceylon two white 
 
 carry up about twenty bushels of oxen, each of which measured up- 
 
 rice to the hills, and bring down wards of eight feet high. They 
 
 from fifty to sixty bushels of coffee were sent as a present from the 
 
 to Colombo. King of Atchin. — Life and Ad- 
 
 2 Wolf says that, in the year ventures, p. 172. 
 
Chap. I.] OXEN. 53 
 
 the interior, carrying light loads as pack-oxen in what 
 is called a '' tavalam,'" — a term which, substituting bul- 
 locks for camels, is equivalent to a " caravan." ^ The 
 class of persons engaged in this traffic in Ceylon resem- 
 ble in their occupations the " Banjarees " of Hindustan, 
 who bring down to the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and 
 take back to the interior cloths and iron and copper 
 utensils. In the unopened parts of the island, and 
 especially in the eastern provinces, this primitive prac- 
 tice still continues. WTien travelling in these districts 
 I have often encountered long files of pack-bullocks 
 toiling along the mountain paths, their bells tinkling 
 musically as they moved ; or halting during the noonday 
 heat beside some stream in the forests, their burdens 
 piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted their 
 cooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to 
 bathe and browse. 
 
 The persons engaged in this wandering trade are 
 chiefly Moors, and the business carried on by them 
 consists in bringing up salt from the government depots 
 on the coast to be bartered with the Kandyans in the 
 hills for " native coffee," which is grown in small quan- 
 tities round every house, but without systematic culti- 
 vation. This they carry down to the maritime towns, 
 and the proceeds are invested in cotton cloths and brass 
 utensils, dried fish, and other commodities, with which 
 the tavalams supply the secluded villages of the in- 
 terior. 
 
 ' Attempts hare been made to nection with the fact of the camel 
 
 domesticate the camel in Ceylon ; living in perfect health in climates 
 
 but, I am told, they died of ulcers equally, if not more, exposed to 
 
 in the feet, attributed to the too rain. I apprehend that sufficient 
 
 great moisture of the roads at justice has not been done to the 
 
 certain seasons. This explanation experiment, 
 seems insufficient if taken in con- 
 
 £ 3 
 
54 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 The Buffalo. — Buffaloes abound in all parts of Cey- 
 lon, but they are only to be seen in their native wild- 
 ness in the vast solitudes of the northern and eastern 
 provinces, where rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated tanks 
 abound. In these they delight to immerse themselves, 
 till only their heads appear above the surface ; or, en- 
 veloped in mud to protect themselves from the assaults 
 of insects, they luxuriate in the long sedges by the 
 water margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow 
 will frequently be seen stationed on its back, engaged 
 in freeing it from the ticks and other pests which attach 
 themselves to its leathery hide, the smooth bro^vn sur- 
 face of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an un- 
 pleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a 
 buffalo throws back its clumsy head till the huge horns 
 rest on its shoulders, and the nose is presented in a line 
 with the eyes. 
 
 The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncer- 
 tain, and such is its strengfth and courao-e that in the 
 Hindu epic of the Eamayana its onslaught is comj)ared 
 to that of the tiger. ^ It is never quite safe to approach 
 them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from 
 their repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions 
 they hurry into line, draw up in defensive array, with a 
 few of the oldest bulls in advance ; and, wheeling in 
 circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as they 
 clank them together in their rapid evolutions, they 
 prepare for attack ; but generally, after a menacing dis- 
 play the herd betake themselves to flight ; then forming 
 again at a safer distance, they halt as before, elevating 
 their nostrils, and throwing back their heads to take a 
 defiant survey of the intruders. The true sportsman 
 
 ' Carey and Maesjiman's Transl. vol. i. p. 430, 447. 
 
Chap. I.] THE BUFFALO. 55 
 
 rarely molests them, so huge a creature affording no 
 worthy mark for his skill, and their wanton slaughter 
 adds nothing to the supply of food for their assailant. 
 
 In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese 
 domesticate buffaloes, and use them to assist in the 
 labour of the rice lands, the villagers are much annoyed 
 by the Avild ones, that mingle with the tame when sent 
 out to the woods to pasture ; and it constantly happens 
 that a savage stranger, placing himself at the head of 
 the tame herd, resists the attempts of the owners to 
 drive them homewards at sunset. In the districts of 
 Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes are generally 
 used for draught ; and in carrying heavy loads of salt 
 from the coast towards the interior, they drag a cart 
 over roads which would defy the weaker strength of 
 bullocks. 
 
 In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I 
 found the natives makino: an inofenious use of them 
 when engaged in shooting water-fowl in the vast salt 
 marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object to which 
 the birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the 
 buffalo to the sport, and, concealed behind, the animal 
 browsing listlessly along, they guide it by ropes attached 
 to its horns, and thus creep undiscovered within shot of 
 the flock. The same practice prevails, I believe, in 
 some of the northern parts of India, where they are 
 similarly trained to assist the sportsman in approaching 
 deer. One of these " sporting buffaloes " sells for a 
 considerable sum. 
 
 In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, 
 to the east and south of Caltura, the natives use the 
 sporting buffalo in another way, to assist in hunting 
 deer and wild hogs. A bell is attached to its neck, and 
 
 £ 4 
 
56 MAMMALIA. [Chap. T. 
 
 a box or basket with one side open is securely strapped 
 on its back. This at nightfall is lighted by flambeaux 
 of wax, and the buffalo bearing it, is driven slowly into 
 the jungle. The huntsmen, with their fowling pieces, 
 keep close under the darkened side, and as it moves 
 slowly onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound, 
 and bewildered by the light, steal cautiously towards 
 it in stupified fascination. Even the snakes, I am as- 
 sured, will be attracted by this extraordinary object ; and 
 the leopard too falls a victim to curiosity. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo's 
 foot, which, though it must have attracted attention, 
 I have never seen mentioned by naturalists. It is 
 equivalent to the arrangement which distinguishes the 
 foot of the reindeer from that of the stag and the ante- 
 lope. In the latter, the hoofs, being constructed for 
 lightness and flight, are compact and vertical ; but, in 
 the reindeer, the joints of the tarsal bones admit of 
 lateral expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards, 
 while the two secondary ones behind (which are but 
 slightly developed in the fallow deer and others of the 
 same family) are prolonged vertically till, in certain 
 positions, they are capable of being applied to the 
 ground, thus adding to the circumference and sustain- 
 ing power of the foot. It has been usually suggested 
 as the probable design of this structure, that it is to 
 enable the reindeer to shovel away the snow in order 
 to reach the lichens beneath it ; but I apprehend that 
 another use of it has been overlooked, that of facilitating 
 its movements in search of food by increasing the diflfi- 
 culty of its sinking in the snow. 
 
 A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems 
 to point to a corresponding design. The ox, whose life^ 
 
Chap. I.] DEER. 57 
 
 is spent on firm ground, has the bones of the foot so 
 constructed as to afford the most solid support to an 
 animal of its great weight ; but in the buffalo, which 
 delights in the morasses on the margins of pools and 
 rivers, the construction of the foot resembles that of the 
 reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost horizontally 
 from the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart 
 widely on touching the ground ; the hoofs are flattened 
 and broad, mth the extremities turned upwards ; and the 
 false hoofs behind descend till they make a clattering 
 sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes, 
 this combination of abnormal incidents serves to erive 
 extraordinary breadth to the foot, and not only prevents 
 the buffalo from sinking inconveniently in soft ground ^, 
 but at the same time presents no obstacle to the with- 
 drawal of its foot from the mud. 
 
 The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in 
 Ceylon as an albino, with purely white hair and a pink 
 iris. 
 
 Deer. — " Deer," says the truthful old chronicler, 
 Eobert Knox, " are in great abundance in the woods, 
 from the largeness of a cow to the smallness of a hare, 
 for here is a creature in this land no bigger than the 
 latter, though every part rightly resembleth a deer : it 
 is called meminna, of a grey colour, with white spots 
 and good meat."^ The little creature which thus dwelt 
 in the recollection of the old man, as one of the memo- 
 
 ^ Professor Owex has noticed a in the camel and dromedary, that 
 
 similar fact regarding the rudi- traverse arid deserts. — O'na'ex on 
 
 ments of the second and fifth digits Limbs, p. 3-i ; see also Bell on the 
 
 in the instance of the elk and bison, Hand, ch. iii. 
 
 which have them largely expanded Knox's Relation, ^'c, hook i. 
 
 where they inhabit swampy ground; c. 6. 
 whilst they are nearly oljliterated 
 
58 
 
 MMIMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. T. 
 
 rials of his long captivity, is the small " musk deer " ^ 
 so called in India, although neither sex is provided with 
 a musk-bag. The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the 
 name of the " moose deer ; " and in all probability the 
 terms musk and moose are both corruptions of the 
 Dutch word " m/ais,^^ or " mouse " deer, a name par- 
 ticularly applicable to the timid and crouching attitudes 
 
 "MOOSE" DEER MOSCHUS MEMINNA). 
 
 and aspect of this beautiful little creature. Its extreme 
 length never reaches two feet ; and of those which were 
 domesticated about my house, few exceeded ten inches 
 in height, their graceful limbs being of proportionate 
 delicacy. It possesses long and extremely large tusks, 
 with which it can inflict a severe bite. The interpreter 
 moodliar of Negombo had a milk luhite meminna in 
 1847, which he designed to send home as an acceptable 
 
 ' Moschus meminna. 
 
CiiAr. l.J CEYLON ELK. 50 
 
 present to Her Majesty, but it was unfortunately killed 
 by an accident.^ 
 
 Ceylon Elk. — In the mountains, the Ceylon elk 2, 
 which reminds one of the red deer of Scotland, attains 
 the height of four or five feet ; it abounds in all shady 
 places that are intersected by rivers ; where, though its 
 chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, its 
 venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the 
 lowland ox. In the glades and park-like openings that 
 diversify the great forests of the interior, the spotted 
 Axis troops in herds as numerous as the fallow deer in 
 England ; but, in journeys through the jungle, when 
 often dependent on the guns of our party for the pre- 
 carious supply of the table, we found the flesh of the 
 Axis^ and the Muntjac"* a sorry substitute for that of the 
 pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. The occurrence 
 of albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer's 
 horns are an article of export from Ceylon, and consider- 
 able quantities are annually sent to the United Kingdom. 
 
 VII. Pachydermata. — The JElephant. — The elephant 
 and the wild boar, the Singhalese '^ waloora," ^ are the 
 only representatives of the jpachydermnatous order. The 
 latter, which differs somewhat from the wild boar of 
 
 ' When the English took posses- stance occurred during my resi- 
 
 sion of Kan dy, in 1803, they found dence in Ceylon, in which two 
 
 " five beautiful milk-white deer in natives, whose mimicry had mu- 
 
 the palace, which was noted as a tually deceived them, crept so close 
 
 very extraordinary thing." — Let- together in the jungle that one shot 
 
 ter in Appendix to Perciv.il's the other, supposing the cry to 
 
 Ceylon, p. 428. The wi'iter does proceed from the game, 
 
 not say of what species they were. ^ Axis maculata, H. Smith. 
 
 2 Eusa Aristotelis. Dr. Gtrat * Stylocerus muntjac, Horsf. 
 
 has lately shown that this is the * Mr. Blyth of Calcutta has 
 
 great axis of Cuvier. — Oss. Foss. distinguished, from the hog, eom- 
 
 502, t. 39, f. 10. The Singhalese, mon in India, a specimen sent to 
 
 on following the elk, frequently him from Ceylon, the skull of which 
 
 effect their approaches by so imi- approaches in form, that of a spe- 
 
 tating the call of the animal as to cies from Borneo, the sics bar batus of 
 
 induce them to respond. An in- S. Mialler. 
 
60 
 
 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 India, is found in droves in all parts of the island where 
 vegetation and water are abundant. 
 
 The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon 
 forests, is to be met with in every district, on the 
 confines of the woods, in the depths of which he finds 
 concealment and shade during the hours when the 
 sun is high, and from which he emerges only at twi- 
 light to wend his way towards the rivers and tanks, 
 where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeks the 
 retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills 
 so dignified a place both in the zoology and oeconomy of 
 Ceylon, and his habits in a state of nature have been so 
 much misunderstood, that I shall devote a separate 
 section to his defence from misrepresentation, and to an 
 exposition of what, from observation and experience, 
 I believe to be his genuine character when free in 
 his native domains. But this seems the proper place 
 to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with 
 the elephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture 
 which I ventured to make elsewhere ^, relative to the 
 isolation of Ceylon, and its distinctness, in many re- 
 markable particulars, from the great continent of India. 
 Every writer who previously treated of the island, includ- 
 ing the accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, 
 was contented, by a glance at its outline and a reference 
 to its position on the map, to assume that Ceylon was a 
 fragment, which in a very remote age had been torn from 
 the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of nature. 
 Hence it was taken for granted that the vegetation 
 which covers and the races of animals which inhabit it, 
 must be identical with those of Hindustan ; to which 
 
 ' Ceylon, ^r., by Sir J. E.meeson Tennent, vol. i. pp. 7, 13, 85, 160, 
 183, n., 205, 270, &c. 
 
Chap. I.] ZOOLOGY OF CEYLON AND INDL\. 61 
 
 Ceylon was alleged to bear the same relation as Sicily 
 presents to the peninsula of Italy. Malte Bkun * and 
 the geographers generally, declared the larger animals 
 of either to be common to both. I was led to question 
 the soundness of this dictum ; — and from a closer ex- 
 amination of its geological conformation and of its bo- 
 tanical and zoological characteristics I came to the con- 
 clusion that not only is there an absence of sameness 
 between the formations of the two localities ; but that 
 plants and animals, mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects 
 exist in Ceylon, which are not to be found in the flora 
 and fauna of the Dekkan ; but which present a striking 
 afi&nity, and occasionally an actual identity, with those 
 of the Malayan countries and some of the islands of the 
 Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion ap- 
 peared to be, it was strangely in unison with the legends 
 of the Singhalese themselves, that at an infinitely remote 
 period Ceylon formed an integral portion of a vast con- 
 tinent, known in the mythical epics of the Brahmans by 
 the designation of " Lanka ;^^ so immense that its south- 
 ern extremity fell below the equator, whilst in breadth 
 it was prolonged till its western and eastern boundaries 
 touch at once upon the shores of Africa and China. 
 
 Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with 
 the conclusions of modern geology, that at the com- 
 mencement of the tertiary period northern Asia and a 
 considerable part of India were in all probability covered 
 by the sea — but that south of India land extended 
 eastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia. 
 Professor Ansted has propounded this view. His 
 opinion is, that the Himalayas then existed only as a 
 chain of islands, and did not till a much later age be- 
 
 * Malte Beun, Geogr. Univ., 1. xlix. 
 
62 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 come elevated into mountain ranges, — a change which 
 took place during the same revolution that raised the 
 great plains of Siberia and Tartary and many parts of 
 north-western Europe. At the same time the great 
 continent whose position between the tropics has been 
 alluded to, and whose previous existence is still in- 
 dicated by the Coral islands, the Laccadives, the Mal- 
 dives, and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneous 
 depression by a counteracting movement.^ 
 
 But divested of oriental mystery and geologic con- 
 jecture, and brought to the test of " geographical dis- 
 tribution," this once prodigious continent would appear 
 to have connected the distant Islands of Ceylon and 
 Sumatra and possibly to have united both to the Malay 
 peninsula, from which the latter is now severed by the 
 Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physical affinity be- 
 tween these scattered localities are exceedingly curious. 
 A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some 
 of the Mammalia of Ceylon and those of the continent 
 of India. In its general outline and feature, this branch 
 of the island fauna, no doubt, exhibits a general resem- 
 blance to that of the mainland, although many of the 
 larger animals of the latter are unknown in Ceylon ; 
 but, on the other hand, some species discovered there 
 are peculiar to the island. A deer^ as large as the 
 Axis, but differing from it in the number and arrange- 
 ment of its spots, has been described by Dr. Kela- 
 art, to whose vigilance the natural history of Ceylon is 
 indebted, amongst others, for the identification of two 
 new species of monkeys^, a number of curious shrews'*, 
 
 " * The Ancient World, by D. T. ^ Presbytes ursinus, Blyth, and 
 
 Ansted, M.A., &c.. pp. 322—324, P. Thersites, Elliot. 
 
 2 Cerviis oriziis, Kexaaht, Prod. * Sorex montanus, S. fermgineus, 
 
 F. Zeyl., p, 83. and Ferocnlus macropus. 
 
Chap. I.] ZOOLOGY OF CEYLON AXD INDIA. 63 
 
 and an orange-coloured ichneumon ^, before unknown. 
 There are also two squirrels^ that have not as yet 
 been discovered elsewhere, (one of them belonging to 
 those equipped with a parachute^,) as well as some local 
 varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus penicillatus, 
 Leadi).^ 
 
 But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number 
 of minor animals found in the Indian peninsula, cannot 
 boast such a ruminant as the majestic Graur^, which 
 inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to the 
 Himalaya ; and, providentially, the island is equally free 
 of the formidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hin- 
 dustan. The Hyena and Cheetah^', common in Southern 
 India, are unknown in Ceylon ; and though abundant 
 in deer, the island possesses no example of the Antelope 
 or the Gazelle. 
 
 Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is 
 apparent. About thirty-eight species will be presently 
 particularised^ which, although some of them may here- 
 after be discovered to have a wider geographical range, 
 are at present believed to be unknown in continental 
 India. I might further extend this enumeration, by in- 
 cluding the Cheela eagle of Ceylon, which, although I 
 have placed it in my list as identical with the Hematornis 
 cheela of the Dekkan, is, I have since been assured, a 
 different bird, and is most probably the Faleo bido of 
 
 ^ Herpestes fulvescens, Kela- Ceylon. Dr. Templetox has no- 
 
 Aur, Prod. Faun. Ze^Ian., A]^^.ip.4:2. ticed a little shrew (Corsira pur- 
 
 2 Sciunis Tennentii, Layard. purascens, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1855, 
 
 3 Sciuropterus Layardi, Kelaart. p. 238) at Neuera-ellia, not as yet 
 * There is a rat found only in the observed elsewhere. 
 
 Cinnamon Gardens at Colombo, * Bos cavifrons, Hodgs. ; B. fi-on- 
 
 Mus Ceylonus, Kelaart; and a talis. Lamb. 
 
 mouse which Dr. Kelaart disco- ^ Felis jubata, Schrch. 
 
 vered at Trineomalie, M. falridi- '' See Chapter on the Birds of 
 
 ventris, Blyth, both pecidiar to Ceylon. 
 
64 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 Horsfield, known to us by specimens obtained from Java 
 and Sumatra. 
 
 As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less dis- 
 tinct ; and besides they have hitherto been very imper- 
 fectly compared. But the Insects afford a remarkable con- 
 firmation of the view I have ventured to propound ; so 
 much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the elaborate lists 
 appended to this work have been prepared, asserts 
 that some of the families have a less affinity to the en- 
 tomology of India than to that of Australia.^ 
 
 But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to 
 which I have alluded, in relation to the elephant of 
 Ceylon. Do^vn to a very recent period it was univer- 
 sally believed that only two species of the elephant are 
 now in existence, the African and the Asiatic; distin- 
 guished by certain peculiarities in the shape of the cra- 
 nium, the size of the ears, the ridges of the teeth, the 
 number of vertebrae, and, according to Cuvier, in the 
 number of nails on the hind feet. The elej)hant of 
 Ceylon was believed to be identical with the elephant 
 of India. But some few years back, Temminck, in 
 his survey of the Dutch possessions in the Indian Ar- 
 chipelago^, announced the fact that the elephant which 
 abounds in Sumatra (although unknown in the adjacent 
 island of Java), and which had theretofore been regarded 
 as the same species with the Indian one, has been recently 
 found to possess peculiarities, in which it differs as much 
 from the elephant of India, as the latter from its African 
 congener. On this new species of elephant, to which the 
 natives give the name of gadjah, Temminck has conferred 
 the scientific designation of the Elephas Sumatranus. 
 
 ^ See Chapter on the Insects of Possessions Necrlandaises dans 
 Ceylon. Vlnde Archijpelagique. 
 
 2 Coup d'CEil General sur les 
 
Chap. I.] ZOOLOGY OF CEYLON AXD INDIA. 65 
 
 The points which entitle it to this distinction he enume- 
 rated minutely in the work ^ before alluded to, but they 
 have been summarized as follows by Prince Lucien Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 "This species is perfectly intermediate between the 
 Indian and African, especially in the shape of the skull, 
 and will certainly put an end to the distinction between 
 Elephas and Loxodon, with those who admit that ana- 
 tomical genus ; since although the crowns of the teeth of 
 E. Sur}iatranus are more like the Asiatic animal, still 
 the less numerous undulated ribbons of enamel are 
 nearly quite as wide as those forming the lozenges of the 
 African. The number of pairs of false ribs (which alone 
 vary, the true ones being always six) is foiu'teen, one less 
 than in the Africanus, one more than in the Indicus ; 
 and so it is with the dorsal vertebrae, which are twenty 
 in the Sumatranus {twenty -one and nineteen, in the 
 others), whilst the new species agrees with Afmcanus in 
 the number of sacral vertebrae (four), and with Indicus 
 in that of the caudal ones, which are thirty-four.''' ^ 
 
 ^ Temminck, Coiip-d'oeil, ^'c, t. plutot de I'espece Asiatique que de 
 
 i. c. iv. p. 328.; t. ii. c. iii. p. 91. ceUe qui est propre a I'Afrique; 
 
 2 Proceed. Zool. Soc. London, e'est-a-dire que leur eouronne oSre 
 
 1849, p. 144, note. The original la forme de rubans ondoyes et non 
 
 description of Temminck: is as fol- pas en losange; mais ees rubans 
 
 lows : sont de lalargeur de ceux qu'on voit 
 
 " Elephas Suniatranus, Nob. res- a la eouronne des dents de 1' elephant 
 
 semble, par la forme generale du d'Afrique; ils sont consequem- 
 
 craue a 1' elephant du continent de ment moins nombreux que dans 
 
 I'Asie ; mais la partie libre des celui du continent de I'Asie. Les 
 
 intermaxiH aires est beaucoup plus dimensions de ces rubans, dans la 
 
 courte et plus etroite; les cavites direction d'avant en arriere, com- 
 
 nasales sont beaucoup moins larges ; parees a celle prises dans la direc- 
 
 I'espace entre les orbites des yeux tion trans versale et laterale, sont 
 
 est plus etroit ; la partie poste- en raison de 3 ou 4 a 1 ; tandis 
 
 rieur du crane au contraire est plus que dans 1' elephant du continent 
 
 large que dans I'espece du conti- eUes sont comme 4 ou 6 a 1. La 
 
 nent. longueur totale de six de ces ru- 
 
 "Lesmachelieresserapprochent, bans, dans I'espece nouvelle de 
 
 par la forme de leur eouronne, Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle 
 
 F 
 
66 MAMMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 Professor Schlegel of Leyden, in a paper lately sub- 
 mitted by him to the Eoyal Academy of Sciences of 
 Holland, (the substance of which he has obligingly 
 communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck the Ne- 
 therlands Minister at this Court), has confirmed the 
 identity of the Ceylon elephant with that found in the 
 Lampongs of Sumatra. The osteological comparison of 
 which Temminck has given the results was, he says, con- 
 ducted by himself with access to four skeletons of the 
 latter. And the more recent opportunity of comparing 
 a living Sumatran elephant with one from Bengal, has 
 served to establish other though minor points of diver- 
 gence. The Indian species is more robust and powerful ; 
 the proboscis longer and more slender ; and the extre- 
 mity, (a point, in which the elephant of Sumatra resem- 
 bles that of Africa,) is more flattened and provided with 
 coarser and longer hair than that of India. 
 
 Professor Schlegel, adverting to the large export 
 of elephants from Ceylon to the Indian continent, which 
 has been carried on from time immemorial, suggests the 
 caution with which naturalists, in investigating this 
 question, should first satisfy themselves whether the ele- 
 phants they examine are really natives of the mainland, 
 
 d'Afrique, est d'environ 12 cen- et 15 fausses. Velephas Indicus 
 
 timetres, tandis que cette longueur a 7 vertebres du cou, 19 dorsales, 
 
 n'est que de 8 a 10 centimetres 3 lombaires, 5 sacrees, et 34 eau- 
 
 dans I'espece du continent de 1' dales, 19 paires de cotes, dont 6 
 
 Asie. vraies, et 3 fausses. Vele'phas Su- 
 
 " Les autres formes osteologiques matramcs a 7 vertebres du cou, 20 
 
 sont a peu pres les memes dans les dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4 sacrees, et 
 
 trois especes ; mais il y a difference 34 caudales ; 20 paires du cotes, 
 
 dans le nombre des os dont le dont 6 vraies, et 14 fausses, 
 
 squelette se compose, ainsi que " Ces caracteres ont 6te constates 
 
 le tableau comparatif ei-joint I'e- sur trois squelettes de I'espece nou- 
 
 ' prouve. veUe, mi male et une femelle adultes 
 
 " Belephas Africanus a 7 verte- et un jeune male. Nous n'avons 
 
 bres du cou, 21 vert, dorsales, 3 pas encore ete a meme de nous 
 
 lombaires, 4 sacrees, et 26 caudales; procurer la depouiUe de cette 
 
 21 paires de cotes, dont 6 vraies, esp^ce. " 
 
Chap. I.] ZOOLOGY OF CEYLOX AXD INDIA. 67 
 
 or whether they have been brought to it from the islands.^ 
 " The extraordinary fact," he observes in his letter to 
 me, " of the identity thus established between the ele- 
 phants of Ceylon and Sumatra; and the points in which 
 they are found to differ from that of Bengal, leads to the 
 c[uestion whether all the elephants of the Asiatic con- 
 tinent belong to one single species ; or whether these vast 
 regions may not produce in some quarter as yet unex- 
 plored the one hitherto found only in the two islands 
 referred to ? It is highly desirable that naturalists who 
 have the means and opportunity, should exert them- 
 selves to discover, whether any traces are to be found 
 of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan ; or of that of 
 Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam." 
 
 To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively 
 confirmatory of the theory I had ventured to broach, is 
 productive of great satisfaction. But it is not a little re- 
 markable that the distinction should not lonof before have 
 been discovered between the elephant of India and that 
 of Ceylon. Nor can it be regarded otherwise than as a 
 singular illustration of " geographical distribution " that 
 two remote islands should be thus shown to possess in 
 common a species unknown in any other quarter of the 
 globe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents 
 both countries as forming parts of a submerged continent, 
 the discovery is curious — and it is equally interesting in 
 connection with the circumstance alluded to by G-ibbon, 
 that amongst the early geographers and even down to a 
 comparatively modern date, Sumatra and Ceylon were 
 confounded; and grave doubts were entertained as to 
 
 ' A further inquiry suggests it- case of elephants bred on the con- 
 
 self, how far the intermixture of tinentof India, from stock partially 
 
 the breed may have served to con- imported from Ceylon? 
 found specific differences, in the 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MAMMALIA. [Chap. T. 
 
 which of the two was the " Taprobane " of antiquity. 
 GrEMMA Frisius, Sebastian Munster, Julius Scaliger, 
 Ortelius and Mercator contended for the former ; 
 Salmasius, Bochart, Cluverius, and Vossius for Ceylon : 
 and the controversy did not cease till it was terminated 
 by Delisle about the beginning of the last centur}^ 
 
 VIII. Cetacea. — Whales are so frequently seen that 
 they have been captured within sight of Colombo, and 
 more than once their carcases, after having been flinched 
 by the whalers, have floated on shore near the light- 
 house, tainting the atmosphere within the fort by their 
 rapid decomposition. 
 
 Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals 
 on the coast is the dugong ', a phytophagous cetacean, 
 numbers of which are attracted to the inlets, from the 
 bay of Calpentyn to Adam's Bridge, by the still water 
 and the abundance of marine algae in these parts of the 
 gulf. One which was killed at Manaar and sent to me to 
 Colombo^ in 1847, measured upwards of seven feet in 
 length ; but specimens considerably larger have been 
 taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented as 
 closely resembling veal. 
 
 The rude approach to the human outline, observed in 
 the shape of the head of this creature, and the attitude 
 of the mother when suckling her young, clasping it to 
 her breast with one flipper, while swimming with the 
 other, holding the heads of both above water ; and when 
 disturbed, suddenly diving and displaying her fish-like 
 tail, — these, together with her habitual demonstrations 
 of strong maternal affection, probably gave rise to the 
 . fable of the " mermaid ;" and thus that earliest invention 
 
 ' Halicore dugung, F. Cuv. Museum of the Natural History 
 
 2 The skeleton is now in the Society of Belfast. 
 
Chap. L] 
 
 THE DUGOIS'G. 
 
 69 
 
 THE DUGOKa 
 
 of mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab sea- 
 men and the Greeks, who had watched the movements 
 of the dugong in the waters of Manaar. 
 
 Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the 
 ocean, near Taprobane, mth the aspect of a woman ^ ; 
 and JElian, adopting and enlarging on his information, 
 peoples the seas of Ceylon with fishes having the heads 
 of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger still, cetaceans 
 in the form of satyrs. Statements such as these must 
 have had their origin in the hairs, which are set round 
 the mouth of the dugong, somewhat resembling a beard, 
 which ^lian and Megasthenes both particularise, from 
 their resemblance to the hair of a woman ; " koL <yvvai- 
 Kwv OTTCTLV s')(ov(TLV olaTTsp clvtI ifKoKCLfxcov ciicavOaL jrpoarjp- 
 TrjVTai. " 
 
 The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid. 
 
 ' Megasthenes, Indica, fragm. 
 lix. 34. 
 
 - ^LiAN, Nat. Hist, lib. xvi. ch. 
 xviii. 
 
 F 3 
 
70 MA:MMALIA. [Chap. I. 
 
 and the annalist of the exploits of the Jesuits in India, 
 gravely records that seven = of these monsters, male 
 and female, were captured at Manaar in 1560, and 
 carried to Groa, where they were dissected by Demas 
 Bosquez, physician to the Viceroy, and " their internal 
 structure found to be in all respects conformable to the 
 human." ^ 
 
 The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, 
 and they propagated the belief in the mermaid with 
 earnestness and particularity. Valenttn, one of their 
 chaplains, in his account of the Natural History of Am- 
 boina, embodied in his great work on the Netherlands' 
 Possessions in India, published so late as 1727^ has de- 
 voted the first section of his chapter on the Fishes of 
 that island to a minute description of the " Zee-Men- 
 schen," Zee-\Vy ven," and mermaids. As to the dugong 
 he admits its resemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates 
 the idea of its having given rise to the fable, by being 
 mistaken for one. This error he imagines must have 
 arisen at a time when observations on such matters were 
 made with culpable laxity ; but now more recent and 
 minute attention has established the truth beyond 
 cavil. 
 
 For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant 
 in the Dutch service was leading a party of soldiers 
 along the sea-shore in Amboina, he and all his company 
 saw the mermen swimming at a short distance from 
 the beach with long and flowing hair, of a colour be- 
 tween gray and green — and six weeks afterwards, the 
 
 ' Hist, de la Compagnie de Jesus, van Oud en Isieuw Oost-Indien, 
 
 quoted in the Asiat. Journ. vol. &c. 5 vol. fol. Dordrecht and Am- 
 
 xiv. p. 461; andinFoEBEs' Orient, sterdam, mdccxxvh. vol. iii. p. 
 
 Memoirs, vol. i. p. 421. 330. 
 
 ^ Fean, Valentyn, Beschryving 
 
Chap. I.] THE DUGONG. 71 
 
 creatures were again seen by him and more than fifty- 
 witnesses, at the same place, by clear daylight.^ 
 
 "If any narrative in the world," adds Valentyn, 
 " deserves credit, it is this ; since oiot only one but tivo 
 Tnermen together were seen by so many eye-witnesses. 
 Should the stubborn world, however, hesitate to believe 
 it, it matters nothing ; as there are people who would 
 even deny that such cities as Rome, Constantinople 
 or Cairo, exist, merely because they themselves have 
 not happened to see them." 
 
 But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, 
 to make of the circumstance recorded by Albert Herport 
 in his account of India^, that a sea-man was seen in the 
 water near the Church of Taquan, on the morning of 
 the 29th of April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot 
 the same afternoon ? — or what do they say to the fact 
 that in 1714, a mermaid was not only seen but captured 
 near the island of Booro ? " five feet Rhineland measure 
 " in height, which lived four days and seven hours, but 
 " refusing all food, died without leaving any intelligible 
 " account of herself." 
 
 Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mer- 
 maid, cites numerous other instances in which both 
 " sea-men and women" were seen and taken at Amboina; 
 especially one by an office-bearer in the Church of 
 Holland^, by whom it was surrendered to the Grovernor 
 Vanderstel. 
 
 Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an 
 elaborate engraving amongst those of the authentic fishes 
 of the island — together with a minute ichthyological 
 
 ^ Vaxentyn, Beschryving, ^c, Berne, 1669. 
 
 vol. iii. p. 331. 3 A " krank-bezoeker " or visit- 
 
 '^ Probably the Itinerarium In- ant of the sick. 
 dicum of Albkecht Hekpobt. 
 
 F 4 
 
72 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 description of each for the satisfaction of men of 
 science. 
 
 TEE MERMAID (.From VAiHNTTN), 
 
 The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the 
 British Minister in Holland wrote to Valentyn on the 
 28th December 1716, whilst the Emperor, Peter the 
 Great of Kussia, was his guest at Amsterdam ; to commu- 
 nicate the desire of the Czar, that the mermaid should be 
 brought home from Amboina for his Imperial inspection. 
 
 To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and 
 women, Valentyn points triumphantly to the historical 
 fact, that in Holland in the year 1404, a mermaid was 
 driven during a tempest, through a breach in the dyke 
 of Edam, and was taken alive in the lake of Purmer. 
 Thence she was carried to Harlem, where the Dutch 
 women taught her to spin ; and where, several years 
 after,'she died in the Roman Catholic faith; — "but this," 
 
Chap. I.] LIST OF CEYLOX MAMMALIA. 73 
 
 says the pious Calvinistic chaplain, " in no way militates 
 against the truth of her story." ^ 
 
 Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumu- 
 lated testimony of Pliny 2, Theodore Graza, Greorge of 
 Trebisond, and Alexander ab Alexandre, to show that 
 mermaids had in all ages been known in Graul, Naples, 
 Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of 
 more modern instances he comes to the conclusion, that 
 as there are " sea-cows," " sea-horses," and " sea-dogs ; " 
 as well as " sea-trees " and " sea- flowers " which he him- 
 self had seen, what grounds in reason are there to doubt 
 that there may also be " sea-maidens " and "sea-men !" 
 
 List of Ceylon Mammalicu 
 
 A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In 
 framing it, as well as the lists appended to the other chap- 
 ters on the Fauna of the island, the principal object in 
 view has been to exhibit the extent to which the Xatural 
 History of the island had been investigated, and collec- 
 tion.: made up to the period of my leaving the colony in 
 1850. It has been considered expedient to exclude a 
 few individuals which have not had the advantaofe of a 
 direct comparison with authentic specimens, either at 
 Calcutta or in England. This will account for the omis- 
 sion of a number that have appeared in other catalogues, 
 but of which many, though ascertained to exist, have not 
 been submitted to this rigorous process of identification. 
 
 The greater portion of the species of mammals and 
 birds contained in these lists will be found, with suitable 
 
 ' Valentyn, Beschryving, ^c, ^ Nat. Hist. 1. ix. c. 5, where 
 
 p. 333. Pliny speaks of the Nereids. 
 
74 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 references to the' most accurate descriptions, in the 
 admirable catalogue of the collection at the India 
 House, published under the care of the late Dr. Hors- 
 field. This work cannot be too highly extolled, not 
 alone for the scrupulous fidelity with which the descrip- 
 tion of each species is referred to its first discoverer, but 
 also for the pains which have been taken to elaborate 
 synonymes and to collate from local periodicals and 
 other sources, (little accessible to ordinary inquii-ers,) 
 such incidents and traits as are calculated to illustrate 
 characteristics and habits. 
 
 QUADEUMANA. 
 
 Presbytes 
 
 cephalopterus, Zimm. 
 
 ursinus, Blyth. 
 
 Priamus, Elliot S( Blyth. 
 
 Thersites, Blyth. 
 Macacus pileatus, Shaw ^■ 
 
 Destn. 
 Loris gracilis, Geoff. 
 
 CHEIROPTERA. 
 
 Pteropus Edwardsii, Geoff. 
 
 Leschenaultii, Hum. 
 Cynopterus 
 
 marginatus. Ham. 
 Megaderma spasma,Zmn. 
 
 lyra, Geoff. 
 Rhinolophus affinis, Horsf, 
 Hipposideros 
 
 muiinus, Elliot. 
 
 speoris, Elliot. 
 
 armiger, Hodgs. 
 
 vulgaris, Horsf. 
 Kerivoula picta, Pall. 
 Taphozous 
 
 longimanus, Har. 
 Scotophilus Coromandeli- 
 cus, F. Cuv. 
 
 adversus, Horsf. 
 
 Temminkii, Horsf. 
 
 Tickelli, Blyth. 
 
 Heathii. 
 
 CARNIVOEA. 
 
 Sorex ccerulescens, Shaw. 
 
 ferrugineus, Kelaart. 
 
 serpentarius, Is. Geoff. 
 
 montanus, Kelaart. 
 Feroculus macropus, Kel. 
 Ursus labiatus, Blainv. 
 Lutra nair, F. Cuv. 
 Canis aureus, Linn. 
 Viverra Indica, Geoff., Hod. 
 Herpestes vitticoUis, Benn. 
 
 griseus, Gtn. 
 
 Smithii, Gray. 
 
 fulvescens, Kelaart. 
 Paradoxurus typus, F. 
 Cuv. 
 
 Ceylonicus, Pall. 
 Felis pardus, Linn. 
 
 chaus, Guldens. 
 
 viverrinus, Benn. 
 
 RODENTIA, 
 
 Sciurus macrurus, Forst. 
 
 Tennentii, Layard. 
 
 penicillatus, Leach. 
 
 trilineatus, Waterh. 
 Sciuropterus Layardi, Kel. 
 Pteromys petaurista, Pall. 
 Mus bandicota, Btchst. 
 
 Kok, Gray. 
 
 Mus rufescens, Gray. 
 
 nemoralis, Blyth. 
 
 Indicus, Geoff 
 
 fulvidiventris, Blyth. 
 Nesoki Hardwickii, Gray. 
 Golunda Neuera, Kelaart. 
 
 Ellioti, Gray. 
 Gerbillus Indicus, Hardw. 
 Lepus nigricoUis, F. Cuv. 
 Hystrix leucurus, Sykes. 
 
 EDENTATA. 
 Manis pentadactyla, Linn. 
 
 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 Elephas Sumatranus, Linn. 
 Sus Indicus, Gray. 
 Zeylonicus, Blyth. 
 
 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 Moschus meminna, Erxl. 
 Stylocerus muntjac, Horsf. 
 Axis maculata, H. Smith. 
 Rusa Aristotelis, Cuv. 
 
 CETACEA. 
 Halicore dugung, F. Cuv. 
 
CHAP. II. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Structure and Functions. 
 
 During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the oppor- 
 tunity of w-itnessing the operation on a grand scale, of 
 capturing wild elephants, intended to be trained for the 
 public service in the establishment of the Civil Engineer ; 
 — and in the course of my frequent journeys through 
 the interior of the island, I succeeded in collecting so 
 many facts relative to the habits of these interesting 
 animals in a state of nature, as enable me not only 
 to add to the information previously possessed, but 
 to correct many fallacies po23ularly received regardino- 
 their instincts and disposition. These particulars I am 
 anxious to place on record before proceeding to describe 
 the scenes of which I was a spectator, during the pro- 
 gress of the elephant hunts in the district of the Seven 
 Korles, at w^hich I was present in 1846, and again in 
 1847. 
 
 With the exception of the narrow but densely inha- 
 bited belt of cultivated land, that extends alon^ the 
 seaborde of the island from Chilaw on the western coast 
 to Tangalle on the south-east, there is no part of Ceylon 
 
76 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 in which elephants may not be said to abound; even 
 close to the environs of the most populous localities of 
 the interior. They frequent both the open plains and 
 the deep forests; and their footsteps are to be seen 
 wherever food and shade, vegetation and water ^, allure 
 
 ^ M. Ad. Pictet has availed 
 himself of the love of the elephant 
 for -water, to found on it a solution 
 of the long-contested question as 
 to the etymology of the word 
 " elephant," — a term which, whilst 
 it has passed into almost every dia- 
 lect of the West, is scarcely to be 
 traced in any language of Asia. 
 The Grreek i\4<pas, to which we are 
 immediately indebted for it, did not 
 originally mean the animal, but, as 
 early as the time of Homer, was 
 applied only to its tusks, and sig- 
 nified ivory. BocHART has sought 
 for a Semitic origin, and seizing on 
 the Arabic Jil, and prefixing the 
 article «/, suggests a/Ji/, akin to 
 4\€(p ; but rejecting this, Bochart 
 himself resorts to the Hebrew ekpk, 
 an " ox" — and this conjecture de- 
 rives a certain degree of counte- 
 nance from the fact that the Ro- 
 mans, when they obtained their first 
 sight of the elephant in the army 
 of Pyrrhus, in Lucania, called it 
 the Ltcca bos. But the avros is 
 still unaccounted for ; and Pott 
 has sought to remove the difficulty 
 by introducing the Arabic hindi, 
 Indian, thus making eleph-hindi, 
 " bos Indicus." The conversion of 
 hindi into apTos is an obstacle, but 
 here the example of "tamarind" 
 comes to aid; taraar hindi, the 
 " Indian date," which in mediaeval 
 Greek forms rafxapevTi. A theory 
 of Benar\% that i\€(t>a5 might be 
 compounded of the Arabic al, and 
 ibha, a Sanskrit name for the ele- 
 phant, is exposed to still greater 
 etymological exception. Pictet' s 
 solution is, that in the Sanskrit 
 
 epics "the King of Elephants," who 
 has the distinction of carrying the 
 god Indra, is called airavata or 
 airavana, a modification of aira- 
 vanta, "son of the ocean," which 
 again comes from iravat, "abound- 
 ing in water." " Nous aurions 
 done ainsi, comme correlatif du 
 grec 4\e(pavTo, une aneienne forme. 
 diravanta ou dilavanta, affaiblie 
 plus tard en airavata ou dirdvana. 
 .... On connait la predilection 
 de r elephant pour le voisinage des 
 fleuves, et son amour pour I'eau, 
 dont I'abondanee est necessaire a 
 son bien-etre." This Sanskrit 
 name, Pictet supposes, may have 
 been carried to the West by the 
 Phcenieians, who were the pur- 
 veyors of ivory from India ; and, 
 from the Greek, the Latins derived 
 elephas, which passed into the 
 modern languages of Italy, Ger- 
 many, and France. But it is curi- 
 ous that the Spaniards acquired 
 from the Moors their Arabic term 
 for ivory, mar jil, and the Portu- 
 guese marfim ; and that the Scan- 
 dinavians, probably from their 
 early expeditions to the Mediterra- 
 nean, adopted J?// as their name for 
 the elephant itself, and fil-bein for 
 ivory; in Danish, fils-ben. (See 
 Journ. Asiat. 1843, t. xliii. p. 133.) 
 The Spaniards of South America 
 call the palm which produces the 
 vegetable ivory {Phytelephas nia- 
 crocarpa) Talma de mar jil, and the 
 nut itself, mar jil vegetal. 
 
 Since the above was written 
 Gooneratn6 Modliar, the Singhalese 
 Interpreter to the Supreme Court 
 at Colombo, has supplied me with 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPHANT. 77 
 
 them, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains, 
 and on the borders of the tanks and lowland streams. 
 
 From time immemorial the natives have been taught 
 to capture and tame them, and the export of elephants 
 from Ceylon to India has been going on without inter- 
 ruption from the period of the first Punic War.^ In later 
 times all elephants were the property of the Kandyan 
 cro^vn ; and their capture or slaughter without the royal 
 permission was classed amongst the gi'avest offences in 
 the criminal code. 
 
 In recent years there is reason to believe that their 
 numbers have become considerably reduced. They have 
 entirely disappeared from localities in which they were 
 formerly numerous^ ; smaller herds have been taken in 
 the periodical captures for the government service, and 
 hunters returning from the chase report them to be 
 growing scarce. In consequence of this diminution the 
 peasantry in some parts of the island have even suspended 
 the ancient practice of keeping watchers and fires by 
 night to drive away the elephants from their growing 
 crops.^ The opening of roads and the clearing of the 
 mountain forests of Kandy for the cultivation of coffee, 
 
 another conjecture, that the word ^'c, torn. ii. ch. Ixiii. p. 331.) 
 
 elephant may possibly be traced to ^ In some parts of Bengal, where 
 
 the Singhalese name of the animal, elephants were formerly trouble- 
 
 alia, which means literally, " the some (especially near the wilds of 
 
 huge one." Alia, he adds, is not a Eamgur), the natives got rid of 
 
 derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, them by mixing a preparation of 
 
 but belongs to a dialect more ancient the poisonous Nepal root caUed 
 
 than either. dakra in balls of grain, and other 
 
 ' ^LiAN, de Nat. Anirn. lib. xvi. materials, of which the animal is 
 
 c. 18 ; CosMAS IxDicoPL. p. 128. fond. In Cuttack, above fifty 
 
 - Le Beun, who visited Ceylon years ago, mineral poison was laid 
 
 A. D. 1705, says that in the district for them in the same way, and the 
 
 round Colombo, where elephants carcases of eighty were found which 
 
 are now never seen, they were then had been killed by it. (Asiat. Res., 
 
 so abundant, that 160 had been xv. 183.) 
 taken in a single corral. ( Voyage, 
 
78 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 have forced the animals to retire to the low country, 
 where again they have been followed by large parties of 
 European sportsmen ; and the Singhalese themselves, be- 
 ing more freely provided with arms than in former times, 
 have assisted in swelling the annual slaughter.^ 
 
 Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the 
 elephant in Africa and India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, 
 had the elephants there been provided with tusks, they 
 would lono* since have been annihilated for the sake of 
 their ivory.^ But it is a curious fact that, whilst in 
 Africa and India both sexes have tusks^, with some 
 slight disproportion in the size of those of the females ; 
 not one elephant in a hundred is found with tusks in 
 Ceylon, and the few that possess them are exclusively 
 males. Nearly all, however, have those stunted pro- 
 cesses called tushes, about ten or twelve inches in 
 length and one or two in diameter. These I have ob- 
 served them to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark, 
 and snapping asunder small branches and climbing 
 
 * The number of elephants has its way to China and to other 
 
 been similarly reduced throughout places, but because the chiefs and 
 
 the south of India, Buddhist priests have a passion for 
 
 2 The annual importation of collecting tusks, and the finest and 
 
 ivory into Great Britain alone, for largest are to be found ornament- 
 
 the last few years, has been about ing their temples and private 
 
 one million pounds ; which, taking dwellings. The Chinese profess 
 
 the average weight of a tusk at that for their exquisite carvings the 
 
 sixty pounds, would require the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, 
 
 slaughter of 8,333 male elephants. both in density of texture and in 
 
 But of this quantity the impor- delicacy of tint ; but in the Eu- 
 
 tation from Ceylon has generally ropeau market, the ivory of Africa, 
 
 averaged only five or six hundred from its more distinct graining 
 
 weight ; which, making allowance and other causes, obtains a higher 
 
 for the lightness of the tusks, would price. 
 
 not involve the destruction of more ^ A writer in the India Sporting 
 
 than seven or eight in each year. Beview for October 1857 says, " In 
 
 At the same time, this does not Malabar a tuskless male elephant 
 
 fairly represent the annual number is rare ; I have seen but two." — p. 
 
 of tuskers shot in Ceylon, not only 157. 
 because a portion of the ivory finds 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPH.\]S"T. 79 
 
 plants; and hence tushes are seldom seen without a 
 groove worn into them near their extremities.^ 
 
 Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, 
 the general absence of tusks in the elephant of Ceylon 
 has been associated with the profusion of rivers and 
 streams in the island ; whilst it has been thrown out as 
 a possibility that in Africa, where water is comparatively 
 scarce, the animal is equipped with these implements in 
 order to assist it in digging wells in the sand and in 
 raising the juicy roots of the mimosas and succulent 
 plants for the sake of their moisture. In support of this 
 hypothesis, it has been observed, that whilst the tusks 
 of the Ceylon species, which are never required for such 
 uses, are slender^ graceful and curved, seldom ex- 
 ceeding fifty or sixty pounds' weight, those of the 
 African elephant are straight and thick, weighing occa- 
 sionally one hundred and fifty, and even three hundred 
 pounds.^ 
 
 ^ The old fallacy is still renewed, and become the "permanent tusks," 
 
 that the elephant sheds his tusks, which are never shed. 
 
 ^LiAN says he drops them once in ^ Notwithstanding the inferiority 
 
 ten years (lib. xiv. c. 5); and Pliny in weight of the Ceylon tusks, as 
 
 repeats the story, adding that, compared with those of the ele- 
 
 when dropped, the elephants hide phaut of India, it would, I think, 
 
 them under ground (lib. viii.) be precipitate to draw the inference 
 
 whence Shaw says, in his Zoology, that the size of the former was 
 
 " they are frequently found in the tmifonnly and naturally less than 
 
 woods," and exported from Africa that of the latter. The truth, I 
 
 (vol. i. p. 213); and Sir W. Jab- believe to be, that if permitted to 
 
 DEsnE in the Naturalisf s Library grow to maturity, the tusks of the 
 
 (vol, ix. p, 110), says, "the tusks one would, in all probability, equal 
 
 are shed about the twelfth or thir- those of the other ; but, so eager 
 
 teenth year." This is erroneous : is the search for ivory in Ceylon, 
 
 after losing the first pair, or, as that a tusker, when once observed 
 
 they are called, the " milk tusks," in a herd, is followed up with such 
 
 which drop in consequence of the vigilant impatience, that he is al- 
 
 absorption of their roots, when the most invariably shot before attain- 
 
 animal is extremely young, the ing his full growth. Greneral De 
 
 second pair acquire'their fuU size, Lima, when returning from the 
 
80 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks 
 were given to the elephant to assist him in digging for 
 his food, to find that the females are less bountifully 
 supplied with them than the males, whilst the necessity 
 for their use extends equally to both sexes. The same 
 argument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of the con- 
 jecture, that the tusks of the elephant were given to 
 him as weapons of offence, for if such were the case the 
 vast majority in Ceylon, males as well as females, would 
 be left helpless in presence of an assailant. But although 
 in their conflicts with one another, those which are pro- 
 vided with tusks may occasionally push with them 
 clumsily at their opponents ; it is a misapprehension to 
 imagine that tusks are designed specially to serve " in 
 warding off the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious 
 rhinoceros, often securing the victory by one blow which 
 transfixes the assailant to the earth." ^ 
 
 goyernorship of the Portuguese set- logical Becreations, p. 255, says a 
 tlements at Mozambique, told me, tusk of 350 pounds' weight was 
 in 1848, that he had been requested sold at Amsterdam, but he does 
 to procure two tusks of the largest not quote his authority, 
 size, and straightest possible shape, * Menageries, ^r., published by 
 which were to be formed into a the Society for the Diffusion of 
 cross to surmount the high altar of Useful Knowledge, vol. i. p. 68 : 
 the cathedral at Groa : he succeeded "The Elephant," eh. iii. It will 
 in his commission, and sent two, be seen that I have quoted re- 
 one of which was 180 pounds, and peatedly from this volume, because 
 the other 170 pounds' weight, with it is the most compendious and 
 the slightest possible curve. In a careful compilation with which I 
 periodical, entitled The Friend, am acquainted of the information 
 published in Ceylon, it is stated in previously existing regarding the 
 the volume for 1837 that the officers elephant. The author incorporates 
 belonging to the ships Quorrah and no speculations of his own, but has 
 Alburhak, engaged in the Niger most diligently and agreeably ar- 
 Expedition, were shown by a na- ranged aU the facts collected by 
 tive king two tusks, each two feet his predecessors. The story of 
 and a half in circumference at the antipathy between the elephant 
 base, eight feet long, and weighing and rhinoceros is probably borrowed 
 upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. i. from .^lian de Nat, lib. xvii. c. 
 p. 225.) Beodebip, in his Zoo- 44. 
 
. Z. p. iviL^ \ CALF 
 
 Chap. H.] THE ELEPHAXT. 81 
 
 So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, 
 that nature appears to have left it unprovided with any 
 weapon of offence : its trunk is too delicate an organ to 
 be rudely employed in a conflict with other animals, 
 and although on an emergency it may push or gore with 
 its tusks (to which the French have hastily given the 
 term " defenses "), their almost vertical position, 
 added to the difficulty of raising its head above the level 
 of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of their 
 being designed for attack, since it is impossible for the 
 elephant to strike an effectual blow, or to " wield " its 
 tusks as the deer and the buffalo can direct their horns. 
 Nor is it easy to conceive under what circumstances an 
 elephant could have a hostile encounter with either a 
 rhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state of 
 nature its own can in no way conflict. 
 
 Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from 
 their love of solitude and dislike of intrusion; any 
 alarm they exhibit at his appearance may be reasonably 
 traced to the slaughter which has reduced their num- 
 bers ; and as some evidence of this, it has always been 
 observed that an elephant exhibits greater impatience 
 of the presence of a white man than of a native. Were 
 its instincts to carry it further, or were it influenced by 
 any feeling of animosity or cruelty, it must be apparent 
 that, as against the prodigious numbers that inhabit 
 the forests of Ceylon, man would wage an unequal con- 
 test, and that of the two one or other must long since 
 have been reduced to a helpless minority. 
 
 Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of 
 this view ; — in the returns of 108 coroners' inquests in 
 Ceylon, during five years, from 1849 to 1855 inclusive, 
 held in cases of death occasioned by wild animals; 16 
 
 a 
 
82 MAM:MALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 are recorded as having been caused by elephants, 15 by 
 buffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars, 1 by a bear, and 
 68 by serpents (the great majority of the last class of 
 sufferers being women and children, who had been 
 bitten during the night). Little more than three fatal 
 accidents occurring annually on the average of five years, 
 is certainly a very small proportion in a population 
 estimated at a million and a half, in an island abounding 
 with elephants, with which, independently of casual 
 encounters, voluntary conflicts are daily stimulated by 
 the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the ele- 
 phants instinctively vicious or even highly irritable in 
 their temperament, the destruction of human life under 
 the circumstances must have been infinitely greater. It 
 must also be taken into account, that some of the 
 accidents recorded may have occurred in the rutting 
 season, when elephants are subject to fits of temporary 
 fury, known in India by the term rnust, in Ceylon 
 TYiudda, — a paroxysm which speedily passes away, but 
 during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the 
 mahout to approach those ordinarily the gentlest and 
 most familiar. 
 
 But, then, the elephant is said to "entertain an 
 extraordinary dislike to all quadrupeds; that dogs 
 running near him produce annoyance ; that he is alarmed 
 if a hare start from her form;" and from Pliny to 
 Buffon every naturalist has recorded its supposed aversion 
 to swine. ^ These alleged antipathies are in a great 
 degree, if not entirely, imaginary. The habits of the 
 elephant are essentially harmless, its wants lead to no 
 rivalry with other animals, and the food to which it is 
 
 * Menageries, ^r., " The Elepliant," ch. iii. 
 

 Chap, n.] THE ELEPHANT. 83 
 
 most attached flourishes in such abundance that it is 
 obtained without an efifort. In the quiet solitudes of 
 Ceylon, elephants may constantly be seen browsing 
 peacefully in the immediate vicinity of other animals, 
 and in close contact with them. I have seen groups of 
 deer and wild buffaloes reclining in the sandy bed of a 
 river in the dry season, and elephants plucking the 
 branches close beside them. They show no impatience 
 in the company of the elk, the bear, and the mid hog ; 
 and on the other hand, I have never discovered an 
 instance in which these animals have evinced any 
 apprehension of elephants. The elephant's natural 
 timidity, however, is such that it becomes alarmed on 
 the appearance in the jungle of any animal with which 
 it is not familiar. It is said to be afraid of the horse ; 
 but from my own experience, I should say it is the horse 
 that is alarmed at the aspect of the elephant. In the 
 same way, from some unaccountable impulse, the horse 
 has an antipathy to the camel, and evinces extreme 
 impatience, both of the sight and the smell of that animal.* 
 WTien enraged, an elephant will not hesitate to charge 
 a rider on horseback ; but it is against the man, not 
 against the horse, that his fury is directed; and no 
 instance has been ever known of his wantonly assail- 
 ing a horse. A horse, belonging to the late Major 
 
 ' This peculiarity was noticed by it is necessary to train and accustom 
 
 the ancients, and is recorded by to their presence in order to avoid 
 
 Herodotus: ^^ KdfiriXov 'l-mros (po§4- accidents. ]Mr. Begderip mentions, 
 
 €Tat, /col ovK dpex^Tai ovre t)]v I5er]u that, "when the precaution of such 
 
 avTTJs opeuu ovt€ tV od/xr^u ocrrppai- training has not been adopted, the 
 
 v6fj.€vos " (Herod, ch. 80). Camels sudden and dangerous terror with 
 
 have long been bred by the Grand which a horse is seized in coming 
 
 Duke of Tuscany, at his establish- unexpectedly upon one of them is 
 
 ment near Pisa, and even there excessive." — Note-hook of a Nattc- 
 
 the same instinctive dislike to them ralist, ch. iv. p. 113. 
 is manifested by the horse, which 
 
 G 2 
 
84 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 Kogers^, had run away from his groom, and was found 
 some considerable time afterwards grazing quietly with 
 a herd of elephants. In De Bry's splendid collection 
 of travels, however, there is included " The voyage of a 
 Certain Englishman to Gambay ; " in which the author 
 asserts that at Agra, in the year 1607, he was present at 
 a spectacle given by the Viceregent of the great Mogul, 
 in the course of which he saw an elephant destroy two 
 horses, by seizing them in its trunk,_ and crushing them 
 under foot.^ But the display was avowedly an artificial 
 one, and the creature must have been cruelly tutored for 
 the occasion. 
 
 Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the 
 stables of the tame elephants, which manifest no re- 
 pugnance to them. As to the smaller animals, the 
 elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the presence 
 of a dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its 
 impatience of a horse, namely, that neither is habitually 
 seen by it in the forest ; but it would be idle to suppose 
 that this feeling could amount to hostility against a 
 creature incapable of inflicting on it the slightest injury.^ 
 The truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, the 
 impudence and impertinences of the dog are offensive to 
 
 * Major EoGERS was many years Navigatio. De Bry, Coll., ^c, vol. 
 
 the chief civil officer of Grovernment iii. ch. xvi. p. 31. 
 
 in the district of Oovah, where he ^ To account for the impatience 
 
 was killed by lightning, 1845. manifested by the elephant at the 
 
 2 " Quidam etiam cum eqiiis sil- presence of a dog, it has been sng- 
 
 vestribus pugnant. Saepe unus ele- gested that he is alarmed lest the 
 
 phas cum sex equis committitur ; latter should attack his feet, a por- 
 
 atque ipse adeo interfui cum unus tion of his body of which the ele- 
 
 elephas duos equos cum primo phant is peculiarly careful. A 
 
 impetu protinus prosternerit ; — tame elephant has been observed 
 
 injecta enim jugulis ipsorum longa to regard with indifference a spear 
 
 proboscide, ad se protractos, denti- directed towards his head, but to 
 
 bus porro comminuit ac protrivit." shrink timidly from the same wea- 
 
 Aiigli Cujusdam in Camhayam pon when pointed at his foot. 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPHANT. 85 
 
 the gravity of the elephant, and incompatible with his 
 love of solitude and ease. Or may it be assumed as an 
 evidence of the sagacity of the elephant, that the only 
 two animals to which it manifests an antipathy, are the 
 two which it has seen only in the company of its enemy, 
 man ? One instance has certainly been attested to me 
 by an eye-witness, in which the trunk of an elephant 
 was seized in the teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such was 
 the alarm of the huge creature that it came at once to 
 its knees. The dog repeated the attack, and on every 
 renewal of it the elephant retreated in terror, holding 
 its trunk above its head, and kicking at the terrier 
 with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, 
 but for the interference of its keeper. 
 
 Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in 
 Ceylon, whose official duties in constructing highways 
 involved the necessity of his being in the jungle for 
 months together, always found that, by night or by day, 
 the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was suffi- 
 cient to put a herd to flight. On the whole, therefore, 
 I am of opinion that the elephant lives on terms of 
 amity with every quadruped in the forest, that it neither 
 regards them as its foes, nor provokes their hostility by 
 its acts ; and that, with the exception of man, its greatest 
 enemy is a fly ! 
 
 The current statements as to the supposed animosity 
 of the elephant to minor animals originated with ^lian 
 and Pliny, who had probably an opportunity of seeing, 
 what may at any time be observed, that when a captive 
 elephant is picketed beside a post, the domestic animals, 
 goats, sheep, and cattle, will annoy and irritate him by 
 their audacity in making free with his provender; but 
 this is an evidence in itself of the little instinctive dread 
 
 G 3 
 
86 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 which such comparatively puny creatures entertain of 
 one so powerful and yet so gentle. 
 
 Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other 
 causes of irritation frequently occasion contentions 
 between individuals of the same herd ; but on such oc- 
 casions it is their habit to strike with their trunks, and 
 to bear down their opponents with their heads. It is 
 doubtless correct that an elephant, when prostrated by 
 the force and fury of an antagonist of its own species, is 
 often woimded by the downward pressure of the tusks, 
 which in any other position it would be almost impos- 
 sible to use offensively.^ 
 
 Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil 
 officer of Grovernment at Badulla, sent me a jagged 
 fragment of an elephant's tusk, about five inches in 
 diameter, and weighing between twenty and thirty 
 pounds, which had been brought to him by some natives, 
 who, being attracted by a noise in the jungle, witnessed 
 a combat between a tusker and one without tusks, and 
 saw the latter with his trunk seize one of the tusks of 
 his antagonist and wrench from it the portion in ques- 
 tion, which measured two feet in length. 
 
 Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful 
 offensive weapon of the two ; but I apprehend that the 
 chief reliance of the elephant for defence is on its pon- 
 derous weight, the pressure of its foot being sufficient 
 to crush any minor assailant after being prostrated by 
 means of its trunk. Besides, in using its feet for this 
 purpose, it derives a wonderful facility from the peculiar 
 formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg, which, en- 
 
 ^ A writer in the India S])orting there was a large hole in the side, 
 Beview for October 1857 says a and the abdomen was ripped open, 
 male elephant was killed by two The latter wound was given pro- 
 others close to his camp: "the bably after it had fallen." — P. 
 bead waa completely smashed in; 175. 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPHANT. ' s7 
 
 abling it to swing the hind feet forward close to the 
 ground, assists it to toss the body alternately from foot 
 to foot, till deprived of life.^ 
 
 A sportsman who had partially undergone this opera- 
 tion, having been seized by a wounded elephant but 
 rescued from its fury, described to me his sufferings as 
 he was thus flung back and forward between the hind 
 and fore feet of the animal, which ineffectually at- 
 tempted to trample him at each concussion, and aban- 
 doned him without inflicting serious injury. 
 
 Knox, in describing the execution of criminals by the 
 state elephants of the former kings of Kandy, says, "they 
 will rim their teeth (tusks) through the body, and then tear 
 it in pieces and throw it limb from limb ; " but a Kandyan 
 chief, who was mtness to such scenes, has assured 
 me that the elephant never once applied its tusks, 
 but, placing its foot on the prostrate victim, plucked 
 off his limbs in succession by a sudden movement of 
 the trunk. If the tusks were designed to be employed 
 offensively, some alertness would naturally be exhibited 
 in using them ; but in numerous instances where sports- 
 men have fallen into the power of a wounded elephant, 
 they have escaped through the failure of the enraged 
 animal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched 
 upon the ground.^ 
 
 * In the Third Book of Macca- (irifi^peiv 6is adrju eV yovaai Kot iroal 
 
 bees, which is not printed in our ^-npiwu T]Ki(Tfx.evovs. 3 Mac. v. 42). 
 
 Apocrypha, but appears in the se- JElian makes the remark, that 
 
 ries in the Greek Septuagint, the elej^hants on such occasions use 
 
 author, in describing the persecu- their knees as well as their feet to 
 
 tion of the Jews by Ptolemy Phi- crush their victims. — Hist Anim. 
 
 lopater, b.c. 210, states that the yiii. 10. 
 
 king swore vehemently that he ^ ^he Hastisilpe, a Singhalese 
 
 woiild send them into the other work which treats of the " Science 
 
 world, "foully trampled to death of Elephants," enumerates amongst 
 
 by the knees and feet of elephants " those which it is not desirable to 
 
 G 4 
 
88 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 Placed as tlie elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of 
 the most luxuriant profusion of its favourite food, in 
 close proximity at all times to abundant supplies of water, 
 and vdth. no enemies against whom to protect itself, it 
 is difficult to conjecture any probable utility which it 
 could derive from such appendages. Their absence is 
 unaccompanied by any inconvenience to the individuals 
 in whom they are wanting ; and as regards the few who 
 possess them, the only operations in which I am aware 
 of their tusks being employed in relation to the oeconomy 
 of the animal, is to assist in ripping open the stem of 
 the jaggery palms and young palmyras to extract the 
 farinaceous core ; and in splitting the juicy shaft of the 
 plantain. WTiilst the tuskless elephant crushes the lat- 
 ter under foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its mois- 
 ture ; the other, by opening it with the point of his tusk, 
 performs the operation with delicacy and apparent ease. 
 
 These, however, are trivial and almost accidental ad- 
 vantages : on the other hand, owing to irregularities in 
 their growth, the tusks are sometimes an impediment in 
 feeding^ ; and in more than one instance in the Grovem- 
 ment studs, tusks which had so grown as to approach 
 and cross one another at the extremities, have had to be 
 removed by the saw ; the contraction of space between 
 them so impeding the free action of the trunk as to pre- 
 vent the animal from conveying branches to its mouth.^ 
 
 possess, "fhe elephant which will as before. In the Museum of the 
 
 fight with a stone or a stick in his College of Surgeons, London, there 
 
 trunk." is a specimen, No. 2757, of a spira 
 
 ' Among other eccentric forms, an tusk, 
 elephant was seen in 1844, in the ^ Since the foregoing remarks 
 
 district of Bintenne, near Friar's- were written relative to the unde- 
 
 Hood Mountain, one of whose tusks fined use of tusks to the elephant, 
 
 was so bent that it took what I have seen a speculation on thf 
 
 sailors term a "round turn," and same subject in Dr. Holland's 
 
 then resumed its curved direction " Constitution of the Animal Crea- 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPHANT. 89 
 
 It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of 
 training, the elephant discovers a new use for its tusks 
 when employed in moving stones and piling timber ; so 
 much so that a powerful one will raise and carry on them 
 a log of half a ton weight or more. One evening, whilst 
 riding in the vicinity of Kandy, towards the scene of the 
 massacre of Major Davie's party in 1803, my horse 
 evinced some excitement at a noise which approached 
 us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a repeti- 
 tion of the ejaculation unnph! urviph! in a hoarse and 
 dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the 
 mystery, by bringing me face to face with a tame 
 elephant, unaccompanied by any attendant. He was 
 labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber, 
 which he balanced across his tusks, but the pathway 
 being narrow, he was forced to bend his head to one side 
 to permit it to pass endways ; and the exertion and this 
 inconvenience combined led him to utter the dissatisfied 
 sounds which distm-bed the composure of my horse. On 
 seeing us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred 
 us for a moment, then flung down the timber, and volun- 
 tarily forced himself backwards among the brushwood so 
 as to leave a passage, of which he expected us to avail 
 
 Hon, as expressed in structural marvellous motive powers inherent 
 
 Appendages;'^ but the conjecture to it ; his conjecture is, that they 
 
 of the author leaves the problem are " a species of safety valve 
 
 scarcely less obscure than before, of the animal oeconomy," — and that 
 
 Struck with the mere supplemental " they owe their development to 
 
 presence of the tusks, the absence the predominance of the senses of 
 
 of aU apparent use serving to dis- touch and smell, conjointly with 
 
 tinguish them from the essential the muscular motions of which the 
 
 organs of the creature, Dr. Hol- exercise of these is accompanied." 
 
 LAND concludes that their produc- " Had there been no proboscis," he 
 
 tion is a process incident, but not thinks, " there would have been no 
 
 ancillary, to other important ends, supplementary appendages, — the 
 
 especially connected with the vital former creates the latter." — Pp. 
 
 functions of the trunk and the 246, 271. 
 
^0 MAMMALIA. [Chap. U. 
 
 ourselves. My horse hesitated: the elephant observed 
 it, and impatiently thrust himself deeper into the jungle, 
 repeating his cry of urmph ! but in a voice evidently 
 meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse trem- . 
 bled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the two 
 sagacious animals, I forbore any interference : again the 
 elephant of his own accord wedged himself further in 
 amongst the trees, and manifested some impatience that 
 we did not pass him. At length the horse moved forward ; 
 and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature 
 stoop and take up its heavy burthen, trim and balance 
 it on its tusks, and resume its route as before, hoarsely 
 snorting its discontented remonstrance. 
 
 Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, 
 with the exception of the striking peculiarity of the 
 infrequency of tusks in the latter, the distinctions are 
 less apparent to a casual observer than to a scientific 
 naturalist. In the Ceylon species the forehead is higher 
 and more hollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a section 
 of the teeth, the grinding ridges, instead of being 
 lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars of uniform breadth. 
 
 The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four 
 nails on the hind foot, the African variety having 
 only three : but amongst the perfections of a high-bred 
 elephant of Ceylon, is always enumerated the possession 
 of twenty nails, whilst those of a secondary class have 
 but eighteen in all.^ 
 
 So conversant are the natives with the structure and 
 " points " of the elephant, that they divide them readily 
 into castes, and describe with particularity their dis- 
 tinctive excellences and defects. In the Hastisilpe, a 
 
 * See Chapter on Mammalia, p. 60. 
 
Chap. II.] THE ELEPHANT. 91 
 
 Singhalese work which treats of their management, the 
 marks of inferior breeding are said to be " eyes restless 
 like those of a crow, the hair of the head of mixed 
 shades ; the face wrinkled ; the tongne curved and 
 black ; the nails short and green ; the ears small ; the 
 neck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, 
 and the fore-quarter lean and low: " whilst the perfec- 
 tion of form and beauty is supposed to consist in the 
 '* softness of the skin, the red colour of the mouth and 
 tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow, the ears broad 
 and rectangular, the trunk broad at the root and 
 blotched with pink in front ; the eyes bright and kindly, 
 the cheeks large, the neck full, the back level, the chest 
 square, the fore legs short and convex in front, the hiud 
 quarter plump, and five nails on each foot, all smooth, 
 polished, and round. ^ An elephant with these perfec- 
 tions," says the author of the Hastisilpe, " will impart 
 glory and magnificence to the king ; but he cannot be 
 discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shall never be 
 found an elephant clothed at once with all the excel- 
 lences herein described." The " points " of an elephant 
 are to be studied with the greatest advantage in those 
 attached to the temples, which are always of the 
 highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect breeding. 
 
 The colour of the animal's skin in a state of natiu*e is 
 generally of a lighter brown than that of those in cap- 
 tivity ; a distinction which arises, in all probability, not 
 so much from the wild animal's propensity to cover itself 
 with mud and dust, as from the superior care which is 
 taken in repeatedly bathing the tame ones, and in rub- 
 
 ' A native of rank informed me, pliant will sometimes touch the 
 that " the tail of a high-caste ele- ground, but such are very rare." 
 
92 MAMMALIA. [Chap. II. 
 
 bing their skins with a soft stone, a lump of burnt clay, 
 or the coarse husk of a coco-nut. This kind of at- 
 tention, together with the occasional application of oil, 
 gives rise to the deeper black which the hides of the 
 latter present. 
 
 Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular 
 preference is evinced for elephants that exhibit those 
 flesh-coloured blotches which occasionally mottle the skin 
 of an elephant, chiefly about the head and extremities. 
 The front of the trunk, the tips of the ears, the forehead, 
 and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified with stains 
 of a yellowish tint, inclining to piuk. These are not 
 natural; nor are they hereditary, for they are seldom 
 exhibited by the younger individuals in a herd, but ap- 
 pear to be the result of some eruptive affection, the irri- 
 tation of which has induced the animal in its uneasiness 
 to rub itself against the rough bark of trees, and thus to 
 destroy the outer cuticle.^ 
 
 To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the 
 taste that leads the natives to admire them is probably 
 akin to the feeling that has at all times rendered a white 
 elephant an object of wonder to Asiatics. The rarity 
 of the latter is accounted for by regarding this peculiar 
 appearance as the result of albinism ; and notwithstand- 
 ing the exaggeration of Oriental historians, who compare 
 the fairness of such creatures to the whiteness of snow, 
 even in its utmost perfection, I apprehend that the tint 
 of a white elephant is little else than a flesh-colour, 
 rendered somewhat more conspicuous by the blanching 
 of the skin, and the lightness of the colourless hairs by 
 
 ^ This is confirmed by the fact of those which have been captured 
 that the scar of the ancle wound, by noosing, presents precisely the 
 occasioned by the rope on the legs same tint in the healed parts. 
 
Chap. H.] THE ELEPHANT. 93 
 
 which it is sparsely covered. A white elephant is men- 
 tioned in the Mahawanso as forming part of the retinue 
 attached to the "Temple of the Tooth" at Anarajapoora, 
 in the fifth century after Christ ^ ; but it commanded no 
 religious veneration, and like those in the stud of the 
 kings of Siam, it was tended merely as an emblem of 
 royalty ^ ; the sovereign of Ceylon being addressed as the 
 "Lord of Elephants."^ In 1633 a white elephant was 
 exhibited in Holland ^ ; but as this was some years before 
 the Dutch had established themselves firmly in Ceylon, 
 it was probably brought from some other of their eastern 
 possessions. 
 
 * Mahawanso, eh. xxxviii. p. phants." — Asiat. Ses. xv. 253. 
 254, A.D. 433. * Aemandi, Hist. MiUt. cles Ele- 
 
 * Paxlegoes, Siam, ^~c., toI. i. p. phants, lib. ii. c. x. p. 380. Hoeace 
 152. mentions a white elephant as hav- 
 
 ' Mahatvanso, ch. xviii. p. 111. ing been exhibited at Eome :" Siva 
 
 The Hindu sovereigns of Orissa, elephas albns Tulgi converteret 
 
 in the middle ages, bore the style era." — Hoe. Ep, n. 196. 
 of Gaja-pati, "powerful in ele- 
 
94 
 
 MA^IMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Habits when Wild. 
 
 Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, 
 it is a mistake to suppose that tlie elephant is partial 
 either to heat or to light. In Ceylon, the mountain tops, 
 and not the sultry valleys, are its favourite resort. In 
 Oovah, where the elevated plains are often crisp with 
 the morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at the 
 height of upwards of eight thousand feet, they are 
 found in herds, whilst the hunter may search for them 
 without success in the hot jungles of the low country. 
 No altitude, in fact, seems too lofty or too chill for the 
 elephant, provided it affords the luxury of water in 
 abundance ; and, contrary to the general opinion that 
 the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems at all times 
 impatient of glare, and spends the day in the thickest 
 depth of the forests, devoting the night to excursions, 
 and to the luxury of the bath, in which it also indulges 
 occasionally by day. This partiality for shade is doubt- 
 less ascribable to the animal's love of coolness and soli- 
 tude ; but it is not altogether unconnected with the 
 position of the eye, and the circumscribed use which its 
 peculiar mode of life permits it to make of the faculty 
 of sight. 
 
Chap, ni.] 
 
 THE ELEPHA]S"T. 
 
 95 
 
 All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have 
 spoken on the subject, concur in opinion that its rano-e 
 of vision is circumscribed, and that it relies more on its 
 ear and sense of smell than on its sight, which is liable 
 to be obstructed by dense foliage ; besides which, from 
 the formation of its short neck, the elephant is incapable 
 of directing the range of the eye much above the level 
 of the head.^ 
 
 The elephant's small range of vision is sufficient to 
 account for its excessive caution, its alarm at unusual 
 noises, and the timidity and panic exhibited at trivial 
 
 * After writing the above, I was 
 permitted by the late Dr. Haeei- 
 SON, of Dublin, to see some accurate 
 drawings of the brain of an ele- 
 phant, which he had the opportu- 
 nity of dissecting in 1847 ; and on 
 looking to that of the base, I have 
 
 found a remarkable verification of 
 the information which I collected 
 in Ceylon, 
 
 The small figure A is the gan- 
 glion of the fifth nerve, showing 
 the small motor and large sensitive 
 portion. 
 
 Olfactory lobes — large. 
 
 Optic nerve — email. 
 
 '^I^i'l?^ Third pair — email. 
 ■^^ "'ij Fourth pair — small. 
 
 — The two portions of the fifth pair, the sensi- 
 tive portion very large, for the proboscis. 
 Sixth pair — small. 
 
 Seventh pair — portio dura, or motor, very 
 large for proboscis. 
 
 The olfactory lobes, from which 
 the olfactory nerves proceed, are 
 large, whilst the oiptic and muscular 
 nerves of the orbit are singularly 
 small for so vast an animal ; and 
 one is immediately struck by the 
 prodigious size of the fifth nerve, 
 
 which supplies the proboscis with 
 its exquisite sensibility, as well as 
 by the great size of the motor por- 
 tion of the seventh, which supplies 
 the same organ with its power of 
 movement and action. 
 
96 MA^iIMALIA. [Chap. HI. 
 
 objects and incidents which, imperfectly discerned, excite 
 suspicions for its safety.^ In 1841 an officer ^ was chased 
 by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing 
 him near the dry bed of a river, the animal had its fore- 
 foot already raised to crush him ; but its forehead being 
 caught at the instant by the tendrils of a climbing plant 
 which had suspended itself from the branches above, it 
 suddenly turned and fled ; leaving him badly hurt, but 
 with no limb broken. I have heard similar instances, 
 equally well attested, of this peculiarity in the ele- 
 phant. 
 
 On the other hand, the power of smell is so remark- 
 able as almost to compensate for the deficiency of sight. 
 A herd is not only apprised of the approach of dan- 
 ger by this means, but when scattered in the forest, and 
 dispersed out of range of sight, they are enabled by it 
 to reassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions for 
 their common safety. The same necessity is met by a 
 delicate sense of hearing, and the use of a variety of 
 noises or calls, by means ot which elephants succeed in 
 communicating with each other upon all emergencies. 
 " The sounds which they utter have been described by 
 the African hunters as of three kinds : the first, which is 
 very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk, is 
 indicative of pleasure ; the second, produced by the 
 mouth, is expressive of want ; and the third, proceeding 
 from the throat, is a terrific roar of anger or revenge."^ 
 These words convey but an imperfect idea of the variety 
 of noises made by the elephant in Ceylon; and the 
 shrill cry produced by blowing through his trunk, so far 
 
 ^ Menageries^ ^~c., " The Ele- found in the Ceylon Miscellany for 
 
 phant," p. 27. 1842, vol. i. p. 221. 
 
 2 Major EoGEES. An account of • Menageries, ^'c, " The Ele- 
 
 this singular adventure mil be phant," ch. iii. p. 68. 
 
Chap, ni.] THE ELEPHANT. 97 
 
 from being regarded as an indication of *^ pleasure," is 
 the well-known cry of rage with which he rushes to en- 
 counter an assailant. Aristotle describes it as resem- 
 bling the hoarse sound of a " trumpet." ^ The French 
 still designate the proboscis of an elephant by the same 
 expression "trompe," (which we have unmeaningly 
 corrupted into trunk,) and hence the scream of the 
 elephant is known as " trumpeting " by the hunters in 
 Ceylon. Their cry when in pain, or when subjected to 
 compulsion, is a grunt or a deep groan from the throat, 
 with the proboscis curled upwards and the lips wide apart. 
 
 Should the attention of an individual in the herd be 
 attracted by any unusual appearance in the forest, the 
 intelligence is rapidly communicated by a low suppressed 
 sound made by the lips, somewhat resembling the twit- 
 tering of a bird, and described by the hunters by the 
 word "pru^." 
 
 A very remarkable noise has been described to me 
 by more than one individual, who has come unex- 
 pectedly upon a herd during the night, when the alarm 
 of the elephants was apparently too great to be satis- 
 fied with the stealthy note of warning just described. 
 On these occasions the sound produced resembled the 
 hollow booming of an empty tun when struck with a 
 wooden mallet or a muffled sledge. Major Macready, 
 Military Secretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it by 
 night amongst the wild elephants in the great forest of 
 Bintenne, describes it as " a sort of banging noise like a 
 
 ^ Aristotle, Be Anim., lib. iv. with drawings illustratiye of the 
 
 c. 9. " bfiolot/ adxiriyyi." See also strange animals of the East. 
 
 Pliny, lib. x. eh. exiii. A manu- Amongst them are two elephants, 
 
 script in the Bi'itish Museum, con- whose trunks are literally in the 
 
 taining the romance of '^ Alex- form of trumpets with expanded 
 
 ander," which is probably of the mouths. See Wright's Archceolo- 
 
 fifteenth centurj^ is interspersed gical Album, p. 176. 
 
 H 
 
98 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 cooper hammering a cask;" and Major Skinner is of 
 opinion that it must be produced by the elephant strik- 
 ing his sides rapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. 
 Cripps informs me that he has more than once seen an 
 elephant, when surprised or alarmed, produce this sound 
 by striking the ground forcibly with the flat side of 
 the trunk ; and this movement was instantly succeeded 
 by raising it again, and pointing it in the direction 
 whence the alarm proceeded, as if to ascertain by the 
 sense of smell the nature of the threatened danger. 
 As this strange sound is generally mingled with the bel- 
 lowing and ordinary trumpeting of the herd, it is in all 
 probability a device resorted to, not alone for warning 
 their companions of some approaching peril, but also 
 for the additional purpose of terrifying unseen in- 
 truders.^ 
 
 Elephants are subject to deafness ; and the Singhalese 
 regard as the most formidable of all wild animals, a 
 "rogue "2 afflicted with this infirmity. 
 
 Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of 
 the elephant. In an age when popular fallacies in re- 
 lation to him were as yet uncorrected in Europe by the 
 actual inspection of the living animal, he was supposed 
 to grow to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. Even 
 within the last century in popular works on natural his- 
 tory, the elephant, when full grown, was said to measure 
 from seventeen to twenty feet from the ground to the 
 shoulder.^ At a still later period, so imperfectly had 
 
 • Pallegoix, in his Description a celui du cor." — Tom. i. p. 151. 
 du Royaume Thai ou Slam, adverts - For an explanation of the term 
 
 to a sound produced by the ele- "rogue" as applied to an elephant, 
 
 phant when weary: "quand il est see p. 115. 
 
 fatigue, il frappe la terre avec sa ^ Natural History of Ayiimals. 
 
 trompe, et en tire un son semblable By Sir John Hill, M.D. London, 
 
 i 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 99 
 
 the facts been collated, that the elephant of Ceylon was 
 believed " to excel that of Africa in size and strength." ^ 
 But so far from equalling the size of the African species, 
 that of Ceylon seldom exceeds the height of nine feet; even 
 in the Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agree 
 that the largest specimens are to be found, the tallest of 
 ordinary herds do not average more than eight feet. 
 Wolf, in his account of the Ce3don elephant^, says he 
 saw one taken near Jaffna, which measured twelve feet 
 and one inch high. But the truth is, that the general 
 bulk of the elephant so far exceeds that of the ani- 
 mals which we are accustomed to see daily, that the ima- 
 gination magnifies its unusual dimensions; and I have 
 seldom or ever met with an inexperienced spectator who 
 did not unconsciously over-estimate the size of an ele- 
 phant shown to him, whether in captivity or in a state 
 of nature. Major Denham would have guessed some 
 which he saw in Africa to be sixteen feet in height, but 
 
 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source 4t., p. 164. Wolf was a native of 
 
 of these false estimates is men- Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon 
 
 tioned by a writer in the Indian about 1750, as chaplain in one of 
 
 Sporting Review for Oct. 1857. the Dutch East Indiamen, and hav- 
 
 " Elephants were measured for- ing been taken into the government 
 
 merly, and even now, by natives, employment, he served for twenty 
 
 as to their height, by throwing a years at Jaffna, first as Secretary 
 
 rope over them, the ends brought to the Governor, and afterwards in 
 
 to the ground on each side, and an ofl&ce the duties of which he 
 
 half the length taken as the true describes to be the examination 
 
 height. Hence the origin of ele- and signature of the "writings 
 
 phants fifteen and sixteen feet which sei-ved to commence a suit 
 
 high. A rod held at right angles in any of the Courts of justice." 
 
 to the measuring rod, and parallel His book embodies a truthful and 
 
 to the ground, will rarely give generally accurate account of the 
 
 more than ten feet, the majority northern portion of the island, 
 
 being under nine." — P. 159. with which alone he was conver- 
 
 ' i^uAVf's Zoology. Lond. 1806. sant, and his narrative gives a 
 
 vol. i. p. 216; Arm.yndi, Hist, curious insight into the policy of 
 
 Milit. des Elephans, liv. i. ch. i. the Dutch Government, and of the 
 
 p. 2. condition of the natives under their 
 
 ^ Wolf's Life and Adventures, dominion. 
 
 H 2 
 
]00 
 
 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 the largest when killed was found to measure nine feet 
 six, from the foot to the hip-bone.^ 
 
 For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is asto- 
 nishing how noiselessly and stealthily the elephant can 
 escape from a pursuer. \\Tien suddenly disturbed 
 in the jungle, it will burst away with a rush that seems 
 to bear down all before it; but the noise sinks into 
 absolute stillness so suddenly, that a novice might well 
 be led to suppose that the fugitive had only halted within 
 a few yards of him, when further search will disclose 
 that it has 'stolen silently away, making scarcely a 
 sound in its escape ; and, stranger still, leaving the 
 foliage almost undisturbed by its passage. 
 
 The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, 
 
 and that which held its ground with unequalled tenacity, 
 
 is the ancient fallacy which is explained by Sir Thomas 
 
 Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica, that "it hath no 
 
 joynts ; and this absurdity is seconded by another, that 
 
 being unable to lye downe it sleepeth against a tree, 
 
 which the hunters observing doe saw almost asunder, 
 
 whereon the beast relying, by the fall of the tree falls 
 
 also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more."^ Sir 
 
 Thomas is disposed to think that " the hint and "ground 
 
 of this opinion might be the grosse and somewhat 
 
 cylindricall composure of the legs of the elephant, and 
 
 the equality and lesse perceptible disposure of the 
 
 joynts, especially in the forelegs of this animal, they 
 
 ' Denham's Travels, ^r., 4to Falconer "that out of eleven hun- 
 p. 220. The fossil remains of the dred elephants from which the tall- 
 Indian elephant have been dis- est were selected and measured 
 covered at Jabalpur, showing a with care, on one occasion in India, 
 height of fifteen feet.—Journ. there was not one whose height 
 Asiat. Soc. Beng. vi. Professor equalled eleven feet." 
 Ansted in his Ancient World, p. ^ Vulgar Errors, \)o6km..chdi^.\. 
 197, says he was informed by Dr. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 101 
 
 appearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh ; " but 
 he overlooks the fact that Pliny has ascribed the same 
 peculiarity to the Scandinavian beast somewhat resem- 
 bling a horse, which he calls a " machlis," ^ and that 
 C^SAR in describing the wild animals in the Hercynian 
 forests, enumerates the alee, " in colour and configura- 
 tion approaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its 
 head destitute of horns and its limbs of joints, whence 
 it can neither lie down to rest, nor rise if by any acci- 
 dent it should fall, but using the trees for a resting-place, 
 the hunters by loosening their roots bring the alee to 
 the ground, so soon as it is tempted to lean on them." ^ 
 This fallacy, as Sir Thomas Browne says, is " not the 
 daughter of latter times, but an old and grey-headed 
 errour, even in the days of Aristotle," who deals with 
 the story as he received it from Ctesias, by whom it 
 
 ' Machlis (said to be derived 
 from a, priv., and kKivoo, cubo, 
 quod non cubat). " Moreover in 
 the island of Scandinavia there is a 
 beast called Machlis, that hath 
 neither ioynt in the hough, nor 
 pasternes in his hind legs, and there- 
 fore he never lieth do"mi, but sleep- 
 eth leaning to a tree, wherefore the 
 hunters that lie in wait for these 
 beasts cut downe the trees while 
 they are asleepe, and so take them; 
 otherwise they should never be 
 taken, they are so swift of foot that 
 it is wonderful." — Pliny, Natur. 
 Hist. Transl. Philemon Holland, 
 book viii. eh. xv. p, 200. 
 
 * "Sunt item quae appellantur 
 Alces. Harum est consimilis cap- 
 reis figura, et varietas pellium ; 
 sed magnitudine paulo anteeedunt, 
 mutdseque sunt cornibus, et crura 
 sine nodis articulisque habent ; 
 neque quietis causa procumbunt; 
 Deque, si quo afflictse casu con- 
 
 siderunt. erigere sese aut subleva- 
 re possunt. His sunt arbores pro 
 cubilibus; ad eas sese applicant, 
 atque ita, paulum modo reclinatte, 
 quietem capiunt, quarum ex vesti- 
 giis cum est animadversum a vena- 
 toribus, quo se recipere consueve- 
 rint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus 
 subruunt aut aecidunt arbores tan- 
 tum, ut sunima species earum stan- 
 tium relinquatur. Hue cum se 
 cousuetudine reclinaverint. infirmas 
 arbores pondere af&igunt, atque 
 una ipspe concidunt." — C^sab, De 
 Bello Gall. lib. vi. ch. xxvii. 
 
 The same fiction was extended by 
 the early Arabian travellers to the 
 rhinoceros, and in the MS, of the 
 voyages of the " Two Mahometans,'^ 
 it is stated that the rhinoceros of 
 Sumatra "n'a point d" articulation 
 au genou ni a la main." — Relations 
 des Voyages, §-c., Paris, 1845, vol. i 
 p. 29. 
 
 H 3 
 
]02 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 appears to have been embodied in his lost work on India. 
 But although Aristotle generally receives the credit of 
 having exposed and demolished the fallacy of Ctesias, it 
 will be seen by a reference to his treatise On the Pro- 
 gressive Motions of Animals, that in reality he ap- 
 proached the question with some hesitation, and has not 
 only left it doubtful in one passage whether the ele- 
 phant has joints in his knee, although he demonstrates 
 that it has joints in the shoulders ^ ; but in another 
 he distinctly affirms that on account of his weight the 
 elephant cannot bend his forelegs together, but only one 
 at a time, and reclines to sleep on that particular side. ^ 
 So great was the authority of Aristotle, that ^lian, 
 who wrote two centuries later and borrowed many of his 
 statements from the works of his predecessor, perpetuates, 
 this error ; and, after describing the exploits of the 
 trained elephants exhibited at Rome, adds the expres- 
 sion of his surprise, that an animal without joints 
 (avapOpov) should yet be able to dance.^ The fiction 
 was too agreeable to be readily abandoned by the poets 
 
 1 "When an animal moves pro- Be Ingrcssu Anim., ch. ix. Taylor's 
 
 gressively an hypothenuse is pro- Transl. 
 
 duced, which is equal in power to " Aristotle, Be Animal., lib. ii. 
 the magnitude that is quiescent, ch. i. It is curious that Taylor, in 
 and to that which is intermediate, his translation of this passage, was 
 But since the members are equal, so strongly imbued with the "grey- 
 it is necessary that the member headed errour," that in order to 
 which is quiescent should be in- elucidate the somewhat obscure 
 fleeted either in the knee or in the meaningof Aristotle, he has actually 
 incurvation, if the animal that interpolated the text with the ex- 
 walks is without knees. It is pos- ploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after 
 sible, however, for the leg to be the word reclining to sleep, has in- 
 moved, when not inflected, in the serted the words ^^ leaning against 
 same manner as infants creep; and some wall or tree" which are not to 
 there is an ancient report of this be found in the original, 
 kind about elephants, which is not ' "Z^oj/ Se dvap6pov avvi^vai koX 
 true, for such animals as these, pvdfxov koI ij.4\ovs, koI (bvkdTTeiv 
 are moved in conseq2itnce of an in- (tx^m" (pvaews Swpa ravra a/ma kuI 
 .flection taking jjlace either in their 15i6tt]s Kad' 'iKacrrov e/cTrArj/cTtJc^," — 
 shoulders or hi^sJ' — Aeistotle, iEnANjDeAa^.^nm.jlib. ii.cap. xi. 
 
9 
 
 Chap, m.] THE ELEPHANT. 103 
 
 of the Lower Empire and the Eomancers of the middle 
 ages; and Phile, a contemporary of Petrarch and 
 Dante, who in the early part of the fourteenth century, 
 addressed his didactic poem on the elephant to the Em- 
 peror Andronicus II., untaught by the exposition of 
 Aristotle, still clung to the old delusion, 
 
 " nJSes 5e TouTOJ Qavfxa koX aacpes r^pas, 
 Ovs, ov Kaddnep raAAa ratv ^wwv "yivi], 
 Elfcofle Kiv€iv e| avapSpuv KAaaixdrcav 
 Kai yap ariSapois auvTedevres 6(Tt4ois, 
 Kal T^ 7r\a5apa twv (T(pvpu>v KaTaaToicrei, 
 Kal Trj irphs &pdpa tu>v (TK^Auv inroKpi(T€i, 
 Nw els t6vovs dyouai, vvv eis vcfteaeis, 
 Tas travToSaTras iK^pofxas tov dr^plov. 
 
 ****** 
 Bpaxvrepovs ovras 5^ twu diTLcrOicov 
 ' Avaix(pi\4KTws ol5a tovs e^irpoadiovs' 
 TovTois i\e(pas ivradels Ssairep (ttvKois 
 'OpQo(jTa5i]v &,KafMTrTos vizvwttosv /xeVet." 
 
 V. 106, &c. 
 
 SoLiNUS introduced the same fable into his Polyhistor ; 
 and DicuiL, the Irish commentator of the ninth century, 
 who had an opportunity of seeing the elephant sent 
 by Haroun Alraschid as a present to Charlemagne ^ in 
 the year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its per- 
 petuation to the circumstance that the joints in the 
 elephant's leg are not very apparent, except when he 
 lies down.^ 
 
 It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, 
 that the delusion thus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth 
 century, was revived by Matthew Paris in the thir- 
 teenth; and stranger still, that Matthew not only saw 
 
 ' EoiXHAJtD, Vita Karoli, c. xvi. Imperatoris Karoli videnint. Sed, 
 
 and Aornales Francorurn, a.d. 810. forsitan, ideo hoc de elephante ficte 
 
 2 "Sed idem Julius, unum de sestimando scriptum est, eo quod 
 
 elephantibus mentiens, falso loqui- genua et suffragines sui nisi quando 
 
 tur; dicens elephantem nunquam jacet, non palam apparent." — Di- 
 
 jacere; dumille sicut bos cert issime cinxrs, De Mensura Orbis Ttrroe, 
 
 jacet, ut populi communiter regni c. vii. 
 Francorurn elephantem, in tempore 
 
 H 4 
 
104 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. IH. 
 
 but made a drawing of the elephant presented to King 
 Henry III. by the King of France in 1255, in which he 
 nevertheless represents the legs as wdthout joints.^ 
 
 In the numerous mediaeval treatises on natural his- 
 tory, knowTi under the title of Bestiaries, this delusion 
 regarding the elephant is often repeated ; and it is given 
 at length in a metrical version of the Physiologiis of 
 Theoraldus, amongst the Arundel Manuscripts in the 
 British Museum. ^ 
 
 With the Provencal song writers, the helplessness of 
 the fallen elephant was a favourite simile, and amongst 
 others Kichard de Baebezteux, in the latter half of the 
 twelfth century, sung^. 
 
 1 Cotton MSS. Nero. D. 1. fol. 
 168, b. 
 
 2 Arundel MSS. No 292, fol. 
 4, &c. It has been printed in the 
 ReliquicB Antiquce, vol. i. p. 208, by 
 Mr. Wright, to whom I am in- 
 debted for the following rendering 
 of the passage referred to : — 
 
 in water ge sal stonden 
 
 in water to mid side 
 
 ^at wanne hire harde tide 
 
 iat ge ne falle ni?er nogt 
 
 ^at it most in hire <5ogt 
 
 for he ne hayen no liS 
 
 <5at he mugen risen wicS, etc. 
 
 •' They will stand in the water, 
 
 in water up to the middle of the side, 
 
 that when it comes to them hard, 
 
 they may not fall down : 
 
 that is most in their thought, 
 
 for they have no joint 
 
 to enable them to rise again. 
 
 How he restPth him this animal, 
 
 when he walketh abroad, 
 
 hearken how it is here told. 
 
 For he is all unwieldy, 
 
 forsooth he seeks out a tree, 
 
 that is strong and stedfast, 
 
 and leans confidently agamst it, 
 
 when he is weary of walking. 
 
 The hunter has observed this, 
 
 who seeks to ensnare him, 
 
 where his usual dwelling is, 
 
 to do his will; 
 
 saws this tree and props it 
 
 in the manner that he best may, 
 
 covers it well that he (the elephant) may 
 
 not be on his guard. 
 Then he makes thereby a seat, 
 himself sits alone and watches 
 whether his trap takes effect. 
 Then cometh this unwieldy elephant, 
 and leans him on his side, 
 rests against the tree in the shadow, 
 and so both fall together, 
 if nobody be by when he falls, 
 he roars ruefully and calls for help, 
 roars ruefully in his manner, 
 hopes he shall through help rise. 
 Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste, 
 hopes he shall cause him to stand up; 
 labours and tries all his might, 
 but he cannot succeed a bit. 
 He knows then no other remedy, 
 but roars with his brother, 
 majiy and large (elephants) come there in 
 
 search, 
 thinking to make him get up, 
 but for the help of them all 
 he may not get up. 
 Then they all roar one roar, 
 like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell ; 
 for their great roaring 
 a young one cometh running, 
 stoops immediately to him, 
 puts his snout under him, 
 and asks the help of them all ; 
 this elephant they raise on his legs ; 
 and thus fails this hunter's trick, 
 in the manner that 1 have told you." 
 
 ' One of the most venerable au- 
 thorities by whom the fallacy was 
 transmitted to modern times was 
 Philip de Thaun, who wrote, about 
 
Chap, m.] THE ELEPHAJS'T. 105 
 
 " Atressi cimi 1' olifans 
 Que quan chai no s' pot levar." 
 
 As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to 
 the seventeenth century, there were but few opportuni- 
 ties of correcting the popular fallacy by ocular demon- 
 stration. Hence Shakspeare still believed that, 
 
 " The elephant hath joints ; but none for courtesy : 
 His legs are for necessity, not flexure :" • 
 
 and Donne sang of 
 
 " Nature's great masterpiece, an Elephant ; 
 The only harmless great thing : 
 Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend : 
 Himself he up-props, on himself relies ; 
 Still sleeping stands." ^ 
 
 Sir Thomas Beowne, while he argues against the 
 delusion, does not fail to record his suspicion, that 
 "although the opinion at present be reasonably well 
 suppressed, yet from the strings of tradition and fruit- 
 ful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable it might 
 revive in the next generation ;"^ — an anticipation which 
 has proved singularly correct ; for the heralds still con- 
 tinued to explain that the elephant is the emblem of 
 watchfulness, " nee jacet in sonino,'^'^ and poets almost 
 of our own times paint the scene when 
 
 the year 1121, A.D., his lAvre des E le gentdelaterre, ki ll volpnt conquere, 
 
 CrpnfyrP9 flpfliVflfpf! tn ^(\pW^c\p nf ^ mur enfunderunt, u le arbre enciserunt; 
 
 f^reatures, oecucatea to Aaeiaiae oi q^^..^ jj gigj-g,,^ vendrat, ki s'i apuierat, 
 
 Louvame, Queen of Henry I. of La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat ; 
 
 England. In the copy of it printed ^^^^ faiterement le parnent cele gent." 
 by the Historical Society of Science i m -7 7^ ., '.. ' 
 
 in 1841, and edited by i. Wright, , ^T.^^f. «^^ Cressida, act 11. sc. 
 ^.v, ^ 11 • •' '3. A.D. 1609. 
 the toilo wing passage occurs: — „„ r^-, c^ , 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 2 Progress of the Sold, a.d. 1633. 
 
 " Et Ysidres nus dit ki le elefant descrit, ^ Sir T. Beo^T^, Vulgar Errors, 
 
 k^ T\ "y CI A a. 
 Es jambes par nature nen ad que une join- * *" -r> ' -rr . 
 
 ture, * Kandal Home s Academy of 
 
 11 ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir, Armory, A.D. 1671. Home only 
 
 Ke 81 cachet estait par sei nen leverait; ^^,^^^„„+ a 4.\. jy r^ 
 
 Pur <;eo li slot apuier, el lui del cucher, perpetuated the error of Guililim, 
 
 U a arbre u a mur, idunc dort aseur. who wrote his Display of Heraldry 
 
106 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 "Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast 
 Their ample shade on Niger's yellow stream, 
 Or where the Granges rolls his sacred waves, 
 Leans the huge Elephant." • 
 
 It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated dehi- 
 sion took its origin ; nor is it, as Sir Thomas Browne 
 imagined, to be traced exclusively " to the grosse and 
 cylindrical 1 structure " of the animal's legs. The fact 
 is, that the elephant, returning in the early morning 
 from his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and water- 
 courses, is accustomed to rub his muddy sides against 
 a tree, and sometimes against a rock if more convenient. 
 In my rides through the northern forests, the natives of 
 Ceylon have often pointed out that the elephants which 
 had preceded me must have been of considerable size, 
 from the heisfht at which their marks had been left on 
 the trees against which they had been rubbing. Not 
 unfrequently the animals themselves, overcome with 
 drowsiness from the night's gambolling, are found 
 dosing and resting against the trees they had so visited, 
 and in the same manner they have been discovered by 
 sportsmen asleep, and leaning against a rock. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is 
 accidental, and that it is taken by the elephant not from 
 any difficulty in lying at length on the ground, but 
 rather from the coincidence that the structure of his 
 legs affords such support in a standing position, that 
 reclining scarcely adds to his enjoyment of repose ; and 
 elephants in a state of captivity have been known for 
 
 in A.D. 1610; wherein he explains he), and when he is once down he 
 
 that the elephant is " so proud of cannot rise up again." — Sec. m. ch. 
 
 his strength that he never bows xii. p. 147. 
 
 himself to any {neither indeed can * Thomson's Seasons, a.d. 1728. 
 
Chaf. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 107 
 
 months together to sleep without lying down.^ So 
 distinctive is this formation, and so self-sustaining the 
 configuration of the limbs, that an elephant shot in the 
 brain, by Major Eogers in 1836, was killed so instan- 
 taneously that it died literally on its knees, and remained 
 resting on them. About the year 1826, Captain Daw- 
 son, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the 
 Kaduganava pass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on 
 the banks of the Kalany Granga ; it reiniained on its feet, 
 but so motionless, that after discharging a few more balls, 
 he was induced to go close to it, and found it dead. 
 
 The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, 
 that he extends his hind legs backwards as a man does 
 when he kneels, instead of bringing them under him 
 like the horse or any other quadruped. The wise pur- 
 pose of this arrangement must be obvious to any one 
 who observes the struggle with which the horse gets up 
 from the ground, and the violent efforts which he 
 makes to raise himself erect. Such an exertion in the 
 case of the elephant, and the force requisite to apply 
 a similar movement to raise his weight (equal to four 
 or five tons) would be attended with a dangerous 
 strain upon the muscles, and hence the simple arrange- 
 ment, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet 
 gradually under him, assists him to rise without a per- 
 ceptible effort. 
 
 The same construction renders his gait not a "gallop," 
 
 * So little is the elephant inclined phant to sleep on his legs, to the 
 
 to lie dowai in captivity, and even difficulty he experiences in rising 
 
 after hard labour, that the keepers to his feet : 
 are generally disposed to suspect 
 
 illness when he betakes himself to ^OpdoardS-qv Se koI KaOevSei Travvvx<^s 
 this posture. Phile, in his poem "Ot ovKauaarriaai iJ,ev€uxepu>s'rr4Xu, 
 De Animalium Proprietate, attri- 
 butes the propensity of the ele- But this is a misapprehension. 
 
108 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. IH. 
 
 as it has been somewhat loosely described^, which would 
 be too violent a motion for so vast a body; but a shuffle, 
 that he can increase at pleasure to a pace as rapid as 
 that of a man at full speed, but which he cannot main- 
 tain for any considerable distance. 
 
 It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the ele- 
 phant is indebted for his singular facility in ascending 
 and descending steep aclivities, climbing rocks and tra- 
 versing precipitous ledges, where even a mule dare not 
 
 * Menageries, ^c. "The elephant," 
 ch. i. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell, in his essay 
 on The Hand and its Mechanism, 
 which forms one of the "Bridge- 
 water Treatises," has exhibited the 
 reasons dedueible from organisation, 
 which show the incapacity of the 
 elephant to spring or leap like the 
 horse and other animals whose 
 structure is designed to facilitate 
 agility and speed. In them the 
 various bones of the shoulder and 
 fore limbs, especially the clavicle 
 and humerus, are set at such an 
 angle, that the shock in descending 
 is modified, and the joints and 
 
 sockets protected from the injury 
 occasioned by concussion. But in 
 the elephant, where the weight of 
 the body is immense, the bones of 
 the leg, in order to present solidity 
 and strength to sustain it, are built 
 in one firm and perpendicular 
 column ; instead of being placed 
 somewhat obliquely at their points 
 of contact. Thus whilst the force 
 of the weight in descending is 
 broken and distributed by this 
 arrangement in the case of the 
 horse ; it would be so concentrated 
 in the elephant as to endanger 
 every joint from the toe to the 
 shoidder. 
 
Chap, ni.] THE ELEPHANT. 109 
 
 venture ; and this again leads to the correction of an- 
 other generaUy received error, that his legs are " formed 
 more for strength than flexibility, and fitted to bear an 
 enormous weight upon a level surface, without the ne- 
 cessity of ascending or descending great acclivities." ^ 
 The same authority assumes that, although the elephant 
 is found in the neighbourhood of mountainous ranges, 
 and will even ascend rocky passes, such a service is a 
 violation of its natural habits. 
 
 Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, 
 nor of the nature of the ground which it most frequents; 
 but certainly the facts in connection with the elephant 
 of India are all irreconcilable with the theory mentioned 
 above. In Bengal, in the Nilgherries, in Nepal, in 
 Burmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the districts in 
 which the elephants most abound, are all hilly and 
 mountainous. In the latter, especially, there is not 
 a ranofe so elevated as to be inaccessible to them. 
 On the very summit of Adam's Peak, at an altitude of 
 7,420 feet, and on a pinnacle which the pilgrims climb 
 with difiiculty, by means of steps hewn in the rock. 
 Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of an elephant. 
 Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been 
 extensively opened in the Kandyan ranges, there was not 
 a mountain or a lofty feature of land of Ceylon which 
 they had not traversed, in their periodical migrations in 
 search of water ; and the sagacity which they display in 
 " laying out roads " is almost incredible. They gene- 
 rally keep along the backbone of a chain of hills, avoid- 
 ing steep gradients : and one curious observation was 
 not lost upon the government surveyors, that in crossing 
 
 * Menageries, ^r., " The Elephant," ch. ii. 
 
110 
 
 MMIMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 the valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense 
 as altogether to obstruct a distant view, the elephants 
 invariably select the line of march which communicates 
 most judiciously with the opposite point, by means of 
 the safest forcU So sure-footed are they, that there 
 are few places where man can go that an elephant can- 
 not follow, provided there be space to admit his bulk, 
 and solidity to sustain his weight. 
 
 This faculty is almost entirely derived from the 
 unusual position, as compared with other quadrupeds, 
 of the knee joint of the hind leg ; arising from the 
 superior length of the thigh-bone, and the shortness of 
 the metatarsus : the heel being almost where it pro- 
 jects in man, instead of being lifted up as a "hock." 
 It is this which enables him, in descending declivities, 
 to depress and adjust the weight of his hinder por- 
 tions, which would otherwise overbalance and force him 
 headlong.^ It is by the same arrangement that he is 
 
 ' Dr. Hooker, in describing the 
 ascent of the Himalayas, says, the 
 natives in making their paths de- 
 spise all zigzags, and run in straight 
 lines up the steepest hill faces ; 
 whilst "the elephant's path is an ex- 
 cellent specimen of engineering — 
 the opposite of the native track, — 
 for it winds judiciously." — Hbna- 
 layan Journal^ vol. i. ch. iv. 
 
 2 Since the above passage was 
 written, I have seen in the Journal 
 of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 
 vol. xiii. pt. ii. p. 916, a paper 
 upon this subject, illustrated by 
 the subjoined diagram. 
 
 The writer says, " an elephant 
 descending a bank of too acute an 
 angle to admit of his walking down 
 it direct, (which, were he to at- 
 tempt, his huge body, soon disar- 
 ranging the centre of gravity, would 
 
 certainly topple over,) proceeds 
 thus. His first manoeuvre is to 
 kneel down close to the edge of the 
 declivity, placing his chest to the 
 ground : one fore-leg is then cau- 
 tiously passed a short way down 
 the slope ; and if there is no natu- 
 ral protection to afford a firm foot- 
 ing, he speedily forms one by 
 stamping into the soil if moist, or 
 kicking out a footing if dry. This 
 point gained, the other fore-leg is 
 Ijrought down in the same way ; 
 and performs the same work, a 
 little in advance of the first ; which 
 is thus at liberty to move lower 
 still. Then, first one and then the 
 second of the hind legs is carefully 
 drawn over the side, and the hind- 
 feet in turn occupy the resting- 
 places previously used and left by 
 the fore ones. The course, how- 
 
Chap. IH.] 
 
 THE ELEPH.\JfT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 enabled, on uneven ground, to lift his feet, which are 
 tender and sensitive, with delicacy, and plant them 
 with such precision as to ensure his own safety as 
 well as that of objects which it is expedient to avoid 
 touching. 
 
 A herd of elephants is a family, not a group whom 
 accident or attachment may have induced to associate 
 together. Similarity of features and caste attest that, 
 among the various individuals which compose it, there 
 is a common lineage and relationship. In a herd of 
 
 ever, in such precipitous ground is but slopes along the face of the 
 not straight from top to bottom, bank, descending till the animal 
 
 ¥^ ""Q^^w- 
 
 gains the level below. This an operation." I hare observed that 
 
 elephant has done, at an angle of an elephant in descending a de- 
 
 45 degrees, carrying a howdah, its cli^dty uses his knees, on the side 
 
 occupant, his attendant, and sport- next the bank ; and his feet on the 
 
 ing apparatus ; and in a much less lower side only, 
 time than it takes to describe the 
 
112 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 twenty-one elephants, captured in 1844, the trunks of 
 each individual presented the same peculiar formation, 
 — long, and almost of one uniform breadth throughout, 
 instead of tapering gradually from the root to the nostril. 
 In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in one 
 corral were of the same colour in each. The same slope 
 of the back, the same form of the forehead, is to be de- 
 tected in the majority of the same group. 
 
 In the forest several herds will browse in close con- 
 tiguity, and in their expeditions in search of water they 
 may form a body of possibly one or two hundred ; but 
 on the slightest disturbance each distinct herd hastens 
 to re-form within its own particular circle, and to take 
 measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence. 
 
 The natives of any place which may chance to be fre- 
 quented by elephants, observe that the numbers of the 
 same herd fluctuate very slightly ; and hunters in pur- 
 suit of them, who may chance to have shot one or more, 
 always reckon with certainty the precise number of 
 those remaining, although a considerable interval may 
 intervene before they again encounter them. The pro- 
 portion of males is generally small, and some herds have 
 been seen composed exclusively of females ; possibly in 
 consequence of the males having been shot. A herd 
 usually consists of from ten to twenty individuals, though 
 occasionally they exceed the latter number ; and in 
 their frequent migrations and nightly resort to tanks 
 and water-courses, alliances are formed between mem- 
 bers of associated herds, which serve to introduce new 
 blood into the family. 
 
 In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to 
 its young, the authority of Knox has been quoted, that 
 " the shees are alike tender of any one's young ones as 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE ELEPHAXT. 
 
 113 
 
 of their own." ^ Their affection in this particular is 
 undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of 
 other animals ; and the trait thus adduced of their 
 indiscriminate kindness to all the young of the herd, 
 — of which I have myself been an eye-witness, — so far 
 from being an evidence of the strengih of parental 
 attachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat incon- 
 sistent with the existence of such a passion to any 
 extraordinary degree.^ In fact, some individuals, who 
 have had extensive facilities for observation, doubt 
 whether the fondness of the female elephants for their 
 offspring is so great as that of many other animals ; as 
 
 ' A correspondent of BufFon, M. 
 Majrcellus Bles, Seigneur de 
 Moergestal, who resided eleven 
 years in Ceylon in the time of the 
 Dutch, says in one of his commu- 
 nications, that in herds of forty or 
 fifty, enclosed in a single corral, 
 there were frequently yeiy young 
 calves ; and that "on ne pouroit 
 pas reconnaitre quelles etoient les 
 meres de chacun de ces petits ele- 
 phans, car tons ces jeunes animaux 
 paroissent faire manse commime ; 
 ils tetent indistinctement celles des 
 femelles de toute la troupe qui ont 
 du lait, soit qu'elles aient elles- 
 memes un petit en propre, soit 
 qu' elles n' en aient point." — Buffox, 
 Suppl. a V Hist, des Anim., roL yi. 
 p. 25. 
 
 - White, in his Natural History 
 of Selborne, philosophising on the 
 fact which had fallen under his owti 
 notice of this indiscriminate suck- 
 ling of the young of one animal 
 by the parent of another, is dis- 
 posed to ascribe it to a selfish feel- 
 ing ; the pleasure and relief of 
 haying its distended teats drawn 
 by this intervention. He notices 
 
 the circumstance of a leveret having 
 been thus nursed by a cat, whose 
 kittens had been recently drowned : 
 and observes, that "this strange 
 affection was probably occasioned 
 by that desiderium, those tender 
 maternal feelings, which the loss of 
 her kittens had awakened in her 
 breast ; and by the complacency 
 and ease she derived to herself 
 from procuring her teats to be 
 drawn, which were too much dis- 
 tended with milk ; till from habit 
 she became as much delighted with 
 this foundling as if it had been 
 her real offspring. This incident 
 is no bad solution of that strange 
 circumstance which grave historians, 
 as well as the poets, assert of ex- 
 posed children being sometimes 
 nurtured by female wild beasts 
 that probably had lost their young. 
 For it is not one whit more mar- 
 vellous that Romulus and Eemus 
 in their infant state should be 
 nursed by a she wolf than that a 
 poor little suckling leveret should 
 be fostered and cherished by a 
 bloody Grimalkin." — White's '^Sel- 
 borne, lett. XX. 
 
114 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 instances are not wanting in Ceylon, in which, when 
 pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandoned the 
 young ones in their flight, notwithstanding the cries of 
 the latter for help. 
 
 In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian 
 elephant, published in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions for 1793, Mr. Corse says: "If a wild elephant 
 happens to be separated from its young for only two 
 days, though giving suck, she never after recognises or 
 acknowledges it," although the young one evidently 
 knows its dam, and by its plaintive cries and submissive 
 approaches solicits her assistance. 
 
