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PRx^CTICAL FLORA 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS AXD COLLEGES 
 
 OLIVER R.'WILLIS, A.M., Ph.D. 
 
 INSTHUCTOR IN BOTANY, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY IN THE 
 NEW YORK MILITARY ACADEMY 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOR CO.A[PANY 
 
WM-] 
 
 \\1V 
 
 Copyright, 189^, 
 By American Book Company. 
 
 Willis's Pract. Flora. 
 
 l)rintc& bie 
 
 TRIlm. -flviBon 
 
 'new ItJorft, in* S. B. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 BOTANIES without number have been published, giving 
 scientific descriptions of plants of such character that 
 the student is enabled by careful analysis of their structure 
 and appearance to determine their names and physical 
 characteristics. Such books are excellent in their way, and 
 the information they contain is necessary for all students of 
 the science ; but all our pupils who take up this study as 
 part of their curriculum have not the scientific mind which 
 makes the acquirement of the science an end in itself. To 
 engage the interest and enthusiasm of such students, it is 
 necessary to show the practical aspects of the vegetable 
 world, and its relations to the needs of every-day life ; to 
 reveal something of its history, which, in itself, becomes a 
 fascinating study ; and to show enough of its economic 
 features to satisfy those who have neither the scientific 
 mind nor the poetic temperament required for a love of the 
 study for itself. 
 
 There has been a long-felt want for a work of such prac- 
 tical character, and this book has been prepared to meet 
 the demand. It does not aim to be exhaustive, as such 
 a treatment would make a book of many thousands of 
 pages, which it would be impracticable to place in the 
 hands of a pupil ; but the author has made a careful se- 
 lection of the most important food-producing trees, shrubs, 
 and herbs, including ornamental plants, fruits, nuts, medi- 
 cinal plants, and those which furnish oils, dyes, lumber, 
 textile fabrics, etc. ^^ , 
 
 ^ . /» i m m,^ ^^OPUtTV OF 
 
 71^/ *»ftC0lUB£llB8A8y. 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 So far as the scientific description and classification of 
 these plants are concerned, the plan of this book does not 
 differ from that adopted by the best botanists. The various 
 genera are grouped together under their respective orders, 
 and the species and varieties under their genera in the same 
 way as in other books. Each order has a general statement 
 which characterizes all the plants belonging to it, and each 
 genus and species and variety a more specific description of 
 such other characteristics as determine its classification. 
 But in addition to this, and to supplement it, are introduced 
 the features in which this book differs from those hereto- 
 fore published. Thus, after the technical description of a 
 plant will be found an account of its geographical range, 
 the origin of its name, its history, including a statement of 
 its birthplace and distribution over the globe, its uses, modes 
 of cultivation, preparation, and propagation, and many sta- 
 tistics of economical and commercial interest. 
 
 The book is the outgrowth of a successful class-room 
 experience, and the author recommends it to the notice of 
 teachers and pupils, in the hope that they may find in it 
 both interest and profit, and that it may tend to relieve 
 the monotony of a strictly technical treatment of the 
 subject, and enhance, if possible, the beauty and the use- 
 fulness of the study of Botany. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Paob 
 Introduction ix 
 
 Brief Statement of the Subject and its Subdivisions . xv 
 
 Authors' Names and Abbreviations 3 
 
 Key to the Orders 5 
 
 Synopsis of Orders and Genera 12 
 
 Ranunculace^ 
 
 Anemone 
 Anemonella 
 Ranunculus 
 Thalictrum 
 Caltha . . 
 Clematis . 
 
 Berberidace^ 
 
 Berberis . 
 
 Podophyllum 
 Papaverace^ 
 
 Papaver . 
 Crucifer^ . 
 
 Capsella . 
 
 Brassiea . 
 
 Coehlearia 
 
 Isatis . . 
 
 Nasturtium 
 
 CAPPARIDACEiE 
 
 Capparis . 
 
 ViOLACEiE . 
 
 Viola . . 
 
 BlXINE^ . . 
 
 Bixa 
 
 Page 
 30-42 
 30 
 33 
 33 
 39 
 39 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 -43 
 
 
 42 
 
 • 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 -46 
 
 
 43 
 
 46 
 
 -54 
 
 . 
 
 46 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 53 
 
 . 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 -56 
 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 -62 
 
 
 56 
 
 <i3 
 
 -64 
 
 
 63 
 
 Ternstr(emiace^ 
 
 Page 
 
 64-67 
 64 
 
 Malvace^ . . . . 
 
 . 67-70 
 
 Gossypium 
 
 67 
 
 Sterculiace.e . . 
 
 70-72 
 
 Theobroma . . . 
 
 . . 70 
 
 Tiliace^ .... 
 
 . 72-74 
 
 Corehorus . 
 
 . . 73 
 
 LiNACEiE .... 
 
 74-77 
 
 Linum .... 
 
 74 
 
 Erythroxylon . . 
 
 . . 76 
 
 Zygophyllace.e . . 
 
 . 77-78 
 
 Guaiacum 
 
 77 
 
 Rutace^ .... 
 
 . 78-83 
 
 Citrus . . . 
 
 78 
 
 •Meliace^ .... 
 
 . 83-85 
 
 Swietenia . . . 
 
 . . 83 
 
 iLICINEiE .... 
 
 . 85-87 
 
 Tlex ..... 
 
 . . 85 
 
 Rhamnace^e . . . 
 
 87-88 
 
 Rhamnus 
 
 . . 87 
 
 Ceanothus . . . 
 
 . . 88 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Ampelide^ . . 
 
 Vitis .... 
 Sapindace^ . 
 
 Acer .... 
 Anacardiace^ . 
 
 Rhus .... 
 
 Anacardium 
 Leguminos^ . . 
 
 Indigofera . 
 
 Astragalus . 
 
 Arachis . . . 
 
 Lens .... 
 
 Page 
 
 88-91 
 . 88 
 
 91-93 
 91 
 
 93-95 
 93 
 95 
 
 96-112 
 96 
 97 
 99 
 
 . 100 
 
 Pisum 101 
 
 Phaseolus 103 
 
 Glycyrrhiza . . . . 105 
 
 Haematoxylon . . . . 105 
 
 Cassia 107 
 
 Ceratonia 108 
 
 Dalbergia 108 
 
 Caesalpinia 109 
 
 Tamarindus . . . . 109 
 
 Acacia Ill 
 
 Rosacea 113-127 
 
 Rubus 113 
 
 Fragaria 116 
 
 Prunus 117 
 
 Pyrus ..... 123 
 
 SAXIFRAGACEiE . . . 128-131 
 
 Ribes 128 
 
 COMBRETACE^ . . . 131-132 
 
 Terminalia 131 
 
 Myrtace^ .... 132-137 
 
 Myrtus 133 
 
 Eugenia 134 
 
 Bertholletia . . . 137 
 
 Lythrace^ .... 138-139 
 
 Punica 138 
 
 CuCURBITACEiE . . . 139-146 
 
 Cucumis 139 
 
 Citrullus 142 
 
 Cucurbita 143 
 
 Paoe 
 
 UMBELLIFERiE . . . 146-156 
 
 Apium 146 
 
 Pimpinella 147 
 
 Foeniculum 148 
 
 Ferula 149 
 
 Peucedanum . . . . 151 
 
 Coriandrura . . . . 152 
 
 Cuminum 153 
 
 Daucus 154 
 
 Carum 155 
 
 RuBiACE^ 157-164 
 
 Cinchona 157 
 
 Cofeea 160 
 
 Cephaelis 162 
 
 Rubia 163 
 
 Composite 165-170 
 
 Inula 165 
 
 Anthemis 166 
 
 Chrysanthemum . . . 167 
 
 Tanacetum 168 
 
 Carthamus 169 
 
 CaMPANULACEvE . . . 170-171 
 Lobelia 170 
 
 Vacciniace^ .... 171-174 
 Gaylussacia . . . . 171 
 Oxycoccus 172 
 
 Sapotace^ .... 174-176 
 Dichopsis 174 
 
 Ebexace^ 176-177 
 
 Diospyros 176 
 
 Oleace^ 178-180 
 
 Olea 178 
 
 LoGANIACEiE .... 180-182 
 
 Strvchnos 180 
 
 BORRAGINACE^ . . 
 
 . 182-183 
 
 Symphytum 
 
 . . 182 
 
 CONVOLVULACE.*: 
 
 . 183-185 
 
 Ipomoea . . 
 
 . . 183 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 SOLANACEiG . . 
 
 Lycopersicum . 
 Nicotiaiia . 
 Atropa . . . 
 Capsicum . . 
 Solanum 
 
 .85 
 
 Pedaline^ 
 
 Sesamum 
 
 Verbenace^ 
 Tectona . 
 
 195- 
 
 19; 
 
 Paob 
 
 -195 
 185 
 187 
 191 
 192 
 194 
 
 -197 
 195 
 
 -198 
 197 
 
 Labiat.i: . 
 Lavandula 
 Mentha . 
 Origanum 
 Thymus . 
 Salvia 
 Rosmarinus 
 Nepeta . 
 Marrubium 
 
 198- 
 
 208- 
 
 Chexopodiace^ . 
 Beta .... 
 Spinacia 
 
 POLYGONACEiE 
 
 Fagopyrum 
 Rheum . 
 
 Piperace^ . . 
 Piper . . . 
 
 Myristicace^ 
 
 Myristica 
 
 Laurace^ 217 
 
 Cinnamomum .... 
 
 Santalace^ .... 220 
 Santalum 
 
 EUPHORBIACE.E . . . 222 
 
 Euphorbia 
 
 Hevea 
 
 Buxus 
 
 Croton 
 
 Manihot 
 
 Ricinus 
 
 210- 
 
 213- 
 
 215- 
 
 207 
 198 
 199 
 201 
 203 
 204 
 205 
 206 
 207 
 
 210 
 208 
 209 
 
 213 
 211 
 212 
 
 -215 
 214 
 
 •217 
 215 
 
 ■220 
 217 
 
 -222 
 
 220 
 
 -229 
 222 
 223 
 225 
 226 
 227 
 228 
 
 Page 
 Urticace^ .... 230-238 
 
 Morus 230 
 
 Ulmus 231 
 
 Humulus 233 
 
 Ficus 234 
 
 Cannabis 236 
 
 JUGLANDACE^ . . . 238-242 
 
 Juglans 238 
 
 Hicoria 238 
 
 CUPULIFERiE .... 242-256 
 
 Castanea 243 
 
 Quercus 245 
 
 Corylus 254 
 
 Fagus 255 
 
 Salicace^ 256-258 
 
 SaUx 256 
 
 Orchidace.e .... 258-260 
 Vanilla 259 
 
 ZlNGIBERACE^ . . . 260-268 
 
 Curcuma 260 
 
 Maranta 261 
 
 Elettaria 263 
 
 Zingiber 264 
 
 Musa 265 
 
 Bromeliace^ . . . 268-270 
 Ananassa 269 
 
 Iridace^ 270-271 
 
 Crocus 270 
 
 DiOSCOREACEiE . . . 271-272 
 Dioscorea 271 
 
 LiLiACE^i-: 272-278 
 
 Smilax 273 
 
 Asparagus 274 
 
 Phormiura 276 
 
 Aloe 277 
 
 Palm^ 278-285 
 
 Areca 279 
 
 Phoenix 280 
 
 Cocos 282 
 
 Metroxvlon .... 283 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Gramine^ 285-300 
 
 Zea 286 
 
 Triticum 288 
 
 Oryza 290 
 
 Saccharum 292 
 
 Sorghum ' 294 
 
 Secale 295 
 
 Hordeum 296 
 
 Avena 298 
 
 Setaria 300 
 
 Page 
 CONIFERiE 300-315 
 
 Pinus 300 
 
 Picea 307 
 
 Abies 308 
 
 Larix 309 
 
 Jiiniperus . . . . . 310 
 
 Thuja 312 
 
 Tsuga 312 
 
 ChaniEecyparis . . . 314 
 
 Glossary 317 
 
 Index 339 
 
INTEODUCTION. 
 
 DURING the last century the means of acquiring knowl- 
 edge in every department of science has been wonder- 
 fully increased and facilitated. In the several departments of 
 Natural History the improvement has been striking. Natural- 
 ists no longer study any branch as a whole, but divide it into 
 parts, each of which affords employment for a lifetime. Thus, 
 in Zoology, one naturalist devotes himself to Quadrupeds, 
 another to Bu-ds, a thud to Fishes, and a fourth to Insects. 
 
 It is less than a hundred years since Botany was allowed a 
 place as a branch of Natural History ; nevertheless it has not 
 only become a favorite study, but is now a very important 
 branch of science. The field has so enlarged itself that it has 
 been found convenient, as in other sciences, to break it up into 
 several departments. 
 
 The number of species of plants was supposed by Linnaeus 
 not to exceed ten thousand, while at the present day about one 
 hundred and fifty thousand are known ; and new species, and 
 even new genera, are yearly increasing the names already in 
 the vast catalogue. 
 
 The constant expansion of this broad field is a source of the 
 highest gratification to the student of Natural History. He 
 need entertain no fears that his insatiable curiosity will ever 
 lack food ; a long life given to the study of Botany in any one 
 of its departments, with the most zealous and enthusiastic 
 devotion, will leave it still unfinished. No branch of science 
 affords such unalloyed pleasure in its pvn'suit. 
 
 He who sees no beauty in the expanding Rose or tiie Tulip's 
 variegated petals is, indeed, an object of pity. Even a common 
 
X mXRODUCTION. 
 
 observer is struck with such prominent examples of Nature's 
 beauties, and feels what the poet felt when he wrote : — 
 
 " But who can paiut 
 Like Nature ? Can imaginatiou boast, 
 Amid its gay creation, hues like hers 1 
 Or cau it mix them with that matchless skill, 
 And lose them in each other, as appears 
 In every bud that blows ? " 
 
 But Botany is no longer regarded as a mere accomplishment ; 
 nor is it only to be studied for its beauty. It is a most impor- 
 tant part of a useful education. Indeed, the value of this study 
 is so great that it can scarcely be estimated. 
 
 Most of the early writers upon plants took into consideration 
 only the subject of their usefulness in the art of healing. The 
 study of structure and mode of growth was left to modern times 
 — till after the microscope came to reveal the marvels of plant 
 structure, and bring to light the tissues and vessels that carry 
 on the life and activity of plant growth ; till Chemistry discov- 
 ered the materials that have built up, drop by drop and particle 
 by particle, the plants of the world, from the gray Lichen of 
 the hillside rock to the gigantic forest tree towering four hun- 
 dred feet into the air. 
 
 A knowledge of the geographical locality and habits of plants 
 enables us to select with certainty and transplant the trees and 
 shrubs that beautify our lawns and gardens. To an intelligent 
 agriculturist, an understanding of some of the departments of 
 Botany is indispensable. He must know the habits of vegeta- 
 bles and their mode of growth in order to prepare his ground ; 
 he must know their composition to be able to apply the requi- 
 site food ; and he must know their structure and organs to 
 determine where and how to apply it. In many departments 
 of industry a knowledge of Botany is found invaluable and it 
 lends assistance to the various arts and elegancies of life. 
 
 One of the most interesting departments of this subject deals 
 with the history of the cultivation and use of plants. Their 
 history, in a measure, runs parallel with the world's history. 
 When communities became populous they could no longer 
 depend upon the chase, because the demand outgrew the supply ; 
 and the use of plants for food was a natural result. The needs 
 
INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 of man undoubtedly led to husbandry, and as men became 
 more numerous, they found it necessary to provide, not only 
 for more certain supplies of food, but for more permanent 
 abodes ; hence the cultivation of food plants and the establish- 
 ment of permanent homes must have been simultaneous. 
 
 Of the hundred and fifty thousand plants which make up the 
 world's vast Flora, about three hundred constitute the food- 
 bearing plants for man ; of this number, by far the greater 
 part is herbaceous. Among the cereals^ Wheat is the most 
 important ; it is one of the most ancient of human food-plants, 
 having been cultivated four thousand years before Christ. Re- 
 liable records point to the banks of the River Euphrates as its 
 home. Barley has a history which makes it contemporaneous 
 with Wheat, its early home being middle Asia. Rice had its 
 origin in southern China, and is also believed to have been con- 
 temporaneous with Wheat. Rye and Oats^ the other two great 
 bread-plants, had their origin in southeastern Europe, and were 
 under cultivation two thousand years before Christ. 
 
 These five cereals furnish bread for the teeming millions of 
 the earth, and there are no records to show that they have ever 
 been found in a condition that would place them among those 
 plants known as weeds. 
 
 Among plants known as table vegetables^ the most prominent, 
 beginning with those that have been longest in use, are the 
 Tarn'ip^ the Onion ^ and the Cabbage, which have been used 
 for more than four thousand years. The home of the Turnip 
 and Cabbage is middle Europe, and the northern shores of 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 The Carroty Beet^ Parsnip^ and Asparagus have been in use 
 two thousand years. The Carrot and Beet, so far as known, 
 are natives to western Asia and eastern Europe. The home of 
 the Parsnip is P^urope, and the Asparagus is native to the coun- 
 tries of the Levant. 
 
 Among the fruits that minister to man's support as food, are 
 the Graj^e, found in western Asia ; the Apricot, a native of 
 China; the Apple^ Pear, and Quince, natives of central Europe, 
 which have aceon^junied man in all his changes of locality 
 where the climate permitted ; the Raspberry and Straicberry, 
 choice and favorite berries, whose cultivation near the great 
 
xii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cities iu the Temperate Zone has become an important industry 
 in western Asia and Europe ; the Cherry^ which originated near 
 the Caspian Sea ; the Plurn^ a native of northern Persia ; and 
 the Peachy one of the most delicious, if not the most popular, 
 of the fruits of the Temperate Zones, a native of China. 
 
 Sugar Cane is native to Cochin China, and southwestern 
 China ; it is known to have been in use more than two thousand 
 years. 
 
 There are a few textile plants that deserve mention, the most 
 important of which are Flax, Hemp^ and Jute. Flax was cul- 
 tivated near the eastern coast of the Mediterranean four thou- 
 sand years ago. Hemp is of Siberian origin, and is known to 
 have been under cultivation over four thousand years. Jute 
 has been known to commerce less than two thousand years. 
 
 Of the three hundred species of cultivated plants that were 
 found in the New World, the most important food-yielding 
 plants are : the Potato, whose home is believed to be Chile and 
 Peru ; the Sweet Potato, whose home is in the warm regions of 
 North America; Tobacco, originally found in Ecuador and 
 neighboring regions ; Indian corn, one of the most important 
 cereals of the present age ; and the Pineapple, found in Mexico, 
 Central America, Panama, and Colombia. These constitute 
 about one sixth of the important food-plants of the whole world. 
 
 This introduction will give the pupil an idea of the character 
 and magnitude of the study of the Flora of Useful Plants. As 
 a specimen of the plan of description pursued in this book, we 
 give here a brief outline of a few illustrations, beginning with 
 Wheat, which stands at the head of the cereals. After classi- 
 fying it under the order Gramineae and the genus Triticum, the 
 description proceeds as follows : — 
 
 Triticum vulgare, L. (Wheat.) Stem or culm 2 to 5 feet high, tapering 
 from the root to the base of the head or the ear, divided by nodes into several 
 interuodes, or lengths, from 4 to 7 inches long. At each node is a single, 
 clasping, lance-shaped leaf, strongly veined and rough on the upper side. 
 Flowers appear at the top of the culm in a close panicle. 
 
 The grains, or .seeds, are oval in shape, a quarter of an inch in length, flat, 
 and marked on the side next the rachis by a groove the whole length, outside 
 convex. It is an annual, and when planted in early spring, it flowers and 
 fruits the same season ; when thus cultivated it is known as " summer wheat " 
 or " spring wheat." The best wheat is biennial ; it is planted in early autumn. 
 
INTRODUCTION. xili 
 
 in time to take root and form root or radical leaves before winter sets in; it 
 ripens in July of the following year, and is called " winter wheat," because it 
 remains in the ground during the winter. 
 
 Geography. — Wlieat, the most important of all the cereal family, has not 
 been found in what is considered the wild state, and though it has assumed 
 several forms or varieties, it has not so departed from the typical form as to 
 lead to the conclusion that it was ever what might be regarded as a weed. 
 
 Wheat when planted north of the fiftieth parallel does not fruit ; neither 
 will it bear well south of 30° in America. In Europe, it fruits as high 
 as 51° in southern Russia, and as low as 37° in southern Italy. It is culti- 
 vated successfully in Turkey, Syria, northern and southern Africa, iJrazil, 
 Chile, Argentine Republic, and Australia. 
 
 Etymology. — Triticum is from the Latin tero, rub, referring to the mode of 
 reducing the grain to flour. Vulgare, common, is from the Latin. The com- 
 mon name, wheat, is derived from the Sanscrit seveta, white, and is due to 
 the white flour produced from the grain. 
 
 History. — No form of wheat has ever been found in a wild state. Its home 
 is believed to have been western Asia. It was brought to America by a negro 
 slave belonging to Cortes, and was first planted in Mexico. 
 
 Cultivation. — Wheat will not grow upon poor soil nor thrive upon scanty 
 fare. It demands a deep, heavy soil, well tilled, and highly fertilized. In 
 the United States, especially in the rich soils of the Central States, fifty 
 bushels to the acre is not an unusual yield. 
 
 Use. — Wheat is the bread grain of man in all regions of the earth where 
 it will grow. The straw is utilized for the manufacture of hats for both men 
 women. It furnishes the material for the fine leghorn hats and bonnets. 
 
 Marts. — The great wheat markets are Odessa on the Black Sea, Riga on 
 the Baltic, all the north German ports, Constantinople, London, Liverpool, 
 Chicago, San Francisco, New York, and Toronto. 
 
 The building and structural material of the world is obtained 
 from about eighty genera, from twenty-five orders. Of these 
 eighty genera, thirty are cone-bearing plants ; hence the great- 
 est amount of building material is furnished by the Conifera?. 
 
 We therefore choose for illustration one of its genera, the 
 Tsuga, which yields the Hemlock. 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis. Carr. (Hemlock Spruce.) Trunk 50 to 100 feet in 
 height, branching freely. Bark gray, smooth on young trees, but very rough 
 and furrowed on old trees. Leaves solitary, flat, sliglitly toothed, blunt at the 
 apex, in two ranks, half an inch long, and less than an eighth of an inch wide. 
 Cones three fourths of an inch in length, and less than half an inch in diam- 
 eter; scales suborbicular, half an inch long; wing less than half an inch 
 broad. Flowers in June ; seed matures in the following year in June. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the hemlock is confined to a belt 
 on both sides of the forty-fifth parallel, in the Northern Hemisphere, reaching 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 down to Pennsylvania in mountainous regious, and even to North Carolina, 
 and as far north as Oregon and Hudson Bay. 
 
 Etymologij.— Tsuga is Japanese for "yew-leaved" or "evergreen." The 
 name Canadensis comes from Canada, the home of the tree. The origin of 
 hemlock, the common name, is not so easily determined ; it is suggested that it 
 comes from hem, the edge or border, and loc, fasten, inclose, alluding to the 
 use of the tree in liedgiug. Again, hem means "injure" or "cripple," and 
 may allude to the poisonous properties of the cicuta, called hemlock. 
 
 History. — The hemlock is an American tree ; it was taken to Europe soon 
 after the settlement of northeastern America, and grows well in the northern 
 parts of England. 
 
 Use. — As an ornamental tree the hemlock is a favorite in large grounds. 
 When not crowded it rises to the height of 40 to 80 feet, a perfect pyramid, 
 its lower branches resting on the ground. Its foliage is the most delicate of 
 all the Coniferae. It bears the knife well, and makes a compact and beautiful 
 hedge. The wood is soft, easily split, and has a very coarse grain ; yet it is 
 strong, holds a nail well, requires a great force to produce a cross fracture, 
 and is very durable. It is largely used in the frames of edifices, for joists and 
 for sheathing, being the cheapest of all the soft-wood lumber. The lumber is 
 obtained from the stripped trunks, which are sawed into 13-feet lengths, 
 which during the following winter are drawn to the frozen streams and left 
 till the spring thaw, when they are floated down to the saw-miUs, where they 
 are sawed into boards, scantling, and ceiling laths, and thence sent to 
 market. 
 
 The bark is highly charged with tannin, and is used in immense quantities 
 for manufacturing leather. It is obtained by felling the tree in the early 
 summer, when the sap is in its greatest activity ; girdles are cut around the 
 trunk and large branches by means of an axe, and with a wedge-shaped bar 
 the bark is stripped ; it is then piled to dry. Its value is estimated by the 
 cord. 
 
BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT 
 AND ITS SUBDIVISIONS. 
 
 BOTANY may be subdivided into the following depart- 
 ments : Structural, Physiological, and Systematic Botany. 
 
 Structural Botany has for its object the investigation of the 
 structure, mode of growth, and functions of the cells and vessels 
 that make up the plant. Organographi/ is a division of this 
 department that has special reference to the organs. Morphol- 
 ogy is properly a division of Structural Botany and notes the 
 changes that take place in the cells and tissues of plants. 
 
 Physiological Botany takes into consideration the vital action 
 in the reception, preparation, and disposition of the nourishment 
 necessary to keep up the growth of the plant and to enable it to 
 perform the offices of flowering and fruiting. 
 
 Systematic Botany embraces the classification of plants and 
 their arrangement under classes, with accurate descriptions in 
 scientific terms of those characters that determine the classifica- 
 tion of a plant. The Descriptive Botany in this book comes 
 under the head of Systematic Botany. Glossology^ which is a 
 division of Systematic Botany, has for its object the application 
 of appropriate names to the organs and parts of a vegetable, by 
 means of which a plant may be so described as to distinguish it 
 from every other individual except one of its own species. 
 
 To the above may be added the Art or Practice of Botany, 
 which consists m applying the principles investigated under the 
 above heads to determining the class, order, etc., of an individ- 
 ual plant. It also includes the collecting, drying, labeling and 
 arranging of botanical specimens. 
 
XVI BHTEF STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 The classification and nomenclatnre of the Vegetable King- 
 dom has taxed the ingenuity and talent of the most learned 
 and skillful l)otanists. The primary ol)ject of classification is 
 to arrange the individual plants or species that resemble each 
 other in the greatest number of characters around a common 
 center called a genus ; those genera which possess the greatest 
 number of constant common characters are clustered round a 
 common center called an order ; the orders in like manner are 
 grouped into cohorts and classes ; the classes in their turn 
 have a center called a series, or a subkingdom, — the common 
 center of the whole being the Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 
 
 Pr. Fl. — 2 
 
NAMES OF AUTHORS 
 
 CITED IN THIS VOLUME, WITH ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Adanson 
 
 . . . . Adaiis. 
 
 Endlicher .... 
 
 EndL 
 
 Alton 
 
 . . . . Ait. 
 
 Engelmaun 
 
 Enyl. 
 
 Allemo. 
 
 
 Fischer 
 
 Fisch. 
 
 Alpiuus. 
 
 
 Forster 
 
 Forst. 
 
 Andrews. 
 
 
 Fremont. 
 
 
 Aublet . 
 
 . . . Aub. 
 
 Gaertner .... 
 
 Gaert. 
 
 Austin . 
 
 . . . Aust. 
 
 Gejer 
 
 Gey. 
 
 Bauhin . 
 
 . . . Bauh. 
 
 Goldie. 
 
 
 Beauvois 
 
 Beauv. 
 
 Gray 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Bentham 
 
 . . . Benth. 
 
 Hayne. 
 
 
 Bentley. 
 
 
 Heretier .... 
 
 Her. 
 
 Berg. 
 
 
 Hoffman .... 
 
 Hoffm. 
 
 Blackstone 
 
 . . . BL 
 
 Hooker 
 
 Hook. 
 
 Boissier 
 
 . . . Boiss. 
 
 Houttuyu .... 
 
 Houtt. 
 
 Bonplaud 
 
 . . B. or Bonpl. 
 
 Humboldt .... 
 
 H. or Humb. 
 
 Breyu. 
 
 
 Humboldt, Boupland 
 
 
 Britton . 
 
 . . . Br in. 
 
 and Kunth . . . 
 
 H. B. K. 
 
 Brown, R. 
 
 . . . R. Br. 
 
 Koch. 
 
 
 Carriere 
 
 . . . Carr. 
 
 Kunth 
 
 K. 
 
 Chaix. 
 
 
 Labilladiere . . . 
 
 Lab. or Labill. 
 
 Chamisso 
 
 . . Cham. 
 
 Lamarck .... 
 
 Lam. 
 
 Clinton. 
 
 
 Lambert .... 
 
 Lamb. 
 
 Coulter . . 
 
 . . . Coult. 
 
 Lawson. 
 
 
 Decaisne . 
 
 . . . Decsne 
 
 Lecheuault . . . 
 
 Lech. 
 
 De Candoll 
 
 e(A.) DC.f.ovA.DC. 
 
 Lehmann .... 
 
 Lehm. 
 
 De Candoll 
 
 e(A.P.) DC. 
 
 Lind. 
 
 
 Delile. 
 
 
 Lindley 
 
 Lindl. 
 
 Don. 
 
 
 Link.' 
 
 Lk. 
 
 Duchesne. 
 
 
 Linnaeus .... 
 
 L. or Linn. 
 
 Dunal. 
 
 
 Linne, C. von (son 
 
 
 Du Roi. 
 
 
 of Linnseus) . . 
 
 L.f. 
 
 Elliott . . 
 
 . . . Ell. 
 
 Loddiges .... 
 
 Lodd. 
 
NAMES OF AUTHORS. 
 
 Loudou Loud. 
 
 Marshall .... Marsh. 
 Marshall aud Bieber- 
 
 stein M. B. 
 
 Martius .... Mart. 
 Matou. 
 
 Medicus .... Medic. 
 
 Michaux .... Michx. or Mx. 
 Michaux (the youuger) Mx.f. 
 
 Miller ..'... Mill. 
 
 Moenchauseu . . . Moench. 
 
 Moquiu .... Moq. 
 
 Muhlenberg . . . Muhl. 
 
 Necker Neck. 
 
 Nees von Eseubeck JS/ees. 
 
 Nuttall iV. or Nutt. 
 
 Olivier Oliv. 
 
 Pavon Pav. 
 
 Persoon .... Pers. 
 
 Plumier .... Plum. 
 Pohl. 
 
 Poiret Poir. 
 
 Presl. 
 
 Pursh Ph. 
 
 Rafinesque-Schmaltz Raj'. 
 
 Reinwaldt .... Reiiiw. 
 
 Retzius Retz. 
 
 Richard .... Rich. 
 
 Risso . . . 
 
 . . Riss. 
 
 Robbius. 
 
 
 Roscoe . . 
 
 . . Rose. 
 
 RottboeU . 
 
 . . Rotth. 
 
 Roxburgh . 
 
 . . Rox. or Roxh. 
 
 Savi. 
 
 
 Schlechteudal 
 
 . . Schlecfi. 
 
 Schrader . 
 
 . . Schrad. 
 
 Schultes 
 
 . . Sch. or iSchult 
 
 ISims. 
 
 
 iSpach. 
 
 
 ISwartz . . 
 
 . . Sw. or iSwz. 
 
 Thomas. 
 
 
 Thompson. 
 
 
 Thuillier . 
 
 . . Thu. or Thuill 
 
 Thunberg . 
 
 . . Thiinb. 
 
 Torrey . . . 
 
 . . T. or Torr. 
 
 Touruefort 
 
 . . 2'ouru. 
 
 Wahleuberg . 
 
 . . Wahl. 
 
 Waldstein . 
 
 . . W. 
 
 Wallich. 
 
 
 Walter . . 
 
 . . Walt. 
 
 Wangenheim 
 
 . . Wang. 
 
 Watson, S. 
 
 . . S. Wats. 
 
 Wedderburn 
 
 . . Wedd. 
 
 Wight. 
 
 
 Willdeuow 
 
 . . Willd. 
 
 WiUis . . 
 
 . . . Wil. 
 
KEY 
 
 To trace a plant to its natural Order based upon those char- 
 acters which are most obvious. 
 
 Subkingdom I. FLOWERING PLANTS (Phaenogams). 
 
 Class I. DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Leaves uetted-veined. Flowers rarely 3-])arte(l, mostly 4-5-parted. Wood, 
 
 if any, in concentric rings. 
 Seed in a vessel. Stigmas present. Embryos with 2 cotyledons. 
 
 Cohort I. 
 
 Calyx aiul corolla present ; petals separate, sometimes wanting, in which case the 
 sepals are bright colored. APOPET AL-^. 
 
 Cohort n. 
 
 Calyx and corolla present : petals more or less united. SYMPETAL-(E. 
 
 Cohort m. 
 
 Calyx present, but no corolla, or both wanting. APETAL-^. 
 
 Class II. MOXOCOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Leaves parallel-veined (rarely netted). Flowers .3-parted. Bark and wood 
 commingled with pith. Koot not axial. Embryo with one cotyledon. 
 
 Cohort IV. 
 
 Flowers in a spadix. SPADICIFLOR.(E. 
 
 Cohort V. 
 
 Floral envelope in two .'i-parted whorls; outer one green or colored (Lilies, etc.). 
 
 PETALOIDE^. 
 Cohort VI 
 
 Floral envelope chatf-like (Grasses and Grains). GLUMIFER,^. 
 
 Class III. GYMNOSPERMS. 
 
 Stigma wanting. Seed naked. Hark and wood ribors in concentric rings. 
 
 Cohort Vn 
 
 Cone-bearing plants (Pines, etc.). CONIFER-ffi. 
 
 5 
 
6 KEY TO ORDERS. 
 
 Subkingdom I. 
 
 Class I. 
 COHORT I. APOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Herbaceous Plants. 
 Calyx and corolla present. 
 
 Stems sometimes climbing. Leaves alternate, or opposite, 2-3-ternately com- 
 pound, or merely lobed. Flowers regular. 
 
 Ranunculaceae. 
 
 Stems bifid. Leaves peltate. Sepals falling. Valves of anthers not opening 
 upwards. Flowers regular. 
 
 Podophyllum in Berberidaceae. 
 
 With milky juice. Sepals falling. Ovary compound, l-celled, several placentae 
 on wall. Flowers regular. 
 
 Papaveraceae. 
 
 Stems simple or branched above. Leaves alternate. Flowers regular, 5-merous. 
 Fruit a loculicidal 10-seeded capsule. 
 
 Linacese. 
 
 With stems. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Sepals 5. Petals 5, differing in size 
 and shape, one terminating in a spur. Flowers irregular. 
 
 Violaceae, 
 
 Without stems. Leaves all radical. Petals and sepals 5, one petal ending in a 
 spur. Flowers irregular. 
 
 Viqlaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers cruciform, regular. Sepals 4, falling. Petals 4, 
 hypogynous. Stamens 6, 2 shorter. Fruit a 2-celled pod. 
 
 Crueiferse. 
 
 Stems prostrate, creeping, or clambering. Flowers sympetalous, monoecious or 
 dioecious. Limb of calyx and corolla 5-lobed. Fruit a Pepo. 
 
 Cucurbitaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers in umbels. Stamens 5, styles 2. Fruit dry, dividing 
 into halves when ripe. 
 
 Umbelliferae. 
 Shrubs. 
 
 Calyx and corolla present. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Sepals and petals .5-merous ; sepals imbricate. Stamens 
 
 many. Fruit a berry. 
 
 Bixineae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Calyx free, involucelled, 5-lobed. Corolla .5-merous. Sta- 
 mens many, monadelphous, attached to the petals. Pistils several, ovaries in a ring 
 
 around an axis. 
 
 Malvaceae. 
 
 Tn regions of little frost. Leaves alternate, palmate. Sepals 4-8, free or cohe- 
 rent. Petals 4-8. Flowers regular, cruciform. 
 
 Capparidaceae. 
 
 With watery juice, climbing by tendrils. Stamens same in number as petals 
 and opposite to them. Calyx lobes very small or wanting. Petals valvate. 
 
 Ampelideae. 
 
APOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 7 
 
 Leaves alternate, stipules small. Flowers perfect or without petals. Stamens 
 alternate with sepals. Fruit a l-seeded capsule. 
 
 RhamnaceaB. 
 Leaves alternate, feather- veined. Calyx persistent. Stamens on base of petals. 
 Flowers regular. 
 
 Ternstroemiaceae. 
 Leaves alternate, simple, 3-5-lobed. Stipules aduate or u. Stamens 5-10. 
 Styles 2-3, distinct. Flowers regular. 
 
 Saxifragaceee. 
 Leaves alternate, simple. Calyx minute. Petals ovate 4-6, separate, or united 
 at base. Fruit a drupaceous berry. Flowers regular. 
 
 Ilicinese. 
 Leaves alternate, simple. Calyx tubular, limb 5-toothed. Corolla 0. Seed a 
 drupe. Flowers regular. 
 
 Combretaceae. 
 Leaves alternate, compound. Flowers small, inconspicuous, regular, 5-merous. 
 Stigmas 3. Fruit drupaceous. 
 
 Anacardiaceae. 
 Trees. 
 
 Calyx and corolla present. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals clawed, and tongue-shaped. 
 Stamens in a lobed tube. Flowers regular. Fruit a fleshy septicidal capsule. 
 
 Sterculiaceae. 
 Leaves opposite, pinnate, stipulate. Calyx 5-parted. Sepals 5. Stamens 10. 
 Flowers regular. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. 
 
 Zygophyllaceae. 
 Leaves alternate, pinnate. Calyx obscure. Petals 5. Stamens united in a tube. 
 Ovary many-celled. Seeds numerous. Flowers regular. 
 
 Meliaceae. 
 Leaves alternate. Calyx falling. Petals 4-5. Stamens double or multiple of 
 the parts of corolla. Flowers regular. 
 
 Tiliaceae, 
 Leaves simple. Petals sometimes 0. Calyx 4-5-cleft. Stamens equal in num- 
 ber to petals. Ovary superior. Flowers regular. 
 
 Rutaceae. 
 Leaves opposite, 3-nerved. Calyx superior. Limbs 5-parted, Petals 5. 
 Stamens many. Ovary 2- or more-celled. Flowers regular. 
 
 Myrtaceae. 
 Leaves opposite. Calyx colored, 5-many-parted. Petals 5-7, on throat of 
 calyx. Stamens many. Flowers regular. Berry globular. Seeds many. 
 
 Lythraceae. 
 Leaves opposite, simple, lobed. Stamens 5-8-10. Ovary 2-celled. Flowers 
 regular. Fruit winged. 
 
 Sapindaceae. 
 Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees. 
 
 Leaves alternate, .stipulate, compound. Flowers papilionaceous. Stamens united 
 in 1-2 groups. Seed vessel a legume or bean. 
 
 Xieguminosae. 
 I>eaves alternate, stii>ulate. Stamens on the calyx, distinct. Pistils 1 to many, 
 usually distinct, sometimes united, each with a stigma. Ovary simple, 1-celled 
 1-ovuled. 
 
 Rosaceae. 
 
8 KEY TO ORDERS. 
 
 Leaves trifoliate, radical, petioles long. Sepals 5 with 5 alternate bractlets. 
 Petals white. Stamens and pistils many. Fruit a heart-shaped edible receptacle. 
 
 Fragaria in Bosaceae. 
 Leaves compound in 2-3 pairs and a terminal one. Fruit an aggregation of 
 little drupes on a dry receptacle. In the blackberry the receptacle is succulent and 
 edible. 
 
 Rubus (raspberry and blackberry) in Rosaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers in racemes. Fruit a smooth drupe stone or pit 
 flattened, 
 
 Prunus (plum) in Rosaceae. 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers in twos and threes or solitary. Fruit an ovoid drupe. 
 Stone smooth. 
 
 Prunus (plum and apricot) in Rosacese. 
 Flowers in racemes. Fruit a smooth globular or heart-shaped drupe. Stone 
 smooth, globular. 
 
 Prunus (cherry) in Rosaceae. 
 Leaves appearing after the flowers. Fruit a tomentose drupe, ovoid. Stone fur- 
 I'owed or wrinkled. 
 
 Prunus (peach and almond) in Rosaceae. 
 
 Leaves ovate, crenate, serrate, woolly beneath, smooth above. Flowers in 
 corymbs. Fruit a fleshy pome. Carpels 2-5, inclosed in a fleshy calyx. 
 
 Pyrus (apple and pear) in Rosaceae. 
 Leaves oblong, or broad ovate, blunt at base and sharp at apex. Carpels 5 or 
 more inclosed in the fleshy calyx. Fruit a fleshy, fragrant pome. 
 
 Pyrus (quince) in Rosaceae. 
 
 COHORT n. SYMPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ATIGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Herbaceous Plants. 
 
 Calyx and corolla present. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers crowded in an involucrate head composed usually of 
 a disc of yellow flowers, encircled by a ring of white, pink, or purple ones. 
 
 Compositae. 
 Leaves alternate. Juice milky. Flowers perfect and regular, bell-shaped. 
 Limb 5-Iobed. Stamens 5, free. 
 
 Campanulaceae. 
 
 Stem twining or clambering. Leaves alternate. Calyx .5-lobed. Corolla bell- 
 shaped. Limb 5-lobed. Flowers regular, axillary. 
 
 Convolvulaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed. Stamens 5 on the corolla. Fruit 
 usually 2-celled, many seeded. 
 
 Solanaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Calyx .5-lobed. Corolla 2-lipped, 5-lobed. Stamens 5, on 
 corolla tube. Flowers irregular. Fruit a driipe. 
 
 Pedalineae. 
 
 Hairy and rough. Leaves alternate. Calyx 5-parte(l. Corolla 5-lobed. Stamens 
 on the tube. Ovary 4-lobed. 
 
 Borraginaoeae. 
 
 Stems square. Leaves opposite and aromatic. Flowers irregular. Corolla 2- 
 lipped. Ovary 4-lobed. 
 
 Iiabiatae, 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers solitary. Ovary inferior, many-celled. Stamens 
 double the number of corolla lobes. 
 
 Vacciniaceae. 
 
APETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Hbrbs and Trees. 
 
 Leaves opposite, stipulate. Calyx tubular or 0. Corolla limit 4-6-lobe(l. Sta- 
 mens 4-6 on corolla tube. 
 
 Rubiacesc. 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers rcf^ular. Stamens inserted at the Ijuttoni of corolla 
 tube, and twice as many as lobes. 
 
 EbenacesB. 
 Juice milky. Leaves alternate. Corolla furnished with scales on the inner sur- 
 face. Ovary 5-mauy-celled. 
 
 Sapotacese. 
 Leaves opposite, pinnate. Calyx 4-cleft. Corolla 4-cleft or 0. Stamens 2. Fruit 
 a drupe. 
 
 Oleaceae. 
 Leaves opposite, entire, substipulate. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed. Stamens 5. 
 Flowers regular. 
 
 Ijoganiacese. 
 Leaves opposite. Calyx toothed. Corolla 4-5-lobed. Stamens 4. On the corolla 
 sometimes only 2. Flowers irregular. 
 
 Verbenaceee. 
 
 COHORT m. APETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Calyx present, but no Corolla, or l)<)th wanting. 
 
 Herbs. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Flowers small, inconspicuous, regular. Calyx free. Stamens 
 equal to number of calyx lobes. 
 
 Chenopodiacese. 
 Leaves alternate, sheathing. Calyx and corolla wanting. Stamens 1-9, usuallv 
 t)-8. 
 
 Fagopyruni in Polygonacese. 
 
 Shrubs. 
 
 Leaves opposite or whorled, 5-nerved. Calyx wanting. Ovary 1-celled. Flowers 
 crowded on a long spadix. Fruit a berry. 
 
 Piperaceae. 
 Trees. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Calyx oval, u-lobed. Stamens 3-15. 
 
 Myristicacese. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Sepals 4-6, colored. Ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled, anotlier li<l 
 opening upwards. 
 
 LauraceaD. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Sepals 5. Stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit a nut. 
 
 Santalaceae. 
 Leaves alternate, piiniate. Calyx 2-4-lol)ed or entire. Stamens 3 to many. 
 Ovary 1-celled. Ovule 1. Fruit a nut. 
 
 Juglandaceae. 
 
 Shrubs .vnd Trees. 
 
 Leaves alternate and stipulate. Flowers in catkins, naked. Fruit l-<-elled. Pod 
 2-4-valved. Seeds clothed with a silkv down. 
 
 Salicaceae. 
 
 Leaves alternate. Stipules falling. Fertile Howers solitary. Sterile ones in cat- 
 kins. Fruit a 1-celled, 1-seeded nut. 
 
 Cupuliferee. 
 
10 KEY TO ORDERS. 
 
 Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees. 
 Leaves alternate or opposite. Juice milky. Flowers sometimes with petals. 
 Many staminate Howers each with a naked stamen. 
 
 Euphorbia in Euphorbiacese. 
 Stamens inserted round a central column 
 
 Hevea in Euphorbiaceae. 
 Ovarian cells 1-ovuled. Staminate flowers without rudimentary ovary. 
 
 Croton in Euphorbiaceae. 
 Stamens polyadelphous. No rudiment of an ovary. 
 
 Ricinus in Euphorbiaceae. 
 Leaves alternate, stipulate, penninerved. Flowers with a calyciforni envelope, 
 or 0. Ovary 1 -celled. 
 
 Urticaceae. 
 
 Floral envelope single or 0. Styles 1-2. Fruit a cylindrical mass of little drupes. 
 
 Morus in Urticaceae. 
 Flowers fascicled. Perianth slightly colored, or leaf-like, 4-5-8-lobed. 
 
 Ulmus in Urticaceae. 
 Perianth herbaceous. Sepals 5. Stamens 5. Flowers in strobiloid spikes. 
 
 Humulus in Urticaceae. 
 Fruit a smooth, dry, 1-seeded pericarp. 
 
 Cannabis in Urticaceae. 
 
 Class II. 
 
 COHORT IV. SPADICIFLOROUS MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Trees and shrubs with unbranched trunks. Flowers on a branching spadix burst- 
 ing from a .spathe. 
 
 Palmae. 
 
 COHORT V. PETALOIDEOUS MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Herbs. 
 
 Floral envelope in two 3-parted whorls, outer one green, frequently colored. 
 Rhizome tuberous and creeping. Flowers with double perianth. Outer folia- 
 ceous, inner petaloid, irregular, made up of petals and staminodes. Ovary inferior, 
 3-celled. Flowers irregular. 
 
 Zingiberaceae. 
 Leaves at base of stem or scape, sheathing rigid, outer floral envelope calyx-like. 
 Flowers spiked, regular. 
 
 Ananassa in Bromeliaceae. 
 
 Leaves equitant in 2 ranks. Floral envelope petaloid. Stamens 3. Ovary infe- 
 rior, 3-celled, many seeded. Spathe 2-valved. Filaments equal. 
 
 Crocus in Iridaceae. 
 
 Stem simple, or branched near the summit. Leaves simple, .sheathing, or amplex- 
 icaid. Perianth tubular. Limb 6-lobed. Stamens on the throat. 
 
 Phormium in Liliaceae. 
 
 Perianth tubular. Stamens on the receptacle or tube of perianth. Leaves flesliy. 
 
 Aloe in Liliaceae. 
 Herbs becoming woody. Leaves alternate. Stem a woody vine. Parasitic upon 
 large trees. Flowers irregular. Fruit a lengthened pod, many-seeded. Seeds 
 
 fragrant. 
 
 Vanilla in Orchldaceae. 
 
 Herbs becoming woody, twining or clambering vines. Leaves opposite, netted- 
 
 veined. Flowers small, in racemose spikes, axillary. Perianth 6-parted. Stamens 
 
 6. Fruit 3-angled, winged. 
 
 Dioscorea in Dioscoreaceae. 
 
GLUMIPEKOUS MONOCOTYLKDOXOrS A\(iIOSPERMS. 11 
 
 COHORT VI. GLUMIFEROUS MONOCOTYLEDONOUS AWGIOSPERMS. 
 
 P'loral envelope chaff-like or wanting, mostly herbaceous. 
 
 Stem cylindrical, tapering, and hollow, with closed joints. Leaves alternate, 
 sheathing, sheath split opposite the blade. Flowers glumaceous, in spikelets. 
 Perianth imperfect or wanting. Stamens iisually 3, sometimes fi. Grasses and 
 grains. 
 
 Gramineae. 
 
 Spikelets in twos or threes. Stamens 3. Stigmas on long tiliform styles. 
 
 Saccharum and Sorghum in Gramineae. 
 Spikelets all fertile in a panicle. Stamens 6, sometimes 3. 
 
 Oryza in Gramineae. 
 Spikelets monoecious or polygamous, in a spicate panicle. Stamens 2-3. Styles 
 elongated filamentous. 
 
 Zea in Gramineae 
 
 Spikelets all fertile in a panicle. Stamens 3. Stigmas sessile. 
 
 Avena in Gramineae. 
 Spikelets all fertile. Glumes 2, seldom 1, varying in length. Stamens 3, rarely 
 1. Stigmas sessile, or nearly so. 
 
 Triticum, Hordeum, and Secale in Gramineae, 
 
 Class TIL 
 
 COHORT Vn. CONIFEROUS GYMWOSPERMS. 
 
 Cone-bearing plants, mostly trees. Juice resinous. Leaves awl- or needle-shaped. 
 No calyx or corolla. Pistil on an open scale. Ovules naked. 
 
 Coniferae. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Subkingdom I. FLOWERING PLANTS (PhaenogamsK 
 
 Plants that produce proper flowers aud bear seeds. 
 
 Class 1. DICOTYLEDONOUS AXGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Embryo dicotyledonous. Leaves uetted-veined. Flowers mostly 5- or 4- 
 merous. 
 
 Apopetalce. 
 (Sometimes without petals.) 
 
 Order I. RANUNCULACEJG. 
 
 Herbs or small shrubs. Stamens numerous. Carpels not united. 
 Sometimes without petals, and sepals colored like petals. 
 
 Involucre, consisting of 2-3 divided leaves an inch or more below the flower. 
 lladical leaves, 3-7-parted. Carpels many without grooves, ending in a short 
 beak. Receptacle hemispherical, conical, or cylindrical. 
 
 Windflower, Anemone. 
 
 Involucre compound. Sepals 5-10, white. Petals 0. Stigma, broad, flat, 
 terminal. Leaves radical compound. Flowers umbellate. 
 
 Rue Anemone, Anemonella. 
 
 Sepals 3-.5. Petals, 5 or more, with a scale or pit at base. Stamens numerous, 
 seldom few. Akenes numerous, flattened, ovate, pointed, in globular or cylin- 
 drical heads. Leaves mostly radical. Flowers terminal, solitary, or corymbose. 
 
 Buttercup, Crowfoot, Ranunculus. 
 
 Flowers in compound panicles, greenish or white. Sepals 4-.5-7, concave, 
 falling early. No petals. P'ilaments larger above, longer than sepals. 
 Numerous akenes, ribbed or swollen. Leaves u.«?ually ternately compound, 
 leaflets stalked. 
 
 Meadow Rue, Thalictrum. 
 
 Growing in wet places or in the water. Sepals golden yellow, .5-9. Petals 
 wanting. Leaves round, kidney-shaped, usually crenate, glabrous. Follicles 
 
 .5-10. 
 
 Cowslip, Marsh Marigold, Caltha. 
 
 Sepals 4, petal-like. Petals none. Akenes numerous. Styles feathery or 
 hairy. Leaves opposite, mostly climbers. 
 
 Virgin's Bower, Clematis. 
 
 12 
 
APOPETAI.OUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPEKMS. 13 
 
 OKDiiK II. BERBERIDACE^. 
 
 Herbs and shrubs. Parts of the perhiiith L'—'i-seriate. Stamens 
 opposite tlie petals. Anthers mostly valviihir. Carpel solitary, 
 1-celled. 
 
 Calyx of 6 sepals. Corolla of (5 petals. Anthers 6. Style 0. Berry 
 l-t-elled. 
 
 Barberry, Berberis. 
 Flowers white. Petals 6-9. Stamens 12-18. Anthers o))eiiin^ hy slits. 
 Leaves, two iu nuinl^er, alternate, .5-9-lol)etl. Lohes toothed. 
 
 May Apple, Mandrake, Podophyllum. 
 
 Order III. PAP AVERAGES. 
 
 Herbs with milky or colored juice. Flowers regular. Sepals 2, 
 rarely :5, falling off early. Petals 4-12. Stamens many. Syncarpous 
 ovary, 1-chambered. Placenti^ on the wall. 
 
 Leaves large, pinnate, and glaucous. Leaflets deep cut oi- toothed. Flowers 
 showy. Pods globose. .Juice milky. 
 
 Poppy, Papaver. 
 
 Order IV. CRUCIFERJ3. 
 
 Herbs. Sepals and petals growing in the form of a cross. Usually 
 stamens, 4 long and 2 shorter. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 united carpels. 
 
 Pods short, triangular; septum narrow; many-seeded. Flowers minute, 
 white. 
 
 Shepherd's Purse, Capsella. 
 Pods long, tapering, four-sided, beaked. Seeds globose, arranged in a row. 
 Flowers yellow. 
 
 Turnip, Mustard, Brassica. 
 Pods globose or egg-sha])ed. Seeds obovate, Hattened, arranged in two 
 rows in each cell. Leaves large, lower ones ))innate, upper ones entire. 
 
 Flowers white. 
 
 Horse Radish, Cochlearia. 
 
 Pods oval or elliittical, flat. l-.«jee(Ied. Valves boat-sliaped. Leaves thick, 
 large. Flowers small, yellow, and in terminal ])anicles. 
 
 "Woad, Isatis. 
 
 Pods round or oval. Sepals spreading. A'alves, convex, nerveless. Seeds 
 
 in two rows iu each cell. 
 
 "Water Cress, Nasturtium. 
 
 Order V. CAPPARIDACE^. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs, and trees. Flowers cruciate. Stamens 6 or more, 
 never tetradynamous. Ovary l-celle*d; two placent.T on the wall. 
 Leaves simple, or digitate, spiny. 
 
 Sepals 4. Petals 4, alternating with the st'pal>. Stamens numerous. Pistil 
 one, longer than the stamens. 
 
 Caper, Capparis. / 
 
14 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Order VI. VIOLACE^. 
 
 Herbs. Stamens 5, 2 of them with spurs. Flowers irregular. One 
 petal dissimilar, mostly prolonged into a hollow spur. Ovary free. 
 Fruit, a capsule. Placentae 3, on the wall. Leaves alternate. 
 
 Sepals with or without ears. Herbs acaulescent, or mth stems. Flowers 
 white, blue, yellow, or violet. Petals 5, one of which is broader thau the 
 others and prolonged into a spur. 
 
 Violet, Viola. 
 
 Order VII. BIXINE^. 
 
 Shrubs. Flowers usually regular, with many stamens, perfect, 
 axillary or terminal, solitary or fascicled, racemose or panicled. 
 Leaves alternate. 
 
 Sepals 5, fleshy, spatulate, eared, and some multiple of 5. Style thread- 
 like. Fruit 1-celled, in a bristled pod. 
 
 Annatto, Bixa. 
 
 Order VIII. TERNSTRCEMIACE^. 
 
 Shrubs and small trees. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, or 
 toothed, sometimes with pellucid dots. Flowers axillary or terminal. 
 
 Calyx 5-parted. Petals, 5 or more, united at base. Stamens numerous, 
 distinct, or united at their base into groups. 
 
 Tea, Thea. 
 
 Order IX. MALVACE^. 
 
 Herbs and shi-ubs. Leaves alternate, monadelphous. Petals 5, 
 large, twisted in the bud. Calyx cup-like, 5-toothed. Involucre 
 3-leaved. Styles united. Stigmas 3-5. 
 
 Capsules 3-5-celled, many-seeded. Seeds immersed in a wool-like sub- 
 stance, which is the cotton of commerce. 
 
 Cotton, Gossypium. 
 
 Order X. STERCULIACE-a]. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Like Malvaceae, except that the anthers are 
 extrorse and 2-celled. Capsules united into a 2-5-celled ovary. 
 
 Leaves large, evergreen, oblanceolate, alternate. Calyx 5-parted. Petals 
 5, cordate. Strap-shaped stamens, united at base, extending upwards in ten 
 divisions. Pistil thread-like. Fruit, in form and size like an ordinary cucum- 
 ber, 5-angled, warty, with 20-40 seeds imbedded in pulp. 
 
 Cocoa, Theobroma. 
 
 Order XL TILIACEJE. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Leaves alternate, occasionally opposite ; simple 
 or palmately lobed, coriaceous, stipulate. Fruit 2-10-celled. 
 
 Leaves alternate, serrate, stipulate. Calyx .5-parted. Petals alternating with 
 sepals. Stamens two or three times as many as the petals. Flowers solitarr 
 or in small terminal and bracteate cymes. 
 
 Yellow Jute, Corchorus. 
 
APOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS AXGIOSPERMS 15 
 
 Oki.kk XII. LINAGES. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers perfect, regular in teniiiiial racemes or corymbs. 
 Ovary 5-4-celled, or .spuriously 10-8-cellecl. Cells l?-ovuled. Styles 
 :)-5, free. Fruit a globular capsule. Seeds Hat. 
 
 Leaves sessile, eutire, simple, alternate, occasionally opposite. Calyx 5- 
 parted. Corolla, with 5 petals. Stamens 5. Styles 5, alternating. 
 
 Flax, liinum. 
 Sepals 5. Petals 5, witli a scale on the inner side of base. Stamens 
 10-12. Leaves alternate. Flowers axillary. Frnit a drupe. Shrub. 
 
 Coca, Erythroxylon. 
 
 Order XIII. ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 
 
 Trees, shrubs, and herbs. Flowers perfect, regular, or irregular, 
 axillary, solitary, or in twos. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, pentagonal, 
 5-celled. Cells 1-seeded. 
 
 Leaves, opposite, pinnate, stipulate, sometimes with spines. Calyx 5-parted. 
 Petals 5. Stamens 5-10. 
 
 Lignum- vitae, Guaiacum. 
 
 Order XIV. RUTACE^. 
 
 Small trees and shrubs. Flowers inferior or perigynous and fra- 
 grant. Sepals and petals imbricate, 4-5 in number. Fruit a berry. 
 Seed imbedded in juicy pulp. 
 
 Leaves ovate, alternate, frequently dotted, tapering to a point on a winged 
 petiole. Calyx 5-sepaled. Petals 5-10, white. Stamens numerous, and some 
 multiple of 5. Filaments flat at base, grouped in sets. 
 
 Orange, Lemon, Citrus. 
 
 Order XV. MELIACE^. 
 
 Trees. Flowers in axillary panicles or thjTses. Inferior. Sepals 
 and petals imbricate. Stamens united in a tube. Fruit pear-shaped, 
 woody, '] or 4 inches in diameter, 5-celled, 5-valved. Seeds numerous 
 and winged. 
 
 Leaves alternate, compound, with 4 pairs of leaflets, dark-green, shining ; 
 leaflets opposite, entire, ovate-lanceolate, unequal at base. Calyx 5-cleft. 
 Petals 5. Stamens 10, united into a tube with 10 teeth inclosing the anthers. 
 Style short. Stigma 5-rayed. 
 
 Mahogany, Swietenia. 
 
 Order XVI. ILICINE^. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Flowers perfect, small. Solitary or grouped 
 in the axils of the leaves. 4-b-parted. Fruit a drupaceous berry, 
 bright red, small, smooth. 
 
 Leaves alternate, oval, crenate. glos.sy, leathery, evergreen, darker above, 
 veined below. Calyx with 4 or 5 teeth. Corolla 4- or 5-eleft. wheel-shaped 
 Stamens 4 or .t. alternating with segments of corolla. 
 
 Paraguay Tea, Ilex. 
 
16 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Ordek XVII. RHAMNACE^. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Flowers small, in axillary clusters, perfect, reg- 
 ular, parts 4-5, frequently without petals. Fruit a 1-seeded capsule. 
 
 Leaves opposite or alternate. Calyx pitcher-shaped, or 4-5-cleft. Petals 
 notched, sometimes wanting. Yellow berries. 
 
 Buckthorn, Rhamnus. 
 Leaves ovate, acuminate, serrate, pubescent beneath, alternate and stipulate. 
 Calyx a semi-globular tube, with 5 segments. Petals clawed, rolled in at the 
 edges. Stamens witli ovate 2-celled anthers. Styles 3. Stigmas diverging. 
 Fruit 3-berried. 
 
 New Jersey Tea, Ceanothus. 
 
 Order XVIII. AMPELIDE^. 
 
 A woody vine. Flowers, in compound panicles, green, and opposite 
 the leaves. Stem climbing by tendrils. Fruit globular or elliptical, a 
 pulpy berry, with 4-5 seeds. 
 
 Leaves simple, alternate, stipuled, palmately veined. Tendrils opposite 
 leaves. Calyx small, 5-tootlied. Petals 5. Stamens 5. Stigma sessile. 
 
 Grape, Vitis. 
 
 Order XIX. SAPINDACE^. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Flowers polygamous or dioecious. Petals some- 
 times wanting. Ovary 2-lobed and 2-celled, 2 ovules in a cell, maturing 
 one seed in a cell. Fruit with 2 diverging wings. 
 
 Leaves opposite, lobed. Lobes toothed or cut. Calyx 5-parted. Petals 5 
 or 4-12. Stamens 4-12. Anthers 2-lobed. 
 
 Maple, Acer. 
 
 Order XX. ANACARDIACE^. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Flowers perfect, dioecious or monoecious, regular, 
 small, in spikes or panicles. Ovary 1-celled. Fruit a little globose 
 or kidney-shaped drupe. 
 
 Leaves alternate, simple or compound, with 8-15 pairs of sessile leaflets and 
 a terminal one whicli is petioled, all dark above, light below. Calyx with 5 
 small persistent sepals. Petals 5, ovate, spreading. Stamens .5-10 or none. 
 Styles 3, sometimes united. 
 
 Sumach, Rhus. 
 
 Leaves elliptical, green, leathery, alternate, obcordate, or deeply emarginate. 
 Calvx 5-toothed. Corolla 5-parte(l. Stamens 5. Styles 3. 
 
 Cashew Nut, Anacardium. 
 
 Order XXI. LEGUMINOS^. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs, and trees. Flowers regular or irregular, perfect 
 (usually axillary). Ovary superior, single. Fruit a legume. Seeu 
 Hat, kidney-shaped, or globular, with large embryo and no endosperm. 
 
 Leaves compound, bluish green, with a])Out 6 leaflets, and a terminal one. 
 Calyx 5 acute segments. Petals 5 ; .standard roundish, and emarginate ; keel 
 
APOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 17 
 
 spurred on each side, reflexed. Stameus 10, generally united, or 1 free. 
 Style simple. Pud many-seeded. 
 
 Indigo, Indigofera. 
 Leaves many, spreading. Leaflets in 7-12 pairs. Calyx tuljular, swollen, 
 with 5 short, nearly ecjual teeth. Petals long-clawed ; standard ovate or 
 pandurate ; wings une(|ual, keel shorter than wings. Stamens 10, 9 united, 
 1 free. Ovary sessile. Ovules manv, in 2 series. Style straight. Stigma 
 small. 
 
 Gum Tragacanth, Astragalus. 
 Leaflets 2 pairs. Calyx of staminate flower, a slender tube. Limb 2-lipped, 
 upper lij) 4-tootheil. Corolla resu]»inate. Stamens 10, 9 united, 1 al)ortive. 
 Pistillate flowers. Calyx and corolla none. Ovary on a peduncle, lengthening 
 downwards, forcing the pollenized pistil under ground. Legume usually with 
 '2 ovoid seeds. 
 
 Peanut, Arachis. 
 Stem weak. Leaves of several pairs of oblong leaflets, with a branched 
 tendril. Flowers in a raceme. Pods short, broad. Seeds lens-shaped. 
 
 Lentil, Lens. 
 Leaves in 2-3 jjairs, of elliptical, entire, obtuse, mucronate leaflets, stalk 
 terminating in long branched tendrils. Stipules large. Calyx free, leafy 
 segments, 2 shorter. Petals 5, upper one broad, and turned back. Stameus 
 10, 9 united, 1 free. Pods oblong. Seeds globular. 
 
 Pea, Pisum. 
 
 Leaves trifoliate. Flowers white in racemes. Calyx with two bracts at 
 base, bell-shaped, 2-li])ped, upper lip bifid. Corolla with a beaked keel, which 
 with the stamens and style is spirally twisted. Pods linear, curved, flat or 
 cylindric. Seed kidney-shaped. 
 
 Bean, Phaseolus. 
 Leaves imparipinnate. Anther cells confluent. Pods prickly, short, almost 
 indehiscent. 
 
 Liquorice, Glyccyrhiza. 
 Leaves in 4 or .5 pairs of irregular obcordate leaflets. Flowers in terminal 
 spikes. Calyx cup-shaped, hemispherical. Sepals 5, imbricated. 'Corolla 
 papilionaceous. Stameus 10, 5 shorter. Ovary free, 2-ovuled. Pods fur- 
 nished with lauce-shaped, flattened beans. 
 
 Logwood, Haematoxylon. 
 Leaves alternate, in 4-6 pairs of leaflets. Sepals barely united at base. 
 Petals 5, unequal. Stamens .5-10, some imperfect. Pods many-seeded, with 
 cross partitions. Flowers yellow. 
 
 Senna, Cassia. 
 Calyx 5 segments. Petals 0. Stamens 5. Anther pods opening lengthwise. 
 Styles short. Stigma peltate. Leaves abruptly pinnate. Sti])ules minute or 
 0. Flowers in short racemes. 
 
 Carob Tree, Ceratonia. 
 Leaves unecjually pinnate or solitary. Flowers papilionaceous, white. 
 Calyx unecpially .'i-toothed ; standard obovate or orbicular, wings oblong 
 ' I'uit. Stamens 10 or 9-bifid-didymous. Ovary stipitate. Ovules 2 or more. 
 Pods oblong linear, flat, thin. 
 
 Rosewood, Dalbergia. 
 Leaves bipinnate. Calyx tube short ; 5 segments. Petals 5, orbiculatc. 
 Stamens 10. Seeds transverse. 
 
 Brazil Wood, Caesalpinia. 
 Pr. Fl. — 3 ^ 
 
18 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Leaves alternate, stipules falling; 8-16 pairs of leaflets, small, crowded 
 oblong, blunt, unequal. Calyx funnel-sliaped, segments ovate, lance-shaped, 
 acute. Petals 3, 1 posterior, 2 lateral, yellowish-white, with red veins. 
 Stamens 3, filaments long and free. Ovary stalked, 1 -celled. Ovules many. 
 Style long and hooked. Pods long, flat, broad, curved, three strong woody 
 fibers extending from end to end, along the pulp with which the pod is filled. 
 Seeds 2-8, Large, flat. 
 
 Tamarind, Tamarindus. 
 
 Leaves alternate or fascicled, bipinnate, rhachis slender, tomentose, ending 
 in a gland with one also at the base. Flowers perfect or polygamous, small, 
 in heads or spikes. Calyx 4-5-toothed. Petals united below. Stamens free, 
 or united below, many longer than petals. Style thread-like. Pods 2-valved, 
 sometimes indehiscent, flat, or cyliudric. Seeds many, flat. 
 
 Gum Arabic, Acacia. 
 
 Order XXII. ROSACEA. 
 
 Trees, shrubs, and herbs. Flowers perfect, regular, terminal, soli- 
 tary, cymose, or in umbels. Sepals 5 or less, united. Petals 5 or 0. 
 Stamens many, in series, free or cohering, inserted with the sepals 
 on the disk. Seeds 1 or few in each carpel. Leaves alternate and 
 stipulate. 
 
 Leaves compound, of 1-2 pairs of leaflets and a terminal one, blunt at 
 base, sharp at apex, white or glaucous below, darker above. Calyx and 
 corolla 5-parted. Stamens many. Ovaries many. Akenes little drupes, 
 pulpy, aggregated on a succulent receptacle. 
 
 Raspberry, Rubus. 
 
 Leaves on long radical petioles, trifoliate, pubescent, dentate, lateral leaf- 
 lets oblique, nearly sessile. Flowers in cymes, stalk hairy. Calyx concave, 
 deeply cleft. Sepals 5, with 5 alternate bractlets. Petals obcordate, white, 
 large. Stamens many. Styles numerous, akenes naked on the surface of a 
 suhglolrular, heart-sliaped, pulpy, edible receptacle. 
 
 Strawberry, Fragaria. 
 
 Leaves 3-5-foliate. Stipules subulate. Leaflets ovate or oblong-lanceolate, 
 villous beneath, petioles and midrib aculeate. Flowers in a raceme, white. 
 Fruit ovoid, oblong, or cylindric, changing from green to red and black when 
 ripe. 
 
 Blackberry, Rubus. 
 
 Leaves oblong, linear or lanceolate, tapering to the base, serrate and glal)rous. 
 Flowers solitary or in twos or threes, appearing before the leaves. Fruit a 
 smooth drupe. Stone smooth, flattened. 
 
 Plum, Prunus. 
 
 Leaves conduplicate in the bud. Flowers with the leaves, in racemes or 
 umbels. Fruit smooth, globular. Stone smooth, globular. 
 
 Cherry, Prunus. 
 Leaves convolute. Flowers solitary or in pairs. Fruit a drupe, soft, velvety. 
 Stone smooth, and flattened. 
 
 Apricot, Prunvis. 
 
 Leaves as above. Flowers solitary, rose-colored. Fruit a tomentose drupe. 
 Stone flattened and corrugated, or wrinkled. 
 
 Peach, Prunus. 
 
APOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 19 
 
 Leaves conduplicate, appearing after the flowers. Fruit a tomeutose drupe. 
 Stone furrowed and flattened. 
 
 Almond, Prunus. 
 
 Leaves ovate, serrate, acute, crenate, woolly underneath, glabrou.s above. 
 Flowers in corymbs, roseate, appearing with the leaves. Fruit a fleshy pome. 
 Carpels 5 or 2, inclosed in the fleshy calyx-tube. 
 
 Apple, Pear, Pyrus. 
 
 Leaves oblong or broad, ovate, blunt at base and sharp at apex. Seeds 5 or 
 more. 
 
 Quince, Pyrus. 
 
 Order XXIII. SAXIFRAGACEiE. 
 
 Shrubs and herb.s. Flowers perfect, regular. Sepals, petals, and 
 stamens 4-5. Stamens alternating with petals. Leaves alternate or 
 opposite. Fruit capsular or berry-shaped. 
 
 Leaves 3-5-lobed, smooth above, pubescent below, unequally toothed. 
 Flowers in pendent racemes. Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, 5-toothed. 
 Petals 5. Stamens 5, alternating with petals. Fruit a many-seeded berry. 
 
 Currant, Ribes. 
 Leaves as above, villose. Flowers solitary or in twos. Fruit a globular or 
 ellipsoidal many-seeded berry. 
 
 Gooseberry, Ribes. 
 
 Order XXIV. COMBRETACE^. 
 
 Shrubs and trees. Flowers perfect, or imperfect by arrest, in 
 axillary or terminal spikes, or racemes. A bract to each flower, also 
 two lateral opposite bractlets. Leaves alternate or opposite. 
 
 Leaves simple. Calyx tube cylindric, adhering to ovary limb, l)ell-shaped, 
 4-5-toothed. Corolla 0. Stamens 10, on the calyx. Ovary inferior. Fruit 
 a drupe, size of a prune. 
 
 Myrobalans, Terminalia. 
 
 Order XXV. MYRTACE^. 
 
 Trees. Flowers perfect, superior, regular, axillary or in spikes, 
 cymes, corymbs, or panicles. Stamens numerous. Leaves opposite 
 or whorled, entire, exstipulate. Fruit a berry or capsule, 2- or more- 
 celled, 1-many-seeded. The Periwinkle (Vinca) of Apocynacefe is 
 often incorrectly called myrtle. 
 
 Leaves opposite, with punctured spots, ovate, lanceolate, evergreen. Calyx 
 4-6-parted, tube attached to ovary. Petals 4-6, together with the many sta- 
 mens inserted in the neck of the calyx. Filaments free. Style solitary. Seeds 
 on a central column. 
 
 Myrtle, Myrtus. 
 
 Leaves opposite, entire, dotted with pellucid spots. Calyx 4-r)-partod. Petals 
 4-5, free or united. Stamens numerous, on tlie throat of the calyx. Flowers 
 in cymes, or cyme-like ])anicles, 2-bracted, white or purple. Fruit olive- 
 shaped, but smaller. Seed solitary. 
 
 Cloves, Eugenia. 
 
20 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Leaves opposite, evergreen, lanceolate, blunt, prominently veined. Calyx 
 and corolla 5-parted. Stamens numerous. Style simple. Fruit a berry, with 
 2 or more cells. 
 
 Allspice, Eugenia. 
 
 Leaves 2-3 feet long, broad, leathery, and prominently veined beneath. 
 Calyx 4-parted. Corolla composed of 4 fleshy petals. Stamens united at base 
 in 5 concentric circles. Filaments short. Stigma sessile, and cruciform. 
 Ovary inferior 4-5-celled. Flowers in terminal panicles. Fruit 3-5 inches in 
 diameter, globular. Nuts numerous, obovoid, triangular. 
 
 Brazil Nut, Bertholletia. 
 
 Order XXVI. LYTHRACE^. 
 
 Tropical trees. Flowers perfect, symmetrical, calyx inclosing ovary, 
 but free. Leaves mostly opposite, entire. Fruit hard. Seeds many. 
 
 Leaves opposite, or fascicled, on short stalks. Calyx large, broadly tubular, 
 thick and leathery. Lobes 5-7, triangular, acute, smooth, valvate. Petals 
 5-7 on the calyx, spreading, imbricated, crumpled, crimson. Stamens many 
 on the calyx tube beneath the petals. Style tapering. Stigma simple. 
 
 Pomegranate, Punica. 
 
 Order XXVII. CUCURBITACE^. 
 
 Herbs. Weak, long prostrate stems, creeping over ground. Flowers 
 monoecious or dioBcious, seldom perfect, solitary or fascicled, white or 
 yellow, bell-shaped. 
 
 Leaves large, angularly lobed. Calyx tubular, bell-shaped, with 5 long 
 teeth. Petals 5, attached to calyx. Stamens 5, in 3 groups. Stigmas 3. 
 Fruit cylindrical, many-seeded. Seeds whitish, flat. 
 
 Cucumber, Cucumis. 
 
 Leaves heart-shaped or reniform, 3-5 inches long. Flowers as above. 
 Fruit globular, sometimes a prolate spheroid, but usually flattened at the 
 poles, and ribbed. Seeds many, flat. 
 
 Muskmelon, Cucumis. 
 Leaves 3-6 inches long, loted. Lobes pinnately divided, glaucous beneath. 
 Calyx, corolla, and stamens as above. Fruit globular, or shaped like a 
 prolate spheroid, 6 inches to 2 feet in length, and 6-15 inches in diameter. 
 Seeds many, flat. 
 
 "Watermelon, CitruUus. 
 Leaves 5-angled, heart-shaped. Calyx, corolla, and stamens as above. 
 Fruit wheel-shaped, and dished about the stem, convex on the opposite side. 
 
 Squash, Cucurbita. 
 Leaves broad, heart-shaped, or reniform. Calyx egg-shaped. Corolla bell- 
 shaped. Petals united half way. Flowers monoecious, axillary. Fruit globu- 
 lar, flattened, or prolonged at the poles. Seeds many, flat. 
 
 Pumpkin, Cucurbita. 
 
 Order XXVIII. UMBELLIFER^. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers small, 5-parted, superior in simple or compound 
 umbels. Calyx lobes minute. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit, 2 dry inde- 
 hiscent akenes, each akene with 5 primary, and often 4 secondary 
 ribs. 
 
SYMPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 21 
 
 Leaves pinnate or serrate. Calyx teetli 0. Petals white, base of style flat. 
 Carpels nearly straight ; umbels opposite leaves. 
 
 Celery, Apium. 
 Leaves decompound. Calyx teeth 0. Petals white. Carpophore 2-cleft. 
 Bracts of involucre few, small or 0. 
 
 Anise, Pimpinella. 
 Leaves triangular in outline, 3-4 times pinnate, divisions bristly ; foot-stalks 
 short and clasping. *-Elowers bright yellow ; pedicels short ; umbels large, 
 10-30 rayed. Involucre 0. Calyx, limb indistinct. Petals roundish, obovate, 
 entire, truncate. 
 
 Fennel, Foeniculum. 
 
 Leaves decompound near tlie root, numerous on the stem, alternate ; lower 
 
 ones bipinuate, sheathing. Sheaths larger near the middle of stem. Calyx 
 
 entire, or barely toothed. Petals broad, acuminate, sliort, and turned in. 
 
 Fruit orbicular or egg-shaped. Flowers yellow, common. Involucre falling. 
 
 Asafoetida, Ferula. 
 Leaves pinnate, stem channelled. Flowers yellow. Fruit flattened. Base 
 of style flat. 
 
 Parsnip, Peucedanum. 
 Secondary ribs most prominent. Flowers white. Fruit glol)ose. No pri- 
 mary involucre, bracts of secondary involucre thread-like. 
 
 Coriander, Coriandrum, 
 Leaves long-stalked and clasping below, sessile above, ternately divided. 
 Calyx teeth bristle-like, outer ones longer. Petals deeply 2-lobed. Style 
 short, erect. Flowers white or rose-colored, few ; umbels stalked, irregular, 
 few-rayed. General involucre composed of a few long, spreading, and de- 
 flexed narrow, stiff, 3-parted, or entire bracts. Involucels 2-4; small bracts. 
 
 Cumin, Cuminum. 
 Fruit oblong ovate, bristly. Bracts of involucre dissected. 
 
 Carrot, Caucus. 
 Leaves pinnate. l*etals white, notched. Base of style conical. Carpophore 
 2-cleft. Fruit oblong ovate. 
 
 Parsley, Carum. 
 
 Sympetalcp. 
 
 Order XXIX. RUBIACE^. 
 
 Trees, shrubs, and herbs. Flowers perfect, seldom unisexual, mostly 
 regular. Calyx tubular, 4-5-toothed or 0. Petals united, limb 4-5- 
 parted, valvate in the bud. Stamens 4-5 on tube of corolla. Ovary- 
 inferior. Style simple. Leaves opposite or whorled. 
 
 Leaves opposite, ellii)tical, entire, smooth above, hairy beneatli. Calyx 
 cup-shaped, 5-toothed. Corolla tubular, limb 5-parted. Stamens epipetalous 
 Pistil divided at top. Cap.^ule 2-celled, opening at base. Flowers panicled 
 and pinkish. Fruit winged. 
 
 Peruvian Bark, Cinchona. 
 
 Leaves elliptical, lanceolate, crenate, or wavy, opposite and evergreen. 
 Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Corolla funnel-shaped, liml) divided into .5 reflexed 
 lanceolate divisions. Flowers white, in axillary, nearly sessile clusters. Fruit 
 a dark-red berry, cherry-shaped. Seeds imbedded in a glutinous pulp, 2 in 
 number, plano-convex, grooved on the longer axis of the plane. 
 
 Coffee, Coffea. 
 
22 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Leaves opposite, 6 in number, oblong, obovate, acute, entire, 4-6 inches 
 long, 1-2 wide, rough above, downy and veined below. Stipules clasping, 
 much divided. Calyx bell-shaped, toothed. Corolla tubular, inflated at throat, 
 5-parted. Stamens 5, stigma bifid. Flowers in a head, enveloped in .5 leaves. 
 Berry 2-seeded. 
 
 Ipecacuanha, Cephaelis. 
 
 Stems weak, 4-augled, trailing and clambering. Leaves in whorls of 6, 
 lanceolate, midrib and margins aculeate. Calyx tube egg-shaped, 5-toothed. 
 Corolla rotate, 5-parted. Stamens .5, short. Styles 2, united at l)ase. Fruit 
 berry-like, in twos, subglobular. Flowers brownish-yellow, terminal, in 
 twos. 
 
 Madder, Rubia. 
 
 Order XXX. C0MP0SIT.a3. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers collected into dense heads surrounded by an in- 
 volucre. Calyx tube attached to the ovary. Limb consisting of bristles 
 (pappus), awns, or scales, or a cup. Corolla tubular or funnel-shaped, 
 lobed or strap-like. Stamens equal to lobes of corolla, usually 5. 
 Style bifid at top. Ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled. Fruit an akene. Herb 
 with stout stem. 
 
 Leaves alternate, clasping above, petioled near the root. Ovate, rough, 
 downy underneath, very large, 2 feet long, serrate, midrib large. Heads 
 large, involucre imbricated, outer scales leaf-like. Ray flowers, pistillate, 
 yellow. Disk flowers perfect. 
 
 Elecampane, Inula. 
 
 Stems, 6 to 12 inches high, perennial. Leaves 1-2 inches long, sessile 
 divisions linear. Flower-heads terminal, on long axillary pedicels. Rays 
 white. Floral envelope hemispherical. Rays many and pistillate. Recep- 
 tacle convex. 
 
 Camomile, Anthemis. 
 
 Stems 18 inches high. Leaves smooth, bipinnate. Segments of pinnae 
 acute. Ray florets 20-30 pale pink, ligulate nerved and 3-toothed. Disk 
 florets numerous, 4-5-toothed. Receptacle flat or convex. Scales short. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum. 
 
 Stems 2 to 3 feet high, strong, angular, and branched. Leaves alter 
 nate, clasping, bipinnate. Segments oblong, cut, and serrate. Heads in 
 corymbose cymes. Staminate flowers in the central part of the pistillate, with 
 a tubular 3-5 -toothed corolla. Seed-vessel ribbed, 3-5 ridges. 
 
 Tansy, Tanacetum. 
 
 Stems 3 to 4 feet high, smooth, much branched. Leaves ovate, lanceolate, 
 sessile, and subclasping. Teeth armed with sharp spines. Flowers orange- 
 colored. Heads discoid, involucre imbricated, outer bracts leaf-like. Florets 
 
 tubular, perfect. 
 
 Safiaower, Carthamus. 
 
 Order XXXI. CAMPANULACE^. 
 
 Herb varying from 8 inches to 2 feet high, simple or liranched, pubescent. 
 Leaves alternate, ovate, or lanceolate, irregularly toothed. Flowers blue, red, 
 or white. Pods inflated. 
 
 Indiar Tobacco, Lobelia. 
 
SYMPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS AXGIOSPERMS. 23 
 
 Order XXXIL VACCINIACE^. 
 
 Shrill), 1 to 8 feet high, branching. Leaves alternate. Plovvers white or 
 reddish, small, in lateral bracted racemes. Calyx adherent, 5-toothed. Fruit 
 a black or dark-blue berry, globular, 10-celled, 10-seeded. 
 
 Huckleberry, Gaylussacia. 
 Herb, stem slender, 1 to 5 feet in length, prostrate, throwing up assurgent 
 branches. Leaves one half an inch long, elliptical. Calyx 4-parted ; anthers 
 twice as long as filaments. Fruit a berry, varying from bell-shape to globular. 
 
 Cranberry, Oxycoccus. 
 
 Order XXXIII. SAPOTACE^. 
 
 Tree, 60 to 70 feet high, 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Leaves alternate, stipules 
 falling ; petioles long, stout, thickened at base ; blade obovate oblong, 
 leathery, clothed beneath with rusty yellow short woolly pubescence. Flowers 
 axillary, stalked. 
 
 Gutta Percha, Dichopsis. 
 
 Order XXXIV. EBENACE^. 
 
 Tree, 30 to 50 feet high, 10 to 18 inches in diameter. Leaves elliptical, 
 bluntly acuminate, entire, dark-green, paler underneath. Flowers dioecious 
 and polygamous, 4-6-lobed. Corolla bel]-shai)ed, 4-6-parted, rolled together 
 in the bud. Stamens 4-8 or numerous. Calyx an inch or more in diameter, 
 fleshy and persistent. Fruit globular, 4-8-celled, 8-12-seeded. 
 
 Persimmon, Ebony, Diospyros. 
 
 Order XXXV. OLEACE.^. 
 
 Small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height, much branched. Leaves lanceolate, entire, 
 deep-green above, light, hoary, beneath, and evergreen. Flowers axillary, in 
 short compact racemes. Small and white calyx, short, 4-toothed, persistent. 
 Tube of corolla short, limb 4-parted. Fruit a fleshy oily drupe. 
 
 Olive, Olea. 
 
 Order XXXVI. LOGANIACE^. 
 
 Small tree, 20 to 30 feet high. Bark smooth, gray, much branched ; branches 
 swollen or knotted at the nodes. Leaves 5-nerved, with 2 ribs each, side of 
 midrib extending from base to apex ; oA^ate pointed. Calyx somewhat bell- 
 shaped, with 4 lobes which just meet. Stamens 4 or 5 on the corolla. Filaments 
 short, attached to the back of the antliers. Fruit globular, size of a medium- 
 sized orange, rind hard, smooth, yellow, inclosing a fleshy pulp in which are 
 imbedded a numl)er of flat circular seeds, concave on one side and convex on 
 the other, an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch thick. Wood hard 
 and bitter. 
 
 Nux Vomica, Strychnos. 
 
 Order XXXVII. BORRAGINACE^. 
 
 Herb, 4 feet high, l)ranching near the top. Leaves large, coarse, pctioled, 
 lower ones broad, lanceolate. Flowers in terminal racemes. Calyx 5-parted. 
 Corolla tubular, bell-shaped. 
 
 Comfrey, Symphytum. 
 
24 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Order XXXVIII. CONVOLVULACE^. 
 
 Herb, stem trailing. Calyx 5-parted. Corolla bell-shaped ; limb spreading. 
 Stamens 5 within the tube. Style simple. Stigma capitate, 2-lobed. Capsule 
 4-celled, 4-valved, 4-seeded. Juice milky. 
 
 Sweet Potato, Ipomoea. 
 
 Order XXXIX. SOLANACE^. 
 
 Herb. Calyx 5-6-parted. Corolla rotate, tube short. Stamens 5-6, ex- 
 serted. Anthers connate, dehiscing lengthwise. Berry many-seeded. 
 
 Tomato, Lycopersicum. 
 Herb. Calyx urn-shaped, 5-toothed. Corolla funnel-shaped, 5-lobed. Sta- 
 mens 5. Capsules 2-celled, 2-4-valved. Flowers terminal. 
 
 Tobacco, Nicotiana. 
 Herb, 2 to 5 feet high, 3-forked. Leaves in pairs, unequal, entire, pointed. 
 Petioles short, 8-12 inches long. Flowers large, axillary, pendent, brownish 
 purple. Calyx leafy, 5-parted. Corolla bell-shaped, 5-cleft. Stamens shorter 
 than the corolla. Fruit a berry, globular, 2-celled, black when ripe. 
 
 Deadly Nightshade, Atropa. 
 Herb, 18 to 30 inches high, smooth, branching. Leaves ovate, smooth, 
 entire. Flowers solitary, axillary, white. Calyx tubular, with 5 small divisions. 
 Corolla wheel-shaped, in 5 lapping pointed divisions. Fruit a berry, with an 
 inflated pericarp, globose, conical, or oblong, solitary or in pairs. 
 
 Red Pepper, Cayenne Pepper, Capsicum. 
 Herb, erect, prostrate, or assurgent. Stem 2-4 feet long, angular, and 
 branched towards the top. Leaves interruptedly pinnate, every alternate pair 
 of leaflets very small. Flowers blue or white. Calyx persistent, 5-parted. 
 Corolla rotate, bell-shaped, tube short ; limb 5-cleft. Anthers connivent. Fruit 
 a globular berry, 2-celled, many-seeded, roots swelling into tubers. 
 
 Potato, Solanum 
 
 Order XL. PEDALINE^. 
 
 Herb. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple exstipulate. Flowers perfect, 
 irregular, axillary, solitary, racemed or spiked, usually with two bracts. 
 Calyx 5-lobed, sometimes split on one side. Corolla sympetalous. Tube 
 cylindrical. Stamens 5 on the corolla, 1 sterile, 4 fertile ones didymous. 
 Ovary superior, 1-2-4-celled. Fruit a drupe. 
 
 Sesame, Sesamum. 
 
 Order XLI. VERBENACE^. 
 
 Tree, 80 to 150 feet high, 3 to 6 feet in diameter, branchlets 4-sided. Leaves 
 opposite on ternate verticils, rough above, doAvny beneath, entire. 1-2 feet 
 long, 6-18 inches wide. Flowers small, sessile, white, in terminal compound 
 dichotomous panicles. Fruit lens-shaped, 4-celled drupe. Calyx bell-shaped, 
 short, 5-6-cleft. Tube swollen below, contracted near the mouth. Corolla 
 tube short, limb gaping, 5-6-cleft, lobes short. vStamens 5-6, attached to 
 corolla near the ba.se. 
 
 Teak, Tectona. 
 
 Order XLII. LABIATE. 
 
 Herb, 15 to 20 inches high or more, branching near the ground. Leaves 
 crowded near base of branches, whitish, downy, oblanceolate, tapering to the 
 
SYMPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 25 
 
 base, sessile, revolute, upper ones narrow. Flowers in an interrupted spike. 
 Calyx spindle-shaped, 13-15 strife, 5-tootlied, upper tootli largest. Corolla 
 tube exserted, upper lip 2-lobed, lower one 3-lobed. Stamens shorter than 
 corolla. 
 
 Lavender, Lavandula. 
 
 Herb, 12 to 20 inches high, from a creeping root. Leaves opposite, wrinkled, 
 sub-sessile, lanceolate acute, cut serrate. Bracts narrow, lanceolate, bristly. 
 Flowers in verticils, small, crowded, short-stalked. Calyx 5-toothed. Corolla 
 4-cleft, a little longer than calyx. Whole plant possesses a strong, agree- 
 able odor. 
 
 Spearmint, Pennyroyal, Mentha. 
 
 Herb, 1 to 2 feet high, hairy, purple, leafy, and branched above. Leaves 
 opposite, nearly entire, sprinkled with resinous dots. Flowers in a terminal 
 3-forked panicle, in globular compact heads. Calyx egg-shaped, obscurely 
 13-nerved, 5-toothed, throat hairy. Corolla 2-lipped, upper one notched, lower 
 longer, 3-lobed. Stamens 4, ascending and spreading. 
 
 Marjoram, Origanum. 
 
 Herb, 12 inches high, slender, woody branches. Leaves sessile, linear- 
 lanceolate or ovate, revolute, hoary beneath. Flowers small, purple, in ter- 
 minal globose heads. Calyx bilabiate, 10-13 strite, 5-toothed, 3 upper teeth 
 short, lower pair linear. Corolla 2-lipped, upper lip notched, loAter one 
 3-lobed, middle one sometimes larger. Stamens 4, exserted. 
 
 Sweet Thyme, Thymus. 
 
 Herb, 1 to 2 feet high, woody. Leaves elliptical, wrinkled, crenulate. Flowers 
 in two opposite sets of 10-12 flowers. Calyx striate, 2-lipped, upper lip 3- 
 toothed or entire, lower one bifid. Corolla 2-lipped, gaping, sometimes notched, 
 lower one 3-lobed. The cross filament has a perfect half-anther on one end 
 and a defective half-anther on the other. 
 
 Sage, Salvia. 
 
 Shrub, 4 feet high, much branched, hairy branchlets 4-sided and downy. 
 Leaves opposite, an inch long, narrow, linear, obtuse, entire, revolute, dark- 
 green above, smooth and shiny, woolly, veined, and silvery l)eneath. Flowers 
 axillary and terminal, blue. Calyx bell-shaped, a little flattened, 2-lipped, 
 upper lip minutely 3-toothed. Corolla gaping, downy, pale-blue, variegated 
 with purj)le and white, tube longer than calyx ; upper lip bifid, lower one slit 
 into 3 segments, middle segment larger. Four nutlets at bottom of calyx. 
 
 Rosemary, Rosmarinus. 
 
 Herb, 3 feet high, square, branched, hoary. Leaves cordate, crenate, 
 toothed, and petioled, hoary. Flowers in large hoary spikes, whorled, white 
 or purplish. Calyx cylindrical, 5-toothed, marked with 15 strire. Corolla 
 slender below, swollen in the throat, upper lip emarginate, lower one spread 
 ing; 3-lobed, middle lobe largest, crenate, marked with crimson dots. AVhole 
 plant giving off a pleasant odor. 
 
 Catnip, Nepeta. 
 
 Herb, 12 to 18 inches in height, many stems from same root, whole plant 
 hoary. Leaves ovate, rounded at base, crenate, toothed, wrinkled, and woolly. 
 P^lowers white, se.ssile, in den.se globose verticils. Calyx tubular, woolly, 
 5-10-toothed, with a corresponding luimber of stria\ Corolla 2-lip])ed. upper 
 lip erect, sometimes divided ; lower one spreading, 3-lobed ; middle lobe 
 largest and notched. 
 
 Hoarhcund, Marrubium. 
 
26 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Apetalce. 
 
 Order XLIII. CHENOPODIACE^. 
 
 Herb, 2 to 5 feet high, angled and branched. Leaves alternate, 6-15 inches 
 long, 4 to 8 inches wide, upper ones smaller ; dingy copper-color to dark-pur- 
 ple ; ovate lanceolate or spatulate. Flowers greenish-white in slender spikes, 
 arranged in leafy panicles. Calyx hollow and contracted at the mouth, 5-cleft, 
 persistent, becoming hardened at the base. Stamens 5. Stigmas 2. Seeds 
 rugose or wrinkled. Root conical or napiform. 
 
 Beet, Beta. 
 
 Herb, 18 to 24 inches high, slightly branched or simple. Leaves alternate, 
 petioled, 3-5 inches long, frequently hastate and lanceolate. Flowers dicecious, 
 bractless, axillary, clustered, staminate flowers with a 4-5-parted calyx. Calyx 
 of the fertile flower tubular, swelled in the middle, 3-toothed. Ovary egg- 
 shaped, 1 -celled, 1-ovuled, with 4 lengthened stigmas. Fruit 1-seeded, included 
 within the hardened 2-4-horned calyx. Seeds flattened. 
 
 Spinach, Spinacia. 
 
 Order XLIV. POLYGONACE-ffi. 
 
 Herb, I to 3 feet high, furrowed, stout, and hollow. Leaves cordate, trian- 
 gular, or hastate. Flowers in terminal and axillary racemes, rose-colored or 
 white. Calyx composed of 5 colored, equal sepals. Stamens 8. Styles 3. 
 Fruit with three triangular faces. 
 
 Buckwheat, Fagopyrum. 
 
 Herb, 4 feet high, furrowed, stout, hollow. Leaves stipulate, large, sheath- 
 ing, entire, cordate, smooth, upper leaves smaller. Flowers in racemose, panicu- 
 late fascicles. Calyx colored. Sepals 6, in double series, persistent. Stamens 9. 
 Akenes 3-angled, edges winged. Root large, fleshy, yellow within. 
 
 E-hubarb, Rheum. 
 
 Order XLV. PIPERACE^. 
 
 Shrub, 5 to 8 feet long, climbing, nodes swollen. Leaves opposite, ovate, 
 cordate, uneven at base, leathery, glossy above, 5-7-nerved, 5 inches long. 
 Flowers without perianth. Stamens 2-4 or 5. Ovary 1 -celled. Stigmas 2-5. 
 Fruit a small berry, globular or egg-shaped. Tropical and subtropical. 
 
 Pepper, Piper. 
 
 Order XLVL MYRISTICACE^. 
 
 Trees and shrubs. Juice astringent, turning red when exposed to the air. 
 Leaves alternate, coriaceous, simple, entire, penninerved, clothed with hairs 
 or scales. Flowers dicecious, axillary, inconspicuous, white or yellow, in 
 racemes, panicles, or heads, with a solitary bract. Staminate flowers with 3- 
 1 5 stamens, monadelphous, filaments united into a column. Pistillate flowers 
 with a solitary carpel. Seed-vessel fleshy. Seed enveloped in a laciniate 
 aromatic aril. 
 
 Nutmeg, Myristica. 
 
 Order XLVIL LAURACEJE. 
 
 Tree, 30 to 80 feet high, 1 to 2 feet in diameter. Leaves alternate, bright- 
 green above, glaucous beneath, evergreen, thick. Flowers small, in cymes, 
 
 ^••OFERTV OF 
 
 umKti 
 
APKTAL0U8 DICOTYLKDOXOUIS ANGlOSPEKMiS. 27 
 
 perfect or polygamous. Receptacle funnel-shaped, perianth in 6 parts. 
 Stamens 12, 3 of which are sterile. Fruit a berry. 
 
 Camphor Tree, Cinnamon, Cinnamomum. 
 
 Order XL VIII. SANTALACE.^. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs, and trees, frequently parasitic. The Santaluni is a large 
 tree, of Southern Asia. Leaves opposite, oblong, entire, penninerved in 5 
 pairs. Stamens equal to sepals, and opposite to them. Ovary inferior. Fruit 
 dry, 1-seeded. Flowers terminal. 
 
 Sandal-wood, Santalum. 
 
 Order XLIX. EUPHORBIACE^. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs, and trees. Juice milky, acrid, sometimes watery and pois- 
 onous. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite or whorled, sometimes very small. 
 Flowers with single, double, or no perianth. 
 
 Spurge, Euphorbia. 
 
 Caoutchouc, Hevea. 
 
 Box, Buxus. 
 
 Croton-oil Plant, Croton. 
 
 Tapioca, Manihot. 
 
 Castor-oil Plant, Ricinus. 
 
 Order L. URTICACE^. 
 
 Trees, shrubs, and herbs. Flowers diclinous. Stamens as many as the 
 calyx lobes, and opposite to them. Ovary 1 -celled. Style simple or 2-cleft. 
 Sap of trees milky or watery. Leaves alternate and stipulate ; stipules 
 falling. 
 
 Mulberry, Morus. 
 
 Elm, Ulmus. 
 
 Hop, Humulus. 
 
 Fig, Ficus. 
 
 Hemp, Cannabis. 
 
 Order LL JUGLANDACE^. 
 
 Trees. Flowers diclinous, perianth of staminate flower a scale ; that 
 of pistillate flower 2-4-toothed. Ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled. Fruit a drupe. 
 Endocarp 2-valved. Leaves pinnate, stijjulate. 
 
 Butternut, Walnut, Juglans. 
 
 Hickory nut, Pecan Nut, Hicoria. 
 
 Order LII. CUPULIFER^. 
 
 Trees. Staminate flowers with an une(|ually lol)ed calyx. Calyx of pistillate 
 flowers 6-toothed. Ovary 2-6-cellod. Fruit one to three 1-seeded nuts in an 
 involucre. Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate. 
 
 Chestnut, Castanea. 
 
 Oak, Quercus. 
 
 Hazelnut, Corylus. 
 
 Beech, Fagus. 
 
28 SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND GENERA. 
 
 Order LIII. SALICACE-ffl. 
 
 Shrubs and trees. Flowers in a catkin. Dioecious. Stigma 2-3-lobed. 
 Leaves alternate, stipulate. 
 
 Willow, Osier, Salix. 
 
 Class II. MONCOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Leaves parallel- veined. 
 
 Order LIV. ORCHIDACE^. 
 
 A woody vine. Flowers perfect, but very irregular in form. Stem climb- 
 ing, 16 to 20 feet long. I'ruit 6 to 10 inches in length. 
 
 Vanilla, Vanilla. 
 
 Order LV. ZINGIBERACE^. 
 
 Herbs. Flower perfect, irregular. Perianth 6-parted. 1 stamen. Anther 
 1 -celled. 
 
 Turmeric, Curcuma. 
 
 Arrowroot, Maranta. 
 
 Cardamom, Elettaria. 
 
 Ginger, Zingiber. 
 Banana, Manilla, Musa. 
 
 Order LVI. BROMELIACE^. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers perfect, mostly regular. Perianth 6-parted, with 6 perfect 
 stamens. 
 
 Pineapple, Ananassa. 
 
 Order LVII. IRIDACE-ai. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers perfect, bell-shaped. 
 
 Saffron, Crocus. 
 
 Order LVIII. DIOSCOREACE^. 
 
 Shrubs. Flowers dioecious, regular and axillary. Racemes incon- 
 spicuous. 
 
 Yam, Chinese Yam, Dioscorea. 
 
 Order LIX. LILIACE^. 
 
 Herbs. Flowers perfect, usually terminal and solitary. Perianth 6-parted. 
 Fruit a capsule. Leaves sheathing. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, Smilax. 
 
 Asparagus, Asparagus. 
 
 New Zealand Flax, Phormium. 
 
 Aloes, Aloe. 
 
CONIFEROUS GYMNOSPERMS. 29 
 
 Order LX. PALM^. 
 
 Shrubs, small aud large trees. Flowers in a branched spadix. Perianth in 
 6 parts arranged iu 2 series. Stamens usually 6. Fruit variou.s in form 
 and size. 
 
 Betel Nut, Areca. 
 
 Date Palm, Phoenix. 
 
 Cocoanut, Cocos. 
 
 Sago Palm, Metroxylon. 
 
 Order LXI. GRAMINE^. 
 
 Herbs. Flower envelope usually witli 2 (rarely more) small scales. Fruit 
 grooved on one side. Stem tapering and usually hollow. Leaves sheathing. 
 
 Indian Corn, Zea. 
 Wheat, Triticum. 
 
 Rice, Oryza. 
 
 Sugar Cane, Saccharum. 
 Broom Corn, Sorghum. 
 Rye, Secale. 
 
 Barley, Hordeum. 
 
 Oats, Avena. 
 
 Millet, Setaria. 
 
 Class III. GYMNOSPERMS. 
 
 Order LXII. CONIFERS. 
 
 Shrubs and trees, mostly trees. Flowers without perianth. Fruit naked 
 In the scales of a cone or in a berry-like cup. Leaves oi)posite, whorled, or 
 fascicled, simple, with simple nerves. 
 
 Pine, Pinus. 
 
 Spruce, Picea. 
 
 Fir, Abies. 
 
 Larch, Larix. 
 
 Cedar, Jviniperus. 
 
 Arbor Vitae, Thuja. 
 
 Hemlock, Tsuga. 
 
 Cypress, Chamaecyparis. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order I. RANUNCULACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular or irregular, rarely dioecious, mostly ter- 
 minal, solitary, racemed or panicled, white or yellow. Sepals 3- 
 many, usually 5, free, sometimes petaloid, imbricate, seldom valvate. 
 Petals equal to and alternate wdth the sepals, hj^ogynous, free, 
 clawed, imbricate, equal or unequal, varied in form, frequently minute 
 or wanting. Stamexs numerous, many-rowed, hypogynous ; filaments 
 thread-like or clavate, free ; anthers terminal, 2-celled. Carpels few 
 or many, seldom solitary ; style simple ; stigma, usually on the inner sur- 
 face of the top of the style ; fruit pointed or feathery akenes. Seeds 
 with coriaceous testa. Leaves radical, or alternate on the stem and 
 branches, seldom opposite, simple or compound, exstipulate; petiole 
 broadened or clasping. Mostly herbs, or woody climbers, occasionally 
 shrubs, with sharp, bitter, mostly poisonous juice. There are 30 genera 
 in this Order varying greatly in form, and 540 species, growing in tem- 
 perate and cold climates. 
 
 ANEMONE, L. (Windflower.) Sepals, 5 or many, petal-like. Petals 
 wanting or rudimentary. Stamens numerous, short. Fruit in roundish 
 or subcylindrical head. Akenes mucronate. Involucre open and below 
 the flowers, which are terminal. Herbs, perennial, with radical leaves. 
 
 1. A. cylindrica, Gray. (Long-fruited Anemone.) Stem 1 to 2 feet high, 
 silky, pubescent. Leaves 2-3 inches Avide, 3-parted, parts wedge-shaped, 
 deeply lobed, and toothed. Side lobes 2-parted, middle one 3-parted, lobes 
 toothed and gashed at the apex ; petioles 3 to 6 inches long ; involucre long- 
 petioled. Flowers on long, naked, 2-flowered peduncles, 3-6 in number, 
 occasionally 1- or more-involucred. Sepals 5, silky, greenish white, blunt. 
 Fruit iu cylindrical heads an incli or more long. May. 
 
 Geography. — Dry copses. Mass. to New Jersey, and Avest to Colorado. 
 
 2. A. decapetala, L. (A. Caroliniana, AYalt. ) (Carolina Anemone.) Stem 
 3 to 10 inches high, puliescent above ; tuber round, sending up several leaves 
 and one stem or scape. Leaves long-stalked, 3-parted, mucli divided into 
 wedge-shaped linear divisions. Involucre below middle of scape, 2- or 3-leaved, 
 each 3-parted, segments 3-cleft. Flowers showy, sepals 10-20, nearly linear, 
 outer ones dotted with purple. Fruit in oblong cylindrical head. April, May. 
 
 Geography. — Carolina to Arkansas and Nebraska. 
 
 3. A. dichotoma, L. (A. Pennsylvanica, L.) (Pennsylvanian Anemone.) Stem 
 12 to 20 inches high, frequently less than 12, — dichotomous and hairy. Leaves 
 of the root 3-7-parted, segments cuneate, 3-lobed and acuminate, or pointed, 
 parts large and veiny ; those of the main involucre 3-parted, acuminate-lobed 
 and toothed, those of involucres, sessile. First f.ower appears on a naked 
 peduncle from the base oi which rise two branches, each with a 2-leaved 
 
 30 
 
RANUNCUT.ACE^. 
 
 31 
 
 Anemone hepatica (Round-lobed Hepatica). 
 
 biugers 
 of spring, often putting fortli its blossoms in the 
 neighborhood of some lingering snowbank. 
 
 Geography. — Canada to Georgia, 
 and west to the Mississippi valley- 
 In damp woods, not rare, identical 
 Avith the European plant. 
 
 5. A. acutiloba, Lawson. (Hepatica 
 acutiloba, DC.) (Sharp-lobed Hepat- 
 ica.) Lobes of the leaves acute ; 
 number of lobes sometimes 5 ; lobes 
 of the involucre also sharp. Sepals 
 7-12, pale-purple, or nearly Avhite. 
 
 Geography. — The A. acutiloba is 
 found in the same geographical 
 limits as the A. hepatica. 
 
 6. A. multifida, DC. (Many-cleft 
 Anemone. ) Stem 6 to 1 2 inches high, 
 clothed with silky hairs. Radical 
 leaves, 3 divided segments wedge- 
 shaped, slit into 3 narrow sharp lobes, 
 petioles 3-4 inches long. Leaves of 
 the involucre 2-3 on short petioles, 
 divided as the root leaves. Flowers 
 purj)le, varying to yellowish-white. 
 Scjials .')-8, lilunt, small. Fruit in a 
 globular head. June. 
 
 involucre, and one terminal flower. 
 Flowers white, large ; sepals 5, 
 obovate. Fruit in a ghjbular 
 head. June to Aug. 
 
 Geograjihy. — Canada to Peun. 
 and west to Ind. and W^is. spar- 
 ingly. 
 
 4. A. hepatica, L. (Hepatica 
 triloba, Cliaix.) (Kound-lobed 
 Hepatica.) Leaves 3-lobed ; lobes 
 ovate, obtu.'^e, or rounded, entire, 
 all radical, on long, hairy petioles, 
 smooth and evergreen ; purplish 
 underneath. Flowers single, on 
 scapes, 3 to 4 inches long, purplish 
 blue or nearly white. Sepals G-'J. 
 Akenes several, in a small loose 
 head, pointed and hairy. ^Nlarch 
 to May. 
 
 This 
 plant is 
 one of 
 the ear- 
 liest har- 
 
 Aakmonk nkmokosa (Wiudriower). 
 
32 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — Vermont, northern N. Y., and north and west to the Pacific, 
 rare. 
 
 7. A. nemorosa, L. (Windflower. Wood Anemone.) Stem 5 to 10 inches 
 high, smooth, from a filiform, frequently knotty, root stock. Radical leaf 
 solitary, ternate, leaflets usually undivided, occasionally 3-parted or cleft; 
 leaves of the involucre petioled, 3 in number, and near the summit of the 
 stem, just above which is the solitary flower ; sepals 4-7, oval or elliptical, 
 white, pinkish or purplish outside. Fruit in a head, carpels oblong, tipped 
 with a hooked beak. April, May. 
 
 Qpograpliy. — Northern United States and British America, in open woods 
 near the base of old trees. 
 
 8. A. parviflora, Mx. (Small-flowered Anemone.) Stem 3 to 10 inches 
 high, pubescent. Leaves 3-parted, parts 3-cleft and wedge-shaped, divisions 
 crenate ; involucre 2- or 3-leaved, nearly sessile, divided as the other leaves. 
 Flowers Avhite, sepals 5-6, oval. Fruit in a globular head. May to June. 
 
 Geography. — Canada, near Lake Superior, west to the Colorado Mountains, 
 and north to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 9. A. patens, L. (Var. Nuttaliana, Gray.) (Pasque-flower.) Stem 6 to 12 
 inches high, clothed Avith silky liairs. Leaves on long petioles, silky, ternately 
 divided segments, cut into linear and wedge-shaped sections, the middle seg- 
 ment stalked and 3-parted, involucre below the middle of the stem, sessile 
 and finely dissected, concave or cup-shaped. Flower solitary, appearing before 
 the leaves, sepals 5-6 or 7, nearly an inch long, pale-purple and showy, silky 
 outside. 
 
 Geography. — Dry hills. Illinois, Wisconsin, and west and north to the 
 Rocky Mountain region. 
 
 10. A. Virginiana, L. (Virginian Anemone. Thimble weed.) Stem or 
 scape 2 to 3 feet high, hairy, usually divided above into 2 or 3 long peduncles, 
 with involucres of two bracts at the middle, or 1 naked, main involucre 3-leaYed. 
 Leaves on petioles 6 to 10 inches long, stalks of the bracts shorter, leaf 3-parted, 
 parts ovate-lanceolate, toothed and lobed ; those of the side 2-parted, middle 
 one 3-cleft. Sepals 5, greenish-yellow or whitish. Fruit in oblong, woolly 
 heads. June to August. 
 
 Geography — Canada, south to Carolina. Woods and damp copses, common. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Anemone is from the Greek word 6,v€jxos, Avind; 
 the ancients believed the plant always appeared in places exposed to the wind. 
 The specific names are from the Latin, and are explained by the common 
 names, which are translations, as follows: Parviflora, small-flowered ; Mul- 
 t'tfida, many-cleft ; Carol iniana, Carolina Anemone, etc. Hepatica from the 
 Greek rj-jrariKos, the liver, due to the fancied resemblance of the 3-lobed 
 leaves to the shape of the liver. Most of the species are natives of Europe. 
 
 Cultivation. — By cultivation the size of the flower may be increased; the 
 colors are modified, and many of the stamens are often changed into small 
 petals. The anemone prefers a light soil ; the root is taken up after flower- 
 ing, the plant being propagated by parting the roots as well as by seed. Seed- 
 ing plants do not flower till the second or third year. 
 
 Use. — Several species of anemone are used for ornamental purposes. They 
 are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable 
 addition to a flower-garden, as it affords in a warm situation an abundance of 
 handsome and brilliant spring floAvers, appearing almost as early as the snow- 
 drop and the crocus. In Europe it is used as borders in planted grounds, and 
 
RANUNCULACEjE. 
 
 some species are such favorites with florists aud amateurs as to have au im- 
 portant commercial value, especially in England and (iermany. The anemone 
 acutiloba is used by empirics for the cure of pulmonary disorders. 
 
 ANEMONELLA, Spach. Involucre not close to the flower, composed 
 of 2 ternate sessile leaves. Calyx regular, composed of 3 to many 
 colored sepals. Corolla 
 wanting. Ovaries numer- 
 ous, free, forming a sub- .^.a!& J 
 
 globular head. Akenes 
 with short beak. Leaves 
 radical. 
 
 A. thalictroides, Spach. 
 (Thalictrum anemonoides, 
 Mx.) (Rue Anemone.) Stem 
 smooth, 5 to 10 inches liigh. 
 Leaves glabrous, biteruate, or 
 triternate, common leaf-stalk 
 2 to 5 inclies long. Leaflets 
 roundish, 3-lobed at the end, 
 cordate at base. Flowers sub- 
 umbellate, involucre of two 
 ternate leaves. Several white 
 or pale-purple sepals, some- 
 times lobed like the leaves. 
 Flowers in early spring. 
 
 This plant is one of the 
 few that greet us in early 
 spring in the Northern States, 
 and upon which the novice iu 
 botany takes his first lessons. 
 
 Geography. — Canada to 
 Georgia, and west through 
 the Mississippi valley, in open 
 woods, near the roots of trees, 
 and especially in windy ex- 
 posures. 
 
 RANUNCULUS, L. (But- 
 tercup. Crowfoot.) Se- 
 pals 5. Petals 5 or more, 
 a scale or pit at the base. 
 Stamens numerous, sel- 
 dom few. Akenes many, 
 
 flattened, ovate, pointed, arranged in globular or cylindrical heads. 
 Herbs, annual or perennial. Leaves usually radical. Flowers termi- 
 nal, solitary, or in imj^erfect corymbs, yellow, sometimes white. 
 
 1. R. abortivus, L. (Small-flowered Crowfoot.) Stem branching, smooth, 
 
 to 30 inclies higli. Leaves at the base petiolate, cordate-orbicular, creuate, 
 
 fre(|uently 3-parted ; stem-leaves in threes, 3-5 cleft, witli linear, oblong, 
 
 nearly entire segments ; upper ones sessile, foliage varying greatly iu form. 
 
 Pk. Fl. — 4 
 
 Anemonella thalictroides {Rue Anemone). 
 
34 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Flowers small, yellow. Sepals reflexed, longer than the petals. Carpels in a 
 globular head tipped with a short recurved beak. May to June. 
 
 Geography. — Common throughout the northeastern States, and west to 
 California. Damp and shaded places. 
 
 Var. micranthus, Gray. (R. micranthus, Nutt.) Has whole plant more or 
 less clothed with soft hairs ; root leaves seldom cordate, some of them 3-parted ; 
 
 divisions of those on the upper 
 parts of the stem more linear 
 and entire ; peduncles more 
 slender. 
 
 Geography. — Mass., New 
 York, Miss., and West. In 
 dryer, more open grounds than 
 the species. 
 
 2. R. acris, L. (Buttercup, 
 Wayside CroAvfoot. Garden 
 Buttercup, Biting Crowfoot.) 
 Stem erect, branched, 1 to 3 
 feet high, hairy, round, hollow. 
 Leaves on long stalks at the 
 base and on the lower parts of 
 stem, upper ones on short 
 sheathing petioles, di^-ided in- 
 to 3 parts or leaflets ; leaflets 
 lobed, segments acute, parts 
 sometimes linear. Flowers 
 large, bright-yellow, shining, 
 becoming double by cultiva- 
 tion. Petals obovate, larger 
 than the spreading sepals. 
 Carpels roundish, smooth, com- 
 pressed, terminated by a round- 
 ish recurved beak. June to 
 August. 
 
 Geography. — This is a Eu- 
 ropean plant. It was brought 
 to northeastern N. America in 
 seed-grain by European colo- 
 nists, has spread over the At- 
 lantic States and Canada, and 
 
 is reaching towards the West. Common in fields, especially damp meadows, 
 
 and roadsides. 
 
 3. R. ambigens, S. Wats. (R. alismaefolius, Gray, not Geyer.) (Water Plan' 
 tain, Spearwort). Leaves entire. Stem hollow, 1 to 2 feet high, falling when 
 young, rooting at lower joints afterwards assurgent. Leaves 3 to 6 inches long, 
 narrow, lanceolate, entire or toothed, acute, subpetiolate, clasping, especially 
 below, nearly sessile above. Petals 5 or 7, golden yellow, larger than sepals. 
 Flowers solitary. Petioles 2 to 3 inches long. Carpels flattened, large, and 
 armed with long, fine beak. June to August. 
 
 Geography. — Northeastern North America, South Carolina, west to Oregon. 
 lu damp places, edges uf still water, coves of sluggish brooks. 
 
 Ranunculus bulbosus (Bulbous Crowfoot). 
 
RANUXCULACEiE. 
 
 35 
 
 4. R. aquatilis, L. (Var. trichophyllus, Gray.) (White Water-crowfoot.) 
 Stem 1 to 2 feet long, slender, weak, ronnd, smooth, jointed, floating. Leaves 
 stalked, dicliotomously divided into many diverging hairlike segments, sub- 
 merged, or some floating, rounded, 3-5-lobed. Petals white, narrow. June 
 to August. 
 
 Geography. — Found sparingly from Arctic America to South Carolina, west 
 to the Tvocky Mountains. In ponds and sluggish streams. 
 
 5. R. bulbosus, L. (Bull)ous Crowfoot. Buttercup.) Stem 8 to 13 inches 
 liigh, hollow, erect, s])aringly clothed with a])pressed ])ube.scence, or densely cov- 
 ered witli stiff, spreading hairs, somewhat branched, enlarging at the base into 
 a bulb. Leaves mostly 
 
 radical, on long stalks, 
 teruate, middle leaflet 
 stalked, lateral divisions 
 sub-sessile, lobed, with 
 crenate or acute divi- 
 sions ; stem leaves on 
 short sheathing petioles, 
 or nearly sessile; lobes 
 much cut into linear di- 
 visions. Flowers bright- 
 yellow, large, showy, be- 
 coming double by culti- 
 vation. Petals rounded, 
 wedge-shaped at base, 
 nmch longer than the re- 
 flexed sepals, frequently 
 6-7 in number. Carj)els 
 tipped with a short beak. 
 May to August. 
 
 Geo(/raj)hi/. — This is 
 eminently a British plant, 
 and was no doubt intro- 
 duced into northeastern 
 North America by Brit- 
 ish colonists in their seed- 
 grain, etc. Abundant in 
 the damp meadows and 
 pastures of the Atlantic 
 States, especially in New England and eastern New York and New Jersey. 
 
 6. R. Cymbalaria, Pursh. (Seaside CroA\'foot.) Stem slender, 3 to 8 inche.^ 
 long, creeping and rooting. Leaves clustered near the root, cordate, kidney- 
 shaped, crenate-dentate. Flowers bright-yellow, scapes 3 to 6 inches long, 
 1-7 flowered, mostly without leaves. Petals 5-8, oval. Carpels striate, beak 
 short. June to August. 
 
 Geography. — Coast of New Jersey, northward to Canada, along the borders 
 of salt mar.shes, especially coasts of the Bay of Fundy ; near salt springs ; 
 inland along the Great Lakes; west to California. 
 
 7. R. fascicularis, Muhl. (Fascicle-rooted Crowfoot. Early Crowfoot.) 
 Stem erect, G to 10 inches high, clothed with silky hairs: root a bundle of fleshy 
 fibers. Leaves of tlie ujtper jiart of the stem on sliort petioles, the radical and 
 
 Ranunculus fasciculakis (Fascicle-rooted Crowfoot). 
 
36 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 lower ones on stalks from 3 to 8 inches long ; blade of the radical leaves pin- 
 nate, or very much divided ; the terminal division stalked, lateral ones sessile. 
 Flowers large ; petals yellow, spatulate, or oblong, with a scale at base, much 
 longer than the sepals. April, May. 
 
 Geography. — Throughout the Atlantic States in southern exposures of rocky 
 liillsides and open woods. 
 
 8. R. Flammula, L. (Var. intefmedius, Hook.) (Smaller Spearwort.) Stem 
 prostrate, upright, or assurgent, frequently rooting below, usually less than a 
 foot high. Leaves lanceolate, entire, or slightly toothed, linear lanceolate, 
 lower ones Avider on short petioles, or sessile. Petals 5, 6, or 7, golden yellow, 
 larger than sepals. Carpels flattish, each armed with a sharp point. Fhjwers 
 from July to September. 
 
 Var. reptans, Gray. (Creeping Spearwort.) Diminutive form. Stem 
 less than 6 inches long, prostrate, rooting at all the nodes. Leaves small, 
 varying from linear to oblong or spatulate. Flowers from June to September, 
 
 Geography. — Northern part of New York, and northward on sandy shores. 
 Northward rare. The following form is more common. 
 
 9. R. multifidus, Pursh. (Much-divided leaved Crowfoot. Yellow Water 
 Crowfoot.) Stem long, slender, submerged, or floating. Leaves in 3-forked, 
 thread-like, linear, or wedge shaped divisions, varying in outline; floating 
 leaves lobed. Sepals reflexed, shorter than petals. Petals bright-yellow, 5-8. 
 Carpels smooth, in a subglobular head, crowned with spine-like tips. 
 
 Geography. — Northeastern North America, in ponds, sluggish streams, 
 and muddy places. 
 
 Var. terrestris, Gray. Does not grow in the water ; has ascending stems, 
 bearing eacli a small panicle of flowers at its summit. Leaves in the form of 
 linear or oblong bracts. 
 
 Geography. — Michigan, near Ann Arbor, Minn., Alaska. 
 
 10. R. muricatus, L. (Prickly-seeded Crowfoot) Stem erect, branched, 12 
 inches high, glabrous. Leaves roundish, cordate, 3-lobed ; lobes coarsely cre- 
 nate-toothed ; all similar and petioled ; petioles 1 to 5 inches long ; bracts 
 near the flower simple. Flowers small, few, yellow ; petals obovate ; carpels 
 large, aculeate, strongly margined, ending in a stout, ensiform, recurved beak. 
 May to July. 
 
 Geography. — Seed brought from Europe in grain. Plairt naturalized in 
 southern United States, Virginia to Louisiana. Also seen by Dr. Wood in 
 California. Loves damp places. 
 
 11. R. oblongifolius. Ell. (Oblong-leaved Crowfoot.) Stem usually erect, 
 slender, sometimes hairy below, much branched above, about a foot high. 
 Leaves lance-ovate, lanceolate, linear, or oblong, serrate or toothed, lower ones 
 or all petioled. Flowers golden yellow. Petals 5, very much larger tlian the 
 sepals. Stamens 20 or more. Carpels small, globular, crowned with a little 
 spot. (R. pusillus var. Torr. & Gray.) Flowers in June. 
 
 Geography. — Southern United States. Wet prairies. Salem, 111, 
 
 12. R, parviflorus, L. (Small-flowered Crowfoot.) Stem 6 to 12 inches high, 
 slender, branched. Leaves all petiolate, small, roundish, cordate, 3-lobed, 
 segments sharply toothed. Flowers very small. Yellow petals and sepals, 
 about the same length. Carpels globular, small, tipped witli a very short 
 beak, arranged in a globose head. May to June. 
 
 Geography. — Naturalized from Europe. Found in gravelly places. Fron- 
 Virginia to Louisiana. 
 
RANUNCrLACETE. 37 
 
 13. R. Pennsylvanicus, L. f. (Bristly Crowfoot. Pennsylvanian Crowfoot.) 
 Leaves all .'J-jfartod. Stem stout, 1 to 3 feet high, erect, much branched. 
 Leaves teriiate, villous, segments sub-petiolate, acutely 3-lobe(l, somewhat 
 ovate, incisely serrate ; whole plant clothed with stiff, spreading hairs. 
 Flowers small, ])ale yellow. Calyx reflexed. Sepals longer than the petals. 
 Carpels crowned with a short, straight beak, massed into an oblong head. 
 July and August. 
 
 Geo(jraphy. — Found in wet places, in Canada, eastern United States, and 
 west to Colorado. 
 
 14. R. pusillus, Poir. (Puny Crowfoot.) Stem slender, erect, sometimes 
 prostrate, 6 to 12 inches high, branched. Leaves petioled, lower ones ovate, 
 orbicular or cordate, entire or sparingly toothed, upper ones linear-lance- 
 olate, obscurely tootiied, nearly sessile. Flowers small, pale-yellow, on long 
 peduncles, 1-flowered. Petals 1-5, sometimes 3, barely longer than the 
 sepals. Stamens 5-10. Carpels crowned with small blunt point. Juue 
 to August. 
 
 Geography. — Southern New York, and along the eastern and southern parts 
 of the Southern and Gulf States to Louisiana, in wet places. 
 
 15. R. recurvatus, Poir (Hooked Crowfoot. Wood Crowfoot.) Stem erect, 
 8 to 18 inches high, whole plant clothed with roughish hairs, sometimes fork- 
 edly branched. Leaves ternate, or deeply 3-parted, leaflets or segments 
 broad, wedge-shaped, and acute ; lateral ones 2-lobed ; lower petioles long, 
 sheathing at base ; upper ones much shorter. Plowers small, pale-yellow, on 
 short peduncles ; petals shorter than the reflexed sepals. Carpels in a glob- 
 ular head, margined, and crowned with the sharp-hooked style. Whole plant 
 pale-green. May to July. 
 
 Geograplvj. — LaI)rador to Floritla, throughout northeastern North America. 
 Shady woods and damp jJaces. 
 
 16. R. repens, L. (Creeping Crowfoot.) Stem G to 15 inches long, runners 
 sometimes longer, hairy wiien in dry ground, glabrous when in wet places; 
 sparingly branched. Root fascicled and large. Leaves ternate, on long stalks ; 
 leaflets wedge-shaped, 3-lobed, incisely toothed, middle one })etioled, lateral 
 ones on short petioles or nearly sessile ; hairy on the veins and edges when in 
 dry ground, veins conspicuous underneath. Flowers large, l)right yellow; 
 petals obovate, larger than the pilose sjjreading sepals. Carpels with a straight 
 point, strongly margined. May to .iVugust. 
 
 Foliage and general appearance of tlie ])laiit very variable. Wlien found in 
 a damp meadow and spreading up a dry hillside, it seems to run into No. 13, 
 in form of leaf and stem. 
 
 Geof/rapliy. — Atlantic States, and west to the Pacific. It loves damj) 
 ground, but is fr('(iuoiitly found on the lower edges of hillsides. 
 
 17. R. rhomboideus, (ioldio. (Rhomboi<lleaved Crowfoot.) Stem 3 to (i 
 inches high, much braiuliod, liairy. Leaves at tlie root, on long stalks, rliom- 
 boid-ovate, crenate-dentate ; stem leaves l)elow similar, 3-.5-lobeil, up])er ones 
 nearly se.'^sile, lobes linear. Flowers deep-yellow. Petals larger than the 
 sepals. Carpels globular, beak small, head spherical. April to May. 
 
 Geofp-aphi/. — Micln'gan, 111., Wis., southwest to Colorado, and north to 
 British America. 
 
 18. R. sceleratus, ]j. (Wicked Crowfoot. Celery-leaved Crowfoot. Cursed 
 Crowfoot.) Stem thick, hollow, 10 to 15 inclies high, glabrous, and branched. 
 Leaves at the base 3-lobed, long-petioled ; lobes divided, those on the lower 
 
38 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 stem .3-parted, on shorter petioles; upper ones nearly sessile, lobes oblong, 
 linear, entire, or toothed. Flowers small, numerous, pale-yellow. Carpels 
 small, numerous, in cylindrical heads. Juice very acrid. May to August. 
 
 Geography. — Canada to Georgia, and west to Colorado. Sparingly in 
 damp places, edges of ditches, and near living water, brooksides, etc. 
 
 19. E. septentrionalis, Poir. (R. palmatus, Ell.) (Hand-shaped-leaf Crow- 
 foot.) Stem 12 to 1 8 inches high, pubescent, slightly branched, branches slender. 
 Leaves on long stalks, pentangular in outline, pubescent, 3-5-palmately cleft ; 
 segments all sessile, and cut-toothed or lobed, upper leaves composed of 3 
 linear segments. Flowers few, small, yellow. Carpels few, margined, and 
 straight-beaked. April and May. 
 
 Geographij. — Southern U. S., in pine woods, from Carolina to Florida. 
 Etymology. — Ranunculus, the generic name, is derived from the Latin 
 
 1-ana, a frog, due to the circumstance 
 that many of the species grow in wet 
 places, the home of the frog. The 
 specific names are derived from the 
 following Latin words : Abort ivus, 
 not bringing forth properly, due to 
 its small flowers. Acrls, from acer, 
 sharp, or biting, due to the sharp, 
 acrid taste of the juice. Aquatilif;, 
 living in or near the water. Bu/bosus, 
 having small heads or bulbs, named 
 from tlie bulb-shaped root. Cymbal- 
 (in'a, boat-like cup, said to have been 
 applied on account of the fancied re- 
 semblance of the calyx to a boat. 
 Fascicularis, from fasciculus, a little 
 bundle, applied because the fibrous 
 roots of this species appear in groups. 
 Flammu'a, flame, due to the bright, 
 flame-like color of the petals of this 
 species. Multijidus, many-cleft as to 
 the leaf. Muricattts, abounding in 
 sharp points. Ob/ongifolius, from ob- 
 longus, oblong, ^nA folium, a leaf; 
 hence oblong-leaved. Parviforus, 
 from parvus, small, and^Zos, a flower ; 
 hence small-flowered. Pusillus, small, referring to the size of the plant. 
 Recurvatus, bent back, the carpels have a hooked beak. Repens, creeping. 
 Rhomboideiis, like a rhombus, due to the shape of the leaves. Sceleratus, 
 Avicked, or biting, due to the burning, acrid taste of tlie juice of this species. 
 Septentrionalis, northern, i. e., growing in the north. 
 
 Use. — Some of the species are very showy, and early attracted the atten- 
 tion of gardeners and cultivators of flowers, and are still favorites. The 
 medicinal properties of the Ranunculus are little known. The acrid juice 
 of the R. sceleratus and some other species blisters the skin very rapidly. 
 
 The leaves of the R. ficaria are used for salad in France. The root of this 
 species was formerly used as a remedy in the cure of piles. The roots of the 
 R. bulbosus are edible when cooked. R. aconitifolius, L., Van-^fais of France, 
 is a favorite in cultivation for its white flowers. 
 
 Ranunculus sceleratus (Wicked Crowfoot). 
 
RANUNCULACEiE. 39 
 
 THALICTRUM, L. (Meadow Rue.) Xo involucre. Calyx usually 
 colored. Sepals 4-5 or 7, concave, falling early. Xo corolla. Fila- 
 ments generally enlarged above and longer than the calyx, numerous. 
 Flowers in panicles, dioecious, or polygamous. Ovaries many. Akenes 
 usually sessile, occasionally stipulate, rihbed or swollen, pointed with 
 the short style. Leaves usually ternately compound. Leaflets stalked. 
 Perennial herbs. 
 
 1. T. clavatum, DC. Stem 2 to 3 feet high, smooth. Leaves hiternate, on 
 petioles an inch long ; leaflets roundish, obtusely 3-5-lobed, glaucous beneath. 
 Flowers in loose panicles. Fruit swollen, obovate, striate, acute, and as long 
 as the stipe. June. 
 
 Geography. — Southern Virginia and North Carolina. 
 
 2. T. dioicum, L. (Meadow Rue.) Stem smooth, pale-green, or bluish, 1 to 2 
 feet high, slender. Leaves ternately decompound, on short general petioles. 
 Leaflets roundish, obtusely 3-5-7 lobed, paler beneath. Flowers purplish or 
 pale-green, filaments threadlike, longer than the calyx ; anthers linear, yel- 
 lowish, mucrouate. Sepals 5, obtuse. Inflorescence a panicle. Fruit strongly 
 ribbed and pointed. May. 
 
 Geography.— British. America to Georgia and Alabama. In hilly, rocky 
 woods. 
 
 3. T. polygamum, xMuhl. (T. Cornuti, Gray). (Tall Meadow Rue.) Stem 
 3 to 5 feet high, branching, smooth, or slightly pubescent. Leaves varialile in 
 form, dark-green above and paler beneath, smooth or pubescent; stem leaves 
 without general petioles, decompound ; leaflets roundish-obovate or oblong, 
 3-lobed at the apex, lobes sharp, peduncles longer than the leaves. Flowers 
 perfect, white, in large panicles, very compound dia?cious or polygamous; 
 filaments somewhat club-shaped. Carpels strongly ribbed, sharp at both ends, 
 longer than the style. June and July. 
 
 Geography. — Atlantic States, and west to Colorado. 
 
 4. T. purpurascens, L. (Purplish Meadow Rue.) Stem 2 to 4 feet high, 
 purplish, smooth, or finely pubescent. Leaves roundish, or longer than wide, 
 wider towards the end, mostly 3-lobed, veins prominent, paler underneath, 
 margins rolled over. Flowers in compound panicles, purplish or with a 
 greenish tinge ; anthers nearly linear ; filaments broader at the ends ; anthers 
 drooping. May to July. 
 
 Geography. — New York, Southern New England, south to Georgia, and 
 west to the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 Var. ceriferum, C. F. Austin. Differs from T. purpurascens in having the 
 lower surface of the leaves and the fruit beset with waxy particles, and when 
 bruised exhales a peculiar, strong odor. 
 
 Etymology. — Thalictrum is from the Greek word edWoo. spring forth green, 
 in allusion to the bright green foliage of the young shoots. The specific 
 names are: Dioicum, thus named because the flowers are sometimes dia'cions 
 or dioicous. Purpnrascen.'>, purplish thalictrum. Ceri/ennn, wax-bearing. 
 Cornuti, for a French physician, Conuitus. Clavatum, club-shaped, due to the 
 form of the filaments of this species. 
 
 CALTHA, L. (Cow.slip. ^Larsh INLarigold.) Sepals 5 to 0, bright 
 yellow, petal-like. Petals wanting. Pistils 5 to 10, styles very sliort. 
 
40 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Pods flattened, spreading, many-seeded. Whole plant glabrous. 
 Leaves undivided, but toothed and large. Perennial herb. 
 
 1 . C. leptosepala, DC. Differs from the above in the leaf, which is oblong- 
 ovate, lower ones serrate, llowers usually solitary, rarely two. White or 
 bluish. 
 
 Geography. — From New Mexico to Alaska. (Coulter.) 
 
 2. C. palustris, L. Stem hollow, from 8 to 12 inches high, cylindrical, 
 grooved, and sometimes prostrate, forkedly branched. Root large and branched. 
 
 Leaves dark-green, veiny, and smooth ; lower 
 ones 2 to 4 inches wide, on long stems ; upper 
 ones sessile, round-reniform. Flowers bright 
 yellow, axillary, 3-5. 
 
 Geography. — Found in wet meadows and 
 swamps, from Canada to Carolina, and west to 
 Oregou. 
 
 Number of species about a dozen, of which 
 six are found in North America. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Caltha, the gen- 
 eric name, is from the Greek word Koi\a9os, a 
 goblet, due to the form of the calyx, which re- 
 sembles a golden cup. Palustris is from the 
 Latin word paluster, marshy, on account of 
 the fondness of the plant for such localities. 
 Leptosepala is from the Greek Acttt^s, weak, 
 and the Latin sepia, to inclose or surround, 
 alluding to the size and thinness of the 
 sepals. 
 Use. — The leaves of both these species are used for greens, and when very 
 young for salad. 
 
 Caltha palustris (Cowslip). 
 
 CLEMATIS, L. (\"irgin's Bower.) Calyx 4, sometimes 5-8-sepaled 
 usually colored, and pubescent. Petals vranting, or rudimentary. 
 Filaments many. Anthers linear. Akenes numerous, in heads tipped 
 with the long, persistent, feathery styles. Clinging to and climbing 
 over shrubbery, by means of the leaf-stalks. Perennial. Leaves mostly 
 opposite and compound. 
 
 1 . C. crispa, L. (cylindrica, Sims.) Stem climbing, smooth. Leaves varying 
 in form ; leaflets 5 or 9, broad, ovate, or lanceolate, slightly cordate at base, 
 entire, occasionally 3-5-lobed, prominently veined, thin. Flowers terminal, 
 large, nodding, campanulate, bluish-purple. Calyx cylindrical, bell-shaped. 
 Sepals dilated above and spreading, edges thin and wavy. Tails of the fruit 
 silky, pubescent. 
 
 Geography. — Near Norfolk, Virginia, and south to Georgia. 
 
 2. C. ochroleuca, Ait. Stem 8 to 10 feet long, usually smaller, and silky. 
 Leaves simple, ovate, silky, hairy underneath, sessile, entire, occasionally 3- 
 lobed, 2 to 4 inches long; veins prominent, upper surface smooth. Flowers 
 terminal, nodding, bell-shaped. Sepals silky outside, creamy white within. 
 Plumes of the fruit long and straw-colored. May. 
 
 Geography. — Copses and river banks. New York to Georgia. Rare. 
 
RANUNCULACE.^. 
 
 41 
 
 .■^ C Pitcheri. Torr. and Gray. Leave's i.ii.iuUo. 3-0 ; loaflots rou^h, veins 
 prominent slightly cordate, ovate, entire, or .'Mobed, leathery, upper ones 
 fre(iuentlv simple. Flowers nodding. Calyx hell-shaped. Sepals ovate- 
 lanceolate, dull purple ; points narrow, and recurved, nearly an inch in length. 
 Fruit tipped with thread-like plumes, naked or .sUghtly pubescent. June. 
 
 Geography. — Mississippi Valley in Arkansa.s, l.nva, and Illinois. 
 
 4. C. verticillaris, DC. (Whorled-leaved Virgin's Bower.) Stem 10 to 20 
 feet long, climbing on small trees by means of its coiling petioles, woody, 
 nearly smooth. Leaves in 
 whorls or clusters of 4, ter- 
 nate ; leaflets acute, ovate, 
 slightly notched or lobed. 
 Flowers appearing in 2's, at 
 the nodes, with the leaves; 
 sepals lanceolate, acute, an 
 inch long, bluish-purple. 
 Filaments about 24, outer 
 ones spatulate, or petaloid, 
 tipped -svith rudimentary 
 anthers. May to June. 
 
 Geographii. — Atlantic 
 States from Maine to North 
 Carolina, and west to Cali- 
 fornia, in upland woods. 
 Not common. 
 
 5. C. viorna, L. (Leather 
 Flower. Way - adorner.) 
 Stem climbing, 10 to 15 feet 
 long, round or striate, pubes- 
 cent, purple, woody. Leaves 
 opposite, pinnately decom- 
 pound, with 9-12 leaflets, 
 parts entire or 3-lobed, ovate 
 and acute. Flowers bell- 
 shaped, axillary, purple, nod- 
 ding on long peduncles, with 
 a pair of sim])le entire leaves 
 near the middle ; sepals very 
 thick and leathery, acumi- 
 nate, and connivent and re- 
 flexed at the apex. I'lumes 
 of the fruit from 1 to 2 inches long. June. July. 
 
 GfngrtipJn/. — Pennsylvania to Georgia, west to Oliio. PJch. open w( 
 
 6. C. Virginiana, L. (C.)mmon Virgin's Rower.) Stem climliing. or clamber- 
 ing over shrubbery. 8 to .30 feet long, slender, woody, and channelled. Leaves 
 opposite, ternate: leaflets ovate, acute, coarsely toothed; teeth mncronate; 
 more or less .3-lol)ed. Flowers white, axillary, abundant, ditecious ; sepals 4, 
 oblong, ovate, blunt. Fruit tipped with long plumose tails, very showy in 
 autumn. July, August. 
 
 Gfoqraphn. — Caiiada to Georgia, and west to the Mississipj.i Valley. Uiver 
 banks and damp ydaces. Common. Also cultivated. 
 
 Clematis Virginiana (Common Virgin's Bower). 
 
 od> 
 
42 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymology. — Clematts, the generic name, is from the Greek word K\rifxa, a 
 tendril, on account of the climbing habit of this genus. VerticiUaris, Latin, 
 is due to the mode in which the leaves are borne, in whorls. Viorna, Latin, via, 
 the way, and onio, adorn — beautifier of the way. Pitcheri, for Dr. Pitcher, 
 who first found it in these limits. Cylindrka, round, is due to the cylindrical 
 shape of the calyx. Virginiana, Virginian Clematis. 
 
 Use. — Nearly all the species of this genus are ornamental, and are culti- 
 vated for their beauty. 
 
 Order II. BERBERIDACE^. 
 
 Shrubs or perennial herbs. Leaves alternate and exstipulate. 
 
 Flowers regular, mostly 3-merous 
 and hypogynous ; sepals and petals 
 imbricated in the bud. Stamens 
 equal in number to the petals, and 
 opposite to them. Anthers mostly 
 opening by valves, hinged at the 
 top. (In the Podophyllum, by 
 slits.) One pistil ; style short, or 
 wanting. Fruit a berry or cap- 
 sule. Seeds numerous. 
 
 No. of genera, 19. Species, 100. 
 
 BERBERIS.L. (Barberry.) Leaves 
 1-9 foliate. Sepals roundish, 6 in 
 number, enveloped by 2-6 bract- 
 lets. Petals 6, each with a short 
 claw, above which, on the inside, 
 are two glandular spots. Stamens 0, 
 irritable ; stigma circular and flat- 
 tened. Fruit a sour berry, 1-several 
 seeded. Seeds erect, with a crus- 
 
 taceous covering. Shrubs. Wood yellow. Flowers in nodding racemes, 
 
 sometimes drooping. Fruit a sour berry. 
 
 B. vulgaris, L. (Barberry.) Leaves few on the new shoots of the season, 
 nsnally merely branched spines from whose axils the leaves of the next season 
 arise in rosettes, of obovate oblong, bristled, toothed, drooping, many-flowered 
 racemes ; petals entire ; berries oblong, scarlet. Thickets and near dwellings. 
 Eastern New England. May to June. From Europe. 
 
 Geographj. — Native of Europe, naturalized in New England. B. canaden- 
 sis, native in the AUeghenies, a curious and interesting plant. 
 
 Etymology. — Name from the Arabic, Berbery s. 
 
 Use, — A favorite ornamental shrub. The fruit is preserved, and the inner 
 bark is held to be medicinal. 
 
 PODOPHYLLUM, L. (May Apple. Mandrake.) Early floral envelope 
 composed of thre"e foliaceous bracts ; 6 petaloid sepals, petals 6 to 9. 
 Stamens double the number of petals. Anthers linear ; stigma large, 
 
 Berberis vulgaris (Barberry). 
 
PAPAVERACE^. 43 
 
 jteltate, nearly sessile. Fruit a berry, egg-shaped, 2 inches in length, 
 fleshy, l-celled, many-seeded. Root-stocks, creeping. Koots thick and 
 fibrous. Perennial herb. 
 
 P. peltatum, L. (May Apple. Mandrake.) Stem 1 to 2 feet high, 2-leave(l, 
 1-flowered; flower in the crutch, or fork of the stem, nodding, large, the 
 two parts of the stem bearing each a 1-sided leaf, palmately lobed. Flower 
 white. May. 
 
 Geography. — The Podophyllum is found sparingly in eastern North Amer- 
 ica, from the St. Lawrence to Florida, west on the Kansas, and north near 
 Lake Huron. There is another species found in tlie Iliinahiya Mountains. 
 
 Etymoloqif and History. — Podophy/lnm is derived from the Greek ttovs, a 
 foot, and <pv\Kov, a leaf, on account of the resemblance of the leaf to the foot 
 of a web-footod bird. Peltatum, the specittc name, comes from the Latin jx^lta, 
 a shield, because the foot-stalk is attached to the blade, not at the edge. 
 
 How this plant obtained the name May apple is not apparent, for the fruit 
 does not ripen in May. And wliat gave rise to the popular name mandrake 
 is equally obscure. It is possible that it arose from the simiKirity of the fruit 
 of the Mandragora officinalis of Syria, which is no doubt the mandrake spoken 
 of in the Old Testament. 
 
 Podophyllum was described, figured, and its emetic properties noted by 
 Mark Catesby, in 1731. See Hist, of Carolina. 
 
 Use. — The root of the mandrake, or Podophyllum, yields to the chemist a 
 substance known as Podophyllin. This substance is an active purgative, and 
 is said to promote especially the secretions of the liver and kidneys, and is 
 largely used in bilious attacks. It is also used as an emetic and a vermifuge, 
 and as an alterative in rheumatic affections. It has been for years the 
 principal purgative administered by the Thompsonian practitioners, and is 
 their sub.stitute for calomel. 
 
 Order IIL PAP AVERAGES. 
 
 Annual or perennial herbs. Juice milky, sometimes colored. Leaves 
 alternate, simple or pinnate, lobed or toothed, exstipulate. Flowers 
 regular, terminal, and often solitary. Sepals falling soon, usually two. 
 Petals four, sometimes six, rarely more ; spreading and imbricated in 
 the bud. Stamens numerous, and some multiple of four. Ovary soli- 
 tary; style short; stigmas 2 or more, star-shaped, upon the flat top 
 of the ovary. Fruit pod-shaped, with tw^o divisions, or capsular with 
 several ])artitions. Principal genera, about 24. 
 
 PAPAVER, Tourn. (Poppy.) Calyx composed of 2 thin sepals, falling 
 soon after the expansion of the flower. Corolla 4-petaled, crumpled 
 at top. Stamens numerous, attached below the ovary, l-celled, many- 
 ovuled. Style short, expanding into a broad, persistent stigma. 
 Seed-vessel varying in shape from an oblate to a prolate spheroid, 
 surmounted by the broad, persistent stigma. Seeds kidney-shaped, 
 pitted, very oily. Leaves alternate, lol)ed, or cut ; flowers terminal, 
 on long peduncles ; buds drooping. 
 
 There are about a dozen well-marked species, and as they are grown from 
 seed they sport freely, producing many varieties. The P. somniferum, and 
 
44 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 one of its varieties, called the black poppy (on account of its black seeds), are 
 the plants that produce the opium of commerce. The P. somniferum is called 
 the white poppy, on account of its white seeds. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are found in 
 and near cultivated grounds in the United States. 
 
 1. P. Khoeas, L. (Corn Poppy of Great Britain.) Stem hairy, 2 feet high, 
 many-flowered. Leaves glaucous, pinnatifid, incised. Flowers large, showy, 
 
 scarlet, sometimes variegated 
 and double, seed-vessel globose 
 or oval. 
 
 2. P. dubium, L. (Long- 
 leaved Poppy.) Stem slender, 
 2 feet high, clothed with spread- 
 ing hairs. Leaves pinnate ; 
 leaflets deep-toothed and cut. 
 Flowers light-red, sometimes 
 scarlet, smaller than the P. 
 somniferum. Flower-stalk slen- 
 der and hairy ; sepals hairy ; 
 seed-vessels club-shaped. 
 
 3. P. somniferum, Linn. 
 (Opium Poppy. Garden Poppy.) 
 Stem 1| to3 feet high, erect, 
 cylindrical, glaucous - green, 
 smooth below, with scattered 
 soft hairs near the summit, 
 branching. Leaves alternate, 
 clasping, deeply toothed or cut, 
 whole plant smooth and glau- 
 cous. Flowers large, terminal, 
 bluish-purple or white ; petals 4, 
 edged at base with a purple bor- 
 der. Stamens many, attached 
 to the receptacle ; filaments 
 bristle-like ; anthers oblong, 
 blunt, flattened, and erect. Fruit 
 globose, 1 inch to 1| inches in 
 diameter, crowned with the 
 broad, persistent, radiating 
 stigma; the margin of stigma 
 deflexed. Seed-vessel 1-celled, 
 with wedge-like processes ex- 
 tending half-way to the center, 
 to which the seeds are attached. 
 Seeds kidney-shaped, whitish, 
 
 numerous. It is said that Linnaeus counted 32,000 in one cell, or seed-vessel. 
 The seed-vessel, when wounded, discharges a thick, creamy juice. 
 
 4. P. orientals, L. Stem 3 feet high, rough, terminated with one rich scarlet- 
 colored flower. Leaves pinnate, rough ; leaflets serrate. Seed-vessel subglobose 
 and smooth. 
 
 Geography. — Gardens and cultivated grounds, for ornament. (Adv. from 
 Levant.) The geographical home of the poppy is the southern edge of the 
 
 Papaver Rh(EAs (Corn Poppy). 
 
PAPAVEHACE^. 45 
 
 uorth temperate zone; but it has spread towanl^ both the uurtli and suuth. 
 It fruits as far north }is tlie forty-tifth parallel, hut produces most largely south 
 of the thirty-fifth degree. The great opium districts are the valley of the 
 (ianges, Asiatic 'J urkey, Persia, and Egypt. 'J'he best is produced in Asia 
 Minor. In late years the culti\atiou has so extended in China as to cause 
 great alarm to the government. 
 
 Etymology. — Papaver is said to be derived from the Celtic word papfi, a 
 name applied to a soft food fed to infants, and contracted into pap in Kurdish. 
 The seeds of the poppy were boiled in pap, to induce sleep in the infant, 
 hence the association. SotnniJ'eruin is from the Latin words soinnus, sleep, 
 and /ero, bear ; hence sleep-bearing, alluding to the sleep-producing property 
 of opium. Poppy, tlie common name, is a corruption of papa. 
 
 History. — The medicinal properties of the p0])py were known to the Romans, 
 in the days of Hippocrates, about 400 years P. C. Vergil also speaks of the 
 poppy. History informs us that o])ium was first prepared at Thebes, and called 
 Thebaicnm. The juice of the whole plant was used by the ancients, and called 
 Meconium, which means the juice of the poppy. 
 
 ^fode of Cultivation. — In Turkey the poppy is sown on well-prepared land 
 in rows, and thinned out so as to stand from 12 to 18 inches apart, and 
 kept free from weeds. When the capsules are nearly full-grown, incisions 
 are made in them in the evening, with a guarded knife, Avhich cuts through 
 the cuticle only. The milky liquid appears on the surface the following morn- 
 ing, and is removed with a spoon-like instrument, and placed in an earthen 
 vessel, from which it is poured into a shallow, open brass dish, which is tilted 
 on the side to allow the watery part of the liquid to drain off. It is then ex- 
 posed to evaporation, and daily turned until it is sufficiently hardened to be 
 kneaded into balls, which are placed upon slats in large rooms, to dry. Here 
 they are tended and turned by boys till they are dry enough to pack, when 
 they are sent to Smyrna, where they are inspected and graded, packed into 
 tin-lined cases, and sent to market. 
 
 The value of the Turkish opium depends upon the amount of morphia it 
 contains. Opium brought to the United States is assayed before it is exposed 
 for sale, and if found to contain less than nine jjer cent of morphia, is rejected. 
 The cultivation of the poppy for opium has been attempted in the United 
 States in Vermont, Virginia, Tennessee, and California, also in P'rance and 
 England, and opium far richer in mor])hia tlian the Asiatic opium has been 
 produced, but on account of the high price of labor its culti\ation proved 
 unprofital)le. 
 
 Chemistry. — Opium, the product of the poppy, is a very complex substance, 
 containing a large number of bases in combination with sul})huric and meconic 
 acids. Morphine, whose formula is C17H19XO3, and Narcotiue, whose formula 
 is C22H.23NO.^, are the most abundant and important. 
 
 The best known of the others are : — 
 
 Codeine, whose formula is CipII.>,N03 
 Thebaine, " " " Ci9H.>,N03 
 
 Papaverine, " " " Cn lI.nX04 
 
 Narceine, " " " C.,3H,,3N()4 
 
 So far as known, the medicinal properties of ojiium reside in these six 
 substances, and principally in the first two, Morphine and Narcotine. 
 
 Use. — As a mediiine ojtium is administered to relieve pain, to promote 
 sleep, to allay irritation of the nervous system, ami to relax the muscles 
 
46 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 in spasmodic affections. It diminishes secretions, and for this purpose is 
 largely used. So important has it become that it has passed into a proverb 
 that a physician without opium is like a soldier without weapons. The 
 most important preparations of opium are laudanum, which is an alcoholic 
 tincture, paregoric, which is a compound of opium, benzoic acid, honey, 
 oil of anise, and dilute alcohol. Soothing syrups, given to keep children 
 quiet, contain much opium, and sometimes cause sickness, and occasionally 
 insanity. 
 
 The seed yields an oil only inferior to the best olive oil, and is used both as a 
 substitute and an adulterant. Opium is used as a luxury for an intoxicant, either 
 taken in small doses internally or smoked, when it* is mixed with the hashish, 
 or gum of the hemp, and with grateful spices. If indulged in to excess, it 
 enfeebles the mind and enervates the body, and is said to shorten the life of 
 the offspring of the debauchee. It enables people to bear fatigue without 
 food, and travellers in Turkey, Syria, and India carry it Mdth them for that 
 purpose. Even horses are sustained, in the East, under its influence. It is 
 eaten, not smoked, in Persia and India; smoking it is a recent Chinese inven- 
 tion. In Amoy, China, fifteen out of every twenty adults smoke it. 
 
 Statistics. — Great quantities of opium are carried into China and vicinity. 
 That from India alone is over 14,000,000 pounds annually. Large quantities 
 go overland from Persia and Turkey^ but this is only about one fifth of the 
 amount consumed there, as they produce four fifths of what they use, making 
 an annual consumption of 71,001,840 pounds, at a cost of $280,000,000. 
 
 Order IV. CRUCIFERiE. 
 
 Sepals 4. Petals 4, hypogynous, arranged opposite to each other in 
 pairs, forming a cross. Stamens 6, 4 long and 2 shorter. Flowers 
 perfect, usually in a terminal raceme, white or yellow- . Ovary sessile, 
 usually 2-celled. Stigmas 2. Fruit a pod, one to many seeded, seeds 
 commonly yielding oil. Mostly herbs, sometimes woody. Juice watery, 
 frequently acid, anti-scorbutic, and never poisonous. Stem cylindrical, 
 or angular. Leaves simple, alternate, occasionally opposite, entire, 
 lobed, or dissected ; upper ones sometimes eared, lower ones often 
 runcinate, for the most part without stipules. Genera, 172. 
 
 CAPSELLA, Medic. Seed-vessel, triangular-obcordate ; valves, boat- 
 shaped without wings. Seeds many, with incumbent cotyledons. 
 Pod flattened contrary to partition. Flowers white. A common 
 weed. 
 
 C. Bursa-pastoris. (Shepherd's Purse.) Root-leaves rosulate, cut-lobed; 
 stem-leaves linear lanceolate, clasping, sagittate ; raceme long. Radical leaves 
 clustering, subpinnatifid. Waste ground about dwellings. Common weed. 
 April to September. 
 
 Geography. — Naturalized from Europe, where it is a troublesome weed in 
 gardens and near dwellings. 
 
 Etymology. — Capsella is the diminutive of Latin capsa, a box. 
 
 BRASSICA, L. (Turnip, Mustard.) Pod long, terete, somewhat 
 4-sided, terminating in a stout 1-seeded beak j valves 1-3-veined ; 
 
CRUCIFER^. 
 
 47 
 
 seeds in a single row. 
 or pinnatitid. 
 
 globular. Flowers yellow. Lower leaves lyrate 
 
 1. B. oleracea, L. (Cal)bage.) Stem slender, much branched, appearing the 
 second vcar, .sniuutli, from two to three i'eet higli. J^eaf .smooth, glaucous, 
 twenty inches long and tiiree to 
 fifteen wide, the first year grow- 
 ing compactly, forming a m<»re 
 or less solid head, which is the 
 edil)le part; the stem leaves are 
 lyrate below, entire and lanceo- 
 late above. Flowers yellow, and 
 in great profusion, terminal on 
 the l)ranches. Seed-vessels cy- 
 lindrical, and curved. A bien- 
 nial herb. 
 
 Varieties. — This plant sports 
 with great freedom, yet there 
 are a number of well-marked 
 varieties that propagate with 
 considerable constancy. 
 
 In the vicinity of the great 
 Atlantic cities and in Europe 
 there are about a dozen distinct 
 varieties that have become favor- 
 ites with market gardeners and 
 amateurs, arranged under the 
 following heads : — 
 
 The Common or }Vhite Cab- 
 bage, known as Sugar Loaf, 
 Flat Dutch, Drumhead, Savoy, 
 or Wrinkled, etc., etc. 
 
 The Red, or Purple Cabbage, 
 used for pickling, etc. 
 
 CauUJiower, and several 
 others, which have assumed new forms under cultivation. It seems almost 
 a wonder that tliese varieties are so constant as they are. 
 
 In Europe the number of va- 
 rieties is very great. As all 
 plants raised from the seed sport 
 more or less freely, it is no won- 
 der that the cabl)age assumes so 
 many forms. 
 
 There is a perennial variety 
 grown in the Channel Islands, 
 called the cow cabbage, or tree 
 cabbage, or Bore Cole, which 
 reaches the height of ten feet. 
 The leaves are stripped off and 
 fed to cattle, and the stalks are 
 used for bean-poles, canes, etc. 
 Bkassica olekacea (DrmuLeatI Cabbage). (Jtography. — The cabbage ar- 
 
 ® 
 
 Capsklla BoRSA-PASTORts (Shepherd's Purse). 
 
48 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 rives at perfection in cool, damp climates, but is successfully cultivated iu the 
 edge of the torrid zoue during the wet, cooler season, and is found under 
 cultivation iu a broad zoue all around the world, north of the twenty-fifth 
 parallel, and has been carried to Australia and the islands of the Pacific. 
 
 Etymology. — Brasslca is the Latinized Celtic name for cabbage, the signi- 
 fication of which is not apparent. 
 
 (Jleracea, the specific name of the cabbage, comes from the Latin olns a pot- 
 herb. ' ^ 
 
 History. — The home of this plant is middle and western Europe. It is 
 not known Avhen it was fir.^t used as food, but there is reason to believe 
 it was so used very early in the history of European peoples ; and it has be- 
 come so great a favorite that its spread 
 throughout the world is limited only by 
 civilization. Wherever colonization has 
 occurred, climate permitting, the cab- 
 bage has followed. 
 
 The ancients knew it. Theophrastus, 
 who lived three hundred years before 
 the Christian era, wrote of it, and 
 Pliny also mentions it and speaks of its 
 cultivation. 
 
 Use. — The most common use of this 
 plant is iu the character of a pot-herb, 
 and it is universally esteemed. It is 
 also prepared as a salad, under the name 
 of Cold Chou, which has been corrupted 
 into Cold Slaw. The Scotch call it 
 Cauld Kail. In Germany and all north- 
 ern European nations large quantities 
 of cabbage are made into Sauer-kraut. 
 It is chopped fine and packed tightly 
 into casks, with alternate layers of salt, 
 and being kept under heavy pressure it 
 soon arrives at a state of fermentation. 
 When it begins to ferment it is fit for use, and is removed to a cool place. 
 It is eaten with oil or other dressings, and is a very important article of food 
 in all northern Europe. 
 
 Sauer-kraut soup, with rye-bread and occasionally a little pork, is the daily 
 food of the Russian peasant. Cabbage is also an important food for cattle, 
 and especially for milch cows. 
 
 2. B. alba, Gray. (White Mustard.) Stem 2 to 5 feet high, stouter than 
 No. 1, much branched. Leaves petioled, lyrate, or subpinnate; terminal seg- 
 ment large, 3-lobed. Flowers yellow, in racemes ; petals larger than in No. 1, 
 and seeds fewer. June to August. Fruits in August. 
 
 3. B. nigra, Koch. (Black Mustard.) Stem from 3 to 6 feet high, diffusely 
 branched, smooth or hairy. Leaves petioled, and variously lobed and toothed ; 
 green above and lighter beneath. Flowers in slender racemes, greenish-yel- 
 low. Seeds dark-brown, sharp to the taste. Annual. June, July. Fruits 
 in August. 
 
 4. B. juncea, Hooker and Thompson. A coarser species, the seeds of which 
 are rich in oil, yielding about 20 per cent of their weight. 
 
 Bore cole (Tree Cabbage). 
 
CRUCIFERiE. 49 
 
 Geography. — The B. juucea is largely grown in India, whence the seeds 
 are exported to England. 
 
 Etymology. — The si)ecific name, niyra, is Latin for l)lack, due to the black 
 seed. Alba, Latin for white, refers to the white seed. Mustard, the popular 
 name, grew out of the eircunistance that mustard was prepared for the table 
 by mixing it with new wine, called must. 
 
 History. — When or where mustard was first cultivated is not known. It 
 is spoken of in the Scriptures, l)ut it is now believed that the plant referred 
 to was Salvadora Persica, allied to the olive, whose fruit has the taste and 
 pungency of the nuistard-seed. 
 
 The common nmstard, Sinapis, is mentioned by Theophrastus, showing that 
 it was known to the ancient Greeks and Komans, three hundred years before 
 the beginning of the Christian era; hence it has been under cultivation and in 
 use more than two thousand years. It has been cultivated throughout the 
 ages of the Christian era, and was known as a medicine as well as a con- 
 diment for food. During the latter part of the Chri.stian era, especially, 
 it has been used more largely in western Europe and the British islands 
 as a dressing for food than for medical purposes. A pleasant oil is ol> 
 tained from the seed, used for a dressing for food and for making fine 
 soaps. 
 
 Preparation. — When the seeds are ground and mixed with warm water, 
 fermentation takes place, and furnishes a very pungent essential oil. 
 
 Table mustard is prepared by mixing and grinding together the seeds of 
 B. nigra and B. alba, and is frecpiently ground into a paste in its own oil. 
 The species from which the sweet oil of mustard is obtained is the B. juncea 
 (Hook.), largely raised in India and Russia, for the oil. The seeds yield by- 
 pressure about 20 per cent of their weight of oil. 
 
 The pungency of prepared mustard is due to the presence of an essential oil 
 ■which does not exist in the seed, but is generated by the powdered seed when 
 mixed with warm water, and arises from a fermentation due to the presence 
 of two substances, known as myrosin and sinapin. This oil is the most 
 pungent substance known, causing strangulation when breathed. It is not 
 present in the white seed, but a mixture of the white and black produces it in 
 greater abundance than the black alone, and it is found that tlie mixture of both 
 kinds of seeds makes the best mustard for table use. 
 
 Use. — The oil is used in dressings, for salads, etc., and for soap-makingv 
 The seeds swallowed whole act as a tonic and stimulant ; in larger doses, as a 
 laxative. The flour, mixed with warm water, acts as a cpiick emetic. The seed 
 is ground into flour, in which form it is mixed with vinegar or oil, or both, 
 into a paste for table use, as a condiment for meats. Tlie seeds of B. alba are 
 u.sed whole for flavoring fancy pickles. It is also employed in an entire state, 
 to ])reserve cider in a sweet condition. The flour is used for a poultice, as a 
 counter-irritant in inflammations, and as a remedy for stomach disorders and 
 nervous affections. 
 
 In England mustard is much sown as a crop for forage and for green 
 maimring. When sowed at the rate of about 12 lbs. to the acre it gives an 
 al)undant crop of succulent forage, which is cut before the seeds begin to 
 mature, and fed to cattle, sheep, and swine. 
 
 5. B. campestris, L. (Field Turnip.) iStem slender, appearing the second 
 
 year, 18 to 30 inches high, nmch branched, smooth. Lower leaveslyrate. 3 to 7 
 
 inches long; lobes toothed, somewhat iiairy and glaucous underneath, clas})ing 
 
 and terminating in an abrupt acuniiuatiun. Calyx closed. Corolla yellow, 
 
 i'H. Fl. — 5 
 
50 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Brassica campestris (Field Turnip). 
 
 half-inch in diameter, spreading. Seed-vessel 1 to 2 inches long. Root some- 
 what in the shape of an inverted cone, or spindle-shaped, fleshy, 3 to 10 inches 
 
 in diameter, and 6 to 1 2 inches 
 long, terminating in a slender, 
 tapering radicle, besprinkled 
 with fibrous rootlets. Biennial 
 herb. 
 
 Under B. campestris there 
 are several forms. The most 
 important is the sub-species : 
 
 Napa-brassica, L. var. ruta- 
 baga. (Rutabaga. Swedish 
 Turnip. Russia Turnip.) Root 
 subglobose, flesh yellowish. 
 
 6. B. rapa, L. var. depressa. 
 (Flat Turnip. Red Top Tur- 
 nip. Strap-leaved Turnip.) 
 Stem and leaves as above in 
 No. 5, except that the leaves 
 are frequently narrow, long, 
 and linear ; the root flattened 
 at the poles, or flat above and 
 convex beneath ; radicle long 
 and slender. A favorite va- 
 riety for summer use. 
 
 The turnip sports freely, 
 forming many varieties. The Swedish turnip varies in color and size, but 
 very little in quality. It is yellow or white. A recent sport is called the 
 White Stone. 
 
 There are other varieties and forms 
 of considerable constancy, but those 
 already described are the most im- 
 portant. 
 
 Geography. — The turnip is found 
 under cultivation in Greece, Egypt, 
 and Syria, but especially in middle 
 and northern Europe, and is said to 
 be indigenous to Sweden, Russia, and 
 Siberia. It was introduced by Euro- 
 pean colonists into North America, 
 and is largely grown all over the 
 middle and northern United States 
 and southern Canada. It has also 
 been introduced by the British into 
 India and Australia. 
 
 Etymology. — Campestris, the spe- 
 cific name, is from the Latin cam- 
 pester, inhabiting an open place, or 
 field. The specific name, Rapa, is 
 from the Latin rapa, a turnip. Tur- 
 nip or Turnep is from the old French Brassica rapa (Flat Turuip). 
 
CRUCIFER^.. 51 
 
 (our, turned, or round, and the Anglo-Saxon nope, white, signifying round and 
 white. Sicec/is/i and Ixussia are names due to the countries wliere these 
 varieties have originated or where tliey are largely grown. F/ai lop is named 
 from its form. 
 
 History. — When the turuip was first cultivated, or where it was first used for 
 food, history does not reveal The Koniaus were ac(juaiuted with it. Tliny 
 relates that single specimens sometimes weighed forty pouuds. This seems 
 remarkable, since the turnip does not at the present day grow well in warm, 
 dry climates, neither does it arrive at perfection in very cold regions. The Brit- 
 ish Isles and the low countries of western Europe are best suited to it. It also 
 grows well in the middle parts of the north temperate zone in North America, 
 to which it was taken by English colonists. Theophrastus and I)io.scorides 
 both speak of the turuip. It was taken to Britaiu by the Romans, most likely 
 under Agricola. 
 
 But little attention seems to have been given to it till the early part of the 
 17th century, when it was an important crop in England. It reciuires rich, 
 dee)) soil, and a damp, cool climate, but grows well in damp, warm countries. 
 I)e Caudolle thinks tlie bulk of evidence shows that it is a native of western 
 Europe, or possibly of Siberia. 
 
 Use. — The turnip is one of the most valuable of all the root vegetables ; it 
 is prepared for the table in many ways, and is largely employed for feeding 
 stock. Cattle, sheep, and horses are fond of it, and it is especially valuable 
 for milch cows. 
 
 It has been sliced, dried, ground into powder, and used to adulterate flour 
 for making bread. 
 
 Uavy analyzed the turnip, and found it to contain 3 per cent of nutritive 
 matter. 
 
 7. B. napus, L. (Rape.) This species differs from B. campestris in the form 
 of its root, which is long and slender, and usually carrot-shaped ; seed-vessels 
 spreading, foliage more abundant ; otherwi.se as B. campestris. 
 
 Geogrophi/. — The geographical range of the rape is the same as that of 
 the turnip and cabbage. Its home is no doubt in the regions of midiUe 
 and northern Europe and Siberia. It is found wild in Sweden also, but mav 
 have escaped from cultivation. 
 
 Etymolofjii. — Napus is the ancient Latin name for turnip, and signifies a 
 shape which tapers both ways from the middle. 
 
 History. — How long the rape has been in use as an economic plant is 
 not known. Dioscorides and Pliny both sjjeak of it under different names, and 
 I)e Caudolle thinks that it and the turnip have been cultivatetl for more than 
 4000 years. 
 
 Use. — In northern Europe and especially in Russia it is raised in large crops 
 for its .seed, of which an oil is made for lubricating j)urpo^es, and also for illu- 
 minating. When carefully refined it is emj)loye(l for culinary and table uses 
 At the world's e.x])Osition in I'liiladelphia in 1870, a very fine rape oil was on 
 exhibition in the Rnssian agricultural dej)artnient. The refuse is pressetl into 
 cakes called ra])e cake, and fed to cattle and poultry. The rape seed is fre- 
 quently mixed with turnip, cabbage, aiul other cruciferous seeds. To obtain 
 the oil, the seeds are grouiul or l)eateu into paste, put into hempen bags, and 
 placed between grooved planks standing in an n|)right position, so arranged 
 as to be nearer together at the bottom than at the top. The plnnks are then 
 forced together by wedges, which forces the oil out. This oil constitutes a 
 very important article of food among the Hussiau peasantry. 
 
52 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 COCHLEARIA, Tournefort. (Horse Radish.) Calyx equal at the base. 
 Sepals short and slightly spreading. Petals entire, larger than the 
 sepals, with short claws. Style short, occasionally long. Pod globular 
 or egg-shaped ; valves convex, nerve dorsal. Seeds usually few, obo- 
 vate, flattened, arranged in two rows in each cell. Leaves large, ob- 
 long, lower ones pinnate, those on the upper part of the stem entire. 
 Root perennial. 
 
 1. C. armoracia, L. (Horse Radish.) Stem 2 to 4 feet in height, striate, 
 much branched ; branches ascending. Leaves large and thick , radical ones 
 12 to 18 inches long; on the lower part of the stem either pinnate, crenate, 
 or toothed, on long stalks 6 to 12 inches in length; upper leaves on short 
 
 petioles, sometimes sessile, entire, elliptical, 
 
 or strap-shaped. Flowers in corymbs, white. 
 
 Seed-vessel egg-shaped, seldom ripening seed. 
 
 Root large, fleshy, and edible, and of very rapid 
 
 growth. Flowers in June. 
 
 2. C. officinalis, L. (Scurvy Grass) The leaf 
 has the shape of a spoon, hence the generic 
 name. Sometimes cultivated in the United 
 States. There are other species, but they are 
 not cultivated. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the 
 Cochlearia is the middle and southern edges 
 of the north temperate zone, extending from 
 Great Britain to western Asia, and northeast 
 America. 
 
 Etymology. — Cochlearia, the generic name, 
 is from the Latin cochlear, a spoon, due to the 
 shape of the leaf of the C. officinalis. Armo- 
 racia, the specific name, is derived from Armor- 
 ica, a province in France where the Horse 
 Radish was thought to be native ; but it has 
 been ascertained that Armorica is not the home 
 of this plant, hence the name did not arise in that way, and the derivation is 
 obscure. Horse Radish, the common name, signifies a strong Radish, due to the 
 very pungent taste of the root. Officinalis means " of the shops," or " useful." 
 History. — It is not certain that this plant was known to the ancients. 
 Pliny, in the first century, applied the name to another plant. It was taken 
 to Great Britain before Cesar's invasion, and has become naturalized, and is 
 growing freely and propagating itself , without cultivation, throughout temper- 
 ate Europe. It was brought to northeastern America by colonists, Avhere it 
 is cultivated, and is also naturalized. It is an important plant to the market 
 gardener. 
 
 Use. — The medical properties of the Horse Radish are stimulant, dia- 
 phoretic, diuretic, and anti-scorbutic, and when applied externally, rubefacient. 
 It is administered in paralysis, rheumatism, dropsy, and in other complaints to 
 excite the secretions. 
 
 As a food, the root is esteemed for flavoring and preparing sauces for meats 
 and fish. It is prepared by grating the root and preserving it with vinegar. It 
 is adulterated with grated turnip, which renders it more mild and palatable. 
 
 Cochlearia armoracia 
 (Horse Radisli). 
 
CRUCIFER^. 
 
 53 
 
 ISATIS, L. (Woad.) ]\)d or silicle oviil or elliittical, flai, one-seeded ; 
 valves boat-shaped, sul)dehiscent ; cotyledons accuuil)ent. Biennial. 
 
 1. I. tinctoria, L. (Woad.) Stem 4 icct Iiio;!!, half an inch in dianieter. 
 much hraiuhed. Leaves thick, liglit-green, oval, subclaspiug, ears rounded, 
 radical leaves petioled, and 10 to 12 indies 
 long and 6 wide, abundant, giving the 
 plant a coarse appearance. Flowers small, 
 yellow, and in terminal panicles. Ai»i)ear- 
 ing in July. 
 
 Gcorp-aphi/. — Woad is indigenous 
 throughout the continent of Europe, and 
 (ireat Britain. It is cultivated in Eng- 
 land, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, and 
 in the Azores and Canary Islands. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Isatis is de- 
 rived from the Greek word lo-o^w, make 
 smooth or even, because it was supposed 
 to remove roughness of the skin. It has 
 been called (jlaslum, from the Celtic word 
 tjlas, blue. The ancient Britons, at the 
 time of the invasion by Julius Ci^sar, 
 adorned their bodies by painting the forms 
 of animals and other objects on them with 
 woad, hence the Romans gave them the 
 name of Picts, or pictured men. 
 
 Woad imparts a permanent blue color, 
 the shade depending upon the quantity, and manner of using it. 
 of giving a very dark l)lue, approaching a blue-ltlack. 
 
 Cue. — Notwithstanding the inroads tliat indigo has made upon the use of 
 woad, on account of the permanency t)f the color imparted by woad it still 
 holds an important place among coloring substances. Dyers are in the habit 
 of mixing it with indigo ; the dyes are said to coalesce, and strengthen each 
 other. Its use is rapidly dying out in England. 
 
 Isatis tinctoria (Woad) 
 
 It is cajiable 
 
 NASTURTIUM, R. Br. Sepals 4. regular, and equal at base. 
 Petals regular, white, seed-vessel or silique tapering, cylindrical, 
 short, and cuived upwards. Seeds small, irregularly arranged in a 
 double row. Leaves alternate. Herbs which delight in wet places, 
 or in the edges of the waters of slowly flowing streams. 
 
 1. N. officinale, R. Rr. (Water Cress.) Stem perennial. 6 to 18 inches long, 
 branched, prostrate, and assurgent. Leaves pinnately divided ; leaflets very 
 inconstant, ranging in number from '? to h pairs, and a terminal one, rounded, 
 usually entire, and glabrous, occasionally sinuately toothed. Flowers in June. 
 Fruits in July. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical distribution of this plant is very wide, as 
 is the ca!<e with all economic plants which follow colonization. It grows 
 all over Europe, in Palestine, Hindustan, Japan, tlie islands of the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific, wherever I-'uropean colonies have been established. 
 
 Etymology. — Na.<itnrtiin7i is derived from the Latin nasus, the nose, and tortu.'^, 
 a tivisting, said to be due to tlie effect which its pungency has upon the nose 
 
54 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 when taken in large mouthfuls. Officinalis, Latin, signifies that the plant 
 helongs to commerce, or the shops. Wafer Cress, the common name, comes 
 from the Latin cresco, grow, and " water " allndes to its habit of growing in the 
 water. 
 
 History. — The home of the Nasturtium is Europe and northern Asia. 
 Where or when it was first introduced into the catalogue of table vegeta- 
 bles is not known. It was noticed by Dioscorides and Pliny, and therefore 
 
 must have been in use 
 in Italy before the Chris- 
 tian era. It has been 
 seen near the mouth of 
 the Columbia River, in 
 North America. It was 
 brought to eastern North 
 America probably by 
 colonists from Holland, 
 where it is grown to a 
 considerable extent. 
 
 Use. — It is eaten as 
 a salad, and used to 
 garnish dishes of meats 
 and of fish. It is served 
 always without cooking, 
 eaten with salt, or a vin- 
 egar dressing, and is a 
 popular salad-plant with 
 oysters and game. 
 
 Note. — The nasturtium of the garden is Trop^olum, which belongs to the 
 geranium family, and is an immigrant from Peru. It has showy yellow 
 flowers, and is cultivated both for ornament and its fruit, which is curiously 
 curved and ribbed The fruit is plucked before it is mature, and pickled. 
 It has a pungency similar to the Nasturtium, hence its common name. 
 
 Nasturtium officinale (Water Cress). 
 
 Order V. CAPPARIDACE^. 
 
 Sepals 4—8, free or sometimes cohering. Petals hypogynous or peri- 
 gynous, 4-8, sometimes wanting. Stamens 6 or many, hypogynous 
 or perigynous. Ovaries generally stipulate, 1-celled, or spuriously 2-8 
 celled, with parietal placentae, ovules curved. Flowers usually perfect. 
 Herbs, shrubs, or small trees. Leaves simple, or digitate and spiny. 
 The Capparis is a small shrub. Number of genera, 23. 
 
 CAPPARIS, L. Calyx divided into 4 spreading, ovate sepals. 
 Petals 4, alternate with the sepals, wedge-strap shape, longer than 
 the sepals, spreading or recurved. Stamens numerous, inserted on 
 a subconical receptacle, free, anthers attached lengthwise along their 
 backs to the filaments, and the cells turned out. Pistil one, longer 
 than the stamens. Shrub. 
 
 1. C. spinosa, L. (Caper.) Stem from 2 to 3 feet long, straggling or 
 prostrate, very mucli branched, bark white. Leaves ovate or orbicular, thick. 
 
CArPARIDACETP: 
 
 66 
 
 glaucous, and deciduous. 2 crooked spines appearing at the liase of the leaf- 
 stalk. Flowers on long stalks, white, numerous and axillary, large and showy, 
 but without fragrance. Tetals much longer than the sepals, wedge strap- 
 shape, spreading or recurved. Stamens sometimes GO in number, about as 
 long as the petals. Fruit a leathery, obovoid, succulent capsule, berry -like ; 
 seeds numerous, kidney-shaped. .Shrub. Flowers from June to August. 
 
 2. C. soldada is found in central Africa, bearing a fruit resembling the cur- 
 rant, and is eaten fresh from the bush, and also dried. 
 
 ■i. C. ferruginea has a rusty, narrow leaf. It is found in the West Indies. 
 
 The berries have a jjungent, mustard-like taste, and ou that account the plant 
 is called the mustard shrub. 
 
 Geography. — The Capparis grcjws and fruits in southern Europe, and all 
 the countries of the Mediterranean. The market is supplied from the planta- 
 tions and wild copses 
 of Sicily and Malta, 
 and other islands of 
 the Mediterranean, 
 and from the south of 
 France. It loves the 
 rocks, and its habit is 
 well pictured in the 
 following quotation : 
 
 " This beautiful 
 plant is rooted in 
 many a crevice of the 
 palace of the Cagsars 
 at Rome ; it spreads 
 its green, glossy leaves 
 and starry white flow- 
 ers, with their long, 
 purple anthers, over 
 the ruins of that once 
 stirring place, the Col- 
 osseum, and clothes 
 the arches of the tem- 
 ple of peace with fe.s- 
 toons which adorn 
 without hiding their 
 
 beauty; the ancient tombs of the Campagna are frequentlv hung with it • 
 rocks of Naples are favorable to it; and it has fixed itself 1.0^ onlv on 
 mouldering cliffs of Malta, but in the narrow crevices of the fortification." 
 
 Etymology. — Capparis is Latin, through the Greek Kdinrirapis, from the 
 Arabic Knhar, the Persian name of this plant, the meaning of which is not 
 known. Spinosa is Latin, meaning prickly, and is due to the thorns that ap- 
 pear at the base of the leaf-stalks. Caper, the popular name, is a corrui)tion 
 of capparis, the generic name. 
 
 ffistory. — T]u- nxper was well known to the (ireeks and Romans, and was 
 mentioned by the early writers on natural history, especiallv Theophrastus. 
 Dioscorides, and Pliny. The capparis is among the plants known to the ancient 
 Hebrews as thorns. 'I'he Jlower-buds were preserved in salt or vinegar, and 
 offered to gue.sts just before dinner as an excitant to tiie appetite. It is dainied 
 
 >^^^ 
 
 SPINOSA (Caper). 
 
 the 
 the 
 
56 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 by some authors that this is the plant called in the Scriptures Hyssop, and the 
 one used to sprinkle the doorposts and lintels with blood, in Egypt; also the 
 plant mentioned in connection with the wisdom of bulomon, when it is stated 
 that he knew all the plants, from the " cedar of Lebanon unto the Hyssop 
 that springetli out of the wall : " but this has been disputed, and claims have 
 been made for a genus of the mint family. 
 
 The flower-buds are collected by women and children (whose hands and 
 wrists are torn by the sharp thorns by which every leaf-stalk is guarded), 
 placed in salt or vinegar, and in Italy the fruit in an unripe state is also 
 gathered and prepared just as the undeveloped flower-buds are. It was car- 
 ried to the south of France by Greek colonists, and has been grown largely 
 since that time near Marseilles. It grows best in rocky places or among 
 ruins. Gerard says it refuses to be domesticated. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal qualities of the caper are stimulant, anti-scorbutic, 
 aperient, diuretic, and stomachic. 
 
 In Italy, the unripe fruit, which is very pungent, is eaten not only as a pickle 
 but as a salad, and is also cooked Avith meat. The undeveloped flower-buds 
 are sent abroad, and are used in this country to flavor sauces and dressings 
 for boiled meats. 
 
 The fruit of the C. soldada resembles currants, and is eaten in the same 
 manner. The fruit of the C. ferruginea has the taste of mustard, and is 
 largely used as a condiment for meats. 
 
 Order VL VIOLACE-^]. 
 
 Flowers perfect, irregular, axillary, mostly solitary, 2 bracts, 
 usually at the base or near the middle of pedicel. Sepals 5, mostly 
 free, persistent. Petals 5, li}^3ogynous, alternate with the sepals, 
 unequal, lower one dissimilar and prolonged into a hollow spur, below 
 the insertion. Stamens 5, inserted on the bottom of the calyx ; fila- 
 ments short, dilated, usually free. Ovary free, sessile; style simple. 
 Fruit a capsule, many-seeded, with parietal placentae. Seeds ovoid, or 
 globose ; testa membranous. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Herb. 
 
 No. of genera, about 21. 
 
 VIOLA, L. (Violet.) Sepals 5, unequal, and eared at base. Petals 5, 
 unequal, the broad one spurred at base, 2 lateral ones equal. Sta- 
 mens 5, approaching ; filaments free ; anthers connate ; capsule 1 -celled, 
 3-valved ; seeds attached at the middle of the valves. Pedicels angular, 
 solitary, 1-flowered, curved at the summit. Flowers nodding in an 
 inverted position. Perennial herbs. 
 
 1. V. blanda, Willd. (Delicate Violet.) Leaves cordate or kidney-shaped, 
 crenate, toothed or entire, early ones orbicular, flat and thin, head of sinus 
 rounded. Flowers Avhite, odorous, and small ; sepals ovate ; petals ovate, ob- 
 tuse, frequently striped with purple, slightly bearded. Stigma depressed, 
 margined. April and May. 
 
 Geography. — Found in wet jdaces from Canada to Peunsylvauia. 
 
 2 V. Canadensis, L. (Canada Violet.) Stem 9 to 18 inches high, smooth, 
 slender. Leaves prominently heart-shaped, and acuminate or pointed, irreg- 
 ularly serrate, lower ones on long petioles ; stipules large, ovate-lanceolate, 
 
VIOLACE^. 
 
 57 
 
 entire. Flowers large, blue without, nearly white within ; iipper petals marked 
 with i)lue lines, side ones bearded ; spur short ; stigma short, and without beak ; 
 sepals lanceolate. May to August. 
 
 Ueof/rapltij. — British America to Carolina, west to Colorado, Montana, 
 and Wyoming. Kich woods, not rare. 
 
 \'ar. Sylvestris. 
 root, sending off 
 
 3. V. canina, L. (V. Muhlenbergii, Torr.) (Dog \'iolet.) 
 Hegel. Stem leafy, 2 to 8 inches high, many from the same 
 creeping branches. Leaves at the root kidney-shaped or 
 orbicular heart-shaped, upper ones acuminate ; all crenate, 
 thin, veins prt)minent, stipules large, lanceolate, fringe- 
 toothed. Flowers pale-purplish, showy ; petals obovate, ob- 
 tuse, lateral ones bearded ; spur tapering, half as long as 
 petals ; stigma rostrate. May to June. 
 
 Geography. — Eastern North America, from Labrador to 
 Florida, and west to Colorado. In damp meadows, edges 
 of swamps, and fringes of damp woods. 
 
 4. V. hastata, Mx. (Halberd-leaved Violet.) Stem 
 slender, erect, simple, nearly smooth, leafy above, 6 to 10 
 inches high. Leaves on long petioles, cordate, lanceolate, 
 or hastate, acuminate, dentate; lobes obtuse, stipules mi- 
 nute, ovate. Flowers yellow, peduncles shorter than the Viola blanda 
 leaves ; lower petal broader, 3-sub-lobed, lateral ones slightly (Delicate Violet), 
 bearded. May. 
 
 Geography. — Tenn. to Florida, mountains of Peuu. and northern Ohio. In 
 pine woods, not common. 
 
 5. V. lanceolata, L. (Lance-leaved Violet.) Quite smooth, lanceolate, taper- 
 ing into a long petiole, obscurely toothed, or entire. Leaves generallv a little 
 longer than the scapes, 4-6 inches high. Flowers white, inodorous, striped 
 with purple lines; spur short. Sepals lanceolate; petals beardless. April to 
 June. 
 
 (tfography. — From Canada, throughout eastern U. S., in damj) places. 
 
 ^^ 6. V. odorata, L. (Sweet Violet. English Violet.) Leaves heart-shaped, ere 
 nate, sj^aringly hairy, stipules lance-shaped and toothed. Flower-stalks taller 
 
 than the leaves. Flowers purjde and 
 fragrant. Se])als obtuse ; lateral petals 
 with a hairy line. 
 
 'i'here are several varieties, l)ased up- 
 ^,__^ , -r-^ ^1 - ^" ^^^^ color and size of the Howers : — 
 
 ^\ \;^?n^-'''^^^^-^^'~"^ "• '''irpl*' '"^weet Violet. 
 
 ^fcl^^^T'-^ ^/fc4j^\ "• ^^''''^^ Sweet Violet. 
 
 c. IJlue Sweet N'iolet. 
 By cultivation all tlie.<;e frequently 
 bp,ri>ni«> double ; they are great favorites 
 with florists 
 
 (ito<ini}iliii. - Indigenous throughout 
 Europe; ft)und also in some i)arts of 
 China. .lapan. and India; it has es- 
 caped from cnltivation, and is frequent 
 in the fields near the great cities of the United States. 
 
 ViOLA ODORATA (Sweet Violet) 
 
58 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 7. V. palmata, L. (Hand-shaped Violet.) Leaves varying from broad 
 cordate to reniforni, repand toothed, sparingly cucullate at base. Whole plant 
 slightly pubescent. Early leaves purple underneath. Growing in dry grounds 
 and open woods. 6 to 10 inches high. 
 
 Form No. 2. Early leaves broad cordate, or reniform, somewhat fleshy, on 
 short petioles, under side frequently purple, serrate toothed, usually 2 or 
 .3 in number, rarely many ; later leaves usually 2-4 in number, on long 
 petioles, 3-lobed, the middle lobe sometimes lanceolate, occasionally with 
 parallel sides, and terminating in a blunt angle, with lateral lobes hatchet- 
 shaped, with the margins sometimes serrate toothed, sometimes deeply cut 
 into 2 or 3 divisions. The whole leaf is frequently divided into narrow 
 parts, approaching V. pedata. Again, the whole margin will be made up of 
 divisions, varying in number from 6 to 12, and from an eighth to half an 
 inch in width, the middle ones generally the broadest, and the incisions ex- 
 tending half-way into the blade. The early leaves are usually smooth, the 
 later ones covered with pubescence. Flowers apetalous and frequently 
 subterranean. 
 
 Geography. — Dry grounds and open woods. May to August. 6 to 12 inches 
 high. 
 
 The author watched this plant closely throughout five successive seasons in 
 the same localities, and it seems to depart from the distinctive characters of 
 V. cucullata as its distance from damp ground increases. He placed speci- 
 mens with divided leaves in the lawn of the Freehold (N. J.) Institute, in damp, 
 rich soil, and in the course of four years they were free from pubescence, the 
 leaves entire, and in every way identical with V. cucullata growing within ten 
 feet of it. He also saw specimens which had been transplanted into a drv, 
 gravelly, rather sterile border, in Flushing, on Long Island, and they retained 
 their pubescence and divided leaves. 
 
 8. V. cucullata, Ait. (Common Blue Violet.) Plant 6 to 12 inches high, 
 flower-stalks frequently as long or longer than the petioles. Leaves glabrous, 
 cordate, rolled in at the base, serrate-crenate, or remotely toothed, those ap- 
 pearing first frequently kidney-shaped, and purple underneath near the base. 
 Flowers blue, large, late ones apetalous and subterranean. Sepals linear, 
 lanceolate; upper one smooth, the others bearded; lateral ones obovate; 
 s])ur short and rounded. April to July. 
 
 Geography. — The distribution of this species is very broad. It is found in 
 the temperate zone quite across the continent of North America. 
 
 Var. striata, Willis. (Streaked or Spotted Violet.) Four to eight inches 
 high. Leaves cordate, frequently reniform, early ones entire or crenate, 
 purple underneath near the base, and glabrous, later ones becoming more 
 and more clothed with hairs, and taking on a lobed form as the season ad- 
 vances, or as the plant creeps up dry hillsides from damp and lower grounds. 
 Flowers few or many, pure white, marked Avith purple lines ; sometimes sprin- 
 kled with purple dots, or splashed with large, irregular, or ragged purple spots, 
 but the lines are always present. Petals very irregular as to size, even in the 
 same plant ; sometimes very small, and sometimes irregularly cut, toothed, or 
 even fringed ; later flowers cleistogamous. 
 
 Geography. — Found sparingly near Freehold, N. J., and more frequently 
 in the vales and on the acclivities among the Gneissic hills about White 
 Plains, N. Y. ; also in the northeastern parts of New Jersey. 
 
YlOl.ACKJE. 
 
 59 
 
 Var. reniformis, Willis, is quite distinct aiul constant. Leaves very broad, 
 cordate, or prominently reniform ; frequently 4 to 5 inches wide, and an inch 
 from base to apex; sometimes with a deep, broad sinus at the apex, seldom 
 flowering; flowers subterranean, leaf-stalks 12 to 15 inches long, growing in 
 rich, damp, shady places. 
 
 Var. cordata, Walt. Leaves ]n-ostrate, round, cordate, smooth or clothed 
 with soft hairs, small. Dry hills and open woodlands. (V. villosa and V. cor- 
 data, Walt, and V. sorosis, Willd.) 
 
 Viola sagittata (Arrow-leaved Violet). 
 
 9. V. palustris, L. (Meadow Violet, or Marsh Violet.) Leaves cordate, 
 
 or kidney-shnpod. oliscurely crenate ; stipules broadly ovate, and acuminate. 
 Hhizomes creeping and scaly. Sepals ovate, obtuse. Petals small, pale blue; 
 spur short and blunt; peduncles longer than the leaves. I'lant 2 to 3 inches 
 high. June. 
 
 Geogra/thr/. — Tops of White Mountains in New Hampshire, also mountains 
 of Colorado and Utah; identical with the Euroj)ean species. 
 
 10. V. pedata, L. (Bird-foot Violet.) TiCaves pedate, smooth, .5-0-])arted, 
 lobes linear, lanceolate, obtuse or acute. 1-2-tootlied or .'i-lobed .at the apex, 
 tapering downwards, stipules Lacerated. Flowers large, ])alc-blue : petals 
 rounded at the extremities, l)eardle.'5s ; spur short ; stigma large, oliliquely 
 truncate ; be.ik oliscure. Scapes 2 to .") inches high, several from the same 
 root. May to June, 
 
60 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANT. 
 
 Var. bicolor, Pursh. Varies from the above description, in having the two 
 upper petals deep violet, presenting a velvety appearance ; the others light- 
 blue, with yellow at their bases, resembling the V. tricolor, or pansy. 
 
 Geography. — Canada to Florida, and west to 111. In southern exposures 
 of sandy woodsides. 
 
 11. V. primulaefolia, L. (Primrose-leaved Violet.) Smooth, varying from cor- 
 date, broad ovate, to lanceolate, tapering into a winged petiole, slightly repand 
 or crenate ; when growing in dry places sparingly pubescent ; sepals lanceolate ; 
 stigma beaked. Flowers white, sometimes striped with purple streaks, slightly 
 odorous ; petals slightly bearded, especially the lateral ones. April to July. 
 Wet meadows ; growing with V. lanceolata and V. blanda, and seems to be a 
 connecting link between them. Specimens sometimes seem to possess the 
 characteristics of both. Dr. Beck suggests that it may be identical Avith 
 V. lanceolata, but the author's observations do not lead him to that conclusion. 
 It seems more like a variety of V. blanda ; its flowers are odorous like V. 
 blanda, and its foliage more nearly approaches that of V. blanda than of 
 V. lanceolata, 4 to 6 inches high. 
 
 Geography. — Found in the Atlantic States, and west to Tennessee ; in damp 
 grounds. 
 
 12. V. pubescens. Ait. (Downy YeUow Violet.) Stem 6 to 12 inches high, 
 somewhat angular, erect, softly pubescent. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, 
 dentate, acuminate ; stipules large, ovate, sparingly toothed. Flowers middle- 
 sized, yellow, lateral ; petals slightly bearded, lower ones striped with dark 
 purple ; spur very short. Peduncles shorter than the leaves, axillary, solitary, 
 furnished with 2 awl-shaped bracts. May. 
 
 Var. scabriuscula, Torr. and Gray. Smaller, less pubescent, brighter 
 green, stem frequently prostrate, 3 to 9 inches high, and branching near 
 the root. 
 
 Geography. — Canada, eastern United States to Georgia, and west to Mis- 
 souri. Frequent in dry, stony, open woods throughout these limits. 
 
 13. V. rostrata, Pursh. (Long-spurred Violet.) Stem diffuse, erect, 4 to 8 
 inches high, smooth. Leaves smooth, thin, roundish, heart-shaped below, cor- 
 date-lanceolate or sub-triangular and acute above ; lower ones crenate-toothed, 
 upper ones sub-serrate. Stipules large, lanceolate, serrate ciliate. Flowers 
 large, pale-blue ; petals obovate, beardless ; spur slender and very long. June. 
 
 Geography. — Eastern North America, Canada to Virginia, and south and 
 west in the Alleghanies. Found sparingly on shaded hillsides throughout 
 these limits. 
 
 14. V. rotundifolia, Mx. (Pvound-leaved Violet.) Early leaves orbicular or 
 kidney-shaped, later ones longer than broad, heart-shaped, sparingly toothed, 
 slightly crenate, 1 to 2 inches wide, 2 to 4 inches long ; stalks pubescent, about 
 as long as the blade. Flowers pale-yellow, middle-sized; side petals bearded, 
 marked with dark lines, sometimes notched at the summit. Stalks 1 to 3 
 inches long, generally smooth, occasionally pubescent, sometimes bracted in 
 the middle ; spur short. 
 
 Geography. — Found sparingly in damp ground from New England to 
 Tennessee. 
 
 15. V. sagittata, Ait. (Arrow-leaved Violet.) Leaf entirely smooth, when 
 growing in damp soil ; slightly pubescent when growing in dry soil. Sub- 
 
VIOLACE^. 
 
 61 
 
 linear lanceolate ; sometimes trianp;ular. oblong lieart-sliaped, arrow-shaped, 
 or hal'herd-sliaped ; sparinglv toothed or cut-toothe.i at the l.ase ; 4 to 10 inches 
 high. Flower deep blue ; petals obovate, bearded, and emarginate ; spur short 
 and thick ; sepals lanceolate, acute. April to July. 
 