 If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly 
 separated from his own herd, he is not permitted to 
 attach himself to any other. He may browse in the 
 vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink and to 
 bathe ; but the intercourse is only on a distant and con- 
 ventional footing, and no familiarity or intimate asso- 
 ciation is under any circumstances permitted. To such 
 a height is this exclusiveness carried, that even amidst 
 the terror and stupefaction of an elephant corral, when 
 an individual, detached from his own party in the melee 
 and confusion, has been driven into the enclosure mth 
 an unbroken herd, I have seen him repulsed in every 
 attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off by 
 heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted 
 to insinuate himself mthin the circle which they had 
 formed for common security. There can be no rea- 
 sonable doubt that this jealous and exclusive policy not 
 only contributes to produce, but mainly serves to 
 perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which are 
 known by the term goondahs, in India, and which from 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 115 
 
 their vicious propensities and predatory habits are called 
 Hora, or Rogues, in Ceylon.^ 
 
 It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either 
 individuals, who by accident have lost their former 
 associates and become morose and savage from rage and 
 solitude; or else that being naturally vicious they have 
 become daring from the yielding habits of their milder 
 companions, and eventually separated themselves from 
 the rest of the herd which had refused to associate with 
 them. Another conjecture is, that being almost uni- 
 versally males, the death or cajoture of particular females 
 may have detached them from their former companions 
 in search of fresh alliances.^ It is also believed that a 
 tame elephant escaping from captivity, unable to rejoin 
 its former herd, and excluded from any other, becomes 
 a '^rogue^^ from necessity. In Ceylon it is generally 
 believed that the rogues are all males (but of this I am 
 not certain), and so sullen is their disposition that 
 
 ^ The term " rogue " is scarcely term peciiliar to that section of the 
 sufficiently accounted for by sup- island; but both there and else- 
 posing it to be the English equiva- where, it is obsolete at the present 
 lent for the Singhalese word Hora. day, unless it be open to conjecture 
 In that very curious book, the that the modern term "rogue" is a 
 Life and Adventures of Johx modification of ronquedue. 
 Christopher Wolf, late 'princi- ^ Buch.vxax, in his Survey of 
 fal Secretary at Jaffnapatam in Bhagidjpore, p. 503, says that soli- 
 Ceylon, the author says, when a tary males of the wild buiFalo, 
 male elephant in a quarrel about "when driven from the herd by 
 the females "is beat out of the stronger competitors for female 
 field and obliged to go without a society, are reckoned very dangerous 
 consort, he becomes furious and to meet with ; for they are apt to 
 mad, killing every living creature, wreak their vengeance on what- 
 be it man or beast: and in this ever they meet, and are said to 
 state is called ronkcdor, an object kill annually three or four people." 
 of greater terror to a traveller than Livin-gstoxe relates the same of 
 a hundred wild ones." — P. 142. the solitary hippopotamus, which 
 In another passage, p. 164, he is becomes soured in temper, and 
 called runkedor, and I have seen it wantonly attacks the passing ca- 
 spelt elsewhere roTZ^Mff/w^. Wolf noes. — Travels in South Africa, 
 does not give .^^ ronkedor^' as a p. 231. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 MAMMALIA. [Chap. HI. 
 
 although two may be in the same vicinity, there is no 
 known instance of their associating, or of a rogue being 
 seen in company with another elephant. 
 
 They spend their nights in marauding, often about 
 the dwellings of men, destroying their plantations, 
 trampling down their gardens, and committing serious 
 ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nut plantations. 
 Hence from their closer contact with man and his dwell- 
 ings, these outcasts become disabused of many of the 
 terrors which render the ordinary elephant timid and 
 needlessly cautious ; they break through fences without 
 fear ; and even in the daylight a rogue has been known 
 near Ambogammoa to watch a field of labourers at work 
 in reaping rice, and boldly to walk in amongst them, seize 
 a sheaf from the heap, and retire leisurely to the jungle. 
 By day they generally seek concealment, but are fre- 
 quently to be met with prowling about the by-roads and 
 jungle paths, where travellers are exposed to the utmost 
 risk from their savage assaults. It is probable that this 
 hostility to man is the result of the enmity engendered 
 by those measures which the natives, who have a con- 
 stant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of 
 their growing crops. In some districts, especially in the 
 low country of Badulla, the villagers occasionally enclose 
 their cottages with rude walls of earth and branches to 
 protect them from nightly assaults. In places infested 
 by them^ the visits of European sportsmen to the vicinity 
 of their haunts are eagerly encouraged by the natives, 
 who think themselves happy in lending their services to 
 track the ordinary herds in consideration of the benefit 
 conferred on the village communities by the destruction 
 of a rogue. In 1847 one of these formidable creatures 
 frequented for some months the Rangbodde Pass on the 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHAXT. Il7 
 
 great moimtain road leading to the sanatarium, at 
 Neuera-ellia; and amongst other excesses, killed a Caffre 
 belonging to the corps of Caffre pioneers, by seizing 
 him with its trunk and beating him to death against the 
 bank. 
 
 To return to the herd: one member of it, usually 
 the largest and most powerful, is by common consent 
 implicitly followed as leader. A tusker, if there be one 
 in the party, is generally observed to be the commander; 
 but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily obeyed 
 as a male. In fact, in this promotion there is no 
 reason to doubt that supremacy is almost unconsciously 
 assumed by those endowed with superior vigour and 
 courage rather than from the accidental possession of 
 greater bodily strength; and the devotion and loyalty 
 which the herd evince to their leader are very re- 
 markable. This is more readily seen in the case of a 
 tusker than any other, because in a herd he is generally 
 the object of the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On 
 such occasions the others do their utmost to protect him 
 from danger: when driven to extremity they place their 
 leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front of him 
 that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they 
 might otherwise have spared. In one instance a tusker, 
 which was badly wounded by Major Eogees, was promptly 
 surrounded by his companions, who supported him be- 
 tween their shoulders, and actually succeeded in covering 
 his retreat to the forest. 
 
 Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, 
 and who have had constant opportunities of watching 
 the habits of wild elephants, have witnessed instances of 
 the submission of herds to their leaders, that suggest an 
 inquiry of singular interest as to the means adopted by 
 
 I 3 
 
118 MAMMALIA. [Chap. m. 
 
 the latter to communicate with distinctness, orders 
 which are observed with the most implicit obedience by 
 their followers. The following narrative of an adven- 
 ture in the great central forest toward the north of 
 the island, communicated to me by Major Skinnek, 
 who was engaged for some time in surveying and 
 opening roads through the thickly- wooded districts there, 
 will serve better than any abstract description to convey 
 an idea of the conduct of a herd on such occasions : — 
 
 "The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting 
 something more than ordinary brute instinct, and ap- 
 proached nearer to reasoning powers than any other 
 instance I can now remember. I cannot do justice to 
 the scene, although it appeared to me at the time to be 
 so remarkable that it left a deep impression in my 
 mind. 
 
 " In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, 
 you know the streams are all dried up, and the- tanks 
 nearly so. All animals are then sorely pressed for 
 water, and they congregate in the vicinity of those tanks 
 in which there may remain ever so little of the precious 
 element. 
 
 " During one of those seasons I was encamped on the 
 bund or embankment of a very small tank, the water in 
 which was so dried that its surface could not have 
 exceeded an area of 500 square yards. It was the only 
 pond within many miles, and I knew that of necessity a 
 very large herd of elephants, which had been in the 
 neighbourhood all day, must resort to it at night. 
 
 " On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the 
 embankment, was a thick forest, in which the elephants 
 sheltered themselves during the day. On the upper 
 side and all around the tank there was a considerable 
 
Chap. HI.] THE ELEPHAXT. 119 
 
 margin of open ground. It was one of those beautiful 
 bright, clear, moonlight nights, when objects could be 
 seen almost as distinctly as by day, and I determined to 
 avail myself of the " opportunity to observe the move- 
 ments of the herd, which had already manifested some 
 uneasiness at our presence. The locality was very 
 favourable for my purpose, and an enormous tree pro- 
 jecting over the tank afforded me a secure lodgement in 
 its branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to 
 be extinguished at an early hour, and all my followers to 
 retire to rest, I took up my post of observation on the 
 overhanging bough ; but I had to remain for upwards 
 of two hours before anything was to be seen or heard of 
 the elephants, although I knew they were within 500 
 yards of me. At length, about the distance of 300 
 yards from the water, an unusually large elephant 
 issued from the dense cover, and advanced cautiously 
 across the open ground to mthin 1 00 yards of the tank, 
 where he stood perfectly motionless. So quiet had the 
 elephants become (although they had been roaring and 
 breaking the jungle throughout the day and evening), 
 that not a movement was now to be heard. The huge 
 vidette remained in his position, still as a rock, for a 
 few minutes, and then made three successive stealthy 
 advances of several yards (halting for some minutes 
 between each, with ears bent forward to catch the 
 slightest sound), and in this way he moved slowly up to 
 the water's edge. Still he did not venture to quench 
 his thirst, for though his fore-feet were partially in the 
 tank and his vast body was reflected clear in the water, 
 he remained for some minutes listening in perfect 
 stillness. Not a motion could be perceived in himself 
 or his shadow. He returned cautiously and slowly to 
 
 I 4 
 
120 MAMMALIA. [Chap. lit 
 
 the position he had at first taken up on emerging from 
 the forest. Here in a little while he was joined by five 
 others, with which he again proceeded as cautiously, but 
 less slowly than before, to within a few yards of the 
 tank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered 
 the forest and collected around him the whole herd, 
 which must have amounted to between 80 and 100 
 individuals, — led them across the open ground with the 
 most extraordinary composure and quietness, till he 
 joined the advanced guard, when he left them for a 
 moment and repeated his former reconnoissance at the 
 edge of the tank. After which, having apparently 
 satisfied himself that all was safe, he returned and 
 obviously gave the order to advance, for in a moment 
 the whole herd rushed into the water with a degree of 
 unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution and 
 timidity which had marked their previous movements, 
 that nothing will ever persuade me that there was not 
 rational and preconcerted co-operation throughout the 
 whole party, and a degree of responsible authority exer- 
 cised by the patriarch leader. 
 
 " WTien the poor animals had gained possession of the 
 tank (the leader being the last to enter), they seemed 
 to abandon themselves to enjoyment without restraint 
 or apprehension of danger. Such a mass of animal life 
 I had never before seen huddled together in so narrow 
 a space. It seemed to me as though they would have 
 nearly drunk the tank dry. I watched them with great 
 interest until they had satisfied themselves as well in 
 bathing as in drinking, when I tried how small a noise 
 would apprise them of the proximity of unwelcome 
 neighbours. I had but to break a little twig, and the 
 solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd of fright- 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 121 
 
 ened deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently 
 shouldered and carried along between two of the older 
 ones." ^ 
 
 In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although 
 preferring water pure, shows no decided aversion to it 
 when discoloured with mud ^ ; and the eagerness with 
 which he precipitates himself into the tanks and streams 
 attests his exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, 
 which to him is the chief attraction. In crossing deep 
 rivers, although his rotundity and buoyancy enable him 
 to swim with a less immersion than other quadrupeds, 
 he generally prefers to sink till no part of his huge body 
 is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he 
 breathes, moving beneath the surface, and only now and 
 then raising his head to look that he is keeping the 
 proper direction.^ In the dry season the scanty streams 
 which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert the 
 rivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely 
 disappear, leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, 
 which they have swept down with them from the hills. 
 In this the elephants contrive to sink wells for their 
 own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of four 
 or five feet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of 
 the spring. But as the weight of the elephant would 
 force in the side if left perpendicular, one approach is 
 always formed with such a gradient that he can reach 
 
 ^ Letter from Major Skuojer. ^ A tame elephant, when taken 
 
 2 This peculiarity was known in by his keepers to be bathed, and 
 
 the middle ages, and Phdle, writing to have his skin washed and rubbed, 
 
 in the fourteenth century, says, that lies down on his side, pressing his 
 
 such is his preference for muddy head to the bottom imder water, 
 
 water that the elephant stirs it be- with only the top of his trunk 
 
 fore he drinks. protruded, to breathe. 
 ""TSwo 5^ TTij/etO'iryxwfleJ'Trplv Uvirivoi 
 . lh yap 5iei54s oiKpi^cos SiairTvei." 
 — Phile de Eleph., i. 144. 
 
122 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. in. 
 
 the water with his trunk without disturbing the sur- 
 rounding sand. 
 
 ^.vy;,',-.'.,-.y-;,'-;i;VJi,';; 
 
 
 
 I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been 
 authoritatively stated by naturalists, that the stomach of 
 the elephant mil be found to include a section analogous 
 to that possessed by some of the ruminants, calculated 
 to contain a supply of water as a provision against 
 emergencies. The fact of his being, enabled to retain a 
 quantity of water and discharge it at pleasure has been 
 long known to every observer of the habits of the 
 animal; but the proboscis has always been supposed to 
 be " his water-reservoir," ^ and the theory of an internal 
 receptacle has not been discussed. The truth is that the 
 anatomy of the elephant is even yet but imperfectly 
 understood ^, and, although some peculiarities of his 
 
 ' Brodeeip's Zoological 'Recrea- 
 tions, p. 259, 
 
 t ^ For observing the osteology of 
 the elephant, materials are of course 
 abundant in the indestructible re- 
 mains of the animal : but tlie study 
 of the intestines, and the dissection 
 of the softer parts by comparative 
 anatomists in Europe, have been up 
 to the present time beset by difficul» 
 ties. These arise not alone from the 
 rarity of subjects, but even in cases 
 where elephants have died in these 
 countries, decomposition inter- 
 poses, and before the thorough ex- 
 amination of so vast a body can be 
 satisfactorily completed, the great 
 mass falls into putrefaction. 
 
 The principal EngKsh authorities 
 are An Anatomical Account of the 
 Elephant accidentally burnt in 
 Dublin, by A. Molyneux, a.d. 
 1696 ; which is probably a reprint 
 of a letter on the same subject in 
 the library of Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, addressed by A. Moulin, to Sir 
 William Petty, Lond. 1682. There 
 are also some papers communicated 
 to Sir Hans Sloane, and afterwards 
 published in the Philosophical 
 Transactions of the year 1710, by 
 Dr. P. Blaib, who had an opportu- 
 nity of dissecting an elephant 
 which died at Dundee in 1708. 
 The latter writer observes that, 
 " notwithstanding the vast interest 
 
Chaf. ni.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 123 
 
 stomach were observed at an early period, and even their 
 configuration described, the function of the abnormal 
 portion remained undetermined, and has been only re- 
 cently conjectured. An elephant which belonged to 
 Louis XIV. died at Versailles in 1681 at the age of 
 seventeen, and an account of its dissection was published 
 in the Memoires pour servir a VHistoire Naturelle, 
 under the authority of the Academy of Sciences, in 
 which the unusual appendages of the stomach are pointed 
 out with sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is 
 made as to their probable uses." ^ 
 
 attaching to the elephant in all 
 ages, yet has its body been hitherto 
 very little subjected to anatomical 
 inquiries;" and he laments that the 
 rapid decomposition of the carcase, 
 and other causes, had interposed 
 obstacles to the scrutiny of the sub- 
 ject he "was so fortunate as to find 
 access to. 
 
 In 1723 Dr. "Wm. Stuckley pub- 
 lished So7ne Anatomical Observa- 
 tions made upon the Dissection of an 
 Elephant; but each of the above 
 essays is necessarily unsatisfactory, 
 and little has since been done to 
 supply their defects. One of the 
 latest and most valuable contribu- 
 tions to the subjects, is a paper read 
 before the Royal Irish Academy, on 
 the 18th of Feb,, 1847, by Profes- 
 sor Haeeison, who had the oppor- 
 tunity of dissecting an Indian 
 elephant which died of acute fever; 
 but the examination, so far as he has 
 made it public, extends only to the 
 cranium, the brain, and the probos- 
 cis, the larynx, trachea, and oeso- 
 phagus. An essential service would 
 be rendered to science if some 
 sportsman in Ceylon, or some of the 
 officers connected with the elephant 
 establishment there, would take the 
 trouble to forward the carcase of a 
 
 young one to England in a state fit 
 for dissection. 
 
 Postscriptum. — I am happy to 
 say that a young elephant, carefully 
 preserved in spirits, has recently been 
 obtained in Ceylon, andfons^ardedto 
 Prof. Owen, of the British Museum, 
 by the joint exertions of M. Diard 
 and Major Skinner. An oppor- 
 tunity has thus been afforded from 
 which science will reap advantage, 
 of devoting a patient attention to 
 the internal structure of this in- 
 teresting animal. 
 
 ^ The passage as quoted by Bur- 
 Fox from the Memoires is as follows : 
 — "L'estomac avoit peu de dia- 
 metre ; il en avoit moins que le 
 colon, car son diametre n'etoit que 
 de quatorze pouces dans la partie la 
 plus large ; il avoit trois pieds et 
 demi de longueur : 1' orifice superi- 
 eur etoit a-peu-pres aussi eloigne 
 du pylore que du fond du grand 
 cul-de-sac qui se terminoit en une 
 pointe composee de tuniques beau- 
 coup plus epaisses que cellesdu reste 
 de l'estomac; il y avoit au fond du 
 grand cid-de-sac plusieurs feuillets 
 epais d'une ligne, larges d'un pouce 
 et demi, et disposes irregulierement; 
 le reste de parois interieures etoit 
 perce de plusieurs petits trous et 
 
124 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 A writer in the Quarterly Revieiv for December 1850, 
 says that " Camper and other comparative anatomists 
 have shown that the left, or cardiac end of the stomach 
 in the elephant is adapted, by several wide folds of lining 
 membrane, to serve as a receiver for water ; " but this is 
 scarcely correct, for although Camper has accurately 
 figured the external form of the stomach, he disposes 
 of the question of the interior functions with the simple 
 remark that its folds " semblent en faire une espece de 
 division paxticuliere." ^ In like manner Sir Everard 
 Home, in his Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, has 
 not only carefully described the form of the elephant's 
 stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even more 
 accurate than Camper ; but he has equally omitted to 
 assign any purpose to so strange a formation, contenting 
 himself with observing that the structure is a peculiarity, 
 and that one of the remarkable folds nearest the orifice 
 of the diaphragm appears to act as a valve, so that the 
 portion beyond may be considered as an appendage 
 similar to that of the hog and the 'peccary ?• 
 
 par de plus grands qui correspon- at the extremity, the lining is thick 
 
 doient a des grains glanduleux." — and glandular, and is thrown into 
 
 BuFFON, Hist. Nat., vol. xi. p. 109. transverse folds, of which five are 
 
 ' "L'extremiteToisine du cardia broad and nine narrow. That 
 
 se termine par une poche tres-con- nearest the orifice of the oesophagus 
 
 siderable et doublee a I'interieure is the broadest, and appears to act 
 
 du quatorze valvules orbiculaires occasionally as a valve, so that the 
 
 que semblent en faire une espece part beyond may be considered as 
 
 de division particuli ere." — Camper, an appendage similar to that of 
 
 Description Anatomique d^un Ele- the peccary and the hog. The 
 
 phant Male, p. 37, tabl. ix. membrane of the cardiac portion is 
 
 2 " The elephant has another uniformly smooth ; that of the 
 
 peculiarity in the internal structure pyloric is thicker and more vascu- 
 
 of the stomach. It is longer and lar." — Lectures on Comparative 
 
 narrower than that of most animals. Anatomy, \y^ Sir Everaed Home 
 
 The cutieular membrane of the Bart. '4to. Lond. vol. i. p. loo! 
 
 oesophagus terminates at the orifice The figure of the elephant's stomach 
 
 of the stomach. At the cardiac end, is given in his Lectures vol. ii. 
 
 which is very narrow and pointed plate xviii. 
 
Chap, mj THE ELEPHAXT. 125 
 
 The appendage thus alluded to by Sir Everard Home 
 is the grand " cul-de-sac," noticed by the Academie des 
 Sciences, and the " division particuliere/' figured by 
 Camper. It is of sufficient dimensions to contain ten 
 gallons of water, and by means of the valve above alluded 
 to, it can be shut off from the chamber devoted to the 
 
 ELEPHANT'S STOMACH. 
 
 process of digestion. Professor Owen is probably the 
 first who, not from an autopsy, but from the mere in- 
 spection of the drawings of Camper and Home, ventured 
 to assert (in lectures hitherto unpublished), that the uses 
 of this section of the elephant's stomach may be analogous 
 to those ascertained to belong to a somewhat similar 
 arrangement in the stomach of the camel, one cavity of 
 which is exclusively employed as a reservoir for water, 
 and performs no function in the preparation of food.^ 
 
 * A similar arrangement, with the Cordilleras of Chili and Peru ; 
 
 some modifications, has more re- but both these and the camel are 
 
 cently been found in the llama of ruminants, whilst the elephants 
 
 the Andes, which, like the camel, belongs to the Pachydermata. 
 is used as a beast of burden in 
 
126 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. ni. 
 
 Whilst Professor Owen was advancing this conjecture, 
 another comparative anatomist, from the examination of 
 another portion of the structure of the elephant, was led 
 to a somewhat similar conclusion. Dr. Harrison of 
 Dublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of dissecting the 
 body of an elephant which had suddenly died ; and in 
 the com'se of his examination of the thoracic viscera, he 
 observed that an unusually close connection existed 
 between the trachea and oesophagus, which he found to 
 depend on a muscle unnoticed by any previous anatomist, 
 connecting the back of the former with the forepart of 
 the latter, along which the iibres descend and can be dis- 
 tinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach. 
 
 The Trachea drawn 
 over, bringing into 
 view its posterior 
 surface at tlie bi- 
 furcation 
 
 Pneumogastric 
 Nerves 
 
 (Esophagus. 
 
 -The Trachea- 
 (Esophageal 
 IMuscle. 
 
 Elastic Tissue 
 connecting Tra- 
 chea Bronchi, 
 G^sophagus.and 
 Tracliea - (Eso- 
 phageal Muscle 
 to the Dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 Diaphragm 
 
 Imperfectly acquainted -^^th the habits and functions of 
 the elephant in a state of nature, Dr. Harrison found it 
 difficult to pronounce as to the use of this very peculiar 
 
Chap. IH.] THE ELEPH.IXT. 127 
 
 structure; but looking to the intimate connection between 
 the mechanism concerned in the functions of respiration 
 and deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in 
 a double capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ 
 for the prehension of food, he ventured (apparently 
 without adverting to the abnormal form of the stomach) 
 to express the opinion that this muscle, viemng its 
 attachment to the trachea, might either have some 
 influence in raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting 
 in expiration, " or that it might raise the cardiac orifice 
 of the stomach, and so aid this organ to regurgitate a 
 portion of its contents into the oesophagus.'^ ^ 
 
 Dr. Harrison, on the reflection that " we have no sa- 
 tisfactory evidence that the animal ever ruminates," 
 thought it useless to speculate on the latter supposition 
 as to the action of the newly discovered muscle, and 
 rather inclined to the surmise that it was designed to 
 assist the elephant in producing the remarkable sound 
 through his proboscis known as " trumpeting ; " but there 
 is little room to doubt that of the two the rejected hy- 
 pothesis was the more correct one. I have elsewhere 
 described the occurrence to which I was myself a witness^, 
 of elephants inserting their proboscis in their mouths, 
 and withdrawing gallons of water, which could only have 
 been contained in the receptacle figured by Camper and 
 Home, and of which the true uses were discerned by the 
 clear intellect of Professor Owen. I was not, till very 
 recently, aware that a similar observation as to the re- 
 markable habit of the elephant, had been made by the 
 author of the Ayeen Akhery, in his account of the Feel 
 
 ' Proceed. Boy. Irish Acad., vol. iv. p. 133. 
 - In the account of an elephant corral, chap. vi. 
 
128 
 
 MMfMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 Kaneh, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar, in 
 which he says, " an elephant frequently with his trunk 
 takes water out of his stomach and sprinkles himself 
 mth it, and it is not in the least offensive.^ Foebes, in 
 his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the Ayeen 
 Akbery, but without a remark ; nor does any European 
 writer with whose works 1 am acquainted appear to have 
 been cognisant of the peculiarity in question. 
 
 It is to be hoped that Professor Owen's dissection of 
 
 WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OP THE CAMEL. 
 
 the young elephant, recently arrived, may serve to de- 
 cide this highly interesting point.'^ Should scientific in- 
 vestigation hereafter more clearly establish the fact that, 
 in this particular, the structure of the elephant is as- 
 similated to that of the llama and the camel, it will be 
 
 • Ayeen Akhery, transl. by Glad- 
 win, vol. i. pt. i. p. 147. 
 
 2 One of the Indian names for 
 the elephant is duipa, which signi- 
 fies " to drink twice " (Amandi, p. 
 513). Can this have reference to 
 
 the peculiarity of the stomach for 
 retaining a supply of water? Or 
 has it merely reference to the habit 
 of the animal to fill his trunk be- 
 fore transferring the water to his 
 mouth. 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 129 
 
 regarded as more than a common coincidence, that an 
 apparatus, so unique in its purpose and action, should 
 thus have been conferred by the Creator on the three 
 animals which in sultry climates are, by this arrangement, 
 enabled to traverse arid regions in the service of man.^ 
 To show this peculiar organization where it attains its 
 fullest development, I have given a sketch of the water- 
 cells in the stomach of the camel on the preceding page. 
 
 The food of the elephant is so abundant, that in 
 feeding he never appears to be impatient or voracious, 
 but rather to play with the leaves and branches on 
 which he leisurely feeds. In riding by places where a 
 herd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen the bark 
 peeled curiously off the twigs, as though it had been 
 done in mere dalliance. In the same way in eating 
 grass the elephant selects a tussac which he draws fropi 
 the ground by a dexterous twist of his trunk, and 
 nothing can be more graceful than the ease with which, 
 before conveying it to his mouth, he beats the earth 
 from its roots by striking it gently upon his fore-leg. 
 A coco-nut he first rolls under foot, to detach the strong 
 outer bark, then stripping off with his trunk the thick 
 layer of fibre within, he places the shell in his mouth, 
 and swallows with evident relish the fresh liquid which 
 flows as he crushes it between his grinders. 
 
 The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for 
 the periodical appearance of the elephants, at the precise 
 
 ^ The buffalo and the humped water, somewhat more conspicuous 
 
 cattle of India, which are used for than in the rest of their congeners ; 
 
 draught and burden, have, I be- but nothing that approaches in 
 
 liere, a development of the organi- singularity of character to the 
 
 sation of the reticulum which distinct cavities in the stomach 
 
 enables the ruminants generally to exhibited by the three animals 
 
 endure thirst, and abstain from above alluded to. 
 
330 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 time when the fruit of the palmyra palm begins to 
 fall to the ground from ripeness. In like manner in the 
 eastern provinces where the custom prevails of culti- 
 vating what is called chena land (by clearing a patch of 
 forest for the purpose of raising a single crop, after 
 which the ground is abandoned, and reverts to jungle 
 again), although a single elephant may not have been 
 seen in the neighbourhood during the early stages of the 
 process, the Moormen, who are the principal cultivators of 
 this class, will predict their appearance with almost un- 
 erring confidence so soon as the grains shall have begun 
 to ripen ; and although the crop comes to maturity at 
 different periods in different districts, herds are certain 
 to be seen at each in succession, as soon as it is ready to 
 be cut. In these well-timed excursions, they resemble 
 the bison of North America, which, by a similarly mys- 
 terious instinct, finds its way to portions of the distant 
 prairies, where accidental fires have been followed by a 
 growth of tender grass. Although the fences around 
 these chenas are little more than lines of reeds loosely 
 fastened together, they are sufficient, with the presence 
 of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of the ele- 
 phants, who wait patiently till the rice and covacan have 
 been removed, and the watcher withdrawn ; and, then 
 finding gaps in the fence, they may be seen gleaning 
 among the leavings and the stubble ; and they take their 
 departure when these are exhausted, apparently in the 
 direction of some other chena, which they have ascer- 
 tained to be about to be cut. 
 
 There is something still unexplained in the dread 
 which an elephant always exhibits on approaching a 
 fence, and the reluctance which he displays to face the 
 slightest artificial obstruction to his passage. In the 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHAKT. 131 
 
 fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by Anarajapoora, the 
 natives cultivate grain, during the dry season, around 
 the margin where the ground has been left bare by the 
 subsidence of the water. These little patches of rice 
 they enclose with small sticks an inch in diameter and 
 five or six feet in height, such as would scarcely serve to 
 keep out a wild hog if he attempted to force his way 
 through. Passages of from ten to twenty feet wide are 
 left between each field, to permit the wild elephants, 
 which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal 
 visits to the water still remainingr in the tank. Mg^ht 
 after night these open pathways are frequented by im- 
 mense herds, but the tempting corn is never touched, 
 nor is a single fence disturbed, although the merest 
 movement of a trunk would be sufficient to demolish 
 the fragile structure. Yet the same spots, the fences 
 being left open as soon as the grain has been cut and 
 carried home, are eagerly entered by the elephants to 
 glean amongst the stubble. 
 
 Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when en- 
 raged by a wound, will hesitate to charge an assailant 
 across an intervening hedge, but will hurry along it to 
 seek for an opening. It is possible that, on the part of 
 the elephant, there may be some instinctive conscious- 
 ness, that o^ving to his superior bulk, he is exposed to 
 danger from sources that might be perfectly harmless in 
 the case of lighter animals, and hence his suspicion that 
 every fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some simi- 
 lar apprehension is apparent in the deer, which shrinks 
 from attempting a fence of wire, although it will clear 
 without hesitation a solid wall of s^reater heio^ht. 
 
 At the same time, the caution with which the elephant 
 is supposed to approach insecure ground and places of 
 
 K 2 
 
132 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 doubtfuP solidity, appears to me, so far as my own ob- 
 servation and experience extend, to be exaggerated, and 
 the number of temporary bridges which are annually 
 broken down by elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is 
 sufficient to show that, although in captivity, and when 
 familiar with such structures, the tame ones may, and 
 doubtless do, exhilnt all the weariness attributed to them; 
 yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst unaccustomed to 
 such artificial appliances, their instincts are not suffi- 
 cient to ensure their safety. Besides, the fact is adverted 
 to elsewhere^, that the chiefs of the Wanny, during the 
 sovereignty of the Dutch, were accustomed to take in 
 pitfalls the elephants which they rendered as tribute to 
 government. 
 
 A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the 
 spirit of curiosity with which an elephant regards an 
 unaccustomed object has been frequently mentioned to 
 me by the officers engaged in opening roads through the 
 forest. On such occasions the wooden " tracing pegs " 
 which they are obliged to drive into the ground to mark 
 the levels taken during the day, will often be withdrawn 
 by the elephants during the night, to such an extent as 
 frequently to render it necessary to go over the work a 
 second time, in order to replace them.-^ 
 
 Colonel Haedy, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master- 
 Greneral in Ceylon, when proceeding, about the 3^ear 
 1820, to a military out-post in the south-east of the 
 island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part of 
 
 * " One of the strongest instincts rol. i. pp. 17, 19, 66. 
 which the elephant possesses, is this - Wolf's Life and Adventures, 
 
 which impels him to experiment p. 151. See p. 115, note. 
 upon the solidity of every siu-face ^ Private Letter from Dr. Davy, 
 
 which he is required to cross." — 2l\\X\\ov oi An Account of the Interior 
 
 Menageries, ^c. " The Elephant," of Ceylon. 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 133 
 
 the coast, intending to take a short cut through the 
 forest, to his destination. He not only miscalculated 
 the distance, but, on the approach of nightfall, he was 
 chased by a vicious rogue elephant. The pursuer was 
 nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he flung down a 
 small dressing-case, which he happened to be carrjdng. 
 The device was successful ; the elephant halted and 
 minutely examined its contents, and thus gave the 
 colonel time to effect his escape.^ 
 
 As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, al- 
 though it has not been over-rated in the instances of 
 those Avhose powers have been largely developed in 
 captivity, an undue estimate has been formed in rela- 
 tion to them whilst still untamed. The difference of 
 instincts and habits renders it difficult to institute a just 
 comparison between them and other animals. Cuvier^ 
 is disposed to ascribe the exalted idea that prevails of 
 their intellect to the feats which an elephant performs 
 with that unique instrument, its trunk, combined with 
 an imposing expression of countenance : but he records 
 his own conviction that in sagacity it in no way excels 
 the dog, and some other species of Carnivora. If there 
 be a superiority, I am disposed to award it to the dog, 
 not from any excess of natural capacity, but from the 
 
 * The Colombo Observer for the estate, whence it was its cus- 
 
 March 1858, contains an offer of a torn to sally forth at night for the 
 
 reward of twenty-fiye guineas for pleasure of pulling down buildings 
 
 the destruction of an elephant which and trees, " and it seemed to have 
 
 infested the Rajawalle coffee plan- taken a spite at the pipes of the 
 
 tation, in the vicinity of Kandy. water-works, the pillars of which 
 
 Its object seemed to be less the it several times broke down — its 
 
 search for food, than the satisfying latest fancy being to wrench off the 
 
 of its curiosity and the gratifica- taps," This elephant has since 
 
 tion of its passion for mischief, been shot. 
 
 IVIr. Tytleb, the proprietor, states ^ Cuvier, Eegne Animal. " Les 
 
 that it frequented the jungle near jMammiferes," p. 280. 
 
 K 3 
 
134 MAMMALIA. [Chap. HI. 
 
 higher degree of development consequent on his more 
 intimate domestication and association with man. 
 
 One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a 
 gentleman who resided on a coffee plantation at Eassawe, 
 one of the loftiest mountains of the Ambogammoa range. 
 More than once during the terrific thunder-bursts that 
 precede the rains at the change of each monsoon, he ob- 
 served that the elephants in the adjoining forest hastened 
 from under cover of the trees and took up their station 
 in the open ground, where I saw them on one of these 
 occasions collected into a group ; and here, he said, it 
 was their custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, 
 when they retired again into the jungle.^ It must be 
 observed, however, that showers, and especially light 
 drizzling rain, are believed to bring the elephants from 
 the jungle towards pathways or other openings in the 
 forest; — and hence, in places infested by them, timid 
 persons are afraid to travel in the afternoon during 
 uncertain weather. 
 
 When free in its native woods the elephant evinces 
 rather simplicity than sagacity, and its intelligence 
 seldom exhibits itself in cunning. The rich profusion in 
 which nature has supplied its food, and anticipated its 
 every want, has made it independent of those devices 
 by which carnivorous animals provide for their sub- 
 sistence; and, from the absence of all rivalry between 
 it and the other denizens of the plains, it is never 
 required to resort to artifice for self-protection. For 
 these reasons, in its tranquil and harmless life, it may 
 appear to casual observers to exhibit even less than 
 
 ' The elephant is believed by the of rain; and the Tamils have a 
 Singhalese to express his uneasi- proverb. — '•'•Listen to the elephant , 
 ness by his voice, on the approach rain is coming" 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHAXT. I35 
 
 ordinary ability ; but when danger and apprehension call 
 for the exertion of its powers, those who have witnessed 
 their display are seldom inclined to undervalue its sa- 
 gacity. 
 
 Mr. Ceipps has related to me an instance in which a 
 recently captured elephant was either rendered senseless 
 from fear, or, as the native attendants asserted, feigned 
 death in order to regain its freedom. It was led from 
 the corral as usual between two tame ones, and had al- 
 ready proceeded far towards its destination; when 
 night closing in, and the torches being lighted, it re- 
 fused to go on, and finally sank to the ground, appar- 
 ently lifeless. Mr. Cripps ordered the fastenings to be 
 removed from its legs, and when all attempts to raise it 
 had failed, so convinced was he that it was dead, that he 
 ordered the ropes to be taken off and the carcase aband- 
 oned. While this was being done he and a gentleman 
 by whom he was accompanied leaned against the body 
 to rest. They had scarcely taken their departure and 
 proceeded a few yards, when, to their astonishment, the 
 elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, and fled towards 
 the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its cries 
 being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades 
 of the forest. 
 
 K 4 
 
136 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. 
 
 NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO 
 ENCOLTJTERS WITH ROGUE ELEPHANTS. 
 
 The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese 
 gentleman, from the statements of the natives by whom 
 they are recounted; — and they are here inserted, in order to 
 show the opinion prevalent amongst the people of Ceylon as 
 to the habits and propensities of the rogue elephant. The 
 stories are given in words of my correspondent, who writes in 
 English, as follows : — 
 
 1. " We," said my informant, who w^as a native trader of 
 Caltura, " were on our way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora 
 and Balangodde, to barter our merchandize for coffee. There 
 were six in our party, myself, my brother-in-law, and four 
 coolies, who carried on pingoesi our merchandize, which con- 
 sisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4 o'clock, p. m., we 
 were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were rather unwilling 
 to go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sure 
 to be met with at that noted place, especially as there had been 
 a slight drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon, I was 
 as much afraid of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I 
 was anxious to proceed, and so, after a few words of encourage- 
 ment addressed to them, and a prayer or two offered up to 
 Saman dewhjo^y we resumed our journey. I also took the 
 
 * Yokes borne on the shoulder, ^ The tutelary spirit of the sa- 
 with a package at each end. cred mountain, Adam's Peak. 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 137 
 
 ilirther precaution of hanging up a few leaves.^ As the rain 
 was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxious to get 
 to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace. 
 My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself Avas 
 in the rear, and the four coolies between us, all moving 
 along on a rugged, rocky, and difficult path ; as the road to 
 Badulla till lately was on the sloping side of a hill, covered 
 with jungle, pieces of projecting rock, and brushwood. It 
 was about five o'clock in the evening, or a little later, and we 
 had hardly cleared the foot of the hill and got to the plain 
 below, Avhen a rustling of leaves and a crackling of dry brush- 
 wood were heard on our right, followed immediately by the 
 trumpeting of a hora allia^^ which was making towards us. We 
 all fled, followed by the elephant. I, who was in the rear of 
 the party, was the first to take to flight; the coolies threw away 
 their pingoes, and my brother-in-law his umbrella, and all ran 
 in different directions. I hid myself behind a large boulder of 
 granite nearly covered by jungle : but as my place of conceal- 
 ment was on high ground, I could see all that was going on 
 below. The first thing I observed was the elephant returning 
 to the place where one of the pingoes was lying : he was 
 carrying one of the coolies in a coil of his trunk. The 
 body of the man was dangling with the head downward. I 
 cannot say whether he was then alive or not ; I could not 
 perceive any marks of blood or bruises on his person : but 
 he appeared to be lifeless. The elephant placed him do^vn 
 on the groimd, put the pingo on his (the man's) shoulder, 
 steadying both the man and the pingo with his trunk 
 and fore-legs. But the man of course did not move or stand 
 up with his pingo. Seeing this, the elephant again raised the 
 cooly and dashed him against the ground, and then trampled 
 
 ^ The Singhalese hold the be- pecially of elephants. Can it be 
 
 lief, that twigs taken from one that the latter avoid the path, on 
 
 bush and placed on another grow- discovering this evidence of the 
 
 ing close to a pathway, ensure proximity of recent passengers ? 
 
 protection to travellers from the ^ A rogue elephant, 
 attacks of wild animals, and es- 
 
138 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 the body to a very jelly. This done, he took up the pingo and 
 moved away from the spot ; but at the distance of about a 
 fathom or two, laid it down again, and ripping open one of the 
 bundles, took out of it all the contents, somans^, cambdyas^j 
 handkerchiefs, and several pieces of white cambrick cloth, all 
 which he tore to small pieces, and flung them wildly here and 
 there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. When 
 this was over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle, 
 trumpeting all the way as far as I could hear. When danger 
 was past I came out of my concealment, and retui^ned to the 
 place where we had halted that morning. Here the rest 
 of my companions joined me soon after. The next morning 
 we set out again on our joui'ney, our party being now increased 
 by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle : but this 
 time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the 
 mangled corpse of our cooly on the same spot where I had seen 
 it the day before, together with the torn pieces of my cloths, 
 of which we collected as fast as we could the few which were 
 serviceable, and all the brass utensils Avhich were quite unin- 
 jured. That elephant was a noted rogue. He had before this 
 killed many people on that road, especially those carrying 
 pingoes of coco-nut oil and ghee. He was afterwards lulled 
 by an Englishman. The incidents I have mentioned above, 
 took place about twenty years ago." 
 
 The following also relates to the same locality. It was 
 narrated to me by an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during 
 his earlier years, led the life of a pedlar. 
 
 2. " I and another," said he, " were on our way to Badulla, 
 one day some twenty-five or thii'ty years ago. We were 
 ({uietly moving along a path which wound round a hill, when 
 all of a sudden, and without the slightest previous intimation 
 either by the rustling of leaves or by any other sign, a huge 
 elephant with short tusks rushed to the path. Wliere he had 
 been before I can't say ; I believe he must have been lying in 
 
 * Woman's robe. ^ The figured cloth worn by men. 
 
Chap. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 139 
 
 wait for travellers. In a moment lie rushed forward to 
 the road, trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my companion. I, 
 who happened to be in the rear, took to flight, pursued by 
 the elephant, which had already killed my companion by 
 strikinfT him against the grround. I had not moved more than 
 seven or eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threw 
 me up with such force, that I was carried high into the air 
 towards a Caliata tree, whose branches caught me and pre- 
 vented my falling to the groimd. By this I received no other 
 injury than the dislocation of one of my wrists. I do not know 
 whether the elephant saw me after he had hurled me away 
 through the air; but certainly he did not come to the 
 tree to which I was then clinging : even if he had come, he 
 couldn't have done me any more harm, as the branch on 
 which I was was far beyond the reach of his trunk, and the 
 tree itself too large for him to pull down. The next thing 
 I saw was the elephant retm-ning to the corpse of my com- 
 panion, which he again threw on the ground, and placing one 
 of his fore feet on it, he tore it with his trunk limb after limb ; 
 and dabbled in the blood that flowed from the shapeless mass 
 of flesh which he was still holding under his foot." 
 
 3. "In 1847 or '46," said another informant, "I was a 
 superintendent of a coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage, 
 situated about twelve miles from Negombo. A rogue elephant 
 did considerable injury to the estate at that time; and one day, 
 hearing that it was then on the plantation, a Mr. Lindsay, an 
 Englishman, who Avas proprietor of the adjoining property, and 
 myself, accomjDanied by some seven or eight people of the 
 neighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles 
 loaded and primed. We continued to walk along a path which, 
 near one of its turns, had some bushes on one side. We had 
 calculated to come up with the brute where it had been seen 
 half an hour before ; but no sooner had one of our men, 
 who was walking foremost, seen the animal at the distance 
 of some fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he exclaimed, 
 ' There ! there!' and immediately took to his heels, and we all 
 
140 MAMMALIA. [Chap. III. 
 
 followed his example. The elephant did not see us until we 
 had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the spot w^here 
 we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming frightfully as he 
 came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and 
 the rest of my companions did the same ; as for myself I 
 could not, although I made one or two superhuman efforts. 
 But there was no time to be lost. The elephant was running 
 at me with his trunk bent down in a curve towards the ground. 
 At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out his foot to me, 
 with the help of which and then of the branches of the tree, 
 which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to 
 scramble up to a branch. The elephant came directly to the 
 tree and attempted to force it down, Avhich he could not. He 
 first coiled his trunk round the stem, and pulled it with all his 
 might, but with no effect. He then applied his head to the 
 tree, and pushed for several minutes, but with no better 
 success. He then trampled with his feet all the projecting 
 roots, moving, as he did so, several times round and 
 round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, and seeing a pile of 
 timber, which I had lately cut, at a short distance from us, he 
 removed it all (thirty-six pieces) one at a time to the root of 
 the tree, and piled them \vp in a regular business-like manner ; 
 then placing his hind feet on this pile, he raised the fore part 
 of his body, and reached out his trunk, but still he could not 
 touch us, as we were too far above him. The Englishman then 
 fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the elephant's 
 head, but did not kill him. It made him only the more furious. 
 The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I 
 afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it 
 is still to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage." 
 
 4. " One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the 
 Four Corles. After doing considerable injury to plaintain 
 bushes and young coco-nut trees, they retired, the villagers 
 being unable to do anything to protect their fruit trees from 
 destruction. But one elephant was left behind, who continued 
 to scream the whole night through at the same spot. It was 
 
CnAr. III.] THE ELEPHANT. 141 
 
 then discovered that the elephant, on seeing a jak fruit on a tree 
 somewhat beyond the reach of his trunk, had raised himself on 
 his hind legs, placing his fore feet against the stem, in order to 
 lay hold of the fruit, but unluckily for him there happened to 
 be another tree standing so close to it that the vacant space 
 between the two stems was only a few inches. During his 
 attempts to take hold of the fruit one of his legs happened to 
 get in between the two trees, where, on account of his weight 
 and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself, it got so firmly 
 wedged that he could not remove it, and in this awkward 
 position he remained for some days, till he died on the spot." 
 
142 MAMMALIA. [Chap. IV. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Elephant Shooting. 
 
 As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and 
 adroitness the sport may display in other respects, requires 
 the smallest possible skill as a marksman, the numbers 
 which are annually slain in this wa}^ may be regarded as 
 evidence of the multitudes abounding in those parts of 
 Ceylon to which they resort. One officer, Major Eogees, 
 killed upwards of 1400 ; another. Captain GtALLWEY, has 
 the credit of slaying more than half that number; Major 
 Skinner, the Commissioner of Roads, almost as many ; and 
 less persevering aspirants follow at humbler distances.^ 
 
 * To persons like myself, who that although man is naturally 
 are not addicted to what is called bloodthirsty, and a beast of prey 
 " sport," the statement of these by instinct, yet that the true 
 wholesale slaughters is calculated sportsman is distinguished from 
 to excite surprise and curiosity as the rest of the human race by his 
 to the natm'e of a passion tliat " love of nature and of noble sce- 
 impels men to self-exposure and neryT In support of this preten- 
 privation, in a pursuit which pre- sion to a gentler nature than the 
 sents nothing but the monotonous rest of mankind, the author pro- 
 recurrence of scenes of blood and ceeds to attest his own abliorrence 
 suffering. Mr. Baker, who has of cruelty by narrating the suf- 
 recently published, under the title ferings of an old hound, which, 
 of " The Rifle and the Hound in although " toothless," he cheered 
 Ceylon,'' an account of his exploits on to assail a boar at bay, but the 
 in the forest, gives us the assur' poor dog recoiled " covered with 
 ance that '■'all real sportsmen are blood, cut nearly in half, with a 
 tender-hearted men, who shun cru- wound fourteen inches in hmgth, 
 city to an animal, and are easily from the lower part of the belly, 
 'moved by a tale of distress;" smid. passing up the flank, completely 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 143 
 
 But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a re- 
 ward of a few shillings per head offered by the Grovern- 
 ment for taking elephants was claimed for 3500 destroyed 
 in part of the northern province alone, in less than three 
 years prior to 1848: and between 1851 and 1856, a 
 similar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern pro- 
 vince, between Gralle and Hambangtotte. 
 
 Although there is little opportunity for the display of 
 marksmanship in an elephant battue, there is one feature 
 in the sport, as conducted in Ceylon, which contrasts 
 favourably mth the slaughterhouse details chronicled 
 with revolting minuteness in some recent accounts of 
 
 severing the muscles of the hind 
 leg, and extending up the spine ; 
 his hind leg having tlie appearance 
 of being nearly off." In this state, 
 forgetful of the character he had 
 so lately given of the true sports- 
 man, as a lover of nature and a 
 hater of cruelty, he encouraged 
 "the poor old dog," as he calls 
 him, to resume the fight with the 
 boar, which lasted for an hour, 
 when he managed to call the dogs 
 off; and perfectly exhausted, the 
 mangled hound crawled out of the 
 jungle with several additional 
 wounds, including a severe gash 
 in his throat. " He fell from 
 exhaustion, and we made a litter 
 with two poles and a horsecloth to 
 carry him home." — P. 314. If 
 such were the habitual enjoyments 
 of this class of sportsmen, their 
 motiveless massacres would admit 
 of no manly justification. In com- 
 parison with them one is disposed 
 to regard almost with favour the 
 exploits of a hunter like Major 
 EoGERS, who is said to have applied 
 the value of the ivory obtained 
 from his encounters towards the 
 purchase of his successive regi- 
 
 mental commissions, and had, 
 therefore, an object, however dis- 
 proportionate, in his slaughter of 
 1400 elephants. 
 
 One gentleman in Ceylon, not 
 less distinguished for his genuine 
 kindness of heart, than for his 
 marvellous success in shooting ele- 
 phants, avowed to me that the 
 eagerness with which he found 
 himself impelled to pursue them 
 had often excited surprise in his 
 own mind ; and although he had 
 never read the theory of Lord 
 Kames, or the specidations of Vi- 
 cesimus Knox, he had come to the 
 conclusion that the passion thus 
 excited within him was a remnant 
 of the hunter's instinct, with which 
 man was originally endowed to 
 enable him, by the chase, to sup- 
 port existence in a state of nature, 
 and which, though rendered dor- 
 mant by civilisation, had not been 
 utterly eradicated. 
 
 This theory is at least more 
 consistent and intelligible than 
 the "love of nature and scenery," 
 sentimentally propounded by the 
 author quoted above. 
 
144 MMIMALIA. [Chap. IV. 
 
 elephant shooting in South Africa. The practice in 
 Ceylon is to aim invariably at the head, and the sportsman 
 finds his safety to consist in boldly facing the animal, 
 advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet, 
 either in the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in 
 a well-known spot immediately above the trunk, where 
 the weaker structure of the skull affords an easy access 
 to the brain.^ The region of the ear is also a fatal spot, 
 and often resorted to, — the places I have mentioned in 
 the front of the head being only accessible when the 
 animal is "charging." Professor Harrison, in his 
 communication to the Eoyal Irish Academy on the 
 Anatomy of the Elephant, has rendered an intelligible 
 explanation of this in the following passage descriptive 
 of the cranium : — "it exhibits two remarkable facts : 
 first, the small space occupied by the brain ; and, 
 secondly, the beautiful and curious structure of the bones 
 of the head. The two tables of all these bones, except 
 the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some 
 from four to five inches in length, others only small, 
 irregular, and honey-comb-like: — these all commu- 
 nicate with each other, and, through the frontal sinuses, 
 with the cavity of the nose, and also with the tympanum 
 or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some birds, 
 these cells are filled with air, and thus while the skull 
 attains a great size in order to afford an extensive surface 
 
 ' The vulnerability of the ele- standing the comparative facility 
 
 phant in this region of the head of access to the brain afforded at 
 
 was knowTi to the ancients, and this spot, an ordinary leaden bnl- 
 
 Pliny, describing a combat of ele- let is not certain to penetrate, and 
 
 phants in the amphitheatre at frequently becomes flattened. The 
 
 Eome, says, that one was slain by hunters, to counteract this, are 
 
 a single blow, "pilum sub oculo accustomed to harden the ball, by 
 
 adactum, in vitalia capitis vene- the introduction of a small portion 
 
 rat." (Lib. viii. c. 7.) Notwith- of type-metal along with the lead. 
 
Chap. IV.] THE ELEPHANT. 145 
 
 for the attachment of muscles, and a mechanical support 
 for the tusks, it is at the same time very light and 
 buoyant in proportion to its bulk ; a property the more 
 valuable as the animal is fond of water and bathes in 
 deep rivers." 
 
 SECTION OF ELEPHANT'S HEAD. 
 
 G-enerally speaking, a single ball, planted in the 
 forehead, ends the existence of the noble creature 
 instantaneously : and expert sportsmen have been known 
 to kill right and left, one with each barrel ; but occa- 
 sionally an elephant will not fall before several shots 
 have been lodged in his head.^ 
 
 * " There is a wide difference of I tMnk the temple the most certain, 
 opinion as to the most deadly shot, but authority in Ceylon says the 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 MA^IMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the 
 sickening details of the African huntsman approaching 
 hekind the retiring animal, and of the torture inflicted 
 by the shower of bullets which tear up its flesh and 
 lacerate its flank and shoulders.^ 
 
 ' fronter,' that is, above the trunk. 
 Behind the ear is said to be deadly, 
 but that is a shot which I never 
 fired or saw fired that I remember. 
 If the ball go true to its mark, all 
 shots (in the head) are certain ; 
 but the bones on either side of the 
 honey-comb passage to the brain 
 are so thick that there is in all a 
 'glorious uncertainty' which keeps 
 a man on the qui vive till he sees 
 the elephant down." — From a paper 
 on Elephant Shooting in Ceylon, by 
 Major Maceeady, late Military 
 Secretary at Colombo. 
 
 ^ In Mi\ Gordon Ciimming's ac- 
 count of a Hunter's Life in South 
 Africa, there is a narrative of his 
 pursuit of a wounded elephant 
 which he had lamed by lodging a 
 ball in its shoulder-blade. It limped 
 slowly towards a tree, against 
 which it leaned itself in helpless 
 agony, whilst its pursuer seated 
 himself in front of it, in safety, to 
 hoil his coffee, and observe its suffer- 
 ings. The story is continued as 
 follows: — "Having admired him 
 for a considerable time, I resolved 
 to make eccperiments on vulnerable 
 points ; and approaching very near 
 I fired several bullets at different 
 parts of his enormous skull. He 
 only acknowledged the shots by a 
 salaam-like movement of his trunk, 
 with the point of which he gently 
 touched the wounds with a strik- 
 ing and peculiar action. Surprised 
 and shocked at finding that I was 
 only prolonging the sufferings of the 
 noble beast, which bore its trials 
 with such dignified composure, I 
 
 resolved to finish the proceeding 
 with all possible despatch, and ac- 
 cordingly opened fire upon him 
 from the left side, aiming at the 
 shoulder. I first fired six shots 
 with the two-grooved rifle, which 
 must have eventually proved mortal. 
 After which I fired six shots at the 
 same part with the Dutch six- 
 pounder. Large tears novj tricMed 
 from his eyes, which he slowly shut 
 and opened, his colossal frame 
 shivered convulsively, and falling 
 on his side, he expired." (Vol. ii. 
 p. 10.) _ 
 
 In another place, after detamng 
 the manner in which he assailed a 
 poor animal — he says, "I was 
 loading and fii'ing as fast as could 
 be, sometimes at the head, some- 
 times behind the shoulder, until 
 my elephant's fore-quarter was a 
 mass of gore ; notwithstanding 
 which he continued to hold on, 
 leaving the grass and branches of 
 the forest scarlet in his wake. * 
 * * S.-dYmg&cedthi7'ty-Jiveroimds 
 with my two-grooved rifle, I opened 
 upon him with the Dutch six- 
 pounder, and when forty bullets 
 had perforated his hide, he began 
 for the first time, to evince signs of 
 a dilapidated constitution." The 
 disgusting description is closed 
 thus : " Throughout the charge he 
 repeatedly cooled his person with 
 large quantities of water, which he 
 ejected from his trunk over his 
 sides and back, and just as the 
 pangs of death came over him, he 
 stood trembling violently beside a 
 thorn tree, and kept pouring waters 
 
Chap. IV.] THE ELEPHANT. 147 
 
 The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been de- 
 scribed with tiresome iteration in the successive journals 
 of sporting gentlemen, but one who turns to their pages 
 for traits of the animal and his instincts is disappointed 
 to find little beyond graphic sketches of the daring and 
 exploits of his pursuers, most of whom, having had no 
 further opportunity of observation than is derived from a 
 casual encounter with the outraged animal, have ap- 
 parently tried to exalt their own prowess, by misrepre- 
 senting the ordinary character of the elephant, describing 
 him as " savage, wary, and revengeful." ^ 
 
 These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts 
 from the herd, the " Eogues " or hora allia, but so small 
 is the proportion of these that there is not probably one 
 rogue to be found for every five hundred of those in 
 herds ; and it is a manifest error, arising from imperfect 
 information, to extend this censure to them generally, 
 or to suppose the elephant to be an animal " thirsting 
 for blood, lying in wait in the jungle to rush on the 
 unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasure than 
 the act of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath 
 his feet." ^ The cruelties practised by the hunters have 
 no doubt taught these sagacious creatures to be cautious 
 and alert, but their precautions are simply defensive; 
 and beyond the alarm and apprehension which they 
 
 into Ms bloody moutli until he died, ^ The Piifle and the Hound in 
 
 when he pitched heavily forward Ceylon ; by S. W. Baxeb, Esq., pp. 
 
 with the whole weight of his fore- 8, 9. "Next to a rogue," says Mr. 
 
 quarters resting on the points of his Bakee, "in ferocity, and even more 
 
 tusks. The strain was fair, and persevering in the pursuit of her 
 
 the tusks did not yield ; but the victim, is a female elephant." But 
 
 portion of his head in which the he appends the significant qualifi- 
 
 tusks were embedded, extending a cation, " when her young one has 
 
 long way above the eye, yielded and been killed r-^Ibid., p. 13. 
 burst with a nniffled crash." — {lb., 2 j^^'c^^ 
 vol. ii. pp. 4, o.) 
 
 L 2 
 
148 MAMMALIA. [Chap. TV. 
 
 evince on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication 
 of hostility or thirst for blood. 
 
 An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants 
 unless after sunset or towards daybreak, as they go to or 
 return from their nightly visits to the tanks : but when 
 by accident a herd is disturbed by day, they evince, if 
 unattacked, no disposition to become assailants ; and if 
 the attitude of defence which they instinctively assume 
 prove sufficent to check the approach of the intruder, no 
 further demonstration is to be apprehended. 
 
 Even the hunters who go in search of them find them 
 in positions and occupations altogether inconsistent with 
 the idea of their being savage, wary, or revengeful. 
 Their demeanour when undisturbed is indicative of 
 gentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak las- 
 situde and indolence, induced not alone by heat, but 
 probably ascribable in some degree to the fact that 
 the night has been spent in watchfulness and amuse- 
 ment. A few are generally browsing listlessly on the 
 trees and plants within reach, others fanning themselves 
 with leafy branches, and a few are asleep ; whilst the 
 young run playfully among the herd, the emblems of 
 innocence, as the older ones are of peacefulness and 
 gravity. 
 
 Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit 
 some peculiar action of the limbs when standing at rest ; 
 some move the head monotonously in a circle, or from 
 right to left ; some swing their feet back and forward ; 
 others flap their ears or sway themselves from side to side, 
 or rise and sink by alternately bending and straightening 
 the fore knees. As the opportunities of observing this 
 custom have been almost confined to elephants in cap- 
 tivity, it has been conjectured to arise from some morbid 
 
Chap. IV.] THE ELEPHANT. 149 
 
 habit contracted during the length of a voyage by sea ^, 
 or from an instinctive impulse to substitute a motion of 
 this kind in lieu of their wonted exercise ; but this sup- 
 position is erroneous ; the propensity being equally 
 displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. 
 When surprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, 
 individuals of a herd are always occupied in swinging 
 their limbs in this manner; and in the several corrals 
 which I have seen, where whole herds have been captured, 
 the elephants in the midst of the utmost excitement, and 
 even after the most vigorous charges, if they halted for 
 a moment in stupor and exhaustion, manifested their 
 wonted habit, and swung their limbs or swayed their 
 bodies to and fro incessantly. So far from its being a 
 substitute for exercise, those in the government employ- 
 ment in Ceylon are observed to practise their acquired 
 motion, whatever it may be, with increased vigour when 
 thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even the 
 favourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy 
 branch seems less an enjoyment in itself than a resource 
 when listless and at rest. The term " fidgetty " seems 
 to describe appropriately the temperament of the ele- 
 phant. 
 
 They evince the strongest love of retirement and a 
 corresponding disUke to intrusion. The approach of a 
 stranger is perceived less by the eye, the quickness of 
 which is not remarkable (besides which its range is 
 obscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and 
 singular acuteness of hearing ; and the whole herd is 
 put in instant but noiseless motion towards some deeper 
 and more secure retreat. The effectual manner in 
 
 * Menageries, §-c., " The Elephant," ch. i p. 21. 
 L 3 
 
150 MA^IMALIA. [Chap. IV. 
 
 which an animal of the prodigious size of the elephant 
 can conceal himself, and the motionless silence which 
 he preserves, is quite surprising ; whilst beaters pass and 
 repass within a few yards of his hiding place, he will 
 maintain his ground till the hunter, creeping almost 
 close to his legs, sees his little eye peering out through 
 the leaves, when, finding himself discovered, the elephant 
 breaks away -with a crash, levelling the brushwood in his 
 headlong career. 
 
 If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is 
 impracticable, a herd will hesitate in indecision, and, 
 after a few meaningless movements, stand huddled toge- 
 ther in a group, whilst one or two, more adventurous 
 than the rest, advance a few steps to reconnoitre. Ele- 
 phants are generally observed to be bolder in open 
 ground than in cover, but, if bold at all, far more 
 dangerous in cover than in open ground. 
 
 In searching for them, sportsmen often avail them- 
 selves of the expertness of the native trackers; and 
 notwithstanding the demonstration of Combe that the 
 brain of the timid Singhalese is deficient in the organ 
 of destructiveness^, he shows an instinct for hunting, 
 and exhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage 
 and adroitness far surpassing in interest the mere hand- 
 ling of the rifle, which is the principal share of the 
 proceeding that falls to his Eiuropean companions. 
 
 The beater on these occasions has the double task of 
 finding the game and carrying the guns; and, in an 
 animated communication to me, an experienced sports- 
 man describes " this light and active creature, with his 
 long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders, every 
 
 * System of Phrenology, by Geo. Cosebe, toI. i. p. 256. 
 
Chap. IY.] THE ELEPHANT. 151 
 
 muscle quivering with excitement ; and his countenance 
 lighting up with intense animation, leaping from rock to 
 rock, as nimble as a deer, tracking the gigantic game like 
 a blood-hound, falling behind as he comes up with it, 
 and as the elephants, baffled and irritated, make the first 
 stand, passing one rifle into your eager hand and holding 
 the other ready whilst right and left each barrel performs 
 its mission, and if fortune does not flag, and the second 
 gun is as successful as the first, three or four huge 
 carcases are piled one on another within a space equal 
 to the area of a dining room."^ 
 
 It is curious that in these encounters the herd never 
 rush forward in a body, as buffaloes or bisons do, but 
 only one elephant at a time moves in advance of the 
 rest to confront, or, as it is called, to *^ charge," the 
 assailants. I have heard of but one instance in which 
 two so advanced as champions of their companions. 
 Sometimes, indeed, the whole herd will follow a leader, 
 and manoeuvre in his rear like a body of cavalry ; but 
 so large a party are necessarily liable to panic ; and, one 
 of them having turned in alarm, the entire body retreat 
 with terrified precipitation. 
 
 As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety 
 of temperament is observable amongst elephants, but it 
 may be affirmed that they are much more generally 
 timid than courageous. One herd may be as difficult 
 to approach as deer, gliding away through the jungle so 
 gently and quickly that scarcely a trace marks their 
 passage ; another, in apparent stupor, will huddle them- 
 selves together like swine, and allow their assailant to 
 come within a few yards before they break away in 
 
 * Private letter from Capt. Philip Payne Gtall-wet. 
 L 4 
 
152 MAMMALIA. [Chap. IV. 
 
 terror; and a third will await his approach without 
 motion, and then advance with fury to the " charge." 
 
 In individuals the same differences are discernible; 
 one flies on the first appearance of danger, whilst 
 another, alone and unsupported, will face a whole host 
 of enemies. When wounded and infuriated with pain, 
 many of them become literally savage ^ ; but, so unac- 
 customed are they to act as assailants, and so awkward 
 and inexpert in using their strength, that they rarely or 
 ever exceed in killing a pursuer who falls into their 
 power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow with the 
 trunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to 
 prove fatal, three-fourths of those who have fallen into 
 their power have escaped without serious injury. So 
 great is this chance of impunity, that the sportsman 
 prefers to approach within about fifteen paces of the ad- 
 vancing elephant, a space which gives time for a second 
 fire should the first shot prove ineffectual, and should 
 both fail there is still opportunity for flight. 
 
 Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can 
 escape from an elephant by " dodging " round the trees, 
 but in cleared land, and low brushwood, the difficulty is 
 much increased, as the small growth of underwood which 
 obstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle to 
 those of an elephant. On the other hand, on level and 
 open ground the chances are rather in favour of the ele- 
 phant, as his pace in full flight exceeds that of man, 
 although as a general rule, it is unequal to that of a 
 horse, as has been sometimes asserted.^ 
 
 * Some years ago an elephant succeeded in making good its re- 
 
 whieli had been wounded by a treat to the jungle, 
 native, near Hambangtotte, pursued ^ Shaw, in his Zoology, asserts 
 
 the man into the town, followed that an elephant can run as swiftly 
 
 him along the street, trampled him as a horse can gallop. London, 
 
 to death in the bazaar before a 1800-6, vol, i. p. 216. 
 crowd of terrified spectators, and 
 
Chap. IV.] THE ELEPHANT. I53 
 
 The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in 
 Ceylon, appears to be merely in subordination to the in- 
 fluence of the organ of destructiveness, since the carcase 
 is never applied to any useful purpose, but left to de- 
 compose and to defile the air of the forest. The flesh is 
 occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity : as a steak 
 it is coarse and tough ; but the tongue is as delicate as 
 that of an ox ; and the foot is said to make palatable 
 soup. The Caflres attached to the pioneer corps in the 
 Kandyan province are in the habit of securing the 
 heart of any elephant shot in their vicinity, and say it 
 is their custom to eat it in Africa. The hide it has 
 been found impracticable to tan in Ceylon, or to con- 
 vert to any useful purpose, but the bones of those shot 
 have of late years been collected and used for manuring 
 coffee estates. The hair of the tail, which is extremely 
 strong and horny, is mounted by the native goldsmith, 
 and made into bracelets ; and the teeth are sawn by the 
 Moormen at Gralle (as they used to be by the Romans 
 during a scarcity of ivory) into plates, out of which they 
 fashion numerous articles of ornament, knife-handles, 
 card racks, and " presse-papiers." 
 
154 MMIMALIA. CChaf. IY. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I 
 venture to record here an instance which occurred in Ceylon 
 to a gentleman while engaged in the chase of elephants, and 
 which, I apprehend, has few parallels in pathological experience. 
 Lieutenant Gerard Fretz, of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment, whilst 
 firing at an elephant in the vicinity of Fort MacDonald, in 
 Oovah, was wounded in the face by the bursting of his fowling- 
 piece, on the 22nd January, 1828. He was then about thirty- 
 two years of age. On raising him, it was found that part of 
 the breech of the gun and about two inches of the barrel had 
 been driven tlirough the frontal sinus, at the junction of the 
 nose and forehead. It had sunk almost perpendicularly till 
 the iron-plate called " the tail-pin," by which the barrel is 
 made fast to the stock by a screw, had descended through the 
 palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of which had 
 forced itself into the right nostril, where it was discernible 
 externally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with his 
 tongue. To extract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the 
 ethmoidal and sphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracti- 
 cable ; but, strange to tell, after the inflammation subsided, 
 Mr. Fretz recovered rapidly; his general health was unim- 
 paired, and he returned to his regiment with this singular ap- 
 pendage firmly embedded behind the bones of his face. He 
 took his turn of duty as usual, attained the command of his 
 company, participated in all the enjoyments of the mess-room, 
 and died eight years afterwards^ on the 1st of April, 1836, not 
 from any consequences of this fearful wound, but from fever 
 and inflammation brought on by other causes. 
 
Chap. IV.] THE ELEPHATs^T. 155 
 
 So little was he apparently inconvenienced by the presence 
 of the strange body in his palate that he was accustomed with 
 his finger partially to undo the screw, which but for its extreme 
 length he might altogether have withdrawn. To enable this 
 to be done, and possibly to assist by this means the extraction 
 of the breech itself through the original orifice (which never 
 entirely closed), an attempt was made in 1835 to take off a 
 portion of the screw with a file ; but, after having cut it three 
 parts through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owing to 
 the carelessness and indifference of Capt. Fretz, whose death 
 occurred before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of 
 iron, on being removed after his decease, was found to measure 
 2|- inches in length, and weighed two scruples more than two 
 ounces and three quarters. A cast of the breech and screw 
 now forms No. 2790 amongst the deposits in the Medical 
 Museum of Chatham. 
 
156 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 An Elephant Corral. 
 
 So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required 
 in small numbers for the pageantry of the native prin- 
 ces, or the sacred processions of the Buddhist temples, 
 their capture was effected either by the instrumentality 
 of female decoys, or by the artifices and agility of the 
 individuals and castes who devoted themselves to their 
 pursuit and training. But after the arrival of the 
 European conquerors of the island, and when it had be- 
 come expedient to take advantage of the strength and 
 intelligence of these creatures in clearing forests and 
 making rOads and other works, establishments were or- 
 ganised on a great scale by the Portuguese and Dutch, 
 and the supply of elephants kept up by periodical 
 battues conducted at the cost of the government, on a 
 plan similar to that adopted on the continent of India, 
 when herds varying in number from twenty to one 
 hundred and upwards are driven into concealed en- 
 closures and secured. 
 
 In both these processes, success is entirely dependent 
 on the skill with which the captors turn to advantage 
 the terror and inexperience of the wild elephant, since 
 all attempts would be futile to subdue or confine by 
 ordinary force an animal of such strength and sagacity.^ 
 
 ^ The device of taking them by India: but in addition to the diffi- 
 means of pitfalls still prevails in culty of providing against that 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHAJS^T. 157 
 
 B^NOX describes with circumstantiality the mode 
 adopted, two centuries ago, by the servants of the King 
 of Kandy to catch elephants for the royal stud. He 
 says, "After discovering the retreat of such as have 
 tusks, unto these they drive some she elephants, which 
 they bring with them for the purpose, which, when 
 once the males have got a sight of, they will never 
 leave, but follow them wheresoever they go ; and the 
 females are so used to it that they will do whatsoever, 
 either by word or a beck, their keepers bid them. And 
 so they delude them along through towns and coun- 
 tries, and through the streets of the city, even to the 
 very gates of the king's palace, where sometimes they 
 seize upon them by snares, and sometimes by driving 
 them into a kind of pound, they catch them." ^ 
 
 In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin- 
 Indian Peninsula, when in pursuit of single elephants, 
 either rogues detached from the herd, or individuals 
 
 caution with which the elephant earth, which he placed underfoot 
 is supposed to reconnoitre suspi- as they were thrown down to him, 
 cious ground, it has the further till he was enabled to step out on 
 disadvantage of exposing him to soM ground, when the noosers and 
 injury from bruises and disloca- decoys were in readiness to tie him 
 tionsinhis fall. Still it was the up to the nearest tree." — See 
 mode of capture employed by the Wolf's Life and Adveritures, p. 
 Singhalese, and so late as 1750 152. Shakspeare appears to have 
 Wolf relates that the native chiefs been acquainted with the plan of 
 of the Wanny, when capturing ele- taking elephants in pitfalls : Decius, 
 phants for the Dutch, made " pits encouraging the conspirators, re- 
 some fathoms deep in those places minds them of Caesar's taste for 
 whither the elephant is wont to anecdotes of animals, by which he 
 go in search of food, across which would undertake to lure him to his 
 were laid poles covered with fate : 
 
 branches and baited with the food " For he loves to hear 
 
 of which he is fondest, making to- That unicorns may be betrayed with trees, 
 
 wards which he finds himself taken ""tlesT ' '' ' '^^''"'' ""'* 
 
 unawares. Thereafter being sub- Julius C^sar, Act ii. Scene I. 
 
 dued by fright and exhaustion, he ^ Ejg-Qx's Historical delation of 
 
 was assisted to raise himself to the Ceylon, a.d. 1681, part i. ch. vi< 
 
 surface by means of hurdles and p. 21. 
 
158 MAJVIMALU. [Chap. V. 
 
 who have been marked for the beauty of their ivory, 
 the natives avail themselves of the aid of females in 
 order to effect their approaches and secure an oppor- 
 tunity of casting a noose over the foot of the destined 
 captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admi- 
 ration of their courage and address ; but from what has 
 fallen under my own observation, added to the descriptions 
 I have heard from other eye-witnesses, I am inclined 
 to believe that in such exploits the Moormen of Ceylon 
 evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all others. 
 
 These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are 
 called, Panickeas, inhabit the Moorish villages in the 
 north and north-east of the island, and from time im- 
 memorial have been engaged in taking elephants, which 
 are afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the use of 
 the rajahs and native princes in the south of India, 
 whose vakeels are periodically despatched to make pur- 
 chases in Ceylon. 
 
 The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants 
 through the woods has almost the certainty of instinct ; 
 and hence their services are eagerly sought by the 
 European sportsmen who go down into their country in 
 search of game. So keen is their glance, that like hounds 
 running " breast high " they will follow the course of 
 an elephant, almost at the top of their speed, over 
 glades covered with stunted grass, where the eye of a 
 stranger would fail to discover a trace of its passage, 
 and on through forests strewn with dry leaves, where 
 it seems impossible to perceive a footstep. Here they 
 are guided by a bent or broken twig, or by a leaf 
 dropped from the animal's mouth, on which the pres- 
 sure of a tooth may be detected. If at fault, they fetch 
 a circuit like a setter, till lighting on some fresh marks. 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHAls^T. 159 
 
 they go a-head again with renewed vigour. So delicate 
 is the sense of smell in the elephant, and so indispen- 
 sable is it to go against the wind in approaching him, 
 that on those occasions when the wind is so still that its 
 direction cannot be otherwise discerned, the Panickeas 
 will suspend the film of a gossamer to determine it and 
 shape their course accordingly. 
 
 They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, 
 when impressed in soft clay, to describe the size as well 
 as the number of a herd before it is seen ; the height of 
 an elephant at the shoulder being as nearly as possible 
 twice the circumference of his fore foot.^ 
 
 On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous 
 as their sagacity. If they have confidence in the sports- 
 man for whom they are finding, they will advance to 
 the very heel of the elephant, slap him on the quarter, 
 and convert his timidity into anger, till he turns upon 
 his tormentor and exposes his front to receive the bullet 
 which is awaiting him.^ 
 
 * Previous to the death of the bivouacking on the bank of a river, 
 
 female elephant in the Zoological and had been kept out so late that 
 
 Gardens, in the Eegent's Park, in I did not get to my tent until be- 
 
 1851, !Mr. Mitchell, the Secre- t^vreen 9 and 10 at night. On our 
 
 tary, caused measurements to be return towards it we passed several 
 
 accurately made, and found the single elephants making their way 
 
 statement of the Singhalese hunters to the nearest water, but at length 
 
 to be strictly correct, the height at we came upon a large herd that had 
 
 the shoulders being precisely twice taken possession of the only road 
 
 the circumference of the fore foot, by which we could pass, and which 
 
 - Major Sktxxer, the Chief Offi- no intimidation would induce to 
 
 cer at the head of the Commission move off. I had some Panickeas 
 
 of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to with me ; they knew the herd, and 
 
 me, mentions an anecdote illus- counselled extreme caution. After 
 
 trative of the daring of the Panic- trpng every device we coidd think 
 
 keas. " I once saw," he says, " a of for a length of time, a little old 
 
 very beautiful example of the con- Moorman of the party came to me 
 
 fidence with which these fellows, and requested we should all retire 
 
 from their knowledge of the ele- to a distance. He then took a 
 
 phants, meet their worst defiance, couple of chules (flambeaux of dried 
 
 It was in Neuera-Kalawa ; I was wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in 
 
160 MAMMALIA. [Chap. Y. 
 
 So fearless and confident are they that two men, 
 without aid or attendants, will boldly attempt to cap- 
 ture the largest-sized elephant. Their only weapon is a 
 flexible rope made of elk's or buffalo's hide, with which 
 it is their object to secure one of the hind legs. This 
 they effect either by following in its footsteps when in 
 motion or by stealing close up to it when at rest, and 
 availing themselves of its well-known propensity at 
 such moments to swing the feet backwards and forwards, 
 they contrive to slip a noose over the hind leg. 
 
 At other times this is achieved by spreading the 
 noose on the ground partially concealed by roots and 
 leaves beneath a tree on which one of the party is sta- 
 tioned, whose business it is to lift it suddenly by means 
 of a cord, raising it on the elephant's leg at the moment 
 when his companion has succeeded in provoking him to 
 place his foot within the circle, the other end having 
 been previously made fast to -the stem of the tree. 
 Should the noosing be effected in open ground, and no 
 tree of sufficient strength at hand round which to wind 
 the rope, one of the Moors, allowing himself to be pur- 
 sued by the enraged elephant, entices him towards the 
 nearest grove ; where his companion, dexterously laying 
 hold of the rope as it trails along the ground, suddenly 
 coils it round a suitable stem, and brings the fugitive to 
 a stand still. On finding himself thus arrested, the 
 natural impulse of the captive is to turn on the man 
 
 each hand, and waving them ahoye face. The effect was instantaneous ; 
 
 his head till they flamed out fiercely, the whole herd dashed away in a 
 
 he advanced at a deliberate pace to panic, bellowing, screaming, and 
 
 within a few yards of the elephant crushing through the underwood, 
 
 who was acting as leader of the whilst we availed ourselves of the 
 
 party, and who was growling and open path to make our way to our 
 
 trumpeting in his rage, and flour- tents." 
 ished the flaming torches in his 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHANT. 161 
 
 who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement 
 which it is the duty of his colleague to prevent by run- 
 ning up close to the elephant's head and provoking the 
 animal to confront him by irritating gesticulations and 
 taunting shouts of cZa/i/ dah! a monosyllable, the sound 
 of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes. Meanwhile the 
 first assailant, having secured one noose, comes up from 
 behind -svith another, with which, amidst the vain rage 
 and struggles of the victim, he entraps a fore leg, the 
 rope being, as before, secured to another tree in front, 
 and the whole four feet having been thus entangled, the 
 capture is completed. 
 
 A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect 
 their prisoner from the sun, and the hunters proceed to 
 build a wig^vam for themselves in front of him, kindling 
 their fires for cooking, and making all the necessary ar- 
 rangements for remaining day and night on the spot to 
 await the process of sui)duing and taming his rage. In 
 my journeys through the forest I have come unexpec- 
 tedly on the halting place of adventurous hunters when 
 thus engaged ; and on one occasion, about sunrise, in 
 ascending the steep ridge from the bed of the Malwatte 
 river, the foremost rider of our party was suddenly 
 driven back by a furious elephant, which we found 
 picketed by two Panickeas on the crest of the bank. In 
 such a position, the elephant soon ceases to struggle ; 
 and what with the exhaustion of rage and resistance, 
 the terror of fire which he dreads, and the constant an- 
 noyance of smoke which he detests, in a very short 
 time, a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes sub- 
 dued ; and being plentifully supplied mth plantains 
 and fresh food, and indulged with water, in which he 
 luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to his keepers 
 
 M 
 
162 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 that they at length venture to remove him to their own 
 village, or to the sea-side for shipment to India. 
 
 No part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater 
 skill and audacity than this first forced march of the 
 recently captured elephant from the great central forests 
 to the sea-coast. As he is still too morose to submit to 
 be ridden, and as it would be equally impossible to 
 lead or to drive him by force, the ingenuity of the 
 captors is displayed in alternately irritating and eluding 
 him, but always so attracting his attention as to allure 
 him along in the direction in which they want him to 
 go. Some assistance is derived from the rope by which 
 the original capture was effected, and which, as it serves 
 to make him safe at night, is never removed from the 
 leg till his taming is sufficiently advanced to permit of 
 his being entrusted with partial liberty. 
 
 In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these 
 animals to India is Manaar, on the western coast, to 
 which the Arabs from the continent resort, bringing 
 with them horses to be bartered for elephants. In order 
 to reach the sea, open plains must be traversed, across 
 which it requires the utmost courage, agility, and pa- 
 tience of the Moors to coax their reluctant charge. At 
 Manaar the elephants are usually detained till any 
 wound on the leg caused by the rope has been healed, 
 when the shipment is effected in the most primitive 
 manner. It being next to impossible to induce the still 
 untamed creature to walk on board, and no mechanical 
 contrivances being provided to ship him ; a dhoney, or 
 native boat, of about forty tons' burthen, and about 
 three parts filled with the strong ribbed leaves of the 
 Palmyra palm, is brought alongside the quay in front of 
 the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPKiXT. 163 
 
 may be as nearly as possible on a line with the level of 
 the wharf. The elephant being placed with his back to 
 the water is forced by goads to retreat till his hind legs 
 go over the side of the quay, but the main contest com- 
 mences when it is attempted to disengage his fore feet 
 from the shore, and force him to entrust himself on 
 board. The scene becomes exciting from the screams 
 and trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts of the Arabs, 
 the calls of the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd. 
 Meanwhile the huge creature strains every nerve to 
 regain the land ; and the day is often consumed before 
 his efforts are overcome, and he finds himself fairly 
 afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to five 
 elephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit 
 amusing adroitness in accommodating their movements 
 to the rolling of the little vessel ; and in this way 
 they are ferried across the narrow strait which separates 
 the continent of India from Ceylon.^ 
 
 But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a sino-le 
 elephant, courageous as it is, and demonstrative of the 
 supremacy with which man wields his " dominion over 
 every beast of the earth," falls far short of the daring 
 
 ^ In tlie Fhilosophical Tr ansae- land, and he swam after the boat 
 
 tions for 1701, there is "An to the ship, w^here tackle was reeved 
 
 Account of the taking of Elephants to the sail-cloth, and he was hoisted 
 
 in Ceylon, by ]VIr. Steachax, a on board. 
 
 Physician who lived seventeen years "But a better way has been in-? 
 
 there," in which the author de- vented lately," says 3Ir. Strachau ; 
 
 scribes the manner in which they "a large flat-bottomed vessel is 
 
 were shipped by the Dutch, at prepared, covered Tvith planks like 
 
 Matura, Galle, and Negombo. A a floor ; so that this floor is almost 
 
 piece of strong sail-cloth having of a height with the key. Then 
 
 been wrapped round the elephant's the sides of the key and the vessel 
 
 chest and stomach, he was forced are adorned with green branches, 
 
 into the sea between two tame so that the elephant sees no water 
 
 ones, and there made fast to a boat, till he is in the ship." — ^hil. Trans., 
 
 The tame ones then returned to vol. xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 exploit of capturing a whole herd : when from thirty to 
 one hundred wild elephants are entrapped in one vast 
 decoy. The mode of effecting this, as it is practised in 
 Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but with considerable 
 modifications, from the methods prevalent in various 
 parts of India. It was introduced by the Portuguese, 
 and continued by the Dutch, the latter of whom had 
 two elephant hunts in each year, and conducted their 
 operations on so large a scale, that the annual export, 
 after supplying the government establishments, was 
 from one hundred to one hundred and fifty elephants, 
 taken principally in the vicinity of Matura, in the 
 southern province, and marched for shipment to 
 Manaar.^ 
 
 The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong en- 
 closure (called a heddali), in the heart of the forest, 
 formed of the trunks of trees firmly secured by trans- 
 verse beams and buttresses, and leaving the gate for the 
 entrance of the elephants. A second enclosure, open- 
 ing from the first, contains water (if possible a rivulet) ; 
 this, again, communicates with a third, which termin- 
 ates in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow to admit of 
 an elephant turning, and within this the captives being 
 driven in line, are secured with ropes introduced from 
 the outside, and led away in custody of tame ones trained 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The keddah being prepared, the first operation is 
 to drive the elephants towards it, for which purpose 
 vast bodies of men fetch a compass in the forest around 
 the haunts of the herds, contracting it by degrees, till 
 they complete the enclosure of a certain area, round 
 
 ' Valentyn, Oud en ISieuw Oost-Indien, ch. xv. p. 272. 
 
Chaf. v.] the ELEPHAIS^T. 165 
 
 which they kindle fires, and cut footpaths through the 
 jungle, to enable the watchers to communicate and 
 combine. All this is performed in cautious silence 
 and by slow approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. 
 A fresh circle nearer to the keddah is then formed in 
 the same way, and into this the elephants are admitted 
 from the first one, the hunters following from behind, 
 and lighting new fires around the newly inclosed space. 
 Day after day the process is repeated ; till the drove 
 having been brought sufficiently close to make the 
 final rush, the whole party close in from all sides, and 
 with drums, guns, shouts, and flambeaux^ force the 
 terrified animals to enter the fatal enclosure, when the 
 passage is barred behind them, and retreat rendered im- 
 possible. 
 
 Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, 
 who drive them back from the stockade with spears 
 and flaming torches ; and at last compel them to pass 
 on into the second enclosure. Here they are detained 
 for a short time, and their feverish exhaustion relieved 
 by free access to water ; — until at last, being tempted 
 by food, or otherwise induced to trust themselves in the 
 narrow outlet, they are one after another made fast by 
 ropes, passed in through the palisade ; and picketed in 
 the adjoining woods to enter on their course of syste- 
 matic training. 
 
 These arrangements vary in different districts of 
 Bengal ; and the method adopted in Ceylon differs in 
 many essential particulars from them all ; the Keddah, 
 or, as it is here called, the corral or korahl ^ (from the 
 
 ^ It is thus spelled by Wolf, in household word in South America, 
 his if/e and Adventures, p. 144. and especially in La Plata, to 
 Corral is at the present day a designate an enclosure for cattle. 
 
 M 3 
 
166 MA]\IMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 Portuguese curral, a " cattle-pen "), consists of but one 
 enclosure instead of three. A stream or watering-place 
 is not uniformly enclosed within it, because, although 
 water is indispensable after the long thirst and ex- 
 haustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond 
 or rivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty 
 of leadinof them out, and increases their reluctance to 
 leave it ; besides which, the smaller ones are often smo- 
 thered by the others in their eagerness to crowd into 
 the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also dis- 
 pensed with, as the animals are liable to bruise and 
 injure themselves within the narrow stockade; and 
 should one of them die in it, as is too often the case 
 in the midst of the struggle, the difficulty of removing 
 so great a carcase is extreme. The noosing and securing 
 them, therefore, takes place in Ce3don within the area 
 of the first enclosure into which they enter, and the 
 dexterity and daring displayed in this portion of the 
 work far surpasses that of merely attaching the rope 
 through the openings of the paling, as in an Indian 
 keddah. 
 
 One result of this change in the system is manifested 
 in the increased proportion of healthy elephants which 
 are eventually secured and trained out of the number 
 originally enclosed. The reason of this is obvious : 
 under the old arrangements, months were consumed in 
 the preparatory steps of surrounding and driving in the 
 herds, which at last arrived so wasted by excitement 
 and exhausted by privation that numbers died within 
 the corral itself, and still more died during the process 
 of training. But in later jesirs the labour of months is 
 reduced to weeks, and the elephants are driven in fresh 
 and full of vigour, so that comparatively few are lost 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPH.\NT. 167 
 
 either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of 
 the whole operation from commencement to end will be 
 best conveyed by describing the progress of an elephant 
 corral as I witnessed it in 1847 in the great forest on 
 the banks of the Alligator Kiver, the Kimbul-oya, in 
 the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles north-west 
 of Kandy. 
 
 Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient 
 capitals of the island, and the residence of its kings 
 from A.D. 1319 to 1347.^ The dwelling-house of the 
 principal civil officer in charge of the district now oc- 
 cupies the site of the former palace, and the ground 
 is strewn with fragments of columns and carved stones, 
 the remnants of the royal buildings. The modern town 
 consists of the bungalows of the European officials, each 
 surrounded with its own garden ; two or three streets 
 inhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors ; and a 
 native bazaar, with the ordinary array of rice and curry 
 stuffs and cooking chattees of brass or burnt clay. 
 
 The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of 
 its position. It rests within the shade of an enormous 
 rock of gneiss upwards of 600 feet in height, nearly 
 denuded of verdure, and so rounded and' worn by time 
 that it has acquired the form of a couchant elephant, 
 from which it derives its name of Aetagalla, the Eock 
 of the Tusker.2 But Aetagalla is only the last eminence 
 in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, which 
 here terminate abruptly ; and, which from the fantastic 
 shapes into which their gigantic outlines have been 
 
 ^ See Sm J. Emeesox Ten>t:nt's resemblance in shape to the back 
 
 Cfy/o??,Yol.I. Pt. m. ch, xii. p, 415. of that insect, and hence is said 
 
 2 Another enormous mass of to haxe been derived the name of 
 
 gneiss is called the Kuruminia- the town, Kuruna-galle or Korne- 
 
 galla, or the Beetle-rock, from its galle. 
 
 M 4 
 
168 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 wrought by the action of the atmosphere, are called by 
 the names of the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Eock, and the 
 Rock of the Tusked Elephant. So impressed are the 
 Singhalese by the aspect of these stupendous masses 
 that in ancient grants lands are conveyed in perpetuity, 
 or " so long as the sun and the moon, so long as 
 Aetao:alla and Andaofalla shall endure." * 
 
 Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the re- 
 motest parts of the island, who come to visit an ancient 
 temple on the summit of the great rock, to which access 
 is had from the valley below by means of steep paths 
 and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here the chief 
 object of veneration is a copy of the sacred footstep 
 hollowed in the granite, similar to that which confers 
 sanctity on Adam's Peak, the towering apex of which, 
 about forty miles distant, the pilgrims can discern from 
 Aetagalla. 
 
 At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in con- 
 sequence of the perpetual glow diffused from these 
 granite cliffs. The warmth they acquire during the 
 blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable towards 
 evening, and the sultry night is too short to permit 
 them to cool between the setting and the rising of the 
 sun. The district is also liable to occasional droughts 
 when the watercourses fail, and the tanks are dried up. 
 One of these calamities occurred about the period of my 
 visit, and such was the suffering of the wild animals 
 that numbers of crocodiles and bears made their way 
 
 * Forbes quotes a Tamil con- chap. ii. It will not fail to be 
 veyance of land, the purchaser of obseryed, that the same figure was 
 which is to " possess and enjoy it employed in Hebrew literature as 
 as long as the sun and the moon, a type of duration — " They shall 
 the earth and its vegetables, the fear thee, so loyig as the su7i and 
 mountains and the River Cauvery moon endure ; throughout all gene- 
 exist." — Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii. rations." — Psalm Lsxii. 5, 17. 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHANT. 169 
 
 into tlie town to drink at the wells. The soil is pro- 
 lific in the extreme ; rice, cotton, and dry grain are 
 cultivated largely in the valley. Every cottage is sur- 
 rounded by gardens of coco-nuts, arecas, jak- fruit and 
 coffee ; the slopes, under tillage, are covered with 
 luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can reach on 
 every side, there are dense forests intersected by streams, 
 in the shade of which the deer and the elephant abound. 
 
 In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great 
 elephant hunts for the supply of the Civil Engineer's 
 Department, and the spot fixed on by Mr. Morris, 
 the Grovernment officer who conducted the corral, was 
 on the banks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen miles 
 from Kornegalle. The country over which we rode to 
 the scene of the approaching capture showed traces of 
 the recent drought, the fields lay to a great extent un- 
 tilled, owing to the want of water, and the tanks, almost 
 reduced to dryness, were covered with the leaves of the 
 rose-coloured lotus. 
 
 Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through 
 which it moved ; the Grovernor and the officers of his 
 staff and household formed a long cortege, escorted by 
 the native attendants, horse-keepers, and foot-runners. 
 The ladies were borne in palankins, and the younger 
 individuals of the party carried in chairs raised on 
 poles, and covered with cool green awnings made of 
 the fresh leaves of the talipat palm. 
 
 After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led 
 across open glades of park-like verdure and beauty, and 
 at last entered the great forest under the shade of 
 ancient trees wreathed to their crowns with climbing 
 plants and festooned by natural garlands of convolvulus 
 and orchids. Here silence reigned, disturbed only by 
 
170 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 the murmuring hum of glittering insects, or the shrill 
 clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and the flute- 
 like calls of the golden oriole. 
 
 We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over- 
 arched by tall trees, the most conspicuous of which is 
 the Kombook ^, from the calcined bark of which the 
 natives extract a species of lime to be used with their 
 betel. And from the branches hung suspended over 
 the water the gigantic pods of the huge puswael bean ^, 
 the sheath of which measures six feet long by five or six 
 inches broad. 
 
 On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, 
 we found ourselves in front of the residences which had 
 been extemporised for our party in the immediate 
 vicinity of the corral. These cool and enjoyable struc- 
 tures were formed of branches and thatched with palm 
 leaves and fragrant lemon grass ; and in addition to a 
 dining-room and suites of bedrooms fitted with tent 
 furniture, they included kitchens, stables, and store- 
 rooms, all run up by the natives in the course of a few 
 days. 
 
 In former times, the work connected with these 
 elephant hunts was performed by the " forced labour " 
 of the natives, as part of that feudal service which under 
 the name of Eaja-kariya was extorted from the Sin- 
 ghalese during the rule of their native sovereigns. This 
 system was continued by the Portuguese and Dutch, and 
 prevailed under the British Government till its abolition 
 by the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under it from fifteen 
 hundred to two thousand men superintended by their 
 headmen, used to be occupied, in constructing the 
 
 * Pentaptera 'paniculata. ^ Entada jpurscetha. 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHAiS^T. 171 
 
 corral, collecting the elephants, maintaining the cordon 
 of watch-fires and watchers, and conducting all the 
 laborious operations of the capture. Since the abolition 
 of Raja-kariya, howev^er, no diflficulty has been found in 
 obtaining the voluntary co-operation of the natives on 
 these exciting occasions. The government defrays the 
 expense of that portion of the preparations which in- 
 volves actual cost, — for the skilled labour expended in 
 the erection of the corral and its appurtenances, and the 
 providing of spears, ropes, arms, flutes, drums, gun- 
 powder, and other necessaries for the occasion. 
 
 The period of the year selected is that which least 
 interferes ^svith the cultivation of the rice-lands (in the 
 interval between seed time and harvest), and the people 
 themselves, in addition to the excitement and enjoyment 
 of the sport, have a personal interest in reducing the 
 number of elephants, which inflict serious injury on 
 their gardens and growing crops. For a similar reason 
 the priests encourage the practice, because the elephants 
 destroy their sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which they 
 are passionately fond ; besides which it promotes the 
 facility for obtaining elephants for the processions of the 
 temples : and the Rata-mahat-mayas and headmen have 
 a pride in exhibiting the number of retainers who follow 
 them to the field, and the performances of the tame 
 elephants which they lend for the business of the corral. 
 Thus vast numbers of the peasantry are voluntarily oc- 
 cupied for many weeks in putting up the stockades, cut- 
 ting paths through the jungle, and relieving the beaters 
 who are engaged in surrounding and driving in the 
 elephants. 
 
 In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen 
 which lies on some old and frequented route of the ani- 
 
172 MA^IMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 mals, in their periodical migrations in search of forage 
 and water ; and the vicinity of a stream is indispensable, 
 not only for the supply of the elephants dm^ing the time 
 spent in inducing them to approach the enclosure, but 
 to enable them to bathe and cool themselves throughout 
 the process of training after capture. 
 
 In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to 
 avoid disturbing the trees or the brushwood within the 
 included space, and especially on the side by which the 
 elephants are to approach, where it is essential to con- 
 ceal the stockade as much as possible by the density of 
 the foliaofe. The trees used in the structure are from 
 ten to twelve inches in diameter ; and are sunk about 
 three feet in the earth, so as to leave a length of from 
 twelve to fifteen feet above ground ; with spaces between 
 each stanchion sufiiciently wide to permit a man to glide 
 through. The uprights are made fast by transverse 
 beams, to which they are lashed securely by ratans and 
 
 0«OooOOO00 09OgQO0OOO0 
 
 GROUND PL&.N OP A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT. 
 
 flexible climbing plants, or as they are called "jungle 
 ropes," and the whole is steadied by means of forked 
 
CuAP. v.] THE ELEPHAXT. I73 
 
 supports, which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the 
 work from being driven outward by the rush of the wild 
 elephants. 
 
 On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, 
 the space thus enclosed was about 500 feet in lenotli 
 by 250 wide. At one end an entrance was left open, 
 fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to be capable 
 of being instantly shut; — and from each angle of 
 the end by which the elephants were to approach, 
 two lines of the same strong fencing were continued, 
 and cautiously concealed by the trees ; so that if, in- 
 stead of entering by the open passage, the herd should 
 swerve to right, or left, they would find themselves 
 suddenly stopped and forced to retrace their course to 
 the gate. 
 
 The preparations were completed by placing a stage 
 for the G-overnor's party on a group of the nearest trees 
 looking down into the enclosure, so that a view could 
 be had of the entire proceeding, from the entrance of 
 the herd, to the leading out of the captive elephants. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here 
 described, massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual 
 to resist the shock, if assaulted by the full force of an 
 enraged elephant ; and accidents have sometimes hap- 
 pened by the breaking through of the herd; but 
 reliance is placed not so much on the resistance of the 
 stockade as on the timidity of the captives and their 
 unconsciousness of their own strength, coupled with the 
 daring of their captors and their devices for ensuring 
 submission. 
 
 The corral being prepared, the beaters address them- 
 selves to drive in the elephants. For this purpose 
 it is often necessary to fetch a circuit of many miles in 
 
174 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 order to surround a sufficient number, and the caution 
 to be observed involves patience and delay ; as it is 
 essential to avoid alarming the elephants, which might 
 otherwise escape. Their disposition being essentially 
 peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitude 
 and security, they withdraw instinctively before the 
 slightest intrusion, and advantage is taken of this 
 timidity and love of seclusion to cause only just such 
 an amount of disturbance as will induce them to re- 
 turn slowly in the direction which it is desired they 
 should take. Several herds are by this means concen- 
 trated within such an area as will admit of their being 
 completely surrounded by the watchers ; and day after 
 day, by degrees, they are moved gradually onwards to 
 the immediate confines of the corral. When their 
 suspicions become awakened and they exhibit restlessness 
 and alarm, bolder measures are adopted for preventing 
 their escape. Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart, 
 night and day, along the circumference of the area 
 within which they are detained ; a corps of from two to 
 three thousand beaters is completed, and pathways are 
 carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep open 
 a communication along the entire circuit. The head- 
 men keep up a constant patrol, to see that their followers 
 are alert at their posts, since neglect at any one spot 
 might permit the escape of the herd, and undo in a 
 moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means any 
 attempt of the elephants to break away is generally 
 checked, and on any point threatened a sufficient force 
 can be promptly assembled to drive them back. At 
 last the elephants are forced onwards so close to the 
 enclosure, that the investing cordon is united at either 
 end with the winofs of the corral, the whole forminof a 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHANT. 175 
 
 circle of about two miles, within the area of which the 
 herd is detained to await the signal for the final drive. 
 
 Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, 
 and the preparations had been thus far completed, on 
 the day when we arrived and took our places on the 
 stage erected for us, overlooking the entrance to the 
 corral. Close beneath us a group of tame elephants 
 sent by the temples and the chiefs to assist in securing 
 the wild ones, were picketed in the shade, and lazily 
 fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds, 
 whose united numbers were variously represented at 
 from forty to fifty elephants, were enclosed, and were 
 at that moment concealed in the jungle within a short 
 distance of the stockade. Not a sound was permitted 
 to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in 
 whispers, and such was the silence observed by the mul- 
 titude of the watchers at their posts, that occasionally 
 we could hear the rustling of the branches as some of 
 the elephants stripped off a leaf. 
 
 Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of 
 the forest was broken by the shouts of the guard, the 
 rolling of the drums and tom-toms, and the discharge 
 of muskets ; and beginning at the most distant side of 
 the area, the elephants were urged forward at a rapid 
 pace towards the entrance into the corral. 
 
 The watcher? along the line kept silence only till the 
 herd had passed them, and then joining the cry in their 
 rear they drove them onward with redoubled shouts and 
 noises. The tumult increased as the terrified rout drew 
 near, swelling now on one side now on the other, as the 
 herd in their panic dashed from point to point in their 
 endeavours to force the line, but they were instantly 
 driven back by screams, muskets, and drums. 
 
176 MAMMALIA. [Chap. Y. 
 
 At length the breaking of the branches and the 
 crackling of the brushwood announced their close ap- 
 proach, and the leader bursting from the jungle rushed 
 wildly forward to within twenty yards of the entrance 
 followed by the rest of the herd. x\nother moment 
 and they would have plunged into the open gate, when 
 suddenly they wheeled round, re-entered the forest, and 
 in spite of the hunters resumed their original position. 
 The chief headman came forward and accounted for 
 the freak by saying that a wild pig^, an animal which 
 the elephants are said to dislike, had started out of the 
 cover and run across the leader, who would otherwise 
 have held on direct for the corral ; and intimated that 
 as the herd was now in the highest pitch of excitement ; 
 and it was at all times much more difficult to effect a 
 successful capture by daylight than by night when the 
 fires and flambeaux act with double effect, it was the 
 wish of the hunters to defer their final effort till the 
 evening, when the darkness would greatly aid their 
 exertions. 
 
 After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary 
 interest ; the low fires, which had apparently only smoul- 
 dered in the sunlight, assumed their ruddy glow amidst the 
 darkness, and threw their tinge over the groups collected 
 round them ; while the smoke rose in eddies through 
 the rich foliage of the trees. The crowds of spectators 
 maintained a profound silence, and not a sound was per- 
 ceptible beyond the hum of an insect. On a sudden the 
 stillness was broken by the distant roll of a drum, fol- 
 
 ^ Fire, the sound of a horn, and Uvp Se TTToetToi koI Kpihu Kepa(T<p6pou, 
 
 the grunting of a boar are the three Kal ruv {xoviuv tt]i> fior]u rr]v adpoav. 
 
 things which the Greeks, in the _Phile, Expositio de Elephante, 
 
 middle ages, beheved the elephant i. 177. 
 specially to dislike : 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHAXT. 177 
 
 lowed by a discbarge of musketry. Tbis was tbe signal 
 for tbe renewed assault, and tbe bunters entered tbe 
 circle witb sbouts and clamour ; dry leaves and sticks 
 were flung upon tbe watcb-fires till tbey blazed aloft, 
 and formed a line of flame on every side, except in tbe 
 direction of tbe corral, wbicb was studiously kept 
 dark ; and tbitber tbe terrified elepbants betook tbem- 
 selves, followed by tbe yells and racket of tbeir pur- 
 suers. 
 
 Tbe elepbants approacbed at a rapid pace, trampling 
 down tbe brusbwood and crusbing tbe dry brancbes ; 
 tbe leader emerged in front of tbe corral, paused for an 
 instant, stared wildly round, and tben rusbed beadlong 
 tbrougb tbe open gate, followed by tbe rest of tbe berd. 
 Instantly, as if by magic, tbe entire circuit of tbe corral, 
 wbicb up to tbis moment bad been kept in profound 
 darkness, blazed witb tbousands of ligbts, every bunter 
 on tbe instant tbat tbe elepbants entered, rusbing for- 
 ward to tbe stockade witb a torcb kindled at tbe nearest 
 watcb-fire. 
 
 Tbe elepbants first dasbed to tbe very extremity of 
 tbe enclosure, and being brougbt up by tbe fence, re- 
 treated to regain tbe gate, but found it closed. Tbeir 
 terror was sublime : tbey burried round tbe corral at a 
 rapid pace, but saw it now girt by fire on every side ; 
 they attempted to force tbe stockade, but were driven 
 back by tbe guards witb spears and flambeaux ; and on 
 wbicbever side tbey approacbed tbey were repulsed witb 
 sbouts and volleys of musketry. Collecting into one 
 group, tbey would pause for a moment in apparent be- 
 wilderment, tben burst off in anotber direction, as if it 
 bad suddenly occurred to tbem to try some point wbicb 
 tbey bad before overlooked ; but again baffled, tbey 
 
 N 
 
178 MAMMALIA. [Chap. V. 
 
 slowly returned to their forlorn resting-place in the 
 centre of the corral. 
 
 The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to 
 the spectators ; it extended to the tame elephants which 
 were stationed outside. At the first approach of the 
 flying herd they evinced the utmost interest. Two in 
 particular which were picketed near the front were 
 intensely excited, and continued tossing their heads, 
 pawing the ground, and starting as the noise drew near. 
 At length, when the grand rush into the corral took 
 place, one of them fairly burst from her fastenings and 
 rushed towards the herd, levelling a tree of considerable 
 size which obstructed her passage.^ 
 
 For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to 
 traverse the corral and assail the palisade with unabated 
 energy, trumpeting and screaming with rage after each 
 disappointment. Again and again they attempted to 
 force the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it ought 
 to afford an exit as it had already served as an entrance, 
 but they shrank back stimned and bewildered. By de- 
 grees their efforts became less and less frequent. Single 
 ones rushed excitedly here and there, returning sullenly 
 to their companions after each effort ; and at last the 
 whole herd, stupified and exhausted, formed themselves 
 into a single group, drawn up in a circle with the young 
 
 ' The other elephant, a fine after the Aratchy went in search of 
 
 tusker, which belonged to Dehigam it with a female decoy, and watch- 
 
 Ratamahatmeya, continued in ex- ing its approach, sprang fairly on 
 
 treme excitement throughout all the infuriated beast, with a pair of 
 
 the subsequent operations of the sharp hooks in his hands, which he 
 
 capture, and at last, after attempt- pressed into tender parts in front 
 
 ing to break its way into the corral, of the shoulder, and thus held the 
 
 shaking the bars with its forehead elephant firmly till chains were 
 
 and tusks, it went off in a state of passed over its legs, and it per- 
 
 frenzy into the jungle. A few days mitted itself to be led quietly away. 
 
Chap. V.] THE ELEPHANT. 179 
 
 in the centre, and stood motionless under the dark shade 
 of the trees in the middle of the corral. 
 
 Preparations were now made to keep watch during 
 the night, the guard was reinforced around the enclosure, 
 and wood heaped on the fires to keep up a high flame 
 till sunrise. 
 
 Three herds had been originally entrapped by the 
 beaters outside ; but with characteristic instinct they 
 had each kept clear of the other, taking up different 
 stations in the space invested by the watchers. When 
 the final drive took place one herd only had entered the 
 enclosure, the other two keeping behind; and as the 
 gate had to be instantly shut on the first division, the 
 last were unavoidably excluded and remained concealed 
 in the jungle. To prevent their escape, the watchers 
 were ordered to their former stations, the fires were 
 replenished; and all precautions having been taken, 
 we returned to pass the night in our bungalows by the 
 river. 
 
 K 2 
 
1 80 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 The Captives. 
 
 As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred 
 yards from the corral, we were frequently awakened by 
 the din of the multitude who were bivouacking in the 
 forest, by the merriment round the watch-fires, and now 
 and then by the shouts with which the guards repulsed 
 some sudden charge of the elephants in attempts to 
 force the stockade. But at daybreak, on going down to 
 the corral, we found all still and vigilant. The fires 
 were allowed to die out as the sun rose, and the watchers 
 who had been relieved were sleeping near the great 
 fence, the enclosure on all sides being surrounded by 
 crowds of men and boys with spears or white peeled 
 wands about ten feet long, whilst the elephants within 
 were huddled together in a compact group, np longer 
 turbulent and restless, but exhausted and calm, and 
 utterly subdued by apprehension and amazement at all 
 that had been passing around them. 
 
 Nine only had been as yet entrapped ^, of which 
 
 ' In some of the elephant hunts hood of them, and thns protect 
 
 conducted in the southern provinces the crops from destruction. In the 
 
 of Ceylon by the earlier British present instance, the object being 
 
 Governors, as many as 170 and to secure only as many as were 
 
 200 elephants were secured in a required for the Government stud, 
 
 single corral, of which a portion it was not sought to entrap more 
 
 only were taken out for the public than could conveniently be attended 
 
 service, and the rest shot, the to and trained after capture. 
 motive being to rid the neighbour- 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 181 
 
 three were very large, and two were little creatures 
 but a few months old. One of the large ones was a 
 ^' rogue," and being unassociated with the rest of the 
 herd, he was not admitted to their circle, although 
 permitted to stand near them. 
 
 Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to con- 
 duct the tame elephants into the corral, in order to 
 secure the captives. Noosed ropes were in readiness ; 
 and far apart from all stood a party of the out-caste 
 Eodiyas, the only tribe Avho will touch a dead carcase, 
 to whom, therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing 
 the fine flexible rope for noosing, which is made from 
 the fresh hides of the deer and the buffalo. 
 
 At length, the bars which secured the entrance to 
 the corral were cautiously withdrawn, and two trained 
 elephants passed stealthily in, each ridden by its mahout 
 (or poniiekella, as the keeper is termed in Ceylon), and 
 one attendant; and, carrying a strong collar, formed 
 by coils of rope made from coco-nut fibre, from which 
 hung on either side cords of elk's hide, prepared with a 
 ready noose. Along with these, and concealed behind 
 them, the headman of the " coorootve,^^ or noosers, 
 crept in, eager to secure the honour of taking the first 
 elephant, a distinction which this class jealously contests 
 with the mahouts of the chiefs and temples. He was a 
 wiry little man, nearly seventy years old, who had 
 served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, 
 and wore two silver bangles, which had been conferred 
 on him in testimony of his prowess. He was accom- 
 panied by his son, named Eanghanie, equally renowned 
 for his com'age and dexterity. 
 
 On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attend- 
 ance; two were the property of an adjoining temple 
 
 N 3 
 
182 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 (one of which had been caught but the year before, 
 yet it was now ready to assist in capturing others), four 
 belonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and the rest, in- 
 cluding the two which first entered the corral, were part 
 of the Government stud. Of the latter, one was of 
 prodigious age, having been in the service of the Dutch 
 and English Grovernments in succession for upwards of 
 a century.^ The other, called by her keeper " Siri- 
 beddi," was about fifty years old, and distinguished for 
 gentleness and docility. She was a most accomplished 
 decoy, and evinced the utmost relish for the sport. 
 Having entered the corral noiselessly, carrying a mahout 
 on her shoulders with the headman of the noosers seated 
 behind him, she moved slowly along with a sly composure 
 and an assumed air of easy indifference; sauntering 
 leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting 
 now and then to pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves 
 as she passed. As she approached the herd, they put 
 themselves in motion to meet her, and the leader, hav- 
 ing advanced in front and passed his trunk gently over 
 her head, turned and paced slowly back to his dejected 
 companions. Siribeddi followed with the same listless 
 step, and drew herself up close behind him, thus afford- 
 ing the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and 
 slip the noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The 
 latter instantly perceived his danger, shook off the rope, 
 and turned to attack the man. He would have suffered 
 for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him by 
 raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the 
 midst of the herd, when the old man, being slightly 
 
 * This elephant is since dead ; skeleton is now in the Museum of 
 she grew infirm and diseased, and the Natural History Society at 
 died at Colombo in 1848. Her Belfast. 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 183 
 
 wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son, 
 Eanghanie, took his place. 
 
 The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads 
 towards the centre. The largest male was singled out, 
 and two tame ones pushed boldly in, one on either side 
 of him, till the three stood nearly abreast. He made 
 no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness by shifting 
 restlessly from foot to foot. Eanghanie now crept up, 
 and, holding the rope open with both hands (its other 
 extremity being made fast to Siribeddi's collar), and 
 watching the instant when the wild elephant lifted its 
 hind-foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, 
 drew it close, and fled to the rear. The two tame 
 elephants instantly fell back, Siribeddi stretched the 
 rope • to its full length, and, whilst she dragged out the 
 captive, her companion placed himself between her and 
 the herd to prevent any interference. 
 
 In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn 
 backwards some twenty or thirty yards, making furious 
 resistance, bellowing in terror, plunging on all sides, and 
 crushing the smaller timber, which bent like reeds be- 
 neath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily 
 after her, and wound the rope round the proper tree, 
 holding it all the time at its full tension, and stepping 
 cautiously across it when, in order to give it a second 
 turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree and 
 the elephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it 
 was beyond her strength to haul the prisoner close up, 
 which was, nevertheless, necessary in order to make 
 him perfectly fast ; but the second tame one, perceiving 
 the difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted the 
 struggling prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, 
 and head to head, forcing him backwards, whilst at 
 
 s 4 
 
184 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 every step Siribeddi hauled in the slackened rope till she 
 brought him fairly up to the foot of the tree, where he 
 was made fast by the cooroowe people. A second noose 
 was then passed over the other hind-leg, and secured 
 like the first, both legs being afterwards hobbled to- 
 gether by ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or 
 jaggery palm, which, being more flexible than that of 
 the coco-nut, occasions less formidable ulcerations. The 
 two decoys then ranged themselves, as before, abreast of 
 
 
 the prisoner on either side, thus enabling Ranghanie to 
 stoop under them and noose the two fore-feet as he had 
 already done the hind ; and these ropes being made fast 
 to a tree in front, the capture was complete, and the 
 tame elephants and keepers withdrew to repeat the 
 operation on another of the herd. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 185 
 
 As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor 
 animal remained comparatively calm and almost passive 
 under his distress, but the moment they moved off, 
 and he was left utterly alone, he made the most sur- 
 prising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his com- 
 panions. He felt the ropes with his trunk and tried 
 to untie the numerous knots; he drew backwards to 
 liberate his fore-legs, then leaned forward to extricate 
 the hind ones, till every branch of the tall tree vibrated 
 with his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with his 
 
 proboscis raised high in the air, then falling on his 
 side he laid his head to the ground, first his cheek and 
 then his brow, and pressed down his doubled-in trunk 
 as though he would force it into the earth ; then suddenly 
 rising he balanced himself on his forehead and fore- 
 legs, holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This 
 scene of distress continued some hours, with occasional 
 pauses of apparent stupor, after which the struggle was 
 from time to time renewed convulsively, and as if by 
 
186 MMIMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 some sudden impulse ; but at last the vain strife sub- 
 sided, and the poor animal remained perfectly motion- 
 less, the image of exhaustion and despair. 
 
 Meanwhile Eanghanie presented himself in front of 
 the governor's stage to claim the accustomed largesse 
 for tying the first elephant. He was rewarded by a 
 shower of rupees, and retired to resume his perilous 
 duties in the corral. 
 
 The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable 
 dejection, and pressed closely together as if under a 
 sense of common misfortune. For the most part they 
 stood at rest in a compact body, fretful and uneasy. 
 At intervals one more impatient than the rest would 
 move out a few steps to reconnoitre ; the others would 
 follow at first slowly, then at a quicker pace, and at last 
 the whole herd would rush off furiously to renew the 
 often-baffled attempt to storm the stockade. 
 
 There was a strange combination of the sublime and 
 the ridiculous in these abortive onsets ; the appearance 
 of prodigious power in their ponderous limbs, coupled 
 with the almost ludicrous shuffle of their clumsy gait, 
 and the fury of their apparently resistless charge, con- 
 verted in an instant into timid retreat. They rushed 
 madly down the enclosure, their backs arched, their 
 tails extended, their ears spread, and their trunks raised 
 high above their heads, trumpeting and uttering shrill 
 screams, yet when one step further would have dashed 
 the opposing fence into fragments, they stopped short 
 on a few white rods being pointed at them through the 
 paling^; and, on catching the derisive shouts of the 
 
 ^ ' The fact of the elephant ex- relates, that in order to inculcate 
 
 hibiting timidity, on having a long contempt for want of courage in 
 
 rod pointed towards him, was the elephant, they were introduced 
 
 known to the Romans ; and Pliny, into the circus during the triumph 
 
 quoting from the annals of Piso, of Metellus, after the conquest of 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 187 
 
 crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after an 
 objectless circle or two through the corral, they paced 
 slowly back to their melancholy halting place in the 
 shade. 
 
 The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, 
 exhibited astonishing nerve and composure at such 
 moments, rushing up to the point towards which the 
 elephants charged, pointing their wands at their trunks, 
 and keeping up the continual cry of tuhoop ! luhoop ! 
 which invariably turned them to flight. 
 
 The second victim singled out from the herd was 
 secured in the same manner as the first. It was a 
 female. The tame ones forced themselves in on either 
 side as before, cutting her off from her companions, 
 whilst Eanghanie stooped under them and attached the 
 fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her out amidst un- 
 availing struggles, when she was made fast by each leg 
 to the nearest group of strong trees. When the noose 
 was placed upon her fore-foot, she seized it with her 
 trunk, and succeeded in carrying it to her mouth, where 
 she would speedily have severed it had not a tame ele- 
 phant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope 
 pressed it downwards out of her jaws. The individuals 
 who acted as leaders in the successive charges on the 
 palisades were always those selected by the noosers, and 
 the operation of tying each, from the first approaches of 
 the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the tree, 
 occupied on an average somewhat less than three- 
 quarters of an hour. 
 
 It is strange that in these encounters the wild ele- 
 
 the Carthaginians in Sicily, and operariis hastas prgepilatas haben- 
 driven round the area by workmen tibns, per circum totam actos." — 
 holding blunted spears, — " Ab Lib. viii. c. 6. 
 
]88 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 phants made no attempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts 
 or the cooroowes, who rode on the tame ones. They 
 moved in the very midst of the herd, any individual in 
 which could in a moment have pulled the riders from 
 their seats : but no effort was made to molest them.^ 
 
 As one after another their leaders were entrapped and 
 forced away from them, the remainder of the group 
 
 ' "In a corral, to be on a tame 
 elephant, seems to insure perfect 
 immiinitj^ from the attacks of the 
 wild ones. I once saw the old 
 chief MoUegodde ride in amongst 
 a herd of wdld elephants, on a 
 small elephant ; so small that the 
 
 Adigar's head was on a level with 
 the back of the wild animals : I 
 felt very nervous, but he rode right 
 in among them, and received not 
 the slightest molestation." — Letter 
 from Major SKrN]ST;R, 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 189 
 
 evinced increased emotion and excitement ; but what- 
 ever may have been their sympathy for their lost com- 
 panions, their alarm seemed to prevent them at first 
 from following them to the trees to which they had 
 been tied. In passing them afterwards they sometimes 
 stopped, mutually entwined their trunks, lapped them 
 round each other's limbs and neck, and exhibited the 
 most touching distress at their detention, but made no 
 attempt to disturb the cords that bound them. 
 