 Var. ovata. Leaves oblong-ovate, crenate, frequently repand toothed near 
 the base; pubescent; stipules ciliate ; flowers large and dark. (Irowing in dry, 
 open woods ; sandy soil. 2 to 4 inches high. April, May. ( V. ovata, Nutt.) 
 
 Geogmphij. — Yownd throughout eastern North America from Canada to 
 Florida, and west to the Mississipi)i valley. Dry or moist open grounds. 
 
 IG V. Selkirkii, Fursh, fioldie. {Great-spurred Violet.) Leaves numerous, 
 orbicular, lieart-sl'iai)ed, slightlv liairy on the upper side, crenately toothed ; 
 sinus deep, sometimes broad, at other times nearly closed. Fvoot-stock fibrous 
 rooted. Flowers small, pale blue ; spur very large ; petals beardless, upper 
 oue marked with blue lines. Plant about 2 inches high. May. 
 
 Geography. — Yomid in Canada, Mass., and N. Y. Chautauqua Co. (Judge 
 Clinton), Lake Superior (Robbins), rare. 
 
 Viola tricolor (Pansy). 
 
 17. V. Striata, Ait. (Pale Violet. Striped Violet.) Stem a.«<surgcnt, angular, 
 or half-round, smooth, 6 to 12 inches high. Leaves alternate, heart-shaped, 
 frequently acuminate, crenate, serrate ; petioles I to 2 inches long ; stipules 
 large, oblong-lanceolate, strongly fringe-toothed. Flowers large, yellowish- 
 white ; side petals densely bearded; lower one striped with dark purple; spur 
 thickish, shorter than the petals ; stigma recurved. May. 
 
 Geography. — Eastern North America, from Canada, soutli and west. Low 
 grounds. Found sparingly throughout these linuts. 
 
 18. V. tricolor, L. (Pansy. Heartsease.) Stem angular, uuich branched, G 
 to 20 inches higli, leafy Leaves oblong-ovate, lower leaves cordate, remotely 
 toothed, or sub-crenate ; stipules ])innatifid or lyrate, end lobes as long as the 
 leaves. Flowers variable in size; two upper petals purple; side ones white; 
 the lower one striate at base ; all yellow at base. Spur short and thick. April 
 to September. 
 
 Escaped from gardens, sparingly naturalized in fields near old dwellings. 
 
 Var. arvensis, DC. (V. tenella, Muhl.). (V. tricolor, L.). Flowers a little 
 smaller, petals only as long aa sepals. The whole plant usually smaller. 
 
62 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — Sparingly naturalized in New York, and south to Georgia. 
 Around dweiliiigs, in dry, sandy soil. Brought to North America by English 
 colonists. 
 
 Note. — This violet was brought to the notice of florists in England about 
 90 years ago, by Mary Benuet, daughter of the Earl of Tankerville, who, 
 aided by her father's gardener, produced several seedling varieties, the flowers 
 of which were greatly enlarged and beautified. From this beginning the 
 plant has been changed into the pansy of the present day. 
 
 FAijmologj. — Viola is from the Greek "loi/, from the following myth; Jupi- 
 ter loved "loj, the daughter of luachus, first king of Argos, and on account of 
 the jealousy of Juno he transformed "loo into a beautiful white heifer, and im 
 mediately the earth brought forth the violet for her food ; hence its name, 
 the cow plant. It is also derived, by some, from the Latin vitula, a heifer, 
 by eliding the t and changing the u into o, making viola, the cow plant, or 
 heifer plant. 
 
 Histori/. — It is not to be wondered at that this beautiful little flower should 
 have attracted the attention of the ancients. The early writers on plants 
 mention the violet on account of its beauty and delicacy, and it has been lauded 
 by both poets and painters. In the language of floAvers, the violet represents 
 faithfulness. 
 
 It was the favorite flower of the Empress Josephine. On the day before 
 their marriage Napoleon Bonaparte sent her a bouquet of violets, after which 
 it became the court flower. 
 
 It was the rallying sign of the Emperor's partisans, on his return from Elba. 
 It is related that two days before he set out on his exile journey, he, while 
 walking alone in the garden of Fontainebleau, asked a little child to give him 
 a bunch of violets he had gathered. These he shoAved to some of his officers, 
 remarking that he considered the floAver an emblem of modesty Avhich he pro- 
 posed to imitate. The next morning, a priA^ate of his old guard saAv him col- 
 lecting violets, and said to him, " Sire, they will be more plentiful here next 
 year." To Avhich Napoleon replied, " Do you think I shall be here next year 1 " 
 The soldier said, "Your Majesty Avill permit the storm to pass." Napoleon 
 asked, " Do your comrades think so ? " " Nearly aU, Sire," was the answer. 
 Napoleon said, " Let them think, but not say so." The soldier repeated the 
 conversation to his felloAvs, and it Avas then agreed to speak of him ahvays as 
 Father Violet. After this, men throughout France began to talk of the violets 
 of the coming spring, and of a certain Corporal Violet, who would perhaps come 
 in the spring. Ladies Avho longed for his coming Avore violets in their bonnets. 
 In fact, treason lurked everyAvhere beneath a bunch of violets, and tiny pictures 
 of the Emperor Avere concealed among the leaves and flowers in every button- 
 hole bouquet, and bunches of tlie flower Avere painted so as to reveal his 
 profile. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal qualities of this plant are said to be curatiA-e in lung 
 complaints, rheumatism, and catarrh. Most of the violets contain an emetic 
 principle, called violine, especially in their roots. The flowers are laxative 
 and the sirup of violets is used as a laxative for infants. The sirup is also 
 used occasionally as a test for acids and alkalies. The roots of some species 
 produce false ipecacuanha. The floAver is used by dyers to produce the color 
 knoAvn as the Azure of Athens, and the delicate odor of the SAA-eet violet is a 
 most popular perfume. The florist finds it among the floAvers that are largely- 
 sought after for ornamental purposes. 
 
BIXINE^. 
 
 68 
 
 Okdek VII. BIXINE^. 
 
 Sepals distinct, or united ;it base, imbricate in the l)ud, 2-G in num- 
 ber. Corolla polype talous or absent ; petals as many as the sepals. 
 Stamens hypogynous. Flowers usually perfect, regular, axillary or 
 terminal, either solitar}' or fascicled, sometimes racemose or j)anicled. 
 Leaves alternate, simple toothed, occasionally palmately lobed. Trees 
 and shi'ubs. 
 
 Genera, 29. 
 
 BlXA ORELLANA (Allliatto). 
 
 BIXA, L. (Annatto. ) Calyx fleshy. Sepals 5, spatulate, eared 
 near the base. Stamens numerous, some nmltiple of 5. Style fili- 
 form. Fruit 1 -celled, in an oblong, bristled pod, somewhat like a 
 
 chestnut, but longer. 
 
 1. B. orellana, L. (Auuatto.) StemS to 12 feet high, brauehing. Leaves 
 deep-green abuve, pale l)eiieath, 4 inches long, l»road cordate at the base, and 
 tapering and pointed at the apex. Inflorescence a loose panicle. Flowers 
 piuk. 
 
64 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — The Bixa grows in tropical America, and has been introduced 
 by Europeans into southern Europe, Burmah, the Philippine Islands, and 
 Hindustan. It grows freely in all regions of no frost. 
 
 Etymology. — Bixa is the South American name for this tree, and the com- 
 mon name Annatto is quite as obscure as to its signification. 
 
 History. — It was noticed that the natives of tropical America painted or 
 stained their skin with a bright yellow dye. On inquiry it was learned that 
 the material was obtained from the pulp in which the seeds of the Bixa were 
 imbedded. 
 
 The pulp is washed or soaked off the seeds, the water is then removed by 
 evaporation, and the residuum is made into cakes, in which form it is intro- 
 duced into the market Avrapped in leaves. The soft wood is used by the natives 
 of tropical America to obtain fire by friction. 
 
 Use. — The fiber of the stem furnishes excellent material for cordage. 
 
 The coloring matter is said to be of a fire color, and when mixed with cheese 
 or butter it imparts a rich, creamy yellow ; it is largely used in Holland and 
 England as well as in America for that purpose. It is also used to color var- 
 nish, and it is mixed with chocolate to enliven the color and to improve the 
 flavor. The roots are used in soups. The seeds are cordial, and a drink 
 made from them is said to be remedial in allaying fevers. 
 
 Marts. — Tlie annual import of annatto into England is about 300,000 
 pounds, valued at about $65,000. 
 
 Order VIII. TERNSTRCEMIACE^. 
 
 Sepals 5, occasionally 4:-6 or 7, free or slightly connate at the base, 
 imbricated in the bud. Petals 5, free, hj^^ogynous, imbricated or 
 twisted. Stamens sometimes equal in number to the petals, but 
 usually indefinite. Flowers perfect, regular, axillary, solitary, or 
 fascicled, sometimes in terminal racemes or panicles. Ovary 3-5- 
 celled. Ovules pendulous or ascending. Fruit indehiscent or cap- 
 sular. Leaves alternate, occasionally opposite, frequently fascicled, 
 at summit of the branchlets. Trees or shrubs. 
 
 Number of genera, 32. 
 
 THEA, L. (Tea.) Calyx 5-parted, sepals short and scale-like. 
 Corolla much longer than the calyx, white. Stamens many. Style 
 3-parted. Several flowers appear in the axils of the leaves. Capsule 
 3-celled. Shrubs. 
 
 1. T. viridis, L. Stem in a natural state grows to the height of 15 to 20 feet, 
 but is dwarfed under cultivation, by stripping the leaves, and seldom reaches a 
 height above 5 feet, diffusely branched. Leaves lanceolate, entire at the base, 
 serrate, with blunt teeth towards the apex, alternate. Flowers white. When 
 grown in the Middle States, it flowers in winter under glass. 
 
 2. T, Bohea, L. corresponds with T. viridis except that the flower has many 
 petals, and is most likely a variety of it, as the only striking difference is in 
 the numerous petals. 
 
 Varieties. — The tea plant is grown from seed, and sports freely ; hence there 
 are many varieties, differing from each other chiefly in the form of the leaf. 
 
TEKNSTKCEMIACE^. 
 
 65 
 
 DUutry ul the tea plant is generally supposed to 
 
 in a helt iiitluded lietween the parallels of 25° 
 
 lorf pndiHi- on hillsides than in the bottom 
 
 bv tlie ('hiuese, but its quality aud pro- 
 
 Assam, C'achar, Sylhet, Chit- 
 
 Geui/raphy. — The native 
 be Chiua, but it grows well 
 aud 35° throughout Asia, and i 
 lauds. It is cultivated further norti 
 duetiveness are best in the al)ove-nanied belt. 
 
 Tea is cultivated in Kaugra, tiurhwal, and in 
 tagoug, Darjeeliug, aud ('lu>ta-Nag|)ore. 
 
 lu Hiudustau the cultivation has greatly increased, and is still iucreasiug, 
 The yield per acre ranges from 100 to 200 j)ouuds. The couditious of sue 
 cessful tea culture are, tirst, a 
 low, undulating, hilly country, 
 where the valleys have good 
 drainage ; second, a climate 
 warm, moist, and of uniform 
 temperature. Assam presents 
 a most favorable region, the 
 temperature seldom rising 
 above 95" in the daytime nor 
 falling below 60° at night, 
 while the rainfall is remarkably 
 uuiform throughout the year, 
 being about 12 inches monthly. 
 Wherever these conditions are 
 approached, tea may be success- 
 fully cultivated. Japan, Aus- 
 tralia, Jamaica, Brazil, and 
 parts of North America all 
 possess localities favorable to 
 tea culture, and if labor suffi- 
 ciently skilled and cheap were 
 obtainable, these countries 
 would be independent of tea 
 importations. In 1836 the at- 
 tention of the Indian Govern- 
 ment was called to Assam by 
 Dr. Royle, the botanist, as a 
 suitable locality for the cultiva- 
 tion of the jilant, which had 
 been found there in a wild state. 
 
 Efijmolo;/ 1/. — The name T/iea is derived from the Chiue.se 
 l)rouounced Te/ia, the meaning of which is obscure. 
 
 /lintor//. — It is not known when this plant was first used to furnish a bev- 
 erage, but it is well established that it has been an article of traffic for more 
 than fifteen hundred years. It was cultivated aud used in the Chinese Empire 
 in the fourth century, and in Japan in the ninth century. Early in the seven- 
 teenth century dried green-tea leaves were presented to a Russian embassy in 
 ("hiua, and forced on them against their protestations. When brought to 
 Moscow tlie tea met with very great favor. It did not make its ajipearance 
 in Euroi)e until about the middle of the .seventeenth century. 
 
 It was brought to Europe by the Dutch East India Company, and intro- 
 duced into England from Holland by Lord Arlington. In 1664 the East India 
 Company picseuted tlie Queen of England with two pounds of tea. It cost at 
 Pk. Fl. — (j 
 
 l'HK\ viRiDis (Tea) 
 
 word, which ia 
 
66 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 first about $25 per pound. For a long time, because of its great price, its use 
 was confiued to the wealthy, and even in the early part of the preseut century 
 it was sold in France only by druggists. 
 
 Chemistry. — The characteristic substance found in tea is thelne, whose 
 formula is C8H10N4O2. 
 
 Preparation. — The varieties of tea are due to different methods of prepara- 
 ation. The first gathering of the season is the best, and the last, which consists 
 of large leaves, of an inferior flavor, is the worst. Black tea is exposed to 
 the atmosphere for a considerable time ; in this exposure an uxidation takes 
 place, which produces chemical changes greatly modifying the tannin, theine, 
 volatile oil, etc., but the green teas are not exposed to the action of the air in 
 the same way, and the same chemical changes do not occur. They are roasted 
 without fermeuting, and are afterwards rolled and dried. Hence the different 
 effect of tlie green teas upon the nervous system. Pekoe is green tea scented 
 by flowers of the fragrant olive and other plants. 
 
 Use. — The leaves are steeped in boiling water, and the decoction is used as 
 a beverage. This beverage has an exhilarating effect upon the system, due 
 to a chemical substance found in it known as theine (see Chemistry), which is 
 an alkaloid. It also yields a large percentage of tannic acid, with essential 
 oil. When first introduced into Europe it was looked upon with disfavor and 
 suspicion, and the origin of a number of diseases was traced to its use ; but 
 it has overcome all obstacles, and is now the daily beverage of more than 
 600,000,000 people, who consume over 2,306,500,000 pounds annually, and this 
 quantity is constantly increasing. 
 
 Statistics. — The quantity of tea used in the world is amazingly large. In 
 Great Britain alone (mostly in England) about 163,000,000 pounds are con- 
 sumed annually. In one year 52,424,545 pounds were brought into the eastern 
 ports of the U. S., besides what came from China and Japan to California. 
 
 The following table shows the comparative consumption among the great 
 tea-drinking peoples : — 
 
 China consumes 2,000,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Great Britain 163,000,000 
 
 United States 52,000,000 " 
 
 Russia 26,000,000 '* 
 
 Holland 10,000,000 " 
 
 Dominion of Canada 9,000,000 " 
 
 France 6,500,000 " 
 
 North Germany 21,000,000 " 
 
 Victoria and other British Colonies in the Pacific . 1 1,000,000 " 
 From Japan more than 4,000,000 pounds are ex- 
 ported 4,000,000 ** 
 
 and far more is consumed at home, but allowing 
 
 the same for home consumption in Japan , . . 4,000,000 " 
 
 The world's annual consumption amounts to . . . 2,306,500,000 pounds. 
 
 Propagation. — The propagation is by seeds. The seeds must be planted 
 as soon as they are ripe, in a moist soil, and as soon as the plants are three 
 inches high, they must be pricked out as the gardener puts out his cabbage or 
 lettuce ; when they are six to eight inches high they may be reset in a nursery, 
 six to twelve inches apart, and kept free from weeds. After six to ten months 
 in the nursery they may be planted in the orchard or plantation. 
 
MALVACE^. 67 
 
 The picking is done by women and cliildren, wlio twitch off the young 
 leaves and ternnnal Inids with tlie thumb and finger. They are then carried 
 to the house or «hed, wiiere they are spread out on mats, then roasted in ]>ans, 
 rolled in the hands, and dried over a charcoal fire, when the}- are readv for 
 packing. 
 
 This is a brief description of one process. Several methods are in use to 
 accomplish tlie same end. 
 
 Marts. — Canton is the great tea-exporting market for China. Most of 
 the best teas taken into Russia are carried overland. Teas are also shipped 
 from other Cliinese ports besides Canton. Imports into Great Britain an;, 
 chieriy landed at Liverpool; into tiie U. S., at New York, Bo.ston, and .San 
 Francisco. Tiie marketable character of each variety of tea depends upon 
 its purity, time of harvesting, and the perfection of preparation or curing. 
 Wiien these three things are perfect, tea discharges a certain aroma anil 
 possesses a peculiar taste. Tlie taste and aroma are .so delicate that tea 
 merchants do not trust their own judgment, but employ professional tasters, 
 who command high salaries. These tasters suffer in health on account 
 of breathing and absorbing a volatile oil given off by the tea while in an 
 infused state. 
 
 Order IX. MALVACE^. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs. Flowers regular; sepals 5, united at the base, 
 valvate in the bud ; petals 5, hypogyuous, convolute in the bud ; 
 stamens numerous, monadelphous, and hypogynous ; anthers kidney- 
 shaped, 1-celled ; pistils several, distinct or united ; stigmas various. 
 Leaves alternate and stipulate. Fruit, several-celled capsules, or made 
 up of 1-seeded carpels ; embryo of the seed curved. 
 
 GOSSYPIUM, L. (Cotton Plant). Calyx cup-like, 5-toothed, encir- 
 cled by a ;)-leaved involucre, the cordate leaflets united at the base, 
 incisely toothed ; petals 5, large ; styles united ; stigmas 3-5 ; capsules 
 3-5-celled, many-seeded; seeds brown, immersed in soft, wool-like, 
 white, fibrous hairs, which is the cotton of commerce. Herbs and 
 shrubs. 
 
 L G. herbaceum, L. (Herb Cotton.) Stem 5 feet high, clothed with stiff 
 liairs above. Leaves large, cordate, .'3-5-lobed below, 3-lobed above, somewhat 
 in form of the grape leaf, with mucronate lobes ; leaf-stalk as long as the 
 blade. Flower-stalk longer than the petioles, flowers axillary, yellow, with a 
 reddish center, showy, .'i inches in diameter. Herb. 
 
 2. G. Barbadense, L. (Sea-Island Cotton). Leaf has 3 glands on the under 
 side of the mich'ib. Seed black, cottou very white, fibers long. 
 
 3. G. arboreum, L. (Tree Cotton). Stem arborescent, 15 to 20 feet high, 
 branching. Leaves 5-lobed, not so broad as those of G. herbaceum. General 
 shape lanceolate; j)etioles liirsute. Flowers red and showy. 
 
 The species of Gossy|)ium are numerous, those described above, with their 
 varieties, are tiie most important that are under cultivation. As the cotton- 
 plant is propagated from .seed it is liable to sport, and a great number of 
 forms or varieties have arisen, differing from the parent in strength, length, 
 or color of the fiber. The cotton fiber of commerce consists of the long silky 
 
68 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 hairs with which the seeds are clothed ; these hairs are tubular, unjuiuted, 
 flattened, and slight!}- twisted. When ripe, the seed is gathered, and the hairs 
 and the seed are separated by a machine called a gin; the cotton is then 
 packed in bales for the market. 
 
 Geoqraphij. — The geographical distribution of the cotton-plant is mostly 
 confined to tropical and subtropical countries, though it has some varieties 
 that have gradually become acclimated to regions of light frost. It is culti- 
 vated in a broad belt all around the globe. 
 
 GossYProivi ARBOREUM (Tree Cotton), 
 
 The cotton-plant will fruit well in the same latitude with the sugar-cane. 
 The East Indies, China, the Asiatic islands, Greece, and the islands of the 
 Eastern Mediterranean, the countries of the Levant, Asia Minor, Northern 
 and Western Africa, Australia, and the isles of the Pacific, the West Indies, 
 Southern United States, Venez.uela, British Guiana, and Brazil, are the centers 
 of cultivation. 
 
 Eti/molofji/. — Gossypium is from Goz, an Arabian word, signifying silky. 
 The specific name, herhaceum, signifies herb-like, and Barhadense is for Bar- 
 badoes. Arboreum means tree-like. The word cotton is from a Syriac word 
 meaning fine, delicate. 
 
 History. — It is not known when or where the cotton-plant first began to 
 minister to man's comfort ; it is a reasonable inference that it was among the 
 ^vst, if not the very first, of the fibrous plants to attract attention. 
 
MALVACE^.. 69 
 
 The fl<nvers and the bursting pods are showy and very beautiful, and must 
 always have heen objects oC admiration. Cotton was unknown to the ancient 
 Egyptians, as no cotton clothes or wrappings have Ijeen found in the mummy 
 pits. The seeds of tree-cotton were found by Kosellini in an Egyjjtian tomb. 
 Herodotus speaks of a plant in India which produced a finer and better (puility 
 of wool than that of sheep, of wliich the mitives made their clothing. Five 
 centuries after Herodotus, Pliny describes the cotton-plant, and states that it 
 was under cultivation in Egypt! and that the Hber was used to make the fabrics 
 worn by the priests. Arabian travellers who visited China during the ninth 
 century state that the Chinese did not at that time use cotton fabrics, such 
 as were used in Southern Euroi)e, Northern Africa, and the countries of the 
 Levant, but instead used silk. It is believed that Alexander the (ireat, about 
 325 B.C., carried the cotton-seed to the Levant from India, where he found it 
 growing' in the country between the forks of the Indus. Another account 
 Sives the Arabs credit for its introduction into Egypt, whence it spread into 
 Asia Minor and the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. 
 
 The raw material did not become an article of commerce until many years 
 after the occupation of India by the British; but manufactured ctton g.xnls 
 were imported into Great Britain as early as 1666 from Bombay and other 
 ports of Hindustan. The Dutch, English, and Portuguese merchants all dealt 
 largely in cotton fabrics made in Southern Asia. The first iniportati<.n of 
 raw cotton into England from the East Indies occurred in 1798. The profit 
 on cotton when it first entered into commerce was five hundred i)er cent. 
 Napoleon I. during his reign cut off all trade with neighboring nations, antl 
 one of the results was an attempt to bring cotton under cultivation in Italy, 
 Southern France, and the island of Corsica. 
 
 It has been claimed that a cotton-plant has l)een found in Mexic(. entirely 
 different from the Asiatic varieties, growing without cultivation, and that the 
 Mexicans and the Peruvians wore cotton clothing when compiered by the 
 Spaniards, soon after the discovery of the new world. The plant grown now 
 in America was introduced in early colonial times, but did not reach any com- 
 mercial importance till the beginning of tiie i)resent century, when about two 
 tliousand pounds were shii)ped to England; from that time the tiuantity rap- 
 idly increased until the outbreak of the Civil War. 
 
 in the year 1860, 2,160,000,000 pounds were exported. The (piality of the 
 American production is so far supericn- to all others that it brings in tho^open 
 market a much higher price than the cotton of India. Next to the United 
 States, India takes the greatest quantity to Great Britain. 
 
 Before the power loom and spinners were brought into use, China and India 
 made the cotton fabrics and i)rints of the world ; but now England exchanges 
 tlie woven fabrics with those countries for the raw material. 
 
 /"V. — The wool or fiber of the cottou-jdant is now wrought into every 
 sort of fabric that enters into the clothing of civilized peojdes of tropical and 
 subtropical countries, and that constitutes the under garments of people of 
 higlier latitudes, and it forms a large ])art of the attire of females throughout 
 the civilized worM. (iun-cotton, a highly explosive substance, is ]>roduced by 
 soaking cotton in nitric and sulphuric acids. Gun-cotton treated witli sulphuric 
 ether gives collodion. 
 
 Of the seeds an oil is made which rivals the best olive oil for culinary pur- 
 poses. The seeds, ground and ]>ressed into ma.-<ses, are sold under the nante 
 of oil-cake, and used to feed poultry and cattle, for which purpd.^e they are 
 highly valued. 
 
70 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Cotton, treated with antiseptics, forms a very important article of modern 
 surgery. From the roots a fluid extract is made, much used in the Southern 
 United States by irregular practitioners. 
 
 Statistics. — The amount of cotton consumed in the M'orld is not easily 
 ascertained. There are about 3,000,000,000 pounds exported annually from 
 Southern Asia, and 2,000,000,000 pounds from the United States, and about 
 the same amount is consumed in those countries ; so that an estimate of 
 12,000,000,000 pounds for the whole world would not be too high. This quan- 
 tity, at ten cents per pound, amounts to the enormous sum of $1,200,000,000 
 for the value of the raw material. 
 
 Order X. STERCULIACE^. 
 
 Trees or shrubs, agreeing with Malvaceae, except that the anthers 
 are extrorse and 2-celled ; petals sometimes wanting ; capsules 
 united into a 2-5-celled ovary. 
 
 THEOBROMA, L. (Cocoa.) Calyx spreading, sepals 5. Petals 5. 
 cordate at the base, extending into a strap. Stamens united at the 
 
 base, extending upwards 
 into 10 divisions, each 
 alternate one terminated 
 by 2 anthers each, the 
 other divisions sterile. 
 Pistil filiform, divided 
 into a 5-parted stigma. 
 Fruit a 5-angled, elon- 
 gated, warty capsule, in 
 the form of a cucumber, 
 5-7 inches long, and 3 
 inches in diameter, con- 
 taining from 25-40 seeds. 
 Seeds about three eighths 
 of an inch long and two 
 eighths wide, imbedded 
 in pulp. 
 
 1. T. cocoa, Wallich. 
 Stem upright, much- 
 liranched ; branches com- 
 mence about 4 or 5 feet 
 from the ground, and form 
 a symmetrical head. Bark 
 light-brown, smooth ; the 
 whole from 10 to 15 feet in 
 height, presenting a beauti- 
 ful appearance. Leaves oblong, lanceolate, 4 inches in length and 2 in width, 
 entire, dark-green, and evergreen. Flowers, leaves, and fruit after the third 
 year of the plant's life are always present. Fruit harvested twice a year, 
 June and December. 
 
 Theobroma roroA (Cocoa). 
 
STKRm.TACK^.. 71 
 
 Besides the abovo-descrihed species, thore are some 10 others, all of which 
 »,^r the same description, with the exception of some slight variation in the 
 size and shape of the fruit or leaf, the most important of which are : — 
 
 •>. T. angastifolia, DC. Narrow-leaved. 
 
 3. T. ovatifolia, DC. A Mexican species called Soconosco, with ovate 
 leaves. 
 
 4. T. bicolor, Humboldt. A species found in Colombia. S. A., with varie- 
 gated leaves. 
 
 5. T. Guianensis, Aublet. A species indigenous to Guiana. S. A. 
 
 6. T. microcarpa, Mart. A West India species, with small seeds. 
 
 7. T. sylvestris, Martius. A species found in the selvas of Brazil. 
 As the plant is produced from seed, varieties are constantly occurring. 
 
 Geography. — The Theobroma is a native of America, and is indigenous to 
 tropical and subtropical regions, or at least to regions of no frost. It i.s 
 found in Brazil and all parts of South America north of Brazil, the ^^ est 
 India islands, and Mexico. It has been introduced into the Philippine islands 
 and other parts of the Indian Archipelago, but the great supply is produced 
 in the new world. 
 
 The Spaniards introduced its culture into southern Europe about the year 
 1.560. Some years ago the British introduced the cultivation of the cocoa 
 into India with success. 
 
 Etymologii. — Theobroma \9, derived from the Greek Q^6s; God, and $pii)^la, 
 food, hence food of the gods. Cocoa is supposed to be a contraction of the 
 Portuguese word macoco, monkey, applied to the tree on account of the resem- 
 blance of the end of the fruit to the face of a monkey. 
 
 History. — Cocoa was first brought to the notice of Europeans at the time of 
 the invasion and conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards in 1520- The Mexicans 
 prepare it with spices, as chocolate is now prepared. That prepared for the 
 emperor was flavored with vanilla. When Cortes, the conqueror of ^fexico. 
 sent the valuable products of the New World to Charles V., cocoa was .^ent a.s 
 one of the choicest. The Spaniards took it to Europe and introduced it into 
 commerce. The medical men found that it possessed curative properties, and 
 a monograph was written by Hoffman in which he entitled it Potus Chocolait. 
 He states that Cardinal Richelieu was cured of a general wasting of the body 
 bv its use. 
 
 Though used in Spain and Portugal early in the sixteenth century, it was 
 not known in England until more than a hundred years afterwards. Tho 
 earliest mention of'its use was in a periodical known as Needliam'sMercurius 
 Politicus, 16.59. The mode of jjreparing it was introduced into England by 
 Dr. Sloane. 
 
 A. De Candolle states that, when th(> Spaniards explored and conquered 
 Mexico, the fruit of the Theobroma was so liighly jirized that the seeds were 
 used for money. In 1674 the Spaniards carried tlie plant to the Philippine 
 Islands, where its cultivation became wonderfully successful. 
 
 C/ifm/.sf ?•//. — Various results have been obtained by chemis^ts in the analysis 
 of the bean of the Theobroma. arising no doul)t from different conditions or 
 varieties of the bean. In one thousand part.** it yields — 
 
72 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Fat (Cocoa-Butter) 
 Albuminoids . . 
 Starch or Sugar . 
 Mineral substances 
 Theobromine . . 
 
 510 
 
 210 
 
 220 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 1000 
 
 Formula of Theobromine. — 
 C7, Hg, N4, 0-2. This is the sub- 
 stance that affects the nervous 
 system somewhat as theine and 
 caffeine do. 
 
 Comparative analysis with milk (approximate) : — 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Fat 35 
 
 Albuminoids and Caseine 50 
 
 Starch or Sugar 40 
 
 Theobromine 
 
 Other substances 15 
 
 Water 860 
 
 1000 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 510 
 
 210 
 
 220 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 This shows that the cocoa bean contains materials to sustain life. Among the 
 mineral substances of Theobroma is Phosphate of Lime. 
 
 Use. — The dried and split cotyledons of Theobroma seeds are cocoa nibs, 
 and when ground and made into a paste, they form chocolate. The seeds, 
 when roasted and ground, are cocoa ; this when mixed with starch and finely 
 ground, is soluble cocoa. 
 
 Like tea and coffee, cocoa is one of the most important and useful arti- 
 cles of domestic economy, and in the formation of warm table beverages 
 stands first among the peoples of Southern Europe. South America, and 
 Southern North America, and forms an article of consideration in commerce 
 in the marts of all the civilized world. The natives of the countries where it 
 grows break the capsule or seed-vessel and suck out the pulp, which has a 
 glutinous, sweetish taste. It is also preserved, and vinegar, spirits, liquors, 
 and jellies are made of it ; but the most important part is the seeds, which 
 are roasted, ground, and made into a beverage, as coffee is prepared, and are 
 used in the same way. 
 
 Statistics. — The production of cocoa in the New World amounts to about 
 60,000,000 pounds, worth $7,000,000. In the absence of statistics, the quantities 
 produced in Europe and Asia cannot be arrived at. 
 
 Marts. — The markets of South America are La Guayra, Puerto Cabello, 
 Maracaibo, Campano ; of North America, Vera Cruz ; of the West Indies, 
 Martinique and Guadaloupe. 
 
 Order XI. TILIACEJE. 
 
 Calyx valvate, and falling early ; sepals 5 ; petals 4-5, or as many 
 as sepals, rarely gamopetalous, hypogynous, twisted, imbricated, or 
 valvate in the bud. Stamens some multiple of the number of the 
 petals, free or in bundles ; anthers 2-celled. Flowers perfect, with 
 rare exceptions, regular, axillarj% or terminal, solitary, or in few- 
 flowered cymes or panicles. Leaves alternate, occasionally nearly 
 opposite, simple, entire, or palmately lobed ; sometimes crenulate or 
 dentate, frequently coriaceous ; veins prominently reticulate beneath : 
 
TnJACE^E. 
 
 T3 
 
 stipules '2. Fruit 2-l(>-ci'lle<l, varying froui 1 cell by suppression to 10 
 by false septa. 
 Trees and shrubs, seldom herbs. No. of genera, 40. 
 
 CORCHORUS, L. (Yellow Jute.) Calyx 5-parted, sepals valvate, petals 
 alternating with the sepals ; stamens two or three times as many as the 
 petals, nearly all fertile, or a few of the interior ones without anthers, 
 filaments free, anthers 2-valved, opening by longitudinal slits. Style 
 simple ; apex broadened, hollow, truncate, and toothed, or crenulate. 
 Ovary 2-.5-valved, cells frequently incomplete, the placenta fall- 
 ing short of the center, many-ovuled. Capsule short, subglobular, 
 or elongated, varying to ovate-oblong or subcylindrical, velvety, or 
 clothed with soft bristle-like processes 
 or hairs. Seeds numerous. Leaves sim- 
 ple or compound, alternate, serrate, stip- 
 ulate. Flowers solitary, or in small 
 terminal and bracteate cymes. 
 
 1. C. capsularis, W. (Jute.) Stem 5 to 
 10 feet in height, branched. Leaves alter- 
 nate, acuminate, serrate, palmately com- 
 pound ; leaflets G, lanceolate, tapering to the 
 base. Flowers terminal and at the ends of 
 the branches, in loose compound racemes, 
 small, yellowish. Capsule globose, wrinkled, 
 .5-celled seeds, few in a cell. 
 
 2. C. olitorius, W. (Jute.) Stem .5 to 6 
 feet in height, erect. Leaves alternate, ovate, 
 acuminate, serrate, tlie lower teeth terminat- 
 ing in thread-like processes. Flowers small, 
 yellow, on a peduncle ; sepals 5 ; petals 5. 
 Capsules subcylindrical, resembling the seed- 
 vessel of a cruciferous ])lant, 10-ribbed, .5- 
 celled, .5-valved. Seeds numerous. 
 
 CoRCHORUS OLITORIUS (Jute). 
 
 .3. C. siliquosa, L., wliose fruit resembles a sili(iue, is found in Florida; but 
 the first two species described above furnish the fiber known as jute. 
 
 Geographi/. — Soutlicrn licit of the north temperate zone and the tropics. 
 
 There are about forty species, all of wliicli are natives of tropical and sub- 
 tropical countries, 
 
 Eti/mo/og)/. — CnrrlinrHH is said to be derived from the (ireek K^pv. the 
 pupil of the eye, and Kopiw, cleanse, alluding to the purgative jjroperties of 
 some of tlie species. (How it applies to the eye is not apparent.) Capsularis 
 alludes to tlie jioculiar form of the seed-vessel of this species, and olitorius 
 means a garden-plant. Jute is from Sanskrit (/Jat, the Indian name for the 
 plant, the meaning of which is obscure. 
 
 Histori/. — The liome of the C. capsularis is Java and Ceylon, and undoubt- 
 edly other Asiatic islands. (\ olitorius is a native of western India, an(i has 
 spread by cultivation to Asia Minor, Africa, etc. It is certain that the Greeks 
 used this ])lant as a pot-herb, and by many otlier nations around the shores of 
 the Mediterranean this use of it was common. 
 
74 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Cultivation. — A hot, moist climate, an abundant rainfall, and a rich, alluvial 
 soil appear to be the conditions most favorable for the successful cultivation 
 of the jute plants. The land nuist be well tilled and abundantly manured. 
 The time for sowing the seed in India extends from about the middle of March 
 to the end of May ; the seed is soAvn broadcast in the prepared ground, the 
 young plants are thinned out to 6 inches apart, and the ground is carefully 
 weeded. The stalks are ready for cutting down between the middle of August 
 and the middle of October. 
 
 Use. — The fiber of the jute is long, hard, coarse, and glossy, but much infe- 
 rior to hemp and flax in point of strength. It is cultivated in Southern and 
 AA^estern Asia and in the Grecian Archipelago, and in Central and North- 
 ern Africa. In the Levant the C. olitorius is grown for a pot-herb, and 
 eaten for a vegetable with meats. The fiber is obtained by steeping the 
 plant and rotting it, in the manner described for preparing hemp; the fiber 
 is hard and woody. AYhen used to manufacture wearing-apparel, it is worked 
 through a machine and treated with fish oil, which in a measure remedies 
 the evil. 
 
 It is used in the manufacture of coarse cloth, gunny bags, sails, and cordage 
 for vessels. It is employed in the adulteration of hemp, and of late years has 
 been applied to the adulteration of silk. 
 
 The pulverized bark is an active purgative, and is employed by the Hindus 
 for that purpose. The Hindus also manufacture paper of jute. Theatrical 
 wigs, switches, Avater-falls, fronts, backs, and bangs are also made of the fiber 
 of this plant. 
 
 Statistics. — Jute ranks in commercial and economic importance, as a tex- 
 tile, next to flax, cotton, and hemp. Great Britain imports large quantities 
 annually, the greatest supply, over 500,000,000 pounds, coming from India. 
 Dundee, in Scotland, is the center of jute manufacture. 
 
 Order XII. LINAGES. 
 
 Calyx of 5, rarely 4, parts, imbricate in the bud. Petals as numer- 
 ous as parts of calyx, hypogynous, twisted. Stamens equal in number 
 to petals, and alternate with them. Ovary 5-4 celled : cells 2-ovnled ; 
 or ovary spuriously IO-8-celled. Styles 3-.5, free. Flowers perfect, 
 regular, in terminal racemes or corymbs. Fruit a globular capsule. 
 Seed compressed. Stem herbaceous, sub-woody. 
 
 Herbs. Number of genera, about 14. 
 
 IINTJM, L. (Flax.) Calyx .5-parted, persistent. Petals, stamens, 
 and styles in 5's, alternating with each other. Seed-vessel .5-celled, 
 each cell partly or entirely separated into 2 cells by a false parti- 
 tion, thus forming 10 imperfect cells ; true cells mostly 2-seeded ; 
 seeds flattened. Leaves sessile, entire, simple, alternate, occasionally 
 opposite, exstipulate. Herbs. Annual. 
 
 I. L. usitatissimum, L. (Common flax.) Stem about 3 feet high, slender, 
 tapering, smooth. Leaves alternate, linear-lanceolate, acute, an inch to an 
 inch and a half long. Flowers in a corymbose panicle ; sepals ovate, acute ; 
 margins membranaceous. Petals subcrenate, large, blue, with a purple tinge, 
 caducous. Seeds compressed, ovate, smooth, and shining, mucilaginous. 
 Annual. 
 
LINAGES. 
 
 75 
 
 2. L. angustifolium, L. (Xarrow-loaved Flax.) Ilorlt, hoars tho above 
 description, with narrower leaves. Perennial. 
 
 These two species and their varieties furnish the Hax of commerce. 
 
 .3. L. Vir^iniauum, L. (Wild Flax), is a heautiful plant, indigenous to east- 
 ern North America; bears the above description except that the sepals are 
 mucronate and the seed-vessel depressed. Hills and edges of woods. Common. 
 
 There are nearly a hundred species of the Linum, the inner l»arks of all of 
 which in a greater or less degree possess the strong, fibrous character of the 
 Jj. usitatissimum and the L. angustifolium. 
 
 Geographi/. — No plant known to domestic economy has a wider geogra])h- 
 ical range than the flax. It is found growing luxuriantly in the subtropical 
 bottom lands of Hindustan, in southern Egypt, and 
 throughout Europe to the shores of the Baltic, in .south- 
 ern and middle Russia, and northeastern America. 
 
 Etymologij. — Linum is from the Greek word Kiuov, 
 thread. The specific name usitaU'ssimum signifies 
 most used, or useful, and atifjustifolium has reference 
 to the narrow leaves of this species. Virginianuin 
 signifies Virginian flax, or flax found in Virginia, a 
 name once applied to a much larger extent of terri- 
 tory than that occupied by the present State. Flax is 
 the Anglo-Saxon name for the plant, and signifies to 
 plait, or weave, referring to the use made of the fibrous 
 bark of the plant. 
 
 Historij. — The home of the varieties of flax under 
 cultivation is believed to be the countries of the Le- 
 vant and the Mediterranean. Flax was used by the 
 people of western Asia at a period prior to the found- 
 ing of Babylon. It was* well known to the ancient 
 Egyptians. The mummies were wrapped in linen 
 cloth, usually of very fine texture. In the Swiss lake- 
 dwellings evidence is found that the L. angustifolium 
 had been cultivated. The stems of the plant used 
 were cut, indicating a perennial species. Similar di.<5- 
 coveries have been made in the peat-liogs of Lombardy. The species grown 
 in ancient Egypt was L. usitatissimum. Tn the Scriptures fine linen is fre- 
 quently mentioned. In the temple of Minerva at Lindus there was kept a 
 linen corslet of fine workmanship, which had been worn by Amasis, an 
 Egyptian king who reigned 600 years before Christ, each thread of whicli 
 was composed of 300 filaments. The garment was decorated with cotton and 
 gold. At the beginning of the Christian era linen fabrics wore in use not 
 only in Palestine and Egypt, but also in Europe. 
 
 Pliny, in speaking of tlie flax of S])ain, says that it was sujierior to that 
 produced in other countries, showing thereby that it was under cultivation 
 throughout the south of Europe at that time. It was introduced into England 
 soon after the Norman rule began, Init never became a ])rofitable crop there 
 
 Ciiltivatinn atid Prrparatini}. — Flax re(|uiros a damp, moderatelv fertile 
 soil. It is sown broadcast, about three bushels to the acre, and rolled or har- 
 rowed ; and just before the seed is ripe, it is j.ulled. made up into Imndles. and 
 sunk under water, to dis.solve the gummy substance between the bark and the 
 stalk. After it is removed from the water it is spread out to dry ; it is then 
 
 LiNTTM trSITATISSlMrM 
 
 (Common Flax). 
 
76 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 passed between grooved rollers to break the woody parts of the stem, aud 
 beaten with a large, broadsword-like wooden knife to separate the fiber from 
 the broken woody parts. The whole of this preparation at the present day is 
 better performed by machinery. 
 
 Use. — The use of flax is well known. It furnishes material for the 
 coarse sails of our shipping, for the cordage with which they arf rigged, 
 and for the celebrated Irish linens, and the delicate laces which adorn thp 
 ladies' toilet. The ancient Romans did not, as the Italians do now, make 
 great use of linen as wearing-apparel, but they used it for cordage and for 
 the sails of their vessels. 
 
 In early colonial times it was raised in the British colonies of North 
 America, and every family prepared, spun, and wove the linen necessary for 
 the beds, table, and underwear for the family. A coarse fabric was made 
 called tow-cloth, which was used for pantaloons and farmers' and teamsters' 
 frocks. 
 
 Of the seed is made linseed oil, used iu mixing paints. It rapidly oxidizes, 
 and causes a hard, glossy surface. It is an ingredient in printers' ink and in 
 the manufacture of oil cloths. The seeds when boiled are used for drinks for 
 throat and bronchial troubles. A liniment made of lime-water and linseed oil 
 is applied to burns, Avith great success. 
 
 Marts. — Flax for linen fabrics is produced more largely in Belgium tlian in 
 any other European country. The finest flax in the world is raised in Flan- 
 ders, where the material for the celebrated Brussels lace is produced. The 
 flax used for Brussels lace is sold for $.500-$900 per ton, yielding a greater 
 return per acre than tlie price of the land upon which it grows would amount 
 to. Flax is also the chief staple of the north of Ireland, Belfast being the 
 metropolis of the linen trade. The great markets for linen fabrics are the 
 large towns of these countries. 
 
 Seed for linseed oil is furnished to the world by Russia, Holland, America, 
 and the East Indies. 
 
 ERYTHROXYLON. L. Sepals 5. Petals 5, imbricate, each furnished 
 with a double or plaited scale on the inner side of the base. Stamens 
 10. rarely 12. Leaves alternate. Flowers axillary. Fruit drupaceous. 
 Shrub. 
 
 E. coca, Lam. (Coca.) Stem 6 to 8 feet high, ramified into a symmetrical 
 head. Leaf dark-green above, paler beneath; thin, entire, ovate; tapering 
 at each end ; strongly veined, two lateral lines extending from the base to 
 the apex parallel with the midrib. Flowers small, white, solitary, on short 
 pedicels. Stamens united at the base. Ovary 3-celled, 2 cells empty, fertile 
 cell 1 -seeded. 
 
 Geography. — Tropical and subtropical. Found in the northwestern parts 
 of South America, in Boli^na, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia ; also in northern 
 parts of Brazil. 
 
 Eti/molofji/. — Eri/throxi/Ion, the generic name, is derived from the Greek 
 words ipvOpos, red, and ^v\ov, wood, redwood, due to the color of the wood. 
 Coca is the Indian name. In the northwestern parts of Brazil it is called 
 Spadic. The signification of neither of these names is known. 
 
 History — The practice of chewing the leaves of the coca existed in Peru at 
 the time of the Spanish conquest. How long previously it had been used we 
 have no means of knowing. 
 
ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 
 
 77 
 
 Use. — The dried leaves are phuc.-d in the siile of the nioutli with a litth; 
 ashes or shiked lime, and chewed until exhausted, the operatiuu being repeated 
 several times during the day. It acts as au excitant tt) the salivary glands. 
 Tlie saliva, having extracted the properties of the leaves, is swallowed, and 
 produces a pleasurable stimulating effect upon the system, neutralizing the 
 pangs of hunger and thirst, and wonderfully increasing the power of endur- 
 ance of physical exertion, enabling travellers and l)urdpn-bearers to endure 
 wonderful fatigue. 
 
 It is believed by some that the chewers of coca are speedily injured in both 
 mind and body by effects similar to those produced by alcohol and opium habits. 
 
 Dr. II. H. Husby, who has recently returned from a visit to liolivia and 
 other parts of tropical South America, wiiere he has spent some time in the 
 examination of the botanical characters and medicinal properties of the trees 
 and plants of those regions, is eminently qualified to speak of their wonderful 
 qualities. From his article on the coca we gather that the most important 
 medical properties residing in the plant are found in the leaf, and are stimu- 
 lant, carminative, anaesthetic, and supporting. 
 
 Dr. Husby has had unu.sual opportunities for watching and studying the 
 effects of the u.se of the coca, and his observations do not lead him to the con- 
 clusi<jn that the constant use of the leaf by the natives either impairs tiieir 
 health or enfeebles their intellect. 
 
 Ordek XIII ZYGOPHYLLACE^. 
 
 Calyx of 4-5 parts, iinl)ricate iii the bud. 
 bricate or contorted. Stamens double the 
 gynou.s ; filaments with a scale inside. 
 Ovary several-celled. Flowers perfect, reg- 
 ular or irregular, axillary, 1-2 from an axil. 
 Leaves opposite, pinnate ; petioles stipu- 
 late, sometimes with spines. Branches fre- 
 quently divaricate and jointed. Fruit a 
 loculicidal capsule. Herbs, shrubs, and 
 trees. 
 
 Number of genera, 17. 
 
 GUAIACUM, L. (Ligmnn-vit.T). Calyx 
 5-partod. IV'tals 5, Stamens 5 or 10. 
 Fruit a pentagonal capsule, with 5 cells ; a 
 single seed in each cell. Tropical and sub- 
 tropical trees. 
 
 G. officinale, L. (Lignum-vita\ Guaiacuin 
 Wood.) Stem crooked, 40 feet high and 18 
 inches in diameter, branching irregularly. Bark 
 gray, with green spots. Hoot very large, de- 
 scending very deep into the earth. Leaves 
 compound, with .3 pairs of ovate, blunt leaflets. 
 Flowers axillary clusters, blue, handsome, like 
 low ; heart wood <;reenish-brown : close trrain. s 
 
 Petals liypogynous, im- 
 number of petals, hyi>o- 
 
 GUAIACUM OFFICINALB 
 
 I.<igiiuui-vitae). 
 
 hepatica. Sap wood yel- 
 iiiks in water; a iruni n'siii 
 
78 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 exudes from wouuds in the bark, which is the Gum Guaiac of the Materia 
 Medica. The resiu yields to the chemist HO, C12H7O5, Guaiacic Acid. 
 
 Geography. — This tree is exclusively American ; it has a narrow geograph- 
 ical distribution, indigenous in the West India Islands, but thus far has not 
 been found upon the mainland. Another species, (i. sanctum, has been detected 
 in Florida. 
 
 Etymology. — The name Guaiacuin is from the native name, Guaiac, which 
 undoubtedly refers to some property of the plant. Officinale signifies, of the 
 shops, referring to its sale and use. Liynum-vitie, the wood of life, is named 
 from its medicinal properties, as it is said to preserve life. 
 
 History. — The Guaiac is a resinous substance which flows from wounds in 
 the bark, and hardens on exposure to the air and sun heat. It is friable, and 
 of a greeuish-red color. The bark aud. wood also are charged with this resin, 
 and are therefore medicinal. The leaves, fruit, and flowers are all purgative. 
 As it is an American tree its use is recent, but soon after the discovery of 
 America, in 1508, it was obtained from the natives of Haiti by Gonsalvo 
 Ferrand and taken to Europe. 
 
 Use. — The wood is very hard, takes a fine polish, aud is so heavy and close- 
 grained as to sink in water. It is a favorite wood in the hands of the turner ; 
 it is manufactured into rulers, pulleys, ships' blocks, bearings in steam ma- 
 chinery, mortars, pestles, bowls, and vases. 
 
 The resin is stimulant aud very diffusive in the system, and affects the skin, 
 kidneys, and the intestinal canal very actively. In large doses it is cathartic. 
 It is administered in the form of pills and tinctures 
 
 Order XIV RUTACE^. 
 
 Flowers inferior or perigynou.s. Sepals and petals imbricate, 4-5. 
 Stamens double the number of petals, or equal (in the citrus, numer- 
 ous and indefinite), inserted on the receptacle or a surrounding disk. 
 Leaves alternate, sprinkled with pellucid dots, containing a bitter, 
 aromatic oil. Fruit in the orange family a berry. Shrubs and small 
 trees. 
 
 Genera, 83. Species, 450. 
 
 CITRUS, L. Caljrs 5-sepaled. Petals 5-10, white, fleshy, fragrant. 
 Stamens numerous and some multiple of 5. Filaments flat at the 
 base and united in sets. Anthers versatile. Style 1. Ovary many- 
 celled, ripening into a pulpy berry. Shrubs and small trees. 
 
 1. C. aurantium, L. (Sweet Orange.) Stem about 6 to 8 feet to the point 
 where the head begins to form, much branched ; branchlets armed with spines, 
 forming a symmetrical tree from 15 to 25 feet in height. Leaves ovate, tapering 
 to a point ; petiole winged ; blade leathery, dark-green above, lighter beneath, 
 evergreen, articulated to the petiole. Flower white, with a very delicate, fra- 
 grant odor. Fruit a berry, globular, or flattened at the poles, bright yellow, two 
 to four inches in diameter, composed of a juicy, edible pulp, divided into 10-13 
 cells, each cell with 1-3 seeds, the whole inclosed in a bright golden, tough rind. 
 In a state of cultivation the spines on the bi'anchlets are usually wanting. 
 
RUT ACE ^. 
 
 79 
 
 Var. sanguinea. (l^lood Orange.) This form has heconie constant, and 
 differs from the typical plant in the color of the pulp in the fruit, which varies 
 from a liglit blooil-red to a deep dark-red, tin- branches being usually, but uot 
 always, without spiues. The author has consulted intelligent fruit-growers 
 aud dealers, who all say that the characteristics are perpetuated by buddiug, 
 and that as the trees grow older the fruit shows a tendency to return to the 
 normal type. 
 
 Botanists and naturalists have thus far treated it as an accident, unexplaiu- 
 able, or Silusus natune, thus leaving the nurseryman and fruit-grower to solve 
 the mystery by experiment and observation. 
 
 This form is more frequently taken on when the pomegranate stock is used, 
 but occurs occasionally with regular stocks, aud does uot always appear when 
 the pomegranate stock is used. 
 
 Varieties. — As the orange is propagated from seed, it departs in form 
 from the parent, and forms varieties. lu a very complete natural history 
 of the orange family, pub- 
 lished by Kisso, an eminent 
 scholar of Nice, one huu- 
 dred and sixty-nine sorts 
 are described, with charac- 
 ters sufficiently distinct to 
 make varieties ; these are 
 grouped under eight spe- 
 cies. Under the first, C. 
 aurantium, the author ar- 
 ranges forty-three varieties, 
 differing as to qualities, 
 form, or size of the fruit. 
 
 An orange-tree in full 
 bearing presents au object 
 of surpassing beauty to the 
 landscape. Conceive a tree 
 with a well-formed, sym- 
 metrical head, the branches 
 clothed with a dark-green 
 foliage, besprinkled with 
 delicate white flowers, and 
 dotted all over with bright 
 golden-colored fruit, and 
 you have an object whose 
 beauty is simply enchant- 
 ing. 
 
 Geograplii/. — The geographical distribution of the orange is very 'wide. 
 It is to be found in all the regions of no frost, where agriculture and horticul- 
 ture are practiced. The Arabs carried it from India into western Asia, northern 
 Africa, and southern Europe. The China orange was carried through Persia, 
 Syria, and along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean to southern Europe 
 The bitter, or Seville orange, went by way of Arabia, along the southern shores 
 of the Mediterranean, to northern Africa and over into Spain. Though the 
 orange-tree has a very l)roail geographical range, it is a tropical and subtropi- 
 cal plant. It does not rijien its fruit well exce])t where the temperature liat 
 a mean above CO" Farenheit. China, southern Japan, India, western Asia, 
 
 Citrus aurantium (Sweet Orange). 
 
80 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 southern Spaiu, Sicily, northern Africa, Australia, Brazil, West India Islands, 
 Florida and southern California, and the Azores Islands are the chief grow- 
 ing regions. 
 
 Etymology.— The generic name. Citrus, is derived by some from Kirpiov, 
 supposed to be a corruption of Kihpos, a cedar-tree, because the orange, like 
 the cedar, is evergreen. This is a very improbable etymology. 
 
 It is held by others that the name is due to the city of Citron in Judea. 
 The specific name, aurantium, arises naturally from its golden color, the 
 Golden Citrus. The common name, orange, is a corruption of the Latin 
 word aureum, golden. The ancient Romans were not acquainted with the 
 orange. 
 
 History. — The date of its introduction into Europe is not known with cer- 
 tainty, but it is believed that it came to Spain with the Moors. It was taken 
 into Portugal early in the sixteenth century. Sir Walter Raleigh, who lived in 
 the latter part of the same century, has the credit of introducing the orange 
 into England, in the southern part of which, with careful protection, it flowers, 
 but does not mature fruit. One account of the introduction of the orange 
 into Europe makes it due to the Crusades, which occurred during the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries. 
 
 The home of the orange has been a subject of considerable research. 
 One account makes* it a native of India, and states that it was carried from 
 southern India to Syria and the countries of the Levant by Alexander the 
 Great on his return from the invasion of that country, and that it was thence 
 taken into Europe during the period of the Crusades. 
 
 It requires no great stretch of the imagination to picture the foot-sore, fam- 
 ished pilgrim reposing in the shade of the orange-tree, while he cools liis 
 parched tongue with its golden fruit, whose enchanting beauty is as startling 
 to his astonished vision as the fragrant fluids of its juicy pulp are delightful 
 to his palate. 
 
 Gallesio maintains that the orange was not among the fruits mentioned by 
 Nearchus as seen by Alexander in his invasion of India, and hence infers that 
 it could not at that time have been known in the countries through which he 
 passed. It has been stated as probable that the Arabs carried it from India 
 (where they found it east of the Ganges) to southwestern Asia and north- 
 eastern Africa, whence it has emigrated with civilized man into all countries 
 where the climate favors its growth. 
 
 A. De Candolle believes its origin to have been in China, and thinks the 
 bitter orange of central Asia may be the ancestral stock, and the sweet orange 
 the offspring, having been obtained from seed in China and Cochin-China. 
 
 The orange-tree attains a great age. It has been known to reach the age of 
 600 to 700 years. In Cordova, the ancient Moorish capital, the broad avenues 
 are skirted by old orange trees 30 feet high, whose heads are frequently 30 
 to 40 feet in diameter. The larger trees bear fi-om 12,000 to 16,000 oranges 
 in a single crop, and the fruit of the current year is frequently mingled with 
 the flowers for the following crop. 
 
 Use and Products. — The orange is a favorite dessert, but is not preserved 
 to any great extent. It is recommended by medical men as a stomachic, 
 taken before breakfast. The bitter orange is very largely used for marmalade 
 (from its rind), to flavor sauces for puddings, etc. 
 
 The wood of the orange-tree is close-grained and takes a fine polish, and is 
 used by turners and wood engravers. The stems of young trees when about 
 an inch in diameter are highly prized for walking-sticks. 
 
RUTACE^. 81 
 
 The peel of the sweet orange yields by jji-ossure au essential oil of great 
 value for perfumers' use anil for flavoring confectionery. It is known in 
 Europe as Essence de Portugal, and iu the United States as Oil of Sweet 
 Orange. All that reaches this country is tlie product of the island of Sicily. It 
 is shipped from Messina in coj)per canisters of twenty and forty pounds each. 
 
 Essential oils, etc., from C. vulgaris, Kiss. (Bitter Orange). The fruit of 
 this tree is the bitter, or Seville orange. From the peel is extracted the 
 Essence of Bigaradia, called, in America, ( )il of Bitter Orange. It is used for 
 flavoring li(|ueurs and bitters. From the flowers, the Oil of Neroli Bigaradia 
 is obtained. The best is made at Grasse, in the southeast corner of France. 
 It is the chief ingredient of Eau de Cologne. This distilled Oil of Orange- 
 flowers was known to Porta in the sixteenth century. It obtained its present 
 name from the Princess of Neroli, who used it for perfuming gloves towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Orange-flower Water is consumed very largely in Europe in cookery, and 
 sugar saturated with it is eaten by the French and Italians. It is obtained by 
 distilling the flowers with water. 
 
 Oil of Petit-Grain, as its name signifies, was originally made by distilling 
 the immature oranges when about the size of large peas, but the oil now 
 known by that name is obtained from the leaves by distillation. It is used as 
 a cheap substitute for Neroli. 
 
 The sweet orange yields from the flowers and leaves Oils of Neroli and Petit- 
 Grain, but they are scant in quantity and poor in quality. They are known 
 commercially as Neroli Portugal and Petit-Grain Portugal. 
 
 The fruit of a variety of the C. aurantium, known as Cura^oa orange, 
 yields an essential oil of a peculiar flavor ; the fruit of C. rayrtifolius, the 
 mandarin orange, another. 
 
 Statistics. — North America is largely supplied with oranges from Jamaica, 
 the Bahamas, and from the Mediterranean ; but the extensive and rapidly 
 increasing cultivation of the tree iu Florida and southern California is begin- 
 ning to supersede the foreign importation. 
 
 The climate of Florida is remarkably adapted for orange culture, and 
 orangeries are becoming yearly more numerous and more extensive. In the 
 other Gulf States this industry is pursued to some extent, and in California 
 the orange groves are very productive. 
 
 Oil of orange-peel and oil of orange-flower are imported into the United 
 States in great quantities. 
 
 Large numbers of oranges are exported to Great Britain from the Azores, 
 from Portugal, and from Spain, Sicily, and other Mediterranean countries. 
 
 France consumes great quantities of oranges, a large percentage of them 
 being exported from Algeria. 
 
 The loss by decay on European oranges is 37 in each 100; on those from 
 American ports 33 in each 100 (the voyage being shorter). 
 
 2. C. decumana. (Shaddock.) Tree from 15 to 20 feet in height, forming 
 spreading head , branches armed with prickles. Leaves downy underneath, 
 ovate, somewhat acute, occasionally blunt ; wings of the petioles as broad 
 as the leaves and heart-shaped at the base. Flower white; stamens 10- 
 30; petals 5; sepals 5. Fruit a berry of a dull greenish-yellow, form an 
 oblate spheroid, from 4 to 8 inches in diameter. It is said that in Jajiau 
 it grows to tlie size of a child's head, weighing 14 pounds. The pulp of those 
 brought to the American market is bitter, tliuugli in th? varieties grown in 
 Pr. Fi - ' 
 
82 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 China and Japan it is sweet. As it is propagated from seed the varieties are 
 numerous. 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the Shaddock is the same as that of the orange 
 and lemon. It is cultivated in China, Japan, and the islands of the Pacific, 
 and has been carried by Europeans to the West Indies and southern Europe. 
 
 Etymology. — The application of the name decamana, which signifies " by 
 tens," is not apparent. The common name, Shaddock, was given because it 
 was taken from China to the West Indies by Captain Shaddock. 
 
 History. — According to the best authorities the home of the Shaddock is* 
 the islands south of Asia. It is cultivated in China, where it is called sweet 
 ball, on account of the sweet taste of the pulp. The varieties brought to our 
 market are bitter. The trees are raised from seed, and the Chinese engraft or 
 propagate upon them buds and cuttings of the sweet varieties. 
 
 The tree is a beautiful evergreen, with dark, shining leaves always adorned 
 with fruit, and part of the time with both flowers and fruit, — the fruit in vari- 
 ous stages of advancement making the most charming object imaginable for 
 the lawn, in all regions of no frost. 
 
 The fruit forms an important article of commerce. 
 
 3. C. Limonum, Risso. (Lemon.) Stem 12 to 15 feet high, branched into a 
 symmetrical head, branches armed. Leaf ovoid or elliptical, dark green on 
 both sides, leathery, entire, petioles winged. Elower white and fragrant. Fruit 
 a golden yellow, from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, and lengthened at the poles, 
 making a prolate spheroidal berrv, ending in a short, teat-like process; pulp is 
 divided into cells or compartments from 10 to 20 in number, each containing 
 one or more seeds. In the cultivated varieties the seeds are frequently few 
 ill number, many cells being vacant. 
 
 Varieties. — Like the orange it sports freely, and there are 38 distinct varie- 
 ties, all of which possess some prominent quality which commends them to the 
 grower, — the differences being in size, shape, thickness of skin, or intensity 
 of acidity. 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. 
 Most of the lemons that enter into commerce are grown in the south of Europe. 
 The island of Sicily produces excellent lemons, and sends nearly all it produces 
 to the U. S. Large quantities are now grown in Florida. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific name of the lemon is from Lymoun, the Arabic 
 name for lemon. The common name, lemon, is a corruption of the specific 
 name, Limonum. 
 
 History. — The home of the lemon is India and western Asia. It is said 
 to have been known to the ancient Jews. Theophrastus and Dioscorides 
 both speak of it, but it was not known to any extent in Europe before the 
 Crusades, at which time it is said to have been carried into western Europe 
 from Syria, where it had been brought by the Arabs from beyond the Ganges. 
 Writers of the twelfth century inform us that it was common in Italy and 
 Egypt. It has also been stated that it was under cultivation in Italy in the 
 third century. 
 
 4. C. Limetta, Risso. (Lime.) Small tree, 8 to 10 feet in height, trunk 
 crooked or zigzag, forming a dense, spreading head 6 to 8 feet in diameter, 
 branches armed with sharp, strong spines, or prickles ; some of the petioles 
 winged. Leaves ovate-orbicular, serrate-toothed or entire, dark green above, 
 lighter underneath. Flowers white ; petals 5. Stamens sometimes 30 in 
 uuraber. Fruit a globular berry, protruding at top, an inch and a half in 
 
MELlACEiE. 83 
 
 diameter, dull yellow; skiu thin ; pulp sliarply acid, divided like other species 
 of the genus iuto a uumber of cells, contaiuiug 1 or more seeds eadi. 
 
 Varieties. — Less atteutiou has been given to the cultivation of the lime than 
 to that of the orange, hence the varieties are less numerous than of any other 
 species of this genus. 
 
 Geograj)lit/. — The geographical zone of the lime is subtropical and trop- 
 ical. It arrives at the greatest height of fruit-bearing in a temperature not 
 below 70° Fahrenheit. It grows well in southern India, and in the West 
 India Islands, in southern Europe, and in uortiiern Africa. 
 
 Etjjuwlogi). — The specific name of the lime, Limella, is said to be derived 
 from the city of Lima, near which it was largely cultivated, and the common, 
 or Englisli name, lime, is an abbreviation of the botanic name. Tliis history 
 of the name is not to be depended upon. 
 
 Histori/. — The lio)ne of the lime is the same as that of the other species 
 of this genus, India east of the Indus, whence it was carried iuto western 
 Asia, southern Europe, and northern Africa by the Arabs ; but as it is 
 not edible, its culture for fruit was not prosecuted. Much attention has 
 been paid to its cultivation of late in the British West Indies. It grows 
 and fruits weU in moderately fertile soil, needs but little care, and lives to a 
 great age. 
 
 Use. — The lime is used for its juice, which is the material for the manu- 
 facture of citric acid. It is also useful for setting or fixing dyes. The juice is 
 more acid than the juice of the lemon, though by some it is considered more 
 palatable. It is an important article of commerce between Portugal and Eng- 
 land, countries of central Europe, and the United States. In the West Indies 
 it is cultivated for liedging as well as for its fruit. 
 
 Statistics. — Lime juice is manufactured in large quantities in the British 
 West Indies. Nearly 13,000 gallons are annually exported from the island of 
 Domingo alone. The ports of southern Spain export large quantities of the 
 fruit as well as of the juice. It is consumed in France, Germany, England, 
 and the United States. 
 
 5. C. Medica, Risso. (Citron.) Fruit oblong, 6 inches long ; rind thick. 
 
 Order XV. MELIACE^. 
 
 The characters of this order are like those of Rutacese. Leaves 
 alternate and pinnate. Stamens united, forming a tube, the introrse 
 anthers sessile on its toi). Leaves rarely dotted. Mostly trees. 
 
 Number of genera, 37. 
 
 SWIETENIA, L. Calyx 5-cleft. Petals 7. Stamens 10, united into 
 a tube with 10 teeth, inclosing the anthers. Style short. Stigma 5- 
 rayed. Leaves alternate, even-pinnate. Leaflets opposite, entire, ovate- 
 lanceolate, unequal at the base. Flowers greenish-yellow, in axillary 
 panicles. Fruit woody, pear-shaped, 2 to 4 inches in diameter, 5-celled, 
 5-valved; seeds numerous and winged, imbricated in two rows. Large 
 tree. 
 
 S. mahogani, L. ( Malic )gany Tree.) Stem 80 to 100 feet high, and .'i to 8 
 feet in diameter. Irregularly branched. Leaves compound, with four pairs of 
 
84 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 leaflets, green, shining, and about two and a half inches long. Flowers small, 
 in a thyrse, yellowish-white. 
 
 This is the only species of the genus. 
 
 Geography. — The mahogany is tropical or subtropical. It is indigenous 
 to the West Indies, the Bahamas, Central America, and to southern Florida. 
 It has been planted and is successfully growing in southern British India. 
 
 SwiETENiA MAHOGANi (Mahogfany). 
 
 Etymology. — Sicietenki was the name given by Jaquin, in honor of Gerard 
 L. B. Van Swieten. Mahogani is the name by which the tree is known to 
 the aborigines of South and Central America, but the signification of this is 
 unknown. 
 
 History. — This beautiful wood was introduced to notice in the latter part 
 of the sixteenth century. A few planks were sent to Dr. Gibbon of London 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 by his brother, a sea-captain, sailing to the West Indies. At the time he re- 
 ceived them he was erecting a dwelling, and gave the planks to his joiner to 
 finish some part of the house ; but the workmen refused to use them on ac- 
 count of the hardness of the wood. The cabinet-maker was then ordered to 
 
ILICINE^. 85 
 
 construct a candle-box of a part of one of tlie planks, which, when finished, 
 so far exceeded in fineness all Giijbou's other furniture that it became an 
 object of notice and wonder, and was placed upon exhilntion. Soon after 
 this it became a favorite material for the construction of furniture, and very 
 speedily found its way into the dwellings of the wealthy classes. 
 
 Mahogany is to this day the favorite wood for cabinet ware. The tree was 
 first noticed as a native of the teriitory of the United States hy Dr. Muhlen- 
 berg. It is found on the Florida Keys, reaching the height of 50 to 90 feet. 
 That which furnishes the fine curls and apparent interlacing of the fibers, used 
 for veneers, grows on rocky hillsides, and is from that jjart of the tree wliere 
 the branches join the trunk. It is said to attain a great age. Sir William 
 Hooker counted 200 rings in a bhx-k, l)ut the rings may not each have denoted 
 a year. 
 
 Use. Malioganv is one of the best woods known to the cabinet-maker. 
 
 The finest is sawn into thin slices and used for veneers. It is worked into 
 chairs, tables, cabinets, desks, bureaus, l)edsteads, and other furniture, and is 
 nmch more common in Europe than with us. Its value depends upon its 
 hardness, and its ability to take a high polish. It is not liable to shrink and 
 warp. It was formerly used in naval architecture, and ranked by the English 
 as second to the celebrated English oak for that purpose. On the Bay shore 
 in Central America the wood of the mahogany, which is coarser grained and 
 softer, is used for inferior purposes, such as common tables, wainscoting, floor- 
 ing, the making of cigar-boxes, etc., and is called Bay Wood. 
 
 There is a bitter principle residing in the bark which is efficacious in remit- 
 tent fevers, and the bark is used by the natives in the same way and for the 
 same purposes as the cinchona bark. 
 
 Statistics. — GYea,t (luantities are imported annually by England and by 
 the United States. A single log has been known to sell for S5,000 ; this 
 when sliced up into material for veneers was made to cover an immense 
 surface. 
 
 Order XVI. ILICINE^. 
 
 Sepals 4-6, inihricated in tlie Inid, small. Corolla 4-6 cleft, 
 hypogynous, imbricated in the bud. Stamens inserted in the throat 
 of the corolla, alternate with the segments ; anthers adnate. Flowers 
 perfect, small, solitary, or grouped in the axils of tlie leaves. Fruit 
 a drupe. Leaves alternate or opposite, simple, leathery, glabrous, 
 shining, and witliout stipules. Trees and shrubs. 
 
 Number of genera, 0. 
 
 ILEX, L. (Holly.) Calyx with 4 or .") tcctli. Corolla 4-5-clefl. 
 wheel-shaped. Stamens 4-.'), alternating with the segments of the 
 corolla. Ovary sessile, with 4 stigmas. Berry with 4 or 5 one-seeded 
 nuts. Small tree. 
 
 I. Paraguayensis, Lamb. (Paraguay Tea, or Verba Mate.) Stem from .5 
 to 15 feet in hciglit and ^ to inches in diameter. Much branched. Leaves 
 alternate, oval, crenate. glossy, leathery, 4 inches long, evergreen. <lark green 
 above, paler underneath. Fruit a berry, bright red, small and smooth. 
 
86 
 
 DESCKIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 There are many species to this genus, and as it is propagated from the seed 
 it has many varieties The I. Paraguayensis is very constant, and is the only 
 species whose leaves furnish tea. 
 
 Geography. — This plant is indigenous to Paraguay, and forms entire forests, 
 extending over large tracts throughout the central, eastern, and northern 
 parts of the republic. It is also found under cultivation, but no observations 
 have been made to justify a statement as to the comparative value of the culti- 
 vated plants. The Jesuits, previous to their expulsion from Paraguay in 
 1867, gave great attention to its cultivation, and instructed the natives in its 
 preparation. It grows also in Paranagua, but that found in Paraguay yields 
 four times the strength. The Government monopolizes the sale, buying cheap 
 and selling at a high price, thus securing a large revenue. 
 
 Ilex Paraguayensis (Paraguay Tea). 
 
 Statistics. — Europeans do not usually relish its peculiarly bitter taste. The 
 inhabitants of South America, on the other hand, prize it highly, and have 
 come to consider it, not as an article of luxury, but as one of necessity. In 
 harvesting, the work is so carelessly and slovenly done that the plant in a 
 wild state is rapidly undergoing destruction. Its increasing demand will 
 bring about a more careful method of harvesting. In Parana about 10,000,000 
 pounds are annually produced. About 6,000 persons are employed in Brazil 
 in the preparation of Mate ; and about 3,000,000 pounds are shipped annually 
 at Itaguy, a town on the Uruguay. 
 
 Etymology. — Ilex received its generic name from the resemblance of its leaf 
 to that of the Quercus Ilex. The specific name is from the country where it 
 is found indigenous (Paraguay). Holly, the common name of the genus, is 
 a corruption of the word holy. Holly bush, or Holly tree, — that is, holy- 
 tree, because the evergreen leaves of the Ilex opaca are used for decoration at 
 the holy time of Christmas. 
 
 Chemistry. — The leaf of the I. Paraguayensis yields to chemical analysis 
 about the same percentage of Theine as the leaves of the Thea viridis. 
 
RHAMNACE^v. 
 
 87 
 
 Preparation and 6',sc. — The small hraiichos arc cut or broken from the 
 tree; they are thrown upon a wire gauze over a tire and thus dried; the 
 leaves and twigs are then bruised or ground in a rude mill, which reduces 
 the whole to powder. It is theu packed in green bullock-hides, making pack- 
 ages of about 200 ])Ounds each, and thus sent to market. 
 
 ^\Jarts. It is carried to Itaguy, on the Uruguay, and to the ports of 
 
 Porto Algre, Uruguay, and Paraguay. From the last three ports about 
 13,000,000 pounds are annually exported. 
 
 Order XVII. RHAMNACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, or defective, regular, perigynous. Sepals, petals, 
 and stamens 4-5. frequently apetalous ; stamens alternate with the 
 valvate sepals, and opposite to the petals. Fruit a 1-seeded capsule. 
 Trees and shrubs. 
 
 Number of genera, 37. 
 
 RHAMNUS, L. (Buckthorn.) Calyx pitcher-shaped, from 4-5-cleft. 
 Petals notched, sometimes wanting. No. of styles, 2-4, partially 
 united. Drupe with 2-4 cartilaginous nuts. Leaves opposite or alter- 
 nate. Flowers in clusters, axillary. Shrubs and small trees. 
 
 R. infectorius, L. (Yellow Berries.) Stem made up of ramifications com- 
 
 mencing to branch at the root, subprocumhent ; the assurgent, spiny branches 
 
 rising to the height of 2 feet. Leaves 
 
 ovate-lanceolate, serrulate, smoothish, and 
 
 deciduous. Flowers dicecious; petals in 
 
 both sexes greenish-yellow. Fruit 3-seeded, 
 
 black when ripe, but harvested when green, 
 
 to be used for a dye by calico printers. 
 Geography. — This plant grows as far 
 
 north as England, though it properly be- 
 longs to a more southern climate. Its 
 
 native haunts are southern Persia and 
 
 southern countries of the Levant. The 
 fruit is known in commerce also as Persian 
 berries. 
 
 R. chlorophorus and K. utilis are natives 
 
 of China. Their fruit yields a fine green 
 
 dye for silk, which is imported into Euroi)e 
 
 under the name of Chinese Green Indigo. 
 
 Eti/molof/}/. — R/iamiiiis is derived from 
 
 tuft of branches. The specific name come; .....-- 
 
 tinge, or paint. Buclthorv, the common name of the genus, is not easily ex- 
 plained. Indeed it is difficult to comprehend why the name is applied to the 
 plant. Some suppose it is due to its crooked stems, which re.>*emhle the horns 
 of the buck. It is also known under the name of Yellow Berries, on account 
 of the color produced by the fruit. 
 
 /f/.s/or^. _ The home of the Rhamnus infectorius. the Staininq bnckthorn, 
 is Persia, Syria, and southern Europe. It is cultivated in Turkey and the 
 
 Rhamnus infectorius (Yellow Berries). 
 
 the Celtic word ram, a bunch or 
 from the I^atin word inficio, color, 
 
88 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Levant, and in the south of France. The largest and best berries come from 
 Persia. 
 
 Use. — The berries furnish a yellow dye, which is employed in the dyeing 
 of morocco in Turkey, and in calico printing. It also produces, by the aid of 
 chemicals, the Sap green and the Dutch pink. 
 
 Marts. — 'I'he Persian berries come from Aleppo and Smyrna. Some 
 are also shipped from France and Turkey. These ports sliip to England 
 annually 1,200,000 pounds, but more are used in the countries where they are 
 produced. 
 
 CEANOTHUS, L. (New Jersey Tea. Red Root.) Calyx a semi-globular 
 tube, with 5 segments. Petals clawed, rolled in at the edges, bend- 
 ing down. Stamens with ovate, 2-celled anthers. Styles 3, diverging. 
 Stigmas papillate. Fruit tricoccous. Small shrub, 1 to 3 feet high. 
 
 C. Americanus, L. (New Jersey Tea.) Stem 1 to 
 3 feet high, 1 inch in diameter. Leaf ovate-acumi- 
 nate, serrate, pubescent beneath, alternate, stipulate. 
 Flowers in a thyrse, axillary. 
 
 Geography. — Geographical limits, eastern North 
 America. 
 
 Etymology. — Ceanothus, is derived from Kedvudos^ 
 a name given by Theophrastus to indicate a plant with 
 P^ VC^ spines, from /ceco, prick, split, or cleave. It does not 
 
 \^/3!^^^ ^PP^.'*^ ^^"^11 ^'^ ^^^® American plant, which is without 
 
 ^ (<M K » thorns. The specific name explains itself. The com- 
 
 mon name, Red Root, is given on account of the color 
 of the roots, and New Jersey tea is a name given be- 
 
 _ . cause it is said that the leaves were used in New Jersey, 
 
 Ceanothus Americanus , . , . i- ^i ti i .• r . 
 
 (New Jersey Tea). durmg the tnne of the Kevolution, tor tea. 
 
 Use. — The young leaves are collected and dried in 
 the shade, when they are said to furnish a beverage superior in flavor, and 
 resembling the China teas. It has become an article of local commerce in 
 some parts of Pennsylvania.* 
 
 Order XVIII. AMPELIDE^. 
 
 Woody, climbing by tendrils. Calyx small; petals 5; stamens 
 5 ; stigmas sessile and capitate ; filaments distinct, or slightly coher- 
 ing at the base. Ovarium 2-celled; fruit a pulpy berry; seeds 4-5, 
 bony; leaves simple, alternate, stipuled, palmately veined; tendrils 
 opposite the leaves. Trees or shrubs, usually climbing by tendrils. 
 Small number of genera. (The term rme is used widely in America 
 for every climbing or trailing plant.) 
 
 VITIS, L. (Grape Vine.) Petals deciduous, spreading, or attached 
 at the top. Calyx very short, entire, or obscurely 5-toothed. 
 
 * The young leaves of the Rubiis strigosus (common red raspberry) when dried are 
 used for tea, and are said to be far superior to the common grades of the imported article. 
 
AMPELIDE^. 
 
 89 
 
 Although the gemis Vitis comprises more than 200 species, mostly 
 natives of tropical and subtropical regiojis, less than half a dozen 
 species have any economic value. 
 
 1. V. labrusca, L. (P'ox Grape.) Stem trailing or climbing into trees, 
 reaching sometimes the enormous height of 100 feet, branching freely. When 
 In the borders of woods, it sends out lateral branches, covering the shrubbery 
 and small trees for long distances. The main vino somotimos attains a diam- 
 eter of 6 inches or more; bark rough, sloughing off in 
 strips. Leaves very large, 3-lobed ; when young, white 
 and downy beneath. Flowers in compound panicles, 
 green, and opposite the leaves. Fruit globular, three 
 quarters of an inch in diameter. 
 
 Species. — There are 6 other species growing in 
 North America, but most of the varieties now under 
 cultivation in the United States, amounting to several 
 hundred, are seedlings of the V. labrusca or its off- 
 spring. 
 
 VlTlS LABRUSCA 
 
 (Fox Grape). 
 
 2. V. vinifera, L. (European AVine (irape.) Habit 
 of stem as V. labrusca. Leaves cordate, 5-lobed, 
 deeply sinufite, serrate, downy underneath. Flowers 
 
 greenish-yellow, odorous. Fruit green, red, or black. This is the wine gra])e 
 of Europe, from which hundreds of forms have been obtained. All the vari- 
 eties of the grapes raised under glass in xVmerica are seedhngs of this vine or 
 of its progeny There are also hardy varieties from it grown in the United 
 States. Zante Currants, the name of which is supposed to be a corruption of 
 Corinth, from the city of that name whence they were formerlv shipped, are 
 a small variety of the V. vinifera. They form a considerable article of 
 commerce. 
 
 Geor/rap/tij. — The zone of the grape extends from about 21 degrees of 
 north latitude to 48. In the old world this belt trends east from the British 
 
 Isles and Portugal to Per- 
 sia, but the fruit ri]»ons to 
 greatest perfection along 
 the middle and southern 
 parts of the belt. In the 
 new world the zone does 
 not extend above the 4.3d 
 degree north latitude, 
 reaching south to .33 de- 
 grees, trending east and 
 west from the shores of the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific 
 coa.st. The centers of 
 growth are the middle At- 
 lantic states and ( 'alifornia. 
 In late years tlic ^lape has been larj^ely tulti vat «'d in .\ustralin. 
 
 Ktymolof/i/. — Thti generic name, Vids, is derived from the Celtic word (liriil, 
 .signifying " the best of trees." This origin is disputed, and it is said to be 
 derived from an .\ryan root, Wl, signifying to hind, or twine. The specific 
 name, lahnisca, is a Latin word, signifying "wild," and the name vinifera is 
 
 Vitis vinifkra (Kiiropean Wine Grape). 
 
90 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 from two Latin words, vinum, wine, and /ero, bear, whence wine-hearing plant. 
 The common name, grape, is from the old French rappe, a bunch or cluster. 
 
 Historij. — The grape was known to man at a ver}^ early period of his 
 existence. Mention of this fruit comes down to us among the first records of 
 history. Pictures left by the ancient Egyptians, and remains by the lake- 
 dwellers of Italy and Switzerland, from the bronze age, reveal to us that the 
 grape was known to those peoples. It was cultivated in Egypt as early as 
 4000 B. C. ; not in China until 122 B. C. The Egyptians and the Greeks 
 both have a mythological history of the introduction of tlie grape. 
 
 The ancient Scriptures frequently speak of the grape. The weight of his- 
 tory points to western Asia as the home of the species known as the Vitis 
 vinifera, but there seems little doubt that it is also native to Europe. It is 
 supposed to have been introduced into England by the Romans, yet it was not 
 known there during the time of Agricola, Avho was governor in the reign of 
 Claudius Caesar, about 78 years after the beginning of the Christian era. But 
 among the earliest conveyances of estates under the Saxon rule vineyards are 
 named. And in the reign of William the Norman vine^-ards are among the 
 valuables enumerated in the Dooms-Day Book. ' It is also recorded that in 
 the twelfth century there was a vineyard attached to every monastery in the 
 south of England. 
 
 The grape is indigenous to America, and much attention lias of late years 
 been given to its cultivation. In the United States it has become a very large 
 and important industry, and considerable wine is made in Ohio, Indiana. New 
 York, and in California. 
 
 The best wines and brandies are made in southern Europe. Soutliern Ger- 
 many, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Madeira are wine-making countries ; but 
 France is the great wine-producing nation. More tlian .500,000,000 gallons 
 are produced annually in France alone. In Spain and Portugal much atten- 
 tion is paid to the production of raisins, which are the sweet grapes of these 
 countries dried. Along the southern shores of Spain and Greece the grape 
 forms sugar in abundance, but does not easily enter into vinous fermentation, 
 hence the fruit is dried ; and the raisin crop is one of great economic and 
 commercial importance. 
 
 Cultivation. — The vine requires a high summer temperature and a pro- 
 longed period in which to ripen its fruit. When these conditions exist it can 
 be profitably cultivated, even though the winter temperature be very low. In 
 the Alps it is profitably cultivated to an altitude of 1 870 feet, and in the north 
 of Piedmont as high as 3180 feet. 
 
 Use. — The grape is among the most delicious and highly prized fruits of 
 the temperate zone. It is a great favorite as a dessert, and for a table orna- 
 ment has no equal; it is also preserved, and is a favorite jelly material. 
 The raisin, or grape in a dried state, is also a favorite dessert. In central 
 and southern France and Italy the chief use made of the grape is for the 
 manufacture of wine. The common wines are cheap, but the finer sorts cost 
 several dollars a bottle. 
 
 Argols is the commercial name for the crude deposit from wine, which 
 forms on the bottom and sides of wine casks, from which Cream of Tartar, or 
 Bitartrate of Potassa, and Tartaric Acid are obtained. 
 
 Diseases of the Vine. — The organic diseases which affect the vine may be 
 divided into two categories, — those caused by parasitic fungi, and those 
 caused by insects. In 1849 the vine in France, southern Germany, Italy, 
 and Spain was attacked by a mildew fungus, Oidum Tiickeri, which in many 
 
SAPIN.DACE^. 91 
 
 localities destroyed the erop. After some years this hlight disappeared, and 
 a new pest made its appearance, in the character of a tiny insect, the Phyl- 
 loxera vastatrix, which lives and projjagates upon the roots of the vine, and in 
 a very short time destroys the plant. There are certain symptoms of the dis- 
 ease caused by this insect by means of which an infected spot may be readily 
 recognized. The vines become stunted and Ijear few leave.s, and those are 
 small. When the disease reaches an advanced stage, tlie leaves are discolored 
 yellow or reddish, with tiie edges turned back or withered. The grapes are 
 arrested in growth, and their skin is wrinkled. 
 
 I'lants grown in California possess the power to resist this enemy better than 
 those grown in Europe, and are frequently used for stocks upon which to graft 
 the European plants. 
 
 Marts. — Tlie great markets for cx])ort arc Marseilles, Bordeaux, and 
 Havre, in France ; (ienoa and Naples in Italy, — l>ut mostly Malaga and Lisbon. 
 The im]iort markets are Liverpool and London, in England ; the north German 
 ports, in northern Europe ; New York and Boston, in the United States ; and 
 Quebec, in Canada. 
 
 Order XIX. SAPINDACE^. 
 
 Flowers iinsvmmetrical. Stamens sometimes twice as many as 
 calyx-lobes or sepals, usually fewer, or equal, alternating with the 
 petals in the Maple family (sub-order Acerinea:). Flowers usually 
 polygamous or dioecious, sometimes without petals. Ovary 2-lobed and 
 2-celled, 2 ovules in a cell, maturing one seed in each cell. Fruit winged, 
 cotyledons crumpled in the embryo. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, 
 lobed. Trees and shrubs. 
 
 Genera, 73. 
 
 ACER, L. (^Maple.) Calyx .5-parted. Petals 5, sometimes 4-12. 
 Stamens 4-12. Anthers 2-lobed, seeds 2, sometimes 3. in a 2-winged 
 vessel or samara united at the base, wings diverging. Leaves simple, 
 opposite, lol)ed. Trees. Flowers axillary, in corymbs. 
 
 A. saccharinum. ^Nlarsh. (Sugar Maple. Rock Maple. Bird'.s-eye ^laple.) 
 vStem .50 to 80 feet high, 1 to 2 feet in diameter; branches erect; head sym- 
 metrical. Leaves cordate, smooth, glaucous beneath, green above, 5-lobed ; 
 lolies acuminate, coarsely toothed or sublobed. Flowers small, yellowish, on 
 long, slender peduncle.?. Samaras brown when ripe. Flowers in May. Fruit 
 ripe in September. 
 
 Var. nigrum (Mx. f.), Britt. (Black Majdo.) A. nigrum, Mx. f. (Sugar 
 Tree.) 
 
 This species or variety is like the A. saccharinum, with darker leaves, some- 
 times nearly peltate ; bark rough. The sap is as rich in sugar as the sap of 
 A. saccharinum. 
 
 The leaves of lioth these species are about .5 indies wide, and from ;') to 7 
 inches long when the tree is young, shorter as the tree gnnvs older, palmately 
 or unevenly divided into .') lobes; edges coarsely toothed. 
 
 Geographi/. — The geographical range of the sugar tree is not great. It 
 does not flourish south of .38° N. latitude except in high mountains. It 
 abounds in tlie nortlieni parts of tlie Fnitcil States and in .southern British 
 America. 
 
92 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymology. — Acer is a Latin word, signifying sharp, and is supposed to 
 have been applied to the maple tree because it was, on account of its hardness, 
 used for spears. Saccharinum, the specific name, is from the Latin word 
 saccharum, sugar, due to the sugar-bearing sap. Nigrum, name of the variety, 
 is a Latin word signifying black, due to the dark foliage. 
 
 History. — When or where the sap of the maple was first used for the manu- 
 facture of sugar is not known ; but Ave have no record that sugar was made 
 from this tree till after the colonization of northeastern ^Vmerica. It is there- 
 fore probable that its manufacture was begun by the early settlers of the French 
 and British colonies of this continent. At the present time about 10,000,000 
 pounds are exported from Canada ; allowing 5,000,000 pounds for home con- 
 sumption would make the amount produced about 1 5,000,000 pounds. In tlie 
 United States the production is about 3-0,000,000 pounds, which makes an 
 aggregate production of 45,000,000 pounds. The sap flows from the tree 
 through wounds made in the trunk near the ground, into which are inserted 
 
 Acer saccharinum (Sugar Maple). 
 
 tubes ; it is caught in pails or tubs and placed in large pans, in which it is 
 evaporated by heat to a syrup. A tree will yield from 2 to 4 pounds yearly, 
 and will continue to do so for 40 years without suffering injury. The trees 
 are tapped early in spring, when the sap is ascending. The boiled sap is 
 used as molasses under the name of maple molasses or syrup. By further 
 evaporation, straining, and refining by boiling with it lime, milk, and eggs, 
 a white sugar is produced of a very delicate flavor. 
 
 Use. — Maple Sugar is used for the same purposes as the cane sugar, and 
 when purified by the ordinary modes of refining, it has much the same char- 
 acter ; but when used without refining, it lias a smoky taste, Avhich is grateful 
 to most palates. 
 
 The sap of the Sugar Maple has been for more tlian a century used for 
 the manufacture of sugar. 
 
 The wood of the Sugar or Rock Maple is also of very great value. Wheel- 
 wrights use it for axles of carriages. It constitutes a large part of the material 
 
ANACARDIArE^v. 93 
 
 used for school furniture, Ijedsteads, table-legs, and chairs. It also furuishes 
 to the cal)iuet-maker the beautiful curled, or biril's-eye maple, aud is excellent 
 for fuel. 
 
 Oki>er XX. ANACARDIACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, dicjecions, or iiioiifecious, regular; small, spiked, or 
 [lanicled. Sepals o-5, united at the base. Petals 3-.j, sometimes 
 absent, imbricated. Stan)ens alternate with the petals, and same 
 number, [)erigynous. Ovary 1-celled, free. Stigmas '4. Fruit a berry 
 or drupe, 1-seeded. Trees and shrubs. Number oi" genera, about 40. 
 
 BHTJS, L. (Sumach.) Sepals connected below, small and persist- 
 ent, 5 in number ; petals free, ovate, spreading from the margin of 
 a rounded disk ; stamens 5-10 or wanting, inserted on the disk ; styles 
 3, sometimes united ; stigmas subcapitate. Fruit, a small dry nut, 
 hard and globose, 1-celled. Shrubs with alternate, compound, or 
 simple leaves. 
 
 1. R. glabra, L. (Common Sumach, Smooth Sumach.) Stem 3 to 12 feet 
 high, much-branched, forming a flattish top ; l)ranch and leaf-stalks smooth. 
 Leaves of 8-15 ])airs of sessile leaflets, and a terminal one which is petioled ; 
 upper side dark green, under side lighter. Flowers yellowish-green. fre(|uently 
 abortive, in densely crowded panicles. Fruit a little drupe, covered with a 
 crimson down which is charged with malic acid, sour but agreeable to the taste. 
 Flowers appear in June and July, fruit in autumn. The color of the leaves in 
 autujnn is a rich crimson. 
 
 •2. R. typhina, L. (Stag-horn Sumach.) Stem reaches the height of 20 feet ; 
 It-ariets serrate; otherwise as in R. glabra 
 
 .3. R. copallina, L. (Mountain Sumach.) Stem from .^) to 12 feet in height, 
 much-t>ranched ; leaflets 4-10 pairs, with a terminal one unequal at the base; 
 the common petiole margined with a wing between each pair of leaflets ; other- 
 wise like R. glabra. 
 
 4. R. venenata, DC. (I'oison Sumach.) Trunk 10 to 1.") feet high, tree-like. 
 3 to .5 inches in diameter, branching so as to make a spreading top. Leaves of 
 3 to 6 pairs of leaflets, with a terminal one, dee]) green, shining above Flowers 
 in panicles, small and green. Fruit a drupe, the size of a pea ; juice poisonous, 
 producing an eruption of the skin, accompanied by swelling. 
 
 .5 R. Toxicodendron, L. (Poison Tvy. Poi.^on Oak.) Stem trailing or climb- 
 ing, vine-like, 10 to 50 feet long, fastening it.self to the trunk of trees by rootlets. 
 Leaves green, shining, in threes, terminal leaflet j)ointed. Flowers racemed 
 in axillary panicles, greenish. Fruit a dull-white berry ; juice poisonous, and 
 forms an indelible ink. When growing without supjiort. it assumes the form 
 of a little tree. 
 
 G. R. Cotinus, L. (Venetian Sumach. Smoke Tree.) Stem 6 to 8 feet high, 
 irregularly and stragglingly branchecl. Leaves alternate, simjde, obovate, en- 
 tire, consjiicuously veined, veins nearly at right angh^s to the midrib, stiff and 
 translucent, on long ])etioles. Flowers very small, i)urplish, in loose panicles, 
 pedicles of abortive flowers lengthen and become hairy after blooming; groups 
 of these feathery ])edicles give the plant at a distance the appearance of a 
 fleecv cloud. Fruit white. 
 
94 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 7. R. coriaria, W, (Hide-tauuiug Rhus.) Stem 6 to 10 feet in height, 
 dividiug uear tlie root into an irregular ramification ; bark hairy, and of a 
 brown color. Leaves compound alternate, in 7 or 8 pairs of leaflets, and a ter- 
 minal one yellowish-green and hairy on the under side. Flowers in terminal, 
 loose panicles, greenish-white. 
 
 Geography. — All the above-described species are indigenous in North 
 America, except R. coriaria. The American species are common throughout 
 the northeastern parts of North America, from Canada to tlie Gulf States. 
 The Cotiuus is found in Arkansas, and is identical with the European species, 
 which is indigenous from the Levant to Western Europe. The Coriaria is 
 indigenous in Syria, but has been introduced into Sicily, Italy, and Turkey, 
 also into Spain and Portugal, where it is carefully and extensively cultivated. 
 
 Rhus Cotinus (Venetian Sumach). 
 
 The bark of all the American species is highly charged with tannin. The 
 Coriaria is especially rich in this material, and is so highly prized as to have 
 found a market in America. 
 
 Etymology. — Rhus is from the Greek word povs, an old name, the significa- 
 tion of which is not known. It is also supposed to have been derived from the 
 Celtic word rhudd, signifying " red," due to the color of the fruit. Sumach 
 is supposed to come from the Arabic summage, a shrub. Glabra signifies 
 "smooth," due to the smoothness of the leaves. Typhina, giant, on account 
 of the size. Copallina, connected, from the winged petiole by which the 
 leaflets are united. Venenata, from venenum, poison. Toxicodendron, from 
 the Greek to^ikov, poison, and SeySpov, a tree, hence poison-tree. Cotinus, 
 ancient name, signification obscure. Coriaria, from corium, a hide, referring 
 to the use of the bark and leaves of this species in tanning hides. 
 
 Use. — The bark and leaves of most of the species of Rhus are charged 
 with tannin of a superior quality. The R. glabra In America and R. coriaria 
 in Europe are especially rich in this material, which is used in making the 
 fine moroccos. 
 
ANACARDIACEiE. 
 
 95 
 
 The fruit of the R. glat)ra is used hy the Thompsonian practitioners 
 as a reined V for cauker, sore mouth aud throat. 'I'he wood and fruit uf 
 the other species are used for dyes aud iuks. The juice of H. ioxicodeu- 
 drou produces an indelible ink. K. venenata is very poisonous, causing an 
 inflamed eruption of the skin. K. Toxicodendron jjroduces similar effects of 
 a milder character. 
 
 ]\/arts. — About ten million pounds are carried from the continent to Great 
 Britain annually. It sells for four dollars a hundred. 
 
 ANACARDIUM, W. (Cashew Nut.) Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla 
 5-parted ; .stamens 5, styles 8. Fruit a kidney-shaped or heart- 
 shaped nut, on the end of a pear-shaped, fleshy peduncle, which is 
 edible. 
 
 Anacardicm occidentale (Cashew Nut). 
 
 A. occidentale, W. Trunk branching a few feet from the ground, ramify- 
 ing into a beautiful second-class tree. Leaves eUiptical, green, leathery, alter- 
 nate, obcordate, or deeply 
 eraarginate. Flowers in a 
 loose corymbose panicle, red 
 and fragrant. Fruit of the 
 size aud somewhat of the 
 shape of a rabbit's kidney. 
 
 Geograph}/. — The Ana- 
 cardium is a native of the 
 cropical regions of both 
 Asia and America ; flour- 
 ishes in Jamaica, and is 
 cultivated for its fruit, and 
 also used in planted grounds 
 for ornament in that island. 
 
 EtyTHoloiiy. — Anucar- 
 ilhim, the generic name, is 
 
 from the Greek avd, like, and KapSia, heart, heart-shaped, due to the form of 
 the fruit. Occidentale is the Latin word for west, or belonging to tlie western 
 continent. 
 
 Use. — The fleshy stem or the apple is eaten as it is plucked from the tree; 
 it has a slight acid taste, and an agreeable flavor. The juice produces a deli- 
 cate wine; the wine distilled produces a liquor far superior to rum, used for 
 disease of the kidneys, and for a beverage, in mixing punches, etc. The dried 
 and broken kernels are used for flavoring Madeira wine. 
 