 The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced 
 by difference of demeanour was very remarkable : 
 some submitted with comparatively little resistance; 
 whilst others in their fury dashed themselves on the 
 ground with a force sufficient to destroy any weaker 
 
190 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 animal. They vented their rage upon every tree and 
 plant within reach ; if small enough to be torn down, 
 they levelled them with their trunks, and stripping them 
 of their leaves and branches, they tossed them wildly 
 over their heads on all sides. Some in their struggles 
 made no sound, whilst others bellowed and trumpeted 
 furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at 
 last, exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish 
 in low and piteous moanings. Some, after a few violent 
 efforts of this kind, lay motionless on the ground, with 
 no other indication of suffering than the tears which 
 suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly. Others in all 
 the vigour of their rage exhibited the most surprising 
 contortions ; and to us who had been accustomed to 
 associate with the unwieldy bulk of the elephant the 
 idea that he must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, 
 the attitudes into which they forced themselves were 
 almost incredible. I saw one lie with the cheek pressed 
 to the earth, and the fore-legs stretched in front, whilst 
 the body was twisted round till the hind-legs extended 
 in the opposite direction. 
 
 It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded 
 by the violence with which they flung them on all sides. 
 One twisted his proboscis into such fantastic shapes, that 
 it resembled the writhings of a gigantic worm ; he coiled 
 it and uncoiled it with restless rapidity, curling it up 
 like a watch-spring, and suddenly unfolding it again to 
 its full length. Another, which lay otherwise motion- 
 less in all the stupor of hopeless anguish, slowly beat 
 the ground with the extremity of his trunk, as a man 
 in despair beats his knee with the palm of his hand. 
 
 They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and de- 
 licacy of touch in the foot, which was very remarkable 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 191 
 
 in a limb of such clumsy dimensions and protected by so 
 thick a covering. The noosers could always force them 
 to lift it from the ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf 
 or twig, apparently applied so as to tickle ; but the im- 
 position of the rope was instantaneously perceived, and 
 if it could not be reached by the trunk the other foot 
 was applied to feel its position, and if possible remove 
 it before the noose could be drawn tight. 
 
 One practice was incessant with almost the entire 
 herd : in the interval between their struggles they beat 
 the ground with their fore feet, and taking up the dry 
 earth in a coil of the trunk, they flung it dexterously over 
 every part of their body. Even when lying down, the 
 sand within reach was thus collected and scattered over 
 their limbs : then inserting the extremity of the 
 trunk in their mouths, they withdrew a quantity of 
 water, which they discharged over their backs, repeat- 
 ing the operation again and again, till the dust was 
 thoroughly saturated. I was astonished at the quantity 
 of water thus applied, which was sufficient when the 
 elephant, as was generally the case, had worked the spot 
 where he lay into a hollow, to convert its surface into 
 a coating of mud. Seeing that the herd had been 
 now twenty-four hours without access to water of any 
 kind, surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted by 
 struggling and terror, the supply of moisture an ele- 
 phant is capable of containing in the receptacle 
 attached to his stomach must be very consider- 
 able. 
 
 The conduct of the tame ones during all these pro- 
 ceedings was truly wonderful. They displayed the most 
 perfect conception of every movement, both of the object 
 to be attained, and of the means to accomplish it. 
 
192 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was 
 going on. There was no ill-humour, no malignity in 
 the spirit displayed, in what was otherwise a heartless 
 proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed 
 a thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. 
 Their caution was as remarkable as their sagacity ; there 
 was no hurrying, no confusion, they never ran foul of 
 the ropes, were never in the way of the animals already 
 noosed ; and amidst the most violent struggles, when 
 the tame ones had frequently to step across the captives, 
 they in no instance trampled on them, or occasioned 
 the slightest accident or annoyance. So far from this, 
 they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and ad- 
 dressed themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying 
 up one of the larger elephants, he contrived before he 
 could be hauled close up to the tree, to walk once or 
 twice round it, carrying the rope with him ; the decoy, 
 perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the 
 nooser, walked up of her own accord, and pushed him 
 backwards with her head, till she made him unwind him- 
 self again ; upon which the rope was hauled tight and 
 made fast. More than once, when a wild one was ex- 
 tending his trunk, and would have intercepted the rope 
 about to be placed over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden 
 motion of her own trunk, pushed his aside, and pre- 
 vented him ; and on one occasion, when successive efforts 
 had failed to put the noose over the fore-leg of an 
 elephant which was already secured by one foot, but 
 which wisely put the other to the ground as often as it 
 was attempted to pass the noose under it, I saw the 
 decoy watch her opportunity, and when his foot was 
 again raised, suddenly push in her own leg beneath it, 
 and hold it up till the noose was attached and dra\\Ti 
 tight. 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPH.iXT. 193 
 
 One could almost fancy there was a display of dry 
 humour in the manner in which the decoys thus played 
 with the fears of the wild herd, and made light of their 
 efforts at resistance. When reluctant they shoved them 
 forward, when violent they drove them back ; when the 
 vnld ones threw themselves down, the tame ones butted 
 them with head and shoulders, and forced them up 
 again. And when it was necessary to keep them down, 
 they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising, 
 till the ropes were secm'ed. 
 
 At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves 
 with a bunch of leaves, and the graceful ease with 
 which an elephant uses his trunk on such occasions is 
 very striking. It is doubtless owing to the combination 
 of a circular with a horizontal movement in that flexible 
 limb ; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning 
 himself without being struck by the singular elegance 
 of motion which he displays. The tame ones, too, in- 
 dulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand, 
 by flinging it from their trunks ; but it was a ciurious 
 illustration of their delicate sagacity, that so long as the 
 mahout was on their necks, they confined themselves to 
 flinging the dust along their sides and stomach, as if 
 aware, that to throw it over their heads and back would 
 cause annoyance to their riders. 
 
 One of the decoys which rendered good service, and 
 was obviously held in special awe by the wild herd, was 
 a tusker belonging to Dehigame Kata-mahatmeya. It 
 was not that he used his tusks for purposes of offence, 
 but he was enabled to insinuate himself between two 
 elephants by wedging them in where he could not force 
 his head ; besides which they assisted him in raising 
 up the fallen and refractory with greater ease. In some 
 
 o 
 
194 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 instances where the intervention of the other decoys 
 failed to reduce a wild one to order, the mere presence 
 and approach of the tusker seemed to inspire fear, and 
 insure submission, without more active intervention. 
 
 I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities 
 exhibited by the tame elephants that cast the courage 
 and dexterity of the men into the shade, but even when 
 supported by the presence, the sagacity, and co-operation 
 of these wonderful creatures, the part sustained by the 
 noosers can bear no comparison with the address and 
 daring displayed by the picador and matador in a 
 Spanish bull-fight. They certainly possessed great 
 quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement of 
 the elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose 
 over its foot and attaching it firmly before the animal 
 could tear it off with its trunk ; but in all this they had 
 the cover of the decoys to conceal them ; and their 
 shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from the services 
 which, from their prodigious strength, the tame elephants 
 are alone capable of rendering, in dragging out and 
 securing the captives, it is perfectly obvious that without 
 their co-operation the utmost prowess and dexterity of 
 the hunters would not avail them, unsupported, to enter 
 the corral and ensnare and lead out a single captive. 
 
 Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one 
 was about ten months old, the other somewhat more. The 
 smaller one had a little bolt head covered with woolly 
 brown hair, and was the most amusing and interesting 
 miniature imaginable. Both kept constantly with the 
 herd, trotting after them in every charge ; when the 
 others stood at rest they ran in and out between the legs 
 of the older ones ; and not their own mothers alone, but 
 every female in the group caressed them in turn. 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 195 
 
 The dam of the youngest was the second elephant 
 singled out by the noosers, and as she was dragged along 
 by the decoys, the little creature kept by her side till she 
 was drawn close to the fatal tree. The men at first were 
 rather amused than otherwise by its anger ; but they 
 found that it would not permit them to place the second 
 noose upon its mother ; it ran between her and them, it 
 tried to seize the rope, it pushed them and struck them 
 with its little trunk, till they were forced to drive it 
 back to the herd. It retreated slowly, shouting all the 
 way, and pausing at every step to look back. It then 
 attached itself to the laro^est female remaininof in the 
 group, and placed itself across her forelegs, whilst she 
 hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and 
 caressed it. Here it continued moaning and lamenting, 
 till the noosers had left off securing its mother, when it 
 instantly returned to her side ; but as it became trouble- 
 some again, attacking every one who passed, it was at last 
 tied up by a rope to an adjoining tree, to which the 
 other young one was also tied. The second little one, 
 equally with its playmate, exhibited great affection for 
 its dam ; it went willingly with its captor as far as the 
 tree to which she was fastened, and in passing her 
 stretched out its trunk and tried to rejoin her ; but 
 finding itself forced along, it caught at every twig and 
 branch mthin its reach, and screamed with grief and 
 disappointment. 
 
 These two little creatures were the most vociferous of 
 the whole herd, their shouts were incessant, they 
 struggled to attack every one within reach ; and as their 
 bodies were more lithe and pliant than those of gi-eater 
 growth, their contortions were quite wonderful. The 
 most amusing thing was, that in the midst of all their 
 
 o 2 
 
196 MMIMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 agony and affliction, the little fellows seized on every 
 article of food that was thrown to them, and ate and 
 roared simultaneously. 
 
 Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the 
 rogue. Though far more savage than the others, he 
 joined in none of their charges and assaults on the fences, 
 as they uniformly drove him off and would not permit 
 him to enter their circle. When dragged past another 
 of his companions in misfortune, who was lying exhausted 
 on the groimd, he flew upon him and attempted to fasten 
 his teeth in his head ; this was the only instance of 
 viciousness which occurred during the progress of the 
 corral. When tied up and overpowered, he was at first 
 noisy and violent, but soon lay down peacefully, a sign, 
 according to the hunters, that his death was at hand. 
 Their prognostication was correct ; he continued for 
 about twelve hours to cover himself with dust like the 
 others, and to moisten it with water from his trunk ; but 
 at length he lay exhausted, and died so calmly, that 
 having been moving but a few moment before, his death 
 was only perceived by the myriads of black flies by which 
 his body was almost instantly covered, although not one 
 was visible a moment before.^ The Eodiyas were called 
 
 * The surprising faculty of vul- sively by the sense of smell ; but 
 
 tures for discovering carrion, has that which excites astonishment is 
 
 been a subject of much speculation, the small degree of odour which 
 
 as to whether it be dependent on seems to suffice for the purpose ; 
 
 their power of sight or of scent, the subtlety and rapidity with 
 
 It is not, however, more mysterious which it traverses and impregnates 
 
 than the unerring certainty and the air; and the keen and quick 
 
 rapidity with which some of the perception with which it is taken 
 
 minor animals, and more especially up by the organs of those creatures, 
 
 insects, in warm climates congre- The instance of the scavenger 
 
 gate around the oifal on which beetles has been already alluded 
 
 they feed. Circumstanced as they to ; the promptitude with which 
 
 are, they must be guided towards they discern the existence of matter 
 
 their object mainly if not exclu- suited to their purposes, and the 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE ELEPHAJs'T. 
 
 197 
 
 in to loose the ropes that bound him, from the tree, and 
 two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body, it 
 was dragged to a distance without the corral. 
 
 When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied 
 up, the scene presented was truly oriental. From one to 
 two thousand natives, many of them in gaudy dresses and 
 armed with spears, crowded about the enclosures. Their 
 
 speed with which they hurry to it 
 from all directions ; often from dis- 
 tances as extraordinary, proportion- 
 ably, as those traversed by the eye 
 of the Tulture. In the instance of 
 the dying elephant referred to 
 above, life was barely extinct when 
 the flies, of which not one was 
 visible but a moment before, arrived 
 in clouds and blackened the body 
 by their multitude ; scarcely an 
 instant was allowed to elapse for 
 the commencement of decompo- 
 sition; no odour of putrefaction 
 could be discerned by us who stood 
 close by ; yet some peculiar smell 
 of mortality, simultaneously with 
 parting breath, must have sum- 
 moned them to the feast. Ants 
 exhibit an instinct equally sur- 
 prising. I have sometimes covered 
 up a particle of refined sugar with 
 paper on the centre of a polished 
 table ; and counted the number of 
 minutes which would elapse before 
 it was fastened on by the small 
 black ants of Ceylon, and a line 
 formed to lower it safely to the 
 floor. Here was a substance which, 
 to our apprehension at least, is 
 altogether inodorous, and yet the 
 quick sense of smell must have 
 been the only conductor of the 
 ants. It has been observed of 
 those fishes which travel overland 
 on the evaporation of the ponds in 
 which they live, that they invari- 
 ably march in the direction of the 
 nearest water, and even when cap- 
 
 tured, and placed on the floor of 
 a room, their efforts to escape are 
 always made towards the same 
 point. Is the sense of smell suffi- 
 cient to account for this display of 
 instinct in them ? or is it aided by 
 special organs in the case of the 
 others ? Dr. Mc Gee, formerly of 
 the Royal Navy, writing to me on 
 the subject of the instant appear- 
 ance of flies in the vicinity of dead 
 bodies, says : "In warm climates 
 they do not wait for death to in- 
 vite them to the banquet. In 
 Jamaica I have again and again 
 seen them settle on a patient, and 
 hardly to be driven away by the 
 nurse, the patient himself sa}'ing, 
 ' Here are these flies coming to 
 eat me ere I am dead.' At times 
 they have enabled the doctor, when 
 other^Aise he would have been in 
 doubt as to his prognosis, to deter- 
 mine whether the strange apyretic 
 interval occasionally present in the 
 last stage of yellow fever was the 
 fatal lull or the lull of recover)'; 
 and ' What say the flies ?' has been 
 the settHng question. Among many, 
 many cases during a long period I 
 have seen but one recovery after 
 the assembling of the flies. I con- 
 sider the foregoing as a confir- 
 mation of smeU being the guide 
 even to the attendants, a cada- 
 verous smell has been perceived to 
 arise from the body of a patient 
 twenty-four hours before death," 
 
 o 3 
 
198 MA:MMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 families had collected to see the spectacle; women, 
 whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids by their 
 sides ; and girls, many of them in the graceful costume 
 of that part of the country, — a scarf, which, after having 
 been brought round the waist, is thrown over the left 
 shoulder, leaving the right arm and side free and unco- 
 vered. 
 
 At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant ; 
 some still struggling and writhing in feverish excitement, 
 whilst others, in exhaustion and despair, lay motionless, 
 except that, from time to time, they heaped fresh dust 
 upon their heads. The mellow notes of a Kandyan flute, 
 which was played at a distance, had a striking effect 
 upon one or more of them ; they turned their heads in 
 the direction from which the music came, expanded 
 their broad ears, and were evidently soothed with the 
 plaintive sound. The two young ones alone still roared 
 for freedom ; they stamped their feet, and blew clouds 
 of dust over their shoulders, brandishing their little 
 trunks aloft, and attacking every one who came within 
 their reach. 
 
 At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every 
 offer of food, trampled it under foot, and turned haugh- 
 tily away. A few, however, as they became more com- 
 posed, could not resist the temptation of the juicy stems 
 of the plantain, but rolling them under foot, till they 
 detached the layers, they raised them in their trunks, 
 and commenced chewing listlessly. 
 
 On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and 
 docility of the decoys were such as to excite lively 
 astonishment, it was not possible to withhold the highest 
 admiration from the calm and dignified demeanour of 
 the captives. Their entire bearing was at variance with 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHAXT. 199 
 
 the representation made by some of the " sportsmen " 
 who harass them, that they are treacherous, savage, and 
 revengeful ; when tormented by the guns of their per- 
 secutors, they, no doubt, display their powers and 
 sagacity in efforts to retaliate or escape ; but here their 
 every movement was indicative of innocence and timidity. 
 After a struggle, in which they evinced no disposition to 
 violence or revenge, they submitted with the calmness 
 of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief 
 was most touching, and their low moaning went to the 
 heart. We could not have borne to witness their dis- 
 tress had their capture been effected by the needless 
 infliction of pain, or had they been destined to ill-treat- 
 ment afterwards. 
 
 It was now about two hours after noon, and the first 
 elephants that had entered the corral having been dis- 
 posed of, preparations were made to reopen the gate, and 
 drive in the other two herds, over which the watchers 
 were still keeping guard. The area of the enclosm^e was 
 cleared ; and silence was again imposed on the crowds 
 who surrounded the corral. The bars that secured the 
 entrance were withdrawn, and every precaution repeated 
 as before ; but as the space inside was now somewhat 
 trodden down, especially near the entrance, by the fre- 
 quent charges of the last herd, and as it was to be appre- 
 hended that the others might be earlier alarmed and 
 retrace their steps, before the barricades could be re- 
 placed, two tame ones were stationed inside to protect 
 the men to whom that duty was assigned. 
 
 All preliminaries being at length completed, the 
 signal was given ; the beaters on the side most distant 
 from the corral closed in mth tom-toms and discordant 
 noises ; a hedge-fire of musketry was kept up in the 
 
 o 4 
 
200 MMIMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 rear of the terrified elephants ; thousands of voices urged 
 them forward ; we heard the jungle crashing as they 
 came on, and at last they advanced through an opening 
 amongst the trees, bearing down all before them like a 
 charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, 
 nearly nine feet high, after whom one half of the herd 
 dashed precipitately through the narrow entrance, but 
 the rest turning suddenly towards the left, succeeded in 
 forcing the cordon of guards and making good their 
 escape to the forest. 
 
 No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the 
 two tame elephants stepped forward from either side, 
 and before the herd could return from the further end 
 of the enclosure, the bars were drawn, the entrance closed, 
 and the men in charge glided outside the stockade. 
 The elephants which had previously been made prisoners 
 within exhibited intense excitement as the fresh din 
 arose around them ; they started to their feet, and 
 stretched their trunks in the direction whence they 
 winded the scent of the herd in its headlong flight ; and 
 as the latter rushed past, they renewed their struggles 
 to get free and follow. It is not possible to imagine 
 anything more exciting than the spectacle which the 
 wild ones presented careering round the corral, uttering 
 piercing screams, their heads erect and trunks aloft, the 
 very emblems of rage and perplexity, of power and help- 
 lessness. 
 
 Along with those which entered at the second drive 
 was one that evidently belonged to another herd, and 
 had been separated from them in the melee when the 
 latter effected their escape, and, as usual, his new com- 
 panions in misfortune drove him off indignantly as often 
 as he attempted to approach them. 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 201 
 
 The demeanour of those taken in the second drive 
 differed materially from that of the preceding captives, 
 who, having entered the corral in darkness, to find 
 themselves girt with fire and smoke, and beset by hideous 
 sounds and sights on every side, were speedily reduced 
 by fear to stupor and submission — whereas, the second 
 herd having passed into the enclosure by daylight, 
 and its area being trodden down in many places, could 
 clearly discover the fences, and were consequently more 
 alarmed and enraged at their confinement. They were 
 thus as restless as the others had been calm, and so 
 much more vigorous in their assaults that, on one occa- 
 sion, their courageous leader, undaunted by the multi- 
 tude of white wands thrust towards her, was only driven 
 back from the stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing 
 flambeau at her head. Her attitude as she stood repulsed, 
 but still irresolute, was a study for a painter. Her eye 
 dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched like a tiger, 
 and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those hideous 
 screams that are imperfectly described by the term 
 '' trumpeting.^^ 
 
 Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from 
 the former drove, the new herd seemed to take no 
 friendly notice of them ; they halted inquiringly for a 
 minute, and then resumed their career round the corral, 
 and once or twice in their headlong flight they rushed 
 madly over the bodies of the prostrate captives as they 
 lay in their misery on the ground. 
 
 It was evening before the new captives had grown 
 wearied with their furious and repeated charges, and stood 
 still in the centre of the corral collected into a terrified 
 and motionless group. The fires were then relighted, 
 the guard redoubled by the addition of the watchers. 
 
202 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 who were now relieved from duty in the forest, and the 
 spectators retired to their bungalows for the night. 
 
 The business of the third clay began by noosing and 
 tying up the new captives, and the first sought out was 
 their magnificent leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker 
 having forced themselves on either side of her, a boy in 
 the service of the Eata-Mahatmeya succeeded in attach- 
 ing a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddi moved off, but 
 feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctant 
 prize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the 
 full weight of her body to the pull. The tusker, seeing 
 her difficulty, placed himself in front of the prisoner, and 
 forced her backwards, step by step, till his companion 
 brought her fairly up to the tree, and wound the rope 
 round the stem. Though overpowered by fear, she 
 showed the fullest sense of the nature of the danger she 
 had to apprehend. She kept her head turned towards 
 the noosers, and tried to step in advance of the de- 
 coys ; in spite of all their efforts, she tore off the first 
 noose from her fore-leg, and placing it under her foot, 
 snapped it into fathom lengths. WTien finally secured, 
 her Avrithings were extraordinary. She doubled in her 
 head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedge- 
 hog, and rising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting 
 her hind-feet off the ground, she wrung them from side 
 to side, till the great tree above her quivered in every 
 branch. 
 
 Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested 
 that the smaller trees and jungle, which partially ob- 
 structed our view, might be broken away, being no longer 
 essential to screen the entrance to the corral ; and five 
 of the tame elephants were brought up for the purpose. 
 They felt the strength of each tree with their trunks, 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 203 
 
 then swaying it backwards and forwards, by pushing it 
 with their foreheads, they watched the opportunity when 
 it was in full swing to raise their fore-feet against the 
 stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off 
 the festoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the 
 smaller branches and brushwood, they pitched them with 
 their tusks, piling them into heaps along the side of the 
 fence. 
 
 Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary 
 individual belonging to the fugitive herd. WTien they 
 attempted to drag him backwards from the tree near 
 
 which he was noosed, he laid hold of it with his trunk 
 and lay down on his side immoveable. The temple 
 tusker and another were ordered up to assist, and it re- 
 quired the combined efforts of the three elephants to 
 
204 
 
 MMIMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 force him along. WTien dragged to the place at which 
 he was to be tied up, he continued the contest with 
 desperation, and to prevent the second noose being placed 
 on his foot, he sat down on his haunches, almost in the 
 attitude of the " Florentine Boar," keeping his hind-feet 
 beneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk, 
 with which he flung back the rope as often as it was 
 attempted to attach it. 
 
 AMien overpowered and made fast, his grief was most 
 affecting ; his violence sunk to utter prostration, and he 
 
 lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears 
 trickling down his cheeks. 
 
 The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, 
 and marching each captive down to the river between 
 two tame ones. This was effected very simply. A 
 decoy, with a strong collar round its neck, stood on 
 either side of the wild one, on which a similar collar 
 was formed, by successive coils of coco-nut rope ; and 
 
Chap. VI.] THE ELEPHANT. 205 
 
 then, connecting the three collars together, the pri- 
 soner was effectually made safe between his two guards. 
 Dui'ing this operation, it was curious to see how the 
 tame elephant, from time to time, used its trunk to 
 shield the arm of its rider, and ward off the trunk of the 
 prisoner, who resisted the placing the rope round his 
 neck. This done, the nooses were removed from his 
 feet, and he was marched off to the river, in which 
 he and his companions were allowed to bathe ; a privi- 
 lege of which all availed themselves eagerly. Each 
 was then made fast to a tree in the forest, and keepers 
 beinof assicjned to him, mth a retinue of leaf-cutters, he 
 was plentifully supplied with his favourite food, and left 
 to the care and tuition of his new masters. 
 
 Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted 
 to describe, one cannot help feeling how immeasurably 
 it exceeds in interest those royal battues where timid 
 deer are driven in crowds to unresisting slaughter; or 
 those vaunted " wild sports " the amusement of which 
 appears to be in proportion to the effusion of blood. 
 Here the only display of power was the imposition of 
 restraint ; and though considerable mortality often occurs 
 amongst the animals caught, the infliction of pain, so 
 far from being an incident of the operation, is most cau- 
 tiously avoided from its tendency to enrage, the policy 
 of the captor being to conciliate and soothe. The whole 
 scene exhibits the most marvellous example of the volun- 
 tary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in active 
 co-operation with human intelligence and courage ; and 
 nothing else in nature, not even the chase of the whale, 
 can afford so vivid an illustration of the sovereignty of 
 man over brute creation even when confronted with 
 force in its most stupendous embodiment. 
 
20G MAIklMALIA. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Of the two young elephants which were taken in the 
 corral, the smallest was sent down to my house at Colombo, 
 where he became a general favourite with the servants. 
 He attached himself especially to the coachman, who had 
 a little shed erected for him near his own quarters at 
 the stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen, 
 where he received a daily allowance of milk and plan- 
 tains, and picked up several other delicacies besides. 
 He was innocent and playful in the extreme, and when 
 walking in the grounds he would trot up to me, twine his 
 little trunk round my arm, and coax me to take him to 
 the fruit-trees. In the evening the grass-cutters now 
 and then indulged him by permitting him to carry home 
 a load of fodder for the horses, on which occasions he 
 assumed an ?oir of gravity that was highly amusing, show- 
 ing that he was deeply impressed with the importance 
 and responsibility of the service entrusted to him. Being 
 sometimes permitted to enter the dining-room, and 
 helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his way to the 
 side-board ; and on more than one occasion having stolen 
 in, during the absence of the servants, he made a clear 
 sweep of the wine-glasses and china in his endeavours to 
 reach a basket of oranges. For these and similar pranks 
 we were at last forced to put him away. He was sent to 
 the Grovernment stud, where he was affectionately re- 
 ceived and adopted by Siribeddi, and he now takes his 
 turn of public duty in the department of the Commis- 
 sioner of Roads. 
 
207 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 Conduct in Captivity, 
 
 The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at 
 the present day, that the Indian elephant surpasses that 
 of Africa in sagacity and tractability, and consequently 
 in capacity for training, so as to render its services more 
 available to man. There does not appear to me to be 
 sufficient ground for this conclusion. It originated, in 
 all probability, in the first impressions created by the 
 accounts of the elephant brought back by the Grreeks 
 after the Indian expedition of Alexander, and above all 
 by the descriptions of Aristotle, whose knowledge of the 
 animal was derived exclusively from the East. A long 
 interval elapsed before the elephant of Africa, and its 
 capabilities, became known in Europe. The first ele- 
 phants brought to Grreece by Antipater, were from India, 
 as were also those introduced by Pyrrhus into Italy. 
 Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook to 
 employ African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them 
 against Metellus, and Juba against Caesar ; but from in- 
 experienced and deficient training, they proved less 
 effective than the elephants of India ^, and the historians 
 
 1 Aemajtdi, Hist Milit. des Ele- on the coins of Alexander, and the 
 
 phants, liv. i. ch. i, p. 2. It is an Seleueidae invariably exhibit the 
 
 interesting fact, noticed by An- characteristics of the Indian type, 
 
 MANDi, that the elephants figured whilst those on Roman medals 
 
208 
 
 MA^klMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 of these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that which 
 was but the result of insufficient education. 
 
 It must, however, be remembered that the elephants 
 which, at a later period, astonished the Eomans by their 
 sagacity, and whose performances in the amphitheatre 
 have been described by ^lian and Pliny, were brought 
 from Africa, and acquired their accomplishments from 
 European instructors^ ; a sufficient proof that under 
 equally favourable auspices the African species are 
 capable of developing similar docility and powers with 
 those of India. It is one of the facts from which the 
 inferiority of the Negro race has been inferred, that 
 they alone, of all the nations amongst whom the elephant 
 is found, have never manifested ability to domesticate it ; 
 and even as regards the more highly developed races 
 who inhabited the valley of the Nile, it is observable that 
 the elephant is nowhere to be found amongst the animals 
 figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt, whilst the 
 camel opard, the lion, and even the hippopotamus are re- 
 presented. And although in later times the knowledge 
 of the art of training appears to have existed under the 
 Ptolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterra- 
 nean, it admits of no doubt that it was communicated 
 by the more accomplished natives of India who had 
 settled there.^ 
 
 can at once be pronounced African, 
 from the peculiarities of the con- 
 vex forehead and expansive ears. 
 — Ibid. liv. i. cap. i. p. 3. 
 
 AuMAXDi has, with infinite in- 
 dustry, collected from original 
 sources a mass of curious inform- 
 ations relative to the employment 
 of elephants in ancient warfare, 
 which he has published under the 
 title of Histoire MiUtaire dcs Ele- 
 jphants deipuis les temps les plus 
 recuUs jusqxC a V introduction des 
 armcs a feu. Paris. 1843. 
 
 ' JElian, lib. ii. cap. ii. 
 
 2 See Scklegel's Essay on the 
 
Chap. YII.] THE ELEPHANT. 209 
 
 Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to 
 the East seems to me to be equally fallacious ; Pteard, 
 Bernier, Phillipe, Theyenot, and other travellers in 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, proclaimed the 
 superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in size, strength, 
 and sagacity, above those of all other parts of India' ; 
 and Tavernier in particular is supposed to have stated 
 that if a Ceylon elephant be introduced amongst those 
 bred in any other place, by an instinct of nature they 
 do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, 
 and raising them reverentially. This passage has been 
 so repeatedly quoted in works on Ceylon that it has 
 passed into an aphorism, and is always adduced as a 
 testimony to the surpassing intelligence of the elephants 
 of that island : althouo^h a reference to the original shows 
 that Tavernier's observations are not only fanciful in 
 themselves, but are restricted to the supposed excellence 
 
 Elephant and the Sphynx, Classical elephant figured in the sculptures 
 
 Journal, No. Ix. Although the of Xineyeh is universally as wild, 
 
 trained elephant nowhere appears not domesticated, 
 upon the monuments of the Egyp- ' This is merely a reiteration of 
 
 tians, the animal was not unknown the statement of ^liax, who as- 
 
 to them, and ivor}- and elephants cribes to the elephants of Taprobane 
 
 are figured on the walls of Thebes a xast superiority in size, strength, 
 
 and Karnac amongst the spoils of and intelligence, aboTe those of 
 
 Thothmes III., and the tribute continental India, — KaX olBe ye 
 
 paid to Rameses I. The Island of vr}(nuTai i?\4(pavT6S twu riTTdpuTuv 
 
 Elephantine, in the Nile, near oA/ci/tiwrepoi re r^u pw/xriv koI jj-ei^ovs 
 
 Assouan (Syene) is styled in hiero- ISeiu elal, Koi ^v/xoaocpwTepoL 8e Trdura 
 
 gl}'phical writing " The Land of iravrri KpiuoivTo au.'' — ^llvx, De 
 
 the Elephant ; " but as it is a mere Nat. Anim., lib. xvi. cap. xxiii. 
 rock, it probably owes its designa- -Sh:iAN also, in the same chap- 
 
 tion to its form. See Sir Gaed- ter, states the fact of the ship- 
 
 NEE "Wllkcvson's Ancitnt Egyp- ment of elephants in large boats 
 
 tians, vol. i. pi. iy.; vol. v. p. 176. from Ceylon to the opposite couti- 
 
 Above the first cataract of the Nile nent of India, for sale to the king 
 
 are two small islands, each bearing of Kalinga ; so that the export 
 
 the name of Phylse; — quaere, is from Manaar, described in a former 
 
 the derivation of this word at all passage, has been going on appa- 
 
 connected with the Arabic term rently without interruption since 
 
 fill See ante, p. 76, note. The the time of the Eomans. 
 
210 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 of the Ceylon animal in war.^ This estimate of the 
 superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it ever prevailed 
 in India, was not current there at a very early period ; 
 for in the Ramayana, which is probably the oldest epic 
 in the world, the stud of Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, 
 was supplied with elephants from the Himalaya and the 
 Vindhya Mountains.- I have had no opportunity of test- 
 ing by personal observation the justice of the assumption ; 
 but from all that I have heard of the elephants of the 
 continent, and seen of those of Ceylon, I have reason to 
 conclude that the difference, if nob imaginary, is except- 
 ional, and must have arisen in particular and individual 
 instances, from more judicious or elaborate instruction. 
 
 The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe 
 and the West, was derived from the conspicuous 
 position assigned to it in the wars of the East : in 
 India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed one of 
 the most picturesque, if not the most effective, features 
 in the armies of the native princes.^ It is more than 
 
 * The expression of Tavernieb is relevant. II est vrai que les ele- 
 
 to the eiFect that as compared with all phants que les grands seignem*s 
 
 others, the elephants of Ceylon are entretiennent, quand on les amene 
 
 "plus courageux a la guerre." The devant eux, pour voir s'ils sont en 
 
 rest of the passage is a curiosity; — bon point, font trois fois une espece 
 
 " II faut remarquer ici une chose de reverence avec leur trompe, cr 
 
 qu'on aura peut-etre de la peine a qite fai vu souvent; mais ils sont 
 
 croire mais qui est toutefois tres- styles a cela, et leurs maitres le 
 
 veritable : c'est que lorsque quelque leur enseignent de bonne heure." — 
 
 roi ou quelque seigneur a quelqu'un Les Six Vo7/agcsdeJ.3.TATEUNiER, 
 
 de ces elephants de Ceylan, et qu'on lib. iii. ch. 20. 
 en amene quelqu' autre des lieux ^ Eamayana, sec. vi. ; Caeey 
 
 ou les marchands vont les prendre, and Marshman, i. 105 ; Fauche, 
 
 commed'Achen, de Siam, d'Arakan, t. i. p. 66. 
 
 de Pegu, du royaume de Boutan, ^ The only mention of the ele- 
 
 d' Assam, des terres de Cochin et phant in Sacred History is in the 
 
 de la coste du Melinde, des que les account given in Maccabees of the 
 
 elephants en voient un de Ceylan, invasion of Egypt by Antiochus, 
 
 par un instinct de nature, ils lui who entered it 170 B.C., "with 
 
 font la reverence, portant le bout chariots and elephants, and horse- 
 
 de leur trompe a la terre et la men, and a great navy." — 1 Mace. 
 
Chaf. VII.J 
 
 THE ELEPHAXT. 
 
 211 
 
 probable that the earliest attempts to take and train 
 the elephant, were with a view to railitary uses, and 
 that the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify 
 the pride of the eastern kings, and sustain the pomp 
 of their processions. 
 
 An impression prevails even to the present day, that 
 the process of training is tedious and difficult, and the 
 reduction of a full-grown elephant to obedience, slow 
 and troublesome in the extreme.^ In both particulars, 
 however, the contrary is the truth. The training as it 
 prevails in Ceylon is simple, and the conformity and 
 obedience of the animal are developed with singular 
 
 i. 17. Frequent allusions to the 
 use of elephants in war occur in 
 both books ; and in chap. vi. 34, it 
 is stated that "to provoke the ele- 
 phants to fight they shoTved them 
 the blood o^ grapes and of mulber- 
 ries." The term showed, '"eSei^av," 
 might be thought to imply that the 
 animals were enraged by the sight 
 of the wine and its colour, but in 
 the Third Book of Maccabees, in 
 the Greek Septuagint, various 
 other passages show that wine, on 
 such occasions, was administered 
 to the elephants to render them 
 furious. — Mace. v. 2, 10, 45. 
 Phile mentions the same fact, De 
 Elepkante, i. 145. 
 
 There is a very curious account 
 of the mode in which the Arab 
 conquerors of Scinde, in the 9th 
 and 10th centuries, equipped the 
 elephant for war ; which being 
 written with all the particularity 
 of an eye-witness, bears the impress 
 of truth and accuracy, Massoudi, 
 who was born in Bagdad at the 
 close of the 9th century, travelled 
 in India in the year a.d. 913, and 
 visited the Gulf of Cambay, the 
 coast of Malabar, and the Island of 
 Ceylon : — fi-om a larger account of 
 
 his journeys he compiled a sum- 
 mary under the title of " Moroudj 
 al-dzeheh^' or the " Golden Mea- 
 doivs" the MS. of which is now in 
 the Bibliotheque Rationale. M. 
 Eeixaud, in describing this manu- 
 script says, on its authority, '• The 
 Prince of Mensura, whose do- 
 minions lay south of the Indus, 
 maintained eighty elephants train- 
 ed for war, each of which bore in 
 his trunk a bent cymeter (car- 
 thel), with which he was taught to 
 cut and thrust at all confronting 
 him. The trunk itself was effect- 
 ually protected by a coat of mail, 
 and the rest of the body enveloped 
 in a covering composed jointly of 
 iron and horn. Other elephants 
 were employed in drawing chariots, 
 carrying baggage, and grinding 
 forage, and the peformance of all 
 bespoke the utmost intelligence and 
 docility." — Eeixaud, Memoire stir 
 rinde, anterienrement cm milieu du 
 XI^ siecle, d'apres les ecrivains 
 arabcs, persans et chinois. Paris, 
 M.D.ccc. XLix. p. 215. See Speen- 
 ger's English Translation of 
 Massoudi, vol. i. p. 383. 
 
 * Broderip, Zoological Eccrca- 
 tions, p. 226. 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. Vn. 
 
 rapidity. For the first three days, or till they will eat 
 freely, which they seldom do in a less time, the newly- 
 captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet ; and, if 
 practicable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the 
 wild ones confidence. Where many elephants are being 
 trained at once, it is customary to put every new 
 captive between the stalls of half-tamed ones, when it 
 soon takes to its food. This stage being attained, 
 training commences by placing tame elephants on 
 either side. The " cooroowe vidahn," or the head of 
 the stables, stands in front of the wild elephants hold- 
 ing a long stick with a sharp iron point. Two men are 
 then stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame 
 elephants, and each holding a hendoo or crook ^ towards 
 the wild one's trunk, whilst one or two others rub their 
 hands over his back, keeping up all the while a sooth- 
 ing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with endearing 
 epithets, such as " ho ! my son," or " ho I my father," 
 or " my mother," as may be applicable to the age and 
 sex of the captive. The elephant is at first furious, 
 and strikes in all directions with his trunk : but the 
 
 ^ The iron goad with which the It is figured in the medals of 
 
 keeper directs the moyements of Caracalla in the identical form in 
 
 the elephants, called a hendoo in which it is in use at the present 
 
 Ceylon and hawJcus in Bengal, day in India, 
 
 appears to hare retained the present The Greeks called it apTTTj, and 
 
 shape from the remotest antiquity, the Eomans cuspis. 
 
 r 
 
 Modern Hendoo. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Medal of Xumidia. 
 
Chaf. VII.] THE ELEPHAXT. 213 
 
 men in front receiving all these blows on the points of 
 their weapons, the extremity of the trunk becomes so 
 sore that the animal curls it up close, and seldom 
 afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The first 
 dread of man's power being thus established, the pro- 
 cess of taking him to bathe between two tame elephants 
 is greatly facilitated, and by lengthening the neck rope, 
 and drawing the feet together as close as possible, the 
 process of laying him down in the water is finally 
 accomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point 
 of their hendoos over the backbone. 
 
 For many days the roaring and resistance which 
 attend the operation are considerable, and it often re- 
 quires the sagacious interference of the tame elephants 
 to control the refractory wild ones. It soon, however, 
 becomes practicable to leave the latter alone, only 
 taking them to and from the stall by the aid of a decoy. 
 This step lasts, under ordinary treatment, for about 
 three weeks, when an elephant may be taken alone 
 with his legs hobbled, and a man walking backwards 
 in front with the point of the hendoo always presented 
 to the elephant's head, and a keeper with an iron crook 
 at each ear. On getting into the water, the fear of 
 being pricked on his tender back induces him to lie 
 down directly on the crook being only held over him 
 in terrorem. Once this point has been achieved, the 
 further process of taming is dependent upon the dis- 
 position of the creature. 
 
 The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines 
 are applied to heal the fearful wounds on the legs 
 which even the softest ropes occasion. This is the 
 great difficulty of training; for the wounds fester 
 grievously, and months and sometimes years will 
 
 p 3 
 
214 MAJIMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 elapse before an elephant will allow his feet to be 
 touched without indications of alarm and anger. 
 
 The observation has been frequently made that the 
 elephants most vicious and troublesome to tame, and 
 the most worthless when tamed, are those distinguished 
 by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears. The period 
 of tuition does not appear to be influenced by the size 
 or strength of the animals : some of the smallest give 
 the greatest amount of trouble; whereas, in the in- 
 stance of the two largest that have been taken in 
 Ceylon within the last thirty years, both were docile 
 in a remarkable degree. One in particular, which was 
 caught and trained by Mr. Cripps, when Grovernment 
 agent, in the Seven Korles, fed from the hand the first 
 night it was secured, and in a very few days evinced 
 pleasure on being patted on the head.^ There is 
 none so obstinate, not even a rogue, that may not, 
 when kindly and patiently treated, be conciliated and 
 reconciled. 
 
 The males are generally more unmaneagable than the 
 females, and in both an inclination to lie down to rest 
 is regarded as a favourable symptom of approaching 
 tractability, some of the most resolute having been 
 known to stand for months together, even during sleep. 
 Those which are the most obstinate and violent at first 
 
 ^ This was the largest elephant attendant decoys. He, on one oc- 
 
 that had been tamed in Ceylon ; casion, escaped, but was recaptured 
 
 he measured upwards of nine feet in the forest ; and he afterwards 
 
 at the shoulders and belonged to became so docile as to perform a 
 
 the caste so highly prized for the variety of tricks. He was at length 
 
 temples. He was gentle affer his ordered to be removed to Colombo ; 
 
 first capture, but his removal from but such was his terror on ap- 
 
 the corral to the stables, though only proaching the fort, that on coaxing 
 
 a distance of six miles, was a matter him to enter the gate, he became 
 
 of the extremest difficulty ; his paralysed in the extraordinary way 
 
 extraordinary strength rendering elsewhere aUuded to, and died on 
 
 him more than a match for the the spot. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 215 
 
 are the soonest and most effectually subdued, and 
 generally prove permanently docile and submissive. 
 But those which are sullen or morose, although they 
 may provoke no chastisement by their viciousness, are 
 always slower in being taught, and are rarely to be 
 trusted in after life.^ 
 
 But whatever may be its natural gentleness and 
 docility, the temper of an elephant is seldom to be im- 
 plicitly relied on in a state of captivity and coercion. 
 The most amenable are subject to occasional fits of 
 stubbornness ; and even after years of submission, irri- 
 tability and resentment will unaccountably manifest 
 themselves. It may be that the restraints and severer 
 discipline of training have not been entirely forgotten ; 
 or that incidents which in ordinary health would be pro- 
 
 ' The natives profess that the 
 high caste elephants, such as are 
 allotted to the temples, are of all 
 others 'the most difficult to tame, 
 and M. Bles, the Dutch corre- 
 spondent of BuFFON, mentions a 
 caste of elephants which he had 
 heard of, as being peculiar to the 
 Kandyan kingdom, that were not 
 higher than a heifer (genisse), 
 covered with hair, and insuscep- 
 tible of being tamed. (Buffon-, 
 Supp. vol. vi. p. 29.) Bishop He- 
 BER, in the account of his journey 
 from Bareilly towards the Hima- 
 layas, describes the Raja Goiu*- 
 man Sing, "mounted on a little 
 female elephant, hardly bigger 
 than a Durham ox, and almost as 
 shaggy as a poodle." — Journ., ch. 
 xvii. It will be remembered that 
 the mammoth discovered in 1803 
 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, 
 was covered mth a coat of long 
 hair, with a sort of wool at the 
 roots. Hence there arose the ques- 
 tion whether that northern region 
 
 had been formerly inhabited by a 
 race of elephants, so fortified by na- 
 ture against cold; or whether the in- 
 dividual discovered had been borne 
 thither by currents from some more 
 temperate latitudes. To the latter 
 theory the presence of hair seemed 
 a fatal objection ; but so far as my 
 own observation goes, I believe the 
 elephants are more or less provided 
 with hair. In some it is more 
 developed than in others, and it is 
 particularly observable intheyoung, 
 which when captm'ed are frequently 
 covered with a woolly fleece, es- 
 pecially about the head and 
 shoulders. In the older individu- 
 als in Ceylon, this is less apparent : 
 and in captivity the hair appears 
 to be altogether removed by the 
 custom of the mahouts to rub their 
 skin daily with oil and a rough 
 lump of burned clay. See a paper 
 on the subject, Asiat. Journ. N. S. 
 vol. xiv. p. 182, by Mr. G-. Ymr- 
 
 HOLME. 
 
 P 4 
 
216 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 ductive of no demonstration whatever, may lead, in mo- 
 ments of temporary illness, to fretfulness and anger. 
 The knowledge of this infirmity led to the popular 
 belief recorded by Phile, that the elephant had hvo 
 hearts, under the respective influences of which it 
 evinced ferocity or gentleness ; subdued by the one to 
 habitual tractability and obedience, but occasionally 
 roused by the other to displays of rage and resist- 
 ance.^ 
 
 In the process of taming, the presence of the tame 
 ones can generally be dispensed with after two months, 
 and the captive may then be ridden by the driver alone ; 
 and after three or four months he may be entrusted 
 with labour, so far as regards docility; — but it is un- 
 desirable, and even involves the risk of life, to work an 
 elephant too soon ; it has frequently happened that a 
 valuable animal has lain down and died the first time it 
 was tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be 
 " broken heart," — certainly without any cause inferable 
 from injury or previous disease.^ It is observable, that 
 
 • " AittAtjs 5e (pdffLv eujropTjo-ot Kap- hibitecl to the British Envoy, "made 
 
 bias' vigorous resistance to the placing 
 
 Kal tt) fxeu eluai bv/jLiKhu rh br]piov of a collar on its neck, and the 
 
 Els aKparri Kivrjaiu T]p€Qi(Tfxivov, people were proceeding to tighten 
 
 T_^ 5e ■Kpo(Tr\i'ks koL ^paavT-rjTos ^€vov. it, when the elephant, which had 
 
 Kal TTTj ixku avruv aKpoaaOai tuu lain down as if quite exhausted, 
 
 Adywu reared suddenly on the hind quar- 
 
 Ots &v ris 'IvShs eu Ti6a<revo}u Keyoi, ters, and fell on its side — dead/" 
 
 Tlrj Se Trphs avTohs rohs vofx^'is iiri- — P. 101. 
 
 rpex^iv Mr. Steachan noticed the same 
 
 Els Tas naXaias iKTpairev KuKovp- liability of the elephants to sudden 
 
 yias." death from very slight causes ; "of 
 
 Vbjlti, Ex2)os. de Elc2)k.,\. 126, &:c. the fall," he says, "at any time, 
 
 - Captain Yule, in his Narra- though on plain ground, they 
 
 tive of cm Embassy to Ava in 1855, either die immediately, or languish 
 
 records an illustration of this ten- till they die ; their great weight 
 
 dency of the elephant to sudden occasioning tlaem so much hurt by 
 
 death; one newly captured, the the fall." — Phil. Trans. a.T). 1701, 
 
 process of taming which was ex- vol. xxiii. p. 1052. 
 
Chap. VU.] THE ELEPHANT. 217 
 
 till a captured elephant begins to relish food, and grow 
 fat upon it, he becomes so fretted by work, that it kills 
 him in an incredibly short space of time. 
 
 The first employment to which an elephant is put is 
 to tread clay in a brick-field, or to draw a waggon in 
 double harness mth a tame companion. But the work 
 in which the display of sagacity renders his labours of 
 the highest value, is that which involves the use of hesivj 
 materials ; and hence in dragging and piling timber, or 
 moving stones^ for the construction of retaining walls 
 and the approaches to bridges, his services in an un- 
 opened country are of the utmost importance. AMien 
 roads are to be constructed along the face of steep de- 
 clivities, and the space is so contracted that risk is in- 
 curred either of the working elephant falling over the 
 precipice or of rocks slipping down from above, not only 
 are the measures to which he resorts the most judicious 
 and reasonable that could be devised, but if urged by his 
 keeper to adopt any other, he manifests a reluctance 
 sufficient to show that he has balanced in his own mind 
 the comparative advantages of each. An elephant ap- 
 pears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and 
 object that he is expected to promote, and hence he vo- 
 luntarily executes a variety of details without any 
 guidance whatever from his keeper. This is one cha- 
 racteristic in which this animal manifests a superiority 
 over the horse ; although his strength in proportion to 
 his weight is not so great as that of the latter. 
 
 His minute motions when engrossed by such opera- 
 
 ' A correspondent informs me means of a rope, whieli he either 
 
 that on the Malabar coast of India, draws with his forehead, or ma- 
 
 the elephant, when employed in nages by seizing it in his teeth, 
 dragging stones, moves them by 
 
218 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 tions, the activity of his eye, and the earnestness of his 
 attitudes, can only be comprehended by being seen. In 
 moving timber and masses of rock his trunk is the in- 
 strument on which he mainly relies, but those which 
 have tusks turn them to good account. To get a weighty 
 stone out of a hollow an elephant will kneel down so as 
 to apply the pressure of his head to move it upwards, 
 then steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, 
 he will apply a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, 
 and fit it accurately in position : this done, he will step 
 round to view it on either side, and adjust it with due 
 precision. He appears to gauge his task by his eye, and 
 to form a judgment whether the weight be proportion- 
 ate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, he 
 hesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars 
 and shows temper. 
 
 In clearing an opening through forest land, the power 
 of the African elephant, and the strength ascribed to him 
 by a recent traveller, as displayed in uprooting trees, have 
 never been equalled or approached by anything I have 
 seen of the elephant in Ceylon ^ or heard of them in India. 
 
 * "Here the trees were large and the trees thus broken lay so thick 
 
 handsome, but not strong enough across one another, that it was 
 
 to resist the inconceivable strength almost impossible to ride through 
 
 of the mighty monarch of these the district."— 7Z>z(^., p. 310. 
 
 forests ; almost every tree had half Mr. Gordon Gumming does not 
 
 its branches broken short by them name the trees which he saw thus 
 
 and at every hundred yards I came " uprooted " and " broken across," 
 
 upon entire trees, and these, the nor has he given any idea of their 
 
 largest in the forest, n-prooted clean size and weight; but Major Den- 
 
 out of the ground, and broken short ham, who observed like traces of 
 
 across their sterns.'' — A Himter's the elephant in Africa, saw only 
 
 Life in South Africa. ByR. Gor- small trees overthrown by them; 
 
 DON Gumming, vol, ii. p. 305. — and Mr. Pringle, who had an 
 
 " Spreading out from one another, opportunity of observing similar 
 
 they smash and destroy all the practices of the animals in the 
 
 finest trees in the forest which neutral territory of the Eastern 
 
 happen to be in their course, . . . frontier of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 I have rode through forests where describes their ravages as being 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHAXT. 219 
 
 Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber 
 and the moisture of the soil ; thus a strong tree on the 
 verge of a swamp may be overthrown with greater ease 
 than a small and low one in parched and solid ground. 
 I have seen no " tree " deserving the name, nothing but 
 jungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere move- 
 ment of an elephant without some special exertion of 
 force. But he is by no means fond of gratuitously tasking 
 his strength ; and food being so abundant that he obtains 
 it without an effort, it is not altogether apparent, even 
 were he able to do so, why he should assail "the largest 
 trees in the forest, " and encumber his own haunts with 
 their broken stems ; especially as there is scarcely any- 
 thing which an elephant dislikes more than venturing 
 amongst fallen timber. 
 
 A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully 
 the most strenuous struggles of the largest elephant I 
 ever saw led to it ; and when directed by their keepers to 
 clear away jungle, the removal of even a small tree, or 
 a healthy young coco-nut palm, is a matter both of time 
 and exertion. Hence the services of an elephant are of 
 much less value in clearing a forest than in dragging 
 and piling felled timber. But in the latter occupation 
 he manifests an intelligence and dexterity which is sur- 
 prising to a stranger, because the sameness of the oper- 
 ation enables the animal to go on for hours disposing 
 of log after log, almost without a hint or direction from 
 his attendant. For example, two elephants employed 
 
 confined to the mimosas, " immense of their food. Many of the /^r^cr 
 
 nxunbers of which had been torn mimosas had resisted all tJieir 
 
 out of the ground, and placed in efforts ; and indeed it is only after 
 
 an inyerted position, in order to heavy rain, when the soil is soft and 
 
 enable the animals to browse at loose, that they ever successfully 
 
 their ease on the soft and juicy attempt this operation.^' — Prin- 
 
 roots, which form a favourite part gle's Sketches of South Africa, 
 
220 MA:yiMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 in piling ebony and satinwood in the yards attached to 
 the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so accustomed 
 to their work, that they were able to accomplish it mth 
 equal precision and with greater rapidity than if it had 
 been done by dock-labourers. When the pile attained 
 a certain height, and they were no longer able by their 
 conjoint efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony 
 to the summit, they had been taught to lean two pieces 
 against the heap, up the iaclined plane of which they 
 gently rolled the remaining logs, and placed them 
 trimly on the top. 
 
 It has been asserted that in their occupations " ele- 
 phants are to a surprising extent the creatures of habit," ^ 
 that their movements are altogether mechanical, and 
 that "they are annoyed by any de^dation from their 
 accustomed practice, and resent any constrained depar- 
 ture from the regularity of their course." So far as my 
 own observation goes, this is incorrect; and I am 
 assured by officers of experience, that in regard to 
 changing his treatment, his hours, or his occupation, 
 an elephant evinces no more consideration than a horse, 
 but exhibits the same pliancy and facility. 
 
 At one poiat, however, the utility of the elephant 
 stops short. Such is the intelligence and earnestness he 
 displays in work, which he seems to conduct almost 
 without supervision, that it has been assumed^ that he 
 would continue his labour, and accomplish his given 
 task, as well in the absence of his keeper as during his 
 presence. But here his innate love of ease displays 
 itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn, the 
 moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, 
 
 ' Menageries, ^'c, " The Elephant," toI. ii. p. 23. 
 2 Jbid., eh. xi. p. 138. 
 
Chap. Yll.] THE ELEPHAIs'T. 221 
 
 he will stroll away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury 
 of fanning himself and blowing dust over his back. 
 
 The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a 
 question of difficulty to his attendants. Force being 
 almost inapplicable, they try to work on his passions 
 and feelings, by such expedients as altering the na- 
 ture of his food or withholding it altogether for a time. 
 On such occasions the demeanour of the creature will 
 sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well as 
 of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, 
 in dealing mth offenders, to stop their allowance of 
 sugar canes or of jaggery ; or to restrain them from 
 eatinof their own share of fodder and leaves till their 
 companions shall have finished ; and in such cases the 
 consciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and 
 attitudes of the culprit is quite sufficient to identify 
 him, and to excite a feeling of sympathy and pity. 
 
 The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result 
 of affection, as well as of fear ; and although his attach- 
 ment becomes so strong that an elephant in Ceylon 
 has been kno^vn to remain out all night, without food, 
 rather than abandon his mahout, lying intoxicated in 
 the jungle, yet he manifests little difficulty in yielding 
 the same submission to a new driver in the event of a 
 change of attendants. This is opposed to the popular 
 belief that " the elephant cherishes such an enduring 
 remembrance of his old mahout, that he cannot easily 
 be brought to obey a stranger."^ In the extensive 
 establishments of the Ceylon Grovernment, the keepers 
 are changed without hesitation, and the animals, when 
 equally kindly treated, are usually found to be as tract- 
 
 1 Menageries, ^c, "The Elepliant," vol. i. p. 19. 
 
222 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VIF. 
 
 able and obedient to their new driver as to the old, in 
 fact so soon as they have become familiarised with his 
 voice. 
 
 This is not, however, invariably the case ; and Mr. 
 Cripps, who had remarkable opportunities for observing 
 the habits of the elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me 
 an instance in which one of a singularly stubborn 
 disposition occasioned some inconvenience after the 
 death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till 
 its attendants bethought them of a child about twelve 
 years old, in a distant village, where the animal had 
 been formerly picketed, and to whom it had displayed 
 much attachment. The child was sent for ; and on its 
 arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extreme 
 satisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees 
 it became reconciled to the presence of a new superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing 
 to some supposed injury to the spinal column from the 
 peculiar motion of the elephant; but this remark does 
 not apply to those in Ceylon, who are healthy, and as 
 long lived as other men. If the motion of the elephant 
 be thus injurious, that of the camel must be still more 
 so; yet we never hear of early death ascribed to this 
 cause by the Arabs, 
 
 The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary 
 of articulate sounds, serves almost alone to guide the 
 elephant in his domestic occupations.^ Sir Everaed 
 
 ' The principal sound by which the sound is so expressive of the 
 
 the mahouts in Ceylon direct the sense that persons in charge of 
 
 motions of the elephants is a repe- animals of almost every descrip- 
 
 tition, with various modulations, of tion throughout the world appear 
 
 the words ur-re ! tir-re ! This is to have adopted it with a concur- 
 
 one of those interjections in which rence that is very curious. The 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHANT. 223 
 
 Home, from an examination of the muscular fibres in 
 the drum of an elephant's ear, came to the conclusion, 
 that notwithstanding the distinctness and power of his 
 perception of sounds at a greater distance than other 
 animals, he was insensible to their harmonious modula- 
 tion and destitute of a musical ear.^ But Professor 
 Harrison, in a paper read before the Eoyal Irish 
 Academy in 1847, has stated that on a careful examina- 
 tion of the head of an elephant which he had dissected, 
 he could " see no evidence of the muscular structure of 
 the nieiinbrana tympani so accurately described by Sir 
 E. Home." Sir Eyerard's deduction, I may observe, 
 is clearly inconsistent with the fact that the power of 
 two elephants may be combined by singing to them a 
 measured chant, somewhat resembling a sailor's capstan 
 song ; and in labour of a particular kind, such as hauling 
 a stone with ropes, they will thus move conjointly a 
 weight to which their divided strength would be un- 
 equal.^ 
 
 drivers of camels in Turkey, Pales- shouts of hurrish ! a sound closely 
 tine, and Egypt encourage them to resembling that used by the ma- 
 speed by shouting ar-re ! ar-re ! houts in Ceylon. 
 The Arabs in Algeria ciy eirich ! ^ On the Difference between the 
 to their mules. The Moors seem Human Membrana Tym-pani and 
 to have carried the custom with that of the Elephant. By Sir Eve- 
 them into Spain, where mules are eard Home, Bart., Philos. Trans., 
 still driven with cries of arre 1823. Paper by Prof. Haeeison-, 
 (whence the muleteers derive their Proc. Eoyal Irish Academy, vol. iii. 
 Spanish appellation of " arrieros "). p. 386. 
 
 lu France the Sportsman excites ^ j j^g^yg already noticed the 
 
 the hound by shouts of ^«rf/ Aare.' striking effect produced on the 
 
 and the waggoner there turns his captive elephants in the corral, by 
 
 horses by his voice, and the use of the harmonious notes of an ivory 
 
 the word hurhaut ! In the North, flute ; and on looking to the graphic 
 
 " Huts was a word used by the old description which is given by 
 
 Germans in urging theii- horses to -SElian of the exploits which he 
 
 speed ; " and to the present day, witnessed as performed by the 
 
 the herdsmen in Ireland, and parts elephants exhibited at Eome, it is 
 
 of Scotland, drive their pigs with remarkable how very large a share 
 
224 MA^IMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to 
 obedience in the elephant, than the patience with which, 
 at the order of his keeper, he swallows the nauseous 
 medicines of the native elephant-doctors ; and it is im- 
 possible to witness the fortitude with which (without 
 shrinking) he submits to excruciating surgical operations 
 for the removal of tumours and ulcers to which he is sub- 
 ject, without conceiving a vivid impression of his gentle- 
 ness and intelligence. Dr. Davy when in Ceylon was 
 consulted about an elephant in the government Stud, 
 which was suffering from a deep, burrowing sore in the 
 back, just over the back-bone, which had long resisted 
 the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended 
 the use of the knife, that issue might be given to the 
 accumulated matter, but no one of the attendants was 
 competent to undertake the operation. " Being assured," 
 he continues, " that the creature would behave well, I 
 undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but 
 was made to kneel down at his keeper's command — and 
 with an amputating knife, using all my force, I made 
 the incision required through the tough integuments. 
 The elephant did not flinch, but rather inclined towards 
 me when using the knife ; and merely uttered a low, and 
 as it were suppressed, groan. In short, he behaved as 
 like a human being as possible, as if conscious (as I 
 
 of their training appears to have mouy : the whole ^^ suprising in a 
 
 been ascribed to the employment creature whose limbs are without 
 
 of music. joints! 
 
 Phele, in the account which he ^ v i _- ■>>■ ■> > a 
 has given of the eiephant s fondness ydpwv" 
 
 for music would almost seem to p^' ^ ^^^ , j_ 216. 
 
 have versified the prose narrative -^ ^ 
 
 of ^LiAN, as he describes its excite- For an account of the training 
 
 ment at the more animated por- and performances of the elephants 
 
 tions, its step being regulated to the at Eome, as narrated by -SIlian, 
 
 time and movements of the har- see the appendix to this chapter. 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHANT. 225 
 
 believe lie was), that the operation was for his good, 
 and the pain unavoidable "^ 
 
 Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, 
 to be assumed as the result of a uniform perception of 
 the object to be attained by compliance; and we cannot 
 but remember the touching incident which took place 
 during the slaughter of the elephant at Exeter Change 
 in 1846, when, after receiving ineffectually upwards of 
 120 balls in various parts of his body, he turned his face 
 to his assailants on hearing the voice of his keeper, and 
 knelt down at the accustomed word of command, so as to 
 bring his forehead within view of the rifles.^ 
 
 The working elephant is always a delicate animal, 
 and requires watchfulness and care. As a beast of 
 burden he is unsatisfactory; for although in point of 
 mere strength there is scarcely any weight which could 
 be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry, 
 it is difficult to pack his load without causing abrasions 
 that afterwards ulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by 
 harness, especially in wet weather. During either long 
 droughts or too much moisture, his feet become liable to 
 sores, that render him non-effective for months. Many 
 attempts have been made to provide him with some pro- 
 tection for the sole of the foot, but from his extreme 
 weight and peculiar mode of planting the foot, they 
 have all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable to 
 frequent inflammations, and the skill of the native ele- 
 phant-doctors, which has been renowned since the time 
 of ^lian, is nowhere more strikingly displayed than in 
 the successful treatment of such attacks.^ In Ceylon, 
 
 * The Angler in the Lake Bis- in Hone's Every-Day Book, March, 
 
 tnct, p. 23. ^ 1830, p. 337, 
 
 "^ A shocking account of the * -^iIllin, lib. xiii. c. 7. 
 death of tliis poor animal is given 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 [Chap. YII. 
 
 tlie murrain among cattle is of frequent occurrence, and 
 carries off great numbers of animals, wild as well as 
 tame. In such visitations the elephants suffer severely, 
 not only those at liberty in the forest, but those care- 
 fully tended in the government stables. Out of a stud 
 of about 40 attached to the department of the Com- 
 mission of Eoads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 
 were on an average fouT in each year, and this was 
 nearly doubled in those years when murrain prevailed. 
 
 Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments 
 of the Ceylon Grovernment, which died in twenty-five 
 years, from 1831 to 1856, the length of time that each 
 lived in captivity has only been recorded in the instances 
 of 138. Of these there died : — 
 
 Duration of Captivity. 
 
 No. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female 
 
 Under 1 year 
 
 72 
 
 29 
 
 43 
 
 From 1 to 2 years 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 „ 2 „ 3 „ 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 „ 3 „ 4 „ 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 „ 4 „ 5 „ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 „ 5 „ 6 „ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 „ 6 „ 7 „ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 „ 7 „ 8 „ 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 „ 8 „ 9 „ 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 . 
 
 » 9 „ 10 „ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 M 10 „ 11 „ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 » 11 „ 12 „ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 „ 12 „ 13 „ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 , 
 
 3 
 
 „ 13 „ 14 „ 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 „ 14 „ 15 „ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 „ 15 „ 16 „ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 , 
 
 „ 16 „ 17 „ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 , 
 
 1 
 
 „ 17 „ 18 „ 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 
 „ 18 „ 19 „ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 „ 19 „ 20 „ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 Total . 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 62 
 
 76 
 
Chap. YII.] THE ELEPHAIS'T. 227 
 
 Of the 72 who died in one year's servitude, 35 ex- 
 pired within the first six months of their captivity. 
 During training, many elephants die in the unaccount- 
 able manner already referred to, of what the natives 
 designate a broken heart 
 
 On being first subjected to work, the elephant is 
 liable to severe and often fatal swellings of the jaws and 
 abdomen.^ 
 
 From these causes there died, betTveen 1841 and 1849 . 9 
 Of cattle murrain . . , . . . . .10 
 
 Sore feet ........... 1 
 
 Colds and inflammation . ^ . . . . . .6 
 
 Diarrhoea .... '*^.~ .... . 
 
 AVorms .......... 
 
 Of diseased liver ........ 
 
 Injuries from a fall ........ 
 
 General debility ........ 
 
 Unknown causes ........ 3 
 
 Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven 
 males. 
 
 The ages of those that died could not be accurately 
 stated, owing to the circumstance of their having been 
 captured in corral. Two only were tuskers. Towards 
 keeping the stud in health, nothing has been found so 
 conducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and 
 giving them the opportunity to stand with their feet in 
 water, or in moistened earth. 
 
 Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; 
 their tushes have likewise been found with sjnmptoms of 
 internal perforation by some parasite, and the natives 
 assert that, in their agony, the animals have been known 
 
 * The elephant which was dis- letter, was " very like scarlatina, at 
 
 sected by Dr. Harrison of Dublin, that time a prevailing disease ; its 
 
 in 1847, died of a febrile attack, skin in some places became almost 
 
 after four or five days' illness, scarlet." 
 which, as Dr. H, tells me in a private 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 MAMMALIA. [€hap. YII. 
 
 to break them off sliort.^ I have never heard of the 
 teeth themselves being so affected, and it is just pos- 
 sible that the operation of shedding the subsequent 
 decay of the milk-tushes, may have in some instances 
 been accompanied by incidents that gave rise to this 
 story. 
 
 At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its 
 being true. Cuvier committed himself to the statement 
 that the tusks of the elephant have no attachments to 
 connect them with the pulp lodged in the cavity at 
 their base, from which the peculiar modification of 
 dentine, known as " ivory, " is secreted^ ; and hence, by 
 inference, that they would be devoid of sensation. 
 
 But independently of the fact that ivory is permeated 
 by tubes so fine that at their origin from the pulpy 
 cavity they do not exceed ^g ooo ^^ P^^'^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ 
 diameter, Owen had the tusk and pulp of the great 
 elephant which died at the Zoological Grardens in 
 London in 1847 longitudinally divided, and found that, 
 «^ although the pulp could be easily detached from the 
 inner surface of the cavity, it was not without a certain 
 resistance ; and when the edges of the co-adapted pulp 
 and tusk were examined by a strong lens, the filamen- 
 tary processes from the outer surface of the former 
 could be seen stretching, as they were drawn from the 
 dentinal tubes, before they broke. These filaments are 
 so minute, he adds, that to the naked eye the detached 
 surface of the pulp seems to be entire ; and hence Cuvier 
 was deceived into supposing that there was no organic 
 
 * See a paper entitled " TiecoUec- 1805. p. 94, and Ossemens Fossiles, 
 tions of Ceylon,'' in Frascr's Maga- quoted by Owtin, in the article on 
 zine for December, 1860. " Teeth," in Todd's Cyclop, of 
 
 * Annales du Museum F. viii. Anatomy, ^-c, vol. iv. p. 929. 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHAXT. 229 
 
 connexion between the pulp and the ivory.- But if, as 
 there seems no reason to doubt, these delicate nervous 
 processes traverse the tusk by means of the numerous 
 tubes already described, if attacked by caries the pain 
 occasioned to the elephant would be excruciating. 
 
 As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes 
 to which they are now assigned in Ceylon, there may 
 be a question on the score of prudence and economy. 
 In the rude and unopened parts of the country, where 
 rivers are to be forded, and forests are only traversed 
 by jungle paths, their labour is of value, in certain 
 contingencies, in the conveyance of stores, and in the 
 earlier operations for the construction of fords and 
 rough bridges of timber. But in more highly civilised 
 districts, and wherever macadamised roads admit of 
 the employment of horses and oxen for draught, I appre- 
 hend that the services of elephants might, with advan- 
 tage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed 
 with. 
 
 The love of the elephant for coolness and shade 
 renders him at all times more or less impatient of work 
 in the sun, and every moment of leisure he can snatch 
 is employed in covering his back with dust, or fanning 
 himself to diminish the annoyance of the insects and 
 heat. From the tenderness of his skin and its liability 
 to sores, the labour in which he can most advantageously 
 be employed is that of draught ; but the reluctance of 
 horses to meet or pass elephants renders it difficult to 
 work the latter with safety on frequented roads. Be- 
 sides, were the full load which an elephant is capable of 
 drawing, in proportion to his muscular strength, to be 
 placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension, the 
 injury to the roads would be such that the wear and 
 
 Q3 
 
230 MMIMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 tear of the highways and bridges would prove too costly 
 to be borne. On the other hand, by restricting it to a 
 somewhat more manageable quantity, and by limiting 
 the weight, as at present, to about one ton and a half, 
 it is doubtful whether an elephant performs so much 
 more work than could be done by a horse or by bullocks, 
 as to compensate for the greater cost of his feeding and 
 attendance. 
 
 Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, 
 from ulcerations of the skin, and illnesses of many kinds, 
 the elephant is so often invalided, that the actual cost 
 of his labour, when at work, is very considerably en- 
 hanced. Exclusive of the salaries of higher officers 
 attached to the government establishments, and other 
 permanent charges, the expenses of an elephant, looking 
 only to the wages of his attendants and the cost of his 
 food and medicines, varies from three shillings to four 
 shillings and sixpence per diem, according to his size 
 and class. ^ Taking the average at three shillings and 
 
 ^ An ordinary-sized elephant en- that would be likely to disagree 
 
 grosses the undivided attention of with him he unerringly rejects. 
 
 three men. One, as his mahout or His faA'ourites are the palms, espe- 
 
 superintendent, and two as leaf- cially the cluster of rich, unopened 
 
 cutters, who bring him branches leaves, known as the " cabbage," of 
 
 and grass for his daily supplies, the coco-nut, and areca ; and he de- 
 
 An animal of larger growth would lights to tear open the young trunks 
 
 probably require a third leaf-cutter, of the palmyra and jaggery ( Caryofa 
 
 The daily consumption is two cwt. urcns) in search of the farinaceous 
 
 of green food with about half a matter contained in the spongy 
 
 bushel of grain. When in the pith. Next to these come the 
 
 vicinity of towns and villages, the varieties of fig-trees, particularly 
 
 attendants have no difficult}^ in pro- the sacred Bo (F. rcUgiosa) which 
 
 curing an abundant supply of the is found near every temple, and 
 
 branches of the trees to which ele- the na gaha {Messua f erred), with 
 
 phants are partial ; and in journeys thick dark leaves and a scarlet 
 
 through the forests and unopened flower. Tlie leaves of the Jak-tree 
 
 country, the leaf-cutters are suffi- and bread-fruit {Artocarpus intc- 
 
 ciently expert in the knowledge of grifolia, and A. incisd), the Wood 
 
 those particular plants with which apple (yMgle Marmelos), Palu {Mi- 
 
 the elephant is satisfied. Those muso])s Indica), and a number of 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHANT. 231 
 
 nine-pence, and calculating that hardly any individual 
 works more than four days out of seven, the charge for 
 each day so employed would amount to six shillings and 
 sixpence. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse, 
 working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a- 
 crown, and two such would unquestionably do more 
 work than any elephant under the present system. I 
 do not know whether it be from a comparative calcula- 
 tion of this kind that the strength of the elephant 
 establishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished 
 of late years, but in the department of the Commis- 
 sioner of Eoads, the stud, which formerly numbered 
 upwards of sixty elephants, was reduced, some years 
 ago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than half that 
 number. 
 
 The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant 
 to breed in captivity has been demonstrated by many 
 recent authorities ; but with the exception of the birth 
 of young elephants at Eome, as mentioned by tElian, 
 the only instances that I am aware of their actually pro- 
 ducing young under such circumstances, took place in 
 Ceylon. Both parents had been for several years attached 
 
 others well known to their attend- The grasses are not found in suf- 
 ants, are all consumed in turn, ficient quantity to be an item of 
 The stems of the plaintain, the daily fodder; the Mauritius or 
 stalks of the sugar-cane, and the the Guinea grass is seized with 
 feathery tops of the bamboos, are avidity ; lemon grass is rejected 
 irresistible luxuries. Pine-apples, from its overpowering perfume, but 
 water-melons, and fruits of every rice in the straw, and every de- 
 description, are voraciously de- scription of grain, whether growing 
 voured, and a coco-nut when found or diy; gi'am (Cicer arietinum), 
 is first rolled under foot to detach Indian Corn, and millet are his 
 it from the husk and fibre, and then natural food. Of such of these as 
 raised in his trunk and crushed, can be found, it is the duty of the 
 almost without an effort, by his leaf-cutters, when in the jungle and 
 ponderous jaws. on march, to provide a daily supply. 
 
 (i4 
 
S32 MMIMALIA. [Chap. VH. 
 
 to the stud of the Commissioner of Roads, and in 1844 
 the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gave 
 birth to a still-born calf. Some years before, an ele- 
 phant that had been captured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a 
 female calf, which he succeeded in rearing. As usual, 
 the little one became the pet of the keepers ; but as it 
 increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence 
 when thwarted ; striking out with its hind-feet, throwing 
 itself headlong on the ground, and pressing its trunk 
 against any opposing object. 
 
 The duration of life in the elephant has been from the 
 remotest times a matter of uncertainty and speculation, 
 Aristotle says it was reputed to live from two to three 
 hundred years^, and modern zoologists have assigned to 
 it an age very little less; Cuvier^ allots two hundred 
 and De Blainville one hundred and twenty. The only 
 attempt which I know of to establish a period histori- 
 cally or physiologically is that of Fleurens, who has 
 advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in his 
 treatise " De la Longevite Huwaine.^^ He assumes the 
 sum total of life in all animals to be equivalent to five 
 times the number of years requisite to perfect their 
 growth and development; — and he adopts as evidence 
 of the period at which growth ceases, the final consoli- 
 dation of the bones with their epiphyses ; which in the 
 young consist of cartilages; but in the adult become 
 uniformly osseous and solid. So long as the epiphyses 
 are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animal 
 is proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation 
 is complete. In man, according to Fleurens, this con- 
 summation takes place at 20 years of age, in the horse at 
 
 ' Aeistotixes de Anim. I. viii. c. 9. ^ Menag. deMus. Nat. p. 107. 
 
X. P. Mb i O/ 
 
 Chap. VH.] THE ELEPHANT. 233 
 
 5, in the dog at 2 ; so that conformably to this theory the 
 respective normal age for each would be 100 years for 
 man, 25 for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As a datum for 
 his conclusion, Fleurens cites the instance of one young 
 elephant in which, at 26 years old, the epiphyses were 
 still distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31, they 
 were firm and adherent. Hence he draws the inference 
 that the period of completed solidification is thirty years, 
 and consequently that the normal age of the elephant is 
 one hundred and fifty. ^ 
 
 Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the 
 elephant attaining to the age of two or three hundred 
 years still prevails ; but the Europeans, and those in im- 
 mediate charge of tame ones, entertain the opinion that 
 the duration of life for about seventy years is common 
 both to man and the elephant ; and that before the ar- 
 rival of the latter period, symptoms of debility and decay 
 ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Still instances 
 are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have 
 lived for more than double the reputed period in actual 
 servitude. One employed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven 
 Korles was represented by the Cooroowe people to have 
 served the king of Kandy in the same capacity sixty 
 years before ; and amongst the papers left by Colonel 
 Eobertson (son to the historian of " Charles V."), who 
 held a command in Ceylon in 1799, shortly after the 
 capture of the island by the British, I have found a 
 memorandum showing that a decoy was then attached 
 to the elephant establishment at Matura, which the 
 records proved to have served under the Dutch during 
 the entire period of their occupation (extending to 
 upwards of one hundred and forty years) ; and it was 
 
 ' Fleueens, De la LongeviU Humaine, pp. 82, 89. 
 
234 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 said to have been found in tlie stables by the Dutch on 
 the expulsion of the Portugese in 1656. 
 
 It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost 
 illimitable age, that the natives generally assert that the 
 body of a dead elephant is seldom or never to be dis- 
 covered in the woods. And certain it is that frequenters 
 of the forest with whom I have conversed, whether 
 European or Singhalese, are consistent in their assur- 
 ances that they have never found the remains of an 
 elephant that had died a natural death. One chief, the 
 Wannyah of the Trincomalie district, told a friend of 
 mine, that once after a severe murrain, which had swept 
 the province, he found the carcases of elephants that 
 had died of the disease. On the other hand, a Euro- 
 pean gentleman, who for thirty-six years without 
 intermission has been living in the jungle, ascending to 
 the summits of mountains in the prosecution of the 
 trigonometrical survey, and peneti-ating valleys in trac- 
 ing roads and opening means of communication, — one, 
 too, who has made the habits of the wild elephant a 
 subject of constant observation and study, — has often 
 expressed to me his astonishment that after seeing many 
 thousands of living elephants ia all possible situations, 
 he had never yet found a single skeleton of a dead one, 
 except of those which had fallen by the rifle. ^ 
 
 It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant 
 may be so porous and spongy as to disappear in conse- 
 quence of an early decomposition; but this remark would 
 
 * This remark regarding the ele- woods are frequently found." — 
 phant of Ceylon does not appear to African Memoranda relative to an 
 extend to that of Africa, as I observe attempt to establish British Settle- 
 that Beaver, in his African Me- mcnts at the Island of Bulama. 
 nnoranda, says that "the skeletons Loud. 1815, p. 353. 
 of old ones that have died in the 
 
Chap. VII.] THE ELEPHAXT. 235 
 
 not apply to the grinders or to the tusks ; besides which, 
 the inference is at variance wdth the fact, that not only 
 the horns and teeth, but entire skeletons of deer, are 
 frequently found in the districts inhabited by the ele- 
 phant. 
 
 The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare 
 that the survivors of the herd bury such of their com- 
 panions as die a natural death. ^ It is curious that this 
 belief was current also amongst the Grreeks of the Lower 
 Empire ; and Phile, writing early in the fourteenth 
 century, not only describes the younger elephants as 
 tending the wounded, but as burying the dead : 
 
 KotvoO Tskovs a^vvav o ^svos cjjspsL^^^ 
 
 The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation 
 to the close of life in the elephant : they believe that, on 
 feeling the approach of dissolution, he repairs to a solitary 
 valley, and there resigns himself to death. A native 
 who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when hunting, in the 
 forests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he was 
 then in the immediate vicinity of the spot " to ivliich 
 the elephants come to die,^^ but that it was so mysteriously 
 concealed, that although every one believed in its exist-' 
 
 ' A corral -was organised near was complete. The M-ild elephants 
 
 Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris, resumed their path through it, and 
 
 the chief officer of the district. It a few days afterwaitls the headman 
 
 was constructed across one of the reported to Mr. Morris that the 
 
 paths which the elephants frequent bodies had been removed and 
 
 in their frequent marches, and carried outside the corral to a spot 
 
 during the course of the proceedings to which nothing biit the elephants 
 
 two of the captured elephants died, could have borne them. 
 
 Their carcases were left of course - Phile, Expositio de Eleph. 1^ 
 
 within the enclosure, which was 243. 
 abandoned as soon as the capture 
 
236 MAMMALIA. [Chap. Vn. 
 
 ence, no one had ever succeeded in penetrating to it. 
 At the corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 
 1 847, Dehigame, one of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me 
 it was the universal belief of his countrymen, that the 
 elephants, when about to die, resorted to a valley in 
 Saffragam, among the mountains to the east of Adam's 
 Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls 
 of rock on either side, and that there, by the side of a 
 lake of clear water, they took their last repose.^ It was 
 not without interest that I afterwards recognised this 
 tradition in the story of Sinbad of the Sea, who in his 
 Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun 
 al Raschid to the king of Serendib, is wrecked on his re- 
 turn from Ceylon, and sold as a slave to a master who 
 employs him in shooting elephants for the sake of their 
 ivory ; till one day the tree on which he was stationed 
 having been uprooted by one of the herd, he fell sense- 
 less to the ground, and the great elephant approaching 
 wound his trunk around him and carried him away, 
 ceasing not to proceed, until he had taken him to a place 
 where, his terror having subsided, ?ie found himself 
 amongst the bones of elephants, and knew that this 
 was their burial place.^ It is curious to find this legend 
 of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, been described as the 
 ^' Arabian Odyssey " of Sinbad ; the original of which 
 
 ' * The selection by animals of a and twenty heads," — Nat. Voy. 
 'place to die, is not confined to the ch, viii. The same has been re- 
 elephant, Dajrwin says, that in marked in the Rio Gallegos ; and 
 South Amei'ica "the guanacos (11a- at St, Jago in the Cape de Verde 
 mas) appear to have favourite spots Islands, Pabwin saw a retired 
 for lying down to die ; on the comer similarly covered with the 
 banks of the Santa Cmz river, in bones of the goat, as if it were " the 
 certain circumscribed spaces which burial-ground of aU the goats in the 
 were generally bushy and aU near island." 
 
 the water, the ground was actually "^ Arabian Nights' Entertain- 
 
 white with their bones ; on one Tnent^ Lake's edition, vol, iJi, p. 
 
 BXLch spot I counted between ten IT, 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE ELEPHANT. 
 
 237 
 
 evidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors 
 returning from the navigation of the Indian Seas, in the 
 middle ages^, which were current amongst the Mussul- 
 mans, and are reproduced in various forms throughout 
 the tales of the Arahian Nights. 
 
 1 See a disquisition on the origin to his translation of the Arabian 
 of the story of Sinbad, by M. Rei- Geography of Aboulfeda, vol. i. p. 
 NAUD, in the introduction prefixed Ixxvi. 
 
 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VH. 
 
 As ^^han's work on the Nature of Animals has never, I beheve, 
 been republished in any English version, and the passage in 
 relation to the training and performance of elephants is so per- 
 tinent to the present inquiry, I venture to subjoin a translation 
 of the 11th Chapter of his 2nd Book. 
 
 " Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, 
 and likewise of the manner of hunting. I have mentioned 
 these things, a few out of the many which others have stated ; 
 but for the present I purpose to speak of their musical feehng, 
 their tractability, and facility in learning what it is difficult 
 for even a human being to acquire, much less a beast, hitherto 
 so wild : — such as to dance, as is done on the stage ; to wallv 
 with a measured gait ; to hsten to the melody of the flute and 
 to perceive the difference of sounds, that, being pitched low 
 lead to a slow movement, or high to a quick one : all this the 
 the elephant learns and understands, and is accurate withal. 
 
238 MAMMALIA. [Chap. VII. 
 
 and makes no mistake. Thus lias Nature formed him not only 
 the greatest in size, but the most gentle and the most easily 
 tauo-ht. Now if I were going to write about the tractability 
 and aptitude to learn amongst those of India, Ethiopia, and 
 Libya, I should probably appear to be concocting a tale and 
 acting the braggart, or to be telling a falsehood respecting the 
 natui-e of the animal founded on a mere report, all which it 
 behoves a philosopher, and most of all one who is an ardent 
 lover of truth, not to do. But what I have seen myself, and 
 what others have described as havuig occurred at Rome, this 
 I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many, to 
 show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant 
 when tamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do 
 whatever he is directed. And by way of showing honour to 
 time, I will first narrate events of the oldest date. C^sar 
 Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, exhibited once a pubhc 
 show, wherein there were many full-grown elephants, male 
 and female, and some of their breed born in this country. 
 When their limbs were beginning to become firm, a person 
 familiar with such animals instructed them by a strange and 
 surpassing method of teaching ; using only gentleness and kind- 
 ness, and adding to his mild lessons the bait of pleasant and 
 varied food. By this means he led them by degrees to throw 
 off all wildness, and, as it were, to desert to a state of civilisa- 
 tion, conducting themselves in a manner almost human. He 
 taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe, nor to 
 be disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by 
 the sounds of the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and 
 the clatter of feet from persons while marching ; and they 
 were trained to feel no fear of a mass of men, nor to be enraged 
 at the infliction of blows, not even when compelled to twist 
 their limbs and to bend them like a stage-dancer, and this too 
 althoun-h endowed with strength and might. And there is in 
 this a very noble addition to nature, not to conduct themselves 
 in a disorderly manner and disobediently towards the instructions 
 of man ; for after the dancing-master had made them expert. 
 
Chap. YII.] THE ELEPHANT. 239 
 
 and they had learnt their lessons accurately, they did not 
 belie the labour of his instruction whenever a necessity and 
 opportunity called upon them to exhibit what they had been 
 taught. For the whole troop came forward from this and that 
 side of the theatre, and divided themselves into parties! they 
 advanced walldng Avith a mincing ^ait and exhibiting in their 
 whole body and persons the manners of a beau, clothed in the 
 flowery dresses of dancers ; and on the ballet-master giving a 
 signal with his voice, they fell into Hne and went round in a 
 circle, and if it were requisite to deploy they did so. They 
 ornamented the Hoor of the stage by throwing flowers upon it, 
 and this they did in moderation and sparingly, and straight- 
 way they beat a measure with their feet and kept time to- 
 gether. 
 
 "Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and 
 Xenophilus and Philoxenus and others should know music 
 excellently well, and for their cleverness be ranked amongst 
 the few, is indeed a thing of wonder, but not incredible nor 
 contrary at all to reason. For this reason that a man is a 
 rational animal, and the recipient of mind and intelligence. 
 But that a jointless animal (dvapdpov) should miderstand 
 rhythm and melody, and preserve a gesture, and not deviate 
 from a measiu'ed movement, and fulfil the requirements of 
 those who laid down instructions, these are gifts of nature, I 
 think, and a peculiarity in eveiy way astounding. Added to 
 these there were things enough to drive the spectator out of 
 his senses ; when the stre^vn rushes and other materials for 
 beds on the gi'oimd were placed on the sand of the theatre, 
 and they received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich 
 houses and variegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed 
 there very expensive, and bowls of gold and silver, and in 
 them a great quantity of water ; and tables- were placed there of 
 sweet-smelling wood and ivory very superb : and upon them 
 flesh meats and loaves enough to fill the stomachs of animals 
 the most voracious. When the preparations were completed 
 and abimdant, the banqueters came forward, six male and an 
 
240 MAMMAUA. [Chap. VH. 
 
 equal number of female elephants ; the former had on a male 
 dress, and the latter a female ; and on a signal being given 
 they stretched forward their trunks in a subdued manner, and 
 took their food in great moderation, and not one of them ap- 
 peared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greater por- 
 tion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when 
 it was requisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of 
 each ; and inhaling with their trunks they took a draught 
 very orderly ; and then they scattered the drink about in fun ; 
 but not as in insult. Many other acts of a similar kind, both 
 clever and astonishing, have persons described, relating to the 
 peculiarities of these animals, and I saw them writing letters on 
 Eoman tablets with their trunks, neither looking awry nor turn- 
 ing aside. The hand, however, of the teacher was placed so 
 as to be a guide in the formation of the letters ; and while it 
 was writing the animal kept its eye fixed down in an accom- 
 plished and scholarlike manner." 
 
241 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 Op the Birds of the island, upwards of three hundred 
 and twenty species have been indicated, for which we 
 are indebted to the persevering labours of Dr. Temple- 
 ton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard ; but many 3^et 
 remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a 
 stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the 
 myriads of waterfowl which, notwithstanding the pre- 
 sence of the crocodiles, people the lakes and marshes in 
 the eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon. 
 In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the inte- 
 rior are surpassed by those of South America and 
 Northern India; and the melody of their song bears 
 no comparison with that of the warblers of Europe, but 
 the want of brilliancy is compensated by their singular 
 grace of form, and the absence of prolonged and modu- 
 lated harmony by the rich and melodious tones of their 
 clear and musical calls. In the elevations of the Kan- 
 dyan country there are a few, such as the robin of 
 Neuera-ellia ^ and the long-tailed thrush^, whose sono- 
 rivals that of their European namesakes ; but, far be- 
 yond the attraction of their notes, the traveller rejoices 
 in the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird^, 
 
 ^ Vratmcola atrata, Kelaart. " Magpie Robin." This is not to be 
 
 2 Kittacincla macrura, Gm. confounded with the other popular 
 
 3 Copsychussaularis,imw. Call- favourite the "Indian Eobin" 
 ed by the Europeans in Ceylon the (Thamnobia fiilicata, Linn.), which 
 
 H 
 
242 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 and some others equally charming ; when at the first 
 dawn of day, they wake the forest with their clear reveil. 
 It is only on emerging from the dense woods and 
 coming into the vicinity of the lakes and pasture of the 
 low country, that birds become visible in great quanti- 
 ties. In the close jungle one occasionally hears the call 
 of the copper-smith ^ or the strokes of the great orange- 
 coloured woodpecker ^ as it beats the decaying trees in 
 search of insects, whilst clinging to the bark with its 
 finely-pointed claws, and leaning for support upon the 
 short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the lofty 
 branches of the higher trees, the hornbilF (the toucan 
 of the East), with its enormous double casque, sits to 
 watch the motions of the tiny reptiles and smaller birds 
 on which it preys, tossing them into the air when seized, 
 and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as they 
 fall.'* The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this 
 
 is " never seen in the unfrequented 
 jungle, but, like the coco-nut palm, 
 which the Singhalese assert will 
 only fiom'ish within the sound of 
 the human voice, it is always found 
 near the habitations of men." — 
 E. L. Layaed. 
 
 * The greater red-headed Barbet 
 (Megalaima indica, Lath. ; M. Phi- 
 lippensis, var. A. Lath.), the inces- 
 sant din of which resembles the 
 blows of a smith hammering a 
 cauldron. 
 
 2 Brachypternus aurantius, Linn. 
 ' Buceros pica. Scop. ; B. Mala- 
 baricus, Jerd. The natives assert 
 that B. pica builds in holes in the 
 trees, and that when incubation 
 has fairly commenced, the female 
 takes her seat on the eggs, and the 
 male closes up the orifice by which 
 she entered, leaving only a small 
 aperture through which he feeds 
 his partner, whilst she successfully 
 
 guards their treasures from the 
 monkey tribes ; her formidable bill 
 nearly filling the entire entrance. 
 See a paper by Edgar L. Layard, 
 Esq. Mag. Nat. Hist. March, 1853. 
 Dr. Horsfield had previously ob- 
 served the same habit in a species 
 of Buceros in Java. (See Hoes- 
 field and Mooee's Catal. BirdF, 
 E. I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is 
 curious that a similar trait, though 
 necessarily from very different in- 
 stincts, is exhibited by the ter- 
 mites, who literally build a cell 
 round the great progenitrix of the 
 community, and feed her through 
 apertures. 
 
 * The hornbill is also frugivor- 
 ous, and the natives assert that 
 when endeavouring to detach a 
 fruit, if the stem is too tough to be 
 severed by his mandibles, he flings 
 himself off the branch so as to add 
 the weight of his body to the pres- 
 
Chap. VIH.] 
 
 THE HORNBILL. 
 
 243 
 
 extraordinary bird may serve to explain the statement 
 of the Minorite friar Odoric, of Portenau in Friuli, who 
 travelled in Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and 
 
 THE HORNBILL. 
 
 brought suspicion on the veracity of his narrative by 
 asserting that he had there seen " birds with two 
 heads.''^ ^ 
 
 The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never 
 resorts to the water to drink ; but that it subsists exclu- 
 sively by what it catches in its prodigious bill while 
 
 sure of his beak. The hornbill flesh as a sovereign specific for 
 
 abounds in Cuttack, and bears there rheumatic affections. — Asiat. Ees. 
 
 the name of " Kuchila-Kai," or ch. xv. p. 3 84. 
 Kuchila-eater, from its partiality * Ithterarius Frateis Odoeici, 
 
 for the fruit of the Strychnus nux- de Foro Julii de Portu-yahonis, 
 
 vomica. The natives regard its &c. — Hakxutt, vol. ii. p. 39. 
 
 B 2 
 
244 BIRDS. [Chap. YIII. 
 
 rain is falling. This they allege is associated with 
 the incessant screaming which it keeps up during 
 showers. 
 
 As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach 
 park-like openings on the verge of the low country, 
 quantities of pea-fowl are to be found either feeding 
 on the seeds among the long grass or sunning them- 
 selves on the branches of the surrounding trees. No- 
 thing to be met with in English demesnes can give 
 an adequate idea of the size and magnificence of this 
 matchless bird when seen in his native solitudes. 
 Here he generally selects some projecting branch, from 
 which his plumage may hang free of the foliage, and, 
 if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certain to 
 choose it for his resting-place, whence he droops his 
 wings and suspends his gorgeous train, or spreads it in 
 the morning sun to drive off the damps and dews of the 
 night. 
 
 In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern 
 province, to which Europeans rarely resort, and where 
 the pea-fowl are unmolested by the natives, their num- 
 ber is so extraordinary that, regarded as game, it ceases 
 to be "sport" to destroy them; and their cries at early 
 dawn are so tumultuous and incessant as to banish 
 sleep, and amount to an actual inconvenience. Their 
 flesh is excellent in flavour when served up hot, though 
 it is said to be indigestible ; but, when cold, it contracts 
 a reddish and disagreeable tinge. 
 
 The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the 
 plumage of the peacock, has its counterpart in Ceylon, 
 where the popular legend rims that the pea-fowl stole 
 the plumage of a bird called by the natives avitchia. 
 I have not been able to identify the species which bears 
 
Chap. VIII.] EAGLES. 245 
 
 this name ; but it utters a cry resembling the word raaU 
 kiang ! which in Singhalese means, "I ivill complain!" 
 This they believe is addressed by the bird to the rising 
 sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The avitchia is 
 described as somewhat less than a crow, the colours of 
 its plumage being green, mingled with red. 
 
 But of all, the most astonishing in point of multi- 
 tude, as well as the most interesting from their endless 
 variety, are the myriads of aquatic birds and waders 
 which frequent the lakes and watercourses ; especially 
 those along the coast near Batticaloa, between the 
 mainland and the sand formations of the shore, and the 
 innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to the south of 
 Trincomalie. These, and the profusion of perching birds, 
 fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, that appear in the 
 open country, afford sufficient quarry for the raptorial 
 and predatory species — eagles, hawks, and falcons — 
 whose daring sweeps and effortless undulations are 
 striking objects in the cloudless sky. 
 
 I. AcciPiTRES. Eagles. — The Eagles, however, are 
 small, and as compared with other countries rare; 
 except, perhaps, the crested eagle ^, which haunts the 
 mountain provinces and the lower hills, disquieting the 
 peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry ; and the 
 gloomy serpent eagle ^, which, descending from its ejn'ie 
 in the lofty jungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive 
 cry, sweeps cautiously around the lonely tanks and 
 marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin. 
 The largest eagle is the great sea Erne^, seen on the 
 
 ' Spizaetuslimnaetus, ZTors/. The ^ -wiiicli Goxild believes to be the 
 
 race of these birds in theDeccanand Hcematorms Bacha, Daud. 
 
 Ceylon are rather more crested, ori- ^ Pontoaetus leucogaster, GtmI. 
 ginating the Sp. Cristatellus, Auct. 
 
 R 3 
 
246 BIRDS. [Chap. VHI. 
 
 northern coasts and the salt lakes of the eastern pro- 
 vinces, particularly when the receding tide leaves bare 
 an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in company 
 with the fishing eagle ^, sacred to Siva. Unlike its 
 companions, however, the sea eagle rejects garbage for 
 living prey, and especially for the sea snakes which 
 abound on the northern coasts. These it seizes by 
 descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenly 
 darting down its talons, it soars aloft again with its 
 writhing victim.^ 
 
 Hawks. — The beautiful Peregrine Falcon^ is rare, 
 but the Kestrel'* is found almost universally ; and the 
 bold and daring Groshawk^ wherever wild crags and pre- 
 cipices afford safe breeding places. In the district of 
 Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it is 
 usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by means 
 of a silken thread passed through holes in the eyelids. 
 The ignoble birds of prey, the Kites ^, keep close by the 
 shore, and hover round the returning boats of the fisher- 
 men to feast on the fry rejected from their nets. 
 
 Owls, — Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remark- 
 able is the brown owl, which, from its hideous yell, has 
 acquired the name of the " Devil-Bird." ^ The Singha- 
 
 ' Haliastur Indus, Bodd. Hamilton Buclianan remarks that 
 
 ^ E. L. Layard. Europeans have when gorged this bird delights to 
 
 given this bird the name of the sit on the entablature of buildings, 
 
 "Brahminy Kite," probably from exposing its back to the hottest 
 
 observing the superstitious feeling rays of the sun, placing its breast 
 
 of the natives regarding it, who against the wall, and stretching 
 
 believe that when two armies are out its wings exactly as the Egyptian 
 
 about to engage, its appearance Hawk is represented on the monu- 
 
 prognosticates victory to the party ments. 
 
 over whom it hovers. ^ Syrnium Indranee, Sykes. Mr. 
 
 ' Falco peregrinus, lAnn. Blyth writes to me from Calcutta 
 
 '' Tinnunculus alaudarius, Briss. that there are some doubts about 
 
 * Astur trivirgatus, Temm. this bird. There would appear to 
 
 ® Milvus govinda, Sykes. Dr. be three or four distinguishable 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 OWLS. 
 
 247 
 
 lese regard it literally with horror, and its scream by 
 night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the 
 
 THE " DEVIL BIRD." 
 
 harbinger of impending calamity. ^ There is a popular 
 legend in connection with it, to the effect that a morose 
 
 races, tlie Ceylon bird approximat- 
 ing most nearly to that of the 
 Malayan Peninsula. 
 
 ' The horror of this nocturnal 
 scream was equally prevalent in the 
 West as in the East. Ovid intro- 
 duces it in his Fasti, L. vi. 1. 139 ; 
 and TibuUus in his Elegies, L. i. 
 El. 5. Statins says — 
 
 Noctumoeque gemunt striges, et feralia bubo 
 Damna canent. 'X'beb. iii. 1. 511. 
 
 But Pliny, 1. xi. e. 93, doubts as to 
 what bird produced the sound ; — 
 and the details of Ovid's descrip- 
 tion do not apply to an owl. 
 
 Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil 
 Service, to whom I am indebted 
 for many valuable notes relative to 
 the birds of the island, regards the 
 identification of the Singhalese 
 Devil-Bird as open to similar 
 
 & 4 
 
Si4S BIRDS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 and savage husband, who suspected the fidelity of his 
 wife, availed himself of her absence to kill her child, 
 of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her return 
 placed before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of 
 this the unhappy woman partook, till discovering the 
 crime by finding the finger of her infant, she fled in 
 frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed herself. On 
 her death she was metamorphosed, according to the 
 Buddhist belief, into an ulama, or Devil-bird, which 
 still at nightfall horrifies the villagers by repeating 
 the frantic screams of the bereaved mother in her 
 agony. 
 
 II. Passeres. Sivallou's. — Within thirty-five miles of 
 Caltura, on the western coast, are inland caves, to which 
 the Esculent Swift ^ resorts, and there builds the " edible 
 bird's nest," so highly prized in China. Near the spot 
 a few Chinese immigrants have established themselves, 
 who rent the nests as a royalty from the government, 
 and make an annual export of the produce. But the 
 Swifts are not confined to this district, and caves con- 
 
 doubt: he says — " The Devil-Bird compare it to a boy in torture, 
 
 is not an owl. I never heard it whose screams are being stopped 
 
 until I came to Kornegalle, where by being strangled. I have offered 
 
 it haunts the rocky hill at the back rewards for a specimen, but with- 
 
 of Grovernment-house. Its ordinary out success. The only European 
 
 note is a magnificent clear shout who had seen and fired at one 
 
 like that of a human being, and agreed with the natives that it is 
 
 which can be heard at a great dis- of the size of a pigeon, with a long 
 
 tance, and has a fine effect in the tail. 1 believe it is a Podargus or 
 
 silence of the closing night. It has Night Hawk." In a subsequent 
 
 another cry like that of a hen just note he further says — "I have 
 
 caught, but the sounds which have since seen two birds by moonlight, 
 
 earned for it its bad name, and one of the size and shape of a 
 
 which I have heard but once to cuckoo, the other a large black 
 
 perfection, are indescribable, the bird, which I imagine to be the 
 
 most appalling that can be ima- one which gives these calls." 
 
 gined, and scarcely to be heard ' Collocaliabrevirostris,3f<?CT^//.; 
 
 without shuddering; I can only C. nidifica, Gra^. 
 
Chap. VIII.] SWALLOWS. — SUN BIRDS. 249 
 
 taining them have been found far in the interior, a fact 
 which complicates the still unexplained mystery of the 
 composition of their nest; and, notwithstanding the 
 power of wing possessed by these birds, adds something 
 to the difficulty of believing that it consists of glutinous 
 material obtained from algae. ^ In the nests brougrht 
 to me there was no trace of organisation ; and the 
 original material, whatever it be, is so elaborated by 
 the swallow as to present somewhat the appearance and 
 consistency of strings of isinglass. The quantity of 
 these nests exported from Ceylon is trifling. 
 
 Kingfishers. — In solitary places, where no sound 
 breaks the silence except the gurgle of the river as 
 it sweeps round the rocks, the lonely Kingfisher, the 
 emblem of vigilance and patience, sits upon an over- 
 hanging branch, his turquoise plumage hardly less 
 intense in its lustre than the deep blue of the sky 
 above him ; and so intent is his watch upon the passing 
 fish that intrusion fails to scare him from his post. 
 
 Sun Birds. — In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds ^ 
 (known as the Humming Birds of Ceylon) hover all 
 day long, attracted to the plants, over which they hang 
 poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their 
 curved beaks to extract the insects that nestle in the 
 flowers. 
 
 Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form 
 and motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is the 
 one which Europeans call " the Bird of Pai*adise," ^ and 
 
 * An epitome of what has been found the nests of the Esculent 
 
 written on this subject will be Swallow eighty miles distant from 
 
 found in Dr. Horsfield's Catalogice the sea. 
 
 of the Birds in the E. I. Comp. 2 Nectarina Zeylanica, Linn. 
 
 Museum, vol. i. p. 101, &c. Mr. • Tchitrea paradisi, Linn. 
 Morris assures me, that he has 
 
250 
 
 BIKDS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 natives '"the Cotton Thief," from the circumstance that 
 its tail consists of two long white feathers, which stream 
 
 behind it as it flies. Mr. Layard 
 says : — "I have often watched 
 them, when seeking their insect 
 prey, turn suddenly on their perch 
 and whisk their long tails with a 
 jerk over the bough, as if to pro- 
 tect them from injury." 
 
 The tail is sometimes brown, and 
 the natives have the idea that the 
 bird changes its plumage at stated 
 periods, and that the tail-feathers 
 become white and brown in alter- 
 nate years. The fact of the va- 
 riety of plumage is no doubt true, 
 but this story as to the alternation 
 
Chap. VIII.] THE BULBUL. TAILOR-BIKD. 251 
 
 of colours in the same individual requires confirma- 
 tion.^ 
 
 The Bulbul. — The Condatchee Bulhul ^, which, from 
 the crest on its head, is called by the Singhalese the 
 " Konda Cooroola," or Tuft bird, is regarded by the 
 natives as the most " game " of all birds ; and training 
 it to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings 
 of Kandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had 
 charge of the King's animals and Birds. For this pur- 
 pose the Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon as the 
 sex is distinguishable by the tufted crown ; and secured 
 by a string, is taught to fly from hand to hand of its 
 keeper. When pitted against an antagonist, such is 
 the obstinate courage of this little creature that it will 
 sink from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This 
 propensity, and the ordinary character of its notes, 
 render it impossible that the Bulbul of India could be 
 identical with the Bulbul of Iran, the " Bird of a 
 Thousand Songs," ^ of which poets say that its delicate 
 passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its 
 note. 
 
 Tailor-Bird, — The Weaver-Bird. — The tailor-bird '' 
 having completed her nest, sewing together leaves by 
 passing through them a cotton thread twisted by herself, 
 leaps from branch to branch to testify her happiness by 
 
 ^ The engraying of the Tchitrea bulbul has a passion for the rose, 
 
 given on page 244 is copied by per- and laments and cries when he sees 
 
 mission from one of the splendid it pulled." — Ouselet's Oriental 
 
 drawings in Mb. Gould's Birds of Collections, vol. i. p. 16. Accord- 
 
 India. ing to Pallas it is the true nightin- 
 
 2 Pyenonotus hsemorrhous, Gmel. gale of Europe, Sylvia luscinia, 
 
 s " Hazardasitaum," the Persian which the Armenians call boulboid, 
 
 name for the bulbul. " The Per- and the Grim-Tartars hyl-hyl-i. 
 sians," according to Zakary ben * Orthotomus longicauda, Gmel. 
 Mohamed al Caswini, " say the 
 
252 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. Vni. 
 
 a clear and merry note ; and the Indian weaver ^, a 
 still more ingenious artist, hangs its pendulous dwell- 
 ing from a projecting bough ; twisting it with grass into 
 a form somewhat resembling a bottle with a prolonged 
 neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the 
 approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other 
 reptiles. The natives assert that the male bird carries 
 fire flies to the nest, and fastens them to its sides by a 
 particle of soft mud ; — Mr. Layard assures me that 
 
 ' 0I8SA PUELLA. 
 
 although he has never succeeded in finding the fire fly, 
 the nest of the male bird (for the female occupies 
 another during incubation) invariably contains a patch 
 
 • Ploceus baya, Blyth. ; P. Philippinus, Auct. 
 
Chap. YIII.] CEOWS. 253 
 
 of mud on each side of the perch. Grass is apparently 
 the most convenient material for the purposes of the 
 Weaver-bird when constructing its nest, but other sub- 
 stances are often substituted, and some nests which I 
 brought from Ceylon proved to be formed with deli- 
 cate strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm. 
 Phoenix paludosa, which happened to grow near the 
 breeding place. 
 
 Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as 
 I know, is peculiar to the island is Layard's Mountain- 
 jay {Cissa puella, Blyth and Layard), is distinguished 
 not less by the beautiful blue colour which enlivens its 
 plumage, than by the elegance of its form and the grace 
 of its attitudes. It frequents the hill country, and is 
 found about the mountain streams at Neuera-ellia, and 
 elsewhere.^ 
 
 Grows. — Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the 
 most familiar and notorious are the small glossy crows, 
 whose shining black plumage shot with blue has sug- 
 gested the title of Corvus sj^lendens.^ They frequent 
 the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in 
 the close vicinity of every house ; and it may possibly 
 serve to account for the familiarity and audacity which 
 they exhibit in their intercourse with men, that the 
 Dutch during their sovereignty in Ceylon, enforced 
 severe penalties against any one killing a crow, under 
 the belief that they were instrumental in extending the 
 
 * The engraving above is taken seen in the toTvns, it lives chiefly 
 
 by permission of Mr. Gould from in the open country, and may be 
 
 one of his drawings for his Birds constantly observed wherever there 
 
 of India. are buffaloes, perched on their 
 
 2 There is another species, the backs and engaged, in company 
 
 C. cidminatus, so called from the with the small Minah {Acridotheres 
 
 convexity of its biU ; but though tristis), in freeing them from ticks. 
 
254 BIRDS. [Chap. Vin. 
 
 growth of cinnamon by feeding on the fruit, and thus 
 disseminating the undigested seed.^ 
 
 So accustomed are the natives to their presence and ex- 
 ploits, that, like the Grreeks and Eomans, they have made 
 the movements of crows the basis of their auguries ; 
 and there is no end to the vicissitudes of good and evil 
 fortune which may not be predicted from the direction 
 of their flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their croak- 
 ing, the variety of trees on which they rest, and the 
 numbers in which they are seen to assemble. 
 
 All day long these birds are engaged in watching either 
 the offal of the offices, or the preparation for meals in 
 the dining-room : and as doors and windows are neces- 
 sarily opened to relieve the heat, nothing is more com- 
 mon than the passage of a crow across the room, lifting on 
 the wing some ill-guarded morsel from the dinner-table. 
 No article, however unpromising its quality, provided 
 only it be portable, can with safety be left unguarded in 
 any apartment accessible to them. The contents of 
 ladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs 
 vanish instantly if exposed near a window or open door. 
 They open paper parcels to ascertain the contents ; they 
 will undo the knot on a napkin if it encloses anything 
 eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the peg 
 which fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder 
 the provender within. 
 
 On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining 
 a regimental mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody 
 clasp-knife drop from the air at her feet ; but the mys- 
 tery was explained on learning that a crow, which had 
 been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had seized 
 
 * "Wolf's JAfe and Adventures, p. 117. 
 
Chap. VUI.] CROWS. 255 
 
 the moment when his head was turned to carry off the 
 knife. 
 
 One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly atti- 
 tudinising in front of a chained watch-dog, that was 
 lazily gnawing a bone, and after fruitlessly endeavouring 
 to divert his attention by dancing before him, with 
 head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for 
 a moment, and returned bringing a companion which 
 perched itself on a branch a few yards in the rear. The 
 crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, but with no 
 better success, till its confederate, poising itself on its 
 wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the 
 dog upon the spine with all the force of its strong beak. 
 The ruse was successful ; the dog started with surprise 
 and pain, but not quickly enough to seize his assailant, 
 whilst the bone he had been gnawing was snatched away 
 by the first crow the instant his head was turned. Two 
 well-authenticated instances of the recurrence of this 
 device came within my knowledge at Colombo, and 
 attest the sagacity and powers of communication and 
 combination possessed by these astute and courageous 
 birds. 
 
 On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo 
 assemble in noisy groups along the margin of the fresh- 
 water lake which surrounds the fort on the eastern side; 
 and here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxury of 
 throwing the water over their shining backs, and arrano-- 
 ing their plumage decorously, after which they disperse, 
 each taking the direction of his accustomed quarters for 
 the night. ^ 
 
 _ ' A similar habit has been no- daily resort at the same hour to 
 ticed in the damask Parrots of their accustomed pools to bathe. 
 Africa {Falceornis fuscus), which 
 
256 BIRDS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has 
 been observed, that when coco-nut palms are destroyed 
 by lightning, the effect frequently extends beyond 
 a single tree, and from the contiguity and conduction 
 of the spreading leaves, or some other peculiar cause, 
 large groups will be affected by a single flash, a few 
 killed instantly, and the rest doomed to rapid decay. 
 In Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Gralle, 
 a small island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has 
 acquired the name of " Crow Island," from being the 
 resort of those birds, which are seen hastening towards 
 it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago, during 
 a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of 
 the crows that the beach for some distance was covered 
 with a black line of their remains, and the grove on 
 which they had been resting was to a great extent 
 destroyed by the same flash. ^ 
 
 III. ScAJsSORES. Parroquets. — Of the Psittacidse the 
 only examples are the parroquets, of which the most 
 renowned is the Palceornis Alexandri, which has the 
 historic distinction of bearing the name of the great 
 conqueror of India, having been the first of its race 
 introduced to the knowledge of Europe on the return of 
 his expedition. An idea of their number may be formed 
 from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as to the 
 multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. 
 " At Chilaw, I have seen such vast flights of parroquets 
 hurrying towards the coco-nut trees which overhang the 
 
 ^ Similar instances are recorded found on the shores of a lake in 
 in other countries of sudden and pro- the county Westmeath in Ireland 
 digious mortality amongst crows ; after a storm. — Thompson's Nat. 
 but whether occasioned by lightning Hist. Ireland, vol. i. p. 319. Pat- 
 seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty- tersox in his Zoology, p. 356, men- 
 three thousand dead crows were tions other cases. 
 
Chap. YIII.] PARROQUETS. 257 
 
 bazaar, that their noise drownied the Babel of tonsfues 
 bargaining for the evening provisions. Hearing of the 
 swarms that resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a 
 bridge some half mile distant, and attempted to count 
 the flocks which came from a single direction to the 
 eastward. About four o'clock in the afternoon, strag- 
 gling parties began to wend towards home, and in the 
 course of half an hour the current fairly set in. But I 
 soon found that I had no longer distinct flocks to count, 
 it became one living screaming stream. Some flew high 
 in the air till right above their homes, and dived ab- 
 ruptly downward with many evolutions till on a level 
 with the trees ; others kept along the ground and dashed 
 close by my face with the rapidity of thought, their 
 brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in the 
 sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed, 
 when I could hear, though no longer distinguish, the 
 birds fighting for their perches, and on firing a shot 
 they rose with a noise like the *' rushing of a mighty 
 wind,' but soon settled again, and such a din com- 
 menced as I shall never forget ; the shrill screams of 
 the birds, the fluttering of their innumerable wings, and 
 the rustling of the leaves of the palm trees was almost 
 deafening, and I was glad at last to escape to the 
 Grovernment Eest House." ^ 
 
 IV. CoLUMBiD^. Pigeons. — Of pigeons and doves 
 there are at least a dozen species. Some live entirely 
 on trees'^, never alighting on the ground ; others, not- 
 withstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are 
 
 ' Annals of Nat. Hist, vol. xiii. - Treron biciucta, Jerd, 
 p. 263. 
 
258 BIRDS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 migratory \ allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the 
 ripening of the cinnamon berries, and hence one species 
 is known in the southern provinces as the '^ Cinnamon 
 Dove." Others feed on the fruits of the banyan : and 
 it is probably to their instrumentality that this mar- 
 vellous tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being- 
 carried by them to remote localities. A very beautiful 
 pigeon, peculiar to the mountain range, discovered in 
 the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in compliment to 
 the Viscountess Torrington, been named Carpophaga 
 TorringtonicB. 
 
 Another, called by the natives neela-coheya ^, although 
 strikingly elegant both in shape and colour, is still more 
 remarkable for the singularly soothing effect of its low 
 and harmonious voice. A gentleman who has spent 
 many years in the jungle, in writing to me of this 
 bird and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that 
 " its soft and melancholy notes, as they came from some 
 solitary place in the forest, were the most gentle sounds 
 I ever listened to. Some sentimental smokers assert 
 that the influence of the propensity is to make them 
 feel as if they could freely forgive all who had ever 
 offended them ; and I can say with truth such has been 
 the effect on my own nerves of the plaintive murmurs 
 of the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and 
 not without reason, by the perverseness of some of 
 my native followers, the feeling has almost instantly 
 subsided into placidity on suddenly hearing the loving 
 tones of these beautiful birds." 
 
 ' Alsoconms puniceus, the " Sea- its periodical arrival and departure, 
 son Pigeon "of Ceylon, so called from - Chalcophaps Indicus, Linn. 
 
Chap. VIII.] THE CEYLOX JUXGLE FOWL. 259 
 
 V. GrALLiN^. The Ceylon Jungle-fowl. — The jungle- 
 fowl of Ceylon ^ is shown by the peculiarity of its 
 plumage to be not only distinct from the Indian species, 
 but peculiar to the island. It has never yet bred or 
 survived long in captivity, and no living specimens 
 have been successfully transmitted to Europe. It 
 abounds in all parts of the island, but chiefly in the 
 lower ranges of mountains ; and one of the vivid 
 memorials which are associated with our journeys 
 through the hills, is its clear cry, which sounds like 
 a person calling " Greorge Joyce ," ^ and rises at early 
 morning amidst mist and dew, giving life to the 
 scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the 
 sun-light. 
 
 The female of this handsome bird was figured many 
 years ago by Dr. Gteay in his illustrations of " In- 
 dian Zoology^^^ under the name of G. Stanlcyi. The 
 cock bird subsequently received from Lesson, the 
 name by which the species is now known : but its 
 habitat was not discovered, until a specimen having 
 been forwarded from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr. Bltth 
 recognised it as the long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray's 
 specimen. 
 
 Another of the Grallinse of Ceylon, remarkable for the 
 delicate pencillings of its plumage, as well as for the 
 peculiarity of the double spur, from which it has ac- 
 quired its trivial name, is the Galloperdix bicalcaratus, 
 of which a figure is given from a drawing by Mr. 
 Gould. 
 
 * Gallus Lafayetti, Lesson, j^ingle fowl differs from that of 
 
 2 I apprehend that in the parti- the Dekkan, where / am told that 
 cular of the peculiar cry the Ceylon it crows like a bantam cock. 
 
 s 2 
 
i2(jO 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. YIII. 
 
 GALLOPEEDIX BICALCARATUS. 
 
 YI. Grall^. — On reaching the marshy plains and 
 shallow lac^oons on either side of the island, the aston- 
 ishment of the stranger is excited by the endless multi- 
 tudes of stilt-birds and waders which stand in long array 
 within the wash of the water, or sweep in vast clouds 
 above it. Ibises^, storks^, egrets, spoonbills^, herons'*, 
 and the smaller races of sand larks and plovers, are seen 
 busily traversing the wet sand, in search of the red 
 w^orm which burrows there, or peering with steady eye 
 to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects 
 in the ripple on the shore. 
 
 VII. Anseres. — Preeminent in size and beauty, the 
 
 ' Tantalus leucocephalus, and conia leucocepliala). 
 Ibis falcinellus. ^ Platalea leucorodia, Linn. 
 