 The cotyledons are inclosed by a double covering, or by two separate shells ; 
 between these shells a thick oily substance forms, which is inflammable. 
 It is also very caustic and blisters the skin. For this reason it has been 
 applied by practitioners for eating away corns, ulcers, ringwornis, and even 
 cancers. 
 
 The kernels, wlien fresh, are eaten raw; they are also used for making 
 puddings, and tliey form an ingredient in custards, etc. When older, the 
 nut is roasted and eaten as chestnuts are ; it is also roasted and ground with 
 cocoa in the manufacture of chocolate. By tapping, a milky juice is also 
 obtained, which makes an indelible black ink. A gum, \\hich i)os.se.s.><es the 
 character of gum arabic, is also obtained by wouuds uiade iu the bark. 
 
96 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order XXI. LEGUMINOS^. 
 
 Flowers irregular or regular, perfect. Sepals 5, more or less united, 
 unequal, the odd one anterior. Petals 5, odd one posterior. Stamens 
 distinct, or 9 united, and one (the posterior one) free. Ovary supe- 
 rior, single and simple. Style and stigma simple. Fruit a legume. 
 Leaves stipulate, usually compound. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Num- 
 ber of genera, about 400. 
 
 INDIGOFERA, L. (Indigo.) Calyx with 5 acute segments ; vexillum 
 roundish and emarginate ; keel with a spur on each side, at length 
 reflexed ; legume 2-valved, and 1- to many-seeded. Shrubs. 
 
 I. tinctoria, L. (Indigo Plaut.) Stem 2 to 3 feet high, and from a 
 quarter to half an inch in diameter, subligneous, branching. Leaves com- 
 pound, consisting of about 6 pairs of longish 
 bluish-green leaflets, and a terminal soft one, 
 darker above ; flowers in axillary racemes, 
 papihonaceous and pale-red. July and Au- 
 gust. 
 
 Species. — There are about 1 50 species of 
 this genus, most of which yield indigo, but 
 the species that are found to be most pro- 
 ductive are — 
 
 1. I. tinctoria, L. (Coloring Indigofera.) 
 
 2. I. argentea, N. (Silver-leaved Indigofera.) 
 
 3. I. Caroliniana, L. (Carolina Indigofera.) 
 Besides the 1.50 species of A. De Can- 
 
 dolle, there are as many or more varieties, 
 most of which yield this dye. 
 
 The following plants also contain indigo : 
 
 Nerium tinctorium, Kottb. (Apocynacese.) 
 
 Tephrosia tinctoria, L. (Leguminosas.) 
 
 Tephrosia apoUinea, L. 
 
 Tephrosia toxicaria. 
 
 Polygala tinctoria, Persoon. (Polygalaceae.) 
 
 Polygonum Chinense, L. (Polygonaceae.) China. 
 
 Polygonum tinctorium, L. China and Japan. 
 
 Polygonum barbatum, L. 
 
 Polygonum perfoliatum, L. 
 
 Polygonum aviculare, L. 
 
 "Wrightia tinctoria, R. Brown. (Apocynaceag.) India. 
 
 Amorpha fruticosa, L. (Leguminosge.) 
 
 Baptisia tinctoria, R. Br. (Leguminosse.) 
 
 Marsdenia tinctoria. (Asclepiadaceae.) India. 
 
 Randia aculeata. (Cinchonaceae.) West Indies. 
 
 Geography. — The indigo-bearing plants flourish in a hot climate. The 
 Indigofera tinctoria is a native of India, and is cultivated between 20° and 30° 
 of north latitude. It is grown in Java, the East Indies, Northern Africa, the 
 West Indies, and Central America. That frum India and Central America ici 
 the most valuable. 
 
 Indigofera tinctoria (Indigo), 
 
leguminosjE. 97 
 
 EtijmoJcxjy. — Indujofera is derived fri)iii the Indian wimX indigo, and the 
 Latin word fero, bear or carry, signifying indigo-bearing. The specific 
 name conies from the Latin word tincUmus, c<jloring. 
 
 History. — We do not know when indigo was first used as a dve. For some 
 time after it wa« introduced into Europe it was believed to be a mineral sul> 
 stance. Marco Tolo, the earliest traveller into India and China, gave an account 
 of the plant that produces the indigo, and the methods of preparing it. After 
 the discovery of America the plant was found in the warm parts of the new 
 world, and it wiis also learned that tlie ancient Mexicans were ac(|uainted with 
 it as a dye. In 1747 the ludigofera Carolinluna was discovered in Carolina, 
 and large (piantities of indigo were manufactured there and sent to England, 
 but the cultivation in the United IStates is not now prosecuted to any great 
 extent. Soon after the discovery of the indigo-plant in America, the French 
 began to produce it at Goree, au island on the west coast of Africa. 
 
 Cultivation. — The seed is sown in drills eighteen inches apart. The gnjund 
 should be damp. The seed soon germinates, and in two months begins to 
 flower, at which time it is fit to harvest. Great care is exercised to cut it at 
 the exact time, to prevent damage from the rains. As soon as harvested it 
 is carefully placed in a vat ; the vat is then filled with water, and a heavy frame 
 is laid upon tlie plants to keep them under water. After fermentation, the 
 liquor is drawn off into anotlier tank. It is then violently agitated by drcjpping 
 heavy blocks into it, or heavy buckets whose bottoms and sides are perforated 
 with many holes ; this separates the fecula, or grain, as it is called, from the 
 liquid. It is then drawn into a third vat, where by evaporation it is freed 
 from the liquid, and the indigo is left ; and before it is quite dry it is cut into 
 small cakes, in which form it is sent to market. 
 
 The supply of indigo is suliject to many contingencies, which is the cause 
 of great fiuctuation in the price ; hence it is frequentlv the basis of commer- 
 cial speculation. 
 
 Use. — The food value of the plants of this order is very great, due to the 
 large amount of nitrogen stored in the seeds. Peas yield 23 ])er cent. !Many 
 species furnish important dyeing substances. Indigo is a most important sub- 
 stance in the hands of the dyer. It has a strong affinity for fibrous texture, 
 whether animal or vegetable, and imparts, Avithout a mordant, a permanent 
 and beautiful blue. It yields to the diemist a substance known as Indigotin 
 (Cjr.HgNO.i), which is the coloring matter. 
 
 M(trts. — Indigo is sliippeil from most of the ports of British India and tlie 
 Eastern Archipelago. In ^Vmerica, tlie ports are Vera Cruz in Mexico, Beli/.e 
 in Yucatan, Truxillo in Honduras, and ISan Juan in Costa Kica, Kingston in 
 Jamaica, and the ports of Now Granada. The United States is supplied by 
 Mexico, Central America, and South America direct. 
 
 ASTRAGALUS, Tonrn. (:\rilk Vetch.) Calyx tubular, inflated, 5- 
 toothed ; teeth short, nearly equal. Petal.s long-clawed ; standard 
 ovate, or fiddle-shaped ; wings unequally oblong ; limb sometimes 
 eared above the base ; keel a little shorter than the wings. Stamens 10, 
 9 connate into a sheath, cleft above, 1 free. Ovary sessile; ovules 
 numerous, in two series. Style slender, straight or curved. Stigma 
 small and terminal. Legume sessile or stijiulate, with its sutures 
 turned in so that it is sometimes 2-celled. Small shrubs or herbs, 
 variable in form. 
 Pk. Fl. — 8 
 
98 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY 
 
 A. gummifer, Labill. (Gum Tragacanth.) Shrub, 2 feet high. Stems short, 
 naked ; branches numerous and straggling ; bark reddish-gray, slightly rough, 
 marked with scars of fallen leaves ; young twigs woolly. Leaves numerous, 
 spreading in all directions, two and a half inches long, pinnate ; rachis hard, 
 stiff, smooth, yelloAv, acutely pointed, furnished at the base with broad, mem- 
 branous, acute, glabrous, rusty, clasping stipules, cut at the edges ; leatiets op- 
 posite or alternate, nearly sessile, ver}' small, obovate, acute, entire, glabrous, 
 both sides grayish-green, veined, articulated Avith the rachis, soon falling off. 
 Flowers small, sessile, solitary or two to three together in the axils of the loAver 
 leaves, each with a membranous, acute bract as long as the calyx. Calyx cut 
 to the base into 5 equal, very narrow, acute segments, clothed with silky, 
 white hairs, persistent. Petals papilionaceous, a little longer than the calyx, 
 pale yellow, and persistent; wings a little shorter than the standard, witli a 
 
 long linear claw ; keel-petals nearly as 
 long as the wings. Stamens 10, upper 
 one free, 9 united into a sheath, which is 
 attached to the petals at the base. Ovary 
 villous ; style long and filiform ; stigma 
 minute. Pod small and kidney-shaped, 
 smooth, and pale brown. 
 
 This is a very large genus. Most of 
 the woody and spiny species produce the 
 tragacanth gums, but this species is prom- 
 inent among those that produce it, and 
 the first that was accurately described. 
 The species A. tragacantha, from which the 
 gum takes its name, does not yield the 
 drug. 
 
 Geographij. — The Astragalus gummifer 
 and other gum-bearing species are sub- 
 tropical plants, and do not produce the 
 gum unless they grow in a warm climate. 
 The gum which supplies the market is 
 produced in Persia and the region soutli 
 of the Black Sea, Greece and the islands 
 of the eastern Mediterranean, also in 
 Syria. 
 Etiimohgij. — Astragalus, the generic name of this plant, is from the Greek 
 aarpdyaKos, vertebra, an allusion to the crowded and apparently jointed ap- 
 pearance of the beans or seeds in the pods of some of the species of this large 
 genus. Gummifer is from the lj2itva.gummis, gum, and /e?-o, bear, hence gum- 
 bearing, Tragacanth, the name of the gum, is from the Greek rpdyos, a goat, 
 &Kavda, beard, hence a goat's thorn, this name being an allusion to the slender 
 spines with which the branchlets of the A. tragacantha are armed, and which 
 bear a slight resemblance to a goat's beard, which is somewhat like a thorn in 
 shape. 
 
 Histori/. — When or by whom this drug was first used is not known. The 
 ancients were acquainted with it. Theophrastus, who wrote more than three 
 hundred years before the commencement of the Christian era, mentions it. 
 
 Preparation. — The mode of collecting the gum is to remove the earth 
 from the crown of the root, and then make wounds in the bark, from which 
 exudes a whitish gummy sap that hardens in flakes, Avhen it is removed. This 
 
 Astragalus gummifer 
 (Gum Tragacanth), 
 
LEGUMINOS^.. 
 
 99 
 
 is the fiiip fliiko n^iiin of (•(Hiinu'rco. Tliorc aro also small lumps constantly 
 appearing on the stem and l)ranflies, wiiieh are picked off. These kinds 
 are mixed, but are afterwards separated into several varieties, according 
 to (juality, for the markets of Europe and America. The gum consists 
 of two substances, Arabin, which resembles gunj Arabic, which is readily 
 soluble in water, and Trafjucanthin, which water causes to swell but will not 
 dissolve, (ium tragacauth forms a mucilaginous jelly, with fifty times its 
 weight of water. 
 
 ^'.se. — In medicine, gum tragacauth is used as a demulcent, and a medium 
 to aid in suspending licjuid medicines. It is also used for a paste or cement; 
 for suspending inks and dyes ; for preparing fabrics for dyeing, and for 
 stiffening crapes. Shoemakers use it for a paste to fasten the linings in 
 shoes. It is used by confectioners and pharmacists to furnish adhesiveness to 
 materials of which lozenges are made. 
 
 AKACHIS, L. (Peanut.) Calyx of the staminate flower with a slender 
 tube ; limb 2-lipped, upper lip -l-toothed. Corolla resupmate. Stamens 
 9, united in a tube. 
 Pistillate flowers 
 without calyx, co- 
 rolla, or stamens. 
 Ovary on a slender 
 peduncle, whicli 
 lengthens down- 
 wards, and forces the 
 fertilized pistil into 
 the ground, where 
 the legume matures. 
 Legume oblong, ob- 
 tuse at each end, 
 somewhat cylindri- 
 cal, 1, 2, or 3-seeded; 
 seeds ovoid. Flowers 
 axillary, lower ones 
 fertile, upper ones 
 sterile. 
 
 A. hypogaea. Willd. 
 (Peanut, (iroiiiid Nut. 
 Ground Pea. Monkey 
 Xut.) Stem 9 to IS 
 inches long, prostrate, 
 branching, and liairy. 
 Leaves composed of 2 pairs of leaflets, which are an inch to an inch and a 
 half long, obovate. entire, nuicronate at the apex, bordered by a hairy nerve, 
 aub-sessile ; connnon petiole 1 to 2 inches long, channeled above, and hairy. 
 Flowers axillary, orange-yellow, appearing in July. Fruit ripens in latter 
 part of Sei)tember. While the process of ripening is going on the pod sinks 
 under ground. 
 
 Of this plant there are seven species, only one of which seems to be under 
 cultivation. Of this one there are .several varieties, differing from each other 
 
 Arachis hypocba (Peanut). 
 
100 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 iu size and delicacy of flavor, cue very conspicuous for its large fruit, which is 
 about two inches long and nearly an inch in diameter. The ordinary nut of 
 commerce is about an inch to an inch and a quarter in length and half an inch 
 or less iu diameter. A third variety is barely more than half an inch in length, 
 and correspondingly small iu diameter, but of A^ery delicate flavor. 
 
 Geography. — The peanut is a subtropical plant. It grows and fruits in 
 the southern United States, but Avill not fruit in regions of severe frost. 
 It is an important crop in southern and central Virginia, and the Carolinas 
 and Tennessee. 
 
 Etymology. — Arachis, the generic name, is derived by some from the Greek 
 words o, without, and poix^s, the backbone, which signifies, iu this application, 
 " without a stem," which is incorrect ; hence this derivation is obscure. Others 
 derive it from apaxos, a name applied to a kind of vetch by Theophrastus. 
 Hi/pogiea, the specific name, is from the Greek words utto, under, and yrj, tlie 
 earth, /. e., underground, due to the mode of ripening the fruit. Peanut is 
 named from the fact that the plant appears like the pea while growing. 
 Ground Nut and Ground Pea are thus named because they ripen under ground. 
 Monkey Nut receives its name from the fact that monkeys are fond of it. 
 
 History. — De Candolle believes the peanut to be an American plant. It is 
 found in the tombs of the ancient Peruvians. It was introduced into Africa 
 from Brazil by the Spaniards, to feed the slaves on the passage over the ocean, 
 and it spread by commerce into northern Africa, southei-n Europe, India, China, 
 Japan, and North America. 
 
 Use. — The peanut is a very popular nut among children and young people 
 in general. It is used sometimes as a dessert. It yields an excellent sweet 
 oil, Avhich is substituted for olive oil in the arts and for culinary purposes. 
 In China the oil is used for illuminating, and also for lubricating. Its roots 
 are sometimes used as a substitute for liquorice. 
 
 In Virginia it is ground into flour and used for making pastry and biscuits, 
 and is said to be superior to wheat, on account of its rich, delicate flavor. 
 
 Statistics and Commercial Importance. — The annual yield of the peanut in 
 Virginia is about 2,100,000 bushels ; in Tennessee, 250,000 bushels ; in North 
 Carolina, 13.5,000 bushels. Besides these, large quantities are imported from 
 South America and Africa. 
 
 LENS, Moench. (Lentil.) Calyx 5-parted, parts narrow, lanceolate. 
 Corolla small, nearly concealed by the long segments of the calyx, 
 varying in color from white to lilac, or pale blue. Style erect. Stigma 
 smooth. Pods short and blunt, thin, smooth, and 2-seeded ; seeds iu 
 form of a circular double-convex lens. Annual. 
 
 1. L. esculenta, Moench. Stem weak, about 10 to 18 inches high, branching. 
 Leaves pinnate, composed of 6 to 8 pairs of elliptical leaflets, the main leaf- 
 stock terminating in a branched tendril ; lower leaves without tendrils. Eruit a 
 short pod, with 1 to 2 seeds, about two eighths of an inch in diameter, yellowish- 
 brown. Flowers June to July. Fruits August. 
 
 There are several varieties of the lentil, three of M^hich are usually under 
 cultivation. The Lens esculenta is the most common, and the most esteemed. 
 
 Var. lutea, the yellow lentil, is said to be a favorite with the French. 
 
 Var. Provence is a large, coarse sort, grown for stock. 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the Lens is the middle and southern parts of 
 the north temperate zone, Syria, Egypt, southern and central Europe, and 
 
LKOrMTXOSJF. 
 
 101 
 
 Iliiidnstan. It escapos from cultivation ;v4i<l horomos a troublesome weed, and 
 it has been suggested that it was the plant mentioned in the parable of the 
 Tares. 
 
 Eti/mo/ofji/. — Letis, the generic name, is the old Latin name of the plant, the 
 signification of which is very obscure. Earjilenta is Latin for " eatable," hence 
 eatable Ions or lontil. Lentil, the common name, is from the Latin lenticula, 
 a little lens. 
 
 Ilistorij. — When or where this food plant was first cultivated it is very 
 dirticult to determine. It is believed by the best authorities to have been 
 grown in western Asia, and along the shores of the Mediterranean, as far west 
 as Italy, in prehistoric times, and tlience introduced into Kgyj>t, after whicli 
 it spread over Europe, and crept eastward into India. It is spoken of by 
 the ancient writers on Botany, ami was uo doubt the material employed by 
 Jacob to prepare his pottage 
 with which he ])urchased his 
 brother's birthright. It is at 
 the present day an important 
 food in Palestine. It is occa- 
 sionally cultivated in the east- 
 ern United States, but is not 
 very profitable. It is to be 
 found on sale in the Italian 
 and German groceries of our 
 large cities. 
 
 Use, — It is prepared as beans 
 are, boiled with or without 
 meat ; it is also baked with pork 
 or mutton, and is made into 
 soups, and used to thicken gra- 
 vies. It is largely used by the 
 Arabs in a parched state, while 
 on their marches. It was in 
 early times the only food of 
 large armies while on the 
 march, l)ut is greatly inferior in 
 ([uality and delicacy to either 
 the pea or the bean. Its meal 
 is sold a-s a food for invalids 
 under the name " Revalcnta." 
 
 PISTJM, L. (IVa.) Calyx ^^i^um sativum (Ganlen Pea). 
 
 witli leafy scgineiit.s, o in 
 
 nuiiiher, 2 upper ones shorter. I'ctajs .l, n].iu'r ojic l.ioad and tunuMl 
 I>aek. Stamens and 1. Style flattened and ridged, velvety on the 
 upper edge. Pod oblong ; seeds globular, from 5 to 10 in a pod. 
 Annual herl), 
 
 1. P. sativum. (Garden TVa.) Stem 1 to 4 feet high, terete, smooth, and 
 weak, climbing by tendril.-^. Leaves composed of 2 to ;} pairs of elliptical, 
 obtuse, entire, mucronate leaflet.^, an inch to two inches long: the common 
 leaf .stalk .'Strong, terete, terminating in a lone: branched tendril. Stipules 
 large. t)vatc, somewhat sagittate, crenute, dentate at tiie base, riuwer-stalks 
 
102 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 axillary, 1 to 6 inches loug, terminated by 1 to 2 flowers each. Style turned 
 back ; flowers white. Pod an inch and a hall' to three inches long, somewhat 
 cylindrical or flattened. Elowers in June. Fruits July to August. 
 
 As the pea is grown from the seed, it sports. Gardeners, making use of 
 this tendency, have produced a great number of varieties, differing in length 
 of stem, size, shape, and especially in delicacy of flavor in the fruit. 
 
 The varieties are usually arranged under the heads Short-stalked and Long- 
 stalked, and named from some real or imaginary quality, or after the propagator, 
 or discoverer. 
 
 2. P. arvense, L. (Field Pea.) Differs from the P. sativum in being less deli- 
 cate to the taste. Has only one flower on a flower-stalk. Flowers red. Seeds 
 crowded in the pod, presenting the form of short, quadrangular prisms. Whole 
 plant coarser, and more hardy, enduring heavy frosts ; one variety planted in 
 France endures the hardest frosts of winter, and fruits the following sunnner. 
 Raised largely in Europe for feed for cattle and horses. 
 
 Geography. — The habitat of the pea is from the middle of tlie tenij>erate 
 zones to the edges of the tropics. It fruits well throughout central and south- 
 ern Europe, Egypt, Syria, Japan, India, China, and Cochin China ; but no- 
 where is it more productive and more largely cultivated than in southern 
 Japan, where it constitutes a very important article of food and of internal 
 commerce. 
 
 Etipnologij. — Pisinn, the generic name, is derived from the Latin word 
 piso, beat, pound, or bruise, due either to the means employed to separate 
 the seeds from the pods, or to grind them into flour. Arvense, the specific 
 name, is from the Latin, signifying " field," and sativum from the Latin, sow, 
 or plant. Pea, the common name, is a corruption of the word piso, grind, or 
 bruise. 
 
 History. — The lionie of the Pisum arvense is not ])Ositively known. It is 
 found without cultivation in Italy. The P. sativum is not known at present 
 to be wild anywhere, hence the place Avhere it originated is difficult to 
 discover. It has been claimed to be a variety of P. ar\ense, but its botanical 
 characteristics are .so distinct and constant as to throw that hypothesis into 
 great doubt. 
 
 There are reasons to believe that it was carried into Europe by the 
 Aryans, at a remote period of history ; and it is supposed to have been 
 indigenous in western Asia, along the foothills of the Caucasus, towards 
 Syria, and southeastward to Persia. It was brought to North America by 
 European colonists, and is grown in the kitchen and market garden, and in 
 many regions in the field. 
 
 Cidtivation. — The pea flourishes in a light, rich soil, and yields an abun- 
 dant harvest to generous cultivation. The garden mode of cultivation is 
 usually in drills si.\ to eight inches apart (called double rows), with a space 
 of three feet, and another double row. In the field it is either sown in drills 
 and worked with a horse-hoe or a plough, or sown broadcast like the oat. 
 Among the jjeasantry of Scotland, England, and the Isle of Man the P. arvense 
 is an important field crop, furnishing food for themselves and their domestic 
 animals. 
 
 Use. — The pea is plucked before the seed is ripe, when it is in the milky 
 state ; it is then shelled, and boiled in a small quantity of water, to preserve 
 the delicate flavor, and served plain or with gravies ; it is also cooked with a 
 smaU quantity of salt meat. When ripe, it is used for soup, or ground into 
 
LEGUMINOS^:. 
 
 103 
 
 flour to tliickeu gravies uuci souj)S ; it is also 
 horses. It constitutes a \ery iiiiiiortanl artitU 
 kitchou aud market warden. 
 
 ground aud fed to cattle aud 
 of food, aud is fouud iu every 
 
 PHASEOLUS, L. (Bean.) Calyx with 2 bracts at the base, bell- 
 shaped, somewhat "J-lipped, upper lip 2-parted, lower one 3-parted. 
 Keel of the corolla beaked, and, together with the stamens and style, 
 spirally twisted. I^egume, or pod, linear curved, flattened, or some- 
 what cylindrical; many-seeded; seeds kidney -shaped. Annual 
 herb. 
 
 1 . P. vulgaris, Savi. (Pole Beau, Kiduey Beau, Haricot, String Bean.) Steii 
 4 to 10 feet long, sleuder, voluble, aud twiuiug always against the suu, oj 
 towards the west or 
 
 southwest. J. eaves tri- 
 foliate, or a pair ot leaf- 
 lets aud a tenniual one, 
 couiuiou petiole 1 to 6 
 inches long. Flowers 
 white, iu racemes, ou 
 stout peduncles, 1 to 4 
 inches long. Pod 3 to 
 6 iuches long ; seeds 
 more or less kidney- 
 shaped, whitish, duU- 
 yellow, or mottled 
 
 "N'ar. nanus, L. (Bush 
 Bean) is a dwarf, 
 with a short, erect, 
 branching stem 8 to 15 
 iuches high. Leaflets 
 sharp-pointed, aud 
 bracts larger than iu 
 the above ; otherwise 
 like P. vulgaris. 
 
 2. P. lunatus, L. 
 (Lima Beau.) Stem as 
 iu P. vulgaris, except 
 longer and disjmsed to 
 branch more ; leaflets 
 larger, oblique or tri- 
 angular, 2 to 4 inclies 
 long, common petitde 
 
 2 to 6 inches long, racemes loose. ])edicels short. Flowers greenish-white, 
 smaller bracts shnrter than the calyx. Pods 2 to :i iuches long, an iuch wide, 
 curved or in()on-sha|)ed. Seeds !-•;. large, flat, greenish, or white. Flowers 
 in July; fruits i?i August to Sejjteiidter, remauiiug till fro.st appears. 
 
 Species. — The abi)ve are the species which have given ri.se to all the forms 
 now under cultivation. In the south of North America. Mexico, and the Wc't 
 India i.slauds, a small l.I;i(k l)ean. called turtle .st.u|. l.can. is largely cultivated, 
 especially by tliu S|(ilui^ll Americaus. 
 
 Phasrolus vulgaris (String Bean). 
 
104 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Phaseolus nanus (Bush Bean). 
 
 (The beans of a different species, Vicia faba, L., otherwise called Faha 
 sativa, are not flattened, and are smaller than the above. They are often 
 given to horses.) 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the bean is very wide, including the tropics and 
 
 the temperate zones to 
 ^^ *^^® "^^^^^ parallels, and 
 
 '^'px^ ^^^^ beyond in some 
 
 N "> .-^r^afsek localities. 
 
 Etymology. — Phaseo- 
 lus, the generic name is 
 from the Latin phaselus, 
 a little ship, due to the 
 shape of the flower. 
 Vulgaris, from the Latin, 
 means common or usual. 
 Nanus, from the Latiu, 
 signifies small or dwarf. 
 Lunatus, Latin, indicates 
 that the pod is in the 
 shape of a new moon. 
 Bean, the common name, 
 comes to us from the old 
 middle English, and is 
 supposed to signify good, 
 i. e., good food, or good for food. Bush Bean is named from the fact that 
 the plant appears in the shape of a little bush. Pole Bean is named from 
 the circumstance of planting poles in the hills with the seed for the stems 
 to climb upon. Kidney Bean 
 takes its name from the kidney- 
 shaped seeds. Lima is supposed 
 to be named from the fact that 
 this species was found near the 
 city of that name. 
 
 History. — The bean was sup- 
 posed to be a native of India and 
 Western Asia, and to have thence 
 Avorked its way into southern 
 Europe by commerce and travel ; 
 but recent inquiries have dis- 
 turbed this belief. De Candolle, 
 who is the best authority on the 
 .'subject, thinks that the Phaseolus 
 vulgaris, and P. lunatus are in- 
 digenous to South and Central 
 America, and that the bean was 
 carried thence to southern Europe 
 by the Spaniards, and to western 
 Africa by Spanish slave-traders. 
 To reconcile these statements 
 with the accounts of ancient 
 
 writers, we must conclude that the beans of the ancients were varieties of 
 other species, or different genera, of the Pulse family. 
 
 <^ 
 
 Phaseolus lunatus (Lima Bean). 
 
LEGUMINOSiR. 105 
 
 Cultivation. — Tho hoan fffows so oasily in almost ovory varioty of soil that 
 ncarlv everv locality produces sufficient for liomc consnnii.tion. Hence, though 
 it has heconie oue of the most imi)ortaut tal)le vegetables, it has little more than 
 
 a local sale. , , • , n .1 
 
 It is i)lanted iu hills two and a half to three feet a]jart, or m drills three 
 
 feet apart. . ^ ^- 1 
 
 Use. — The bean, in its numerous forms, constitutes a very nni><.rtant article 
 of food The ripened seeds are boiled, and served plain or made into soups. 
 A flour is also produced from the ground seeds, and employed to thicken 
 cravies and soups. In New England, baked beans form a favorite dish. 
 The green pods of the P. vulgaris, when the seeds are about half-ripened, are 
 cut into half-inch pieces, and boiled, either with or without salt meat, and 
 served as a vegetable. Beans are largely used at sea and in the army, for 
 rations for the sailors and soldiers, and they are believed to afford more nutri- 
 tive material than any other substance of the same bulk. 
 
 GLYCYRRHIZA, L. (Liquorice.) The description of Astragalus 
 applies to Glycyrrhiza, except that in the latter the anther-cells are 
 united, and the legume is continuous internally. 
 
 G. glabra. 3 to 4 feet high. Leaves pinnate, 4 to 5 pairs, and a ter- 
 minal one ; leaflets ovate. Flowers axillary, in racemes, whitish-violet. 
 
 G'^o.^ra;)^. — The liquorice is native to Italy and southern Europe ; it also 
 growsin the south of England, and is cultivated in Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Etymology/ and Hisfory.- Glyryrrhiza, the generic name, is from the Greek 
 yXvKis, sweet, ^t'C«. root, sn-eetroof, due to the well-known sweet taste of the 
 liquorice. It wa.s groAvn in England in the time of Elizabeth. 
 
 Use —Its medicinal qualities are demulcent and emollient. It is admin- 
 istered in catarrh and other irritations of the mucous membrane, and for 
 sore throat. It is largelv used to sweeten tobacco. Brewers also use it to give 
 body and to impart a sweet taste to porter and to Scotch ale. It is also 
 mixed with purgatives, under the name of liquorice-powders, to disgui.se the 
 taste of other drugs, as senna, etc. 
 
 HJEMATOXYLON, L. (Logwood.) Calyx cup-shaped, heniisplicrical. 
 Sepals 5, nearly equal, imbricated : corolla i^ipilionaceous. Stamens 10. 
 .5 shorter. Ovary inserted in the liollow receptacle, free, short, stipi- 
 tate, nsnally 2-o^itled. Pods furnished with lance-shaped, flattened, 
 loaf-like hoans or seeds, 1-2 in a pod. Small tree. 
 
 H. Campechianum. L.' (Logwood.) Stem 20 to .30 feet in height, and 12 
 to 18 inches in diameter ; crooked, much-l)ranched, branchlets armed with shar]) 
 spines; .sometimes appears as a shrub forming dense thorny thickets. Bark 
 dark and rough. Leaves i)innate. with 4 or .^) pairs of irregular obcordate 
 leaflets. Flowers yellow, in terminal spikes. Pods long, double-valved ; seeds 
 oblong, kidney-shaped, flattened. 
 
 The only species of tlie genus. 
 
 Geography. — Tho logwood-tree is native in all parts of the damp forest!* 
 of Central America, being most abundant on the peninsula of Yucatan, and 
 along the low-wooded shores of Guatemala and Hon.lnras; but it grows 
 well'^along the low banks of streams ami damp grounds of the Isthmus of 
 
106 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Panama and the West Indies. It has been planted by the British in Burmah, 
 where it grows to perfection. 
 
 Etymology. — Hcematoxylon is from the Greek words aXfxa, blood, and ^v\ov, 
 wood, signifying blood-wood, on account of its red culor. Campechianum is 
 the name of the region where it was first obtained. Logwood, the common 
 name, is due to the form in which it is brought to market, i. e., in sliort logs, 
 four feet long and six inches in diameter. For the same reason it is called 
 blockwood. On the continent of Europe it is called Campeachy icuod. 
 
 History. — It grows and thrives best in damp ground. Though a quick 
 grower, the wood is of a fine, hard texture. It Avas known as a dye-wood as 
 early as the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The dyers of that day prepared beautiful colors from this wood, but its 
 chemistry not being understood, they were unable to fix them ; hence its use 
 
 was forbidden by a law, which was 
 rigorously enforced. After about a 
 hundred years the act was repealed or 
 made void by the passage of another, 
 in 1661, Avhich read as follows: "The 
 ingenious industry of the times hath 
 taught the dyers of England the art 
 of fixing colors made of logwood, so 
 that by experience they are found as 
 lasting and serviceable as the color 
 made by any other sort of dye-wood." 
 And logwood from that time became 
 a popular dye. In 1675 the demand 
 for the wood developed a great in- 
 dustry in cutting, preparing, shipping, 
 and freighting the wood. The Span- 
 iards interfered with the English, who 
 had established a colony of choppers 
 on the shores of the Bay of Cam- 
 peachy. The English thereupon made 
 plantations in Jamaica, but the wood 
 produced did not yield the dye of the 
 wood grown in its native swamps. 
 When the tree is 10 years old it is about 20 feet high and 10 inches in 
 diameter; it is then felled, the sap-wood chipped off, cut into pieces 3 to 4 
 feet in length, and shipped to Great Britain or the United States. The 
 best wood is from Honduras, the next best from St. Domingo, and the third 
 class from Jamaica. 
 
 Chemistry. — A blood-red crystalline substance is dispersed through the 
 wood, and this when extracted gives the violet dye. It yields to the chemist 
 a substance indicated by the following formula : C3.2II14O1.. + 2 HO. This 
 A\ hen isolated appears in yellow crystals, and has the taste of liquorice, and 
 was named Hcematoxylon by Chevreuil, a professor of chemistry in Paris, who 
 obtained it. It is not itself a dye ; but when united with certain alkaline 
 bases, and exposed to the action of the air, it produces beautiful red, purple, 
 aad blue colors. 
 
 Use. — It was first used in 1646. Its medicinal properties seem to be a 
 mild astringent and tonic, and it is administered in the form of extract or de- 
 coction for infantile cholera, chronic diarrhoea, and chronic dysentery. 
 
 HCEMATOXYLON CaMPECHIANUM (LogWOOd). 
 
lkgl:min()S7p:. 
 
 10' 
 
 Its m«)st important use is as an ingredient in the production of dyes. 
 
 As a liedgiuj,'-plant it is highly esteemed ; on account of its rapid growth, 
 its crooked habit of growth, and its strong si)iues, it is one of the best-known 
 jdants for fencing ])nrposes. 
 
 It makes excellent fuel, anil is very liartl and heavy. 
 
 Statistics. — Ahoixt 64,000 tons are annually taken into (ireat Britain, and 
 nearly as much into the United States. 
 
 Marts. — The priucij^al jjorts to which logwood is taken are: London, m 
 Great uiitain ; ^'ersailles, in Frauce; aud New York, in the United States. 
 
 5, barely united at base. Petab 
 
 is o, 
 
 CASSIA, L. (Senna.) Sepals 
 unequal, spreading. Stamens 5 to 10, unequal apart, Irequently im- 
 perfect. Anthers opening by two chinks at the apex. Pod many- 
 Flowers vellow. 
 
 >eeded, often with cross partitions. 
 1, 
 
 Leaves pinnate. 
 
 Leaves alternate, ])iu- 
 oval-lauceolate, acute, 
 
 C. acutifolia, Delile. Stem woody, 3 feet high, 
 nate, stipulate ; leaHets in fron; 4 to 6 pairs, sessile 
 oblique at base, nerved, three fourths of an 
 inch long. Flowers yellow, in axillary spikes. 
 Fruit a ])od or legume, an inch long, half an 
 inch broad, flat, elliptical, obtuse, membranous, 
 aud smooth, divided into 6 or 7 cells, each con- 
 taining 1 seed. 
 
 2. C. obovata, DC. Like the above, except 
 that it is 18 inches in heiglit. Leaf with 5 to 
 7 pairs of leaflets, obovate and mucronate. 
 Legume flat, kidney-shaped, and clothed with 
 a short inconspicuous down. 
 
 3. C. angustifolia, Wahl. Stem erect, smooth. 
 Leaflets in 4 to 8 pairs, sessile, lanceolate, ob- 
 scurely mucronate, smooth, downy beneath, 
 with a wavy line along the under side of mar- 
 gin, one to one and a quarter inches long. 
 Legume oblong, abrupt at base, round at ajjex, 
 an inch and a half long and half an inch broad. 
 Annual. 
 
 4. C. Marilandica, L. Stem 3 to 5 feet high. 
 
 Leaflets in 8 to 10 jiairs. an inch and a lialf long and half an inch wide, 
 oblong, blunt, and nmcroiuite ; the main petiole has a club-shaped gland at 
 its base. Flowers in short axillary racemes on the ui)per ])art of sten), yellow, 
 fading to white. Anthers black, 10 in number, and une(|ual. Tods Imnging, 
 3 inches long, flat, linear, hairy at flrst. stipules falling off. 
 
 5. C. fistula, L. Large tree, branching regularly, and forming a symmetrical 
 head ; wood hard and heavy. Leaves of .5 to ])airs of ojjposite leaflets ; leaf- 
 lets 3 to 5 inches long, ovate, pointed, undulate, smooth, on short ])etioles. 
 Pod a foot long, an inch thick, cylindrical, woody, dark-brown, hanging. 
 When the plant is disturbed by the wind the ]iods strike together and i)ro- 
 duce a sound which may l)e heard at a considerable distance. 
 Upper Egypt. 
 
 Species. — T\wix' are many sjjecies of the Cassia, but those already described 
 are the ones from which the commercial product;^ 
 the American trade. 
 
 Cassia Marilandica (Seuua). 
 
 Native in 
 
 are obtained that enter into 
 
108 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of most of the species of Cassia 
 which enter into the materia medica is tropical and subtropical, extending 
 quite around the globe. 
 
 Etymologij. — The common name Senna is derived from the Arabic name 
 Sana. The generic name is said to have been traced back to the Hebrew 
 word Ketzioth, signifying "to cut;" but the application of this signification 
 is not apparent. The specific names are Latin, with one exception, Marilan- 
 dica, which signifies "Maryland," this being the State from which speci- 
 mens of the plant were first sent to Europe. Acutifolia, Latin, acute- or 
 sharp-leaved Obovata, obovate-leaved. Angustifolia , narrow-leaved. Fistula, 
 a tube-shaped fruit. 
 
 History. — Senna was introduced into medical practice in the tenth century 
 by the Arabic physician, Serapion. 
 
 The most valuable is the Alexandrian senna. It is a mixture of the leaves 
 and pods of C. acutifolia and C. obovata and the leaves of Cynanchum oleaefo- 
 lium ; the mixture is prepared at Boulac, in Egypt, where it is put up in bales 
 and sent to Alexandria. 
 
 The East India senna is obtained from C. angustifolia, in southeastern 
 Arabia, where it grows without cultivation. The leaves and pods are gath- 
 ered and sent to Bombay, whence it reaches Europe. 
 
 Tinnevelly senna is obtained from C. angustifolia, which was introduced 
 into India from Arabia, and is now largely cultivated in the vicinity of Tin- 
 nevelly. The imported article consists of unbroken leaflets, of a fine dark- 
 green color. 
 
 The American senna is from the C. Marilandica, and is found throughout 
 the Middle and Southern United States. It is collected in a Avild state, dried 
 in the shade, and the leaflets and pods are sent to market. 
 
 Use. — The active medicinal principle of senna has thus far defied the 
 skill of the chemist. By experience the drug is found to he a safe and 
 efficient, but not a violent purgative. It is usually administered in combina- 
 tion with salts of magnesia. It is used for alterative purposes in the form of 
 confections , the pulverized leaves, the pulp of the fruit of C. fistula, with 
 fruits and spices, are made into a mass, and are prepared in the form of 
 lozenges. 
 
 CERATONIA, L. (Carob Tree.) 
 
 C. Siliqua Found in the countries of the Levant, bearing large pods, which 
 are fed to cattle, and believed to be the plant referred to in the Xew Testa- 
 ment in the parable of the Prodigal Son. Pods have been found in Egyptian 
 monuments, with a piece of wood, which microscopic examination proved to 
 be from this tree. 
 
 DALBERGIA, L. (Blackwood.) Calyx unequally 5-toothed ; vexilluui 
 obovate or orbiculate ; wings oblong ; keel blunt. Stamens 10 or 9, 
 bifid-didymous. Ovary stipitate ; ovules 2 or more. Pod oblong linear, 
 compressed, thin, wingless. Leaves unequally pinnate or 1-leaved. 
 Trees and vines. 
 
 1. D. nigra, Allemo. (Fine Eosewood.) Trunk .50 to 70 feet high, branched 
 into a symmetrical head. Leaves unequally pinnate, or solitary. Flowers 
 papilionaceous, white. Pods flat, 1-2-seeded. Wood brown, and beautifully 
 mottled with yellow spots and veins. 
 
LEGUMINOSJE. 109 
 
 -2. D. latifolia, Hox. (Iiuliau l^osewood.) Trunk 80 feet iu height, heauti- 
 I'uUy braufhed. Leaves pinuate, with few leatiets. Pods Hat, lew-seeded. 
 Wood hard, heavy, close-grained, takes a hue ])()lish, color browu to Itlack, 
 streaked witli rich yellowish veins. 
 
 Note. — The name Rosewood is ajipliod to several different trees. There 
 is some coufusiou with regard to tlie genera that produce all tlie woods known 
 by that name. The Dalbergia nigra, and 1). latifolia are known to be 
 trees from which rosewood is produced, and D. nigra is the tree whose wood 
 discharges an odor of roses. 
 
 Geoyraphy. — Dalbergia nigra is found native in 
 Brazil, botli tropical and subtropical. The 1). latifolia 
 is indigenous to southern Asia. Thougli tropical, it 
 extends north to the edge of the north temperate zone, 
 and is extra tropical in regions of no frost. 
 
 Eti/molo(/i/. — Dalbergia was the name given to this 
 genus to compliment Nicholas Dalberg, a Swedish 
 botanist of distinction. Nigra, Latin, signifying black, 
 due to the color of the wood. Latifolia, Latin, broad- Dalbergia nigra 
 
 leaved, from latus, broad, and foliian, a leaf. Roseirood, (Rosewood), 
 
 the popular name is due to the odor given off by the 
 
 wood when under the saw and plane of the workman. The names, Kimjicvod, 
 Blackwood , are also applied to all the woods known as Kosewoods. The 
 Dalbergia is known among the inhabitants of Brazil under the name Jara- 
 randa, the signification of which is unknown. 
 
 Use. — It is brought to market in logs or planks. The logs are usually 
 split in half, in order to make sure that tliey are sound. 
 
 The wood is highly prized for musical wind-instruments, polishiug-sticks 
 for slioemakers, piano-cases, chairs, sofas, bedsteads, bureaus, and for veneering 
 all sorts of cabinet work. 
 
 CAESALPINIA. (Brazil Wood.) 
 
 C. crista, L., and C. Braziliensis furnish fine dyes and red ink. The wood 
 takes a fine polish, and is used for violin-bows, etc. 
 
 The name Brazilieiisis does not seem to come /rom Brazil, for it was known 
 before the discovery of America. It has been suggested that the discovery (»f 
 the tree in Brazil may have given its name to tlie country. 
 
 TAMARINDUS, L. (Tainariiid.) Calyx funnel-shaped, narrow, divided 
 into 4 ovate, hmceolate, acute segments, imbricated in the bud. Petals 
 3, 1 posterior and the other 2 lateral, oblong, white or vellowisli- 
 W'hite, with red veins. Stamens 3, filaments long and free. Anthers 
 opening lengthwise. Ovary stalked, 1-celled ; ovules numerous. 
 Style long and hooked. Fruit pendulous, pod-shaped, .compressed, 
 3 to 6 inches long, 1 inch ^Yide, curved, nearly smooth, chocolate- 
 brown ; seeds imbedded in a firm pulp ; 3 strong woody cords ex- 
 tending along the edge of the pulp from base to apex. Seeds 2 to 
 8 in a ]mh]. 
 
 T Indica, L. Trunk from 60 to 80 feet in height, and 2 to 4 feet in 
 diameter; bark rough, twigs smooth or j»ubesi'ent. Br.inches long, liorizontal. 
 forming a very large head. Leaves alternate; stipules falling; leatlets iu 
 
110 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 8 to 16 pairs, opposite, one half to three quarters of an inch long, sessile 
 and overlapping, oblong, blunt, unequal at the base, thick-veined underneath. 
 This is the only species of the genus ; but as it is propagated from the seed, 
 it sports and produces varieties differing in the size and quality of the fruit. 
 The pods of the Indian and African varieties have more beans in them than 
 those of America. 
 
 Hymemea verrucosa, of Madagascar, and H. combaril of the West Indies, 
 are allied to the Tamarindus. H. combaril is the locust-tree of the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Trachi/lobium Hornemanntanum, of eastern Africa, is also an ally of 
 Tamarindus. 
 
 Geographic . — The geographical zone of the tamarind is tropical and sub- 
 tropical. It is indigenous to Africa, but it has- spread by cultivation to 
 Arabia, to southern India, Ceylon, Java, the Philippines, northern Australia, 
 the tropical isles of the Pacific, the West India islands, and to tropical South 
 America. 
 
 Etymology. — Tamarindus is from the Arabic Tamar, a date, and Indus, 
 India, hence Indian date. Indica denotes the country in which it grows, yet 
 it is not known to be a native of India. Tamarind, the common name, is the 
 generic name Anglicized. 
 
 History. — There is reason to believe that the ancient Greeks and Romans 
 were not acquainted with the tamarind, but it seems to have been known to 
 
 the ancient Egyptians. It is 
 mentioned in the Koran, and 
 was well know^n to Arabic 
 physicians in the middle ages. 
 Preparation. — In the West 
 Indies the fruit is picked when 
 ripe, packed in small kegs, and 
 hot syrup is poured over it ; 
 then the vessels are closed, 
 and it is fit for the market. 
 
 In Asia the fruit is packed 
 in salt, and a syrup made from 
 the fruit is poured over it. 
 
 In Africa the pulp is sepa- 
 rated from the pod and seed 
 and pressed into cakes, then 
 dried in the sun. 
 Use. — The medicinal properties of the tamarind are laxative, cooling, 
 and anti-febrile. It contains about one tenth of its weight of citric acid, also 
 small quantities of acetic, malic, and tartaric acids, hence its value in producing 
 acid drinks, for which it is largely used in the countries where it grows. 
 
 It is an important article of food among the natives of the hot countries of 
 Asia and Afi-ica. The seeds are roasted, and reduced to flour, of which cakes 
 are made ; they are also boiled. The Hindus make use of the leaves, flowers, 
 bark, and seeds in the preparation of healing remedies. 
 
 In the Atlantic cities of the United States it is used as a preserve. In the 
 famine of 1878-9 the leaves were used as food in the Deccan. 
 
 The timber produced by these trees is hard and durable, and they all 
 produce a resinous gum known as copal, which when heated with linseed 
 oil or spirits of turpentine, dissolves and forms the best varnish. The gum 
 
 Tamarindus (Tamarind). 
 
LEGUMINOS^. 
 
 Ill 
 
 flows from wounds lua.l.- in ilic trunk and l.rancliPs. It also flows from the 
 roots, and is found l.v digi,nn<,' about th(3 foot ..f thn treo. Much of this 
 resiu that comes to market is fossil, as it is freciuently found where there are 
 no trees. 
 
 ^farts. — Tho. ports of export are Aden, in sonthcrn Arabia, Alexandria, 
 and ports of the East and West Indies. 
 
 ACACIA, Necker. Flowers regular, perfect or polygamous. Calyx 
 ■t-.Vtoothed. Petals uuited below. »Staniens free or united below, 
 numerous, longer than the corolla. Anthers small. Style thread- 
 like. Pod sometimes two-valved, and at other times not openhig when 
 ripe ; flattened or cylinilrical, contahiing many flattened seeds. Leaves 
 bi-pinnate ; leaflets small ; stipules frequently spinous. Flowers small, 
 in globular heads or cylindrical spikes, axillary, and yellow. Shrubs 
 or small trees, usually armed with prickles or thorns. 
 
 A. Senegal, Willd. (Gum Arabic.) Stem 20 feet high, erect. Branches 
 irregular, crooked, and twisted, the young brauchlets tiucke.ned at the 
 nodes, which are armed with tln-ee hooked 
 thorns. Bark smootli, grayish, or white. 
 Leaves alternate, or appearing in bunches, 
 or fascicles, bi-pinnate ; rachis slender, 
 tomentose, terminated with a gland, hav- 
 ing one also at the base ; pinnje opposite, 
 3 to 5 pairs ; leaflets opposite, 10 to 20 
 pairs, sessile and linear-ol)long, rigid, 
 grayish-green, one sixth of an inch long. 
 Flowers axillary, sessile, small, in slender, 
 cylindrical, erect spikes. Calyx liell- 
 shaped, downy, cut into 5 acute segments, 
 reaching half-way down. Corolla campan- 
 nlate, twice as long as the calyx, divisions 
 extending half-way down. Stamens nu- 
 merous ; filaments slender, erect, 3 times 
 the length of corolla, yellowish, united at 
 the base into a short tube, which is in- 
 serted on the base of corolla. Anthers 
 small and roundish. Ovary on a sliort 
 stalk, small, oldong. Style filiform, 
 shorter than stamens ; stigma terminal. 
 Pod short-.stalked, 3 to 4 inches long, and 
 
 three fourths of an inch wide, constricted between the seeds, smooth, ])ale, 
 membranous, witli a strong marginal ril). No. of seeds 2-G ; funiculus long; 
 beans roundish, mucli flattened. l)rown. 
 
 There are over 400 si)ecies of this i^cinis. but the pure (Jum Arabic is from 
 the A. Senrgn!, found in Kordofan. 
 
 Geograpin/. — The geographical di.stribution of the acacia is very extensive. 
 It occupies a broad belt both sides of the equator, all around the globe. 
 Though it is for the niost part a tropical and subtropical plant, it reaches 
 far into the temperate zones. Many species grow in Australia, and some in 
 America. Most of the species, however, are found in tropical Africa and 
 Asia, and in the tropical Pacific Islands. 
 
 Acacia Senegal (Gum Arabic). 
 
112 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Acacia i& horn the Greek aKUKia, a name given 
 to a thorny plant by Dioscorides, derived from aK-f], a sharp point. Senegal, 
 the specific name, is from the district in Africa where the tree abounds. 
 Gum Arabic, the popular name, is due to the circumstance that formerly the 
 gum was carried from Aden in Egyptian ships through the Hed Sea to Egypt, 
 and thence reshipped to Europe. 
 
 At present none of the gums of commerce known as Gum Arabic are 
 obtained from Arabia. 
 
 The pure gum used in medicine is from Kordofan, is carried down the Nile to 
 Egypt, and is a white opaque substance Avhicli when pulverized resembles wheat 
 Hour in color. Tlie several gums sold for gum arable are from other species, 
 and are usually brought to market mixed. 
 
 The gum exudes from wounds or incisions in the bark, and appears in 
 tears from the size of a pea to that of a small hen's-egg. The different 
 sorts are knoAvn in commerce by names which indicate the countries wlience 
 they are brought, as Mogador gum, North Africa gum, Jedda gum from 
 Jedda in Arabia, Cape gum from the Cape of Good Hope. East India 
 gum is carried from the east coast of Africa to Bombay, from which p(jint 
 it is shipped to Europe. 
 
 There is also a gum sold for gum arabic -svhich is an Australian product, 
 and is obtained from the Acacia pycnantha, Benth. The beautiful A. dealbata 
 of Australia, frequently seen in our green-houses, yields a good gum. 
 
 The Acacia Seyal is the Shittim Avood of Scripture, and the Acacia Suma 
 is one of the sacred trees used by the Brahmins to obtain fire by friction, for 
 their altars. 
 
 The fine white gums of commerce are known as Turkey gums. The darker, 
 translucent, reddish gums are known commercially as Senegal gum. 
 
 Use. — The gum begins to flow in the flowering season early in December, 
 and the liarA'est extends to the last of January, during which time the har- 
 vesters sul)sist almost entirely upon the gum. 
 
 ^1. Catechu of India yields by decoction a valuable tonic (Catechu), and in 
 the hands of the dyer it forms the colors black, brown, green, drab, -diwd fawn. 
 The decoction is higlily charged with tannin. 
 
 As a medicine, gum arabic is used largely as an emollient and demulcent; 
 it is prescribed in stomach difliculties, dysentery, and other bowel disorders; 
 and is used in throat troubles, and for cough mixtures. 
 
 In confectionery, it is mixed with sugar and formed into lozenges and gum- 
 drops. 
 
 It is largely used for a cement, or sticking substance. The Egyptians em- 
 ployed it to suspend their water-colors in painting. 
 
 The commoner qualities are used for giving luster to crape, silk, etc., to 
 stiffen the fibers in cloth-fiuishing, and in calico-printing. For labels, etc., it 
 is usual to mix sugar or glycerine with it to prevent it from cracking. 
 
 The tree has great beauty, and is highly prized in planted grounds where 
 it is able to endure tlie temperature. The wood is hard, and takes a fine 
 polish. Tlie bark of many of the species is highly charged with tannin, 
 and though used in the manufacture of leather, is not a favorite for that 
 purpose, because it imparts a stiff, brittle character to hides during tlie pro- 
 cess of tanning. These barks, however, are largely imported into P^ngland, 
 They are known in commerce as AVattle Barks. 
 
 A species of an allied genus Prosopis (P. juliflora, DC), a native of Texas, 
 yields an inferior gum locally substituted for gum arabic. 
 
ROSACEA 
 
 113 
 
 Order XXII. ROSACEA. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular, terminal, usually iu a corymb, cyme, or 
 umbel. Sepals 5, occasionally fewer, united at the base. Petals 5, occa- 
 sionally wanting. Stamens numerous, in several series, distinct or 
 cohering together, inserted with the petals on the disk which lines 
 the calyx-tube. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Fruit a pome, drupe, or 
 akene. Seeds one or few in each carpel. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. 
 
 Number of genera, 71 ; of species, 1000. 
 
 RUBUS, L. Calyx spreading, 5-parted ; petals 5 in number, falling. 
 Stamens many, on the border of the disk; ovaries numerous, with 
 2 ovules, 1 abortive. Akenes pulpy, drupe-like, aggregated upon a 
 succulent receptacle. Shrub. 
 
 1. R. strigosus, Mx. (Wild Red Ra.spberry.) Stem 3 feet hi^rh, l,alf an 
 inch iu diameter, sparingly or diffusely bnmched, armed witli weak prickles. 
 Leaves ])iuuately 3-5-leaved; leaflets ob- 
 long-ovate, obtuse at the base, pointed at 
 the apex, serrate, gashed, teeth unequal, ses- 
 sile and hoary beneath, wrinkled. Flowers 
 white; corolla cup-shaped, and smaller than 
 the calyx. Fruit hemispherical, when re- 
 moved from the receptacle ; it is hollow, 
 and forms a little cup. The aroma and 
 taste are very grateful. Connnou in 
 Northern United States. Flowers in June. 
 Fruits in July and August. Root i)erennial. 
 Stem biennial. 
 
 2. R. occidentalis, L. (Black Raspberry. 
 Thimble llerry. Black Cap.) Stem 3 to 
 5 feet higli, glaucous, recurved, bending to 
 the ground, armed with strung recurved 
 prickles. Leaf 3-foliate ; leaflets acuminate, 
 
 subsessile, doubly serrate, tomentose, or white downy beneath. Flowers 
 axillary and terminal ; corolla smaller than the calyx. Fruit like the last, 
 except that it is black. Flowers in May and June ; fruit ri]iens in July. 
 Common where the last is found. Dr. (tray says it flourishes best in ground 
 that has l)ccn Inirned over. 
 
 3. R. Idaeus, L. (Garden Ixaspberry.) Stem 5 to 8 feet high, armed witli 
 strong bristles or recurved jtrickles. Leaf ])innate, with 3 to 5 leaflets; the 
 leaflets broad-ovate, acuminate, uneriually cut and toothed, hoary undernenth ; 
 lateral ones sessile, terminal one petioled. Flowers in corymbs or panicle.^ ; 
 petals shorter than tlie divisions of the calyx, white, terminal. Fruit red, Uke 
 No. 1. Dr. (iray tliinks it identical witli the .\merii-an sj)ecies R. strigosus. 
 Wood says Dr. Robl)ins found it in a wild state in Vermont, also in Connecticut. 
 
 R. Idnsus is tlie ])]ant from which all the varieties of the red raspberry have 
 .sprung, either by hybridizinj; or from seedlings. 
 
 The black cap varieties iiave arisen by similar means from the R. 
 occidentalis. 
 
 There are about 150 varieties under culli\atiou in North America. 
 Tr. Fl. — 9 
 
 RuBus (Raspberry). 
 
114 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geographij. — The geographical distribution of the Rubus is very broad. It 
 grows well in the temperate zone, between 30° and 50° latitude in North 
 America, and the belt extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. In 
 Europe it is found as far north as the 60th parallel, and extends to the northern 
 parts of Africa, and from Asia Minor west to the British islands, and east- 
 ward into India. It is said to be found in Japan, but it is supposed to have 
 been carried there by Europeans. 
 
 Etymology. — Rubus, the generic name of the raspberry, is derived from 
 the Celtic word rub, signifying red, Latin ruber. The specific name strigosus 
 
 is a Latin word, which means scraggy, 
 or meager, relating to the small size of 
 the plant. The specific name occidentah's 
 means western. The name Idceus, is 
 from Mount Ida, where it is believed this 
 species had its origin. Raspberry comes 
 from the Italian word raspo, rough, on 
 account of the roughness of the stem and 
 leaves ; it is also called raspis in Scotland 
 for the same reason. 
 
 The IdcEus is the cultivated plant in 
 Europe, and was brought to North 
 America by European colonists. 
 
 History. — There is no record to show 
 when the raspberry was first brought 
 under cultivation or when it was carried 
 into Europe, but its value as a food-plant 
 must have drawn attention to it at a very 
 early period of man's civilization. The 
 seed of the raspberry is said to have been 
 found in the hands of mummies, which 
 points to great antiquity in its use. 
 
 Use. — The raspberry is a favorite des- 
 sert fruit. It has a deliglitful perfume, 
 and a subacid taste agreeable to most 
 palates. 
 
 It ripens just at the end of the straw- 
 berry period, and thus prolongs the early 
 fruit season. It is used for jams, rasp- 
 berry vinegar or wine, for syrup to flavor 
 soda water and other drinks. It is largely 
 canned and dried. A wine made from it 
 is distilled into Raspberry Brandy. 
 
 Marts. — The ease with which it is cul- 
 tivated enables gardeners in the ^'icinit^- of our large cities to supply the 
 market. It is so perishable that it cannot be shipped to long distances, hence 
 the markets must be local. 
 
 4. K. villosus. Ait. (High Blackberry.) Stem from 3 to 8 feet high, curved, 
 from half an inch to an inch in diameter ; young branches, and villous pedun- 
 cles, grooved, and armed with strong curved prickles. Root creeping. Leaves 
 3-foliate, or pedately 5-foliate ; stipules subulate ; leaflets ovate or oblong- 
 lanceolate, unequally serrate, villous beneath, petioles and midrib aculeate. 
 Flowers in a raceme, abundant, white ; sepals linear at their extremities j 
 
 Rubus strigosus (Wild Red Raspberry). 
 
ROSACEiE. 
 
 115 
 
 petals longer tlian the sepjils, ohovate, spreading. Fruit ovoid-oblung or 
 cylindrical, from half an inch to an inch in length, and half an inch in diam- 
 eter, changing from green to red, and black when ripe. Flowers in May ; 
 fruits in July. 
 
 Var. frondosus, (iray. Leaflets iucisely toothed, smooth. Fhjwers more 
 corymboscd, with leafy bracts, and roundish petals. 
 
 Var. humifusus, (Jray. 8teni trailing, and smaller j^oduncles ; few-flowered. 
 
 5. R. fruticosus. (High Blackberry.) A plant common in the British Isles. 
 But little attention is ])aid to it, and it has not been brought under cultivation. 
 
 Varieties. — There are some 20 varieties now under cultivati»jn, differing 
 from each other as to the quality of the fruit and the hardiness of the plant. 
 
 The varieties of the blackberry grown in our gardens, and from which our 
 markets are su])]die(l, are seedlings from the K. villosus, or high blackberry, 
 found in our fields and fence- 
 rows all over the Xorthern and 
 Middle States. The Kittatinny 
 was found in the Kittatinny 
 Mountains in Warren County, 
 New Jersey, growing without 
 cultivation. The New Kochelle 
 blackberry was found hy Mr. 
 Lewis Secor by the roadside in 
 the town of New Kochelle, West- 
 chester County, New York, and 
 was called Secor's Mammoth. 
 Mr. Lawton, of New l^ochelle, 
 took great interest in it, and 
 propagated it in his nursery at 
 New Rochelle. The names Law- 
 ton and New Kochelle ])lackl)erry 
 are both due to this circumstance. 
 
 GeograpJii/ — The Kubus vil- 
 losus or high blackberry is an American plant, and grows freely all over the 
 Northern and Middle States, in fence-rows, pastures, and edges of woods and 
 old fields. 
 
 Eti/moloffi/. — The specific name villosus comes from the Latin word villus, 
 wool, and signifies wt)olly, a name apjdied to this plant because it is clothed 
 with weak, long hairs. The common name black-berri/ arises from the color of 
 the fruit when ripe. 
 
 History. — There is hut little to be said of tlie history of the blackberry. 
 The villosus, the parent of all the cultivated varieties, is an American plant, 
 and has been used as a food-plant since the settlement of the country, but has 
 only recently become an article of commerce. Of late years it has engaged tlie 
 attention of fruit growers to a great extent, and many fine varieties have been 
 produced by liyl)ridizing and from seedlings. 
 
 Use. — It is a favorite dessert fruit, eaten with sugar or milk without ct)ok- 
 ing; it is preserved in sugar and brandy, and is canned; it is also prepareii 
 as a jam. A syrup made from it is used as a remedy in chronic stomach and 
 bowel difficulties, because of tlie astringent ])ro])erties it contains. 
 
 ^farts. — On account of the perishalde character of this fruit the markets 
 must be local. 
 
 RcBUs VILLOSUS (High Blackberry). 
 
116 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 FRAGARIA, (Strawberry.) Tourn. Calyx concave, deeply cleft; 
 sepals or divisions 5 in number, with 5 alternate bractletsj petals 
 obcordate, white and large ; stamens numerous ; styles numerous ; 
 akenes naked, on the surface of a subgiobular, heart-shaped, or 
 irregular pulpy eatable receptacle. Perennial stemless herb. 
 
 1. F. Virginiana, Duchesne. (American Strawberry.) Without stem. 
 Leaves and flower-stalks pubescent ; leaves on long radical petioles, composed 
 of 3 dentate leaflets, lateral ones obhque, nearly sessile ; flower-stalks less hairy 
 
 than the petioles. Flowers in a 
 cyme; calyx erect. Flowers in 
 April ; fruits in May, June, and 
 July. 
 
 2. F. vesca, L. (English 
 Strawberry.) Calyx spreading 
 or reflexed. Akenes superficial, 
 not imbedded in pits in the re- 
 ceptacle. Otherwise as in F. 
 Virginiana. 
 
 By propagating from seeds 
 and by hybridizing, many varie- 
 ties have been produced. Ameri- 
 can nurserymen catalogue about 
 400. 
 
 Geography. — The geographi- 
 cal range of the strawberry is 
 very wide ; in fact, it extends 
 annind the globe. Captain Cook 
 speaks of the fine strawberries 
 he found in great profusion in 
 Kamchatka and Alaska, where 
 they are still found to grow in 
 abundance. 
 
 Etymology. — Fragaria, the 
 generic name Avas given to 
 this- plant by Tournefort, on account of its fragrance ; it is derived from the 
 Latin /ra9?'fl?2s, a pleasant odor. The specific name Virginiana is from the place 
 where it was found native ; and vesca, small, on account of the size of the fruit. 
 The name straicherry is said to have arisen from the circumstance that in 
 England straw was spread around the plants upon the ground for the fruit 
 to rest upon to keep it from the sand and mud. 
 
 History. — There is very little history to this fruit. No mention is made of 
 it until tlie days of Henry VI. of England, the last of the reigning sovereigns 
 of the house of Lancaster, 14.5.3, when a poem appeared which shows that 
 strawberries were known in London at that time. 
 
 It is also related that when Gloster was planning the murder of Hastings, 
 he requested the Bishop of Ely to send him strawberries, and Shakespeare 
 makes him say : — 
 
 " My lord of Ely, when I was last in Holborn, 
 I saw good strawberries in your garden there." 
 
 Fragaria vesca (English Strawberry). 
 
ROSACE.E. 
 
 117 
 
 The strawberry requires a generous soil of light loaiu to bring it to perfec- 
 tion ; and (luring the ripening season it needs dry, sunny days and warm 
 nights to perfect its aroma and taste. When j)ractical)le, th? fruit should be 
 taken from tlie garden immediately to the tat)l('. 
 
 Use. — The strawberry is a delicious fruit for dessert or for jjreserving. 
 The mode of serving is well expressed in the line : — 
 
 " A dish of ripe strawberries smothered in cream." 
 
 It is not oiilv noted for its delicate fragrance and delightful flavor, liut }ia.s 
 a higli rei)Utation for its healthfulness. It is related that the fatiier of botany, 
 Linna-us, w:is cured of a tit of gout by eating strawberries, wliich, if true, 
 would establisli its sanitary or curative projjerties. 
 
 Marts. — Markets for the strawberry must be local, on account of the 
 perishable character of tlie fruit. 
 
 PRUNTJS, L. (Plum, etc.) Ovary superior. Carpel 1. Style terminal. 
 Ovules 2, pendulous. Drupe l-seeded. Trees or shrubs. 
 
 1. P. domestica, L. (Damson I'luni.) Stem from 4 to 6 feet to the ]>oint where 
 the head begins to form, and from 4 to G inches in diameter; much-branched, 
 forming an open head about 15 feet 
 in diameter ; whole tree 10 to 20 feet 
 in height. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 
 acute or obtuse, varying very nnu-li 
 in shape, 1 to 3 inclies long, and tlu-ee 
 fourths of an inch wide ; petioles about 
 1 inch long. Flowers wliite, usually 
 solitary, appearing with the leaves. 
 Fruit very dark, varying to nearly 
 ■white, clothed with a glaucous bloom. 
 Stone smooth, more or less flattened. 
 Flowers in April and May. Fruit 
 ripens in August. 
 
 The number of varieties is very 
 great ; about 300 are catalogued by 
 the nurserymen and fruit-growers, 
 differing in shape, size, color, or taste 
 of the fruit. 
 
 Geor/raphi/. — Tlie jilum is widely 
 distributed; it is found in all parts 
 of the temperate zone .south of 60°, 
 throughout Euroj)e and western Asia. 
 It fl(mrishes best in tlie northern and 
 throughout the middle regions, and 
 is so well spread tliroughout Avestern 
 Asia a,s to make it dilhcult to fix 
 upon its native home. Tt was l>rouglit t( 
 colonists. 
 
 Etyinohxj 11 . — The generic name pniinis is froin tlie JjWt'm, pri/inis, a plum. 
 The specific name, dotiu stirn, given l)y T.inua'us, exjdains itself. — the hou.se- 
 plum, or cultivated ])lum. The word plutn is of obscwre signification ; no 
 meaning is known for it. 
 
 Prcncs DO.MESTICA (Daiii.son PliiinV 
 
 •th 
 
 -tern .Vmeriea bv Europeau 
 
118 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 History. — The plum is a native of northern Persia. It has been thought 
 by some botanists to be either indigenous in Europe or well naturalized. This, 
 however, is disputed by De Candolle, and he gives good reasons for his opinion ; 
 yet it has been found in the ruins of the Swiss lake-dwellings. 
 
 Preparation. — The prunes, so well known in our markets, are dried plums. 
 They are sold under the name of Turkish, French, and German prunes. Those 
 prepared in Turkey are'mostly dried in the sun ; but the German and French 
 prunes are kiln-dried, and the German fruit, especially, frequently has a smoky 
 taste. 
 
 The French prunes are prepared by first exposing them to the sun in thin 
 layers on frames made of wicker-work. Tliey are then placed in slightly 
 heated ovens, removed, turned, and put back. A slight heat is kept up, and 
 after tAventy-four hours they are again withdrawn and turned ; the oven is then 
 heated to 120° Fahrenheit, the fruit is again put in and left a day, after which 
 it is packed in boxes holding about fifty pounds each. The finest fruit is gath- 
 ered, dried as described above, and carefully packed, each one put in singly in 
 small boxes Aveighing from five to ten pounds each, and sent to market for 
 dessert purposes. Some sorts are used as remedies to regulate the bowels. 
 Large quantities of prunes of an excellent quality are now grown and prepared 
 for market in southern California. In Bosnia, Servia, Spain, Portugal, and 
 southern France, the industry of preparing ])runes is also largely carried on. 
 
 Use. — The plum, though not so delicate as the peach and apricot, is never- 
 theless a delicious and favorite dessert fruit, and highly esteemed for culinary 
 purposes. For pies, tarts, preserves, and canning it ranks high, and there is 
 no fruit dried that enters so largely into commerce. The French and Turkish 
 prunes are well known to every housekeeper in our cities and towns. 
 
 Because of its hardihood, the plum is one of the most valuable fruit-trees 
 for the farmer. It is not particular as to soil, and the crop is not likely to be 
 destroyed by spring frosts. 
 
 2. P. avium, W. (Ox Heart. English Cherry.) Trunk 6 to 8 feet to the 
 point where the head begins to form, and from 10 to 18 inches in diameter ; 
 bark smooth or cracked. Branches erect, forming a compact head ; entire 
 tree from 20 to 40 feet in height. Leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate, hairy be- 
 neath, and double-toothed, about 3 inches long. Flowers in umbels, appearing 
 with the foliage. Fruit globular, ovoid, or heart-shaped. Flowers appear in 
 May ; fruit ripens in June and July. Drupe smooth, no bloom. Stone smooth, 
 globular. 
 
 3. P. cerasus, L. (Morello, or common Bed or Sour Cherry.) Trunk 6 to 
 12 inches in diameter; head low and globular. Leaves serrate, acute. Fruit 
 globular, red, acid, esteemed for preserWng. 
 
 The cherry sports freely, and we have many varieties ; American nursery- 
 men catalogue about 500. 
 
 The French divide their varieties into three sections : Griottes, tender- 
 fleshed ; bigarreaux, hard-fleshed ; guignes, small-fruited cherry. 
 
 The Komans had eight varieties during the first century. 
 
 Geography. — The cherry grows well throughout the temperate zone 
 wherever the apple flourishes, and even further north than the apple. It has 
 spread over northern Africa, and the Dutch and Portuguese have taken it to 
 southeastern Africa. It was brought to America by European colonists, where 
 great attention has been given to its cultivation. The climate of England 
 suits the cherry, and Belgium and the British Isles produce the best cherries 
 
ROSACE.E. 
 
 119 
 
 in the world. Cherry-trees in blossom aro f,n-eiitly prized by the Japanese as 
 ornaments to tlieir gardens. , r • 
 
 Eti/molo(]y. — The specific name, avimi, is derived from the Latin wr.rd 
 avis a bird, and arose from the circumstance that birds are drnd of this fruit. 
 Chern/, tlie common name, is a corruption of the old Greek name cerasus, 
 a name a])i)lied to this fruit because it was found growing at ("erasus, a town 
 
 in Pontus. 
 
 ^/5^,„.^. _ 'Pliis delicious fruit is said to have l)een brought from Armenia 
 to Italv by Lucullus, a victc^rious general, about seventy years before the com- 
 mencement of the Christian 
 era, whence it spread west- 
 ward, and was no doubt car- 
 ried to England in the days 
 of Agricola. Its popularity 
 may be inferred from the 
 circumstance that it spread 
 over southern and middle 
 Europe in a very short time ; 
 for about the beginning of 
 the second century of the 
 Christian era it was to be 
 found in the grounds and gar- 
 dens of the wealtliy through- 
 out northern Italy, Spain, 
 France, southern Germany, 
 and England, — this too at a 
 period in the world's history 
 before agriculture or fruit- 
 growing liad attained any 
 scientific importance. 
 
 In the southern parts of 
 Europe and in northern 
 Africa the cherry was called 
 the " berry of the king." 
 
 For many years this fruit has l)een a favorite in Germany. Loudon, in his 
 account of trees, says that in Germany and Switzerland the local governments 
 encourage the inhabitants to plant trees, and in some neighborhoods tlie high- 
 way pa^sses through avenues of cherry-trees, to the fruit of which tlie trav- 
 eller is at liberty to help himself, provided that he takes no more than he can 
 eat on tlie spot. In Moravia the highway from Brunn to Olmutz, a distance 
 of sixty miles, passes through an avenue of cherry-trees. 
 
 The" ancient home of the cherry is believed by I)e CandoUc to be the 
 country south and cast of the Black Sea, extending from the Caspian to the 
 Propontis. He l)elieves also that the cherry was known t.) the Komans before 
 the days of Lucullus, and that he only introduced an improved variety, which 
 gave rise to the su])]H)sition that he had brought to Kome a new fruit. 
 
 ^sg. — The cherry varies in form from gloliular to heart-shaped, and in size 
 from half an inch iii diameter to three <iuarters. and from three (juarters of an 
 inch to an inch and a cpiarter in lengtli. It is the most delicious fruit of its 
 season. It is highly prized as a dessert. It excels as a fruit for pies, pud- 
 dings, and tarts, is a favorite preserve in sugar 
 canned and dried. 
 
 Prunus cerasus (Common Sour Cherry). 
 
 as 
 or brand\ 
 
 and 
 
 largely 
 
120 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 4. P. Armeniaca, Willd. (Apricot.) Calyx 5-cleft, regular, falling ; petals 
 spreading ; stamens 15 to 30. Fruit a drupe, tieshy, usually glaucous, covered 
 with bloom ; the pit or nucleus ovate, compressed, smooth ; kernel shape of 
 the shell. Small tree. Stem 4 to 5 feet to the point of ramification, and 3 to 
 5 inches in diameter. Branches numerous, spreading, forming an open head ; 
 whole tree 10 to 20 feet high, and about 15 in diameter througli the head. 
 Leaves ovate, acuminate, subcordate at the base, denticulate conduplicate in 
 the bud. Flowers sessile and solitary, white, appearing before the foliage ; 
 petioles with one or more glands each. Fruit yellow. It flowers in April and 
 fruits in July and August. 
 
 There are many varieties of this tree. Nurserymen in the United States 
 catalogue 120, based upon some form or quality of the fruit. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical zone of the apricot is tropical and subtrop- 
 ical, reaching as far north in 
 Europe as the 40th parallel, and 
 in America to the 38th. 
 
 It has become very widely 
 spread in Asia, Armenia, Persia, 
 China, and Japan. Its great 
 abundance and high quality in 
 Armenia led the early botanists 
 to suppose it indigenous there, 
 but it is quite as common both 
 in China and Japan, and in the 
 latter country the tree grows to 
 a larger size than elsewhere. 
 It grows well in the Southern 
 Prunus Armeniaca (Breda Aiuicot). United States, and especially in 
 
 California, w^here it is canned 
 in large quantities for the eastern market. 
 
 Ett/molu(/t/. — The specific name indicates that the Greeks and Romans 
 received it from Armenia, and therefore called it Armeniaca. Apricot seems 
 to be derived from the Latin words pnecox, early, and arbor, tree, early tree, 
 on account of the early ripening of the fruit. 
 
 History. — The apricot was carried into Europe about the beginning of the 
 first century of the Christian era. It is supposed to be a native of China 
 as well as of western Asia. It attains to great perfection in Persia ; and on 
 account of its delicate flavor the Persians call tliose grown in the vicinity of 
 Ivan, " the seed of the sun." The French naturalist, M. Regnier, thinks the 
 apricot is a native of Africa, and has spread by cultivation into Asia and 
 Europe. De Candolle, in his " Origin of Cultivated Plants," gives su1)stantial 
 reasons for believing that the apricot is a native of China, introduced thence 
 into western Asia, and finally into Europe, and by European colonists brought 
 to northeast America, wliere considerable attention has been given to its 
 cultivation. 
 
 Use. — The apricot is a beautiful smooth fruit, smaller than the peach, but 
 closely resembling it in form, and only a little less delicious in flavor. It 
 is used as a dessert, and is highly prized for preserving, either in sugar or 
 brandy. For puddings, pies, and dumplings, it is next to the peach in 
 favor. 
 
 Marts. — San Francisco is the great shipping mart in America for the 
 canned fruit. 
 
ROSACEA. 
 
 121 
 
 5. P. Persica, L. (IVach.) Calyx tulmlar, bpll-sl)ai)f'(i, 5 piirti^d. Petals 5. 
 Fruit either .smooth or toniento.se. Tlie .stone or jjil rugose or wrinkled. <»vate, 
 Hat, or compressed, acute, separating lengthwise when .struck witli a hammer, 
 inclosing a kernel nmch the shape of the horn}- shell, charged with Pru.ssic 
 acid. Small tree. Stem about four feet to the jjoint of raniirication, and 4 to 8 
 inches in diameter, forming a symmetrical head, from 12 to 20 feet high and 
 10 to 15 feet in diameter. Leaves lanceolate, serrate, shining above. Flowers 
 solitary, rose-colored, appearing in May. Fruit rijiens August, September, and 
 ( )ctober. 
 
 The peach, as it is propagated from the seed, sports, and many varieties 
 occur. Charles Downing catalogues over 400. About 80 of these are suf- 
 ficiently constant to be relied upon. Of this number a few are clings, so called 
 because the ])ulpy envelope adheres or clings to the stone ; when the flesh 
 comes off freely, or .separates from the stone, the peach is called freestone. 
 
 Var. laevis (Nectarine) is au important variety, having a number of sub- 
 varieties. It is a tree like the peach in form and size, flowers and leaves. I'he 
 fruit is glabrous or downy. 
 
 Darwin considered the 
 
 ])each a variety of almond, 
 and the nectarine a form of 
 peach, and held that the same 
 tree has borne in successive 
 years peaches and almonds, 
 and that peach trees have 
 produced tiectarities ; also that 
 , the seeds of the peach have 
 produced nectarine trees. 
 
 On the other hand De- 
 caisne and A. P. De Candolle 
 consider the peach and the 
 almond distinct species, each 
 possessing peculiar botanical 
 characteristics. 
 
 Again, the home of the 
 almond is western Asia; that of the peach China, where it was grown centu- 
 ries Itefore the Chinese became acquainted with the almond. 
 
 The peach is not at the present day found in a wild state, though it escaj)es 
 from cultivation, and propagates itself freely, especially in the southern parts 
 of the north temperate zone. 
 
 Genrjraphy. — The geographical zone of the jieach is the southern half of 
 the north temperate zone in Asia, Europe, and America. 
 
 In America, south of 40*^ north latitude and north of 32°, the ])each is an 
 important crop. In the United States, southern New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 and the states of Delaware and Maryland are largely engaged in its 
 cultivation. 
 
 Efi/tno/ogi/. — Persira, the specific name of the /learh tree, is due to the 
 circumstance that the (Greeks and Komans received it from Persia. The 
 common name, peach, is .sup])osed to be a corrujjtion of the low Latin 
 name pesln. 
 
 Flistory. — It was thought for some time that I'ersia was the home of the 
 peach, l)ut De Candolle. in his " Geographical Distribution of Plants." and 
 again in his recent " Origin of Cultivated Plants," shows conclusively that 
 
 Prunus Persica (Peach). 
 
122 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 China is the place of the peach's nativity, whence it has travelled westward 
 to Persia, and finally to Europe. 
 
 It was introduced into Italy from Persia by the Romans, in the reign of 
 Claudius Caesar. It was introduced into Great Britain during the sixteenth 
 century, and thence brought in 1 680 by the settlers of Virginia to America, 
 where it grows to great perfection. It does not ripen well in England without 
 the protection of glass, or at least of walls. It is a considerable crop in France, 
 especially in the south. In China and the United States it reaches the greatest 
 perfection. 
 
 The peaches of Pekin are said to be the finest in the world. But Delaware 
 and Maryland raise peaches whose lusciousness it is difficult to equal and 
 impossible to excel. 
 
 It is related that in Persia tlie delicious flavor of the peach was supposed 
 to be accompanied by poisonous qualities. Pliny, in his work on plants, says 
 it was supposed that the king of Persia sent the peach into Egypt to poison 
 the people with whom he was then at war. 
 
 It is also noteworthy that the peach-tree holds tlie same place in the ancient 
 writings of the Chinese that the tree of knowledge does in the sacred Scrip- 
 tures, and that the golden Hesperides apples of tlie heathens hold among the 
 western nations. There are traditions of a peach-tree whose fruit possessed the 
 power of producing immortality upon those who partook of it, but which bore 
 fruit only once in a thousand years. There is also preserved in the early books 
 of the Chinese, an account of a peach-tree which existed in the infancy of the 
 nation, growing on a mountain whose approaches were guarded by a hundred 
 demons. The fruit of this guarded tree, when taken, produced instant death. 
 
 Use. — The peach ranks with the pear as a dessert fruit, and if it were 
 not for its perishable character it would grade far above tlie pear. 
 
 The season of the peach is very short, lasting from August through Sep- 
 tember and October, to November. For pies, puddings, dumplings, and pre- 
 serves it has no equal. 
 
 The fermented juice of the peach is distilled, and produces a highly prized 
 brandy. 
 
 The commercial value of the peach crop, including the large quantities that 
 are dried and canned, is of great importance. 
 
 Marts. — New York is the point to which most of the fresh crop is 
 brought. Baltimore in Maryland, and Dover in Delaware, are the centers of 
 canned and dried peaches. Canning for winter use and export has become a 
 very important industry. 
 
 6. P. communis, L. (Amy gdalus communis.) (Almond.) Stem 10 to 12 
 feet high, branching into a symmetrical head, entire tree reaching the height of 
 2.5 feet. Leaves oblong-linear or lanceolate, tapering towards the base, serrate 
 and glabrous. Flowers developing before the leaves, Avhite or pinkish, appear- 
 ing in March and April. Drupe tomentose or stone furrowed, compressed. 
 
 Var. amara, De Candolle (Bitter Almond), is the variety producing the 
 bitter almonds of the market. Flowers larger, pink, tinged with rose ; nut 
 hard. A sub-variety has brittle shells. 
 
 7. P. nana, L. (Dwarf Almond.) Differs from the P. communis in being 
 a shrub 2 to 3 feet in height. Flowers solitary with a colored calyx. 
 
 Varieties. — As the almond is produced from seed it sports freely, and varie- 
 ties are numerous. There are about a dozen varieties under cultivation, differ- 
 ing in the size and quality of the fruit and the fruit envelopes. 
 
ROSACEiE. 123 
 
 Geography. — The geugraphicjil limit of tliis fruit is between 30° and 42° 
 north latitude. The tree grows well in the latter parallel, but does not fruit 
 freely north of 45° It fruits well in Virginia, and as far north as central 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Etymoloi/i/. — The (dd name, Atm/r/ddlus, is fr(jm the, (ireek a/xvaau), lacer- 
 ate, due to the gashes and fissures in the shell or husk. The specific name, 
 comnninis, J^atin, signifies "common," and nana means "dwarf." The varietv 
 name cunara is also from the Latin, and signifies " bitter." 
 
 History. — The home of the iilmond is Persia and western Asia. It is aLso 
 indigenous throughout the countries of the Levant, and was no doul^t carried 
 thence to northern Africa, southern Europe, and eastern Asia, and by European 
 colonists was brougli.t to the U'nited States. 
 
 Use. — The sweet almond is a favorite jiut, and is nmch esteemed as a 
 dessert. It is largely used in confectionery and sauces. The bitter almond 
 is used in cookery, for flavoring, and in perfumery. The nut constitutes an 
 important article of commerce. Turbid water from the river Nile is cleared 
 by rubbing bitter almonds on the inside of the vessels which hold it. 
 
 Oils. — Fixed or sweet oil of almonds of commerce is obtained In- pressure 
 from both sweet and bitter almonds. When bitter almonds are used, the 
 residuum or cake is subjected to fermentation, and the volatile oil or essential 
 oil of bitter almonds is obtained therefrom by distillation. This oil contains 
 Prussic or hydrocyanic acid, in its concentrated form a virulent poison. Prop- 
 erly diluted, essential oil of ahnoiids is a pleasant and wholesome substance for 
 flavoring custards, puddings, etc. 
 
 PYRUS, L. (Pear, Apple.) Calyx superior to ovary, pitcher-shaped, 
 5-cleft. Petals 5, roundish. Stauieiis many. Styles 5, frequently 
 united at the base. Fruit a fleshy pome, with 5-2 carpels, consolidated 
 with the fleshy calyx-tube. Trees, with mostly simple leaves and free 
 stipules. 
 
 1 P. malus, L. (Apple.) Stem .5 to 10 feet to the point where ramification 
 begins to form a diffusely branched head from 10 to 20 feet in diameter, and 
 20 to .30 feet high. Brnnchos slender. Leaves ovate, serrate, acute, crenate, 
 woolly on the under surface, glabrous and shining above. P'lowers in sessile 
 corymbs, roseate, a])])earing with the loaves. Fruit spherical. Carpels 2-seeded. 
 May. Fruiting from July to October. 
 
 The number of varieties of the n])ple is very great, and as it is ])ro]iagated 
 from the seed, it sports freely, and new varieties are constantlv arising, (^f late 
 years the number has been greatly increased. In 1870 the number grown in' 
 the United States was over 1.500, everyone of which claims .some desirable 
 quality, and amateurs are yearly adding to the va.st catalogue ; vet so fre- 
 (juently do .some of these varieties deteriorate or die out that only about 89 
 are regarded as constant. 
 
 Geography. — The apjde-tree flourishes in the ])arts of the north temperate 
 zone between the ])arallels of 3.5° and .50°. It does not fruit well soutli of that 
 limit unless in elevated localities. England, France. (Jermany, the Nether- 
 lands, Prussia, ancient Poland, the I'nited States, and .'Southern Australia 
 are the most im])()rtnnt a])ple-growing countries. The varieties which have 
 originated in America are numerous, and some of theni fur size and delicacy 
 of flavor excel any yet produced in Europe. 
 
124 
 
 DESCKIFTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymologtj. — The word pyrus comes from the Celtic word peren, signify- 
 ing pear. Mains, the specific name, is the old Latin name for apple. 
 
 The common name, apple, is said to come from two Sanscrit words mean- 
 ing water-fruit. Others derive it from abala, or ab, a ball, and ala, little, a 
 little ball-shaped fruit. The Latin word pomum favors the signification of a 
 watery fruit, inasmuch as it comes from po, drink. 
 
 History. — This fruit was known and extensively used by the Swiss lake- 
 dwellers. They preserved it by cutting it lengthwise and drying it in the sun. 
 
 The home of the apple is sup- 
 posed to be Persia and the north- 
 ern regions of Asia Minor. It 
 is found without cultivation in 
 northern India and middle China, 
 and throughout middle Europe. 
 
 It is held by some that all our 
 varieties are from the crab apple. 
 While apples are spoken of in 
 the Old Testament, it is not cer- 
 tain that the fruit referred to is 
 our apple. It was taken to Home 
 450 years before the Christian 
 era, but was confined to the gar- 
 dens and planted grounds of the 
 wealthy for many years. Pliny, 
 in his book on plants, written in 
 the first century, speaks of the 
 apple as a profitable crop on ac- 
 count of its scarcity in the vicinity 
 of Rome. 
 
 It seems that engrafting was 
 practiced at that time ; for tlie 
 same writer speaks of apples 
 that will honor the fruit-grafter 
 forever. 
 When this method of improving fruit was first used is not known. The 
 Romans had 22 varieties, luit no doubt some of these were natural. 
 
 At the time of Vergil, apples must have been common, and were no doubt 
 an important article of food for the peasants ; for the poet in the First Eclogue 
 makes Tityrus say to Meliboeus : — 
 
 " Stay with me to-night, for I have ripe apples, soft chestnuts, and plenty of 
 cheese." 
 The apple was brought to northeast America by European colonists, and 
 was tlie most important fruit grown in British North America. The attention 
 paid to the apple in the early days of the colonies is due, no doubt, to the 
 superior intelligence of many of the first settlers. Its distribution in western 
 Pennsylvania and Ohio Avas greatly aided by the efforts of an eccentric 
 man who a]ipeared in the settlements of western Pennsylvania early in the 
 present century and busied himself about cider-mills in collecting apple-seeds 
 from the pomace. Having placed the seeds in sacks, he loaded them upon 
 a horse and proceeded to the unoccupied lands in Pennsylvania and Ohio, 
 and wherever he found a clearing, he planted his seeds ; then felling trees 
 
 Pykos malus (Apple). 
 
ROSACEiE. 125 
 
 iirouud tlie plajitation to protect the young growtli, he went on to new fields, 
 and as years passed on he returned to exact jjayinent from those who had 
 settled on tlie lands. He was a benevolent, inoffensive man, distributing 
 religious books among the people with whom he put nji at night. His 
 name was Jonathan Chapman. He was born in Boston in 1775. Very little 
 was known about him. On account of his strange enijiluyincnt lie received 
 the name of Johnny Apple-seed. 
 
 In the door-yard of Delos Hotchkiss, at Cheshire, Conn., stands an apple- 
 tree which is supposed to be the oldest, largest, and most fruitful in New 
 England. It is the last survivor of the orchard which was set out by the first 
 settlers of that neighborhood, and popular belief fixes its age at 180 years. 
 The tree is sixty feet high, and the tips of its outermost branches are <»ne 
 hundred and four feet apart. Mr. Hotchkiss affirms that lie lias picked \27) 
 bushels of sound apples from it in a single year. 
 
 Use. — The apple must be regarded as foremost among tbo fruits of the 
 temperate zone. No other fruit is so agreeable to all palates, and so generally 
 used. There are so many ways in which it serves man, and they are so geuer 
 ally known, that it seems su])erHuous to attempt to name them. A moderately - 
 sized apple, of any variety, either sweet or sub-acid, is a very popular fruit for 
 dessert. For pies, puddings, dumplings, and sauces it should be sour <>r tart. 
 The farmers of Pennsylvania make ''apple butter" by boiling sliced apples to 
 a pulp in new cider. In the same manner apples are cooked in sweet wine in 
 France, and the preparation is called raisine. Apple juice, when fermented, is 
 cider, and forms a common table drink among farmers, as wine does in the 
 wine-making districts of France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. \'erjuice is the 
 fermented juice of the crab apple. Cider when exposed to the air soon be- 
 comes sour or hard, from the formation in it of lactic acid. 
 
 Apples are preserved by drying them in the sun. In late years large quan- 
 tities have been dried by steam heat. Apples form an important food, and 
 large (Quantities are exported to tropical and subtropical countries. 
 
 The wood of the apple-tree is close-grained, hard, and it takes a polish. It 
 is valuable for turners and cabinet-makers, and is largely used in tlie man- 
 ufacture of shoemakers' lasts. 
 
 2. P. communis, L. (Pear.) Stem from 20 to 40 feet in height, and from 
 8 inches to 20 in diameter, branching; the branching is upriglit, forming 
 a pyramidal head. Leaves ovate, lanceolate, acute, sometimes acuminate, 
 somewhat crenate, serrate, glabrous. Flowers in corymbs, white and fragrant, 
 appearing in May. Fruit pyriform, ripening from July to ()cto])er. Carjx'ls 
 2-seeded. 
 
 The number of varieties of this tree is very great. There is no single fruit 
 upon which more care and expense has been lavished than upon the pear. The 
 nurserymen in the United States catalogue about 3,000 varieties, each one of 
 which is represented to possess excellencies to recommend it to cultivators; 
 but the pear fanciers of France and Belgium publish lists of far greater num- 
 bers. It is related of a single nurseryman in Belgium that he had growing at 
 one time 80,000 seedlings for the purj)ose of developing new varieties. 
 
 The varieties have reference to the character of the fruit alone. 
 
 Genrp-aphij. — The geographical zone of the ])ear is from 35° to 55° north 
 latitude. It is native to China, Syria, Persia, central and northern Kurope. 
 and Great Britain. It was l»rought by colonists to northeast America. It 
 thrives wherever the apple Hourishes, l)Ut arrives at its maximum excellence 
 in size and flavor in Belgium and northern France. 
 
126 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 EtijTnology. — The specific name of this tree signifies ordinary or common, 
 from the Latin word communis. 
 
 The varieties are named usually to indicate some quality of the fruit, or in 
 honor of some person, or they take the name of the places whence they 
 originate. 
 
 History. — The pear is a native of Europe. It is spoken of by Homer, w^ho 
 says it was one of the trees in the garden of Laertes, the father of Ulysses. 
 
 Pliny also mentions several varieties growing about Rome. There is good 
 authority for believing that the Romans cultivated about thirty -six varieties ; 
 and it is believed that they took their choice varieties to England after the 
 middle of the first century, during the administration of Agricola. It could not 
 have been largely cultivated, and was no doubt confined to the gardens of the 
 wealthy for a long time ; for, when spoken of, reference is made to its delicacy. 
 A record is preserved that in the days of Henry VHI. twopence was awarded 
 an old woman for presenting pears to the king. During the sixteenth cen- 
 tury much attention was paid to its cultivation. Near the end of the sixteentli 
 century Gerard published his herbal, in which he says that the number and 
 sorts of pears and apples would require a book to hold their description. 
 
 The best pears have originated in France and Belgium, so that nurserymen 
 have come to regard Belgium as the Eden of this fruit. 
 
 There are some remarkable pear-trees whose size and age may be mentioned 
 in this connection. Several on the continent of Europe are known to be 400 
 years old, but the most Avonderful pear-tree is one in Hertfordshire, England, 
 from which were made in one year fifteen hogsheads of perry. In 1805 it 
 covered more than half an acre of laud ; its branches had bent to the ground, 
 taken root, and thrown up shoots. By favoring this habit, a grove of trees 
 all connected has been produced. A very remarkable pear-tree is now growing 
 in Indiana, about ten miles north of Vincennes. It was planted by Mrs. Ockle- 
 tree about the year 1805. The circumference of this tree a foot above the 
 ground is twelve feet, or about four feet in diameter. In 1834 it bore 184 
 bushels of pears, and in 1840 the yield was 140 bushels. The fruit is of large 
 size, of good flavor, and ripens in early autumn. It bore its first crop in 1820, 
 and has borne a crop every year since. 
 
 The old Stuyvesant pear-tree, wdiich was planted by Peter Stu3^vesant, one 
 of the Dutch governors of the New Netherlands, on his farm in the city ol 
 NeAv York about the year 1645, was blown down in 1867, making it about 
 two hundred and twenty years old. It stood on the edge of the sidewalk in 
 Third Avenue on the corner of Thirteentli Street. 
 
 When the pear was first used for fruit or brought under cultivation is not 
 known ; it has been stated that there is evidence that it was in use in the days 
 of the lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and it is represented in the pictures of 
 Pompeii. 
 
 Use. — The apple is without doubt the most important fruit of the tem- 
 perate zone, on account of the great variety of forms in Avhich it may be pre- 
 pared as an article of food, and the ease with w^hich it may be preserved ; bul 
 for delicacy of flavor, the pear takes the precedence. It is more highly valued 
 as a dessert than any other fruit, and is found upon the tables of the wealthy 
 throughout its season. The favorite mode of use is without cooking or any 
 other preparation. 
 
 It moreover constitutes one of the most delicate preserves, either as a candied 
 or brandied fruit. It cooks well as a preserve or a baked food ; but on account 
 of its lack of a pungent acid it is not suitable for pies, puddings, or sauces. 
 
ROSACEiE. 
 
 127 
 
 The juice of tlie pear when fermented h 
 beverage, as wine is used. 
 
 ■all(*«l perry, and is used as a table 
 
 3. P. Cydonia, L. (Quince.) JSteni l)rauchin^ very near the gruuud, from 
 3 to 6 inclies in diameter ; branches very crooked and irreguhir, sparinglv armed 
 with spines. Leaves obU)ng, ovate, obtuse at tlie base, and acute at the apex ; 
 entire, snux^th above, wot)lly beneath. Flowers solitary, large, on short pedi- 
 cels, at the ends of the l)ranchlet.s ; calyx lobes expanding into small t(jrnen- 
 tose leaves. Fruit globular or pear-sliaped, golden-yellow when ripe ; clothed 
 with a soft down in an unripe state. Seeds numerous. Flowers appear in Mav. 
 Fruit ripens in ( )ctober. 
 
 Like other fruits grown from the seed, the quince sports, and we have 
 varieties. The nurserymen in the United States catalogue about liu varieties, 
 each of which has some quality to recommend it to growers. 
 
 Geography. — The 
 geographical zone of 
 the quince is between 
 35° and 60° north lati- 
 tude, extending from 
 northern Persia both 
 east and west. It 
 was brought to north- 
 east America by Eu- 
 ropean colonists. It 
 reaches great perfec- 
 tion in rortugal. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — The 
 name Cydonia is de- 
 rived from Ctjchn, in 
 the island of Crete. 
 The common name is 
 supposed to be a cor- 
 ruption of one of 
 the various names by 
 which it is known, 
 most likely from the 
 Middle English name 
 coine. 
 
 History. — The quince was known to the ancient (ireeks and Romans, and 
 was highly esteemed by them. It is a native of nortliern Persia, and was found 
 in the island of Crete. It has spread westward, through middle and nortiu-rn 
 Europe. 
 
 Use. — The quince is a well-known fruit of the apple family. It is not 
 edible in a raw state, but is valued as a Havorer of other fruits, especially of 
 apples. It is highly esteemed for preserving, and for marmalades and jellies. 
 It is also preserved l)y drying. In England it is used f(.r wine-making. The 
 seedlings are largely employed l>y nurserymen for grafting i»cars ujion. The 
 seeds yield large amounts of mucilage used in preparations for hair-dressing, 
 and as a lotion for sore eyes. 
 
 4. P. Japonica (Pyrus Japonica, or Japan Quince) is a native of Japaji. 
 The fruit is not edible; but the Howers are very showy, and the tree is u 
 favorite shrub for ornamental pur})oses and for hedging. 
 
 Pyrus Cydonia (Quince). 
 
128 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order XXIII. SAXIFRAGACE-ffi. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular, occasionally irregular, variously arranged. 
 Sepals 4-5, more or less cohering, adherent to ovary. Petals 4-5, 
 inserted on the rim of the calyx. Stamens equal to the number of 
 petals alternating with them, or 2 to 10 times as many. Ovary usually 
 more or less inferior. Fruit mostly a 2-celled capsule or berry ; seeds 
 
 small. Leaves alternate or 
 opposite, sometimes whorled. 
 Herbs or shrubs. Number of 
 genera, 73 ; of species, 540. 
 
 RIBES, L. (Cm-rant. Goose- 
 berry.) Calyx tube adherent 
 to the ovary, 5-parted. Petals 
 5. Stamens 5, alternating 
 with the petals. Ovary 1- 
 celled, with 2 opposite parietal 
 placentae. Styles 2 in num- 
 ber. Fruit a succulent berry 
 crowned by a persistent calyx. 
 A shrub. 
 
 1. R. rubrum, L. (Common 
 Red Currant.) Stems numerous, 
 slender, sparingly branched, 2 to 
 4 feet high. Leaves obtusely 
 3-5-lobed, smooth aboA-e, pubes- 
 cent beneath, 2 to 3 inches long, 
 about as wide as long ; unequally 
 toothed, incised ; petioles as long 
 as the leaves. Flowers in pen- 
 dent racemes, not axillary ; bracts 
 ovate ; petals small, greenish- 
 yellow. Berries globular, from 
 two to three tenths of an inch in 
 diameter, red when ripe. Flowers 
 in April ; fruit ripens in June 
 and July. 
 
 The currant sports freely, and 
 many varieties are under cultiva- 
 tion. About 70 varieties are 
 catalogued by American nursery- 
 men, differing from the species in size and quality of the fruit. 
 
 Among tlie favorite varieties are: Cherry, Versailles, Red Dutch, Red 
 (irape, Wbite Dutch. One or all of these may be found in every well-fur- 
 nished garden. 
 
 2. R. floridum, Heretier. (Black Currant.) Like R. rubrum as to habit of 
 the stem. Leaf blunt or subcordate at base, sharply 3-.5-lobed, sprinkled 
 with resinous dots, and doubly serrate. Flowers abundant and showy, white. 
 Fruit ovoid, and black when ripe. Sometimes cultivated for the flowers. 
 
 RiBEs RUBRUM (Commoii Red Currant). 
 
SAXIFRAGACE^:. 129 
 
 3. R. nigrum, L. (Black Currant.) Stem as in K. ruhrum, but higher. 
 Leaves dotted witli resinou.s sputs, 3-5-h)bcd. Flowers whitish-green. Stamens 
 sometimes more than 5; for every additional stamen over .">, there is one less 
 petal. IStignui hitid. Fruit globose, black. Flowers in Mav ; fruits in June 
 and July. Introduced from Europe. 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the currant is from Lapland to southern Europe, 
 extending (juite across the continent of the Old World and the northern parts 
 of the United States and southern and middle Canada. It delights in cool, 
 damp grounds. 
 
 Ett/inoloyi/. — The word ribes is supposed to be the Arabian name for the 
 plant. l)e Candolle, however, believes it to come from the Danish wcjrd ribs, 
 by wliich the plant is known. The sjjecific names ruhrum and nigrum, red 
 and black, from the Latin, are due to the color of the fruit of these species. 
 The wild black currant of North America, K. Horidum, was thus named on 
 account of the showy flowers of that species. The common name, currant, is 
 supposed to be a corruption of the word Corinth, a name aj)plied to the small 
 seedless grapes of southern (ireece, which are dried and taken to Corinth for 
 export under the name of currants. (See Grape.) 
 
 History. — When or where the currant of our gardens was first cultivated is 
 not known, but its usefulness and popularity point to its early cultivation, so 
 that we may date its origin at a very early period in the history of agriculture, 
 as we are justified in the inference that as soon as man began to reside in 
 fixed habitations he commenced to gather such shrubs and trees around his 
 dwellings as he found producing edible fruit. 
 
 The Dutch have been very successful in producing from seedlings varieties 
 that are now uniler cultivation both in Europe and America. The currant is 
 found in a wild state in north and middle Europe from eastern Siberia to 
 Great Britain, and in North America ([uite across the continent, and north 
 to the Mackenzie Kiver. In northeastern Russia and Silieria the currant is 
 employed for wine-making. 
 
 Usp- — The currant is used sparingly for a dessert fruit, but largely for 
 jellies, and to some extent for wine-making. It is preserved in sugar, and 
 canned. It is used in a green state for tarts. The dried currant of commerce 
 is a small grape. 
 
 •No other small fruit is more generally cultivated. It is not only grown in 
 the gardens of the rich, but is also to be found in the planted grounds of the 
 most humble cottager. 
 
 Marts. — The markets, on account of the perishable character of the fruit, 
 are local, except for the dried and preserved fruit. 
 
 4 R. Grossularia, L. (Gooseberry.) Stem 2 to 3 feet high, numerous, slen- 
 der, 2 or 3 prickles under each bud. Leaves 3-5-lobed. villous. P'lowers 
 greenish ; pedicels 1-2-flowered ; calyx bell- or pear-shaped ; segments reHexed, 
 shorter than the tube; petals rounded at the apex, beanled in the throat; style 
 beset with long down. Fruit usually dark-red when ripe, globular or ellipsoid, 
 and in the cultivated varieties from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. 
 Flowers in early summer, fruits in August. Indigenous in Europe. Its varie- 
 ties are the cultivated gooseberry.- 
 
 There are about 100 varieties under cultivation in the United States. One 
 of the most popular, though by no means the largest, is "Smith's improved." 
 The American varieties are inferior to those of the British Isles. 
 
 .•>. R. cynosbate, L. (Wild (iooseberry of Canada.) This species grows with- 
 out cultivation in the northern United States and Canada. The stem is spar- 
 PR Fl.— 10 
 
130 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 
 
 iugly beset with sharp prickles, in pairs, just below the leaf. Leaves cordate, 
 lobed, cut-toothed, and pubescent ; fruit armed with prickles. Flowers iu 
 May ; fruits iu August. 'I'his has not been improved by cultivation, though 
 for many years it has been an occupant of our gardens in the Northern States 
 and Canada. 
 
 6. R. oxyacanthoides, L. (R. hirtellum, Mx.) (American Gooseberry.) Stem 
 as in the last; rarely prickly; spines, when present, short and solitary. 
 Leaves rounded, cordate, 3-5-lobed, cleft half-way to the middle ; toothed, 
 pubescent underneath. Elov/ers drooping, green, on short 1-2-flowered 
 
 pedicels; calyx tube smooth, bell- 
 shaped ; segments much longer 
 than the petals ; stamens protrud- 
 ing ; style hairy, 2-cleft. Berry 
 purple and smooth, small. This 
 species is cultivated in gardens, 
 but does not improve by cultiva- 
 _ tion. Flowers in May; ripens in 
 
 ■-^^'v^X^^l^i^h^^^f^^r^^l^^ August. Northern United States 
 c4A'*'%'^SeL..-,^»i?I^i^--'^^A^^3^^^ and Canada, and w^est and north. 
 
 7. R. rotundifolium, Mx. Stems 
 3 to 4 feet high, numerous, slender ; 
 bark whitish, frequently Avithout 
 spines, subaxillary one solitary. 
 Leaves roundish, smooth, crenate- 
 dentate, slashed, with 3-5 lobes, 
 truncate at base, shining above ; 
 petioles ciliate, 2 inches long. 
 Flowers yellowish-white ; calyx cy- 
 lindrical, smooth, segments linear, 
 reflexed ; petals spatulate ; stamens 
 protruding ; style smooth. Fruit 
 smooth, purple, very pleasant to 
 the taste. Flowers in May ; fruit 
 ripens in August. Northern United 
 States and Canada to North Caro- 
 lina. Edges of open woods. 
 
 The last three are frequently 
 found in gardens, but they have 
 not been improved either in quality 
 or size. 
 
 RiBES Grossiilaria (Gooseberry). 
 
 Geography. — The varieties of the gooseberry under cultivation are the 
 offspring of plants found in a natural or wild state in England, France, and 
 Germany. 
 
 It also has its representatives in the Alps, the Himalaya mountams, and 
 throughout the northern United States and Canada. 
 
 It is indigenous in northeastern Russia and Siberia, and along the Valdai 
 hills, and the cold bogs of the lowlands of central Russia. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific names are all Latin words. Grossularia signi- 
 fies " thick," referring to the size of the fruit. Hirtellum has reference to the 
 roughness of the plant. Rotundifolium means " round-leaved." Cynoshate signi- 
 fies " briery," referring to the spines on the stem. Gooseberr y ,lhe common name 
 
COMBRETACEiE. 131 
 
 is said to have arisen from the fact that a sauce made of gooseberries was 
 eateu with roast goose. Another derivation is from (/raise, a lierry (old French), 
 corrupted into gooseberry. 
 
 History. — The gooseberry, like the currant, lias no history which points to 
 its first introduction into the garden. The fruit arrives at its greatest perfection 
 as to (juality in the Scottish highlands ; but as to size, the operatives in the fac- 
 tories of Lancashire, in England, raise in their little gardens the largest goose- 
 berries known. Specimens have been exhibited measuring 2 inches in diameter. 
 The large varieties do not arrive at perfection in the United States. The 
 climate of England, and the damp, cool atmosphere, seem exactlv suited to 
 their full devek)pment, while the hot suns of the northern United States seem 
 to induce a mould that prevents perfection in the fruit while the plant nour- 
 ishes. The great berries grown in England do not possess the high Havor of 
 the smaller berry grown in Scotland. 
 
 Use. — The gooseberry is well known, and almost as common as the currant 
 in our gardens. 
 
 It is used in a green state for pies, puddings, and tarts. When quite ripe, 
 the fruit is used as a table dessert. It is also canned, preserved in sugar, and, 
 when nearly ripe, bottled in water. It is set in a vessel of cold water, brought 
 to a boiling heat, then corked and kept in a cool cellar, with the neck of the 
 bottle down. In this way it will keep for an indefinite period. It is also a 
 favorite fruit for making jam. 
 
 Marts. — The markets, like those of the currant, are local. 
 
 Order XXIV. COMBRETACE.^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, or occasionally imperfect by arrest, in axillary or 
 terminal spikes, racemes, or heads ; a bract to each tiower, al.so '2 
 lateral opposite bractlets. Calyx superior, 4-5-lobed, valvate in the 
 bud. Corolla sometimes absent; when present, the petals equal in 
 number the parts of the calyx. Stamens are inserted alternately with 
 the petals on the calyx, and are either equal in number to the parts 
 of the corolla, or double. Ovary inferior, with 2-5 pendulous ovules, 
 1-celled. Fruit a drupe, or berry ; seed solitary, frequently winged ; 
 testa thin, membranous. Leaves alternate or opposite, simple, penni- 
 nerved, entire or toothed, leathery. Trees or shrubs, sometimes 
 climbing. Number of genera, 7. 
 
 TERMINALIA, L. Flowers polygamous. Calyx tube cylindrical, 
 adherent to the ovary, contracted above ; limb bell-shaped, A-'y- 
 toothed, deciduous; corolla wanting. Stamens 10, in.serted on the 
 calyx ; filaments awl-shaped ; anthers 2-valved, egg-shaped or globu- 
 lar, opening lengthwise. Ovary inferior, 1-valved ; ovules 2-;i. Style 
 awl-shaped ; stignui sharp. Large trees. 
 
 1. T. chebula, Ketz. (Myrobalans.) Trunk 40 to 70 feet in height, regu- 
 larly branched, in verticils, forming a symmetrical head. Leaves ovate, on 
 short petioles, alternate, entire or slightly toothed, collected at the ends of 
 the branchlets, spotted. Flowers in spikes or racemes. Fruit a drupe, about 
 the size of a i)ruMe. 
 
132 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Species. — There are about 80 species of Terminalia ; those besides the 
 T. chebula whose products enter iuto commerce are — 
 
 2. T. bellerica, Koxb. 
 
 3. T. citrina, Roxb. 
 
 4. T. catappa, L. 
 
 5. T. angustifolia, Wight. 
 
 Geography. — The homes of all the species which yield the myrobalans 
 of commerce are in tropical India, along the southern fringes of the Ghaut 
 mountains, and in Burmah, 
 
 Ktymoloyij. — Terminalia, the generic name, is from the circumstance that 
 
 the leaves are usually at the ends of the branches, and is derived from the 
 
 Latin terminalis, belonging to the end. The 
 
 specific, chebula, is Arabic, but the signification 
 
 is not known. 
 
 Myrobalans is the old Latin name for the 
 fruit, through the Greek fxvpou, sweet juice, and 
 &a\auos, a drupe-like fruit. 
 
 History. — The products of terminalia were 
 
 unknown to the early botanists. Their medical 
 
 qualities were revealed in the writings of Ara- 
 
 Terminalia chebula bian naturalists, but especially by those of Prince 
 
 (Myrobalans). Mesues, a learned physician who lived about 
 
 the middle of the twelfth century. The fruits 
 
 were first introduced into Europe by the way of Arabia and the Red Sea. 
 
 They are brought to market in a preserved state, and the bark and pits are 
 
 shipped, either entire or in a pulverized state, for tanning and dyeing. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties are purgative, tonic, and astringent. In 
 India and China it is highly prized, and supposed to possess curative proper- 
 ties for every ill. The wood is hard takes a fine polish, and is used for cabinet 
 work. 
 
 The fruit, bark, and leaves are all charged with tannin. They also yield a 
 dye which, with alum, produces a beautiful yellow, and with iron, a fine black. 
 The leaves and bark of the T. catappa furnish a pigment from which the cele- 
 brated India ink is made. 
 
 T. angustifolia is charged with a fragrant juice of a creamy consistency. 
 This, when dried, is used in the temples for incense, and for tanning and 
 dyeing. 
 
 The tree itself is sacred, and has a mythological origin and history. 
 
 Order XXV. MYRTACE^. (Suborder Myrte^.) 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular, axillary, solitary, or in spikes, cymes, 
 corymbs, or panicles. Calyx superior, limb 4-6-parted, persistent, or 
 falling, valvate in the bud, occasionally entire, falling away Avdth the 
 expansion of the flower. Petals inserted in the throat of calyx. 
 Stamens inserted on the cal\Tc throat, mostly numerous, frequently 
 double or treble the parts of corolla, or indefinite ; filaments thread- 
 like, free or in bundles. Ovary with 2 or more cells ; seeds numerous. 
 Leaves opposite, rarely whorled, entire, exstipulate. Berry or capsule 
 
MYTirACKTE. 
 
 133 
 
 2- or more- celled, 1- to niuny-seeded. Small trees and shrubs ; seldom 
 herbs. No. of genera, 70. 
 
 MYRTUS, I'ourn. (Myrtle.) Calyx 4-6-parted, tube attached to 
 the ovary. Tetals 4-G, inserted together with the many stamens in 
 the throat of the calyx ; sometimes absent. Filaments long, free, or 
 combined in groups. Anthers opening lengthwise, dehiscence in- 
 wards. Style solitary; seeds attached to a central column. 
 
 1. M. communis, L. (I'ommon Myrtle.) Stem 6 to 8 feet high, branched. 
 Leaves opposite, with puuetured spots, ovate, lanceolate, variable in breadth, 
 
 Myrtus communis (Common Myrtle). 
 
 evergreen. Flowers axillary, solitary, white. Fruit a berry. 2-.'3-ceI]ed. 
 Evergreen shrub. 
 
 Varieties. — There are many species, and of the conuuuuis tliere are 5 varie- 
 ties known to the Horists. 
 
 Var. Romana, broad-leaved. Leaves leathery. 
 
 Var. Tarentina. Leaves like those of the box. 
 
 Var. Boeotica. Leaves like those of the t)range. 
 
 Var. Belgica. Broad-leaved, Dutch. 
 
 Var. mucronata. Leaves like those of the rosemary. 
 
 There are other varieties of this species, bnt these .5 are the most 
 important. 
 
 Geof/raph 1/ . — The geographical home of the myrtle is tropical and sub- 
 tropical, but it grows well in regions of liglit frost, gradually beconn'ng ac- 
 climated. By some it is sup])osed to be native in southeastern Italy, and it 
 is growing now in all tlie countries around the Mediterraiu'an sea. 
 
 Etymoloijfi. — Mip-tus, the Latin name, is tlirougli the Greek nvpros. a 
 myrtle-tree, derived from the Greek fivpov, perfume, due to the pleasant odor 
 discharged from the bruised leaves. Cummunis is the Latin for common, or 
 
134 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 usual. Mj/rtle, the popular name, is Dutch, and is a corruption of myrtus, the 
 generic name. In America the periwinkle, which belongs to a different order 
 of plants, is popularly called myrtle. 
 
 History. — The home of the myrtle is western Asia, Asia Minor, and other 
 countries of the Levant. It has been known from the earliest historic periods, 
 and is said to have been growing upon the site of the city of Kome when it 
 was founded ; it was common in Egypt before the beginning of the present 
 century. 
 
 Pickering makes its home near the Persian Gulf, whence it has been carried 
 to Egypt and other countries of the Mediterranean. It is spoken of by the 
 earliest historians. Anecdotes are rife illustrating its use and value, but we 
 have not room for them. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties of the myrtle are mostly stimulant and 
 astringent. 
 
 It was formerly a favorite ilavorer of wine and food ; the flavoring substance 
 resides in the young twigs, the leaves, and the berries. The leaves are said 
 to make a very tolerable tea. It was held in great esteem by the ancient 
 Greeks ; and a place Avas set apart in all their markets for its sale. It was 
 used by both the Greeks and Romans for wreaths to decorate victors in the 
 Olympian and other games. The Jews held it in great veneration as an em- 
 blem of peace, and among them it constituted a part of the bride's decoration. 
 It is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures. Tlie Mahometans hold that it is 
 one of the pure things that Adam carried with liim out of Paradise. It was 
 an emblem of authority as well as of honor, and worn by the magistrates of 
 Athens when in the exercise of their duties. 
 
 The fruit and leaves are both used for tanning goat-skins. 
 
 The plant is a beautiful object, a favorite in planted grounds, and on that 
 account has an important commercial value. 
 
 EUGENIA, L. Calyx 4-lobed, rarely 5. Petals 4 or 5, free or united. 
 Stamens numerous, inserted in the throat of the calyx, and on the 
 receptacle, in several rows ; filaments free, threadlike ; anthers 2- 
 celled. Ovary 2-3- or more- celled, ova numerous. Style simple ; 
 stigma terminal. Berry crowned with the persistent limb of the 
 calyx. Leaves opposite, entke, dotted with pellucid spots, Avithout 
 stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, in solitary cymes, or panicles, 
 2-bracted, white, or purple. Fruit black, red, or purple. Trees. 
 
 L E. caryophyllata, Thunb. (Cloves.) Trunk 20 to 40 feet high, branching 
 regularly into a hemispherical or conical head of great beauty. Bark yellowisli- 
 gray. Leaves opposite, numerous, evergreen, oval, acute at each end, entire, 
 smooth, thick, dotted with pellucid spots, dark-green and shining above, paler 
 beneath, midrib and lateral veins prominent, petioles short, Idade 3 to 5 inches 
 long. Flowers axillary or terminal, in loose, small cymes ; bracts small and 
 falling off ; calyx half an inch long, fleshy, round below, upper part divided 
 into 4 triangular, spreading teeth. Petals 4, tightly imbricated in the bud, 
 forming a smooth, spherical head, fringed by the teeth of the calyx, falling 
 off early. Stamens many, inserted on a raised disk ; filaments as long as the 
 petals, spreading ; anthers small, roundish, opening lengthwise. Ovary in- 
 closed in the calyx, small, 2-celled ; ovules many ; style simple, shorter 
 than the stamens, slender, tapering. Fruit in shape like an olive, but not so 
 
MYRTACE^. 135 
 
 lar^p; soed solitary; all the ovules but one l)ecoine abortive ; outer covering; 
 membranous. 
 
 Ge of/raph I/. — 'Vho /.one of the clove tree is narrow. Its home is thp Mo- 
 lucca islands. It has been planted in Brazil, the West Indies, and extended 
 to distant islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; but out of the latitude 
 of the Moluccas, its spicy character is very inferior. 
 
 Eti/inolo(ji/. — Euyenia, the generic name, is for Prince Eugene <»f Savoy, a 
 patron of Botany. CarijophyUata, from the Greek Kapvov, a nut, <pv\\ov, a leaf, 
 due to the appearance of the flower-bud, a nut in a leaf, or among leaves. 
 Clove, from the Spanish clavo, a nail, on account of the fancied resemblance 
 to a nail. 
 
 Histon/. — The clove has been in use among the we.steru nations of the Old 
 World for more than two thousand years, and was taken to Europe overland by 
 the Persians and Arabs ; but its native country was not revealed until after 
 1.511. when the Portuguese came into pos.ses- 
 siou of the Molucca Islands. As it is not known 
 in a wild state, the exact locality of its nativity 
 is not clearly determined. 
 
 The enterprise and boldness that the dis- 
 covery of America gave to navigators and , \=3i/ n ^ir /-=> — -fe^ 
 merchants led them to the Indian Ocean, and "^^^^J ' ii:^^^ ' ^^^ 
 
 discovery of the islands of the coast of Asia 
 thus opened the great storehouse of the spices 
 of India to the commerce of the world, and the 
 homes of the clove, cinnamon, allspice, and 
 pepper became known to the wondering nations. 
 
 In the 17th century the Dutch came into the 
 possession of the Spice Islands and established 
 a monopoly of the spice trade. They raised Eugenia caryophtllata 
 
 prices to exorbitant figures, and confined the (Clove), 
 
 cultivation of the clove to the Island of Am- 
 
 boyna. During the French war in 1810 the English for a short time held 
 po.ssession of these islands. They transplanted the trees to other islands, and 
 broke the monopoly. 
 
 Mode of Harvesting. — Just before the flower-buds develop they are picked 
 or shaken off and dried over a fire or in the sun. then packed in bags made of 
 the leaf of the cocoa-nut, and thus sent to market. A tree yields about five 
 pounds for a crop, and bears two crops in a year. 
 
 Use. — The tree is used for ornamental purposes in subtropical countries. 
 The wood of the clove-tree is hard, takes a fine ])oHsh, and is used by the 
 cabinet-maker in fine and ornamental articles of furniture. The clove, in 
 medicine, is a stimulant, aromatic, and irritant, and largely employed to cover 
 up the taste of disagreeable drugs. The odor resides in the essential oil, of 
 which the clove yields a very large percentage. Its principal use is as a spice 
 for flavoring cake, sauces, and confectionery. The oil and tincture are both 
 used in the manufacture of cordials and bitters. 
 
 2. E. pimenta, DC. (Allspice.) Trunk 2.') t(. .30 feet high, much branched; 
 branches long and horizontal, forming a hemispherical head, in form and size 
 like an apple-tree. Bark light-gray. Leaves elli])tical, lanceolate, opposite, 
 evergreen, obtusely pointed, conspicuously veined, deep-green, shining above. 
 Flowers small, inconspicuous, in terminal, 3-forked panicles. Fruit a globular 
 
186 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 berry, crowned with the persistent calyx, smooth, black or purple, and shining 
 wlien ripe. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical zone of the allspice is tropical and sub- 
 tropical, and its distribution is very limited. Jamaica supplies the markets of 
 the world. 
 
 Etymology. — Pimenta, the specific name, is said to be derived from the Por- 
 tuguese pimenta, which signifies " a color," from the Latin pigmentum. This 
 name is probably derived from tlie fact that a decoction of the fruit, bark, or 
 leaves, treated with sulphate of iron, produces an inky black, and the bark 
 and leaves are highly charged with tannin. Allspice, the popular name, is 
 said to be due to the circumstance that the taste of this spice was thought 
 to resemble that of cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon combined, hence was said 
 to possess the properties of all tlie spices. 
 
 History. — When this spice first became known 
 to civilized man is not recorded, but it was no 
 doubt taken to Europe soon after the discovery of 
 tlie West Indies. 
 
 Its home is the island of Jamaica, and it is 
 abundant in the mountains on tlie northern side of 
 the island. It also grows in Yucatan, but the fruit 
 is not exported from any locality but Jamaica. 
 Attempts have been made to introduce it to culti- 
 vation in Cuba and in Brazil, but all efforts have 
 failed to improve the quality of the fruit or the 
 size of the tree. 
 
 The leaves and bark, as well as the fruit, are 
 aromatic. 
 
 Culfiration. — The tree grows best without cul- 
 tivation, or, at least, is not improved thereby. As 
 the groves are exhausted, new ones are obtained 
 by removing all trees from a suitable spot in the 
 forest near an old or exhausted grove, and very 
 soon a thicket of pimenta trees appears from seeds which have been sown, 
 carried by the wind or birds to the clearing. The young trees are allowed to 
 reach the age of two or three years, when they are thinned out by removing 
 the weaker, after which the grove (or icalk, as it is called) needs no attention 
 till harvest, which commences as soon as the berries are full grown but not 
 mature. The trees are full grown in about seven years from the time the 
 grove is begun. 
 
 The mode of harvesting is to break off the ends of the branches which are 
 laden with fruit, and drop them to the ground (the tree is greatly benefited 
 by removing the fruit before it matures), where women and children pick off 
 the berries and place them in bags, in wiiich they are carried to a place to cure 
 either by the rays of the sun or by artificial heat, when they are packed in 
 bags for market. 
 
 The harvest occurs in July and August. 
 
 Use. — The tree is sparingly used for ornamental purposes. The leaves are 
 used for tanning leather. The fruit forms one of our most popular spices, 
 used for flavoring sauces, cakes, bread, and for spicing wines, pickles, and 
 cordials. 
 
 Its medicinal properties, as to the fruit and the oil, are identical with those 
 of cloves. 
 
 Eugenia pimenta 
 (Allspice). 
 
MRYTACE.E. 
 
 137 
 
 BERTHOLLETIA, Ilunib. and Bonpl. Calyx l-partod. Corolla made 
 up of 4 fleshy petals. Stamens united at the base in 5 concentric 
 circles ; filaments thread-like, short. Stigma cruciform, sessile. Ovary 
 inferior, 4-5-celled. Inflorescence in terminal i»anicles. Fruit large, 
 globular, woody. Nuts numerous, obovoid, triangular. Leaves alter- 
 nate. Large tree. 
 
 B. excelsa, Humb. and Bonpl. (Brazil Nut.) (Cannon-ball Tree.) Trunk 
 .3 to 4 feet in diameter, rising to tiie height of 150 feet, branching into a sym- 
 metrical head. Leaves 2 to 3 feet in length, broad, glabrous, prominently 
 veined underneath, leathery. Fruit subglobular. Shell or luisk woody, 6 inches 
 in diameter, 4-cened, each cell containing :i or 4 nuts an inch and a half long, 
 three quarters of an inch in diameter, the te.sta hard, horny, and rough, kernel 
 creamy white, oily, and possessing a delicate flavor. There is only one species 
 of this magnificent tree. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical di.stribution of the Bertholletia is limited to 
 the tropical regions of South iVmerica, extending to the Isthmus of l*auama. 
 Large tracts along the Annxzon and the lower reaches of 
 its tributaries are covered by this gigantic tree. 
 
 Etijmoloriji. — Bertholletia, the generic name, was given 
 to this plant by De Candolle in honor of Berthollet, a 
 celebrated chemist. Excelsa is from the Latin excehus, 
 grand, or lofty, due to the gigantic size and character of 
 the tree. Brazil Nut is named from Brazil, its home ; 
 Cannon-ball Tree, from the shape of the fruit. 
 
 Historij. — At the time of harvest the natives ascend 
 the rivers and enter the vast groves to gather the crop. 
 For the same reason the vegetable-eating animals assem- 
 ble to secure their share of the delicious fruit. When 
 the great seed-vessels, weighing several pounds, fall from 
 the height of 60 to 100 feet and burst open as they strike 
 the ground, scattering the seed in the midst of the assem- 
 bled men and their monkey cousins, the imagination must 
 be drawn upon to picture the scene. Men, women, and children, monkeys 
 of all the Brazilian varieties, rodents, and other nut-eating brutes all rush to 
 secure the prize, and mingle in the scramble. The Indians club and pelt the 
 monkeys, while they in turn seize the unbroken balls, flee to the branches of 
 the trees, and hurl them at the heads of the Indians, thus presenting a feast, 
 frolic, and fight com])ined. 
 
 The seed-vessels are forced open either by dashing them upon the ground or 
 striking them with mallets made for the purpose. The nuts are collected into 
 bags and baskets, carried down the rivers, and shipped to Europe and the 
 I'nited States from the seaports near the mouth of the Amazon, principally 
 from Para. 
 
 Use. — The nut affords an important food to a large nuinlier of the inhabi- 
 tants of Brazil. It is an esteemed dessert, and though very indigestible, is 
 highly prized by children. The oil obtained from it is an excellent table and 
 salad oil ; it is also nnich used in the compounding of hair-dressings and for 
 illuminating and lubricating purposes. 
 
 Statistics. — From I'ara alone it is estimated that upwards of two and a half 
 million fruits, yielding: about fifty million nuts, are exported annually, in 
 addition to the lar^e quant itics which leave other Brazilian harbors. 
 
 Bertholletia 
 EXCELSA (Brazil Nut). 
 
138 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order XXVI. LYTHRACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, symmetrical, perigynous. Calyx inclosing, but 
 not adhering to the ovary. Petals sometimes wanting ; when present, 
 free. Stamens equal to petals in number, or twice as many or more, 
 inserted on the calyx-tube; anthers versatile. Ovary 2 to 6, rarely 1- 
 celled; style 1. Seeds numerous, usually on axile placentae. No al- 
 bumen. Fruit a pod, more or less inclosed by the calyx. Trees or 
 shrubs, branches frequently 4-angled. Leaves mostly opposite, entire, 
 exstipulate. 
 
 No. of genera, 30 ; of species, 250. 
 
 PUNICA, L. Calyx large, broadly tubular, an inch and a half long, 
 thick and leathery, attached to the ovary below; lobes 5-7, thick, 
 triangular, acute, smooth, shining, scarlet, valvate. Petals 5-7, in- 
 serted on the calyx, alternating with its lobes, spreading, imbricated, 
 crumpled, roundish, with a short, broad claw, crimson. Stamens nu- 
 merous, free, inserted on the calyx-tube beneath the petals, crowded, 
 erect. Anthers turned inwards, yellow, opening lengthwise. Ovary 
 thick and leathery, with two tiers of cells, upper tier 5-8 in num- 
 ber; ovules many. Style tapering; stigma simple, head-shaped. 
 Fruit hard, sub-globular, abruptly contracted at the top into a short 
 neck, crowned by the thick calyx, size of an orange, reddish-yellow. 
 Seeds numerous, angular, covered with a pinkish, juicy coating. 
 
 P. granatum, L. (Pomegranate.) Arborescent, 14 to 15 feet high. 
 Bark brownish-gray, furrowed. Branches straight, strong, sub-angular, armed 
 
 near the ends with spines ; young shoots 
 and buds red. Leaves opposite or fas- 
 cicled, short-stalked, and without sti- 
 pules. Flowers large, solitary, or two 
 to three together in the axils of the 
 leaves, near the ends of the branchlets. 
 A beautiful object for planted grounds. 
 
 Varieties. — This is the only species, 
 but as it is grown from seed it sports, 
 consequently varieties have been pro- 
 duced. The two most prominent are : 
 Var. alba, white-flowered. 
 Var. plena, double-flowered. 
 Geography. — The zone of the pome- 
 granate is within the region of no frost, 
 PtTNicA GRANATTTM (Pomegranate). ^nd along its outer fringes in the north 
 
 temperate zone, all around the globe. 
 Etymoloqy. — Punicn, the generic name, is from tbe Latin punims, red, due 
 to the color of tbe fruit. Punicus also means Carthaginian, signifying " deceit- 
 ful" (the Carthaginians bad tbe reputation of being unfaithful), apphed to tbe 
 fruit, which is beautiful in appearance, but not delightful to tbe taste. The 
 name may have been applied to the plant because it was largely planted near 
 
cucurbitacf.t:. 139 
 
 Carthage, hence called roTimm I'miicmii, or Carthage Ajiple. (irnnatntn is 
 the Latin for grained or seeded, due to the abundance of seed in the fruit. 
 Pomeyianate, tlie coumion uame, is made up of iiomum, ap])le, and granatnm, 
 seeded. 
 
 Historif. — The home of this beautiful little tree is I'ersia and the adjacent 
 countries, whence it has spread tiiroughout Syria, Asia Minor, the Levant 
 southern Europe, Africa, China, and Jajian. It has also been brought by 
 European colonists to southern North America. 
 
 It was known to the ancients and is spoken of frequently in the Bible. The 
 Hebrews on their journeyings through the desert of Arabia, complained to 
 Moses, saying, " It is no place of seed or of figs or of vines or of pomegran- 
 ates." And Moses himself describes the promised land as a country of " wheat, 
 barley and vines, tig-trees and jjomegrauates." Solomon speaks of an " orchard 
 of pomegranates with pleasant fruits," 
 
 By tliese (piotations we are led to the inference that the pomegranate was 
 an important food-plant at that time. 
 
 Use. — The plant is cultivated largely in the regions of no frost as an orna- 
 mental tree, and in colder climates in conservatories, througliout Europe and 
 the United States. 
 
 The fruit is used for a dessert, being prepared by cutting it into halves, 
 removing tlie seeds, filling their places with sugar, and sprinkling the whole 
 with rose-water. 
 
 The bark is highly charged with tannin, and produces a beautiful yellow 
 dye, with which the yellow Levant morocco is colored. The bark of the root 
 is used as a vermifuge, and was formerly considered a specific for tape worm. 
 
 Statistics. — Outside of the countries of Asia and Africa, where the pome- 
 granate is grown, it is of very small commercial importance. 
 
 Order XXVIL CUCURBITACE^. 
 
 Flowers inonnecions, or dioecious, seldom perfect, solitary, sometimes 
 fascicled, or racemed, usually white or yellow. Calyx bell-sliaped, 
 o-toothed or lobed, imV)ricate iu the bud. Corolla with petals united, 
 wheel- or bell-shai)ed, .Vlobed. Stamens 5, mostly H, one of the anthers 
 1-celled, the others '2-celled. Ovary inferior, 1- or many-celled. Fruit 
 a many-seeded berry. Leaves alternate, petioled. usually cordate. Stem 
 succulent, climbing or clambering over undershrubs, etc. Mostly 
 herbs. 
 
 Genera, 08. 
 
 CUCUMIS. L. Cah-x tubular, bell-shaped, fvparted or toothed, teeth 
 awl-sluiped, about as long as the tube. Petals 'i, slightly attached to 
 the calyx. Stamens in three groups. Stigmas 3, nearly sessile, stout, 
 and 2-lobed. Fruit globular, sometimes flattened at the poles, and 
 again lengthened into a prolate spheroid or short cylinder. Seeds 
 numerous, whiter or yellowish, oblanceolate, acute at the base, and 
 flattene(L 
 
 L C. sativus, L. (Cucumber.) Stem trailing, rough, hairy, 5 to 12 feet 
 long, branched ; tendrils sim])le. Leaves cordate, .'. t.) C inches long, angularly 
 
140 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 lobed, terminal lobe largest. Fruit cylindrical, 5 to 10 inches long, and from 
 2 to 4 inches in diameter. When young, the surface is besprinkled with 
 tubercles, armed with rigid, sharp bristles, which fall off at a later state. 
 Green, turning yellow when ripe. Seeds very numerous, yellowish-white, 
 three eighths of an inch long and less than two eighths wide, oblanceolate, 
 flattened ; about twelve hundred weigh an ounce, and they retain their vitality 
 about ten years, if kept from the air. 
 
 Varieties. — The cucumber sports freely, and many varieties are under 
 cultivation. There are about thirty choice kinds recommended by seedsmen. 
 The Cluster, Early French, White Spine, and Early Russian are among the 
 most desirable for the market garden. 
 
 Amateurs favor other varieties, but the above four are the most popular. 
 Geography. — The zone of the cucumber is very broad. It grows well in 
 rich soil wherever there are three or four mouths without frost, but requires 
 
 warm nights and hot days 
 to be prolific. 
 
 Etymology. — Cucumis is 
 Latin, and signifies a vessel, 
 alluding to the rind of the 
 fruit, Avhich when the pulp 
 is removed forms a cup 
 which may be used for 
 drinking. It is said to be 
 derived from the Celtic 
 word cttcc, a hollow vessel, 
 or from the Latin cucuma, 
 a cooking-vessel. Sativus, 
 the specific name, is Latin, and signifies sown, or cultivated. Cucumber, the 
 common name, is a corruption of the word cucumis, the generic name. 
 
 History. — The home of the cucumber is the northwest of India and the region 
 north of Afghanistan, and it was no doubt taken into the Levant and southern 
 Asia at a very early period in history. It was under cultivation in Hindustan 
 three thousand years before the Christian era, and was known to the ancient 
 Greeks. 
 
 It is by no means certain that the plant referred to under the name cucumber 
 in Scripture wa£> the Cucumis sativus. Nothing has appeared on the Egyptian 
 monuments to prove that the Israelites became accpiainted with it during the 
 period of their bondage, but it is possible that it reached them in Syria from 
 the East. 
 
 It worked its way into southern Europe and Africa by commerce and travel, 
 was brought to America in the days of Columbus, and has become one of our 
 most important garden crops about our great cities. 
 
 Use. — It is largely used raw when in an unripe state, as a salad, with a 
 salt and vinegar dressing, and as a pickle, in America, Europe, and especially 
 in southern Russia among the peasantry, by whom it is stored in casks under 
 heavy weight, and allowed to heat and reach the vinous fermentation, Avhen it 
 is eaten with coarse bread, serving the purpose of butter or oil. In the South- 
 ern States, in North America, it is sliced, fried in oil or butter, and served up 
 as egg plant is. 
 
 2. C. melo, L. (Muskmelon. Cantaloupe.) Stem rough, hairy, 5 to 10 feet 
 long, trailing. Leaves heart-shaped, or somewhat kidney-shaped, with rounded 
 
 Cucumis sativus ^CiuMiniber). 
 
CUCURBITACE^. 
 
 141 
 
 lobes, ruugli, huirv. :\ *) 5 iuclies loug. Kluwers jixillary, <»ii sh<.rt stalks, 
 velluw. Fruit globose, from 3 to 12 inilies in diameter, f;«;nerally ridged aud 
 furrowed, sometimes much Hattened at the jxdes, while in some varieties it is 
 much elongated, forming a short cylinder, or oval. Seeds yellowish-white, 
 oblauceolate, Hattened ; about a thousand to an ounce ; when kept in a uni- 
 form temperature they retain their germinating jiroperties about ten years. 
 Flowers in June. Fruits in August. 
 
 There are many species, and ;vs it sports freely, very many varieties are 
 under cultivation. The leading varieties in America are ; — 
 The Beech wood, an early variety, Hesh sugary. 
 The Black-Rock, large-fruited, very sweet. 
 The Citron, rich, juicy, aud sugary. 
 The Larije-ribhed , very large, oval in form, flesh sweet. 
 The Nutineij, delicious in flavor, and popular. 
 
 Geo(jra/)hi/. — The muskmelon grows to perfection in rich, sandy soil, in all 
 the countries of the Levant, on the shores of the Mediterranean, in India, 
 China, Japan, and in fact 
 in all tropical and sub- 
 tropical countries through- 
 out the world. It is a 
 very important crop on 
 the southern plains of 
 New Jersey and through- 
 out the Middle and South- 
 ern States. 
 
 Etymologf^. — Melo, the 
 specific name, is from the 
 (Jreek fiT]Kov, an apple, 
 hence an apple-shaped 
 fruit. Latin nn^lo, a melon. 
 Melon, the popular name, 
 is a corruption of the same 
 
 word, or rather an Anglicizing of the Greek word. Mn<^hnelon is due to the 
 peculiar ar.jina shed by some of the varieties, Avhich has fancifully been com 
 pared to the odor of 'musk. Cantaloupe arose from the circumstance that 
 one of the varieties was cultivated or originated at a country-seat of the Tope, 
 called C'antalouppi. 
 
 J/ iston/.— The muskmelon or Cucumis melo, is indigenous to British India 
 and Baluchistan. It has also been found wild in western iVfrica, in Guinea, 
 aud along the banks of the Niger. 
 
 It was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, but how early there is n > means 
 of knowing. It was also known to the Greeks and Romans at an early period 
 ' in history ,"brought either from the East by c(Mnmerce or travel or introduced 
 from Africa. 
 
 ^V. — The muskmelcm is the richest and most juicy fruit of all the pep., 
 familv. In the Atlantic States it is the favorite first course at breakfast, and 
 is highly esteemed as a dessert. The rinds are jireserved in ginger syrup as 
 a sweetmeat, and also brandieil. 
 
 The following anecdote is told of Frederick tli.- Great, who w:i.s e.xtrava- 
 gantly fond of a small Egyptian melon, whidi lie i-aused to be cultivated in his 
 grounds. He one dav called his j.hvsician to treat him for an attack of in.li 
 gestion. The doctor, aware of the king's fondness for the melon, inferred tliat 
 
 Cucumis melo (Muskmelon). 
 
142 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 his indispositiou was due to its excessive use. He therefore advised the king 
 to abstain from its use ; to which the monarch replied : " I will only eat five 
 for my breakfast." At the same time calling his gardener, he ordered him to 
 send the doctor a dozen for his breakfast. 
 
 CITRULLUS, Schrad. (Melon.) Divisions of the calyx 5, nar- 
 row, lanceolate. Petals 5, united at the base and attached to the 
 bottom of the calyx. Stamens, in three groups, connected. Style 
 3-parted. Stigmas convex, heart or kidney-shaped. Fruit globular 
 or in the form of a prolate spheroid, from 6 inches to 2 feet in length, 
 and from 6 to 15 inches in diameter. Rind leathery, greenish-brow^i, 
 mottled or striped, with alternate green and yellow lines from an inch 
 to an inch and a half wide, filled wdth a fleshy, juicy placenta, or core, 
 of an orange-red color, sweet and edible. An herbaceous vine. 
 
 C. vulgaris, Schrad. (Watermelon.) Stem 8 to 15 feet long, angular, 
 branched, rough, hairy, slender, trailing. Leaves 3 to 6 inches in length, 
 
 lobed, and the lobes pin- 
 nately divided, glaucous 
 beneath, petioles 2 to 3 
 inches long. Flowers ax- 
 illary, on hairy pedicels, 
 about an inch and a half 
 in length, corolla yellow. 
 Flowers in June to July. 
 Fruits August to October. 
 Varieties. — There are 
 numerous varieties. 
 Among the most popular 
 are — 
 
 The Black Spanish, 
 somewhat globular, deeply 
 ribbed lengthwise, skin 
 dark or blackish-green. 
 Quality excellent, and 
 grows Avell in New Jersey, 
 and as far north as southern 
 New York, especially on 
 Long Island. 
 The Bradford, or Carolina watermelon, a favorite in the Southern States; 
 one and a half to two feet long, striped or mottled ; pulp tender and delicious. 
 
 The Mountain Sweet, a hardy and greatly esteemed variety ; grows well 
 in NeAV Jersey, Delaware, southern Fennsylvania, and Long Island. Pulp 
 dark-red, and delicious 
 
 Odell's Large, of enormous sixe, round, gray ; seeds large, grayish-black. 
 A single melon of this variety has been known to weigh sixty pounds. 
 
 Citron Watermelon, 6 to 10 inches in diameter, color pale-green, marbled 
 with darker shades; not edible rair, but highly prized for preserving. 
 
 Geography. — U arrives at perfection only in tropical and subtropical coun- 
 tries, but succeeds well ni all southern Europe and southern and middle North 
 America, up to the 41st degree of latitude in North America. 
 
 CiTRiTLLUS VULGARIS (Watermelon). 
 
CUCURBrrACEuE. 
 
 143 
 
 Etymolorjii. — Citrul/us is derived from tin- culur of ilic imlp, wliich is some 
 times of an <»rauge red, lieuce orcniye color, or citrus c<»lor. I'ulyaris, commou, 
 i> from the Latin. Watennelon refers to the watery pulj». Melon is an adop- 
 tion of the (ireek word /xriKuv, an aj)ple, because of the supposed apj)le-shaj>e 
 .»f the fruit. 
 
 Hhtorii. — It is not known where or when the watermelon wa.s first brought 
 under cultivation. Its home is in Africa, in the torrid zone. Livingstoiie states 
 that large districts are covered with it in a wild state, and it has not been seen 
 growing without cultivation out of Africa. It was cultivated by the ancient 
 Egvptians. It was grown in Asia at an early date, and was known in all 
 the\\lediterrauean countries in the beginning of the Christian era. It was 
 brought to tlie New World by European .settlers, and is comuKm in all the 
 warm countries of both North and South America, where F^uropeaus have 
 settled. 
 
 Use. — Tlie watermelon 
 is a very popular dessert 
 fruit, and the rinds are 
 preserved in sugar and also 
 braudied. In Egypt it is 
 not only prized by the 
 wealthy as a dessert, but 
 it constitutes a very impor- 
 tant article of food for the 
 poorer classes, wlio eat it 
 with their bread, and in 
 fact largely subsist upon 
 it during its season, which 
 is long. 
 
 C U C U R B I T A, L. 
 
 (Pumpkin, (iovird. 
 Squa.sb.) Calyx egg- 
 shaped, corolla bell- 
 .shaped, petals united 
 
 half-way up, yellow. Flowers monoecious, axillary, on angiUar stalks, 
 Stamens with anthers cohering. Fruit-stalk deeply grooved. Fruit 
 globose, flattened or prolonged at the poles; seeds yellowish wliite, 
 obovate, with slightly convex sides. Leaves heart or kidney shaped, 
 stem trailing with brandling 2-3-cleft tendrils. Annuals. 
 
 1 . C. melopepo, E. (Flat Squash.) Stem 5 to 20 feet in length, branching, 
 tentU-ils l)ranched, or partially developed into leaves. Leaves heart-shaped, 
 .5-angk'd, G to 8 inches long on a foot-stalk as long a.s the blade. Flowers 
 yellow, large. Fruit wheel-shaped, flattened ami dished at)out the stem, and 
 convex on the 0])posite side; circumference lobed or est allojied. Flowers and 
 fruits July to Oct. Fruit cooked in a green .state, with or without .salt meats. 
 
 '2. C. verrucosa, E. (Warty Squash. Long- necked Squash.) Stem 10 to 15 
 feet long, tendrils branched. Leaves from 6 to 12 inches long, and nearly as 
 wide ; leaf-stalk .same length as the blade. Flowers large and yellow. Fruit 
 obovoid, or club-shaped, neck frequently crooked or curved, roughened with 
 warty tubercles; when ripe tlie shell becomes hard or bony. Like the above, 
 
 CUCUEBITA MAXIM.\ (Gourd Sqiiash). 
 
144 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 the fruit is prepared for the taV)le in an unripe state. Flowers and fruits from 
 July to Oct. 
 
 3. C. maxima, DC. (Winter Scjuash. Gourd Squash.) Stem 8 to 20 feet 
 long, trailing. Leaves large, with rounded lobes. Corolla yellow, segments 
 curved, or rolled outwards ; tiower-stalks smooth. Fruit ovoid or pear-shaped, 
 neck sometimes crooked or curved. Variable in size, frequently reaching the 
 length of 3 feet, and specimens have been known to weigh 70 pounds. The 
 neck is usually solid, the end farthest from the stem enlarged, and contains 
 the seeds. This squash has the characteristics of a pumpkin, and is used 
 much in the same way that the cheese pumpkin is. 
 
 Var. corona (Crowned Squash). Fruit expanded near the stem into a 
 broad, circular, turban-like process, much larger in diameter than the extended 
 part. This expanded part is solid, and the cell containing the seed is in tlie 
 contracted end. 
 
 Varieties. — These are the principal marrow squashes. There are many 
 forms, but the above are the favorites with gardeners and amateurs. 
 
 The Custard Squash, a large variety, is grown for stock. 
 
 Puritan Srpiash, grown largely in New England, is very constant, very hardy 
 and productive, and raised both for the table and for stock ; skin white, marked 
 with green mottled stripes. 
 
 The Valparaiso Si/uashes, of which we frequently have specimens brought 
 from California, some of them weighing more than a hundred pounds, have 
 not been fully described. 
 
 4. C. ovifera, Gray. (Orange Gourd Squash.) The fruit of this species is 
 small and egg-shaped, and by cultivation it is supposed to have given rise to 
 the following forms : — 
 
 Autumnal Marrow. Stem 10 to 15 feet in length, and stout. Fruit ovoid 
 or spindle-shaped, furrowed and ridged, the blossom end tipped with a short 
 nipple ; skin very creamy, yellow ; flesh sweet and delicate. Ripens early in 
 August. Keeps well. 
 
 Hubbard Squash is in shape and quality very much like the Autumnal Mar- 
 row, color a bluish-green, flesh orange-color and delicate ; smoother than the 
 last, 8 to 10 inches long, and 6 to 8 in diameter. 
 
 Sweet Potato Squash resembles the above two in shape and character, a foot 
 long, 7 or 8 inches in diameter, skin ashy green, smooth and polished ; flesh 
 salmon-yellow ; thick-fleshed and fine-grained. 
 
 Var. MeduUosa. 
 
 Vegetable Marrow. Its stem 12 to 15 feet in length, leaves deeply 5-lobed ; 
 fruit 8 to 10 inches long, elliptical in .shape, ribbed and furrowed lengthwise; 
 tlesh white and delicate. Keeps well through the winter. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Melopepo is from the two Greek words fxrjKov, an apple, and 
 TTfiruv, a melon, an apple melon. The fruit in a natural state is of the size 
 and shape of an apple. Maxima is Latin for great, and is due to the size of 
 this species. Corona is Latin for crown, given on account of the turban or 
 crown-like process at the stem end of this variety. Verrucosa is from the Latin 
 verrucosiis, wartv, on account of the warts that abound on the skin of the fruit 
 of this variety. Ovifera, from the Latin ovum, an egg, is due to the oval shape 
 of the fruit of this species. 
 
 Hist or I/. — Dr. Gray believes that the C. ovifera is the ancestor of all the 
 American scjuashes. It is claimed, however, by some authorities that Europe 
 or western Asia is the home of the C. maxima. But Pickering claims that 
 
CUCURBITACEiE. 
 
 146 
 
 CuoTTEBiTA PEPO (Pumpkin). 
 
 the C maxima is an American plant, and says it lia.s heen carried thence by 
 colonists to the Tacific islands, to southern Asia, and to Europe and Africa. 
 If this he so, it leaves us in the dark as to what the C". maxima known to the 
 ancients was. 
 
 .'). C. pepo, L. (Pumpkin.) Stem jjrostrate, 5 to 20 feet long, rough, hairy, 
 sparingly branched, with branched tendrils. Leaves large, 9 to 13 inches long, 
 and 5 to 10 wide, heart- or kidney-shaped, 5-lobed. Flowers yellow and axil- 
 lary. Fruit cheese-shaped or club-shaped, or sub-glotnilar, on deeply grooved 
 peduncles, flesh yellow, sweet, solid, but not hard ; cavity of the fruit filled with 
 a stringy pulp aud seeds. 
 Flowers in July ; fruit 
 ripens in October. 
 
 Varieties. — There are 
 many varieties of the 
 Pumpkin under cultivation, 
 the most popular of which 
 are the following : — 
 
 Cheese Pianpkhi, which , 
 
 is flattened at the poles, < 
 and from 10 to 20 inches 
 in diameter, and 4 to 10 
 inches from pole to pole, 
 deeply ribbed, dished about 
 the stem, skin reddish- 
 orange color, leathery ; 
 flesh yellow, sweet, aud del- 
 icate. The cheese pump- 
 kin holds the highest place among the varieties of this plant, on account 
 of its hardy character, its size, productiveness, and the delicacy of its flesh. 
 It has been claimed that it is a variety of the C. maxima, brought to America 
 by European colonists; but iiistory favors the belief that it is an American 
 plant. It was extensively cultivated throughout the Middle States at the time 
 of the Kevolutionary War, and was carried to New England by the soldiers 
 returning home from service in New Jersey, southern Pennsylvania, and adja- 
 cent states further south, where it is still found growing, with great constancy 
 as to form, size, and qualities, though the cultivation has been in many cases 
 careless and slovenly. 
 
 Camuhi Ptunpkin is in the form of a flattened globe, deeply ribbed. 10 to 
 15 inches in diameter, and 8 to 10 inches at the poles. Skin yellow and hard ; 
 flesh yellow. Mucli cultivated for cattle, and also for table use. It grows 
 better in a higher latitude than the cheese pumpkin. 
 
 Common Field Pumpkin, or Leather Pack. Globose, ends flattened, rather 
 longer than broad, 10 to 14 inches long, and 8 to 12 in diameter. Grown 
 for stock, and sparingly for the table. Kibbed, yellow; skin hard, flesli 
 yellow. Leaves deeply lobed. 
 
 Sugar Pumpkin. Grows in the form of a flattened sphere, about 9 inches 
 in diameter, and 6 at the poles. The smallest of the varieties under culti- 
 vation ; a prolific bearer, and of excellent (piality. Grooved skin, bright 
 orange-yellow; flesh yellow, sweet, delicate, and finegrained. Stem long, 
 ridged, and grooved. 
 
 There are other varieties, but the above are the favorites, and most impor- 
 tant to gardeners and agriculturists. 
 PR. Fl. — 11 
 
146 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — The Gourd family, of which the pumpkiu aud squash are 
 members, delights in a warm climate, but fruits well as far north and south 
 of the equator as the middle of the temperate zones. 
 
 Etjjmology. — Cucurbita is the Latin for gourd, a hollow vessel or a cup, and 
 must allude to the circumstance that these plants are hollow, or become so 
 when allowed to ripen on the vine. Some derive this from the Latin curvitas, 
 crookedness, alluding to the form of some of the club-shaped gourds, whose 
 necks are curved. Pepo is from the Greek ireVwi', a melon. Pumpkin is a- 
 corruption of the French word pompon, a melon. The popular names all 
 explain tliemselves. 
 
 Historij. — The home of the pumpkin is believed to be America. It has 
 been found growing wild in Mexico, and was under cultivation by the abo- 
 rigines in Florida, Mexico, and the West Indies, when these regions were first 
 visited by Europeans. Dr. Gray believed that all tlie species except C. maxima 
 are American. The species aud varieties of this genus have been so confused 
 that this is not certain. 
 
 Use. — The cheese pumpkin and the sugar pumpkin are esteemed for 
 making the celebrated New England pumpkiu pies. They also, like the other 
 varieties, are grown for feeding cattle. They are valuable for milch cows be- 
 cause they not only promote the flow of milk but improve its quality. In 
 Europe the pumpkin pie is prepared by making a circular orifice in the top, 
 the center of which is the stem. Through this hole the seeds and pulp are 
 removed, and the cavity filled with sliced apples, spices aud sugar. The whole 
 is then baked, and served. 
 
 Order XXVIIL UMBELLIFER^. 
 
 Flowers small, 5-merous, superior, in simple or compound umbels. 
 Cal}^ lobes minute, tube adnate to ovary. Ovary 2-celled, each with 
 a pendulous ovule. Fruit, 2 dry indehiscent akenes, separating from 
 a carpophore ; each akene with 5 primary and often 4 secondary ribs. 
 Number of genera, 152. 
 
 APIUM, Hoffm. (Celery.) Calyx without teeth, base of style flat. 
 Petals white, entire, with a small apex bent in. Fruit, egg- or globe- 
 shaped. Carpels nearly straight, with 5 thread-like ribs ; channels 
 with single oil-tubes, except the outer ones, which sometimes have 
 more. Leaves pinnately or ternately divided ; divisions wedge-shaped ; 
 umbels opposite the leaves. Biennial herb. 
 
 A. graveolens, L. Stem 2 to 3 feet high, branching, channelled. Leaves 
 from the root, on long, stout stalks, green ; stem leaves on short stalks. 
 Flowers terminal and axillary, those in the axils on very short foot-stalks ; 
 rays unequal ; petals greenish-white. Fruit subglobular. Flowers in July. 
 Fruit in September. 
 
 The celery sports freely, and many varieties have arisen, for the names 
 of which the student is referred to the seedsmen's catalogues. There are 
 about 20 choice varieties under cultivation by the market gardeners and 
 amateurs. 
 
 Geographi/. — lts geographical distribution is very wide. It is indigenous 
 to Great Britain, all the coast of western Europe, the shores of the Mediter- 
 raueaii; aud it is found in the Peloponnesus, on the foothills of the Caucasus, 
 
UMBELLIFER^. 147 
 
 aud in Palestine. It is also native to Soutli America, and along the western 
 coast as far north as southern California. Watson, in his '* Flora of Califor- 
 nia," speaks of it as very rare, but says it is found in the salt marshes down 
 the coast. 
 
 Etfjvwloyii. — Apiiuii is traced to the Celtic word upon, water, due to the 
 habitat of the plant, which is in wet places. Graveolens, the specific name, is 
 from the Latin gravis, heavy, and oleo, smell, whence " heavy smell," or " strong 
 smell," on account of tlie peculiar odor of the plant. Celery, the common 
 name, is a corruption of the Greek word <t4\ivov, par.sley. 
 
 History. — We do not know where or when the celery was first used as a 
 table vegetable. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and is 
 mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Tliny. It was also u.sed by the 
 ancient Egyptians. 
 
 Cultiration. — The seed is sown like a cabbage-seed; and when the plants 
 are from three to six inches high, they are pricked out in beds. In August 
 they are .set in well fertilized trenches, about 8 to 12 inches apart in the row, 
 and allowed to grow till October, at which time a number of long-stalked 
 leaves are developed ; these are then held together to prevent the earth from 
 getting among them, and banked, and thus left to bleach till frost appear.s, 
 when they are ready for the table. 
 
 Use. — Celery is the most delicate and highly esteemed of all salads in use. 
 When properly blanched, the leaf-stalks are a delicate creamy white, and the 
 flavor is greatly admired. It is either served in this form and eaten with salt 
 or with prepared dressing ; occasionally it is cooked and eaten with a vinegar 
 dressing. The Turnip-rooted variety is cooked and eaten witli salad dress- 
 ings. It is used also for flavoring soups and gravies. Its medicinal prop- 
 erties are said to be diuretic and tonic, producing biliary secretion, and it is 
 recommended for rheumatism. The Egyptians used it to prevent aud to cure 
 sea-sickness. 
 
 PIMPINELLA, L. (Anise.) Cal\T?: limb indistinct, teeth wanting; 
 petals white, obcordate, unequal, notched, flowers usuajiv perfect, but 
 sometimes the stamens and pistils are on different flowers. Styles 
 long and slender. Bracts of involucre few, small or wanting. Leaves 
 decompound. Fruit egg-shaped, ribbed, with convex intervals. Peren- 
 nial iierb. 
 
 P. anisum, L. Stem 2 feet high ; branches slender : lower leaves roundish- 
 heart-shaped, cut into three lobes by deep incisions ; leaves on the middle 
 and upper parts of the stem pinnate, parts wedge-shaped ; umbels large and 
 loose ; stalks of the umbellets unequal in length ; flowers yellowish-white, 
 appearing in July. 
 
 There are many species, but the anisum is the one under cultivation for the 
 production of the oil of anise. 
 
 Geography. — The ani.se seeds of commerce are produced in Egypt, Syria, 
 in the i.^^land of Malta, and in Spain, and in late years the plant has been 
 largely cultivated in Southern Germany. It has worked its way east of Syria 
 to Hindustan, and to Japan. The best seed is brought from Egypt. The 
 plant is supposed to be indigenous to Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Greek 
 Islands. 
 
 Etymology. — PimpineUa is a corruption of bipinnate, due to the divisions 
 of its leaf. Anisum is from the Greek word avS/xotoi, unequal, the ancient 
 
148 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 name referring to the inequality in the length of stalks of umbellets, or per- 
 haps to the unequal petals. Anise, the popular name, is a corruption of 
 anisani. 
 
 History. — The anise was known to the ancients, and is mentioned by Dios- 
 corides, and described by Pliny, who says the best is brought from Crete and 
 from Egypt. It is one of the plants Charlemagne ordered his gardener to 
 cultivate in the royal gardens. It is one of the products carried into England 
 early in the fourteenth century, and upon which an impost duty was levied. 
 It was brought to North America about the middle of the seventeenth century 
 by European colonists, and is sometimes planted in gardens in the Middle 
 
 States, but seldom fruits. 
 The anise named in the 
 New Testament is held 
 by some to be another 
 plant. 
 
 Use. — The essential 
 oil of anise is obtained by 
 distillation from the seed. 
 It is used in medicine as 
 a stimulant and carmin- 
 ative, as a stomachic and 
 antispasmodic, and to 
 cover the disagreeable 
 taste of other medicines 
 in compounding reme- 
 dies such as paregoric, 
 cough mixtures, and 
 cordials. 
 
 Rats and mice are very 
 fond of it, and it is used 
 by vermin-destroyers to 
 perfume their bait. The 
 sprigs are sometimes used to garnish dishes at the table, and as a condiment 
 for meats. In Germany and Middle Europe it is used to flavor bread, cakes, 
 and cheese. 
 
 Note. —The fruit of the Illicium anisatum (Star Anise), a small evergreen 
 tree of the order Magnoliaceae, when distilled yields an oil identical in odor, 
 chemical analysis, and medicinal properties with the oil of pimpinella, for 
 which it is sometimes substituted. 
 
 Pimpinella anisum (Anise). 
 
 F(ENICULUM, Hoffm. Calyx limb indistinct. Petals roundish- 
 obovate, entire, truncate, involute. Cremocarps oblong or ellipsoid, 
 ovoid, not flattened. Columella 2-parted, the branches attached to 
 mericarps ; mericarps with 5 prominent obtusely keeled ridges, side 
 ones a little broader and marginal, a single oil-vessel in each space. 
 Flowers, small, deep yellow, not radiant. Umbels large and com- 
 pound, without involucres. Leaves decompound, with thread-like 
 segments. A biennial herb. 
 
 1. F. vulgare, Gaert. (Fennel.) Stem erect, terete, thick, striate, smooth, 
 bright green, large pith, through the center of M^hich extends a small tube. 
 
UMBELLlFERyE. 
 
 149 
 
 Rootstock thickened. Leaves ou short, Hatteued footstalks embracing the 
 stem, trianguhir in outline, three or four times pinnate, sejijments or divisions 
 thread-like and bristly. Flowers small, on short pedicels, bright yellow, in 
 large, regular, 10-30-rayed umbels, without involucres; petals entire, invo- 
 lute. Cremocarps olive-colored, oblong-oval, barely flattened, one fifth of an 
 inch in length, prominently ridged; whole plant deep green. Fruit aromatic, 
 stimulant, stomachic. Root and leaves aromatic, medicinal, nutritive, and 
 stimulating. 
 
 Biennial hcrl), duly. 
 
 2. F. dulce is a species found in Italy and 
 used for food. 
 
 Geography/. — The geographical range of 
 Foeniculum is the middle and southern parts 
 of the north temperate zone. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Fanicu/um is from the Latin 
 foemnn, hay, due to the odor of fennel, which 
 is that of new-mown hay. The specific name, 
 vulgare, means " common," and dulce, " sweet." 
 Historij. — Indigenous in the countries of 
 the Levant, carried by Europeans to Hindu- 
 stan, and brought to the Atlantic States by 
 colonists. Cultivated in France, Germany, 
 Great Britain, and all southern Europe. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal qualities of fennel 
 are carminative, and it is frequently adminis- 
 tered to disguise the disagreea1)le taste of 
 other medicines. It is used in Germanv to 
 flavor bread and cakes. The leaves and the root of F. dulce are used in 
 southern Europe as a table vegetable, both as a salad and cooked. It is a 
 favorite vegetable with fisli. In former days it had the reputation of curing 
 all sorts of poisons, restoring sight, and imparting strength to the body The 
 Roman gladiators mingled the seeds witli their food, and wore the leaves as 
 crowns of victory 
 
 An essential oil is obtained from the seed by distillation, ealleu Fennel Oil. 
 
 FcE.vicuLUM VULGARE (Fennel). 
 
 FERULA, L. Calyx entire, or oLsciirely tootlu^d ; petals broad- 
 acuminate, frequently short and turned in/ Disk small, stylopodium 
 flattened. Fruit orbicular or ovate, margined ; seeds with :] lines 
 along the back, intervals and coinrnissure grooved or channelled. 
 Common involucre falling off, invohicels many-leaved. Radical leaves 
 decompound. Flowers yellow, in globose umbellets. 
 
 F. narthex, Boiss. (Asafcetida.) Stem 6 to 8 feet in height, cylindrical, 
 smooth, solid, and furrowed. Leaves, at the root. 2 feet long. {)ipinnate. 
 stem leaves numerous, alternate, lower ones bipinnate. on sheathing petioles, 
 sheaths incre^asing in size towards the nn'ddle of the stem and deereasimr from 
 the middle upward. 
 
 Flowers polygamous, staminate tlowers mn.h smaller than the others, 
 crowded into dense globular nmbellets ; involucre wanting. Calvx slightly 
 striate. Petals oblong-oval acute and entire, pale yellow, unequal in the 
 staminate flowers. Filamenis as long as the petals ;" .«;tyles long and falling 
 
150 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 off. Fruit half an inch long, oval, smooth, yellowish. The root which 
 yields the gum is in the form of a carrot, and 3 to 4 inches in diameter. 
 The plant dies after flowering, but sometimes does not flower until the third 
 or fourth year. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical distribution of the plants whose roots fur- 
 nish asafoetida is not large ; it is confined to middle and western Asia. It has 
 been taken to England and to Africa, but it is not known to be successful in 
 the production of the gum outside of Asia. It has been found in the Hima- 
 laya mountains at an elevation of 7,000 feet. 
 
 Etymology. — Ferula, the generic name, is from the Latin ferio, strike, 
 alluding to the use made of the stem as a rod for scourging, employed by 
 schoolmasters, Narthex is from the Greek word, vapQ-q^, a box or magazine 
 to contain medicine, alluding to the medicine stored up in the plant. Accord- 
 ing to the fabulous history of the doings of 
 the gods, Prometheus used a stalk of this 
 plant, which had been hollowed out, to con- 
 ceal the sacred fire which he brought down 
 from heaven, hence a magazine for fire ; it 
 is also said to have been employed to make 
 boxes or magazines for other purposes. 
 Asafoetida, the common name, is from the 
 Arabic aza, gum, and the Latin word foeti- 
 dus, fetid, or bad-smelling. 
 
 History. — The home of the Perula is 
 Persia, Afganistan, the Punjaub, and north- 
 ern Hindustan. When its products were 
 first used as a medicine, or as a condiment 
 for food, is not known. The Greeks and 
 Ferula narthex (Asafoetida). Romans made use of it ; Dioscorides and 
 
 Pliny both speak of it. The plant is de- 
 scribed in the books of the Buddhists as one of the ornaments of the Hima- 
 layan forests. 
 
 Preparation. — The gum is the dried milky juice which issues from the 
 wounded root of F. narthex and other species of the genus. There seems to 
 be good authority for the belief that most of the asafoetida is from the 
 F. narthex. 
 
 To obtain it, the leaves and stalk are twisted off. The earth is removed 
 from the upper part of the root, which is covered to protect it from the sun, 
 and left for forty days, when it is exposed and the crown of the root sliced off. 
 Two days later, the juice which is deposited upon this wound is removed, 
 and a thin slice taken off, making a new wound. This operation goes on 
 from the middle of May to the end of July, when the root is exhausted ; 
 a root yields from half an ounce to two pounds. The sap of the first 
 scrapings is thin, and to make it more easy to handle it is mixed with 
 earth ; therefore the gum reaches market containing much earthy impurity. 
 The gum, when hardened, has a brownish appearance, and in cold weather 
 is brittle. 
 
 It is taken to Bombay from the ports of the Persian Gulf, whence it reaches 
 the markets of the world 
 
 Use. — Asafoetida contains a resin, a gum, and an essential oil. The odor 
 resides in the oil, and is like that of onions, or garlics, accompanied bvj«j 
 separate fetid odor which is very offensive when the drug ,Ls warmed. tJMllP^^ 
 
UMBELLTFER^.. 
 
 151 
 
 Its medicinal qualities are storiiachir and antispasmodic; it is administered 
 in hysteria, hypochondria, and nervous disorders. The tissues of the human 
 system absorb it readily, and it aft'ects the kidneys with great activity. 
 ' The essential oil is distilled in (rermany, and is used in medicine on the 
 continent of Europe. 
 
 Asafcttida is used in India as a condimr-nt for food ; it was also employed 
 by the Romans for the same purpose. 
 
 The peculiar and inimitable Havor of the celebrated Worcestershire sauce is 
 supposed to be due to the presence of asafu^tida. 
 
 PEUCEDANUM, L. Calyx 5-toothed, or obsolete ; petals broad- 
 lanceolate, point long and turned in. Fruit flat, oval, with a broad 
 margin. Carpels obscurely 5-ribbed, secondary ribs wanting; val- 
 leys furnished with single oil-vessels. Flowers yellow, involucre many 
 or few-leaved or absent ; involucels the same. Root conical, large, and 
 fleshy. Biennial. 
 
 P. pastinaca, L. (Pastinaca sativa, L.) (Parsnip.) Stem grooved, tapering, 
 hollow, 2 to 4 feet high, branching. Root-leaves of the first year, orbicular, 
 cordate, and creuate. ' Stem or upper leaves of 
 the second year, compound ; leaflets 2 to 3 inches 
 long, cut, toothed, ovate, and obtuse, in 3 to 4 
 pairs, with a terminal one which is 3-lobed. 
 Flowers in June. Fruits in August to October. 
 
 Note. — There are several varieties; a great 
 favorite is the Guernsey, which is an improved 
 form of the common, or P. pastinaca. It is said 
 that in the island of Guernsey, where deep culti- 
 vation is practiced, the root reaches the length of 
 four feet. The Student has come into favor, and 
 is said to excel all others in its sweet, mild, and 
 pleasant flavor. 
 
 Geofjraphij. — The parsnip is found all over 
 Europe .south of 60 degrees of latitude, .southern 
 Greece, ^yeste^n Asia, Hindustan, and Siani. It 
 .sows its seeds easily, and escapes from gardens 
 and cultivated grounds, and therefore is found 
 growing outside of cultivation wherever it has 
 been cropped. 
 
 Etipiiolofiij. — Pencedanum is derived from the 
 Greek invKt], a pine tree, and Zav6s, burnt, a burnt 
 pine tree, due to the peculiar odor of the parsnip. 
 Pastinaca is by some authors derived from the 
 Latin word jHistinum, a dibble, an in.strnment for 
 digging into the ground, in reference to the deep 
 piercing of the ground by the root of this plant. 
 
 By others it is derived from the Latin word pastus, food, fodtler. pa.>*ture, on 
 account of the edible cliaracter of the root, and its use for feetling stock. 
 Sativa is Latin for "sown" or "planted." The common name, parsnip, is 
 sup])osed to be a corruption of the Latin word pastinnre, to dig up. hence 
 something dug up. 
 
 Uistori/. — The home of the jiarsnip is Europe 
 
 Pkuckdanum pastinaca 
 (.Farsuip). 
 
 It was cultivated in Britain 
 
152 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 in early times, acd eaten with salt fish during Lent; we have no means of 
 knowing when or where it was first used for food, but it is known that it has 
 been in use a long time. It is now cultivated largely throughout Europe for the 
 table and for feed for cattle and horses. It is also found growing in a state 
 of nature. It was brought to eastern North America by British colonists, and 
 carried to other countries by emigrants from other parts of Europe. 
 
 Use. — It is an important table vegetable, eaten with meats, as potatoes are. 
 It is prepared by simply boiling, or, after being boiled, it is sliced, and fried in 
 lard or butter, or mashed, made into balls, and fried ; it is also stewed with 
 pork, bacon, or other meats. It is extensively raised for stock. Horses, cattle, 
 and sheep are said to fatten on it with great facility, and it is especially val- 
 uable for milch cows. 
 
 CORIANDRUM, Hoffm. Calyx-teeth conspicuous, 5 iu number. 
 Petals obcordate, turned in at the point, outer ones radiate and 
 2-parted. Fruit globose, smooth. Carpels cohering ; 5 primary ribs 
 depressed, the 4 secondary .ones more prominent; seeds concave on 
 their faces. Involucre 1-leaved or wanting. Involucels 3-leaved, 
 unilateral. Annual. 
 
 C sativum, L. (Coriander.) Stem 1 to 2 feet high, slender, striate, and 
 branched at top. Leaves bipiunate, Avith deeply cut, wedge-shaped segments 
 below, segments of the upper leaves linear. Ovary inferior and globular, with 
 2 short diverging styles ; stigmas flat or obtuse. Stamens 5, filaments slen- 
 der, anthers roundish and yellow. Petals 5, white or purplish, obcordate, and 
 turned in at the top, outer ones 2-parted. Calyx 5-toothed ; teeth sharp and 
 unequal. Umbels terminal, rather small, rays 5 to 8, bracts about 3 in num- 
 ber. Flowers iu July. 
 
 There are only two species of coriandrum. The C. sativum, however, fur- 
 nishes all the seeds of commerce. 
 
 Geography . — The coriander grows well in subtropical regions, and flourishes 
 high up in the north temperate zone It is foiuid east of the Black Sea, in the 
 cultivated fields of Tartary, iu Hindustan, and Burmah, and is in cultivation in 
 middle, southern, and western Europe. It was brought by European colonists 
 to North America. 
 
 FAijmologii. — Coriandrum is from the Greek Kopis, a bug, due to the disa- 
 greeable odor of the bruised leaves. Sativum is Latin for '• sown " or " planted." 
 Coriander, the popular name, is a corruption of the botanic name. 
 
 History. — The home of this plant is said to be southwestern Tartary, but 
 it is now spread over western Europe, is found in all the countries of the Medi- 
 terranean, and has made its way to the gardens of North America, whence it 
 frequently escapes to the fields and roadsides in the northern and middle 
 United States. Theophrastus, who wrote about three centuries before the 
 Christian era, mentions it, and Pliny speaks of it as growing both in Italy 
 and Africa in the middle of the first century. 
 
 Use. — The seeds and the oil of the coriander are used for flavoring desert 
 sauces, confectionery, cordials, and English gin. In Germany and the coun- 
 tries of northern Europe they are employed as a condiment in both bread and 
 cake. The ground seeds are used in the mixture known as curry powder, and 
 in other culinary mixtures. The flavor depends upon an essential oil wh'ich is 
 obtained from the seeds by distillation. 
 
 Its medicinal properties are stimulant, carminative, sedative, and pectoral, 
 
UMBELLIFERiE. 
 
 153 
 
 and it is frequently administered to modify the griping effects of active purga- 
 tives. It was formerly prescribed for gout, St. Antlujuy's fire, and that class 
 of difficulties. The Mahometan practitioners prepare from the seed an eye- 
 wash which they believe preserves the sight in small-p(jx 
 
 CTTMINXIM, L. Calyx-teeth bristle-like, persistent, the outer ones 
 longer. Petals nearly equal, deeply 2-lobed, white or rose colored ; 
 style short, erect. Umbels stalked, somewhat irregular, with few rays ; 
 general involucre composed of a few long, spreading and deflexed, 
 narrow, stiff, 3-parted or entire bracts ; the umbellets with 2 to 4 
 small bracts. Flowers few in number. Fruit aromatic, bitter. 
 
 C. cyminum, L. C. sativum. (Cumin.) Stem 10 to 15 inches high, 
 branched, cylindrical, solid, striate, smooth ; branches spreading. Leaves 
 nearly sessile above, longer 
 stalked below ; stalks flattened 
 and clasping, blade ternately 
 divided into long, entire, acute 
 segments, smooth and pale 
 green. The oil-vessels small. 
 Cultivated annual. The only 
 species of the genus. 
 
 Geography. — The geographi- 
 cal zone of this plant is northern 
 Africa, middle and southern 
 Europe, and extends eastward 
 through Syria, Hindustan, Bom- 
 bay, and Burmah. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Cuminum, the 
 generic name, is from the Arabic 
 Gamoun, the anrient name of the 
 plant, of obscure signification. 
 Cym'innm, the specific name, is 
 a variation of the same word, 
 Cnm'tn is an abridgment of the 
 generic name. 
 
 History. — The exact home of 
 this })lant is not known ; it is found under cultivation in southern and western 
 Asia, throughout the countries of the Levant, and in northern Africa. It is 
 sparingly cultivated through middle Europe, and fruits as far north as south- 
 ern Sweden. Tt is no doubt the plant .spoken of in Scripture in the 2.'^d cliapter 
 of Matthew, as a minor crop on which tithe was paid. It was cultivated in 
 Asia Minor in the early part of the first century, and is mentioned bv Dios- 
 corides. The bruised seeds emit a heavy, disagreeable odor. 
 
 Use. — The seeds are used in Germany as a condiment and for flavoring. 
 and the Dutch u.'^e them to flavor gin. Their medical projiertios are carmina- 
 tive, stomachic, and a.stringent, and they furnish a favorite medicine among 
 the Hindus for dyspepsia and chronic diarrha^a. They are used in external 
 applications for dis])ersing swellings and allaying pain and irritation. At 
 the present day their use is nearly confined to veterinary practice. 
 
 The medicinal qualities are due to an essential oil obtained from the seeds 
 by distillation, known a.s the oil of cumin. 
 
 CuMiNu.M OYMiNTM (Cumin). 
 
154 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 DAUCUS, Tourn. (Carrot.) Calyx 5-toothed ; petals notched at 
 the end, with point turned in, the two outer larger and deeply cleft. 
 Leaves o-pinnate. Fruit oblong ; carpels with 5 primary bristly ribs 
 and 4 secondary, the latter more prominent, winged, and divided each 
 into a row of prickles having a single oil-gland beneath. Flower 
 envelope pinnate. Bracts of the involucels entire or 3-cleft. Fruit 
 oblong-ovate, bristly. Biennial herb. 
 
 D. carota, L. Var. sativa. (Garden Carrot.) Stem rough, 2 to 3 feet 
 high, clothed with rough hairs, terete, branched from below the middle 
 
 Daucus (Wild Carrot). 
 
 Daucus carota (Carrot). 
 
 upwards. Leaves 3-pinnate, deep-green; segments linear, pointed. Flowers 
 white or yellowish-white. Root fleshy, fusiform or conical, either white-orange 
 or reddish-yellow. 
 
 There are many varieties known to the market gardeners, differing from 
 each other only in the .size, shape, and color of the root, which is a valuable 
 culinary vegetable. 
 
 Geography. — The carrot is found under cultivation in the British isles, all 
 over the continent of Europe south of 60 degrees, especially in France and 
 Germany, in northern Africa, southwestern Asia, China, Japan, and many of 
 the Pacific islands ; in fact, it has found its way into all parts of the world 
 where European settlers have established themselves It was brought to 
 North America by English colonists, where it has run wild and become a 
 pest. 
 
imbkllikkr^p:. 
 
 156 
 
 Etymology. — I)auc-us is from the (ireek. word, havKos, a carrot. Carrot is 
 said to come from the Celtic word k(ir, red. Sativa, the sj)ecific name, is 
 Latin, meaning " sown " or " cultivated." 
 
 History. — When or where the carrot wa.s first introduced into culinary use 
 is not known. It was known to the Greeks and Romans at least three hundred 
 years before the heginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Use. — The carrot is an important culinary vegetable, used to Havor soups, 
 sauces, etc., and is eaten with meats ; boiled and reduced to a pulp it is used 
 for pies and custards. It is a very important feed for horses and cattle, and 
 especially for milch cows. 
 
 CARUM, L. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous. Sepals want- 
 ing, or very small. Petals white, o, unequal, dilated, emarginate, 
 sub-two-lobed or entire, point short, sometimes long and turned in. 
 Fruit oval or oblong-ovoid, compressed, and without wings ; carpels 
 5-ribbed, lateral ribs marginal ; umbels perfect. Leaves pinnate. 
 Biennial. 
 
 I. C. petroselinum, Willd. (Parsley.) Stem angular or striate, 2 to 4 feet 
 high, branchetl. Leaves smooth and glabrous, decompound, parts incised 
 segments of the lower 
 ones wedge - shaped, 
 terminal ones trifid. 
 Flowers in terminal 
 and axillary umbels. 
 Involucre, a single lin- 
 ear leaHet, occasionally 
 made up of two or 
 more bracts. Petals 
 roundish, incurved, 
 greenish. Fruit ovate. 
 Carpels ;)-ribl)ed. 
 July. 
 
 In common with all 
 plants that are propa- 
 gated from seed, pars- 
 ley sports freely, hence 
 cultivation develops vii- 
 rieties. Dwarf Curled, 
 Mitchell's Matchless, 
 Myatt's Triple Curled, 
 Hamburg Large-Rooted and Naples or Celery Parsley, are the most prominent 
 
 (Teo(]rnphy. — V^YAQ\ is found in the middle and .southern edge of the north 
 temperate zone, and grows well in moderately fertile soil. 
 
 Etymology. — Cnrnm, the generic name of the parsley, is from Caria, in 
 Asia Minor, where it was first brought to the notice of man. Petroselinum, 
 the specific name, is from the (ireek TreVpa a rock, and a4\ivov, parsley, hence 
 rock parsley, due to the place where ii grows, — among the rocks. Pnrslei/, 
 the common name, is a corruption of Petrosflimim 
 
 Hislori/. — Viu-Aoy is found wild in the Mediterranean countries of Europe 
 and in Asia .Minor. It has been seen in .lapan under cnltivation, and is common 
 
 Caru.m petroselinum (Parsley). 
 
156 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 iu the gardens throughout middle Europe and the British Islets ; it was brought 
 to northeastern America by English colonists, and has spread over the whole 
 country, but is rarely seen outside of cultivation. It was used by the Greeks 
 and inhabitants of the Levant to decorate the bridesmaids at the marriage 
 feast, to make wreaths, and to adorn graves. A superstition is also attached 
 to it which no doubt arose from its connection with the dead. 
 
 Use. — Parsley is used as a flavoring herb iu soups, sauces, and in meat and 
 fish stews. To garnish meats, fish, and salads, there is perhaps no flavoring 
 herb more widely used. 
 
 The medicinal properties of parsley, as well as its flavoring quality, are due 
 to an active principle known to chemists as apiol. This substance is said to 
 have the same effect upon the human syst&m as quinine, and was formerly 
 used in intermittent fevers. Infusions of the roots are administered as a cure 
 for fevers and affections of the liver. 
 
 2. C. Carui, L. (Caraway.) Stem smooth, channeled, branching, 3 feet 
 in height. Leaves smooth, deep-green, bipinnate, cut; segments narrow, 
 linear, pointed. Flowers numerous, in terminal umbels ; involucre com- 
 posed of narrow leaflets, sometimes wanting ; petals 5, nearly equal, white or 
 pinkish ; filaments slender, rather longer than the petals ; anthers small, 
 roundish ; ovary inferior, bearing short capillary styles with simple stigmas. 
 Seeds two, bent, one quarter of an inch long, brown ; striae 5, the mterspaces 
 furrowed; seed ripens at the end of the second season. Root fusiform and 
 edible. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the caraway is between 42° and 
 60° of the north temperate zone, and it is said by A. de Candolle to be 
 indigenous in a belt from Lapland to Siberia. It grows in Great Britain and 
 all parts of the continent south of 60°. It is also found in northern Africa, 
 Hindustan, and Burmah. 
 
 Etymology. — Carui is derived from carum, whose etymology is given under 
 parsley. 
 
 Histoni. — Mention was made of the caraway in an account of Morocco in 
 the twelfth century. In the fourteenth century a custom of eating caraway 
 seeds with apples had been established in England. To this custom Shake- 
 speare refers in Henry IV., Part II., Act V., Sc. 3, where Shallow addres.ses 
 Silence : " Nay, you shall see mine orchard, where, in an arbor, we will eat a 
 last year's pippin of my own graflfing, with a dish of caraways, and so forth." 
 The custom of eating baked apples with caraway seeds is still kept up at one 
 of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, England, and at the ceremo- 
 nial feasts of some of the London livery companies. 
 
 Pliny makes Caria the home of the caraway ; if so, it must have spread 
 rapidly, for it is growing in most parts of Europe without cultivation. It is 
 common in the gardens of northeast America, and is frequently found outside 
 of cultivation. 
 
 Use. — The root of the caraway plant is eaten as a table vegetable in the 
 north of Europe. The seeds are employed to flavor bread, cake, confectionery, 
 pastry, and cheese; and in Russia, Sweden, Germany, and in parts of the 
 United States, to flavor alcoholic cordials. 
 
 An essential oil (oil of caraway) is procured from the seed by distillation, 
 large quantities of which are made in Leipzig. As a medicine, it is aromatic 
 and stimulant, and much used to disguise the unpleasant taste of other drugs. 
 Manufacturers of fancy soap use it in large quantities. 
 
RUBIACE^. 
 
 157 
 
 Ordkk XXIX. RUBIACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, rarely unisexual, sometimes defective, but usually 
 regular. Calyx superior, tubular, 2-G-toothed, or wanting. Corolla 
 superior ; petals united ; limb 4— C-toothed or lobed ; segments valvate 
 in the bud. Stamens, 4-G inserted on the tube of the corolla. Ovary 
 inferior. Style simple, bifid or multifid ; stigmas at top or sides ; 
 ovules, 1 or more in a cell. Fruit a capsule, berry, or drupe. Seeds 
 in various positions. Leaves opposite and stipulate or whorled, simple, 
 entire. Trees, shrubs, and herbs. 
 
 Number of genera, 337. 
 
 CINCHONA, L. Calyx cup-shaped, 5-toothed ; corolla tubular, limb 
 5-parted ; stamens 5-epipetalous ; anthers 2-celied ; pistil divided at 
 top ; capsule 2-celled, many-seeded, 
 opening at the base. Fruit winged. 
 Trees. 
 
 1. C. officinalis, L. (Peruvian Bark; 
 Jesuit's Bark.) Trunk 40 to 50 feet high, 
 and 12 to 18 inches in diameter; branches 
 stout. Leaves opposite, elliptical, entire, 
 and nerved, smooth on the upper side, hairy 
 heneath ; petioles short. Flowers ])anicled; 
 calyx campanulate, margin 5-toothed ; co- 
 rolla tubular, spreading at the throat, and 
 divided into 5 segments ; edges serrate ; 
 stamens 5 ; corolla downy on outside. 
 
 2. C. calisaya, Wedd. (Calisaya or Yel- 
 low Cinchona Hark.) Trunk 50 to 100 
 feet in height, and 5 feet in circumference. 
 Leaves oblong and obtu.se, varying in size 
 and sliape, 3 to 6 inches long. Flowers in 
 pyramidal panicles, pink. Fruit in ovate 
 capsules, 2-celled ; seeds winged. 
 
 3. C. micrantha. Wedd. Trunk 30 to 40 
 
 feet in heiglit, and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter. Leaves from 4 to 12 
 inches long, and 2 to 6 inches wide, oblong, smooth, and shining above, pitted 
 beneath at the axils of the veins. Flowers small, in loose, leatless panicles. 
 
 4. C. succirubra, Pavon. (Red Cinchona Bark.) Trunk from 60 to 80 feet 
 high. Leaves broad, oval, 12 inches long, glabrous above, pubc-^cent beneath. 
 Flowers, in large terminal panicles, rose-colored ; seed-vessels an inch in 
 length. Sap and wood red. Western slope of the Andes, near the pcjuator, 
 three to five thousand feet above the sea. 
 
 Species. — There are tliirty-six well marked species of cinchona, and nu- 
 merous varieties, all natives of the Andes. Those described here furnish the 
 barks of the shops of tlie Ignited States and Great Britain ; but the trees that 
 furnish the materials for the production of quinine are the C. Pitayensis, 
 C. coniifolia, C. laucifolia, and other species which grow in the United States 
 
 Cinchona officinalis 
 (Peruvian Bark). 
 
158 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 of Colombia. The barks of these species are admitted into market only when 
 they yield two per cent, or over, of alkaloids. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical home of the cinchona is in the tropical 
 Andes, extending from 10° north to 20° south latitude, a region about two 
 thousand miles long, mostly on the eastern slopes, in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, 
 New Granada, and Venezuela, from 5,000 to 1 1 ,000 feet above the level of the 
 sea ; the best barks are produced where the temperature ranges from 54° to 
 68° Fahrenheit. The minimum height for the best barks is not below 5,000 
 feet. It grows well in similar heights and temperatures in India, where it 
 has been introduced and is under successful cultivation. It is also cultivated 
 in Ceylon and in Jamaica. 
 
 Etymologij. — The generic name cinchona Avas given to this plant by 
 Linngeus, to honor the Countess of Chinchon, who while residing in Lima was 
 cured of a fever by the use of the bark. The specific names are derived as 
 follows : Officinalis signifies " useful," or " of the shops," and is derived 
 from the Latin word officina, a shop. Micrantha is from the Greek word 
 IxLKpbs, small, alluding to the size of the flower of this species. Calisaya, 
 which produces the "yellow bark" of commerce, has a history which is 
 somewhat obscure. Markham gives the following derivations: 1st, from 
 calla, a remedy, and sa/la, rocky, meaning a medicine growing among the 
 rocks. 2d, from ceali, strong, and sayay, become, meaning a medicine that 
 will strengthen the patient. 3d. In Caravaya is a family of caciques, by the 
 name of Calisaya, one of whom distinguished himself in the revolt of 1780- 
 1781, and it is suggested that this species was named to honor him. Succi 
 rubra is from succus, juice, aud rubra, red; hence, red-barked cinchona. 
 
 History. — It is stated upon good authority that the aborigines were not 
 acquainted with its medicinal properties before the country was visited by 
 Europeans. Humboldt states that it is not upon the list of native remedies. 
 
 There is a story as follows : A savage was taken ill with a fever in the 
 forest, near a pool of water, into which a number of cinchona trees had fallen, 
 whereby the water had been made bitter. He was offered some of this water, 
 as no other could be procured, and drinking, was speedily cured. Thus the 
 curative qualities of the bark were revealed. 
 
 In 1638 Ana de Osoria, wife of the fourth count of Chinchon, viceroy of 
 Peru, lay dangerously ill with a tertian fever at Lima. When accounts of her 
 sickness reached Don Francisco Lopez de Canizares Corregidor of Loxa, he 
 sent the bark to her physician, Don Juan de Vega, who administered it to his 
 patient, aud thereby effected a speedy cure. 
 
 The countess was so grateful for her recovery that she determined, on hei 
 return to Europe, two years later, to take with her a quantity of the powdered 
 bark, to be administered to the sufferers from chills and fever upon her hus 
 band's estate. From this circumstance it was called Countess Powder, and foi 
 a long time retained that name. De Vega, on returning to Spain, carried with 
 him large quantities, which he sold in Seville at 100 reals a pound. Linnseus 
 to honor the countess, named the tree cinchona, which was intended to bt 
 ''Chinchon," and the error in spelling has never been corrected. 
 
 Another account relates that it was made known to the civilized worla 
 through a monk, who, lying at the point of death with a fever, received &, 
 decoction of the bark from the hands of a native medicine man, and was cured. 
 It is not improbable that both these accounts are correct, aud that the circum- 
 stances occurred as stated. The tree is a native of the tropical Andes, on a 
 chain of mountains in Peru. 
 
RTJBIACE^.. 159 
 
 The history of the cinchona wouUl bo defective without some account of its 
 introcluctiou into India. In 1839, Dr Royle, the English East India botanist, 
 drew the attention of the home government to the importance of providing a 
 febrifuge for medical practice among the natives, and advocated the intro- 
 duction of the cinchona into India. 
 
 In 1859 the liritish government sent an expedition to South America to 
 procure seeds and plants of all the species possessing commercial value. The 
 party encountered great dithculty and endured great hardships, but secured 
 seeds and living plants, which were taken to England and sent to India, where 
 suitable localities in the mountains were selected, and a successful plantation 
 was commenced. Previous to this, the Dutch East India Company had .sent 
 an agent to South America who had procured seeds, but when the trees came 
 to maturity, they proved to be worthless. Those taken to India and Ceylon 
 were very productive, and they far exceed in value the trees in a native 
 state. 
 
 In 1878 a German company established a plantation in Bolivia, where there 
 are now about 10,000,000 trees under cultivation. Though only a little more 
 than a quarter of a century has ela])sed since the first plantations were com- 
 menced, the barks which supply the markets of the world are nearly all from 
 cultivated trees. 
 
 Chemistry. — The cinchona barks yield to the chemist a number of alkaloids, 
 the principal of Avhich are the following : — 
 
 Quinia, Coq, H24, No, (\. 
 
 Cinchona, C^o, H.24, N.,, O. 
 
 The lowest per cent of alkaloids in the barks of commerce is 2, and the 
 highest 13^. This high per cent is obtained from the C. officinalis, var. lan- 
 ceolata, under cultivation ^ 9 per cent of the 13| is Quinia. 
 
 Quinia and Cinchonia were discovered in 1820 by the chemists Pelletier and 
 Caventon, who secured the prize of 10,000 francs offered by the French 
 Academy of Science. 
 
 Preparation. — The mode of collecting the bark is to cut down the tree, and 
 then strip the bark, after which it is dried in the sun and sewn up in green 
 ox-hides, and exported in large bundles or packages. 
 
 This wa.«;teful mode of collecting the bark is not practiced upon the trees 
 planted in India, but alternate strips are removed ; the wounds are then bound 
 up, and when properly healed the other spaces are stripped, by which means 
 the tree is indefinitely preserved. Trees under cultivation yield barks far 
 richer in alkaloids, and the successive new layers of bark are more and more 
 highly charged with the valuable products. 
 
 Use. — The sulistances yielded by the cinchona barks are ])OAverfully tonic, 
 antiseptic, and antiperiodic, and the bark itself as a whole is highly astringent. 
 Quinine, the sulphate of quinia, contains the properties of the bark in the 
 most concentrated form. 
 
 No substance in the materia medica is of such importance in the healing 
 art where malarial and intermittent fevers prevail. Though it is a specific 
 as a febrifuge, it is administered in all complaints that attack the system at 
 intervals, as neuralgia, rheumatism, etc. 
 
 It has been found that a .-solution of quinine in 20.000 jtarts of water will 
 destroy bacteria. It is believed that malarial fevers are due to the direct 
 introduction into the blood of living organisms. Quinine is suppo.*;ed either 
 to destrov these organisms or to render the condition of the blood unfavorable 
 to their development. 
 
160 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 COFFEA, L. (Coffee.) Calyx, tubular, 5-toothed ; corolla funnel- 
 shaped, separated at the crown into 5 reflexed lanceolate divisions ; 
 stamens 5 in number ; anthers oblong ; style, with 2 stigmas ; ovary 
 2-celled. Shrubs. 
 
 1. C. Arabica, Alpiuus. Stem 10 to 15 feet iu height, and 2 to 4 inches in 
 diameter, diffusely branched ; branches slender and drooping ; bark greenish- 
 brown. Leaves elliptical-lanceolate, entire, crenate or wavy, 3 to 5 inches 
 long, on short foot-stalks, opposite and evergreen. Flowers white, in axillary 
 small, nearly sessile, clusters. Fruit, a dark-red berry, in form of a cherry, 
 with a glutinous, tasteless pulp inclosing 2 plano-convex seeds about three 
 eighths of an inch in length, two eighths wide, a groove extending along the 
 longer axis of the plane side. 
 
 2. C. occidentalis is no doubt a variety of C. Arabica, from which have 
 arisen most of the varieties which are known in South America. 
 
 Like all plants grown from the seed, coffee sports freely, hence we have 
 many species, among which the following are well marked and constant. 
 
 Growing in Brazil : — 
 
 3. C. Australis. 7. C. jasminoides. 11. C. meridionalis. 
 
 4. C. nodosa. 8. C. parvifolia. 12. C. stipulacea. 
 
 5. C. biflora. 9. C, magnolifolia. 13. C. minor. 
 
 6. C. paguiodes. 10. C. sessilis. 14. C. truncata. 
 
 Growing in the East Indies are four species ; — 
 
 15. C. semiexserta. 17. C. tetrandra. 
 
 16. C. Travancorensis. 18. C. Wightiana. 
 Three species are cultivated in Mexico : — 
 
 19. C. Mexicana. 20. C. obovata. 21. C. rosea. 
 
 In New Granada there is one species : — 
 
 22. C. spicata. 
 
 The following species grow in Peru ; — 
 
 23. C. nitida. 26. C. umbellata. 29. C. ciliata. 
 
 24. C. racemosa. 27. C. verticillata. 30. C. acuminata. 
 
 25. C. subsessilis. 28. C. longifolia. 
 
 In Java there are two prevailing species under cultivation .- — 
 
 31. C. densiflora. 
 
 32. C. Indica. 
 
 In the Molucca isles one single species prevails : — 
 
 33. C. pedunculata. 
 
 In the Sandwich Islands two species are cultivated : — 
 
 34. C. Chamissonis. 
 
 35. C. kaduana. 
 
 In Arabia and Abyssinia the C. Arabica prevails, and is very constant. On 
 the western coast of Africa two species are cultivated : C. laurina, and 
 C. Liberica ; while on the eastern coast the C. Mozambicana and the C. Zan- 
 guebarica are grown. 
 
 Geography. — Coffee will grow and ripen its fruit in all regions of no frost 
 and is grown in all tropical and subtropical countries. The market is largely 
 
RUBIACE^. 
 