 ' The violet-headed Stork (Ci- ^ Ardea cinerea. A. purpurea. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 FLAMINGO. 
 
 261 
 
 tall flamingoes'^, with rose-coloured plumage, line the 
 beach in long files. The Singhalese have been led, from 
 their colour and their military order, to designate them 
 the ^^ English Soldier birds.^^ Nothing can be more 
 startling than the sudden flight of these splendid creatures 
 when alarmed ; their strong wings beating the air with a 
 sound like distant thunder ; and as they soar over head, 
 the flock which appeared almost white but a moment 
 before, is converted into crimson by the sudden display 
 of the red lining of their wings. A peculiarity in the 
 beak of this bird has scarcely attracted the attention it 
 
 fla:jikgo. 
 
 merits, as a striking illustration of creative wisdom in 
 adapting the organs of animals to their local necessities. 
 
 * Phcenicopterus roseus, Pallas. 
 s 3 
 
262 BIRDS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is 
 flattened in the flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of 
 being flat, is convex. To those who have had an oppor- 
 tunity of witnessing the action of the bird in its native 
 haunts, the expediency of this arrangement is at once 
 apparent. To counteract the extraordinary length of 
 its legs, it is provided with a proportionately long neck, 
 so that in feeding in shallow water the crown of the 
 head becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought 
 into contact with the bottom ; where its flattened surface 
 qualifies it for performing the functions of the lower 
 one in birds of the same class ; and the edges of both 
 being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the duck, by 
 the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing 
 its food. 
 
 Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets 
 of the Anatidse, the Coromandel teal ^, the Indian hooded 
 gull ^, the Caspian tern, and a countless variety of ducks 
 and smaller fowl — pintails ^, teal ''j red-crested pochards ^ 
 shovellers^, and terns."^ Pelicans^ in great numbers 
 resort to the mouths of the rivers, taking up their posi- 
 tion at sunrise on some projecting rock, from which to 
 dart on the passing fish, and returning far inland at 
 night to their retreats among the trees which over- 
 shadow some solitary river or deserted tank. 
 
 I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly 
 upon one of these remarkable breeding places during a 
 visit which I made to the great tank of Padivil, one of 
 those gigantic constructions by which the early kings of 
 Ceylon have left imperishable records of their reigns. 
 
 * Nettapus coromandelianus, Gm. * FuUgida rufina, Pallas. 
 2 Larus brunnicephalus, Jerd. ^ Spatula clypeata, Ldnoi. 
 ^ Dafila acuta, Linn. ' Sterna minuta, Linn. 
 
 * Querquedula crecca, Linn. ^ Pelicanus Philippensis, Grnel. 
 
Chap. YIH.] PELICAXS. 263 
 
 It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north- 
 west of Trincomalie, and the tank is itself the basin 
 of a broad and shallow valley, enclosed between two 
 lines of low hills, that gradually sink into the plain as 
 they approach towards the sea. The extreme breadth 
 of the included space may be twelve or fourteen miles, 
 narrowing to eleven at the spot where the retain- 
 ing bund has been constructed across the valley ; and 
 when this enormous embankment was in effectual repair, 
 and the reservoir filled by the rains, the water must 
 have been thrown back along the basin of the valley 
 for at least fifteen miles. It is difiicult now to deter- 
 mine the precise distances, as the overgrowth of wood 
 and jungle has obliterated all lines left by the original 
 level of the lake at its junction with the forest. Even 
 when we rode along it, the centre of the tank was deeply 
 submerged, so that notwithstanding the partial escape, 
 the water still covered an area of ten miles in diameter. 
 Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, 
 for high on the branches of the trees that grow in the 
 area, the last flood had left quantities of driftwood and 
 withered grass ; and the rocks and banks were coated 
 with the yeasty foam, that remains after the subsidence 
 of an agitated flood. 
 
 The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being 
 still soft and treacherous, although covered everywhere 
 with tall and waving grass ; and in every direction it 
 was poched into deep holes by the innumerable ele- 
 phants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud, to 
 bathe in the collected water, or to luxuriate in the rich 
 herbage, under the cool shade of the trees. The ground, 
 too, was thrown up into hummocks like great molehills 
 which, the natives told us, were formed by a huge earth- 
 
 s 4 
 
264 BIKDS. [Chap. VIH. 
 
 worm, common in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, 
 and as thick as a small snake. Through these inequali- 
 ties the water was still running off in natural drains 
 towards the great channel in the centre, that conducts it 
 to the broken sluice ; and across these it was sometimes 
 difficult to find a safe footing for our horses. 
 
 In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, 
 we came unexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A 
 sheet of still water, two or three hundred yards broad, 
 and about half a mile long, was surrounded by a line of 
 tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched above its 
 margin. The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived 
 some white objects in large numbers on the tops of the 
 trees ; and as we came nearer, we discovered that a vast 
 colony of pelicans had formed their settlement and 
 breeding-place in this solitary retreat. They literally 
 covered the trees in hundreds ; and their heavy nests, 
 like those of the swan, constructed of large sticks, 
 forming great platforms, were sustained by the horizontal 
 branches. Each nest contained three eggs, rather larger 
 than those of a goose ; and the male bird stood placidly 
 beside the female as she sat upon them. 
 
 Nor was this all ; along with the pelicans prodigious 
 numbers of other water-birds had selected this for their 
 dwelling-place, and covered the trees in thousands, 
 standing on the topmost branches ; tall flamingoes, 
 herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders. We 
 had disturbed them thus early, before their habitual 
 hour for betaking themselves to their fishing-fields. By 
 degrees, as the light increased, we saw them beginning 
 to move upon the trees ; they looked around them on 
 every side, stretched their awkward legs behind them, 
 extended their broad wings, gradually rose in groups. 
 
Chap. YIII.] PELICANS. 265 
 
 and slowly soared away in the direction of the sea- 
 shore. 
 
 The pelicans were apparently later in their move- 
 ments ; they allowed us to approach as near them as 
 the swampy nature of the soil would permit ; and even 
 when a gun was discharged amongst them, only those 
 moved off which the particles of shot disturbed. They 
 were in such numbers at this favourite place, that the 
 water over which they had taken up their residence 
 was swarming with crocodiles, attracted by the frequent 
 fall of the young birds ; and the natives refused, from 
 fear of them, to wade in for one of the larger pelicans 
 which had fallen, struck by a rifle ball. It was alto- 
 gether a very remarkable sight. 
 
 Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, par- 
 tridges and quails are to be had at all times ; the wood- 
 cock has occasionally been shot in the hills, and the 
 ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in September from 
 Southern India, is identified not alone by the eccen- 
 tricity of its flight, but by retaining in high perfection 
 the qualities which have endeared it to the gastronome 
 at home. But the magnificent pheasants, which inhabit 
 the Himalayan range and the woody hills of the Chin- 
 Indian peninsula, have no representative amongst the 
 tribes that people the woods of Ceylon ; although a bird 
 believed to be a pheasant has more than once been 
 seen in the jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road to 
 Neuera-ellia. 
 
 List of Ceylon Birds. 
 In submitting this catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, 
 I am anxious to state that the copious mass of its con- 
 
266 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. Vm. 
 
 tents is mainly due to the untii-ing energy and exertions 
 of my friend, Mr. E. L. Layard. Nearly every bird in 
 the list has fallen by his gun ; so that the most ample 
 facilities have been thus provided, not only for extend- 
 ing the limited amount of knowledge which formerly 
 existed on this branch of the zoology of the island ; but 
 for correcting, by actual comparison with recent speci- 
 mens, the errors which had previously prevailed as to 
 imperfectly described species. The whole of Mr. 
 Layard's fine collection is at present in England. 
 
 ACCIPITEES. 
 
 Aquila 
 
 Bonelli, Temm. 
 
 pennata, Gm. 
 Spizaetus 
 
 Nipalensis, Hodgs. 
 
 limnaeetus, Horsf. 
 Ictinaetus 
 
 Malayensis, Reinw. 
 Haematornis 
 
 Bacha, Dnud. 
 
 spilogaster, Blyth. 
 Pontoaetus 
 
 leucogaster, Gm. 
 
 ichthyaetus, Horsf. 
 Haliastur 
 
 Indus, Bodd. 
 Falco 
 
 peregrinus, Linn. 
 
 peregrinator, Sund. 
 Tinnunciilus 
 
 alaiidarius, Briss, 
 Hypotriorchis 
 
 chicquera, Daud. 
 Baza 
 
 lophotes, Cuv. 
 Milvus 
 
 govinda, Sykes. 
 Elanus 
 
 melanopterus, Daud. 
 Astur 
 
 trivirgatus, Temm. 
 Accipiter 
 
 badius, Gm. 
 Circus 
 
 Swainsonii, A. Smith. 
 
 cinerascens, Mont. 
 
 melanoleucos, G;w. 
 
 (Eruginosus, Linn. 
 Athene 
 
 castonatus, ^lyth. 
 
 scutulata, Btifftei. 
 Ephialtes 
 
 scops, Linn. 
 
 lempijii, Horsf. 
 
 sunia, Hodgs. 
 Ketupa 
 
 Ceylonensis, Gm. 
 
 Syrnium 
 
 Indranee, Sykes. 
 Strix 
 
 Javanica, Gm. 
 
 PASSERES. 
 
 Batrachostomus 
 
 moniliger, Layard. 
 Caprimulsus 
 
 Mahrattensis, Sykes. 
 
 Kelaarti, Blyth. 
 
 Asiaticus, Lath. 
 Cypselus 
 
 batassiensis, Gray. 
 
 melba, Linn. 
 
 affinis, Gray. 
 Macropteryx 
 
 coronatus, Tickell. 
 CoUocalia 
 
 brevirostris, McCleL 
 Acanthylis 
 
 caudacuta, Lath. 
 Hirundo 
 
 panayana, Gm. 
 
 daurica, Linn. 
 
 hyperyihra, Layard. 
 
 domicola, Jerdon. 
 Coracias 
 
 Indica, Linn. 
 Harpactes 
 
 fasciatus, Grn. 
 Eurystomus 
 
 orieutalis, Linn. 
 Halcyon 
 
 Capensis, Linn. 
 
 atricapilhis, Gw. 
 
 Smyrneusis, Linn. 
 Ceyx 
 
 tridactyla, Linn. 
 Alcedo 
 
 Bengalensis, Gm. 
 Ceryle 
 
 rudis, Linn. 
 Merops 
 
 Philippinus, Linn. 
 
 viridis, Linn. 
 
 quincticolor, Vieill. 
 Upupa 
 
 nigripennis, Gould. 
 
 Nectarina 
 
 Zeylanica, Linn. 
 
 minima, Sykes, 
 
 Asiatica, Lath. , 
 
 Lotenia, Linn. 
 Dicasum 
 
 minimum, Tickell. 
 Phyllornis 
 
 Malabarica. Lath.) 
 
 Jerdoni, Blyth. 
 Dendrophila 
 
 frontalis, Horsf. 
 Piprisoma 
 
 agile, Blyth. 
 Orthotomus 
 
 iongicauda, Gm. 
 Cisticola 
 
 cursitans, Fiankl. 
 
 omalura, Blyth. 
 Drymoica 
 
 valida, Blyth. 
 
 inornata, Sykes. 
 Prinia 
 
 socialis, Sykes. 
 Acrocephalus 
 
 dumetorum, Blyth. 
 Phyllopneuste 
 
 nitidus, Blyth. 
 
 montanus, Blyth. 
 
 viridanus, Blylh. 
 Copsychus 
 
 saularis, Linn. 
 Kittacincla 
 
 macrura, Gm. 
 Pratincola 
 
 caprata, Linn. 
 
 atrata, Kelaart. 
 Calliope 
 
 cyanea, Hodgs. 
 Thaninobia 
 
 fulicata, Linn. 
 Cyanecula 
 
 Suecica, Linn. 
 Sylvia 
 
 aflRnis, Blyth. 
 Parus 
 
 cinereus, Vieill. 
 Zosterops 
 
 palpebrosus, Temm. 
 
Chap. VIII.] LIST OF CEYLOX BIRDS. 
 
 267 
 
 lora 
 
 Zeylanica, Gw. 
 typhia, Linn. 
 Motacilla 
 
 sulDhurea, Bechs. 
 Indica, Gm. 
 Madraspataiia, Briss, 
 Budytes 
 
 viridis, Gf?i. 
 Antlnis 
 
 rufulus, T'ieill. 
 Richardii, Vieill, 
 striolatus, Blyth. 
 Brachypteryx 
 
 Palliseri, Kelaart. 
 Alcippe 
 
 nigrifrons, Blyth. 
 Pitta 
 
 brachyura, Jerd. 
 Oreocincia 
 
 spiloptera, Blyth. 
 Merula 
 
 Wardii, Jerd. 
 Kinnisii, Kelaart. 
 Zoothera 
 
 imbricata, Layard. 
 Garrulax 
 
 cinereifrons, Blyth. 
 Pormatorliinus 
 
 melanurus, Blyth. 
 Malacocercus 
 
 rufescens, Blyth. 
 griseus, Gm. 
 striatus, Swains. 
 Pellorneum 
 
 fuscocapillum, Blyth. 
 Dumetia 
 
 albogularis, Blyth. 
 Chrysomma 
 
 Sineiise, Gm. 
 Oriolus 
 
 melanocephalus, Linn. 
 Indicus, Briss. 
 Criniger 
 
 ictericus, Stickl. 
 Pycnonotus 
 
 pen cillatus, Kelaart. 
 flavirictus, StricU. 
 hasmorrhous, G>n. 
 atricapillus, Vieitl. 
 Hemipiis 
 
 picatus, Sykes. 
 Hypsipetes 
 
 Nilgherrieusis, Jerd. 
 Cyornis 
 
 rubeculoides, Vig. 
 Myiagra 
 
 azurea, Bodd. 
 Cryptolopha 
 
 cinereocapilla, Vieill. 
 Leucocerca 
 
 compressirostris, Blyth. 
 Tchitrea 
 
 paradisi, Linn. 
 Butaiis 
 
 latirostris, Raffles. 
 Muttui, Layard. 
 Stoparola 
 
 melanops, Vig. 
 Pericrocotus 
 
 flammeus, Forst. 
 peregriiius, Linn. 
 
 Campephaga 
 Miicei, Less. 
 Sykesii, Strickl. 
 Artamus 
 
 fuscus, Vieill. 
 Edolius 
 
 paradiseus, Gm. 
 Dicrurus 
 
 niarrocercus, Vieill. 
 edoliformis, Blyth. 
 longicaudatus, A. Hay 
 leucopygialis, Blyth. 
 coerulescens, Linn. 
 Irena 
 
 puella, Lath. 
 Lanius 
 
 superciliosus, Lath, 
 erythronotus, Vig. 
 Teplirodornis 
 
 affinis, Blyth 
 Cissa 
 
 puella, Blyth ^- Layard. 
 Corvus 
 
 splendens, Vieill. 
 culminatus, Sykes. 
 Eulabes 
 
 religiosa, Linn. 
 ptilogenys, Blyth, 
 Pastor 
 
 roseus, Linn. 
 Hetaerornis 
 
 pagodarum, Gm. 
 albifrontata^ Layard. 
 Acridotheres 
 
 tristis, Linn. 
 Ploceus 
 
 manyar, Horsf. 
 bay a. Blyth. 
 Munia 
 
 undulata, Latr. 
 Malabarica. Linn. 
 Malacca, Linn. 
 rubronigra, Hodgs. 
 striata, Linn. 
 Kelaarti, Blyih. 
 Passer 
 
 Indicus, Jard. ^ Selb. 
 Alauda 
 
 gulgula, Frank. 
 Malabarica, Scop. 
 Pyrrhulauda 
 
 grisea, Scop. 
 Mirafra 
 
 affinis, Jerd. 
 Buceros 
 
 gingalensis, Shato. 
 Malabaricus, Jerd. 
 
 SCANSOEES. 
 
 Loriculus 
 
 Asiaticus, Lath. 
 Palaeornis 
 
 Alexandri, Linn. 
 
 torquatus, Briss. 
 
 cyanocephalus, Linn. 
 
 Calthropae, Layard. 
 Megalaima 
 
 Indica, Latr. 
 
 Zeylanica, Gmel. 
 
 flavifrons, Cuv. 
 
 rubicapilla, G7n. 
 
 Pious' 
 
 gymnophthalmus, Blth. 
 
 Mahrattensis, Lath. 
 
 Macei, Vieill. 
 Gecinus 
 
 chlorophanes, Vieill. 
 Brachypternus 
 
 aurantius, Linn. 
 
 Ceylonus, Forst. 
 
 rubescens, Vieill. 
 
 Strickland!, Layard. 
 Micropternus 
 
 gularis, Jerd. 
 Centropus 
 
 rutipennis, llliger. 
 
 chlororhynclios, Blyth. 
 Oxylophus 
 
 melanoleucos, Gm. 
 
 Coromandus, Linn. 
 Eudynaniys 
 
 orientalis, Linn. 
 Cuculus 
 
 Poliocephalus, Lath. 
 
 striatus, Drapiez. 
 
 canorus, Linn. 
 Polyphasia 
 
 tenuirostris. Gray. 
 
 Sonneratii, Lath. 
 Hierococcyx 
 
 varius, Vahl. 
 Surniculus 
 
 dicruroides, Hodgs. 
 Phcenicophaus 
 
 pyrrhocephalus, Forst. 
 Zanclostomus 
 
 viridirostris, Jerd. 
 
 COLUMB.E. 
 
 Treron 
 
 bicincta, Jerd. 
 
 flavogularis, Blyth. 
 
 Pompadoura, Gm. 
 
 chlorogaster, Blyth. 
 Carpophaga 
 
 pus ilia, Blyth. 
 
 Torringtoniae, Kelaart. 
 Alsocomus 
 
 puniceus, Ticket. 
 Columba 
 
 intermedia, Strickl. 
 Turtur 
 
 risorius, Linn. 
 
 Suratensis, Lath. 
 
 humilis, Temm. 
 
 orientalis. Lath. 
 Chalcophaps 
 
 Indicus^Linn. 
 
 GMSLVSM. 
 
 Pavo 
 
 cristatus, Linn, 
 Gallus 
 
 Lafayetti, Lesson. 
 Galloperdix 
 
 bicalcaratus, Linn. 
 Fran col in us 
 
 Poiiticerianus, Gm. 
 Perdicula 
 
 agoondab, Sykes. 
 
268 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 Coturnix 
 
 Chinensis, Linn. 
 Turnix ocellatus, 
 
 uar.Bengalensis, Blyih. 
 
 var. taigoor, Sykes. 
 
 GEALLJE. 
 
 Esacus 
 
 recurvirostris, Cuv. 
 CEdiciiemus 
 
 crepitans, Tetnm. 
 Cursorius 
 
 Coromandelicus, Gm. 
 Lobivanellus 
 
 bilobus, Gyn. 
 
 Goensis, Gtn. 
 Charadrius 
 
 virginicus, Bechs. 
 Hiaticula 
 
 Philippensis, Scop. 
 
 Cantiana, Lath. 
 
 Leschenaultii, Less. 
 Strepsilas 
 
 Inieipres, Linn. 
 Ardea 
 
 purpurea, Linn. 
 
 cinerea, Linn, 
 
 asha, Sykes. 
 
 intermedia, IVagler. 
 
 garzetta, Linn. 
 
 alba, Linn. 
 
 bubulcus, Savig. 
 Ardeola 
 
 leucoptera, Bodd. 
 Ardetta 
 
 cinnamomea, Gm. 
 
 flavicoUis, Lath. 
 
 Sinensis, Gtn. 
 Butoroides 
 
 Javanica, Horsf. 
 Platalea 
 
 leucorodia, Linn. 
 Nycticorax 
 
 griseus, Linn. 
 Tigrisoma 
 
 melanolopha, Baffl. 
 Mycteria 
 
 auitralis, Shaw, 
 Leptophilus 
 
 Javanica, Horsf. 
 Ciconia 
 
 leucocephala, Gm. 
 Anastomus 
 
 oscitans, Bodd. 
 
 Tantalus 
 
 leucocephalus, Gm. 
 Geronticus 
 
 melanocephalus. Lath. 
 Falcinellus 
 
 igneus, Gm. 
 Numenius 
 
 arquatus, Linn. 
 phaeopus, Linn. 
 Totanus 
 
 fuscus, Linn. 
 calidris, Linn. 
 glottis, Linn. 
 stagnalis, Bechst. 
 Actitis 
 
 glareola, Grn. 
 ochropus, Linn. 
 hypoleucos, Linn. 
 Tringa 
 
 minuta, Leist. 
 subarquata, Gm, 
 Limicola 
 
 platyrhyncha, Temm. 
 Limosa 
 
 aegocephala, Linn. 
 Himantopus 
 
 candidus, Bon. 
 Recurvirostra 
 
 avocetta, Linn. 
 Haematopus 
 
 ostralegus, Linn. 
 Rhynchcea 
 
 Bengalensis, Linn, 
 Scolopax 
 
 rusticola, Linn. 
 Gallinago 
 
 stenura, Temm. 
 scolopncina , Bon. 
 gallinuld, Linn. 
 Hydrophasianus 
 
 Sinensis, Gm. 
 Ortygometra 
 
 rubiginosa, Temm. 
 Corethura 
 
 Zeylanica, Gm. 
 Rail us 
 
 stri;itus, Linn. 
 Iiidicus, Blyth. 
 Porphyrio 
 
 poliocephalus. Lath. 
 Porzana 
 
 pygm^a, San. 
 Gallinula 
 
 phoenicura, Penn. 
 chloropus, Linn. 
 cristata, Lath. 
 
 A>'SERES. 
 
 Phcenicopterus 
 
 ruber, Linn. 
 Sarkidiornis 
 
 melanonotos, Penn. 
 Nettapus 
 
 Coromandelianus, Gm. 
 Anas 
 
 poecilorhyncha, Penn. 
 Dendrocygnus 
 
 arcuatus, Cuv. 
 Dafila 
 
 acuta, Linn. 
 Querquedula 
 crecca, Linn. 
 circia, Linn. 
 Fuligula 
 
 riifina^ Pall. 
 Spatula 
 
 clypeata, Linn. 
 Podiceps 
 
 Philippensis, Gm. 
 Larus 
 
 brunnicephalus, Jerd. 
 ichihyaetus, Pall. 
 Sylochelidon 
 
 Caspius, Lath. 
 Hydrochelidon 
 
 Indicus, Steph. 
 Gelochelidon 
 
 Anglicus, Mont. 
 Onychoprion 
 
 anasthaetus. Scop. 
 Sterna 
 
 Javanica. Horsf. 
 melanogaster, Temm. 
 minuta, Linn. 
 Seena 
 
 aurantia, Gray. 
 Tha'asseus 
 
 Bengalensis, Less. 
 cristata, Steph. 
 Dromas 
 
 ardeola, Payk. 
 Atagen 
 
 ariel, Gould. 
 Thalassidroma 
 
 melanogaster, Gould. 
 Plotus 
 
 melanogaster, Gm. 
 Pelicanus 
 
 Philippensis, Gm. 
 Graculus 
 
 Sinensis, Shaxr, 
 pygmasus, Pallas. 
 
Chap. VIII.] LIST OF CEYLOX BIRDS. 
 
 2G9 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The follo-vving is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at 
 present known, peculiar to the island ; it will probably be 
 determined at some future day that some included in it have 
 a wider geogi-aphical range. 
 
 Haematornis spilogaster. The *' Ceylon 
 eagle; " was discovered by Mr. Layard 
 ill tlie Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at 
 Trincomalie. 
 Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged 
 hawk owl. This pretty little owl was 
 added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. 
 Templeton. Mr. BIytli is at present of 
 opinion that this bird is identical with 
 Ath. Castanopteriis, Homf. of Java as 
 figured by Temminck : P. Col. 
 Batrachostbrnus moniliger. The oil bird; 
 was discovered amongst the precipitous 
 rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. 
 Layard. Another specimen was sent 
 about the same time to Sir James Emer- 
 son Tennent from Avisavelle. Mr. Mit- 
 ford has met with it at Katnapoora. 
 Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's night- 
 jar ; swarms on the marshy plains of 
 Neuera-ellia at dusk. 
 Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied 
 swallow; was discovered in 1849, by Mr. 
 Layard at Ambepusse. They build a 
 globular nest, with a round hole at top 
 A pair built in the ring for a hanging 
 lamp in Dr. Gardner's study at Pera- 
 denia. and hatched their young, un- 
 disturbed by the daily trimming and 
 lighting of the lamp. 
 Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain 
 grass warbler ; is found in abimdance on 
 Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among 
 the long Patena grass. 
 Drymoica valida. Liyard's wren-war- 
 bler ; frequents tufts of grass and low 
 bushes, feeding on injects. 
 Pratincola atrata. Tlie Neuera-ellia 
 robin ; a melodious songster ; added to 
 our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart. 
 Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A 
 rare bird, added by Dr. Kelaart from 
 Dimboola and Neuera-ellia. 
 Pellorneum fiiscocapillum. Mr. Layard 
 found two specimens of this rare thrush 
 creeping about shrubs and bushes, 
 feeding on insects. 
 Alcippenigrifrons. This thrush frequents 
 low impenetrable thickets, and seems 
 to be widely distributed. 
 Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush 
 is only found in the mountain zone about 
 lofty trees. 
 Meruia Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia black- 
 bird ; was added by Dr. Kelaart. 
 Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashv-headed 
 
 babbler ; was found by Mr. Layard near 
 Ratnapoora. 
 Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard 
 states that the mountain babbler "fre- 
 quents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, 
 along the margins of deserted cheena 
 land. This may turn out to be little 
 more than a local yet striking variety of 
 P. Horsfieldii of the Indian Peninsula. 
 Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung 
 thrush added by Dr. Templeton to the 
 Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick 
 jungle in the southern and midland 
 districts. 
 Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow- 
 eared bulhul ; was found by Dr. kelaart 
 at Neuera-ellia. 
 Butalis Muttui. This very handsome 
 flycatcher was procured at Point Pedro, 
 by Mr. Layard. 
 Dicrurus ecioliformis. Dr. Templeton 
 found this kingcrow at the Bibloo Oya. 
 Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambo- 
 gammoa. 
 Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon 
 kingcrow was sent to Mr. Blvth from 
 the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Tem- 
 pleton. A species very closely allied to 
 D.ccerulescens of the Indian continent. 
 Tephrodnrnis afBnis. The Ceylon 
 butcher-bird. A migatory species found 
 in the wooded grass lands in October. 
 Cissapuella. Layard's mountain jay. A 
 most lovely bird, found along mountain 
 streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere. 
 Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. 
 The largest and most beautiful of the 
 species. It is found in flocks perching 
 on the highest trees, feeding on berries. 
 Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previ- 
 ously assumed to be M. pectoralis of 
 Jerdon; is most probably peculiar to 
 Ceylon. 
 Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, 
 
 abundant in various districts. 
 Palffiornis Calthropae. Layard's purple- 
 headed parroquet, found at Kandy, is a 
 very handsome bird, flying in flocks, and 
 resting on the summits of the very 
 highest trees. Dr. Kelaart states that 
 it is the only parroquet of the Neuera- 
 ellia range. 
 Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed 
 
 ^a^bet, is not uncommon. 
 Meiialaima rubricapilla, is found in most 
 parts of the island. 
 
270 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 [Chap. Tin. 
 
 Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's wood- 
 pecker. The smallest of the species, 
 was discovered near Colombo, amongst 
 jak-trees. 
 
 Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon 
 woodpecker, is lound in abundance near 
 Neuera-ellia. 
 
 Brachypternus rubescens. The red wood- 
 pecker. 
 
 Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow- 
 billed cuckoo, was detected by Mr. 
 Layard in dense jungle near Colombo 
 and Avisavelle. 
 
 Phcenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The mal- 
 koha, is confined to the southern high- 
 lands. 
 
 Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour 
 pigeon. " The Prince of C^niiio has 
 show n that this is a totally distinct bird 
 from Tr. flavogularis, with which it was 
 confounded: it is much smaller, with the 
 quantity of maroon colour on the mantle 
 greatly'reduced." — Paper by Mr. Blyth, 
 Mag. Xat. Hist. p. 514 : 1857. 
 
 Carpophaga Torringtoniae. Lady Tor- 
 rington's pigeon ; a very handsome 
 pigeon discovered in the highlands by 
 Dr. Kelaart. It flies high in long 
 sweeps, and makes its nest on the loft- 
 
 iest trees. Mr. Blyth is of opinion that 
 it is no more than a local race, barely 
 separable from C. Elphinstonii of the 
 Nilgiris and Malabar coast. 
 
 Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove, 
 a migratory species found by Mr. Layard 
 in the mountain zone, only appearing 
 with the ripened fruit of the teak, ban- 
 yan, &c., on which they feed. 
 
 Callus Lafayetti. The Ceylon jungle 
 fowl. The female of this handsome 
 bird was figured by Mr. Gray (///. Ind. 
 Zool.) under the name of G. Stanleyi. 
 The cock bird had long been lost to 
 naturalists, until a specimen was for- 
 warded by Dr. Templeton to Mr. Blyth, 
 who at once recognised it as the long- 
 looked-for male of Mr. Gray's recently 
 described female. It is abundant in all 
 the uncultivated portions of Ceylon; 
 coming out into the open spaces to feed 
 in the mornings and evenings. Mr. 
 Blyth states that there can be no doubt 
 that Hardwicke's published figure refers 
 to the hen of this species, long after, 
 wards termed G. Lafayetti. 
 
 Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncom- 
 mon in suitable situations. 
 
Chap. IX.] THE TALLA-GOYA. 271 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 EEPTILES. 
 
 Lizards. Iguana. — One of the earliest, if not the 
 first remarkable animal to startle a strano^er on arrivinof 
 in Ceylon, whilst wending his way from Point-de- 
 Gralle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of from four to 
 five feet in length, the Talla-goyd of the Singhalese, 
 and Iguana ^ of the Europeans. It may be seen at noon- 
 day searching for ants and insects in the middle of the 
 highway and along the fences ; when disturbed, but by 
 no means alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves 
 off to a safe distance ; and, the intrusion being at an 
 end, it retm-ns again to the occupation in which it had 
 been interrupted. Eepulsive as it is in appearance, it 
 is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by doo-s 
 in the maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which 
 is believed to be a specific in dysentery, is con- 
 verted into curry, and its skin into shoes. WTien 
 seized, it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with 
 its tail. The Talla-goya lives in almost any convenient 
 hollow, such as a hole in the ground, or a deserted 
 nest of the termites ; and some small ones, which fre- 
 quented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in 
 the heart of a decayed tree. 
 
 ' Monitor drac8ena,Zz?2w. Among iguana, ^rhicli they regard as a spe- 
 
 the barbarous nostrums of the un- cific for consumption, if phicked 
 
 educated natives, both Singhalese from the living animal and swal- 
 
 and Tamil, is the tongue of the lowed whole. 
 
272 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 A still larger species, the Kabaragoyd ^ is partial to 
 marshy ground, and when disturbed upon land, will take 
 refuge in the nearest water. From the somewhat 
 eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches on its scales, 
 a closely allied species, similarly spotted, formerly ob- 
 tained amongst naturalists the name of Monitor exan- 
 thematicus, and it is curious that the native appellation 
 of this one, kabara ^, is suggestive of the same idea. The 
 Singhalese, on a strictly homoeopathic principle, believe 
 that its fat, externally applied, is a cure for cutaneous 
 disorders, but that taken inwardly it is poisonous. The 
 skilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation of 
 poisons, and their addiction to using them, are unfor- 
 tunately notorious traits in the character of the rural 
 population. Amongst these preparations, the one which 
 above all others excites the utmost dread, from the 
 number of murders attributed to its agency, is the 
 potent kabara-tel — a term which Europeans some- 
 times corrupt into cobra-tel, implying that the venom is 
 obtained from the hooded-snake ; whereas it professes 
 to be extracted from the " kabara-goya." Such is the 
 bad renown of this formidable poison, that an indi- 
 vidual suspected of having it in his possession, is 
 cautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those especi- 
 ally who are on doubtful terms with him, suspect their 
 own servants lest they should be suborned to mix 
 kabara-tel in the curry. So subtle is the virus sup- 
 
 ' Hydrosaurus salvator, Laur. ' In the Mahawanso the hero, 
 
 Tail compressed ; fingers long ; Tissa, is said to have been 
 
 nostrils near the extremity of the " afflicted with a cutaneous com- 
 
 snout. A black band on each plaint which made his skin scaly 
 
 temple ; round yellow spots dis- like that of the godho." — Ch. xxiv. 
 
 posed in transverse series on the p. 148. " Godho " is the Pali 
 
 back. Teeth with the crowTi com- name for the Kabara-goya. 
 pressed and notched. 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 THE KABARA-TEL. 
 
 273 
 
 posed to be, that one method of adimnistering it, is to 
 introduce it within the midrib of a leaf of betel, and close 
 
 THE KABAEA-GOYA. 
 
 the orifice with chiinam ; and, as it is an habitual act of 
 courtesy for one Singhalese on meeting another to offer 
 
 T 
 
274 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 the compliment of a betel-leaf, which it would be rude- 
 ness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for present- 
 ing the concealed drug. It is curious that to this 
 latent suspicion has been traced the origin of a custom 
 universal amongst the natives, of nipping off with the 
 thumb nail the thick end of the stem before chewing 
 the betel. 
 
 In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the 
 unfortunate Kabara-goya is forced to take a painfully 
 prominent part. The receipt, as written down by a 
 Kandyan, was sent to me from Kornegalle, by Mr. 
 Morris, the civil officer of that district ; and in 
 dramatic arrangement it far outdoes the cauldron of 
 Macheth's witches. The ingredients are extracted from 
 venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, 
 and the Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head 
 of these reptiles and suspending them over a chattie to 
 collect the poison as it flows. To this, arsenic and other 
 drugs are added, and the whole is " boiled in a human 
 skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas, which are 
 tied on three sides of the fire, with their heads directed 
 towards it, and tormented by whips to make them hiss, 
 so that the fire may blaze. The froth from their lips is 
 then added to the boiling mixture, and so soon as 
 an oily scum rises to the surface, the hahara-tel is 
 complete." 
 
 It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the 
 poison, and Mr. Morris reported to me that the mode 
 of preparing it, described above, was actually practised 
 in his district. This account was transmitted by him 
 apropos to the murder of a Mohatal ^ and his wife, 
 which had been committed with the hahara-tel, and 
 
 ' A native head-man of low rank. 
 
Chap. IX.] THE GREEN CALOTES. 275 
 
 was then under investigation. Before commencing the 
 operation of preparing the poison, a cock has to be 
 sacrificed to the yaklios or demons. 
 
 This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion 
 by the Singhalese, that if a kahara enter a house or 
 walk over the roof, it is regarded as an omen of ill fortune, 
 sickness, or death ; and in order to avert the evil, a priest 
 is employed to go through a rhythmical incantation ; one 
 portion of which consists in the repetition of the words 
 
 Kabara goyin ■wan dosey 
 Ada palayan e dosey. 
 
 " These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya 
 — let them now be averted ! " 
 
 It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that 
 Ceylon may belong to a separate circle of physical geo- 
 graphy, that this lizard, though found to the eastward 
 in Burmah^, has not hitherto been discovered in the- 
 Dekkan or Hindustan, 
 
 Blood-suckers. — The lizards already mentioned, how- 
 ever, are but the stranger's introduction to innumerable 
 varieties of others, all most attractive in their sudden 
 movements, and some unsurpassed in the brilliancy of 
 their colouring, which bask on banks, dart over rocks, 
 and peer curiously out of the chinks of every ruined wall. 
 In all their motions there is that vivid and brief energy, 
 the rapid but restrained action associated with their 
 
 • In coiToboration of the view eluding, not only indiyidual species, 
 
 propounded elsewhere (see pp. 7, but whole genera pecidiar to the 
 
 84, «fce.), and opposed to the island, and not to be found on the 
 
 popular belief that Ceylon, at some mainland. See a paper by Dr. A. 
 
 remote period, was detached from Gunthee on The Geog. Distribution 
 
 the continent of India by the in- of Eeptilcs, Magaz, Nat. Hist, for 
 
 terposition of the sea, a list of March, 1859, p. 230. 
 reptiles will be found at p. 319, in- 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 5"^ 
 
 limited poAver of 
 respiration^ which 
 justifies the ac- 
 curate picture of — 
 
 " The green lizard, rustling thro' the 
 
 grass, 
 And up the fluted shaft, with short, 
 
 quick, spiring 
 To vanish in the^ chinks which time 
 
 has made." ' 
 
 The most beautiful of the 
 race is the green ccdotes^, in 
 length about twelve inches, 
 which, with the exception of 
 a few dark streaks about the 
 head, is as brilliant as the 
 purest emerald or malachite. 
 Unlike its congeners of the 
 same family, it never alters 
 this dazzling hue ; whilst 
 many of them possess, but 
 
 ' Rogers' Pcestum. 
 ^ Calotes sp. 
 
 CALOTES OPHTOMACHOS 
 
Chap. IX.] CALOTES VEESICOLOE, ETC. 277 
 
 in a less degree, the power, like the chameleon, of 
 exchanging their ordinary colours for others less con- 
 spicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the 
 physiognomy of those lizards is the prominence of their 
 cheeks. This results from the great development of 
 the muscles of the jaws ; the strength of which is such 
 that they can crush the hardest integuments of the 
 beetles on which they feed. The calotes will permit 
 its teeth to be broken, rather than quit its hold of a stick 
 into which it may have struck them. It is not provided, 
 like so many other tropical lizards, wdth a gular sac or 
 throat-pouch, capable of inflation when in a state of 
 high excitement. The tail, too, is rounded, not com- 
 pressed, thus clearly indicating that its habits are those 
 of a land-animal. 
 
 The Calotes versicolor, and another, the Calotes ophio- 
 machus, of which a figure is attached, possess in a 
 remarkable degree the faculty, above alluded to, of 
 changing their hue. The head and neck, when the 
 animal is irritated or hastily swallowing its food, be- 
 come of a brilliant red (whence the latter species has 
 acquired the name of the " blood-sucker "), whilst the 
 usual tint of the rest of the body is converted into pale 
 yellow.^ The sitana'^, and a number of others, exhibit 
 similar phenomena. 
 
 The lyre-headed lizard^, w^hich is not uncommon in the 
 woods about Kandy, is more bulky than any of the 
 species of Calotes, and not nearly so active in its move- 
 
 ' The characteristics by which specimens are uniform, others 
 
 the Calotes ojjhiomackus may be banded transversely with white, 
 
 readily recognised, are a small crest and others again have a ])lack 
 
 formed by long spines running band on each side of the neck. 
 
 on each side of the neck to above - Sitana Ponticereana,. Ciiv. 
 
 the ear, coupled with a green ^ Lyriocephalus sciitatus, Linn, 
 ground-colour of the scales. Many 
 
 T 3 
 
278 KEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 ments. As usually observed it is of a dull greenish 
 brown, but when excited its back becomes a rich olive 
 green, leaving the head yellowish : the underside of the 
 body is of a very pale blue, almost approaching white. 
 The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense ver- 
 milion tint; so that, although extremely handsome, 
 this lizard presents, from its extraordinarily shaped 
 head and threatening gestures, a most malignant aspect. 
 It is, however, perfectly harmless. 
 
 Chameleon. — The true chameleon^ is found, but not 
 in great numbers, in the dry districts to the north of 
 Ceylon, where it frequents the trees, in slow pursuit of 
 its insect prey; but compensated for the sluggishness 
 of its other movements, by the electric rapidity of its 
 extensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in its general 
 habits, the chameleon rests motionless on a branch, 
 from which its varied hues render it scarcely distin- 
 guishable in colour ; and there patiently awaits the ap- 
 proach of the insects on which it feeds. Instantly on 
 their appearance its wonderful tongue comes into play. 
 
 TONGUE OF CHAMELEON. 
 
 Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion 
 till it exceeds in length the whole body of the creature. 
 No sooner does an incautious fly venture within reach 
 
 ' Cliameleo vul<iaris. Baud. 
 
Chap. IX.] CERATOPHOEA. 279 
 
 than the extremity of this treacherous weapon is 
 disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and covered with a 
 viscid fluid ; and this, extended to its full length, is 
 darted at its prey with an unerring aim, and redrawn 
 within the jaws with a rapidity that renders the act 
 almost invisible.^ 
 
 WTiilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the 
 colours of the rainbow has attracted the v/onder of all 
 ages, sufficient attention has hardly been given to the im- 
 perfect sympathy which subsists between the two lobes 
 of its brain, and the two sets of nerves that permeate the 
 opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not only has each of 
 the eyes an action quite independent of the other, but 
 one side of its body appears to be sometimes asleep whilst 
 the other is vigilant and active ; one will assume a green 
 tinge whilst the opposite one is red ; and it is said that 
 the chameleon is utterly unable to swim, from the in- 
 capacity of the muscles of the two sides to act in concert. 
 
 Ceratophora, — This which till lately was an unique 
 lizard, known by only two specimens, one in the British 
 Museum, and another in that of Leyden, was ascertained 
 by Dr. Kelaart, about five years ago, to be a native of the 
 higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes seen in the 
 older trees in pursuit of insect larvae. The first speci- 
 men brought to Europe was called Ceratophora Stod- 
 dartii, after the name of its finder ; and the recent 
 discovery of several others in the National Collection has 
 enabled me, by' the aid of Dr. A. Griinther, to add some 
 important facts to their history. 
 
 This lizard is remarkable for having no external 
 ear; and it has acquired its generic name from the 
 
 * Prof. Ryaier Jones, art. Ecpt- vol. iv. pt. i. p. 292. 
 iNa, in Todd's Ci/cIop. of Anat. 
 
 T 4 
 
•280 REPTILES. [Cuap. IX. 
 
 curious lioni-like process on the extremity of the nose. 
 This horn, as it is found in mature males of ten inches 
 in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and slightly 
 curved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, 
 from which the Rhinoceros takes its name. But the 
 comparison does not hold good either from an anato- 
 mical or a physiological point of view. For, whilst 
 the horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal produc- 
 tion, a conglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense 
 mass as hard as bone, and answering the purpose of a 
 defensive weapon, besides being used for digging up the 
 roots on which the animal lives ; the horn of the cerato- 
 pJiora is formed of a soft, spongy substance, coated by 
 the rostral shield, which is produced into a kind of sheath. 
 Although flexible, it always remains erect, owing to the 
 elasticity of its substance. Not having access to a living 
 specimen, which would afford the opportunity of testing 
 conjecture, we are left to infer from the internal structure 
 of this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, in mo- 
 ments of irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. 
 This opinion as to its physiological nature is confirmed 
 by the remarkable circumstance that, like the rudiment- 
 ary comb of the hen and young cocks, the female and 
 the immature males of the ceratophora have the horn 
 exceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches in 
 length (and the females appear always to be smaller 
 than the males), the horn is only one half or one line 
 long ; while in immature males five inches in length, it 
 is one line and a half. 
 
 Among the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, 
 and now in the British Museum, there is one which so 
 remarkably differs from C. Stoddartii, that it attracted 
 my attention, by the peculiar form of this rostral ap- 
 pendage. Pr. GuNTiiER pronounced it to be a new 
 
Chap. IX.J THE GECKO. 281 
 
 species ; and Dr. Gray concurring in this opinion, tbe}^ 
 have done me the honour to call it Ceratophora Ten- 
 nentii. Its "horn" somewhat resembles the comb of a 
 cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its 
 external appearance ; it is nearly six lines long by two 
 broad, slightly compressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, 
 and covered with a corrugated, granular skin. It bears 
 no resemblance to the depressed rostral hump of Lyvio- 
 cephcdus^ and the differences of the new species from 
 the latter lizard may be easily seen from the annexed 
 drawing and the notes given below.' 
 
 Geckoes. — The most familiar and attractive of the 
 lizard class are the Geckoes'-, that frequent the sitting- 
 rooms, and being furnished with pads to each toe, they are 
 enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass 
 and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupil of 
 the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, 
 is linear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as 
 evening arrives, the geckoes are to be seen in every house 
 in keen and crafty pursuit of their prey ; emerging from 
 the chinks and recesses where they conceal themselves 
 
 * The specimen in the British of the neck. The scales on the 
 
 Museum is apparently an adult belly, on the extremities, and on 
 
 male, ten inches long, and is, ^"ith the tail are slightly keeled. Tail 
 
 regard to the distribution of the nearly round. This species is more 
 
 scales and the form of the head, uniformty coloiu'ed than C. Stod- 
 
 very similar to C. Stoddartii. The dartii ; it is greenish, darker on the 
 
 posterior angles of the orbit are sides. 
 
 not projecting, but there is a small - Hemidactylus maculatus, Durn. 
 
 tubercle behind them ; and a pair et Bih., H. Leschenaultii, Bum, 
 
 of somewhat larger tubercles on et Bih ; H. frenatus, Schlcgel. Of 
 
 the neck. The gular sac is absent, these the last is very common in 
 
 There are fire longitudinal quad- the houses of Colombo. Colour, 
 
 rangular, imbricate scales on each grey ; sides wdth small granules ; 
 
 side of the throat ; and the sides of thiunb short ; chin-shields foiu- ; 
 
 the body present a nearly horizontal tail rounded with transverse series 
 
 series of similar scales. The scales of small spines ; femoral and 
 
 on the median line of the back preanal pores in a continuous line, 
 
 scarcely form a crest; it is, how- Gray, Lizards, p. loo. 
 ever, more distinct on the nape 
 
282 EEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 during the day, to search for insects that then retire to 
 settle for the night. In a boudoir where the ladies of 
 my family spent their evenings, one of these familiar 
 and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place behind 
 a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candles were 
 lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed 
 with its accustomed crumbs ; and if neglected, it reite- 
 rated it sharp, quick call of chic, chic, chit, till attended 
 to. It was of a delicate gray colour, tinged with pink ; 
 and having by accident fallen on a work-table, it fled, 
 leaving part of its tail behind it, which, however, it re- 
 produced within less than a month. This faculty of 
 reproduction is doubtless designed to enable the creature 
 to escape from its assailants : the detaching of the limb 
 is evidently its own act ; and it is observable, that when 
 reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some variation 
 from the previous form, the diverging spines being 
 absent, the new portion covered with small square uni- 
 form scales placed in a cross series, and the scuta below 
 being seldom so distinct as in the original member.^ 
 In an officer's quarters in the fort of Colombo, a geckoe 
 had been taught to come daily to the dinner-table, and 
 always made its appearance along with the dessert. The 
 family were absent for some months, dming which the 
 house underwent extensive repairs, the roof having been 
 raised, the walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. It 
 was naturally surmised that so long a suspension of its 
 accustomed habits would have led to the disappearance 
 of the little lizard ; but on the return of its old friends, 
 it made its entrance as usual at their first dinner the 
 instant the cloth was removed. 
 
 Crocodile. — The Portuguese in India, like the Spa- 
 
 ' Brit. Mus. Cat. p. 143 ; Kela^^rt's Prod. Faun. Zcylan., p. 183. 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 CROCODILES. 
 
 283 
 
 niards in South America, affixed the name of lagarto to 
 the huge reptiles that infested the rivers and estuaries of 
 both continents ; and to the present day the Europeans 
 in Ceylon apply the term alligator to what are in reality 
 crocodiles, which literally swarm in the still waters and 
 tanks in the low country, but rarely frequent rapid 
 streams, and have never been found in the marshes 
 among the hills. The differences, however, between the 
 two, when once ascertained, are sufficiently marked, to 
 prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of 
 the alligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and 
 the canine teeth of the under jaw, instead of being received 
 into foramina in the upper, as in the crocodile, fit into 
 furrows on each side of it. The legs of the alligator, too, 
 are not denticulated, and the feet are only semi-palmate. 
 The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each. 
 
 SKULLS OP ALLIGA. rOK AND CPXiCODILE 
 
 The instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to 
 
284 KEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 any variation from the habits of those found in other 
 countries. There would appear to be two well-distin- 
 guished species found in the island, the Eli-kimhoola ^, 
 the Indian crocodile, inhabiting the rivers and estuaries 
 throughout the low countries of the coasts, attaining the 
 length of sixteen or eighteen feet, and read}^ to assail man 
 when pressed by hunger ; and the marsh-crocodile ^, 
 which lives exclusively in fresh water, frequenting the 
 tanks in the northern and central provinces, and con- 
 finino: its attacks to the smaller animals : in length it 
 seldom exceeds twelve or thirteen feet. Sportsmen com- 
 plain that their dogs are constantly seized by both 
 species ; and water-fowl, when shot, frequently disappear 
 before they can be secured by the fowler.^ It is generally 
 believed in Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the 
 crocodile abstains from devouring them till the com- 
 mencement of decomposition facilitates the operation of 
 swallowing. To assist in this, the natives assure me that 
 the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase behind the 
 roots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree, 
 and tears off each piece by a backward spring. 
 
 There is another popular belief that the crocodile is 
 exceedingly sensitive to tickling; and that it will relax 
 its hold of a man, if he can only contrive to reach and 
 rub with his hand the softer parts of its under side.'' An 
 
 * Crocodilus biporcatus, Cuvier. sided for a long time at Caltura, 
 
 ^ Crocodilus palustris, Less. tells me that in the rivers which 
 
 ^ In Siam the flesh of the croco- flow into the sea, both there and 
 
 dile is sold for food in the markets at Bentotte, crocodiles are fre- 
 
 and bazaars. " Un joiu' je \is quently caught in corrals, formed 
 
 plus de cinquante crocodiles, petits of stakes cbiven into the ground 
 
 et grands, attaches aux colonnes in shallow water, and so con- 
 
 de lem-s maisons. lis es vendent structed, that when the reptile 
 
 la chair comme on vendrait de la enters to seize the bait placed 
 
 chair de pore, mais a bien meilleur within, the aperture closes behind, 
 
 marche." — Pallegoix, Siam, yol. and secures him, A professional 
 
 i. p. 174. "crocodile charmer" then enters, 
 
 ■* A native gentleman who re- muttering a spell, and with one end 
 
Chap. IX.] CROCODILES. 285 
 
 incident indicative of some reality in this piece of folk- 
 lore, once came under my own observation. One morn- 
 ing, about sunrise, when riding across the sandy plain 
 near the old fort of Moeletivoe, we came suddenly upon 
 a crocodile asleep under some bushes of the Buffalo- 
 thorn, several hundred yards from the water. The 
 terror of the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke 
 and found itself discovered and completely surrounded. 
 It was a hideous creature, upwards of ten feet long, and 
 evidently of prodigious strength, had it been in a con- 
 dition to exert it, but consternation completely para- 
 lysed it. It started to its feet and turned round in a 
 circle hissing and clanking its bony jaws, with its ugly 
 green eye intently fixed upon us. On being struck 
 with a stick, it lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead. 
 Presently it looked cunningly round, and made a rush 
 towards the water, but on a second blow it lay again 
 motionless and feigning death. We tried to rouse it, 
 but without effect, pulled its tail, slapped its back, 
 struck its hard scales, and teased it in every way, but 
 all in vain ; nothing would induce it to move till acci- 
 dentally my son, then a boy of twelve years old, tickled 
 it gently under the arm, and in an instant it drew the 
 limb close to its side and turned to avoid a repetition of 
 the experiment. Again it was touched under the other 
 arm, and the same emotion was exhibited, the g-reat 
 monster twisting about like an infant to avoid being" 
 tickled. The scene was highly amusing, but the sun was 
 rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe, 
 
 of a stick pats the creature gently a rope under its body, by which it 
 
 on the head for a time. The ope- is at last dragged on shore. This 
 
 rator then boldly mounts astride story serves to corroborate the nar- 
 
 upon its shoulders, and continues to rative of Mr. Waterton and his 
 
 soothe it with his one hand, whilst alligator, 
 with the other he contrives to pass 
 
286 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining 
 lake. 
 
 The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only 
 move s^viftly on sand or smooth clay, its feet being too 
 tender to tread firmly on hard or stony ground. In 
 the dry season, when the watercourses begin to fail and 
 the tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles have 
 occasionally been encountered in the jungle, wandering 
 in search of water. During a severe drought in 1844, 
 they deserted a tank near Kornegalle and traversed the 
 town during the night, on their way to another reservoir 
 in the suburb ; two or three fell into the wells ; others, 
 in their trepidation, laid eggs in the street, and some 
 were found entangled in garden- fences and killed. 
 
 Generally, however, during the extreme drought, 
 when unable to procure their ordinary food from the 
 drying up of the watercourses, they bury themselves in 
 the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till released by 
 the recurrence of rains. ^ At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern 
 province, whilst riding across the parched bed of the 
 tank, I was shown the recess, still bearing the form and 
 impress of a crocodile, out of which the animal had 
 been seen to emerge the day before. A story was also 
 related to me of an officer attached to the department 
 of the Surveyor-Greneral, who, having pitched his 
 tent in a similar position, was disturbed during the 
 night by feeling a movement of the earth below his bed, 
 from which on the following day a crocodile emerged, 
 making its appearance from beneath the matting.^ 
 
 The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essen- 
 
 * Heeodotus records the obser- ^ Humboldt relates a .similar 
 
 vations of the Egyptians that the story as occurring at Calabazo, in 
 
 crocodile of the Nile abstains from Venezuela. — Personal Narrative, c. 
 
 food during the four winter months, xvi. 
 — Euterpe, Iviii. 
 
Chap. IX.] CROCODILES. 287 
 
 tially cowardly in its instincts, and hastens to conceal 
 itself on the appearance of man. A gentleman (who told 
 me the circumstance), when riding in the jungle, over- 
 took a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water. 
 It fled to a shallow pool almost dried by the sun, and, 
 thrusting its head into the mud till it covered up its 
 eyes, remained unmoved in profound confidence of per- 
 fect concealment. In 1833, during the progress of the 
 Pearl Fishery, Sir Eobert Wilmot Horton employed 
 men to drag for crocodiles in a pond which was infested 
 by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo. The 
 pool was about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve 
 wide, shallowing gradually to the edge, and not ex- 
 ceeding four or five feet at the deepest part. As the 
 party approached the bund, from twenty to thirty 
 reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and 
 fled to the water. A net, specially weighted so as to 
 sink its lower edge to the bottom, was then stretched 
 from bank to bank and swept to the further end of the 
 pond, followed by a line of men with poles to drive the 
 crocodiles forward : so complete was the arrangement, 
 that no individual could have evaded the net, yet, to the 
 astonishment of the Grovernor's party, not one was to be 
 found when it was drawn on shore, and no means of 
 escape for them was apparent or possible except by their 
 descending into the mud at the bottom of the pond. 
 
 The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still 
 waters of this district, are remarkable for the numbers 
 and prodigious size of the crocodiles which infest them. 
 Their teeth are sometimes so large that the natives 
 mount them with silver lids and use them for boxes to 
 carry the powdered chunam, which they chew with the 
 betel leaf. During one of my visits to the lake a crocodile 
 was caught within a few yards of the government agent's 
 
288 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 residence, a hook having been laid the night before, 
 baited with the entrails of a goat ; and made fast, in the 
 native fashion, by a bunch of fine cords, which the 
 creature cannot gnaw asunder as it would a solid rope, 
 since they sink into the spaces between its teeth. The 
 one taken was small, being only about ten or eleven 
 feet in length, whereas they are frequently killed from 
 fifteen to nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the 
 water, it made strong resistance to being hauled on 
 shore, carrying the canoe out into the deep channel, 
 and occasionally raising its head above the surface, and 
 clashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has 
 a horrid sound, as the crocodile has no fleshy lips, and 
 it brings its teeth and the bones of the mouth together 
 with a loud crash, like the clank of two pieces of hard 
 wood. After playing it a little, the boatmen drew it to 
 land, and when once fairly on the shore all courage and 
 energy seemed utterly to desert it. It tiied once or 
 twice to regain the water, but at last lay motionless and 
 perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easy matter 
 to kill it ; a rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast 
 had little or no effect, and even when the shot had been 
 repeated more than once, it was as full of life as ever.^ It 
 
 ' A remarkable instance of the ganga, a stream which flows tlirongh 
 
 vitality of the common crocodile, the Pasdun Corle, to join the Ben- 
 
 C. hiporcatus, was related to me tolle river. A man was fishing 
 
 by a gentleman at Galle : he had seated on the branch of a tree that 
 
 caught on a baited hook an un- overhung the water ; and to shelter 
 
 usually large one, which his coolies himself from the drizzling rain, he 
 
 disembowelled, tlie aperture in the covered his head and shoulders 
 
 stomach being left expanded by a with a bag folded into a shape 
 
 stick placed across it. On return- common with the natives. While 
 
 ing in the afternoon with a view to in this attitude, a leopard spnmg 
 
 secure the head, they found that upon him from the jungle, but, 
 
 the creature had crawled for some missing, its aim, seized the bag and 
 
 distance, and made its escape into not the man, and fell with it into 
 
 the water. the river. Here a crocodile, which 
 
 . "A curious incident occurred had been eyeing the angler in 
 
 some years ago on the Maguni- despair, seized the leopard as it 
 
Chap. IX.] THE TORTOISE. 289 
 
 feigned death and lay motionless, with its eye sclosed ; 
 but, on being pricked with a spear, it suddenly regained 
 all its activity. It was at last finished by a harpoon, 
 and then opened. Its maw contained several small 
 tortoises, and a quantity of broken bricks and gravel, 
 taken medicinally, to promote digestion. 
 
 During our journeys we had numerous opportunities 
 of observing the habits of these hideous creatures, and 
 I am far from considering them so formidable as they 
 are usually supposed to be. They are evidently not 
 wantonly destructive ; they act only under the influence 
 of hunger, and even then their motions on land are 
 awkward and ungainly, their action timid, and their 
 whole demeanour devoid of the sagacity and courage 
 which characterise other animals of prey. 
 
 Testudinata. Tortoise, — Land tortoises are numerous, 
 but present no remarkable features beyond the beautiful 
 marking of the starred variety ^, which is common in the 
 north-western province around Putlam and Chilaw, and 
 is distinguished by the bright yellow rays which diversify 
 the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these 
 which was kept in my garden I took a number of flat 
 ticks {Ixodes), which adhere to its fleshy neck in such 
 a position as to baffle any attempt of the animal itself 
 to remove them ; but as they are exposed to constant 
 danger of being crushed against the plastron during 
 the protrusion and retraction of the head, each is 
 covered with a horny case almost as resistant as the 
 carapace of the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of 
 structure is scarcely less striking than that of the 
 
 fell, and sunk with it to the Supreme Court, 10th Jany., 186]. 
 bottom." — Letter from Goone- ' Testudo stellata. 
 BATNE Modliar, interpreter of the 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 parasites found on the spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. 
 Hooker, each of which presents the distinct colour of 
 the scale to which it adheres.^ 
 
 The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented 
 by terrapins ^, which the natives are in the habit of 
 keeping alive in wells under the conviction that they 
 clear them of impurities. These fresh-water tortoises, 
 the greater number of which are included in the genus 
 Emys of naturalists, are distinguished by having their 
 toes webbed. Their shell is less convex than that of 
 their congeners on land (but more elevated than that 
 of the sea-turtle); and it has been observed that the 
 more rounded the shell, the nearer does the terrapin 
 approach to the land-tortoise both in its habits and in 
 
 THE THREE-PJDGED TORTOISE QEMYS TRIJUGA) 
 
 ' 'KooKEiCs Hi7nalai/an Journals, 
 vol. i. p. 37. 
 
 2 Cri/ptopus gramcm, Schopf. 
 Dr. Kelaa-rt, in liis Prodromus 
 (p. 179), refers this to the common 
 Indian species, C. punctata ; but it 
 
 is distinct. It is generally distri- 
 buted in the lower parts of Ceylon, 
 in lakes and tanks. It is the one 
 usually put into wells to act the part 
 of a scavenger. By the Singhalese 
 it is named Kiri-ibba. 
 
Chap. IX.] TEREAPINS. 291 
 
 the choice of its food. Some of them live upon animal 
 as well as vegetable food, and those which subsist 
 exclusively on the former, are noted as having the flat- 
 test shells. 
 
 The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of 
 several weeks, and these are round, with a calcareous 
 shell. They thrive in captivity, provided that they have 
 a regular supply of water and of meat, cut into small 
 pieces and thrown to them. The tropical species, if 
 transferred to a colder climate, should have arrange- 
 ments made for enabling them to hybernate during 
 the winter : they will die in a very short time if exposed 
 to a temperature below the freezing point. ^ 
 
 The edible turtle^ is found on all the coasts of the 
 island, and sells for a few shillings or a few pence, ac- 
 cordinof to its size and abundance at the moment. A 
 very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets of 
 Jaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is 
 sold piece-meal, whilst the animal is still alive, by the 
 families of the Tamil fishermen. The creatures are to be 
 seen in the market-place undergoing this frightful mu- 
 tilation ; the plastron and its integuments having been 
 previously removed, and the animal thrown on its back, 
 so as to display all the motions of the heart, viscera, 
 and lungs. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteen 
 inches in length, is first inserted at the left side, and 
 the women, who are generally the operators, introduce 
 
 1 Of the Emys trijuga, the fresh areola situated in the upper poste- 
 
 water tortoise figured on preceding rior corner. Shell brown, with the 
 
 page, the technical characteristics areolse and the keels yellowish ; 
 
 are;— vertical plates lozenge-shaped; head brown, with a yellow streak 
 
 shell convex and oval ; with three over each eye. 
 
 more or less distinct longitudinal ^ Chelonia virgata, Schweig. 
 keels ; shields corrugated ; with 
 
 D 2 
 
292 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 one hand to scoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. 
 The blade is next passed round, till the lower shell 
 is detached and placed on one side, and the internal 
 organs exposed in full action. A customer, as he 
 applies, is served with any part selected, which is cut 
 off as ordered, and sold by weight. Each of the fins is 
 thus successively removed, with portions of the fat and 
 flesh, the turtle showing, by its contortions, that each 
 act of severance is productive of agony. In this state it 
 lies for hours, writhing in the sun, the heart ^ and head 
 being usually the last pieces selected, and till the latter 
 is cut off the snapping of the mouth, and the opening 
 and closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent, 
 even when the shell has been nearly divested of its 
 contents. 
 
 At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south- 
 western coast of Ceylon i-s avoided as poisonous, and 
 some lamentable instances are recorded of deaths 
 ascribed to its use. At Pantura, to the south of 
 Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of 
 turtle in October, 1840, were immediately seized with 
 sickness, after which coma supervened, and eighteen 
 died durinof the nis:ht. Those who survived said there 
 was nothing unusual in the appearance of the flesh 
 except that it was fatter than ordinary. Other similarly 
 fatal occurrences have been attributed to turtle curry ; 
 but as they have never been proved to proceed exclu- 
 sively from that source, there is room for believing that 
 the poison may have been contained in some other 
 ingredient. 
 
 In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found 
 
 ' AnisTOTLE was aware of the the removal of the heart. — De Vita 
 fact that the turtle will live after et Morte, eh. ii. 
 
Chap. IX.] TURTLES. 293 
 
 of such a size as to measure between four and five 
 feet in length ; and on one occasion, in riding along 
 the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man in charge 
 of some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell, 
 which he had erected on sticks to protect him from the 
 sun — almost verifying the statement of ^lian, that in 
 the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so large that 
 several persons may find ample shelter beneath a single 
 shell. 1 
 
 The hawksbill-turtle^, which supplies the tortoise-shell 
 of commerce, was at former times taken in great num- 
 bers in the vicinity of Hambangtotte during the season 
 when they came to deposit their eggs. This gave rise 
 to the trade in tortoise-shell at Point de G alle, where it 
 is still manufactured into articles of ornament by the 
 Moors ; but the shell they employ is almost entirely 
 imported from the Maldives. 
 
 If taken from the animal after death and decomposi- 
 tion, the colour of the shell becomes clouded and milky, 
 and hence the cruel expedient is resorted to of seizing 
 the turtles as they repair to the shore to deposit their 
 eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat makes the 
 plates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of the 
 carapace, after which the creature is permitted to escape 
 to the water.^ In illustration of the resistless influence 
 
 ' "TIktoptui Se &pa iu Tainr) r-p referred to some tradition eon- 
 
 SaAaTTT?, Kol x^^^^"-'^ iiiyunai, nected with the gigantic fossilised 
 
 diVK^p ovv ra iXvrpa 6po<poi yivou- species discovered on the Sewalik 
 
 Taf KOI 7ap e(ni koX Tr^vreKaideKa Hills, the remains of which are now 
 
 TTTjxwj/ tv x^^^^veiov, ws vitoiK^lv ovK in the Museum at the East India 
 
 oXiyovs, Koi Tovs T]\iovs irvpaSe- House ? 
 (TTaTous aTTocTTeyei, Koi cKtav aa/xevois ^ Caretta imbricata, Linn. 
 Trope'xet." — Lib. xvi. c. 17. -Slian ^ At Celebes, whence the finest 
 
 copied this statement literatim from tortoise-shell is exported to China, 
 
 Megasthenes, Inclica Frag. LLx. the natives kill the turtle by blows 
 
 3L May not Megasthenes have on the head, and immerse the shell 
 
 n 3 
 
294 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 of instinct at the period of breeding, it may be men- 
 tioned that the identical tortoise is believed to return 
 again and again to the same spot, notwithstanding that 
 at each visit she may have to undergo a repetition of 
 this torture. In the year 1826, a hawksbill turtle was 
 taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ring attached 
 to one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutch 
 officer thirty years before, with a view to establish the 
 fact of these recurring visits to the same beach.* 
 
 An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon 
 for observing a remarkable illustration of instinct in the 
 turtle, when about to deposit its eggs. As if conscious 
 that if she went and returned by one and the same line 
 across the sandy beach, her hiding place would be dis- 
 covered at its farthest extremity, she resorts to the ex- 
 pedient of curving her course, so as to regain the sea by 
 a different track ; and after depositing the eggs, burying 
 them about eighteen inches deep, she carefully smoothes 
 over the surface to render the precise spot indiscernible. 
 The Singhalese, aware of this device, sound her line of 
 march with a rod till they come upon the concealed 
 nest. 
 
 Snakes. — It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited by 
 the ferocious expression and unusual action of serpents, 
 combined with an instinctive dread of attack^, that ex- 
 aggerated ideas prevail both as to their numbers in 
 Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended from en- 
 countering them. The Singhalese profess to distinguish 
 a gTeat many kinds, of which they say not more than 
 
 in boiling water to detach the ration. — Journal Indian Archipel. 
 
 plates. Dry heat is only resorted vol. iii. p. 227, 1849. 
 
 to by the unskilful, who frequently ' Bennett's Ceylon, ^'C, c. xxxiv. 
 
 destroy the tortoise-sheU in the ope- ^ Genesis iii. 15. 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 295 
 
 one half have as yet been scientifically identified ^ ; 
 but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, 
 that the surprise of persons long resident is invariably 
 expressed at the rarity with which they are to be seen ; 
 and from my own journeys through the jungle, often of 
 from two to five hundred miles, I have frequently re- 
 turned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett, 
 who resided much in the south-east of the island, ascribes 
 the rarity of serpents in the jungle to the abundance 
 of the wild peafowl, whose partiality to young snakes 
 renders them the chief destroyers of these reptiles. It 
 is likely, too, that they are killed by the jungle-cocks ; 
 for they are frequently eaten by the common barn-door 
 fowl in Ceylon. This is rendered the more probable by 
 the fact, that in those districts where the extension of 
 cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reduced the 
 numbers of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have 
 perceptibly increased. The deer also are enemies of the 
 snakes, and the natives who have had opportunities of 
 watching their encounters assert that they have seen 
 deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on it 
 with all its four feet. 
 
 As to the venomous powers of snakes, De. Davy, whose 
 
 * This is not likely to be true : as being about four feet in length, 
 
 in a Tery large collection of snakes of the diameter of the little finger, 
 
 made in Ceylon by Mr. C. R. and of a uniform dark browTi 
 
 Butler, and recently examined by colour. It is said to be often seen 
 
 Dr. Griinther, of the British Museum, in company with another snake 
 
 only a single specimen proved to be called in Singhalese Lay Medilla, 
 
 new. a name which impHes its deep red 
 
 There is, however, one venomous hue. The latter is believed to be 
 
 snake, of the existence of which venomous. It would be weU if 
 
 I am assured by a native conges- some collector in Ceylon would 
 
 pondent in Ceylon, no mention has send home for examination the 
 
 yet been made by European natu- species which respectively bear 
 
 ralists. It is called Mdpild by the these names. 
 Singhalese ; it is described to me 
 
 u 4 
 
296 KEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 attention was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents 
 of Ceylon^, came to the conclusion that but four, out of 
 twenty species examined by him, were venomous, and 
 that of these only two (the tic-polonga'^ and cohra de 
 capello^) were capable of inflicting a wound likely to be 
 fatal to man. The third is the carawala*, a brown 
 snake of about two feet in length ; and for the fourth, 
 of which only a few specimens have been procured, the 
 Singhalese have no name in their vernacular — a proof 
 that it is neither deadly nor abundant. But Dr. Davy's 
 estimate of the venom of the carawala is below the 
 truth, as cases have been authenticated to me, in which 
 death from its bite ensued within a few days. The 
 effect, however, is not uniformly fatal ; a circumstance 
 which the natives explain by asserting that there are 
 three varieties of the carawala, named the hil-la, the 
 dunu, and the ma^-carawala ; the second being the 
 largest and the most dreaded. 
 
 In like manner, the tic-polonga, particularised by 
 Dr. Davy, is said to be but one out of seven varieties of 
 that formidable reptile. The word " tic " means literally 
 the " spotted " polonga, from the superior clearness of 
 the markings on its scales. Another, the nidi, or " sleep- 
 ing " polonga, is so called from the fact that a person 
 bitten by it is soon prostrated by a lethargy from which 
 he never awakes.^ These formidable serpents so infested 
 
 ^ See Davy's Ceylon, ch. xiv. folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion 
 
 2 Daboia elegans, Baud. with snakes, is the belief that a 
 
 ^ Naja tripudians, Merr. deadly enmity subsists between the 
 
 ■* Trigonoeephalus hypnale, Merr. polonga and the cobra de capello, 
 
 * The other varieties are the and that the latter, which is 
 
 ffetta, lay, alu, kunu, and nil-po- naturally shy and retiring, is pro- 
 
 longas. I have heard of an eighth, voked to conflicts by the audacity 
 
 the palla-polonga. of its rival. Hence the proverb 
 
 Amongst the numerous pieces of applied to persons at enmity, that 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 297 
 
 the official residence of the District Judge of Trincomalie 
 in 1858, as to compel his family to abandon it. In an- 
 other instance, a friend of mine, going hastily to take a 
 supply of wafers from an open tin case which stood in 
 his office, drew back his hand, on finding the box occu- 
 pied by a tic-polonga coiled within it. During my 
 residence in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a 
 European which was caused by the bite of a snake ; 
 and in the returns of coroners' inquests made officially 
 to my department, such accidents to the natives appear 
 chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal, 
 having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound 
 in self-defence.^ For these reasons the Singhalese, when 
 obliged to leave their houses in the dark, carry a stick 
 with a loose ring, the noise '^ of which as they strike it 
 on the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave 
 their path. 
 
 "they hate like the polonga and the infant was not to be molested, 
 
 cobra." But the polonga, on reaching the 
 
 The Singhalese believe the po- tub, was no sooner obstructed by 
 
 longa to be by far the most savage the little one, than it stung him to 
 
 and wanton of the two, and they death. 
 
 illustrate this by a popular legend, * In a return of 112 coroners' 
 that once upon a time a child, in the inquests, in cases of death from 
 absence of its mother, was playing wild animals, held in Ceylon in 
 beside a tub of water, which a cobra, five years, from 1851 to 1855 in- 
 impelled by thirst during a long- elusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites 
 continued drought, approached to of serpents ; and in almost every 
 drink, the unconscious child all the instance the assault is set down as 
 while striking it with its hands to having taken place at night. The 
 prevent the intrusion. The cobra, majority of the suflferers were 
 on returning, was met by a tic- children and women, 
 polonga, which seeing its scales ^ Pi^i^y notices that the serpent 
 dripping with delicious moisture, has the sense of hearing more 
 entreated to be told the way to the acute than that of sight ; and that 
 well. The cobra, knowing the it is more frequently put in motion 
 vicious habits of the other snake, by the sound of footsteps than by 
 and anticipating that it would kill the appearance of the intruder, 
 the innocent child which it had so "excitaturpedessepius." — Lib. viii. 
 recently spared, at first refused, c. 36. 
 and only yielded on condition that 
 
298 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 Cobra de Gapello. — The cobra de capello is the only 
 one exhibited by the itinerant snake-charmers : and 
 the truth of Davy's conjecture, that they control it, 
 not by extracting its fangs, but by courageously avail- 
 ing themselves of its well-known timidity and extreme 
 reluctance to use its fatal weapons, received a painful 
 confirmation during my residence in Ceylon, by the 
 death of one of these performers, whom his audience 
 had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity 
 with the cobra ; it bit him on the wrist, and he expired 
 the same evening. The hill near Kandy, on which the 
 official residences of the Grovernor and Colonial Secretary 
 are built, is covered in many places with the deserted 
 nests of the white ants (termites), and these are the 
 favourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, 
 which watches from their apertures the toads and 
 lizards on which it preys. Here, when I have re- 
 peatedly come upon them, their only impulse was 
 concealment; and on one occasion, when a cobra of 
 considerable length could not escape, owing to the 
 bank being nearly precipitous on both sides of the road, 
 a few blows from my whip were sufficient to deprive it 
 of life.i 
 
 A gentleman who held a civil appointment at 
 Kornegalle, had a servant who was bitten by a snake ; 
 
 ' A Singhalese work, tlie Sarpa- correctly, in the Ceylon Times for 
 
 dosd, enumerates four castes of the January, 1857. It is more than 
 
 cobra; — the raja, or king; the probable, as the division repre- 
 
 bamumi, or Brahman ; the velanda, sents the four castes of the Hindus, 
 
 or trader ; and the gori, or agricul- Chastriyas, Brahmans Vaisyas, and 
 
 turist. Of these the raja, or "king Sudras ; that the insertion of the 
 
 of the cobras," is said to have the gori instead of the latter was a 
 
 head and the anterior half of the pious fraud of some copyist to 
 
 body of so light a colour, that at a confer rank upon the Vellales, the 
 
 distance it seems like a silvery agricultural caste of Ceylon, 
 white. The work is quoted, but not 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 299 
 
 and he informed me that on enlarging a hole near 
 the foot of the tree under which the accident occur- 
 red, he unearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet 
 long, and so purely white as to induce him to be- 
 lieve that it was an albino. With the exception of the 
 rat-snake ^, the cobra de capello is the only serpent 
 which seems from choice to frequent the vicinity of 
 human dwellings, doubtless attracted by the young of 
 the domestic fowl and by the moisture of the wells and 
 drainage. 
 
 The young cobras, it is said, in the Sa'i^a-dosd, are 
 not venomous till after the thiileenth day, when they 
 shed their coat for the first time. 
 
 The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed 
 near a house, its companion is almost certain to be dis- 
 covered immediately after, — a popular belief which I 
 had an opportunity of verifying on more than one 
 occasion. Once, when a snake of this description was 
 
 • Coryiphodon BhnnenhacJni. had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss, 
 There is a belief iu Ceylon that and hade it go to its hole." 
 the bite of the rat-snake, though 3Iajor Skiistcee, -writing to me 
 harmless to man, is ftital to black 12th Dec., 1858, mentions the still 
 cattle. The Singhalese add that more remarkable case of the domes- 
 it would be equally so to man were tication of the cobra de capello in 
 the woimd to be touched by cow- Ceylon. " Did you ever hear," he 
 dung. Wolf, in the interesting says, "of tame cobras being kept 
 stoTj ofhis Life and Adventures in and domesticated about a house, 
 Ceylon, mentions that rat-snakes going in and out at pleasure, and 
 were often so domesticated by the in common with the rest of the 
 natives as to feed at their batle. inmates? In one family, near 
 He says : "I once saw an example Negombo, cobras are kept as pro- 
 of this in the house of a native, tectors, in the place of dogs, by a 
 It being meal time, he called his wealthy man who has always large 
 snake, which immediately came sums of money in his house. But 
 forth from the roof xmder which this is not a solitary case of the 
 he and I were sitting. He gave kind. I heard of it only the other 
 it victuals from his own dish, which day, but from imdoubtedly good au- 
 the snake took of itself from off a thority. The snakes glide about the 
 fig-leaf that was laid for it, and house, a terror to thieves, but never 
 at€ along with its host. When it attempting to harm the inmates." 
 
300 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 killed in a bath of the Grovernment House at Colombo, 
 its mate was found in the same spot the day after ; and 
 again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long, 
 having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit 
 its escape, its companion of the same size was found the 
 same morning in an adjoining drain. ^ On this occasion 
 the snake, which had been several hours in the well, 
 swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water ; 
 and instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de 
 capello voluntarily taking considerable excursions by 
 sea. When the " Wellington," a government vessel 
 employed in the conservancy of the pearl banks, was 
 anchored about a quarter of a mile from the land, in 
 the bay of Koodremale, a cobra was seen, about an 
 hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards the 
 ship. It came within twelve yards, when the sailors 
 assailed it with billets of wood and other missiles, and 
 forced it to return to land. The following morning 
 they discovered the track which it had left on the 
 shore, and traced it along the sand till it was lost in 
 the jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the 
 same spot, when the " Wellington " was lying at some 
 distance from the shore, a cobra was found and killed 
 on board, where it could only have gained access by 
 climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a 
 sailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot. 
 
 One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular 
 legend, that the stomach of the cobra de capello occa- 
 sionally contains a precious stone of such unapproachable 
 
 ' Pliny notices the affection them happens to be killed, the 
 that subsists between the male and other seeks to avenge its death. — 
 female asp ; and that if one of Lib. viii. e. 37. 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 301 
 
 brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. This in- 
 estimable stone is called the ndga-mdnik-hya ; but not 
 one snake in thousands is supposed to possess such 
 a treasure. The cobra, before eating, is believed to 
 cast it up and conceal it for the moment; else its 
 splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders. 
 The tales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn 
 upon the devices of those in search of the gem, and 
 the vigilance and cunning of the cobra by which 
 they are baffled; the reptile itself being more en- 
 amoured of the priceless jewel than even its most 
 ardent pursuers. 
 
 In Bennett's account of " Ceylon and its Capa- 
 bilities,''^ there is another curious piece of Singhalese 
 folk-lore, to the effect, that the cobra de capello every 
 time it expends its poison loses a joint of its tail, and 
 eventually acquires a head resembling that of a toad. 
 A recent addition to zoological knowledge has thrown 
 light on the origin of this popular fallacy. The family 
 of " false snakes " (pseudo typhlops, as Schlegel names 
 the group) have till lately consisted of but three species, 
 of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They 
 belong to a family intermediate between the serpents 
 and that Saurian group commonly called Sloiu-worms or 
 Glass-snakes ; they in fact represent the slow-worms of 
 the temperate regions in Ceylon. They have the body 
 of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth is very narrow, 
 and they are unable to detach the lateral parts of the 
 lower jaw from each other, as the true snakes do when 
 devouring a prey. The most striking character of the 
 group, however, is the size and form of the tail ; this 
 is very short, and according to the observations of 
 
302 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 Professor Peters of Berlin', shorter in the female than 
 in the male. It does not terminate in a point as in 
 other snakes, but is truncated obliquely, the abrupt 
 surface of its extremity being either entirely flat, or 
 more or less convex, and always covered with rough 
 
 
 THE UR0PELT18 PHILIPPINUS, 
 
 keels. The reptile assists its own movements by press- 
 ing the rough end to the ground, and from this peculiar 
 form of the tail, the family has received the name of Uro- 
 peltidce, or " Shield-tails." Within a very recent period 
 important additions have been made to this family, 
 which now consists of four genera and eleven species. 
 Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated in the List 
 
 Peters, Be Serpentum familia TJropeltaceorum. Berol. 4. 1861. 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 303 
 
 appended to this chapter. One of these, the Uropeltis 
 grandis of Kelaart *, is distinguished by its dark brown 
 colour, shot mth a bluish metallic lustre, closely ap- 
 proaching the ordinary shade of the cobra ; and the tail 
 is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it had been 
 severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile 
 will be best understood by a reference to the accom- 
 panying figure ; and there can, I think, be little doubt 
 that to its strange and anomalous structure is to be 
 traced the fable of the transformation of the cobra de 
 capello. The colour alone would seem to identify the 
 two reptiles, but the head and mouth are no longer 
 those of a serpent, and the disappearance of the tail 
 might readily suggest the mutilation which the tradition 
 asserts. 
 
 The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence 
 from inflicting death on any creature, are accustomed, 
 after securing a venomous snake, to enclose it in a 
 basket woven of palm leaves, and to set it afloat on a 
 river. 
 
 The Python. — The great python ^ (the "boa," as it is 
 commonly designated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of 
 Eastern story), which is supposed to crush the bones of 
 an elephant, and to swallow the tiger, is found, though 
 
 * The Uropeltis grandis of Eastern Archipelago. The eharac- 
 
 Kelaart, which was at fii-st sup- teristics of this reptile, as given by 
 
 posed to be a new species, proves Dr. Gray, are as follows : — " Caudal 
 
 to be identical with U. Phillip- disc subcirciilar, with large scat- 
 
 pinus of Cuvier. It is doubtful, tered tubercles ; snout subacute, 
 
 however, whether this species be slightly produced. Dark brown, 
 
 found in the Phillippine Islands, as lighter below, with some of the 
 
 stated by Cuvier ; and it is more scales dark brown in the centre 
 
 than probable that the typical spe- near the posterior edge. Gray, 
 
 cimen came from Ceylon — -afar- Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 262. 
 
 ther illustration of the affinity of - P}i:lion reticulatus, Grai/. 
 the fauna of Ceylon to that of the 
 
304 EEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 not of such portentous dimensions, in the cinnamon 
 gardens within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it 
 feeds on hog-deer, and other smaller animals. 
 
 The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it 
 to a pole expose it for sale as a curiosity. One that 
 was brought to me tied in this way measured seventeen 
 feet with a proportionate thickness ; but one more fully 
 grown, which crossed my path on a coffee estate on the 
 Peacock Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded 
 these dimensions. Another which I watched in the 
 garden at Elie House, near Colombo, surprised me by 
 the ease with which it erected itself almost perpendi- 
 cularly in order to scale a wall upwards of ten feet 
 high. 
 
 The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a 
 deer, or any animal of similarly inconvenient bulk, the 
 python draws itself through the narrow aperture between 
 two trees, in order to crush the bones and assist in the 
 process of deglutition. 
 
 It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous 
 ground-snakes called Calamarim, which abound on the 
 continent of India and in the islands, are not to be found 
 in Ceylon ; where they would appear to be replaced by 
 two singular genera, the Aspiduo^a and Haplocercus, 
 These latter have only one series of shields below 
 the tail, whilst most other harmless snakes (Cala- 
 maria included) have a double series of sub-caudals. 
 The Aspidura has been known to naturalists for 
 many years ^ ; the Haplocercus of Ceylon has only 
 recently been described by Dr. Griinther, and of it not 
 more than three existing specimens are known : hence 
 
 ' Boie in Isis 1827 p. 517. 
 
Chap. IX.] SNAKES. 305 
 
 its habits and the extent of its distribution over the 
 island are still left in uncertainty.^ 
 
 Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon 
 to search for squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests 
 of birds, one half, including the green caraivala, smd 
 the deadly tic polonga, are believed by the natives to 
 be venomous; but the truth of this is very dubious. 
 I have heard of the cobra being found on the crown of 
 a coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by the toddy 
 which was flowing at the time, it being the season for 
 drawing it. Surrounding Elie House, near Colombo, 
 in which I resided, were a number of tall casuarinas 
 and India-rubber trees, whose branches almost touched 
 the lattices of the window of the room in which I usually 
 sat. These were a favourite resort of the tree-snakes, 
 and in the early morning the numbers which clung to 
 them were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an 
 opportunity of observing the action of these creatures, 
 which seems to me one of vigilance rather than of 
 effort, the tongue being in perpetual activity, as if it 
 were an organ of feeling; and in those in which the 
 nose is elongated, a similar mobility and restlessness, 
 
 ' G-mfTE. Col. Snakes, p. 14. In terior and two posterior frontals ; 
 
 the hope that some inquirer in no loreal shield; one small shield 
 
 Ceylon -will be able to furnish such before, two behind the eye ; seven 
 
 information as may fill up this shields along the upper lip, the eye 
 
 blank in the history of the haplo- being above the fourth. The scales 
 
 cercus, the following particulars are disposed in seventeen longi- 
 
 are here appended. The largest of tudinal series ; they are lanceolate 
 
 the specimens in the British and strongly keeled. The upper 
 
 Museum is about twenty-five inches parts are uniform blackish or 
 
 in length ; the body thin, and much brown, with two dorsal rows of 
 
 elongated; the head narrow, and small indistinct black spots ; occiput 
 
 not distinct from the neck, the -with a whitish collar, edged with 
 
 tail of moderate length. Forehead darker. The lower parts uniforua. 
 
 covered by three shields, one an- yellowish. 
 
306 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 especially when alarmed, affords evidence of the same 
 faculty. 
 
 The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an 
 exceedingly thin and delicate body, often adorned with 
 colours exquisite as those of the foliage amongst which 
 they live concealed. In some of the South American 
 species the tints vie in brilliancy with those of the 
 humming-birds ; whilst their forms are so flexible and 
 slender as to justify the name conferred on them of 
 " luhip-snakes.'''' The Siamese, to denote these combina- 
 tions of grace and splendour, call them " Sun-beams." 
 A naturalist^, describing a bright green species in Brazil 
 (Philodryas mridissimus), writes : " I am always de- 
 lighted when I find that another tree-snake has settled 
 in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the young 
 ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one 
 of these beautiful creatures, which will coil up its 
 body of two feet in length within a space no larger 
 than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be 
 always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, 
 the quick playing of the long, black, forked tongue 
 will show you that you too are observed. On perceiving 
 the slightest sign of your intention to disturb it, the 
 snake will dart upwards through the branches and over 
 the leaves which scarcely appear to bend beneath the 
 weight. A moment more, and you have lost sight of 
 it. Whenever I return to Europe, you may be sure 
 that in my hot-house those harmless, lovely creatures 
 shall not be missing." 
 
 Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of 
 the most common is the green Passerita, easily recog- 
 
 * Dr. WucHEEER of Bahia. 
 
TREE SNAKE. 
 
 Passeritn fnnm. 
 
Chap. IX.] TEEE-SXAKES. 307 
 
 nized from its bright colour and from tlie pointed move- 
 able appendage, into which the snout is prolonged. The 
 snakes of this genus being active chiefly during the 
 night, the pupil of the eye is linear and horizontal. 
 They never willingly descend from trees, but prey 
 there upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds and 
 their young; and they are perfectly harmless, although 
 they often try to bite. It is strange that none of the 
 numerous specimens which it has been attempted to 
 bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst in 
 South America they take their food freely in confine- 
 ment, provided that some green plants are placed in 
 their caofe. 
 
 In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a 
 larger size than three feet ; whilst they are known to 
 attain to more than five on the Indian Continent. 
 
 The inference is obvious, that the green coloration 
 of the majority of tree-snakes has more or less con- 
 nection with their habits and mode of life. Indeed, 
 whenever a green-coloured snake is observed, it may at 
 once be pronounced, if slender or provided with a pre- 
 hensile tail, to be of the kind which passes its life on 
 trees; but if it be short-bodied then it lives on the 
 prairies. There are nevertheless tree-snakes which have 
 a very different coloration ; and one of the most re- 
 markable species is the Passerita fusca or Drylnus 
 fuscus, of which a figure is annexed. It closely re- 
 sembles the green Passerita in form, so that natu- 
 ralists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is 
 entirely of a shining brown, shot with purple, and 
 the yellow longitudinal stripe which runs along the 
 side of the belly of the green species, is absent in this 
 one. It is much more rare than the green one, and 
 
 X 2 
 
308 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 does not appear to be found in Hindostan : no inter- 
 mediate forms have been observed in Ceylon. 
 
 Water- Snakes. — The fresh-water snakes, of which 
 several species ^ inhabit the still waters and pools, are 
 all harmless in Ceylon. A gentleman, who found near 
 a river an agglutinated cluster of the eggs of one variety 
 {Tropidophis schistosusf), placed them under a glass 
 shade on his drawing-room table, where one by one the 
 young reptiles emerged from the shell to the number of 
 
 twenty. 
 
 The sea-snakes of the Indian tropics did not escape 
 the notice of the early Grreek mariners who navigated 
 those seas ; and amongst the facts collected by them, 
 ^Elian has briefly recorded that the Indian Ocean 
 produces serpents with flattened tails'^, whose bite, he 
 adds, is to be dreaded less for its venom than the lacer- 
 ation of its teeth. The first statement is accurate, but 
 the latter is incorrect, as there is an all but unani- 
 mous concurrence of opinion that every species of this 
 family of serpents is more or less poisonous. The com- 
 pression of the tail noticed by ^lian is one of the 
 principal characteristics of these reptiles, as their motion 
 through the water is mainly effected by its aid, coupled 
 with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. 
 Their scales, instead of being imbricated like those of 
 land-snakes, form hexagons ; and those on the belly, 
 instead of being scutate and enlarged, are nearly of the 
 same size and form as on other parts of the body. 
 
 * Chersydrus granulatus, Merr. ; water snakes. His remark on 
 
 Cerbenis cinereus, i)f«<c7.; Tropido- the compression of the tail shows 
 
 phis schistosus, Band. that his informants were aware of 
 
 2 " riAaTets Tos ov^a.'ir JEliax, this speciality in those that inhabit 
 
 L. XTi. c. 8. the sea. 
 
 ^lian speaks elsewhere of fresh- 
 
Chap. IX.] SEA-SNAKES. 309 
 
 Sea-snakes (Hyclrophis) are found on all tlie coasts 
 of Ceylon. I have sailed through large shoals of them 
 in the Grulf of Manaar, close to the pearl-banks of 
 Aripo. The fishermen of Calpentyn on the west live 
 in perpetual dread of them, and believe their bite to 
 be fatal. In the course of an attempt which was re- 
 cently made to place a lighthouse on the great rocks of 
 the south-east coast, known by seamen as the Basses ^, or 
 Baxos, the workmen who first landed found the portion 
 of the surface liable to be covered by the tides, honey- 
 combed, and hollowed into deep holes filled with water, 
 in which were abundance of fishes and some molluscs. 
 Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes from 
 four to five feet long, which were described as having 
 the head " hooded like the cobra de capello, and of a 
 light grey colour, slightly speckled. They coiled them- 
 selves like serpents on land, and darted at poles thrust 
 in among them. The Singhalese who accompanied the 
 party, said that they not only bit venomously, but 
 crushed the limb of any intruder in their coils." ^ 
 
 Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, 
 are not abundant round Ceylon, as compared with their 
 numbers in other places. Theii" principal habitat is 
 the ocean between the southern shores of China and 
 the northern coast of New Holland ; and their western 
 limit appears to be about the longitude of Cape Comorin. 
 It has long since been ascertained that they frequent 
 the seas that separate the islands of the Pacific ; but 
 they have never yet been found in the Atlantic, nor even 
 
 ' The Basses are believed to be possibly be the Basses of Ptolemy's 
 
 the remnants of the great island of map of Taprobmie. 
 
 Giri, swallowed up by the sea. — ^ Official Report to the Groremor 
 
 Mahawanso, ch. i p. 4. They may of Ceylon. 
 
 X 3 
 
310 EEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 on the western shores of tropical America. And if, as 
 has been stated^, they have been seen on a late occasion 
 in considerable numbers in the Bay of Panama, the fact 
 can only be regarded as one of the rare instances, in 
 which a change in the primary distribution of a race of 
 animals has occurred, either by an active or a passive 
 immigration. Being exclusively inhabitants of the sea, 
 they are liable to be swept along by the influence of 
 currents ; but to compensate for this they have been 
 endowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The 
 individuals of all the groups of terrestrial serpents are 
 observed to be possessed of this faculty to a greater or 
 a less degree ; and they can swim for a certain distance 
 without having any organs specially modified for the 
 purpose ; except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac 
 capable of taking in a sufficient quantity of air, to keep 
 the body of the snake above water. Nor do we find any 
 peculiar or specially adapted organs even in the fresh- 
 water-snakes, although they can catch frogs or fishes 
 while swimming. But in the hydrophlds, which are 
 permanent inhabitants of the ocean, and which in an 
 adult state, approach the beach only occasionally, and 
 for very short times, the tail, which is rounded and 
 tapering in the others, is compressed into a vertical 
 rudder-like organ, similar to, and answering all the 
 purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish. When these snakes 
 are brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, they 
 are helpless, and struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. 
 Their food consists exclusively of such fishes as are 
 found near the surface ; a fact which affords ample 
 proof that they do not descend to great depths, although 
 
 J Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
:« I, 
 
 , \' '''''"■'«^'-i'''i« 
 
 
Chap. IX.] SEA-SNAKES. 311 
 
 they can dive as well as swim. They are often found in 
 groups during calm weather, sleeping on the sea ; but 
 owing to their extreme caution and shyness, attempts 
 to catch them are rarely successful ; on the least alarm, 
 they suddenly expel the air from their lungs and descend 
 below the surface ; a long stream of rising air-bubbles 
 marking the rapid course which they make below. Their 
 poisonous nature has been questioned ; but the presence 
 of a strong perforated tooth and of a venomous gland 
 sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if these 
 had not been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. 
 But fortunately for the fishermen, who sometimes find 
 them unexpectedly among the contents of their nets, 
 sea-snakes are unable, like other venomous serpents, 
 to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely 
 inflict a wound. Dr. Cantor believes, that they are 
 blinded by the light when removed from their own 
 element; and he adds that they become sluggish and 
 speedily die.^ 
 
 Those found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally 
 small, — from one to three feet in length, and apparently 
 immature ; and it is certain that the largest specimens 
 taken in the Pacific do not attain to greater length than 
 eight feet. In colour they are generally of a greenish 
 brown, in parts inclining to yellow, with occasionally 
 cross bands of black. The species figured in the accom- 
 panying drawing is the HydropJiis sublcevis of Grray; 
 or Hydrus cyanocinctus of Boie.^ The specimen from 
 
 * Catal. Mai. Sept. p. 136. sided, smooth, some divided into 
 
 - Its teclinical characteristics are two, by a slight central groove, 
 
 as follows, — Body rather slender; Occipital shields large, triangular, 
 
 ground colour yellowish with irre- and produced, with a small central 
 
 gular black rings. Scales nearly shield behind them ; a series of four 
 
 smooth ; ventral plates broad, six- large temporal shields ; chin-shields 
 
 X 4 
 
312 REPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 whicti the drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Tem- 
 pleton at Colombo. 
 
 The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a 
 remedy in cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has 
 probably been communicated to the SiDghalese by the 
 itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from 
 the coast of Coromandel; and more than one well- 
 authenticated instance of its successful application has 
 been told to me by persons who had been eye-wit- 
 nesses to what they described. On one occasion, in 
 March, 1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some 
 other civil officers of the Grovernment, aloDg a jungle 
 path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw one of 
 two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly 
 dart into the forest and return, holding in both hands 
 a cobra de capello which he had seized by the head and 
 tail. He called to his companion for assistance to place 
 it in their covered basket, but, in doiug this, he handled 
 it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and re- 
 tained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract 
 its fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared 
 to follow almost immediately ; but, with all expedition, 
 the friend of the sufi'erer undid his waistcloth, and took 
 from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small 
 almond, intensely black and highly polished, though 
 of an extremely light substance. These he applied, 
 one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, 
 to which they attached themselves closely ; the blood 
 that oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the 
 porous texture of the article applied. The stones ad- 
 
 in two pairs ; eyes very small, over second upper labial shield elon- 
 the fourth and fifth labials ; one gated, 
 ante- and two post-oculars ; the 
 
Chap. IX.] S^AKE-STONES. 313 
 
 hered tenaciously for three or four minutes, the wounded 
 man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm 
 downwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At 
 length the snake-stones dropped off of their own ac- 
 cord ; the suffering of the man appeared to subside ; he 
 twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, and went on 
 his way without concern. Whilst this had been going 
 on, another Indian of the party who had come up took 
 from his bag a small piece of white wood, which re- 
 sembled a root, and passed it gently near the head of 
 the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to 
 the ground ; he then lifted the snake without hesitation, 
 and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his basket. 
 The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform 
 this operation with safety he called the Kaya-thcdic 
 Kaldnga (the root of the snake-plant), protected by 
 which he professed his ability to apprc^ch any reptile 
 with impunity. 
 
 In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then 
 District Judge of Kandy, informed me that he saw a 
 snake-charmer in the jungle, close by the town, search 
 for a cobra de capello, and, after disturbing one in its 
 retreat, the man tried to secure it, but, in the attempt, 
 he was bitten in the thigh till blood trickled from 
 the wound. He instantly applied the Pmnhoo-Kaloo, 
 which adhered closely for about ten minutes, during 
 which time he passed the root which he held in his 
 hand backwards and forwards above the stone, till the 
 latter dropped to the ground. He assured Mr. Laval- 
 liere that all danger was then past. That gentleman 
 obtained from him the snake-stone he had relied on, 
 and saw him repeatedly afterwards in perfect health. 
 
 The substances used on both these occasions are now 
 
ai4 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 in my possession. The roots employed by the several 
 parties are not identical. One appears to be a bit of 
 the stem of an Aristolochia ; the other is so dried as to 
 render its identification difficult, but it resembles the 
 quadrangular stem of a jungle vine. Some species of 
 Aristolochia, such as the A. serpentcvvia of North Ame- 
 rica, are supposed to act as specifics in the cm^e of snake- 
 bites; and the A. indica is the plant to which the 
 ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote 
 when bitten^ ; but it is probable that the use of any 
 particular plant by the snake-charmers is a pretence, or 
 rather a delusion, the reptile being overpowered by the 
 resolute action of the operator-, and not by the influence 
 
 * For an account of tlie en- 
 counter between the ichneumon 
 and the yenomous snakes of Ceylon, 
 see Ch. I. p. 39. 
 
 - The following narratire of the 
 operations of a snake-charmer in 
 Ceylon is contained in a note from 
 Mr. Eeyne, of the department of 
 public works: "A snake-charmer 
 came to my bungalow in 1854, re- 
 questing me to allow him to show 
 me his snakes dancing. As I had 
 frequently seen them, I told him I 
 would gire him a rupee if he would 
 accompany me to the jungle, and 
 catch a cobra, that I knew fre- 
 quented the place. He was willing, 
 and as I was anxious to test the 
 truth of the charm, I counted his 
 tame snakes, and put a watch over 
 them untn I returned "with him. 
 Before going I examined the man, 
 and satisfied myself he had no 
 snake about his person. When 
 we arrived at the spot, he played 
 on a small pipe, and after perse- 
 vering for some time out came a 
 large cobra from an ant hill, which 
 I knew it occuj)ied. On seeing the 
 
 man it tried to escape, but he 
 caught it by the tail and kept 
 swinging it round until we reached 
 the bungalow. He then made it 
 dance, but before long it bit him 
 above the knee. He immediately 
 bandaged the leg above the bite, 
 and applied a snake-stone to the 
 wound to extract the poison. He 
 was in great pain for a few minutes, 
 but after that it gradually went 
 away, the stone falling off just be- 
 fore he was relieved. When he 
 recovered he held a cloth up, which 
 the snake flew at, and caught its 
 fangs in it ; while in that position, 
 the man passed his hand iip its 
 back, and having seized it by the 
 throat, he extracted the fangs in 
 my presence and gave them to me. 
 He then squeezed out the poison 
 on to a leaf. It was a clear oily 
 substance, and when rubbed on the 
 hand produced a fine lather. I 
 carefully watched the whole opera- 
 tion, which was also witnessed by 
 my clerk and two or three other 
 persons. Colombo, 13th January, 
 I860.— H. E. Rey>t:." 
 
Chap. IX.] SXAKE-STO>s"ES. 315 
 
 of any secondary appliance. In other words, the confi- 
 dence inspired by the supposed talisman enables its 
 possessor to address himself fearlessly to his task, and 
 thus to effect, by determination and will, what is popu- 
 larly believed to be the result of charms and stupefac- 
 tion. Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of 
 Northern Africa, who lay hold of the Cerastes without 
 fear or hesitation, impunity is ascribed to the use of 
 a plant with the juice of which they anoint themselves 
 before touching the reptile ^ ; and Bruce says of the 
 people of Sennar, that they acquire exemption from the 
 fatal consequences of the bite by chewing a particular 
 root, and washing themselves with an infusion of cer- 
 tain plants. He adds that a portion of this root was 
 given him, with a view to test its efficacy in his own 
 person, but that he had not sufficient resolution to 
 make the experiment. 
 
 As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the 
 application of which I have been describing, to Mr. 
 Faraday, who has communicated to me, as the result 
 of his analysis, his belief that it is " a piece of charred 
 bone which has been filled with blood perhaps several 
 times, and then carefully charred again. Evidence of 
 this is affi3rded, as well by the apertures of cells or tubes 
 on its surface as by the fact that it yields and breaks 
 under pressure, and exhibits an organic structm-e within. 
 When heated slightly, water rises from it, and also a 
 little ammonia ; and, if heated still more highly in the 
 air, carbon burns away, and a bulky white ash is left, 
 retaining the shape and size of the stone." This ash, 
 as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged to 
 
 ^ Hasselquist. 
 
316 EEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 any vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely com- 
 posed of phosphate of lime. Mr. Faraday adds that " if 
 the piece of matter has ever been employed as a spongy 
 absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose in its 
 present state : but who can say to what treatment it has 
 been subjected since it was fit for use, or to what treat- 
 ment the natives may submit it when expecting to have 
 occasion to use it ? " 
 
 The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when 
 instantaneously applied, may be sufficiently porous 
 and absorbent to extract the venom from the recent 
 wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it 
 has had time to be carried into the system ; and that the 
 blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen sub- 
 mitted to him was that of the Indian on whose person 
 the effect was exhibited on the occasion to which my 
 informant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers 
 from the coast who visit Ceylon profess to prepare the 
 snake-stones for themselves, and to preserve the com- 
 position a secret. Dr. Davy^, on the authority of Sir 
 Alexander Johnston, says the manufacture of them is a 
 lucrative trade, carried on by the monks of Manilla, who 
 supply the merchants of India — and his analysis con- 
 firms that of Mr. Faraday. Of the three different kinds 
 which he examined — one being of partially burnt bone, 
 and another of chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of 
 vegetable matter, resembled bezoar, — all of them (ex- 
 cept the fijrst, which possessed a slight absorbent power) 
 were quite inert, and incapable of having any eff'ect 
 except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg 
 was shown the snake-stone used by the boers at the 
 
 ' Account of the Interior of Ceylon, cK. iii. p. 101. 
 
Chap. IX.] CECILIA GLUTINOSA. 317 
 
 Cape in 1772, which was imported for them " from the 
 Indies, especially from Malabar," at so high a price 
 that few of the farmers could afford to possess them- 
 selves of it ; he describes it as convex on one side, 
 black, and so porous that '' when thrown into water, 
 it caused bubbles to rise ;" and hence, by its absorbent 
 qualities, it served, if speedily applied, to extract the 
 poison from the wound. ^ 
 
 Ccecilia. — The rocky jungle, bordering the higher 
 coffee estates, provides a safe retreat for a very singular 
 animal, first introduced to the notice of European 
 naturalists about a century ago by Linnaeus, who 
 gave it the name Ccecilia glutinosa, to indicate two 
 peculiarities manifest to the ordinary observer — an 
 apparent defect of vision, from the eyes being so small 
 and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable ; and a 
 power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a 
 
 ^ T^unberg, \ol.i. -p. 155. Since "Use. — Thewoundbeingslightly 
 the foregoing account was pub- punctured, apply the bone to the 
 lished, I have received a note from opening, to which it will adhere 
 Mr. Haedy, relative to the p/'edra firmly for the space of two minutes ; 
 ponsona, the snake-stone of Mexico, and when it falls, it should be re- 
 in which he gives the following ceived into a basin of water. It 
 account of the method of pre- should then be dried in a cloth, 
 paring and applying it : " Take a and again applied to the wound, 
 piece of hart's horn of any con- But it will not adhere longer than 
 venient size and shape ; cover it about one minute. In like manner 
 well round with grass or hay, it may be apphed a third time; 
 enclose both in a thin piece of but now it will fall almost imme- 
 sheet copper well wrapped round diately, and nothing will cause it 
 them, and place the parcel in a to adhere any more, 
 charcoal fire till the bone is suffi- " These effects I witnessed in the 
 ciently charred. case of a bite of a rattle-snake at 
 
 "When cold, remove the calcined Oposura, a town in the province of 
 
 horn from its envelope, when it Sonora, in Mexico, from whence I 
 
 will be ready for immediate use. obtained my recipe; and I have 
 
 In this state it will resemble a given other particulars respecting 
 
 solid black fibrous substance, of it in my Travels in the Interior of 
 
 the same shape and size as before Mexico, published in 1830. K. 
 
 it was subjected to this treat- W. H. Hardy. Bath, 30th Janic- 
 
 ment. ar^, 1860." 
 
318 KEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 viscous fluid, resembling that of snails, eels, and some 
 salamanders. Specimens are rare in Europe owing to 
 the readiness with which it decomposes, breaking down 
 into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is attempted 
 to preserve it. 
 
 The creature is about the length and thickness of an 
 ordinary round desk ruler, a little flattened before and 
 rounded behind. It is brownish, with a pale stripe 
 along either side. The skin is furrowed into 350 circu- 
 lar folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The 
 head is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine 
 curved teeth for seizing the insects and worms on which 
 it is supposed to live. 
 
 Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and me- 
 tamorphoses of this creature should be carefully ascer- 
 tained, for great doubts have been entertained as to the 
 position it is entitled to occupy in the chain of creation. 
 
 Batrachians. — In the numerous marshes formed by 
 the overflowing of the rivers in the plains of the low 
 country, there are many varieties of frogs, which, both 
 by their colours and by their extraordinary size, are cal- 
 culated to excite the surprise of a stranger. In the 
 lakes around Colombo and the still water near Trin- 
 comalie, there are huge creatures of this family, from 
 six to eight inches in length ^, of an olive hue, deepen- 
 ing into brown on the back and yellow on the under 
 side. A Kandyan species, recently described, is of much 
 smaller dimensions, but distinguished by its brilliant 
 colouring, a beautiful grass green above and deep orange 
 underneath.^ 
 
 * A Singhalese variety of the busta, proves to be a Ceylon spe- 
 
 Rana cutipora ? and the Malabar cimen of the B. cutipora. 
 bull-frog, Hylarana Malaharica. A ^ j^ Kandiana, Kelaart. 
 frog named by Blyth Eana to- 
 
Chap. IX.] BATRACHIAXS. 319 
 
 In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the 
 graceful little tree-frogs ^ were to be found in gTeat 
 numbers, sheltered under broad leaves to protect them 
 from the scorching sun ; — some of them utter a sharp 
 metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by 
 smacking the lips. 
 
 In the gardens and grounds toads ^ crouch in the 
 shade, and pursue the flies and minute coleoptera. In 
 Ceylon, as in Europe, these creatures suffer from the bad 
 renown of injecting a poison into the wound inflicted 
 by their bite.^ The main calumny is confuted by the 
 fact that no toad has yet been discovered furnished with 
 any teeth whatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still 
 attaches to the milky exudation sometimes perceptible 
 from glands situated on either side behind the head; 
 nevertheless experiments have shown, that though acrid, 
 the secretions of the toad are incapable of exciting more 
 than a slight erythema on the most delicate skins. The 
 smell is, however, fetid and offensive, and hence toads 
 are less exposed to the attacks of carnivorous animals 
 and of birds than frogs, in which such glands do not exist. 
 
 In the class of Eeptiles, those only are included in 
 the order of Batrachians which undergo a metamor- 
 phosis before attaining maturity ; and as they offer the 
 only example amongst Vertebrate animals of this mar- 
 vellous transformation, they are justly considered as the 
 lowest in the scale, with the exception of fishes, which 
 remain during life in that stage of development which 
 is only the commencement of existence to a frog. 
 
 * Tolypedates maculatus, Gray, of " King Asoka attempted to de- 
 
 2 Biifo mdanostictus, Schneid. stroy the great bo-tree (at Ma- 
 
 ^ In Ceylon this error is as old as gadha) with the poisoned fang of 
 
 the third century, b. c, when, as a toadr — Ch. xx. p. 122. 
 
 the Mahawanso tells us, the wife 
 
320 EEPTILES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs 
 of respiration that manifest alteration. In its earliest 
 form the young batrachian, living in the water, breathes 
 as a fish does by gills, either free and projecting as in 
 the water-newt, or partially covered by integument as 
 in the tadpole. But the gills disappear as the lungs 
 gradually become developed : the duration of the pro- 
 cess being on an average one hundred days from the time 
 the eggs were first deposited. After this important 
 change, the true batrachian is incapable any longer of 
 living continuously in water, and either betakes itself 
 altogether to the land, or seeks the surface from time to 
 time to replenish its exhausted lungs. ^ 
 
 The change in the digestive functions during meta- 
 morphosis is scarcely less extraordinary ; frogs, for 
 example, which feed on animal substances at maturity, 
 subsist entirely upon vegetable when in the condition 
 of larvae, and the subsidiary organs undergo remarkable 
 development, the intestinal canal in the earlier stage 
 being five times its length in the later one. 
 
 Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not 
 furnish a single example ; but of those without this 
 appendage, the island, as above remarked, affords many 
 varieties ; seven distinguishable species pertaining to 
 the genus rana, or true frogs with webs to the hind 
 feet ; two to the genus bufo, or true toads, and five to 
 the Polypedates, or East Indian " tree-frogs ;" besides a 
 few others in allied genera. The " tree-frog," whose 
 
 ^ A fe^r Batrachians, such as the with hmgs in mature age, they are 
 
 Siren of Carolina, the Proteus of not capable of living out of the 
 
 Illyria, the Axolotl of Mexico, and water. Such batrachians form an 
 
 the MenoJ)ranchus of the North intermediate link between reptiles 
 
 American Lakes, retain their giUs and fishes, 
 during life ; but although provided 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 LIST OP REPTILES. 
 
 321 
 
 toes are terminated by rounded discs which assist it in 
 climbing, possesses, in a high degree, the faculty of 
 changing its hues ; and one as green as a leaf to-day, 
 will be found grey and spotted like the bark to-morrow. 
 One of these beautiful little creatures, which had seated 
 itself on the gilt pillar of a lamp on my dinner-table, 
 became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable in 
 colour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung. 
 
 List of Ceylon Reptiles. 
 
 I am indebted to Dr. Grray and Dr. Griinther, of the 
 British Museum, for a list of the reptiles of Ceylon ; but 
 many of those new to Europeans have been carefully 
 described by the late Dr. Kelaart in his Prodromus 
 Faunce Zeylanicce and its appendices, as well as in the 
 13th vol. 3fagaz. Nat. Hist (1854). 
 
 SAUEA. 
 
 Hydrosaurus 
 
 salvator, Wagler. 
 Monitor 
 
 dracaena, Linn. 
 Riopa 
 
 punctata. Linn. 
 
 Hardwickii, Gray. 
 Brachymeles 
 
 Bonitse, Hum. 8( Bib. 
 Tiliqua 
 
 rufescens, Shaw. 
 Eumeces 
 
 Taprobanius, Kel. 
 Nessia 
 
 Buitoni, Gray. 
 Acontias 
 
 Layardi, Kelaart, 
 Argyrophis 
 
 braraicus, Baud. 
 Lygosoma 
 
 fallax, Peters. 
 Rhinophis 
 
 oxyrhynchus, Sc/m. 
 
 punctatus, J. Miill. 
 
 philippinus, J. Miill, 
 
 homolepis, Hempr. 
 
 planiceps, Peters 
 
 Blythii, Kelaart. 
 
 melanogaster, Gray. 
 Uropeltis 
 
 grandis, Kelaart. 
 
 saffragamus, Kelaart. 
 
 Silybura 
 
 Ceylonica, Cuv. 
 Hemidactylus 
 
 frenatus, Schleg. 
 
 Leschenaultii, Dum. & 
 Bib. 
 
 trihedrus, Baud. 
 
 maculatus, Lum.Sf Bib, 
 
 Piresli, Kelaart. _ 
 
 Coctcei, Dum. &; Bib. 
 
 pustulatus, Dum. 
 
 sublffivis, Cantor. 
 Peripia 
 
 Peronii, Dum. 4' Bib. 
 Gymnodactylus 
 
 Kandianus, Kelaart. 
 Sitana 
 
 Pontioereana, Cuv. 
 Lyriocephalus 
 
 scutatus, Linn. 
 Ceratophora 
 
 Stoddartii, Gray, 
 
 Tennentii, Giinther. 
 Otocryptis 
 
 bivittata, Wiegm. 
 Salea Jerdoni, Gray. 
 Calotes 
 
 ophiomachus, Merr. 
 
 nigrilabris, Peters. 
 
 versicolor, Daud. 
 
 Rouxii, Dum. 8( Bib. 
 
 mystaceus, Dm<w. 
 Chameleo 
 
 vulgaris, Daud. 
 
 OPHIDIA. 
 
 Megaera 
 
 trigonocephala, Latr. 
 Trigonocephalus 
 
 hypnalis, Merr. 
 Daboia 
 
 elegans, Daud. 
 Pelamys 
 
 bicolor, Daud. 
 Aturia 
 
 lapemoides. Gray. 
 Hydrophis 
 
 sublaevis, Gray, 
 
 cyanocinctus, Daud. 
 Chersydrus 
 
 granulatus, Schneid. 
 Cerberus 
 
 cinereus, Daud, 
 Tropidophis 
 
 schistosus, Daud. 
 Python 
 
 reticulatus, Gray. 
 Cylindrophis 
 
 rufa, Schneid. 
 
 maculata, Linn. 
 Aspidura 
 
 brachyorrhos, Boie. 
 
 trachyprocta, Cope. 
 Haplocercus 
 
 Ceylonensis, GUnth, 
 Oligodon 
 
 subquadratus, Dum. Sf 
 Bib. 
 
322 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 subgriseus. Bum. S(Bib. 
 
 iuhMnedXwi, Bum. Sf Bib. 
 Simotes 
 
 Russellii, Baud. 
 
 purpurascens, Schlcg. 
 Ablabes 
 
 collaris. Gray. 
 Tropidonotus 
 
 quincunciatus, Schleg. 
 var. funebris. 
 var. carinatus. 
 
 stolatus, Linn. 
 
 chrysargus, Bote. 
 Cynophis 
 
 Helena, Bated. 
 Coryphodon 
 
 Blumenbachii, Men: 
 Cyclophis 
 
 calamaria, G'unth. 
 Chrysopelea 
 
 ornata, Shaw. 
 Dendrophis 
 
 picta, Gm. 
 Passerita 
 
 iTiycterizans, Linn. 
 
 fusca. 
 Dipsadomorphus 
 
 Ceylonensis, Giinth. 
 Lycodon 
 
 aulicus, Linn. 
 Cercaspis 
 
 carinata, Kuhl. 
 
 Bungarus 
 
 fasciatus, Schneid. 
 
 var. Ceylonensis, Gthr. 
 Naja 
 
 tripudians, Merr. 
 
 CHELON'L\.. 
 
 Testudo 
 
 stellata, Schweig. 
 Emys 
 
 Sebae, Gray. 
 
 trijuga, Schtoeigg. 
 Caretta 
 
 imbricata, Linn. 
 Chelonia 
 
 virgata, Schweigg. 
 
 EMYDOSAUEI. 
 
 Crocodihis 
 
 biporcatus. Cuv. 
 palustris, Less. 
 
 BATRACHIA. 
 
 Bana 
 
 hexadactyla. Less. 
 Kuhlii, Schleg. 
 cutipora, Bum. 4 Bib. 
 tigrina, Baud. 
 vittigera, Wiegm. 
 Malabarica, Buvi.SfBib. 
 Kandiana, Kclaart. 
 Neuera-elliana, Kel. 
 
 Bufo 
 
 melanostictns. Schneid. 
 
 Kelaartii, Giinth. 
 Ixaliis 
 
 variabilis, Giinth. 
 
 leucorhinus, Martens. 
 
 poecilopleurus. Mart. 
 
 aurifasciatus, Schleg. 
 
 schmardanus, Kelaart. 
 Polypedates 
 
 maculatiis, Gray. 
 
 microtympaniim, Gth. 
 
 eques, Giinth. 
 Limnodytes 
 
 lividus, Blyth. 
 
 macularis, Blyth. 
 
 mutabilis, Kelaart. 
 
 maculatus, Kelaart. 
 Kaloula 
 
 piilchra. Gray. 
 
 balteata, var. Giinth. 
 
 stellata, Kelaart. 
 Adenoraus 
 
 badioflavus, Cope. 
 Pyxicephalus 
 
 fodiens, Jerd. 
 Engystoma 
 
 rubrum, Jerd. 
 
 PSEUDOPHIDIA. 
 
 CaBcili;i 
 
 glutinosa, Linn. 
 
 Note. — The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and 
 the genera Ceratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura, 
 Cercaspis, and Haplocercus would appear to be similarly re- 
 stricted); — Lygosoma fallax ; Trimesurus Ceylonensis, T. 
 nigromarginatus ; Megsera Trigonocephala ; Trigonocephaius 
 hypnalis ; Daboia elegans ; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. homo- 
 lepis, Rh. planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. melanogaster ; Uropeltis 
 grandis ; Silybura Ceylonica ; Cylindrophis maculata ; Aspi- 
 dura brachyorrhos ; Haplocercus Ceylonensis ; Oligodon sub- 
 lineatus ; Cjmophis Helena ; Cycloj)his calamaria ; Dipsado- 
 morphus Ceylonensis ; Cercaspis carinata ; Ixalus varial^ilis, I. 
 leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus ; Polypedates microtympanum, 
 P. eques. 
 
323 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been 
 so imperfectly investigated as its Ichthyology. Little 
 has been done in the examination and description of its 
 fishes, especially those which frequent the rivers and 
 inland waters. Mr. Bennett, who was for some years 
 employed in the Civil Service, directed his attention to 
 the subject, and published in 1830 some portions of a 
 projected work on the marine fishes of the island ^, but 
 it never proceeded beyond the description of thirty in- 
 dividuals. The great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes ^ 
 particularises about one hundred species, specimens 
 of which were procured from Ceylon by Keynard, Les- 
 chenault and other correspondents; but of these not 
 more than half a dozen belong to fresh water. 
 
 The fishes of the coast, so far as they have been ex- 
 amined, present few that are not in all probability 
 common to the seas of Ceylon and India. A series of 
 drawings, including upwards of six hundred species and 
 varieties of Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured 
 specimens, has been submitted to Professor Huxley, and 
 
 ' A Selection of the most Be- J. W. Bennett, Esq. London^ 
 
 markable and Interesting Fishes 1830. 
 
 found on the Coast of Ceylon. By ^ jjistoire Naturelle des Poissons. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 a notice of their general characteristics forms an in- 
 teresting appendix to the present chapter.^ 
 
 Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far 
 is the Seir-fish ^ a species of Scomberoids, which is called 
 Tora-malu by the natives. It is in size and form very 
 similar to the salmon, to which the flesh of the female 
 fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears a very close 
 resemblance both in firmness and flavour. 
 
 Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, 
 perches and soles are abundant, and a sardine {Sarcli- 
 nella Neohowii, Val.) frequents the southern and eastern 
 coast in such profusion that in one instance in 1839, 
 a gentleman who was present saw upwards of four 
 hundred thousand taken in a haul of the nets in the 
 little bay of Groyapanna, east of Point-de-Gralle. As 
 this vast shoal approached the shore the broken water 
 became as smooth as if a sheet of ice had been floating 
 below the surface.^ 
 
 Poisonous Fishes. — The sardine has the reputation 
 of being poisonous at certain seasons, and accidents 
 ascribed to eating it are recorded in all parts of the 
 island. Whole families of fishermen who have partaken 
 of it have died. Twelve persons in the jail of Chilaw 
 were thus poisoned, about the year 1829; and the 
 deaths of soldiers have repeatedly been ascribed to the 
 same cause. It is difficult in such instances to say with 
 certainty whether the fish were in fault ; whether there 
 
 ' See note B appended to this in sucli abundance that for a great 
 
 chapter. distance into the sea nothing can 
 
 2 Cybium {Scomber, Linn.) gut- be seen but the backs of fishes, 
 
 tatum. which casting themselves on the 
 
 ^ These facts serve to explain shore, do suiFer men for the space 
 
 the story told by the friar Odoric of three daies to come and to take 
 
 of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about as many of them as they please, 
 
 the year 1320 a.d., and says there and then they return again into 
 
 are "fishes in those seas that come the sea." — Hakluyt, vol. ii, p. 57. 
 swimming towards the said country 
 
Chap. X.] SHARKS. — SAW-FISH. 31?5 
 
 was not a peculiar susceptibility in the condition of the 
 recipients ; or whether the mischief may not have been 
 occasioned by the wilful administration of poison, or its 
 accidental occurrence in the brass cooking vessels used 
 by the natives. The popular belief was, however, de- 
 ferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council 
 in February, 1824, which, after reciting that "Whereas 
 it appears by information conveyed to the Grovernment 
 that at three several periods at Trincomalie, death has 
 been the consequence to several persons from eating the 
 fish called Sardinia during the months of January and 
 December," enacts that it shall not be lawful in that 
 district to catch sardines during these months, under 
 pain of fine and imprisonment. This order is still in 
 force, but the fishing continues notwithstanding.^ 
 
 Sharks. — Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, 
 and instances continually occur of persons beino- seized 
 by them whilst bathing even in the harbours of Trin- 
 comalie and Colombo. In the Grulf of Manaar they are 
 taken for the sake of their oil, of which they }deld such 
 a quantity that " shark's oil " is a recognised export. A 
 trade also exists in drying their fins, for which, owing 
 to the gelatine contained in them, a ready market is 
 found in China; whither the skin of the basking shark 
 is also sent, to be converted, it is said, into shagreen. 
 
 Saiu Fish. — The huge Pristis antiquorurn ^ infests 
 
 * There are other species of Sar- as the " poisonous sprat ; " the 
 
 dine foimd at Ceylon besides the S. bonito ( Thynnus affinis, Gang.), the 
 
 Neohowii; such as the S. lineolata, kangewena, or unicorn fish {Ba- 
 
 Cuv. and Val. and the S. Iciogaster, listes ?), and a number of others, 
 
 Cuv. and Yal. xx. 270, which was are more or less in bad repute from 
 
 found by M. Eeynaud at Trinco- the same imputation, 
 
 malie. It occurs also off" the coast ^ qr^Q other species are found in 
 
 of Java. Another Ceylon fish of the Ceylon waters, P. cuspidatiis 
 
 the same group, a Clupea, is known and P. pectinatus. 
 
 Y 3 
 
326 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 the eastern coast of the island, where it attains a 
 length of from twelve to fifteen feet, including the ser- 
 rated rostrum from which its name is derived. This 
 
 HEAD OF THE SAW-FISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORDM) 
 
 powerful weapon seems designed to compensate for the 
 inadequacy of the ordinary maxillary teeth which are 
 unusually small, obtuse, and insufficient to capture and 
 kill the animals which form the food of this predatory 
 shark. To remedy this, the fore part of the head and 
 its cartilages are prolonged into a flattened plate, the 
 length of which is nearly equal to one third of the 
 whole body; its edges being armed with formidable 
 teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in 
 size with the growth of the creature. 
 
 The Rays form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes 
 in which, although the skeleton is not osseous, the de- 
 veJopment of organs is so advanced that they would 
 appear to be the highest of the class, approaching nearest 
 to amphibians. They are easily distinguished from the 
 sharks by their broad and flat body, the pectoral fins 
 being expanded like wings on each side of the trunk. 
 They are all inhabitants of the ocean, and some grow 
 to a prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of 
 twenty feet in breadth. These, however, are of rare 
 
Chap. X.] RAYS. 327 
 
 occurrence, as such huge monsters usually retreat into 
 the depths of the sea, where they are secure from the 
 
 THE RAY (ABTOBATES NAEINARI), 
 
 molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only the 
 young and the smaller species that approach the coasts, 
 where they find a greater supply of those marine animals 
 which form their food. The Kays have been divided into 
 several generic groups, and the one of which a drawing 
 (Aetohcvtes narinari *) is given, has very marked charac- 
 teristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like 
 pectoral fins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The 
 latter is armed with a strong, serrated spine, which is 
 always broken off by the fishermen immediately on cap- 
 ture, under the impression that wounds inflicted by it 
 ai'e poisonous. Their fears, however, are utterly ground- 
 
 > Raja narinari, Bl. Schn. p. 361. Henle,, Plagiost. p. 179. 
 Aetobates narinari, Mtill, uud 
 
 Y 4 
 
328 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 less, as the ray has no gland for secreting any venomous 
 fluid. The apprehension ma}^, however, have originated 
 in the fact that a lacerated wound such as would be 
 produced by a serrated spine, is not unlikely to assume 
 a serious character, under the influence of a tropical 
 climate. The species figured on the last page is brownish- 
 olive on the upper surface, with numerous greenish- 
 white round spots, darkening towards the edges. The 
 anterior annulations of the tail are black and white, the 
 posterior entirely black. Its mouth is transverse and 
 paved with a band of flattened teeth calculated to crush 
 the hard shells of the animals on which it feeds. It 
 moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food, 
 which consists of Crustacea and mollusca, and seems 
 to be unable to catch fishes or other quickly moving 
 animals. Specimens have been taken near Ceylon, of 
 six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes, the ray 
 has a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in 
 all the Indian Ocean, but also in the tropical tracts of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 Another armed fish, renowned since the times of 
 ^lian and Pliny for its courage in attacking the whale, 
 and even a ship, is the sword-fish (Xiphias gladius),^ 
 Like the thunny and bonito, it is an inhabitant of the 
 deeper seas, and, though known in the Mediterranean, 
 is chiefly confined to the tropics. The dangerous weapon 
 with which nature has equipped it is formed by the pro- 
 longation and intertexture of the bones of the upper jaw 
 into an exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance, 
 
 * -/Elian tells a story of a ship similar accident on the coast of 
 
 in the Black Sea, the bottom of Mauritania. In the British Mu- 
 
 which was penetrated by the sword seum there is a specimen of a plank 
 
 of a Xiphias (L. xiv. c. 23); and of oak, pierced by a sword-fish, and 
 
 Plest (L. xxsii. c. 8) speaks of a still retaining the broken weapon. 
 
Chap. X.] SWOKD-FISHES. 329 
 
 somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp 
 point. In strange inconsistence with its possession of so 
 formidable an armature, the general disposition of the 
 sword-fish is represented to be gentle and inoffensive ; 
 and although the fact of its assaults upon the whale has 
 been incontestably established, yet the motive for such 
 conflicts, and the causes of its enmity, are beyond con- 
 jecture. Competition for food is out of the question, as 
 the Xiphias can find its own supplies without rivalry on 
 the part of its gigantic antagonist ; and as to converting 
 the whale itself into food, the sword-fish, from the con- 
 struction of its mouth and the small size of its teeth, is 
 quite incapable of feeding on animals of such dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes 
 attain to the length of twenty feet, and are distin- 
 guished by the unusual height of the dorsal fin. Those 
 both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean possess this 
 fin in its full proportions, only during the earlier 
 stages of their growth. Its dimensions even then are 
 much smaller than in the Indian species ; and it is a 
 curious fact that it gradually decreases as the fish ap- 
 proaches to maturity ; whereas in the seas around Ceylon, 
 it retains its full size throughout the entire period of 
 life. They raise it above the water, whilst dashing 
 along the surface in their rapid course ; and there is no 
 reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail. 
 
 The Indian species (which are provided with two long 
 and filamentous ventral fins) have been formed into the 
 genus Histiojjlioriis ; to which belongs the individual 
 figured on the next page. It is distinguished from others 
 most closely allied to it, by having the immense dorsal 
 fin of one uniform dark violet colour ; whilst in its con- 
 
330 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 geners, it is spotted with blue. The fish from which the 
 engraving has been made, was procured by Dr. Tem- 
 
 THE SWORD-FISH (HISTIOPHOEUS IMMACULATUS). 
 
 pleton, near Colombo. The species was previously 
 known only by a single specimen captured in the 
 Eed Sea, by Kiippell, who conferred upon it the specific 
 designation of " immaculatus.^^ ^ 
 
 ^LiAN, in his graphic account of the strange forms 
 presented by the fishes inhabiting the seas around 
 Ceylon, says that one in particular is so grotesque in 
 its configuration, that no painter would venture to 
 depict it ; its main peculiarity being that it has feet or 
 claws rather than fins.^ The annexed drawing^ may 
 
 15. 
 
 Trans. Zool. Soc. ii. p. 71. PL 
 
 ^ n({5os ye /xriv xv^^s ^ irTepvyia. 
 — Lib. xvi. c. 18. 
 
 ^ The fish from which this draw- 
 ing of the Chcironcctes was made, 
 was taken near Colombo, and from 
 the pecnliai'ities which it presents it 
 is in all probability a new and nnde- 
 sciibed species. Dr. Ctunther has 
 
 remarked, that in it, whilst the first 
 and second dorsal spines are 
 situated as usual over the eye (and 
 form, one the angling bait of 
 the fish, the other the crest 
 above the nose), the third is at an 
 unusual distance from the second, 
 and is not separated, as in the 
 otlier species, from the soft fin by a 
 notch. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 THE CHEIRONECTES. 
 
 331 
 
 probably represent the creature to which the informants 
 of ^lian referred. It is a cheironectes ; one of a group 
 in which the bones of the carpus form arms that support 
 the pectoral fins, and enable these fishes to walk along 
 the moist ground, almost like quadrupeds. 
 
 They belong to the family of Lophiads or " anglers,*' 
 not unfrequent on the English coast; which conceal 
 
 CHEIRONECTES. 
 
 themselves in the mud, displaying only the erectile 
 ray, situated on the head, which bears an excrescence 
 on its extremity resembling a worm ; by agitating 
 which, they attract the smaller fishes, that thus become 
 an easy prey. 
 
 On the rocks in Ceylon Avhich are washed by the surf 
 
332 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 there are quantities of the curious little fish, Salarias 
 alticus^, which possesses the faculty of darting along the 
 surface of the water, and running up the wet stones, with 
 the utmost ease and rapidity. By aid of the pectoral 
 and ventral fins and gill-cases, they move across the 
 damp sand, ascend the roots of the mangroves, and climb 
 up the smooth face of the rocks in search of flies ; ad- 
 hering so securely as not to be detached by repeated 
 assaults of the waves. These little creatures are so 
 nimble, that it is almost impossible to lay hold of them, 
 as they scramble to the edge, and plunge into the sea 
 on the slightest attempt to molest them. They are 
 from three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown 
 colour, almost undistinguishable from the rocks they 
 frequent. 
 
 But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are 
 those fishes whose brilliancy of colouring has won for 
 them the wonder even of the listless Singhalese. Some, 
 like the Eed Sea Perch (ffolocentrum ruhvimi, Forsk) 
 and the Grreat Fire Fish^, are of the deepest scarlet and 
 flame colour ; in others purple predominates, as in the 
 Serranus flavo-cceruleus ; in others yellow, as in the 
 Choetodon Brownriggii ^, and Acanthurus vittatus, of 
 
 * Cuv. and Valkn., Hist. Nat. des riggii, Bennett. A reiy small 
 
 Poissons, torn. xi. p. 249. It is fish about two inches long, called 
 
 identical with 8. tridactylus, Schn. Kaha hartikyha by the natives. 
 
 2 Fterois onuricata, Cut. and It is distinct from Choetodon, in 
 
 Val. iv. 363. Scorpcsna miles, which Bennett placed it. Nume- 
 
 Bennett ; named, by the Singha- rous species of this genus are scat- 
 
 lese, " Maharata-gini,^^ the Grreat tered throughout the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Eed Fire, a very brilliant red species It derives its name from the fine 
 
 spotted with black. It is very hair-like character of its teeth, 
 
 voracious, and is regarded on some They are found chiefly among coral 
 
 parts of the coast as edible, while reefs, and, though eaten, are not 
 
 on others it is rejected. much esteemed. In the French 
 
 ^ Glyphisodon Brownriggii, Cuv. colonies they are called " ChauiFe- 
 
 and Val. v. 484 ; Choetodon Brown- soleil." One species is found on 
 
Chap. X.] THE PTEKOIDS. 333 
 
 Bennett^, and numbers, from the lustrous green of their 
 scales, have obtained from the natives the appropriate 
 name of Giraway, or parrots, of which one, the Sparus 
 Hardwickii of Bennett, is called the " Flower Parrot," 
 from its exquisite colouring, being barred with irregu- 
 lar bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, 
 and grey, and crossed by perpendicular stripes of 
 black. 
 
 Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in 
 the Indian seas are the Pteroids, They are well known 
 on the coast of Africa, and thence eastward to Polynesia ; 
 but they do not extend to the west coast of America, 
 and are utterly absent from the Atlantic. The rays of 
 the dorsal and pectoral fins are so elongated, that when 
 specimens were first brought to Europe it was con- 
 jectured that these fishes have the faculty of flight, and 
 hence the specific name of " volitans.''^ But this is an 
 error, for, owing to the deep incisions between the pec- 
 toral rays, the pteroids are wholly unable to sustain them- 
 selves in the air. They are not even bold swimmers, 
 living close to the shore and never venturing into the 
 deep sea. Their head is ornamented mth a number of 
 filaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over 
 
 the shores of the New World ( G. stripes on the back and sides ; the 
 
 saxatalis), and it is curious that belly is white, the tail and fins 
 
 Messrs. Quoy and G-aimaed found brownish green, edged with blue, 
 this fish at the Cape de Verde It is found in rocky places ; and 
 
 Islands in 1827. according to Bennett, who has 
 
 • This fish has a sharp round figured it in his second plate, it is 
 
 spine on the side of the body near named Seweya. It has been known, 
 
 the tail; a formidable weapon, however, to all the old ichthyolo- 
 
 which is generally partially con- gists, Valentyn, Eenard, Seba, 
 
 cealed within^ a scabbard-Kke in- Artedi, and has been named Chce- 
 
 cision. It raises or depresses this todon Uneatus, by Linne, It is 
 
 spine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, scarce on the southern coast of 
 
 with several nearly parallel blue Ceylon. 
 
334 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 each eye and another at the angles of the mouth are the 
 most conspicuous. Sharp spines project on the crown and 
 on the side of the gill-apparatus, as in the other sea- 
 perches, Scorpcena, Serranus, &c., of which these are 
 
 PTEROIS VOLITANS. 
 
 only a modified and ornate form. The extraordinary ex- 
 pansion of their fins is not, however, accompanied by a 
 similar development of the bones to which they are 
 attached, simply because they appear to have no peculiar 
 function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines 
 of the fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the 
 length of twelve inches, and to a weight of about two 
 pounds ; they live on small marine animals, and by the 
 Singhalese the flesh (of some at least) is considered good 
 for table. Nine or ten species are known to occur in 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 THE SCAEUS HARID. 
 
 335 
 
 the East Indian Seas, and of these the one figured 
 above is, perhaps, the most common. 
 
 Another species known to occur on the coasts of Cey- 
 lon, is the Scorpcena miles, Bennett, or Pterois miles, 
 Griinther^, of which Bennett has given a figure^, but it is 
 not altogether correct in some particulars. 
 
 In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not con- 
 fined to the brilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the 
 Scarus harid, Forsk^, the arrangement of the scales is 
 so graceful, and the effect is so heightened by modi- 
 fications of colour, as to present the appearance of tes- 
 sellation, or mosaic work. 
 
 SCAEUS HAEID, 
 After Bennett, 
 
 Fresh-water Fishes, — Of the fresh-water fish, which 
 inhabit the rivers and tanks, so very little has hitherto 
 been known to naturalists'*, that of nineteen drawings 
 
 ' The fish from the Sea of Pi- 
 nang, described by Dr. Cantor 
 with this name (Catal. Mai. Fish, 
 p. 42), is again different, and be- 
 longs to a third species. 
 
 ^ Fishes of Ceylon, PI. ix. 
 
 * This is the fish figured by 
 Bennett as Sparus pepo. Fishes 
 
 of Ceylon, Plate xxviii. 
 
 * In extenuation of the little 
 that is knowai of the fresh-water 
 fishes of Ceylon, it may be ob- 
 served that very few oi them are 
 used at table by Europeans, and 
 there is therefore no stimulus on 
 the part of the natives to catch 
 
336 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, although speci- 
 mens of well-known genera. Colonel Hamilton Smith 
 pronounced nearly the whole to be new and undescribed 
 species. 
 
 Of eio-ht of these, which were from the Mahawelli- 
 ganga, and caught in the vicinity of Kandy, five were 
 carps ; two were Leucisci, and one a Mastacetnbelus 
 (M, annatus, Lacep) ; one was an Ophiocephalus, and 
 one a Poly acanthus, wdth no serrae on the gills. Six 
 were from the Kalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which 
 two were Helostoma, in shape approaching the Chaeto- 
 don; two Ophiocephali, one a Silurus, and one an 
 Anahas, but the gills were without denticulation. 
 From the still water of the lake, close to the walls of 
 Colombo, there were two species of Eleotris, one Silurus 
 with barbels, and two Malacopterygians, which appear 
 to be BagrL 
 
 The fresh-water Perches of Europe and of the North 
 of America are represented in Ceylon and India by se- 
 veral genera, which bear to them a great external simi- 
 larity {Lates, Therapon). They have the same habits 
 as their European allies, and their flesh is considered 
 equally wholesome, but they appear to enter salt-water, 
 or at least brackish water, more freely. It is, however. 
 
 them. The biu-bot and grey mullet esteemed as a fish for table. As it 
 
 are occasionally eaten, but they belongs to a family which possesses 
 
 taste of mud, and are not in re- the faculty, hereafter alluded to, of 
 
 quest. surviving in the damp soil after 
 
 Some years ago the experiment the subsidence of the water in the 
 
 was made, with success, of intro- tanks and rivers, it might with 
 
 ducing into Mauritius the Ospkro- equal advantage be acclimated in 
 
 menus olfax of Java, which has Ceylon. It grows to 20 lbs. weight 
 
 also been taken to French Gruiana. and upwards. 
 In both places it is now highly 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 THE THERAPON. 
 
 337 
 
 in their internal organisation that they differ most from 
 the perches of Europe ; their skeletons are composed of 
 
 THERAPON QUADRILINSATUS. 
 
 fewer vertebrae, and the air bladder of the Therapon is 
 divided into two portions, as in the carps. Four species 
 at least of this genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of 
 Ceylon, and one of them, of which a figure is given above, 
 has been but imperfectly described in any ichthyo- 
 logical work^ ; it attains to the length of seven inches. 
 In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts 
 abound, Ceylon has some true fresh-water eels, which 
 never enter the sea. These are known to the natives 
 under the name of Theliya, and to naturalists by that of 
 Mastacembelus. They have sometimes in ichthyological 
 systems been referred to the Scombridse and other ma- 
 rine families, from the circumstance that the dorsal fin 
 anteriorly is composed of spines. But, in addition to the 
 
 * Holocentrus quadrilineatus, 
 Block. It is allied to Helotes 
 jpolytcenia, Bleek., from Halma- 
 heira, from which it can be 
 readily distinguished by having 
 only fire or six blackish longitu- 
 dinal bands, the black humeral 
 spot being between the fii'st and 
 second ; another blackish blotch is 
 
 in the spinous dorsal fin. There 
 are two specimens in the British 
 Museum collection, one of which 
 has recently arrived from Amoy ; 
 of the other the locality is im- 
 known. See Guxther, Acanthopt. 
 Fishes, vol. i. p. 282, where mention 
 of the black humeral spot has been 
 omitted. 
 
338 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 general shape of the body, their affinity to the eel is at- 
 tested, by their confluent fins, by the absence of ventral 
 fins, by the structure of the mouth and its dentition, by 
 the apparatus of the gills, Avhich opens with an inferior 
 slit, and above all by the formation of the skeleton 
 itself.^ 
 
 Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a 
 slimy exudation, and the upper jaw is produced into a 
 soft tripartite tentacle, with which they are enabled to 
 feel for their prey in the mud. They are very tenacious 
 of life, and belong, without doubt, to those fishes which in 
 Ceylon descend during the drought into the muddy soil.^ 
 Their flesh very much resembles that of the eel, and is 
 highly esteemed.^ They were first made kno^vn to 
 European naturalists by Russell'*, who brought to Europe 
 from the rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which 
 are still preserved in the collection of the British Mu- 
 seum. Aleppo is the most western point of their geo- 
 graphical range, the group being mainly confined to 
 the East-Indian continent and its islands. 
 
 MASTACElIBZLrs ARLIATUS. 
 
 In Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the 
 
 ^ See Guntheb's AcantTwpt. ^ Cuv. and Yal., Hist. Poiss. vol. 
 
 Pishes, vol. iii. (Family Mastacem- iii. p. 459. 
 
 belidae). * Nat. Hist. Aleppo, 2nd edit. 
 
 • 2 See post, p. 351. Lond. 1794, vol. ii. p. 208, pL vi. 
 
Chap. X.] MASTACEMBELUS AKMATUS. 339 
 
 Mastacemhelus aimatus.^ The back is armed with from 
 thirty-five to thirty-nine short, stout spines ; there being 
 three others before the anal fin. The ground colour of 
 the fish is brown, and the head has two rather irregular 
 longitudinal black bands ; deep-brown spots run along 
 the back as well as along the dorsal and anal fins ; and 
 the sides are ornamented "with irreo'ular and reticulated 
 brown lines. This eel attains to the leno-th of two feet. 
 The old females do not show any markings, being of a 
 uniform brown colour. 
 
 In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, 
 brought together without premeditation, the naturalist 
 will be struck by the preponderance of those genera 
 which are adapted by nature to endure a temporary 
 privation of moisture; and this, taken in connection 
 with the vicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit, 
 exhibits a surprising illustration of the wisdom of the 
 Creator in adapting the organisation of his creatures to 
 the peculiar circumstances under which they are destined 
 to exist. 
 
 So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that 
 Knox says, not the running streams alone, but the reser- 
 voirs and ponds, " nay, every ditch and little plash of 
 water but ankle deep hath fish in it."^ But many of 
 these reservoirs and tanks are, twice in each year, liable 
 
 ^ Macrognathus armatus, Lacep. ; sunk in line in the dii-ection in 
 
 Mastacembelus armatus, Cuv., Fed. which it is desired to lead a supply 
 
 - Ivxox's Historical Belation of of water, and these are connected 
 
 Ceylon, Part i. ch. rii. The oc- by channels, which are carefully 
 
 currence of fish in the most un- arched over to protect them fi-om 
 
 looked-for situations, is one of the eyaporation. These kanats, as 
 
 mysteries of other eastern countries they are called, are full offish, 
 
 as well as Ce^-lon and India. In although neither they nor the weUs 
 
 Persia in-igation is carried on to a they unite hare any connection 
 
 great extent by means of wells with streams or lakes. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 to be evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom 
 is converted into dust, and the clay cleft by the heat 
 into gaping apertures ; yet within a very few days after 
 the change of the monsoon, the natives are busily en- 
 gaged in fishing in those very spots and in the hollows 
 contiguous to them, although the latter are entirely 
 unconnected with any pool or running streams. Here 
 they fish in the same way which Knox described nearly 
 200 years ago, with a funnel-shaped basket, open at 
 bottom and top, " which," as he says, " they jibb down, 
 and the end sticks in the mud, which often happens 
 upon a fish ; which, when they feel beating itself against 
 the sides, they put in their hands and take it out, and 
 reive a ratan through their gills, and so let them drag- 
 after them."^ 
 
 FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, a. d. 1631 
 
 This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed 
 
 * Knox, Historical Belation of Ceylon, Part l ch. vi. 
 
Cqap. X.] FALL OF FISHES FROM CLOUDS. 341 
 
 by the high road leading from Colombo to Kandy. 
 Before the change of the monsoon, the hollows on either 
 side of the highway are covered with dust or stunted 
 grass ; but when flooded by the rains, they are imme- 
 diately resorted to by the peasants with baskets, con- 
 structed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the 
 fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand.^ 
 
 So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appear- 
 ance of full-grown fishes in places that a few days before 
 had been encrusted with hardened clay, has not failed 
 to attract attention ; but the European residents have 
 been content to explain it by hazarding conjectures, 
 either that the spawn must have lain imbedded in the 
 dried earth till released by the rains, or that the fish, 
 so unexpectedly discovered, fall from the clouds during 
 the deluge of the monsoon. 
 
 As to the latter conjecture ; the fall of fish during 
 show^ers, even v?ere it not so problematical in theory, is 
 too rare an event to account for the punctual appear- 
 ance of those found in the rice-fields, at stated periods 
 of the year. Both at Gralle and Colombo in the south- 
 west monsoon, fish are popularly believed to have fallen 
 from the clouds during violent showers, but those found 
 on the occasions that give rise to this belief, consist of 
 the smallest fry, such as could be caught up by water- 
 spouts, and vortices analogous to them, or otherwise 
 blown on shore from the surf; whereas those which 
 
 * As anglers, the natiye Singha- conducted into a series of enclo- 
 
 lese exhibit little expertness ; but sures from which retreat is im- 
 
 for fishing the rivers, they con- practicalile. Mr. Layard, in the 
 
 struct with singular ingenuity Magazine of Natural History for 
 
 fences formed of strong stakes. May, 1853, has given a diagram of 
 
 protected by screens of ratan, that one of these fish " corrals," as they 
 
 stretch diagonally across the cur- are called, of which a copy is shown 
 
 rent ; and along these the fish are on the next page. 
 
 z 3 
 
342 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 suddenly appear in the replenished tanks and in the 
 hollows which they overflow, are mature and well-grown 
 fish.^ Besides, the latter are found, under 
 the circumstances I have described, in all 
 parts of the interior, whilst the prodigy of 
 a supposed fall of fish from the sky has 
 been noticed, I apprehend, only in the vi- 
 cinity of the sea, or of some inland water. 
 
 The surmise of the buried spawn is one 
 sanctioned by the very highest authority. 
 Mr. Yarrell in his '' History of British 
 FisheSf^ adverting to the fact that ponds (in 
 \ India) which had been previously converted 
 into hardened mud, are replenished with 
 small fish in a very few days after the com- 
 mencement of each rainy season, ofiers this 
 ^solution of the prolDlem as probably the true 
 one : " The impregnated ova of the fish of 
 one rainy season are left unhatched in the 
 mud through the dry season, and from their 
 ' low state of organisation as ova, the vitality 
 
 is preserved till the recurrence, and contact 
 
 FISH COEEAi. 
 
 ' I had an opportunity, on one nected with any ■watercourse or 
 
 occasion only, of witnessing the pool, 
 
 phenomenon which gives rise to Mi*. Whitixg, who was many 
 
 thLs popular belief. I was driving years resident in Trincomalie, 
 
 in the cinnamon gardens near the wTites me that he " had often been 
 
 fort of Colombo, and saw a violent told by the natives on that side of 
 
 but partial shower descend at no the island that it sometimes rained 
 
 great distance before me. On fishes; and on one occasion" (he 
 
 coming to the spot I found a multi- adds) "I was taken by them, in 1849, 
 
 tude of small silver}- fish from one to a field at the village of Karran- 
 
 and a half to two inches in length, cotta-tivo, near Eatticaloa, which 
 
 leaping on the gravel of the high was dry when I passed over it in 
 
 road, numbers of which I collected the morning, but had been covered 
 
 and brought away in my palankin. in two hours by sudden rain to the 
 
 The spot was about half a mile depth of three inches, in which 
 
 from the sea, and entirely uncon- there was then a quantity of small 
 
Chap. X.] BUEIED SPAWX. 343 
 
 of the rain and oxygen in the next wet season, when 
 vivification takes place from their joint influence."^ 
 
 This hypothesis, however, appears to have been 
 advanced upon imperfect data ; for although some fish, 
 like the salmon, scrape grooves in the sand and place 
 their spawn in inequalities and fissures ; yet as a general 
 rule spa^vn is deposited not beneath but on the surface 
 of the ground or sand over which the water flows, the 
 adhesive nature of each egg supplying the means of 
 attachment. But in the Ceylon tanks not only is the 
 surface of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of 
 the water, but earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches 
 deep, is converted into sun-barnt clay, in which, although 
 the eggs of mollusca, in their calcareous covering, are 
 in some instances preserved, it would appear to be as 
 impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decom- 
 position as for the fish themselves to sustain life. Be- 
 sides, moisture in such situations is only to be found at 
 a depth to which spawn could not be conveyed by the 
 parent fish, by any means with which we are yet 
 acquainted. 
 
 fish. The water had no connect- Bengal, found a fish in the ptdvio- 
 ion with any pond or stream what- meter at Calcutta, in 1838. — Journ. 
 soever." ^\x. Cripps, in like Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. vi. p. 465. 
 manner, in speaking of Gralle, says : A series of instances in which 
 " I have seen in the vicinity of the fishes have been found on the con- 
 fort, fish taken from rain-water tinent of India under circum- 
 that had accumulated in the hoUow stances which lead to the con- 
 parts of land that in the hot season elusion that they must have fallen 
 are perfectly dry and parched, from the clouds, have been col- 
 The place is accessible to no run- lected by the late Dr. Buist of 
 ning stream or tank ; and either the Bombay, and wiU be found in the 
 fish, or the spawn from which they appendix to this chapter, 
 were produced, must of necessity ' Yaerell, History of British 
 have fallen with the rain." Fishes, introd. vol, i. p. xxvi. This 
 Mr. J. Peixsep, the eminent too was the opinion of Aristotle, 
 secretary to the Asiatic Society of Be Fusinratione, c. ix. 
 
 £ 4 
 
344 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 But supposing it possible to carry the spawn suffi- 
 ciently deep, and to deposit it safely in the mud below, 
 which is still damp, whence it could be liberated on the 
 return of the rains, a considerable interval would still 
 be necessary after the replenishing of the ponds with 
 water to admit of vivification and growth. Yet so far 
 from this interval being allowed to elapse, the rains 
 have no sooner fallen than the taking of the fish com- 
 mences, and those captured by the natives in wicker 
 cages are mature and full grown instead of being 
 *' small fish " or fry, as supposed by Mr. Yarrell. 
 
 Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the 
 probability that, under favourable circumstances, the 
 spawn in the tanks might be preserved during the dry 
 season so as to contribute to the perpetuation of their 
 breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that adult fish in 
 Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar waters 
 both in the New and Old World, have been endowed by 
 the Creator with the singular faculty of providing against 
 the periodical droughts either by journeying overland in 
 search of still unexhausted water, or, on its utter disap- 
 pearance, by burying themselves in the mud to await 
 the return of the rains. 
 
 It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after 
 the expedition of Alexander the G-reat, particulars con- 
 nected with the natural history of India were sought for 
 and arranged by the Greeks, that in the works both of 
 Akistotle and Theophrastus facts are recorded of 
 the fishes in the Indian rivers migrating in search of 
 water, of their burying themselves in the mud on its 
 failure, of their being dug out thence alive during 
 the dry season, and of their spontaneous reappearance 
 on the return of the rains. The earliest notice is 
 
Chap. X.] OPINIONS OF THEOPHRASTUS. 345 
 
 in Aristotle's treatise De Respiratione^ , where he 
 mentions the strange discovery of living fish found be- 
 neath the surface of the soil, "rwz^ l')(6vwv ol iroWol 
 t/MCTiv sv rfi yfj, aKivr]TL^ovTSS /jLsvroLf fcal svplaKovrai opvr- 
 TOfievoL ;" and in his History of Animals he conjectures 
 that in ponds periodically dried the ova of the fish so 
 buried become vivified at the change of the season.^ 
 Herodotus had previously hazarded a similar theory to 
 account for the sudden appearance of fry in the Egyptian 
 marshes on the rising of the Nile ; but the cases are not 
 parallel. Theophrastus, the friend and pupil of Aris- 
 totle, gave importance to the subject by devoting to it 
 his essay Yispl rrjs rcov l')(6v(ov sv ^ijpo) BLa/jLovr]9f De 
 Plscibus in sicco degentibus. In this, after adverting 
 to the fish called exoccetus, from its habit of going on 
 shore to sleep, " diro ttjs kolttjs,^'' he instances the small 
 fish {IxOvSia), that leave the rivers of India to wander 
 like frogs on the land ; and likewise a species found 
 near Babylon, which, when the Euphrates runs low, 
 leave the dry channels in search of food, "moving 
 themselves along by means of their fins and tail." He 
 proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are 
 places in which fish are dug out of the earth, " opvKTol 
 Twv l')(6vcov^^ and he accounts for their being found 
 under such circumstances by the subsidence of the 
 rivers, "when the water being evaporated the fish 
 gradually descend beneath the soil in search of mois- 
 ture ; and the surface becoming hard they are preserved 
 in the damp clay below it, in a state of torpor, but are 
 capable of vigorous movements when disturbed." " In 
 this manner, too," adds Theophrastus, " the buried fish 
 
 J Chap. is. 2 Lib. yi. eh. 15, 16, 17. 
 
346 FISHES. [Chap. X, 
 
 propagate, leaving behind them their spawn, which be- 
 comes vivified on the return of the waters to their ac- 
 customed bed." This work of Theophrastus became the 
 great authority for all subsequent writers on this ques- 
 tion. Athen^us quotes it ^, and adds the further 
 testimony of Polybius, that in Gallia Narbonensis fish 
 are similarly dug out of the ground.^ Strabo repeats 
 the story ^, and the Grreek naturalists one and all re- 
 ceived the statement as founded on reliable authority. 
 
 Not so the Eomans. Livr mentions it as one of the 
 prodigies which were to be " expiated " on the approach 
 of a rupture with Macedon, that " in Grallico agro qua 
 induceretur aratrum sub giebis pisces emersisse," '^ thus 
 taking it out of the category of natural occurrences. 
 PoMPONius Mela, obliged to notice the matter in his 
 account of Narbon Graul, accompanies it with the inti- 
 mation that although asserted by both Grreek and 
 Koman authorities, the story was either a delusion or 
 a fraud. Juvenal has a sneer for the rustic — 
 
 " miranti sub aratro 
 Piscibus inyentis." — Sat. xiii. 63. 
 
 And Seneca, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds iron- 
 ically, that now we must go to fish with a hatchet in- 
 stead of a hook ; " non cum hamis, sed cum dolabra ire 
 piscatum." Pliny, who devotes the 35th chapter of 
 his 9th book to this subject, uses the narrative of 
 Theophrastus, but with obvious caution, and universally 
 the Latin writers treated the story as a fable. 
 
 In later times the subject received more enlightened 
 attention, and Beckman, who in 1736 published his 
 
 * Lib. viii. ch. 2. ^ Lib, iv. and xii. 
 
 2 3. ch. 4. * Lib. xlii. ch. 2. 
 
Chap. X.] FISHES ON DRY LAXD. 347 
 
 commentary on the collection TIspl SavfMoo-tcov clkov- 
 (T/jLaTcov, ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list of the 
 authorities about his own times, — Gteorgius Agricola, 
 
 GrESNER, EoNDELET, DaLECHAMP, BoMARE, and GrRONO- 
 
 Yius, who not only gave credence to the assertions of 
 Theophrastus, but adduced modern instances in corro- 
 boration of his Indian authorities. 
 
 As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, 
 the fact is now established that certain of them possess 
 the power of leaving the rivers and returning to them 
 again after long migrations on dry land, and modern 
 observation has full}^ confirmed their statements. They 
 leave the pools and nullahs in the dry season, and led 
 by an instinct as yet unexplained, shape their course 
 through the grass towards the nearest pool of water. A 
 similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarly 
 circumstanced. The Doras of Gruiana ^ have been seen 
 travelling over land dm'ing the dry season in search of 
 their natural element ^, in such droves that the negroes 
 fill baskets wdth them, during these terrestrial excursions. 
 Pallegoix in his account of Siam, enumerates three 
 species of fishes which leave the tanks and channels 
 
 ^ D. Hancockii, Cuv. et Vax. pines. — 'Kis.wz, Bridgewater Trea- 
 2 Sir R. Schombm'gk's Fishes of Use, vol. i. p. 143. 
 Guiana, vol. i. pp. 113, 151, 160. Eels kept in a garden, when 
 Another migratory fish was found August arrived (the period at 
 by Bose very numerous in the which instinct impels them to go 
 fresh waters of Carolina and in to the sea to spa^wTi) were in the 
 ponds liable to become dry in habit of leaving the pond, and 
 summer. "When captured and were invariably found moving east- 
 placed on the ground, "they always ward in the direction of the sea. — 
 directed themselves towards the Yaerell, vol. ii. p, 384, Anglers 
 nearest water, which they could not observe that fish newly caught, 
 possibly see, and which they must when placed out of sight of water, 
 have discovered by some internal always struggle towards it to 
 index. They belong to the genus escape. 
 Hydrargyra, and are called Swam- 
 
348 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 and traverse the damp grass ' ; and Sir John Bowring, 
 in his account of his embassy to the Siamese kings in 
 1855, states, that in ascending and descending the river 
 Meinam to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight 
 of fish leaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, 
 and losing themselves amongst the trees of the jungle.^ 
 
 The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly 
 those with labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed 
 in plates and cells as to retain a supply of moisture, 
 which, whilst theyare crawling on land, gradually exudes 
 so as to keep the gills damp.^ 
 
 The individual most frequently seen in these excur- 
 sions in Ceylon is a perch called by the Singhalese 
 Kavaya or Kawhy-ya, and by the Tamils Pannei-eri, 
 or Sennal. It is closely allied to the Anahas scandens 
 of Cuvier, the Perca scandens of Daldorf. It grows to 
 about six inches in length, the head round and covered 
 with scales, and the edges of the gill-covers strongly 
 denticulated. Aided by the apparatus already adverted 
 to in its head, this little creature issues boldly from its 
 native pools and addresses itself to its toilsome march 
 generally at night or in the early morning, whilst the 
 grass is still damp with the dew ; but in its distress it 
 is sometimes compelled to move by day, and Mr. E. L. 
 Layard on one occasion encountered a number of them 
 travelling along a hot and dusty road under the midday 
 sun.'' 
 
 ' Paxlegoix, vol. i. p. 144, the gOTernment-agent of Trinco- 
 
 2 Sir J. Bowring's Siain, ^v., malie, writing to me on this sub- 
 
 vol, 1. p. 10. ject in 1856, saj^s — "I was lately 
 
 •' Cuvier and Vaxenciexnes, on duty inspecting the bund of a 
 
 Hist. Nat. des Poissons, torn. vii. large tank at Nade-cadua, which, 
 
 p. 246. being out of repair, the remaining 
 
 * Annals and Maff. of Nat. Hist., water was confined in a small 
 
 May, 1853, p. 390. Mr. Morris, hollow in the otherwise dry bed. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 CLIMBING FISH. 
 
 349 
 
 Referring to the Anabas scandens, Dk. Hamilton 
 Buchanan says, that of all the fish with which he was 
 acquainted it is the most tenacious of life ; and he has 
 known boatmen on the Ganges to keep them for five or 
 six days in an earthen pot without water, and daily to 
 use what they wanted, finding them as lively and fresh 
 
 as when caught.^ 
 
 Two Danish naturalists 
 
 residing at 
 
 Whilst there heavy rain came on, 
 and, as we stood on the high 
 ground, we observed a peHcan on 
 the margin of the shallow pool 
 gorging himself; our people went 
 towards him and raised a cry of 
 fish ! fish ! We hui-ried down, and 
 found numbers of fish strugghng 
 upwards through the grass in the 
 rills formed by the trickling of the 
 rain. There was scarcely water 
 enough to cover them, but never- 
 theless they made rapid progress 
 up the bank, on which our fol- 
 lowers collected aboTit two bushels 
 of them at a distance of forty 
 yards from the tank. They were 
 forcing their way up the knoU, and, 
 had they not been intercepted first 
 by the pelican and afterwards by 
 ourselves, they wordd in a few 
 minutes have gained the highest 
 point and descended on the other 
 side into a pool which formed 
 another portion of the tank. They 
 were chub, the same as are found 
 in the mud after the tanks dry up." 
 In a subsequent communication in 
 July, 1857, the same gentleman 
 says — "As the tanks diy up the 
 fish congregate in the little pools 
 till at last you find them in thou- 
 sands in the moistest parts of the 
 beds, roUing in the blue mud 
 which is at that time about the 
 consistence of thick gruel." 
 
 " As the moisture further evapo- 
 rates the surface fish are left un- 
 covered, and they crawl away in 
 
 search of fresh pools. In one place 
 I saw hu.ndreds diverging in every 
 direction, from the tank they had 
 just abandoned to a distance of 
 fifty or sixty yards, and still travel- 
 ling onwards. In going this dis- 
 tance, however, they must have 
 used muscular exertion sufficient 
 to have taken them half a mile on 
 level ground, for at these places all 
 the cattle and wild animals of the 
 neighbourhood had latterly come 
 to drink; so that the sm'face M'as 
 everywhere indented with, foot- 
 marks in addition to the cracks in 
 the surrounding baked mud, into 
 which the fish tumbled in their 
 progress. In those holes which 
 were deep and the sides perpen- 
 diciilar they remained to die, and 
 were carried off by kites andcrows." 
 
 " My impression is that this mi- 
 gration takes place at night or 
 before sunrise, for it was only early 
 in the morning that I have seen 
 them progressing, and I found that 
 those I brought away "with me in 
 chatties appeared quiet by day, 
 but a large proportion managed to 
 get out of the chatties at night — 
 some escaped altogether, others 
 were trodden on and killed." 
 
 " One peculiarity is the large 
 size of the vertebral column, quite 
 disproportioned to the bulk of the 
 fish. I particularly noticed that all 
 in the act of migrating had their 
 gills expanded." 
 
 ^ Fishes of the Ganges, 4to. 1822. 
 
350 
 
 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 Tranquebar, have contributed their authority to the fact 
 of this fish ascending trees on the coast of Coromandel, 
 an exploit from which it acquired its epithet of Perca 
 scandens, Daldorf, who was a Heutenant in the Danish 
 East India Company's service, communicated to Sir 
 Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken this 
 fish from a moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, 
 that o-rew near a lake. He saw it when already five 
 feet above the ground struggling to ascend still higher ; 
 
 « suspending itself by its gill-covers, and bending its 
 
 tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in the cavity of the 
 bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its way 
 upwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand 
 Avith which he seized it." ^ 
 
 There is considerable obscurity about the story of this 
 ascent, although corroborated by ]M. John. Its motive 
 for climbing is not apparent, since water being close at 
 hand it could not have gone for sake of the moisture 
 contained in the fissures of the palm ; nor could it be in 
 search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on aquatic 
 insects.^ The descent, too, is a question of difficulty. 
 
 1 Transactions Linn. Soc. toI. the sea. " On parle d'lm poisson 
 
 iii, p. 63. It is remarkable, how- de merqiii, sortant de Teau, monte 
 
 ever, that this discovery of Dal- sur la cocotier et boit le sue de la 
 
 dorf, which excited so great an plante ; ensuite il retourne a la 
 
 interest in 1791, had been antici- mer." See REiNArD, Belations 
 
 pated by an Arabian voyager a des Voyages faits jyar les Arahes et 
 
 thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, Persa^is dans le neuvieme siecle, 
 
 the compiler of the remarkable torn. i. p. 21, torn. ii. p. 93. 
 
 MS. known since Renaudot's trans- ^ Xirby says that it is "in pur- 
 
 lation by the title of the TVo i'c75 o/ suit of certain crustaceans that 
 
 the Two Mahometans, states that form its food" {Bridgnoater Trca- 
 
 Suleyman, one of his informants, tise, vol i. p. 144) ; but I am not 
 
 who*^ visited India at the close of aware of any crustaceans in the 
 
 the ninth century, was told there island which ascend the palmyra or 
 
 of a fish which, issuing from the feed upon its fruit. The Birgus 
 
 waters, ascended the coco-nut palms latro, which inhabits Mauritius, 
 
 to drink their sap, and returned to and is said to climb the coco-nut 
 
Chap. X.] BURTIXG FISHES. 351 
 
 The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers, 
 might assist its journey upwards, but the saroe apparatus 
 would prove anything but a facility in steadying its 
 journey down. The probability is, as suggested by Bu- 
 chanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by Daldorf 
 was accidental, and ought not to be regarded as the 
 habit of the animal. In Ceylon I heard of no instance 
 of the perch ascending trees^, but the fact is well esta- 
 blished that both it, the j^ullata (a species oi jpoly acan- 
 thus), and others, are capable of long journeys on the 
 level ground.^ 
 
 Burying Fishes. — But a still more remarkable power 
 possessed by some of the Ceylon fishes, is that already 
 alluded to, of secreting themselves in the earth in the 
 dry season, at the bottom of the exhausted ponds, and 
 there awaitino: the renewal of the water at the chansfe of 
 the monsoon. The instinct of the crocodile to resort to 
 the same expedient has been already referred to^, and in 
 like manner the fish, when distressed by the evaporation 
 of the tanks, seek rehef by immersing first their heads, 
 
 ior this purpose, has not been baskets nor pockets in which to 
 
 observed in Ceylon. place what they catch, will seize a 
 
 * This assertion must be quali- fish in their teeth whilst putting 
 fied by a fact stated by Mr. E. A. fresh bait on their hook. In 
 Layard, who mentions that on August, 1853, a man was carried 
 visiting one of the fishing stations into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, 
 on a Singhalese river, where the having a climbing perch, which he 
 fish are caught in staked enclo- thus attempted to hold, firmly im- 
 sures, as described at p. 342, and bedded in his throat. The spines 
 observing that the chambers were of its dorsal fin prevented its de- 
 covered with netting, he asked the scent, whilst those of the giU- 
 reason, and was told '' that some of covers equally forbade its return. 
 the Jiskcli/nbed Hj) the sticks and got It was eventually extracted by 
 over.'' — Maff. Nat. Hist, for May the forceps through an incision in 
 1823, p. 390-1. the oesophagus, and the patient re- 
 
 2 Strange accidents have more covered. Other similar cases have 
 
 than once occurred at Ceylon proved fatal, 
 arising from the habit of the ^ See a7ite, p. 285. 
 native anglers; who, having neither 
 
352 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 and by degrees their whole bodies, in the mud ; sinking 
 to a depth at which they find sufficient moisture to pre- 
 serve life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the 
 tank has been consolidated by the intense heat of the 
 sun. It is possible, too, that the cracks which reticulate 
 the surface may admit air to some extent to sustain their 
 faint respiration. 
 
 The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, 
 subject to vicissitudes of drought and moisture. The 
 Protopterus^, which inhabits the Grambia (and which 
 though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess all 
 the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless pro- 
 vided with true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, 
 when the river retires into its channel, to bury itself to 
 the depth of twelve or sixteen inches in the indurated 
 mud of the banks, and to remain in a state of torpor till 
 the rising of the stream after the rains enables it to re- 
 sume its active habits. At this period the natives of the 
 Grambia, like those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and 
 secure the fish in considerable numbers as they flounder 
 in the still shallow water. A parallel instance occurs 
 in Abyssinia in relation to the fish of the Mareb, one of 
 the sources of the Nile, the waters of which are partially 
 absorbed in traversing the plains of Taka. During the 
 summer its bed is dry, and in the slime at the depth of 
 more than six feet is found a species of fish without 
 scales, different from any known to inhabit the Nile.^ 
 
 ^ Lepidosiren anncctans, Owen, ritier presomptif du royaume 
 
 See Linn. Travis. 1839. d'Alouah, m'a assure que Ton 
 
 2 This statement will be found trouYe, dans la vase qui couvre le 
 in Quateemeee's Memoires sur fond de cette riviere, un grand 
 VEgyptp, torn. i. p. 17, on the poisson sans ecaiUes, qui ne res- 
 authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed semble en rien aux poissons du 
 ben Solaim Assouany, in his Nil, et que, pour 1' avoir, il faut 
 History of Nubia, " Simon, he- creuser a une toise et plus de pro- 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 BUEYIXG FISH. 
 
 353 
 
 In South America the "round-headed hassar " of 
 Gruiana, Callicthys littoralis, and the " yarrow," a species 
 of the family Esocidae, although they possess no specially 
 modified respiratory organs, are accustomed to bury 
 themselves in the mud on the subsidence of water in 
 the pools during the dry season.^ The Loricavia of 
 Suiinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar instinct, 
 and resorts to the same expedient. Sir E. Schomburgk, 
 in his account of the fishes of Gruiana, confirms this 
 account of the Callicthys, and says " they can exist in 
 muddy lakes without any water whatever, and great 
 numbers of them are sometimes dug up from such 
 situations."^ 
 
 In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, 
 and small tanks are extremely numerous, the natives 
 are accustomed in the hot season to die: in the mud for 
 
 fondeur." To this passage there 
 is appended this note: — " Le pa- 
 triarche Mendes, cite par Legrand 
 {Belatio7i Hist. cC Ahyssinie, du P. 
 LoBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le 
 fleuve Mareb, apr^s avoir arrose 
 une etendue de pays considerable, 
 se perd sous terre ; et que quand 
 les Portugais faisaient la guerre 
 dans ce pays, ils fouilloient dans le 
 sable, et y trouvoient de la bonne 
 eau et du bon poisson. Au rap- 
 port de I'auteur de V Ayin Akbery 
 (torn. ii. p. 146, ed. 1800), dans le 
 Soubah de Caschmir, pres du lieu 
 nomme Tilahmoidah, est une grande 
 pi^ce de terre qui est inondee pen- 
 dant la saison des pluies. Lorsque 
 les eaux se sont evapor^es, et que 
 la vase est presque seche, les habi- 
 tans prennent des batons d' environ 
 une aune de long, qu'ils enfoncent 
 dans la vase, et ils y trouvent 
 quantite de grands et petits pois- 
 sons." In the Library of the 
 
 British Museum there is an unique 
 
 MS. of MaKOEL de AiMEIDA, 
 
 written in the sixteenth century, 
 from which Balthasar Tellec com- 
 piled his Historia General de 
 Ethiopia alia, printed at Coimbra 
 in 1660, and in it the above state- 
 ment of Mendes is corroborated by 
 Almeida, who says that he was 
 told by Joao Gabriel, a Creole 
 Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who 
 had visited the Mareb, and who 
 said that the "fish were to be 
 foimd everywhere eight or ten 
 palms down, and that he had eaten 
 of them." 
 
 ' See Paper " on some Species of 
 Fishes and Beptiles in Demerara,'^ 
 by J. HA?a)cocK, Esq., M.D., Zoo- 
 logical Journal, vol. iv. p. 243. 
 
 * A curious account of the bora- 
 chung or "ground fish" of Bhoo- 
 tan, will be found in Note (C.) ap- 
 pended to this chapter. 
 
 A A 
 
3.54 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 fish. Mr. Whitinor, the chief civil officer of the eastern 
 province, informs me that, on two occasions, he was pre- 
 sent accidentally when the villagers were so engaged, 
 once at the tank of Malliativoe, within a few miles of 
 Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and again at a 
 tank between Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank 
 of the Vergel river. The clay was firm, but moist, and 
 as the men flung out lumps of it with a spade, it fell to 
 pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve inches long, 
 which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on the 
 bank when exposed to the sun light. 
 
 Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so ex- 
 humed, I received from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. 
 Wickremeratne, a fish taken along with others of the 
 same kind from a tank in which the water had dried 
 up ; it was found at a depth of a foot and a half where 
 the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was dry and 
 hard. The fish which the moodliar sent to me is an 
 Anabas, closely resembling the Perca scandens of Dal- 
 dorf ; but on minute examination it proves to be a 
 
 THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS. 
 
 species unknown in India, and hitherto found only in 
 Borneo and China. It is the A. oligolepis of Bleek. 
 
Chap. X.] BURYING FISH. 355 
 
 But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is 
 not confined in Ce3don to the crocodile sand fishes ; — 
 it is also possessed by some of the fresh-water mol- 
 lusca and aquatic coleoptera. One of the former, the 
 Ampullaria glauca, is found in still water in all parts 
 of the island, not alone in the tanks, but in rice-fields 
 and the watercourses by which they are irrigated. 
 When, during the dry season, the water is about to 
 evaporate, it burrows and conceals itself^ till the re- 
 turning rains restore it to activity, and reproduce its 
 accustomed food. There, at a considerable depth in the 
 soft mud, it deposits a bundle of eggs with a white 
 calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or more 
 in each group. The Melania Paludina in the same 
 w^ay retires during the droughts into the muddy soil of 
 the rice lands ; and it can only be by such an instinct 
 that this and other mollusca are preserved when the tanks 
 evaporate, to re-appear in full growth and vigour imme- 
 diately on the return of the rains.^ 
 
 ' A knowledge of this fact was ^ For a similar fact relative to 
 
 turned to prompt account by Mr. the shells and water beetles in the 
 
 Edgar S. Layard, when holding pools near Eio Janeiro, see Dar- 
 
 a judicial office at Point Pedro in w-m's Nat. Journal, ch. v. p. 99. 
 
 1849. A native who had been de- Benson, in the first toI. of Glean- 
 
 frauded of his land complained ings of Scie7ice, published at Cal- 
 
 before him of his neighbour, who, cutta in 1829, describes a species 
 
 during his absence, had removed of Paludina found in pools, which 
 
 their common landmark, divert- are periodically dried up in the 
 
 ing the original watercourse and hot season but reappear with the 
 
 obliterating its traces by filling it rains, p. 363. And in the Journal 
 
 up to a level with the rest of the of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 
 
 field. JMr. Layard directed a for Sept. 1832, Lieut Huttox, in 
 
 trench to be sunk at the contested a singularly interesting paper, has 
 
 spot, and discovering numbers of followed up the same subject by a 
 
 the Ampullaria, the remains of the narrative of his own observations 
 
 eggs, and the li^^ng animal which at Mirzapore, wherein June, 1832, 
 
 had been buried for months, the after a few heavy showers of rain, 
 
 evidence was so resistless as to that formed pools on the siu'face 
 
 confound the wrong-doer, and ter- of the ground near a mango grove, 
 
 minate the suit. he saw the .Paludina issxiiug from 
 
 A A 2 
 
316 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 Dr. John Hunter^ has advanced an opinion that hy- 
 bernation, although a result of cold, is not its immediate 
 consequence, but is attributable to that deprivation of 
 food and other essentials which extreme cold occasions, 
 and against the recurrence of which nature makes a 
 timely provision by a suspension of her functions. Ex- 
 cessive heat in the tropics produces an effect upon ani- 
 mals and vegetables analogous to that of excessive cold 
 in northern regions, and hence it is reasonable to suppose 
 that the torpor induced by the one may be but the coun- 
 terpart of the hybernation which results from the other. 
 The frost that imprisons the alligator in the Mississippi 
 as effectually cuts it off from food and action as the 
 drouo-ht which incarcerates the crocodile in the sun-burnt 
 clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters 
 on a period of absolute torpidity as soon as the incle- 
 mency of winter deprives it of its ordinary supply of 
 slugs and insects ; and the tenrec ^ of Madagascar, its 
 tropical representative, exhibits the same tendency 
 during the period when excessive heat produces in that 
 climate a like result. 
 
 the ground, "pusHng aside the nograph in the Camb. Phil. Trans. 
 moistened earth and coming forth vol. iv.). The fact is elsewhere 
 from their retreats ; but on the alluded to in the present work of 
 disappearance of the water not one the power possessed by the land 
 of them was to be seen above leech of Ceylon of retaining vitality 
 ground. "Wishing to ascertain what even after being parched to hard- 
 had become of them he turned up ness during the heat of the rainless 
 the earth at the base of several season. Lyell mentions the in- 
 trees, and invariably found the stance of some snails in Italy which, 
 shells buried from an inch to two when they hybernate, descend to 
 inches below the surface." Lieut, the depth of five feet and more 
 Hutton adds that the Ampullarice below the surface. Prhicip. of 
 and Planorbes, as well as the Palu- Geology, ^t. p. 373. 
 din<B are found in similar situa- ^ Hunter's Observations on parts 
 tious during the heats of the dry of the Animal (Economy, p. 88. 
 season. The British Pisidea ex- ^ Centetes ccaudatus, Illiger. 
 hibit the same faculty (see a mo- 
 
Chap. X.] ^STIVATIOX OF MOLLUSCS. 357 
 
 The descent of the ArapuUaria, and other fresh-water 
 molluscs, into the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in 
 the conduct of the Bulimi and Helices on land. The 
 European snail, in the beginning of winter, either buries 
 itself in the earth or withdraws to some crevice or over- 
 arching stone to await the returning vegetation of spring. 
 So, in the season of intense heat, the Helix Waltoni of 
 Ceylon, and others of the same family, before retiring 
 under cover, close the aperture of their shells with an 
 impervious epiphragm, which effectually protects their 
 moisture and juices from evaporation during the period 
 of their sestivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been 
 found alive in England in a box packed in cotton after 
 an interval of two years, and the animal inhabiting a 
 land-shell from Suez, which was attached to a tablet 
 and deposited in the British Museum in 1846, was found 
 in 1850 to have formed a fresh epiphragm, and on being 
 immersed in tepid water, it emerged from its shell. It 
 became torpid again on the 15th November, 1851, and 
 was found dead and dried up in March, 1852.^ But 
 exceptions serve to prove the accuracy of Hunter's opi- 
 nion almost as strikingly as accordances, since the same 
 genera of animals that hybernate in Europe, where ex- 
 treme cold disarranges their oeconomy, evince no symp- 
 toms of lethargy in the tropics, provided their food be 
 not diminished by the heat. Ants, which are torpid in 
 Europe during winter, work all the year round in India, 
 where sustenance is uniform.^ The shrews of Ceylon 
 (Sorex niontanus and >S^. ferrugineus of Kelaart), like 
 
 * Annals of Natural History, in the Entomological Trans, the 
 
 1850. See Dr. Bated's Account of operations of an ant in India whicli 
 
 Helix desertorum ; Excelsior, Sfc, lays up a store of hay against the 
 
 ch. i. p. 345. rainy season. 
 
 '^ Colonel Sktes has described 
 
 A A 3 
 
358 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 those at home, subsist upon insects, but as they inhabit 
 a region where the equable temperature admits of the 
 pursuit of their prey at all seasons of the year, unlike 
 those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similar ob- 
 servation applies to bats, which are dormant during a 
 northern winter when insects are rare, but never become 
 torpid in any part of the tropics. The bear, in like 
 manner, is nowhere deprived of its activity except when 
 the rigour of severe frost cuts off its access to its accus- 
 tomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise, which in 
 Venezuela immerses itself in indurated mud during the 
 hot months shows no tendency to torpor in Ceylon, 
 where its food is permanent; and yet it is subject to hy- 
 bernation when carried to the colder regions of Europe. 
 
 To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the 
 heat, by exhausting the water, deprives them at once of 
 motion and sustenance, the practical effect must be the 
 same as when the frost of a northern winter encases 
 them in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that they can 
 successfully undergo the one crisis when we know beyond 
 question that they may survive the other. ^ 
 
 Hot-water Fishes. — Another incident is striking in 
 connection with the fresh- water fishes of Ceylon. I have 
 described elsewhere the hot springs of Kannea^, in the 
 
 ' Yaeeell, vol. i. p, 364, quotes into one solid lump of ice, yet, ou 
 
 tlie authority of Dr. J. Hunter in the water being thawed, the fish 
 
 his Animal (Economy, that fish, became as liyely as usual. Dr. 
 
 "after being frozen still retain so Eichardson, in the third vol. of 
 
 much of life as when thawed to his Fauna Borealis Americana, 
 
 resume their vital actions ;" and says the grey sucking carp, found 
 
 in the same volume {Introd. vol. i. in the fur countries of North 
 
 p. xyii.) he relates from Jesse's America, may be frozen and thawed 
 
 Gleanings in I\atural History, the again without being killed in the 
 
 story of a gold fish {Cyprinus process. 
 
 auratus), which, together with the ^ See Sib J. Emerson Tennent's 
 
 water m a marble basin, was frozen Ceylon, &c., vol. ii. p. 496. 
 
Chap. X ] LIST OF CEYLOX FISHES. 359 
 
 vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows at a 
 temperature varying at different seasons from 85'^ to 
 115°. In the stream formed by these wells M. Eeynaud 
 found and forwarded to Cuvier two fishes which he took 
 from the water at a time when his thermometer indicated 
 a temperature of 37° Eeaumur, equal to 115° of Fahren- 
 heit. The one was an Apogon, the other an Ambassis, 
 and to each, from the heat of its habitat, he assigned the 
 specific name of " thermalis." ^ 
 
 List of Ceylon Fishes. 
 
 In the following list, the Acanthopterj^gian fishes of 
 Ceylon has been prepared for me by Dr. GtUNTHee, and 
 will be found the most complete which has appeared of 
 this order. I am also indebted to him for the correction 
 of the list of ]Malacopterygians, which I hope ere long 
 to render still more extended, as well as that of the 
 Cartilao-inous fishes. 
 
 ^ Cuv, and Val., vol. iii. p. 363. perature. — Journ. Asiatic Soc. of 
 
 In addition to the two fishes above Beng. vol. vi. p. 465. Fishes have 
 
 named, a loehe Cobitis thermalis, been observed in a hot spring at 
 
 and a carp, Nuria thermoicos, were ManiLa which raises the ther- 
 
 found in the hot-springs of Kan- mometer to 187°, and in another 
 
 nea, at a heat 40° Cent., 114° in Barbaiy, the xisual temperature 
 
 Fahr., and a roach, Leucisciis thcr- of which is 172° ; and Humboldt 
 
 malis, when the thermometer in- and Bonpland, when travelling in 
 
 dicated 50° Cent., 122° Fahr. — lb. South America, saw fishes thrown 
 
 xviii. p. 59, xvi. p. 182, xvii. p. up alive from a volcano, in water 
 
 94. Fish have been taken from a that raised the temperature to 
 
 hot spring at Pooree when the 210°, being two degrees below the 
 
 thermometer stood at 112° Fahr., boiling point. Pattersox's Zoo- 
 
 and as they belonged to a carnivo- logi/, Pt. ii. p. 211 ; Yajkeell's 
 
 rous genus, they must have found History of British Fishes, vol. i. 
 
 prey living in the same high tern- In. p. xvi. 
 
 A A 4 
 
360 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 I. OSSEOUS. 
 
 ACAXTHOPTEEYGIL 
 
 BERYClDiE, Lowe. 
 
 Myripristis murdjan, Forsk. 
 Holocentrum rubrum, Forsk. 
 spiniferuni, Forsk. 
 diadema, Lacep. 
 Percid^, Gunther. 
 
 * Lates calcarifer, Bl. 
 Serranus louti, Forsk. 
 
 pachycentrum, C. Sf V. 
 
 guttatus, Bl. 
 
 Sonneratii, C. 8; V. 
 
 angularis, C. Sf V. 
 
 marginalis, Bl. 
 
 hexagonatus, Forsk. 
 
 flavocoeruleus, Lacep. 
 
 biguttatus, C. 8s V. 
 
 lemniscatus, C. Sf V. 
 
 Ainboinensis, Bleek. 
 
 bcenak, C. S^ V. 
 Gramtnistes orientalis, Bl, 
 Genyoroge Sebae, C. Sf V. 
 
 Benaalensis, C. Sf V. 
 
 marginata, C- Sf V. 
 
 rivuldta. C. ^ V. 
 
 gibba, Forsk. 
 
 spilura, Benn. 
 Mesoprion aurolineatus, C. % V. 
 
 rangus, C. Sf V. 
 
 quinquelineatus, Riipp. 
 
 Johnii, Bl. 
 
 annularis. C. Sf V. 
 ? Priacanthus Blochii, Bleek. 
 Ambassis n. sp., Giinth. 
 
 Commersonii, C. S; V. 
 
 thermalis, C. Sf V. 
 Apogon Ceylonicus, C. & V. 
 
 thermalis, C. 8^ y. 
 
 annularis, Riipp. var. rosei- 
 pinnis. 
 Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, CSfJ'. 
 
 PkistipomatidjK, Gunther. 
 Dales Bennettii, Bleek. 
 
 * Therapon servus, Block. 
 
 * trivittatus, Buck. Ham, 
 quadrilineatus, Bl. 
 
 * Helotes polytaenia, Bleek. 
 Pristipoma hasta. Block. 
 
 maculatum, Bl. 
 Diagramma punctatum, Ehrenb. 
 
 orientale, Bl. 
 
 poecilopterum, C. Sf V. 
 
 Blochii, C. ^ V. 
 
 lineatum, Gm, 
 
 Radja, Bleek. 
 Lobotes auctorum, Gilntk. 
 Gerres oblongus, C Sf J'. 
 Scolopsis Japonicus. Bl. 
 
 bimaculatus, Riipp. 
 
 monogramma, A-. ^ v. H. 
 Synagris lurcosus, C. ^- V. 
 Pentapus aurolineatus, Lacip. 
 Smaris balteatus, C. 4' V- 
 CaEsio ccerulaureus, Lacep, 
 
 MuLLiD.E, Gray. 
 
 Upeneus tEeniopterus, C. 8^ V. 
 Indicus, Shaw. 
 cyclostoma Lacip, 
 
 Upe. trifasciatus, Lacep. 
 
 cinnabarinus, C, 8( V. 
 Upeneoides vittatus, forsk, 
 
 tragula. 
 
 sulphureus, C. Sf V. 
 Mulloides flavoiineatus, Lacep. 
 
 Ceylonicus, C ^ V. 
 
 SPARin^, Giinther. 
 
 Lethrinus frenatus, C. <§• V. 
 cinereus, C. 8s V. 
 fasciatus, C. 8s V, 
 ? ramak, Forsk. 
 opercularjs, C. Sf V. 
 erythrurus, C. Sf V. 
 Pagrus spinifer, Forsk. 
 Crysophrys hasta, Bl. 
 ? Pimelepterus Ternatensis, Bleek. 
 
 Squamipinnes, Giinther. 
 
 Chaetodon Layardi, Blyth. 
 
 oligacanthus, Bleek. 
 
 setifer, BL 
 
 vagabundus, L. 
 
 guttatissimus, Benn. 
 
 pictus, Forsk. 
 
 xanthocephalus, Benn. 
 
 Sebae, C. S; V. 
 Heniochus macrolepidotus, Artedi. 
 Holacanthus annularis, Bl. 
 
 xanthurus, Benn. 
 
 imperator, Bl. 
 Scatophagus argus, Gm. 
 Ephippus orbis, Bl. 
 Drepane punctata, Gm. 
 
 ClRRHiTiD^, Gray. 
 
 Cirrhites Forsteri, Schn. 
 
 Cataphracti, Cuv. 
 
 Scorpaena polyprion, Bleek. 
 Pterois volitans, L. 
 
 miles, Benn. 
 Tetraroge longispinis, C. Sf V. 
 Platycephalus insidiator, Forsk, 
 
 puuctatus, C. 4" V. 
 
 serratus, C. Sf V. 
 
 tuberculatus, C. 8f V. ' 
 
 suppositus, Trosch, 
 Dactylopterus orientalis, C. Sf V. 
 
 TRACHiNiDiE, Giinther. 
 ? Uranoscopus guttatus, C. 8s V, 
 Percis raillepunctata, Giinth. 
 Sillago siliama, Forsk. 
 
 SciiENiD^, Giinther. 
 
 Sciaena diacantha, Lacep. 
 
 maculata, Schn. 
 
 Dussumieri, C Sf V. 
 Corvina miles, C. Sf V. 
 Otolithus argenteus, k. Sf v. H. 
 
 PoLYNEMiD^, Giinther. 
 
 Polynemus heptadactylus, C. ^ V, 
 hexanemus, C. ^ V. 
 Indicus, Shaw. 
 plebeius, Gm. 
 tetradactylus, Shaw, 
 Sphyr^nid.e, Agass. 
 
 Sphyraena jello, C. Sf V. 
 obtusata, C. Sf V, 
 Trichiurid^, Giinther. 
 Trichiurus savala, Cuv. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 LIST OF CEYLON FISHES. 
 
 361 
 
 ScoMBRiDiE, GUnther. 
 .? Thynnus affinis, Cant. 
 
 Cybium Commersonii, Lacip. 
 
 gutlatuin, Schn. 
 Naucrates doctor, L. 
 Elacate nigra, Bl. 
 
 ? n. sp. 
 Echeneis remora, L. 
 
 scutata, Giinth. 
 
 naucrates, L. 
 Stromateus cinereus, Bl. 
 
 niger, Bl. 
 Coryphaena hippurus, L. 
 Mene maculata, Schn. 
 Carangid-e, GUnther. 
 Caranx Heberi, Benn. 
 
 Rottleri, Bl. 
 
 calla, C. ^ V. 
 
 xanthurus, K. 8( v. H. 
 
 talamparoides, Bleek,,^ 
 
 Malabaricus, Schn. 
 
 speciosus, Forsk. , 
 
 carangus, Bh 
 
 hippos, L. 
 
 armatus, Forsk. 
 
 ciliaris, Bl. 
 
 gallus, L. 
 Micropteryx chrysurus, L. 
 Seriola nigro-fasciata, Riipp. 
 Chorinemus Ivsan, Forsk. 
 
 Sancti Petri, C. ^ V. 
 Trachynotus oblongus, C. S( V. 
 
 ovatus, L. 
 Psettus argenteus, L. 
 Platax vesper tilio, Bl. 
 
 Raynaldi, C. 8( V. 
 Zanclus sp. n. 
 
 Lactarius dclicatulus, C. 8[ V. 
 Equula fasciata, Lacep. 
 
 edentula, Bl. 
 
 daura, Cuv. 
 
 interrupta. 
 Gazza minuta, Bl. 
 
 equulaeformis, EUpp. 
 Pempheris sp. 
 XiPHiiD^, Agass. 
 
 Histiophorus immaculatus, Rilpp. 
 Theutyid^, GUnther. 
 Theutys Javus, L. 
 
 stellata, Forsk. 
 
 nebulosa, A. ^ G. 
 AcRONORiD^, GUnther. 
 
 Acanthurus tviostegus, L. 
 
 nigrofuscus, Forsk. 
 
 lineatus, L. 
 
 Tennentii, Gthr. 
 
 leucosternon, Bennett, 
 
 ctenodon, C. 4r V- 
 
 rhombeus, Kittl. 
 
 xanthurus, Blyth.* 
 Acronurus melas, C. ^ V. 
 
 melanurus, C. S; V. 
 Naseus unicornis, Forsk. 
 
 brevirostris, C. ^ V. 
 
 tuberosus, Lacep. 
 
 lituratus, Forster. 
 ACLOSTOMATA, Ctivier. 
 
 Fistularia serrata, Bl. 
 BlenmidjE, MUU. 
 
 Salarias fasciatus, Bl. 
 
 Sal. marmoratus, Benn.' 
 tridactylus, Schn. 
 quadricornis, C. S[ V. 
 
 GOBIID.^, Mull. 
 
 Gobius ornatus, RUpp. 
 
 giuris. Buck. Ham. 
 
 albopunctatus, C. 8( V. 
 
 graramepomus, Bleek. 
 Apocryptes lanceolatus, Bl. 
 Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, Pall. 
 Eleotris ophiocephalus, K. S[ v. U. 
 
 fusca, Bl. 
 
 sexguttata, C. Sc V. 
 
 muralis, A. Sf G. 
 
 Mastacembelidb, GUnther. 
 
 Mastacembelus armatus, Lacep. 
 
 Pediculati, Cuv. 
 
 Antennarius marmoratus, GUntfi. 
 hispidus, Schn. 
 pinniceps, Commers. 
 Commersonii, Lacep. 
 multiocellatus. GUnth, 
 bigibbus, Lacep. 
 
 AxHERiNiDi;, GUnther. 
 
 Alherina Forskalii, RUpp. 
 duodecimalis, C. i^ V. 
 
 McGiLiD^, GUnther. 
 
 Mugil planiceps, C. 8; V. 
 Waigiensis, A. G. 
 Ceylonensis, GUnth. 
 
 Ophtocephalid^, GUnther. 
 
 Ophiocephalus punctatus, Bl. 
 Kelaartii, GUnth. 
 striatus, Bl. 
 marulius. Ham. Buck. 
 Channa orientalis, Schn. 
 Labyrinthici, Cuv. 
 
 Anabas oligolepis, Bleek. 
 Polyacanthus signatus, GUnth. 
 
 PHAEYNGOGNATHL 
 
 Amphiprion Clarkii, J. Benn, 
 Dascyllus aruanus, C. S( V, 
 trimaculatus, RUpp. 
 Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, C. S; V. 
 
 Brownrigii, Benn. 
 
 ccelestinus, Sol. 
 Etroplus Suratensis, Bl. 
 Julis lunaris Linn. 
 
 decussatus, W Benn. 
 
 formosus, C. 8f V. 
 
 quadricolor. Lesson. 
 
 dorsalis, Quoy Ss Gaim. 
 
 aureomaculatus, W. Benn. 
 
 Ceilanicus, E. Benn. 
 
 Finlaysoni, C. §• V. 
 
 purpureo-lineatus, C. 8[. F, 
 
 cingulum, C. Sf V. 
 Gomphosus fuscus, C. ^ V, 
 
 coeruleus, Comm. 
 
 viridis, W. Benn. 
 Scarus pepo, TV. Benn. 
 
 harid, Forsk. 
 Tautoga fasciata, Thunb. 
 Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, C. Sf V. 
 
 Georgii C. Sg V. 
 Exoccetus evolans, Linn. 
 Belone annulata, C. S( V. 
 
362 
 
 FISHES. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINAXES). 
 
 Bagrus gulio, Buck. 
 
 albilabris, C S; V. 
 Plotosus lineatus, C. Sf V. 
 Barbus tor, C. ^ V. 
 Niiria thermoicos, C. <Sr V- 
 Leuciscus dandia, C djr V. 
 
 scalpel I us, C. S[ V. 
 
 Ceylonicus, E. Benn. 
 
 thermalis, C. ^ V. 
 Cobitis thermalis, C. Sf V. 
 Chirocentrus dorab, Forsk. 
 Elops SHurus, /,. 
 Megalops cundinga, Buck. 
 Engraulis Brownii, Gm. 
 Sardinella leiogaster, ('. 8; V. 
 
 liiieolata, C. ^ V. 
 
 Neohowii. 
 Saurus myops, ^al. 
 baurida tombil, Bl, 
 
 MAXACOPTERYGTI (sXJB-BRANCHIATi). 
 Pleuronectes, L. 
 
 MAXACOPTEBYGn (aPODA). 
 Muraena. 
 
 LOPHOBBANCHI. 
 Syngnathus, L. 
 
 PLECTOGNATHn. 
 
 Tetraodon ocellatus, W. Benn. 
 
 tepa, Buck. 
 
 argyropleura, E. Bennett. 
 
 argHiitatus, Blytli. 
 Balistes biaculeatus, W. Benn. 
 
 lineatus, Bl, 
 Triacanthus biaculeatus, W. Benn. 
 Alutarius laevis, Bl. 
 
 II. CAETILAGINOUS. 
 
 Pristis antiquorum. Lath. 
 
 cuspidatus. Lath. 
 
 pectinatus. Lath. 
 Chiloscyllium plaaiosum, Benn. 
 Stegostoma fasciatum, Bl. 
 Carcharias acutus, Biipp. 
 Sphyrna zygaena. L. 
 Rhynchobatus laevis. Bl. 
 Trygon uarnak, Forsk. 
 Pteroplatea micrura, Bl. 
 Taeniura lymna, Fui'sk. 
 Myliobatis Nieuhofii, Bl. 
 Aetobates narinari, Bl. 
 
 NOTE (A.) 
 
 INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FEOM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA. 
 
 {From the Bombay Times, 1856.) 
 See Pase 343. 
 
 The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes 
 were said to have been thro"\Yn out from volcanoes in South 
 America and precipitated from clouds in various parts of the 
 world, adduced the following instances of similar occurrences 
 in India. " In 1824," he says, " fishes fell at JNIeerut, on the 
 men of Her Majesty's 14th Regiment, then out at drill, and 
 were caught in numbers. In July, 1826, live fish were seen 
 to fall on the grass at INIoradabad during a storm. They were 
 the common cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On 
 the 19th of February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish 
 occurred at the Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah ; 
 
Chap. X.] SHOWERS OF FISPIES. 363 
 
 depositions on the subject were obtained from nine different 
 parties. The fish "were all dead ; most of them were large ; 
 some were fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They 
 were seen at first in the skv, like a flock of birds, descendino: 
 rapidly to the ground; there was rain drizzKng, but no storm. 
 On the 16th and 17th of May, 1833, a fall offish occurred in 
 the zillah of Futtehpoor, about three miles north of the Jumna, 
 after a violent storm of wind and rain. The fish were fi^om a 
 pound and a lialf to three pounds in weight, and of the same 
 species as those found in the tanks in the neighbourhood. 
 They were all dead and dry. A fall of fish occm-red at Alla- 
 habad, during a storm in May, 1835 ; they were of the chowla 
 species, and were found dead and dry after the storm had 
 passed over the district. On the 20tli of September, 1839, 
 after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about 
 three inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the 
 Sunderbunds, about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this 
 occasion it was remarked that the fish did not fall here and 
 there irregularly over the gromid, but in a continuous straight 
 line, not more than a span in breadth. The vast multitudes 
 of fish, with which the low gromids round Bombay are covered, 
 about a week or ten days after the first burst of the monsoon, 
 appear to be derived from the adjoining pools or rivulets, and 
 not to descend from the sky. They are not, so far as I know, 
 found in the higher parts of the island. I have never seen 
 them, (though I have watched carefully,) in casks collecting 
 water from the roofs of buildings, or heard of them on the 
 decks or awnings of vessels in the harbour, where they must 
 have appeared had they descended from the sky. One of the 
 most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred dui"ing a 
 tremendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25 th of July, 
 1850, Avhen the ground around Eajkote was fomid literally 
 covered with fish ; some of them were found on the tops of 
 haystacks, where probably they had been drifted by the storm. 
 In the coui'se of twenty-four successive hours twenty-seven 
 inches of rain fell, thirtj^-five fell in twenty-six hours, seven 
 
364 FISHES. [Cha.p. X. 
 
 inches within one hour and a half, being the heaviest fall on 
 record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August, 1852, after a very- 
 heavy fall of rain, multitudes of fish were caught on the ground 
 in the cantonments, full half a mile from the nearest stream. 
 If showers of fish are to be explained on the assumption that 
 they are carried up by squalls or violent winds, from rivers or 
 spaces of water not far away from where they fall, it would be 
 nothing wonderfiil were they seen to descend from the air 
 during the furious squalls which occasionally occur in June." 
 
 NOTE (B.) 
 
 CEYLON FISHES. 
 
 {^Memorandum hy Professor Huxley.) 
 
 See Page 324. 
 
 The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the 
 fishes of Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, 
 possesses an unusual value for several reasons. 
 
 The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and 
 even had those from other parts of Ceylon been added, the 
 geographical area would not have been very extended. Never- 
 theless there are more than 600 drawings, and though it is 
 possible that some of these represent varieties in different 
 stages of growth of the same species, I have not been able to 
 find definite evidence of the fact in any of those groups which 
 I have particularly tested. If, however, these drawings repre- 
 sent six hundred distinct species of fish, they constitute, so far 
 as I know, the largest collection of fish from one locality in 
 existence. 
 
 The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed 
 to be less than 250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. 
 Cantor's valuable work on Malayan fishes enumerates not 
 more than 238, while Dr. Russell has figured only 200 from 
 
Chap. X.] FISHES OF CEYLON. 365 
 
 Coromandel. Even the enormous area of tlie Chinese and 
 Japanese seas has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes. 
 
 The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of 
 great importance : but its value is immeasurably enhanced by 
 the two circumstances, — -first, that every drawing was made 
 while the fish retained all that vividness of colouring which 
 becomes lost so soon after its removal fi'om its native element ; 
 and secondly, that when the sketch was finished its subject 
 was carefully labelled, preserved in spirits, and forwarded to 
 England, so that at the present moment the original of every 
 drawing can be subjected to anatomical examination, and 
 compared with ah-eady named species. 
 
 Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the 
 collection is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, 
 if properly worked out, become a large and secure foundation 
 for all future investigation into the ichthyology of the Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the 
 novelty or otherwise of the species and genera figui-ed without 
 the study of the specimens themselves, as the specific distinc- 
 tions of fish are for the most part based upon character — the 
 fin-rays, teeth, the operculum, &c., which can only be made 
 out by close and careful examination of the object, and cannot 
 be represented in ordinary drawings however accurate. 
 
 There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family 
 traits are so marked as to render it almost impossible to mis- 
 take even their portraits, and hence I may venture, without 
 fear of being far wrong, upon a few remarks as to the general 
 features of the ichthyological fauna of Ceylon. 
 
 In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of 
 fishes belong to the cod tribe. I have not found one repre- 
 sented in these dramngs, nor do either Eussell or Cantor men- 
 tion any in the surrounding seas, and the result is in general 
 harmony with the known laws of distribution of these most 
 useful of fishes. 
 
 On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tun- 
 
366 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 nies, the bonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c., which 
 form not more than one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but 
 which are known to increase their proportion in hot climates, 
 appear in wonderftil variety of form and colour, and constitute 
 not less than one fifth of the whole of the species of Ceylon 
 fish. In Eussell's catalogue they form less than one fifth, in 
 Cantor's less than one sixth. 
 
 Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the 
 continent of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country, 
 constitute one twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and 
 Cantor's lists they form about one thirtieth of the whole. 
 
 The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish 
 fauna. They constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of 
 Russell's and Cantor's lists, while among these Ceylon draw- 
 ings I find not more than twenty, or about one thirtieth of the 
 whole, which can be referred to this group of fishes. It must 
 be extremely interesting to know whether this circumstance 
 is owing to accident, or to the local peculiarities of Colombo, 
 or whether the fauna of Ceylon really is deficient in such 
 fishes. 
 
 The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the propor- 
 tion of the tribe of flat fishes, or PleuronectidcB . Soles, turbots, 
 and the like, form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both 
 Cantor and Russell give the flat fishes as making one twenty- 
 second part of their collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon 
 drawings I can find but five Pleuronectidce. 
 
 When this great collection has been carefully studied, I 
 doubt not that many more interesting distributional facts will 
 be evolved. 
 
 Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the draw- 
 ings in question have been submitted -to Dr. Gray, of the 
 British Museum. That eminent naturalist, after a careful 
 analysis, has favoured me with the following memorandum of 
 
Chap. X.j 
 
 GROUXD-FISH OF BHOOTA^^, 
 
 367 
 
 the fishes they represent, numerically contrasting them with 
 those of China and Japan, so far as we are acquainted with 
 the ichthyology of those seas : — 
 
 cartllagint:a. 
 
 
 
 
 China and 
 
 
 
 China and 
 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Pe. cirrhitidas . 
 
 . . 
 
 •J 
 
 Squali 
 
 . 12 . 
 
 . 15 
 
 nicenidite 
 
 . 37 . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Kiiiae . 
 
 . 19 . 
 
 . 20 
 
 sparidae 
 
 . 16 . 
 
 . 17 
 
 Stiiriones . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 acanthuridas . 
 
 . 14 . 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 
 
 chaetodoniidae 
 
 . 25 . 
 
 . 21 
 
 OSTINOPTERYGII. 
 
 
 fistuiaridEe . 
 Periodopharyngi, 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 . 3 
 
 Plectognathi. 
 
 
 
 mugilidae 
 
 . 5 . 
 
 . 7 
 
 tetraodontidae 
 
 . 10 . 
 
 . 21 
 
 anabantidse . 
 
 . 6 . 
 
 . 15 
 
 balistidae 
 
 . 9 . 
 
 . 19 
 
 pomacentridse 
 
 . 10 . 
 
 . 11 
 
 Lophobranchii. 
 
 
 
 Pharj'ngognathi. 
 
 
 
 sytigiiathidae 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 . 2 
 
 labridae 
 
 . 16 . 
 
 . 35 
 
 pegasidae 
 
 . . 
 
 . 3 
 
 scomberesocidae 
 
 13 . 
 
 . 6 
 
 Ctenobranchii. 
 
 
 
 blenniidce 
 
 . 3 . 
 
 8 
 
 lophidffl 
 
 . 1 . 
 
 . 3 
 
 Scomberina. 
 
 
 
 Cyclopodi. 
 
 
 
 zeidfe . 
 
 . . 
 
 2 
 
 echeneidae . 
 
 . 
 
 . 1 
 
 sphyraenidae . 
 
 . 5 . 
 
 . 4 
 
 cyclopteridae 
 
 . 
 
 . I 
 
 scomberidae . 
 
 .lis . 
 
 . 62 
 
 gobidae 
 
 . 7 . 
 
 . 35 
 
 xiphiidse 
 
 . . 
 
 . 1 
 
 Percini. 
 
 
 
 cepolidae 
 
 . . 
 
 . 5 
 
 callionyinidae 
 
 . . 
 
 / 
 
 Heterosomata. 
 
 
 
 uranoscopidse 
 
 . . 
 
 7 
 
 platessoideze. 
 
 • •"> 
 
 . 22 
 
 cottidze 
 
 , . 
 
 . 13 
 
 siluridae 
 
 . 31 . 
 
 - 24 
 
 triglidae 
 
 11 . 
 
 . 37 
 
 cvprinidas 
 
 . 19 . 
 
 . 52 
 
 polynemidae . 
 
 12 . 
 
 . 3 
 
 scopelinidae . 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 . 7 
 
 muUidse 
 
 1 . 
 
 . 7 
 
 salmonidae . 
 
 . 
 
 . 1 
 
 percJdse 
 
 2t; . 
 
 . 12 
 
 ckipeids 
 
 . 43 . 
 
 . 22 
 
 berycidae 
 
 . 
 
 5 
 
 gadidje . 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 2 
 
 sillaginidae . 
 
 3 . 
 
 . 1 
 
 macruridae . 
 
 . 1 . 
 
 . 
 
 sciaenidae 
 
 l[t . 
 
 . 13 
 
 Apodes. 
 
 
 
 lisemulinida2 
 
 G . 
 
 . 12 
 
 anguillida? 
 
 8 
 
 . 12 
 
 serranidae 
 
 31 . 
 
 . 38 
 
 muraenidse 
 
 8 
 
 . 6 
 
 therapoiiidae 
 
 8 . 
 
 . '20 
 
 sphagebranchida? 
 
 8 
 
 . 10 
 
 NOTE (C). 
 
 ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR " GROUND-FISH " OF BHOOTAN. 
 
 See P. 353. 
 
 In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, 
 a fish is found, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, 
 biit it is called by the natives the Bora-chung, and by European 
 residents the " ground-fish of Bhootan." Tt is described in the 
 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1839, by a writer 
 (who had seen it alive), as being about two feet in length, and 
 
368 FISHES. [Chap. X. 
 
 cylindrical, witli a thick body, somewhat shaped like a pike, 
 but rounder, the nose curved upwards, the colour olive-green, 
 ^vith orange stripes, and the head speckled with crimson. ^ 
 This fish, according to the native story, is caught not in the 
 rivers in whose vicinity it is found, but " in perfectly dry 
 places in the middle of grassy jungle, sometimes as far as two 
 miles from the banks." Here, on finding a hole four or five 
 inches in diameter, they commence to dig, and continue tiU 
 they come to water ; and presently the hora-chung rises to the 
 surface, sometimes fi-om a depth of nineteen feet. In these 
 extemporised wells these fishes are found always in pairs, and 
 when brought to the surface they glide rapidly over the ground 
 with a serpentine motion. This account appeared in 1839 ; 
 but some years later, Mr. Campbell, the Superintendent of 
 Darjeeling, in a communication to the same journal^, divested 
 the story of much of its exaggeration, by stating, as the result 
 of personal inquiry in Bhootan, that the hora-chung inhabits 
 the jheels and slow-running streams near the hills, but lives 
 principally on the banks, into which it penetrates from one to 
 five or six feet. The entrance to these retreats leading from 
 the river into the bank is generally a few inches below the 
 surface, so that the fish can return to the water at pleasure. 
 The mode of catching them is by introducing the hand into 
 these holes ; and the bora-chungs are found generally two in 
 each chamber, coiled concentrically like snakes. It is not 
 believed that they bore their own burrows, but that they take 
 possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr. Campbell denies 
 that they are more capable than other fish of moving on dry 
 ground. From the, particulars given, the hora-chung would 
 appear to be an Ophwcephalus, probably the 0. harka described 
 by Buchanan, as inhabiting holes in the banks of rivers tri- 
 • butary to the Ganges. 
 
 ^ Paper by Mr. J. T. Peaeson, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng., vol. viii. 
 p. 551. 
 
 2 Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng., vol. xi. p. 963: 
 
369 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 Mollusca. — Radiata, &c, 
 
 Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and 
 variety of the shells which abound in its seas and inland 
 waters, and in which an active trade has been organised 
 by the industrious Moors, who clean them with great 
 expertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and send 
 them to Colombo and all parts of the island for sale. 
 In general, however, these specimens are more prized 
 for their beauty than valued for their rarit}^, though 
 some of the " Argus " cowries ^ have been sold as high 
 as foiLT guineas a pair. 
 
 One of the principal sources whence their supplies are 
 derived is the beautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north 
 of Batticaloa, formed by the embouchure of the Natoor 
 river. The scenery at this spot is enchanting. The sea 
 is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the summit ; 
 and in an opening between two of these eminences the 
 river flows through a cluster of little islands covered 
 with mangroves and acacias. A bar of rocks projects 
 across it, at a short distance from the shore ; and these 
 are frequented all day long by pelicans, that come at 
 
 * CyprcBa Argus. 
 B £ 
 
370 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 sunrise to fish, and at evening return to their solitary 
 breeding-places remote from the beach. The strand is 
 literally covered with beautiful shells in rich profusion, 
 and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season 
 to visit the bay for each particular description. The en- 
 tire coast, however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is 
 indented by little rocky inlets, where shells of endless 
 variety may be collected in great abundance.^ Dur- 
 ing the north-east monsoon a formidable surf bursts 
 upon the shore, which is here piled high with mounds 
 of yellow sand; and the remains of shells upon the 
 
 water mark show how rich the 
 sea is in mollusca. Amongst them 
 are prodigious numbers of the 
 ubiquitous violet-coloured Ian- 
 thina^f which rises when the 
 ocean is calm, and by means of 
 its inflated vesicles floats lightly on the surface. 
 
 The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity 
 in Ceylon. The Grulf of Manaar has been fished from 
 the earliest times for the large chank shell, Turbinella 
 
 lANTHIN^. 
 
 ' In one of these beautiful little 
 "bays near Catchavelly, between 
 Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found 
 the sand "within the wash of the 
 sea literally covered with mollusca 
 and shells, and amongst others a 
 species of Bullia (B. vittata, I 
 think), the inhabitant of which 
 has the faculty of mooring itself 
 firmly by sending down its mem- 
 branous foot into the wet sand, 
 "where, imbibing the water, this 
 organ expands horizontally into a 
 broad fleshy disc, by which the 
 animal anchors itself, and tlius 
 secured, collects its food in the 
 
 ripple of the waves. On the 
 slightest alarm, the water is dis- 
 charged, the disc collapses into its 
 original dimensions, and the shell 
 and its inhabitant disappear to- 
 gether beneath the sand. 
 
 BDLLIA VITTATA, 
 
 ^ lantliina communis^ Kraiiss, 
 and /. 2)rolo7igata, Blainv. 
 
Chap. XI.] TUEBINELLA RAPA. 371 
 
 rap a, to be exported to India, where it is still sawn 
 into rings and worn as anklets and bracelets by the 
 women of Hindustan. Another use for these shells 
 is their conversion into wind instruments, which are 
 sounded in the temples on all occasions of ceremony. A 
 chank, in which the whorls, instead of running from left 
 to right, as in the ordinary shell, are reversed, and run 
 from right to left, is regarded with such reverence that 
 a specimen formerly sold for its weight in gold, but one 
 may now be had for four or five pounds. Cosmas Indico- 
 PLEUSTES, writing in the fifth century, describes a place 
 on the west coast of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and 
 says it produced " KO')(kLovs,^^ which Thevenot translates 
 "oysters;" in which case Marallo might be conjectured 
 to be Bentotte, near Colombo, which yields the best 
 edible " oysters " in Ceylon. ^ But the shell in question 
 was most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, 
 off which it is found in great numbers.^ In fact, two 
 centuries later Abouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an account 
 of the trade and productions of India, speaks of these 
 shells by the name they still bear, which he states to 
 be schenek ^ ; but " schenek " is not an Arabic word, and 
 is merely an attempt to spell the local term, chank, in 
 Arabic characters. 
 
 ^ Cosmas Indico-pleustes, in dia they had found oysters a foot 
 
 Thevenot' s ed. t. i. p. 21. long. PLixTsays: " In Indieo mari 
 
 ^ At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, Alexandri rerum auctores pedalia 
 
 I was struck with the prodigious inreniri prodidere." — Nat. Hist. 
 
 size of the edible oysters, which Lib. xxxii. ch, 31, Dak win says, 
 
 were brought to us at the rest- that amongst the fossils of Pata- 
 
 house. The shell of one of these gonia, he found "a massive gigantic 
 
 measured a little more than eleven oyster, sometimes even a foot in 
 
 inches in length, by half as many diameter." — Nat. Voy., ch. viii. 
 
 broad : thus unexpectedly attest- ^ Abouzeyd, Voyages Arabes, 
 
 ing the correctness of one of the £,0., t. i. p. 6 ; Eeixaud, Memoire 
 
 stories related by the historians of sur VInde, ^t. p. 222. 
 Alexander's expedition, that in In- 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 Bertolacci mentions a curious local peculiarity^ 
 observed by the fishermen in the natural history of the 
 chank. " All shells," he says, " found to the northward 
 of a line drawn from a point about midway from Ma- 
 naar to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind 
 called patty, and are distinguished by a short flat head ; 
 and all those found to the southward of that line are 
 of the kind called pajel, and are known from having a 
 longer and more pointed head than the former. Nor is 
 there ever an instance of deviation from this singular 
 law of nature. The Wallampory, or * right-hand 
 chanks,' are found of both kinds." 
 
 This tendency of particular localities to re -produce 
 certain specialities of form and colour is not confined 
 to the sea or to the instance of the chank shell. In 
 the gardens which line the suburbs of Gralle in the 
 direction of Matura the stems of the coco-nut and jak 
 trees are profusely covered with the shells of the beau- 
 tiful striped Helix hceviastoma. Stopping frequently 
 to collect them, I was led to observe that each separate 
 garden seemed to possess a variety almost peculiar to 
 itself; in one the mouth of every individual shell was 
 red ; in another, separated from the first only by a wall, 
 black ; and in others (but less frequently) 'pure white ; 
 whilst the varieties of external colouring were equally 
 local. In one enclosure they were nearly all red, and 
 in an adjoining one brown. ^ 
 
 ' See also the Asiatic Journal borne about half of some of the 
 
 for 1827, p. 469. herds were mouse-coloxired, a tint 
 
 ^ Dar"s\tn, in his Naturalist'' s not common anywhere else, — near 
 
 Voyage, mentions a parallel in- Mount Pleasant dark-broAvn pre- 
 
 stance of the localised propagation vailed ; whereas south of Choiseul 
 
 of coloiu'S amongst the cattle which Sound white beasts with black 
 
 range the pasturage of East Falk- heads and feet were common." — 
 
 land Island : " Bound Mount Os- Ch. ix. p. 192. 
 
Chap. XI.] PEAKL FISHERIES. 373 
 
 A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in 
 chanks, and infinitely more renowned, is the fishery of 
 pearls on the west coast of Ceylon, bordering the Gulf 
 of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon presents so dreary an 
 aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to which, 
 from time immemorial, adventurers have resorted from 
 the uttermost ends of the earth in search of the precious 
 pearls for which this gulf is renowned. On approaching 
 it from sea the only perceptible landmark is a building 
 erected by Lord Gruildford, as a temporary residence for 
 the Grovernor, and known by the name of the " Doric," 
 from the style of its architecture. A few coco-nut 
 palms appear next above the low sandy beach, and pre- 
 sently are discovered the scattered houses which form 
 the villages of Aripo and Condatchy. 
 
 Between these two places, or rather between the 
 Kalaar and Arrive river, the shore is raised to a height 
 of many feet, by enormous mounds of shells, the accu- 
 mulations of ages, the millions of oysters ^, robbed of 
 their pearls, having been year after year flung into 
 heaps, that extend for a distance of many miles. 
 
 During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular 
 and dreary expanse becomes suddenly enlivened by the 
 crowds who congregate from distant parts of India ; a 
 town is improvised by the construction of temporary 
 dwellings, huts of timber and cajans"^, with tents of 
 palm leaves or canvas ; and bazaars spring up, to feed 
 the multitude on land, as well as the seamen and divers 
 in the fleets of boats that cover the bay. 
 
 ' It is almost unnecessary to say grina. It is the Meleagrina Mar- 
 
 tliat the sheU fish which produces garitifcra of Lamarck, 
 the true Oriental pearls is not an ^ Cajan is the local term for the 
 
 oyster, but belongs to the genus plaited fronds of a coco-nut. 
 Avicula, or more correctly, Melea- 
 
 B B 3 
 
374 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in com- 
 pany with Capt. Steuart, the official inspector. My 
 immediate object was to inquire into the causes of the 
 suspension of the fisheries, and to ascertain the proba- 
 biKty of reviving a source of revenue, the gross receipts 
 from which had failed for several years to defray the 
 cost of conservancy. In fact, between 1837 and 1854, 
 the pearl banks were an annual charge, instead of pro- 
 ducing an annual income, to the colony. The conjecture, 
 hastily adopted, to account for the disappearance of ma- 
 ture shells, had reference to mechanical causes; the 
 received hypothesis being that the young broods had 
 been swept off their accustomed feeding grounds, by the 
 establishment of unusual currents, occasioned by deepen- 
 ing the narrow passage between Ceylon and India at 
 Paumbam. It was also suggested, that a previous Gover- 
 nor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonial treasury, 
 had so " scraped " and impoverished the beds as to 
 exterminate the oysters. To me, neither of these suppo- 
 sitions appeared worthy of acceptance; for, in the 
 frequent disruptions of Adam's Bridge, there was ample 
 evidence that the currents in the G-ulf of Manaar had 
 been changed at former times mthout destroying the 
 pearl beds : and moreover the oysters had disappeared 
 on many former occasions, without any imputation of 
 improper management on the part of the conser- 
 vators ; and returned after much longer intervals of 
 absence than that which fell under my own notice, and 
 which was then creating serious apprehension in the 
 colony. 
 
 A similar interruption had been experienced between 
 1820 and 1828 : the Dutch had had no fishing for 
 
Chap. XI.] PEARL FISHERIES. 375 
 
 twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 1796 ^ ; and they had 
 been equally unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The 
 Arabs were well acquainted with similar vicissitudes, 
 and x\lbyrouni (a contemporary of Avicenna), who served 
 under Mahmoud of Grhuznee, and wrote in the eleventh 
 century, says that the pearl fishery, which formerly 
 existed in the Grulf of Serendib, had become exhausted 
 in his time, simultaneously Avith the appearance of a 
 fishery at Sofala, in the country of the Zends, where 
 pearls were unknown before ; and hence, he says, arose 
 the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had 
 migrated to Sofala.^ 
 
 It appeared to me that the explanation of the pheno- 
 menon was to be sought, not merely in external causes, 
 but also in the instincts and faculties of the animals 
 themselves, and, on my return to Colombo, I ventured 
 to renew a recommendation, which had been made 
 years before, that a scientific inspector should be ap- 
 pointed to study the habits and the natural history of the 
 pearl-oyster, and that his investigations.should be facili- 
 tated by the means at the disposal of the Government. 
 
 Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H. Gr. 
 Ward, in 1857, and his researches speedily developed 
 results of great interest. In opposition to the received 
 opinion that the pearl-oyster is incapable of voluntary 
 
 1 This suspension was in some temps. D'lm autre cote il s'est 
 degree attributable to disputes with forme uue peeherie a Sofala dans le 
 the Nabob of Arcot and other pays des Zends, la ou il n'en exis- 
 chiefs, and the proprietors of temples tait pas auparavant — on dit que 
 on the opposite coast of India, who c'est la peeherie de Serendyb qui 
 claimed a right to participate in s'est transportee a Sofiila." — 
 the fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Albyeouxi, in Eeikaud's Frag- 
 
 2 "II y ayait autrefois dans le mens Arabes, ^'C, p. 125; see also 
 Golfe de Serendyb, une peeherie de Eeinaud's Memoire sur VIncle, p. 
 perles qui s'est epuisee de notre 228. 
 
 B B 4 
 
376 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to 
 which it is originally attached', he demonstrated, not 
 only that it possesses locomotive powers, but also that 
 their exercise is indispensable to its ceconomy when 
 obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape from 
 local impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it 
 can sever its byssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to 
 miofrate and moor itself in favourable situations.^ The 
 establishment of this important fact may tend to solve 
 the mystery of the occasional disappearances of the 
 oyster ; and if coupled with the further discovery that 
 it is susceptible of translation from place to place, and 
 even from salt to brackish water, it seems reasonable 
 to expect that beds may be formed with advantage in 
 positions suitable for its growth and protection. Thus, 
 like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster 
 may be brought within the domain of pisciculture, and 
 banks may be created in suitable places, just as the 
 southern shores of France are now being colonised with 
 oysters, under the direction of M. Coste.^ The operation 
 of sowing the sea with pearl, should the experiment 
 succeed, would be as gorgeous in reality, as it is grand 
 in conception ; and the wealth of Ceylon, in her " trea- 
 sures of the deep," might eclipse the renown of her 
 gems when she merited the title of the " Island of 
 Eubies." 
 
 On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the 
 orders of their Adapanaar, put to sea, and commenced 
 
 ^ Steu art's Pearl Fisheries of Calendar for 1858. — Appendix, 
 
 Ceylon, p. 27 ; Coediner's Ceylon, p. 14. 
 cfc, vol. ii. p. 45. 3 Bapport de M. Coste, Pro- 
 
 ^ See Dr. Kelaart's Eeport on fesseiir d'Embryogenie, &c., Paris, 
 
 the Pearl Oyster in the Ceylon 1858, 
 
Chap. XI.] PEARL-DIVERS. 377 
 
 the examination of the banks. ^ The persons engaged 
 in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors, who are 
 trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces 
 of apparatus emplo3^ed to assist the diver in his opera- 
 tions are exceedingly simple in their character: they 
 consist merely of a stone, about thirty pounds' weight, 
 (to accelerate the rapidity of his descent,) which is sus- 
 pended over the side of the boat, with a loop attached 
 to it for receiving the foot ; and of a net-work basket, 
 which he takes do^vn to the bottom and fills with the 
 oysters as he collects them. Massoudi, one of the 
 earliest Arabian geographers, describing, in the ninth 
 century, the habits of the pearl-divers in the Persian 
 Grulf, says that, before descending, each filled his ears 
 with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed his nostrils 
 by a piece of tortoise-shell.^ This practice continues 
 there to the present day^ ; but the diver of Ceylon 
 rejects all such expedients ; he inserts his foot in the 
 " sinking stone" and inhales a full breath ; presses his 
 nostrils with his left hand ; raises his body as high 
 
 ^ Detailed accounts of the pearl se fendaient la racine de Voreille 
 
 fishery of Ceylon and the conduct 'pour respirer ; en effet, ils ne 
 
 of the divers, will be found in peurent se servir pour cet objet des 
 
 Peecivax's Ceylon, eh. iii. ; and in narines, vu qu'ils se les bouchent 
 
 Cordixer's Ceylon, vol. ii. ch. xvi. avec des morceaux; d'ecailles de 
 
 There is also a valuable paper on tortue marine ou bien avec des 
 
 the same subject by INIr. Le Beck, morceaux de corne ay ant la forme 
 
 in the Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. d'un far de lance. En meme temps 
 
 993 ; but by far the most able and ils se mettent dans I'oreille du 
 
 intelligent description is contained coton trempe dans de I'huile." — 
 
 in the Account of the Pearl Moroudj-al-Dzeheb, ^-c, Eeixaud, 
 
 Fisheries of Ceylon, by James Memoire sur VInde, p. 228. 
 Steuart, Esq., Inspector of the ^ Colonel Wilson says they com- 
 
 Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843. press the nose with horn, and close 
 
 - Massoxjdi says that the Persian the ears with beeswax. See Memo- 
 
 divers, as they could not breathe randum on the Pearl Fisheries in 
 
 through their nostrils, cleft the root Persian Gulf. — Journ. Geogr. Soc. 
 
 of the ear for that purpose: ^' lis 1833, vol. iii. p. 283. 
 
378 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 as possible above water, to give force to his descent ; 
 and, liberating the stone from its fastenings, he sinks 
 rapidly below the surface. As soon as he has reached 
 the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, 
 throwing himself on his face, commences with alacrity 
 to fill his basket with oysters. This, on a concerted 
 signal, is hauled rapidly to the surface ; the diver 
 assisting his own ascent by springing on the rope as it 
 rises. 
 
 Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which 
 these men acquire of remaining for prolonged periods 
 under water. The divers who attended on this occasion 
 were amongst the most expert on the coast, yet not one 
 of them was able to complete a full minute below. 
 Captain Steuart, who filled for many years the ofiice of 
 Inspector of the Pearl Banks, assured me that he had 
 never known a diver to continue at the bottom longer 
 than eighty-seven seconds, nor to attain a greater depth 
 than thirteen fathoms ; and on ordinary occasions they 
 seldom exceeded fifty-five seconds in nine fathom water. ^ 
 
 The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver de- 
 votedly resorts, is the mystic ceremony of the shark- 
 charmer, whose exorcism is an indispensable preliminary 
 to every fishery. His power is believed to be hereditary ; 
 nor is it supposed that the value of his incantations is at 
 all dependent upon the religious faith professed by the 
 operator, for the present head of the family happens to 
 
 * Rtbeybo says that a diver that some divers stayed four or 
 
 could remain below whilst two jive, and one six minutes. — Ceylon, 
 
 credos were being repeated: "II p. 91 ; Le Beck says that in 1797 
 
 s'y tient I'espacede deuxcrffZo." — he saw a Cafire boy from Karical, 
 
 Lib. i, eh. xxii. p. 169. Percfval remain dowii for the space of seven 
 
 says the usual time for them to be minutes. — Asiat. Bes. vol. v. p. 
 
 under water was two minutes, but 402. 
 
Chap. XI.] SHARK-CHAKMER. 379 
 
 be a Eomaii Catholic. At the time of our visit this 
 mysterious functionary was ill and unable to attend ; but 
 he sent an accredited substitute, who assured me that 
 although he himself was ignorant of the grand and 
 mystic secret, the mere fact of his presence, as a repre- 
 sentative of the higher authority, would be recognised 
 and respected by the sharks. 
 
 Strange to say, though the Grulf of Manaar abounds 
 with these hideous creatures, not more than one well 
 authenticated accident ^ is known to have occurred from 
 this source during any pearl fishery since the British 
 have had possession of Ceylon. In all probability the 
 reason is that the sharks are alarmed by the unusual 
 number of boats, the multitude of divers, the noise of 
 the crews, the incessant plunging of the sinking stones, 
 and the descent and ascent of the baskets filled with 
 shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may 
 also be a protection ; whiter skins might not experience 
 an equal impunity. Massoudi relates that the divers of 
 the Persian Grulf were so conscious of this advantao-e of 
 colour, that they were accustomed to blacken their limbs, 
 in order to baffle the sea monsters.^ 
 
 The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on 
 this occasion, was such as to discourage the hope of an 
 early fishery. The oysters in point of number were 
 abundant, but in size they were little more than " spat," 
 the largest being barely a fourth of an inch in diameter. 
 As at least seven years are required to furnish the 
 growth at which pearls may be sought with advantage^ 
 
 ^ Cohdineb's Ceylon, vol ii. p. marins, que, sans cela, seraient 
 
 52. tentes de les devorer." — Muroudj- 
 
 2 "lis s'enduisaient les pieds et al-Dzeheb, Reixaud, Mem. sur 
 
 les jambes d'une substance noiratre, VInde, p. 228. 
 
 afin de faire peur aux monstres ' Along -with this two plates are 
 
380 SHELLS. [Chap. XL 
 
 the inspection served only to suggest the prospect (which 
 has since been realised) that in time the income from 
 this source might be expected to revive; — and, forced 
 to content ourselves with this anticipation, we weighed 
 anchor from Condatchy, on the 30th March, and arrived 
 on the following day at Colombo. 
 
 The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is 
 the avicula the only mollusc, by which pearls are fur- 
 nished. The Bay of Tamblegam, connected wdth the 
 magnificent harbour of Trincomalie, is the seat of 
 another pearl fishery, and the shell which produces them 
 is the thin transparent oyster {Placuna ^placenta), whose 
 clear white shells are used, in China and elsewhere, as 
 a substitute for window glass. They are also collected 
 annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls contained 
 in them. These are exported to the coast of India, to 
 be calcined for lime, which the luxurious affect to chew 
 with their betel. These pearls are also burned in the 
 mouths of the dead. So prolific are the mollusca of the 
 Placuna, that the quantity of shells taken by the 
 licensed renter in the three years prior to 1858, could 
 not have been less than eighteen millions.^ They de- 
 light in brackish water, and on more than one recent 
 occasion, an excess of either salt water or fresh has 
 proved fatal to great nrunbers of them. 
 
 On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa, 
 in September, 1848, I made some inquiries relative to a 
 story which had reached me of musical sounds, said to be 
 
 giren from drawings made for the at four months old, No. 3. No. 4, 
 
 Official Inspector, and exhibiting six months. No. 5, one year. No. 
 
 the ascertained size of the pearl 6, two years. The second plate 
 
 oyster at every period of its growth, exhibits the shell at its full growth. 
 
 from the "spat" to the mature ^ Report of Vv. Kelaart, Oct. 
 
 shell. The young "brood" are 1857. 
 shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The shell 
 
f/o Jcd'Oly 
 
 PEAKL UYSTI-.U. 
 
 1. 2. The j"ouiip hrooil or tpal. 
 .1. r<iui' niiiiitljs (>l<i. 
 •1. 8ix nioiitli." old. 
 
 5. One year old. 
 tl. T«o years old. 
 
THE PEARL OYSTER. 
 Full Growth. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 MUSICAL SEA-SOUNDS. 
 
 381 
 
 often heard issuing from the bottom of the lake, at several 
 places, both above and below tlie ferry opposite the old 
 Dutch Fort ; and which the natives suppose to proceed 
 from some fish peculiar to the locality. The report was 
 confirmed in all its particulars, and one of the spots 
 whence the sounds proceed was pointed out between the 
 pier and a rock that intersects the channel, two or three 
 hundred yards to the eastward. They were said to be 
 heard at night, and most distinctly when the moon was 
 nearest the full, and they were described as resembling 
 the faint sweet notes of an ^olian harp. I sent for 
 some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly 
 aware of the fact, and that their fathers had always 
 known of the existence of the musical sounds, heard, they 
 said, at the spot alluded to, but only during the dry 
 season, as they cease when the lake is swollen by the 
 freshes after the rain. They believed them to proceed 
 not from a fish, but from a shell, which is known by the 
 Tamil name of {oorie cooleeroo cradoo, or) the " crying 
 shell," a name in which the sound seems to have been 
 adopted as an echo to the sense. I sent them in search 
 of the shell, and they returned bringing me some living 
 specimens of different shells, chiefly littorina and ceri- 
 thium.^ 
 
 * Littorina IcBvis. Ceritkium pa- 
 lustre. Of tlie latter the specimens 
 brought to me were dwarfed and 
 solid, exhibiting in this particular 
 the usual peculiarities that distin- 
 guish (1) shells inhabiting a rocky 
 locality from (2) their congeners in 
 a sandy bottom. Their longitu- 
 dinal development was less, with 
 greater breadth, and increased 
 strength and weight. 
 
 cerithium; paldstre. 
 
382 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and 
 accompanied the fishermen to the spot. We rowed 
 about two hundred yards north-east of the jetty by the 
 fort gate ; there was not a breath of wind, nor a ripple 
 except those caused by the dip of our oars. On coming 
 to the point mentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in 
 question. They came up from the water like the gentle 
 thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a 
 wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a moistened finger. 
 It was not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny 
 sounds, each clear and distinct in itself; the sweetest 
 treble mingling with the lowest bass. On applying the 
 ear to the woodwork of the boat, the vibration was 
 greatly increased in volume. The sounds varied con- 
 siderably at different points, as we moved across the 
 lake, as if the number of the animals from which they 
 proceeded was greatest in particular spots ; and occasion- 
 ally we rowed out of hearing of them altogether, until 
 on returning to the original locality the sounds were at 
 once renewed. 
 