 161 
 
 snpplieil from Soutli America and the East India islands. The principal coffee- 
 growing regions are Brazil, (iuatemala, Cul)a, British West Indies, St. Do- 
 mingo, Java, Padang, Sumatra, Maccassar, Ceylon, British India, and Manilla. 
 
 Etymology. — Coffee is said to have derived its name from the Turkish 
 qaveh, a decoction of berries. The common name is a corruption of the 
 botanic name. The specific name of the princijjal species comes from Arabia, 
 where it was first used. 
 
 History. — Persia, the home of delicious fruits, seems to have given birth 
 to coffee. Thence sometime in the fifteenth century it was carried by Magal- 
 leddin Mufti of Aden into Arabia Felix, where it was first used, not as a 
 beverage, but for medicinal purposes. 
 
 Coffee was not known in commerce till 
 about the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 w^hen it became an article of trade in the 
 markets of Constantinople. 
 
 The government of Syria forbade its use, 
 ostensibly because of its intoxicating quali- 
 ties. After its introduction into Constanti- 
 nople, the Mohammedan priests complained 
 that the mosques were neglected, while the 
 coffee-houses were thronged. The govern- 
 ment interfered and forbade its sale, and a 
 strict police espionage was instituted ; but 
 as it was found impossible to suppress its 
 sale, the state levied an excise tax on it, 
 and thus reaped a large income from it. 
 
 Coffee is consumed in Turkey in large 
 quantities. There was a time w^hen it was 
 regarded as so necessary to the people that 
 
 it became one of the legal causes for divorce when a man refused to furnish 
 his wife with coffee. 
 
 Thougli the coffee tree in cultivation is supposed to have been brought to 
 Arabia from Persia, yet there is good reason to believe that it i.s indigenous 
 in Arabia Felix, and in Africa, on the opposite shores of the Bed Sea. Kan- 
 wolfins took it into Europe in 1573 ; hut its introduction is traced also to the 
 Dutch, who procured berries at Mocha, which were planted at Batavia. In 
 1690, a plant was sent to Amsterdam, which was planted and bore fruit (under 
 glass). 'I'he seeds of this fruit were then planted, and many young trees were 
 produced therefrom. These trees were sent to the gardens in the Dutch pos- 
 sessions in the East Indies, and some of the plants were presented to Louis 
 XIV, by the Dutch authorities ; these were placed under the charge of Jussieu, 
 by whom young plants were sent to the French West Indies, whence the coffee- 
 tree has spread, not only throughout the islands, but to the continent of South 
 America. 
 
 All the coffee grown in the new world is said to have sprung from a single 
 plant which a French naval officer carried to Martini(|ue in 1720, depriving 
 himself of water when parching with thirst in order to nourish his coffee-plant. 
 From this tree, it is said, all the American troj)ical colonies obtained their 
 .seed, which has nuiltijdiod to such an extent that Brazil, Mexico, and the 
 West Indies jiroduce as much coffee as Java and Ceylon. 
 
 It is not known when coffee came into use in western Europe as a bev- 
 erage. The Venetians, who traded with the East, no doubt first used it 
 Pk. Fl. — 12 
 
 CoFFEA (Coffee). 
 
162 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 It was not known in Italy in 1615. In 1645, some men returning home 
 from Constantinople to Marseilles took with them a supply of coffee, with 
 suitable vessels for preparing it for the table; it was thus introduced into 
 France. About twenty years later a house was opened at Marseilles for the 
 sale of coffee. 
 
 In 1671 the first coffee-house was established at Paris. Other places were 
 soon opened for its sale, but upon a very humble scale, and fashionable people 
 did not resort to them. Some Prenchmeu, shrewdly guessing the reason for 
 a want of genteel patronage, fitted up a coffee-house in a liberal and elegant 
 style, to which well-bred people were attracted. About the same time a suc- 
 cessful coffee-house was opened at London. 
 
 Nieber, in his account of coffee, maintains that it was grown upon the hills 
 of Yemen in Arabia, introduced from Abyssinia by the Arabs, long before it 
 was used by Europeans. 
 
 Chemistry. — Coffee yields to chemical analysis the same substances that are 
 found ill tea, though in different quantities , hence the effects upon the nerves 
 and the circulation are similar to those produced by tea. 
 
 In 100 parts of tea in a dry state there is one part of thein ; in the same 
 quantity of coffee there is only one half as much. Of nitrogenous substances, 
 there are in tea 25 parts, in coffee, 13 ; but of essential oil, tea has about f of 
 1 per cent, while coffee has only yf ^ of 1 per cent. 
 
 Tea has 12 parts of tannic acid, coffee has 5|. Potash, phosphoric acid, and 
 oxide of iron are found in both in nearly equal quantities, amounting to about 
 five per cent. 
 
 Preparation. — Coffee is prepared by first browning it over a gentle heat, 
 called burning or roasting ; it is then crushed or ground ; hot water is applied 
 to it and kept at the boiling-point for a short time ; some substance is then 
 mixed with it to precipitate the grounds or powdered coffee held in suspen- 
 sion ; after Avhich, the liquor is poured into cups, and milk and sugar are 
 added to suit the taste. 
 
 Use. — In most families it is used for breakfast, and for dinner. It is so 
 well known that further description is not necessary. 
 
 Statistics. — No other warm dietetic beverage is so largely used as coffee. 
 It is the daily drink of more than 100,000,000 people We have no means 
 of knowing the actual consumption in Turkey and Africa, but the tables of 
 import show the consumption in other countries, m the several coffee- 
 drinking countries the consumption is as follows : — 
 
 In the United States of North America, 400,000,000 of pounds are annually 
 consumed, which is equal to 8 pounds for every man, Avomau, and child. The 
 amount used in Holland is equal to 21 pounds for each person. In Belgium 
 and Denmark the consumption is equal to 13 pounds for a person ; in Norway, 
 10 pounds; in Switzerland, 7 ; and in Sweden, 6. These are the great coffee- 
 drinking peoples of Europe and America. In the kingdom of Great Britain, 
 a greater amount of tea is used than in any other nation, amounting to about 
 4 pounds for each individual ; the amount of coffee consumed is only one 
 pound to each person. 
 
 CEPHAELIS, Swartz. Calyx bell-shaped, toothed ; corolla tubular, 
 inflated at throat, 5-parted ; stamens 5 ; stigmas 2-parted. Flowers 
 crowded into a head, inclosed in a 5-leaved envelope. Berry 2-seeded. 
 Shrub. 
 
Rl^BIAPE^.. 
 
 163 
 
 C. Ipecacuanha, Kiclianl. (Ij)e('ac.) Stem pubescent at top, 18 to 24 inches 
 high; root 4 to ♦) inches long, about the size of a g(j(jse-(|uill. Leaves, about 
 6 in number, opposite, petioled, obhjng-obovate, acute, entire, 4 to 6 inches 
 long, 1 to 2 wide, rougli above, downy and veined beneath; stipules clasj)ing. 
 membranous at l)ase, split above into numerous bristle-like divisions, falling. 
 Flowers, 8 to 10, small, white, each with a green Ijract, forming a little head 
 on an axillary foot-stalk, and indoseil by a 1-leaved involucre, cut into 4 or G 
 segments. Fruit, an ovate, purple berry, becoming black ; seeds small, ]>lano- 
 convex, 2 in number. 
 
 Geography. — The cephaelis is a tropical and subtropical plant, and flourishes 
 in rich, damp woods. 
 
 Eti/niologi/. — Cephaelis is from KecpaXri, Greek for " head," alluding to the 
 form of inflorescence. Ipecacuanha is from the Brazilian ipecaayuen, road- 
 side, sick-making plant, 
 
 Historij. — This drug is said to 
 have been introduced into the ma- 
 teria medica by .John Helvetius, 
 a Dutch physician practicing in 
 Paris. He fir.«t used it as a secret 
 remedy in dysentery, and was in- 
 duced by Louis XI Y. to reveal his 
 secret, for which the sum of 2r),0(U) 
 francs was aAvarded him. Tlie 
 home of the Cephaelis is the damj), 
 rich woods of the valley of the 
 Amazon. It is found in Bolivia 
 and Colombia, has been intro- 
 duced into the "West Indies and 
 Hindustan, and is under success- 
 ful cultivation in India. 
 
 The American ipecacuanha is 
 the root of the Ku])liorbia Ipecac- 
 uanha; it has a local reputation as 
 an emetic, and is occasionally used 
 as a substitute for the South American drug. 
 
 Cliemistrj/. — The active principle of i])ecac is emetine, of which it contains 
 less than 1 per cent. Pelletier discovered, or rather isolated, it in 1817, and 
 found it to bo an alkaloid. 
 
 Use. — The medical jjvoperties are astringent, dia])horctic, expectorant, and 
 emetic. The active principle is largely in the bark of the root, though the 
 woody part of the root also possesses it. 
 
 It forms, in combination with oj)ium, the wel]-km)wn Dover's j)owders. It 
 is an important medicine in dysentery, and is an ingredient in most cough 
 medicines. 
 
 Cephaelis Ipkcacuanha (Ipecac 
 
 RUBIA, Toiirn. (Mndder.) Cal^-x-tubp eg^-shap^d, ;>-toothe(l ; corolla 
 rotate, .Vpart.^l ; stamens 5, sliort, 2 .styles, united at tlie ha.se. Fruit in 
 twos, berry-like, sinootli and subglobular. Perennial, herbaceous, does 
 not flower until the third year. 
 
 1. R. tinctorum, 
 turned })ackwar(ls. 
 
 L. Stem weak, 4-angled, angles armed with prickles 
 .r downwards, trailing or climbing. Leaves in whorls of 
 
164 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 6, lanceolate, margins and midribs aculeate; flower-stalk axillary or ter- 
 minal, trifid. Flowers, brownish-yellow. Root consists of many long prickly 
 shoots half an inch in diameter, and 3 to 4 feet long, descending deep into the 
 ground, all united near the surface in a sort of head. 
 
 2. R. Chiliensis is used as a dye in South America. 
 
 3. R. cordifolia, a native of Persia, is largely used in Hindustan, both as a 
 dye and as an article of medicine. Other species are used for dyes in the 
 countries where they grow. 
 
 Geography. — Its geographical range is the middle and southern parts of 
 the north temperate zone. It is indigenous to western Asia and the Mediter- 
 ranean countries of eastern Europe. It is cultivated successfully in Hindustan, 
 China, Japan, and Northern Africa, Turkey, Greece, Spain, Prance, Germany, 
 and Holland, and in the middle and central United Stgjtes of North America. 
 
 It has been cultivated for market in Ohio 
 and Delaware. It is shipped to England 
 from the ports of India and from the eastern 
 Mediterranean, and thence to America. 
 
 Etymology. — Riibia is derived from the 
 Latin word ruber, red, from the color of its 
 root. Tinctorum is from the Latin word 
 tinctor, a colorer. Chiliensis is derived 
 from Chile, the home of this species. Cordi- 
 folia, from the Latin, refers to the heart- 
 shaped leaves. Madder is derived from the 
 Sanscrit madhura, sweet, or tender, alluding 
 to the character of the root. 
 
 History. — The madder was known to the 
 ancients, and it is believed that some of the 
 cloths in which the mummies were rolled 
 were colored with madder. It was one of 
 the most important dyes known to the Greeks 
 and Romans. 
 
 Preparation. — The long, slender roots are 
 dug when the plant is three years old, and 
 when dry are about the thickness of a goose- 
 quill, and of a deep red color. The method of preparation is to grind the 
 root and wash it with water, which takes out the inert matter, among Avhich 
 is sugar. Straining through woollen cloth leaves the bruised root upon the 
 cloth ; the root is then dried and reground. The liquor is preserved in vats 
 and allowed to ferment, after which it is distilled, and yields a quart of 
 alcohol for every 100 pounds of root. 
 
 Use. — Madder is used for a dye, especially in the printing of muslins. The 
 fine Turkey red is produced by madder. By the use of chemicals, every shade 
 of red, purple, lilac, and rose-color can be obtained from the madder-root. 
 The color is suspended both by alcohol and by water. As a medicine, it ex- 
 cites the secretory organs, and especially the kidneys. When fed to cattle, it 
 enters into the milk and other fluids of the body, and even colors the bones. 
 
 The Alizarine of the shops is artificial, and is a derivative of anthracine, a 
 coal-oil product. Since its introduction, the cultivation of madder has almost 
 ceased; over a million acres of madder land have gone out of cultivation in 
 France alone. 
 
 RuBiA TINCTORUM (Madder). 
 
COMPOSITE. 165 
 
 Ordeu XXX. COMPOSITE. 
 
 Flowers in close heads, polygamous, monoecioiis. The central 
 flowers ill a iiead are called the disk ; the iiiarginal flowers, il' of dif- 
 ferent shape from the disk, form the rai/. Flower heads each on a 
 common rece})tacle, inclosed by an involucre of scale-like bracts ; 
 the whole head resembling a flower, and the involucre like its caljTC ; 
 each of the proper flowers (termed Jiorets) having the calyx adher- 
 ing to the ovary, its limb represented by a hairy pappus or scales, or 
 wanting. Calyx tube adhering to the ovary, its limb usually made 
 up of hairy bristles or scales, occasionally wanting. Corolla either 
 tubular or strap-shaped, generally 5-toothed or lobed ; stamens 5, 
 inserted on the corolla; anthers united in a tube around the 2-cleft 
 style. Fruit an akene, one-seeded. Leaves alternate or opposite, fre- 
 quently divided or cut, without stipules. The florets, or little flowers, 
 are aggregated upon a receptacle, the tubular florets forming a circular 
 disk, while the strap-shaped ones form a circular ring outside the disk ; 
 in some cases all are strap-shaped. The under side of the receptacle 
 is clothed witli or included in a foliaceous aggregation of bract-like 
 scales, which take the place of a common calyx, and are called the 
 involucre- Nearly all herbs. A very large order, containing 766 
 genera, about one tenth of all flowering plants. 
 
 INULA, L. Heads many-flowered, with an imbricated involucre. 
 Ray flowers numerous, pistillate ; disk flowers perfect. Receptacle 
 naked ; pappus simple, scabrous ; anthers with two 
 bristles at the base. 
 
 L Helenium, L. (Elecampaue.) Stem 5 feet high, 
 stout, coarse, furrowed, downy, and branching above. 
 Leaves clasping above and petioled at tlie root, ovate, 
 rough, downy underneath, very large, 2 feet long and 
 1 foot wide ; serrate, crowtied with a network of veins, 
 midrib large. Flowor-heads large, solitary, and terminal ; 
 rays linear, yellow ends, 2-3-toothed. Flowers in August. 
 
 Geofjraphi/. — It grows freely throughout the middle of 
 the temperate zone, both in Europe and Xortli America 
 as well as Asia, in rich, dam]) soil. Inula Helekium 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Helenium, the specific name, comes from (Elecampane), 
 
 the Greek name of the plant, 4\(i/ioy, given in honor of 
 Helen of Troy. Jnula, the generic name, is the Latini/ed form of the same. 
 Elecampane is derived from the Greek i\(viov and Latin cam/nis, a field. 
 
 Historij. — The Elecampane was eaten by the ancients in the countries of 
 the Levant, and Avas used by the Egy])tians iov medicine. Dioscorides de- 
 scribes it. Thunberg saw it in Japan, near Jed<U), botli under cultivati«)n and 
 without. lie heard no Japanese name, hence inferred that it was introduced 
 there by Europeans It is indigenous to middle Asia, and was carried west 
 throughout middle Europe by travellers, and wiuj brought to northeast America 
 by European colonists. 
 
166 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — It is used in the materia med'ica as a tonic in weak digestion and 
 nervous complaints, throat diseases, and as an expectorant. 
 
 ANTHEMIS, L. (Camomile.) Flower-envelope, in form of a 
 hemisphere ; scales equal ; rays numerous, pistillate ; akenes terete, 
 angular, or striate, crowned with a border. Receptacle convex. A 
 perennial herb. 
 
 1. A. nobilis, L. (Roman Camomile.) Stems numerous, 6 to 12 inches 
 long, spreading, and decumbent. Leaves 1 to 2 inches long, sessile, and 
 
 velvety; divisions of the leaves linear. 
 Elower-heads terminal, on long, axillarv 
 pedicels ; rays white ; disk yellow ; scales 
 of receptacle broad and obtuse ; whole plant 
 has a pleasant aromatic odor and bitter taste, 
 especially the flowers. 
 
 Var. flore pleno has double flowers. 
 
 2. A. arvensis, L. (Common camomile. 
 Field camomile.) Differs from A nobilis 
 very Httle, except that the flowers are 
 smaller, and the bitter taste is less agree- 
 able. It is a troublesome weed in corn and 
 potato fields and on roadsides. 
 
 Geoyraphij. — The anthemis grows well 
 throughout the middle and southern por- 
 tions of the north temperate zone, in Europe, 
 America, and Africa. The home of the 
 camomile is western Europe. It is culti- 
 vated in Italy, France, Spain, and Germany, 
 but the best is produced in England, and was 
 brought to northeast America by European 
 colonists. By cultivation, the yellow-disk 
 florets change into ray florets, and become 
 double." But their medicinal character is 
 
 Anthemis nobilis 
 (Roman camomile). 
 
 white; they are then called 
 thereby damaged. 
 
 Etyiuolorjii and History. — Anthemis is from the Greek 6.vdos, a flower, due 
 to the profusion of flowers it produces. Nobilis, the specific name, Latm for 
 "noble" or "grand," is due to the large size and showy character of the 
 flower of this species. Arvensis is from the Latin arvum, a plowed field, 
 where the plant loves to grow. Camomile is from the Greek x«M«'. on the 
 earth, and fxijKou, an apple, due to the apple-like smell of the flower. There 
 is a popular belief that the worse the usage it receives the bettor it grows. 
 Shakespeare, in his Henry IV., says: " For though the camomile the more it 
 is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the more it is wasted the sooner 
 it wears." 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties of camomile are stimulant and tonic, and 
 it is a favorite domestic remedy for stomach disorders and loss of appetite. 
 The effects, besides being stimulant and tonic, are also carminative and ano- 
 dyne. A strong infusion, administered warm, is emetic. The flowers are used 
 in domestic practice for fomentations and poultices. The extract of the flowers, 
 as well as the essential oil, is used in the manufacture of bitters. The flowers 
 
COMPOSITiE. 
 
 167 
 
 arc chcwpd iiml thf siilivii s\v:illt>\ve(I for stomach disorders; and it is recorded 
 that the ancient Egyptians made an ointment by bruising the Howers with oil, 
 which they used for si<in diseases. The constituents of the Howers are a fixed 
 oil, contained in tlie seeds; an essential oil, upon which the odor depends; 
 and a substance obtained by extraction, to which the bitterness is due. The 
 essential oil is obtained by distillation. 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM, Toiini. Heads many-flowered, with numerous 
 pistillate rays ; disk flowers fertile. Involucre, a flattened hemisphere; 
 scales short, appressed, thin, and imbricated. Receptacle flat or con- 
 vex, naked. Rays usually elongated; corollas of the disk flowers 
 flattened or i>-winged, below 4-to 5- toothed. Akenes short, ribbed 
 or angled, truncate at the tip, often destitute of pappus. Herbaceous 
 perennials, or annuals. 
 
 There are many species belonging to this genus. The celebrated 
 Persian insect-powder is the pulverized flowers of C. roseum, C. car- 
 neum, and C. Wilmoti. The Dalmatian insect- 
 powder is the product of C. cinerariifolium, Tres., 
 var. rotundifolium. In the south of Europe the 
 C. corymbosum also furnishes an insect powder. 
 
 C. carneum, M. B. (Chrysanthemum.) Stem 18 inches 
 high. Leaf smooth, bipinnate ; segments of prismal acute. 
 Flower-heads one and a half inches bi'oad ; involucre 
 imbricated ; margin brown and scarious ; receptacle convex, 
 naked. Ray-flowers 20 to 30, ligulate, nerved, and 3-toothed ; 
 disk-flowers numerous, tubular, .5-toothed. Akenes dark 
 brown, angular, wingless, crowned with a short membrana- 
 ceous pappus. Ray florets pale pink. Anthers projecting. 
 Perennial. 
 
 Geographi/. — The C. carneum, C. roseum, and C. Wil- 
 moti are found native in the mountainous regions of north- 
 ern Persia, and the country east of the Black and Caspian 
 Seas. The C. cinerariifolium is indigenous to Dalmatia, Montenegro, and 
 Herzegovina, and has been introduced into southwestern Europe and Cali- 
 fornia. The C. corymbosum is native in southern Europe. 
 
 Etymology. — Chri/santhemum is from the Greek xp^<^os, gold, and Hvdos, a 
 flower, due to the yellow color of some of the species. Cnnipum, the specific 
 name, is Latin for " fleshy," possibly derived from the thick fleshy leaf of this 
 species. Roseum refers to the color of the flower. The name cinerariifhfium, 
 from the Latin word cinis, ashes, and folium, leaf, ash-leaved, is due to an 
 ashy down, with which the leaves are clothed. Wilmoti is for Wilmot. 
 Rotundifolium, from rotundus, round, and/oZ/i/Hj, a leaf, round-leaved. 
 
 History. — The use of these flowers as an insecticide was known to the 
 ancients in the countries of Asia, but their introduction as articles of com- 
 merce in western Europe and America is (piite recent. 
 
 It is advertised under tlie name of Tersian I'owdcr, but very extravagant 
 claims are made for the Dalmatian Powder. 
 
 Use. — The insect-powder is scattered about the flower, or blown into cracks 
 and crevices where the insects liide. It is especiallv useful in the destruction 
 of croton bugs, roaches, fleas, the house-fly, mos(piitos, spiders, ants, etc., and 
 
 Chrysanthemum 
 
 CARNEUM 
 
 (Chrysanthemum). 
 
168 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 all forms of insect life that infest dwellings. Lice upon poultry or cattle are 
 exterminated by it. Scorpions and centipedes also succumb before its potent 
 presence. 
 
 The best powder is produced from the flower when the pollen is just mature ; 
 in fact it has been supposed that it is the pollen alone tliat is effective, but it 
 is claimed that it is the odor that effects the destruction of the insect, and 
 there seems to be reason for this belief ; if that be true, it cannot be the pollen 
 that causes the death of the insect, for the odor does not reside in the pollen 
 alone. Again, it has been asserted that the pollen possesses an independent 
 odor from the plant, which is destructive to insect life. 
 
 The powder is produced by grinding the flowers, which have been harvested 
 just as the pollen is ripe. The powders of commerce are said to be adul- 
 terated with the pulverized flowers of anthemis. 
 
 It is destructive to the caterpillar family, as well as the coleoptera tribe, 
 and this has been used as an argument against the odor theory. Professor 
 Riley, in 1878, showed that it destroys the cotton-worm. The reason for its 
 destructive character to insect life, while harmless to higher forms of exist- 
 ence, is not understood. Men, quadrupeds, and birds breathe it with impunity. 
 
 TANACETTJM, L. Heads iiiaiiy-flowerecl and coryiubosely cyinose, 
 staminate flowers occupying the central part of the head. Pistillate 
 
 flowers, wdth a tubular 3-5-toothed 
 corolla, sometimes imperfect, or partly 
 ligulate, arranged around the outer 
 edge of the head ; the little seed-ves- 
 sels, ribbed or angled, with 3-5 ridges, 
 flat on top. 
 
 T. vulgare, L. (Tansy.) Stem erect, 
 strong, angular, leafy, and branched 
 above ; smooth and purplish, 2 to 3 feet 
 high. Leaves numerous, alternate, clasp- 
 ing, bipinnate ; segments oblong, cut, and 
 serrate ; the lower leaves bipinnate ; the 
 little leaflets trifid, spreading at the base 
 along the petiole, deep green, roughish, 
 though not hairy, deep green, paler be- 
 neath. Flowers yellow, in a terminal 
 flat corymb ; involucre hemispherical ; 
 scales imbricated, numerous, linear, lance- 
 olate, acute. Ray flowers few and inconspicuous, limb toothed. Disk flowers 
 many, perfect, tubular, .^-cleft. Stamens 5 ; anthers united ; all included 
 within the corolla tube. Ovary oblong ; style setaceous ; stigma forked. 
 Fruit small, obovate, angular, crowned with a 5-sided membranous pappus 
 containing a single seed. August. 
 
 Geography, — The geographical range of the tansy is not very wide. Indi- 
 genous to the Crimea and adjacent parts of western Asia, it has spread 
 through middle and wCvStern Europe and northern Africa, where it is found 
 in gardens and by the roadsides near dwellings. It was brought to North 
 America by European settlers early in the colonization of New England, 
 whence it has spread throughout the Atlantic States, escaping from gardens, 
 and has become naturalized. 
 
 Tanacetum vulgare (Tansy). 
 
COMPOSITE. 
 
 169 
 
 Etymology. — Tanacetum is said to he alterod from fitharwain, which is derived 
 from the two Greek words, o, without, and ddvaros, death, in alhision to the 
 durable character of the tlow ers. Vulgare, the specific name, is fn.m the Latin ad- 
 jective vulgaris, and signifies " common." Tansn is a corruption of Tanacetum. 
 
 History. — The Egyptians liad a legend that their deity Isis discinered the 
 properties of tansy. The plant was known to the ancients, but when and 
 where it was introduced into medical practice is not known. 
 
 Use. — The medical properties of tansy are stimulant, carminative, sud(jrific, 
 and anthelmintic. It is used princii)ally at the present day in domestic prac- 
 tice. The i)ulverized leaves, mixed with sirup, are said to be a si)ecific for 
 ascaris. A tincture is used for stomach bitters ; and in some rural districts the 
 bruised leaves and Howers are used to flavor gin, taken for stomach troubles. 
 It is also administered for ague, in the form of tea. 
 
 The medical properties depend upon an essential oil, called oil of tansy, 
 obtained by distilling the whole plant 
 
 Heads discoid, flower en- 
 Florets all tubular and 
 
 CARTHAMUS, L. (Sattiower, Saffron.) 
 velope imbricated, outer bracts leaf-like, 
 perfect ; filaments smooth ; without 
 pappus; receptacle wnth bristly bracts 
 or palese. Akene 4-angled. Annual. 
 
 C. tinctorius, L. (vSatflower.) Stem smooth, • 
 3 to 4 feet high, nuich-branched uear the top. 
 Leaves ovate, lanceolate, sessile, aud sub- 
 amplexicault, teeth armed with sharp spines. 
 Flowers orange-colored ; heads large, ter- 
 minal; florets long and slender. 
 
 Geography. — The Carthamus is indige- 
 nous to all eastern Asia and the Levant, aud 
 has been introduced into Egypt and western 
 Europe. It thrives well in France and 
 southern Germany, aud was brought by 
 European colonists into the eastern L'nited 
 States of North America, where it is culti- 
 vated for ornament. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Carthamus is 
 derived from the Arabic word 7»or/o?H, paint. 
 
 •n .- , • « ic fi.-A»i t1,o Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower). 
 
 The specihc name, tinctorius, is trom the 
 
 Latin word tinctura, a dyeing. Sa/flou-er 
 
 is supposed to be a contraction of saffron-flower, but its origin is not clear. 
 The flowers were brought into western Asia and southeastern Europe, over- 
 land, as early as H5 h. (" 
 
 Preparation.— To obtain the dyeing ])rin(ii)le — carthaniine — the young 
 florets are i)icked and washed to free them from a s(dul)le yellow coloring 
 matter which they contain. They are then dried in kilns and i)Owdered, and 
 placed in an alkaline solution in which pieces of clean white cotton are im- 
 mersed. The alkaline solution having been neutralized with weak acetic 
 acid, the cotton is removed aiul wa,'«hed in another alkaline solution. The 
 second .solution is again neutralized with acid, and carthamine in a pure con- 
 dition is precipitated. Dried carthamine has a rich metallic green color. 
 
ITO 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — The coloring matter of the safflower is used in cosmetics for delicate 
 red tints. Its principal value is as a dye. The Chinese, by the use of mor- 
 dants, alkalies, and acids, produce from this plant the delicate rose, scarlet, 
 purple, and violet colors that make their silks so valuable. The Spaniards 
 employ the flowers to color their soups. The Poles mix them with their bread 
 and cakes. The seed is a valuable food for parrots and other caged birds ; 
 domestic fowls eat it greedily, and fatten rapidly when fed upon it. The 
 yellow coloring-matter is an extract, but the red is known to the chemist 
 under the name of carthamine. 
 
 As a medicine the safflower is purgative when taken in large doses. The 
 seeds yield an oil which is prescribed as a remedy for rheumatism and 
 paralysis. 
 
 Order XXXI. CAMPANULACE-a3. (Bell Flower.) 
 
 Flowers superior, 5-merous, symmetrical ; perianth and stamens 
 adhering to the ovary ; anthers distinct or united ; ovary usually 
 2-3-celled ; seeds numerous. Herbs or shrubs, with milky juice. 
 Leaves usually alternate, exstipulate. 
 
 No. of genera, 53. 
 
 LOBELIA, L. Calyx 5-parted ; tube short, egg-shaped ; corolla irreg- 
 ular, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed, lower lip 3-cleft ; stigma 2-lobed ; 
 
 seed-vessels 2-celled, many-seeded, 
 opening above. Leaves alternate. 
 Biennial. 
 
 1. L. inflata, L. (Indian Tobacco. 
 Emetic Weed.) Stem 10 to 20 inches 
 in height, much-branched, clothed with 
 hairs. Leaves ovate or lanceolate, irreg- 
 ularly toothed, sessile, lower ones blunt 
 at the apex. Inflorescence a paniculated 
 leafy raceme. Flowers pale-blue, on short 
 pedicels, lobes of the calyx as long as the 
 corolla ; pods inflated. Flowers in July. 
 
 2. L cardinalis, L. (Cardinal Flower.) 
 Stem simple, erect, 1 to 2 feet high, 
 pubescent. Leaves lanceolate, pointed at 
 each end, 3 inches long, pubescent and 
 toothed. Flowers scarlet, in a terminal 
 lengthened raceme, 1-sided, pedicels 
 shorter than the bracts ; stamens exsert, 
 color deep flaming red, very showy. 
 Damp grounds throughout the north- 
 eastern States. Easily cultivated. 
 
 3. L. syphilitica, L. (Blue Cardinal 
 Flower. Great Lobelia.) Like the 
 
 last, except in the color of the flower, which is bright blue, rarely white. 
 Wet grounds by the roadsides, common in the northeastern states. Bears 
 cultivation. 
 
 Lobelia inflata (Emetic Weed). 
 
VArciNiArE.E. 171 
 
 This fomis is very large, containing about 400 species, about 20 of which 
 are indigenous to the United States. Both tlie L. cardiualis and L. syphilitica 
 possess the narcotic poisonous properties of L. iuflata, but in a milder degree. 
 
 Geofjmphi/. — The geographical distribution of tliis genus is very wide, and 
 it has representatives in all parts of the world ; l)ut the L. inHata is confined to 
 North America, ranging fr(jni North Carolina to Canada, and west to Kentucky. 
 
 Etymoloyij. — 'lhe name Lobelia was given to this plant in honor of Matthias 
 de Lobel, a native of Lisle, l)()tanist and physician to James I. The specific 
 name injiata is Latin, and due to the circumstance that the pods are inflated. 
 Kinetic weed derives its name from the powerful emetic (lualities wiiich the 
 plant possesses. Indian tobacco owes its name to the fact that this plant is 
 used by the North American Indians, and that its effects are similar to tho.se 
 of tobacco. It is expectorant and diaphoretic in small doses, but in full 
 medicinal doses, nauseating and emetic. Cardiualis and cardinal are names 
 due to the large, showy, intensely red flowers of this species. Syp/iilitica 
 derives its name from the fact that this plant is used as a remedy in .syphi- 
 litic disea.ses, while the common name, blue cardinal, is due to the fact that this 
 species, though otherwise similar to the L. cardiualis, has briglit l)lue flowers. 
 
 History. —The only history the Lobelia inHata can boast of is due to the 
 controversy carried on some years ago by the physicians of the old school and 
 the Thomsonian empirics, the latter claiming marvelous curative properties 
 for it, and proclaiming it a useful and harmless medicine, while the regular 
 physicians denounced it as a dangerous poison, to 1)0 avoided or used with 
 great caution. 
 
 Chemistry. — The exact chemical character is not known. It yields to 
 analysis an alkaloid liquid lobeliana, and an acid called lobelic acid; these 
 substances reside in all parts of the plant. 
 
 Use. — IjoheWa iuflata has gained renown as an empiric remedy. It enters 
 into almost every preparation of the Thomsonian physicians ; they place great 
 reliance upon its virtues as a tonic, emetic, and bilious excitant. The root of 
 the L. syphilitica is extensively used by the North American Indians. 
 
 Order XXXII VACCINIACE^. 
 
 Flower.s 4-.>meroii.«;, rognlar. Calyx adiiate to th(^ ovary ; petals 
 united; 8-10 stamens; anthers opening; at the apex: ovarv several- 
 celled. Fruit, a berry or drupe. Shrubs, with alternate exstipulate 
 leaves. 
 
 No. of oenera, '20. 
 
 GAYLUSSACIA, 11. R. K. (llnckleberry.) Corolla a short, ecrg-shaped 
 tube, with a .'vcleft edge; limb reflexed ; stamens 10; anthers without 
 awns; cells tapering upward.s, forming a .sub-tubular process opening 
 at top; style longer than stamens; stigma flat. Fruit globular, flat- 
 tened at top with 4-5 cells; seeds many. Flower solitary, pedicellate, 
 racemose, drooping, pinkish. Fruit black or !>liiish 
 
 1. G. dumosa, Torr, and Oray. (Dwarf Whortleberry, or Huckleberry.) 
 Clothed with fine hairs, and glandular. Leaves oblong-ovate, mucronate, 
 both sides green, shining when old ; racemes long ; bracts oval, and as long 
 as the pedicels, persistent ; corolla campannlate. Fruit black, tastele.ss. Var. 
 Hirtella is distinguished by having the young branchlets, racemes, and leaves 
 
172 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 clothed with hairs. This variety is found along the coast of New Jersey, and 
 south. 
 
 2. G. frondosa, Torr. and Gray. (Blueberry. Tangleberry. High Blueberry.) 
 Smooth branches, slender and spreading. Leaves ovate, blunt, twice as long 
 as wide, pale beneath. Racemes slender, loose ; bracts sublinear ; corolla 
 globular, bell-shaped. Branches slender, with grayish bark. Flowers small, 
 nearly globular, reddish-white. Eruit large, clothed with a glaucous bloom. 
 
 3. G. resinosa, Torr. and Gray. (Black Huckleberry.) Branched, rigid, 
 somewhat hairy when young. Leaves petioled, oblong, egg-shaped, entire, 
 sprinkled with resinous dots, 2 inches long, sometimes acute, shining beneath ; 
 racemes short, 1-sided, bracteate ; corolla conically egg-shaped or cylindrical, 
 narrowed at the mouth. Flowers reddish ; corymbose in dense clusters, small 
 
 and drooping, greenish- or yellowish-pur- 
 ple, longer than the stamens ; style ex- 
 serted. Fruit black, globular, sweet, and 
 edible. Ripe in July and August. 
 
 Geography, — G. dumosa is found com- 
 mon along the coast of North America, 
 from Newfoundland to Florida. The G. 
 frondosa is common in New England, 
 Pennsylvania, and Kentucky, and south 
 to Louisiana and Florida. G, resinosa is 
 found in damp woods, from Newfound- 
 land to Georgia. 
 
 Etymology. — The name Gaylussacia 
 was given to the genus in honor of M. 
 Gay Lussac, the eminent French chemist. 
 Dianosa, the Latin for " bush," is applied 
 to this plant to denote its character in 
 that respect. Frondosa is Latin for 
 " leafy," and was given to the species on 
 account of the length of the leaf. The 
 specific name resinosa was applied on account of the presence of resinous dots, 
 or globules, on the leaves. Whortleberry is derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
 ivyrtil, a small shrub. HucMeberry is a corruption of hurtleberry, derived 
 from whortleberry. The derivation of tangleberry is obscure. Blueberry is 
 named from the color of the berries. 
 
 History and Use, — G. resinosa is the huckleberry of the markets. It was 
 the favorite berry used by the natives of North America in their celebrated 
 attitash, consisting of huckleberries of several sorts dried and beaten to powder 
 xVnother favorite dish, called sautaash, consisted of the attitash mixed with 
 corn meal, and Avas always prepared for their festivals. 
 
 OXYCOCCUS, Pers. (Cranberry.) Calyx adhering to the ovary, 
 4-cleft. Corolla 4-parted ; segments narrow and turned back ; stamens 
 8, convergent ; anthers tubular, 2-parted, opening by oblique pores. 
 Fruit a globular, 4-celled, many-seeded berry. Shrubs, with slender, 
 creeping, assurgent stems and branches. 
 
 1. 0.macrocarpus,Pers. (Vacciniummacrocarpum, Ait.) (Large-fruited C ran 
 berry.) Stem from 1 to 5 feet long, pro.strate, throwing up assurgent flower- 
 
 Gaylussacia resinosa (Huckleberry). 
 
VACCIXIACK.'E. 
 
 173 
 
 ius .,ua £ruit.l.<.a.-i..g l.rai.ches. Leaves elliptical. n.arRi.is rolled „ve,-, upper 
 
 iwe dark ™en glaTu-ous underneath; flower large; antUera ...ore than tw.ce 
 
 1 it'th o 1.?. Iila,.,e.,t. Kruit varying fro.n ca..,pa.„,l;Ue to orb.cu lar 
 
 dark when ripe. The e.-anberry sports f.c.ely as to the Iru.t; the leaf .s 
 
 ^■'?hrrrr'tr.^:'^*'-^ea a.„. ,«ite co..sta.,t varieties k.,owua.„oug 
 cuUivators as follows: Bell-sl.aped. or l-ear-shaped ; Bugle-shaped ; Cherry- 
 shaped Tls last for.., is sc.eti.nes Hattened at the poles, a..d .s theu called 
 Cheete shaped C.Itivators who have .nade careful oUservat.ous th.uk they 
 have detecLd fro.n 20 to 40 varieties. The following ftve for...s are very 
 
 'TXirpear-shaped, from six tenths of an inch to an inch i., length. a..d 
 four to seven te.iths in dia.neter ; dark when r.pe. „ ■ ., 
 
 Var ™<. .. shape fro,,, fusitor.„ to cylindrical, someti...es s.ualler .u the 
 nrUidle tha.^at the In.ls, a..d every way larger than Ko. 1 ; dark when r.pe. 
 This is what the growers call bugle-shaped. 
 
 3. Nearly globular, from a quarter to three 
 quarters of' an iuch iu diameter ; very dark wheu 
 
 4. About the size and shape of No. 3, but 
 creamy white when ripe. 
 
 5. Very mucli smaller than Nos. 3 and 4. 
 Globular,' three to four tenths of an inch in diam- 
 eter; verv prolific, and very dark when ripe. 
 
 OXYCOCCrS MACR0CARPC3 
 
 (Cranberry). 
 
 9 0. palustris, Pers. (Vaccinium oxycoccus.) 
 (Small Cranberrv.) Differs from O. macrocarpus 
 iu bearing verv 'much smaller leaves and fruit. 
 The fruit also vields a sharper acid, indicated by 
 its name, sour-berried. It is collected where it 
 grows spontaneously, but is not cultivated. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the 
 cranberrv is verv wide; it reaches from 38° to 
 60° north latitude, and covers a belt trending east 
 and we.st from Siberia to the Britisli Isles, and in 
 North America from the Atlantic coast to the 
 
 /VywX/V — Or, /coccus, the generic name, is from the Greek 6^6s. sour, and 
 kSkkos a berrv —sour berrv. The specific name, macrocarpus, ii^ from the 
 r.veek aaKp6sjoncr^ and Kapirds, fruit; hence we have hug fruit. ^ Tins name 
 was given bv Aiton to distinguish it from the small-fruited species O. palus- 
 tris The creuus wa.s formerlv known by the name of vacaunim, the meaning 
 of "which is'^.bscure. The common name cranberry, which is a corruption of 
 cram berry, is said to have been given because the assurgent branches bend 
 over in a curve resembling the neck of the crane. 
 
 History. — 'V\\e historv of this plant furnishes little .>f ii.tere.«^t. It has tor 
 some vears been under cultivation, but its importance as a food-plant or an 
 article of commerce is of recent date. It is largely cultivated in the middle 
 Vtlantic States, Massachusetts, lihode I.><lan.i. New York, New Jersey, Dela- 
 ware, and Maryland. More attention has been given to it in New Jersey 
 
 than elsewhere. >, .i i i>,,..i;„.r 
 
 Cultivation.- Tlu' .nude of cultivation ,n (».•.•:.... M..nmouth. and huil.ng- 
 
174 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 tou counties, iu New Jersey, iu the Beaver Dam Company's plautatious, and 
 those of the Hon. Ephraim P. Empson at Collier's Mills, which are among the 
 most extensive, and are fair specimens of the others, is as follows : The loca- 
 tion is selected along a small stream, whose valley is of some width and the 
 adjacent banks of which are high enough to allow flooding by constructing a 
 low dam. The ground is then cleared of the trees and shrubbery, roots and 
 all. These are piled in heaps, and as soon as dry they are burned, and the ashes 
 are spread. The whole is then covered with sand, into which the plants are set 
 in rows, so that the following year they may be kept free from weeds with the 
 hoe. When the plants begin to fruit they are flooded for several months, 
 beginning in November, and in May the water is let off. In September pick- 
 ing commences, Avhich is paid for by the crate, or bushel, the price varying 
 from forty to sixty cents a crate. The owners of the bogs, as the plantations 
 are called, erect cabins on or near the grounds to accommodate the pickers, 
 who come from far and near; old men and women, girls and boys, flock to 
 the cranberry harvest. The quantity picked in a day varies from one crate 
 to five ; the women and young girls are the most dexterous, and frequently 
 earn as much as two and a half dollars a day when the fruit is abundant. 
 
 Use. — The cranberry has a sharp, acid, and astringent taste, in a raw state. 
 Cooking destroys the astringency, but does not neutralize the acid. It is a 
 favorite sauce with poultry and game, and is largely used for jellies and pre- 
 serves. The ripe fruit can be kept for a long time in vessels of water tightly 
 sealed. It may be kept for any length of time immersed in molasses, and 
 kept in a uniform and cool temperature. Large quantities are shipped to 
 France, where the berries are used in the manufacture of colors. 
 
 Marts. — The great market for cranberries is NeAV York City. The prices 
 have ranged during the last ten years from two to five dollars a crate or 
 bushel. 
 
 Order XXXIII. SAPOTACEJE. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular, axillary ; caljTc 4-8-partefl ; corolla with 
 united petals, hypogynous, 4-8-lobed, imbricated in the bud ; stamens 
 on the corolla, fertile ones equalling number of, and opposite to, the 
 corolla-lobes ; ovary several-celled ; style cylindrical ; stigma acute or 
 capitellate ; ovules solitary, in the cells. Fruit a berry, with one to 
 many cells. Seeds with a bony testa, embryo large. Leaves alternate, 
 entire, and coriaceous ; stipules wanting or falling early. Trees or 
 shrubs, with milky juice and stellate leaves. 
 
 No. of genera, 26 ; species, 325. Tropical or subtropical. 
 
 DICHOPSIS, Thu. Cal}^s 6f-parted in two series, outer row valvate ; 
 corolla 6-lobed, usually acute ; stamens 12, attached to the base of the 
 corolla, every alternate one shorter ; anthers lanceolate ; ovarium vil- 
 lous, 6-celled ; style awl-shaped. Large trees. Leaves leathery, clothed 
 underneath with rusty-yellow, short, woolly, pubescence. Flowers 
 axillary, stalked. 
 
 D. gutta, Bentley and T. (Gutta Percha.) Trunk 60 to 70 feet high, 2 to 3 
 feet in diameter ; bark rough ; twigs tomentose. Leaves alternate ; stipules 
 deciduous ; petioles long, stout, thickened at the base ; blade obovate, oblong, 
 short, acuminate, tapering at the base, entire; margin revolute, glabrous 
 
SATOTACKM. 
 
 above, densely tomentose underneath, and heathery, witli parallel veins nearly 
 at right angles with tlie prominent inidrih. Flowers small, on short, recurved, 
 silky j^edicels, clustered in the axils of the leaves. Calyx hell-shaped; seg- 
 ments 6, in 2 imbricated rows, persistent. Corolla-tube scarcely longer than 
 the calyx, with G segments; staiuens 12, inserted on the throat of the corolla; 
 filaments in one row, equal, slender, extending beyond the segments of the 
 corolla ; anthers ovate acute, 2-celled, opeuiug lengthwise outwardly ; ovary 
 globose, slightly j)ubesceut, 6-celled, with au ovule in each cell ; style simple, 
 slender, longer than the stameus ; stigma terminal, blunt. Fruit one and a 
 half inches loug, ovoid, pointed, and rusty-pubescent. Seed uot described. 
 
 (ieofjraphi/. — The tree tliat furnishes the gutta percha of commerce is 
 tropical, found mitive in the East Indies, Ceylon, and the Malay Islands. 
 
 Ktymoloijii. — Dichopsis is from the Greek Six«, diversely, and oi//ty, aspect. 
 Gutta, the specific name, is from the Malay, 
 and signifies " sticky juice ; " and percha is 
 Malay for " tree ; " hence " sticky-juiced 
 tree." 
 
 History. — Gutta percha was first intro- 
 duced to the notice of Europeans by voy- 
 agers wlio had visited the coasts of Malacca 
 and the Malay Islands. The sailors obtained 
 it from the natives, in the form of bowls, 
 cups, etc., as drinking-vessels, knife-iiaudles, 
 and other useful articles. Dr. Montgomerie 
 carried gutta percha to England in 1843, 
 and showed the method of forming it into 
 domestic utensils and surgical instruments; 
 it has now attained a point of wonderful im- 
 portance in domestic economy. 
 
 vSome notice of the tree was taken to 
 Europe in 1656, nearly two hundred years 
 prior. ])ut the world seemed not yet ready 
 for it. 
 
 Preparation. — It was at first obtained by 
 felling the tree, stripping off the bark, and 
 
 removing the cambium layer, which is charged with sap containing the sub- 
 stance. Now a less wasteful method is practiced, which consists in tapping 
 by boring into the sap-wood and inserting a tube. The sap thus caught soon 
 coagulates, and can bo kneaded into cakes for market, at which time it has 
 tile appearance of leather and the odor of cheese. Thougli not elastic, it is 
 made plastic l)y heat, when it takes any form to suit the workman's fancv. 
 
 Use. — The timber of this magnificent tree is not valuable for building pur- 
 poses, as it is soft and weak. The gum it produces, however, has become of 
 great economic importance. It is of intermediate consistence l)etweon wood 
 and leather, softens by heat, aiul is immersed in hot water for that purpose ; 
 while in a soft state it takes delicate iiiiprossions. which remain sharp 
 when cool 
 
 It is formed into knife-handlt-s. whips, surgical instruments, splints, combs, 
 soles of shoes, and covers for books; hut the most important use to which it 
 has been applie<l is to insulate telegraphic cables Being impervious to water 
 and a bad ((niductor of »'lectricity, it is the best of all materials for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Dichopsis gutta (Gutta Percha). 
 
176 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Note. — Achras sapota, Wight, a tree of this order, bears a pear-like fruit, 
 Avhich, when a little over-ripe, is sweet and edible. Native of Panama. 
 
 Bassia latifolia, Koxb., another tree of this order, is one of the Butter Trees. 
 The flowers are used for food ; a wine is also made from them. By distilling, 
 a spirit comes over, and by expression, an oil is obtained from the seeds. 
 Native of Bengal. 
 
 The Bassia Parkii is the butter tree of Africa, which supplies material for 
 candles and soap. 
 
 The Mimusops elata, the Cow Tree of Para, in northeastern parts of Brazil, 
 — is another of this order, the sap of which resembles rich cream. The 
 fiuit, of about the size of an ordinary apple, is edible. 
 
 Order XXXIV. EBENACE^. 
 
 Flowers seldom perfect, usually dioecious, in crowded cymes or scat- 
 tered along the ends of the branchlets ; calyx 3-6-parted ; corolla on 
 the receptacle ; petals united, urn-shaped, leathery, smooth within and 
 pubescent outside ; limb 3-6-parted, imbricated in the bud ; stamens 
 inserted on the bottom of the corolla, twice as many as the number of 
 lobes in the corolla, occasionally equal or 4 times as many ; filaments 
 free or in pairs ; ovary sessile, 3 to many-celled. Fruit a berry, globu- 
 lar or ovoid, succulent, few-seeded. Seeds inverted ; testa membra- 
 nous. Leaves alternate, leathery, entire, and without stipules. Trees 
 and shrubs, with hard wood. 
 
 No. of genera, 6. 
 
 DIOSPYROS, L. Flowers dioecious and polygamous ; cah^ 4-6-lobed ; 
 corolla bell-shaped, 4-6-parted, rolled together in the bud ; stamens 
 4-8, or numerous ; filaments short. Fruit globular, an inch to an inch 
 and a half in diameter, surrounded at the base by a fleshy, persistent 
 calyx, 4-8-celled, with 8 to 12 seeds. Tree. 
 
 1. D. Virginiana, L. (Persimmon.) Trunk 30 to 50 feet in height, 10 to 
 18 inches in diameter, forming a symmetrical head. Leaves elliptical, bluntly 
 acuminate, entire, dark green, paler underneath, smooth, and 3 to 5 inches 
 long; petioles and veins somewhat hairy, glaucous underneath ; calyx 4-parted ; 
 stamens 8. Flowers greenish yellow. Fruit globular, an inch to an inch and 
 a half in diameter. Sap-wood yellowish white, light and soft ; heart-wood 
 dark, heavier, and harder. 
 
 2. D. ebenura, Retz. (Ebony.) Trunk 50 to 80 feet high, 2 to 3 feet in 
 diameter, branching into a beautiful head. Leaves elliptical, pointed, and 
 mucronate. Fruit large, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, edible. AVood black, very 
 close-grained, sinks in water, and takes a fine polish. 
 
 There are many species of the Diospyros, all yielding a hard, dark wood. 
 The wood of the D. ebenum, however, is the wood known as ebony, or 
 iron-ivood. 
 
 3. D. melanoxylon, Roxb., produces the black ebony found native in southern 
 Asia. Wood very hard, heavy, sinks in water, and takes a fine polish. 
 
 Geography. — The Diospyros Virginiana is a native of North America, 
 throughout the eastern part of the north temperate zone up to 40° of north 
 
EHKNACE^:. 
 
 177 
 
 latitude. 1). ehenuin is a uativc of Ceyluii, aud is not indigenous outside of 
 the ti\)j)ics ; it is found, however, at an elevation of 5,()()() feet, which suggests 
 that it woukl grow in the edge of the temperate zones, in regions of no frost. 
 The 1). ebeuuni is also found native in Mauritius. 
 
 Etymology. — iJ'iospyros is derived from the Greek words At'os, Jove, aud iTvp6i, 
 fruit, — the fruit of Jove, or the fruit of the gods, or heaveuly fruit. Ehenmn, 
 from the Hebrew then, a stoue, is in allusion to its hardness. Virg'miana is 
 derived from Virginia, the country wliere it was first f<jund by botanists. 
 Melanoxylon is derived from the Greek fxeXas, black, and ^v\ov, wood, hence 
 black wood. Ebony (the common uame of I), ebeuum) is a corruption of the 
 scientific name FJxnuni. Persimmon is the name given to this species by the 
 American Indians; its meaning is unknown. 
 
 DiosPYRO.s ViRGiNiANA (Persimmou). 
 
 Preparation. — The best ebony is produced by the D. ebenum, and is taken 
 from Ceylon to England in logs from 18 to 2-4 inches in diameter, and 12 feet 
 long ; large quantities of excellent ebony are also sent from Mauritius (D. reti 
 culata) in poles or logs from 10 to 20 feet long ami 12 to 15 inches in diameter. 
 It is seasoned under water. Wlien felled it is immersed in water, where it 
 remains for six to eighteen months, when removed from the water the ends 
 are hooped with iron rings, to prevent checking and splitting An ebony is 
 also obtained in the T.sland of St Helena from the Dombeya melanoxylon, of 
 the order Byttneriaceiv. 
 
 Use. — Ebony is higlily prized by turners as a material for their purpose; 
 largelv used for wind instruments, a,s flutes, fifes, ]>iccolos, etc.; it is used for 
 veneerinor. inlaying, and for piano keys, nuts for violins; also the finger boards 
 and tail pieces, with the screws for tuning, are made of ebony. 
 Ph. El. — l;i 
 
178 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order XXXV. OLEACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, occasionally dioecious and without petals, in a 
 raceme or trichotomous panicle ; calyx, with sepals united, 4-lobed or 
 toothed, sometimes wanting ; corolla hypogynous ; petals 4, united at 
 the base in pairs, or all united ; stamens 2, inserted on the corolla, and 
 alternating with its lobes ; ovary free, 2-celled. Fruit a drupe, a 
 2-celled berry or a samara. Leaves opposite, petioled, simple, or odd- 
 pinnate. Trees and shrubs. 
 
 No. of genera, 18 ; species, 280. 
 
 OLEA, Tourn. (Olive.) Calyx short, 4-toothed, persistent ; corolla 
 tube short ; limb 4-parted, and spreading ; stamens 2, inserted in the 
 base of the tube, longer than the corolla tube ; ovary with 4 suspended 
 ovules, 2 or 3 of which prove abortive. Fruit a fleshy drupe, and oily. 
 An evergreen shrub or tree, with opposite leaves. 
 
 0. Europaea, L. (Olive.) Trunk 20 to 30 feet high, much-branched and 
 spreading, forming a symmetrical head ; branches angular. Leaves lanceo- 
 late, entire, deep green above, light hoary beneath, and evergreen Flowers 
 axillarv, in short, compact racemes, small and white Fruit greenish, or 
 wliitish- violet, sometimes nearly black, size of a pigeon's egg, oval, sometimes 
 globular or obovate, and very abundant. 
 
 There are several species, but the 0. Europsea is the one usually cultivated. 
 Of this species there are five important varieties : — 
 
 Var. longifolia. Leaves linear, lanceolate, flat and silky beneath. 
 
 Var. latifolia. Leaves broad, oblong, flat and hoary beneath. 
 
 Var. ferruginea. Leaves narrow, acute at each end, rusty beneath. 
 
 Var. obliqua. Leaves oblong, bent obliquely, pale beneath. 
 
 Var. buxifolia Leaves oblong-ovate, and branches divaricate. 
 
 Var. sylvestris, found outside of cultivation, is characterized by smaller 
 fruit. It is common in the Mediterranean countries, the Canary and Madeira 
 Isles. There are other varieties, but those mentioned are the most approved. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the olive-tree is not very broad ; 
 it grows best just on the edge of the region of no frost, and on the seacoast. 
 Its area of growth is especially the countries around the Mediterranean sea. 
 Asia Minor, Greece, Syria, Spain, Italy, northern Africa, and the islands of 
 the Mediterranean are the great olive-growing regions. The ports of export 
 are Trani, Barletta, Bari, Mola di Bari, Molfetta, Otranto, Taranto, and 
 especially Gallipoli. 
 
 Etymology. — Olea, the generic name, is from the Greek iXala, through the 
 Celtic or Gothic word oleic, oil, due to the oil-sacs deposited near and just 
 under the skin of the fruit. Europaea, the specific name, is due to the circum- 
 stance that this species is the one under cultivation throughout Europe. 
 Olive, the common name, is plainly a corruption of the generic name, or a 
 contraction of the French Olivier. 
 
 History. — The home of the olive has been traced to Syria, whence it easily 
 spread through the countries of the Levant and southern Europe. Though it 
 has no Sanscrit name, it is referred to as one of the plants upon Mount Ararat 
 at the time of the Deluge. The wood is found iu the stone coffins of Egyp- 
 
OLEACE^.. 
 
 179 
 
 tiaus. But we have uo means of determining the exact date of its introduction 
 into Europe. It propagates itself freely, and is growing without cultivation 
 iu all the countries around the Mediterranean. The olive tree is of slow 
 growth, but where its natural development is allowed for ages, the trunk often 
 attains a considerable diameter. l)e Caudolle records one 23 feet in girth 
 whose age was supposed to be seven centuries. Some Italian olives are 
 credited with an anti([uity reaching back to the days of repuldican Rome; 
 but the age of such ancient trees is always doubtful during growth, and their 
 identity with old descriptions is still more difficult to establish. 
 
 Cultivation. — Its mode of culture, or rather the method of making a planta- 
 tion, is singular and interesting. The province of Susa, in Morocco, produces 
 great abundance of olive oil, wiiich has the 
 reputation of being of such excelh^nt quality 
 as to rival the celebrated Florence oils. In 
 Jackson's account of the empire of Morocco 
 there is a description of an extensive olive 
 plantation. The order and arrangement of 
 the trees struck him as being very curious, 
 and on inquiring the cause of the arrange- 
 ment he was told by an official high in au- 
 thority that during the Saddia dynasty, a king, 
 on the march with his army to the Soudan, 
 encamped on the spot, and that the pegs to 
 which his horses were picketed were cut from 
 an adjacent olive grove, and each one became 
 a tree. This explanation he regarded as fab- 
 ulous, but goes on to relate that he had occa- 
 sion to plant some fruit-trees in a garden. 
 The person employed to make the plantation 
 procured some olive-branches, cut them up 
 into pieces a foot long, sharpened one end 
 with a knife, and proceeded to drive them 
 into the ground with a stone. Supposing the 
 fellow was imposing upon him, he ordered 
 him away ; but on being assured that it was 
 the usual method, he allowed him to proceed, 
 and each peg grew into a thrifty olive-tree. 
 
 Engrafting the better varieties upon wild stocks greatly increa.'^es the i)ro- 
 duction of fruit. 
 
 Preparation of olive oil. — The fruit is crushed in a mill, the pulp then placed 
 in woollen bags and subjected to pressure and the api)lication of hot water. 
 The oil is skimmed off the water and placed in tul)s, barrels, bottles, crocks 
 (a sort of earthen jar or pot), and other vessels. In the remote districts, where 
 it is made in small quantities, it is taken to market in bottles made of goat- 
 skins. On that part of the Italian peninsula skirting flie mouth of the 
 Adriatic, the entire country is an olive orchard. In the oil .•<ea.'?on. hundreds 
 of mules and donkeys crowd the highways going into fJallipoli, the seaport, 
 laden with oil, where mav l)e seen at the same time fifteen to twenty ships 
 taking in their cargoes of oil and olives. When the oil is first brought in 
 from the mills it is emptied into a large vat, or cistern, at which time it is 
 dark and turbid. After remaining for some months in this ma.ss. ir settles. 
 becomes clarified, and takes on a beautiful amber color, when it is drawn off 
 
 Olea Europ^a (Olive). 
 
180 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 
 
 into barrels and other vessels for shipping to the United States, England, 
 France, Genoa, and elsewhere. The best oil comes from Florence, and was 
 formerly shipped exclusively in glass flaslvs, called Florentine Hasks. 
 
 Use. — The olive is eaten when in an under-ripe state. The taste is bitter 
 and slightly astringent, hence a taste for it must be acquired. The fruit is 
 put up in either glass or wood, and preserved in salt. To prepare it for the 
 table it is soal^ed in water, and afterwards placed in vinegar or oil. The 
 principal use of the olive is for the manufacture of oil. The oil obtained from 
 the olive is esteemed for its soft, delicate Havor, and is largely used for culi- 
 nary purposes and for table use, for salad dressings, etc. It is also an excel- 
 lent lubricator, and valuable for illuminating purposes. It solidifies at 10° to 
 15° Fahrenheit. Its specific gravity is .9176 ; it is frequently adulterated with 
 cotton-seed oil, the specific gravity of which is .9300. 
 
 The wood of the olive-tree is hard, of a fine, close grain, and takes an excel- 
 lent polish ; it is used largely by turners for the manufacture of small articles. 
 The root is esteemed on account of its gnarls and curls. 
 
 Order XXXVI. LOGANIACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular, in axillary or teriiiiiial cymes ; calyx, with 
 united sepals, valvate in the bud, or 4 to 5 free imbricated sepals ; 
 corolla hypogynous, with sepals united, wheel-shaped, or bell-shaped ; 
 limb 5-10-cleft, sometimes 4-lobed ; stamens on the corolla equal 
 to and alternate with its lobes ; filaments thread-like or awl-shaped ; 
 ovary superior, 2-4:-celled ; style thread-like ; stigma shield-shaped ; 
 ovules numerous. Fruit a capsule or berry. Trees and shrubs. Leaves 
 simple, opposite or whorled. 
 
 No. of genera, 30 ; species, 350 ; mostly tropical. 
 
 STRYCHNOS, L. Calyx somewhat bell-shaped, or wheel-shaped, with 
 4 lobes, whose edges just meet ; stamens 4 or 5, on the corolla ; fila- 
 ments short, attached to the backs of the short anthers ; ovary 2-celled ; 
 style thread-like. Fruit a berry, globular, covering hard, and without 
 valves. Leaves opposite. Flowers in cymes, axillary or terminal, 
 small and white. 
 
 1. S. nux vomica, L. (Nux Vomica.) Stem from 20 to 3.5 feet high ; bark 
 smooth, gray ; much-branched, the branchlets swollen or knotted at the nodes. 
 Leaves 5-nerved, with 2 ribs each side of the midrib, reaching from the base 
 to the apex, ovate, pointed ; calyx tubular, 5 toothed ; corolla tubular, greenish- 
 white, lengthened ; limb 5-parted, parts lanceolate ; stamens 5 ; anthers erect ; 
 pistil longer than the stamens ; stigma globose. Fruit as large as a middling- 
 sized orange, with a hard, bitter, smooth, yellow peel, inclosing fleshy pulp, in 
 which are embedded a number of flat, circular seeds, concave on one side and 
 convex on the other, an inch in diameter, and a quarter of an inch thick, cov- 
 ered with a gray, velvety down, hard and horny, containing a gummy, resinous 
 matter, soluble in alcohol. Wood hard, bitter, and very durable. 
 
 Chemistry. — The seeds yield to the chemist two substances, — strychnine 
 and brucine. 
 
 Strychnine, C^x ^22 ^2 Og- 
 
 Brucine, Cga H21 Ng O4. 
 
I/XiANIACET^C. 
 
 181 
 
 Brucine differs little in composition 
 its poisouous ijualitit'S. These two sul 
 
 troiii stryclmiiie, but is not so active in 
 stances in combination form one of the 
 most active poisons known. Strychnine is intensely bitter; one grain gives to 
 110 gallons of water a jierceptible bitter taste. It requires 2,000 parts of 
 boilin"- water to dissolve it ; but alcohol suspends it more readily, and it is 
 very soluble in chloroform. 
 
 2. S. Ignatii, Herg. The seeds of this species are said to be far richer in the 
 yield of strychnine than the nux vomica. The tree is native in the Philippine 
 Islands. The seeds are known in commerce as the beans of St. Ignatius. 
 They were brought to the notice of Ray, the English botanist, in 1699, by a 
 Jesuit, who obtained them through missionaries. 
 
 3. S. colubrina (Snakewood), L., yields strychnine from the wood of the 
 root. 
 
 4. S. tieute. Lech, yields it from the bark of che root. 
 
 5. S. potatorum, L. (Clearing Nut.) Like the nux vomica, but a larger 
 tree; fruit similar iu form, but does not possess the same poisonous qualities. 
 Found iu the mountains of East Indies. 
 
 The pulp is eaten by the natives, and the 
 seeds are used to purify water. One of the 
 seeds is rubbed smartly upon the sides of a 
 water vessel, which is then filled with water, 
 that in a very short time becomes clear and 
 pure ; the effect of the seed is to ])recipi- 
 tate not only suspended vegetable matter, 
 but impurities of every sort. This effect 
 is attributed to some albuminoid property 
 of the seed. 
 
 When the fruit is ripe it is attacked by 
 birds and climbing animals: they eat the 
 rind, and throw down the pulp and seeds. 
 The seeds are collected, washed, and sold 
 to country merchants for a quarter of a 
 cent a pound. 
 
 6. S. toxifsra. Hth., found in the silvas 
 of the Amazon and Oronoco, furnislios the 
 celebrated poison, curari, with which the 
 natives prepare their arrows for battle. 
 The poison resides in a resin found in the 
 
 bark of the tree, and is separated by maceration in wau-r. The substance 
 is harmless when taken into the stomadi, but fatal when introduced into the 
 blood. Tlie preparation for the poisoned arrows is a mixture of the product 
 of several different species, but the mode of preparation is a secret. 
 
 (rcograpki/. — Those trees are tro])icnl and subtropical, natives of In<lia and 
 the islands s(Mith of Asia. 
 
 Fti/mo/offy. — The name stt-i/chuos: is from the Cireek word, arpuxt'os. which 
 signifies to "strew" or " throw down," in fancied allusion to the stupefying 
 effects it produces upon tlie animal system. \ur rnniira signifies /o"/ »"', — 
 from the Latin n;<.r, a nut, and vomini, a plague or loathsome disease, alluding 
 to its poisonous ((ualities hjuntil is named after .*>/. Ignatius. Coluhr'mn, 
 Latin, is a general name fur innocuous ser])Pnts. hence also snnke taml . Chettik 
 
 Strychnon n»ix vomica (Nux Voniiia). 
 
182 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 is the Javanese name for the S. tieute, which is a native of Java, and tieute' is 
 probably derived from chettik. Potatorum, Latin, drinking, and clearing nut, 
 are names due to the fact that it is used in the East Indies for clearing muddy 
 water. Toxifera, from Greek to^ikov, poison, and (pepeiv, bear, derives its 
 name from the fact that the Indians use it to poison their arrows. 
 
 History. — This poison was discovered by the chemists Telletier and Caven- 
 ton in the seeds of Strychnos Ignatii and S. nux vomica. 
 
 Use. — The medical properties are stimulant, tonic, and narcotic, — and it 
 is used as a remedy in rheumatic paralysis and lead poisoning. In large 
 doses it attacks the brain and spinal cord, producing dizziness, contraction of 
 the heart, and muscular spasms. Thirty grains of the powdered nut have 
 proved fatal, and three grains of the extract. Half a grain taken by mistake 
 caused the death of Dr. Warner. It is said that swine and goats are not 
 injured by it. It enters into the medical preparations of homoeopathic prac- 
 titioners for stomach disorders, and is by them regarded as a specific in 
 dyspepsia. It is largely used in the United States to destroy vermin, and 
 especially animals and birds injurious to agriculture. 
 
 It has been charged that large quantities of strychnine are used in the 
 preparation of whiskey ; this is a mistake, as its intensely bitter properties 
 would render the liquor unpalatable and unsalable. The wood is hard, dura- 
 ble, and takes a good polish ; some of the species yield a snake-wood. 
 
 The spinal cord is the seat of strychnine poisoning, and the effects are inter- 
 mittent tetanic convulsions. In some cases the respiratory muscles become 
 rigid, and death ensues from suffocation. Large doses of opium are said to 
 neutralize the effects of strychnine. 
 
 Order XXXVIl. BORRAGINACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, usually regular, axillary or terminal, solitary, or 
 mostly in 1-sided scorpioid cymes ; calyx persistent ; sepals united, 
 4-5-parted ; corolla regular, with scales under the middle of lobes, 
 hypogynous, with united petals, deciduous, bell-shaped or wheel-shaped ; 
 throat naked, or clothed with hairs or scales ; limb 5-lobed, imbricate 
 in the bud ; stamens 5, on the throat of corolla, alternate with its 
 divisions. Fruit, 4 distinct, nut-like akenes, sometimes united in 
 pairs. Mostly rough, hairy. Herbs. 
 
 No. of genera, 68; species, 1,200; cosmopolitan. 
 
 SYMPHYTUM, Tourn. Calyx 5-parted ; corolla tubular, bell-shaped ; 
 mouth closed by 5 awl-shaped scales, forming a cone. Fruit smooth 
 and ovoid. A perennial herb. 
 
 S. officinale, L. (Comfrey. ) Stem stout, winged, 4 feet high, branching towards 
 the top, hairy. Leaves large, coarse, petioled, lower ones broad, lanceolate, 
 upper ones lanceolate. Flowers in racemes, and terminal ; sepals lanceolate ; 
 border of corolla divided into 5 recurved teeth ; yellow, white, pink, or red, 
 
 Var. Bohemicum, Sch. has bright red flowers. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of this plant is not great, but it 
 grows well about the middle of the temperate zone, and is found throughout 
 middle Europe and the older parts of the United States of America. 
 
rONVOTvVn.ACE^E. 
 
 188 
 
 (Tvv, tof^ether, n\\(\ r)>vr6v, a 
 mucilage contaiued in the 
 
 Etiimnlnrjy. — Sijinphutum is fmni the Greek 
 plant, in allusion to the gummy character ..f the 
 root of this plant. Comfrey, from the Latin 
 ronfirnmre, strenrjthen, owes its name to its 
 healing properties. 
 
 History. — 'V\\\s plant is indigenous to the 
 Peloponnesus and Greek islands, whence it 
 has worked its way westward to the British 
 Isles ; it was introduced by European colo- 
 nists into northeast America, where it has 
 become naturalized about old dwellings and 
 around ruins, having escaped from gardens. 
 It loves damp, rich soil. 
 
 ^se. — The root abounds in a gummy, 
 glue-like mucilage; a decoction of it is used 
 to bind up wounds. It is also used for 
 throat and lung troubles, on account of the 
 soothing properties of its mucilage. It is 
 grateful in irritable stomach complaints. 
 It likewise serves as a remedy for bleeding 
 
 at the lungs ; and the bruised heated root is sometimes applied to wounds 
 in the form of a poultice. 
 
 Symphytttm officinale (Comfrey). 
 
 Order XXXVIII. CONVOLVULACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular; peduncles axillary or terminal, simple or 
 dichotomous, usually bibracteate ; calyx 5-sepaled, usually free and per- 
 sistent ; corolla hypogynous ; petals united and funnel-shaped, twisted 
 in the bud; stamens 5, inserted at the bottom of the corolla-tube, 
 alternating with its lobes ; filaments swollen below, thread-like above ; 
 style simple, or nearly so ; seeds few, 2 in each of the.2-3 cells of the 
 ovary. Fruit capsular ; carpels connate. Herbaceous, woody, or sub- 
 woody plants, climbing or trailing. 
 
 No. of genera, 32 ; .species, 800 ; cosmopolitan ; mo.stly in warm 
 sands. 
 
 IPOMCEA, L. Calyx .>parted ; sepals green ; corolla salver or funnel- 
 shaped, spreading; number of stamens 5 in the throat; style simple, 
 terminated by a head-shaped stigma, which is sometimes 2-lobed ; 
 seed-ves.sel 2- or 3-valved, 2- or spuriously 4- or 3-celled ; seeds 4-6. 
 
 1. I. batatas, Lam. (Sweet Potato.) Ovary spuriously 4-celled ; stem from 
 2 to 10 feet long, creeping and rooting at every node, from an eighth to a 
 quarter of an inch in dianif^ter. Leaves very variable, usually triangular or 
 3-lobed ; general outline heart shaped, the sinus at the base bri>ad. .'i-veined, 
 smooth '; blade 2 to ^ inches long. ..n lone: petioles. Flowers on long peduncles. 
 2 to .5 in a cluster, jturple ; root gives rise to loni^. spindle-shaped tubers. Au 
 herbaceous perennial. 
 
 Geography. — Thv sweet p«>tato is lar^^ely cultivated in soutliern United 
 States, and conips tc perfection a* far north as t]w ("arolinas. North of North 
 Carolina it was not formerly supposed to he perfect ; but for the last (juarter 
 
184 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 of a century it has been successfully cultivated as a market-crop in eastern 
 Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and southern New Jersey ; in fact the sweets, 
 as they are called in New York market, from south Jersey are as popular as 
 the Carolinas. It is grown in southern Spain and Italy, The British Isles 
 are too damp for it. 
 
 Etijmoloyij. — Ipomoea, the generic name, is derived by Loudon from the 
 Greek iy^, a worm, and oixoios, like, — like a worm. Batatas comes from the 
 Spanish batata, the native name of the sweet potato. Potato is a corruption 
 of batatas, and siveet refers to the taste of this species. 
 
 History. — Its home is held by some authorities to be America; by others, 
 Asia ; and there seem to be good reasons for believing it to be indigenous 
 both to Asia and America. It was introduced into southern Europe by the 
 Spaniards soon after the discovery of America. It now forms an important 
 
 article of food throughout tropical and 
 subtropical countries, and needs a high 
 temperature to develop the peculiar 
 delicate sweet taste. 
 
 It is not known when this tuber was 
 introduced into the kitchen. 
 
 Cultivation. — The mode of cultivat- 
 ing the sweet potato is to place the 
 tubers in a hot-bed, where they sprout. 
 The sprouts, when six to ten inches 
 long, are taken off and transplanted, in 
 the same manner as cabbage-plants are 
 treated. They grow to greatest per- 
 fection as to quality in loose sand. A 
 shovelful of well-rotted barnyard man- 
 ure is dropped, and over it with a hoe 
 is formed a conical hill, in the top of 
 which the plant is transplanted ; in 
 about two mouths tlie tubers begin to 
 form about the base of the plant, which 
 by that time has become a prostrate vine, six to ten feet in length, rooting at 
 every node. A part of the labor of cultivating is the destruction of tliese 
 rootlets, by frequently lifting the vine from the ground, which violence breaks 
 them. 
 
 Use. — The sweet potato in tropical and subtropical countries is an article 
 of food of vast importance. The rudest modes of cooking are roasting and 
 boiling, but it is also largely used for pies, custards, and other delicacies ; it is 
 also minced while raw, roasted with Maracaibo coffee, tlien ground and sold 
 for coffee. It is in common use in the southern and middle States as a 
 vegetable at breakfast and dinner. 
 
 2. I. purga, Hayne. (Bindweed Jalap.) Stems twining, 12 feet long, many 
 from the same glol)ular, tuberous, fleshy root ; branched. Leaves alternate, 
 on stout foot-stalks, which are 4 to 5 inches long ; base cordate, lobes pointed, 
 narrowed at the apex, entire, smooth both sides, paler beneath, with con- 
 spicuous veins. Flowers in cymes, axillary, few-flowered ; peduncles long and 
 twisted •, pedicels bracted ; calyx, short, smooth, 5-parted ; corolla large, tubu- 
 lar, with flattened, spreading limb, contracted just where the limb begins to 
 flatten, dull pink ; stamens inserted in the tube near the base ; filaments flat- 
 tened, three longer than the other two, all extending beyond the mouth of 
 
 Ipom(EA batatas (Sweet Potato). 
 
SOL AN ACE.*:. 185 
 
 corolla-tul.e. anthers small ; ovary taporin^^ int., tl.e sUMiU-r «tyle wlm-h is a 
 it le ioniser than the stamens, 2-celle.l, 2 ovules in each cell The root .s 
 somewhat the si.e and shape of a me.linn.-size.l Swe.iish turn.,,, tuherous m 
 character giving off stems from all points near the crown ; Heshy and soft 
 when <rro'wing, very hard when dry. Perennial. 
 
 Geoiaphu -Its home is in the high lands of Mexico, near the 20th par- 
 allel, a rainv district ; it grows at an elevation of four to six thousand eet 
 above the sea level. It is now cultivate.! in British India, m correspond ng 
 latitn.les and altitudes to its American home. Tiie species and its l.K-ahty 
 were in doubt till 1829, when Dr Coxe of Philadelphia obtained living plants 
 from Mexico, ami settled the .luestion. r ,i . . Uut 
 
 Ftmolonu.-Pinga, the specific name, is the Spanish name for tiie plant 
 and iiulicates its me.licinal property. Jalap, the popular name, is derived 
 from the name of the city Xalapa in Mexico, near which the plant was h.>t 
 
 ^'' //tor//. -It was carried to Europe by the Spaniards for its me.li.inal 
 properties early in the seventeenth century. ,• n . f 
 
 Preparation. -The medicinal properties reside lu a resiu found in the r..ot. 
 The root when in perfect condition, yields about 20 per cent of the resin. 
 
 The r.)ots are washed, and the larger ones cut into slices and suspen.lo.l 
 in nets over fires till .Iry, when they are very hard; they are then ready f.,r 
 
 * V^^'^-The me.licinal properties of jalap are especially cathartic; when 
 a.lminiscered in small doses it is alterative, and, in still smaller doses tonic, 
 lu .,rdinarv doses it is a safe but violent cathartic ; ginger mixed with it modi- 
 fies its activity. It was f.,rmcrlv administered with calomel. Its tincture 
 constitutes a part of the black draught, and it is regarded as a very valuable 
 cathartic in brain troubles. Though violent, it does not irritate an.l inflame 
 the intestinal canal, and is hence a safe medicine. 
 
 Order XXXIX SOLANACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, generally regular, axillary or terminal, solitary, fas- 
 cicled, or subcorymbose ; calyx, with sepals united, usually .5-lobed or 
 tooth.'d, occasionallv 4 to 6, persistent; corolla hypogynous ; petals 
 united, rotate or campanulate ; segments 5, rarely 4 to G, folded or 
 twisted in the bud ; stamens on the corolla-tube equal and alternate 
 with its segments, sometimes united at top ; ovary 2-5-celled ; ovules 
 many. Fmit varied in form, frequently a many-seeded, pulpy berry, 
 sometimes a dry capsule. Herbaceous or woody plants, with watery 
 
 juice. . ^, , , 
 
 No. of genera, ()(i: species, 1,200; foun.l in wanner parts ot the old 
 world, and in temperate parts of America. 
 
 LYCOPERSICUM. '!'..uin. Calvx .")- or 10-parted. persi.stent; corolla 
 wheel-sliap.Ml, tube short ; limb plicated, with f, to 10 lobes; stamens, 
 5 or 6 in th.- throat of the corolla, protruding ; filaments short ; anthers 
 oblono'-conical, cohering by an elongated m.Mubrane at top, opening 
 lenothwise on the inner side. Fruit a berry, varying from a prolate 
 spheroid to subglobular, usually an oblate spheroid or flattened globe, 
 pulpy, and many-.seeded. Annual. 
 
186 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 L. esculentum, Mill. (Tomato. WoK Peach.) Stem 2 to 5 feet high, 
 branching, or straggling over shrubbery, prostrate when not supported. 
 Leaves pinnately divided, alternate pairs of leaflets very small. Flowers in 
 raceme-like clusters, common flower-stalk about 2 inches long, forked ; sepals 
 5 to 10, linear-lanceolate, spreading ; anthers united, pointed, with the points 
 turned back. Fruit 1 to 5 inches in diameter, usually red, sometimes yel- 
 lowish. Flowers June to August. Fruit ripens August to September. 
 
 The bruised leaves of the tomato emit a peculiar, disagreeable odor. Like 
 other plants that grow from seed, it sports freely, producing varieties that 
 differ mostly in size, shape, aTid quality of the fruit. Some of the larger fruit 
 is very irregular, with deep grooves and alternate ridges ; the favorites with 
 market-gardeners and amateurs are the medium-sized, smooth-fruited varieties. 
 
 Some are very small, 
 from an inch to an inch 
 and a half in diameter, 
 and globular, called 
 plum and cherry toma- 
 toes ; others small, pear- 
 shaped. The last two 
 varieties are esteemed for 
 preserves and pickles. 
 
 Geography. — It grows 
 and fruits well in all 
 southern Europe, espe- 
 cially in Italy and south- 
 ern France and Spain, 
 in Greece and northern 
 Africa. It has been 
 taken by Europeans to 
 the islands of soutliern 
 Asia and contiguous 
 parts of the continent ; 
 is fruited in England, 
 but under glass ; and is 
 an important crop in 
 eastern United States, especially in the southeastern part of Virginia and 
 the Carolinas, and is sent north as an early vegetable. 
 
 Etymology. — Lycopersicum is derived from the Greek words Xvkos, a wolf, 
 and irepa-iKov, a peach. The application is not apparent. Esciilentum, the 
 specific name, is of Latin origin, signifying "eatable." Tomato, the common 
 name, is the native South or Central American name, carried to Europe by 
 the Spaniards-, its meaning is unknown. 
 
 History. — It is native to South and Central America, and is supposed to 
 have been cultivated in Mexico at an ancient date. DeCandolle thinks it was 
 first found by Europeans under cultivation in Peru. It was taken to Europe 
 by the Spaniards, and introduced into the United States by Europeans ; it came 
 suddenly into pretty general use in the eastern United States after 1840, and 
 is now one of the most popular and important table vegetables of the country. 
 It is in very general use also in southern Europe. 
 
 Use. — The tomato is used raw as a salad, cooked as a sauce with meats, 
 used to flavor gravies and soups, and is found very generally on the tables of 
 both rich and poor throughout the United States and Europe. 
 
 Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato). 
 
SOLANACE^.. 
 
 187 
 
 NICOTIANA, Tourn. (Tohacco.) Calyx tul)ular, hairy, divided into 
 5 parts, divisions narrow and [)()inted, half as long as the corolla-tube; 
 corolla funnel-shaped, tuhe liairy ; linih divided into 5 sharp segments, 
 turned back, reddish ; filaments 5, curved inwards, terminating in a 
 lengthened, slender style, crowned with a round cleft stigma. Seed- 
 vessel divided into 2 cells ^ seeds small, round, and numerous. Flowers 
 in July and August in America. 
 
 1. N. tabacum, L. Stem round, terete, hairy, 4 to 6 feet high, stout and 
 leafy (iu cultivatiou). Root large and fibrous; bracts linear and pointed. 
 Leaves 10 to 25 inches long, and 8 to 10 inches broad, entire, oblong, strongly 
 veined, pointed and sessile. Flowers terminal, in loose panicles, rose-color. 
 July. 
 
 2. N. rustica, L. Stem 3 to 5 feet 
 high, round, terete, and stout. Leaves 
 petioled, ovate, and shorter than in No. 1 ; 
 segments of the corolla rounded. The 
 whole plant is smaller and more hardy 
 than No. 1, and is cultivated further 
 north. 
 
 There are several other species, among 
 which are ; — 
 
 3. N. macrophylla, Lehm. (Great- 
 leaved.) Leaves very large, clasping, 
 ovate, and eared at the base ; corolla 
 inflated at tlie mouth. 
 
 4. N. Persica, Lindl. Lower leaves 
 oblong, upper ones lanceolate and sessile; 
 corolla salver-shaped ; tubule elongated. 
 Cultivated in Persia, and furnishes the 
 celebrated Shiraz tobacco. 
 
 .5. N! repanda, W. ( Wavy Tobacco.) 
 Leaves clasping, cordate, spatulate, re- 
 pand ; tube of corolla long and slender. 
 Cultivated in Culia. 
 
 6. N. quadrivalvis, Pursh. (Four- 
 
 valved Tt)bacco.) Stem branched. Leaves petioled, oblong; corolla-tube 
 twice as long as the calyx, segments obtu.se; capsule 4-valved, round. Found 
 under cultivation among the Indians in the Missouri valley. 
 
 7. N. nana, Lindl. (Dwarf Tobacco.) Leaves lanceolate . whole plant 
 smaller than any other species. Found under cultivation among the savages 
 of the valley of the Columbia river. 
 
 Geoqraphji — Tobacco arrives at the greatest perfection on virgin soil, or 
 what the agriculturist calls " new land." It grows well in all parts south of 
 the middle of the temperate zones and in the tropics. 'I'he best (lualitie.s are 
 rai.sed in Virginia, Kentucky, and the Carolinas, Venezuela. Tuba, and Brazil. 
 It has been of late years an important crop iti sorno parts of the Middle At- 
 lantic States, especially Coiuiecticnt and Pennsylvania 
 
 In Great Britain the p^rowing of tobacco i.s prohibited by law, as a large 
 portion of the national revenue consists of duty on its importation It is an 
 
 NiroTiANA TABAci'M (Tobacco). 
 
188 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 importaut crop in Holland, Flanders, France, Alsace, Hungary, and European 
 Turkey. 
 
 Tobacco of a good marketable quality is raised in the Levant. Large quan- 
 tities of an excellent quality are produced in the Indian Archipelago, in China, 
 and Japan. The Dutch introduced its cultivation into south Africa, and the 
 English have recently commenced its culture in Australia. The quality of 
 that raised north of the middle of the temperate zones, as in Europe, is not 
 so good. 
 
 Etymoloqij. — Nicotlana, the generic name, was given to this plant in honor 
 of John Nicot, a French statesman, who was instrumental in bringing it under 
 cultivation in France. Tabacum is derived by some from tabaco, the name 
 used by the American aborigines to indicate the instrument or pipe they used 
 to smoke the dried leaves of the plant. Others derive it from Tobago, in the 
 West Indies, others from Tabasco, in Mexico. The common name tobacco 
 is derived from the same source. The other specific names explain them- 
 selves ; as, rustica, of the field or the country ; macrophylla, large-leaved, 
 or long-leaved ; Perslca, grown in Persia ; repanda, wavy, or sinuate-leaved ; 
 quadrivalvis, seed-vessel with four valves ; nana, small, or dwarf. 
 
 History. — Soon after the permanent settlement of North America, learned 
 societies and some of the sovereigns of Europe became interested in the 
 natural history of the New World. They sent over men devoted to the study of 
 nature to collect specimens of the animals and other objects of interest to ])e 
 found in Virginia, the name applied at that time to the large tract of land 
 claimed by the English. Among the naturalists sent out were enthusiastic 
 botanists, who made large collections of plants and seeds, and conveyed them 
 to the Old World. 
 
 In their explorations they found a plant, the dried leaves of which the 
 aborigines smoked in an instrument called by them tabaco. The imperfect 
 knowledge of the dialect of the sa^-ages possessed by the Europeans at that 
 time led to the error that the substance they smoked was called tabaco, 
 instead of the pipe through which they smoked it. Another history of the 
 origin of the name is that a Spanish monk found the plant growing in 
 Tobago, a province of St. Domingo. 
 
 It was introduced into Portugal in 1558, by Dr Fernandes, and thence into 
 Spain in 1559, where it was grown as a medicinal plant. John Nicot, a French 
 statesman, who was at that time minister to the court of Portugal, sent seed 
 to Queen Catherine de Medicis, who caused it to be cultivated in France ; and 
 on account of the interest she took in its culture, it received the name of 
 Queen's Herb. On account of the instrumentality of John Nicot in its intro- 
 duction into France, Tournefort, a French botanist, named it Nicotiana. 
 
 Ralph Lane, the first governor of Virginia, and Sir Francis Drake In-ought 
 to England in 1586 the implements and material for tobacco smoking, which 
 they handed over to Sir Walter Raleigh. Lane is credited with having been 
 the first p]nglish smoker; and through the influence and example of the illus- 
 trious Raleigh, the habit of smoking soon became rooted among the English. 
 The custom was carried into Holland by young Englishmen who went there 
 to prosecute their studies. 
 
 In less than fifty years after the tobacco-plant was fir.st cultivated in Portu 
 gal the custom of smoking it spread over Turkey, Persia, India, Java, China, 
 and Japan. This rapid spread is no doubt due in part to the ease with which 
 the plant is cultivated throughout the temperate zones where rich soil Ls 
 found. 
 
SOLANACE^.. 189 
 
 It is claimed by the Chiuese that they cultivated and used tobacco before 
 the discovery of America : yet recent investi<^ati()iis have developed the fact 
 that the plant cultivated there is a variety of the species most commonly culti- 
 vated in America, and has no characteristic difference, except such as differ- 
 ent soils and modes of cultivation would induce. . But the strongest argument 
 is that the eastern hmguages have no name for it, but throughout the countries 
 of Asia it is known by its .\merican name, tobacco, which was no doubt 
 obtained from tlie Tortuguese who introduced it into China and Japan. 
 
 After careful examination we are forced to the conclusion that tobacco was 
 brought to tlie n<jtice of civilized man in the West Indies soon after their dis- 
 covery, and that the practice of smoking it originated among the savages of 
 the New World. 
 
 In the countries where the use of tobacco prevails, 27 of every 40 adult 
 males are wedded to the custom. An account of the efforts to suppress the 
 use of tobacco that have been made by medical men and by the highest 
 authority constitutes an important cha])ter in its history. 
 
 The pope at one time lent his aid to its suppression. James I. of f>nglaud, 
 and the authorities of Russia and of Turkey, passed stringent laws forbidding 
 its use, and executed them with savage barbarity. For using tobacco, men 
 were wiiipped, their noses were slit, and sometimes cut off. In Turkey they 
 were bastinadoed and beheaded. The pope thundered his bulls of excom- 
 munication at them. 
 
 James I. of England, in the beginning of the seventeentli century, published 
 his counterblast against tobacco, in which he undertook to show how unworthy 
 it is for a civilized nation to adopt customs from such barbarians as ihe Ameri- 
 can savages. 
 
 Notwithstanding this royal diatribe and many others that have followed all 
 along down through the history of tobacco, its use lias extended to every nook 
 and corner of the world where civilized man has erected his habitation. Good 
 men have written against it on the ground of its immoral effects. Political 
 economists have attacked it on account of its entire uselessness. Physicians 
 have fought it because of its mischievous effects on tlie health of the body ; 
 yet it has crept on and is still advancing. 
 
 Cultivation. — The plant is propagated from seed, and sports, forming varie- 
 ties, many of which are under cultivation ; but le.ss attention has been paid to 
 obtaining new varieties than the importance of the plant warrants. 
 
 Chemistry. — Nicotiana yields to the chemist eighteen different substances, 
 the most important and characteristic of which are nicotine and nicotianin. 
 Nicotine is composed of C.20 H14 N.,. It is an oily li(|uid without color, and 
 one of the most active poisons known ; a single drop ]>laced upon the tongue 
 of a serpent causes death as instantaneously as an electric shock. It is an 
 alkali which has the most intense affinity for acids ; it is .«<oluble in alcohol, 
 and will mix with water. The disagreeable, sickening effect produced by 
 the fumes of tobacco burned in an old pij»e is due to the presence of 
 nicotine. 
 
 Nicotianin contains the same substances, but in different proportions, and 
 furnishes the odor of tobacco. The nicotic property appears in the leaf after 
 fermentation. ^ 
 
 The.se two substances are accompanied by sixteen others, the principal of 
 which are resin, potassa, rhlorine, lime, silica, lli/nin, and qJutin ; and the whole 
 plant is richer in nitrogen than any other vegetable substance that has l)een 
 subjected to chemical tests. No oue of the substances detected in tobacco 
 
190 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 possesses any nutritive qualities, and no animal is known to eat it. Man alone 
 has found a use tor it. 
 
 Use. — The dried leaves are used to chew or to smoke. They undergo various 
 processes as preparation for chewing and smoking. The leaves are stripped 
 from the stems, dried, and then rolled into cigars, or cut by machinery into 
 shreds and put in the pipe ; in that state tobacco is also cheAved. It is also 
 soaked in a liquor made of molasses and liquorice-water, after which it is 
 pressed, and is then called " plug-tobacco." 
 
 The stems and other refuse parts are ground into snuff, flavored with sub- 
 stances to suit the fancy of buyers The custom of snuffing is less common 
 than formerly. 
 
 Effects upon the system. — When administered as a medicine it causes a sen- 
 sation of heat in the throat, and a feeling of warmth in the stomach. The 
 effect upon the system generally is to increase the activity and capacity of the 
 absorbents, and dropsical affections sometimes disappear under its treatment. 
 It produces nausea, causing vomiting and purging when administered in large 
 doses, and gives rise to an indescribable sinking sensation at the pit of the 
 stomach peculiar to itself. It sometimes acts as an anodyne, and occasionally 
 promotes sleep. 
 
 Large doses bring on trembling of the limbs, faiutness, dimness of sight, 
 and cold sweats, succeeded by convulsions, paralysis, and torpor, terminating 
 in death. The use of tobacco as a luxury is followed by effects which are very 
 startling. It has been demonstrated that it has an injurious effect upon the 
 mind, tending to enfeeble it and rob it of moral energy, impairing the memory, 
 and produ(?iug a low grade of intellect. 
 
 Tobacco-oil is one of the most deadly poisons, It acts on the brain and 
 nerve cord, first .exciting, then lessening their activity ; it induces convulsions 
 and paralysis, and at length arrests respiration ; it also injuriously affects 
 the heart and contracts the intestines. Tobacco-poisoning in some degree is 
 very common, and is probably experienced by every smoker when first acquir- 
 ing the habit. In larger doses nicotine will kill like prussic acid ; in small 
 doses it causes tetanus, — one to two drops being enough to kill a dog or a 
 rabbit in five minutes Horses have been known to die from eating oats that 
 had been kept in a granary along with tobacco. Tobacco-juice is distilled in 
 smoking, and is very poisonous ; some that was put in a student's beer caused 
 his death ; even contact of tobacco with the skin may poison the system. Thus 
 a squadron of hussars who smuggled tobacco-leaf next the skin, were all made 
 .sick. 
 
 Statistics. — On the islands of Great Britain and Ireland there are about 
 300,000 shops in which tobacco is exposed for sale; the amount of sales 
 exceeds 250,000,000 dollars per annum. In France a larger amount is sold in 
 proportion to the inha])itants. 
 
 In Denmark the annual consumption is equal to 7 pounds to the person, 
 including women and children. In the United States the proportion exceeds 
 that of any other country of which we have statistics. 
 
 In New York City, Brooklyn, and Jersey City, it is estimated that about 
 800,000 people smoke ; which is not far from one in every three, counting 
 men, women, anfl children. 
 
 The entire consumption of the world is 5,580,000,000 pounds ; and it is also 
 estimated that about 300,000,000 of the whole human family smoke, and that 
 the money spent for tobacco in the world would buy bread for the entire 
 population of the United States. 
 
SOLANACE^. 
 
 191 
 
 Most of the goveruiuents <.f Europe have either ii.ouop.)lized the sale or 
 in/posed a high Lcise or import duty up.,«n it. In fact the iuHueuoe it exerts 
 uDon the reveuue of uatious forms au important feature in its history. It is a 
 special object of legislation in several governments of Europe; in some it is 
 a royal monopoly, in others it is admitted from abroad under high import 
 duties. 
 
 When we consider that this plant produces no nutritive substance has no 
 beauty of Howers nordelicacy of foliage, has no pleasant odors has a disagree- 
 aWe taste when a verv little is eaten, producing vomiting and giddiness, and 
 tvl en taken n larger'duautities causing death, we are surprised that it should 
 :it^^ t e^^^^^^^^^^ do's in the world, -that it should have become an important 
 Licultural product; that it should be produced in such quantities as to 
 recur atige fraction of the tonnage of the world to freight it; that its 
 commercial importance should compare favorably with any other -ge arti- 
 cle • that it should be made the pet of empires and he object ot spe ual 
 
 egislation; that thousands should be busied in its production and manufac-- 
 tuf; that vast amounts of capital should be employed in its pu-hase and 
 
 ale and finally, that about one half of the male population of he g^obe 
 should be addicted to its use, from which no good results can possibly How. 
 
 ATROPA L. (Deadly Nightshade.) Calyx leafy, 5-parted ; corolla 
 bell-shaped, limb 5-clef t ; stamens distant, shorter than the corolla: 
 anthers opening by ^^ . 
 
 slits ; style longer. ^ /-^ _ ^^^ 
 
 Berry globular, 2- 
 celled upon the calyx, 
 the size of a large 
 cherry, black when 
 ripe; the whole plant 
 downy. Perennial 
 herb. Leaves entire ; 
 pedicels solitary, re- 
 curved. 
 
 1. A. Belladonna, L. 
 
 (Deadly Nightshade.) 
 Stem trichotomous, 
 branching, purple, 2 to 
 5 feet high. Eeavcs in 
 pairs, unequal, oval, en- 
 tire, pointed, from 8 to 
 12 inches long ; petioles 
 very short, radical 
 Flowers large, axillary, 
 and pendent, brownish 
 purple. Flowers in 
 June. 
 
 Atropa Belladonna (Deadly Nightishade). 
 
 2. A. Mandragora, L. 
 (Mandragora officinarum. L.) is a plant found 
 similar properties to belladouua. 
 
 southern Europe, possessintj 
 
192 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical distribution of the belladonna is not wide: 
 it is found in the middle parts of the north temperate zone, in Europe, western 
 Asia, and eastern North America. 
 
 Etymology. — Atropa was named for Atropos, one of the tliree Fates, daugh- 
 ter of Night, whose office it was to sever the thread of human life, — repre- 
 senting tliereby the deadly character of this poisonous plant. Belladonna, the 
 specilic name, is from two Spanish wonls, bdla and donna, and signifies " fine 
 lady ; " it is supposed to have been so styled because the fine ladies of Italy 
 used it as a beautifier. The reason for the name nightshade is not apparent. 
 Mandragora is derived from fxavSpa, pertaining to oxen or cattle, and dypios, 
 cruel, and relates to the poisonous effect this plant has upon cattle when it is 
 accidentally eaten with their food. 
 
 History. — This plant was known to medical practice in the time of Theo- 
 phrastus, and is supposed to be the plant whose fruit was eaten by Anthony's 
 famished army (while retreating before the Parthians), by which so many 
 were poisoned. It is also supposed to have played a part in the destruction 
 of Sweyn's army when he invaded Scotland. A truce was agreed upon, and 
 during the cessation of arms the Scots were to furnish food. They mixed 
 the juice of the atropa berries with the bread and drink, which produced an 
 intoxicating effect upon the Danes ; and while in the deep sleep which suc- 
 ceeded, the Scots fell upon and slew them. 
 