 This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the 
 sounds, whatever they may be, are stationary at several 
 points; and this agrees with the statement of the 
 natives, that they are produced by moUusca, and not by 
 fish. They came evidently and sensibly from the depth 
 of the lake, and there was nothing in the surrounding 
 circumstances to support the conjecture that they could 
 be the reverberation of noises made by insects on the 
 shore conveyed along the surface of the water ; for they 
 were loudest and most distinct at points where the na- 
 ture of the land, and the intervention of the fort and 
 its buildings, forbade the possibility of this kind of con- 
 duction. 
 
Chap. Xl.J 
 
 MUSICAL SEA-SOUNDS. 
 
 383 
 
 Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at 
 some places on the western coast of India, especially 
 in the harbour of Bombay.^ At Caldera, in Chili, mu- 
 sical cadences are stated to issue from the sea near the 
 landing-place ; they are described as rising and falling 
 fully four notes, resembling the tones of harp strings, 
 and mingling like those at Batticaloa, till they produce 
 a musical discord of great delicacy and sweetness. The 
 
 ' These sounds are thus de- 
 scribed by Dr. BuisT in the 
 Bombay Times of January 1847: 
 
 " A party lately crossing from the 
 promontory in Salsette called the 
 'Neat's Tongue,' to near Sewree, 
 were, about sunset, struck by hear- 
 ing long distinct sounds like the 
 protracted booming of a distant 
 bell, the dying cadence of an 
 -S^olian harp, the note of a pitch- 
 pipe or pitch-fork, or any other 
 long-dra'wn-out musical note. It 
 was, at first, supposed to be music 
 from Parell floating at intervals on 
 the breeze ; then it was perceived 
 to come from all directions, almost 
 in equal strength, and to arise from 
 the surface of the water all aroxmd 
 the vessel. The boatmen at once 
 intimated that the sounds were 
 produced by fish, abounding in the 
 muddy creeks and shoals around 
 Bombay and Salsette ; they were 
 perfectly weU known, and very 
 often heard. Accordingly, on in- 
 clining the ear towards the surface 
 of the water ; or, better still, by 
 placing it close to the planks of the 
 vessel, the notes appeared loud and 
 distinct, and followed each other in 
 constant succession. The boatmen 
 next day produced specimens of 
 the fish — a creature closely re- 
 sembling in size and shape the 
 fresh-water perch of the north of 
 Europe — and spoke of them as 
 plentiful and perfectly well known. 
 
 It is hoped they may be procured 
 aHve, and the means afforded of 
 determining how the musical sounds 
 are produced and emitted, with 
 other particulars of interest sup- 
 posed new in Ichthyology. We 
 shaU be thankful to receive from 
 our readers any information they 
 can give us in regard to a phe- 
 nomenon which does not appear 
 to have been heretofore noticed, 
 and which cannot fail to attract 
 the attention of the naturalist. 
 Of the perfect accuracy with wliich 
 the singular facts above related 
 have been given, no doubt ^vill be 
 entertained when it is mentioned 
 that the writer was one of a party 
 of five intelligent persons, by all 
 of whom they were most carefully 
 observed, and the impressions of 
 all of whom in regard to them 
 were uniform. It is supposed that 
 the fish are confined to particular 
 localities — shallows, estuaries, and 
 muddy creeks, rarely visited by 
 Europeans; and that this is the 
 reason why hitherto no mention, 
 so far as we know, has been made 
 of the peculiarity in any work on 
 Natural History." 
 
 This communication elicited one 
 from Vizagapatam, relative to 
 " musical sounds like the prolonged 
 notes on the harp " heard to pro- 
 ceed from under water at that 
 station. It appeared in the Bom- 
 hay Times of Feb. 13, 1849. 
 
384 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 same interesting phenomenon has been observed at the 
 mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of Mississippi, and 
 of another river called the " Bayon coq del Inde," on 
 the northern shore of the Grulf of Mexico. The animals 
 from which they proceed have not been identified at 
 either of these places, and the mystery remains unsolved, 
 whether the sounds at Batticaloa are given forth by fishes 
 or by molluscs. 
 
 Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed 
 from the water^, and some are capable of making noises 
 when under it^ ; but all the circumstances connected 
 with the sounds which I heard at Batticaloa are un- 
 favourable to the conjecture that they were produced by 
 either. 
 
 Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to 
 
 • The Cuckoo Gurnard {Triglia 
 cttculus) and the maigre (Scicena 
 aquila) iitter sounds when taken 
 out of the water (Yareell, vol. i. 
 p. 44, 107); and herrings when 
 the net has just been drawn have 
 been observed to do the same. 
 This efifect has been attributed to 
 the escape of air from the air 
 bladder, but no air bladder has 
 been found in the Cottus, which 
 makes a similar noise. 
 
 ^ The fishermen assert that a 
 fish about five inches in length, 
 found in the lake at Colombo, and 
 called by them " magoora" makes 
 a grunt when disturbed under 
 water. Paxlegoix, in his account 
 of Siam, speaks of a fish resembling 
 a sole, but of brilliant colouring 
 with black spots, which the natives 
 call the " dog's tongue," that 
 attaches itself to the bottom of a 
 boat, " et fait entendre uu bruit 
 tres-sonore et meme harmonieux." 
 — Tom, i. p. 194. A Silurus, 
 
 found in the Rio Parana, and called 
 the " armado," is remarkable for 
 making a harsh grating noise when 
 caught by hook or line, which can 
 be distinctly heard when the fish 
 is beneath the water. Daewtn, 
 Nat. Journ. ch. vii. Aristotle 
 and -^lian were aware of the ex- 
 istence of this faculty in some of 
 the fishes of the Mediterranean. 
 Aristotle, Be Anim., lib. iv. ch. 
 ix. ; ^LiAN, Be Nat. Anim., lib. 
 X. ch. xi. ; see also Pliny, Hb. ix. 
 ch. vii., lib. xi. ch. cxiii. ; Athe- 
 N^us, lib. vii. ch. iii. vi. I have 
 heard of sounds produced under 
 water at Baltimore, and supposed 
 to be produced by the " cat-fish;" 
 and at Swan River, in Australia, 
 where they are ascribed to the 
 "trumpeter." A similar noise heard 
 in the Tagus is attributed by the 
 Lisbon fishermen to the " Corvina'" 
 — but what fish is meant by that 
 name, I am unable to tell. 
 
Chap. XI.] MUSICAL SEA-SOUNDS. 385 
 
 exist, not only in fishes^, but in mollusca. In the oyster 
 the presence of an acoustic apparatus of the simplest 
 possible construction has been established by the disco- 
 veries of Siebold^, and from our knowledge of the reci- 
 procal relations existing between the faculties of hearing 
 and of producing sounds, the ascertained existence of 
 the one affords legitimate grounds for inferring the co- 
 existence of the other in animals of the same class.^ 
 
 Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at 
 least of the gasteropoda is furnished with the power of 
 producing sounds. Dr. Grant, in 1826, communicated to 
 the Edinburgh Philosophical Society the fact, that on 
 placing some specimens of the Tritonia arborescens in 
 a glass vessel filled with sea water, his attention was 
 attracted by a noise which he ascertained to proceed 
 from these mollusca. It resembled the " clink " of a 
 steel wire on the side of the jar, one stroke only being 
 given at a time, and repeated at short intervals.^ 
 
 The affinity of structure between the Tritonia and 
 the mollusca inhabiting the shells brought to me at 
 Batticaloa, might justify the belief of the natives of 
 Ceylon, that the latter are the authors of the sounds I 
 heard; and the description of those emitted by the 
 former as given by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble them, 
 that I have always regretted my inability, on the occa- 
 
 ^ Agassiz, Comparative Physio- ^ I am informed that Professor 
 
 logy, sec. ii. 158. Mui^lek read a paper on " Musical 
 
 '^ It consists of two round vesicles fishes " before the Academy of Ber- 
 
 containing fluid, and crystalline or lin, in 1856. It will probably be 
 
 elliptical calcareous particles or found in the volume of Mulleb's 
 
 otolites, remarkable for their oscil- Archiv. fur Physiologie for that 
 
 latory action in the living or re- year; but I have not had an op- 
 
 cently killed animal. Owen's portunity of reading it. 
 
 Lectures on the Comxjarative Ana- * EdiyiburghPhilosophicalJourn., 
 
 tomy and Physiology of the Inver- vol. xiv. p. i88. See also the Ap- 
 
 tehrate Animals, 1855, p. 511-552. pendix to this chapter. 
 
 C C 
 
386 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 sion of my visits to Batticaloa, to investigate the subject 
 more narrowly. At subsequent periods I have since re- 
 newed my efforts, but without success, to obtain speci- 
 mens or observations of the habits of the living mollusca. 
 
 The only species afterwards sent to me were Cerithia; 
 but no vigilance sufficed to catch the desired sounds, and 
 I still hesitate to accept the dictum of the fishermen, as 
 the same mollusc abounds in all the other brackish 
 estuaries on the coast; and it would be singular, if 
 true, that the phenomenon of its uttering a musical 
 note should be confined to a single spot in the lagoon 
 of Batticaloa.^ 
 
 Although naturalists have long been familiar with the 
 marine testacea of Ceylon, no successful attempt has 
 yet been made to form a classified catalogue of the 
 species ; and I am indebted to the eminent conchologist, 
 Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which accompanies 
 this notice. 
 
 In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it 
 a task of more difficulty than would at first be surmised, 
 owing to the almost total absence of reliable data from 
 which to construct it. Three sources were available : 
 collections formed by resident naturalists, the contents 
 of the well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at Trin- 
 comalie, and the laborious elimination of locality from 
 the habitats ascribed to all the known species in the 
 multitude of works on conchology in general. 
 
 But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. 
 There is no large collection in this country composed ex- 
 clusively of Ceylon shells ; — and as the very few cabinets 
 
 ^ The letter which I received from stimulate some other inquirer in 
 
 Dr. Grant on this subject, I have Ceylon to prosecute the investi- 
 
 placed in a note to the present gation which I was unable to carry 
 
 chapter, in the hope that it may out successfully. 
 
Chap. XI.] IMPERFECT CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS. 387 
 
 rich in the marine treasures of the island have been 
 filled as much by purchase as by personal exertion, there 
 is an absence of the requisite confidence that all pro- 
 fessing to be Singhalese have been actually captured in 
 the island and its waters. 
 
 The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though 
 professing to contain the productions of Ceylon, include 
 shells which have been obtained from other islands in 
 the Indian seas : and the information contained in books, 
 probably from these very circumstances, is either obscure 
 or deceptive. The old writers content themselves with 
 assigning to any particular shell the too-comprehensive 
 habitat of " the Indian Ocean," and seldom discrimiuate 
 between a specimen from Ceylon and one from the 
 Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few in- 
 stances, Ceylon has been indicated with precision as the 
 habitat of particular shells, but even here the views 
 of specific essentials adopted by modern conchologists, 
 and the subdivisions established in consequence, leave 
 us in doubt for which of the described forms the col- 
 lective locality should be retained. 
 
 Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in 
 detached papers, in periodicals, and in the scientific 
 surveys of exploring voyages. The authentic facts em- 
 bodied in the monographs of Eeeve, Kusteb, Sowerby, 
 and KiENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the 
 marine testacea ; and the land and fresh-water mollusca 
 have been similarly illustrated by the contributions of 
 Benson and Layard to the Annals of Natural Histoinj. 
 
 The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated 
 spots along the coasts of Ceylon ; European explorers 
 have been rare ; and the natives, anxious only to secure 
 the showy and saleable shells of the sea, have neglected 
 
 c c 2 
 
S88 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 the less attractive ones of the land and the lakes. 
 Hence Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise that 
 the list appended, although the result of infinite labour 
 and research, is less satisfactory than could have been 
 mshed. " It is offered," he says, " with diffidence, not 
 pretending to the merit of completeness as a shell-fauna 
 of the island, but rather as a form, which the zeal of 
 other collectors may hereafter elaborate and fill up." 
 
 Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared 
 with the vast and almost untried field which invites 
 explorers, an assiduous collector may quadruple the 
 species hitherto described. The minute shells especially 
 may be said to be unknown ; a vigilant examination of 
 the corals and excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl- 
 oysters would signally increase our knowledge of the 
 Eissoae, Chemnitzise, and other perforating testacea, 
 whilst the dredge from the deep water will astonish the 
 amateur by the wholly new forms it can scarcely fail to 
 display. 
 
 List of Ceylon Shells, 
 
 The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarck- 
 ian one, very similar to that used by Eeeve and Sowerby, 
 and by Mr. Hanley, in his Illustrated Catalogue of 
 Recent Shells.^ 
 
 ' Below will be foimd a general Zeitsch. Malahoz. 1853. 'Anton, 
 
 reference to the Works or Papers in Wiegm. Arch. Nat. 1837; Ver- 
 
 whicli are ^iven descriptiye notices zeichn. Conch. Beck in Pfeijfer, 
 
 of the shells contained in the fol- Si/mhol. Helic. Bensox, Ann. Nat. 
 
 lowing list; the names of the Hist. vii. 1851; xii. 1853; xviii. 
 
 authors (in full or abbreviated) 1856. Blainville, Diet. 8c. Nat. ; 
 
 being, as usual, annexed to each Nouv. Ann. Mus. His. Nat. i. 
 
 species, Bolten, Miis. Bokn, Test. Mus. 
 
 Adams, Proceed. Zool. 8oc. 1853, Ccees. Vind. Beoderip, Zool. 
 
 54, 56 ; Thesaur. Conch. Axbees, Journ, i. iii. Bexjgcjiebe, Encyc. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 LIST OF CEYLON SHELLS. 
 
 389 
 
 Aspergillum Javanum. Brug. Enc, Met. 
 
 sparsum, Sowerbij, Geu. Shells.' 
 
 clavatiim, Cficnu, lUust. Conch. 
 Teredo nucivorus. Sp Skr. Nat. Sels.2 
 Solen truncatus. Wood. Gen. Conch. 
 
 linearis, U'uod, Gen. Conih. 
 
 cultellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 radiatus, Lmn. Syst. Nat. 
 Anatina subrostrata. Lam. Ani. s. Vert. 
 Anatinella Nicobarica, Gm. Syst. Nat. 
 Lutraria EL-yptiaca, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 Blainvillea vitiea, Chemn. Conch. Cab.3 
 Scrobicularia angulata, Chem. Con. Cab ^ 
 Wactra complanara, D^aA. Proc. Zl. Soc.'' 
 
 tumida, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 antiquata, tteeve (as of Spengl.), C. Icon. 
 
 cygnea, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Corbiculoides, Beshayes, Pr. Zl. S. 1854. 
 Mesodesma 
 
 Layardi, Deshat/es, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 
 striata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.** 
 Crasatella rostrata. Lam. Anira. s. Vert. 
 
 sulcata. Lam Anira. s. Vert. 
 Amphiiie^ma 
 
 duplicatum, Soirerby. Species Conch. 
 Pandora Ceylanica, Sowerby, Conch. Mis. 
 Galeommn Layardi. Desh. Pr. Zl. S. 18.56. 
 Keliia peculiaris, Adams. Pr. Zl. S. 18-56. 
 Petricola cultellus, Desh. Pr. Zl. S. 1853. 
 Sangunioiaria ros^a. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Psanimobi^ rostrata, Lam. \\\\m. s. Vert. 
 
 occidens. Gm. Systema Naturae. 
 
 Skinneri, Reeve, Conch. Icon.7 
 
 Layardi, Desh. P. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 1 A. dichotomum, Chenu. 
 
 2 Fistulana gregata. Lam. 
 
 3 Blainvillea. Hupe. 
 
 ■* Latraria tellinoides. Lam. 
 
 ^ I have also seen M. hians of Philippi 
 in a Ceylon collection, 
 
 6 M. Taprobanensis, Index Test. Suppl. 
 
 7 Psammotella Skinneri, Reeve, 
 
 Method. Vers. Carpexter, Proc. 
 Zool. Soc. 1856. Chem>-itz, Conch. 
 Cab. Chentj, Ulus. Conch. Des- 
 HATES, Encyc. Meth. Vers. ; Mag. 
 Zool. 1831; Voy. Belanger ; Edit. 
 Lam. An. s. Vert. ; Proceed. Zool. 
 Soc. 1853, 54, 55. Dillwyn, 
 Descr. Cat. Shells. Dohrn, Proc. 
 Zool. Soc. 1857, 58; Malak. 
 Blatter; Land and Fhiviatde Shells 
 of Ceylon. Duclos, Monog of 
 Oliva. Fabricius, in Pfeiffer 
 Monog. Helic. ; in Dohr^i's MSS. 
 Ferussac, Hist. Mollusques. Fors- 
 KAL, Anim. Orient. Gmelin, Si^st. 
 Nat. Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834, 
 52 ; Lndex Testaceologicus Suppl. ; 
 Spicilegia Zool. ; Zool. Journ. i. ; 
 Zool. Beechey Voy. Gratelolp, 
 Act. Linn. Bordeaux, xi. Guerin, 
 Eev. Zool. 1847. Hanlet, Thesaur. 
 Conch, i. ; Recent Bivalves ; Proc. 
 Zool. Soc. 1858. Hinds, Zool. Voy. 
 Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc. Huttox, 
 Journ. As. Soc. Karstex, Mu^. 
 Lesk. KiEXER, CoquiUes Vivantes. 
 Krauss, Sud-Afrik Mollusk. La- 
 marck, An. sans Verteh. Layard, 
 Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854, Lea, Pro- 
 ceed. Zool. Soc. 1850. LiNx^us, 
 Syst. Nat. IMartixi, Conch. Cab. 
 
 ^Iawe, hitrod. Linn. Conch.; Lidex 
 Test. Suppl. ]Mexjschex, in Gronov. 
 Zoophylac. Mexke, Synop. Mollus. 
 MuLLER, Hist. Verm. Terrest. 
 Petit, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1842. 
 Pfeiffer, Monog. Helic. ; Monog. 
 Pneumon. ; Proceed. Zool. Soc. 
 1852, 53, 54, 55, 5Q; Zeitschr. 
 Malacoz. 1853. Philippi, Zeitsch. 
 Mai. 1846, 47 ; Abbild. Ncuer 
 Conch. PoTiEz et Micilyud, Galerie 
 Bouai. Raxg, Mag. Zool. ser. i. p. 
 100. Eecluz, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 
 1845; Bevue Zool. Cuv. 1841; 
 Mag. Conch. Eeeve, Conch. 
 Icon.; Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842, 52. 
 Schumacher, Syst. Shuttle- 
 worth. SoLAXT)ER, in Billwyn's 
 Besc. Cat. Shells; Sowerby, Genera 
 Shells ; Species Co7ich. ; Conch. 
 Misc. ; Thesaur. Conch. ; Conch, 
 lllus. ; Proc. Zool. Soc. ; App. to 
 Tankerville Cat. Spexgler, Skrivt. 
 Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav. 1792. 
 Stvatnsox, Zool. Illust. ser. ii. 
 Templetox, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1858. 
 Troschel, in Pfeiffer, Mon. 
 Pneum; Zeitschr. Mcdak. 1847; 
 Wiegm. Arch. Nat. 1837. Wood, 
 General Conch. 
 
 C C 3 
 
390 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 lunulata, Desk. P. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 amethystus, t'Vood, Gen. Conch.^ 
 
 rugosa. Lam. Anim. s. Vert.'^ 
 Tellina virgata, Linn. Syst. Nat.3 
 
 rugosa, Born, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind. 
 
 ostracea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 ala, Hartley. Thesaur. Conch, i, 
 
 inaequalis, Hanley, Thesaur, Conch, i. 
 
 Layardi, Deshayes, P. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 caliosa, Deshayes. P. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 rubra, Deshayes, P. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 abbreviaia, Deiihayes, P Z. Soc. 1854. 
 
 foliacea, Linn. Systema Nature. 
 
 lingua-felis, Linn. Systema Naturae. 
 
 vulsella, Chemn. Conch. Cab."* 
 Lucina interrupta. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 5 
 
 Layardi, Da-hayts, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855. 
 Donax scortum, Linn, Syst. Nat. 
 
 cuneata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 faba, Chem. Conch. Cab. 
 
 spinnsa, Gtn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 paxillus, Rerve, Conch. Icon. 
 Cyrena Ceylanica, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Tennentii, Hanley, P. Z. Soc. 1858, 
 Cytherea Erycina, Linn. Syst. Nat.^ 
 
 meretrix, Linn. Syst. Nat." 
 
 castanea. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 castrensls, Linn. Sy^t. Nat. 
 
 casta, Gm. Syst. Nat. 
 
 costata, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 l*ta, Gm, Syst. Nat. 
 
 trimaculata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Hebraea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 rugifera. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 scripta, Linn, Syst. Nat. 
 
 gibbia. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Meroe, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 testudinalis. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 seminuda, Jfwtow.Wiepm. A.Nat. 1837.^ 
 Venus reticulata, Linn. Syst. Nat.^ 
 
 pinguis, Chemn. ('onch. Cab. 
 
 recens, Philippi. Abbild. Neuer Conch. 
 
 thiara, DUlw. Descriptive Cat. Shells. 
 
 Malabarica, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Brnguieri, Hanley, Recent Bivalves. 
 
 papilionacea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Indica, Sowrrby, Thesa\ir. Conch, ii. 
 
 inflata, Deshayes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.10 
 
 Ceylonensis. Sowerby, Thes. Conch, ii. 
 
 literata, Linn. Systema Naturas. 
 
 textrix, Chetnn. Conch. Cab." 
 Cardium unedo, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 maculosum. Wood, Gen. Con. 
 
 leucostomura, Born, Tt. M. Cjes. Vind. 
 
 rugosum, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 biradiatum, Bruguiere, En. Meth. Vers. 
 
 attenuatiim, Sowerby, Conch. lUust. 
 
 enode, Soiverby, Conch. Illust. 
 
 papyraceum, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 ringiculum, Sowerby, Conch. Illust. 
 
 subrugo^um, S<)V>erby, Conch. Illust. 
 
 latum, Born, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind. 
 
 Asiaticum, Chemn Conch. Cab. 
 Cardita variejiata, Brug. Enc. Meth. Vers. 
 
 bicolor, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Area rhomb^a. Born, Test. Mus. 
 
 vellicata, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 cruciata, Phihppi, Ab. Neur Conch. 
 
 decussat.i. Reeve (as of Sowerby), C. I.'^ 
 
 scapha, Meuschen, in Gronov. Zoo. 
 Pectunculus nodnsus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 pertiniformis. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Nucula mitralis, Hinds, Zool. voy. Sul. 
 
 Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. 
 
 Mauritii {Hanley as of Hinds), Rec. Biv. 
 Unio 
 
 corrugatus, Mii/ler, Hist. Verm. Ter.l^ 
 
 marginalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Lithodomus 
 
 cinnamoneus. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Mytiius viridis, Linn. Syst. Nat.^^ 
 
 bilocularis, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Pinna inflata, Chamn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 cancellata, Mawe, Intr. Lin. Conch. 
 Malleus vulgaris. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 albus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Meleagrina margaritifera, Lmn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 vexiilum, Reeve, Conch. Icon.'^ 
 Avicula macroptera. Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 Lima squamosa, I^am, Anim. s. Vert. 
 Pecten plica, Linn. -S^-st. Nat. 
 
 radula, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 pleuronec es. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 pallium, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 senator, O'tw. Syst. Nat. 
 
 histrionicus, Gm. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Indlcus, Deshayes, Voyage Belanger. 
 
 Layardi, Reeve, Conch, Icon. 
 Spondylus Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 candidus. Reeve {as of Lam.) C. Icon. 
 Ostrea hyotis, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 glauciiia. Lam Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Mytiloides, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 cucullata? \ar. Born Test. M. Vind.'^ 
 Vulsella 
 
 Pholadiformis, Reeve, C. Ion. (immat.) 
 Placuna placenta, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Lingula anatina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 * P. caerulescens, Lam. 
 
 2 Sanguinolaria rugosa. Lam. 
 
 3 T. striatula of Lamarck is also sup- 
 posed to be indigenous to Ceylon. 
 
 4 T. rostrata, La?>i. 
 
 5 L. divaricata is found, also, in mixed 
 Ceylon collections. 
 
 6 C. dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally 
 found in Ceylon collections. 
 
 7 C. impudica. Lam. 
 
 8 As Donax. 
 
 9 V. corbis, Lam. 
 >o As Tapes. 
 
 '1 V. textile, Lam, 
 
 12 ? Area Helblingii, Chemn. 
 
 13 Mr. Cuming informs me that he has 
 forwarded no less than six distinct Uni- 
 ones from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Phila- 
 delphia, tor determination or description. 
 
 '4 M. smaragdinus, Chemn, 
 
 1'' As Avicula. 
 
 16 1 he specimens are not in a fitting 
 state for positive determination. They 
 are strong, extremely narrow, with the 
 beak of the lower valve much produced, 
 and the inner edge of the upper valve den- 
 ticulated throughout. The muscular im- 
 pressions are dusky brown. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 LIST OF CEYLON SHELLS. 
 
 391 
 
 Hyalaea tridentata. For. Anim. Orient.' 
 
 Chiton, 2 species {Lnyard). 
 
 Patella Reynaudii, Deshat/es, Voy. Be. 
 
 testudinaria, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Emarginula fissurata, C/i. C. Cab.2 Lam. 
 Calypiraea (Crucibulum) violascens, Car- 
 penter, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1856. 
 Dentalium 
 
 octogonum, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 aprinum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Bulla soliita, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 3 
 
 vex ilium, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Bruguieri, Adams, Thes. Conch. 
 
 elongata, Adams, Thes. Conch. 
 
 ampulla, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, Leach. 
 in Brit. Mus.) allied to L. Mauri- 
 tiana, if not it. 
 Vaginula maculata, Tempi. An. Nat. 
 Limax, 2 sp. 
 
 Parmacella Tennentii, Tempi.'* 
 Vitrina irradians, Pjeiffer, Mon. Helic. 
 
 Edgariana, Ben. Ann. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 membranacea, Ben. A. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 Helix haemastoma, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 vittata, MUller, Vermium Terrestrium. 
 
 bistrialis. Beck, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic. 
 
 Tranquebarica, Fabricius, in Pfeiff". 
 Monog. Helic. 
 
 Juliana, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834. 
 
 Waltoni, Heeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842. 
 
 Skinneri, Eeeve. Conch. Icon. vii. 
 
 corylus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. vii. 
 
 \xmby\wBL{Reeve, as oi Pfeiff-), C. Ic. vii. 
 
 fallaciosa, Ferussai , Hist. IVIollus. 
 
 Rivolii, Deshayes. Enc. Meth. Vers. ii. 
 
 Charpentieri, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 erronea, Alters. Zeitschr. Mai. 1853. 
 
 carneola, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 convexiuscula, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 gnoma, Pfeiff". Monog. Helic. 
 
 Chenui, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic 
 
 semidecussata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 phoenix, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 superba, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Gardnerii, I'Jeiff Monog. Helic. 
 
 coridria, Pfeiff'. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Layardi, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 concavospira, Pfeiff: Monog. Helic. 
 
 novella, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 verrucula, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 hyphasma, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Emiliana, Pfeijff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Woodiana, Pteiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 partita, PJeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 biciliata, Pfeff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 I.-abellina, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 
 
 trifilosa, Pfeff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 
 politissiraa, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854. 
 
 Thwaitesii, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 
 nepos, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855. 
 
 subopaca. Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. 
 
 subconoidea, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. S. 18.54. 
 
 ceraria, Benson, An. Nat. H. 185'^ (xii.) 
 
 vilipensa, Benson, An. N. H. 18.53 (xii.) 
 
 pertucata, Benson, A. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 puteolus, Berisoti, An. N. H. 18-53 (xii.) 
 
 mononema, Benson, A. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 marcida, Benson, An. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 galerus, Benson, A. N. H. 18.56 (xviii.) 
 
 albizonata, Dohrn, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858. 
 
 Ni.tneri, Dohrn, MS.^ 
 
 Grevillei, Pfeiff.Vroc. Zool. Soc. 1856. 
 Streptaxis Layardi, Pfeiff. Mon. Helic. 
 
 Cingalensis, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 Pupa 
 
 iruscerda, Benson, A. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 mimula, Benson, A. N. H. 18.56 (xviii.) 
 
 Ceylanica, PJeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 Bulimus 
 
 trifasciatus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 pullus, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834. 
 
 gracilis, Hutton, Journ. Asiat. Soc.iii. 
 
 punctatus. Anion, Verzeichn. Conch. 
 
 Ceylanicus, Pfeiff. (?Blaevis, Gray, in 
 Index Testaceologicus.) 
 
 adumbratus, Pfeiff, Monog. Helic. 
 
 intermedius, Pfiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 proletarius, Pfeiff'. Monog. Helic. 
 
 albizonatus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 Mavortius, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 luscoventris, Ben. A. N. H. 1856 (xviii.) 
 
 rufopictus, Ben. A. N H. 1856 (xviii.) 
 
 panos, Benson, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 Achatina nitens, Gray, Spicilegia Zool. 
 
 inornata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 capillacea, Pfeff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 Punctogallana, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic. 
 
 pachycheila, Benson. 
 
 veruina, Bens, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 parabilis Bens. A. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.) 
 Succinea Ceylanica, P/e/^ Monog. Helic. 
 Auricula 
 
 Ceylanica, Adams, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.6 
 
 Ceylanica, Petit, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.7 
 
 Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.8 
 
 pellucens, Menke, Synopsis Moll. 
 Pythia 
 
 Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853. 
 
 ovata, Pfeiff: Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 Truncatella 
 
 Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 18.'i6. 
 Cyclostoma ( Cyclophorus) Ceylanicum, 
 Sowerby, Thes. Conch. 
 
 involvulum, Miil/er, Verm. Terrest. 
 
 Menkeanum, Philippi, Zeit. Mai. 1847. 
 
 punctatum, Gratel. A.L. Bordeaux (xi.) 
 
 loxostoma, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 1 As Anomia. 
 
 2 The fissurata of Humphreys and Da- 
 costa, pi. 4 — E. rubra, Lamarck, 
 
 3 B. Ceylanica, Brug. 
 
 * P. Tennentii. " Greyish brown, with 
 longitudinal rows of rufous spots, forming 
 interrupted bands along the sides. A 
 singularly handsome species, having simi- 
 lar habits to Limax. Found in the vallevs 
 
 of the Kalany Ganga, near Ruanwelle." — 
 TempletonMS^. 
 
 ^ Not far from bistriali.'* and Ceylanica. 
 The manuscript species of Mr. Dohrn 
 will shortly appear in his intended work 
 upon the "land and fluviatile shells of 
 Ceylon. 
 
 6 As EUobiura. 
 
 7 As Melampus. 
 
 8 As Ophicardelis. 
 
 C C 4 
 
392 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 alabastrum, Tfeiff, Monogr. Pneumon. 
 
 Bairdii. Fjeiff. Moni g. Pneumon. 
 
 Thwaitesii. Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 annulatum.7;t).<rc/i. in PfeifF. M. Pneum. 
 
 parapsis, Bens. An. Nat Hist. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 parm .Bens. An. Nat. His. 18.W(xviii.) 
 
 cratera, ^t-ns. An. N. Hist. IS-^G (xviii.) 
 {Leptopoma) halopliiluin, Benson, Ann. 
 Nat. Hist. (ser. 2 vii.) 1851. 
 
 orophilum, Bens. A. N. H. fser. 2. xi.) 
 
 apicatum. Bens. A. N. H. 18-56 (xviii.) 
 
 conuius, Pfeiff. Pioc. Zool. See. 1854. 
 
 flammeum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 semiciausum, Pfeiff. .Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 poecilum. Pfeiff Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 datum, Pfeiff. M^nog. PneumoH. 
 Cyclostoma {Aulopoma). 
 
 Iter], Guerin, Rev. Zool. 1847. 
 
 heliciniim, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 HofTmeisteri, Troschel, Zeit. Mai. 1847. 
 
 grande. Pfeiff". Monoir. J'neumon. 
 
 €Pheroideum, Do/irn, Malak. Blatter. 
 
 (?) gradatura, Pfeiff Monog. Pneumon. 
 Cyclostoma {Pterucyclos). 
 
 Cingalense, Bens. A. N. H. (ser. 2. xi.) 
 
 Troscheli, Bens. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851. 
 
 Curaingii, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon. 
 
 bifrons, Pfeiff .Monog. Pneumon. 
 Cataulus Temi>lemani, Pfeff. Mon. Pneu. 
 
 eurytrema, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 18.52. 
 
 margin^tus, Pfoff- Proc. Zool. .Soc. 1853. 
 
 duplicatus, P/c/^.Proc. Zool. Soc. H54. 
 
 aureus, Ffeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 18='5. 
 
 Lavardi, Gray. Proc. Zool Soc. 1852. 
 
 Austenianrs. Bens. A. N. H. 1853 (xii.) 
 
 Thwaitesii. Pfeiff.Vroc Zo. Soc. 18.52. 
 
 Cumingii. Pfeiff. Proc Zool. Soc. 1856. 
 
 decorus, Bens. Ann. Nat. Hist. 18.53. 
 
 haemastoma, Pfeiff. Proc. Zo. Soc. 18.56. 
 Planorbis 
 
 Coromandelianus, ^ab. in Dorhn's MS. 
 
 Stelzeneri. Oohrn. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 elegantulus, Dohrn, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858. 
 Limnaea 
 
 tigrina, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 pinguis, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 Jlelania 
 
 tuberculata, M'uller, Verm. Ter.' 
 
 spinulosa. Lam, Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 corrugata, Lam .Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 rudis. La, Proc. Zool. Soc 1«50. 
 
 acanthica. Lea, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850. 
 
 Zeylanica, Lea. Proc. Z.«ol. Soc. 18-50. 
 
 corrfusa, Dohrn. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 datura, Duhrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 Lavardi, Duhrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 Paludoraus 
 
 abbreviatus. Reeve, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 clavatus, Beeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 18-52. 
 
 dilatatus, Beeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 globulosus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 decussatus, Reeve. Proc Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 nigricans. Reeve. Conch. Icon. 
 
 constrictus. Reeve. Proc Zo. Soc. 1852. 
 
 bicinctus. Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 phasianinus, Beeve, Proc.Zo Soc. 1852. 
 
 Isevls, Loyard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854, 
 
 palustris, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 18-54. 
 
 lulguratus, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. 
 
 nasutiis, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. 
 
 sphHpricus, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 18.57. 
 
 solidus, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. 
 
 distinnuendus, Dohrn, Proc. Z. S. 18-57. 
 
 Cumingianus, Dohrn, Proc. Z. S. 1857. 
 
 dromedarius. Dohrn, Proc. Z. S. 1857. 
 
 Skinneri, Dohrn, Proc Zool. Soc. 1857. 
 
 Swamsoni, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 18-57. 
 
 nodulo>us, Dohrn. Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. 
 Paludomus (Tunalia). 
 
 loricatus. Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 erinaceus. Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 aereus. Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. 
 
 Lnyardi, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. J 852. 
 
 undatus, Beeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 Gardner!, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 Tennentii, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 Reevei, Layard. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 
 violaceus, Layard, Proc. Zool. S c. 1854. 
 
 similis, Layard. Proc. Z"ol. Soc. 1854. 
 
 fmrculatus, Layard. Pr. Z. Soc. 1854. 
 Paludomus ( Philopotamis^. 
 
 sulcatus. Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 regalis, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 18.54. 
 
 Thwaitesii. Layard, P. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 Pirena aira, Linn. Systema Naturae. 
 Paludma melanostoma, Bens. 
 
 Ceylanica, Dohrn. Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857. 
 Bythinia i^tenoihyroides, Dohrn, Proc. 
 Zool. Soc. 1''57. 
 
 mode.'ta, Dohrn. MS. 
 
 inconspicua, Dohrn, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857. 
 Ampullaria La\ardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 moesta, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 cinerea, Beeve. Conch. Icon. 
 
 Woodward!, Dohrn, Pr. Zool. Soc. 18-58. 
 
 Tischbeini, Duhrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 cariiiata, Swainson. Zool. lUus. ser. 2. 
 
 paliidinnides, Cat. Cristofori 8$ Jan.- 
 
 Malabarica, I hitippi, monog. Ampul.2 
 
 Lnzonica, Reeve, Conch. Icon.^ 
 
 Sumatrensis, Philippi, monog. AmpuL* 
 Navicella eximia. Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 reticulata, Reeve, < onch. Icon. 
 
 Livesayi, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 squamata, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. 
 
 depresia, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Neritina 
 
 crepidularia. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 melanostoma, Trosch. W. A. Nat. 1837. 
 
 triserialis, Sowerby, Conch. lUustr. 
 
 Colornbaria, Recluz, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845. 
 
 Perottetiana, Reclux,^c^. Z. Cuv. 1841. 
 
 Ceylanensis, Recluz. Mag. Conch. 1851. 
 
 Lavardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 rostrata. Reeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 reticulata, Sowerby, Conch. Illustr. 
 Nerita plicata, Linn. Systema Natures. 
 
 costata, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 plexa, Chemn. Conch. Cab.^ 
 Natica aurantia. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 mammilla, Linn. Systema Naturae. 
 
 picta. Reeve (as ot Reclux), C. Icon. 
 
 arachnoidea, Gm. Systema Naturae. 
 
 lineata, Lam. Anim'. s. Vert, 
 
 > M. fasciolata, Olivier. authority of Mr. Dohrn. 
 
 8 These four species are included on the ^ N. exuvia, Lain, not Linn. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 LIST OF CEYLON SHELLS. 
 
 393 
 
 adusta, Ch. C. C. f. 192R-7, & Karsten.^ 
 
 pellis-tigrina, Karsten, Mus. Lesk.'^ 
 
 did \ ma, Bolten, Mus.^ 
 lanthina prolongara, Blainv. D. S. N.xxiv. 
 
 communis, Kr. (as oi L. in part) S.A. M. 
 Sigaretus, sp.^ 
 Stomateila 
 
 calliostoma, Adams, Thesaur. Conch. 
 Haliotis varia, Linn. Systema Naturse. 
 
 striata. Martini (as of Linn.), C. Cao. i. 
 
 semistriata. Reeve, Concii. Icon. 
 Tornatella solidula, Linn. Systema Nat. 
 Pyramidella 
 
 maculosa. Lam. Anira. s. Vert. 
 Eulima Martini, Adams, Thes. Conch, ii. 
 Siliquaria 
 
 muricata, Born. Test. Mus. Cses. Vind. 
 Scalaria raricostata, Lain. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Dc^lphinula laciniata. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 distorta, Linn. Syst. Nat.^ 
 Solarium perdix, Hinds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 
 
 Layardi, Adams. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.6 
 Rotelia vestiaria, Linn, Syst. Nat. 
 Phorus pallidulus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. i. 
 Trochus 
 
 elegantulus, Gray, Index Tes. Suppl. 
 
 Niloticus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Monodoiita laOio, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 canaliculata, Latn. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Turbo versicolor, Gm. Syst. Nat. 
 
 princeps. Philippi.^ 
 Planaxis undtilauis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. '^ 
 Littorina angulit'era. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 melanostoma, Gray, Zool., Beech. Voy.^ 
 Cliemiutzia 
 
 trilineata, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. 
 
 lirata, Ada?ns, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. 
 Phasianella 
 
 lineolata, Gray, Index Test. Suppl. 
 Turritella 
 
 bacillum, ^/ewe;-, Coquilles Vivantes, 
 
 coluninaris, Kiener, Coquilles Vivantes. 
 
 duplicata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 attenuata. Reeve, Syst. Nat. 
 Cerithium fluviatile, Potiez 4" Michaud, 
 Galerie Duuai. 
 
 Layardi (Curithidea), Adams, Proc. 
 Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 
 palustre, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 aluco, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 asperu II, Linn, ^yst. Nat. 
 
 telescopium, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 palustre obeliscus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 fasciatum, Brag. Em yd. Meth. Vers. 
 
 rubus, Sower, (as ot'J/ar/.;,Thes. C, ii. 
 
 Sowerbyi, Kiener, Coquilles Vivantes 
 (teste Sir E. Tennent). 
 Pleurotoma Indica, Deshayes, Voyage 
 Belanger. 
 
 virgo. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Turbinella pyrum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 rapa, La?« Anim.s Vert.,(the Chank.) 
 
 cornigera, I. am. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 spirilius, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Cancellaria 
 
 triyonostoma. Lam. .^nim. s. Vert.'" 
 
 scalata, Soverby, Thesaur. Conch. 
 
 articularis, Sowerby, Thesaur. Conch. 
 
 Littoriniformis, Soirerby, Thes. Conch. 
 
 contabulaia, Sowerby, 1 hes. Conch. 
 Fasciolaria 
 
 fiiamentosa, Latn. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 trapezium, Lmn. Syst. Nat. 
 Fusus longissimus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 colus, Linn. Mus. Lud. Ulricas. 
 
 toreomA,Deshayes (AS, Mur. i.Martyii).^^ 
 
 laticostntus, Deshayes, Mag. Zool. 1831. 
 
 Blosvillei, Deshayes. E. Meth. Vers., ii. 
 Pyrula rapa, Linn. Syst. Nat.l2 
 
 citrina. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 pugilina, Born, Test. Mus. Vind.'^ 
 
 ficus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 ficoides, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Ranella crumena, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 spin )sa. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 rana. Linn. Syst. Nat.'^ 
 
 margaritula, Deshayes, Voy. Belanger. 
 Murex haustellum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 adustus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 micropbyllus, Lam. .Aiiim. s. Vert. 
 
 angulilerus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 palinarosae. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 ternispina, Kiener (as of Lam.), Co- 
 quilles Vivantes. 
 
 tenuispina. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 ferrugo, Mawe, Index. Test. Suppl. i^ 
 
 B.ee\ e.anui, Shuttleii'urth (teste Cuming) 
 Tricon anus, Linn. Syst. Nat '^ 
 
 mukis, Dilluyn. Descript. Cat. Shells. 
 
 retusus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 pyrum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 clavator, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Ceylonensis, Sowerby, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
 
 lotoriuni, Lam. (not Linn.) An. s. Vert. 
 
 lampas, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Pterocera lambis, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 millepeda, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Strombus canarium, Linn. Syst. Nat.''' 
 
 succiiutus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 fasciatus, Born, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind. 
 
 1 Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N, raelan- 
 ostoma, Lam. in part. 
 
 2 Chemn. Conch. Cab. 1892-3. 
 
 3 N. glaucina, Lam. not Linn. 
 
 ■1 A species (possibly Javanicus) is 
 known to have been collected. 1 have not 
 seen it. 
 
 5 Not of Lamarck. D. atrata, Reeve. 
 
 6 Philippia L. 
 
 7 Zeit. Mai. 1846 for T. argyrostoma, 
 Lam not Linn. 
 
 8 Buccinum pyramidatum, Gm. in part : 
 B. sulcatum, var. C. oi Urug. 
 
 9 Teste Cuming. 
 
 10 As Delphinulat. 
 
 1' Ed. Lam. .Anim. s. Vert. " " 
 i'-^ F. papyracea, Lam. In mixed collec- 
 tions I have seen the Chinese P. bezoar of 
 Lamarck as from Ceylon. 
 13 P. vespertilio, Gm, 
 
 11 R. albivaricosa. Reeve. 
 
 15 M. anguliferus var. Latn. 
 
 16 T. cymcephalus of Lamarck is also 
 met with in Ceylon collections. 
 
 17 S. incisus of the Index Testaceologi- 
 cus (urceus, var. Soi/k Thesaur.) is found 
 in mixed Ceylon collections. 
 
394 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 Sibbaldii, Somerby, Thesaur. Conch, t. 
 
 lentiginosus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 marginatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Lamarckii, Sowerby, Thesaur. Conch. 
 Cassis glauca, Linn. Syst. Nat.' 
 
 canaliculata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Zeylariica, Lam. Aniin. s. Vert. 
 
 areola, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Ricinula albo'.abris, Blainv. Nouv. Ann. 
 Mus. H. N.i.2 
 
 horrida. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 morus, Lam. Anim. s. Vi-rt. 
 Purpura fiscella, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 Persica, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 hystrix. Lam. (not Linn.) An. s. Vert. 
 
 granatina, Deshayes, Voy Belanger. 
 
 mancineUa, Lam. {a.^ o^ Linn.) An. s.V. 
 
 bufo, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 carinifera, Lnm. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Harpa conoidalis, Lam. Anim, s. Vert. 
 
 minor, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Dolium pomum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 olearium, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 perdix, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 maculatum, I. am. Anim. s. Vert. 
 iJassa ornata, Kiener, Coq. Vivantes.3 
 
 verrucosa, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 crenulata, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 olivacea, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 glans, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 arcularia, Linn. Syst Nat, 
 
 papillosa, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Phos virgatus, Hinds, Zool. Sul. Moll. 
 
 retecosus. Hinds, Zool. Sulphur, Moll. 
 
 senticosus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Buccinum melanostoma, Sowerby, App. 
 to Tankerv. Cat. 
 
 erythrosttma, Beeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 Proteus, Beeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 rubiginosum, Beeve, Conch. Icon. 
 Eburna spirata, Linn. Syst. Nat.'* 
 
 canaliculata, Schumacher, S. A. s. V.5 
 
 Ceylanica, Bmguiere, En. Meth. Vers. 
 BuUia vittata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 lineolata, Sowerby, Tankerv. Cat.6 
 
 Melanoides, Deshayes, Voy. Belan. 
 Terebra chlorata, Lam. Anim, s. Vert. 
 
 muscaria, Lam. Anim. s. Vert, 
 
 laevigata. Gray, Proc, Zool. Soc. 1834, 
 
 maculata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 subulata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 concinna, Deshayes, ed. Lam. A. S.V. 
 
 myurus, La7n. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 tigrina, Gm. Syst, Nat. 
 
 cerithina. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Columbella flavida. Lam. Anim.s. Vert. 
 
 fulgurans. Lam. Amm. s. Vert. 
 
 mendicaria, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 scripta, Lam. Anim. 8.Vert.( Teste Jay}. 
 Mitra 
 
 episcopalis, Dilhnyn, Des. Cat. Shells. 
 
 cardinalis. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 crebrilirata, Beeve, Conch. Icon. 
 
 punctostriata,y4<fflws,Proc. Zool. So. 18.54. 
 
 insculpta, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864. 
 Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854, ? 
 Voluta vexillum, Chemn. Conch. Cab, 
 
 Lapponica, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 Melo Indicus, Gin. Syst. Nat. 
 Marginella Sarda, Kiener, Coq. Vivantes. 
 Ovulum ovum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 verrucosum, LAnn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 pudicum, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. 
 Cypraea Argus, lAnn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 Arabica, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 Mauritiana. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 hirundo, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Lynx, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 asellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 erosa, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 vitellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 stolida, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 mappa, Linn. Syst, Nat, 
 
 helvola, LAnn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 errones, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 cribraria, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 globulus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 clandestina, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 ocellata, LAnn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 caurica, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 tabescens. So/and. in Dillwyn Des. C. Sh. 
 
 gangrenosa, Solund- in Dillw. D. C. Sh. 
 
 interrupta, Gray, Zool. Journ. i. 
 
 lentiginosa, Gray, Zool. Journ. i. 
 
 pyriformis, Gray, Zool. Journ. i. 
 
 nivosa. Broderip, Zool. Journ. iii. 
 
 poraria, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 testudinaria, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 Terebellum 
 
 subulatum. Lam,. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Ancillaria glabrata, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Candida, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Oliva Maura, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 erythrostoma. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 gibbosa, Born, Test. Mus. Caes.^ 
 
 nebulosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 Macieayana, Duclos, Monogr. of Oliva. 
 
 episcopalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 elt'gans. Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 ispidiila, Linn. Syst. Nat, ( partly ).9 
 
 Zeiianica, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 undata, Lam,. Anim. s. Vert, 
 
 irisans, Lam. Anim. s. Vert, (teste 
 Duclos). 
 Conus miles, Linn. Syst, Nat. 
 
 generalis, Linn. Sysi, Nat. 
 
 betulinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 stercus-muscarum', Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Hebraeus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ^ 
 
 virgo, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 geographicus, Linn. Syst, Nat. 
 
 aulicus, Linn. Syst. Nat, 
 
 figuiinus, Linn. Syst, Nat. 
 
 striatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 senator, Linn. Syst. Nat.''* 
 
 literatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 1 C, plicaria of Lamarck, and C. coro- 
 nulata of Sowerby, are also said to be found 
 in Ceylon. 
 
 2 As Purpura. 
 
 3 N. suturalis, Beeve (as of Lam.), is 
 met with in mixed Ceylon collections. 
 
 * E, areolata, Lam. 
 
 * E, spirata, Lam. not Linn. 
 ^ B. Belangeri, Kiener. 
 
 7 As Turricula L, 
 
 8 O. utriculus, Dillwyn, 
 
 9 C. planorbis, .Bo/n; C. vulpinu8,Za»i. 
 
 10 Conus ermineus, Born, in part. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 LIST OF CEYLON SHELLS. 
 
 395 
 
 imperialis. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 textile, Linn. S_vst. Nat. 
 terebra, Born, Test. Must. Caes. Vind. 
 tessellatus. Born, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind. 
 augur, Biuguiere, Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 obesus, Bruguiere, Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 araneosus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 gubernator, Brug, Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 monile, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 nimbosus, Brug. Encrcl. M^th. Vers, 
 eburnetis, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 vitulinus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 quercinus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 lividus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 Omaria, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 Maldivus, Brug. Encycl. M^th. Vers, 
 noctiirnus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 Ceylonensis, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers, 
 arenatus. Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 Nicobaricus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 glans, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 Amadis, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 pnnctatiis, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 minimus, Reeve (as of Linn.), C. Icon. 
 
 terminus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 
 
 lineatus, Chemn. Conch. Cab. 
 
 episcopus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 verriculum, Reeve, Conch. Cab. 
 
 zonatus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 rattus, Brug. En. Mth. V. (teste Chemn.) 
 
 pertusus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers. 
 
 Nussatella, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 lithoglyphus, Brug. En. Meth. Vers."* 
 
 tulipa, Linn. Syst. Nat. 
 
 Ammiralis, var. Linn, teste Brug. 
 Spirula Peronii, Lain. Anim. s. Vert. 
 Sepia Hieredda, Rang. M, Z. ser.i. p. 100. 
 Sepioteuthis, Sp. 
 Loligo, Sp. 
 
 A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be 
 deduced from this catalogue ; namely, that Ceylon was 
 the unknown, and hence unacknowledged, source of 
 almost every extra-European shell which has been 
 described by Linnsus without a recorded habitat. This 
 fact gives to Ceylon specimens an importance which can 
 only be appreciated by collectors and the students of 
 Mollusca. 
 
 2. RADIATA. 
 
 The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated 
 animals, but it is to be regretted that they have as yet 
 received but little attention from English naturalists. 
 Recently, however. Dr. Kelaart has devoted himself to 
 the investigation of some of the Singhalese species, and 
 has published his discoveries in the Journal of the 
 Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our 
 information respecting the radiata on the confines of the 
 island is, therefore, very scanty ; with the exception of 
 the genera ^ examined by him. Hence the notice of this 
 extensive class of animals must be limited to indicating 
 
 ^ Actinia, 9 sp. ; Anthea, 4 sp. ; 1 sp. ; Peechea, 1 sp. ; Zoanthura, 
 Actinodendron, 3 sp. ; Dioscosoma, 1 sp. 
 
396 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 a few of those which exhibit striking peculiarities, or 
 which admit of the most common observation. 
 
 Star Fish. — Very large species of Ophiuridce are to be 
 met with at Trincomalie, crawling busily about, and in- 
 sinuating their long serpentine arms into the irregulari- 
 ties and perforations in the rocks. To these they attach 
 themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when they 
 perceive that they have attracted attention, that it is 
 almost impossible to procure un mutilated specimens 
 without previously depriving them of life, or at least 
 modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper surface 
 is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the 
 arms of the largest specimens are more than a foot in 
 length, and very fragile. 
 
 The star fishes, with immovable rays ^, are by no 
 means rare ; many kinds are brought up in the nets, or 
 may be extracted from the stomachs of the larger market 
 fish. One very large species^, figured by Joinville in 
 the manuscript volume in the library at the India House, 
 is not uncommon ; it has thick arms, from which and 
 the disc numerous large fleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson 
 colour project downwards, giving the creature a remark- 
 able aspect. No description of it, so far as I am aware, 
 has appeared in any systematic work on zoology. 
 
 Sea Slugs. — There are a few species of Holothiirice, 
 of which the trepang is the best known example. It is 
 largely collected in the Grulf of Manaar, and dried in the 
 sun to prepare it for export to China. A good descrip- 
 tion and figures of its varieties are still desiderata. 
 
 Parasitic Woii^is. — Of these entozoa, the Filaria 
 medinensis, or Gruinea-worm, which burrows in the 
 
 ^ Asterias, Linn. , 2 Pentaceros? 
 
Chap. XI.] PARASITIC WORMS. 397 
 
 cellular tissue under the skin, is well known in the north 
 of the island, but rarely found in the damper districts of 
 the south and west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the natives 
 attribute its occurrence to drinking the waters of par- 
 ticular wells; but this belief is inconsistent with the 
 fact that its lodgment in the human body is almost 
 always effected just above the ankle. This shows that 
 the minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the 
 leg from the moist vegetation bordering the footpaths 
 leading to wells. At this period the creatures are very 
 small, and the process of insinuation is painless and 
 imperceptible. It is only when they attain to consider- 
 able size, a foot or more in length, that the operation of 
 extracting them is resorted to, when exercise may have 
 given rise to inconvenience and inflammation. 
 
 These pests in all probability received their popular 
 name of Guinea-worms, from the narrative of Bruno 
 or Braun, a citizen and surgeon of Basle, who about the 
 year 1611 made several voyages to that part of the 
 African coast, and on his return published, amongst 
 other things, an account of the local diseases.^ But 
 Linschoten, the Dutch navigator, had previously ob- 
 served the same worms at Ormus in 1584, and they are 
 thus described, together with the method of removing 
 them, in the English version of his voyage. 
 
 " There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague 
 of wormes, which growe in their legges, it is thought 
 that they proceede of the water that they drink. These 
 wormes are like unto lute strings, and about two or 
 three fadomes longe, which they must plucke out and 
 winde them aboute a straw or a feather, everie day some 
 
 ^ In De Bey's Collect, toI. i. p. 49. 
 
398 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 part thereof, so longe as they feele them creepe ; and 
 when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till the 
 next daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and 
 the swelling from whence it commeth foorth, with fresh 
 butter, and so in ten or twelve dayes, they winde them 
 out without any let, in the meanetime they must sit still 
 with their legges, for if it should breake, they should not 
 without great paine get it out of their legge, as I have 
 seen some men doe." ^ 
 
 The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining 
 to brown. Its thickness is from a half to two-thirds of 
 a line, and its length has sometimes reached to ten or 
 twelve feet. Small specimens have been found beneath 
 the tunica conjunctiva of the eye ; and one species of the 
 same genus of Nematoidea infests the cavity of the eye 
 itself.2 
 
 Planaria. — In the journal already mentioned. Dr. Ke- 
 laart has given descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, 
 and four of a new genus, instituted by him for the 
 reception of those differing from the normal kinds by 
 some peculiarities which they exhibit in common. At 
 Point Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on the 
 bark of trees, after heavy rain, which would appear to 
 belong to the subgenus geoplana,^ 
 
 Accdephce. — AcalephaB"* are plentiful, so much so, 
 indeed, that they occasionally tempt the larger cetacea 
 into the Grulf of Manaar. In the calmer months of the 
 year, when the sea is glassy, and for hours together 
 
 ' John Htjighen Van Lin- of a light brown above, white un- 
 
 SCHOTEN his Discours of Voyages derneath; very broad and thin, 
 
 into the Easte and West Indies, and has a peculiarly shaped tail, 
 
 London, 1599, p. 16. half-moon-shaped in fact, like a 
 
 ^ Owen's Lectures on the Inver- grocer's cheese knife." 
 
 tebrata, p. 96. ^ * Jelly-fish. 
 
 ' "A ciu'ious species, which is 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 ACALEPKE. 
 
 399 
 
 undisturbed by a ripple, the minute descriptions are 
 rendered perceptible by their beautiful prismatic tint- 
 ing. So great is their transparency that they are only 
 to be distinguished from the water by the return to the 
 eye of the reflected light that glances from their delicate 
 and polished surfaces. Less frequently they are traced 
 by the faint hues of their tiny peduncles, arms, or ten- 
 taculse ; and it has been well observed that they often 
 give the seas in which they abound the appearance of 
 being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. The 
 larger kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, 
 
 PHYSALUS URTICULUS, 
 
 attain to considerable size. A faintly blue medusa. 
 
400 SHELLS. [Chap. XT. 
 
 nearly a foot across, may be seen in the Gulf of Manaar, 
 where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to be 
 found. 
 
 Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is 
 strewn mth the thin transparent globes of the " Portu- 
 guese Man of War," Physcdus urticulus, which are piled 
 upon the lines left by the waves, like globules of glass 
 delicately tinted with purple and blue. They sting, as 
 their trivial name indicates, like a nettle when in- 
 cautiously touched. 
 
 Bed infusoria. — On both sides of the island (but 
 most frequently on the west), during the south-west 
 monsoon, a broad expanse of the sea assumes a red 
 tinge, considerably brighter than brick-dust; and this 
 is confined to a space so distinct that a line seems to 
 separate it from the green water which flows on either 
 side. Observing at Colombo that the whole area so 
 tinged changed its position without parting with any 
 portion of its colouring, I had some of the water brought 
 on shore, and, on examination with the microscope, 
 found it to be filled with infusoria, probably similar to 
 those which have been noticed near the shores of South 
 America, and whose abundance has imparted a name to 
 the " Vermilion Sea" off the coast of California.* 
 
 The remaining orders, including the corals, madre- 
 
 ^ The late Dr. BnsT, of Bom- giving us the seas of milk as well 
 
 bay, ill commenting on this state- as those of blood. The coloured 
 
 ment, writes to the Athenceum that : water at times is to be seen all 
 
 "The red colour with which the along the coast north to Kurrachee, 
 
 sea is tinged, round the shores of and far out, and of a much more in- 
 
 Ceylon, during a part of the S.W. tense tint in the Ai'abian Sea. 
 
 monsoon is due to the Proto-coccus The frequency of its appearance in 
 
 nivalis, or the Himatta-coccus, the Red Sea has conferred on it its 
 
 which presents different coloui's at name." 
 different periods of the year — 
 
Chap. XI.] TRITOXIA ARBORESCEXS. 401 
 
 pores, and other polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to 
 undertake their investigation, but in all probability the 
 new species are not very numerous. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 TRITOXIA ARBORESCEXS. 
 
 The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at j)age 
 385 :— 
 
 Sir, — I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable 
 communication received yesterday, respecting the musical 
 soimds which you heard proceeding from under water, on the 
 east coast of Ceylon. I cannot parallel the phenomenon you 
 witnessed at Batticaloa, as produced by marine animals, "\\dth 
 anything "with which my past experience has made me ac- 
 quainted in marine zoology. Excepting the faint clink of the 
 Tritonia arhorescens, repeated only once every minute or two, 
 and apparently produced by the mouth armed with two dense 
 horny laminse, I am not aware of any sounds produced in the 
 sea by branchiated invertebrata. It is to be regretted that in 
 the memorandum you have not mentioned your observations 
 on the hving specimens brought you by the sailors as the 
 animals wliich produced the sounds. Your authentication of 
 the hitherto unknown fact, would probably lead to the disco- 
 very of the same phenomenon in other common accessible 
 paludinffi, and other aUied branchiated animals, and to the 
 solution of a problem, which is still to me a mystery, even 
 rerrardino; the tritonia. 
 
 My two living tritonia, contained in a large clear colourless 
 glass cylinder, fdled Avith pure sea water, and placed on the 
 central table of the Wernerian Natural History Society of 
 Edinburgh, around which many members were sitting, con- 
 
 D D 
 
402 SHELLS. [Chap. XI. 
 
 tinned to clink audibly within tlie distance of twelve feet 
 dui'ing the whole meeting. These small animals were indivi- 
 dually not half the size of the last joint of my little finger. 
 Wliat eifect the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering 
 the shalloAv bottom of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of 
 night, might produce, I can scarcely conjecture. 
 
 In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological 
 explanation of the continuous sounds, and of all source of fal- 
 lacy from the hum and buzz of living creatures in the air or 
 on the land, or swimming on the waters, I must say that I 
 should be inclined to seek for the source of sounds so audible 
 as those you describe rather among the pulmonated vertebrata, 
 which swarm in the depths of these seas — as fishes, serpents 
 (of which my friend Dr. Cantor has described about twelve 
 species he found in the Bay of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, 
 pinnipedous and cetaceous mammalia, &c. 
 
 The publication of your memorandum in its present form, 
 though not quite satisfactory, will, I think, be eminently cal- 
 culated to excite useful inquiry into a neglected and curious 
 part of the economy of nature. 
 
 I remain. Sir, 
 
 Yours most respectftilly, 
 
 Egbert E. Grant. 
 
 Sir J. Emerson T^ennentj ^-c. ^'C. 
 
403 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, 
 and vegetation, the myriads of insects in Ceylon form 
 one of the characteristic features of the island. In the 
 solitude of the forests there is a perpetual music from 
 their soothing and melodious hum, which frequently 
 swells to a startling sound as the cicada trills his sonor- 
 ous drum on the sunny bark of some tall tree. At 
 morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on the threads 
 and gossamer which the spiders suspend across every 
 pathway ; and above the pool dragon-flies, of more than 
 metallic lustre, flash in the early sunbeams. The earth 
 teems with countless ants, which emerge from beneath 
 its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend to 
 their nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, ^^dth their 
 golden elytra, bask on the leaves, whilst minuter species 
 dash through the air in circles, which the ear can follow 
 by the booming of their tiny wings. Butterflies of 
 large size and gorgeous colouring, flutter over the 
 endless expanse of flowers, and at times the extra- 
 ordinary sight presents itself of flights of these delicate 
 creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow hue, ap- 
 parently miles in breadth, and of such prodigious 
 extension as to occupy hours, and even days, unin- 
 terruptedly in their passage — whence coming no one 
 
 D D 2 
 
404 INSECTS. [Chap. XH. 
 
 knows ; whither going no one can tell.^ As day declines, 
 the moths issue from their retreats, the crickets add 
 their shrill voices to swell the din ; and when darkness 
 descends, the eye is charmed with the millions of 
 emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst the 
 surrounding gloom. 
 
 As yet no attempt has been made to describe the 
 insects of Ceylon systematically, much less to enumerate 
 the prodigous number of species that abound in every 
 locality. Occasional observers have, from time to time, 
 contributed notices of particular families to the Scientific 
 Associations of Europe, but their papers remain un- 
 digested, and the time has not yet arrived for the pre- 
 paration of an Entomology of the island. 
 
 AMiat Darwin remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is 
 nearly as applicable to the same order of insects in 
 Ceylon: "The number of minute and obscurely co- 
 loured beetles is exceedingly great; the cabinets of 
 Europe can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only 
 of the larger species from tropical climates, and it is 
 sufficient to disturb the composure of an entomologist 
 to look forward to the future dimensions of a catalogue 
 with any pretensions to completeness."^ M. Metner, a 
 German entomologist, who has spent some years in 
 Ceylon, has recently published, in one of the local 
 
 * The butterflies I have seen in their flight is ultimately directed 
 
 these wonderful migrations in Cey- to Adam's Peak, and that their 
 
 lowwereviostlj Callidri/as Hilai'ioe, pilgrimage ends on reach "iig the 
 
 C. Alcmeone, and C. Tyranthe, with sacred momitain. A friend of 
 
 straggling individuals of the genus mine travelling from Kandy to 
 
 Eupl(xa, E. Coras, and E. Pruthoe. Kornegalle, di'ove for nine miles 
 
 Their passage took place in April tlirough a cloud of white butter- 
 
 and May, generally in a north- flies, which were passing across 
 
 easterly direction. The natives the road by which he went, 
 
 liave a superstitious belief that ^ ^at. Journal, p. 39. 
 
Chap. XII.] GOLDEN BEETLES, ETC. 405 
 
 periodicals, a series of papers on the Coleoptera of the 
 island, in which every species introduced is stated to be 
 previously undescribed.^ 
 
 CoLEOPTEEA. — BiijjrestidcB ; Golden Beetles. — In the 
 morning the herbaceous plants, especially on the eastern 
 side of the island, are studded with these gorgeous beetles, 
 whose golden winof-cases ^ are used to enrich the em- 
 broidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the lustrous joints 
 of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form neck- 
 laces and bracelets of singular brilliancy. 
 
 These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, 
 and some of the Elateridse ^ and Lamellicorns exhibit 
 hues of green and blue, that rival the deepest tints of 
 the emerald and sapphire. 
 
 Scavenger Beetles. — Scavenger beetles ^ are to be 
 seen wherever the presence of putrescent and offensive 
 matter affords opportunity for the display of their re- 
 pulsive but most curious instincts ; fastening on it with 
 eagerness, severing it into lumps proportionate to their 
 strength, and rolling it along in search of some place 
 sufficiently soft in which to bury it, after having de- 
 posited their eggs in the centre. I had frequent op- 
 portunities, especially in traversing the sandy jungles in 
 the level plains to the north of the island, of observing 
 the unfailing appearance of these creatures instantly on 
 the dropping of horse dung, or any other substance 
 
 * Eepublished in the Ann. Nat. and figured by Mr. West^vood in 
 
 Hist. liis Cabinet of Oriental Entomology, 
 
 2 Sternoccra Chrysis ; S. sterni- pi. 35, f, 1). In the same \\-ork is 
 
 cornis. figured another species of large 
 
 ^ Of the family of Elateridce, one size, also from Ceylon, this is the 
 
 of the finest is a Singhalese species, Alans sordidus. — Westwood, L e. 
 
 the Caiupsosternus Templetonii, of pi. 35, f. 9. 
 
 an exquisite golden green colour, * Ateuchus saeer ; Copris sagaj: ; 
 
 with blue reflections (described C. capudntcs, &c. &c. 
 
 D D 3 
 
406 
 
 IXSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XU. 
 
 LONGICOEN BEETLE (.BATOCERA BDBUS). 
 
 suitable for their pur- 
 pose ; although not 
 one was visible but 
 a moment before. 
 Their approach on 
 the wing is announced 
 by a loud and joyous 
 booming sound, as 
 they dash in rapid 
 circles in search of 
 the desired object, 
 led by their sense of 
 smell, and evidently 
 little assisted by the 
 eye in shaping their 
 course towards it. In 
 these excursions they 
 exhibit a strength of 
 wing and sustained 
 power of flight, such 
 as is possessed by no 
 other class of beetles 
 with which I am ac- 
 quainted, but which 
 is obviously indis- 
 
Chap. XH.] THE COCO-XUT BEETLE. 407 
 
 pensable for the due performance of the useful func- 
 tions they discharge. 
 
 The Coco-nut Beetle. — In the luxuriant forests of Ceylon 
 the extensive family of Longicorns ^ and Passalidce 
 live in destructive abundance. To the coco-nut plan- 
 ters the ravages committed by beetles are painfully 
 familiar.^ The larva of one species of Dynastidce, 
 the Oryctes rhinoceros, called by the Singhalese " Gas- 
 cooroominiya,^^ makes its way into the younger trees, 
 descending from the top, and after perforating them 
 in all directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood 
 and sawdust, in which it reposes during its sleep as a 
 pupa, till the arrival of the period when it emerges as a 
 perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the repulsive aspect of 
 the large pulpy larvae of these beetles, they are esteemed 
 a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail them- 
 selves of the privilege accorded by the Levitical law, 
 which permitted the Hebrews to eat "the beetle after 
 his kind." ^ 
 
 Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising 
 out of their belief in demonology, one remarkable one 
 is connected with the appearance of a beetle when ob- 
 served on the floor of a dwelling-house after nightfall. 
 The popular belief is that in obedience to a certain 
 form of incantation (called cooroominiya-pilli) sl demon 
 
 ' The engraving on the pre- beetles. The writer had recently 
 
 ceding page represents in its va- passed through several coco-nut 
 
 rious transformations one of the plantations, "varpng in extent 
 
 most familiar and graceful of the from 20 to 150 acres, and about 
 
 longicorn beetles of Ceylon, the two to three years old; and in 
 
 Batocera ruhus. these he did not discover a single 
 
 2 There is a paper in the Journ. young tree untouched by the coo- 
 
 of the Asiat. Society of Ceylon, roominiya." — P. 49. 
 
 May, 1845, by Mr. Capper, on the ' Leviticus, xi. 22. 
 ravages perpetrated by these 
 
 l> D 4 
 
408 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 in the shape of a beetle is sent to the house of some 
 person or family whose destruction it is intended to 
 compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The only 
 means of averting this catastrophe is, that some one, 
 himself an adept in necromancy, should perform a 
 counter-charm, the effect of which is to send back the 
 disguised beetle to destroy his original employer ; for 
 in such a conjuncture the death of one or the other is 
 essential to appease the demon whose intervention has 
 been invoked. Hence the discomfort of a Singhalese 
 on finding a beetle in his house after sunset, and his 
 anxiety to expel but not to kill it. 
 
 Tortoise Beetles.— There is one family of insects, the 
 members of which cannot fail to strike the traveller by 
 their singular beauty, the Cassididce or tortoise beetles, 
 in which the outer shell overlaps the body, and the 
 limbs are susceptible of being drawn entirely within it. 
 The rim is frequently of a different tint from the centre, 
 and one species which I have seen is quite startling 
 from the brilliancy of its colouring, which gives it the 
 appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frame of pearl ; but 
 this wonderful effect disappears immediately on the 
 death of the insect. 
 
 Orthoptera. Leaf -insects. — But in relation to 
 the insects of Ceylon the admiration of their colours is 
 still less exciting than the astonishment created by the 
 forms in which some of the families present themselves ; 
 especially the " soothsayers " (^Mantidce) and " walking 
 leaves." The latter ^, exhibiting the most cunning of 
 all nature's devices for the preservation of her creatures, 
 are found in the jungle in all varieties of hues, from 
 the pale yellow of an opening bud to the rich green of 
 ^ Fhyllium siccifolium. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 LEAF-IXSECTS. 
 
 409 
 
 the full - blown 
 leaf, and the 
 withered tint of 
 decay. So per- 
 fect is the imita- 
 tion of a leaf in 
 structure and ar- 
 ticulation, that 
 this amazing in- 
 sect when at rest 
 is almost un- 
 distinguishable 
 from the foliage 
 around; not only 
 are the wings 
 modelled to re- 
 semble ribbed 
 and fibrous fol- 
 licles, but every 
 joint of the legs 
 is expanded into 
 a broad plait like 
 a half-opened 
 leaflet. 
 
 STICK INSECT AND MAXTI3 
 
410 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it 
 slowly along, and thus the flatness of its attitude serves 
 still further to add to the appearance of a leaf. One of 
 the most marvellous incidents connected with its organi- 
 sation was exhibited by one which I kept under a glass 
 shade on my table ; it laid a quantity of eggs, that, in 
 colour and shape, were not to be distinguished from seeds. 
 They were brown and pentangular, with a short stem, 
 and slightly punctured at the intersections. 
 
 EGGS OF THE LEAF-IN SEQT, 
 
 The ^^ soothsayer," on the other hand {Mantis super- 
 stitiosa, Fab.^), little justifies by its propensities the 
 appearance of gentleness, and the attitudes of sanctity, 
 which have obtained for it the title of the " prapng 
 mantis." Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate 
 into cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals 
 of its own species. Two which I enclosed in a box 
 were both found dead a few hours after, literally severed 
 limb from limb in their encounter. The formation of 
 the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on the 
 sharp edge of the thigh as to amputate any slender 
 substance grasped within it. 
 
 The Stick-insect. — The Phasmiclce or spectres, another 
 class of orthoptera, present as close a resemblance to 
 small branches or leafless twigs as their congeners do 
 to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they exist, 
 instead of being expanded, are applied so closely to the 
 body as to detract nothing from its rounded form, and 
 
 ^ M. aridifolia and M. extensi- like head, and dilatations on the 
 collis, as well as Empusa gongy- posterior thighs, are common in 
 lodes, remarkable for the long leaf- the island. 
 
Chap. XH.] DRAGON-FLIES. — THE WHITE AXT. 411 
 
 hence the name which they have acquired of " tualking- 
 sticks,^'' Like the Phyllium, the Phasma lives exclu- 
 sively on vegetables, and some attain the length of 
 several inches. 
 
 Of all the other tribes of the Orthoptera Ceylon pos- 
 sesses many representatives ; in swarms of cockroaches, 
 grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets. 
 
 Neuroptera. Dragon-flies. — Of the Neuroptera, 
 some of the dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful ; 
 one species, mth rich brown-coloured spots upon its 
 gauzy wings, is to be seen near every pool.^ Another^, 
 which dances above the mountain streams in Oovah, 
 and amongst the hills descending towards Kandy, gleams 
 in the sun as if each of its green enamelled wings had 
 been sliced from an emerald. 
 
 The Ant-lion. — Of the ant-lion, whose larvae have 
 earned a bad renowTi from their predaceous ingenuity, 
 Ceylon has, at least, four species, which seem peculiar 
 to the island.^ This singular creature, preparatory to 
 its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a conical 
 pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the 
 bottom of which it conceals itself, exposing only its 
 open mandibles above the surface ; and here every ant 
 and soft-bodied insect which curiosity tempts to descend, 
 or accident may precipitate into the trap, is ruthlessly 
 seized and devoured by its ambushed inhabitant. 
 
 The WJiite Ant. — But of the insects of this order 
 the most noted are the ivhite ants or termites (which 
 are ants only by a misnomer). They are, unfortunately, 
 at once ubiquitous and innumerable in every spot where 
 
 ' Lihelhda pulcheUa, Myrmeleon gravis, WaUcer; M. 
 
 * Euphcea sphndens. dirus, "Walker; M. barbarus, 
 
 ' Falpares contrarius, Walker; Walker. 
 
412 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 the climate is not too chilly, or the soil too sandy, for 
 them to construct their domed edifices. 
 
 These they raise from a considerable depth under 
 ground, excavating the clay with their mandibles, and 
 moistening it with tenacious saliva ^ until it assume the 
 appearance, and almost the consistency, of sandstone. 
 So delicate is the trituration to which they subject this 
 material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the 
 powdered clay of the ant hills in preference to all other 
 substances in the preparation of crucibles and moulds 
 for their finer castings ; and Knox says, " the people 
 use this finer clay to make their earthen gods of, it is so 
 pure and fine."^ These structures the termites erect 
 with such perseverance and durability that they fre- 
 quently rise to the height of ten or twelve feet from 
 
 ^ It becomes an interesting 
 question whence the termites derive 
 the large supplies of moisture with 
 which they not only temper the 
 clay for the construction of their 
 long covered-ways above ground, 
 but for keeping their passages uni- 
 formly damp and cool below the 
 surface. Yet their habits in this 
 particular are unvarying, in the 
 seasons of droughts as well as 
 after rain ; in the driest and least 
 promising positions, in situations 
 inaccessible to drainage from above, 
 and cut off by rocks and imper- 
 vious strata from springs from 
 below. Dr. Livingstone, struck 
 with this phenomenon in Southern 
 Africa, asks : " Can the white ants 
 possess the power of combining 
 the oxygen and hydrogen of their 
 vegetable food by vital force so as 
 to form water?" — Travels, p. 22. 
 And he describes at Angola, an 
 
 insect^ resembling the Aphrophora 
 sj)umaria ; seven or eight indi- 
 viduals of which distil several pints 
 of water every night. — P. 414. 
 It is highly probable that the ter- 
 mites are endowed with some such 
 faculty : nor is it more remarkable 
 that an insect should combine the 
 gases of its food to produce water, 
 than that a fish thonld decompose 
 water in order to provide itself 
 with gas. FouRCROix fovmd the 
 contents of the air-bladder in a carp 
 to be pure nitrogen. — Yarrell, vol. 
 i. p. 42. And the aquatic larva of 
 the dragon-fly extracts air for its 
 respiration from the water in which 
 it is submerged, A similar mystery 
 pervades the inquiry whence plants 
 under peculiar circumstances derive 
 the water essential to vegetation. 
 
 - Knox's Ceylon, Parti, eh. vi. 
 p. 24. 
 
 * A. goudottif Bennett. 
 
Chap. XH.] THE WHITE ANT. 413 
 
 the ground, with a corresponding diameter. They are 
 so firm in their texture that the weight of a horse 
 makes no apparent indentation on their solidity ; and 
 even the intense rains of the monsoon, which no cement 
 or mortar can long resist, fail to penetrate the surface 
 or substance of an ant hill.^ In their earlier stasres the 
 termites proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I 
 have seen a pinnacle of moist clay, six inches in height 
 and twice as large in diameter, constructed underneath 
 a table between sitting down to dinner and the removal 
 of the cloth. 
 
 As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried 
 up from beneath the surface, a cave of correspondino- 
 dimensions is necessarily scooped out below, and here, 
 under the multitude of miniature cupolas and pinnacles 
 which canopy it above, the termites hollow out the royal 
 chamber for their queen, with spacious nurseries sur- 
 rounding it on all sides ; and all are connected by arched 
 galleries, long passages, and doorways of the most in- 
 tricate and elaborate construction. In the centre and 
 underneath the spacious dome is the recess for the 
 queen — a hideous creature, with the head and thorax of 
 an ordinary termite, but a body swollen to a hundred 
 
 * Dr. HooKEB, in his Himalayan on the closely cemented clay of the 
 
 Journal (vol. i. p. 20) is of opinion white ants' nest, they may be daily 
 
 that the nests of the termites are seen constructing their edifices in 
 
 not independent structures, but the very form of a cone, which 
 
 that their nucleus is " the debris they ever after retain. Besides 
 
 of clumps of bamboos or the trunks which, they appear in the midst of 
 
 of large trees which these insects terraces and fields where no trees 
 
 have destroyed." He supposes are to be seen; and Dr. Hooker 
 
 that the dead tree falls leaving the seems to overlook the fact that the 
 
 stump coated with sand, which the termites rarely attack a living tree; 
 
 action of the weather soon fashions and although their nests may be 
 
 ijito a cone. But independently of built against one, it continues to 
 
 the fact that the " action of the flourish not the less for their pre- 
 
 weather" produces little or no effect sence. 
 
414 IXSECTS. CChap. XH. 
 
 times its usual and proportionate bulk, and presenting 
 the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp. From this 
 great progenitrix proceed the myriads that people the 
 subterranean hive, consisting, like the communities of 
 the genuine ants, of labourers and soldiers, which are 
 destined never to acquire a fuller development than 
 that of larvae, and the perfect insects which in due time 
 become invested with wings and take their departing 
 flight from the cave. But their new equipment seems 
 only destined to facilitate their dispersion from the 
 parent nest, which takes place at dusk ; and almost as 
 quickly as they leave it they divest themselves of their 
 ineffectual wings, waving them impatiently and twisting 
 them in every direction till they become detached and 
 drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of their 
 emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, 
 which are instantly attracted to them as they issue in a 
 cloud from the ground. I am not prepared to say that 
 the other insectivorous birds would not gladly make 
 a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in Ceylon their 
 numbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular 
 birds, it is observable, at least as a coincidence, that 
 the dispersion of the swarm generally takes place at 
 twilight. Those that escape the caprimulgi fall a 
 prey to the crows, on the morning succeeding their 
 flight. 
 
 The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of 
 the white ants is that they shrink from the light ; in all 
 their expeditions for providing food they construct a 
 covered pathway of moistened clay, and their galleries 
 above ground extend to an incredible distance from the 
 central nest. No timber, except ebony and iron wood, 
 which are too hard, and those which are strongly im- 
 
Chap. Xn.] THE WHITE AXT. 415 
 
 pregnated with camphor or aromatic oils, which they 
 dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have 
 had a case of wine filled, in the course of two days, 
 with almost solid clay, and only discovered the pre- 
 sence of the white ants by the escape from the corks. 
 I have had a portmanteau in my tent so peopled with 
 them in the course of a single night that the contents 
 were found worthless in the morning. In an incredibly 
 short time a detachment of these pests will destroy a 
 press full of records, reducing the paper to fragments ; 
 and a shelf of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if 
 it happen to be in their line of march. The timbers of 
 a house when fairly attacked are eaten from within till 
 the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so thin that 
 it may be punched through with the point of the finger : 
 and even kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an 
 extra quantity of corrosive sublimate, appears to occasion 
 them no inconvenience. The only effectual precaution 
 for the protection of furniture is incessant vigilance — 
 the constant watching of every article, and its daily 
 removal from place to place, in order to baffle their 
 assaults. 
 
 They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 
 4000 or 5000 feet. One species of white ant, the 
 Termes Taprobanes, was at one time believed by Mr. 
 Walker to be peculiar to the island, but it has recently 
 been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts 
 of Hindustan. 
 
 There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (T. monoceros), 
 which always builds its nest in the hollow of an old tree ; 
 and, unlike the others, carries on its labours without 
 the secrecy and protection of a covered way. A march- 
 ing column of these creatures may be observed at early 
 
416 INSECTS. [Chap. Xll. 
 
 morning in the vicinity of their nest, returning laden 
 with the spoils collected during their foraging excursions. 
 These consist of comminuted vegetable matter, derived, 
 it may be, from a thatched roof, if one happens to be 
 within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut. 
 Each little worker in the column carries its tiny load in 
 its jaws ; and the number of individuals in one of these 
 lines of march must be immense, for the column is 
 generally about two inches' in width, and very densely 
 crowded. One was measured which had most likely 
 been in motion for hours, moving in the direction of the 
 nest, and was found to be upwards of sixty paces in 
 length. If attention be directed to the mass in motion, 
 it will be observed that flanking it on each side through- 
 out its whole length are stationed a number of horned 
 soldier termites, whose duty it is to protect the 
 labourers, and to give notice of any danger threatening 
 them. This latter duty they perform by a peculiar quiver- 
 ing motion of the whole body, which is rapidly commu- 
 nicated from one to the other for a considerable distance ; 
 a portion of the column is then thrown into confusion 
 for a short time, but confidence soon returns, and the 
 progress of the little creatures goes on with steadiness 
 and order as before. The nest is of a black colour, and 
 resembles a mass of scoriae ; the insects themselves are 
 of a pitchy brown. ^ 
 
 Htmenopteka. Mason Wasp. — In Ceylon as in all 
 other countries, the order of hjnnenopterous insects 
 arrests us less by the beauty of their forms than the 
 marvels of their sagacity and the achievements of their 
 
 ^ For these particulars of the Mr. Thwaites, of the Eot. Botanic 
 iermes mo7ioceros, I am indebted to Garden at Kandy. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 THE MASON WASP. 
 
 417 
 
 instinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of Sphegidce ^, 
 which is distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by 
 the open windows, and converts irritation at its move- 
 ments into admiration of the graceful industry with 
 which it stops up the keyholes and similar apertures 
 with clay in order to build in them a cell. Into this it 
 thrusts the pupa of some other insect, within whose 
 body it has previously introduced its own eggs. The 
 whole is surrounded with moistened earth, through 
 which the young parasite, after undergoing its trans- 
 formations, gnaws its way into light, to emerge as a four- 
 winged fly.^ 
 
 A formidable species (Sphex ferruginea of St. Far- 
 geau), which is common to India and most of the 
 eastern islands, is regarded with the utmost dread by 
 the unclad natives, who fly precipitately on finding them- 
 
 ' It belongs to the genus Peio- 
 pcsus, P. Sjnnolcs, of St. Fargeau. 
 The Ampulex compressa, which 
 drags about the larvae of cock- 
 roaches into which it has implanted 
 its eggs, belongs to the same family. 
 
 ^ Mr. E. L. Layard has given an 
 interesting account of this Mason 
 wasp in the Annals and Magazme 
 of Nat. History for May, 1853. 
 
 " I have frequently," he says, 
 " selected one of these flies for 
 observation, and have seen their 
 labours extend over a period of a 
 fortnight or twenty days ; some- 
 times only half a cell was com- 
 pleted in a day, at others as much 
 as two. I never saw more than 
 twenty cells in one nest, seldom 
 indeed that number, and whence 
 the caterpillars were procured was 
 always to me a mystery. I have 
 seen thirty or forty brought in of a 
 species which I knew to be very 
 rare in the perfect state, and which 
 
 I had sought for in vain, although 
 I knew on what plant they fed. 
 
 " Then again how are they dis- 
 abled by the wasp, and yet not in- 
 jured so as to cause their imme- 
 diate death ? Die they all do, at 
 least all that I have ever tried to 
 rear, after taking them from the nest. 
 
 " The perfected fly never effects 
 its egress from the closed aperture, 
 through which the caterpillars were 
 inserted, and when cells are placed 
 end to end, as they are in many in- 
 stances, the outward end of each 
 is always selected. I cannot de- 
 tect any difference in the thickness 
 in the crust of the ceU. to cause 
 this uniformity of practice. It is 
 often as much as half an inch 
 through, of great hardness, and as 
 far as I can see impervious to air 
 and light. How then does the en- 
 closed fly always select the right end, 
 and with what secretion is it sup- 
 plied to decompose this mortar?" 
 E 
 
418 INSECTS. [CHAr. XII. 
 
 selves in the vicinity ^ of its nests. These are of such 
 ample dimensions, that when suspended from a branch, 
 they often measure upwards of six feet in length.^ 
 
 Bees, — Bees of several species and genera, some un- 
 provided with stings, and some in size scarcely exceed- 
 ing a house-fly, deposit their honey in hollow trees, or 
 suspend their combs from a branch. The spoils of their 
 industry form one of the chief resources of the uncivi- 
 lised Veddahs, who collect the wax in the upland forests, 
 to be bartered for arrow points and clothes in the low- 
 lands.^ I have never heard of an instance of persons 
 being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence the 
 natives assert, that those most productive of honey are 
 destitute of stings. 
 
 The Carpenter Bee. — The operations of one of the 
 most interesting of the tribe, the Carpenter bee '*, I have 
 watched with admiration from the window of the Colo- 
 
 * It ought to be remembered in the bases of several together, 
 
 travelling in the forests of Ceylon whereby they assume the hexagonal 
 
 that sal volatile applied imme- shape, whereas, if constructed 
 
 diately is a specific for the sting of separately, he thought each single 
 
 a wasp. cell would be circular. See Proc. 
 
 2 At the January (1839) meet- Ent Soc. vol. iii. p. 16. 
 
 ing of the Entomological Society, ^ A gentleman connected with 
 
 Mr. Whitehouse exhibited portions the department of the Surveyor- 
 
 of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, be- Greneral writes to me that he 
 
 tween seven and eight teet long measured a honey-comb which he 
 
 andtwofeetin diameter, and showed found fastened to the overhanging 
 
 that the construction of the cells branch of a small tree in the forest 
 
 was perfectly analogous to those of near Adam's Peak, and found it 
 
 the hive bee, and that when con- nine links of his chain or about 
 
 nected each has a tendency to six feet in length and a foot in 
 
 assume a circular outline. In one breadth where it was attached to 
 
 specimen where there were three the branch, but tapering towards 
 
 cells united the outer part was cir- the other extremity. " It was a 
 
 cidar, whilst the portions common single comb with a layer of cells 
 
 to the three formed straight walls, on either side, but so weighty that 
 
 From this Singhalese nest Mr. the branch broke by the strain." 
 
 Whitehouse demonstrated that the * Xylocofa tinuiscapa, Westw. ; 
 
 wasps at the commencement of Another species found in Ceylon is 
 
 their comb proceed slowly, forming the X. latipes, Drury. 
 
Chap. XII.] THE CARPENTER BEE. 419 
 
 nial Secretary's official residence at Kandy. So soon as 
 the day grew warm, these active creatures were at work 
 perforating the wooden columns which supported the 
 verandah. They poised themselves on their shining 
 purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the 
 
 THE CARPENTER B3E. 
 
 wood, enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum 
 of delight, which was audible to a considerable distance. 
 When the excavation had proceeded so far that the 
 insect could descend into it, the music was suspended, 
 but renewed from time to time, as the little creature 
 came to the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to 
 enjoy the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of saw-dust 
 was formed at the base of the pillar, consisting of par- 
 ticles abraded by the mandibles of the bee. These, 
 when the hollow was completed to the depth of several 
 inches, were partially replaced in the excavation after 
 being agglutinated to form partitions between the eggs, 
 as they were deposited within. The mandibles ^ of these 
 bees are admirably formed for the purpose of work- 
 ing out the tunnels required, being short, stout, and 
 usually furnished at the tip with two teeth which are 
 rounded somewhat into the form of cheese-cutters. 
 
 * See figure above. 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 IXSECTS. [Chap. XH. 
 
 These when brought into operation cut out the wood 
 in the same way as a carpenter's double gouge, the teeth 
 being more or less hollowed out within. The female alone 
 is furnished with these powerful instruments. In the 
 males the mandibles are slender as compared with those 
 of the females. The bores of some of these bees are de- 
 scribed as being from twelve to fourteen inches in length. 
 Ants. — As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstand- 
 ing their numbers and familiarity, information is very 
 imperfect relative to the varieties and habits of these 
 marvellous insects in Ceylon.^ In point of multitude 
 it is scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the 
 figure of " the sands of the sea." They are every- 
 where ; in the earth, in the houses, and on the trees ; 
 they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and 
 almost on every plant in the jungle. To some of the 
 latter they are, perhaps, attracted by the sweet juices 
 secreted by the aphides and coccidsB.^ Such is the pas- 
 
 * Mr. Jerdan, in a series of by the mill — be exposed to tlie air, 
 papers in the thirteenth volume of it gradually evaporates, jdelding a 
 the Annals of Natural History, light-brown residue, like the ordi- 
 has described forty-seven species of nary muscovado sugar of the best 
 ants in Southern India. But M. quality. If not protected, it is 
 Nietner has recently forwarded to presently attacked by ants, and in 
 the Berlin Museum upwards of a short time is, as it were, con- 
 seventy species taken by him in verted into white crystalline sugar, 
 Ceylon, chiefly in the western pro- the ants having refined it by re- 
 vince and the vicinity of Colombo, moving the darker portion, pro- 
 Of these many are identical with bably preferring that part from its 
 those noted by Mr. Jerdan as be- containing azotized matter. The 
 longing to the Indian continent, negroes, I may remark, prefer 
 One (probably Dn^Mnognathus sal- brown sugar to white ; they say 
 tator of Jerdan) is described byM. its sweetening power is greater ; 
 Nietner as occasionally "moving by no doubt its nourishing quality is 
 jumps of several inches at a spring." gi'eater, and therefore as an article 
 
 2 Dr. Davy, in a paper on Tro- of diet deserving of preference, 
 
 pical Plants, has introduced the In refining sugar as in refining salt 
 
 following passage relative to the (coarse bay salt containing a little 
 
 purification of sugar by ants : iodine), an error may be committed 
 
 " If the juice of the sugar-cane in abstracting matter designed by 
 
 — the common syrup as expressed nature for a useftd purpose." 
 
Chap. XII.] AJS^TS. 421 
 
 sion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful faculty 
 of discovering it, that the smallest particle of a sub- 
 stance containing it is quickly covered with them, 
 though placed in the least conspicuous position, where 
 not a single one may have been visible a moment 
 before. But it is not sweet substances alone that they 
 attack ; no animal or vegetable matter comes amiss to 
 them ; no aperture appears too small to admit them ; 
 it is necessary to place everything which it may be de- 
 sirable to keep free from their invasion, under the 
 closest cover, or on tables with cups of water under 
 every foot. As scavengers, they are invaluable ; and as 
 ants never sleep, but work without cessation during the 
 night as well as by day, every particle of decaying 
 vegetable or putrid animal matter is removed with in- 
 conceiveable speed and certainty. In collecting shells, 
 I have been able to turn this propensity to good 
 account ; by placing them within their reach, the ants 
 in a few days removed every vestige of the mollusc 
 from the innermost and otherwise inaccessible whorls ; 
 thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel by any 
 mechanical process. 
 
 But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead 
 animals alone, they attack equally such small insects as 
 they can overcome, or find disabled by accidents or 
 wounds ; and it is not unusual to see some hundreds of 
 them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised cock- 
 roach, and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I 
 have, on more than one occasion, seen a contest between 
 them and one of the viscous ophidians, Coecilia gluti- 
 nosa^, a reptile resembling an enormous earthworm, 
 common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, 
 
 * See ajite, p. 317. 
 E E 3 
 
422 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 and nearly two feet in length. On these occasions it 
 would seem as if the whole community had been sum- 
 moned and turned out for such a prodigious effort ; they 
 surround their victim literally in tens of thousands, 
 inflicting wounds on all parts, and forcing it along to- 
 wai'ds their nest in spite of resistance. In one instance 
 to which I was a witness, the conflict lasted for the latter 
 part of a day, but towards evening the Coecilia was com- 
 pletely exhausted, and in the morning it had totally 
 disappeared, having been carried away either whole or 
 piecemeal by its assailants. 
 
 The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which 
 the Singhalese call by the generic name of Koombiya. 
 There is a species still more minute, and evidently dis- 
 tinct, which frequents the caraffes and toilet vessels. A 
 third, probably the Formica nidificans of Jerdan, is 
 black, of the same size as that last mentioned, and, from 
 its colour, called the Kalu koombiya by the natives. In 
 the houses its propensities and habits are the same as 
 those of the others ; but I have observed that it fre- 
 quents the trees more profusely, forming small paper 
 cells for its young, like miniature wasps' nests, in which 
 it deposits its eggs, suspending them from a twig. 
 
 The most formidable of all is the great red ant or 
 Dimiya.^ It is particularly abundant in gardens, and 
 on fruit trees ; it constructs its dwellings by glueing the 
 leaves of such species as are suitable from their shape 
 and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with a 
 kind of transparent paper, like that manufactured by 
 the wasp. I have watched them at the interesting oper- 
 ation of forming these dwellings ; — a line of ants stand- 
 ing on the edge of one leaf bring another into contact 
 
 * Formica smaragdina^ Fab. 
 
Chap. Xn.] AXIS. 423 
 
 with it, and hold both together with their mandibles till 
 their companions within attach them firmly by means 
 of their adhesive paper, the assistants outside moving 
 along as the work proceeds. If it be necessary to draw 
 closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the imme- 
 diate workers, they form a chain by depending one from 
 the other till the object is reached, when it is at length 
 brought into contact, and made fast by cement. 
 
 Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual 
 motion, formincf lines on the OTound alonor which thev 
 pass, in continual procession to and from the trees on 
 which they reside. They are the most irritable of the 
 whole order in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity 
 as to render it difficult for the unclad natives to collect 
 the fruit from the mango trees, which the red ants 
 especially frequent. They drop from the branches upon 
 travellers in the jungle, attacking them with venom and 
 fury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals 
 and man. On examining the structure of the head 
 through a microscope, I found that the mandibles, in- 
 stead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as to 
 cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is 
 sharply serrated throughout its entire length ; thus occa- 
 sioning the intense pain of their bite, as compared with 
 that of the ordinary ant. 
 
 To check the ravages of the coffee bug ^ (Lecanium 
 coffece, Walker), which for some years past has devast- 
 ated some of the plantations in Ceylon, the experiment 
 was made of introducing the red ants, who feed greedily 
 on the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to be at- 
 tended with some inconvenience, for the Malabar 
 Coolies, with bare and oiled skins, were so frequently 
 
 ^ For an account of this pest, see p. 437- 
 
 E E 4 
 
424 Ds'SECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 and fiercely assaulted by the ants as to endanger their 
 stay on the estates. 
 
 The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are 
 generally, but not invariably, black, and some of them 
 are of considerable size. One species, about the third 
 of an inch in length, is abundant in the hills, and espe- 
 cially about the roots of trees, where they pile up the 
 earth in circular heaps round the entrance to their 
 nests, and in doing this I have observed a singular 
 illustration of their instinct. To carry up each particle 
 of sand by itself would be an endless waste of labour, 
 and to carry two or more loose ones securely would be 
 to them embarrassing, if not impossible. To overcome 
 the difficulty they glue together with their saliva so 
 much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, and 
 each ant may be seen hurrying up from below with his 
 load, carrying it to the top of the circular heap outside, 
 and throwing it over, the mass being so strongly attached 
 as to roll to the bottom without breaking asunder. 
 
 The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, 
 differing in this particular from the Dimiya and another 
 of similar size and ferocity, which is called by the Sing- 
 halese Kaddiya, The}^ have a legend illustrative of 
 their alarm for the bites of the latter, to the effect that 
 the cobra de capello invested the Kaddiya with her o^vn 
 venom in admiration of the singular courage displayed 
 by these little creatures.^ 
 
 Lepidopteea. Butterflies. — In the interior of the 
 island butterflies are comparatively rare, and, contrary 
 to the ordinary belief, they are seldom to be seen in the 
 sunshine. They frequent the neighbourhood of the 
 jungle, and especially the vicinity of the rivers and 
 
 ' Knox's Historical Relation of Ceylon, pt. i. ch. vi, p. 23. 
 
Chap. XII.] BUTTERFLIES. 425 
 
 waterfalls, living mainly in the shade of the moist 
 foliage, and returning to it in haste after the shortest 
 flights, as if their slender bodies were speedily dried up 
 and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat. 
 
 Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon 
 Lepidoptera is the great black and yellow butterfly 
 {Omithoptera darskis, G-ray) ; the upper wings of 
 which measure six inches across, and are of deep velvet 
 black, the lower ornamented by large particles of satiny 
 yellow, through which the sunlight passes. Few insects 
 can compare with it in beauty, as it hovers over the 
 flowers of the heliotrope, which furnish the favourite 
 food of the perfect fly, although the caterpillar feeds on 
 the aristolochia and the betel leaf, and suspends its 
 chrysalis from its drooping tendrils. 
 
 Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often 
 exceeding it in breadth, is the black and blue Papilio 
 Polyinnestor, which darts rapidly through the air, 
 alighting on the ruddy flowers of the hibiscus, or the 
 dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it deposits 
 its eggs. The larvae of this species are green with 
 white bands, and have a hump on the fourth or fifth 
 segment. From this hump the caterpillar, on being 
 irritated, protrudes a singular horn of an orange colour, 
 bifurcate at the extremity, and covered with a pungent 
 mucilaginous secretion. This is evidently intended as 
 a weapon of defence against the attack of the ichneumon 
 flies, that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when 
 the grub is pricked, either by the ovipositor of the 
 ichneumon, or by any other sharp instrument, the horn 
 is at once protruded, and struck upon the offending 
 object with unerring aim. 
 
 Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies 
 
426 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 is the P. Hector, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the 
 black velvet of the inferior Avings ; these, when fresh, 
 are shot with a purple blush, equalling in splendour the 
 azure of the European " Emperor.^^ 
 
 The Spectre Butterfly. — Another butterfly, but be- 
 longing to a widely different group, is the " sylph " 
 {^Hestia Jasonia), called by the Europeans by the 
 various names of Floater, Spectre, and Silver-pciper- 
 fly, as indicative of its graceful flight. It is found 
 only in the deep shade of the damp forest, usually 
 frequenting the vicinity of pools of water and cas- 
 cades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, the 
 moisture of which may even be beneficial in preserving 
 the elasticity of its thin and delicate wings, that bend 
 and undulate in the act of flight. 
 
 The LyccenidcB^, a particularly attractive group, 
 abound near the enclosures of cultivated grounds, and 
 amongst the low shrubs edging the patenas, flitting 
 from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as if 
 attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light ; 
 and shunning exposure less sedulously than the other 
 diurnals. Some of the more robust kinds ^ are magnifi- 
 cent in the bright light, from the splendour of their 
 metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in 
 elegance of form and variety to their tinier and more 
 delicately-coloured congeners. 
 
 Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar 
 forms, and the naturalist marks with interest the small, 
 but strong, Hesperidce^, hurrying, by abrupt and jerk- 
 ing flights, to the scented blossoms of the champac or 
 
 ^ Jjycmna polyommatus, ^c. ' Pamphila hesperia, ^c. 
 
 ^ Amblypodia pseudocentauruSy 
 
Chap. XII.] MOTHS. 427 
 
 the sweet night-blowing moon-flower ; and, when dark- 
 ness gathers around, we can hear, though hardly distin- 
 guish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful 
 wings of innumerable hawk moths, which hover with 
 their loDg proboscides inserted into the starry petals of 
 the periwinkle. 
 
 Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the 
 richly-coloured Acherontia Satanas, one of the Singha- 
 lese representatives of our Death's-head moth, which 
 utters a sharp and stridulous cry when seized. This 
 sound has been conjectured to be produced by the friction 
 of its thorax against the abdomen ; — Eeaumur believed 
 it to be caused by the rubbing of the palpi against the 
 tongue. I have never been able to observe either mo- 
 tion, and Mr. E. L. Layard is of opinion that the sound 
 is emitted from two apertures concealed by tufts of wiry 
 bristles thrown out from each side of the inferior portion 
 of the thorax.^ 
 
 Moths. — Among the strictly nocturnal Lepidoptera 
 are some gigantic species. Of these the cinnamon- 
 eating Atlas, often attains the dimensions of nearly a 
 foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is very com- 
 mon in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and 
 the transparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail 
 to strike even the most careless saunterer. But little 
 inferior to it in size is the famed Tusseh silk moth 2, 
 which feeds on the country almond {Teiminalia 
 catappa) and the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant ; it 
 
 ' There is another rariety of the night, attracted by the lights ; but 
 
 same moth in Ceylon which closely I haye not found its laryfe, although 
 
 resembles it in its markings, but in that of the other species is com- 
 
 which I have never detected the ut- mon on several widely different 
 
 termg of this curious cry. It is plants. 
 
 smaller than the A. Satanas, and, 2 jinthercea mylitta, Drviry. 
 like it, often enters dwellings at 
 
428 INSECTS. [Chap. XH. 
 
 is easily distinguishable from the Atlas, which has a 
 triangular wing, whilst its is falcated, and the transpa- 
 rent spots are covered with a curious thread-like division 
 drawn across them. 
 
 Towards the northern portions of the island this valu- 
 able species entirely displaces the other, owing to the 
 fact that the almond and pahna Christi abound there. 
 The latter plant springs up spontaneously on every 
 manure-heap or neglected spot of ground ; and might 
 be cultivated, as in India, with great advantage, the 
 leaf to be used as food for the caterpillar, the stalk as 
 fodder for cattle, and the seed for the expression of 
 castor-oil. The Dutch took advantage of this facility, 
 and gave every encouragement to the cultivation of silk 
 at Jaffna 1, but it never attained such a development as 
 to become an article of commercial importance. Ceylon 
 now cultivates no silkworms whatever, notwithstanding 
 this abundance of the favourite food of one species ; and 
 the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist 
 priesthood are imported from China and the continent 
 of India. 
 
 In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there 
 are many other Bomhycidce in Ceylon ; and, though the 
 
 ^ The Portuguese had made the Palace a trial has been undertaken 
 
 attempt previous to the arrival of to feed sillcworms, and to ascertain 
 
 the Dutch, and a strip of land on whether silk may be reared at that 
 
 the banks of the Kalany river near station. I have planted a quantity 
 
 Colombo, still bears the name of of mulberry trees, which grow 
 
 Orta Seda, the silk garden. The well there, and they ought to be 
 
 attempt of the Dutch to introduce planted in other directions." — Va- 
 
 the true silkworm, the Borahyx lextyn, chap. xiii. The growth of 
 
 nnori, took place under the gover- the mulberry trees is noticed the 
 
 norship of Ryklof Van Goens, year after in a report to the 
 
 who, on handing over the adminis- governor-general of India, but the 
 
 tration to his successor in A.D. 1663, subject afterwards ceased to be 
 
 thus apprises him of the initiation attended to. 
 of the experiment: — "At Jafliia 
 
Chap. XH.] STIIS^GING CATERPILLARS. 429 
 
 silk of some of them, were it susceptible of being un- 
 wound from the cocoon, would not bear a comparison 
 with that of the Bomhyx miori, or even of the Tusseh 
 moth, it might still prove to be valuable when carded 
 and spun. If the European residents in the colony 
 would rear the larvae of these Lepidoptera, and make 
 drawings of their various changes, they would render a 
 possible service to commerce, and a certain one to ento- 
 mological knowledge. 
 
 Stinging Caterpillars. — The Dutch carried to their 
 Eastern settlements two of their home propensities, 
 which distinguish and embellish the towns of the Low 
 Countries ; they indulged in the excavation of canals, 
 and they planted long lines of trees to diffuse shade 
 over the sultry passages in their Indian fortresses. For 
 the latter purpose they employed the Suriya {Hibiscus 
 populneus), whose broad umbrageous leaves and deli- 
 cate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and give 
 to the streets of Gralle and Colombo the fresh and enli- 
 vening aspect of walks in a garden. 
 
 In the towns, however, the suri^-a trees are produc- 
 tive of one serious inconvenience. They are the resort 
 of a hairy greenish caterpillar i, longitudinally striped, 
 great numbers of which frequent them, and at a certain 
 stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the ground 
 and hurry away, probably in search of a suitable 
 spot in which to pass through their metamorphoses. 
 Should they happen to alight, as they often do, upon 
 some lounger below, and find their way to his unpro- 
 tected skin, they inflict, if molested, a sting as pungent, 
 but far more lasting, than that of a nettle or a star-fish. 
 
 » The species of moth vdth. which longs to a section of BoisduYal's 
 it is identified has not yet been de- genus Bomhyx allied to Onethocam- 
 termined, but it most probably be- ^a, Stephens. 
 
430 IJs^SECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence 
 an assailant has lowered himself down, the caterpillars 
 above will be found in clusters, sometimes amounting to 
 hundreds, clinging to the branches and the bark, with a 
 few straggling over the leaves or suspended from them 
 by lines. These pests are so annoying to children as 
 well as destructive to the foliage, that it is often neces- 
 sary to singe them off the trees by a flambeau fixed on 
 the extremity of a pole ; and as they fall to the ground 
 they are eagerly devoured by the crows and domestic 
 fowls.^ 
 
 The Wood-carrying Moth. — There is another family 
 of insects, the singular habits of which will not fail to 
 attract the traveller in the cultivated tracts of Ceylon 
 — these are moths of the genus Oiketicus^, of which 
 the females are devoid of wings, and some possess no 
 articulated feet. Their larvae construct for themselves 
 cases, which they suspend to a branch frequently of the 
 pomegranate^, surrounding them with the stems of 
 leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigs bound together by 
 threads, till the whole presents the appearance of a 
 bundle of rods about an inch and a half long; and, 
 from the resemblance of this to a Roman fasces, one 
 
 ^ Another caterpillar whicli feeds traversed by a broad green band, 
 on the jasmine flowering Carissa, It is common in the western side of 
 stings with such fury that I have Ceylon. The larvae of the genus 
 knowTi a gentleman to shed tears Adolia are also hairy, and sting 
 while the pain was at its height, with virulence. 
 It is short and broad, of a pale - Eumeta, AVlk. 
 green, with fleshy spines on the ^ The singular instincts of a 
 upper surface, each of which seems species of Thecla, Dipsas Isocratcs, 
 to be charged with the venom that Fab., in connection "with the fruit 
 occasions this acute suffering. The of the pomegranate, were fully de- 
 moth which this catei'pillar pro- scribed by Mr. Westwood, in a 
 duces, Necera lepida, Cramer; paper read before the Entomo- 
 Limacodes graciosa, "Westw., has logical Society of London in 1835. 
 dark brown wings, the primary 
 
Chap. XIL] THE WOOD- CARRYING MOTH. 
 
 431 
 
 African species has ob- 
 tained the name of " Lie- 
 tor." The Grerman en- 
 tomologists denominated 
 the group Sacktrdger, the 
 Singhalese call them Da- 
 ra-kattea or "billets of 
 firewood," and regard the 
 inmates as human beings, 
 who, as a punishment for 
 stealing wood in some 
 former state of existence, 
 have been condemned to 
 undergo a metempsychosis 
 under the form of these 
 insects. 
 
 The male, at the close 
 of the pupal rest, escapes 
 from one end of this sin- 
 gular covering, but the 
 female makes it her dwel- 
 ling for life; moving about 
 with it at pleasure, and 
 entrenching herself within 
 it, when alarmed, by 
 drawing together the 
 purse-like aperture at the 
 open end. Of these re- 
 markable creatures there 
 are five ascertained spe- 
 cies in Ceylon : Psyche 
 Douhledaii, Westw. ; Me- 
 tisa plana. Walker ; Eu^ 
 
 THE WOOD-CAKRYING MOTH. 
 
432 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 meta Cramei^ii, Westw. ; E. Templetonii, Westw. ; and 
 Cryptothelea consorta, Temp. 
 
 All the other tribes of minute Lepitoptera have abun- 
 dant representatives in Ceylon ; some of them most 
 attractive from the great beauty of their markings and 
 colouring. The curious little split-winged moth {Ptero- 
 phorus) is frequently seen in the cinnamon gardens and 
 in the vicinity of the fort, hid from the noon-day heat 
 among the cool grass shaded by the coco-nut topes. 
 Three species have been captured, all characterised by 
 the same singular feature of having the wings fan-like, 
 separated nearly their entire length into detached sec- 
 tions, resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird 
 expanded for flight. 
 
 HoMOPTERA. Cicada. — Of the Homoptera, the one 
 which will most frequently arrest attention is the cicada, 
 which, resting high up on the bark of a tree, makes the 
 forest re-echo with a long-sustained noise so curiously 
 resembling that of a cutler's wheel that the creature 
 producing it has acquired the highly-appropriate name 
 of the "knife-grinder." 
 
 CICADA—" THE KNIFE GKINDEE." 
 
 In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached 
 to my official residence at Kandy, the shrubs were fre- 
 quented by an insect covered profusely with a snow-white 
 powder, arranged in delicate filaments that curl like 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 BUGS. — FLEAS. 
 
 433 
 
 v/o 
 
 a head of dressed celery. These it moves without dis- 
 persing the powder : but when dead they fall rapidly to 
 dust. I regret that I did not preserve specimens, but 
 I have reason to think that they are the larvae of the 
 Flata Iwibata, or of some other closely allied species ^, 
 though I have not seen in Ceylon any of the wax pro- 
 duced by th.^ flata. 
 
 Hemiptera. Bugs. — On the shrubs in his compound 
 the newly-arrived traveller will be attracted by an insect 
 of a pale green hue and delicately-thin configuration, 
 which, resting from its recent flight, composes its scanty 
 wings, and moves languidly along the leaf. But ex- 
 perience will teach him to limit his examination to a 
 respectful view of its attitudes ; it is one of a numerous 
 family of bugs, (some of them most attractive^ in their 
 colouring,) which are inoffensive if unmolested, but if 
 touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, once endured, 
 is never afterwards forgotten. 
 
 Aphanipteea. Fleas. — Fleas are equally numerous, 
 and may be seen in myriads in the dust of the streets or 
 skipping in the sunbeams which fall on the clay floors of 
 the cottages. The dogs, to escape them, select for their 
 sleeping places spots where a wood fire has been pre- 
 viously kindled; and here prone on the white ashes, 
 
 * Amongst the specimens of this 
 order which I brought from 
 Ceylon, two proved to be new 
 and undescribed, andiJiave been 
 named by Mr. A-.^wiTpElidiptera 
 Emersoniana and Poeciloptera Ten- ^ a 
 nentina. 
 
 ^ Such as Cantuo ocellatus, Lejp- 
 toscelis Marginalis, Callidca Stoc- 
 kerius, &c. &c. Of the aquatic 
 species, the gigantic JBehstoma In- 
 dicum cannot escape notice, attain- 
 ing a size of nearly tliree inches. 
 
 ELIDIPTEKA EMERdONIANA. 
 
 FCECILOPIEHA lENNENTINA. 
 
434 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 their stomachs close to the earth, and their hind legs 
 extended behind, they repose in comparative coolness, 
 and bid defiance to their persecutors. 
 
 DiPTERA. Mosquitoes. — But of all the insect pests 
 that beset an unseasoned European the most provoking 
 by far is the truculent mosquito.^ Next to the torture 
 which it inflicts, its most annoying peculiarities are the 
 booming hum of its approach, its cunning, its audacity, 
 and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks 
 however frequently repulsed. These characteristics are 
 so remarkable as fully to justify the conjecture that 
 the mosquito, and not the ordinary fly, constituted the 
 plague inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians.^ 
 
 ^ CidexIamgerJWied. InKandy 
 ]\Ir. Thwaites finds C. fuscanus, 
 C. circiimvolens, &c., and one with 
 a most formidable hooked proboscis, 
 to which he has assigned the ap- 
 propriate name C. Regius. 
 
 2 The precise species of insect 
 by means of which the Almighty 
 signalised the plague of flies, re- 
 mains uncertain, as the Hebrew 
 term arob or orov, which has been 
 rendered in one place, " Divers 
 sorts of flies," Ps. cy. 31 ; and in 
 another, "swarms of flies," Exod. 
 yiii. 21, &c., means merely " an 
 assemblage," a " mixture," or a 
 " swarm," and the expletive " of 
 flies " is an interpolation of the 
 translators. This, however, serves 
 to show that the fly implied was 
 one easily recognisable by its habit 
 of swarming ; and the further fact 
 that it bites, or rather stings, is 
 elicited from the expression of the 
 Psalmist, Ps. Ixxviii. 45, that the 
 insects by which the Egj-ptians 
 were tormented " devoured them," 
 so that here are two peculiarities 
 inapplicable to the domestic fly, 
 but strongly characteristic of gnats 
 and mosquitoes. 
 
 Bruce thought that the fly of 
 the fourth plague was the " zimb" 
 of Abyssinia which he so graphi- 
 cally describes ; and Westwood, in 
 an ingenious passage in his Ento- 
 mologisfs Text-hook, p. 17, combats 
 the strange idea of one of the 
 bishops, that it was a cockroach ! 
 and argues in favour of the mos- 
 quito. This view he sustains by a 
 reference to the habits of the crea- 
 ture, the swarms in which it invades 
 a locality, and the audacity with 
 which it enters the houses ; and he 
 accounts for the exemption of " the 
 land of Goshen in which the Israe- 
 lites dwelt," by the fact of its being 
 sandy pasture above the level of the 
 river ; whilst the mosquitoes were 
 produced freely in the rest of Egj-pt, 
 the soil of which was submerged by 
 the rising of the Nile. 
 
 In all the passages in the Old 
 Testament in which flies are alluded 
 to, otherwise than in connection 
 with the Egj-jDtian infliction, the 
 word used in the Hebrew is zcvov, 
 which the Septuagint renders by 
 the ordinary generic term for flies 
 in general, fivla, '^musca" (Eccles. 
 X. 1, Isaiah vii. 10) ; but in every 
 
PROPERTY OF 
 
 Chap. XIL] ^' MOSQUITOES. 435 
 
 Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts 
 one cannot but be amused by the ingenuity of their 
 movements ; as if aware of the risk incident to an open 
 assault, a favourite mode of attack is, when concealed 
 by a table, to assail the ankles through the meshes of 
 the stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually pro- 
 tected by a fold of Eussian duck. When you are 
 reading, a mosquito will rarely settle on that portion of 
 your hand which is within range of your eyes, but 
 cunningly stealing by the underside of the book fastens 
 on the wrist or little finger, and noiselessly inserts his 
 proboscis there. I have tested the classical expedient 
 recorded by Herodotus, who states that the fishermen 
 inhabiting the fens of Egjrpt, cover their beds with their 
 nets, knowing that the mosquitoes, although they bite 
 through linen robes, will not venture through a net.* 
 But, notwithstanding the opinion of Spence ^, that nets 
 with meshes an inch square will effectually exclude 
 them, I have been satisfied by painful experience that 
 (if the theory be not altogether fallacious) at least the 
 modern mosquitoes of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the 
 
 instance in which mention is made mals, the fly and the dog, exhi- 
 
 of the miracle of Moses, the Sep- biting the courage and the cunning 
 
 tuagint saj's that the fly produced of both, and fastening on its victim 
 
 was the kvpo/xvIu, the " dog-fl}'." with the noise and rapidity of 
 
 What insect was meant by this an arrow " — fiera poi^ou Kaddnep 
 
 name it is not now easy to determine, jSeAos. This seems to identify the 
 
 but ^LiAjx intimates that the dog- dog-fly of the Septuagint with the 
 
 fly both inflicts a wound and emits description of the Psalmist, Ps. 
 
 a booming sound, in both of which Lsxviii. 45, and to vindicate the 
 
 particulars it accords with the conjecture that the tormenting 
 
 mosquito (lib. iv. 51) ; and Philo- mosquito, and not the house-fly, 
 
 JuD^rs, in his Vita Mosis, lib. i. was commissioned by the Lord to 
 
 ch. xxiii., descanting on the plague humble the obstinacy of the 
 
 of flies, and using the term of the Egyptian tjTant. 
 