 It is indigenous to Europe and western Asia, and was brought to North 
 America by colonists, and in a few places, according to Dr. Gray, has escaped 
 from cultivation. 
 
 Chemistry. — Atropa belladonna yields to the chemist two substances, 
 atropine and belladonine. 
 
 These are the active principles of the plant, and are found in all its parts, — 
 leaves, fruit, and bark. 
 
 Use. — Belladonna is administered in extract tincture, and in the form of 
 plasters and ointment' All parts of the plant yield an active narcotic poison. 
 It relieves inflammation, soothes irritation, and allays nervous excitement. 
 It is used by oculists to cause insensibility or temporary paralysis of the retina. 
 It is much used in homoeopathic practice, especially in scarlet fever, and con- 
 sidered by this school a specific. When taken in large quantities it causes 
 intoxication, accompanied by fits of laughter, ending in convulsions and 
 death 
 
 CAPSICUM, L. - Calyx, short, broad, bell-shaped, dentate, with 5 
 bristle-like teeth; corolla wheel-shaped, deeply 5-cleft, divisions or 
 lobes valvate ; stamens slender, rising from the base of the corolla ; 
 anthers short, opening lengthwise ; disk inconspicuous : style thread- 
 like ; stigma club-shaped ; ovary usually 3-celled ; ovules numerous. 
 Fruit a berry, with a thick or thin inflated pericarp, leathery or succu- 
 lent, erect or nodding, globose, conical, linear, or oblong. Seeds flat, 
 rough or smooth. Annual herb. Pedicels solitary or in pairs. 
 
 1. C. annuum, L. (Bed Pepper.) Stem smooth, crooked branching, 2 to 3 
 feet high. Leaves egg-shaped, smooth, entire, on long foot-stalks. Flowers 
 axillary, solitary, white; calyx tubular, with 5 small divisions; corolla wheel- 
 shaped, in .5 divisions, plaited, and pointed ; filaments short and tapering ; 
 anthers oblong ; ovary egg-shaped ; style slender, longer than the filaments j 
 
Capsicum annuum (Red Pepper). 
 Fruit used 
 
 SOLANACE^. 193 
 
 stigma bluut. Fruit drooping, euuical, 1 to 2 iuches long, pod with a thiu 
 siitill, reddisli-yellow when ripe, 2-celled, many-seeded ; seeds yeliowish-white, 
 flat, iciduey-shaped. 
 
 2. C. fastigiatam, L. (Cayenne I'epjier. 
 Bird repi)er.) Lilce tlie last, except tliat 
 the tiowers are in clusters of 2 to 3, and 
 that the fruit is very small and in the shape 
 of a cock's spur, and the pungency very 
 much sharper. 
 
 3. C. frutescens. (Cayenne Pepper.) 
 Much cultivated ; is like the last, except 
 that the pods are larger, and more pungent. 
 
 These three bear the most ])ungent fruit, 
 and furnish the red pepper of commerce. 
 
 4. C. grossum, W. (Bell Pepper. Bull 
 Pepper.) This is unlike any of the above, 
 inasmucli as the fruit is not only very large, 
 but the walls of the pod are thick and 
 succulent, anil very mild as to pungency. 
 Pod from 2 to 6 iuches long, and from 1 to 4 inches in diameter, 
 for pickling. 
 
 (jeography. — The home of the capsicum is America. It is believed that it 
 was first brought to the notice of Europeans as a condiment for food by the 
 physician of the fieet on the second voyage of Columbus to the New World. 
 It is now cultivated in almost every civilized country in the world where the 
 climate admits of its cultivation. The southern Asiatics have names of their 
 own for it ; this goes U) show tliat it is also indigenous there, but it has never 
 been found in the Old World outside of cultivation ; on ilie other hand, it has 
 been found wild in Soutli America. Capsicum is a tropical and subtropical 
 plant, though it fruits in southern Europe, and in the United States as far 
 north as the 43d ])avallel. It is grown in all tropical countries as a condiment 
 or food. The West India islands, middle 
 Africa, and southern Asia are all grateful 
 regions of this fiery fruit. The outer skin of 
 the fruit, as well as tlie seed, yields a red oil. 
 
 Fjjjmoloq}!. — Capsicum is supposed to be 
 derived from the Greek word kotttos, strong, 
 iillnding to the pungent taste of the fruit poils. 
 It lias also been derived from na^a, a coffer, 
 box, or chest, referring to the pod which 
 holds the seeds Annuum is Latin, and means 
 " yearly ;"/r»/e,scp».s, having the apjjearance of 
 a ^\\Y\\\^\ fastigiatum, tapering, or ))yramidal , 
 i/rossum, from the Latin (/rossus, thick, referring 
 to the thick i)od of this species. Pepper comes 
 from the (ireek triirfpt, and Cni/enne refers to the 
 country whence the l)est is brouglit. 
 
 Use. — As a medicine, capsicum is highly 
 stimulant ; a tea of rod ])ep])er is a s])ecific in nausea, largely used in com- 
 pounding the medicines of the Thompsonian practitioners The ground fruit, 
 Pk. Fl.— 14 
 
 Capsicum grossum (Bell Peppert. 
 
194 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 or " pepper," is largely used as a condiment for food, especially in hot 
 countries, and is much used in liniments. When mixed with the food of 
 poultry it is said to preserve health and promote the laying of eggs. 
 
 SOIANUM, L. Calyx persistent, 5-parted ; corolla rotate, subcam- 
 panulate ; tube very short ; limb plaited in the bud, 5-cleft, lobed or 
 angular ; anthers erect, connivent, but not united, opening at the top 
 by 2 pores. Fruit a globular berry, 2-celled, many-seeded; seeds 
 small. Flowering in August. Unarmed or prickly herb. 
 
 1. S. tuberosum, L. (Potato. Irish Potato. White Potato. Common Potato.) 
 Stem herbaceous, erect, prostrate, or assurgent, 2 to 4 feet long, angular and 
 branched towards the top, smooth or clothed with soft hairs at and near to the 
 
 extremities. Leaves interruptedly pinnate ; leaflets 
 roundish, petioled, dark green, every alternate 
 pair of leaflets very smaD ; peduncles few-flowered ; 
 flowers blue or white. Rootlets give rise to tubers, 
 globular or lengthened. Fruit a green berry, about 
 the size of an ordinary marble; seeds numerous. 
 Flowers in July and August. Roots giving rise to 
 globular or reniform tubers. Tubers ripen July 
 to October. 
 
 When propagated from the seed, the tubers of 
 the first year are about the size of peas ; the tubers 
 produced by these are much larger, and the pro- 
 duct of the third year is fit for the table. When 
 propagated from the seed, the plant sports freely, 
 and new varieties are thus produced. When the 
 tubers are used to propagate from, the variety is 
 constant. 
 
 There are other allied species, but they have not 
 stood the test of cultivation, on account especially 
 of the small size of their tubers, as follows : — 
 
 2. S. Commersonii, Dunal. Chile. 
 
 3. S. immite, Duual. Peru. 
 
 4. S. verrucosum, Schlechtendal. Mexico. 
 
 These all differ in botanical features as well as in size and quality of their 
 tubers, so much so as to entitle them to a specific character. 
 
 No plant in the whole range of table vegetables has had so large a share of 
 attention from gardeners and amateurs as the potato, and every year new 
 varieties are offered for sale by the seedsmen. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical zone of the potato is between the 35th and 
 50tli parallels, and it even produces well up to 60°. It will grow and fruit well 
 in any latitude where the cereals flourish. 
 
 It yields best in cool, damp climates ; and the edible qualities are best where 
 the plant is grown in rich sandy loam. 
 
 Etymology. — Solatium is of very doubtful derivation. The most plausible 
 history of the word is that it is from the Latin word snlor, solace, or comfort, 
 due to the narcotic effect of some of the plants of this very large genus. 
 • Tuberosum is due to the tuberous character of its products. Potato is a cor- 
 ruption of batata, already explained. The French, from the same source, 
 have made it patate. 
 
 SOLANUM TUBEROSUM 
 
 (Potato). 
 
History.— Hmnlx.Mt l.olieves the i)lant known to tlie Spaniards under the 
 name ynaglia is the original of the potato. Tlie jjotato is indigenous to Chile, 
 and hat; been taken thence to neighboring parts of South America. Darwin, 
 in his vovage to the south seas in 1840, touched at Chile, where he found 
 the potato wild among the islands on the coast, growing in great luxuriance, 
 with every appearance of being native to the soil, but saw nothing to lead 
 him to believe tliat the natives cultivated it. In Peru, travellers report that 
 the natives pay much attention to its growth. It is believed that the 
 Spaniards carried it from Peru to Europe. This is the view taken by De 
 Candolle. Another theory is that it was taken to Florida by the Spaniards, 
 whence it found its way into the English settlements of Virginia, and thence 
 to England. It has also been suggested that Kaleigli, in warring against 
 the Spaniards as a privateer, might have captured vessels with potatoes <jn 
 board, and in that way have introduced the plant into Ireland. It is related 
 that he had it planted on his estate in the south of Ireland, and that his 
 gardener one day brought him a potato ball, or berry ; tasting it, he was so 
 disgusted with it that he ordered the gardener to root it out and destroy it. 
 In attempting to do this, the gardener discovered the tubers attached to its 
 roots; thev were cooked, the value of this wonderful plant was revealed, and 
 the cultivation of the potato dates from that incident This occurrence is said 
 to have taken place near the end of the sixteenth century. It was, however, 
 known in other parts of Europe before taken to Ireland by Raleigh. It was 
 for a long time confined to Ireland as a food-plant, but has now found its way 
 throughout Europe. 
 
 Chemistri/. —The potato yields to the chemist in 100 parts by weight: 
 water, 68 ; starch, 17: wood, 09 ; mucilage, 06 ; = 100. 
 
 Compared with wheat, it is as 2-7 ; i. e., a pound of wheat is worth 3^ pounds 
 of potatoes ; or one bushel of wheat is worth 3^ bushels of potatoes. 
 
 Use. — During the 300 years which have elapsed since its discovery, the 
 potato has steadily advanced in value, until it has reached a point of impor- 
 tance in the economy of human life unequalled by any otlior food-jjlant outside 
 of the cereals. As a root-vegetable for the table, nothing ecpials it. In all 
 the countries of Europe, the United States of Nortli America, and in Canada, 
 it constitutes a large part of the food of the working classes, and is always 
 upon the tables of the rich. The natives of Peru cook it by roasting it in the 
 ashes. The most common mode of cooking is boiling ; it is also fried, l)aked, 
 and .stewed with meat or milk. It is said that the Poles excel in cookii>g the 
 potato, and that they practice thirty different methods of preparing it for 
 the table. 
 
 Ordeu XL PEDALINE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, irregular, axillary, solitary, racemed or in spikes, 
 mostly 2-bracteolate ; calyx 5-parted; corolla-tnbe cylindrical, throat 
 swollen, .5-lobed ; limb bilabiate. im])ricate or subvalvate; stamens 
 o on corolla-tube, 1 sterile, 4 fertile, 2 long and 2 short ; ovary su]ie- 
 rior, 1-celled, rarely 2-4-celled. Fruit a capsule or drupe, 4-seeded. 
 Leaves opposite or alternate, simple. Herbs. 
 
 No. of genera, about 10; species, 40; found in warm climates. 
 
 SESAMUM. L. (Oil Seed.) Calyx small, fvparted ; corolla bell- 
 shaped, long and curved, oblique at ba.se, .'Vlobed, lateral lobes open, 
 
196 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 anterior shorter ; stamens 4, attached to the base of the corolhi, in- 
 cluded; anthers arrow-shaped, attached at their backs, cells nearly 
 parallel; ovary 2-celled, each cell divided into 2 dry false partitions; 
 ovules many in each cell, arranged in a line ; capsule oblong oi- ovate ; 
 seeds numerous, small, triangular in outline, differing in color ; em- 
 bryo straight, radical, short, testa crustaceous. Leaves opposite below, 
 and alternate above, petioled, entire, incised or dentate, 3-parted or 
 dissected. Flowers pale, violet, solitary, axillary, nearly sessile. Whole 
 plant scabrous, erect, or prostrate. 
 
 1 . S. Indicum, DC (Sesame.) Stalk 2 to 3 feet iu height, scabrous. Leaves 
 ovate, oblong, or lanceolate, aud alternate above, the lower ones S-lobed or 
 
 3-parted aud opposite, couspicuously 
 feather-veined with yellow glauds 
 at the base of the peduncles. 
 Flowers resembling the flowers of 
 the foxglove in shape, color dingy 
 white to rose; capsule velvety and 
 pubescent, mucronate, 2-celled, de- 
 veloping in 4 cells ; seeds numerous, 
 ovoid, flat, varying in color, white, 
 brown, or black, rather smaller than 
 flaxseed. This species varies greatly 
 in the form of its leaves aud color 
 of its seeds. 
 
 2. S. orientals, L. Larger leaves 
 than iu S. ludicum ; flowers white, 
 otherwise as in No. 1. 
 
 Leaves of both species abound 
 in a gummy substance wliich they 
 yield to water, forming a pleasant 
 demulgent beverage. 
 
 Geography. — The home of the 
 plant is believed to be the Sunda Isles, whence it was introduced into India, 
 and thence to western Asia, southern Europe, and northern Africa, and from 
 there* to the New World. To obtain the oil, the ripe seeds are first washed 
 to remove all mucilage, and the oil is obtained by expression ; the seeds yield 
 45 per cent of oil, as to weight. Its geographical zone is a tropical and sub 
 tropical belt extending both sides of the equator to the parallel of 35° all 
 around the globe. It grows sparingly in higher latitudes. 
 
 Etymologij. — Sesamum is derived from a-rjadiwn, the Greek name of this 
 plant ; the specific name, Indicum, denotes the country where it is cultivated. 
 The seeds are known in commerce as Til, Gingeli, and Tingili, Sesame, and 
 Benne seeds. Onentale is from the Latin orientalis, and signifies " eastern." 
 
 History. — The S. orientale was known in the Levant and southern Europe 
 and Egypt at least four centuries prior to the opening of the Christian era, 
 being mentioned by Xenophon. It was taken to the West Indies by Euro- 
 peans, and S. Indicum has found its way to Florida and other Southern States, 
 and has crept along as far north as the vicinity of Philadelphia. It was 
 detected by Judge Addison Brown in the ballast heaps at Communipaw, N. J. 
 It is known as the thunderbolt flower. It is also the potent legendary opener 
 
 Sesamum Indicum (Sesame). 
 
VERBENACEJE. 197 
 
 of doors and caves. In the celebrated story of Ali Raba, the conjuror pro- 
 nounces the words, " Open Sesame," and tlie door Hies open. 
 
 Use. — The plant is used in Europe and India for a pot-herb, but it is most 
 valuable for tlie oil it ])roduces. 
 
 The oil resists putrefaction lon<2^er tlian any other fixed oil, and is considered 
 the most delicate (»f all tlie sweet oils, except olive oil. It is used in India for 
 food and for anointing the body, and for the fragrant oils used in religious 
 ceremonies. It is used in all civilized countries for the same purposes for 
 which olive oil is used. It is applied to illuminating purposes, to the manufac- 
 ture of cosmetics antl hair dressings, and especially to the manufacture <jf fine 
 toilet soaps. 
 
 It congeals at a much lower temperature than other oils, and is hence well 
 adapted to cold climates. It has of late years been largely employed in the 
 manufacture of spurious butter, or oleomargarine. The natives of India make 
 an article of diet of the seeds, and also of the refuse cakes after the oil is 
 pressed out of the seeds, and they ])lace the seeds in the graves with their 
 dead relatives. 
 
 Okder XLI. VERBENACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, irregular, or nearly regular, in a head, spike, raceme, 
 or cyme, rarely solitary, usually bracteate ; calyx with united sepals, 
 persistent, tubular, limb toothed ; 
 corolla h}qiogynous ; petals united 
 and tubular, limb ■4-5-lobed, fre- 
 quently unequal, and lip-shaped, 
 imbricate in the bud; stamens, 2 
 long and 2 shorter, rarely 5, attached 
 to the corolla ; ovary free ; style 
 terminal, forked at top. Fruit, a 
 fleshy drupe, with 2-4 nutlets. 
 Leaves opposite or whorled, rarely 
 alternate, exstipulate, simple, or 
 rarely compound. Herbaceous and 
 woody. Plants and trees. 
 
 Xo. of genera, 59 ; species, TOO ; 
 warm climates. Tectona orandis (Teak). 
 
 TECTONA, L.f. Calyx bell-shaped, short, r)-6-cleft, sharp, tube 
 swollen below, and contracted near the mouth ; corolla-tube short, 
 limb gaping, 5-0-cleft, lobes short, nearly equal, imbricated ; . sta- 
 mens 5 to 6, attached to the corolla near its base, longer than corolla- 
 tube ; anthers ovate or oblong ; ovarium fleshy, 4-celled, cells 1-ovuled ; 
 style elongated, 2-cleft, ovules attached to the side: drupe inclosed in 
 the calyx ; exocarp thin, endocarp fleshy. S(»pds erect, oblong. 
 
 T. grandis. L.f. (Teak.) Trunk erect, 80 to 1 .50 feet in height, and from 
 3 to 6 foot in diameter. Bark smooth, gray ; braiulilets 4-sided. Leaves 
 opposite, or in verticils of .3, rough on the upper surface, downy beneath, 
 entire, from 1 to 2 feet in length, and G to 18 inchos wido. Flowers small, 
 
198 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 sessile, white, in terminal, compound, dichotomous panicles, bracts small. 
 Fruit lens-shaped, in 4-celled drupes. 
 
 There are three species of this magnificent tree. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical home of the Tectona is tropical. One 
 species is found in the East Indies, another in Burmah, and the third in the 
 Philippines. 
 
 Etijinologi]. — The generic name, Tectona, was altered from Tekka, the 
 native name, whose signification is unknown. Grandis, the specific name, is 
 the Latin for large, or noble, and is due to its magnificent size. 
 
 Use. — The teak is used in India in all structures where strength and dura- 
 bility are desired. It has been called the oak of the East. England has 
 constructed some of her best ships of teak, some of which were built in India, 
 and others in England, the timber having been taken home. 
 
 The leaf yields a red dye, and is also charged with an oil, the extraction of 
 which forms an important industry. The oil is used for polishing and var- 
 nishing purposes. 
 
 Order XLII. LABIAT-^]. 
 
 Flowers irregular, rarely regular, solitary or in pairs, or clustered 
 in cymes in the axils of leaves or bracts, scattered along the extremi- 
 ties of the stems, or in densely crowded spikes ; calyx persistent ; 
 sepals 5, connate, mostly lipped ; corolla with united petals, h}^)ogy- 
 nous, tube occasionally twisted, limb 4-5-lobed. imbricated in the 
 bud, usually 2-lipped, upper lip entire or notched, lower 3-lobed, 
 sometimes 1-lipped and deeply cleft, sometimes bell-shaped or funnel- 
 shaped, with four equal lobes and nearly equal stamens ; stamens on 
 corolla-tube usually 4, didynamous ; ovary free ; style simple, rising 
 from the base of the ovarian lobes, Jr-lobed ; stigma usually forked. 
 Fruit 4 akene-like lobes or nutlets, free or in pairs. Stems square ; 
 leaves opposite or whorled, exstipulate ; subwoody and herbaceous 
 plants, covered with glands containing an odoriferous volatile oil. 
 
 Xo. of genera, 136 ; species, 2,600 ; cosmopolitan. 
 
 LAVANDULA, L. Calyx spindle-shaped, 13-15 striate, 5-toothed, 
 upper tooth longest ; corolla-tube exserted, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 
 one 3-lobed; stamens shorter than the corolla-tube; anthers 1-celled 
 by confluence. Flowers small, spicate. Perennial herb. 
 
 1. L. spica, L. (Lavender.) Stem woody at the base, 15 to 20 inches high 
 in a natural state, but reaching 5 feet under cultivation, branching near the 
 ground. Leaves crowded about the base of the branches, whitish downy, 
 oblanceolate, tapering to the base, sessile, edges revolute, leaves on the 
 branches and upper part of the stem linear-lanceolate, uppermost ones shorter 
 than the calyx bracts, and awl-shaped. Flowers in an interrupted spike, lilac- 
 colored. July. 
 
 Var. alba, W. Has white flowers, otherwise as above. 
 Var. latifolia, W. Has broader leaves 
 
 2. L. vera, DC, and L. stoechas, L. Were formerly in use, but are not used 
 at the present day. 
 
 There are some twenty species in all ; the above are the important ones. 
 
LAHIATTE. 
 
 199 
 
 fifofjrnphi/. — 'Vho T.av;ui(lula is a native <»f (ireere and the (irecian islands, 
 wlieuce it spread west, and was carried hy Eunjpeaus to Hiudustau ; it was 
 brought in the same way to the Atlantic States of North America, where it 
 has become a common garden plant, cultivated for its delicate fragrance. It 
 grows throughout the middle of the north temperate zone, has spread over the 
 countries of the Levant, has been seen in gardens in Hindustan, and is com- 
 mon in the gardens of the eastern United States of North America. It is 
 occasionally found growing wild near deserted dwellings. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Lavandula is from the Latin word lavare, wash, due to the 
 circumstance that the spikes were used to perfume freshly-washed linen. 
 The Romans perfumed 
 their baths with it. 
 The name spica, Latin, 
 a spike, is due to the 
 mode of inflorescence. 
 
 Preparation. — The 
 flowers are distilled, 
 the product being a 
 delicate essential oil, 
 and a coarser oil is ol)- 
 tained from the leaves 
 and ends of the 
 branches. The oil is 
 largely manufactured 
 in the department of 
 the "Alpes Maritimes," 
 in the southeast of 
 France. The best, 
 however, is produced 
 in England, and brings 
 in open market fifteen 
 times more than the 
 best French oil. 
 
 Use. — Lavender is 
 stimulant and tonic. 
 The pulverized dried 
 leaves are used for a snuff to cause sneezing. 
 
 The leaves are laid among linen to perfume it. 
 
 The oil of lavender is a favorite perfume for manufacturing fragrant waters, 
 and for compounding an aromatic spirit to remedy nausea, also to disguise 
 the disagreeable taste of other drugs. The coarser oil produced from the 
 leaves and stems is called spike oil, and is used by artists to mi.x their colors, 
 and especially for painting on pottery. 
 
 Lavandula spica (Lavender). 
 
 MENTHA, L. Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla 4-cleft, just a little longer 
 than the calyx, nearly equal, one division broader and eniarginate ; 
 stamens 4, straight, separate. Flowers in verticils, small, crowded, 
 short-stalked, or subse.ssile. 
 
 1. M. viridis, L. (Spearmint.) Stem 4-aiiglod, from a creeping root, 12 
 to 20 inches high. Leaves wrinkled, subsessilc or short-petioled, lanceolate 
 acute, and cut serrate ; bracts narrow, lanceolate or bristly ; teetli <>f the 
 
200 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 calyx hairy, spikes slender, interrupted. Whole plant possesses a strong 
 agreeable odor. Damp places. 
 
 2. M. piperita, L. (Peppermint.) Stem quadrangular and grooved, some- 
 times hairy, from 1 to 2 feet high, slender, weak, purplish, and branching. 
 Leaves on short petioles, ovate, pointed, and serrate, dark green above, smooth 
 and shining, paler underneath, with purplish veins. Flowers in terminal 
 spikes, lower parts interrupted, tlie lower whorl remote; bracts lanceolate and 
 ciliate ; calyx furrowed, with 5 dark purple ciliated striae ; corolla purple ; 
 filaments short, anthers included ; stigma forked. 
 
 Var. subhirsuta, Benth. Has scattered hairs on the petioles and veins of 
 the leaves. 
 
 There are many species to this genus, but those we have described are the 
 most important, and the only ones that possess any economic or commercial 
 value. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical distribution of the mint is a belt between 
 35° and 50° of north latitude, extending from the eastern side of the Missis- 
 sippi valley to Japan. Loudon claims England 
 as the home of the spearmint, as well as the 
 peppermint. The M. Piperita is found wild in 
 Hindustan, Japan, Persia, northwestern India, 
 and in Egypt. In the days of Liuugeus it was 
 a well-known plant in gardens throughout cen- 
 tral Europe. 
 
 Both these species were brought to the British 
 colonies in North America by European emi- 
 grants, and have become naturalized throughout 
 the northern and middle Atlantic States. 
 
 Ettjmology. — Mentha, the generic name, is 
 said to have been given to this plant in honor 
 of Mintha, the daughter of Coc\i;us, who ac- 
 cording to the myth was turned into mint by 
 Proserpine in a fit of jealousy. Viridis is the 
 Latin word for green, due to the color of the 
 plant. Piperita, from the Greek irUepi, pepper, 
 was given to this species on account of the bit- 
 ing pungency of the taste of the leaves. Spear- 
 mint is due to the spear-shaped spikes in which the flowers appear. Pepper- 
 mint is merely a translation of Piperita. Mint is supposed to be a corruption 
 of the word mentha, or mintha. 
 
 History. — Mentha viridis, or spearmint, was under cultivation in the con- 
 vent gardens in the ninth century. The exact locality which may be claimed 
 as its home is not known, but it is a European plant. 
 
 It is claimed that the mentha piperita is a native of England, was discov- 
 ered in Hertfordshire by a physician in 1696, and was described by Ray. 
 
 Cultivation. — It is cultivated for the production of oil of peppermint, which 
 is obtained by distilling the green plant. 
 
 The cultivation for this purpose is carried on in England, on the European 
 continent, and in the States of New York and Ohio in North America. The 
 ground, which should be damp, is prepared in furrows, and roots are laid in 
 them, after which they are lightly covered with earth and allowed to grow till 
 
 Mentha piperita (Peppermint). 
 
LABIATE.. 201 
 
 the f^round is covered. When in flower it is cut. aii<l after lying for a part of a 
 dav, is j)laced into the stills. After the oil is (extracted, t lie mint is cured and 
 fed to cattle. 
 
 Use. — Spearmint is used to flavor sauces for meats, and to jirepare a very 
 popular beverage known as mint Julep ; also in the manufacture of essences 
 and cordials; its medical (jualities are carminative and anthelmintic. 
 
 Teppermiut is largely used in the manufacture of the essential oil of jx-j)- 
 permint, on which the medicinal character of the plant depends. Its medicinal 
 qualities are anti-spasmodic, and it is used in domestic practice for pains 
 in tlie stomach and lower intestines. In China and Hindustan it is largely 
 used to relieve the flatulency incident to a vegetable diet. The taste is aro- 
 matic, warm, i)ungent, somewhat like camphor, and iiighly stimulant, 'i'he 
 greater part of the oil, however, is used by the manufacturers of confectionery 
 and cordials. 
 
 3. M. pulegium, L. (Pennyroyal.) Stem 6 to 10 inches long, bluntly 
 4-angled. much branched, usually trailing, slightly hairy. Leaves on short 
 petioles, small, bluntly serrate, hairy underneath. Flower-stalks covered with 
 short, thick hairs; flowers numerous, in sessile whorls ; calyx greenish-imrple, 
 furrowed and hairy, witli 5 unequal, ciliated, pointed teeth ; corolla twice the 
 length of the calyx, purple, 4-cleft, white at the ba.se, clothed with long, soft 
 hairs ; stamens erect, longer than the corolla. Annual. Flowering from 
 June to September. 
 
 Geography. — Found growing throughout Europe, Asia Minor, Persia, and 
 northern Africa ; was brouglit to northeastern America and introduced into 
 cultivation ; but the character and properties are so nearly allied to those of 
 the American plant {Hedeomn pn/ef/ioides, Pers.) that it has disappeared, and 
 the American plant is used in its place. 
 
 Ktymohfiji and Hiatorip — Piuerjinm is from the two Latin words, pule.r. a 
 flea, and rerjo, have power over, due to its reputation for destroying this lively 
 insect. Pevni/mi/al is a curious corruption of the specific name. Tn England 
 it is called puddlnc] fjrass, because of its use for flavoring blood puddings ; also 
 flea mint, for the reason already stated. 
 
 The pennyroyal was known in the first century, and is mentioned l\v l)oth 
 Dioscorides and Pliny. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties of pennyroyal are carminative, anti- 
 spasmodic, tonic, and stimulant. It is a well-known remedy in throat 
 di.seases. It is used as a gargle and as a liniment ; also as an insecticide, 
 or insectifuge, as the odor is said to banish various insects. The medical 
 qualities reside in an essential oil obtained by distilling the entire plant. 
 
 I'ennyroyal is admini.stered by quacks for a blood-purifier, under the name 
 of Orf/ana. 
 
 ORIGANUM. L. Calyx ovate, bell-shaped, obscurely P^nerved, 
 5-tooth(Ml, tliroat liairy ; corolla 2-lippod, upper lip erect and notched, 
 lower loncjer, and composed of 8 .spreading lobes ; stamens 4, ascend- 
 ing and spreading, mostly longer than the tube of corolla. Perennials ; 
 leaves nearly entire : flowers in crowded short or cylindrical heads; 
 bracts usually colored ; flowers pur]>lish. 
 
 Species, 25 in number ; mostly European. 
 
202 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 1. 0. vulgare, L. (Common Marjoram.) Stem purple, leafy, branched near 
 the top, 1 to 2 feet high, and hairy. Leaves stalked, entire, or slightly ser- 
 rate, sprinkled with resinous dots, paler underneath, ovate, lanceolate, an 
 inch in length, petioles shorter than the blades, bracts purplish. Flowers in a 
 terminal 3-forked panicle, in globular, compact heads ; calyx hairy inside, 
 with short, nearly equal, teeth ; corolla twice as long as the calyx, with 4 broad, 
 nearly equal, lobes, the upper one broadest and erect ; stamens longer than 
 corolla-tube. Flowers purplish-white. AVhole plant highly aromatic to the 
 taste. July to August. 
 
 2. 0. marjorana, L. (Marjoram. Sweet Marjoram.) Stems numerous, 
 woody, 12-18 inches high, much-branched. Leaves oval, obtuse, entire, on short 
 
 petioles, blade hoary- 
 pubescent, pale-green. 
 Flowers small, white or 
 pinkish, in crowded, 
 roundish, compact, ter- 
 minal spikes, bracts 
 numerous and large ; 
 calyx tubular, .5- 
 toothed, teeth sharp ; 
 corolla funnel-shaped, 
 2-lipped, upper one 
 erect and rounded, 
 lower one cut into 3- 
 pointed segments. 
 Leases and flowers pos- 
 sess a pleasant aro- 
 matic odor. July to 
 August. 
 
 These two species are 
 the only ones whose 
 medicinal or commer- 
 cial value is of any im- 
 portance. 
 
 Geography. — The 
 geographical range of these two species is wide ; they grow well all through 
 the Levant and Mediterranean countries, and all over Europe as far north as 
 the 50th parallel. 
 
 Etijmologji. — Orifjanum, the generic name, is from the Greek words upos, 
 " an elevation " or " hill," and yavos, " beauty," hence the beauty of the hills. 
 VuJqare is Latin for " common." Marjorana is supposed to be from the low 
 Latin name, viajorica. Marjoram, the common name, is a corruption of the 
 Latin major ica. 
 
 History. — The Origanum was well known to the Greek and Romans, and 
 was a favorite decorative plant at their marriage feasts, Avhen it was woven 
 into wreaths to crown the young married couple. It is mentioned by Pliny 
 and Vergil. It was brought to North America by European colonists, and 
 is a native of Europe and adjacent parts of Asia. 
 
 Use. — As a medicine it is stimulant, carminative, tonic, and sudorific, and 
 it is prescribed for dyspepsia and other disorders of the stomach. 
 
 The Thompsonian practitioners use the dried leaves for snuff in cephalic 
 
 Origanum vulgare (Common Marjoram). 
 
LAB I AT .E. 203 
 
 difficulties. The leaves are nse.l for lea as table leverage. an.l are preferred 
 
 hv some to teas from China. 
 
 The oil is very sharp, and use.l in lininu.nts for spra.ns and rheumatism. 
 
 On account of its beauty it is a favorite plant in the tl<nver-garden. 
 
 THYMUS L Calyx bilabiate, with 10 to l:i stride, o-toothecl, :i 
 
 upper teeth short, triangular, lower pair linear subulate ascending ; 
 
 rmolH •>-lippe(l, upper lip notched, lower lip :5-lobed, lobes equal or 
 
 ^^lolli W stamens 4, mostly -^^ted ; hl^ient. str^^^^^^ 
 
 divergent. Leaves small, entire, strongly veined, lerennial heib, 
 
 or woodv. 
 
 I T vulgaris L. (Sweet Thyme.) Stem a foot high, slender, woody, 
 
 branched Leaves sessile, linear-lanceolate or ovate, quarter of an inch l<>ng. 
 
 edges revolute, hoary, especially beneath, and <lotted 
 
 with oil-glands. Flowers small, purple, in terminal 
 
 globose heads, occasionally a few lower whorls. In 
 
 a state of nature, clothed with a gray pubescence ; 
 
 under cultivation, greener, more luxuriant, and barely 
 
 tomentose ; fragrant, pungent, and aromatic. 1 eren- 
 
 nial herl). July. 
 
 •> T serpyllum. L. Stem slender, much-branched, 
 
 procumbent, hard, approachiug woodiness at the base, 
 
 forming low, dense tufts, 6 to 12 inches in diameter, 
 
 and covered with Howers. Leaves very small, ovate 
 
 or oblong fringed at the base by a few long hairs on thymus vuloaris 
 
 each side; floral leaves smaller. Flowers usually 6 (Thyme). 
 
 in a whorl, without any other bracts than the floral 
 
 leaves, forming sh.n-t, terminal, loose, leafy spikes; calyx hairy, and the whole 
 plant sometimes clothed with hoary hairs. 
 
 Geograph!J. -Thyme is indigenous to Spain and other parts of southern 
 Europe the coasts of the Mediterranean, the mountains of (,reece and the 
 islands of the Archipelago, the British Isles, and north to southern Siberia. 
 
 Et,jmoloc,>,.-Th,jmus is from the Greek e.^os, signifying 'courage o, 
 " strength/' Vulgaris, Latin vulgus, signifies " common. Serpylum, Latin 
 means ''creeping/' and is due to the prostrate character of this species 
 Thume, the common name, is a contraction of the generic name. 
 
 Histon, -Thvme was known to the ancient Romans, who used it in various 
 ways to season food. It was in modern times described by l^ournefort, and 
 was brouc^ht to North America by European colonists. It was- a favorite 
 aroma ic herb of the Greeks, and abounded on Mt. Ilymettus near Athens, 
 "for its thvnie ami honey. Ovid. Vergil, an.l Pliny, all speak of the 
 thyme in connection with bees; and honey made from the thyme possessed 
 the flavor of the plant, an.l was on that account highly esteeme.l. 
 "-Thvme is use.l in manv culinary prep.rati.u.s for flavoring ..auces. 
 grav es, ehoe'se. and meats, sausage, etc. The plant yiel.ls to ^-ti llation an 
 Lential oil. which is a powerful local stimulant. n combination with 
 camphor an.l alcoh.>l, it is use.l as a liniment for chrome rheumatism. I i. 
 an important ingre.lient in liniments, and is largely used for low grades of 
 seen «s. The plant is also .MupU.ye.l for .u>rdcrs in plante. gr.mnd. 
 •'Fhe variegated varieties. T. platif.>lia. and T. auntol.a. are use.l tor that 
 purpose. 
 
 >r 
 ies. 
 
204 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 SALVIA, L. (Sage.) Calyx striate, 2-lipped, upper lip 3-toothed or 
 entii'e, lower bifid, throat naked; corolla 2-lipped, gaping, the upper 
 lip straight or curved, sometimes notched, the lower spreading and 
 3-lobed, middle larger ; perfect stamens 2, the filaments have at their 
 summits a cross thread, the transverse connective, one end of which 
 bears a perfect half-anther. The other end has on it a defective half- 
 anther. This transverse thi-ead is an essential character of this large 
 genus. 
 
 1. S. ofl&cinalis, L. (Common or Garden Sage.) Stem woody, 1 to 2 feet 
 high. Leaves elliptical-lanceolate, wrinkled, margins crenulated ; calyx mu- 
 cronate; whorls 6-10-tlowered, in two opposite sets, of purplish-blue flowers. 
 Whole plant strongly aromatic. 
 
 Var. variegata has leaves spotted with white. This genus has about 400 
 species, though S. officinalis is the only one of culinary importance. 
 
 2. The S. pomifera, L. (Apple-bearing Sage), is found upon some of the 
 islands of the Grecian Archipelago. Upon its branches appear fleshy tumors 
 from half to three quarters of an inch in diameter, supposed to be caused by 
 the bite of an insect. 
 
 Geography. — The home of the sage is the countries of the Mediterranean. 
 It was known to the most ancient writers on medicine and botany on account 
 of its medical virtues and pleasant odor. From ancient time it has been cul- 
 tivated throughout middle and southern Europe and the British Isles, and like 
 similar plants was brought to northeast America by European colonists. It 
 is also growing in British India, where it has been carried by the English. 
 
 The genus is very large, and some of the species are found in every quarter 
 of the globe. The home of the S. officinalis and S. pomifera is the Levant 
 and other Mediterranean countries. The S. officinalis grows well in all coun- 
 tries between 35° and 60° of the north temperate zone. It has been intro- 
 duced into North America, but not naturalized ; it is not growing except 
 under cultivation. 
 
 Et ji molot] II . — Salvia, the generic name, is from the Latin sahms, " well," or 
 "in good health," in allusion to its curative qualities. Officinalis, the specific 
 name, means "of the shops." Pomifera, " apple-bearing," is due to the fleshy 
 tumors on its branches. The common name, sage, is said to be due to prop- 
 erties of the plant, which tend to strengthen the mind, and thereby make 
 men wise. 
 
 Use. — The sage is used to flavor sausage, for stuffings for roast poultry and 
 other meats, and the pulverized dried leaves are used to flaA'or cheese. An 
 infusion of the leaves is an astringent tonic gargle. The cold tea is adminis- 
 tered for nervous headache ; when sweetened with honey, the sage is a remedy 
 for canker in the mouth and throat. Gerard says : " It is good for the head 
 and brain. It quickens the memory and the senses. The juice of the leaves 
 mixed with honey is good for those who spit blood. No man needs to doubt 
 of the wholesomeness of sage." It was also used in his day as a hair-dye. It 
 is used as a cooling drink in fevers, and is an important plant in the list of 
 domestic remedies. 
 
 There are many species used for ornamental purposes. A variety of 
 S. officinalis, var. variegata, is a favorite, and there are many with very 
 showy flowers. 
 
LABIATJE. 
 
 205 
 
 ROSMARINUS, L. ( lloseiiuiry, Dew of the Sea.) Calyx bell-shaped, 
 slightly compressed, -1-lipped, upper lip concave, iiiiimtely 3-toothed, 
 lower birid, naked within ; corolla gai)ing, downy, pale-blue, variegated 
 with purple and white, tube longer than the calyx, upper lip erect and 
 shortly bitid, the lower spreading and slit into three segments, the 
 middle segment larger, concave, and declined; perfect stamens 2, 
 longer than the upper lip, arched, bearing a flexed tooth above the 
 base, supporting the blue oblong anther; style as long as the stamens, 
 thread-like, 2-cleft, the posterior lobe small ; nutlets, 1 at the bottom 
 of the calyx. Shrub. Leaves narrow and entire. Floral leaves 
 smaller. Only 1 species. 
 
 R. officinalis, L. (Rosemary.) Stem erect, 4 feet high, inueh-hranched; 
 branches hairy ; braiichlets 4-sided aud dowuy. Leaves opposite, nearly sessile, 
 au inch long, narrow, 
 linear, obtuse, entire, 
 revolute, dark-green, 
 smooth aud shining 
 above, woolly, veined, 
 and silvery beneatli. 
 Flowers axillary and 
 terminal, blue. Both 
 flowers aud leaves have 
 a strong odor, resem- 
 l)ling camphor. A beau- 
 tiful evergreen shrub. 
 
 Var. variegata, W., 
 has variegated leaves. 
 This, with otlier varie- 
 ties, are under cultiva- 
 tion ; but the K. offici- 
 nalis is highly valuable 
 for other purpose.^. 
 
 Geographi/. — The 
 rosemary is no doubt 
 native in all southern 
 Europe. It is found 
 
 without cultivation on the Greek islands in the Peloponnesus, and is under 
 cultivation from western Europe to Japan, in the southern parts of the north 
 temperate zone. It is a favorite in the gardens of Egypt, and is cultivated 
 in Hindustan for medicinal purposes. As no native name is found for it 
 in Asia, it is inferable that it has been introduced iuto those countries by 
 Europeans. 
 
 Eti/inolot/i/. — Rosmarinus is compounded of the Latin words ros, "dew," 
 and 7uariiiits, " of the sea," — dew of the sea, or sea-dew. Ojficinalis, Latin, 
 means " of tlie shops." Varieguta, Latin, means " variegated." Rosemarg is 
 without doubt a corruption of rosniarhms. 
 
 History. — When it was introduced into use is not known, but it was 
 known to the ancients, Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, and the Arabic physicians. 
 It was known to the Saxons before the Norman conquest, and no doubt 
 cultivated by them iu England. Charleniiign*' I'l-lered it planted in his 
 
 Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemarj-). 
 
206 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 garden ; Vergil reeummeDds it for the use of bees; and Lindley savs the deli- 
 cate flavor of Narbonne honey is due to access of the bees to the rosemary. 
 It was brought to North America by colonists in the latter part of the 
 seventeenth century. • 
 
 Use. — It is difficult to find a plant to which greater and more numerous 
 qualities have been attributed, or one that is more widely known or in greater 
 repute than this humble shrub. The Greeks bound it on the head for gar- 
 lands. The leaves and flowers decorated the bride to indicate fidelity. Anne 
 of Cleves wore it at her wedding with Henry. It was laid upon the coffin, 
 throAvn into the open grave, or carried in the hand at funerals to indicate that 
 the mourners would remember the dead. A sprig was worn to proclaim that 
 the wearer had repented. Queen Bess adorned the walls of Hampton Court 
 with rosemary. It was always found in the woman's department of the gardens 
 of the high-born, and there was an English proverb, that " rosemary grows 
 where the mistress is master." We have not space to relate half of what has 
 been said of this little shrub. It is highly aromatic in all its parts. The 
 flowers are distilled to procure the oil of rosemary, which is an ingredient 
 in the perfumery of Hungary water and eau de cologne ; it is used also to 
 flavor spirits and liqueurs. It is used in making the well-known soap lini- 
 ment, and the compound spirits of lavender. It is an ingredient in the manu- 
 facture of nearly all perfumery and of toilet soaps. The pulverized leaves are 
 used for snuff. 
 
 NEPETA, L. Calyx cylindrical, marked with 15 striae or nerves, 
 5-toothed, generally oblique, barely 2-lipped; corolla slender below, 
 swollen in the throat, upper lip emarginate, lower 
 one spreading, 3-lobed, middle lobe largest, crenate, 
 marked with crimson dots, margin turned over; 
 stamens 4, ascending under the upper lip, near to- 
 gether. Perennial or annual herb. Leaves some- 
 times lobed or incised. 
 
 A large genus ; some of the species are cultivated 
 for ornamental purposes. 
 
 N. cataria. L. (Catnip or catmint.) Stem square, 3 
 feet liigh, branched ; whole plant hoary. Leaves cordate, 
 coarsely crenate-toothed and petioled. Flowers crowded, 
 in large, hoary spikes, whorled, Avhite or purplish. July 
 Nepeta catakia to September. 
 
 (Catnip). Geography. —The home of the Nepeta Cataria is Europe 
 
 and western Asia. It is found throughout the countries of 
 
 the Levant. It was brought to North America by European settlers, from 
 
 whose gardens it has escaped, and is found growing freely about dwellings 
 
 and by the roadsides without cultivation. 
 
 Etymology. — Nepeta, the generic name of this plant, is said to have been 
 given to it because it was first brought to the notice of naturalists at Nepet, a 
 town in Tuscany. It is also claimed to be due to the fact that it cures the 
 bite of the nepa, a scorpion. Cataria, the specific name, arises from the fact 
 that cats delight in it, take it for medicine, and roll upon it when opportunity 
 offers. Catnep or catnip, the popular name, was given for the reason that 
 cats bite it or nip it. 
 
LABIATJE. 
 
 207 
 
 Use — Catuip is au important article in the materia tnedica of the matron. 
 Tea niade of the dried leaves, stems, and Hower-buds is administered to mfauts 
 to relieve pains in the bowels and to promote sleep. Herbal practitioners 
 claim for it the qualities of a febrifuge, carn.inative, tonic, and soporifac. and 
 a slight narcotic. 
 
 MARRUBIUM, L. Calvx tubular, woolly, 5-U)-toothed, with a 
 correspondino- number of strii^, teeth erect or spreading, setaceous, 
 alternately shorter, erect or hooked ; corolla 2-lipped, upper lip erect, 
 tlattish, sometimes divided, lower lip spreading, nearly flat or con- 
 cave :3-lobed, middle lobe largest and notched, tube the length of 
 the calyx; stamens shorter than corolla, 4 in number; filaments 
 parallel under the upper side of corolla; anthers 2-ceUed; verticils 
 manv-flowered, globose, with slender bracts. Leaves w'oolly and 
 wrinkled, rounded at the base, serrate; floral leaves similar to the 
 others in form. Flowers white or purple. Perennial herbs. 
 
 No. of species, 30. 
 
 M. vulgare, L. (Hoarhound.) 
 Stem 12 to 18 inches in height, 
 hoary, branching at the base, or 
 numerous stems from the same 
 root. Leaves ovate, rounded at 
 the base, crenate-toothed, wrinkled, 
 hoary, lighter underneath, on short 
 stalks. Flowers white, sessile, in 
 dense, globose verticils ; nutlets 
 dark-broAvn, obovate, and truncate. 
 July. 
 
 Geographf/. — It is native in the 
 countries of the Levant, the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and other regions around 
 the Mediterranean Sea. It is at 
 the present day found growing in 
 
 gardens all over Europe in the temperate zone. It was brought to the 
 Atlantic States in America by European colonists, and escaping from gar- 
 dens is found growing without cultivation about dwellings. It is found 
 throughout the temperate zone in Europe, Asia, and America, keeping pace 
 with civilization. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Marrubiu7n is derived from Marniviim, an ancient city of 
 Italv, on the shore of Lake Fucine. Vulgare, the specific name, signifies 
 " common." Hoarhound, the common name, is due to the hoary appearance 
 of the plant ; hound is from houn, " bitter," or " disagreeable." 
 
 //i.s7o/-_y. — This j.lant was known in the days of Theopiirastus. IMiny, wiio 
 lived 300 years later, also speaks of it. In "those days the plant had a high 
 reputation for curing pulmonary dise.ases. 
 
 Use. — A» a remedy, the ancients attached great value to hoarhound, and 
 more particularly for pulmonary diseases. At the present day it is a popular 
 domestic remedy for coughs, colds, and affections of the lungs, administered 
 in teas, syrups, and candies. The hoarhound has au aromatic smell, but a 
 verv bitter flavor. 
 
 MARRUBIUM ^•ULGARE (Hoarhouud). 
 
208 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order XLIII. CHENOPODIACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, small, sometimes polygamous, sessile or pediceled, 
 solitary or agglomerated, axillary or terminal, bracteate or naked; 
 calyx o-3-sepals, greenish and coherent at base, imbricate in the bud ; 
 corolla wanting ; stamens hypogynous, or as many as sepals, or fewer 
 at the bottom of calyx, opposite the sepals; filaments thread-like, 
 mostly free, sometimes united just at the base in a cup ; ovary egg- 
 shaped, usually free, 1-celled ; style 2-3-lobed or 2-3 styles. Fruit, a 
 utricle ; seed mostly free, lens-shaped or kidney-shaped. "^ Leaves alter- 
 nate, simple, sessile or petioled, entire, toothed or sinuate, frequently 
 fleshy, without stipules. Herbaceous or suffrutescent, sometimes 
 shrubby. 
 
 No. of genera, 80 ; species, 520 ; cosmopolitan ; mostly in temperate 
 climates. 
 
 BETA, Tournefort. Calyx hollow and contracted at the mouth, 
 5-cleft, persistent, becoming hardened at the base ; stamens 5 ; ovary 
 depressed, partly inferior ; stigmas 2, the small bladdery fruit, with a 
 thickish, hardened, depressed pericarp, enclosed in the calyx: seed 
 horizontal. Leaves alternate ; flowers in spikes. Herbs. 
 
 B. vulgaris, Moq. (Beet.) Stem 2 to 5 feet high, angled, branched in form 
 of panicle, appearing the second year. Leaves of the first year 6 to 15 inches 
 
 long, 4 to 8 inches wide, spatulate, edges 
 wavy ; radical leaves of the second year 
 like those of the first ; stem-leaves smaller, 
 of dingy copper-color to dark-purple, ovate, 
 lanceolate; root biennial, 3 to 10 inches in 
 diameter, and 5 to 15 inches long, fusi- 
 form, tapering downwards to a slender 
 fibrous point. Color, from dark-yellow to 
 dark-red. Flowers greenish-wliite, in ses- 
 sile, head-like cymes, forming slender spikes, 
 arranged in leafy panicles; appearing in 
 July. Seed rugose or wrinkled. 
 
 The beet is propagated from the seed, 
 and sports freely, producing many varie- 
 ties, the general forms of which are two, 
 — the long beet, and the turnip beet. 
 
 Var. cicla, the long, cylindrical-rooted 
 beet. 
 
 Var. rapa, flat or turnip-rooted beet. 
 Var. mangel-wiirzel, large-rooted beet. 
 Under these forms there are many varieties, as may be seen by consulting 
 the catalogues of the seedsmen, and the varieties under cultivation are very 
 constant. 
 
 Geography. — The beet grows well in rich soil throughout the middle parts 
 of the temperate zone, especially in Europe, north Africa, and the temperate 
 parts of British India. Tt was brought to North America by British and 
 Dutch colonists, and is largely grown here. 
 
 Beta vulgaris rapa (Turnip Beet). 
 
CHENOPODIArE.^.. 
 
 209 
 
 Etymuluyy. — Beta,i\\Q. j^pueric name, is said to l)e from tho Celtic word 
 6e«, " red," due to the color of the root. It is also claimed to he from 6e^e, 
 Anglo-Saxou, hut derived from the Latin beta, used hy Tliny. The specific 
 name, vulgaris, is Latin, and signifies " common." Beet, the common name, 
 is a mere corruption of the scientific name. 
 
 History. — The heet is a native of Europe and Western Asia, along the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, and adjacent c<juntries. The /jeta maritima is he- 
 lieved to be the original plant, the seed of which is supposed to have giveu 
 rise to the B. vulgaris of the gardens, out of which have grown by sports the 
 numerous varieties that now exist. It was known to the Greeks ami Romans 
 at least 500 years before the Christian era. 
 It is supposed to have been taken to Great 
 Britain by the Romans in the time of Agri- 
 cola, A. D. 79, and the spread into Gaul and 
 Germany was no doubt due to the conquest 
 of those countries by the Romans. 
 
 Use. — The beet is an important table vege- 
 table and pickle, and in Germany, France, 
 and the British Isles is used as a salad. lu 
 central Europe, Germany and France espe- 
 cially, it is extensively used for sugar-mak- 
 ing, and very largely for a feed for stock. 
 
 The sugar-bearing property of the beet 
 although discovered in Germany, was first 
 turned to practical use in France in the reign 
 of Napoleon I., who, to render France inde- 
 pendent of foreign nations for sugar, en- 
 couraged the manufacture of beet-sugar at 
 home. From France it spread into adjacent 
 European countries, and especially into Bel- 
 gium, Germany, Austria and Russia; and at 
 present beet growing and sugar making from the beet are ranked among the 
 great industries of central and western Europe. 
 
 Statistics. — The annual product in Europe is about 000,000,000 bushels. An 
 acre will produce 4,000 jjounds of sugar. An acre of cane yields 7,200 pounds. 
 
 The crude beet-sugar contains a greater number of foreign substances than 
 cane-sugar, and the refining process is more difiicult and expensive. Its 
 sweetening power is identical. 
 
 Beta \TrLGAHis cicla (Long Bee^,). 
 
 SPINACIA, Tourii. (Spinach. Spinage.) Flowers dioecious : bract- 
 lets ; staminate flowers with a I-o-parted calj-x, segments equal, 
 stamens on the receptacle, opposite the segments of the calyx 
 of the fertile flowers tubular, swelled in the middle, :5-toothed 
 egg-shaped, 1-celled, 1-ovuled, with 4 lengthened stigmas. 
 1-seeded, included within the hardened 2-1-horned calyx 
 flattened. Leaves alternate 
 axillary. Annual herV). 
 
 calyx 
 ovary 
 Fruit 
 seeds 
 
 and petioled. Flowers greenisii and 
 
 S. oleracea, Mill. (Spinach.) Stem is to 24 inches high, slightly branched, 
 more frequently simple. Loaves 3 to .5 inches long, tapering towards the 
 base, fretjuently hastate and lanceolate ; leaf-stalk varies from I to 4 inches iu 
 pR. Fl.— L5 
 
210 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 length. Flowers axillary, densely clnstered or in raceme-like panicles, 
 greenish. Fruit or ripened calyx generally armed with 2 or more strong, 
 blunt spines ; in some A'arieties the fruit is smooth or without spines. Flowers 
 in June. 
 
 This plant, which is grown from the seed, sports, and many varieties have 
 arisen. The most important ones are the round, smootli-leaved, and the 
 prickly-leaved ; the last is more hardy, and best for autumn planting. 
 
 A variety known as the Flanders Spinach has double-hastate and wrinkled 
 leaves. The Large Prickly has very large leaves, rounded or spatulate. 
 
 The Lettuce-leaved has 
 rounded, deep green, 
 smooth leaves on short 
 stalks. These are the 
 favorite varieties ; there 
 are others intermediate. 
 
 Geographic . — The 
 spinach grows well 
 throughout the middle 
 of the north temperate 
 zone, and is found in 
 the kitchen and market 
 gardens of the Old 
 World, from Hindustan 
 to the western shores 
 and islands of Europe ; 
 and in the eastern 
 United States of North 
 America. It also has 
 been carried to the 
 islands of the South 
 Pacific by European 
 colonists. 
 Etymology. — Spinacia is derived from the Latin spina, " a thorn," on account 
 
 of the armed condition of the seed-vessel. Oleracea is from the Latin oleraceus, 
 
 " a pot herb." Spinach, or spinage, the common name, is a corruption of spinacia. 
 History. — The home of this plant is Persia, whence it has found its way by 
 
 commerce, colonization, and travellers to all parts of the civilized world. 
 Just how or when it was taken to Europe is not known. It was brought to 
 
 the United States from Europe, where it receives much attention by gardeners. 
 
 It is fit for use early in the spring, to which circumstance its popularity and 
 
 market value are largely due. 
 
 Use. — The leaves of spinach are boiled with salt meats, or alone, and served 
 
 plain or with a vinegar-sauce, or eaten with salt only as a condiment. It is 
 
 one of the most delicate of all the plants used for greens, and on this account 
 
 justly ranks high as a table vegetable. 
 
 Spinacia oleracea (Spinach). 
 
 Order XLTV. POLYGONACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect or polygamous, without involucre ; perianth of 3-6 
 segments, inner ones or all often petaloid ; stamens 1 to 9 or 6 to 8. 
 sometimes 12 to 17 ; ovary free, occasionally adhering below, 1-celled, 
 
POLYGONACE^. 
 
 211 
 
 l-ovuled, ovule basilar and erect. Fruit ;3-angled, .sometimes winged. 
 Leaves alternate and entire, largely collected at the base of the stern, 
 rarely opposite, mostly with clasping petioles and sheathing stipules. 
 Herbaceous or frutescent, and sometimes climbing. 
 Xo. oi genera, about 80; species, COO. 
 
 FAGOPYRUM, Tourn. Calyx composed of 5 colored equal sepals 
 or parts ; stamens 8, alternating with 8 honey-glands. Number of 
 styles 3, capitate. Fruit 3-angled, in lax or dense cymes. 
 
 1. F. esculentum, Tourn. (Buckwheat.) Stem smooth, 1 to 3 feet high, 
 branched, in an irregular panicle, furrowed, stout and liollow. Leaves vary- 
 ing, cordate, triangular, or liastate. Flowers in terminal and axillary cymo.se 
 panicles, rose white. P>uit 3-angled, nut or grain inclosed in a dark-colored, 
 coriaceous shell ; kernel white. 
 
 Flowers in August ; fruit ripens in September and October. 
 
 2. F. Tartaricum is a hardy species grown in Tartary and in northern 
 Europe, endures light frost, differs froni /'. esculentum in the leaves, which are 
 broader than long, with acute lobes. Fruit 
 
 triangular, lance-shaped, with the angles 
 sinuate-dentate ; calyx very small. 
 
 3. F. emarginatum differs from the last 
 in its fruit, whose angles are margined by a 
 broad wing. 
 
 Geography. — The zone of the buckwheat 
 is not very wide ; it is found in Russia, far 
 north, and grows well in Canada and tlie 
 northern United States. It will grow south 
 of 35° of latitude, but does not tlirive in hot 
 climates. Though it does not endure the 
 frost, it will not fill unless it has a tempera- 
 ture as low as 35° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Etymology. — Fagopyrum is derived from 
 the Greek words (f>vy6s, " beech," and nvpos. 
 " wheat," — beech wheat or grain. Escu- 
 lentum, the specific name, is Latin, and signifies that the grain is eatable. 
 The common name, buckwheat, is derived from the Angle-Saxon word boc, 
 " beech," and the word " wheat " signifying " beech-wheat." Liuuanis called 
 this plant Polygonum fagopyrum, "mmiy-augled beech-wheat." Tournefort, 
 the great French botanist, named it Fagopyrum esculentum, '' ei\tii]>\e beech- 
 wheat." Tartaricum, Latin, is derived from Tartary, the home of this species. 
 Emarginatum, Latin, is due to the fact that the angles of the fruit are mar- 
 gined by broad wings. 
 
 History. — \t is a native of central Asia and Tartary, and is found growing 
 without cultivation in the valley of the Volga, and along the .sliores of the 
 Caspian Sea. It was carried to Spain by the Moors, and has thence spread 
 tiiroughout northern and central Europe, where it has become naturalized. 
 In France it is called IVe Saracin, or Sarasin Wheat. 
 
 Another account of its introduction int(^ Europe is that it was brought by 
 the Crusaders from Asia Minor, in wiiose northern fields it was found under 
 cultivation, which would account for its French name. 
 
 Fagopyrum esculentum 
 (Buckwheat). 
 
212 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Still another account is that it was brought into Russia from Tartary early 
 in 1700, and thence spread through Europe. 
 
 It was introduced into northeast America by European colonists. 
 
 Cultivation. — In latitude 40° to 45° it is sown about the 1st of July, and 
 ripens in September. It is planted when practicable upon new ground, and 
 leaves the land in a good condition for next year's planting of other crops. 
 The yield ranges in the northern and northwestern states from 20 to 50 
 bushels to the acre, but 30 bushels is a satisfactory yield. In the south Atlan- 
 tic States the yield is less, ranging from 10 to 25 bushels. 
 
 Use. — Although this grain has not the importance of the cereals, yet 
 it constitutes the bread of a large number of the people of central Asia and 
 northern Europe. It is very popular as a material for griddle-cakes. In 
 northern Europe it is used in making a dark bread, and there too the grain is 
 hulled and used in the same manner as rice. It is an excellent feed for cattle 
 and poultry. 
 
 BHETJM, L. Calyx colored, sepals 6, in double series, persistent; 
 stamens 9, opposite the outer sepals ; styles 3, very short and spread- 
 ing ; stigmas 3 ; fruit with 3 winged angles. Leaves large, mostly 
 radical, on long stalks. Flowers in racemose or paniculate fascicles. 
 Perennial herb. 
 
 1. R. rhaponticum, Linn. (Rhubarb.) Stem stout, hollow, 4 feet high, 
 furrowed ; stipules large and sheathing. Leaves entire, cordate, ovate, obtuse, 
 
 and smooth, 12 to 24 inches long and 
 10 to 15 wide, cauliue leaves smaller; 
 sepals greenish, with white margins. 
 Root large, fleshy, tuberous, and yel- 
 low within. 
 
 2. R. palmatum, Linn. Leaves 
 5-lobed, palmate, rough ; lobes sinu- 
 ate-toothed, acute. 
 
 .3, R. undulatum, Linn. Leaves 
 oval-cordate, Avith undulated margins. 
 
 4. R. compactum, Linn. Leaves 
 with a general heart-shaped contour, 
 but interrupted with a number of 
 deep sinuses. 
 
 The last three are the species 
 which furnish the rhubarb-root of 
 commerce, the R. palmatum supply- 
 ing the larger part. 
 Several varieties have been obtained by sporting and hybridizing, which 
 furnish very large leaf -stalks. There are some 10 varieties, that for one or 
 another reason recommend themselves to the cultivator. The Victoria is 
 admired for its gigantic size. The most delicate and desirable for the private 
 garden is the R. compactum. 
 
 Geography. — Rhubarb will grow well as far north as the 50th parallel. 
 The market is supplied by the products of regions lying between 35° and 45°. 
 Unsuccessful attempts have been made in England to raise it for the druggist. 
 
 Rheum rhaponticum (Rhubarb). 
 
PIPEHACE^.. 213 
 
 Darwin states that the root grown in Knghind does not possess tli^ medical 
 properties of that raised in 'I'artary. It is found also growing in tropical 
 India. 
 
 Etjimologij. — Tlie name Rheum is from Rha, tjie ancient name of the Volga 
 river, the plant liaviug been first brought to the notice of man by specimens 
 procured along the banks of the Volga. Rhaponticinn, the .specific name of the 
 plant under garden cultivation, and from which the several varieties have 
 been derived, is made up of the words Rha, the name of the Volga, and Pontus, 
 a district of country where the plant was found. l)e C'andolle gave it this 
 name, which signifies " rhubarb from Pontus." It was formerly supposed to 
 be tlie species wliich produces the root of commerce, and it has also been 
 claimed that the H. palmatum is the true or parent species, from which all 
 others have arisen, and that the K. compactum is the original species. But 
 the properties of the different .species and varieties are so similar that they 
 may be substituted for each other. Rhubarb is a contraction of rheum bar- 
 barum, the rheum of the barbarians. 
 
 Uistorij. — The fine medicinal rhubarl) known as Russian or Turkey l\hu- 
 barb entirely disappeared from commerce in 18G.3. It derived its name of 
 Turkey from its being formerly brought into Europe through the Levantine 
 ports, and in more recent times was named Russian from its being imported 
 through the Russo-Chinese frontier town of Kiachta, at which place the Rus- 
 sian government maintained an establishment for its rigid inspection for 
 nearly two hundred years, up to 1863, when all inspection was abolished. 
 Neither the botanical source of this rhubarb nor the j)lace of its origin were 
 ever known. The present rhubarb of commerce, known as China or Eai?t 
 Indian Rhul)arb, is collected in the Chinese provinces of Shensi Kanshu and 
 Szechuen, tlionce sent to Hankow, whence it reaches Europe and America by 
 way of Shangliai. It is defined in the PharmacopaMa of the Fnited States as 
 "the root of Rheum officinale and of other undetermined species of rheum." 
 
 Use. — The root of the rheum furnishes one of the most reliable substances 
 in the materia medlca. It is cathartic, astringent, and tonic ; and is largely 
 used in alterative medicines and in preparations to correct and excite the 
 digestive apparatus, as well as in medicines for reducing inflammatory con- 
 ditions of the bowels. It contains much oxalic acid. 
 
 The leaf-stalk is u.sed in culinary preparations, — tarts, pies, puddings, 
 dumplings, and .sauce. It is also preserved in sugar. It is now found in 
 every well-kept kitchen-garden, and is an important article in the market- 
 garden. 
 
 Order XLV. PIPERACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect or dioecious, without euvelope.s, in lou"', pt^duucled 
 spikes, each flower protected by a peltate or decurrent bract ; stamens 
 2 or 3, sometimes to many, filaments short ; ovary s(>ssile, globular, 
 of 3-4-distinct carpels, with several ovules, or 1 -celled, 1-ovuled. Berry 
 dry or fleshy ; seed globose, testa thin, cartilaginous. Leaves fre- 
 quently succulent, opposite or whorled, occasionally alternate, entire; 
 nerves obscure, reticulate ; petiole short, shcathinu at base. Herbs or 
 .shrubs. 
 
 No. of genera, 8; species, 1,000. Chiefly tropical; Asia and 
 America. 
 
214 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 PIPER, Linn. Flowers without perianth ; stamens 2 to 4, occasion- 
 ally 5, rarely more; filaments short; ovary 1-celled ; stigmas 2 to 5. 
 Fruit, a small berry, globular or egg-shaped ; climbing shi'ubs, with 
 alternate, entire leaves, which are strongly veined or nerved. 
 
 1. P. betel, Linn. (Betel Pepper.) Stem climbing, 5 to 8 feet high, or long, 
 knotted at the nodes. Leaves opposite, 5 inches long, ovate, acuminate, uneven 
 or obhquely cordate at base, 5-7-veined, leathery, glossy above. 
 
 There are over 600 species of the Piper, but this and the following are the 
 most important. 
 
 Geography. — The Piper betel is a tropical and subtropical plant, and is 
 distributed throughout the regions of southern Asia. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Piper and pepper are derived from the Greek 
 iriiTipi and TreVept, pepper. Betel, the specific name, is the Malabar name of the 
 
 plant. It is native to Java, and is cultivated 
 wherever the betel-nut grows. 
 
 Use. — The leaves are sparingly sprinkled 
 with shell-lime, and then wrapped around 
 slices of betel-nut, and in that state they 
 are used as a masticatory. They are also 
 used for the same purpose without the 
 betel-nut. 
 
 Medical practitioners among the Hindus 
 recommend their use in the morning fasting, 
 also after meals and on retiring. The prop- 
 erties of the betel-pepper are aromatic, car- 
 minative, stimulant, and astringent, and it 
 is said to be a specific for headache. 
 
 In connection with the betel-nut, it is used 
 by about one tenth of tlie whole human race, 
 yet is not an important article of foreign 
 Piper nigrum (Black Pepper). commerce. 
 
 2. P. nigrum, L. (Black Pepper.) Stem climbing, 20 to 30 feet long, 
 with jointed or swelled processes at the nodes, branching in forks. Leaves 
 broadly ovate, lanceolate, 5-7-veined, petioled, and 3 to 6 inches long, dark- 
 green. Flowers in slender spikes, opposite the leaves, 3 to 6 inches long, 
 greenisli. Fruit, a globular, 1-celled berry, as large as a middling-sized 
 pea, sessile, in loose clusters, to the number of 20 to 30 on a drooping stalk ; 
 the berries are first green, then red, and when ripe, yellow. A perennial shrub. 
 This species produces both the black and the white pepper of commerce. 
 
 Var. longum produces a fruit similar to the P. nigrum, but inferior in strength 
 and flavor, and is used to adulterate the P. nigrum. 
 
 Geography.— The home of the pepper-plant is southern Asia and the adja- 
 cent isles. T'epper has been an important article of commerce from the 
 earliest times of communication between the East Indies and Europe, and was 
 cultivated in southern India, Java, Sumatra, and Malabar, but especially at 
 Bantam, in Java, whence the earliest shipments were made. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific name, nigrum, from the Latin, signifying " black," 
 is due to the color of tlie berry when fit for market. 
 
 History. — It was known to the early botanists, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, 
 and Pliny. It was in early times carried by caravans through lower Arabia 
 
MYKlsriCACE^. 215 
 
 aud then across the Red Sea into Africa, and so to the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean, where a heavy duty was laid on it. The Aral>ian physicians of 
 the niitUUe ages used it as a medicine. The duties to whidi popper was suh- 
 jeet were so great in tiie middle ages tliat only the rich were^al)le to procure 
 it. In 1623 the impost-tax in (ireat Britain was five shillings per pound, and 
 even as late as 1823 it was two-and-sixpence per pound, eciual to 63 cents. 
 
 Cultivation. — Tho plant grows easily from slips, and is usually slipped 
 heneath trees which it is to climb. It fruits the first year after slipping, hut 
 reaches its maximum crop in the fifth year. A plant in full hearing yields 10 
 pounds, and will last 20 years. 
 
 Chemistn/ —The chemist obtains from the pepper-corn or berry an es.sen- 
 tial oil and a resin, on which its pungency depends. The oil known as the oil 
 of black pepper gives the peculiar fiavor. There is also present a tasteless 
 alkaline substance known as piperine, CnHigNOsi, ^vhich forms four-sided 
 prismatic crvstals. . . . 
 
 Preparation. — It is prepared for use by picking when in a .semi-ripe state, 
 and drving ; in drving it turns black, hence its name. The white pepper is 
 taken from tlie plant when nearly ripe, macerated in water, aud the outer skin 
 being removed, is bleached. The pungency of pepper is largely due to an oil 
 which resides in the cuticle, hence white pepper is not so strong as the black. 
 
 Use. — Black pepper is used in civilized nations in almost all the prepara- 
 tions into which meat or fish enter, aud in small quantities is supposed to 
 promote digestion. ... 
 
 It was formerly used in medical practice as a stimulant aud carminative m 
 disorders of the stomach. 
 
 Order XLVI. MYRISTICACE^. 
 
 Flowers dicBcious, inconspicuous, with simple perianth ; male flowers 
 with 3-15 monadelphous stamens ; anthers often on the margin of a 
 broad disk ; female flowers with 1-celled ovary, having 1 erect ovule ; 
 capsule fleshy ; seed erect, nut-like, enveloped in an aromatic, laciniated 
 aril; testa hard. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, coriaceous, simple, 
 entire, pubescent or scaly. Small aromatic trees or shrubs. 
 
 Only 1 genus, with 80 species ; tropical. 
 
 MYKISTICA, L. Flowers dioecious, perianth leathery, tubular, some- 
 what bell-shaped, 2-4-parted. Staminate flowers, with 3 to lo fila- 
 ments, united into a column which terminates in a toothed disk; 
 anthers attached to the filaments along the backs, and their dehi.s- 
 cence turned outwards, opening longitudinally. Pistillate flowers with 
 a single style ; stigma entire or lobed ; ovule solitary, fruit api^earing 
 at the base or bottom of the pistillate flower ; capsule fleshy, about the 
 size of an apricot, and shaped like a short pear; the outer covering is 
 half an inch thick. When ripe it opens by a smooth suture which 
 extends from the stem all around to the opposite side, separating the 
 shell into two equal parts. When partly open it exposes the nut en- 
 veloped in a network, which is thn mac^ of commerce ; inside th.- 
 mace is the nut, inclosing a hard, black shell, inside of which is the 
 kernel or nutmeg. 
 
216 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 1. M. fragrans, Houtt. (Nutmeg and Mace.) Trunk 20 to 35 feet high, 
 much-branched, braucheri erect, forming a tree wliich resembles the pear-tree ; 
 bark smooth, ash-colored, when wounded bleeding a glutinous red juice. 
 Leaves alternate, on short petioles, elliptical, pointed, wavy, entire, obliquely 
 nerved, bright-green above, grayish beneath, aromatic. Flowers and fruit 
 present at the same time ; flowers inodorous, small, axillary, 1 to 3 on a stem ; 
 calyx smooth, fleshy, 3-parted ; segments sjareading ; corolla wanting ; ovary 
 oval ; style short, with 2 stigmas. Fruit as described under the genus. 
 
 There are many species, about 80 in all ; the M. fragrans is the most impor- 
 tant, though several produce aromatic seeds. 
 
 2. M. spuria, Houtt., yields a mace, which is first yellow, turning red. 
 From wounds in the bark it bleeds a red sap, sold as a substitute for dragon's 
 blood. 
 
 3. M. fatua, Houtt., yields an inferior nutmeg, called long or wild nutmeg. 
 It is used in India, but does not enter into commerce. 
 
 Geography. — The nutmeg requires a tropical climate, or at least a region 
 of no frost. It has, by the appointed means for geographical distribution of 
 plants, — the winds, waves, birds, and by human agency, — been carried from 
 the Moluccas to the mainland of both hemispheres and their adjacent isles, 
 and occupies at present a geograpliical belt all around the globe, extending 
 just outside the tropics in both hemispheres. 
 
 Etymology. — Myr'istica, the generic name, is from the Greek ixvppa, myrrh, 
 due to the aromatic fruit and leaves. Fragrans, the specific name, is Latin, 
 also due to the odor-bearing fruit, leaves, and the oils obtained therefrom 
 Nutmeg, the popular name, is from the low Latin word muscata, a nutmeg, or 
 a musk-like nut, referring to the perfume, which was supposed to resemble the 
 odor of musk. Mace is from the Greek ixanep, a spice. 
 
 History. — The nutmeg was introduced into European commerce by tlie 
 Arabs through tlie Red Sea, early in the sixth century. An account of the 
 tree and place of its growth was first given by an Arab traveller in the begin- 
 ning of the tenth century. 
 
 The home of the nutmeg is the Molucca islands, but especially the Banda 
 group of the Spice Islands. When the Dutch first came into possession of 
 these islands, they attempted to confine the tree to a very few of them, in 
 order the better to monopolize the trade as they did of the clove. When the 
 English obtained possession of them, in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, they made an effort to extend the area of growth, and introduced 
 young trees into Sumatra, near Bencoolen, the Isle of Bourbon, Mauritius, 
 and Madagascar, and also into the West Indies. The tree comes into bear- 
 ing after ten years, but does not yield its largest crops till after 100 years, 
 producing three full crops in a year. 
 
 Preparation. — When the nutmeg is harvested, the mace is removed and 
 pickled in salt, afterwards dried in the sun and packed in boxes, and sent to 
 market. The nut is dried either in the sun or by artificial heat, Avhen it 
 shrinks so that the shell may be broken witliout damage to the kernel. The 
 kernel is then soaked in sea-water and lime, after which it is placed in heaps 
 and left to heat sufficiently to destroy its vitality, when it is fit for market 
 The kernels that come to the United States take 100 to the pound ; those sent 
 to England, about 60, or about 4 to the ounce. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties of the nutmeg are tonic, digestive, stimu- 
 lant, and intoxicating. In excessive doses it produces stupor, delirium, and 
 
LAURACE^. 
 
 217 
 
 death. It is used in tlic kitchen to fiiivor dessert sauces, and as a spice and 
 an aromatic addition to cordials, and was at one time a favorite perfume. 
 
 The Hindu physicians pulverize it, and use it for a poultice for nervous 
 headache, applying it ahove the eyiit^. 
 
 The odor or flavor, as well as the medicinal propertie.>^, depend upon the 
 essential oil, of which the nuts yield about six per cent. Tiie mace also yields 
 an oil in somewhat larger (juantities, which is very similar to that of the nut. 
 
 The mace also contains a fixed oil, which is obtained by crushing and 
 pressure ; used in pomades, soaps, and aromatic plasters. 
 
 Propiigiition. — It is raised from seed, and in its third year is ingrafted with 
 branches from pistillate trees ; and in the orchards a few staminate trees are 
 planted to fertilize the others. 
 
 Ori>ek XLVII. LAURACE-aJ. 
 
 Flowers perfect or declinous, regular, small, white or yellow, fra- 
 grant; perianth simple; calyx with united sepals, 6-Iobefl, herbaceous 
 or petaloid, fleNhy, usually inferior, rotate or urn-shaped; stamens, at 
 the base or throat of calyx about 9 in number, 3 inner ones extrorse ; 
 filaments free or rarely monadelphous ; anthers opening by uplifted 
 valves ; ovary free, 1-celled ; style simple, stout, short ; stigma obtuse, 
 discoid, 2-3-lobed. Fruit, a berry, globose or ellipsoid. Leaves 
 alternate, near each other, sometimes nearly opposite or whorled, ex- 
 stipulate. Aromatic trees or shrubs. 
 
 Xo. of principal genera, about 34 ; species, 900 ; mostly tropical. 
 
 CINNAMOMUM. B. Flowers perfect or polygamous, receptacle funnel- 
 form ; perianth in 6 parts, with 12 stamens, 9 fertile and 3 sterile. 
 Fruit, a berry, attached to the base of the re- 
 ceptacle ; pericarp thin. Flowers in panicles, 
 axillary or terminal, simple or in 3- to many- 
 flowered cymes. Tree. 
 
 1 . C. camphora, Nees. (Camphor Tree.) Stem 30 
 to 80 feet high, 1 to 2 feet in diameter ; branches 
 spreading horizontally, forming a symmetrical head ; 
 bark green, and on the young branches shining. Leaf- 
 buds conical, glabrous, protected by stiff .scales ; leaves 
 numerous, alternate, 3 to 6 inches long, on s^lender 
 petioles, slender at each end, acuminate, entire, smooth, 
 bright green, shining above and glaucous underneath, 
 thick, stiff, and evergreen. Flowers small, on slender, 
 spreading pedicels, forming small, spreading cymes. 
 2 to 3 in a long-stalked, axillary panicle, shorter than 
 the leaves ; perianth canipanulato, smooth outside. 
 very hairy within, greenish-white ; ovary free, 1-cellod. 
 1-ovuled ; style i«leiidor, as long as the stamens ; stigma 
 small ; seed egg-shaped, as large as a medium-sized 
 
 pea, purplish, surrounded at the base by the enlarged tube of the persistent 
 perianth ; seed siditary. Flowers in July. This tree sometimes attains a 
 very large diameter ; it is reported that one in Japan has reached a circum- 
 
 ClNNAMOMUM CAMPHORA 
 
 (C.iinphor-tree). 
 
218 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 ference of 50 feet. There are about 50 species of this genus, but they do 
 not all yield camphor. 
 
 Geographif. — The camphor-tree is found native in the edge and fringes of 
 the tropic of Cancer. It is found in China, Japan, Borneo, and the island of 
 Formosa. It also grows in regions of light frost, having been planted in 
 southern Europe and in California. 
 
 Etymology. — Cinnamomuin is derived from the Arabic word kinamon, cinna- 
 mon. Camphora is of Eastern origin ; the signification is obscure, but it is 
 supposed to mean " white," in allusion to the color of the gum. 
 
 History. — Camphor is a concrete volatile oil, obtained by distilling the 
 wood with water. It yields to the chemist CioHigO, melts at 347° Fahren- 
 heit, and boils at 400° ; it is soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in water. It 
 is purified by sublimation. 
 
 Camphor was not known to the ancients, and it is believed that it was car- 
 ried into Europe by the Arabs in the sixth century, and by them introduced 
 into the materia medica. The camphor of commerce is exported from the 
 island of Formosa and Japan. 
 
 Preparation. — The mode of procuring camphor is to cut down the tree and 
 reduce the trunk to fragments, and place the chips in a large still, the head 
 of which is filled with rice-straw, the bottom of the still being filled with 
 water. In the vaporization the camphor passes to the liead of the still and 
 crystallizes on the straw ; it is picked from the straw, placed in packages, and 
 sent to market. It is afterwards purified by sublimation in glass flasks, when 
 the impurities are left at the bottom. In America the process is somewhat 
 different. The gum is condensed in flat iron pans about sixteen inches square 
 and one inch deep. 
 
 Use. — Camphor oil, obtained by draining the crystals in large vats before 
 removing them from the straw and sticks that are taken from the heads of 
 the stills, is used for medicine by the natives of Formosa. 
 
 The medicinal properties of the gum are stimulant, diaphoretic, anodyne, 
 and narcotic. It is used to quiet restlessness, as a carminative, and a remedy 
 in typhoid ailments. 
 
 It is dissolved in alcohol and in oil, and used as a liniment, and is an im- 
 portant medicine in domestic practice. It is poisonous and very inflammable. 
 It is an insecticide, and used to preserve woollen and fur goods from the rav- 
 ages of moths ; also in herbariums, to prevent the destruction of dried plants 
 by insects. 
 
 Note. — The Blumea balsamifera, an herbaceous plant of the order Com- 
 positae, found in China, yields to distillation a camphor which is heavier 
 than water, and more volatile than the ordinary camphor of commerce ; it is 
 used by the Chinese in medicine and to perfume the celebrated India ink. 
 
 The Borneo camphor is obtained from Dryobalanops Camphora, Colebr. 
 This tree is a most magnificent object. The trunk rises to the heiglit of 130 
 feet without a branch, the base is fortified Avith gigantic buttresses, and the 
 top crowned with a cluster of branches clothed with large, shining leaves. 
 Flowers showy, abundant, and fragrant. The camplior is obtained by felling 
 the tree, cutting it into lengths, and then splitting it up, when tlie gum is 
 exposed in layers in the wood, from which it is detached by means of a sharp- 
 ened stick. The camphor is so pure as to need no process of refining, and is 
 the precious camphor of the East, used in religious ceremonies and funeral 
 rites. 
 
LAURACE^. 
 
 219 
 
 2. C. zeylanicum, Breyn. (C'iiinanion.) Sec-oncl-dass tree ; truuk 20 to 30 
 feet liigli, funiiiug a low, broad head; bark brown. Leaves opposite, oval, 4 
 to 5 iuclies long, rounded at the base, (hirk-green above, paler beneath, promi- 
 nently 3-uerved. Flowers in large terminal panicles; flowers distant and 
 bractless ; petals inconspicuous ; j)erianth divided into 6 oblong, rather l)lunt, 
 equal lobes, imbricated in 2 rows, 9 stamens and 3 stamiuoids; anthers short; 
 tilaments hairy; ovary superior, 1 -celled, with 1 ovule; style shorter than the 
 stamens ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit ovoid, Heshy, half an incli long, smooth ; 
 seeds not filling the seed-vessel. 
 
 As this tree is propagated from seed, it sports freely, and many varieties 
 are produced, but all constant as to quality of bark. 
 
 Geography. — The Cinnamonmm zeylanicum is a tropical and subtropical 
 tree, requiring a mean temperature, not below 70°. It grows throughout the 
 East Indian Archipelago. It was formerly 
 largely cultivated in Ceylon, but the cultiva- 
 tion of tea and coffee are rapidly supplanting 
 it. It has been taken to the West Indies, 
 South America, and the isles of the Pacific. 
 
 Etymuloyij and History. — Zeylanicum is the 
 Latijiized form of Ceylon. When cinnamon 
 was first introduced into use as a spice or a 
 medicine is not known ; it is spoken of in the 
 Bible as one of the sulistances of the anointing 
 oil used in the installation of the priesthood ; 
 it was known in England in the eleventh cen- 
 tury, and has always been a favorite spice. 
 When the Dutch came into possession of Cey- 
 lon, they limited tlie supply to sustain the 
 price, and the English did the same. In the 
 beginning of the last century the oil of cinna- 
 mon sold in London for its weight in gold. 
 
 Cultivation. — The Dutch l)egan the cultiva- 
 tion in Ceylon. Tlie plants are cut back to 
 about six l)uds; from these the shoots are 
 allowed to grow to the height of ten feet, at 
 
 which time they will liave reached a diameter of about an incli or more; these 
 are cut at the time tlie sap begins to flow, and divided into lengths a foot 
 long, which are split in halves, and tlie l)ark removed. The pieces are laid 
 one inside the other and tied together in small bundles, whicli are left a few 
 days to dry ; tlie strips are then laid upon a rounded stick, and the cuticle 
 scraped off. The pieces are then alloweil to dry and curl up ; when dry. tlie 
 smaller are inserted into the larger, and in that way made into a sort of' solid 
 to prevent breaking. These are tied together into l)uiidles weighing about 
 thirty pounds each, covered with gunny cloth, and sent to market. 
 
 ^^^c- — 'riie chips and peah'd sticks, with the bark upon the twigs, are dis- 
 tilled, and yield the oil of cinnamon ; the leaf also yicMs an (.il. "The root 
 yields a peculiar camplior. 
 
 Cinnamon is used as a spice in confectionery, .akes. and pastry, cordials and 
 prepared liqueurs, and jjerfumery. In medicine it is stimulant, aromatic, car- 
 minative, and a remedy for nausea. 
 
 3. C. cassia, lil. Stem 20 to 30 feet in height, symmetrically brancbeO 
 Leaves like those of C. zeylanicum, but more obtuse . when young, tiame 
 
 CiNNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM 
 
 (Cinnamon). 
 
220 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 colored. This tree, when clothed with its flame-colored leaves, interspersed 
 with pure white flowers, is an object of enchanting beauty. 
 
 Besides the C. cassia, there are three other well-marked species, as 
 follows : — 
 
 4. C. obtusifolium, Nees, with very blunt leaves. 
 
 5. C. pauciflorum, Nees, few-flowered. 
 
 6. C. iners, Reinw., feeble-wooded. 
 
 These all produce bark resembling the Cinnamomum zeylanimm, but less 
 pungent and delicate. The bark of the cassia is sold in the American market 
 for cinnamon ; very little true cinnamon reaches the United States. It is 
 easily distinguished by the druggist and dealer. The taste and flavor are 
 higher, and the bark is not thicker than good writing-paper. The barks of 
 the shops of America are cassia, and not the true cinnamon, and the oils are 
 likewise mostly cassia oils. 
 
 Geography. — The cinnamon-producing cassia trees are tropical and sub- 
 tropical. Found in southern India, Java, Sumatra and Ceylon, eastern Africa, 
 and Australia. 
 
 Etymologij. — Cassia is the Latinized Hebrew Avord, ketzioth ; and gatsa, to 
 cut, is also given as the root of this word, alluding to the mode of obtaining 
 or harvesting the bark, i. e., a bark which is cut. 
 
 Cultivation. — The modes of growing the tree and harvesting the bark are 
 precisely like tliose for the true cinnamon. Cassia buds of commerce are the 
 unripe fruit of the C cassia and other species. 
 
 Use. — The properties of cassia products are about the same as those of true 
 cinnamon, only less intense. The cassia buds are used in confections, and to 
 flavor bitters and cordials. The bark is used in all cases the same as cinna- 
 mon ; most consumers do not know what the true bark is. 
 
 Order XL VIII. SANTALACE-^. 
 
 Flowers perfect or polygamous, white, green, yellow, or red, lateral 
 or terminal ; perianth single, tubular, variously 5-3-lobed, valvate in/ 
 the bud ; stamens equal and opposite to the perianth lobes, inserted on 
 their middle ; filaments short ; ovary inferior, 1-celled, mostly 3-ovuled. 
 Leaves opposite or alternate, entire, narrow, usually sessile. Trees, 
 shrubs, or herbs. 
 
 No. of genera, 28 ; species, 220 ; tropical and temperate regions. 
 
 SANTALUM, L. (Sandal-wood Tree.) Perianth bell-shaped, 4- 
 5-parted ; lobes spreading ; petals 4, spreading ; stamens 4 ; filaments 
 thread-like ; anthers ovoid ; style conical or cylindrical ; stigmas 2 to 4 ; 
 drupe globose, truncate, or crowned. Leaves alternate. Trees. 
 
 1. S. album, L. Trunk 20 to 30 feet high, branches numerous, opposite, 
 drooping ; bark smooth, grayish-brown ; twigs glabrous. Leaves without 
 stipules ; petioles slender, half an inch long ; blade I to 3 inches long, oval or 
 lanceolate, tapering at the base, sharp or blunt at the extremity, entire, 
 smooth both sides, glaucous underneath. Flowers small, numerous, short- 
 .stalked, in small pyramidal, erect, terminal, and axillary 3-forked, panicle- 
 shaped cymes, without odor ; bracts small ; perianth bell-shaped, smooth. 
 
SANTALACE.E. 221 
 
 short ; segineuts 4, triani^ular, sharp, spreadiug, fleshy, straw colored, chaugiug 
 to purple ; stameus 4, opposite the segments of the perianth ; filaments sliort, 
 inserted on tlie mouth of tlie perianth, alternating with the erect lobes; 
 anthers short, 2-celled ; style tliread-like ; stigma small, .'i-4-lobed, on a level 
 with the antliers. Fruit tlie size of a pea, bearing a sort of crown, which is 
 the remains of the perianth, nearly black, nut hard and bony, with 3 ridges 
 extending lialf way down from tlie top. 
 
 There are. eight species, tliree of which, besides tlie S. album, yield an oil 
 and perfume, but of an inferior quality to that of the S. album. 
 
 2. S. myrtifolium, East Indies. 
 
 3. S. yasi, Fiji Islands. 
 
 4. S. Freycinetianum, Sandwich Islands, 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range is tropical and subtropical, in Asia, 
 Malaysia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Farther India and China pro- 
 duce most of the w^ood that reaches England and America. 
 
 Etymology. — Santalum, the generic name, is the Latinized form of the 
 Persian name, said to come from the Sanskrit chandana, sandal, the tree. 
 The word chand signifies "shine," hence the shining 
 tree. Album, the specific name, is the Latin for white. 
 iSandal-ivood, the popular name, signifies "shining wood," 
 due to the light color of the sap-wood. 
 
 History. — This tree is a native of the East Indies, 
 and is highly prized ou account of its fragrance. The 
 use of sandal-wood dates as far back at least as the fifth 
 century b. c, for the wood is mentioned under its San- 
 skrit name "chandana" in the Nlrukta, the earliest 
 extant Vedic commentary. It is still extensively used 
 in India and China, wherever Buddhism prevails, being Santalum Ai-Briw 
 employed in funeral rites and religious ceremonies ; (Sandal-wood Tree), 
 comparatively poor people often spend as much as fiftv 
 
 rupees on sandal-wood for a single cremation. Until the middle of the eigh- 
 teenth century India was the only source of sandal-wood. When it became 
 known to the western or European nations we have no means of knowing; 
 mo.'^t likely the wood was introduced into commerce very early, increasing 
 as the means of conveyance improved. The discovery of sandalwood in the 
 islands of the Pacific led to a considerable trade of a somewhat piratical 
 nature, resulting in difficulties with the natives, often ending in bloodshed, 
 the celebrated missionary John Williams, amongst others, having fallen a 
 victim to an indiscriminate retaliation l)y the natives on white men visiting 
 the islands. The loss of life in this trade was at one time even greater than 
 in that of whaling, with which it ranked as one of the most adventurous 
 of callings About the year 1810 as much as four hundred thon.sind dollars 
 is said to have boon received annually for .>^andal-wood by Kaniehameha, King 
 of Hawaii. The trees con.se(|iiently have become almost extinct in all the well- 
 known islands, except New Caledonia, where the wood is now cultivated. 
 
 /^reparation. — The tree is projiagated by seeds, which must be placed 
 wh(;re they are intended to grow, since the seedlings will not bear trans- 
 jdantation, ])robably on account of deriving their nourishment parasiti- 
 cally by means of tuberous swellings attached to the roots of other i>lants 
 The trees are cut down when between eighteen and twenty-five years old, 
 when thev have attained their maturitv, the trunks l)eing about one foot 
 
222 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 in diameter. The felling takes place at the end of the year, and the trunk 
 is allowed to remain on the ground for several months, during which time 
 the white ants eat away the valueless sap wood but leave the fragrant heart- 
 wood untouched. The heart-wood is then sawn into lengths two to four feet 
 long. These are afterwards more carefully^ trimmed at the forest depots, and 
 left to dry slowly in a close warehouse for some weeks, by wliich the odor 
 is improved, and the tendency of the wood to split obviated. An annual 
 auction of the wood takes place, at which merchants from all parts of India 
 congregate. The largest pieces are chiefly^ exported to China, the small 
 pieces to Arabia ; and those of medium size are retained for use in India. 
 
 Use. — The fragrance resides in the heart-wood and the root. The heart- 
 wood also is valuable in the arts, the sap-wood being too soft for the construc- 
 tion of furniture. Sandal-wood is hard, close-grained, takes a fine polish, and 
 is employed for making musical instruments, toilet-boxes, fans, and fancy 
 articles ; drawers and boxes for preserving furs, silks, and woollens from the 
 depredations of insects are also constructed from it, and it is largely used by 
 engravers, for whose purposes it excels the famous box-Avood. It is also used by 
 the Chinese and other Asiatic pagans as a perfume to burn before their idols. 
 
 Oil of sandal-wood is obtained from the chips, sawdust, and raspings of the 
 wood, by slow distillation. The oil is employed for adulterating the attar of 
 roses, and for compounding medicines. It is an ingredient in the favorite 
 handkerchief extracts, colognes, and fancy soaps of the shops. The seed of 
 the sandal-wood yields a fatty oil by decoction, used for illuminating purposes. 
 
 Order XLIX. EUPHORBIACE^. (Spurge Family.) 
 
 Plants of various habits, generally with milky juice. Leaves mostly 
 alternate, stipulate, and often undivided; inflorescence usually com- 
 pound, sometimes with a calyx-like involucre inclosing several reduced 
 declinous flowers ; perianth single, of united sepals, or none, or double 
 (when double it consists mostly of small, distinct petals) ; stamens 
 1-1,000 ; ovary superior, usually 3-celled (rarely 2-many-celled) ; 
 cells 1-2-ovuled ; ovules pendulous from the inner angle, anatropous. 
 Fruit capsular, separating from the axis into cocci (sometimes a 
 drupe) ; embryo in axis ; fleshy or oily endosperm ; radicle superior. 
 
 No. of genera, 195 ; species, 3,000. Habitat, tropical and temperate 
 zones. 
 
 ETJPHOKBIA, L. (Spurge.) Flowers monoecious, without floral 
 enveloj)es, several in a cluster, inclosed in a calyx-like involucre, with 
 4 to 5 lobes, frequently with 4 to 5 glands ; staminate flowers, 9 or 
 more in a cluster, each with 1 stamen and bract ; pistillate flower 
 central, with a 3-celled, 3-ovuled ovary on a long pedicel ; styles 3 in 
 number, bifid ; capsules 3-lobed, with 3 seeds or nuts. Juice milky. 
 
 E. Ipecacuanhse, L, Stems usually short and in clusters, slender, and dif- 
 fusely, bifurcately branched. Leaves opposite, oblong, linear-lobed, or slit, 
 variable, sessile, heads on thread-like pedicels ; seed white, compressed, pitted ; 
 root very large, forked, and perennial. Sands of Xew Jersey and south. 
 
 Etymology. — Euphorbia is named in honor of Euphorbus, physician to King 
 Juba of Mauritania. Ipecacuanha is from the Brazilian ipecaagnen, road-side 
 sick-making plant. Spurge is from the Latin expuryare, cleanse. 
 
EUPH0KBIA('K7l<:. 228 
 
 f/se. — The K Ipecacuanhiv is seldom used cuinmercially. 'i'rue ipecaeu- 
 auha is olttaiiied I it 'in Cephaelis (see Cephaelis of Kubiacea-, p. 1«)2). 
 
 H£V£A, Aul). Calyx .Vtoothed, valvate ; petals wanting; stamens 
 5 to 10, united, forming a tube; anthers extrorse ; styles 'i in number, 
 short and emarginatc; inflorescence a raceme, made up of a number 
 of few-flowered cymes ; pistillate flowers above, and the staminate ones 
 below ; ovary ovoid, 8-celled ; capsule large ; exocarp somewhat fleshy, 
 endocarp slightly woody ; seeds large, oblong, smooth ; testa dry and 
 brittle. Large trees, with 3»foliate leaves. 
 
 H. Braziliensis, Mill. (Caoutchouc.) Trunk 50 to 60 feet high ; bark rough, 
 grayish-l)rowii ; branchiug uear the top; branches and branclilets covered with 
 a rough bark, the brauchlets disfigured with tumors or swellings. Leaves on 
 long petioles, branching at the end into three parts, each division terminated 
 with a fleshy evergreen obovate-acuminate leaflet, dark-green above and light 
 beneath ; seeds oval and spotted. 
 
 There are 18 genera and 44 species of 
 plants from which the gum elastic of 
 commerce is obtained, mostly large trees. 
 The most important of those that yield 
 the largest quantity of the best quality 
 are, first, the Hevea Braziliensis, order 
 Euphorbiaceae ; Ficus elastica, order Urti- 
 caceae ; and Castilloa elastica, order 
 Urticaceoe. 
 
 At the exposition at Philadelphia 
 in 1876, a gum was exhibited procured 
 from an undescribed plant of the Com- 
 positee, found in Durango, Mexico. 
 
 Geography. — The hevea is a native of 
 the region of South America drained by Euphorbia Ipecacuanh.« (Spurge), 
 the Amazon and its tributaries. The 
 
 Jiciis is distributed over southern Asia, middle Africa, and northern Australia. 
 These, as well as the other trees and vines tliat yield the gum-elastic, are 
 tropical or .strictly subtropical plants. The castilloas are found on the Pacific 
 slope in northern South America, and extend into rentral America. Castilloa 
 elastica was sent from America in 1875 to Kew Gardens, England, and thence 
 to India, and in 1876 Hevea Braziliensis reached India by the same route, 
 and is thriving there and upon the i.sland of Ceylon. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — The meaning of hevea is obscure. Braziliensis, the specific 
 name, denotes the country where it is indigenous ; elastica is from the Latin 
 elasticiis, elastic or pliable. The name India rubber has been applied to this 
 substance l)ecause early in its history it was used to erase or ntb out pencil 
 marks, an<l as it was l)rouglit from the West Indies it was called India rubber. 
 Gum elastic, anotlier popular name, means "pliable gum." Caoutrhour is the 
 native South American name. 
 
 Historij. — In 149.3 tlie Spaniards, on the second voyage of Columbus, saw 
 the natives of Haiti amusing themselves witli ela.stic balls wliieh they threw 
 and caught. More than a century after that (in 1615) Torquemada published 
 an account of the New World and its ])ro(Uuts. in whicli he says the natives 
 smear the juice of a tree over their bodies, and when it coagulates, they scrape 
 
224 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 it off and knead it into masses, and work it into vessels to hold water and 
 other substances. More than a century after the appearance of Torquemada's 
 work, a scientific description was read before the French Academy by La 
 Condamine, and was published in the transactions of the .Vcademy. (Jublet, in 
 1755, described the hevea botanically. 
 