 Septuagint, Kwofj-vla, describes it ^ Herodotus, Euterpe, xcv. 
 
 as combining the characteristic of ^ Xirby and Spence's Etiio- 
 
 " the most impudent of all ani- raology^ letter iv. 
 
 F F 2 
 
436 INSECTS. [Chap. XII, 
 
 same considerations which restrained those of the Nile 
 under the successors of Cambyses. 
 
 The Coffee-Bug. — Allusion has been made in a previous 
 passage to the coccus known in Ceylon as the " Coffee- 
 Bug (Lecanium Gaffeoe, Wlk.), which of late years has 
 made such destructive ravages in the plantations in the 
 Mountain Zone.^ The first thing that attracts attention 
 on looking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number 
 of brownish wart-like bodies that stud the young shoots 
 and occasionally the margins on the underside of the 
 leaves,^ Each of these warts or scales is a transformed 
 female, containing a large number of eggs which are 
 hatched within it. 
 
 When the young ones come out from their nest, they 
 run about over the plant like diminutive wood-lice, 
 and at this period there is no apparent distinction be- 
 tween male and female. Shortly after being hatched 
 the males seek the underside of the leaves, while the 
 females prefer the young shoots as a place of abode. If 
 the under surface of a leaf be examined, it will be found 
 to be studded, particularly on its basil half, with minute 
 yellowish-white specks of an oblong form.^ These are 
 the larvae of the males undergoing transformation into 
 pupae, beneath their own skins ; some of these specks 
 are always in a more advanced state than the others, 
 the full-grown ones being whitish and scarcely a line 
 
 ' The following notice of the coffee districts, until it had estab- 
 
 " coffee-bug," and of the singularly lished itself more or less perma- 
 
 destructive effects produced by it nently in all the estates in fidl 
 
 on the plants, has been prepared cultivation throughout the island, 
 
 chiefly from a memoir presented to '^ See the annexed drawing. Fig. 1. 
 
 the Ceylon Government by the ^ Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the 
 
 late Dr. Gardner, in which he engraving, where these and all the 
 
 traces the history of the insect other figures are considerably en- 
 
 from its first appearance in the larged. 
 
Chap. XII.] THE COFFEE-BUG. 437 
 
 long. Some of this size are translucent, the insect 
 having escaped ; the darker ones still retain it within, 
 of an oblong form, with the rudiment of a wing on each 
 side attached to the lower part of the thorax and closely 
 applied to the sides ; the legs are six in number, the 
 four hind ones being directed backwards, the anterior 
 forwards (a peculiarity not common in other insects) ; 
 the two antennae are also inclined backwards, and from 
 the tail protrude three short bristles, the middle one 
 thinner and longer than the rest. 
 
 When the transformation is complete, the mature 
 insect makes its way from beneath the pellucid case ', 
 all its organs having then attained their full size : the 
 head is sub-globular, with two rather prominent black 
 eyes, and two antennae, each with eleven joints, hairy 
 throughout, and a tuft of rather longer hairs at the 
 apices ; the legs are also covered with hairs, the wino-s 
 are horizontal, of an obovate oblong shape,, membranous, 
 and extending a little farther than the bristles of the 
 tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which 
 reaches so far as the tips ; one of them runs close to the 
 costal margin, and is much thicker than the other, 
 which branches off from its base and skirts alono- the 
 inner margin ; behind the wings is attached a pair of 
 minute halteres of peculiar form. The possession of 
 wings would appear to be the cause why the full-grown 
 male is more rarely seen on the coffee bushes than the 
 female. 
 
 The female, like the male, attaches herself to the 
 surface of the plant, the place selected being usually 
 
 ' Fig. 4. INIr. Westwood, who backwards, the wings being ex- 
 observed the operation in one tended flatly oyer the head. 
 Hpeeies, states that they escape 
 
 !• F 3 
 
438 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 the young shoots ; but she is also to be met with on the 
 margins of the undersides of the leaves (on the upper 
 surface neither the male nor female ever attach them- 
 selves) ; but, unlike the male, which derives no nourish- 
 ment from the juices of the tree (the mouth being 
 obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticle 
 with a proboscis (a very short three-jointed ^romi^scis), 
 sprino-ing as it were from the breast, but capable of 
 being greatly porrected, and inserted in the cuticle of 
 the plant, and through this she abstracts her nutriment. 
 In the early pupa state the female is easily distinguish- 
 able from the male, by being more elliptical and much 
 more convex. As she increases in size her skin distends 
 and she becomes smooth and dry; the rings of the 
 body become effaced ; and losing entirely the form of 
 an insect, she presents, for some time, a yellowish 
 pustular shape, but ultimately assumes a roundish 
 conical form, of a dark brown colour.^ 
 
 Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still 
 possesses the power of locomotion, and her six legs are 
 easily distinguishable in the under surface of her cor- 
 pulent body ; but at no period of her existence has she 
 wings. It is about the time of her obtaining full size 
 that impregnation takes place ^ ; after which the scale 
 becomes somewhat more conical, assumes a darker 
 
 * Figs. 6 and 7. There are many and others with milky juices : 
 
 other species of the Coccus tribe another subgenus (Ceroplastes ?), 
 
 in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus ?) the female of which produces a 
 
 never appearing as a scale, the protecting waxy material, infests 
 
 female wrapping herself up in a the Gendurassa Vulgaris, the Furr- 
 
 white cottony exudation ; many csea Gigantea, the Jak tree, Mango, 
 
 species nearly allied to the true and other common trees. 
 
 Coccus infest common plants about ^ Keaumur has described the 
 
 gardens, such as the Nerium singular manner in which this 
 
 Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, occurs. Mem. tom. iv. 
 
WR^ 10 
 
 THE COFFEE BUG. 
 Lccanium Caffeoe. 
 
Chap. XII.] THE COFFEE-BUG. 439 
 
 colour, and at length is permanently fixed to the surface 
 of the plant, by means of a cottony substance interposed 
 between it and the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. 
 The scale, when full grown, exactly resembles in minia- 
 ture the hat of a Cornish miner ^, there being a narrow 
 rim at the base, which gives increased surface of attach- 
 ment. It is about ^ inch in diameter, by about ^V 
 deep, and it appears perfectly smooth to the naked eye ; 
 but it is in reality studded over with a multitude 
 of very minute warts, giving it a dotted appearance. 
 Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirely des- 
 titute of hairs. The number of eggs contained in one 
 of the scales is enormous, amounting in a single one to 
 691. The eggs are of an oblong shape, of a pale flesh 
 colour, and perfectly smooth.^ In some of the scales, 
 the eggs when laid on the field of the microscope re- 
 semble those masses of life sometimes seen in decayed 
 cheese.^ A few small yellowish maggots are sometimes 
 found with them, and these are the larvae "^ of insects, 
 the eggs of which have been deposited in the female 
 while the scale was soft. They escape when mature by 
 cuttincr a small round hole in the dorsum of the scale. 
 
 o 
 
 It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for 
 two or three years that it shows itself to an alarming- 
 extent. During the first year a few only of the ripe 
 scales are seen scattered over the bushes, generally on 
 the younger shoots ; but that year's crop does not suffer 
 much, and the appearance of the tree is little altered. 
 
 * Fig. 8. soft Coccus, viz. : Encystus, Cocco- 
 
 * Fig. 9. phagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, 
 ' Figs. 10, 11. Agonioneurus ; besides Aphidius, a 
 
 * Of the parasitic Chalcididise, minutely sized genus of Ickneu- 
 many genera of which are well monidse. Most, if not aU, of these 
 known to deposit their eggs in the genera are Singhalese. 
 
 F F 4 
 
4->0 INSECTS. [Chap. Xn. 
 
 The second year, however, brings a change for the worse ; 
 if the young shoots and the underside of the leaves be 
 now examined, the scales will be found to have become 
 much more numerous, and with them appear a multitude 
 of white specks, which are the young scales in a more 
 or less forward state. The clusters of berries now assume 
 a black sooty look, and a great number of them fall off 
 before coming to maturity ; the general health of the 
 tree also begins to fail, and it acquires a blighted ap- 
 pearance. A loss of crop is this year sustained, but to 
 no great extent. 
 
 The third year brings about a more serious change, 
 the whole plant acquires a black hue, appearing as if 
 soot had been thrown over it in great quantities ; this 
 is caused by the growth of a parasitic fungus ' over the 
 shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming 
 a fibrous coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. 
 This never makes its appearance till the insect has been 
 a considerable time on the bush, and probably owes its 
 existence there to an unhealthy condition of the juices 
 of the leaf, consequent on the irritation produced by the 
 coccus, since it never visits the upper surface of the 
 leaf until the latter has fully established itself on the 
 lower. At this period the young shoots have an ex- 
 ceedingly disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow 
 pustular bodies forming on them, the leaves get shrivel- 
 led, and the infected trees become conspicuous in the 
 row. The black ants are assiduous in their visits to 
 
 * Racodium'i Species of this dense interlaced mesh of fibres, 
 
 genus are not confined to the coffee each made up of a single series of 
 
 plant alone in Ceylon, but follow minute oblong vesicles applied end 
 
 the " bugs " in their attacks on to end. 
 other bushes. It appears like a 
 
Chap. XIL] THE COFFEE-BUG. 441 
 
 them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, and on many 
 trees not a single berry forms. 
 
 This Lecanium, or a very closely allied species, has 
 been observed in the Botanic Grarden at Peradenia, on 
 the Citrus acida, Psidium joomiferum, MyrtiLs Zey- 
 lanica, Rosa Indica, Careya arborea, Viiex Negundo, 
 and other plants. The coffee coccus has generally been 
 first observed in moist, hollow places sheltered from the 
 wind ; and thence it has spread itself even over the 
 driest and most exposed parts of the island. On some 
 estates, after attaining a maximum, it has generally 
 declined, but has shown a liability to reappear, espe- 
 cially in low sheltered situations, and it is believed to 
 prevail most extensively in wet seasons. MTiile in its 
 earlier stages, it is easily transmitted from one estate 
 to another, on the clothes of human beings, and in 
 various other ways, which will readily suggest them- 
 selves. Dr. Gardner, after a careful consideration and 
 minute examination of estates, arrived at the conclusion, 
 that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterly 
 failed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was 
 likely to be discovered. He seems also to have been of 
 opinion that the insect was not under human control ; 
 and that even if it should disappear, it would only be 
 when it should have worn itself out as other blio-hts 
 have been known to do in some mysterious way. Whe- 
 ther this may prove to be the case or not, is still very 
 uncertain, but every thing observed by Dr. Gardner 
 tends to indicate the permanency of the pest. 
 
442 
 
 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 List of Ceylon Insects. 
 
 For the following list of the insects of the island, 
 and the remarks prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. 
 Walker, by whom it has been prepared after a careful 
 inspection of the collections made by Dr. Templeton, 
 Mr. E. L. Layard, and others: as well as of those in the 
 British Museum and in the Museum of the East India 
 Company.* 
 
 " A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the 
 best means of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological 
 Fauna : first, as it is an island, and has a mountainous central 
 region, the tropical character of its productions, as in most 
 other cases, rather diminishes, and somewhat approaches that 
 of higher latitudes. 
 
 " The coast-region of Ceylon, and fiilly one-third of its 
 northern part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the 
 rest of its surface ; and their climate and vegetation are nearly 
 similar to those of the Carnatic, with which this island may 
 have been connected at no very remote period.^ But if, on 
 the contrary, the land in Ceylon is gradually rising, the dif- 
 ference of its Fauna from that of Central Hindustan is less 
 remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be 
 conjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated fi-om the 
 central part of Hindustan, and confined to the range of 
 mountains along the eastern coast ; the insect-fauna of which 
 is as yet almost unknoAvn, but will probably be found to have 
 more resemblance to that of Ceylon than to the insects of 
 
 * The entire of the new species scriptions have been taken, have 
 contained in this list have been been at his desire transferred to 
 described in a series of papers by the British Museum for future re- 
 Mr. Walker in successive numbers ferenee and comparison, 
 of the Annals of Natural History ^ On the subject of this conjec- 
 (1858 — 61) : those from Dr. Tem- ture see ante, p. 60. 
 pleton's collection of which de- 
 
Chap. XI I.] LIST OF CEYLOX INSECTS. 443 
 
 nortliern and western India — just as tiie insect-fauna of 
 Malaya appears more to resemble the similar productions of 
 Australasia than those of the more northern continent. 
 
 " Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry 
 northern province of Ceylon ; and among them more Hin- 
 dustan insects are to be observed than among those collected 
 by Dr. Templeton, and found wholly in the district between 
 Colombo and Kandy. According to this view the faunas of 
 the Xilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of the peninsula 
 of Malacca, and of Australasia would be found to form one 
 group; — while those of Northern Ceylon, of the western 
 Dekkan, and of the level parts of Central Hindustan would 
 form another of more recent origin. The insect-fauna of the 
 Carnatic is also probably similar to that of the lowlands of 
 Ceylon ; but it is still unexplored. The regions of Hindustan 
 in which species have been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, 
 Silliet, and the Punjaub, are at the distance of from 1300 to 
 1600 miles from Ceylon, and therefore the insects of the latter 
 are fully as different from those of the above regions as they 
 are from those of Australasia, to which Ceylon is as near in 
 point of distance, and agrees more with regard to latitude, 
 
 " Dr.Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the 
 mountains of Ceylon to be quite different from that of the 
 plains and of the shores. The south and west districts have a 
 very moist climate, and as their vegetation is like that of 
 Malabar, their insect-fauna will probably also resemble that of 
 the latter region. 
 
 " The insects mentioned in the following list are thus dis- 
 tributed : — i 
 
 '' Order Coleoptera. 
 
 " The recorded species of Cicindelidce inhabit the plains or 
 the coast country of Ceylon, and several of them are also 
 found in Hindustan. 
 
 " Many of the species of Carahidce and of Staphylinidce, 
 especially those collected by Mr. Thwaites, near Kandy, and 
 by M. Nietner at Colombo, have much resemblance to the 
 
444 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 insects of these two families in North Europe ; in the Scyd- 
 mcenidce, Ptiliadce, Phalacridce, Nitidulidce, Coh/diadcB, and 
 Lathridiadce the northern form is still more striking, and 
 strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic 
 CopridcB^ Bupref<tidcB, and Ceramhi/cidoe, and with the Ela- 
 teridcB, Lampyridce, Tenebrionidce, Helopidce, Meloidce, Curcu- 
 lionidce, PriomdcB, Ceramhycidce^ Lamiidce^ and EndomychidcB. 
 
 " The Copridce, Dynastidce^ Melolonthidce^ Cetoniadce^ and 
 Passalidce are well represented on the plains and on the coast, 
 and the species are mostly of a tropical character. 
 
 " The Hydrophilidce have a more northern aspect, as is gene- 
 rally the case with aquatic species. 
 
 " The order Strepsiptera is here considered as belonging to 
 the MordellidcE^ and is represented by the genus Myrmecolax, 
 which is peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon. 
 
 " In the CurculionidcB the single species of Apion will recall 
 to mind the great abundance of that genus in North Europe. 
 
 " The Prionidce and the two following families have been 
 investigated by Mr. Pascoe, and the HispidcB^ with the five 
 following families, by Mr. Baly ; these two gentlemen are weU 
 acquainted with the above tribes of beetles, and kindly supplied 
 me Avith the names of the Ceylon species. 
 
 Order Orthoptera. 
 
 " These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. 
 The Physapoda^ which will probably be soon incorporated 
 with them, are likely to be numerous, though only one species 
 has as yet been noticed. 
 
 Order Neuroptera. 
 
 " The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue pub- 
 lished by Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species 
 named by him or by M. Nietner. They were found in the 
 most elevated parts of the island, near Eangbodde, and Dr. 
 Hagen informs me that not less than 500 species have been 
 noticed in Ceylon, but that they are not yet recorded, with 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLOX IXSECTS. 445 
 
 the exception of tlie species here enumerated. It has been 
 remarked that the Trichoptera and other aquatic Neuroptera 
 are less local than the land species, owing to the more equable 
 temperature of the habitation of their larvae, and on account 
 of their being often conveyed along the whole length of rivers. 
 The species of Fsocus in the list are far more numerous than 
 those yet observed in any other country, with the exception of 
 Europe. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera. 
 
 " In this order the Formicidce and the Poneridce are very 
 numerous, as they are in other damp and woody tropical coun- 
 tries. Seventy species of ants have been observed, but as yet 
 few of them have been named. The various other families of 
 aculeate Hymenoptera are doubtless more abundant than the 
 species recorded indicate, and it may be safely reckoned that 
 the parasitic Hymenoptera in Ceylon far exceed one thousand 
 species in number, though they are yet only kno^vn by means 
 of about two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites. 
 
 Order Lepidoptera. 
 
 " The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order 
 than in any other of the insect tribes, but as yet the Lepidop- 
 tera alone in their class afford materials for a comparison of 
 the productions of Ceylon with those of Hindustan and of 
 Australasia ; nine hundred and thirty-two species have been 
 collected by Dr. Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the central, 
 western, and northern parts of the island. All the families, 
 from the Papilionidce to the Tineidoe^ abound, and numerous 
 species and several genera appear, as yet, to be pecuhar to the 
 island. As Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern 
 regions, the list in this volume will suitably precede the 
 descriptive catalogues of the heterocerous Lepidoptera of Hin- 
 dustan, Java, Borneo, and of other parts of Australasia, which 
 are being prepared for publication. In some of the heteroce- 
 rous families several species are common to Ceylon and to 
 Australasia, and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of 
 
446 INSECTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and 
 of Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions 
 may have been the means of conveying some species from one 
 to the other. Among the Pyralites^ Hynunia recurvalis in- 
 habits also the West Indies, South America, "West Africa, 
 Hindustan, China, Australasia, Australia, and New Zealand ; 
 and its food-plant is probably some vegetable Avhich is culti- 
 vated in all those regions ; so also Desmia afflictalis is found in 
 Sierra Leone, Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China. 
 
 Order Diptera. 
 
 " About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but 
 most of those here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at 
 Kandy, and have a great likeness to North European species. 
 The mosquitoes are very annoying on account of their num- 
 bers, as might be expected from the moisture and heat of the 
 climate. Cidex laniger is the coast species, and the other 
 kinds here mentioned are from Kandy. Humboldt observed 
 that in some parts of South America each stream had its 
 peculiar mosquitoes, and it yet remains to be seen whether 
 the gnats in Ceylon are also thus restricted in their habitation. 
 The genera Sciara, Cecidomyia, and Sh?iidium, which abound 
 so exceedingly in temperate countries, have each one represen- 
 tative species in the collection made by Mr. Thwaites. Thus 
 an almost new field remains for the Entomologist in the study 
 of the yet unknown Singhalese DijDtera, which must be very 
 numerous. 
 
 Order Hemiptera. 
 
 " The species of this order in the list are too few and too 
 similar to those of Hindustan to need any particular mention. 
 Lecaniiim coffece may be noticed, on account of its infesting 
 the coffee plant, as its name indicates, and the ravages of other 
 species of the genus will be remembered, from the fact that 
 one of them, in other regions, has put a stop to the cultivation 
 of the orange as an article of commerce. 
 
Chap. XI I.] LIST OF CEYLOX mSECTS. 
 
 447 
 
 " In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of in- 
 sects in Ceylon may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in 
 number, of which about 2000 are enumerated in this volume. 
 
 Class Aeachnida. 
 
 " Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens 
 cannot be satisfiictorily described; one Ixodes and one Che- 
 lifer have been forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. 
 Thwaites." 
 
 Note.— The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered in Ceylon since Sir J. E 
 Tennent's departure from the Island in 1849. 
 
 Order Coleopteea, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fam. CiciNDELiDiE, Steph. 
 Cicindela, Linn. 
 
 flavopuiictata, Aud. 
 
 discrepans, Wlk. 
 
 aurnfasciaca, Guer. 
 
 quadrilineata, labr. 
 
 biramosa. Fabr. 
 
 catena, Fubr. 
 
 *insigniticans, Dohrn. 
 Trinond} la, Lair. 
 
 feme at a, Wlk. 
 
 *tumidula, IV'lk. 
 
 *siitiscabra. Wlk. 
 
 *conciima, Dohrn. 
 
 Fam. CarabiDjE, Leach. 
 Casnonia, Latr. 
 
 *punctata, Niet, 
 
 *pilifera. Niet. 
 Ophionea, Kli/g. 
 
 *cyanocephala, Fabr. 
 Euplviies, Xiel. 
 
 Dohriiii, Niet. 
 Heteroglofisa, Niet. 
 
 *elegans, Niet. 
 
 *nificollis, Niet. 
 
 *bimaculata, Niet. 
 Zuphium, latr. 
 
 *piibesceiis, Niet. 
 Phero|isophns, Soiier. 
 
 Catoiiei, Dej. 
 
 bimaculatus, Fabr. 
 Cymindis, Latr. 
 
 rufiveiitris, Wlk. 
 Anchisia, N/et. 
 
 *m()desta, Niet. 
 Dromius, Bon. 
 
 margiiiiier, Wlk. 
 
 repandens, Wlk. 
 Lebia, Latr. 
 
 bipars, Wlk. 
 
 Creagris, Niet. 
 
 labrosa, Niet. 
 Elliotia, N/et. 
 
 pallipt"-^, Niet. 
 Maraga. Wlk. 
 
 planigeia. Wlk. 
 Catascopus, Kn-by. 
 facialis, Wied. 
 reductus, Wlk. 
 Scarites, Fabr. 
 
 obliterans, Wlk. 
 subsignans, 'i Ik. 
 designans, Wlk. 
 *minor, Niet. 
 Clivina, Latr. 
 
 *rugosifrons, Niet, 
 *el(ingatula. Niet. 
 *maculata, Niet. 
 recta, Wlk. 
 Leistus, Ficehl. 
 
 linearis, Wlk. 
 Isotarsus, Lafcrte. 
 
 quadrimactiiatus, Oliv. 
 Panagseus, Latr. 
 
 retractus, Wlk. 
 Chlffinius, Bon, 
 
 bimaculatus, Hej. 
 diffinis Bciche. 
 *Cey]anicus, Niet. 
 *quinque-maculatus, 
 
 Niet. 
 pulcher, Niet. 
 cupricoUis, Niet. 
 nigulosus, Niet. 
 Anchomenus, Bon. 
 illoiatus, Wlk. 
 Agonum, Bon. 
 
 placiiiulum, Wlk. 
 Col pedes ? Macl. 
 
 marginicullis, Wlk. 
 .^rgutor, Mep. 
 degener, Wlk. 
 relinquens, Wlk. 
 Simphyus. Niet. 
 
 *Lmicolor, Niet. 
 Brady t us, Steph. 
 
 stolidus, Wlk. 
 Curtonotiis, Steph. 
 
 compositus, Wlk. 
 Harpalus, Latr. 
 *aiivolans, Niet. 
 dispf liens. l\ Ik. 
 Calodromiis, Niet. 
 
 *exornatus, Niet. 
 Megaristerus, Niet. 
 
 *man(iibu]aris. Niet. 
 *stenolophoides, Niet. 
 •IndicLi-i. Niet. 
 Platysma. Bun. 
 
 retinens, Wlk. 
 Morio, Latr. 
 
 trogositoides, Wlk, 
 cucnjoides, Wlk. 
 Barysomus, DeJ. 
 
 *Gyllenhalii, Bej. 
 Oodes, Bon. 
 
 *piceiis, Niel. 
 Seleiiopiioru-, Dej. 
 
 intixus, Wlk. 
 Orthogoniiis, Dej. 
 
 fenioratus, Dej. 
 Helhiodes, Wesiw. 
 
 Taprob.mae, Wisfw. 
 Physotrotaphus, Parry. 
 Ceyloniciis. Parry. 
 *minax. West. 
 Physodera, Esch. 
 
 Eschschnlizii, Parry. 
 Omphra, Latr. 
 
 *ovipennis, Beiche. 
 Planetes. Macl. 
 
 bmiaculatus, Macleay, 
 Cardiaderus, Dej, 
 
 scitus, Wlk. 
 Distrigus, Dej. 
 
 *co>tatus, Niet. 
 *siibme allicus, Niet. 
 rufopiceus, Niet. 
 *ceneus, Niet. 
 *Dejeani, Niet. 
 Drimostoma, Dej. 
 
 *Ceylanicum, Niet. 
 
448 
 
 I^S-SECTS. 
 
 [Chaf. XII. 
 
 *margina1e, Wlk. 
 Cyclosonius, Latr. 
 
 flexuo^us, Fnbr, 
 Ochthepliilus, Niet. 
 
 *Ceylaiiicus, Hiet, 
 Spathinus, Siet. 
 
 •nigriceps, AVrf. 
 Acupa pus, J^air. 
 
 derosiatiis, fVlk. 
 
 extremiis, Wlk. 
 Bembidiiim, Lntr. 
 
 finitimnm. Wlk. 
 
 *opulentum, Niet. 
 
 *trimcatiiin, Niet. 
 
 *tropicum, Niet. 
 
 *tri;m-.'ulare, Niet. 
 
 *Ceylaniciim, Niet. 
 
 Kliieii. Niet. 
 
 *ebeniuum, Niet. 
 
 *orieniHle, Niet, 
 
 *einarginatuin, Niet, 
 
 *oniatiim, Niet. 
 
 *sc}dm3enoides, Niet. 
 
 Fam, PaussidjE, Westw. 
 Cerapterus, Swed. 
 
 )aripes, Stred. 
 Pleuroptt-Mis, West. 
 
 Westprm mni, West. 
 Paussus, Linn. 
 
 pacificus, West. 
 
 Fam. Dytiscid^, Mad. 
 Cybister, Curt. 
 
 liiiibatiis, Fabr. 
 Dytisciis, Linn. 
 
 extei'uans, Wlk. 
 Eunecies, Erich. 
 
 giiseus. Fibr. 
 Hydaticus, Leach. 
 
 fpstiviis, ///. 
 
 vittat- s. Fnbr. 
 
 disloc;in<, Wlk. 
 
 fra.-tifer, Wlk. 
 Colymbetfs, Clairv. 
 
 interclusus, Wlk, 
 Hydroporus, Clairv. 
 
 interpnlsus, Wlk. 
 
 intermixtus. Wlk. 
 
 )8et:-bilis, Wlh. 
 
 *inrfficiens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Gyrinid^, Leach. 
 Dineutes. Mad. 
 
 spinosus, Fabr. 
 Porrorhyiichus, Lap. 
 
 indicans, Wlk. 
 Gyn-tes Bndle. 
 
 dscife'. Wlk. 
 Gyrinns, L^inn. 
 
 nitidnhis, Fnbr. 
 
 obi quus, Wlk. 
 Orectochilus, Eich. 
 
 *lenocinium, Dohrn. 
 
 Fam. STAPHILINIDiB, 
 
 Lench. 
 Ocypus, Kirby. 
 
 longipeniiis, Wlk. 
 congruus, Wlk. 
 
 punctilinea, Wlk. 
 
 *iineatus Wlk. 
 Philontl'us, Lea^h. 
 
 *pedestris. Wlk. 
 Xantlioliims i)a/il. 
 
 cinrtus, Wlk. 
 
 *imlman«, Wlk. 
 Sunius, LjCach. 
 
 *iibliquus, Wlk. 
 Q2di<hiriis, Erich. 
 
 *alati.is. Niet. 
 Poe<1erus Fnbr. 
 
 alternan<, Wlk. 
 Steims. Lair. 
 
 *l)arb;itUN Niet. 
 
 *lacertoidrs. Niet. 
 Osoriiis ? Liach. 
 
 *compa(tiis, Wlk. 
 Prognatha, Lntr. 
 
 decis,t, Wlk. 
 
 *ceniiis, Hlk. 
 Leptochirus. Perty. 
 
 *tiisiinus, Erich. 
 Oxytelus, Grav. 
 
 r« dis, Wlk 
 
 prodiictus, Wlk. 
 
 *bicnlor, Wlk. 
 Trognphloens, Mann. 
 
 *Tai)roban£e, Wlk. 
 Omalium, 'jrav. 
 
 filiiurine. Wlk. 
 Aleochara, Grnv. 
 
 postica, Wlk. 
 
 *translata, Wlk, 
 
 *snhjecia. Wlk. 
 Dinarda, Leach. 
 
 serricnrnis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PsELAPHiD^, Leach. 
 Pselaphanax, Wlk. 
 setosus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ScYDM^NiD^, ieacA. 
 Erinms, Wlk. 
 
 monstrosns, Wlk. 
 Scyiimaeniis, Latr. 
 
 *megamelas, Wlk. 
 
 *al;itns, Niet. 
 
 *fe'i oralis, NiH. 
 
 *Ceylan1cMS, N>ct. 
 
 *internnediiis, Niet. 
 
 *pseUiphoides. Niet. 
 
 *advolans, Niet. 
 
 *pubes('ens. Niet. 
 
 *pyguifeiis, A7('^. 
 
 *gl;in(luliferus, Niet. 
 
 *graminicnla, Niet. 
 
 *pyrirormis:, Niet. 
 
 *angiisticpi>s, Niet. 
 
 *ovatus, Niet. 
 
 Fam. Ptiliad^, Wo . 
 Trichopteryx, Kirby. 
 
 *ciirsitans, Nitt. 
 
 *iinm;riira, Nift, 
 
 *invi.<ibili«, Niet. 
 Ptiliuin. Schlinp. 
 
 *snbqiiai(ratum, Niet. 
 Ptenidium, Erich. 
 
 *macrocephalum, Niet. 
 
 Fam. Phalacuid^, Leach. 
 Phalacrus, Payk. 
 
 conjicieiis, Wlk. 
 
 confectus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. NitidulidjE, Leach. 
 Nitidula, Fabr. 
 
 roniieens, Wlk. 
 
 intendens, Wlk. 
 
 sigiiificaiis. Wlk. 
 
 fomentit'era, Wlk. 
 
 *sul>iracnlata. Hlk. 
 
 *glabricula, Dohrn. 
 Nitidiilopsis. M Ik. 
 
 sequaiis. Wlk. 
 Meligpthes, Kirby. 
 
 *oripi)talis, Niet. 
 
 *rpspondpns, Wlk. 
 Rhizophagiis, He^bst. 
 
 paralielus, Wlk. 
 
 F^m COLYDIADJE, Woll. 
 
 Lyctus. Fabr 
 
 rptractus, Wlk. 
 
 disputans, H Ik. 
 Ditoma, Illig. 
 
 rugiccjUis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Tkogositid^, Kirby. 
 Trogosita, Oliv. 
 
 insinuans. Wlk. 
 
 *Th) zophagoides, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CucuJiD^, Steph. 
 Loemophlopus, Dej. 
 
 fprniginens, Wlk. 
 Cucujus ? Fabr. 
 
 *incom modus, Wlk. 
 Silvaniis, Latr 
 
 rptraheiv, Wlk 
 
 *sciiticollls, Wlk, 
 
 *norreftus, Wlk. 
 Brontes Fnbr. 
 
 *orientalis, Dej. 
 
 Fam. LATHRIDIANiE, Woll. 
 
 Lathridius. Herbst. 
 
 pprpusillns, Wlk. 
 Corticaria. Mirsh. 
 
 reserta, Wlk 
 Monotoma, Herbst. 
 
 concinnula, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. DERMESTiDi;, L.each. 
 Dermestps, Linn. 
 
 viilpinus. Fnbr, 
 Attagemis. Lair. 
 
 delectus. Wlk. 
 
 riifipes, Wlk. 
 Trinode-i, Meg. 
 
 hirtellus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. BYRRHiDiE, L.each. 
 Inc ica. Wilt. 
 solida, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. HisTERiDiE, Leach. 
 Hister, Linn. 
 
 Bengalensis, Weid. 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLOX INSECTS. 
 
 449 
 
 encaustus, Mars. 
 
 orieiitalis, Pai/k. 
 
 bipustulatus, Fabr. 
 
 *mundissimus, IVlk. 
 Saprinus, Erich. 
 
 semipunctatus, Fabr. 
 Platysoma, Leach. 
 
 atratum ? Erichs. 
 
 desinens, Wlk. 
 
 restorntuin, Wlk. 
 Dendrophilus, Leach. 
 
 finitimus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Aphodiad^, MacL 
 
 Aphodins, IlUf[. 
 
 robustus, Wlk. 
 
 dynastoides, Wlk. 
 
 pallidicornis, Wlk, 
 
 mutans, Wik. 
 
 sequens, Wlk. 
 Psammodius, Gyll. 
 
 inscitus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Trogid^, Mad. 
 
 Trox, Fabr. 
 
 inclusus, Wlk. 
 cornutus, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. C0PRID.E, Leach. 
 Ateuchus, Weber. 
 
 sacer, Linn. 
 Gymnopleurus, LlUg. 
 
 smaragdiier, Wlk. 
 
 Koenlgii, Fabr. 
 Sisyphus, Lair. 
 
 setosulus, Wlk. 
 
 subsidens, Wlk.. 
 
 prominens, Wlk. 
 Orepanocenis, Kirby. 
 
 Taprobanae, West. 
 Copris, Geoffr. 
 
 Pirmal, Fabr. 
 
 sagax. Quens. 
 
 capucinus, Fabr. 
 
 cribricoUis. Wlk. 
 
 repertus, Wlk. 
 
 sodalis, Wlk. 
 
 signatus, Wlk. 
 
 diminiitivus, Wlk. 
 Onthophagiis, Lntr. 
 
 Bonassus, Fahr. 
 
 cervicornis, Fabr. 
 
 prolixus, Wlk. 
 
 gravis. Wlk. 
 
 difficilis, Wlk. 
 
 lucens, Wlk. 
 
 negligens, Wlk. 
 
 mcerens, Wlk. 
 
 turbatus, Wlk. 
 Onitis, Fabr. 
 
 Philemon, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Dynastid^, Mad. 
 
 Oryctes, Lllig. 
 
 rhinoceros, Linn. 
 Xylotrupes, Hope. 
 
 Gideon, Linn. 
 
 reductus, Wlk. 
 
 solidipes, Wlk. 
 Phileurus, Latr. 
 
 detractus, Wlk. 
 Orphnus, Mad. 
 detegeiis, Wlk. 
 scitissimus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Gectrupidje, Leach. 
 Bolboceras, Kirby. 
 lineatus, Wentw. 
 
 Fam. MELOLONTHIDJi, 
 
 Mad. 
 Melolontha, Fabr. 
 
 nummiciidens, Newm. 
 
 rubiginosa, Wlk. 
 
 ferruginosa. Wlk. 
 
 seriata, Hope. 
 
 pinguis. Wlk. 
 
 setosa, Wlk. 
 Rhizotrogus, Lafr. 
 
 hirtipectns, Wlk. 
 
 squalls, Tf'lk. 
 
 costatus, Wlk. 
 
 inductus, Wlk. 
 
 exactus, Ji'lk. 
 
 suicifer, If'lk. 
 Phyllopertha, Kirby. 
 
 transversa. Burin. 
 Silphodes, Westio. 
 
 Indica, WestuK 
 Trigonostoma, Dej. 
 
 assimile, Hope. 
 
 compressum ? Weid. 
 
 nanum, Wlk, 
 Serica, Mad, 
 
 pruinosa. Hope. 
 Popilia, Leach. 
 
 marginicotlis, Newm, 
 
 cyanella, Hope. 
 
 discalis, Wlk. 
 Sericesthis, Dej. 
 
 rotundata, Wlk. 
 
 subsignata, Wlk. 
 
 mollis, Wlk. 
 
 coiifirmata, Wlk. 
 Plectris, Lep. S; Serv. 
 
 solida, Wlk. 
 
 punctiiiera, Wlk. 
 
 glabrilinea, Wlk, 
 Isonychus, Mann, 
 
 ventraiis, Wlk. 
 
 pectoralis, Wlk. 
 Omaloplia, Meg. 
 
 fracta, Wlk. 
 
 interrupta, Wlk. 
 
 semicincta, Wlk. 
 
 *hamit'era, Wlk. 
 
 *picta, Dohrn, 
 
 *nana, Dohrn. 
 Apogonia, Kirby. 
 
 nigricans, Hope. 
 Phy talus, Erich. 
 
 eurystomus, Burm, 
 Ancylon\cha, Dej. 
 
 Reynauiiii, Blanch. 
 Leuc -pholis, Drj. 
 
 Mellei, Guer, 
 
 pinguis, Burm. 
 Anomala, Meg. 
 
 data, Fabr. 
 
 humeralis, IVlk, 
 
 discalis, Wlk. 
 
 G a 
 
 varicolor, Sch. 
 
 conformis, Wlk. 
 
 similis, Hope. 
 
 punctatissima, Wlk. 
 
 infixa. Wlk. 
 Mimela, Kirhy. 
 
 varieg'aia. Wlk. 
 
 mundi>sima, Wlk. 
 Parastasia, Westw. 
 
 rufopica, Westw. 
 Euchlora, Mad, 
 
 viridis, Fabr, 
 
 perplexa, Hope. 
 
 Fam. CETONIAD.E, Kirbi/. 
 Glycyphana, Bu)m, 
 
 versicolor, Fiibr. 
 
 luctuosa. Gory. 
 
 variegata, Fabr, 
 
 marginicollis. Gory. 
 Clinteria, Burm. 
 
 imperalis, Schaum. 
 
 incerta. Parry. 
 
 chloroiiota, Blanch. 
 Tfeniodera, Burm. 
 
 Malabariensis, Gory. 
 
 quadrivittata, White. 
 
 alboguttata, I'igors. 
 Protaetia, Burm. 
 
 maculata, Fabr. 
 
 Whitehousii, Parry. 
 Agestrata, Erich. 
 
 uigrita, Fabr. 
 
 orichalcea, Linn. 
 Coryphocera, Burm. 
 
 elegans, Fabr. 
 Nacronota, Hoffm. 
 
 quadrivittata, Sch. 
 
 Fam. TRICHIAD.E, Leach. 
 Valgus, Scriba. 
 addendus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. LucANiDzE, Leach. 
 Odontolabis, Burm, 
 
 Bt ngalensis, Parry, 
 
 emarginatus, Dej. 
 iEgus, Mad. 
 
 acuminatus, Fabr. 
 
 lunatus, Fabr. 
 Singhala. Blanch. 
 
 tenella, Blanch. 
 
 Fam. Passalid^, Mad. 
 Passalus, Fabr, 
 
 transversus Dohrn. 
 inteistitialis, Perch. 
 punctiger ? Lefeb. 
 bicolor, Fabr, 
 
 Fam. Sph.eridiad^, Leach 
 Sphferidiiim, Fabr. 
 
 tricolor, Wlk. 
 Cercyon, Leach. 
 
 *vicinale, Wlk. • 
 
 Fam. HYDROPHILID.E, 
 Leach, 
 Hydrous, Leach. 
 
 *rufiventris, Niet. 
 
450 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 *inconspicuus, Niet. 
 Hydrobius, I. each. 
 
 stultus Wlk. 
 Philydrus, Solier. 
 
 esurieiis, JVlh. 
 Berosiis, Leach. 
 
 *decrescens, Wlk. 
 Hydroclius. Gem. 
 
 *lacustris, Niet. 
 Georvjsus, Latr. 
 
 *Kemma. ]<^iet. 
 
 *iti5ularis, BJirn. 
 Dastarciis, IVlk. 
 
 porosus, " Ik. 
 
 Fam, Bdprestid^, Steph. 
 Sternocera, Esch. 
 
 chrysis, Linn. 
 
 sternicorni<, Linn. 
 Chrysochroa, Solier. 
 
 io;nita, Linn. 
 
 Chinensis, Ijop. 
 
 Rajah, Lap. 
 
 *cyaneocev)hala, Fabr. 
 Chrysodpma, Lap. 
 
 sulcata, Thunb. 
 Belionota, Esch. 
 
 sciit'-llari*. Fabr. 
 
 *Peti'i, Gory. 
 Chrvsobothris, Esch. 
 
 siituralis, Wlk. 
 Agriliis, Meg. 
 
 sulcicollis, IVlk. 
 
 *cupreiceps, Wlk. 
 
 *cupreic(>ilis, Wlk. 
 
 *armatus, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Elatfrid^, Leach. 
 Campsosteriifis, Latr. 
 
 Tt-mpletonii, Westw. 
 
 aureolus, Hope. 
 
 Bohemannii, Ca>id. 
 
 veniismlus, Cand. 
 
 pall dipes, Cand. 
 Agrypnus, Esch. 
 
 fuscipes, Fabr. 
 Alaus, Esch. 
 
 speciosiis, Linn. 
 
 sordidus, Westw. 
 Cardioiihoriis, Esch. 
 
 hnmerifer, Wlk, 
 Corymbites, Latr. 
 
 dividtns, Wlk. 
 
 divi-a, Wlk. 
 
 ♦bivitlava, Wlk. 
 Lacon, Lap. 
 
 *obesus, Cand. 
 Atbous, Esch. 
 
 piin(tosu>, Wlk. 
 
 inapertus, Wlk. 
 
 d-'cretus, Wlk. 
 
 inpfficiens, Wlk. 
 Ampedus, Meg.m 
 
 *acutifer, Wlk. 
 
 *discicollis, Wlk, 
 Legna, Wlk. 
 
 idonea, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Lampyridje, Leach. 
 Lycus, Fabr. 
 
 triangularis. Hope. 
 
 geminus, Wlk 
 
 astiitns. Wlk. 
 
 fall IX, Wlk. 
 
 planicornis, IMk. 
 
 melanopteriis. Wlk. 
 
 pubicornis, Wlk. 
 
 duplex, Wlk. 
 
 costifer, Wlk. 
 
 revocans, Wlk. 
 
 dispellens, Wlk. 
 
 *piibipeniiis, Wlk. 
 
 *iumierifer, Wlk. 
 
 exnansicnrnis, Wlk. 
 
 divisus, Wlk. 
 Dicty pteriis, Latr. 
 
 internexus. Wlk, 
 Lampyris. Geoff. 
 
 tenebro-a, iMk. 
 
 diffiiiis, Wlk. 
 
 liite^rens, Wlk. 
 
 *vitrifera. Wlk. 
 Colophotia, Dej. 
 
 humpraiis, Wlk. 
 
 [vespertina, Fabr. 
 
 perplexa, Wlk. ?] 
 
 intritata, Wlk. 
 
 extricans, l\ Ik, 
 
 promelas. Wlk. 
 Harm HI el ia, Wlk, 
 
 discalis, Wlk, 
 
 biliuea, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. TELEPHORiDia, 
 Leach, 
 
 Telephorns, Schaff. 
 
 ditu'diacus, Fabr. 
 
 mailhinoides, Wlk. 
 Eugeusis, Wesliv. 
 
 palpator, Westw. 
 
 grvphus, Hope. 
 
 olivaceus, Hope. 
 
 Fam. CEBRIONID.E, S/qoA. 
 Callirhipis, Latr, 
 
 Teinpletonii, Westw. 
 
 Championii, Westw, 
 
 Fam. Melyrii)*, Leach. 
 Malachius, Fabr. 
 
 plagiatus. Wlk, 
 Malthinus, Latr. 
 
 *foiticornis, Wlk. 
 
 *retractus, Wlk. 
 
 fragili<. Dohrn. 
 Enic"pus, Stepli. 
 
 proficiens, Wlk. 
 Honosca, Wlk. 
 
 necrobioides, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Cler'd^, Kirby. 
 Cylidrus, Lap. 
 
 sobriniis, Dnhrn. 
 Stigmatium, Gray. 
 
 elaphroides, Westw. 
 Necrohia, Lair. 
 
 rufipes. Fabr. 
 
 aspera, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PriNiD^ffi, Leach. 
 Ptinus, Linn. 
 
 *nigerrimus, Boield. 
 
 Fam. DiAPERiD^, Leach. 
 Diaperis, Geoff 
 
 velutina, Wlk. 
 
 fragilis, Dohrn, 
 
 Fam. TenebrionidjE, 
 Leach. 
 Zophobas, Dej. 
 
 errans ? Dej. 
 
 clavipes, Wlk. 
 
 ? solidus, Wlk. 
 Pseudoblaps, Giier, 
 
 nigrita, Fabr. 
 Tenebrio, Linn. 
 
 ruhrip"s, Hope, 
 
 retenta. Wlk. 
 Trachyscelis, Latr. 
 
 bruniiea, Dohrn. 
 
 Fam. OPATRID.E, Shuck. 
 Opatrum, Fabr. 
 
 contrahens, Wlk. 
 
 bilineatum, Wlk. 
 
 planatum, Wlk. 
 
 serricolle, Wlk. 
 Asida, Latr. 
 
 horrida, Wlk. 
 Crypticus, Latr. 
 
 detersus, Wlk. 
 
 longipeniiis, Wlk. 
 Phaleria, Latr, 
 
 rufipes. Wlk. 
 Toxiciim, Latr. 
 
 oppugnaiis, Wlk. 
 
 biliina. Wlk. 
 Boletophagiis, ///. 
 
 *inorosus, Dohrn, 
 
 *exasperaius, Dohrn. 
 Uloma, Meg. 
 
 scita. jyik. 
 Alphitophagus. Steph. 
 
 subfascia, Wlk, 
 
 Fam. HELOPiDiE, Steph, 
 Osdara, Wlk. 
 
 picipes. Wlk. 
 Cholipus. Dej. 
 
 brevicornis, Dej. 
 
 paral)olicus, Wlk. 
 
 laeviuscnlus, Wlk. 
 Hel. ps, Fabr. 
 
 ebeninus, THk. 
 Carnaria, Lep. S( Serv. 
 
 amethystina. L. ^ S. 
 Amarygmus, Dalin, 
 
 chrysomeloides, Dej. 
 
 Fam. MELOiDi;, Wall. 
 Epicauta, Dej. 
 
 nijirifinis, Wlk. 
 Cissites, Latr, 
 
 testaceuv, Fabr. 
 Mylabris, Fabr. 
 
 humeralis, Wlk. 
 
 alterna. Wlk. 
 
 *recognita, Wlk. 
 Atractocerus, Pal., Bv. 
 
 debilis, Wlk. 
 
 reversus, Wlk, 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLOX IXSECTS. 
 
 451 
 
 Fam. (Edemerid;e, Steph. 
 Ci stela, Fabr. 
 
 congrna, Wlk. 
 
 *ialjifica, Wlk. 
 AUecula, Fabr. 
 
 fusit'oimis, Wlk. 
 
 elegans, Wlk. 
 
 *fl;.viiemur, Wlk. 
 Sora, Wlk. 
 
 *marginata, Wlk. 
 Thaccona, Wlk. 
 
 dimelas, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. MoRDELLiDJE, Sleph. 
 Acosmus, Dej. 
 
 languidus, Wlk. 
 Rhipiphoru*, Fabr. 
 
 *iropii"us, Kiel. 
 Mordella, Linn. 
 
 composita, Wlk. 
 
 *deiectiva, Wlk. 
 Myrinecolax, Westw. 
 
 *Nietneri, WeUw. 
 
 Fam. Anthicid£, Wlk. 
 Anthicus, Payk. 
 
 *quisqiiUarius, 'Siet. 
 *iiisiil irius, A>W. 
 *sticticollis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CissiDJE, LeacA. 
 Cis, Latr. 
 
 contendens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ToMiciDi, Shuck. 
 Apate, Fabr. 
 
 subnipdia, Wlk. 
 Bostrichus, Geaff- 
 
 mutilatus. Wlk. 
 
 *verten>. Wlk. 
 
 *moderatus, Wlk. 
 
 *testaceus, Wlk. 
 
 *exiguns, Wlk. 
 Platypus, Herhst. 
 
 min .X, Wlk. 
 
 solidus, Wlk. 
 
 *latifinis, Wlk. 
 Hylurgus. Latr- 
 
 determinans, Wlk. 
 
 *concinimlus, Wlk. 
 Hylesinus, Fabr. 
 
 curvitVr, Wlk. 
 
 despectus, Wlk. 
 
 irresolutus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CuRcuLioNiD^, 
 Leach. 
 Bruchus, Linn. 
 
 scutellaris, Fabr. 
 Spermophagus, Steven. 
 
 convolviili, Thunb. 
 
 figuratus, Wlk. 
 
 Cisti, Fabr. 
 
 incertus, W!k. 
 
 decretu^, Wlk. 
 Dendropemon, Schon. 
 
 *melancholicus, Dohrn. 
 Dendrotrogus. Jek. 
 
 Di)hrnii, Jek. 
 
 discrepans, Dohrn. 
 
 Eucorynus, Schon. 
 colligendus. Wlk. 
 colligen^. Wlk. 
 Basirropis. Jek. 
 
 *disconotatus, Jek. 
 Litocerus, Schon. 
 
 punctulatus, Dohrn. 
 Tropiileres, Sch. 
 
 punotniifer. Dohrn. 
 Iragilis. W/k. 
 Cedus, Walerh. 
 
 ♦cancellatiis, Dohrn. 
 Xylinades. Latr- 
 
 sobrinulus, Dohrn. 
 indignus, Wlk. 
 Xenocenis, Germ. 
 angiilii'erus, Wlk. 
 revocans, Wlk. 
 *anchoiali5, Dohrn. 
 Callist"cenis, Dohrn. 
 *Xiptneri, Dohrn. 
 Anthribus, Genff. 
 
 longicornis, Fabr. 
 apical's. Wlk. 
 facilis, Wlk. 
 Araecerus, Schon. 
 coffeae, Fabr. 
 *insidiosiis, Fabr. 
 *mu';ciilus, Dohrn. 
 *intangens, Wlk. 
 *bifovea, Wlk. 
 Dipieza, Fuse. 
 
 *insignis, Dohrn. 
 Apolecta, Pasc. 
 
 *Niftneri, Dohrn. 
 *musciilus, Dohrn. 
 Arrhenodes, Steven. 
 miles, Sch. 
 pil:cornis, Sch. 
 dentirosiris, Jek. 
 approximans. Wlk. 
 Veneris, Dohrn. 
 Cerobates, Schon. 
 thrasc<\ Dohrn. 
 aciculatus, Wlk. 
 Ceocepiialus. Schon. 
 cavus, Wlk. 
 *reticulatus, Fabr. 
 Nemocephalus, Latr. 
 
 siilcirostri-;, l)e Haan. 
 planicollis, Wlk. 
 spinirostris, Wlk. 
 Apofierus, Oliv. 
 
 longicollis ? Fabr. 
 Tranquebaricus, Fabr 
 cygneus, Fabr. ? 
 scitulus, Wlk. 
 *triangularis, Fabr. 
 *echinatu-, Sch. 
 Rhynchites, Herbst. 
 suff'indens, Wlk. 
 *restituens, Wlk. 
 Apion, Herbst. 
 
 *Cingaieiise. Wlk. 
 Stroph<)Somu>, Bilbug. 
 
 *sutnralis. M Ik. 
 Piazomias, Schon. 
 aequalis. Wlk. 
 Astycus, Schon. 
 
 lateralis, Fabr. ? 
 ebeninus, Wlk. 
 
 *immrinis, Wlk. 
 Cleonus, Schon. 
 
 induceiis, Wlk. 
 Myllocerus, Schon. 
 
 transinariiiiis, Hc7bst.? 
 spiircatus, W/k. 
 *retrahens, Wlk. 
 ^posticus, Wlk. 
 Phyllobiiis, Schon. 
 
 *mimicus, Wlk. 
 Episomus, Schon. 
 
 pauppratus, Fabr. 
 Lixiis, Fabr. 
 
 nebulifa«cia, Wlk. 
 Aclees, Schon. 
 
 cribratiis, Dej. 
 Alcides, Dalm. 
 signatus. Boh. 
 obliquus, Wlk. 
 transversiis. jyik. 
 *clausus. Wlk. 
 Acicn^'mis, Fairm. 
 
 Ceyloiiicus, Jek. 
 Apotomorhinus. Schon, 
 signatus, W'k. 
 alboater, Wlk. 
 Cryptorbynchus, Illig. 
 ineffectus, Wlk. 
 asfimilans, Wlk. 
 declaratus, Wlk. 
 notabilis, JVlk. 
 vexatus, Wlk. 
 Camptorhinu-. Schon. ? 
 revt-rsus, JVlk 
 *indijcietus, Wlk. 
 De^midophorus, Chevr. 
 hebes, Fabr. 
 communican«, Wlk. 
 stremiiis, Wlk. 
 *discriminans, Wlk. 
 inexpertus, IMk. 
 fasciculicoUis, Wlk. 
 Sipalus, Schon. 
 
 granulatus, Fabr. 
 porosus, U'lk. 
 tinctus, mk. 
 Mecopus, Dalm. 
 
 *\Vaterhousei, Dohrn. 
 Rhynchophorus, Herbst. 
 ferrugineus, Fabr. 
 introducens. Wlk. 
 Protocerus, Schon. 
 
 molossiis ? Oliv. 
 Sphaenophorus, Schon, 
 glabriniscus, Wlk. 
 exquisitiis, Wlk. 
 Dehaani ? Jek. 
 cribricoUis. Wlk. 
 ? panops, Wlk. 
 Cossonus. Clairv. 
 
 *qiiadrjmacula, Wlk. 
 ? hebes, Wlk. 
 ambiguus, Sch. ? 
 Scitophilus. Schon. 
 orizae, Linn. 
 disciferiis, Wlk. 
 Mecinus. Germ. 
 
 * ? relictus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Prionid^e, Leach. 
 Trictenotoma, G. R. Gray. 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XH. 
 
 Templetoni, Westw. 
 Prionomma, White. 
 
 orientals, Oliv. 
 Acanthophorus, Serv. 
 
 serraticornis, Oliv. 
 Cnemoplites, Newm. 
 
 Rhesus, blotch. 
 ^gosoma, Serv. 
 
 Cingalense, White. 
 
 Fam. Cerambycidje, 
 Ktrhy. 
 Cerambyx, Linn. 
 
 indutus, Newm. 
 
 vernicosiis. Pasc. 
 
 consocius, Pasc. 
 
 versutus, Pasc. 
 
 nitidus, Pasc. 
 
 macilentus, Pasc. 
 
 venustus, Pasc. 
 
 torticollis, Dohrn. 
 Sebasmia, Pasc. 
 
 Templetoni, Pasc. 
 Calljchroma, Latr. 
 
 trogoiiiniim, Pasc. 
 
 telephoroides, Westw, 
 Homalomelas, White. 
 
 gracilipes. Parry. 
 
 zonatiis', Pa-sc. 
 Colobus, Serv. 
 
 Cingalensis, White. 
 Thranius, Pasc. 
 
 gibbosDs, Pasc. 
 Deuteromma, Pasc. 
 
 mutica, Pasc. 
 Obrium, Meg 
 
 laterale, Pasc, 
 
 mcestiun, Pasc, 
 Psilomerus, Blanch. 
 
 ■macilentus, Pasc. 
 Clytus, Fabr. 
 
 vicinus, Hope. 
 . ascendens, Pasc. 
 
 Walkeri, Pasc. 
 
 annularis, Fabr. 
 
 *aurilinea. Dohrn. 
 Khaphum^, Pasc. 
 
 leucoscutellata, Hope. 
 Ceresium, Newm. 
 
 cretatuin. White. 
 
 Zeylanicum, White. 
 Stromatium, Serv. 
 
 barbatum, Fabr. 
 
 maculatum, White. 
 Hespherophanes. Muls. 
 
 simplex, Gyll, 
 
 Fam. Lamiid^, Kirby. 
 Nyphona, Muls. 
 
 cylindrarea, White. 
 Mesosa, Se7-v. 
 
 columba, Pasc, 
 Coptops, Serv. 
 
 bidens, Fabr, 
 Xylorhizii, Dej. 
 
 adusta, Wied. 
 Cacia, Newm. 
 
 triloba, Pasc. ' 
 Batocera, Blanch. 
 
 rubus, Fabr. 
 
 ferruginea, Blanch. 
 
 Monohammus, Meg. 
 
 fistulator. Germ. 
 
 crucifer, Fabr. 
 
 nivosus, White. 
 
 commixtus, Pasc. 
 Cereopsius, Dup. 
 
 patronus, Pasc. 
 Pelargoderns, Serv. 
 
 tigrinus, Chevr. 
 Olenocamptus, Chevr, 
 
 bilobus, Fabr. 
 Praonetha, Dej. 
 
 annulfita, Chevr. 
 
 posticalis, Pasc. 
 Apomecyna, Serv. 
 
 histrio, Fabr. var. ? 
 Ropica, Pasc. 
 
 praeusta, Pasc. 
 Hathlin, Serv. 
 
 procera, Pasc. 
 lolea, Pasc. 
 
 proxima, Pasc, 
 
 histrio, Pasc. 
 Glenea, Newm. 
 
 sulphurella, White. 
 
 commissa, Pasc. 
 
 scapifera, Pasc. 
 
 vexator, Pasc. 
 Stibara. Hope. 
 
 nigricornis, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. HispiDiE, Kirby. 
 Oncocephala, Dohrn. 
 
 deltoides, Dohrn. 
 Leptispa, Baly. 
 
 pygmaea, Haly. 
 Ampiisba, Baly. 
 
 Dohrnii, Baly. 
 Estigmena, Hope. 
 
 Chinensis, Hope. 
 Hispa, Linn. 
 
 hystrix, Fabr. 
 
 erinacea, Fabr. 
 
 nigrina, Dohrn. 
 
 *Walkeri, Baly. 
 Platypria, Guer. 
 
 echidna, GuSr. 
 
 Fam. Cassidtd^, Westw. 
 Epistictia, Boh. 
 
 matronula. Boh. 
 Hoplionota, Hope. 
 
 tetiaspilota, Baly. 
 
 rubromarginata, Boh. 
 
 horririca, Boh. 
 Aspidomorpha, Hope. 
 
 St crucis, Fabr. 
 
 miliaris. Fahr. 
 
 pallidimarginata, Baly, 
 
 dorsata, Fahr. 
 
 calligera, Buh. 
 
 mi cans, Fabr. 
 Cassid;i, Linn, 
 
 clathrata, Fabr. 
 
 timefacta, Boh. 
 
 farinnsa, Bih. 
 Lacroplera, Boh. 
 
 1-1-notata, Boh. 
 Coptcycla. Chevr. 
 
 sex-notata, Fabr. 
 
 13-siguata, Boh. 
 
 13-notata, Boh. 
 ornata, Fabr. 
 Cevlonica, Boh, 
 Baiyi. Boh. 
 trivittata, Fabr. 
 lo.punctuata. Boh. 
 catenata, Dej. 
 
 Fam. SAGRiDiE, Kirby. 
 Sagra, Fabr. 
 nigrita, Oliv. 
 
 Fam. DoNACiDiE, Lacord, 
 Donacia, Fabr. 
 
 Delesserti, Guer. 
 Coptocephala, Chev. 
 
 Templetoni, Baly. 
 
 Fam. EuMOLPiD^E, Baly. 
 Corynodes, Hope. 
 
 cyaneus, Hope. 
 
 asneus, JSaly. 
 Glyptoscelis, Chevr. 
 
 Templetoni, Baly. 
 
 pyrospilotus, Baly. 
 
 micans, Baly. 
 
 cupreus, Baly. 
 Eumolpus, Fabr. 
 
 lemoides, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Cr'vptocephaiid^, 
 
 Kirby. 
 Cryptocephalus, Geoff". 
 spx-punctatus, Fabr. 
 Walkeri, Baly. 
 Diapromorpha, Lac. 
 Turcica, Fabr. 
 
 Fam, CHRYSOMELlDiE, 
 
 Leach. 
 Chalcolampa, Bait/. 
 
 Templetoni, Baly. 
 Lin a, Meg. 
 
 convexa, Baly. 
 Chrysoniela, Linn. 
 
 Templetoni, Baly, 
 
 Fam. Galerucid^, Steph. 
 Galeruca, Geoff. 
 
 *pectinata, Dohrn. 
 Graptodera, Chevr. 
 
 cyanea, Fabr. 
 Monolepta, Chevr. 
 
 pulchella, Baly. • 
 
 Thyamis, Steph. 
 
 Ceylonicus, Baly. 
 
 Fam. CocciNELLiD^, Latr. 
 Epilachna, Chevr. 
 
 28-1 unctata, Fabr. 
 
 Delessortii, Guer. 
 
 pubescens, Hope. 
 
 innuba, Oliv. 
 Coccinella, Linn. 
 
 tricincta, Fabr. 
 
 *repanda, Muls. 
 
 tenuilinea, Wlk. 
 
 rejiciens, Wlk. 
 
 interrumpens, Wlk. 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLOX INSECTS. 
 
 4!; 3 
 
 quiiiqueplaea, Wlk. 
 
 simplex, IV/k. 
 
 antica, U'/U. 
 
 flaviceps, lUk. 
 Neda, Muls. 
 
 tricolor, Fnbr. 
 t oel iphora, Muls. 
 
 9-matulata, Fabr. ? 
 Chilocorus, Leach. 
 
 opponens, IVlk. 
 Scymnus, Kug. 
 
 variabilis, JVlk. 
 
 Fam. Erotylid.e, Leach. 
 Fatua, DeJ. 
 
 Nepalensis, Hope. 
 Trip! ax, Pat/k. 
 
 decorus, IVlk. 
 Tritoma, Fabr. 
 
 *bilacies, Wlk. 
 
 *preposita, W2k. 
 Ischyrus, Cherz. 
 
 grandis, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. ENDOMYCHIDiE, 
 
 Leach. 
 Eugonius, Gerst. 
 
 annularis, Gerst. 
 
 lunulatus, Gerst. 
 Eumorphus, IVeber. 
 
 pulchripes, Gerst. 
 
 *tener, Dohrn. 
 Stenotarsus, Perly. 
 
 Nietneri, Gerst. 
 
 *castaneus, Gerst. 
 
 *comentosus, Gerst. 
 
 *vallatus, Gerst. 
 Lycoperdina, Latr. 
 
 glabrata, IVlk. 
 Ancylopiis, Gerst. 
 
 melanocephalus, Oliv. 
 Saula, Gerst. 
 
 *nigripes, Gerst. 
 
 *ferruginea, Gerst, 
 Myceiina, Gerst. 
 
 castanea, Gerst. 
 
 Order Orthopteba, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fam. FoRFicuLiD^, Steph. 
 Forficula, Linn. 
 
 Fam. Blattid.e, Steph. 
 
 Panesthia, Serv. 
 
 Javanica, Serv. 
 
 pJagiata, Wlk. 
 Polyzosteria, Burm. 
 
 larva. 
 Corydia, Serv. 
 
 Fetiveriana, Linn. 
 
 Fara. Mantid.e, Leach. 
 
 Empiisa, Illig. 
 
 gongylodes, Linn. 
 Ilarpax, Serv. 
 
 signifer, Wlk. 
 
 Schizocephala, Serv. 
 
 bicornis, Linn. 
 Mantis, Linn. 
 
 superstitiosa, Fabr. 
 
 aridifolia. Stall. 
 
 extensicollis ? Serv. 
 
 Fam. Phasmioje, Serv, 
 Acropliylla, Gray. 
 
 systropedon, Westiv. 
 Phasm;i, Ltchl. 
 
 sordidum, De Haan. 
 Phyllium, Illig. 
 
 siccil'olium, Linn. 
 
 Fam. Gryllii)^, Steph. 
 Acheta, Linn. 
 
 bimaeulata, Deg. 
 
 supplicans, Wlk. 
 
 seqjialis, ]Vlk. 
 
 confirmata, Wlk. 
 Platydactyliis, Brull. 
 
 crassipes, Jf7/t. 
 Steirodon, Serv. 
 
 lanceohitum, Wlk. 
 Phyllophora, Thunb. 
 
 falsi folia, Wlk. 
 Acaiithodis, Serv. 
 
 rugosa, Wlk. 
 Phaneroptera, Serv. 
 
 atteniiata, Wlk. 
 Phymatens, Thunb. 
 
 miliaris, Linn. 
 Truxalis, Linn. 
 
 exaltata, Wlk. 
 
 porrecta, Wlk. 
 Acridium, Geoffr. 
 
 extensum, Wlk. 
 
 deponens, Wlk. 
 
 rutiti'ola. Wlk. 
 
 cinctifemur, Wlk. 
 
 respondens, Wlk. 
 
 nigrifascia, Wlk. 
 
 Order Phtsapoda, 
 Bum. 
 
 Thrips, Linn. 
 
 steaonieias,. Wlk, 
 
 Order NErROPTEEA, 
 
 Linn.. 
 
 Fam. SERicosTOMin^, 
 Steph. 
 Mormon la. Curt. 
 *ursina, Hagen, 
 
 Fam. LeptoceriDvE, 
 Leach. 
 
 Macronema, Pict. 
 
 multifarium, Wlk. 
 *splendidum, Hagen. 
 *nebiilosum, Hagen. 
 *obliquum, Hagen. 
 *Ceylanicum, }iiet. 
 *annulicorne, isiet. 
 
 G G 3 
 
 Molanna, Curt. 
 
 mixta, Hagen, 
 Setodes, Ramb. 
 
 *Iris, Hagen. 
 
 *Ino, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. PsYCHOMiD.E, Curt, 
 Chimarra, Leach 
 
 *auriceps, Hagen. 
 *luiiesta, Hagtu. 
 *sepulcralis, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. Hydropsychid^, 
 Curt. 
 Hydropsyche, Pict. 
 
 * I'aprobanes, Hagen, 
 *mitis, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. Rhyacophilid^, 
 Steph. 
 Rhyacophila, Pict. 
 *castanea, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. Perlid/E, Leach.. 
 Perla, Geoffr. 
 
 angulata, Wlk. 
 *testacea, Hagen. 
 *limosa, Hagen. I 
 
 Fam. SiLiADiE, Westw. 
 Dilar, Ramb. 
 
 *Nietneri, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. HemerobidjE, Leach, 
 Mantispa, Illig. 
 
 *Indica, Westw. 
 
 mutata, Wlk. 
 Chrysopa, Leach. 
 
 invaria, Wlk, 
 
 *tropica, Hagen, 
 
 aurilera, Wlk. 
 
 *punctata, Hagen. 
 Micromerus, Ramb. 
 
 •linearis, Hagen. 
 
 *australis, Hagen. 
 Hemerobius, Lmn. 
 
 *frontalis, Hagen. 
 Coniopteryx, Hal. 
 
 *cerata, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. MYRMELEONIDiE, 
 
 Leach. 
 Palpares, Ramb. 
 
 contrarius, Wlk. 
 Acanthoclisis. Ramb. 
 
 * — n. s. Hagen. 
 
 *molestus. Wlk. 
 Myrmeleon, Linn. 
 
 gravis, Wlk. 
 
 aims, Wlk. 
 
 barbariis, Wlk. 
 Ascalaphus, Fabr. 
 
 nugax, Wlk. 
 
 incusans, Wlk. 
 
 *cervinus, Niet. 
 
 Fam. PsociD.i:, Leach. 
 Psocus, Latr. 
 
454 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 *Taprobanes, Hagen. 
 *oblitus, Ha<ren. 
 *consitus, Hiigen. 
 *trimaculatus, Hagen. 
 *obtusus, Hasen. 
 *elongatus, Hngen. 
 *chlorotinus. Hagen. 
 *aridus. Hagen. 
 *coleoptratus. Hagen. 
 *dolabratus, Hagen. 
 *infelix, Hagen. 
 
 Fam. Termitid.?;, Leach. 
 
 Termes, Linn. 
 
 'J'aprobanes, Wlk. 
 fatalis, Keen. 
 Ttionocpros, Keen. 
 *umbilicatus, Hagen. 
 *n. s. Jouv. 
 *a. s. Jouv. 
 
 Fam. Embid^, Hagen, 
 
 Oligntoma. Westv. 
 
 *Saundersii, IVestw. 
 
 Fam. Ephemerid^, Leach. 
 
 Baetis, Leach. 
 
 Taorobanes, Wlk. 
 Potamanthns, Pict. 
 
 *fasciatus, Hasen. 
 
 *annulatus, Hagen. 
 
 *femoraiis, Hagen. 
 Cloe. 'Burm. 
 
 *tristis, Hagen. 
 
 *consueta, Hagen. 
 
 *solida, Hagen. 
 
 *sigmata, Hagen. 
 
 *marginalis, Hagen. 
 Caenis, Steph. 
 
 perpusilla, IVlk. 
 
 Fam. LlBELLULID^. 
 
 Calopteryx, Leach. 
 
 Chinensis, Linn. 
 Euphoea, Scli/s. 
 
 splendens. Hagen. 
 Micromerus, Ramb. 
 lineatus, Burm. 
 Trichocnemys, Seli/s. 
 *serapica, Hagen. 
 Lestes, Leach. 
 *elata, Hagen. 
 ♦gracilis, Hagen. 
 Agrion, Fabr. 
 
 *Coromandelianura, F. 
 *tenax, Ha^en. 
 *hilare, Hagen. 
 *velare. Hagen. 
 *delicatum, Hagen. 
 Gynacantlia, fiarnh. 
 
 subinterrupta, Ramb. 
 Epophthalmia, Burm. 
 
 vittata, Burm. 
 Zyxomma, Ramb. 
 
 petiolatum, Ramb. 
 Acisoma. Ramb. 
 
 panorpoides, Ra?nb. 
 Libelliila, Linn. 
 Marcia, Drury. 
 Tillarga, Fabr. 
 variegata, Linn. 
 
 flavescens, Fabr. 
 Sabina. Drury. 
 viridula. Pal, Beauv. 
 congener, Uamb. 
 soror, Ramb. 
 Aurora, Ihirm. 
 violacea, Niet. 
 perla, Hagen. 
 sanguinea. Burm. 
 trivialis, Ramb. 
 contaminata, Fabr. 
 equestris, Fabr. 
 nebulosa, Fabr. 
 
 Order Stimenopteea, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fam.FoRMiciDJ,, Leach. 
 
 Formica, Linn, 
 
 smaragdina, Fabr. 
 
 miti«. Smith. 
 
 *Taprobanp, Smith. 
 
 *variegata. Smith. 
 
 *exeicita, Wlk. 
 
 *exundans, Wlb. 
 
 *meritans, Wlk, 
 
 *la:ebrosa. Wlk. 
 
 *pangens, Wlk. 
 
 *ingriiens, Wlk. 
 
 *detorquens, Wlk. 
 
 *diffidens, Wlk. 
 
 *obscurans, Wlk. 
 
 *indeflexa, Wlk. 
 
 consultans, Wlk. 
 Polyrhachis, Smith, 
 
 *illaudatus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PoNERiUiE, Stnith. 
 Odontoma' bus, Latr. 
 simillimus. Smith. 
 Typhlopone, Westw. 
 Cnrtisii, Shuck. 
 Myrmica, La'r. 
 basalis. Smith. 
 contigiia. Smith. 
 glyciphila. Smith. 
 *eonsternens, Wlk, 
 Crematogaster. Lund. 
 *peliens, Wlk. 
 *deponciis, Wlk. 
 j^forticiiUis, Wlk. 
 Pseudomyrma, Gure. 
 *atrata, Smith. 
 allaborans, Wlk. 
 Atta, St. Farg. 
 
 didita, Wlk. 
 Pheidole, Westw. 
 Janus, Smith. 
 * Taprobanae, Smith. 
 *rugi>sa, Smith. 
 Meramiplus, Smith. 
 *diinicins, Wlk. 
 Catavilacus, Smith. 
 Tajirobaiiae, Smith. 
 
 Fam. MuTiLLiD^, Leach. 
 Mutilla, Linn, 
 
 «Sibvlla, Smith. 
 Tiphia, Fabr. 
 
 *decre»cens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. EuMENiD^, Westw. 
 Odynerus. Latr. 
 
 *tiiictipenuis, Wlk. 
 
 *intendens, Wlk. 
 
 *intendens, Wlk. 
 Scolia, Fabr. 
 
 auricollis, St. Farg, 
 
 Fam. CRABRONiDiE, Leach. 
 Philanthus, Fabr. 
 
 basalis. Smith. 
 Stigmus, Jur. 
 
 *jongruus, Wilk. 
 
 Fam. Sphegid^, Steph. 
 Ammopbila, Kirby. 
 
 atiipes. Smith. 
 Pelopajus. Latr. 
 
 Spinolae, St. Farg. 
 Sphex, Fabr. 
 
 ferruginea, St, Farg. 
 Ampulex, Jur. 
 
 compressa, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Larrid^, Steph. 
 Larrada, Smith. 
 *exteusa, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PoMPiLiD^, Leach. 
 Pompilns, Fabr. 
 analis, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Apid^, Leach. 
 Andrena, Fabr. 
 
 *exagens, lllk. 
 Nomia, Latr. 
 
 rustica, Westw. 
 
 *vincta. nik. 
 AHodaps. Smith. 
 
 *margiriata. Smith. 
 Ceratina. Latr. 
 
 viiidis, Guer. 
 
 picta. Smith. 
 
 *similliina, Smith. 
 Ccelioxys, Latr. 
 
 capitata. Smith. 
 Croeisa, Jur. 
 
 *ramosa, St. Farg. 
 Stelis, Panz. 
 
 carboiiaria. Smith. 
 Anthophora, Latr. 
 
 zonata. Smith, 
 Xylocopa, Latr. 
 
 tenuiscapa, Westw. 
 
 latipes. Drury. 
 Apis, Linn. 
 
 Indica, Smith. 
 Trigona. Jur. 
 
 iridipennis. Smith. 
 
 *praBterita, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Chrysid^, Wlk. 
 Stilbum, Spin. 
 
 splendidiim, Dahl. 
 
 Fam. DoRYLiDiE, Shuck. 
 
 Enictus, Shuck. 
 
 porizonoides, IVlk. 
 
Chap. XIT.] LIST OF CEYLON INSECTS. 
 
 455 
 
 Fam. IcHNEO monid^, 
 Leach. 
 
 Cryptus, Fabr. 
 
 *oniistus, IVlk. 
 Hemiteles? Grav. 
 
 *va ius, IVlk. 
 Porizon, Fall. 
 
 *dominans, Wlk. 
 Pimpla, Fabr. 
 
 albopicta, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Braconid^, Hal. 
 Microgaster, Latr. 
 
 *recu<an!., IVlk. 
 
 *significans, IVlk. 
 
 *subducens, IVlk. 
 
 *detrHcta, Wlk. 
 Spathius, Nees. 
 
 *bisignatus, Wlk. 
 
 *signipennis, Wlk. 
 Heratemis, Wlk. 
 
 *tilosa, Wlk. 
 Nebartha, Wik. 
 
 *macropoides, Wlk. 
 Psyttalia, Wlk. 
 
 *tebtacea, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Chalcidi^, Spin. 
 Chalcis, Fabr. 
 
 *divideiis, Wlk. 
 
 *pandens, Wlk. 
 Halticella, Spin. 
 
 *rufimaiius, Wlk. 
 
 *iiificiens, Wlk, 
 Dirrhinus. Dalm. 
 
 *anthracia, Wlk. 
 Eurytuina, ///. 
 
 *contraria, Wlk. 
 
 indefensa, Wlk. 
 Eucharis, Lair. 
 
 *convergens, IVlk. 
 
 *dp|irivatH, H'lk. 
 Pteromalus, Swcd. 
 
 *mHgniceps, Wlk. 
 Encyrtus, Latr. 
 
 *obstructus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. DiAPRiDiE, Hal. 
 Diapria. Latr. 
 apicalis, Wlk. 
 
 Order Lepidopteea, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fam. Pahiliosid^, Leach. 
 Ornithoptera, Boisd. 
 
 Dar^ius, G. R. Gray. 
 Papilio. Linn. 
 
 Diphilus, Esp. 
 
 Joplion, G. H. Gray. 
 
 HfCt r, Linn. 
 
 Romulus, Cram. 
 
 Polymnestor, Cram. 
 
 Crino, Fabr. 
 
 Helenas, Linn. 
 
 Pammon, Linn. 
 
 Polytes, Linn. 
 
 Eriihoiiius, Cram. 
 
 Antipathis, Cram. 
 
 Agamemnon, Linn. 
 
 Euryp.lus, Linn. 
 
 Bathycles, Zinck-Som. 
 
 Sarpedon, Linn. 
 
 dis>im>lis, Linn. 
 Pontia, Fabr. 
 
 Nina, Fabr. 
 Pieris, Schr. 
 
 Eucliaris, Drtiry. 
 
 Coronis, Cram, 
 
 Epicharis, Godt. 
 
 Mama, Doubl. 
 
 Reiiiba, Muore. 
 
 Mesentiiia, Godt. 
 
 Severina, Cram. 
 
 Namouna, Doubl, 
 
 Phryne, Fabr. 
 
 Paulina, Goit. 
 
 Tiiestylis, Doubl. 
 Callosune, Duubl. 
 
 Eucharis, Fabr. 
 
 Daiiae, Fabr. 
 
 Etrida, Boisd. 
 Idmais, Boisd. 
 
 Calais, Cram. 
 Thestias, Boisd. 
 
 JVIariamiie, Cram, 
 
 Pirene, Li tin. 
 Heboinoia, Hiibn. 
 
 Gli'icippe, Linn, 
 Eronia, Hiibn, 
 
 Valeria, Cram, 
 Callidryas, Boisd. 
 
 Pliilippiiia, Boisd, 
 
 Pyrautlie, Linn. 
 
 Hilai la. Cram. 
 
 Alcmeone, Cram. 
 
 'Ihi orelia. Boisd. 
 Terias, Swain. 
 
 Drona, Horsf. 
 
 Hecabe, Linn. 
 
 Fam. Nymphalid^, Swain. 
 Euploea, Fabr. 
 
 Proihoe, Godt. 
 
 Core, Cram. 
 
 Alcathue, Godt. 
 Danais, Latr. 
 
 Chrysippus, Linn. 
 
 Piexippus, Linn. 
 
 Aglae, Cram. 
 
 Melijsa. Cram. 
 
 LimiiiaiEe, Cram, 
 
 Juveiita. Cram. 
 Hestia, Hiibn. 
 
 Jasonia, JVestw. 
 Telchuiia. Hiibn. 
 
 violffi, Fabr, 
 Cethosia, Fabr. 
 
 I yaue, Fabr, 
 Messarus, Doubl. 
 
 Ery man this, Drury. 
 MeW-A, Doubl. 
 
 Piialaiita, Drury. 
 Argy nis, tabr. 
 
 Niphe, Linn. 
 
 Clagia, Godt. 
 Ergolis, Buisd. 
 
 Taprobana, West. 
 Vanessa, F\tbr. 
 
 G G 4 
 
 Charonia, Drury, 
 Libvthea, Fabr- 
 
 'Medhavina, Wlk. 
 
 Pushcara. Wlk. 
 Pyramfis, Hilbti. 
 
 Charonia, Drury, 
 
 Cardui, Liyin. 
 
 Callirhoe, Hiibn, 
 Junonia, Hiibn. 
 
 Limonuis, Linn. 
 
 CEnnne, Linn. 
 
 Oiithyia, Linn. 
 
 Laomedia, Linn. ] 
 
 Asterie, Linn. 
 Precis, Hiibn. 
 
 Iphita, Cram, 
 Cynthia, Fabr. 
 
 Arsinoe, Cram. 
 Paithenos, Hiibn. 
 
 Gamurisius, Fabr. 
 Limenitis, Fabr. 
 
 Calidusa, Moore. 
 Neptis, Fabr, 
 
 Heliodore, Fabr. 
 
 Columella. Cram, 
 
 aceris, Fabr. 
 
 J u Hi bah, Moore. 
 
 Hordonia, Sloll, 
 Diadema, boisd. 
 
 Auge, Cram. 
 
 Bolina, Linn. 
 Symphaedra. Hiibn. 
 
 Thyelia, Fabr. 
 Adolias, Boisd. 
 
 Evelina, Stoll. 
 
 Lubentina, Fabr. 
 
 Vasauta, Moore. 
 
 Garuda, Moore. 
 Nymphalis, Latr. 
 
 Fsaphon, Westw. 
 
 Bernardus, Fabr. 
 
 Aihauias, Cram. 
 
 Fabiui, Fabr. 
 
 Kalliina, Doubl. 
 
 Pnilarchus Westw. 
 
 Melaiiitis, Fabr. 
 
 Banksia, Fabr. 
 
 Leda, Linn. 
 
 Casiphoue, G. R.Gray. 
 
 undularis. Boisd. 
 Ypththima, Hiibn. 
 
 Lvsauora, Cram, 
 
 Pdrthaiis, Wlk. 
 Cyllo, Boisd. 
 
 Gorya, Wlk. 
 
 Cathana, Wlk. 
 
 Embolima, Wlk. 
 
 Neilghernensis, Guer. 
 
 Purunata, H Ik. 
 
 Pusiipatnitra, Wlk. 
 Mycalesis, Hiibn. 
 
 Patnia, Moore. 
 
 Ganialiba, Wlk. 
 
 Do>aron, Ulk. 
 
 Samba, Moore. 
 Caenon)mpha, Hiibn, 
 
 Euaspla, Wlk. 
 Emesis, J abr. 
 
 Echerius, Stoll. 
 
 Fam. LYCiFNiD^, Leach, 
 An ops, Boisd. 
 
456 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 Bulls. Boisd. 
 
 Thetys, Drury. 
 Loxura, Horsf. 
 
 Atymnus, Cram. 
 Myrina, Godt. 
 
 Selimnus, Doubled. 
 
 Triopas, Cram. 
 Amblypoiiia, Horsf. 
 
 Longinus, Fabr. 
 
 Narada, Horsf. 
 
 pseudocentaurus, Do. 
 
 quercetorum, Boisd. 
 Aphnaeus, Hiibn. 
 
 Pindarus, Fabr. 
 
 Etolus, Cra?n. 
 
 Hepliaestos, Doubled. 
 
 Crotus, Doubled. 
 Dipsas, Doubled. 
 
 chrysiimallus, Hiibn. 
 
 Isocrates, Fabr. 
 Lycaena, Fabr. 
 
 Alexis, Stall. 
 
 Boetica, Linn. 
 
 Cnejus, Horsf. 
 
 Rosimon, Fabr. 
 
 Theophrastus, Fabr. 
 
 Pluto, Fabr. 
 
 Parana, Horsf. 
 
 Nyseus, Guer. 
 
 Ethion, Boisd. 
 
 Celeno, Cram. 
 
 Kandarpa, Horsf. 
 
 Elpis, Godt. 
 
 Chimonas, Wlk. 
 
 Gandara, Wlk. 
 
 Chorienis, Wlk. 
 
 Geria, Wlk. 
 
 Doanas. Wlk. 
 
 Sunva, Wlk. 
 
 Audhra, Wlk. 
 Polyommatus, Latr, 
 
 Akasa, Horsf. 
 
 Puspa, Horsf. 
 
 Laius, Cram. 
 
 Ethion, Boisd. 
 
 Cattigara, Wlk. 
 
 Gorpippia, Wlk. 
 Lucia, Westw. 
 
 Epius, Westw. 
 Pithecops, Horsf. 
 
 Hylax, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Hesperid^, Steph. 
 Goniloba, Westw. 
 
 lapetus. Cram. 
 Pjrgus, Hdbn. 
 
 Superna, Moore. 
 
 Danna, Moore. 
 
 Genta, Wlk. 
 
 Sydrus, Wlk. 
 Nisoniades, Hdbn. 
 
 Diodes, Boisd. 
 
 Salsala, Moore. 
 
 Toides, Wlk. 
 Pamphila, Fabr. 
 
 Aiigias, Linn. 
 Achylodes, Hiibn.] 
 
 Teinala, f^f'lk! 
 Hesperia, Fabr. 
 
 Indrani, Moore. 
 
 Chaya, Moore. 
 
 Cinnara, Moore. 
 gremius, Latr. 
 Ceiidochates, Wlk. 
 Tiagara, Wlk. 
 Cotiaris, Wlk. 
 Sigala, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. SPHING1DJ2, Leach. 
 Sesia, Fabr. 
 
 Hylas, Linn. 
 Macroglossa, Oclis. 
 
 Stellatarum, Linn. 
 
 gyrans, Boisd. 
 
 Corytlius, Boisd. 
 
 divergens, Wlk. 
 Calymnia, Boisd. 
 
 Panopus, Cram. 
 Choerocampa, Dup. 
 
 Tiiyelia, Linn. 
 
 Nyssus, Drury. 
 
 Clotho, Drury. 
 
 Oldenlandiae, Fabr. 
 
 Lycetus, Cram. 
 
 Silhetensis, Boisd, 
 Pergesa, Wlk. 
 
 Acteus, Cram. 
 Panacra, Wlk. 
 
 vigil, Guer. 
 Daplinis, hdbn. 
 
 Nerii, Linn. 
 Zonilia, Boisd. 
 
 Morplieus, Cram. 
 Macrosila, Boisd. 
 
 obliqua, Wlk. 
 
 discistriga, Wlk. 
 Sphinx, Linn. 
 
 convolvuli, Linn. 
 Acherontia, Ochs. 
 
 Satanas, Boisd. 
 Smeriiitlius, Latr. 
 
 Dry as, Boisd. 
 
 Fam. Castniid^, Wlk. 
 Eusemia, Dalm. 
 
 bellatrix, Westw, 
 ^Egocera, Latr. 
 
 Veiiuiia, Cram, 
 
 bimacuia, H Ik. 
 
 Fam. Zyg^nid^, Leach. 
 Syntomis, Ochs. 
 
 Sci cenherri, Boisd, 
 
 Creusa, Linn, 
 
 Imaon, Cram, 
 Glaucopis, Fabr. 
 
 subaurata, Wlk. 
 Enchrnmia, HUhn. 
 
 Polymelia. Cram. 
 
 diminuta, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. LiTHOsiiDiE, Steph. 
 Scaptesyle, Wlk. 
 
 bicoli.r, Wlk. 
 NycteiTiera, Hiibn. 
 
 lacticinia, Cra?n. 
 
 latistriga, Wlk. 
 
 Coleta, Cra7n. 
 Euschema, Hiibn. 
 
 subrepleta, Wlk. 
 
 transversa, Wlk. 
 
 vilis, Wlk. 
 
 Chalrosia, Hiibn. 
 
 Tiberina, Cram. 
 
 venosa. Anon. 
 Eterusia, Hope. 
 
 JEdea, Linn. 
 Trypanophora, KoU. 
 
 Taprobanes, Wlk. 
 Hcteropan, Wlk. 
 
 scintillans, Wlk. 
 Hypsa, Hiibn. 
 
 plana, If^'lk. 
 
 caricae, Fabr. 
 
 ficus, Fabr. 
 Vitessa, Moor. 
 
 Zemire, Cram. 
 Lithosia, Fabr. 
 
 antica, Wlk. 
 
 brevipenuis, Wlk. 
 Setina, Schr. 
 
 semilascia, Wlk. 
 
 solita. If lie. 
 Doliche, Wlk. 
 
 hilaris tVlk. 
 Pitane, Wlk.] 
 
 conserta, Wlk. 
 iEmene, Wlk. 
 
 Taprobanes, Wlk. 
 Dirade-, Wlk. 
 
 attacoidi'S, Wlk. 
 Cyllene, Wlk. 
 
 transversa, Wlk. 
 
 *spoliata, Wlk. 
 Bizone, Wlk. 
 
 subornata, Wlk. 
 
 peregrina, Wlk. 
 Deiopeia, Steph. 
 
 piilcella, Linn. 
 
 Astrea, Drury. 
 
 Argus, Kollar. 
 
 Fam. Arctiidje, Leach. 
 
 Alope, Wlk. 
 
 ocelli fera, Wlk, 
 
 Sangaiida, Cram, 
 Tinolius, Wlk. 
 
 eburneigutta, Wlk. 
 Creatonotos, Hiibn. 
 
 interrupta, Linn. 
 
 emittens, Wlk. 
 Acmonia, Wlk. 
 
 lithosioides, Wlk. 
 Spilosoma, Steph, 
 
 subfascia, Wlk, 
 Cycnia, Hiibn. 
 
 rubida, Wlk. 
 
 sparsigutta, Wlk, 
 Antlieua, Wlk, 
 
 diicalis, Wlk, 
 Aloa, Wlk, 
 
 lactinea, Cram, 
 
 candidula, M'lk. 
 
 erosa, Wlk. 
 Amerila, Wlk. 
 
 Melmthus, Cram. 
 Ammatho, Wlh. 
 
 cunionotatus, Wlk, 
 
 Fam. LiPARiD^, Wlk 
 
 Artaxa, Wlk, 
 guttata, JF/A. 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLON mSECTS. 
 
 457 
 
 *varians, Wlk. 
 
 atomaria, Wlk. 
 Acyphas, JV/k. 
 
 viridescens, JVlk. 
 Lacida, H'/k. 
 
 rotundata, Wlk. 
 
 antica, Wlk. 
 
 subnotata, Wlk. 
 
 complens, Wlk. 
 
 promittens, Wlk. 
 
 strigulit'era, Wlk. 
 Amsacta ? Wlk. 
 
 tenebrosa, Wlk. 
 Antipha. Wlk. 
 
 costal is. Wlk. 
 Anaxila, Wlk. 
 
 notata, Wlk. 
 Procodera, Jl'lk. 
 
 angulifera, Wlk. 
 Redoa, nik. 
 
 submarginata, Wlk. 
 Euproctis Hiibn. 
 
 virguncula, Wlk. 
 
 bimaculata. Wlk. 
 
 lunata, Wlk. 
 
 tinctifera, Wlk. 
 Cispia, Wlk. 
 
 plagiata. Wlk. 
 Dasychira, Hiibn. 
 
 pudibunda, Linn. 
 Lymantria, Hiibn. 
 
 grandis, IVlk. 
 
 marginata, Wlk. 
 Enome, H'lk. 
 
 ampla, Wlk. 
 Dreala, Wlk. 
 
 plumipes, Wlk. 
 
 geminata. Wlk. 
 
 mutans, Wlk. 
 
 mollifera, Wlk. 
 Pandala, Wlk. 
 
 dolosa, Wlk. 
 Charnidas, Wlk. 
 
 junctifera, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PsYCHiD^, B)-u. 
 Psyche, Schr. 
 
 Doubledaii, Westw. 
 Metisa, Wlk. 
 
 plana, Wlk. 
 Eumeta, Wlk. 
 
 Cramerii, Westw. 
 
 Templetonii, Westw. 
 Cryptothelea, Tempi. 
 
 consorta, Tempi. 
 
 Fam. NoTODONTIDvE, St. 
 Cerura, Schr. 
 
 liturata, Wlk. 
 Stauropus, Germ. 
 
 alternans, Wlk. 
 Nioda, Wlk. 
 
 fusiformis, Til.k, 
 
 transversa, Wlk. 
 Rilia, Wlk. 
 
 lanceolata, Wlk. 
 
 basivitta, Wlk. 
 Ptilomacra, Wlk. 
 
 juvenis, Wlk. 
 Elavja, Wlk. 
 
 metapheea, Wlk. 
 
 Notodonta, Ochs. 
 
 ejecta, Wlk. 
 Ichthyma, Hiibn. 
 
 restituens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. LiMACODiDiE, Dup. 
 
 Scopelodes, Westia. 
 
 unicolor, Westw. 
 Messata, Wlk. 
 
 rubiginosa, Wlk. 
 Miresa, Wlk. 
 
 argeiitifera, Wlk. 
 
 aperiens, Wlk. 
 Nyssia, Hcrr. Sch. 
 
 l£eta, Westw. 
 Neaera, Herr. Sch. 
 
 graciosa, Westw. 
 Narosa, Wlk. 
 
 coiispersa, Wlk. 
 Naprepa, Wlk. 
 
 varians, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Drepanulid^, Wlk. 
 Oreta, Wlk. 
 
 suflfusa, Wlk. 
 
 extensa, Wlk. 
 Arna, Wlk. 
 
 apical is, Wlk. 
 Ganisa, Wlk. 
 
 postica, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Saturinid.e, Wlk. 
 Attaciis, Linn. 
 
 Atlas, Linn. 
 
 lunula, Anon. 
 Antheraga, Hiibn. 
 
 Mylitta, Drvry. 
 
 Assama, Westw. 
 Tropaea, Hiibn. 
 
 Selene, Hiibn. 
 
 Fam. BoMBYCiD^, Steph. 
 Trabala, Wlk. 
 
 basal is, Wlk. 
 
 prasina, Wlk. 
 Lasiocampa, Schr. 
 
 tri fascia. Wlk. 
 Megasoma, Boisd. 
 
 venustnm, Wlk. 
 Lebeda, Wlk. 
 
 repanda, JVlk. 
 
 plagiata, Wlk. 
 
 bimaculata, Wlk. 
 
 scriptiplaga, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CossiD^, Newm. 
 Cossus, Fabr. 
 
 quadrinotatus, Wlk. 
 Zeuzera, Latr. 
 
 leuconota, Steph. 
 
 pusilla, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Hepialid^, Steph. 
 Phassus, Steph. 
 signifer, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Cymatophorid^, 
 Herr. Sch. 
 Thyatira, Ochs. 
 
 repugnans, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. BRY0PHILIDJ2, Guen. 
 Bryophila, Treit. 
 semipars, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. BoMBYcoiu.E, Guen. 
 Diphtera, Ochs. 
 
 deceptura, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Leucanid.e, Guen. 
 Leucania, Ochs. 
 
 confusa, Wlk. 
 
 exempts, Wlk. 
 
 inferens, Wlk. 
 
 collecta, Wlk. 
 Brada, Wlk. 
 
 truncata, Wlk. 
 Crambopsis, Wlk. 
 
 excludens, Wlk, 
 
 Fam. G1.0TTLLID.E, Guen. 
 Poly tela. Guen. 
 
 gioriosa, Fabr. 
 Glottula, Guen. 
 
 Dominica, Cram. 
 Chasm ina, Wlk. 
 
 pavo, Wlk. 
 
 cygnus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Apamid,e, Guen. 
 Laphygma, Guen. 
 
 obstans, Wlk. 
 
 trajiciens, Wlk. 
 Prodenia, Guen. 
 
 retina, Friv. 
 
 glaucistriga, Wlk. 
 
 apertura, Wlk. 
 Calograuima, Wlk. 
 
 festiva, Don. 
 Heliophobus, Boisd. 
 
 discrepans, Wlk. 
 Hydraecia, Guen. 
 
 lampadifera, Wlk. 
 Apamea, Ochs. 
 
 undecilia, Wlk, 
 Celasna, Steph. 
 
 serva, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Caradrinid^, Guen. 
 Amj-na, Guen. 
 
 selenampha, Guen. 
 
 Fam. NocTuiD^, Guen. 
 Agrotis, Ochs. 
 
 aristifera, Guer. 
 congrua, Wlk. 
 punctipes, Wlk. 
 mundata, Wlk. 
 transducta, Wlk. 
 plagiata, Wlk. 
 plagifera, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Hadenid^, Guen. 
 Eurois, Hiibn. 
 
 auriplena, Wlk. 
 
 inclusa. Wlk. 
 Epiceia, Wlk, 
 
 subsignata, Wlk. 
 Hadena, Treit. 
 
 subcurva, Wlk. , 
 
 postica, Wlk. 
 
458 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 retrahens, Wlk.~ 
 confnndeiis, Wlk. 
 congressa, Wlk. 
 ruptistriga, Wik. 
 Ansa, fVli. 
 
 filipalpis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Xylinid^^e, Guen, 
 
 Ragada, IVlk. 
 
 pyrorchroma, Wlk. 
 Cryassa, Wlk 
 
 bifacips Wlk. 
 Egelista, Wlk. 
 
 rudivitta, Wlk. 
 Xylina. Ochs. 
 
 deflexa, Wlk. 
 
 inchoans, Wlk. 
 
 Fatn. Heliothid^, Guen. 
 Heliothis, Ochs. 
 
 armigera, Hiibn. 
 
 Fam. H,EMEROsiDJE, Gtcdn. 
 
 Ariol^, W/k. 
 
 ccelisigna, Wlk. 
 dilectissima, Wlk. 
 saturata, W/k. 
 
 Fam. AcoNTiD^E, Guen. 
 
 Xanthodes, Guen. 
 
 intersepta, GueUt 
 AcontJa, Ov/is. 
 
 tropica, Guen. 
 
 olivacea, Wlk. 
 
 fasciculosa, Wlk. 
 
 signilera. Wlk. 
 
 turpis, Wlk. 
 
 mianciides, Wlk. 
 
 approxiinans, Wlk. 
 
 divulsa, Wlk. 
 
 *egpn6, H'lk. 
 
 plenii'dsta, Wlk. 
 
 determinata, Wlk. 
 
 hvpaetroides, Wlk. 
 Chluiiietia, Wlk. 
 
 multilinea, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Anthophilid^, 
 Guen. 
 Micra, Gnen. 
 
 destituta, Wlk. 
 derogata, Wlk. 
 simplex, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Eriopid^, Guen. 
 Callopistiia, H'dbn. 
 exotica, Guen. 
 rlvularis, l\ Ik. 
 duplicans, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. EuRHiPioaE, Guen. 
 
 Penicillaria, GuSn. 
 
 nugatrix, Guen. 
 
 resoluta, Wlk. 
 
 solida, W/k. 
 
 ludatrix, Wlk. 
 Rhesala, Wlk. 
 
 impaiata, Wlk, 
 Eutelia, Hiibn. 
 
 favillalrix, Wlk. 
 
 thermesiides, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Plus;id^, Boisd. 
 Abrostola, Ochs. 
 
 transfixa, Wlk. 
 Plusi.i, Ochs. 
 
 aurifera, Hiibn. 
 
 verticillata, Guen. 
 
 agramma, Guen. 
 
 obtiisisigna, Wlk. 
 
 nigriluna. Wlk, 
 
 signata, Wlk. 
 
 disppllens, Wlk. 
 
 propulsa, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Calpid^, Guen. 
 Calpe, Treit. 
 
 rrinuticornis, Guen. 
 Orcesia, Guen. 
 
 emarginaia, Fabr. 
 Deva, Wlk. 
 
 conducens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Hemicerid*, Guen. 
 Westermannia, Hiibn. 
 superba, Hiibn. 
 
 Fam. Hybl^id^, Guen. 
 Hyblaea, Guen. 
 
 Puera, Cram. 
 
 con&telb\a, Guen. 
 Nolasena, Wlk. 
 
 ferrifervens, W/k. 
 
 Fam. GoNOPTERiDiE, Guen. 
 Cosmiphila, Boisd. 
 
 Indica, Guen. 
 
 xanthindyma, Boisd. 
 Anomis, Hiibn. 
 
 fulvida, Guen. 
 
 iconica, Wlk. 
 Gonitis, Guen. 
 
 combinans, Wlk. 
 
 alhitibia, Wlk. 
 
 mesogona, W/k. 
 
 gnttanivls, Wlk. 
 
 involuta, Wlk. 
 
 basalts, Wlk. 
 Eporeda, Pf'lk. 
 
 damni' ennis, Wlk. 
 Rusicada, W/k. 
 
 nigritarsis, Wlk. 
 Pasipeda, Wlk. 
 
 rufipalpis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ToxocAMPiD^, 
 Guen. 
 Toxocampa, Guen. 
 metaspila, Wlk. 
 sexlinea, Wlk. 
 qiiinquplina, Wlk. 
 Albonica, Wlk. 
 reversa, W/k. 
 
 Fam. POLYDESMID.E,G«^W. 
 
 Polydesma, Boisd. 
 boarmoides, Wlk. 
 erubescens, (ilk. 
 
 Fam. HoMOPTERiD^, Bois. 
 Alamis, Guen. 
 spoliata, Wlk. 
 
 Homoptera, Boisd. 
 
 basipallens, Wlk. 
 
 retrahens, Wlk. 
 
 costifera, Wlk. 
 
 divisistriga, Wlk. 
 
 procumhpns, Wlk. 
 Diacuista, Wlk. 
 
 homontproides, Wlk. 
 Daxata, Wlk. 
 
 bijungeiis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Hypogrammid*, 
 Guen. 
 Briarda, Wlk. 
 
 precedens, Wlk. 
 Brana, Wlk. 
 
 calopasa, Wlk. 
 Corsa, Wlk. 
 
 lignicolor, Wlk. 
 Avatha, Wlk. 
 
 iiK-ludpns, Wlk. 
 Gadirtha, W/k. 
 
 decrescens, Wlk. 
 
 impiiigens, Wlk. 
 
 spiircata, Wlk. 
 
 recti fera, Wlk. 
 
 duplicans, If'lk. 
 
 intrusa, Wlk. 
 Erchtia, W/k. 
 
 diversippnnis, Wlk. 
 Plotheia, Wlk. 
 
 frontalis, Wlk. 
 Diomea, Wlk. 
 
 rotundata, Wlk. 
 
 chloromela, Wlk. 
 
 orbicularis, Ulk. 
 
 mu-icosa. Wlk. 
 Dinumma, W/k. 
 
 placens, Wlk. 
 Lusia, Wlk. 
 
 geometroides, Wlk. 
 
 perficita, Wlk. 
 
 repulsa, Wlk. 
 Abunis, Wlk. 
 
 trimesa, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Catephid^, Guen. 
 Cocytodes, Guen. 
 
 coerula, Guen. 
 
 modesta, Wlk, 
 Catephia, Ochs. 
 
 linteola, Guin. 
 Anophia, Guen. 
 
 acionyctoides, Guen. 
 Steiria, Wlk. 
 
 sut'obliqua, Wlk. 
 
 trajiciens, Wlk. 
 Aucha, Wlk. 
 
 velaiis, Wlk. 
 ^gilia, W/k. 
 
 descnb'^ns, Wlk. 
 Maceda, Wlk. 
 
 mansueta, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. HvpocALiDiE, Guen. 
 H\pocala, Guen. 
 
 efBorescens. Guin. 
 
 subsatura, Guen. 
 
 Fam. Catocalid^. Boisd. 
 Blenina, Wlk. 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLOIS' INSECTS. 
 
 459 
 
 donans, Wllr. 
 accipiens, lyik. 
 
 Fam. Ophiderid^, Guen. 
 Ophideres, Boisd. 
 
 Materna, Linn. 
 
 fuUonica, Linn, 
 
 Cajeta, Cram. 
 
 Aiicilla, Cram. 
 
 Salaminia, Cram. 
 
 Hypermnestra, Crafn. 
 
 muitiscripia, tVlk. 
 
 bilineosa, H'lk. 
 Potamophera, Guen. 
 
 Manila, Ctam. 
 Lygniocies, Guen. 
 
 rediicens, If'lk. 
 
 disparans, W/k. 
 
 hypoleuca, Guen. 
 
 Fam. Frebid*, Guen. 
 Oxyodes, Guen. 
 Clytia, Cram. 
 
 Fam. Ommatophorid*, 
 Guen. 
 
 Speiredonia, Hilbn. 
 
 retraheiis, H'lk. 
 Sericia, Guen.. 
 
 anops, Guen. 
 
 parvipeniiis, Wlk. 
 Patula, Guen. 
 
 macrops, Linn. 
 Argiva, Hiibn. 
 
 hleroglyphica, Drury. 
 Beregra, Wlk. 
 
 replenens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. HYPOPYRID.E, Guen. 
 
 Spiramia, Guen. 
 
 Hel conia, Hiibn. 
 
 triloba, Guen. 
 Hypopyra, Guen. 
 
 vesfiertil o, Fabr. 
 Ortospana, Wlk. 
 
 connectens. Wlk. 
 Entomogramm I, Guen. 
 
 fautrix, Guen. 
 
 Fam. Bendid^, Guen. 
 Homffia, Guen. 
 
 clathrum, Guen. 
 Hulodt-s, Guen. 
 
 caranea, Cram. 
 
 palumba, Guen. 
 
 Fam. OpHiusiDiE, Guen. 
 Sphingomorpha, Guen. 
 
 Chlorea, Cram. 
 Lagopteia, Guen. 
 
 honesta. Hiibn. 
 
 magica, Hiibn. 
 
 dotata, Fabr. 
 Ophiodes, Guen. 
 
 discriminans, Wlk. 
 
 basi-tigma, IVlk. 
 Cerbi<, Wlk 
 
 fugitiva, JVlk. 
 Ophisma, Guen. 
 
 lEBtabilis, Gven. 
 
 deficiens, Wlk. 
 
 gravata, Wlk. 
 
 circiimierens, Wlk. 
 
 terminans, Wlk. 
 Achaea, Hiibn. 
 
 Melicerra. Drury. 
 
 Mezentia, Cram. 
 
 Cyllota, Guen. 
 
 Cyllaria, Cram. 
 
 fusiiera, Wlk. 
 
 signivitta, IVlk. 
 
 reversa, Wlk. 
 
 combinaiis, IVlk. 
 
 expectans, Wlk. 
 Serrodes, Guen. 
 
 canipana, Guen. 
 Naxia, Guen. 
 
 abseutiiiiaciila, Guen. 
 
 Ouelia. Guen. 
 
 caiefariens, If'lk. 
 
 caiorifica, Wlk. 
 Calt'sia, Guen. 
 
 hcemorrlioda, Guen, 
 Hypjetra, Guen. 
 
 trig nil'era, Wlk. 
 
 curvilera, Wlk. 
 
 condita, Wik. 
 
 complacens, Wlk. 
 
 divisa, Wlk. 
 Ophiusa, Ochs. 
 
 myops, Guen. 
 
 albivitta, Guen. 
 
 Achaiina, Sulz. 
 
 fulvotaeiiia, Guen. 
 
 similiima, Guen. 
 
 festinata, Wlk. 
 
 pallidilinea, Wlk. 
 
 liiteipaipis, Wlk. 
 Fedina, Guen. 
 
 stola, Guen. 
 Grainmodes, Guen. 
 
 Ammonia, Cram. 
 
 Mygdon, Cram. 
 
 stolida, Fabr. 
 
 mundicolor, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. EucLiDin.?:, Guen. 
 Trigonodes, Gtcen. 
 Hippasia, Cram. 
 
 Fam. Remigid^, Guen, 
 Remigia, Guen. 
 
 Archesia, Cram. 
 frugal is, Fabr. 
 pertendeiis, Wlk. 
 cungregata. Wlk. 
 opturata, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. FociLLiDiE, Guen. 
 Foci I la, Guen. 
 
 submemorans, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Amphiganid^, 
 Guen. 
 
 Lacera, Guen. 
 
 capella, Guen. 
 Amphigonia, Guen. 
 
 hepatizans, Guen. 
 
 Fam. THERMISID.E, Guen. 
 Sympis, Guen. 
 
 rulibajis, Guen. 
 Thermesia. Hiibn. 
 
 finipalpis, Wlk. 
 
 soluta, Wlk. 
 Azazia, W/k. 
 
 rubricans, Boisd. 
 Selenis, Guen. 
 
 nivisapex, Wlk. 
 
 muki^'iutata, Wlk. 
 
 semilux, Wlk. 
 Ephyroeies, Guen. 
 
 excipiens, Jf'lk. 
 
 cristi>rera, Wlk. 
 
 lineilera, Wlk. 
 Capnodes, Guen. 
 
 *maculiC')Sta, Wlk, 
 Ballatha, IVlk. 
 
 atrotumens, Wlk. 
 Daraiiissa, Wlk. 
 
 digramma, Wlk. 
 Darsa, Wlk. 
 
 defectisslma, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. URAPTERYD.E, Guen. 
 Lagyra, H Ik. 
 Talaca, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ENNOMiDi;, Guen. 
 Hyperythra, Guen. 
 
 limbolaria. Gain. 
 Orson oba, Wlk. 
 
 Rajaca, Wlk. 
 Fasceliina, Wlk. 
 
 chromataria, Wlk. 
 Laginia, Wlk. 
 
 bractiaria, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. BoARMiDiE, Guen. 
 Amblychia, Guen. 
 
 angeronia, Guen, 
 
 poststrigaria, Wlk. 
 Boarmia, Treit. 
 
 suiilavaria, Guen. 
 
 admissaria, Guen, 
 
 raptana, Wlk. 
 
 Medasina, 'I Ik. 
 
 Bhurniitra, Wlk. 
 
 Suiasasa. Wlk. 
 
 diffluaria, Wlk. 
 
 caritari^, M Ik. 
 
 exclusaria, Wlk. 
 Hypochroma, Guen. 
 
 minimaria, Guen, 
 Gnophos, Treit. 
 
 Piilinda, Wlk. 
 
 Culataria, Wlk. 
 HemeroptiUa, Steph. 
 
 vidhisara, Wlk. 
 Agaihia, Guen. 
 
 blandiaria, Wlk. 
 Bulonga, Wik. 
 
 Ajaia, Wlk. 
 
 Chacoraca, Wlk. 
 
 Chandubija, Wlk, 
 
 Fam. Geometrid^, Guen. 
 Georaetra, Linn. 
 
460 
 
 IXSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. Xn. 
 
 specularia. Guin, 
 
 Nanda, Wik. 
 Nemoria, HiiOn. 
 
 caudularia, Guen. 
 
 solidaria, Guen. 
 Thalassodes, Guen. 
 
 quadraria, Guen. 
 
 catenaria, Wlk. 
 
 immissaria, Wlk. 
 
 Sisunaga, JV/k. 
 
 adornataria, JVlk. 
 
 meritaria, fV/k. 
 
 ccelataria, W/k. 
 
 gratularia, H'lk, 
 
 chlorozonaria, Wlk. 
 
 laesaria, If^'lk. 
 
 simpliciaria, Wlk. 
 
 immissaria, Wlk. 
 Comibjena, JHk. 
 
 Divapala, J\'lk. 
 
 impulsaria, Wik. 
 Celeniia, W/k 
 
 saturaturia, JVlk. 
 Pseudoterpna, Wlk. 
 
 Vivilaca, Wlk. 
 Amaurinia, Guen. 
 
 rubrolimbaria, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Palyad^, Guen. 
 Eumelea, Dune. 
 
 ludovicata, Guin. 
 aureliata, Guen. 
 carnearia, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Ephyrid^, Guen. 
 EphjTa, Di'p. 
 
 obrinaria, W/k. 
 decursaria, Wlk. 
 Cacavena, JVlk. 
 abhadraca, Wlk. 
 Vasudeva, W/k. 
 Siisarmana, Wlk. 
 Vutumana, JVlk. 
 inaequata, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. AcidaudjE, Guen. 
 Drapetodes, Guen. 
 
 mitaria. Guen. 
 Pomasia, Gudn. 
 
 Psylaria, Guen. 
 
 Sunandaria, Wlk. 
 Acidalia, Trtit. 
 
 Dbliviaria, Wlk. 
 
 adeptaria, Wlk. 
 
 nexiaria, Wlk. 
 
 addictaria, Wlk. 
 
 actiosaria. Wlk. 
 
 defamataria. Wlk. 
 
 negataria, Wlk. 
 
 actuaiia, Wlk. 
 
 caBsaria, Wlk. 
 Cabera, S/>ph. 
 
 faharia, Wlk. 
 
 decussaria, Wlk. 
 
 famularia, Wlk. 
 
 nigrarenaria, Wlk. 
 Hyria, Sleph. 
 
 elataria, Wlk. 
 
 marcidaria, Wlk. 
 
 oblataria, Wlk. 
 
 grataria, Wlk. 
 
 rhodinaria, Wlk. 
 Timandra, Dup. 
 
 Ajuia, H'lk. 
 
 Vijuia, Wlk. 
 Agyris, Guen. 
 
 deliar^a, Guen. 
 Zanclopteryx, Herr. Sch. 
 
 saponaria, Herr. Sch. 
 
 Fam. MicRONiD^, Guen. 
 Micronia, Guen. 
 ca'idata, Fabr. 
 aculeata, Guen 
 
 Fam. Macarid.e, Guen. 
 Macaria, Curt. 
 
 Eleonora, Cram. 
 
 Varisara, Wlk. 
 
 Rhai^ivata. Wlk. 
 
 Palaca, Wlk. 
 
 honestaria, Wlk. 
 
 Sangata, Wlk. 
 
 honoraria, Wlk. 
 
 cessaria, U'lk. 
 
 subcaudaria, Wlk. 
 Doava, Wlk. 
 
 adjutaria, Wlk. 
 
 figiiraria. Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Larentid-e, Guen. 
 Sauris, Gteen. 
 
 hinidinata, Guen. 
 Camptogramma, Sleph. 
 
 baccata, Guen. 
 Blemvia, Wlk. 
 
 Bataca, IVlk. 
 
 blitiaria, Wlk. 
 Coremia, Guen. 
 
 (iomatina, Wlk. 
 Lobophora, Curt. 
 
 Salisuca, Wlk. 
 
 Ghoslia, IVlk. 
 
 contributaria, Wlk. 
 Mesogramma, Steph. 
 
 lactularia, Wlk. 
 
 scitaria, Wlk. 
 Eupithecia, Curt. 
 
 recensitaria, Wlk. 
 
 admixtaria, Wlk. 
 
 immixtaria, Wlk. 
 Gathynia, Wlk. 
 
 miraria, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PLATYDiD.ffi, Guen. 
 Trigonia, Guen. 
 
 Cydonialis, Cram. 
 
 Fam. Hypenid^ He7-r. 
 Dichromia, Guen. 
 
 Orosialis, Cram. 
 Hypeiia, Schr. 
 
 rhombatis, Guen. 
 
 jocosalis, Wlk. 
 
 mandatalis, Wlk. 
 
 qusesitalis, Wlk. 
 
 laceratalis, Wlk. 
 
 iconicalis, Wlk. 
 
 labatalis, Wlk. 
 
 obacer talis, Wlk. 
 pactalis, Wlk. 
 raralis, Wlk. 
 paritalis, Wlk. 
 surreptalis, Wlk. 
 dftersalis, Wlk. 
 ineffectalis, Wlk. ■ 
 incoiigrualis, Wlk. 
 rubripunctum, Wlk. 
 Gesonia, Wlk. 
 
 *obeditalis, Wlk. 
 duplex, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Herminid^, Bup. 
 Herminia, I^alr. 
 
 Tinioiialis, Wlk. 
 
 diff^isalis, Wlk. 
 
 interstans, Wlk. 
 Adrapsa, Wlk. 
 
 ablualis, Wlk. 
 Bertula, Wlk. 
 
 abjudicalis, Wlk. 
 
 raptatalis, Wlk. 
 
 contigens, Wlk. 
 Bocana, Wlk. 
 
 jutalis, Wlk. 
 
 manifestalis, Wlk. 
 
 ophiiisalis, Wlk. 
 
 vagalis, Wlk. 
 
 turpatalis, Wlk. 
 
 hypernalis,. Wlk. 
 
 grayaralis, Wlk. 
 
 tumidalis, Wlk. 
 Orthaga, Wlk. 
 
 Euadrusalis, Wlk. 
 Hipoepa, Wlk. 
 
 lapsalis, Wlk. 
 Lamura, Wlk. 
 
 oberratalis, JVlk. 
 Echana, Wlk. 
 
 abavalis, JMk. 
 Dragana, Wlk. 
 
 pansalis. Wlk. 
 Pingrasa, Wlk. 
 
 accural is, Wlk. 
 Egnas.a, Wlk. 
 
 ephvradalis. WV:. 
 
 accingalis, Wlk. 
 
 participalis, Wlk. 
 
 usLirpatalis, Wlk. 
 Berresa, Wlk. 
 
 natalis, Wlk. 
 Imma, Wlk. 
 
 rugosalis, Wlk. 
 Chusaris, Wlk. 
 
 retalalis, Wlk. 
 Corgatha, Wlk. \ 
 
 zonal is, Wlk. 
 Catada, Wlk. 
 
 glomeralis, Wlk. 
 
 captiosalis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PYRALiDiE, Guen. 
 Pyralis, Linn. 
 
 igniflualis, Wlk. 
 
 Palesali^, Wlk. 
 
 reconditalis, Wlk. 
 
 Idaliaiis, Wlk. 
 
 Janassalis, Wlk. 
 Aglossa, Lair. 
 
 Gnidusalis, Wlk. 
 
Chap. XII.] LIST OF CEYLON INSECTS. 
 
 4G1 
 
 Labanda, JVlk. 
 herbealis, JFlk. 
 
 Fam. Ennychid^, Dup. 
 
 Pyrausta, Sckr. 
 
 *absistalis, W7A-. 
 
 Fam. AsopiD^, Guen. 
 
 Desmia, JVesiw. 
 
 afflictalis, Guen. 
 
 coucisalis. Jl'l/c. 
 .SIdiodes, Guen. 
 
 flavibasalis. Guen, 
 
 effertalis, JVlk. 
 Samea, Guen. 
 
 pratiosalis, TVlk. 
 Asopia, Guen. 
 
 vulgalis, Guen. 
 
 falsidicalis. JVlk. 
 
 abruptali>, Jl'lk. 
 
 latimarginalis. JVlk. 
 
 prasteritalis, IVlk. 
 
 Ervxalis, !Hk. 
 
 roridalis. JVlk. 
 Agathndes, Guen. 
 
 osteiitalis, Geyer. 
 Leucinades, Guen. 
 
 orbonalis. Guen. 
 Hymeiiia, Uiibn. 
 
 recurvalis, Pabr. 
 Agrotera, Schj-. 
 
 suffusalis, JVlk. 
 
 decessalis, JVlk. 
 Isopteryx, Guen. 
 
 *m"elaleuialis, JJlk. 
 
 *impulsalis, JVlk 
 
 *spilomelalis. JVlk. 
 
 acclaralis, JVlk. 
 
 abnegatalis, JVlk. 
 
 Fam. Hydrocampid^, 
 Guen. 
 Oligostigma, Guen. 
 
 obi talis, JVlk. 
 
 votalis, JVlk. 
 Cataclysia, Hen: Srh. 
 
 diliicidalis, Guer. 
 
 bisectalis, JVlk. 
 
 blaiidialis. JVlk. 
 
 el u talis, JVlk. 
 
 Fam. Spilomelid.^, Guen. 
 Lepyrodes, Guen. 
 
 geomet rails, Guen. 
 
 lepidalis, JVlk. 
 
 peritalis, JVlk. 
 Phalangiodes, Guen. 
 
 Neptisalis, Cram. 
 Spilomela, Guen. 
 
 meritalis, JVlk. 
 
 abdicalis, JVlk. 
 
 deciissalis, JVlk. 
 
 aurolinealis, Wlk. 
 Nistra, JVlk. 
 
 ccelatalis, JVlk. 
 Pagyda. lllk. 
 
 salvalis, JVlk. 
 Massepha, JJ'lk. 
 
 absolutalis, JVlk. 
 
 Fam. MARGARODiD^jGwew. 
 Glyphodes, Guen. 
 
 diurnalis, Guen. 
 
 decretalis, Guen. 
 
 coesalis, JVlk. 
 
 univocalts, JVlk. 
 Phakellura, L. Guild. 
 
 gazoiialis, Guen. 
 Margarodes, Guen. 
 
 psittacalis, Hilhn. 
 
 pomnnalis. Guen. 
 
 bilaralis, JJ'lk. 
 Pygospila, Guen. 
 
 Tyresalis, Cram. 
 Neurina, Guen. 
 
 Prncop'alis, C^am. 
 
 ignibasalis, Wlk. 
 llurgia, JVlk. 
 
 delamalis, JVlk. 
 Maruca, JJ'lk. 
 
 riiptaiis, JJ'lk. 
 
 caritalis, IVlk. 
 
 Fam. BoTYDi, Guen. 
 Botys, Latr. 
 
 marginalis. Cram. 
 
 s^llalis, Guen. 
 
 multilinealis, Guen. 
 
 admeiisalis, JVlk. 
 
 abjiingalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 rutilalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 admixtalis. JJ'lk. 
 
 c^latalis, JJlh. 
 
 dediutalis. JVlk. 
 
 celsalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 vulsalis JVlk. 
 
 ultimalis, IJ'lk. 
 
 tropicalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 abstriisalis, JVlk. 
 
 ruralis, JJ'lk. 
 
 adhcesalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 illisalis, JVlk. 
 
 stultalis, JVlk. 
 
 adductalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 histricalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 illectalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 suspicalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Janassalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Nepheaiis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Cvnaralis. JVlk. 
 
 Dial is, JJlk. 
 
 Thaisalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Dryopealis, JVlk. 
 
 Myrinalis, JVlk. 
 
 phycidalis, JVlk. 
 
 annulalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 brevilinealis. JVlk. 
 
 plagiatalis, JVlk. 
 Ebulea, Guen. 
 
 aberratalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Camillalis, JVlk. 
 Pionea. Guen. 
 
 actiialis, JJ'lk 
 
 Optiletalis, JVlk. 
 
 Jubesalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 brevialis, JVlk. 
 
 suff.isalis, JVlk. 
 Scopula, Schr. 
 
 revocatalis, JJ'lk. 
 turgidalis, JJ'lk. 
 volutatalis, IVlk. 
 
 Godara, JJlk. 
 
 pervasalis, Wlk. 
 Herculia, JJ'lk. 
 
 bractialis, JVlk. 
 Mecyna, Guen. 
 
 deprivalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Fam. ScoPARiD^E, Guen. 
 
 Scoparia, Haw. 
 
 murificalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 congestalis, JJlk. 
 
 Alconalis, JVlk. 
 Davana, JJ'lk. 
 
 Phaiantalis, Wlk. 
 Darsania, JJ'lk. 
 
 Niobfsalis, JJ'lk. 
 Dosara, JJ'lk. 
 
 ccelatella. JJ'lk. 
 
 lapsalis, JVlk. 
 
 immeritalis, TVlk. 
 
 Fam. CHOREUTID.E, 
 
 St a int. 
 
 Niaccaba. JJ'lk. 
 
 sumptialis, JJlk. 
 Simaethis, Leach 
 
 Clatella, JVlk. 
 
 Dimonella, JJ'lk. 
 
 Bathusella, JVlk. 
 
 Fam. Phycid-e, Staint. 
 
 Myelois, Hilbn. 
 
 actiosella, JJ'lk. 
 
 bractlatella, JVlk. 
 
 caiitella, JVlk. 
 
 adaptella, JJ'lk. 
 
 illusella. JVlk. 
 
 basifuscella, JJ'lk. 
 
 Ligeralis, JVlk. 
 
 Marsyasalis, JJ'lk. 
 Dasctisa, "/fYA". 
 
 Valensalis, JJ'lk. 
 Daroraa, JJlk. 
 
 Zeiixoalis, JVlk. 
 
 Epulusalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Timeusalis. JJ'lk. 
 Homcesoma, Curt. 
 
 gratella, JJ'lk. 
 
 Getiisella, JVlk. 
 Nephopte-yx, H'uhn. 
 
 Etolusalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Cvllusalis, JVlk. 
 
 Hylasalis. JVlk. 
 
 Acisalis, JVlk. 
 
 Harpaxalis. IJ'lk. 
 
 ^olusali>, JJ'lk. 
 
 Argiadesalis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Philia.-alis, JVlk. 
 Pempelia, Hdbn. 
 
 laiidatella, JJ'lk. 
 Prionapteryx, Steph. 
 
 Lincusalis, JVlk. 
 Pindicitora, JJlk. 
 
 Acreonalis. Wlk. 
 
 Aniiiisrtlis, JJ'lk. 
 
 Tliysbesalis, JVlk, 
 Linceu-alis, JJ'lk. 
 Lacipea, JJ'lk. 
 
 muscosella, JJ'lk. 
 Araxes, Steph. 
 
462 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 admotella, Wlk. 
 decusella, Wlk. 
 celsella. It Ik. 
 admigratella, H'lk. 
 ccBsella, Wlk. 
 candidatella, Wlk. 
 Catagfla, nik. 
 adjurella, Wlk. 
 acricuella, H'lk. 
 lunulella, Wlk. 
 
 Tarn. Crambid^, Dup. 
 Crambus Fubr. 
 
 concinellns. Wlk. 
 Darbhaca, JTlk. 
 
 inceptella. Wlk. 
 Jartheza, Wlk. 
 
 hono'elia, Wlk. 
 Bulina, Wlk. 
 
 solitellii. Wlk. 
 Bembina, Wlk. 
 
 Cya usalis, Wlk. 
 Chilo, Zinck. 
 
 dodalell=i. Wlk. 
 
 gratiosells, Wlk. 
 
 aditella, Wlk. 
 
 blirella, fflk. 
 Dariausa, Wlk. 
 
 Eubusalis, Wlk. 
 Arrhade, IVlk. 
 
 Ematheonalis, Wlk. 
 Darnensis, Wlk. 
 
 Strephonella, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Chlcephorid^, 
 Stai'nt. 
 Thagora, Wlk. 
 
 figurans, Wlk. 
 Earias, HUlm. 
 
 chromatana, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. TiiRTRiciD^, Steph. 
 Lozotsenia, Steph. 
 
 retractana, Wlk. 
 Peronea, Curt. 
 
 divisana, Wlk. 
 LUhoi;rainma, Sttph. 
 
 flt'xilineana, Wlk. 
 Dictyopte'-yx. Steph. 
 
 punctana. Wlk. 
 HoinonH, Wlk 
 
 fasciculaiia, Wlk. 
 Hemonia, IVlk 
 
 obiferana, Wlk. 
 Achroia. HUhn. 
 
 tricingulana, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Yponomeutid^, 
 Steph. 
 
 Atteva, Wlk. 
 
 niveigutta, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. GELICHID.E, Staint, 
 Depressaria, Hatr. 
 
 obligatella, Wlk. 
 
 fimliriella, Wlk. 
 Decuaria, Wlk. 
 
 mendicella, Wlk. 
 Gelechia, Hiibn. 
 
 nugatella, Wlk. 
 
 calatella, Wlk. 
 
 deductella, Wlk. 
 
 Perionella, Wlk. 
 Gizama, Wlk. 
 
 blanciiella, Wlk. 
 Enisipia, Wlk. 
 
 fal sella. Ulk. 
 Gapharia, Wlk. 
 
 recita ella, Wlk. 
 Goesa, WVc 
 
 decusella, Wlk. 
 Cimitra, Wlk. 
 
 secJusella, Wlk. 
 Ficulea, Wlk. 
 
 blandulella, Wlk. 
 Fresilia, Wlk. 
 
 nesciatella, Wlk. 
 Gesontlia. Wlk. 
 
 captinsella, Wlk. 
 Aginis, Wlk. 
 
 hilariella, Wlk. 
 Cadra, Wlk. 
 
 defectella, JVlk. 
 
 Fam.GLYPHYPTiDJJ, Staint. 
 Glyphyteryx, HUhn. 
 
 scitulella, Wlk. 
 Hybele, Wlk. 
 
 mansuetella, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. TiNEiDiE, Leach. 
 
 Tinea, Linn. 
 
 tapetzella, Linn. 
 receptella, Wlk. 
 pelionella, L)nn. 
 plagiferella, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Lyonetidje, Staint. 
 Cachura, Wlk. 
 
 objectella, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PTEROPH0RID.E, Zell. 
 Pterophoriis, Geoffr. 
 
 leucadactylus, Wlk. 
 
 oxydactylus, Wlk. 
 
 anisodactylus, Wlk. 
 
 Order DrPTERA, Linn. 
 
 Fam. Mycetophilid^, 
 Hal. 
 Sciara, Meig. 
 *valida, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Cecidomyzid^, Hal. 
 Cecidomyia, Latr. 
 *primaria, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. SiMULiDiE, Hal. 
 Simiiliiim, Lair. 
 
 *destmalum, Wlk. 
 
 Fam, Chironomid^, Hal. 
 Ceratopogon, Meig. 
 *albocinctus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CULICID.E, Steph. 
 Culex, Linn. 
 
 regius, Thwaites. 
 fuscanus, Wied. 
 circumvolans. Wlk. 
 coutrahens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. T1PULID.E, Hal. 
 
 Ctenopiiora, Fnbr. 
 
 Taprobanes, Wlk. 
 Gymnoplistia ? Westw, 
 
 hebes, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Stratiomid^, Latr. 
 Ptilocera, Wied. 
 
 qiiadiidentata, Fabr. 
 
 fastuosa, Gtist. 
 PachygHster, Meig. 
 
 rufitarsis, Macq. 
 Acanthina, Wird. 
 ■ azurea, Geist. 
 
 Fam. Tabanidjs, Leach. 
 Paiigonia, Latr. 
 
 Taprobanes, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. AsiLiD^, Leach. 
 Trupanea, Macq. 
 
 Ceylanica, Macq. 
 Asilus, Linn. 
 
 flavicornis, Macq. 
 
 Barium, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. DoLiCHOPiD^.ieac^. 
 Psilopus, Meig. 
 
 *procuratus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. MusciD^, Latr. 
 Tachina ? Fain: 
 
 *tenebrosa, Wlk. 
 Musca, Linn. 
 
 domestica, Linn. 
 Dacus, Fabr. 
 
 *int^■rclusus, Wlk. 
 
 *nigroaneus. Wlk. 
 
 *detentus, Wlk. 
 Ortalis, Fall. 
 
 *confundens, Wlk. 
 Sciomyza, Fall. 
 
 ♦lencoielns. WUc. 
 Drosophila, Fall. 
 
 *restituens, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Nycteribids, Leach. 
 
 Nycteribia, Latr. 
 
 ? a species 
 
 parasitic onScatophi- 
 liis Coromandelicus, 
 Bligh. 
 
 Order Hejiipteea, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fam. Pachycorid^, HalL 
 
 Cantuo, Amyot Sf Serv. 
 
 ocellatiis, Thunb. 
 Callidea, Lap. 
 
 superba, Dull. 
 
 Stockerus, Linn. 
 
Chap. XU.] LIST OF CEYLOIN" INSECTS. 
 
 463 
 
 Fam. EURYGASTERID^, 
 
 Dall. 
 Trigonosom;!, Lap, 
 Desfontainii, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Plataspid^, Dall- 
 Coptosoma, Lap. 
 laiiceps, Dall. 
 
 Fam. Halydid^, Dall. 
 Halys, Fabr. 
 
 dentata, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. PENTATOMIDiE, Stepk, 
 
 Pentatoma, Oliv. 
 
 Timorensis, Hope. 
 
 Taprobanensis, Dall. 
 Catacanthus, Spin. 
 
 incarnatus, Drury. . 
 Rhaptiigaster, 1 ap. 
 
 congrua, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. EDESS1D.E, Dall. 
 Aspongopiis, Lap. 
 
 anus, Fabr. 
 Tesseratoina, Lep. ^ Serv. 
 
 papulosa, Drury. 
 Cyclopelta, Am. 8f Serv. 
 
 sictilolid, Hope. 
 
 Fam. PhyllocephalidjE, 
 Dall. 
 
 Phyllocephala, Lap. 
 iEgyptiaca, Lefeb. 
 
 Fam. Miction, Dall. 
 Mictis, Leach. 
 
 Castanet, Dall. 
 
 valida, Dall. 
 
 punctum, Hope. 
 Crinocerus, BurTn. 
 
 ponderosus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Anisoscelid^, Dall. 
 Leptoscelis, Lap. 
 
 ventralis, Dall. 
 
 turpis, JVlk. 
 
 marfjinalis, TVlk, 
 Serinetha, Spin. 
 
 Tapi ob inensis, Dall. 
 
 abdominalis, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. ALYDiDiE, Dall. 
 Alydus, Fabr. 
 linearis, Fabr. 
 
 Fam. Stenocephalid^, 
 Dall. 
 Leptocorisa, Latr. 
 Chinensis, Dall. 
 
 Fam.CoREiD^, Steph. 
 Rhopalus, Schill. 
 interruptus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Lyg^id^, Westw. 
 Lygaeus, Fabr. 
 lutescens. Wlk. 
 
 figuratns, Wlk. 
 discifer, Wlk. 
 Rhyparochromus, Curt. 
 testaceipe.i, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ARADiDiE, JVlk. 
 Piestosoma, Lap. 
 picipes, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. TiNGiD^, Wlk. 
 Calloniana, Wlk. 
 *elegans, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. C1MICID.E, Wlk. 
 Cimex, Linn. 
 
 lectularius, Linn.? 
 
 Fam. Reduviid^, Steph. 
 Pirates, Burm. 
 
 marginatus, Wlk. 
 Acanthaspis, Am. ^ Serv. 
 
 sanguiiiipes, Wik. 
 
 fulvispina, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Hydkometrid^, 
 Leach. 
 Ptilomera, Am. <§• Serv. 
 laticauda, Hardw. 
 
 Fam. Nepid^, Leach. 
 Belostoma, Lair. 
 
 Indicum, St. Farg. 
 Nepa, Linn. 
 
 minor, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. NoTONECTii)^, Steph. 
 Notonecta, Linn. 
 
 abbreviata, Wlk. 
 
 simplex, Wlk. 
 Corixa, Geoff. 
 
 *subjacens, Wlk. 
 
 Order Homoptera, 
 Latr. 
 
 Fam. CiCADiD^, Westw. 
 Dundubia, Aiii. Sf Serv. 
 
 stipata, Wlk. 
 
 Clonia, Wlk. 
 
 Larus. Wlk. 
 Cicada, Linn. 
 
 limitaris, Wlk. 
 
 nubifurca, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. FuLGORiD^, Schaum. 
 Hotinus, Am. Sf Serv. 
 
 macnlatus, Oliv. 
 
 fulvirostris, Wlk. 
 
 coccineus, Wlk. 
 Pyrops, Spin. 
 
 ))unctata, Oliv. 
 Aph^na, Guer. 
 
 sangiiinalis, Westw. 
 Elidiptera, Spin. 
 
 EmersoQiana, White. 
 
 Fam. CixiiD*, Wlk. 
 Eurybrachys, Guer. 
 
 tomentosa, Fabr. 
 
 dilatata, Wlk. 
 
 crudelis, If-'esiw. 
 Cixius, La/r. 
 
 *uubilus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Issioa;, Wlk. 
 HemisphEBiius, Schaum. 
 *Schaumi, Sial. 
 *bipustulatns, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Derbid^, Schaum. 
 Tliracia, Westw. 
 
 pterophorides, Westw. 
 Derbe, Fabr. 
 
 *furcato-vittata, Stal. 
 
 Fam. Flattid^, Schaum. 
 Flatoides. Guer. 
 
 hyalinus, Fabr. 
 
 tenebrosus, Wlk. 
 Ricaiiia, Germ. 
 
 Hemerobii. Wlk. 
 Pceciloptera, Latr. 
 
 pulverulenta. Guer. 
 
 stellaris, Wlk. 
 
 Tennentina, White. 
 
 Fam. MEMBRAciOiE, Wlk. 
 Oxyrhachis, Geim. 
 
 *iiidicans, Wlk. 
 Centrotus, Fabr. 
 
 *re])onens, Wlk. 
 
 *malleiis, Wlk. 
 
 substitutus, Wlk. 
 
 *decipiens, Wlk. 
 
 *reliiiquens, Wlk. 
 
 *imitator, Wlk. 
 
 *repressus, Wlk. 
 
 *teiminalis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CERCopiDiE, Leach. 
 Cercopis, Fabr. 
 
 iiiclusa, IMk. 
 Ptyelus. Lep. 4- Serv. 
 
 costalis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. Tettigoniidje, Wlk. 
 Tettigonia, Lntr. 
 paulula, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. ScARiDiE, Wlk. 
 Ledra. Fabr. 
 
 rugosa, Wlk. 
 
 coiiica, Wlk. 
 Gypona, Gertn. 
 
 prasina, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. lAssiDiE, Wlk. \ 
 Acocephalus, Germ. 
 porrectus, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. PsYLLiD.E, Latr. 
 
 Psylla, Gaff. 
 
 *marginalis, Wlk. 
 
 Fam. CocciD^, Leach. 
 Lecanium, Illig. 
 Coffeae, Wlk. 
 
464 AUTICULATA. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 AETICULATA. 
 
 Arachnida — Myriopoda — Crustacea, etc. 
 
 With a few striking exceptions, the true spiders of 
 Ceylon resemble in oeconomy and appearance those we 
 are accustomed to see at home; — they frequent the 
 houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems of trees, 
 and along the sunny paths, where the forest meets the 
 open country, the Epeira and her congeners, the true 
 net-weaving spiders, extend their lacework, the gi'ace of 
 the designs being even less attractive than the beauty 
 of the creatures that elaborate them. 
 
 Such of them as live in the woods select with sin- 
 gular sagacity the bridle-paths and narrow passages for 
 expanding their nets ; perceiving no doubt that the 
 larger insects frequent these openings for facility of 
 movement through the jungle; and that the smaller 
 ones are carried towards them by currents of air. Their 
 nets are stretched across the path from four to eight 
 feet above the ground, suspended from projecting shoots, 
 and attached, if possible, to thorny shrubs ; and they 
 sometimes exhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage 
 and destruction. I have taken down a ball as large as a 
 man's head consisting of successive layers rolled together, 
 in the heart of which was the original den of the family, 
 
,.j.jlip!::y*. 
 
Chap. Xin.] SPIDEES. 465 
 
 whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by 
 coils of the old web filled with the wings and limbs of 
 ..insects of all descriptions, from large moths and butter- 
 flies to mosquitoes and minute coleoptera. Each layer 
 appeared to have been originally hung across the passage 
 to intercept the expected prey ; and, when it had be- 
 come surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened, 
 tossed over by the wind or its own weight, and wrapped 
 round the nucleus in the centre, the spider replacing it 
 by a fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and added to 
 the mass within. 
 
 Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure 
 and instinct, from the spiders which live in the open 
 air, and busy themselves in providing food during the 
 day, the Mygale fasciata is not only sluggish in its 
 habits, but disgusting in its form and dimensions. Its 
 colour is a gloomy brown, interrupted by irregular 
 blotches and faint bands (whence its trivial name) ; it is 
 sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs, when ex- 
 panded, stretch over an area of six to eight inches in 
 diameter. It is familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who 
 have given it the name, and ascribed to it the fabulous 
 propensities, of the Tarentula.^ 
 
 The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and 
 eastern parts of the island, and occasionally in dark 
 unfrequented apartments in the western province ; but 
 its inclinations are solitary, and it shuns the busy traffic 
 of towns. 
 
 The largest specimens I have seen were at Grampola, 
 in the viciuity of Kandy, and one taken in the store- 
 
 ' Species of the true Tarentula are all of very small size, and per- 
 are not uncommon in Ceylon ; tliey fectly harmless. 
 
 H H 
 
466 ARTICULATA. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 room of the rest-house there, nearly covered with its 
 legs an ordinary-sized breakfast plate. ^ 
 
 This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or 
 spin a net like other spiders, but nevertheless it forms a 
 comfortable mansion in the wall of a neglected building, 
 the hollow of a tree, or under the eave of an overhang- 
 ing stone. This it lines throughout with a tapestry of 
 silk of a tubular form ; and of a texture so exquisitely 
 fine and closely woven, that no moisture can penetrate 
 it. The extremity of the tube is carried out to the 
 entrance, where it expands into a little platform, stayed 
 by braces to the nearest objects that afford a firm hold. 
 In particular situations, where the entrance is exposed 
 to the wind, the mygale, on the approach of the mon- 
 soon, extends the strong tissue above it so as to serve 
 as an awning to prevent the access of rain. 
 
 The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively 
 designed for the domestic luxury of the spider ; it serves 
 no purpose in trapping or securing prey, and no external 
 disturbance of the web tempts the creature to sally out 
 to surprise an intruder, as the epeira and its congeners 
 would. 
 
 By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it 
 issues at night to feed on larvae and worms, devouring 
 cockroaches and their pupse, and attacking the millepeds;, 
 gryllotalpae, and other fleshy insects. 
 
 Mr. Edgar L. Layard has described^ an encounter 
 between a Mygale and a cockroach, which he witnessed 
 in the madua of a temple at Alittane, between Anaraja- 
 poora and Dambool. When about a yard apart, each 
 
 ^ See Plate opposite, ^ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist 
 
 May, 1853. 
 
Chap. XILI.] SPIDEES. 467 
 
 discerned the other and stood still, the spider with his 
 legs slightly bent and his body raised, the cockroach 
 confronting him and directing his antennae with a rest- 
 less undulation towards his enenay. The spider, by 
 stealthy movements, approached to within a few inches 
 and paused, both parties eyeing each other intently ; 
 then suddenly a rush, a scujffle, and both fell to the 
 ground, when the blatta's wings closed, the spider seized 
 it under the throat with his claws, and dragged it into 
 a corner, when the action of his jaws was distinctly 
 audible. Next morning Mr. Layard found that the 
 soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but the 
 head, thorax, and elytra remaining. 
 
 But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale 
 rests under the imputation of seizing small birds and 
 feasting on their blood. The author who first gave 
 popular currency to this story was ]Madame Merian, a 
 zoological artist of the last century, many of whose 
 drawings are still preserved in the Museums of St. Pe- 
 tersburg, Holland, and England. In a work on the 
 Insects of Surinam, published in 1705^, she figured the 
 Mygale avicularia, in the act of devouring a humming 
 bird. The accuracy of her statement has since been 
 impugned^ by a correspondent of the Zoological Society 
 of London, on the ground that the mygale makes no 
 net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird 
 would resort ; and hence, the ^vriter somewhat illogically 
 declares, that he " disbelieves the existence of any bird- 
 catching spider." 
 
 * Bissertatio de Generatione et communicated to the Zoological 
 
 Metatnorphosibus Insectorum Suri- Society of Loudon, Proc. 1834, p. 
 
 namensiurn, Amst. 1701, Fol. 12. 
 
 2 By Mr. jMacLeay in a paper 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 ARTICULATA. [Chap. Xni. 
 
 Some years later, however, the same writer felt it 
 incumbent on him to qualify this hasty conclusion ^, 
 in consequence of having seen at Sydney an enormous 
 spider, the E'peira diadema, in the act of sucking the 
 juices of a bird (the Zosterops dorsalis of Vigors and 
 Horsfield), which it had caught in the meshes of its 
 geometrical net. This circumstance, however, did not 
 in his opinion affect the case of the Mygcde ; and even 
 as regards the Epeira, Mr. MacLeay, who witnessed the 
 occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance to be 
 accidental and exceptional; " an exception indeed so rare, 
 that no other person had ever witnessed the fact." 
 
 Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain 
 the story of Madame Merian.^ Baron Walckenaer and 
 Latreille both corroborated it by other authorities ; and 
 M. Moreau da Jonnes, who studied the habits of the 
 Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in 
 search of its prey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the 
 purpose of surprising them, and climbs the branches of 
 trees to devour the young of the humming bird, and of 
 the Certhia flaveola. As to its mode of attack, M. 
 Jonnes says that when it throws itself on its victim it 
 clings to it by the double hooks of its tarsi, and strives 
 to reach the back of the head, to insert its jaws between 
 the skull and the vertebrse.^ 
 
 ^ See Ann. and Mag. of Nat. "by a ciirious movement of the 
 
 Hist, for 1842, vol. viii. p. 324. large grayish brown Mygale on the 
 
 ^ See authorities quoted by Mr. trunk of a vast tree : it was close 
 
 Shuck A RD in the Ann. and Mag. beneath a deep crevice or chink in 
 
 of Nat. Hist. 1842, voL viii. p. the tree, across which this species 
 
 436, &c. weaves a dense web, at one end 
 
 ^ At a meeting of the Entomo- open for its exit and entrance. In 
 
 logical Society, July 20, 1855, a the present instance the lower part 
 
 paper was read by Mr. H. W. of the web was broken, and two 
 
 Bates, who stated that in 1849 at small finches were entangled in 
 
 Cameta in Brazil, he "was attracted its folds. The finch was about 
 
Chap. Xin.] SPIDEES. 4G9 
 
 For my owti part, no instance came to my knowledge 
 in Ceylon of a mygale attacking a bird ; but Perciyal, 
 who wrote his account of the island in 1805, describes 
 an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid) thinly covered 
 with hair which " makes webs strong enough to entangle 
 and hold even small birds that form its usual food." ^ 
 
 The fact of its living on millepeds, blattae, and 
 crickets, is universally known ; and a lady who lived at 
 Marandahn, near Colombo, told me that she had, on 
 one occasion, seen a little house-lizard {gecko) seized 
 and devoured by one of these ugly spiders. 
 
 Walckenaer has described a spider of large size, under 
 the name of Olios Taprobanius, which is very common 
 in Ceylon, and conspicuous from the fiery hue of the 
 tinder surface, the remainder being covered with gray 
 hair so short and fine that the body seems almost 
 denuded. It spins a moderate-sized web, hung verti- 
 cally between two sets of strong lines, stretched one 
 above the other athwart the pathways. Some of the 
 threads thus carried horizontally from tree to tree at a 
 considerable height from the ground are so strong as to 
 cause a painful check across the face when moving 
 quickly against them ; and more than once in riding I 
 have had my hat lifted off my head by one of these 
 cords.^ 
 
 tte size of the common Siskin of gray brown colour, and clothed 
 
 ETirope, and he judged the two to ^vith coarse pile." " If the My- 
 
 he male and female ; one of them gales," he adds, " did not prey 
 
 was quite dead, but secured in the upon vertebrated animals, I do not 
 
 broken web ; the other was under see how they coidd find sufficient 
 
 the body of the spider, not quite subsistence." — The Zoologist, toL 
 
 dead, and was covered in parts xiii. p. 480. 
 
 with a filthy liquor or saliva * Percival's Ceylon, p. 313. 
 
 exuded by the monster. " The ^ Over the country generally are 
 
 •species of spider," Mr. Bates says, scattered species of GasUracantha^ 
 
 " I cannot name ; it is wholly of a remarkable for their firm shell- 
 
 H H 3 
 
470 AKTICULATA. [Chap. Xni. 
 
 An officer in the East India Company's Service ^, in a 
 communication to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes 
 the gigantic web of a black and red spider six inches in 
 diameter, (his description of which, both in colour and 
 size, seems to point to some species closely allied to 
 the Olios Tajprohanins,^ which he saw near Monghyr 
 on the Granges ; in this web " a bird was entangled, and 
 the young spiders, eight in number, and entirely of a 
 brick red colour, were feeding on the carcase.^ 
 
 The voracious Galeodes has not yet been noticed in 
 Ceylon ; but its carnivorous propensities are well known 
 in those parts of Hindustan, where it is found, and 
 where it lives upon crickets, coleoptera, and other 
 insects, as well as small lizards and birds. This " tiger of 
 the insect world," as it has aptly been designated by a 
 gentleman who was a mtness to its ferocity ^, was seen 
 to attack a young sparrow half grown, and seize it by 
 the thigh, which it saived through. The " savage then 
 caught the bird by the throat, and put an end to its 
 sufferings by cutting off its head." " On another occa- 
 sion," says the same authority, " Dr. Baddeley confined 
 one of these spiders under a glass wall-shade with two 
 young musk-rats (Sorex Indicus), both of which it 
 destroyed." It must be added, however, that neither in 
 the instance of the bird, of the lizard, or the rats, did 
 the galeodes devour its prey after killing it. 
 
 covered bodies, witli projecting spines, arcliing obliquely backwards. 
 
 knobs arranged in pairs. In habit These abnormal kinds are not so 
 
 these anomalous-looking EpeiridcB handsomely colom'ed as the smaller 
 
 appear to differ in no respect from species of typical form. 
 
 the rest of the family, -o-aylaying ' Capt. Sherwill. 
 
 their prey in similar situations and ^ Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1850,. 
 
 in the same manner. vol. xix. p. 475. 
 
 Another very singular subgenus, ^ Capt. Hutton. See a paper 
 
 met with in Ceylon, is distinguished on the Galeodes vorax in the 
 
 by the abdomen being dilated be- Journal of the Asiatic Society of 
 
 hind, and armed with two long Bengal, vol. xi. Part n. p. 860. 
 
Chap. Xni.] TICKS. 471 
 
 In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts 
 of a curious species of long-legged spiders^, popularly 
 called " harvest-men," which congregate in hollow trees 
 and in holes in the banks by the roadside, in groups of 
 from fifty to a hundred, that to a casual observer look 
 like bunches of horse-hair. This appearance is produced 
 by the long and slender legs of these creatures, which 
 are of a shining black, whilst their bodies, so small as 
 to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them. The 
 same spider is found in the low country near Gralle, 
 but there it shows no tendency to become gregarious. 
 Can it be that they thus assemble in groups in the hills 
 for the sake of accumulated warmth at the cool altitude 
 of 4000 feet ? 
 
 Ticks. — Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable 
 nuisances to the Ceylon traveller. They live in immense 
 numbers in the jungle ^, and attaching themselves to the 
 
 ^ Phalangium hisignatum. responding instinct I have always 
 - Dr. Hooker, in his Himalayan observed in the gambols of the 
 Journal, vol. i. p. 279, in speaking Pariah dogs, that they invariably 
 of the multitude of these ereatiu-es commence their attentions by 
 in the mountains of Nepal, won- mutually gnawing each other's ears 
 ders what they find to feed on, as and necks, as if in pursuit of ticks 
 in these humid forests in which from places from which each is un- 
 they literally swarmed, there was able to expel them for himself, 
 neither pathway nor animal life. Horses have a similar instinct ; 
 In Ceylon they abound everywhere and when they meet, they apply- 
 in the plains on the low brush- their teeth to the roots of the ears 
 wood; and in the very driest of their companions, to the neck 
 seasons they are quite as numerous and the crown of the head. The 
 as at other times. In the mountain buffaloes and oxen are relieved of 
 zone, which is more humid, they ticks by the crows which rest on 
 are less prevalent. Dogs are tor- their backs as they browse, and 
 meuted by them : and they display free them from these pests. In the 
 something closely allied to cunning low country the same acceptable 
 in always fastening on an animal office is performed by the ''cattle- 
 in those parts where they cannot keeper heron" {Arclea hubulcus), 
 be torn off by his paws ; on his which is " sure to be found in 
 eye-brows, the tips of his ears, and attendance on them while grazing ; 
 the back of his neck. With a cor- and the animals seem to know their 
 
 H H 4 
 
472 AETICULATA. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 plants by tlie two forelegs, lie in wait to catch at unwary 
 animals as they pass. A shower of these diminutive 
 vermin will sometimes drop from a branch, if unluckily 
 shaken, and disperse themselves over the body, each 
 fastening on the neck, the ears, and eyelids, and insert- 
 ing a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their heads 
 pressed as far as practicable under the skin, causing a 
 sensation of smarting, as if particles of red hot sand 
 had been scattered over the flesh. If torn from their 
 hold, the suckers remain behind and form an ulcer. 
 The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of their 
 penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a 
 lime can be applied, when these little furies drop off 
 without further ill consequences. One very large species, 
 dappled Avith grey, attaches itself to the buffaloes. 
 
 Mites. — The Trombidium tinctoriun of Hermann is 
 found about Aripo, and generally over the northern pro- 
 vinces, — where after a shower of rain or heavy night's 
 dew, they appear in countless myriads. It is about half 
 an inch long, like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts 
 its colouring matter readily to any fluid in which it may 
 be immersed. It feeds on vegetable juices, and is per- 
 fectly innocuous. Its European representative, similarly 
 tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonly called 
 the "Little red pillion." 
 
 Myriapods. — The certainty with which an accidental 
 pressure or unguarded touch is resented and retorted by 
 a bite, makes the centipede, when it has taken up its 
 temporary abode within a sleeve or the fold of a dress, 
 by far the most unwelcome of all the Singhalese assail- 
 ants. The great size, too (little short of a foot in length), 
 
 benefactors, and stand quietly, mentors from their flanks. " — Magf. 
 while the birds peck their tor- Nat. Hist. p. Ill, 1844. 
 
Chap. XIII.] CEEMATIA. 473 
 
 to which it sometimes attains, renders it formidable, and, 
 apart from the apprehension of unpleasant consequences 
 from a wound, one shudders at the bare idea of such 
 a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneath the 
 innermost folds of one's garments. 
 
 At the head of the Myriapods, and pre-eminent from 
 a superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus 
 Cermatia: singular-looking objects; mounted upon 
 
 slender legs, of gradually increasing length from front 
 to rear, the hind ones in some species being amazingly 
 prolonged, and all handsomely marked with brown annuli 
 in concentric arches. These myrlapods are harmless, 
 excepting to woodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches, 
 which form their ordinary prey. They are rarely to be 
 seen ; but occasionally at daybreak, after a more than 
 usually abundant repast, they may be observed motion- 
 less, and resting with their regularly extended limbs 
 nearly flat against the walls. On being disturbed they 
 dart away with a surprising velocity, to conceal them- 
 selves in chinks until the return of night. 
 
 But the species to be really dreaded are the true 
 ScolopenclrcB, which are active and carnivorous, living 
 in holes in old walls and other gloomy dens. One 
 
474 ARTICULATA. [Chap. Xni. 
 
 species * attains to nearly the length of a foot, with cor- 
 responding breadth ; it is of a dark purple colour, ap- 
 proaching black, with yellowish legs and antennae, and 
 in its whole aspect rej)ulsive and frightful. It is strong 
 and active, and evinces an eager disposition to fight 
 when molested. The Scolopendrce are gifted by nature 
 with a rigid coriaceous armour, which does not yield to 
 common pressure, or even to a moderate blow ; so that 
 they often escape the most well-deserved and well- 
 directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in 
 retreats which effectually conceal them from sight. 
 
 There is a smaller species^, that frequents dwelling- 
 houses ; it is about one quarter the size of the preceding, 
 and of a dirty olive colour, with pale ferruginous legs. 
 It is this species that generally inflicts the wound, when 
 persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion ; and it 
 has a mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into 
 the folds of dress. The bite at first does not occasion 
 more suffering than would arise from the penetration of 
 two coarsely-pointed needles ; but after a little time the 
 wound swells, becomes acutely painful, and if it be over 
 a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation is so 
 intolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides 
 after a few hours' duration. In some cases the bite is 
 unattended by any particular degree of annoyance, and 
 in these instances it is to be supposed that the contents 
 of the poison gland had become exhausted by previous 
 efforts, since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest to 
 enable it to resume its accustomed functions and to 
 secrete a supply of venom. 
 
 The Fish-insect — The chief inconvenience of a 
 
 ' Scolo^endra crassa, Temp. - Scolopendra pallipes. 
 
Chap. XIII.] THE FISH-IXSECT. 475 
 
 residence in Ceylon, both on the coast and in the 
 mountains, is the prevalence of damp, and the difficulty 
 of protecting articles liable to injury from this cause. 
 Books, papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay ; especially 
 diuing the south-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is 
 saturated with moisture. Unless great precautions are 
 taken, the binding fades and yields, the leaves grow 
 mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an incredibly 
 short time, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be 
 unfit for use. After a very few seasons of neglect, a 
 book falls to pieces, and its decomposition attracts 
 hordes of minute insects, that swarm to assist in the 
 work of destruction. The concealment of these tiny 
 creatures during daylight renders it difficult to watch 
 their proceedings, or to discriminate the precise species 
 most actively engaged; but there is every reason to 
 believe that the larvae of the death-watch and numerous 
 acari are amongst the most active. As nature seldom 
 peoples a region supplied with abundance of suitable 
 food, without, at the same time, taking measures of 
 precaution against the disproportionate increase of in- 
 dividuals; so have these vegetable depredators been 
 provided with foes who pursue and feed greedily upon 
 them. These are of widely different genera ; but in- 
 stead of their services being gratefully recognised, they 
 are popularly branded as accomplices in the work of 
 destruction. One of these ill-used creatures is a tiny, 
 tail-less scorpion {Chelifer^), and another is the pretty 
 
 ^ Of the first of these, three claw. They are 
 
 species have been noticed in Ceylon, Chelifer Librorum, Temp 
 
 all with the common characteristics „ oblong vs Temp 
 
 of being nocturnal, ver^^ active, very „ acaroidel, Hermann, 
 
 minute, of a pale chesnut colour, Dr. Templeton appears to have 
 
 and each armed with a crab-like been puzzled to account for the 
 
476 ARTICULATA. [Chap. Xin. 
 
 little silvery creature (^Lepisvia), called by Europeans 
 the " fish-insect." ^ 
 
 The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises 
 several species, of which only two have as yet been 
 described ; one is of a large size, most graceful in its 
 movements, and singularly beautiful in appearance, 
 owing to the whiteness of the pearly scales from which 
 its name is derived. These, contrasted with the dark 
 hue of the other parts, and its tri-partite tail, attract 
 the eye as the insect darts rapidly along. Like the 
 chelifer, it shuns the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, 
 but is actively engaged throughout the night feasting 
 on the acari and soft-bodied insects which assail books 
 and papers. ' 
 
 Millejpeds. — In the hot dry season, and more 
 especially in the northern portions of the island, the 
 eye is attracted along the edges of the sandy roads by 
 fragments of the dislocated rings of a huge species of 
 millepede^, lying in short curved tubes, the cavity ad- 
 mitting the tip of the little finger. When perfect the 
 creature is two-thirds of a foot long, of a brilliant jet 
 black, and with above a hundred yellow legs, which, 
 when moving onward, present the appearance of a 
 series of undulations from rear to front, bearing the 
 
 appearance of the latter species in central one, LrsTsr^us states that 
 Ceylon, so far from its native the European species, with which 
 country, but it has most certamly book collectors are familiar, was 
 been introduced from Europe, in first brought in sugar ships from 
 Dutch or Portuguese books. America. Hence, possibly, these 
 ^ Lepisma niveo-fasciata, Tern- are more common in seaport towns 
 pleton, and L. oiiger, Temp. It in the South of England and else- 
 was called "Lepisma" by Fabri- where, and it is almost certain that, 
 cius, from its fish-like scales. It like the chelifer, one of the species 
 has six legs, filiform antennae, and found on book-shelves in Ceylon, 
 the al)domen terminated by three has been brought thither ^from 
 elongated setse, two of which are Europe, 
 placed nearly at right angles to the * Julus ater. 
 
Chap. XIII.] THE CALLING CRAB. 477 
 
 animal gently forwards. This Jidus is harmless, and 
 may be handled with perfect impunity. Its food con- 
 sists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of suc- 
 culent vegetables, its jaws not being framed for any 
 more formidable purpose. Another and a very pretty 
 species ^, quite as black, but with a bright crimson band 
 down the back, and the legs similarly tinted, is common 
 in the gardens about Colombo and throughout the 
 western province. 
 
 Crustacea. — The seas around Ceylon abound with 
 marine articulata ; but a knowledge of the Crustacea of 
 the island is at present a desideratum; and with the 
 exception of the few commoner species that frequent 
 the shores, or are offered in the markets, we are literally 
 without information, excepting the little that can be 
 gleaned from already published systematic works. 
 
 In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are ex- 
 posed for sale ; and amongst the deKcacies at the tables 
 of Europeans, curries made from prawns and lobsters are 
 the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. Of these latter 
 the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens ^ of extra- 
 ordinary dimensions and of 
 a beautiful purple hue, 
 variegated with white. 
 Along the level shore north 
 and south of Colombo, and 
 in no less profusion else- 
 
 CALLING CKAB OF CEYLON, i ,■, • ii ti,i 
 
 where, the nimble little 
 Calling Crabs ^ scamper over the moist sands, carrying 
 aloft the enormous hand (sometimes larger than the 
 
 ' Jidics carnifex, Fab. ^ Gelasimus tetragonon ? Edw. ; 
 
 - Palmicrus ornatus, Fab. G. annuUpes ? Edw. ; G. Dussu- 
 
 P — n, s. mieri ? Edw. 
 
478 ARTICULATA. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 rest of the body), which is their peculiar characteristic, 
 and which, from its beckoning gesture has suggested 
 their popular name. They hurry to conceal themselves 
 in the deep retreats which they hollow out in the banks 
 that border the sea. 
 
 Sand Grabs. — In the same localities, or a little farther 
 inland, the Ocypode ^ burrows in the dry soil, making 
 deep excavations, bringing up literally armfulls of sand ; 
 which with a spring in the air, and employing its other 
 limbs, it jerks far from its burrows, distributing it in 
 a circle to the distance of several feet.^ So inconve- 
 nient are the operations of these industrious pests that 
 men are kept regularly employed at Colombo in filling 
 up the holes formed by them on the surface of the 
 Gralle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of the 
 capital, is so infested by these active little creatures 
 that accidents often occur through horses stumbling in 
 their troublesome excavations. 
 
 Painted Crabs. — On the reef of rocks which lies to 
 the south of the harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little 
 painted crabs ^, distinguished by dark red markings on a 
 yellowgroiind, may be seen all day long running nimbly 
 in the spray, and ascending and descending in securit}^ 
 the almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are 
 washed by the waves. Paddling Crabs'^, with the hind 
 pair of legs terminated by flattened plates to assist them 
 in swimming, are brought up in the fishermen's nets. 
 Hermit Crabs take possession of the deserted shells of 
 the univalves, and crawl in pursuit of garbage along 
 the moist beach. Prawns and shrimps furnish deli- 
 
 ^ Ocypode ceratopJitkahmcs, Pall. ^ Grapsus strigosus, Herbst. 
 "^ Ann. Nat. Hist. April, 1852. Nep>tunus pelagicus, JAnn. ; N. 
 
 Paper by ]\Ir. Edgae L. Layard. sanguinolentus, Herbst, &c. &c. 
 
Chap. XHI.] AJs^ELIDES. — LEECHES. 479 
 
 cacies for the breakfast table; and the delicate little 
 pea crab, Pontonia inflata^, recalls its Mediterranean 
 congener'^, which attracted the attention of Aristotle, 
 from taking up its habitation in the shell of the living 
 pinna. 
 
 A]S'NELID^. - — The marine Annelides of the island 
 have not as yet been investigated; a cursory glance, 
 however, amongst the stones, on the beach at Trinco- 
 malie and in the pools that afford convenient basins for 
 examining them, would lead to the belief that the marine 
 species are not numerous ; tubicole genera, as well as 
 some nereids, are found, but there seems to be little 
 diversity, though it is not impossible that a closer scrutiny 
 might be repaid by the discovery of some interesting 
 forms. 
 
 Leeches. — Of all the plagues which beset the traveller 
 in the rising grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are 
 the land leeches.^ They are not frequent in the plains. 
 
 * Mllne Ed-w., Hist. Nat. Crust, It is very doubtful, ho^rerer, 
 vol. ii. p. 360, whettier all these are to be referred 
 ^ Pinnotheres veterum. to one species. M. De Blaixvtlle, 
 ^ Hcemadipsa Ceylanica, Bosc. under H. Ceylanica, in the Diet. 
 Blainv. These pests are not, how- de Scie7i. Kat. vol. xlvii. p. 271, 
 ever, confined to Ceylon; they quotes M. Bosc as authority for 
 infest the lower ranges of the the kind which that naturalist de- 
 Himalaya. — HooKEE, vol. i. p. scribes being "rouges ettachetees;" 
 107 ; vol. ii. p. 54. Thlts^beeg, which is scarcely applicable to the 
 who records (Travels, voi. iv. p. Singhalese species. It is more 
 232) having seen them in Ceylon, than probable therefore, consider- 
 likewise met with them in the ing the period at which M. Bosc 
 forests and slopes of Batavia. wrote, that he obtained his infor- 
 Marsden (^/szf. p. 311) complains mationfromtravellersto the further 
 of them dropping on travellers in east, and has connected with the 
 Sumatra. Knorr found them at habitat universally ascribed to 
 Japan ; and it is affirmed that them from old Kxox's work (Part 
 they abound in islands farther to i. chap, vi.) a meagre description, 
 the eastward. M. Gay encoun- more properly belonging to the 
 tered them in Chili. — (Moquin'- land leech of Batavia or Japan. 
 Tandon, Hirudinees, p. 211, 346). In all likelihood, therefore, there 
 
480 
 
 ARTICULATA. 
 
 [Chap. Xin. 
 
 which are too hot and dry for them ; but amongst the 
 rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill country. 
 
 may be a H. Boscii, distinct 
 from the H. Ceylanica. That 
 which is found in Ceylon is round, 
 
 ETES AND TEETH OF THE LAND 
 LEECH OF CEYLON. 
 
 a little flattened on the inferior 
 surface, largest at the anal ex- 
 tremity, thence gradually tapering 
 forward, and with the anal sucker 
 composed of four rings, and wider 
 in proportion than in other species. 
 It is of a clear brown colour, with 
 a yellow stripe the entire length 
 of each side, and a greenish dorsal 
 one. The body is formed of 100 
 rings ; the eyes, of which there 
 are fire pairs, are placed in an arch 
 on the dorsal siirface ; the first four 
 pairs occupying contiguous rings 
 (thus differing from the water- 
 leeches, which have an unoccupied 
 ring betwixt the third and fourth) ; 
 the fifth pair are located on the 
 seventh ring, two vacant rings in- 
 tervening. To Mr. Thwaites, Di- 
 rector of the Botanic Garden at 
 Peradenia, who at my request ex- 
 amined their structure minutely, I 
 am indebted for the following most 
 interesting particulars respecting 
 them. " I have been giving a 
 little time to the examination of 
 the land leech. I find it to have 
 five pairs of oceUi, the first four 
 seated on corresponding segments, 
 and the posterior pair on the 
 seventh segment or ring, the fifth 
 and sixth rings being eyeless {fig. 
 A). The mouth is very retractile, 
 
 and the aperture is shaped as in 
 ordinary leeches. The serratures 
 of the teeth, or rather the teeth 
 themselves, are very beautiful. 
 Each of the three 'teeth,' or cut- 
 ting instruments, is principally 
 muscidar, the muscular body being 
 very clearly seen. The rounded 
 edge in which the teeth are set ap- 
 pears to be cartilaginous in struc- 
 ture ; the teeth are very numerous, 
 {fig. B); but some near the base 
 have a curious appendage, appa- 
 rently (I have not yet made this 
 out quite satisfactorily) set upon 
 one side. I have not yet been 
 able to detect the anal or sexual 
 pores. The anal sucker seems to 
 be formed of four rings, and on 
 each side above is a sort of crenated 
 flesh-Kke appendage. The tint of 
 the common species is yellowish- 
 brown or snuiF-coloured, streaked 
 with black, with a yellow-greenish 
 dorsal, and another lateral line 
 along its whole length. There is 
 a larger species to be found in this 
 garden with a broad green dorsal 
 fascia; but I have not been able 
 to procure one although I have 
 offered a small reward to any 
 coolie who will bring me one." In 
 a subsequent communication Mr. 
 Thwaites remarks " that the dorsal 
 longitudinal fascia is of the same 
 width as the lateral ones, and 
 differs only in being perhaps 
 slightly more green ; the colour of 
 the three fasciae varies from 
 brownish-yellow to bright green," 
 He likewise states " that the 
 rings which compose the body are 
 just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 
 in each set, in a single row, except 
 to one end, where they are in a 
 double row," 
 
Chap. XIH.] 
 
 LEECHES. 
 
 481 
 
 which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found 
 in tormenting profusion. They are terrestrial, never 
 visiting ponds or streams. In size they are about an 
 inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting needle ; 
 but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill 
 in thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. 
 Their structure is so flexible that they can insinuate 
 themselves through the meshes of the finest stocking, 
 not only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascending 
 to the back and throat and fastening on the tenderest 
 parts of the body. In order to exclude them, the coffee 
 planters, who live amongst these pests, are obliged to 
 
 -A^"D LEECHES IX 
 
 envelope their legs in " leech gaiters " made of closely 
 woven cloth. The natives smear their bodies with oil, 
 tobacco ashes, or lemon juice ^: the latter serving not 
 only to stop the flow of blood, but to expedite the 
 healing of the wounds. In moving, the land leeches 
 have the power of planting one extremity on the earth 
 and raising the other perpendicularly to watch for their 
 victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct, that on 
 
 * The Minorite friar, Odoeic of peel, Huointing themselves with 
 
 Portenau. -writing in a.d. 1320, the juice thereof, so that the 
 
 says that the gem-finders who leeches may not be able to hurt 
 
 sought the jewels around Adam's them." — Haxluyt, Vo^/. vol. ii. 
 
 Peak, " take lemons which they p. 58. 
 
 I I 
 
482 ARTICULATA. [CnAr. XIII. 
 
 the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they infest, 
 they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves 
 on the edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing 
 for their attack on man and horse. On descrying their 
 prey they advance rapidly by semi-circular strides, 
 fixing one end firmly and arching the other forwards, 
 till by successive advances they can lay hold of the 
 traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from 
 the ground and ascend his dress in search of an aperture 
 to enter. In these encounters the individuals in the 
 rear of a party of travellers in the jungle invariably 
 fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of their approach, 
 cono-recrate with sing-ular celerity. Their size is so in- 
 significant, and the wound they make is so skilfully 
 punctured, that both are generally imperceptible, and 
 the first intimation of their onslaught is the trickling of 
 the blood or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins 
 to hang heavily on the skin from being distended by 
 its repast. Horses are driven wild by them, and stamp 
 the ground in fury to shake them from their fetlocks, 
 to which they hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs 
 of the palankin bearers and coolies are a favourite re- 
 sort ; and, as their hands are too much engaged to be 
 spared to pull them off, the leeches hang like bunches 
 of grapes round their ankles ; and I have seen the blood 
 literally flowing over the edge of a European's shoe 
 from their innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions 
 the wounds, if not irritated, generally heal, occasioning 
 no other inconvenience than a slight inflammation and 
 itching; but in those with a bad state of body, the 
 punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into 
 ulcers, which may lead to the loss of limb or even 
 of life. Both Marshall and Davy mention, that during 
 
Chap. XIH.] 
 
 LEECHES. 
 
 483 
 
 the march of troojDs in the mountains, when the Kan- 
 djans were in rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and 
 especially the Madras sepoys, with the pioneers and 
 coolies, suffered so severely from this cause that numbers 
 perished.^ 
 
 One circumstance regarding these land leeches is re- 
 markable and unexplained ; they are helpless without 
 moisture, and in the hills where they abound at all other 
 
 times, they entirely disappear during long droughts ; 
 
 yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first fall of 
 rain ; and in spots previously parched, where not one 
 was visible an hour before, a single shower is sufficient 
 to reproduce them in thousands, lurking beneath the 
 decaying leaves, or striding with rapid movements 
 across the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do 
 they, too, take a " summer sleep," like the reptiles, 
 molluscs, and tank fishes ? or may they, like the Roti- 
 fera, be dried up and preserved for an indefinite period, 
 resuming their vital activity on the mere recurrence of 
 moisture ? ^ 
 
 Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which ^ is 
 
 * Davy's Ceylon, p. 104 ; Mae- 
 shall' s Ceylon^ p. 15. 
 
 ■^ See an account of the Motif tra 
 and their faculty of repeated vivi- 
 faction, in the note appended to 
 this chapter. 
 
 ^ Hirudo sanguisorba. The 
 paddi-field leech of Cejdon, used 
 for surgical purposes, has the 
 dorsal surface of blackish oHye, 
 ■w-ith several Iongitudinalstripe,more 
 or less defined: the crenated 
 margin yellow. The ventral sur- 
 face is fulvous, bordered laterally 
 with olive ; the extreme margin 
 yellow. The eyes are ranged as 
 in. the common medicinal leech of 
 
 Europe ; the four anterior ones 
 rather larger than the others. The 
 teet]i are 140 in each series, ap- 
 pearing as a single row; in size 
 
 i 
 
 diminishing gradually from one 
 end, very close set. and about half 
 She width of a tooth apart. A\Tien 
 liill grown, these leeches are about 
 
 I I 2 
 
484 
 
 AKTICULATA. 
 
 [Chap. XIH. 
 
 found in Ceylon, nearly double the size of the European 
 one, and with a prodigious faculty of engorging blood, 
 there is another pest in the low country, which is a 
 source of considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to 
 the husbandman. This is the cattle leech ^, which 
 infests the stagnant pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands 
 around the base of the mountain zone, whither the 
 cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night, to 
 quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst 
 the rank vegetation that fringes these deep pools, and 
 hid by the broad leaves, or concealed among the stems 
 and roots covered by the water, there are quantities of 
 these pests in wait to attack the animals on their ap- 
 proach to drink. Their natural food consists of the 
 juices of lumbrici and other invertebrata ; but they 
 
 two inches long, but reaching to 
 six inches when extended. Mr. 
 Thwaites, to whom I am indebted 
 for tliese particidars, adds that he 
 saw in a tank at Kolona Korle 
 leeches which appeared to him 
 flatter and of a darker colour than 
 those described above, but that he 
 had not an opportunity of ex- 
 amining them partieuhirly. 
 
 Mr. Thwaites states that there 
 is a smaller tank leech of an olive- 
 green coloin-, with some indistinct 
 longitudinal strise on the upper 
 surface ; the crenated margin of a 
 pale yellowish-green ; ocelli as in 
 the paddi-field leech ; lengtli, one 
 inch at rest, three inches when ex- 
 tended. 
 
 Mr. E. L. Layard informs us, 
 Mag. Nat. Hist. p. 225, 1853, that 
 a bubbling spring at the village of 
 Tonniotoo, three miles S. W. of 
 Moeletivoe, supplies most of the 
 leeches used in the island. _ Those 
 in use at Colombo are obtained in 
 
 the immediate vicinity. 
 
 • HcBmopsis paludum. In size 
 the cattle leech of Ceylon is some- 
 what larger than the medicinal 
 leech of Europe ; in colour it is of a 
 uniform brown without bands, un- 
 less a rufous margin may be so con- 
 sidered. It has dark stride. The 
 body is somewhat rounded, flat 
 when swimming, and composed of 
 rather more than ninety rings. 
 The greatest dimension is a little 
 in advance of the anal sucker ; the 
 body thence tapers to the other 
 extremity, which ends in an upper 
 lip projecting considerably beyond 
 the mouth. The eyes, ten in 
 number, are disposed as in the 
 common leech. The mouth is oval, 
 the biting apparatus with difficulty 
 seen, and the teeth not very 
 numerous. The bite is so little 
 acute that the moment of attach- 
 ment, and the incision of the mem- 
 brane is scarcely perceived by the 
 sufferer from its attack. 
 
Chap. XUI.] 
 
 LEECHES. 
 
 485 
 
 generally avail themselves of the opportunity afforded 
 by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the 
 water to fasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to 
 make their way to the deeper recesses of the nasal pas- 
 saofes, and the mucous membranes of the throat and 
 gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached 
 to the epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing 
 such irritation and submucous effusion that death has 
 eventually ensued ; and so tenacious are the leeches that 
 even after death they retain their hold for some hours. ^ 
 
 Articulata. 
 
 APTEBA. 
 
 THYSANUKA. 
 
 Podura alhicollis. 
 
 atricollis. 
 
 viduata. 
 
 pilot, a. 
 ArchoreiitPS coccinea. 
 Lepisma nigrofasciata, Temp. 
 
 nigra, 
 
 ARACHNID A. 
 
 Buthus afer, Linn. 
 
 Ceylonicus, Koch. 
 Scnrpio linearis. 
 Chelifer libroriim. 
 
 ohlongus. 
 Obi slum craasifemttr. 
 Phrynus lunatus, Pall. 
 Thelyphontis caudatas, Linn. 
 Phalangium bisignatuni. 
 Mygale fasciata, IValck. 
 Olios taprobanius, Walck. 
 Nephila ? 
 
 Trombidium tinctorum, Herm. 
 
 Oribata ? 
 
 Ixodes ? 
 
 MYRIAPODA. 
 
 Cermatia dt'xpar. 
 Litbobius ujnbratilis. 
 Scolopf^ndra crassa. 
 
 spiiiosa, Newp. 
 
 pnUiprs. 
 
 Grayii? Neirp. 
 
 tuberculideiis, Netvp. 
 
 Ceyi.jnensis, Newp. 
 
 flnva, Newp. 
 
 oUvacea, 
 
 abdotninalis. 
 Cryptops soriiidus. 
 
 assimilix. 
 Geophilus tegularius. 
 
 speciosus. 
 Julus a'er. 
 
 earn ilex, Fabr. 
 
 pallipes. 
 
 Jiaviceps. 
 
 pallidus. 
 
 ^ Even men, when stooping to 
 drink at a pool, are not safe from 
 the assault of the cattle leeches. 
 They cannot penetrate the human 
 skin, but the delicate membrane of 
 the mucous passages is easily rup- 
 
 tured by their serrated jaws. In- 
 stances have come to my knowledge 
 of Europeans into whose nostrils 
 they had gained admission and 
 caused serious disturbance. 
 
 113 
 
486 
 
 AETICULATA. 
 
 [Chap. XIII. 
 
 Craspedosoma juloides. 
 
 prceusta. 
 Polydesmus granulatus. 
 Caiiibala cntenulata. 
 Zephronia conspicua. 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 DECAPODA BRACHYUEA. 
 Polybius. 
 Neplunus pelagicus, Linn. 
 
 sa iguinoJentus, Herbst. 
 
 Thalamita ? 
 
 Tlielphnsa Indica, Lair. 
 
 Cardisoma ? 
 
 Ocypoda cpratophrhalmus, Pall. 
 
 macrocera. Ediu. 
 Gelasimtis tetranonon, Edw. 
 
 annulipes, Ediv. 
 Macrophtlialmus carinimanus. Lair. 
 Grapsus messor, Forsk. 
 
 strigosus. Herbal. 
 Plagusia iiepressa, Fahr. 
 Calappa philargug, Linn. 
 
 tuberculala, labr. 
 Matuta victor, Fahr. 
 Leucosia fugax, Fabr. 
 Dorijjpe. 
 
 DECAPODA ANOMUEA. 
 
 Droniia . . . . ? 
 Hippa Asiatica, Edw. 
 
 Pagnrns affinis, Edw. 
 punctulatus, Oliv. 
 Porcellana . . . . f 
 
 DECAPODA MACRURA. 
 
 Scyllarus orientalis, Fubr. 
 Palinurus ornatus, Fabr. 
 
 affinis, N.S. 
 Crnn<ion . . . . ? 
 Alpheus . . . . ? 
 Pontoni-i inflata, Ediv. 
 Palaemon ^arcinus, Fabr. 
 Steiiopus . . . . ? 
 Peneus . . . . ? 
 
 STOilATOPODA. 
 
 Sqixilla . . . . ? 
 Gonodactylus chiragra, Fabr. 
 
 CmUHIPEDIA. 
 
 Lepas . 
 Balanus, 
 
 ANNELIDA. 
 
 Tutaicola". 
 
 Dorsibiancliiata. 
 
 Abranchia. 
 
 Hi r lido sanguisorba. 
 Thwaitesii. 
 
 Haemopsis puludnm. 
 
 Haemadipsa Ce^lana, Blainv. 
 Lumbricus . . . . ? 
 
 NOTE 
 
 ON THE FACUI.TY OF REPEATED EE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY 
 THE ROTIFER A J ETC. 
 
 The Rotifer., a singular creature, altliougli it can only 
 truly live in water, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying 
 each time the sun dries up its place of retreat, to revive as 
 often as a shoAver of rain supj^lies it with the moisture essential 
 to its existence ; thus employing several years to exhaust the 
 eighteen days of life which nature has allotted to it. These 
 creatures were discovered by Leuwenhoeck, and have become 
 the types of a class already numerous, which undergo the 
 same conditions of life, and possess the same faculty. Besides 
 the Rotifera, the Tardicjrades, (which belong to the Acari,) 
 and certain paste-eels, all exhibit a similar phenomenon. 
 
Chap. XIII.] ROTIFERA AND PASTE-EELS. 487 
 
 But although these different species may die and be re- 
 suscitated several times in succession, this power has its 
 limits, and each successive experiment generally proves fatal 
 to one or more individuals. Spallanzani, in his experiments 
 on the Rotifera, did not find that any survived after the six- 
 teenth alternation of desiccation and damping, but paste-eels 
 bore seventeen of these vicissitudes. 
 
 Spallanzaxi, after thoroughly drying sand rich in Rotiferay 
 kept it for more than three years, moistening portions taken 
 from it every five or six months. Baker went further still 
 in his experiments on paste-eels, for he kept the paste from 
 which they had been taken, without moistening it in any 
 way, for twenty-seven years, and at the end of that time the 
 eels revived on being immersed in a di-op of water. If they 
 had exhausted their lives all at once and icithout these inter- 
 missions, these Rotifera and paste-eels ivould not have lived 
 beyond sixteen or eighteen consecutive days. 
 
 To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the 
 animalcules experimented on by Spallaxzani and BakePc, M. 
 DoYERE has published, in the Annales des Sciences Naturales 
 for 1842, the results of his own observation, in cases in 
 which the mosses containing the insects were dried under the 
 receiver of an air-pump and left there for a Aveek ; after which 
 they were placed in a stove heated to 267° Fahr., and yet, 
 when again immersed in water, a number of the Rotifera be- 
 came as lively as ever. 
 
 Further particulars of these experiments will be found in 
 the Appendix to the Rambles of a Naturalist, &c., by M. 
 Quartrefage. 
 
 II 4 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abou-zeyd, his account of fish on dry land, 
 350 n. 
 
 Abyssinia, fishes of, 352. 
 
 Acalephce, 398. See Radiata. 
 
 Acanthopterygii, 360. 
 
 Accipitres, 245. 
 
 Acherontia Sathanas, 427. 
 
 Adam's Peak, elephants on the summit, 
 109. 
 
 .Elian's account of the mermaid, 69. 
 
 — — his s'^atement as to the export of ele- 
 phants from Ceylon, 77 n., 209 n. 
 
 —^ error as to the shedding of the elephant's 
 tusks, 79 n. 
 
 — — describes elephants killing criminah 
 with their kiiees: 87 n. 
 
 error as to elephants' joints, 102. 
 
 his account of Ceylon tortoises, 293. 
 
 — — his account of the superiority of the 
 
 elephants of Ceylon, 201) n. 
 ■ his description of the performances of 
 
 the trained elephants at Rome, 237. 
 
 his account of the sword-fi-h, 328. 
 
 describes a Cheironectes, 331. 
 
 African elephant, its peculiarities, &5. 
 
 not inferior to the Indian in tractabi- 
 
 lity, 208. 
 Albino buffalo, 57. 
 ■ deer, 59. 
 
 Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, 375. 
 Alee, described by Pliny and Casar, 101 n. 
 Alexandria, story of the dogs at, 34. 
 Alligator. 283. See Crocodile. 
 Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, 
 
 a.'iS n. 
 Amboina, mermaids at, 70. 
 AmpuUaria, its faculty of burying itself, 
 
 355. 
 Anabas. 3.54. 
 
 - DaldorFs account of, doubted, 349, 
 
 350. 
 
 accidents from, 351 w. 
 
 Angling bad in Ceylon, oS5 n., 341. 
 Annelii1<e, leeches, 479. 
 
 land-leech, its varieties, 482. 
 
 Annelida, land leech, its teeth and eyes, 
 
 480. 
 — ^ its tormenting bite, 482. 
 
 list of, 485. 
 
 Ansercs, 260 
 
 Ansted, Prof., on the geology of Ceylon, 
 61. 
 
 his statement as to the height of Indian 
 
 ele|)hants, 100 w. 
 
 Antiochus, elephants u.«ed by, 208. 
 
 Antipater, the first to bring the Indian ele- 
 phant to Europe, 207. 
 
 Ant-lion, 411. See Insects. 
 
 Ants, 420 See Insects. 
 
 red, 4'20, 422. 
 
 white, 412. See Termites. 
 
 their faculty in discovering food, 421. 
 
 Armandl's work on the use of elephants in 
 
 war, 208 n. 
 Aphaniptera, 4.33. 
 A}-ack?iidce, spiders, 464. 
 
 extraordinnry webs, I'b. 
 
 0/ios Tap}-uhanius, 470. 
 
 Mygale fasciatn , 465. 
 
 erroneously called " tarentula," ib. 
 
 anecdote of, 466. 
 
 spiders, the Mygale, 465. 
 
 birds killed by it, 468. 
 
 Galeodes, 470. 
 
 ticks, their multitude, 471. 
 
 mites, 472. 
 
 TrombidiuTn tinctorum, 472. 
 
 list of, 485. 
 
 Argus cowrie, .369. 
 Aripo, the sea-shore, 373. 
 
 Aristotle, account of fishes migrating over- 
 land, 344. 
 
 sounds made by elephants. 97. 
 
 his error as to the elephant's knees, 
 
 101. 
 Armitage, Mr., story of an elephant on his 
 
 estate, 139. 
 Articulata, list of, 485. 
 Athenjeus, anecdotes of fishes on dryland, 
 
 346. 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Avicula, 373. See Pearl Fishery. 
 Avitchia, story of, 24i. See Jackdaw. 
 Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described 
 in, 128. 
 
 Baker, Mr., his theory of the passion for 
 
 sporting, 142 n. 
 —^ its accuracy questionable, 142 n. 
 Badger, the Ceylon, 38. See Mongoos. 
 Bandicoot rat, 44. 
 Barbezieux, on the elephant, 104. 
 Batocera rubus, 406. 
 Batrachia, 318. 
 
 Bats, 13. See Mammalia and Cheiroptera. 
 •— orange-coloured bats, 14. 
 
 bats do not liybernate in Ceylon, 18. 
 
 horse-shoe bat, 19. 
 
 sense of smell and touch, 19. 
 
 - small bat, Scotophilus Coromandelicus, 
 
 20. 
 
 their parasite (Nycteribia), 20-22. 
 
 Batticaloa, musical fish, 380. 
 
 Bears, 22. See Mammalia. 
 
 — — ferocity of, 23. 
 
 ■ charm to protect from, 25 n. 
 
 Beaters for elephants, 150. 
 
 Beaver, on Africaii elephant, 234. 
 
 Beckman's account of fishes on dry land, 
 
 346. 
 Bees, 419. See Insects. 
 Beetles, 405. See Insects. 
 
 instincts of the scavenger beetle, 405. 
 
 — ^ coco-nut beetle, 4U7. 
 
 — ^ tortoise beetle, 408. 
 
 Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant's shoulder, 
 108. 
 
 Benary, his derivation of the word ele- 
 phant, 76 n. 
 
 Bengal mode of taking elephants, 164. 
 
 Bennett's account of Ceylon, Introd. 
 
 work on its Ichthyology, 22o. 
 
 Bernier, on the Ceylon elpphant, 209. 
 Bertolacci, on form of chank shell, 372. 
 Bestiaries, 104. 
 
 Bicho de Mar. See Holothuria. 
 Birdsof Ceylon, 241. 
 
 their number and character, ib. 
 
 few songsters, 242. 
 
 pea-fowl. 244. 
 
 eagles and hawks, 245. 
 
 owls, devil bird, 246, 247. 
 
 swallows, 248. 
 
 edible birds' nests, 248. 
 
 - kingfisher, sun birds, 249. 
 
 — — bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, 251. 
 crows, anecdotes of, 253. 
 
 - paroquets, 2."6. 
 
 pigeons, 257. 
 
 jungle-fowl, 259. 
 
 grallce, flamingoes, 260. 
 
 list of Ceylon birds, 265. 
 
 Bird-eating spiders, 468. 
 
 Birds' nests, edible, 248. 
 
 Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, 
 
 232. 
 Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 n. 
 Bles, Marcelkis, on the elephants of Cey- 
 lon. 113 n., 215 n. 
 Blood-suckers, 275. 
 Blyth, Mr., of Calcutta, his cultivation of 
 
 zoology, 4. 
 
 his revision of this work, Introd. 
 
 Boa, 303. See Python. 
 
 Boar, wild, 59. 
 
 Bochart, 68. 
 
 his derivation of the word " elephant," 
 
 76 n. 
 Bora.chung, a curious fish, 367- 
 Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, 70. 
 Bowring, Sir .John, on the fishes of Siam,S48. 
 Broderip, on the elephant, 122. 
 Browne, Sir Thomas, vulgar errors, 100, 105. 
 
 error as to elephains' joints, 102. 
 
 Brun, Le, account of the elephants at 
 
 Colombo, 77 n. 
 Bruno or Braun, his account of the Guinea 
 
 worm, 397. 
 Buchanan, story of buffalo" rogues," 115 n. 
 Buffalo, 54. See Mammalia. 
 
 its temper, 54. 
 
 sporting buffaloe, 55. 
 
 peculiar structure of its foot, 56. 
 
 rogue buffalo, 115 n. 
 
 buffalo's stomach and its water-cells, 
 
 129 n. 
 Buffon, on the elephant, 113 «., 215. 
 Bugs, 433. See Insects and Coffee-bug. 
 Buist, Dr., account of fish fallen from 
 
 clouds, 36'2. 
 Bulbul, 251. See Birds. 
 Bttlltni, their vitality, 357. 
 Bnllia, curious property of, 370. 
 Bullocks for draught, 50. 
 Burying fishes, S51. 
 Butterflies, 403, 425. See Insects. 
 
 migration of, 403 n. 
 
 — — the spectre butterfly, 426. 
 
 Caecilia, 317. See Reptiles. 
 
 Caesar's description of the " alee,'" 100 n. 
 
 (^ajan, 373 n. 
 
 Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under 
 
 water, 383. 
 Calotes, the green, 276. 
 Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, 
 
 5i n. 
 
 stomach of, 128. 
 
 antipathy to the horse, 83 n. 
 
 Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant's 
 
 stomach, 125. 
 Carawala, 296. See Reptiles. 
 Carnivora, 74. 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Carpenter bee, 418. See Insects. 
 
 Caterpillars, stings of, 429. 
 
 Cats attracted by the Ciippa-may-niya, 
 
 33. 
 Centipede, 474. See Myriapoda and Scolo- 
 
 pendrae. 
 Ceratop flora, 279. 
 Cerithia, SSl. 
 
 probably musical, 381 n. 
 
 Cermatia. 473. See Myriapoda. 
 Cetacea, hS, 74. 
 
 described by Megasthenes and ^lian, 
 
 69. 
 Chameleon, 278. See Reptiles. 
 Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, 371. See 
 
 Kox^iou; and Schenck. 
 Cheetah, 26. See Leopard. 
 Cheironectes, described by MY\ax\, 331. 
 Cheiroptera, 13, 74. 
 Chellfer, il5. 
 Chelonia, 322. 
 Chena cultivation, 130. 
 Cicada, 4.S2. See Insects. 
 Cirrhijieda, 486. 
 Cissa, 252. 
 
 Civet, 32. See Genette. 
 Climbing fish {Anabas scandens), 349. 
 Cluverius, 68. 
 Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, 297- 
 
 legena of, 297 n. 
 
 — — a white cobra, 298 n. 
 
 a tame cobra, 299 n. 
 
 .— cobra crossing the sea, 300. 
 - — curious belief as to the cobra, 300, 
 3UI. 
 
 worship of, 303. 
 
 Cobra-tel, poison, 272. See Kabara-tel. 
 Coecilia glu^inosa, 317. 
 
 attacked and killed by ants, 422. 
 
 Coco-nut beetle, 407. 
 
 CofFee-bug, Lecanium Caffece, 436. 
 
 Coffee rat, 43. 
 
 Coleoptera, 405. 
 Columbidas, 257. 
 Conchnlogy. See Shells. 
 Cooroowe, elephant catchers, 181. 
 Corral for taking elephants, 1-56, 164. See 
 Elephant. 
 
 - process of its construction, 170. 
 
 .— mode of conducting the capture, 156, 
 169. 
 
 Corse, Mr., account of elephants, 114. 
 
 Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to 
 chanks at Marallo, 371. 
 
 Cotton. thief, 250. See Tchitrea. 
 
 Crabs, 477. See Crustacea. 
 
 Cripps, Mr., on sounds produced by ele- 
 phants, 98. * 
 
 . his story of an elephant which feigned 
 
 death, 135. 
 
 his account of fishes after rain, 343. 
 
 Crocodile, 282. See Reptiles. 
 
 its sensibility to tickling, 285. 
 
 habit of the crocodile to bury itself in 
 
 the mud, 286. 
 
 its flesh eaten. 284 n. 
 
 their vitality, 288 n. 
 
 one killed at Batticaloa, 287. 
 
 Crows, 253. See Birds. 
 anecdotes of, 254. 
 
 story of a crow and a dog, 255. 
 
 Cruelty to turtle, &c., 291. 
 Crustacea, calling crabs, 477. 
 
 Sand crabs (ocypode), 478. 
 
 - Painted crabs, 478. 
 Paddling crabs. 478. 
 
 Hermit crabs, 478. 
 
 Pea crabs, 479. 
 
 List of Ceylon Crustacea, 486. 
 
 Ctesias' error as to the elephant's knee, 101. 
 Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the 
 
 elephant in overturning trees, 218 n. 
 Cuppa-may niya plant, its attraction for 
 
 cats. So n. 
 Cuvier, on the elephant, 133. 
 
 on the structure of its tusks, 228. 
 
 on the elephant's age, 232. 
 
 Daldorf's account of climbing fish, 250. 
 
 his story doubted, 3.50. 
 
 Darwin, bur>ing-place of llamas and goats, 
 
 236 n. 
 
 on the coleoptera of Brazil, 405. 
 
 Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of 
 
 Ceylon, 3. 
 
 stimulates study of natural history, 3. 
 
 operation on a diseased elephant, 224. 
 
 Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, 107. 
 Deafness frequent in elephants, 98. 
 Death's-head moth, 427. 
 Decoy elephants, 157. 
 Decapoda brachyura, 486. 
 
 anomura, 486. 
 
 macrura, 486. 
 
 Deer, 57. 
 
 meminna, 58. 
 
 Ceylon elk, 59. 
 
 milk-white, 59 n. 
 
 Demon-worship, anecdote of, 408. 
 Denham, error as to height of elephants, 
 
 99. 
 Devil-bird, 246. See Owls. 
 
 Mr. Mitford's account of, 247 n. 
 
 Diard, M., sends home an elephant for dis- 
 section, 123 n. 
 Dicuil on the elephant, 103. 
 Diptera, 434. 
 Dogs, 33. 
 
 device of, to escape fleas, 433, 434. 
 
 dog- tax, SS. 
 
 republican instincts, 34. 
 
 disliked by elephants, 82, 84. 
 
492 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Donne, on the elephant, 105. 
 Doras, fish of Guiana, 347. 
 Dragon-flies, 411. See Insects. 
 Dugong, 68, 69. 
 
 abunciant at Manaar, 69. 
 
 ' origin of Ihe fable of the mermaid, 
 
 69. 
 Dutch belief in the mermaid, 70. 
 
 Eagles, 245. See Birds. 
 
 Edentata, 46, 74. 
 
 Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account 
 
 of musk, 32 n. 
 Eels, 337, 347 n. 
 
 Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, 103. 
 Elephant, 64, 75 
 ~— Sumatran species, 64. 
 
 points of distinction, 65. 
 
 those of Ceylon extolled, 209. 
 
 — — elephants on Adam's Peak, 109. 
 numbers in Ceylon, 76. 
 
 — EKi(pct;, derivation of the word, 76 n. 
 —^ antiquity of the trade in, 77. 
 
 — ^ numbers diminishing, 77. 
 — — mode of poisoning, 77 n. 
 tusks and their uses, 78. 
 
 — disposition gentle, 81. 
 accidents from, 81. 
 
 . antipathy to other animals, 82 ; to the 
 
 horse, 83. 
 
 jealousy of each other, 86. 
 
 mode of attacking man, 87. 
 
 anecdote of a tame elephant, 89. 
 
 — — African elephant differs from that of 
 
 Ceylon, 64. 
 
 . skin, 91. 
 
 white elephant, 92. 
 
 love of shade. 94. 
 
 — water, not heat, essential to them, 94. 
 sight limited — smell acute, 95. 
 
 —— anatomy of the brain, 95. 
 
 i power of smell, 96. 
 
 sounds uttered by, 96. 
 
 — subject to deafness, 98. 
 exaggeration as to size, 98. 
 
 — source of this mistake, 98 n. 
 
 — stealthy motions, 100. 
 
 — error as to the elephant's want of joints, 
 
 100. 
 
 — probable origin of this mistake, 106. 
 mode of lying down. 107. 
 
 ability to climb acclivities, 108. 
 
 mode of descnding a mountain, 110. 
 
 a herd is a family. 111. 
 
 attachment to young. 112. 
 
 young suckled by all the females in a 
 
 herd, 113. 
 theory of this, according to White, 
 
 113w. 
 a rogue, what, 114. 
 
 — savage attacks of rogues, 116. 
 
 Elephants, character of the rogues, 116, 
 147. 
 
 habits of the herd, 117. 
 
 anecdote of, 118. 
 
 elephant's mode of drinking, 120. 
 
 their method of swimming, 121. 
 
 wells sunk by, 122. 
 
 receptacle in the stomach, 122. 
 
 stomach, anatomy of, 124. 
 
 food of the elephant, 129. 
 
 — instinct in search of food, 130. 
 dread of fences, 131. 
 
 their caution exaggerated, 132. 
 
 spirit of curiosity in elephant.«, 132. 
 
 anecdote of Col. Hardy, 132, 133. 
 
 sagacity in freedom over-estimated, 
 
 134. 
 leave the forests during thunder, 134. 
 
 — cunning, fe:gn death, 135. 
 
 stories of encounters with wild ele- 
 phants, 136. 
 
 sporting, numbers shot, 142. 
 
 butchery by expert shots, 142 n. 
 
 fatal spots in the head, 144, 145. 
 
 peculiar actions of elephants, 148. 
 
 love of retirement, 149. 
 
 elephant-trackers, 150. 
 
 herd charging, 151. 
 
 carcase useless 153. 
 
 remarkable recovery from a wound, 
 
 154. See Lieut. Fretz. 
 
 mode of taking in India, 157-162. 
 
 height measured by the circumference 
 
 of the foot, 159. 
 
 mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, 
 
 162. 
 
 mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 
 
 1701, 163 re. 
 
 keddah for taking elephants in Bengal, 
 
 164. 
 
 a corral (kraal) described, 165, 166. 
 
 derivation of the word corral, 165 n. 
 
 corral, its construction, 167, 172. 
 
 corral, driving in the elephants, 173. 
 
 the capture, 177. 
 
 mode of securing, 181. 
 
 the " cooroowe," or noosers, 181. 
 
 tame elephants, their conduct, 182, 
 
 191. 
 
 captives, their resistance and demea- 
 nour, 184. 
 
 dread of white rods, 186. 
 
 their contortions, 190 
 
 —— a young one, 206. 
 
 conduct in captivity, 207. 
 
 mode of training, 211. 
 
 — their employment in ancient warfare, 
 
 207. 
 
 superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, 209. 
 
 elephant driver's crook (hendoo), 212. 
 
 hairy elephants in Ceylon, 215 n. 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 Elephants, capricious disposition of, 215. 
 
 first labour intrusted to them, 217. 
 
 — — his comprehension of his duties, 218. 
 exaggeration of his strength in uproot- 
 ing trees, 218 n. 
 
 Mahouts and their duties, 221. 
 
 — — tl eir cry of urre! 222 n. 
 
 elephant's sense of musical notes, 223. 
 
 — its endurance of pain, 'J24. 
 
 diseases in captivity. 225. 
 
 subject to tooth -ache, 227. 
 
 — questionable economy of keeping 
 
 trained elephants for labour, 229. 
 
 their cost, 2o0. 
 
 — - their food, 230 n. 
 
 fallacy of their alleged reluctance to 
 
 breed in captivity, 131. 
 — - duration of life in the elephant, 232. 
 
 — theory of M. Fleurens, 232. 
 
 instances of very old elephants in 
 
 Ceylon, 233. 
 
 — dead elephant never found, 234. 
 Sinbad's story, 236. 
 
 ^— passage from .Slian regarding the, 237. 
 Elk, 59. See Deer ; Mammalia. 
 Emydosauri, 321. 
 Emys trijuga, 290. 
 
 Englishman, anonymous, his story of a 
 fight between elephants and horses, 84. 
 
 Falconer, Dr., height of Indian elephant, 
 
 99 w. 
 Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle 
 
 there, 372 ». 
 Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, 
 
 Jntrod. 62. 
 
 peculiar and independent, Introd. 62. 
 
 '— have received insutficieni attention, 3. 
 first studv due to Ur. Davy, 3. 
 
 — subsequent, due to Templeton, Layard, 
 
 and Kelaart, 3, 4. 
 
 Fishes of Ceylon, little known, 323. 
 
 seir fish, and others for table, 324. 
 
 abinidance of perch, soles, and sar- 
 dines, 324. 
 
 .— ^ explanation of Odoric's statement, 324 n. 
 
 • sardines, said to be poisonous, 324. 
 
 shark, and sawfish, 325. 
 
 sawtish, 325. 
 
 —^ ray, 326. 
 
 swordfish, 328. 
 
 cheironectes of .S^lian, 331. 
 
 fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful 
 
 colours, 332- 
 
 — — fresh- water fishes, their peculiarities, 
 335. 
 
 . fresh.water, little known, tb. ; reason, 
 
 335 ra. 
 
 — eels, 337. 
 
 — reappearance of fishes after the dry 
 
 season, 340. 
 
 Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances 
 elsewhere, 342 n 
 
 method of taking them by hand, 340. 
 
 a fish decoy, 342. 
 
 fish filling from clouds, 342 n., 362. 
 
 buried alive in mud, 347. 
 
 Mr. Yarrell's theory controverted, 344. 
 
 travelling overland, 545. 
 
 the fact was known to the Greeks 
 
 and Romans, 345. 
 
 instances in Guiana and Siam, 347. 
 
 faculty of all migratory fish for disco- 
 vering water, 347 n. 
 
 on dry land in Ceylon, 348. 
 
 fish ascendmg trees, 349. 
 
 — excer()t from letter by Mr. Morris, 348 ?i. 
 
 Anabas tcandens, 349, 3.50. 
 
 Daldorf's statement, anticipated by 
 
 Abou-zeyd. 350 n. 
 
 ■ accidents when fishing, 351 n 
 
 burying fishes and travelling fish, 351. 
 
 occurrence of similar fish in Abys- 
 sinia and elsewhere, 352. 
 
 statement of the patriarch Mendes, 
 
 553 n. 
 
 knowledge of habits of Melania era- 
 ployed judicially by E. L. Layard, 
 S55 n. 
 
 — illustrations of asstivating fish and 
 
 animals, 356. 
 
 a;stivating shell-fish and water-beetles, 
 
 351. 
 
 fish in hot water, 358. 
 
 list of Ceylon fishes, 359. 
 
 • Professor Huxley's memorandum on 
 
 the fishes of Ceylon, 364. 
 
 Dr. Gray's memorandum, 366. 
 
 Note on the Bora-chung,S67. 
 
 Fishing, native mode of, 340. 
 
 Fish insect, 47.5. 
 
 Flamingoes, 261. See Birds. 
 
 Fleas, '\S3. See Insects. 
 
 Fleurens, on the duration of life in the ele- 
 phant, 232. 
 
 Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, 
 196 n. 
 
 mosquitoes, the plague of, 434. 
 
 Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, 7. 
 
 Flying Fox. Pleropus Edwardsii, 14. See 
 Mammalia. 
 
 its sizes, 14. 
 
 skeleton of, 15. 
 
 food, 16. 
 
 habits, 16. 
 
 numbers, 16. 
 
 strange attitudes, 17. 
 
 • food and habits, 18. 
 
 drinking toddy, 18. 
 
 Fly'ng squirrels, 41. 
 
 Fresh-water fishes, 33-5. 
 
 Fretz, Lieut., his singular wound, 154. 
 
494 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Frogs, 318. 
 
 -= — tree frogs, 319, 320. 
 
 Galle, elephants shipped In 1701, 163 n, 
 
 Gallinse, 259. 
 
 Galloperdix bicalcaratu?, 259. 
 
 Gallwey, Capt. P. P., great number of 
 elephants shot by him, 142. 
 
 Game birds, 265. 
 
 Gardner, Dr., his account of the coffee 
 bug, 436-441. 
 
 Gaur, 49 See Mammalia. 
 
 — — Knox's account of the gaur, 49. 
 
 Geckoes, 281. 
 
 Gemma Frisius, 68. 
 
 Genette, 32. 
 
 Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, 60. 
 
 • previous accounts, 61. 
 
 traditions of ancient submprsion,61, 67. 
 
 Ceylon has a fauna distinct from 
 
 India, 62. 
 
 *' Golden Meadows" 211 n. See Massoude. 
 
 Golunda rat, 43. 
 
 Goonda/i, 114. See Rogue. 
 
 Gooneratne, Mr., Introd. 
 
 his story of the jackal, So. 
 
 Gordon Gumming, his butchery of ele- 
 phants in Africa, 146 n. 
 
 Gowra-ellia, 49. 
 
 Grallse, 260. 
 
 Gray, Dr. J. E., Brit. Mus., Introd. 
 
 notice of Ceylon fishes, 366. 
 
 Great fire-fish, 332. 
 
 Guinea worm, 397. 
 
 Giinther, Dr. A., on Ceylon reptiles, 275 n., 
 304. 
 
 Gwillim's Heraldry, error as to elephants, 
 105 ». 
 
 Hambangtotte, elephants of, 99. 
 
 Hardy, Col , anecdote of, when chased by 
 
 an elephant, 133. 
 Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white 
 
 monkey, 8. 
 Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to 
 
 Charlemagne, 103. 
 Harrison, Dr., 95. 
 
 —^ his anatomy of the elephant, 123 n., 126. 
 ■ his account of elephant's head, 142. 
 
 of the elephant's ear, 2J3. 
 
 Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, 87 n., 91. 
 Hawking. 246. 
 
 Hawks. 5^6- Birds, 246. 
 
 Hedge-hog, 46. 
 
 Helix haemastoma, its colouring, 372. 
 
 Hemiptera, 433, 462. 
 
 Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, 212. 
 
 Herd, a, of elephants, is a faiiiiiy, 111. 
 
 its mode of electing a leader, 117. 
 
 Herodotus, on mosquitoes, 435. 
 
 Herodotus, antipathy of the elephant to the 
 camel, 83 n. 
 
 Herpestes, 38. 
 
 Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, 71 n. 
 
 Hesperidce, 426. 
 
 Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, 98. 
 
 Hippopotamus rogues, 115 n. 
 
 Histiophorus, 330. See Sword-fi.'-h. 
 
 Holland, Dr., his theory as to the forma- 
 tion of tusks, 89 n. 
 
 Holothuria, sea-slug and Trepang, 396. 
 
 Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant's 
 stomach, 124. 
 
 error as to the elephant's ear, 223. 
 
 Home, Randal, error as to elephant, 105 n. 
 Homojjtera, 4 32, 463 . 
 
 Honey-comb, great size of, 418. 
 Hooker, Dr. J. D.. on the elephants of the 
 Himalaya, 110 n. 
 
 error as to white ants' nests, 413. 
 
 on ticks in Nepal, 471 w., 472. 
 
 Hora, 115. See Rogue. 
 
 Horace, alludes to a white elephant, 92 n, 
 Hornl)ill, Buceros, 242, 243. 
 Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, 
 83. 
 
 to the camel, 83 n. 
 
 story of, and an elephant, 89, 
 
 horses taught to fight with elephants, 
 
 84. 
 
 Hotambeya, 40. See Mongoos. 
 
 Hot-water fishes, 358. 
 
 Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant- 
 hunt, 1.57. 
 
 Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of aestivation, 
 556. 
 
 Hurra! 223 «. 
 
 Huxley, Prof., Introd. 
 
 his memorandum on the fishes of 
 
 Ceylon, 364. 
 Hydrophobia in jackals, 36. 
 Hymenoptera, 416. 
 
 lantlnna, 370. 
 
 Ichneumon, 39. iS(?^ Mongoos. 
 
 Iguana, 271. See Reptiles. 
 
 Infusoria, Red, in the Ceylon seas, 400. 
 
 Insects of Ceylon, 403. 
 
 their prolusion and beauty, 403. 
 
 hitherto imperfectly described, 404. 
 
 coleoptera, "105. 
 
 Beetles, scavengers, 405. 
 
 coco-nut beetle, tortoise beetle, 407. 
 
 tortoise beetle, 408. 
 
 Orthoptera, 408. 
 
 the soothsayer, leaf-insect, 410. 
 
 Neurnptera, 411. 
 
 dragon-flies, 411. 
 
 ant-lion, 411. 
 
 white ant, termites, 411. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Insects, Ht/menoptera, mason-wasp, 416. 
 — — wasps, bees, wasps' nest, 418. 
 ^— carpenter bee, 418. 
 
 ants, 420. 
 
 value of scavenger ants toconchologists, 
 
 421. 
 — dimiya or red ant, 422, 
 
 introduced to destroy cofFee-bug, 423. 
 
 Lepif/opWrn, buiterflies, 424. 
 
 . lyc(Enida\ hesperida:, 426. 
 
 acherontia sathnnas, 427. 
 
 moths, silk-worm, 427. 
 
 stinging caterpillars, 429. 
 
 oiketicus, 430. 
 
 Homoptera, cicada, the" knife-grinder," 
 
 4.32. 
 
 Plata, 433. 
 
 Aphaniptera — fleas, 433. 
 
 Diptera — mosquitoes, 434. 
 
 Coffee bug, 436-441. 
 
 Mr. Walker's memorandum on Ceylon 
 
 insects, 442. 
 
 . list, 447. 
 
 Ivory, annual consumption, 78 n. 
 superiority of Chinese, ib. 
 
 Jackal, o5. 
 
 its cunning, S5. 
 
 probably the " fox " of Scripture, 55. 
 
 —— its sagacity in liunting, o(y. 
 
 subject to hydrophobia, SQ. 
 
 jackal's horn, the narriccornboo, 37. 
 
 — — superstitions connected with, 37. 
 Jackdaw, fab'e of, 244. See Avitchia. 
 Jardine, .Sir W., error as to elephants shed- 
 ding their tusks, 79 n. 
 Jay, the mountain, 252. See Cissa. 
 Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, 20. 
 Jnlus, 477. 
 
 Jungle fowl, 259 See Birds. 
 Juvenal's allusion to fishes on land, 346. 
 
 Kabragoya, 272, 273. See Iguana. 
 
 Kabara-tel, poison, 274. 
 
 Kanats in Persia, 339 n. 
 
 Keddah, for taking elephants, 164. 
 
 Kelaart, Dr., work on the Zoology of Cey- 
 lon, 4. 
 
 '— examination of the Radiata, o95. 
 
 discoveries as to the pearl oyster, 375. 
 
 Kingfisher, 249- See Birds. 
 
 Kinnis, Dr., cultivates zoology. 4. 
 
 Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, £46 n. 
 
 Knife-grinder, 432. See Cicada 
 
 Knox, R.. arconnt of Ceylon fauna, Introd. 
 
 his description of the VVanderoo, 5. 
 
 of elephants executing criminals, 87. 
 
 — — of the mode of catching elephants, 
 157. 
 
 Knox, his description of natives fishing, 340. 
 
 Kox^">'j?^ 371. 
 
 Kombook tree, its bark, 170. 
 
 Korahl, 165. See Kraal and Corral. 
 
 derivation of the word, 165 n. 
 
 Kornegalle, beauty of the place, 167. 
 Kottiar, immense oysters, 371 n. See Cottiar. 
 Kraal, 165. See Corral and Korahl. 
 Krank-bezoeker, 71 h. 
 
 Layard, E. A., his knowledge of Ceylon 
 
 zoology, 4. 
 
 his collections of Ceylon birds, 241. 
 
 story of fish on dry land, 348. 
 
 anecdote of burying molluscs, 355. 
 
 Leaf inset-t, 408-410. See Insects. 
 Leaping fish, 33-2. See Salarias alticus. 
 Lecanimn Caffece, 436. 
 Leeches, 479. See Annelida. 
 
 land leech, 479. 
 
 medicinal leech, 483. 
 
 cattle leech, 844. 
 
 Leopard, 25. 
 
 in Ceylon confounded with the cheetah, 
 
 26. 
 
 superstitions regarding, 26. 
 
 anecdotes of their ferocity, 27. 
 
 attracted by the small-pox, 28. 
 
 - story of ^lajor Skinner, 29. 
 
 monkeys killed by leopards, 31. 
 
 Lepidoptera, 424. 
 
 Lepisni'r, the fish insect, 474. 
 
 Lima, General de, his account of the weight 
 of elephants' tusks at Mozambique, 
 79 m. 
 
 Livingstone's account of the " rogue " hip- 
 popotamus, 115 n. 
 
 Llama of the Anders, its stomach, 128 n. 
 
 Livy, account of fishes on dry land, 346. 
 
 Lizards, 271. See Reptiles. 
 
 Lophobranchi, 3o2 
 
 Loris, 12. See Mammalia. 
 
 two varieties in Ceylon, 12. 
 
 torture indicted on it, 13. 
 
 Lucan, description of the ichneumon, 39. 
 Lyccenidce, 426. 
 Lyre-headed lizard, 277. 
 
 Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, 
 
 87 n., 211 Ti. 
 Macacus monkey, 5. 
 Machlis described by Csesar, 101. 
 Macready, Major, account of a noise made 
 
 by elephants, 97. 
 
 his opinion as to the vulnerable point 
 
 in the elephant's head. l4o «. 
 Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, 93. 
 Mahout, an elephant driver, 181. See Pon- 
 
 nekella. 
 
496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mahout, alleged short life, 222. 
 Malacopterygii abdominales, 362. 
 
 sub-brunchiatif 362. 
 
 apod a, o62. 
 
 Mammalia, 3. 
 
 - Monkeys, 5. 
 — — Rilawa, 5. 
 
 Wanderoo, 6. 
 
 error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, 6. n. 
 
 Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, 9 
 
 — ^ monkeys never (ound dead, 11. 
 
 — • Lor is, I'i. 
 
 tortures inflicted on it, 13. 
 
 - Bat, flying fox, 11. 
 ske'eton of, 14. 
 
 attracted by toddy to the coco-nut 
 
 pahns, 18. 
 • horse-shoe bat, 18. 
 
 - parasite of the bat, Nyctcribia, 20, 21. 
 ~— bears, 22. 
 
 .— bears dreaded in Ceylon, 24. 
 
 leopards, 25. 
 
 attracted by the odour of small pox, 28. 
 
 - anecdote of a leopard, 29. 
 
 lesser felines, 32. 
 
 dogs. Pariah, 34. 
 
 jackal, 34. 
 
 the jackal's horn, 36. 
 
 — — Moiigoos, 37. 
 
 assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, 38. 
 
 squirrels, 41. 
 
 the flying squirrel, 41. 
 
 - rats, the rat snake, 42. 
 .^— coffee rat, 43, 44. 
 
 - bandicoot, 44, 45. 
 — — porcupine, 4o. 
 
 pengnlin, 46-48. 
 
 - the gaur, 49. 
 — — the ox, .W. 
 —— anecdote of, 51. 
 
 draft oxen, 61-53. 
 
 the buffalo, .54. 
 
 ■^— sporting buffaloes, 55. 
 
 peculiarity of the buffalo's foot, 56. 
 
 .— deer, .57. 
 
 . meminna, 51, 58. 
 
 Ceylon elk. 59. 
 
 wild boar, 59. 
 
 _ elephant, -59, 75. 
 
 whale and dugong, 68, 69. 
 
 peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, 73. 
 
 list of, 73. 
 
 Manaar, mermaid taken at, 69. 
 ,— elephants shipped at, 162. 
 ^— pearl fishery, 373. 
 Manis. See Pengolin, 46. 
 Mantis, 410. 
 
 Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, 
 211 n. 
 
 his account of pearl-diving, 377 ». 
 
 Mastacembeltis, 338. See Eels, 
 
 Megasthenes' account of the mermaid, 69. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, story of, 34. 
 
 Melania Paludina, its habit of burying itself, 
 355. 
 
 its hybernation, 355. 
 
 Melania. story of a law suit decided by, 355 ». 
 
 Meleagrina, 373 n. See Pearl fishery. 
 
 Meminna deer, 58. 
 
 M creator, 68. 
 
 Mercer, Mr., his story of an elephant fight,86« 
 
 Mermaid, 68. See Dugong. 
 
 Mermaids, at Manaar, 69. 
 
 at Amhoina, 70. 
 
 at Booro, 71. 
 
 .^— at Edam, 72. 
 
 Millipeds, Juliis, ilT. 
 
 Mites, 472. 
 
 Mollusca. See Shells. 
 
 Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, 
 122 n. 
 
 Mongoos, 38. See Ichneumon. 
 
 species at Neuera-ellia, Herpestes Vitti- 
 
 colUs, 38. 
 
 '— story of its antidote against the bite of 
 serpents, 39. 
 
 its mode of killing snakes, 39. 
 
 Monkeys, ,'>. 
 
 never found dead, 11. 
 
 a white monkey, 8. 
 
 Moors of Galle. make ornaments of the ele- 
 phant's teeth, 153. 
 
 Moors, as caravan drivers, 53. 
 
 Moose deer, 58. S^e Mem nna. 
 
 Morris, '^'r., account of fishes on land, 348. 
 
 Mosquitoes, their cunning, 434. 
 
 Herodotus, account of, 436. 
 
 probably the plague of flies, 434 n. 
 
 Moths, 427. See Insects. 
 
 Munster, Sebastian, 68. 
 
 Musical fishes, 380. 
 
 account of, at Batticaloa, 380. 
 
 .^^ similar phenomena at other places, 
 383 n. 
 
 fishes known to utter sounds, 384. 
 
 Tntonia arborescens, 385. 
 
 Musk. 32. 
 
 Mygale, spider, 465. 
 
 Myriapods, 472. 
 
 Narric-comboo, 37. See Jackal's Horn. 
 Natural history neglected in Ceylon, 3. 
 Neela-cobeya, pigeon, 258. 
 Neuroptera, 41 i. 
 
 Nietner, on Ceylon insects, Introd. 
 Nt/cteribia, parasite of the bat, 20, 21. 
 its extraordinary structure, 22. 
 
 Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, 
 481. 
 
 his account of birds with two heads, 243. 
 
 his account of fishes in Ceylon, 324 n. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 497 
 
 Oiketicus, 430. 
 
 Oil-bird, 269. 
 
 Ophidia, 321. 
 
 Ortelius, 68. 
 
 Orthoptera, 408. 
 
 Ouaiideroo. See Wanderoo. 
 
 Owen, Professor, on the structure of the 
 
 elephant's tusk, 228. 
 
 on the Protopterus of the Gambia, 352. 
 
 Owls. See Birds. 
 
 Oxen, their uses and diseases, .'50. 
 
 anecdote of a cow and a leopard, 51. 
 
 white, eight feet high, seen by Wolf, 
 
 52 n. 
 Oysters at Bentotte, 371. 
 immense, at Kottiar, 371 n. 
 
 Pachydermata, 59, 74. 
 
 Padivil, the great tank, 262. 
 
 Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, 98 n. 
 
 on the fishes of Siam, 347. 
 
 Palm-cat, 32. 
 
 Panickeas, elephant catchers, 150, 158. 
 
 their skill, 159. 
 
 Pariah dogs, 33. 
 
 Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, 103. 
 
 Paroquets, their habits ; anecdote of, 256. 
 
 Passeres, i:48. 
 
 Patterson, R., Esq., Introd. 
 
 Pea-fowl. 244. See Birds. 
 
 fable of the jackdaw, 244. 
 
 Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, 373. 
 
 — .— dreary scenery of Aripo, 373. 
 
 — disappearances of the pearl-oyster, 
 
 374. 
 — — capable of transplantation, 376. 
 
 operation of diving, 377- 
 
 endurance of the divers under water, 
 
 377. 
 ^— growth of the pearl-oyster, 379. 
 
 pearls of Tamblegam, 380. 
 
 Pelicans, 262. 
 
 •^— strange scene at their breeding place, 
 
 263. 
 Pengolin, 46. 
 
 its habits and food, 47. 
 
 skeleton of, 48. 
 
 Phile, his account of the elephant, 103. 
 —— error as to its joints, 1U7. 
 
 describes its drinking, 121 n. 
 
 its dispositions, 216 n. 
 
 on the elephant's ear, 224. 
 
 on elephants burying their dead, 235. 
 
 Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, 209. 
 
 Phyllium, 410. See Leaf Insect. 
 
 Physalus urticulus, 400. See Portuguese 
 
 Man-of-war. 
 Pictet, Mon., his derivation of the word 
 
 " elephant," 76 n. 
 Pigeons, 257. See Birds. 
 
 Pigeons, Lady Torrington's pigeon, 258. 
 
 Placuna placenta, pearls of, 380. 
 
 Planaria, 398. See Radiata. 
 
 Pliny's nereids, 72 n. 
 
 error as to elephants shedding their 
 
 tusks, 79 n. 
 error as to their antipathy to other 
 
 animals, 85. 
 
 error as to elephant's joints, 100. 
 
 account of the 7nach/is, 101 n. 
 
 his knowledge of the vulnerability of 
 
 the elephant's head, 144 n. 
 
 of fishes on dry land, 346. 
 
 Ponnekella. See Mahout. 
 
 Polybius' account of fishes on dry land, 346. 
 Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, 
 
 346. 
 Porcupine, 45. 
 Portuguese belief in the mermaid, 69. 
 
 Man-of-war, 400. 
 
 Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, 
 
 76 n. 
 Presbytes cephalopterus, 7. 
 ursinus, 6, 9. 
 
 Thersites, 6. 10. 
 
 its fondness of attention, 10. 
 
 Prianius, 10. 
 
 its curiosity, 11. 
 
 Protopterus of the Gambia, 352. 
 P.seudophidia, 322. 
 
 Pterois volitans, 333. 
 
 Pteruphorus, 430. See Insects. 
 
 Pteropus, 14. See Flying Fox. 
 
 Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, 
 
 2C9. 
 Python, its great size, 303. 
 
 Quadrumana, 5, 74. 
 Quatrefdge on the Rotifera, 487. 
 
 Radiata, star-fish, 395. 
 
 sea-slugs, holothuria, 396. 
 
 parasitic worms, 396. 
 
 Guinea worm, 397. 
 
 planaria, 398. 
 
 acalephie, 398. 
 
 Portuguese Man-of-war, 400. 
 
 Red itifusoria, 400. 
 
 Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant 
 
 hunts, 170. 
 Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, 
 
 133 w. 
 Ramavana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, 
 
 210. 
 Rat«, 42. 
 eaten as food in Oovah and Bintenne, 
 
 43. 
 
 liable to hydrophobia, 43. 
 
 ccfFee rat, 43. 
 
 bandicoot, 44. 
 
 Rat-snake, anecdote of^ 43. 
 
 K K 
 
498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rat-snake, domesticated, 299 n. 
 
 Ray, 3J6, 327. 
 
 Reinaudj on the ancient use of the ele- 
 phant in Indian wars, 205 m. 
 
 Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, 
 Jntrod. 
 
 .— lizards, iguana, 271. 
 
 kabara-tel, poison, 272. 
 
 blood-suckers, 275. 
 
 ^— calotes, the green, 276. 
 
 lyre-headed lizard, 277. 
 
 chameleon, 27S. 
 
 — - ceratophora, 279. 
 
 gecko, anecdotes of, 281, 282. 
 
 crocoilile, anecdotes of, 282,283. 
 
 crocodile and alligator, skulls of, 283. 
 
 tortoises, 289. 
 
 parasites of the tortoise, 289. 
 
 Terrapins, '290. 
 
 cruel mode of cutting up turtle, 291. 
 
 .— — turtle, said to be poisonous, 292. 
 
 hawk's-bill turtle, 293. 
 
 cruel mode of takuig tortoise-shell, 293. 
 
 snakes, few poisonous, 294. 
 
 — tic-polonga, 296. 
 
 cobra de capello, 297. 
 
 legends of the cobra, 297—298 «. 
 
 uropeltis, 301. 
 
 the pyihon, ,'303. 
 
 haplocercus, 304. 
 
 tree-snakes, 305. 
 
 water snakes, 308. 
 
 sea snakes, 308. 
 
 the snake-stone and its composition, 
 
 312-317. 
 
 ccecilia, 317. 
 
 frogs, 318. 
 
 tree frogs, 319. 
 
 — -list of Ceylon reptiles, 321. 
 
 — ^ snakes peculiar to Ceylon, 322. 
 
 Rhinolophus, 19. See Horse-shoe Bat. 
 
 Ribeyro's account of pearl-diving, 378. 
 
 Rilawa monkey, 5. 
 
 Rodentia, il, 74:. 
 
 Rogers, Major, story of his horse, SI. 
 
 his death by lightning, 84 n. 
 
 — — anecdote of an elephant killed by him, 
 107. 
 
 great numbers of elephants shot by him, 
 
 142. 
 
 " A Rogue " elephant. See Elephant, 114. 
 
 — — derivation of the term " Rogue," 114. 
 
 Hon kedor, 114 . See " Rogue " 
 
 Ronquedue, 114. See " liogue." 
 
 dangerous encounters with, 136. 
 
 Rotifera, marvellous fact Ity in, 486. 
 
 Rousette. See Flying-fox and Pteropus, 14. 
 
 Ruminantia, 49, 74. 
 
 Salarias Alticus, 332. 
 almas ius, 68. 
 
 Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324. 
 
 Saw fish, 325. See Fishes. 
 
 Scaliger, Julius, 68. 
 
 Scansores, 256. 
 
 Scnrus knri'd, 335. 
 
 Schenek, 371. See Chank. 
 
 Schlegel's essay on the elephant, 208 n. 
 
 Schlegel, Prof., of Leyden, his account of 
 
 the Sumatran elephant, 66. 
 Schmarda, Prof, 5. 
 Schoml)urgk, Sir R., on the tishes of 
 
 Guiana, 347. 
 Sciurus Tetinentii, 41 re. 
 Scolopendrce, centipede, 474. 
 Scorpions. 474. 
 Sea slugs, holofhuria, 397. 
 Sea snakes, 508. 
 Seir-fish, 324. 
 
 Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, 346. 
 Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, 87, 
 
 210 M. 
 Serpents, 294. See Reptiles. 
 Shakspeare, on the elephant, 105. 
 
 describes its capture in pit-falls, 157 n. 
 
 Sharks, 3^5. 
 
 Shark charmer, 378. 
 
 Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their 
 
 tusks, 79 n. 
 Shells of Ceylon, 369. 
 lanlhina, 370. 
 
 Bullia viiiata, 370. 
 
 chanks, 371. 
 
 oysters, immense, 371 n. 
 
 Helix haemaNtoma, 372. 
 
 Pearl fishery, 373. 
 
 Musical shells, 381. 
 
 Mr. Henley's memorandum, 386. 
 
 .— uncertainty as to SDecies, 387. 
 
 list of Ceylon shells. 388. 
 
 Siam, fishes on dry land, 347. 
 
 Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, 429. 
 
 Silkworm. See Insects- 
 
 Sindbad's story of the elephants' burying- 
 place, 236. 
 
 Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. In- 
 trod. n. 
 
 adventure with a leopard, 30. 
 
 great number of elephants killed by 
 
 him, 142. 
 
 description of the Panickeas or ele- 
 phant catchers, 15S, 159 ». 
 
 - — anecdotes of elephants, 118. 
 
 collection of Ceylon fish, 339. 
 
 Small-pox attracts the leopard, 28. 
 
 native supeistition, 29. 
 
 Snakes, 294. See Reptiles, 
 
 lew venomous, 296. 
 
 tic-polonga, 296. 
 
 cobra de capello, 297. 
 
 legends of, "297 n. 
 
 stories of, 298. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 499 
 
 Snakes, tamed snakes, 299 n. 
 
 snakes crossing the sea, 300. 
 
 curious tradition of the cobra-de- 
 
 capello, 300. 
 
 uropeltis, and explanation of the popu- 
 lar belief, 302. 
 
 - reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, 
 
 303. 
 
 python or " boa," 303. 
 
 tree snakes, 305. 
 
 the Passeritafusca, 306. 
 
 water snakes, 308. 
 
 sea snakes, 308. 
 
 their geographical distribution, 309. 
 
 their habits, 310. 
 
 — ^ caecilia, 317- 
 
 Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, 312. 
 
 anecdotes of its use, 31'2. 
 
 —— analysis of, by Professor Faraday, 
 315. ' 
 
 Sofala, pearls at, 375 n. 
 
 Solinus, on the elephant, 103. . 
 
 Soothsayer insect, 410. 
 
 Spectre butterfly, 426. 
 
 Spiders. See Arachnida, 464. '. 
 
 at Gampola, 465. 
 
 . at Pusilawa, 471. 
 
 Squirrel, 41. 
 
 the flying squirrel, 41. 
 
 Star- fish, 396. See Radiata. 
 
 Stick insect, 410. See Insects. 
 
 Stinging caterpillars, 429. 
 
 Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, 
 346. 
 
 Strachan, Mr., account of the elephants 
 shipped at Ceylon, 163 n, 210 n. 
 
 Stucklev, on the anatomy of the elephant, 
 123 n. 
 
 Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, 67. 
 
 ele|)hant of, 64. 
 
 points in which it differs from that of 
 
 India, 65. 
 
 Sun bird, 249. See Birds. 
 
 Superstitions : — Singhalese folk-lore regard- 
 ing bears, 24 n. 
 
 —— leopards, 27, 29. 
 
 . mongoos, 38. 
 
 kabra-goya, 273. 
 
 —^ cubra-de-capello, 300. 
 
 use of snake-stones, 315. 
 
 — — • elephants' burial-place, 236. 
 Suriya trees, caterpillars on, 429. 
 Syrnum ludranee, 246. See Devil-bird. 
 Swallows, 248. See Birds. 
 Sword-fish, 328. 
 
 Tailor-bird, 251. S^-e Birds. 
 Tamblegam, lake of, 380 . 
 
 pearls, 380. 
 
 Tarentula, Mygalejasciata, 465. 
 
 Tarentula, fight with a cockroach, 467. 
 
 numerous at Gampola, 465. 
 
 Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, 53. 
 Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, 203, 
 
 214. 
 Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error 
 
 as to elephants' joints, 102. 
 Tchitrea paradisi, 250. 
 Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran 
 
 elephant, 64. 
 
 his account of it, 65. 
 
 Templeton, Dr. R. A., his knowledge of 
 
 Ceylon, Introd. 
 
 his valuable aid in the present work, U). 
 
 his cultivation of zoology, 4. 
 
 — — notice of Ceylon monkeys, 6. 
 Termites, white ants, their ravages, 412. 
 
 whence comes their moisture, 412 n. 
 
 Terrapins, 290. 
 
 Terrier, attacks an elephant, 85. 
 
 Testudinata, 289. 
 
 Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, 104. 
 
 Theobaldus' Physiologus, 104. 
 
 Theophrastus' account of fishes on dry 
 
 land, 344, 345. 
 Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, 203. 
 Thomson's " Seasons,"" error as to the ele- 
 phant, 106. 
 Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, 317. 
 Tkysanura, 484. 
 Ticks, 475. 
 
 Tic-polonga, 296. See Reptiles. 
 Tiger at Trincomalie, 25 n. 
 Toad, 319. 
 Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, 
 
 33. 
 Tortoises, 289, 291. See Turtla 
 
 parasite of, 289. 
 
 • fresh-water tortoises, 290. See Terra- 
 
 pins. 
 Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, 293. 
 Tree frogs, 320. 
 Tree snakes, 304. 
 Trepang, 396. See Sea-slug. 
 Tritonin arboresceits, 385. See Musical 
 
 Fish. 
 
 letter on, 401. 
 
 Trombidium tinctorum. See Mites. 
 
 Trumpeting of elephants, 97, 201. 
 
 Trunk, elephant's, origin of the name, 
 
 97 re. 
 Tsetse fly of Africa, 40. 
 Turbinelia rapa, 571. See Chank. 
 Turtle, 291. See Reptiles. 
 
 barbarous treatment of, 291. 
 
 Tushes, 79. 
 
 Tusks, 79. See Elephant ; Ivory. 
 
 fallacy that they are shed, 79. 
 
 — weight of, 80. 
 — — their uses, 80. 
 singular shapes of, 88 ». 
 
500 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tusks, Dr. Holland's theory of their forma- 
 tion, 88 n. 
 Tytler, Mr., story of an elephant, 133 n. 
 
 Uropeliis, 301. 
 
 Urre ! cry of the elephant drivers, 222. 
 
 Valentyn's account of the mermaid, 70. 
 
 Dutch mode of taking elephants. 164. 
 
 Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, 369. 
 Vossius, Isaac, 68. 
 
 Waloora. See Wild-boar, 59. 
 
 dreaded by the Singhalese, 59. 
 
 Wanderoo monkey, 5. 
 Wasps, wasps' nest, 418. 
 
 mason-wasp, 416. 
 
 Water-fowl, 260,262. 
 
 Water snakes, 308. 
 
 Weaver-bird, 251. 
 
 Whales, 68. See Cetacea. 
 
 White, Adam, £8q., Brit Mus., Introd. 
 
 White, of Selboume, his theory of animals 
 suckled by strange mothers, 113 n. 
 
 White ants, 411. Se? Termites. 
 
 Whiting, Mr., account of buried fishes, 342 
 n., 354. 
 
 Wild-boar, 59. 
 
 Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, 99 n.. 
 115 w. 
 
 his account of elephants there, 99. 
 
 describes pitfalls for elephants, 157 n. 
 
 Wood-carrying moth, 430. See Insects. 
 
 Worms, parasite, 396. See Radiata. 
 
 Wound when elephant shooting, 1.54. 
 
 Wright, Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., 104. 
 
 Yarrell's theory of buried fish, 342. 
 Yule's embassy to Ava, 216 n. 
 
 Zimb fly,434. 
 
 Zoology neglected in Ceylon, 3. See Natural 
 History. 
 
 partial extent to which it has been 
 
 cultivated, Introd. 
 
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