 At the beginning of the present century the usefulness of the gum had not 
 been developed ; in its native state it was soft and sticky in a high tempera- 
 ture, hard and inelastic wlien exposed to the cold, and hence of very little 
 practical value. In 1842, three liundred and fifty years after it was first seen 
 by Europeans, experiments showed'lt to possess the power of uniting with sul- 
 pliur. When thus combined, it is said to be \Tilcanized ; it is not affected by 
 temperature, and resists solvents. At the will of the manufacturer it may be 
 made very pliable and more elastic than in its natural state, or very hard. 
 
 Preparation. — The mode of- harvesting this remarkable substance is to 
 wound the tree by piercing the bark to the down-flowing sap, which is a 
 
 yellowish-white, milky fluid. This, as it 
 flows out, is caught in vessels of clay or 
 bamboo, and carried to the camp, where 
 it is smeared over an instrument resem- 
 bling a wooden shovel, and held over a 
 smoky fire. When the first smearing is 
 coagulated or hardened, another coat is 
 put on, and the process is repeated until 
 the successive layers have produced a coat- 
 ing of eight inches or more in thickness, 
 when it is slit down the side, slipped off, 
 and hung up to dry and harden. It at 
 first presents a silver-gray color, soon 
 changing to yelloAv, and finally to a dingy 
 black, as seen in commerce. It has been 
 suggested that the vinegar of wood, or 
 pyroligneous acid of the smoky fire, plays 
 an important part in its coagulation, as 
 the gum prepared in this manner is supe- 
 rior to that of any other preparation . 
 The South American gum was formerly 
 hardened upon clay moulds in form of bottles and lasts, and when in a proper 
 state the clay was picked out. 
 
 In India the mode of collecting the sap destroyed the trees. The govern- 
 ment has taken it in hand, and formed plantations, and less destructive modes 
 of harvesting are now practiced. 
 
 Use. — The uses to which India rubber has been applied since the vulcan- 
 izing process has been put into practice are so numerous that only a few can 
 be mentioned here ; in fact it would be difficult to enumerate all the uses to 
 which gum elastic has been put. It enters into the manufacture of every sort 
 of waterproof clothing used for man or beast. The messenger boy encases 
 himself in India rubber, and defies the pelting storm. The soldier in the 
 camp spreads down his rubber blanket, and the cavalryman on the march, in 
 a storm, protects himself and his horse by a covering of gum elastic cloth. 
 It is manufactured into toys for the infant, bands for holding papers and 
 packages together, boots, shoes, hats, beds and cushions, life-belts, garden- 
 hose, door-springs, roller-skates, bumpers for railroad cars, etc. 
 
 Hevea Braziliensis (Caoutchouc). 
 
EUPHORBIACE^.. 
 
 225 
 
 BUXUS, r.. Flowers moiKecious ; ciilyx of tlie staniiiiate flowers 
 3-sepaled ; corolla 2-petaled ; stamens 1; pistillate flowers with 4 
 sepals, 3 petals, and 3 pistils ; seed-vessels surmounted by 3 beaks, 
 3-celled, 2 seeds in a cell. Shrubs and small trees. Evergreen. 
 
 B. sempervirens, L. (Box. Box-tree.) Stem from 10 to 30 feet iu height, 
 and from .'i to 8 iiuhes in diameter, with deii.sely crowded branches. Leaves 
 oval, about half an incli in length, (Uirk-green, glossy; tiie tiowers in axillary 
 clusters, male and female tiowers on the same plant, greenish and incon- 
 spicuous. April. 
 
 Var. angustifolia, W., is the same as tlie above, except that it has narrow- 
 leaves. 
 
 Var. suffruticosa, W., is a dwarf variety, aud is used for borders iu the 
 garden aud parterre. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range is not 
 great. It is a native of southern Europe, 
 western Asia, and especially the countries of 
 the Mediterranean Sea, Syria, Persia, and the 
 regions south of the Black Sea. 
 
 Etymology. — Buxus and box are from the 
 Greek 7ru|os, box-tree, aud our word box comes 
 from the same source, because boxes were 
 made of the wood of this tree. Sempervirens, 
 the specific name, is due to its evergreen 
 foliage. Angustifolia is from the Latin angus- 
 ius, narrow, and folium, leaf. Suffruticosa is 
 from the l^atiu, fruticosa, bushy. 
 
 History. — The box was known to and used 
 by the ancients. The wood was used by them 
 to make combs and musical wind-instruments, 
 and the Romans used it to ornament their 
 planted grounds ; and as it bears the knife 
 well, they clipped it into various shapes, mak- 
 ing it represent lions and other wild beasts 
 
 among their shrubbery. It was I)rouQ;ht by colonists to North America, and 
 is found in planted o;rounds throuiiliout the middle States and Virginia; it is 
 not hardy north of 41° nortli latitude. 
 
 Use, — The dwarf form is used for ornamental purposes in planted grounds, 
 and as borderings for gardens. The wood of the box-tree is used l)y turners 
 and musical-instrument makers, al.so for mathematical in.struments, scales, 
 rulers, slieaves, pestles, .screws, inlaying for tables and otlier cabinet ware, and 
 especially for wood-engraving, f<ti- which ]tnr])usc, <ui acct)unt of its close grain, 
 it is invaluable. 
 
 It also enters into the materia medica. An extract is pre.scril)ed for inter- 
 mittent fevers and for kidney complaints. Its seeds are purgative, and all 
 parts of the plant are poi.siuious, especially the leaves. It is said that in 
 those parts of Persia where it grows, camels cannot be kept, as they are sure 
 to feed upon it and poii^on them.selves. 
 
 yfarts. — The supply of the wood of the box comes from Smyrn:i, Constan- 
 tinople, and the i.<lands of the Grecian Archipelago. It is sold i»y wcighi. 
 England imports al)out 80,000 pounds annnallx . 
 Pr. Fl.— 16 
 
 Buxus SEMPER^^RE^•s (Box). 
 
226 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 CROTON, L. Flowers monoecious ; calyx of the staminate flowers 
 4;-5-parted, cylindric, and valvate in the bud; corolla, with petals cor-, 
 responding to the division of the calyx, small ; stamens 5 to 20 ; calyx 
 of the pistillate flower 5-, sometimes 8-parted ; corolla minute, some- 
 times wanting; styles 3-forked, sometimes compound-forked; seed- 
 vessel 3-lobed, with 3 cells; cells 1-seeded. Plant downy and 
 aromatic. 
 
 C. tiglium, L. (Croton-oil Plant.) 
 Leaves alternate, acuminate, serrate. 
 
 Stem 15 to 20 feet in height, erect. 
 
 smooth, with 2 glands at the base ; 
 petioles shorter than the 
 blade. Flowers in terminal 
 racemes. Fruit 3-celled ; 
 cells 1-seeded. 
 
 There are about 500 
 species. 
 
 Geography. — The C. ti- 
 glium has a narrow geo- 
 graphical range ; it is tropi- 
 cal and subtropical. It is 
 under cultivation in south- 
 ern Hindustan and the East 
 India islands. 
 
 Etymology. — Croton is 
 from the Greek word Kponiv, 
 a tick, — because the seed 
 in shape resembles the 
 sheep-tick. Tiglium, the 
 specific name, is of obscure 
 signification. 
 
 History. — The Croton 
 tiglium was described by 
 Acosta in 1 578, and the seeds 
 came in use as a purgative 
 medicine under the name of 
 grana tiglii in the seven- 
 teenth century, but fell into 
 disuse. In 1812 the Enghsh physicians in India revived its use, and a 
 few years afterwards the expressed oil was brought to the notice of medical 
 men. 
 
 Chemistry. — The oil is about the consistency of castor oil,^ and is ob- 
 tained from the seeds by pressure. Chemists have thus far failed to obtain 
 the substance which gives efficacy to the oil. Its chemical formula is 
 C9H14O2. 
 
 Use. — Croton oil is used sparingly, and administered with great caution in 
 very small doses as a purgative after other remedies have proved ineffective. 
 One drop mixed with olive or some other sweet oil is a full dose; a drop 
 placed upon the tongue produces irritation throughout the entire intestinal 
 canal ; a few drops mixed with olive oil applied to the surface of the body 
 cause an almost immediate eruption of the cuticle. It is used for a counter- 
 irritant. 
 
 Croton tiglium (Croton-oil). 
 
EUPHORBIACEiE. 
 
 221 
 
 MANIHOT, riuiu. Flowers mona'cious and apetalous ; calyx of the 
 stauiiiiate flowers 5-parted and imbricated; stamens 10, in two series: 
 filaments free, slender ; anthers attached by their backs to the fila- 
 ments; cells along the sides covered with cracks, running lengthwise 
 calyx of the pistillate flowers o-parted, deciduous; receptacle below 
 the base of the ovary sometimes furnished with stamen-like processes ; 
 style 3-lobed ; ovary :5-valved, 8-celled ; ovules 1 in each cell. Fruit in 
 a capsule, 5-berried; berries 2-valved ; seeds smooth. Leaves alter- 
 nate, digitate; stipules small, deciduous; inflorescence a branched 
 raceme, terminal or axillary. Fertile flowers occupy the lower i)art of 
 the raceme. Root fusiform and fleshy. 
 
 M. utilissima, rolil. (Tapioca. Bitter Cassava.) Stem sleuder, 5 to 9 feet 
 high, woody below, branched above, smooth, bark whitish. Leaves large, ou 
 loug purpiisli foot-stalks, warty near 
 the base, falling off early ; stipules nar- 
 row, triangular, acute, smooth, falling, 
 blade divided into 3 to 7 oblong, acute, 
 narrow lobes, 2 to 4 inches loug, smooth 
 above, glaucous beneath. Flowers 
 monoecious, in axillary or terminal 
 racemes; perianths bell-shaped, deeply 
 cut into 5 acute segments ; pistillate 
 flowers, larger and occupying the lower 
 part of the raceme ; ovary surrountied at 
 the base by a ring-like receptacle, 
 smooth and purple, 3-celled, an ovule 
 in each cell ; style short, surmounted by 
 3 stigmas. Fruit on short stalks ; 
 fruit-vessel half an inch long, globular, 
 glabrous, embossed with protuberances, 
 ()-winged, .3-celled, separating into 3 
 berry-like tlivisions, with a single seed 
 in each, one eighth of an inch long, 
 oblong, smooth, and gray. Hoot fleshy, 
 3 feet long and 6 to 9 inches in 
 diameter, weighing 10 to 30 pounds, fusiform 
 milky juice. 
 
 There are 30 well-marked varieties of this species grown in Brazil. 
 
 Geography. — The home of the tapioca plant is tropical and subtropical 
 South America, whence it has been carried to other warm countries, as 
 southern Asia and western Africa. 
 
 Etymology. — The history of the names of the tapioca plants is somewhat 
 obscure; the names have been frequently changed, and there are a number 
 of synonyms. Loudon places the species under the genus Jatropha. and 
 makes the cassava plant ./. manihot ; but I'ohl jdaces tlie two species under 
 manihot, as follows : Manihot utilissima, }f. a/n, regarding all others as forms 
 or varieties of these two. 
 
 Manihot \i> a name applied by the natives. Ctillissima, the superlative of 
 the Latin adjective utilis, signifies " very useful " Tapioca is a name in the 
 Brazilian native dialect for the starch or substance prepared from the root uf 
 
 Manihot ttilissima (Tapioca), 
 in shape, and charged with a 
 
228 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 the plant. Jatropha is derived from two Greek words; tarpos, physician, 
 and rpo(pr), food, due to the fact that physicians order it as food for invalids. 
 Api, Ai/pi, or Aipi, is an ancient native name, whose meaning is unknown. 
 Cassava, like tapioca, is a native name, whose signification is obscure. 
 
 Cultivation. — The root grows best in loose, dry, well-fertilized, sandy loam. 
 During the first month or six Aveeks it needs rain or irrigation ; after that, it 
 grows well without either, and is the most productive and valuable crop to be 
 made in its region, far exceeding either coffee, sugar, or cotton. One acre will 
 produce about 4,000,000 of pounds when the root is full grown, that is, 
 from a year to eighteen months after planting, which is done by plunging 
 ^slips of the plant into small prepared hillocks of sand, or by burying a section 
 of a stem containing a bud. The M. api varieties mature in about eight 
 months. 
 
 Preparation. — The roots of the varieties of the M. api species are not poi- 
 sonous ; they are prepared by roasting, and have the taste of roasted chestnuts. 
 The varieties of the M. utilissima produce the larger roots, which are prepared 
 as follows : The natives peel the roots, then reduce them to pulp by rasping 
 them upon a rude grater made by inserting rough fragments of stones in a 
 piece of bark ; the juice is then forced out by allowing it to drain in loosely 
 made baskets, and then baking the pulp in ovens ; or it is made into flat cakes 
 baked or dried upon hot stones. 
 
 The tapioca brought to market is largely made by reducing the roots by 
 circular rasps or graters turned by water, placed into coarse bags, the juice 
 being removed by a press. The pulp is then subjected to heat in open ovens 
 or on iron plates, and constantly stirred till dry. 
 
 Farina is the coarse meal made from the root, universally used by the 
 Brazilians. The fine siftings make the tapioca. 
 
 Use. — The fresh-grated pulp, and the juice which is expressed from it, is 
 charged with a substance analogous to prussic acid ; yet when the pulp and 
 the juice are subjected to heat, the poisonous character disappears, and the 
 pulp is turned into a wholesome starchy food that sustains life in large and 
 densely populated districts, and is used for puddings for dessert, and for 
 invalid food, all over Europe and the United States. 
 
 The root, cut in slices and exposed to heat, is an excellent food for cattle. 
 The natives of Brazil make a fermented liquor of the juice, which is highly 
 intoxicating. 
 
 The fresh juice has been administered to cats and dogs, which die with con- 
 vulsions in about twentv-five minutes. Thirty-six drops administered to a 
 criminal caused death in six minutes. 
 
 RICINTJS, Tourn. Flowers monoecious, valvate in the bud ; sepals 
 narrow and reddish, 3 to 5 in number ; no corolla ; stamens numerous ; 
 filaments repeatedly branching ; anthers from the tops of the branches 
 of the filaments ; ovary globose, 3-celled, 1 ovule in a cell ; style short ; 
 stigmas 3-bifid, plumose, and colored ; capsule large, 3-celled, covered 
 with blunt, rough spines ; seeds large, oily, somewhat in shape of a 
 tick that infests sheep. Annual. 
 
 R. communis, L. (Castor-oil Plant.) Stem round, stout, frosted or glaucous, 
 white, shining, purplish, red towards the top, 6 to 12 feet in height in the 
 middle United States, reaching 1.5 to 20 feet in hot climates, Avhere it is peren- 
 nial. Leaves alternate, on long petioles, 6 to 10 inches in diameter; subpeltate 
 
KT^niOKRTArK.T:. 
 
 229 
 
 diviflod into 7 lancpolnto, {.ointod, sorrato sof(iiionts; stamiiiato flowers ou the 
 summit, fertile ones on the lower part of tlie spike. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range is l)roa(i. 'rh<jugh a sul)tropical 
 plant, it grows well and matures its seeds in a latitude as high as 42°. 
 
 Etymolo<i;i. — lUcinus, tlie generic name, is fnnn tlie Latin rirlmts, a sheeji 
 tick, which the seed resembles. L'oinmnnls is Latin, signifying "common." 
 The common name, caslor-oil plant, is believed to have been due to the reseni- 
 blance of the oil to a licpiid contained in little sacks in the groin of the castor 
 (beaver). Another supposition is that it was called in tlie West Indies acjno 
 casto, and that casfo has l)een corrupted into castor. 
 
 History. — The home of this plant is southern Asia. l)e raiidolle believes 
 its home to be eastern Africa. It was known to tlie ancients, and is spoken of 
 by Dioscorides, who states 
 that the seeds are violently 
 cathartic. When it was first 
 cultivated is not known. It 
 was grown in scnithcrn Eu- 
 rope and the countries of the 
 Levant at least 300 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. It is 
 cultivated in Japan, Bengal, 
 eastern and northern Africa, 
 southern Europe, and tlie 
 United States. 
 
 It was brought to America 
 by European colonists. It is 
 largely cultivated in the south- 
 western United States to pro- 
 duce the oil of commerce. 
 Since the invasion of Kansas 
 by the grasshoppers, the cul- 
 tivation of the castor-oil ])lant 
 has been largely practiced. 
 
 Preparation. — The mode 
 of procuring the oil is by ex- 
 pre.ssion. The coats of the 
 seeds are firs^t removed ; the 
 
 oil is squee/.ed out and then boiled \vitli water; the foreign snli.><tauces are 
 t]ierel)y coagulated, and tlie dear oil floats ui)on the top, whence it is drawn 
 off and ])ut into suitable casks and ve.^^sels for market. The best is made in 
 Italy, where it is manufactured in large (juantities and witli great care, in 
 the vicinity of Verona, from .^^eed grown in Italy and im])orted from Africa 
 and India. 
 
 ^•"'''- — 'I'lif plant is grown for ornamcnf. and among troj.ical ].lants makes 
 a desirable object. 
 
 The oil is a mild, speedy, and safe purgative, and for children is the be.«Jt 
 cathartic medicine in use. 
 
 It is u.sed in the preparation of salves, liniments, and ointments, and dis- 
 .solved in alcohol is largely u.^ed in jireparations for hair-dre.s.sing.«;. 
 
 It mixes with alcohol in all proportions, becomes solid at Fahrenheit, 
 and boils at 20)5°. It is the heaviest of all oils. The purgative priii.iple is not 
 known to chemists. 
 
 RiciNUS COM M VMS (Castor-oil). 
 
230 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Order L. URTICACE-ffi. (Nettle Family.) 
 
 Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves generally alternate and stipulate. 
 Flowers unisexual or polygamous, and axillary ; perianth single, some- 
 times adnate to the ovary in the female flower, or wanting ; stamens, 
 when present, usually equal and opposite the lobes of the perianth ; 
 ovary 1-celled, 1-carpelled ; style simple or 2-cleft ; ovule solitary. 
 Fruit an akene or drupe, or many fruits coalescing into a syncarp, 
 with fleshy accrescent torus. 
 
 Genera, 108 ; species, 1,.500 ; habitat, warm and temperate countries. 
 
 MORTIS, Tourn. (Mulberry.) Flowers unisexual, usually monoecious, 
 but in some plants dioecious or polygamous ; male flowers spiked and 
 
 axillary. Sepals 4, equal, 
 imbricate in aestivation, 
 but expanded in flower- 
 ing ; stamens 4. Pistil- 
 late flowers, with a 4-se- 
 paled calyx, in opposite 
 pairs, 1 pair larger, all 
 upright and persistent, 
 and becoming pulpy and 
 juicy. Leaves alternate, 
 simple, exstipulate, de- 
 ciduous, lobed, rough, 3-4 
 inches broad. Flowers 
 greenish - white. Fruit 
 the aggregate of the 
 ovary, called " mulberry." 
 
 MoRDs RUBRA (Red Mulberry). 
 
 1. M. rubra, L. (Red 
 Mulberry.) Leaves ovate, 
 cordate, serrate, rough 
 above, soft and downy 
 beneath, frequently lobed on young shoots. Flowers often dioecious. Fruit 
 dark-purple (when ripe turning black), cylindrical, half to three quarters of 
 an inch in diameter. Fruit ripe in .July. Tree 15 to 30 feet high, but .some- 
 times grows to a much greater height ; head 12 to 15 feet in diameter. 
 
 2. M. alba, L. (White Mulberry.) Leaves obliquely ovate, heart-shaped, 
 acute, serrate, frequently lobed, smooth and shining above. Fruit whitish, 
 soft, sweet, insipid. 
 
 Geography. — M. rubra is a common tree in western New England, the 
 southern parts of Upper Canada, the Dakotas, Kansas, and the South. M. alba 
 flourishes in southern Europe and Asia. It is also found in the L^nited States 
 south of the forty-third parallel of latitude in the older parts of the country. 
 
 Etymologtj. — Moms is from the Greek ix6pov, a mulberry. Rubra is Latin 
 for "red," and alba is Latin for ""white." Mulberry is from the Old English 
 moolhery, Anglo-Saxon, morher'ie, from the Greek fxopov. 
 
TTRTICACE^.. 231 
 
 Histon/. — The whito mulberry is a native of Cliina and Japan ; it wa<; 
 introduced into Europe about the middle of the fifteenth century, and soon 
 became naturalized in Italy and Greece, as well as in Asia Minor and Armenia. 
 Cortes procured its introduction into Mexico in 1 522 ; it was sent to Virginia 
 in 1619 by order of James I., and its cultivation was commanded by law. 
 
 Up to the time of the Revolution the British government paid a bounty on 
 raw silk produced in the North American colonies ; some of this silk was, in 
 1772, presented to the queen and to the wives of the propriet(jrs of Pennsyl- 
 vania bv Dr. Franklin, then the agent of Pennsylvania in London. In the 
 same year a colony of Saltzburgers, who were familiar with the mulberry and 
 silk culture, sent to England from their settlement of New Ebenezer, in 
 Georgia, nearlv 500 pounds of silk. Shortly afterward the settlement was 
 broken up. and the industry was obliterated during the Revolution. Upon 
 the restoration of peace, efforts were made in many of the states, dating 
 from 1783 in Connecticut to 1866 iu California, to revive the industry by 
 legislation. In 1838 a mania for the importation of and speculation in the 
 plants of M. alba, var. multicaulis, of the South Sea Islands, broke out in the 
 United States, hundreds of thousands of dollars having been invested during 
 a single week in Pennsylvania alone. The passion for the cultivation of the 
 tree subsided within "a year, but the species remains, and has become 
 
 naturalized. • x- , 
 
 Dn account of the absence of cheap and abundant skilled labor in North 
 America, all stimulations bv government aid have failed to establish the mul- 
 berry and silk culture there, while China, Japan, western India, Italy, and the 
 Levant, where chea|. skilled labor can be found, have become the sources of 
 the world's supplv. 
 
 f;se. — M. rubra, or the red mulberry, has a hard, light, durable wood, much 
 used in ship-building in the southern' United States for the light timbers of 
 vessels and boats. The fruit is blackish-red, with an agreeable subacid taste. 
 It is wholesome and refreshing when eaten directly from the tree before the 
 acetous fermentation sets in. The leaves are rough, and are used for feeding 
 silk-worms, Init for this purpose are inferior to the leaves of the M. alba. 
 
 M. alba, or the white mulberry, is the tree so extensively grown for the 
 culture of silk-worms, and the finest and strongest silks are produced from 
 worms fed upon its leaves. It is a much more rapid grower than the other 
 species of this genus, and is di.stinguished by its many slender white-barked 
 shoots. Its leaves are slender, and highly charged with a glutinous, milky 
 .substance resembling the sap of the hevea. This substance gives strength to 
 the silk produced bv the silk- worms fed on its leaves. Trees grown upon 
 high, gravelly, poor soil, in hilly localities produce better silk than trees 
 grown upon generous soil. 
 
 ULMUS. (Elm.) Flowers in lateral group:?, appearing in advance 
 of the leaves, bisexual and monoecious ; calyx campannlate. ;'>- or 4-8- 
 lobed, imbricate in the bud, persistent; stamens equal in number to 
 segments ; style short, or wanting; stigmas 2. Fruit a samara, with 
 a membranous wing. Leaves alternate, stipulate, serrate, feather- 
 veined, usually unequal at the base, rough to the touch. Flowers 
 reddish-white. 
 
 1. TJ. Americana. L. (American Elm. Wliitc Elm. Weeping Elm.> Trunk 
 2 to 5 feet iu diameter near the base, usually dividing into 2 or more branches 
 
232 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 within 15 to 50 feet from the ground, wliich when growing near each other 
 interlace and form graceful curves and arches ; the leading branches some- 
 times reach the height of 120 feet. 
 
 2. U. fulva, Mx. (Slippery Elm. Red Elm.) Trunk 40 to 60 feet high, 
 12 to 25 inches in diameter ; wood reddish-yellow, tough, inner bark highly 
 charged with mucilage. Branches rough, not forking as in No. 1. Leaves 
 oblong-ovate, acuminate, more nearly equal at base than in No. 1, unevenly 
 serrate, pubescent, rough ; buds, before expansion, clothed with soft hairs, 
 large. Flowers at the end of young twigs ; calyx downy and sessile. Sta- 
 mens short, 7. Flowers in April. 
 
 3. U. racemosa, Thomas. (Corky Elm.) Trunk 50 to 80 feet high, li to 3 
 feet in diameter, in habit and appearance like No. 1 ; branches, when young, 
 slightly pubescent ; scales of the buds ciliate ; bark of the branches roughened 
 
 by corky lines. Leaves as in No. 1, 
 with more regular veins. Flowers in 
 racemes, 
 
 4. U. alata, Mx. (Winged Elm.) 
 Trunk 29 to 30 feet high, 10 to 15 
 inches in diameter. Branches here 
 and there roughened with corky 
 ridges, or wings, otherwise smooth ; 
 scales of the buds and young branch- 
 lets glabrous. Leaves unequal at 
 base, downy beneath, oblong-ovate or 
 lanceolate, sharp, thick, small, and 
 doubly serrate; petioles short. 
 
 5. U. campestris, L. (English 
 Elm.) Trunk 60 to 80 feet high, 
 branching irregularly, branches ex- 
 tending sub-horizontally ; bark of a 
 dull lead-color, smooth when young, 
 cracking into irregular strips with 
 
 rather small. Flowers rusty-brown ; 
 and yellow. Flowers in March ; seed 
 
 Ulmus campestris (English Elm). 
 
 age. Leaves rough, doubly serrate, 
 samara oblong, deeply cleft, smooth, 
 ripens in May. 
 
 The English elm is an important timber-tree, and much attention has been 
 given, especially in England, to its cultivation. No tree sports more freely 
 than the elm, and English writers describe about 20 well-marked varieties to 
 be found in Europe. 
 
 There are about a dozen species of the elm, with a large number of varieties. 
 Linnseus went so far as to advance the belief that all the elms are varieties 
 of one species. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the elm extends, in Europe, from 
 the Mediterranean countries to the middle of European Russia ; in America, 
 from the southern banks of the St. Lawrence River to the Gulf of Mexico ; 
 and west to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Etymology. — Uimns is from the German ulm, Lati'.iized into ?//?«?/s, supposed 
 to come from the base al, grow, and believed to have been applied on account 
 of the rapid growth of this tree. Elm, the common name, is from the old 
 European name, «?/n or Urn. The specific names of the American species are 
 
ITRTICACEJE. 233 
 
 Amerfcana,i\erWo(\ from America, its native country ; fulva, T.atin. yellow, due 
 to the color of wood ; racemosa, the Howors being borne in racemes ; ainta, 
 from the Latin ala, a wing, due to the ridges in the bark of the branches, 
 wliich are wing-like; campestris, Latin campester, pertaining to a plain or 
 field, due to the fact that the plant grows in open places. 
 
 Histori/. — The elm is mentioned by Pliny. Little is known of its early 
 history, and at what date it began to assume importance as an ornamental 
 tree is not recorded. There are some remarkable specimens mentioned for 
 size and age. One planted by Henry IV. of France nvas standing in 1790. 
 One in England, planted by Queen Elizabeth, was cut down in 1745 ; this was 
 more than four feet iu diameter. 
 
 The elm is the most majestic tree we have in planted grounds ; the ni.jst 
 desirable are the U. Americana of America, and the U. campestris of 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Use. — The Ulmus Americana is a favorite ornamental tree, on account ot 
 its majestic form ; it forks into large branches, and wlien planted in parallel 
 rows along walks and drives, the branches interlace, forming graceful curves 
 aud pointed arches. The timber of this tree has not been used nmch in 
 America, because an abundance of better timber is to be found. The Euro- 
 pean U. campestris is not only prized as an ornamental tree, but it yields an 
 excellent lumber, whicli is reinarkable for its dural)ility, especially in water. 
 
 The American species, U. fulva, has a thick inner bark, which is highly 
 charged with mucilage, and is used in medical practice for throat and bron- 
 chial troubles, and for poultices. 
 
 HUMULUS, L. Flowers dicecioiis; cah^x of the staminate flowers 
 5-petaleil, with 5 stamens; anthers with 2 pores; pistillate flowers 
 axillary in short strobiliforni spikes; bracts leaf-like, laxly imbri- 
 cated, '2-fiowered, each floret sessile at the base of a scale-like invo- 
 lucre, embraced by its involute margin; calyx urceolate, truncate, 
 with small teeth; ovary ovoid, compressed ovule, single and pendu- 
 lous; strobile membranaceous, made up of the enlarged imbricated 
 bracts and .scales. Fruit roundish, egg-shaped, inclosed in the trun- 
 cated calyx ; cotyledons linear, spirally involute. Perennial twining 
 herb, with opposite leaves. 
 
 H. lupulus, L. (Common Hop.) Root branching; stem 20 feet long, a 
 number from the same root, twining with tlie sun, striate or angular, twi.sted ; 
 slender l)ranches near the top, upon which the flowers and fruit ai)pear. Leaves 
 opposite, and lobed near the root, alternate and entire above, scabrous on the 
 upper surface ; petioles long ; stipules elliptical-lanceolate and wedge-shaped 
 below, the scales sprinkled with resinous dots, which resin produces the peculiar 
 odor and taste of the hop. July. 
 
 There are several varieties, which differ very little from each other. 
 
 Geor/raphi/. — The. hop grows wild throughout middle Europe and Sil)eria, 
 as far north as the f)2d parallel, the Levant, and Asia Minor, and hsis been 
 introduced into Egvpt. It is also indigenous to .southern Japan and to North 
 America, along the font bills (.f the Rocky Mountains, along the upper 
 Arkansas. Missouri, and Mississippi rivers, and near the shores of Lake 
 Winnipeg, also throughout the Atlantic States north of Virginia. The variety 
 in cultivation was brought to northeast America by European colonists. 
 
234 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymology. — The name kumulus, from the Latin, humus, earth, was given to 
 this plant because it delights in new rich earth. Its native haunts are in the 
 deep soils of swamps and low grounds. The specific name is a diminutive 
 of lupus, the Latin for wolf, " a little wolf." As it grows among the wil- 
 lows it twines about them and chokes them, as the wolf does a flock of 
 sheep. The common name, hop, is from the Old English hoppen, which 
 signifies "climb," hence the climbing plant. 
 
 History. — When this plant was introduced into cultivation we have no 
 means of knowing. It is said to have been brought into England from 
 Flanders, and to have attracted the attention of gardeners and agriculturists 
 first in the reign of Henry VIII. more than 400 years ago. Malted liquors 
 had been formerly called ale ; but the use of hops made them heer. This plant 
 
 was known to the Eomans 
 before the Christian era. 
 Pliny speaks of it as a 
 garden-vegetable. 
 
 Use. — The hop plays 
 an important part in the 
 manufacture of beer and 
 ale. The plant furnishes 
 the substance known as 
 lupulin, in which the vir- 
 tues of the hop reside in 
 part. It is said to clarify 
 these liquors, and to pre- 
 vent acidification. 
 
 It is aromatic, astrin- 
 gent, tonic, sudorific, and 
 anodyne, and promotes 
 sleep in some cases of in- 
 somnia when other reme- 
 dies fail. A pillow filled 
 with hops is said to have 
 been used by George III. 
 of England in his severe 
 illness in 1787, by direction of his physician, Dr. Willis. 
 
 It is an important ingredient in the domestic materia medica. It is used 
 also in making yeast. Young shoots were formerly prepared for the table and 
 eaten as a substitute for asparagus. In Sweden a strong cloth is made of the 
 fiber of the stem. 
 
 HuMULUs LUPULus (Common Hop). 
 
 FICTTS, Tourn. (Fig Tree.) Flowers monoecious, lining the interior 
 surface of a hollow globular or pear-shaped fleshy receptacle, at the top 
 of which is an opening, which is shut by small scales, staminate 
 flowers above, and the fertile ones beneath ; calyx of the staminate 
 flowers 3-parted ; stamens 3 ; pistillate flowers with 2 stigmas and a 
 5-cleft calyx. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, deciduous, and lobed. 
 Fruit in shape of a little bottle, edible. 
 
 1. F. Carica, L. (Common Fig.) A small, irregularly branched tree, .5 to 
 20 feet high; or an irregular straggling bush branching near the root, forming 
 an irregular head. Branches cylindrical ; bark ])ale-reddish, young branches 
 
URTTCACE^. 
 
 235 
 
 showinc; scars, from which the leaves and stipules have fallen ; twigs downy. 
 Leaves alternate, on long, thick, curved, and downy petioles ; blades 4 inches 
 long, nearly as wide, still and rough on the upper side, soft, woolly underneath, 
 cordate at base, 3 to 5 palmate, broad, blunt lobes, irregularly and coarsely 
 toothed; sti])ules large, clasping the whole stem or branch, falling off early. 
 Fruit axillary and solitary, on short stalks, varying from 1 to 3 inches in 
 length, smooth, purplish, turning to a dingv yellow wlieu ripe, soft and fleshy, 
 with numerous seed-like nuts, 1 -celled. 
 
 2. F. elastica. (Indian Fig. India Rubber.) Trunk from 80 to 120 feet 
 in heiglit, and 5 to 10 feet in diameter. Like the F. Hengalensis it produces 
 aerial roots, which it throws to the ground, where they frequently take root 
 in the soil or in the crevices of the rocks among which it delights to grow. A 
 singular feature of this tree is its 
 enormous roots, which lie upon the 
 surface of the ground, coiling and 
 curling over and about the rocks like 
 great serpents. Branches large and 
 irregular; bark gray. Leaves ovoid 
 or elliptical, dark-green, thick, leath- 
 ery, and regularly veined, and acumi- 
 nate and glossy. Flowers in axillary 
 panicles, crimson. Fruit small, and 
 not edible. 
 
 This tree yields the India rubber 
 of the East Indies. 
 
 ^-^^ 
 
 Ficiis Carica (Common Fig). 
 
 3. F. Bengalensis, W. (Banyan 
 Tree.) This tree is the most re- 
 markable of the genus Ficus, and 
 seems to deserve a place here. 
 
 The trunk is from 5 to 9 feet in 
 diameter, and rises to the height of 
 100 feet. The branches extend hori- 
 zontally, and send down vertical branches to the ground, which take root, 
 become stems, and branch throwing down other branches, wiiich take root 
 in the same way, until the whole presents the appearance of a vast leafy 
 canopy, supported in some cases by more than fifty pillars, covering a space 
 from 300 to as much as 400 feet in diameter. It is stated by travellers that 
 these strange unions of trees sometimes rise in pyramidal form to the vjist 
 height of 1.50 feet. 
 
 The ficus genus is large, including some curious and interesting trees. The 
 edible figs are confined entirely to the species car/ca and its numerous varieties. 
 
 The varieties of V. Carica are as follows; 1st, growing without cultivation, 
 with small and nearly entire leaves ; 2d, under cultivation, with large leaves, 
 deeply cut and lobed, fruit white or dark ; 3d, under cultivation, with large 
 leaves, nearly entire. 
 
 These three divisions separate into several v:irioti(\<:, each depending upon 
 the size, shape, and color of the fruit. 
 
 Geofjraphy. — The fig grows well in all >ulitn>piial countries; and while it 
 will endure the temperature of 40° north latitude, and with slight protection 
 fruits sparingly, it Hourishes best jusf in the cdirc ,,f tlic region of no frost. 
 
236 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Etymology. — The word Jicus has been derived from the Latin word, fectin- 
 dus, fruitful, on account of its heavy bearing ; also from fag, a Hebrew name; 
 as well as from the Sanscrit /e$r. Fig is a mere translation of the word ficus. 
 Car'ica is from Caria, from Avhich town fiue figs were exported in ancient 
 times. Banyan, Hindu for " merchant," is applied to these trees on account of 
 their frequent use as market places. The other names are self-explanator\'. 
 
 History. — The fig is spoken of frequently in Scripture. Greek tradition 
 carries back the use of the fig to remote antiquity, leading to the inference 
 that it was used prior to the cereals, and figured as largely in the support of 
 human life as the plantain family. Even so late as after the Exodus we find 
 the Israelites deploring the failure of the fig crop as a great calamity. In the 
 days of Vergil the cultivation of the fig near Rome was carried on to greater 
 perfection than that of the vine. 
 
 The home of the fig is believed to be western Asia, perhaps Persia, whence 
 it has worked its way both eastward and westward. In very early times it 
 had spread throughout the Mediterranean basin, along both shores, and as far 
 west as the Canary Islands. In the days of Theophrastus, who lived about 
 300 years before the beginning of the Christian era, it was a well known fruit. 
 It has spread through all the subtropical countries where European coloniza- 
 tion has been established. The tree endures tlie climate of southern England, 
 but does not fruit well there. Some trees, carried to England in 1525, and 
 planted in the garden of Cardinal Pole, are now in good health ; some of them 
 being 50 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter. The fig is supposed to have 
 been taken into England in the first century by Agricola. 
 
 Use. — The fig is a favorite dessert fruit, both in a natural and a pre- 
 served state. In soutliwestern Asia, southern Europe, and northern Africa 
 it constitutes the principal food of a large number of people, and is eaten 
 just as it is taken from the tree. When figs are dried in tlie sun or in a 
 kiln and packed tightly, they keep well, and endure long voyages without 
 damage. 
 
 Medicinally, they are laxative, and roasted they are used as a poultice for 
 boils, and applied to the gums to allay inflammation. 
 
 Some of the Chinese and Indian fig-trees are the abodes of the lac insect. 
 Coccus lacca. The females make their homes upon the ends of tlie twigs of 
 the fig-tree, and deposit thereon a resinous sub.stance, which enters into the 
 manufacture of sealing-wax, varnish, watei'proof hats, etc. 
 
 Marts. — The markets of the world are supplied by Turkey and Greece, 
 Spain and Egypt. About 7,000,000 pounds are taken from these countries 
 to the United States annually, and about 20,000,000 pounds are taken to 
 England. 
 
 CANNABIS, Tourn. Flowers dioecious ; staminate flowers in a 
 raceme ; calyx with 5 nearly equal sepals ; stamens 5, nodding ; pis- 
 tillate flowers spicate, clustered, single-bracted ; calyx urceolate, 
 1-sepaled, and membranous ; ovary globose, 1 -celled, inclosing a single 
 ovule ; style terminal ; seed hanging. An erect annual. Leaves alter- 
 nate above, opposite below, digitate. 
 
 C. sativa, L. (Hemp.) Stem 5 to 18 feet high, roundish, angular, sulcate, 
 and rough-branched. Leaves opposite l)elow, alternate above, digitately 
 divided ; leaflets 5 to 7, linear-lanceolate, and toothed, the two at the base 
 smaller and frequently entire, the stipulate foot-stalks 1 to 3 inches long. 
 
URTICACE^. 
 
 237 
 
 Stainiuate flowers ^reeii, jXMluiiculati;, axillary, fr»)\vik'il at the sminnit of the 
 stem aud brauches; pistillate flowers sessile, usually in pairs. 
 
 Geographi — The geographical range of hemp is very wide. It flourishes 
 throughout the edges of the tropics, aud all through the temperate zones, 
 to about the oOth parallel. 
 
 Etifinulogy. — Cannab'is is said to be derived from the Arabic word cannab, 
 made up of can, a reed, aud ab, small ; hence, a little reed. Sutica, the specific 
 name, is from the Latiu sativus, sown or planted. The meaning of the word 
 hemp is obscure. 
 
 Histuri/. — The home of the hemp is supposed to be Chinese Tartary, north- 
 ern India, and southwestern Siberia, whence it is supposed to have been car- 
 ried into Europe by the Scythians about 1,500 years before the Christian era. 
 Herodotus states that the ancient Scyth- 
 ians burnt the seed, aud were intoxicated 
 by breathing the fumes. 
 
 Hemp is an important crop in China, 
 Chinese Tartary, Japan, Persia, Hindustan, 
 Egypt, southern Africa, most of the states 
 of Europe, and especially Russia. It has 
 been introduced into America, and is cul- 
 tivated in Canada and the United States. 
 Hemp of a superior quality is raised in 
 southern Russia and Poland. The hemp 
 of the North produces the best fabrics and 
 cordage. The plant when grown in liot 
 countries possesses qualities wholly un- 
 known to it when raised in colder regions. 
 That grown in the tropics and subtropical 
 regions yields substances that are narcotic 
 and intoxicating. 
 
 Use. — The fiber of the hemp plant is 
 among the most important of all tlie tex- 
 tile products. It is made into cloth, and 
 furnishes material for the coarse clothing 
 of a large part of the ])eople of northern 
 Europe aud Asia. The bagging-cloths, 
 
 and the sails and cordage for vessels all over the world, are made of homp. 
 The Russians obtain an oil from hemp seeds, which they use in their culinary 
 preparations and to mix their paints, and in the manufacture of soft soap. 
 The seed is also fed to caged Itirds, and is said to change the color of their 
 plumage from red to black. 
 
 The leaf, wlien grown in warm climates, is smoked, and produces a narcotic 
 and intoxicating effect upon the smoker, which is said to alleviate pain, 
 increase the appetite, and give rise to mental cheerfulness It also produces 
 violent coughing and spitting of blood. From the whole ])Iant also exudes a 
 resinous substance, which, when smoked, produces intoxication ; when taken 
 internally in small doses, it ])roduces furor and imparts wonderful strength; 
 when taken in larger (piantitics it produces hilarity and stimulates the appe- 
 tite, but the patient finally becomes insensible, and liis limbs will remain in 
 any position they may be ])laced. After a time the person recovers with«jut 
 any ap})arent ill effects to either mind or body. The resinous sul)stance is the 
 celebrated ha.shish of the Arabs. Bhany is a narcotic intoxicating drug, pre- 
 
 Cannabis sativa (Hemp). 
 
238 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 pared from the leaves aud seed-vessels uf hemp. It is a favorite drink in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 Those who frequent places in Egypt where hashish is sold are of the lowest 
 class, and the term has come to convey the idea of disorderly or riotous people. 
 The plural, hashshasheen, is believed to be the origin of our word "assassin." 
 because the Arabs in the time of the Crusades used the drug to produce 
 insensibility in their victims. 
 
 Order LI. JUGLANDACE^. 
 
 Flowers monoecious, staminate ones small, and often in hanging- 
 catkins ; perianth single, attached to the inner face of a bract which 
 is 6-lobed, sometimes 2-3-lobed ; stamens 3 to 40, inserted at the base 
 of the bract ; hlaments very short, free or coherent at the base ; pistil- 
 late flowers terminal, solitary or few, and clustered ; calyx tube ovoid, 
 limb 4-toothed ; styles 2, very short ; stigmas 2, elongated, recurved. 
 Fruit drupaceous, rarely nut-like, containing a single nut; epicarp 
 fleshy, fibrous within, indehiscent ; nut woody, rugose, and irregularly 
 grooved lengthwise. Trees or shrubs, with watery, resinous, aromatic 
 juice. Leaves odd-pinnate, exstipulate ; staminate catkins from last 
 year's branches, or at the base of the younger branches. 
 
 No. of genera, 5 ; species, 3 ; temperate regions, and mountains in 
 the tropics. 
 
 JUGLANS, L. Bract of the pistillate flower with its bractlets closely 
 adhering to the ovary, irregularly toothed at the perianth limb so as to 
 resemble an outer perianth ; exocarp of 
 the drupe closely adhering to the wrinkled 
 endocarp, or at last coming away irregu- 
 larly. Staminate and pistillate flowers 
 separate, but upon the same plant ; stami- 
 nate flowers in solitary, drooping catkins ; 
 calyx composed of 5 to 6 scale-like sepals ; 
 stamens 18 to 36, usually about 20. Pistil- 
 late flowers, 1 to 5 in a group, terminal on 
 the new wood ; caljrx ovate, and 4-toothed ; 
 petals 4 in number ; styles short, 2 in 
 number; stigmas 2. Fruit a drupe, nut 
 rugose, hard, globose, a little compressed 
 laterally, 2-valved. Covering of the nut 
 a fleshy husk, indehiscent. Kernel large, 
 
 .JuGLANs oiNEREA (Buttemut). ollv, SWCet. 
 
 1. J. cinerea, L. (Butternut.) Stem from 10 to 30 feet in height, irregu- 
 larly branched, aud from 6 inches to 1 foot in diameter. Leaf made up of 7 
 or 8 pairs of leaflets, and a terminal one ; leaflets rounded at the base, elliptical- 
 lanceolate, serrate, and pubescent underneath; aments cylindrical. Flowers 
 greenish, appearing in April and May. Fruit cylindrical, 2 inches long and 
 
JUGLANDACE.T:. • 239 
 
 I iiieh in dianu'ter, ending with an ai-uniinatt- tip. KxtK-arp or .mter shell 
 like that of J. nigra, hut thinner; nut corrugated in the direction of the longer 
 axis ; kernel sweet and huttery. 
 
 (;co(7ra/>/<y. — (Geographical range between the parallels of 48° and 36^ north 
 latitude, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi Kiver. 
 
 Kt,/mologi/.—Juglans is derived from the words Joi-/s, Jupiter, and glatis, 
 Latin for "nut," — that is, nut or fruit for Jupiter or the gods, on account of 
 its delicate (piality as a food. The common name, butternut, is due to the 
 delicate huttery taste of the kernels. The specific name, cinerea, comes from 
 the Latin cinereiis, ash-colored, due to the ashy-gray color of the bark. 
 
 Hisiori/. The home of the butternut is northeastern North America. It 
 
 is sometimes planted for ornament, but delights in rocky places, and loves the 
 hills; has been planted in middle Europe and in England, and grows and 
 fruits well there. 
 
 Cse.—The butternut is a favorite dessert nut. A delicate salad oil is 
 obtained from the kernels by expression, and the fruit in an uuripe state is 
 used for pickling. 
 
 The wood has a coarse grain, but 
 takes a good polish, and is used for 
 cabinet ware and for Avaiuscoting. 
 The chips are also used to manufac- 
 ture beer. 
 
 The outer shell of the fruit fur- 
 nishes a dye, which is largely used to 
 color home-made fabrics in the west- 
 ern part of Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 A decoction of the bark is boiled 
 
 down to a mass and made into pills, 
 
 which are administered as a gentle 
 
 cathartic. 
 
 JuGLANS NIGRA ( Black Waliiut). 
 
 2. J. nigra, L. (Black Walnut. 
 Black-wooded Walnut Tree.) Stem straight, 40 to 80 feet high, and 1 to 4 
 feet in diameter ; branches crooked and straggling, forming an open and 
 picturesque head, from lo to 30 feet in diameter. Leaves compound, with 
 7 to 8 pairs of leaflets and a terminal one, odd one frecjuently wanting ; 
 leaflets slender, cordate, acuminate, unequal at the base, on short petioles. 
 Flowers greenish, appearing in May in the northern limits, and in A])ril 
 further south. Fruit ripens in October. 
 
 Geography. — The black walnut is indigenous in southwestern New York, 
 and further south to the Gulf of Mexico, and west some distance beyond the 
 Mississippi Kiver. It has been introduced into the eastern middle States and 
 southern New England, where it grows and fruits well. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Xigrci is from the Latin niger, black, from the color of the 
 wood. The word walnut was given in England, and means " a strange or 
 foreign nut," signifying that it came from a]>r(»ad. from .Anglo-Saxon ivealk, 
 strange, and nut. 
 
 Histori/ — The black walnut has been introduced into England and 
 southern Europe by seeds from America. It grows well in England, but is 
 becoming very scarce in the United States 
 
 U.<>e. — The wood of the l)lack walnut is hard, very dark, and takes a good 
 polish ; it is strong and tough, and is largely used in the manufacture of cabi 
 
240 ' 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 net ware, especially tables, bedsteads, bureaus, aud chairs; also iu joiuiug, 
 wainscoting, and for floors, panels, and doors. In the southwest it is used 
 largely for lumber and for fencing. It takes the place of mahogany with us 
 in the manufacture of furniture and cabinet ware. 
 
 The fruit is highly esteemed as a dessert, and is used wheu in an unripe 
 state for pickles aud catsups. A good salad oil is expressed from the kernel, 
 and the shells are used for dyeing purposes. 
 
 3. J. regia, L. (English Walnut.) Stem 20 to 40 feet in height, and from 10 
 to 20 inches in diameter ; branches rather straight, head symmetrical ; leaves 
 consisting of 3 to 5 pairs of leaflets, increasing in size towards the top, termi- 
 nating with a single one ; leaflets ovate, acute, margins wavy, on short petioles ; 
 catkins oblong, 2 to 2i inches long, peduncle short. Fruit subglobose, mu- 
 crouate, about 2 inches in diameter ; exocarp leathery, smooth, ovoid ; shell 
 or endocarp wrinkled ; kernel large and sweet. 
 Flowers in early summer ; nut matures in 
 October. 
 
 Like other trees grown from the seed it has 
 many varieties, the most important of which 
 are : — 
 
 Var. maxima (large fruited). Nut twice the 
 
 _ ,.«.«^^ ^ size of the J. regia, but perishable. 
 
 ^^^**MX /v^^^^^ ^^^- tenera (tender-shelled). The shell is 
 
 thin, so that small birds pierce it before it is 
 ripe ; very delicate to the taste, but not a pro- 
 lific bearer. 
 
 Var. serotina. Endures the frost, and can 
 be cultivated in higher latitudes than the J. 
 regia. 
 
 There are many other forms, differing from 
 the species only in the size or quality of the 
 fruit. 
 
 JUGLANS REGIA 
 
 (English Walnut). 
 
 Geogrophi/. — Though a native of the southern parts of the temperate zone, 
 the English walnut fruits iu a latitude of 45° in Europe and Asia, aud grows 
 well in the Atlantic States of North America, but does not fruit freely north 
 of Virginia. It is extensively cultivated in southern California. Its home is 
 a region below 40°, extending from the country southea.st of the Black Sea 
 eastward to Japan. 
 
 FAymology. — The specific name, regia, is the Latin for " royal "or " kingly," 
 due to the high esteem of its quality, 
 
 Hhtorij. — Food plants necessarily attracted the attention of man in the 
 earlie.st period of his existence ; and nuts, on account of their edible character 
 in an uncooked state, have always been favorites. At the present day nuts 
 form an important part of the food of the laboring classes, and with them the 
 walnut holds high rank, Loudon, in his work on trees, states that between 
 Heidelberg and Darmstadt the walnut is the principal tree, not only for the 
 fruit, but for shade. In that region when a young farmer desires to marry, 
 he is obliged to furnish proof to the intended bride's father that he has planted 
 with his own hands a stated number of walnut trees, which are already in an 
 advanced stage of growth. 
 
 Use. — In the Levant, where the English walnut reaches perfection, it con- 
 stitutes a large portion of the food of the masses. It is highly prized iu 
 
JUGLANDACEv^.. 
 
 241 
 
 Europe and America for a dessert nut. A tal)lc oil is expressed from it ; 
 aud ill a green state it makes an excellent pickle. It is also used to flavor 
 sauces, aud is an importaut article in the celebrated walnut sauce. The wood 
 takes a good polish, has a browu color, is riclily veined, and is highly prized by 
 cabinet makers, rivalling mahogany. The plain kind is used for gunstocks. 
 The root is guarled, aud wlieu sawed into thin slices makes valuable 
 veneering. 
 
 HICORIA, Raf . (Hickory Nut.) Flowers uni.sexual ; both stamiiiate 
 and pistillate flowers and leaf developed from the same bud; the pis- 
 tillate flowers terminal, few in number ; bract small or none ; bract- 
 lets none ; staminate flowers in pendulous catkins in the axils of the 
 lower leaves; 3 on a peduncle, theii- perianth irregularly 2-:3-lobed ; 
 stamens 3 to 10 ; pistillate flowers shortly spicate, few, with a minute 
 bract or none ; perianth enfolding and adhering to the ovary, with a 
 free 4-parted tip ; stigma sessile upon the ovary, 2-4-lobed. Husk or 
 outer shell of fruit fleshy, 4-valved nut, somewhat 4-sided, smooth or 
 slightly wrinkled. Flowers greenish. 
 
 1. H. ovata, Mill., Britton. (Carya Alba, Nutt.) (Shell-bark. Hickory 
 nut. White Walnut.) Stem from 40 to 60 feet high, and from 1 to 2 feet iu 
 diameter, rather regularly branched, form- 
 ing a symmetrical head. Bark gray, and 
 falling in strips. Leaves composed of two 
 pairs of leaflets aud a terminal one, lateral 
 ones sessile, terminal one petioled, all ob- 
 lanceolate, tlie lower pair smaller, subacu- 
 minate, sharply serrulate, downy beneath. 
 Fruit flattish, globose, with four grooves 
 extending along the length of the husk, 
 which, when ripe, separate into four sections, 
 freeing itself from the nut, which is marked by four seams or ridges exteud- 
 ing lengthwise ; shell thin ; kernel delicate. Ripens in November ; flowers in 
 April and May. 
 
 2. H. sulcata, Britton. (Carya sulcata, Nutt.) (Thick Shell-bark.) This 
 species differs from the last in* the size of the fruit, which is much larger 
 than tliat of the C. alba, and the leaf has from 3 to 4 pairs, and the nut has 
 an acuminate tip ; in other respects it is well described in C ovata. A larger 
 tree than C. alba. 
 
 G^0(7rfl/)/H/. — The geographical range of these last species is the northern 
 and middle States, fn^n the Atlantic to the Mississippi Kiver, aud it bears 
 well in corresjionding latitudes in Europe. 
 
 Efijmoloq,/. — The generic name, hicoria, is of unknown origin, supposed to 
 be an aboriginal name of the tree or its fruit, proltably tlie latter. The old 
 generic name, cart/a, is from the Greek word Koipvov, the walnut tree, said to 
 have been given in honor of Carya, daughter of Dion, king of Laconia, who, 
 according to the Greek myth, was changed by Bacchus into that tree. The 
 specific name, ovata, is from the Latin ovum, an egg. referring to the shape of 
 a plane of tlie fruit parallel to tlie axis of growth. Sulcata, from the Latin 
 sulcus, a furrow, derives its name from markings (ui the fruit. 
 Pk. El. — 17 
 
 HicoRiA OVATA (Hickory Nut). 
 
M^ 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 History. — The home of these species of hicoria is North America ; they 
 have been introduced by seed into Europe, where they grow and fruit well. 
 Seeds were first planted in Europe in 1629. These are the most important of 
 the hickories. There are several other species whose wood is similar, but 
 which bear inferior fruit. 
 
 Use. — The fruit of the H. ovata and H. sulcata is very delicate, and is 
 valued for a table dessert. The shell is full, and the kernel sweet. Both yield 
 an excellent salad oil, which is obtained by expression. 
 
 The wood splits easily, but is hard and tough, and is used largely in the 
 manufacture of agricultural instruments, axe and hammer handles, and hubs 
 and spokes of carriage-wheels. It is a very valuable material for fuel. 
 
 3. H. olivseformis, Nutt., Britt. (Pecan Nut.) Stem 80 to 90 feet high, 
 and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter ; bark rough and shaggy. Leaves with slender 
 petioles ; leaflets in 6 to 7 pairs, and a terminal one, lanceolate-falcate, acumi- 
 nate, and sharply serrate, on short petioles. 
 Flowers greenish. Fruit oblong, 4-angled, 
 with distinct valves, the green husk inclosing 
 an olive-shaped nut Avith a thin shell ; kernel 
 fills the entire shell, and possesses a delicate, 
 pleasant flavor. 
 
 FloM^ers appear in May. Fruit ripe, October 
 and November. 
 
 Hicoria oliv^foemis (Pecan Nut) 
 
 Geography. — The Hicoria olivseformis is in- 
 digenous to southern North America, and de- 
 lights in a damp rich soil ; it will grow and 
 fruit in the latitudes south of 40°, and north 
 of 20°. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific name was sug- 
 gested by its shape: oUvceformls, olive-shaped. 
 
 History. — Nuttall, the English botanist, 
 first described this tree, whose fruit Pursh 
 It was planted in Prussia, and found its way into England 
 
 sent to Europe, 
 in 1766. 
 
 Use. — The pecan nut is a favorite dessert nut, and has become an impor- 
 tant article of commerce. It is shipped to the West Indies, also to Europe. 
 In its native forests it is highly valued as a mast upon which droves of swine 
 fatten, which are allowed to run at large while the nuts are falling. 
 
 The wood of this tree is white, tough, and durable, and used largely in the 
 manufacture of agricultural implements, and, like other species of the genus, 
 makes excellent fuel. It is characteristic of North America, no wood equally 
 tough, elastic, and suitable for these purposes being known in Europe. 
 
 Order LII. CUPULIFERiE. 
 
 Flowers monoecious ; staminate flowers in pendulous, bractless cat- 
 kins, on last year's branches, or at the base of this year's branches ; 
 calyx usually 5, occasionally 5-12-parted ; stamens 2-20 ; anthers 
 2-celled. Pistillate flowers solitary or clustered, terminating few- 
 leaved branches ; calyx attached to the ovary, 6-toothed or wanting ; 
 ovary 2-3-celled; ovules 1-2 in a cell, pendulous. Fruit, a nut, 
 1-seeded by abortion, 1-3 in a cup or shell. Leaves alternate, pin- 
 
CUPULIFER^. 
 
 243 
 
 persistent, stij»ulal 
 400; chietly in 
 
 north temperate 
 
 nately veined, simple, falling or persistent, stipiilal.-, with an invo- 
 lucre of accurrent woody bracts. 
 
 Number of genera, 10, species, 
 regions and in tropical mountains. 
 
 CASTANEA. Tourn. (Chestnut.) Male flowers in clusters of long, 
 slender, cylindrical, erect aments ; calyx G-parted ; stamens 5 to 15 
 in number. Fertile flow^ers in 3's, surrounded by a 4-lobed involucre, 
 which when ripe is leathery and beset with weak prickles about half an 
 inch long ; calyx 5-6-lobed, the tube adhering to the 8-6-celled ovary ; 
 Number of stigmas equal to the number of cells. Involucre 4-valved ; 
 nuts- usually 3 in number, sometimes 1 ; when the involucre contains 1 
 nut, it is top-shaped ; when there are 2, the nuts are plane on one side 
 and convex on the other ; when there are 8, the outside ones are 
 plano-convex, and the middle one flattened into a wedge shape. The 
 nuts are from three quarters to an inch in length, and sometimes as 
 wide as long. Covering shell thin and horny. Leaves simple. 
 
 1. C. vesca. Gaert. (Chestnut.) Trunk from .50 to 70 feet in height, rang- 
 ing from 1 to 5 feet in diameter, throwing out branches nearly horizontal, which 
 extend 20 to 30 feet, sometimes 
 
 forming a liead 50 feet in diameter. 
 Leaf oblong-lanceolate or oval, 
 mucronately serrate, glabrous on 
 both sides. Flowers yellowish, 
 appearing in May. Fruit in Oc- 
 tober. 
 
 Var. Americana is the Ameri- 
 can chestnut, and differs from the 
 European chestnut only in bearing 
 a smaller and more delicate fruit. 
 The tree grows to the height of 
 80 feet, and when in the forest 
 reaches tlie lieight of 40 or .50 feet 
 without a branch, but when stand- 
 ing alone branches low. 
 
 2. C. pumila, Mx. Stem 6 to 
 15 feet in height, branching low 
 and profuse, shrub-like in appear- 
 ance. Leaf oblong, ovate, or obo- 
 vate, nnicronately serrate, hoary, 
 
 tomentose on the under side, 3 to 5 inches long and about 2 inches broad, 
 smooth above, acute at the apex, and obtuse at the base ; petioles long. 
 Flowers axillary; nut solitary, small, and very sweet. 
 
 In Europe great efforts liave been made to improve the chestnut ; and as the 
 trees are produced from .^ced, the varietie.s are numerous. The American tree 
 is believed to be identical witli the F^uropean Castanea vulgaris. Lam. In 
 America no efforts have been put forth to improve the fruit, hence no varie- 
 ties have arisen. 
 
 Out of about twenty varieties grown in England, four are considered as 
 greatly improved. In France also much attention has been given to the 
 
 Castanea vesca (Chestnut)^ 
 
^44 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 improvement of the chestnut, and many varieties have been produced, differ- 
 ing only in the size and quality of the fruit. 
 
 Several species of chestnuts have been found in eastern Asia recently, which 
 were formerly classed under the oaks, and there has been a species discovered 
 in Nepaul, northern India, recently. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of the chestnut is very broad. It 
 grows well and is indigenous all along the eastern coast of North America, 
 from 40° to 43° north latitude, extending west to eastern Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee. The C. pumila is found between 30° and 40° north latitude, — from 
 southern Pennsylvania to northern Georgia. The C. vesca grows well through- 
 out the middle and southern counties of England, in all the countries of middle 
 and southern Europe and northern Africa, and in the countries of the Levant 
 and southern and eastern Asia, wherever it has been planted. 
 
 Etymology. — Castanea was named for Castane, a city of Thessaly, famous 
 for chestnuts. Vesca is from the Latin vescor, eat, referring to the edible 
 character of the fruit. The common name, chestnut, is due to the fruit or nut 
 being inclosed in a box or chest. 
 
 History. — The home of the chestnut is not exactly defined. De CandoUe 
 says it forms natural forests from the Caspian Sea westward to Portugal. It 
 has also been stated that its home is the country between the Black and 
 Mediterranean seas, and that it was carried west after the Roman conquests. 
 Pickering says it is native to China, and Thunberg saw it near Jeddo, in 
 Japan. It is believed that the Emperor Tiberius took it to Italy from Asia 
 Minor, and that it thence spread all over southern Europe. It is also indige- 
 nous in North America. 
 
 There are some very remarkable chestnut-trees in the world, some of which 
 have reached a greater diameter of trunk than any other tree. The most 
 noted is the celebrated Mount ^tna chestnut, under which a hundred 
 mounted horsemen took shelter. The enormous size of this tree has led to 
 the belief that it is the union of a group of trees that stood near each other in 
 their youth. M. Jules Houel, a French scientist, nearly a hundred years 
 since, made a journey to measure and make a drawing of it. He found it to 
 be 1 60 feet in circumference, and on the closest and most careful examination 
 could find no evidence that it is not a single trunk. There are other large 
 trees in the neighborhood, measuring from 36 to 40 feet in diameter. 
 
 There are three large chestnut-trees in the southern suburb of the city of 
 Yonkers (just outside the northern limits of New York City.) Two of these 
 measure respectively 24 feet 10 inches, and 19 feet 6 inches in circumference. 
 These are of the American variety, and are in an advanced state of decay. 
 By a calculation from the best known data, the largest of these trees is about 
 210 years old. 
 
 Use. — The chestnut is a favorite nut in many parts of Europe ; and in the 
 countries of the Levant it constitutes a very important article of food. It is 
 roasted or boiled, and eaten with salt. It is also eaten raw. A flour is made 
 of the nuts in a dried state, which is used for various culinary purposes, prin- 
 cipally for griddle cakes. 
 
 The wood is not hard, but is very durable, and takes a high polish. It is 
 used for cabinet work, bedsteads, tables, etc., and by reason of its durable 
 character is very highly valued for fencing material. It is also a strong and 
 valuable timber for building purposes. 
 
 The nut forms an important article of commerce. The best European nuts 
 come from Spain. 
 
CUFULIFKR^. 245 
 
 QUERCUS, L. (Oak.) Stamiiiate flowers in groups of slender 
 hanging catkins; stamens 5 or more, surrounded by sepal-like bracts, 
 to S in number. Pistillate flowers axillary and erect; ovary sur- 
 rounded by an adnate calyx, the limb of which is toothed; style 
 short ; stigma 3-lobed ; ovary 3-celled, rarely 4-5, containing ovules, 
 5 of which are abortive. Fruit oblong, somewhat in the form of a 
 modern musket-cartridge, with the base inserted in a cup, which is 
 clothed with imbricated scales. F'lowers greenish, appearing in regions 
 of frost during the month of May. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, 
 deciduous, but persistent. A few evergreen in the southern fringe of 
 the north temperate zone. 
 
 1, Q. alba, L. (White Oak.) Trunk 60 to 80 feet high, 4 to 5 feet in 
 diameter ; bark grayish-white ; much-branched. Leaves 3 to 5 inches long, 
 sinuatc-lobed, in opposite pairs, 1 to 4 pairs of lobes, with a terminal one ; lobes 
 coarsely and irregularly toothed, pubescent underneath ; acorn on short 
 peduncles, large and sweet, edible. 
 
 Var. pinnatifida, Mx. Like Q. alba, except the leaves, which have 3 to 4 
 pairs of well marked lobes. 
 
 Var. repanda, Mx. Leaves with a wavy margin. 
 
 Geofjraphjj. — The oak thrives best in the temperate zones, above 35°, and 
 is found in a zone between 30° and 60° quite around the globe. It is found 
 in the mountain-top as well as in the valley and the plain below, and is indig- 
 enous in tlie al)0ve-named parallels in both liemispheres. The white oak is 
 common in the L'uited States and Canada. 
 
 Etymology. — Qitercus, the generic name, is derived from Latin quercus, an 
 oak. The popular name of the oak among the Celts was drew, from which the 
 word Druid was derived, signifying " priest of the oak." Alba, the specific 
 name of this species, is from the Latin alba, white, and is due to the grayish- 
 white bark of the trunk. Oak comes from the Anglo-Saxon name of the 
 tree, dc. 
 
 History. — The oak is famous in all ancient writings in which trees are 
 mentioned. Among the Gauls it was held sacred. Oak groves were the abodes 
 of priests, and no religious ceremony was complete without oak-boughs or 
 oak-leaves. The Greeks and Romans also dedicated the oak to their gods ; 
 and the Roman peasants initiated the harvest by a festival, in which their 
 heads were adorned with wreaths woven with the leaves of the oak. It was 
 upon the oak that the Druid priests found the mistletoe, which figured so 
 largely in their religious ceremonies. 
 
 Manv oaks are noted for liistorical events. Less than a hundred years 
 ago the oak was still standing in tlie Xew Forest against which the arrow 
 glanced that killed WiUiam Rufus. The Royal Oak at Boscobel concealed 
 the person of Charles 11. after the di.sastrous battle at Worcester The oak 
 at Torwood, at the place where Wallace convened his followers, still stands. 
 xVlfred's Oak, at r)xford, which was in e.xistence when the university was 
 founded, may still be seen. And in our own country an oak in the city of 
 Hartford, Conn., concealed the charter of that colony, and was known after 
 wards as the Charter Oak. 
 
 Abraham's ^)ak ((^ pseudococcifera), near Hebron, in Palestine, is many hun- 
 dred years old ; it measures twenty-three feet in circumference, and its branches 
 extend forty-five feet from the stem, forming a head ninety feet in diameter 
 
246 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — The white oak furnishes a hard, durable timber for frames of build- 
 ings, axles of carriages, floors, tables, chairs, handles for axes and hammers, 
 wainscoting, panelling, church furniture, shipbuilding, and mill-gearing. 
 The bark is highly charged with tannin, and is a valuable material in the 
 manufacture of leather. The fruit of the Q. alba, which is the sweetest of all 
 the species, is excellent for fattening swine ; the pork thus fatted is said to 
 
 produce the most delicious bacon. 
 The delicate flavor of the Vir- 
 ginia hams is said to be due to 
 the feeding of swine upon acorns. 
 
 2. Q. robur, L. Q. peduncu- 
 lata, Willd. (British Oak.) 
 Trunk 50 feet high and upward 
 to 100 feet; when standing in 
 open grounds it branches low, 
 spreading out so as to form a head 
 whose diameter is greater than 
 the height ; branches crooked, 
 gnarled, and very large ; bark 
 gray and rough ; leaves on short 
 petioles, blade oblong, made up 
 of 3 to 5 unequal pairs of lobes, 
 and a terminal one ; sinuses nar- 
 row, lobes rounded. Fruit ses- 
 sile or on long peduncles, oblong, 
 elongated, brown, buried to one 
 fourth of its length in the hemi- 
 spherical cup, which is clothed 
 with rough imbricated scales. 
 Flowers greenish-white, appear- 
 ing in April. Fruit ripens in 
 September. 
 
 Like all trees that propagate 
 
 themselves by means of their 
 
 seeds, the Quercus robur has run into a great variety of forms, of which the 
 
 following are the most prominent, and may be found growing in the public 
 
 grounds in Washington: — 
 
 Var. sessiliflora. 
 
 Var. pubescens, Lodd. Leaves downy beneath. 
 Var. fastigiata, Lodd. Branches compact and upright. 
 Var. pendula, Lodd. Branches decidedly pendulous, or weeping. 
 Var. heterophylla, Loudon. Leaves varying greatly in size and form ; 
 some lobed, others lanceolate and entire. 
 
 Var. foliis variegatis, Lodd. Leaves variegated with white and red streaks. 
 A beautiful specimen is growing in the public grounds at Washington. 
 
 Var. purpurea, Lodd. Foot-stalks of the leaves tinged with purple, and the 
 leaves when young entirely purple. 
 
 There are many other varieties, but less striking. 
 
 Geography. — The British oak is indigenous to the continent of Europe, and 
 most likely to England. It grows in the south of Europe, the Levant, and 
 northern Africa, 
 
 Quercus robur (British Oak). 
 
CUPU LIFERS. 247 
 
 Etymology. — The many names by which the British oak has been known to 
 botanists constitute not the least of its features. Robur is from the Latin word 
 robur, and indicates strength ; it is also an old name for the oak tree. Pedun- 
 culata refers to the long foot-stalks of the fruit. The variety names, with 
 the exception of heterophylla, are all derived from the Latin, as follows : 
 sess'dijiora, sessile-Howered ; pubesceus, covered with down ; fustiyiata, sloping 
 to a point ; pendula, hanging down ; foliis variegatls, variegated leaves ; pur- 
 purea, purple-colored. HeterophyUa is from the Greek ^repos, different, and 
 (pvWou, a leaf, hence varying leaves. 
 
 History. — The celebrated character of the British oak seems to call for a 
 special notice. Some of the most remarkable specimens of this tree are 
 interesting for their age and size. The Framlingham oak, used in the con- 
 struction of the " Koyal Sovereign," squared four feet nine inches, and yielded 
 four square beams, each forty-four feet in length. An oak felled at Whitney 
 Park, Shropshire, in England, in 1697, was nine feet in diameter without the 
 bark, and yielded from the trunk alone twenty-eight tons of timber. The 
 head of this great tree was one hundred and forty-four feet in diameter. 
 Another English oak, in Holt Forest, Hampshire, measured, seven feet from 
 the ground, thirty-four feet in circumference. Another, at Newbury, meas- 
 ured forty-five feet around. Still another, in the vale of Gloucester, was 
 fifty-four feet in circumference; and one in Dorsetshire gave a girth of 
 sixtv-eight feet. 
 
 IJse. — The wood of the British oak is hard and tough, and resists great 
 force without fracture ; these qualities make it rank very high as a material 
 for shipbuilding. Its acorns formerly took a high place in European history 
 as food. 
 
 The oak forests of central Europe furnished food for swine and other do- 
 mestic animals, and the people themselves subsisted largely upon acorns. It 
 was reo-arded as one of William the Conqueror's most oppressive acts that he 
 deprived the people of England of the use of the oak forests, where they had 
 been accustomed to collect the acorns for their swine. 
 
 3. Q. bicolor, WiUd. (Silver-leaved Oak. Swamp White Oak.) Trunk 60 
 to 70 feet high, 4 feet in diameter ; bark scaly, and greeuish-white. Leaves 
 nearly sessile, downy, white underneath, bright-green above ; obovate, coarsely 
 and bluntlv toothed,' entire near the base. Acorns in pairs, peduncles longer 
 than the petioles; nut long, dark-brown ; cup shallow, and fringed with short, 
 slender, thread-like processes 
 
 Geograph,/. — It is well distributed throughout the eastern and northeast- 
 ern United States. 
 
 Etymo!ogij. — Bicolor, the specific name of this oak, is from the Latin word 
 bicolor, two colors, and refers to the contrast in the colors of the two sides of 
 the leaf, one of which is a bright-green, and the other a silvery white. Sdver- 
 leaved arises from the color of the under side of the leaf. The name stcamp 
 ivhite oak- is due to its fondness for wet ground. 
 
 /■/sf. — The lumber is valuable for building purposes-, it is hard, durable, 
 and takes a good polish ; it also makes excellent fuel The bark is highly 
 charged wirli tannin, but is thin, and is not profitably obtained for markets 
 where thicker bark is available, 
 
 4. Q. coccinea. Wang. {Scarlet Oak.) Trunk 60 to 80 feet in height, 
 sometimes 4 feet iu diameter; bark thick, gray outside and red within. 
 
248 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Leaves divided into 3 to 4 pairs of lobes, much like the leaves of the Q. palus- 
 tris ; petioles louger than in Q. rubra, deep-green, shining on both sides ; lobes 
 cut, toothed and acute, turning scarlet with the early frosts. Acorn ovate, 
 half buried in the scaly top-shaped cup. 
 
 Geography. — Indigenous to southeastern North America; the northern 
 limit is southern New England ; commou in the middle and southern Atlantic 
 States. 
 
 Etymology. — Cocclnea is from the Latin coccineus, scarlet, and has ref- 
 erence to the color of the leaves after frost. 
 
 Use. — The wood is largely used for making barrels, and the bark is a 
 favorite with tanners. The tree is also used in planted grounds. 
 
 Var, tinctoria. Gray. (Black Oak. Yellow-barked Oak. Dyers' Oak.) 
 Trunk 70 to 100 feet in height, and 3 to 4 feet in diameter; bark furrowed, 
 dark without, and yellow within. Leaves downy beneath, obovate, oblong, 
 broad-lobed, broadest near the end, sinuses not deep, lobes coarsely toothed, 
 teeth pointed. Acorn flat, globose, half buried in the fiat, thick cup. 
 
 Geography. — The Q. tinctoria is a native of eastern North America, and is 
 widely distributed throughout the eastern and middle States. 
 
 Etymology. — Tinctoria is from the Latin tinctor, a dyer, because the bark 
 furnishes a dye. The popular name, black oak, is due to the color of the bark. 
 
 Use. — The wood of this tree is sometimes used for cooperage and con- 
 struction, and is excellent fuel. The bark is largely used for dyeing ', it yields 
 the querciton, which is much used in calico printing, to give the yellow color 
 to cotton fabrics. It is also used for tanning. 
 
 5. Q. falcata, Mx. (Spanish Oak. Sickle-leaved Oak. Downy-leaved Oak.) 
 Trunk 60 to 70 feet high, 4 to 5 feet in diameter. Bark thick, black, and fur- 
 rowed. Leaves on long petioles, blade 6 inches long, downy beneath, obtuse 
 at the base ; in the northern limits of the tree the leaves take on a slender entire 
 form, widening towards the upper end, where they terminate in three lobes ; 
 further south the usual form of the leaf is in 1 to 2 pairs of pointed, mucro- 
 nate, scythe-like lobes, entire or irregularly and coarsely toothed sinuses, deep 
 and wide. Acorn globular, small ; cuj> shallow. 
 
 Geography. — It is native from southern New Jersey (where it seldom 
 attains a height greater than 40 feet) to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 where it grows to its full size, 60 to 80 feet. It is a subtropical tree, and 
 flourishes best below the parallel of 35°. 
 
 Etymology. — Falcata, the specific name of this tree, is from the Latin word 
 falcatus, scythe-like, from the supposed resemblance of the lobes of the leaves 
 to the shape of a scythe. Spanish oak, the common name, is obscure in its 
 origin and meaning. 
 
 Use. — The Spanish oak is a beautiful, well-formed tree, used for ornamental 
 purposes. The wood is an excellent fuel. The bark is highly charged with 
 tannin, and extensively used in the manufacture of leather. 
 
 6. Q. macrocarpa, Mx, (Moss-cup Oak. Burr Oak. Mo.ssy-cup White 
 Oak.) Trunk .50 to 70 feet high, and 2 to 3 feet in diameter, l)ranchiug into 
 a symmetrical head. Bark grayish, rough, the bark on the I)rauches rough- 
 ened by longitudinal corky ridges. Leaves downy beneath, lyrate, larger than 
 those of any other species, frequently a foot long and 8 inches broad, made up 
 of 3 to 5 pairs of lobes and a terminal one, the terminal lobe greatly expanded 
 and notched. Fruit larger than the fruit of any other species in America. 
 
CUPUL1FKK^>. 249 
 
 Acurn siibglubular, twu thirds inclosed in the cup, the oritice of which is 
 fringed with long, tiexible, thread-like processes. 
 
 Geography. — It is found sparingly in western New England and in New 
 York, but abounds in western \'irginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and west 
 and south. 
 
 Eti/molot/i/. — Mncrocarpa, the specific name, conies from tiie two Greek 
 words ixaKp6s, long, and Kapwos, fruit ; hence, Icjng-fruited. 
 
 Use. — This oak is a beautiful, symmetrical tree, and for that reas<jn is to 
 be found in all large collections of trees in planted grounds. 
 
 The wooti is strong, tough, and duraljle. The bark is used for tanning 
 hides. The fruit is highly prized for food for swine. 
 
 7. Q. obtusiloba, Mx. (Post Oak. American Turkey Oak. Iron Oak. 
 Upland White Oak.) Trunk 40 feet Iiigh, 12 to 18 inches in diameter. Bark 
 thin, grayish-white, branching irregularly. Leaves leathery, dark-green above, 
 and grayish beneath, blade cut by deej) sinuses into two pair.s of lobes and a 
 terminal one ; lobes rounded. Acorns small, and deeply buried in the rough- 
 ish gray cuj). 
 
 Geognijiliy. — It is seldom found in the northeastern United States, but 
 abounds in tiie middle Atlantic and southern and southwestern states, east 
 of the Mississippi. 
 
 Eti/moiogi/. — Obtusiloba is due to the blunt, rounded lobes of the leaves. 
 As to the common names, — iron oak alludes to the hardness and durability of 
 the w^ood ; turkey oak is so called because turkeys feed on the acorns ; upland 
 oak takes its name from the localities where the tree grows ; />ost oak is so 
 named because the wood is u.sed for posts. 
 
 Use. — The wood is hard and durable, takes a good polish, and is much 
 used for timber where exposure to the weather is required, — especially for 
 bridges, fence-posts, and railroad ties. The fruit is sweet, and is used for 
 feeding swine; also turkeys and other poultry. 
 
 8. Q. nigra, L. (Black Jack Oak. Oak of the Barrens.) Stem from 20 to 
 30 feet in heiglit, and 6 to 15 inches in diameter, liark very dark; branching 
 irregularly Leaves on short j)etioles, l)la(le firm in texture, wedge-shaped, 
 sometimes .{-."j-lobed ; lobes abruptly pointed and terminating in spines. Acorn 
 globular, lialf covered by the cup. Not abundant. 
 
 (jfogrdphi/. — Ge(jgraphical range is from Massachusetts to the southern 
 States, and west to Illinois. This tree is an important feature in many barren 
 regions. 
 
 Etymology. — Nigra, the s|)eciHc name, is from tiie Latin nigrr, black, niid 
 refers to the color of the bark, as does tiie common name. 
 
 '^'^se. — The wood of this species is too small to l)e valuable for lumber, but 
 makes excellent fuel. The bark is rich in tnnnin, Imt on account of the small 
 size of the tree, it cannot well be olttained in large .piantities, and is but little 
 used. 
 
 9. Q, palustris. l)u Koy. (Tin Oak. Swamp Spanish Oak. Water Oak.) 
 Trunk .'iO to 70 feet liigb.and 2 to 4 feet in diameter, branching low and form- 
 ing a graceful head. Bark smooth and dark. Leaves diviiled into .3 to .'> pairs 
 of lobes, separated by deep, broad sinuses, di.stinguished from (}. rubra by 
 more narrow lobes, and a color and consistency more delicate. Nut subglol)ose ; 
 cup flat. 
 
250 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — It is found growing in southern New York, New Jersey, and 
 west in the same latitude to the Mississippi ; it is not common in northern 
 New York and New England. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific name, pulustris, is from the Latin word pahistris, 
 hoggy, wet, marshy, alluding to the favorite locality of this species, Avhich 
 is generally found in wet places. This is also indicated in the common 
 names : swamp Spanish oak, water oak, meadow oak. The name pin oak 
 arises from the circumstance that the knots are slender, and sometimes on 
 splitting the wood they draw out, appearing like pins. It on this account 
 splits with diiliculty. 
 
 Use. — Q. palustris is used sparingly in planted grounds for ornament. It 
 forms a beautiful head, and its abundant delicate foliage makes it a rival of 
 the Q. rubra as an ornamental tree. The lumber is coarse and poor, and not 
 as good for fuel as the Q. rubra. The bark of this tree is sometimes used in 
 tanning. 
 
 10. Q. Phellos, L. (Willow-leaved Oak ) Trunk 30 to 60 feet in height, 
 straight, 10 to 20 inches in diameter. Bark smooth and thick. Leaves light- 
 green, about 4 inches long, and 1 to 2 inches wide ; linear-lanceolate, pointed ; 
 when young toothed ; light-green. Acorn subglobose ; cup, saucer-shaped. 
 
 Var. sylvatica, Mx. Leaves on the young tree lobed. 
 
 Var. latifolius, Lodd. Leaves like those of var. sylvatica, but broader. 
 
 There are several other forms, all shrubs. 
 
 Geography. — It abounds in southern Virginia and farther south, and is 
 found in New Jersey as far north as Monmouth County. It has been reported 
 as growing in Suffolk County, New York, in planted grounds. 
 
 Etymology. — Phellos, the specific name of this species, is from the Greek 
 word (peWos, a cork ; but why applied to this 8]3gcies is not apparent. 
 
 Use. — The Quercus phellos is a beautiful object in the lawn, and is always 
 found in the .southern states of the Ignited States in planted grounds. The 
 wood is soft, and not used in building where better lumber is obtainable. The 
 bark is charged with tannin, but thus far has not been largely used by tanners. 
 
 11. Q. Prinus, L. (Swamp Chestnut Oak.) Trunk 75 to 90 feet high, and 
 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Bark dark-gray, branching regularly. Leaves on 
 long petioles, blade 7 to 8 inches long, 3 to 4 wide, conspicuously veined 
 beneath, oblong-ovate or elliptical, coar.sely and deeply crenate toothed, resem- 
 bling the leaf of the chestnut. Acorn large, sweet, oval, and brown; cup 
 shallow and scaly. 
 
 Geography. — The chestnut oak or chestnut-leaved oak is found throughout 
 the northern United States, and as far south as Virginia, and west to the 
 Mississippi. It attains its full size in southern Pennsylvania and northern 
 Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 Etymology. — Prinus is from the Greek -rrplvos, ever-green oak. . The name 
 chestnut oak is due to the shape of the leaf, which resembles that of the chestnut. 
 
 Use. — The wood of this tree splits easily, is hard, durable, and takes a 
 good polish. It is used for frames of buildings, planks, etc., and is liighly 
 esteemed for fuel. The fruit is sweet, and greatly valued as food for swine. 
 In Virginia, southern Pennsylvania, and the eastern parts of the Carolinas 
 large droves of swine are fattened on acorns, principally of this species. 
 
 Var. acuminata, Mx. (Chestnut Oak.) Trunk 40 to 70 feet in height, 
 I to 2 feet in diameter. Bark whitish and furrowed, irregularlv branched. 
 
CUPU LIFERS.. 251 
 
 Leaves uii longisli petiules, blade oblong, lauceolate, obtuse at the base, sharply 
 toothed, green above and pubescent underneath, resembling the leaf of the 
 chestnut tree. Acorn egg-shaped, deeply set in the hemispherical cup, sub- 
 sessile. 
 
 Geocjraphi/. — It grows in southern Vermont, where it is a second-class tree. 
 It increases in size southward to the southern part of Virginia, where it 
 reaches its full height. It extends westward to the Mississippi, along the 
 ridges that trend through Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. 
 
 Et}jmolo(jij. — Acuminata is Latin for pointed, and alludes to the sharp- 
 pointed leaves. 
 
 Use. — The wood of this variety is hard and durable, making timber that 
 endures tlie weather, and it is much used for rails and shingles. It splits 
 freely, and is highly prized for fuel. The bark is well charged with tannin, 
 and is used in the manufacture of leather. The fruit is sweet, large, and 
 abundant, and is used for fattening swine in Virginia, Kentucky, and 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Var. monticola, Mx. (Rock Oak. Rock Chestnut Oak.) Trunk 30 to 40 
 feet in height, the top made up of straggling, irregular branches, especially in 
 the rocky, hilly localities, where it is found in the northern and middle .states 
 of the LTnited States. Leaves smaller than in Q. priuus, much the same in 
 form, but the teeth are more regular and blunter ; when very young, covered 
 with a white down. Acorns in pairs, on short peduncles, and deeply inserted 
 in the cup, which is clothed with loose scales. 
 
 Etymology. — Monticola is from the Latin mons, a mountain, and cola, 
 inhabit, and is due to the localities in which tliis tree delights. It is found on 
 rocky hills and mountain sides, — sparingly in southern New England, more 
 frequently in southern New York, commonly in southern Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia. The names rock oak and rock chestnut oak are also due to the 
 localities of the tree, and the latter to the shape of the leaf. 
 
 Use. — The bark of this species is rich in tannin, and is largely used in the 
 manufacture of leather. The wood is excellent fuel. 
 
 12. Q. rubra, L. (Red Oak.) Trunk 50 to 80 feet in height, and 3 to 5 feet 
 in diameter. Branches long and spreading. Bark smooth, and dark gray. 
 Leaves smooth, oblong, divided into 3 to 4 pairs of sharply toothed, acute, 
 mucronated loljes, separated by deep and rounded sinuses. Flowers greenish- 
 white, appearing in ALay. Nut ovate ; cup flat, and saucer-shaped Ripe in 
 October The foliage varies considerably with the age of the plant and con- 
 ditions of locality and .soil. 
 
 Var. runcinata, Engl. Sinuses shorter; lobes more u])right ; fruit very 
 Miuch smaller ; cup top-shaped at base. 
 
 Geography. — The Q. rubra is emphatically an American tree, and in 
 planted grounds wiiere it has room it forms one of the mo-st graceful objects 
 of the lawn . it is not exceeded in l)eauty by any of the oaks. It grows through- 
 out northeastern America, an<l west to the Mississippi, an<l .^^outli (l.>wn the 
 Mississippi valley. 
 
 Etymology. — The specific name of this oak, rubra, from the Latin ruber, red. 
 was applied on account of the color of the leaf, whicli after the appearance of 
 frost turns a deep red ; hence also the common name red oak. 
 
 Use. — The tree is highly prized as an ornament in planted grounds. The 
 wood is strong, but has a coarse grain, and does not take a fine polish. It 
 
252 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 splits easily, and is valuable for barrel staves ; it makes an excellent fuel. 
 The bark is prized by tanners. 
 
 13. Q. virens, Ait. (Live Oak.) Trunk 40 to 60 feet in height, much 
 branched above, forming a broad, picturesque head. Bark thick, very dark. 
 Leaves subsessile, blade thick, elliptical, oblong, varying in form, — entire, 
 lobed, or irregularly toothed, — downy in star-like spots underneath. Fruit 
 peduncled ; acoru long, ovate, about one third inclosed in the cup. 
 
 Geography. — Its home is North America ; its geographical range is narrow. 
 It abounds in the regions of the southern Atlantic and the Gulf States. 
 
 Etymology. — Virens, the specific name, is from the Latin adjective virens, 
 green, and is due to the evergreen leaves. 
 
 Use. — On account of its great strength, it is highly prized for use in naval 
 architecture ; it is also excellent fuel. The geographical range is so small, 
 and the mode of lumbering is so wasteful, that a speedy exhaustion of the 
 supply is to be apprehended, and legislation is suggested to protect the live 
 oak forests of Florida and Georgia. 
 
 14. Q. suber, L. (Cork Tree.) Trunk 20 to 35 feet in height. Bark 
 spongy and cracked. Leaves on short petioles, ovate-oblong, leathery, re- 
 motely dentate, occasionally entire, downy underneath, and evergreen. 
 Flowers greenish- white, appearing in May. Acoru long and subcylindrical : 
 cup hemispherical, clothed with overlapping scales. 
 
 The products of the cork tree are so valuable that the tree has not only been 
 protected, but large plantations have been made ; and as the trees are raised 
 from seed, a number of varieties have arisen, the most important of which are 
 the following : — 
 
 Var. latifolia, Bauh. Leaves broader than those of the species. 
 
 Var. angustifolium, Bauh. Leaves narrow. 
 
 Var. dentatum. Leaves large and toothed. 
 
 Geography. — The Quercus suber is indigenous in southern Europe and 
 northern Africa ; it does not flourish north of the middle of France. 
 
 Etymologij. — Suher is the old Latin name for the cork tree. Linnaeus 
 placed it under Quercus, and made suher the specific name. Cork, the common 
 name, is derived from the Latin cortex, cork, and signifies the outer thick bark 
 between the epidermis and the cuticle. 
 
 History. — When cork was first applied to its present uses is not known. 
 The Romans were acquainted with its use during the first century. 
 
 Preparation. — Harvesting the bark is begun when the tree is from twenty- 
 five to thirty years old. Removing the cotk does not injure the tree ; on the 
 contrary this is said to be conducive to its growth. The first crop is of poor 
 quality. The second stripping occurs ten years after the first, but the third 
 stripping yields the best bark. It is taken from the tree by making an incision 
 with a sharp instrument around the tree near the base, just deep enough to 
 avoid wounding the liber. Three feet above, a parallel incision is made, and 
 so on up to the branches, making in all three or at most four incisions. It is 
 then slit vertically in widths convenient to handle. The pieces are then forced 
 off Avith a flat piece of wood, which is introduced between the liber and the 
 cortex. It is held over live coals till the surface is slightly charred, to close 
 the pores. It is then subjected to pressure to take the curve out of it, after 
 which it is piled under cover to dry, and Avhen dry it is fit for market. 
 
 Use. — Cork is applied to many uses, the most important of which is in the 
 manufacture of corks for bottles, for which purpose it is especially adapted. 
 
CUPrLlFER^.. 253 
 
 The Romans used it lor buoys for fisliing-nets and aucliors ; also for life- 
 preservers. Caniillus wore oue when he swam the Tiber during the siege of 
 Rome by the Gauls. It is used now for the same purpose ; also for cushions 
 and mattresses, and soles of shoes ; and it is worked into a sort of felt floor- 
 cloth, lu Spain the wealthy line their liouses with it. The ancient Kgvptians 
 used it for making coffins. The wood is durable, but is not largely used in the 
 arts. The fruit is sweet. 
 
 15. Q. infectoria, ( )liv. ((iall Oak.) Stem 4 to 6 feet high, much branched, 
 forming a straggling slirub. Leaves ovate, oblong, and smooth on both sides, 
 pale beneath, deeply toothed. Fruit .sessile ; nut elongated, cylindrical ; cup 
 tes.sellated ; fruit appearing next year after tlie ai)i)earance of the flowers. 
 
 The insect cijnips quercus galli punctures the leaves, and deposits its egga 
 in the wounds ; these wounds become tumors, from au eighth of an inch to 
 au iuch in diameter, subglobular in form, and armed with blunt, spine-like 
 processes. When these tumors are dry and hardened, they constitute the nut- 
 galls of commerce. 
 
 Several varieties appear in market, the principal of wliich are blue and 
 white. Tlie blue gall is gathered before the young insect has gnawed through, 
 and the white afterwards. The blue gall is by far the most valuable. 
 
 Geography. — The gall oak is found in all the eastern Mediterranean 
 countries, especially in Asia JMinor and northwestern Syria. The best galls 
 come from Aleppo. 
 
 Eti/mv/ogy. — Infectoria, the specific name of this plant, is from the Latin 
 word infector, a dyer, alluding to the circumstance that its products are used 
 in dyeing. 
 
 Use. — The nut-gall figures largely in the manufacture of black ink. A 
 solution of copperas, mixed with a decoction of nut-galls, produces a jet-black 
 dye. The nut-gall is also an important article employed in the tanning oi 
 hides. 
 
 16. Q. aegilops, L. (^gilops. Valonia Oak.) Trunk 20 to .50 feet in 
 height, and 1 to 2 feet in diameter. Bark grayish, sprinkled with brown 
 .spots. Branches spreading, forming a hemispherical head. Leaves on short 
 ])etioles, blade 3 inches in length, coriaceous, ovate, oblong, pale-green above 
 and downy underneath ; coarsely toothed, teeth pointed. P'lowers greenish- 
 white, appearing in May. Fruit large, nearly inclosed in hemisplierical cups, 
 which are covered with long, s])rea(ling, lanceolate scales. 
 
 Var. pendula. Branches long, slender, and drooping. 
 \'ar. latifolia. Leaves broader. 
 
 deographij. — It is native in the countries of the Levant, and abounds 
 throughout Greece and the Grecian Archipelago ; it is found sparingly in 
 Italy, but does not grow in middle or western Europe. 
 
 Elymolnqif and flLttori/. — yEgi lops, the specific name, is from the Greek 
 at^, alySs, a goat, and 6\f/, the eye, goat'.s-eye, due to the circumstance that au 
 infusion of the shells of the half-grown fruit is used as a remedy for the 
 disease of the eye known as goat's-rijf, thus named ltecau.se goats are attiicted 
 with it. This tree was known to Dio.scorides and to the ancient (ireeks. 
 
 Use. — The fruit of this oak formerly constituted the food for a large 
 number of peojde. The shells or cups are highly charged with tannin, espe- 
 cially when lialf grown; but on account of the ex])ense of procuring tliem in 
 au unripe state, they are allowed to ripeu. The shells of the ripe fruit are 
 
254 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 
 
 x^:i^ ..rvj^. 
 
 called valonia, the half-ripe ones camata, and those gathered in a still earlier 
 state are called camatina. The camatina are most highly charged with tannin, 
 the camata next, and the valonia least. Ordinarily the tree is not large. 
 
 The -wood is excellent for the manufacture of furniture, takes a fine polish, 
 and is durable. 
 
 As a dye, the shells -of the acorns are in great demand. 
 
 COEYLUS, Tourn. (Hazelnut.) Catkins of the male flowers cylin- 
 drical. Pistillate flowers, with an involucre of imbricated scales, 2 in 
 number, attached at the base, and fastened to the under surface of 
 the bract ; stamens inserted upon the scales near their base, 8 in num- 
 ber ; anthers tipped with beard. Female flowers in a flattened, bud- 
 like catkin ; bracteal scale entire and ovate ; calyx membranous, 
 inclosing the whole ovary, terminating in a short fringed tube. The 
 two stigmas long and filiform. Fruit, a nut, egg-shaped and bony. 
 
 1. C. avellana, L. (Hazelnut. Filbert.) Stem shrubby, 3 to 5 inches in 
 diameter near the base, made up principally' of ramifications, rising from 3 to 
 
 8 feet high. Leaves somewhat round- 
 ish, cordate, acuminate, and irregular 
 serrate ; stipules lengthened. Fruit- 
 covering bell-shaped, ragged at the 
 margin. Nut brown. Ripe in October. 
 
 2. C. colurna, L. (Constantinople 
 Hazelnut.) Trunk 40 to 50 feet high, 
 12 to 18 inches in diameter; stipules 
 lanceolate, acuminate. Leaves as in 
 No. 1. Fruit larger and longer. 
 
 A dozen varieties are arranged under 
 these two, differing in size and form of 
 the fruit and leaf. 
 
 3. C. rostrata. Ait. (Beaked Hazel- 
 nut. ) Stem much branched, forming a 
 straggling shrub from 4 to 8 feet high. 
 Leaves ovate, irregular, serrate, and 
 slightly lobed ; stipules narrow-lanceo- 
 late. Fruit-envelope tubular, bell-shaped, 
 2-parted, divisions cut, toothed. Fruit 
 
 excellent, but smaller than»the European species. 
 
 4. C. Americana, AValt. (American Hazelnut.) Stem branching, forming 
 a shrub like the last, but somewhat larger, 3 to 8 feet high. Leaf rounded at 
 the base, sometimes sliglitly cordate. Envelope of the fruit globular, bell- 
 shaped ; edges coarsely toothed. Nuts as in the last. 
 
 The last two species are natives of North America, and abound in thickets 
 and along fence-rows, in the northern and middle States, as far south as Vir- 
 ginia. Of these there are no varieties. The European varieties have doubt- 
 less arisen from attempts to improve the fruit by cultivation. 
 
 Geography. — The hazelnut grows well between 35° and 55° latitude in the 
 northern hemisphere, but is confined to the eastern parts of the western 
 hemisphere, and to the western parts of the Old World. 
 
 CoRYLDS AVELLANA (Hazelnut). 
 
aXTPVUFEUM 255 
 
 J'Jtijmoioyi/. — The name Corylus is said to he derived from the Greek Kopus, 
 a helmet, referriug to the mauuer in which tlie calyx enwraps the fruit. 
 The specific name, avelluna, is derived from Avelliuo, the name of a city in 
 southern Italy. Colurna is from the Greek words k6\os, mutilated, and ovpi, 
 a tail, referring to the lacerated fringe of the fruit-envelope. liostrata, Latin, 
 signifies " beaked," and refers to the beak-like extremity in which the fruit- 
 covering of this species terminates. The word Americana explains itself. The 
 common name, hazelnut, is from the Anglo-Saxon fidsi/, a head-dre.ss, that is, 
 a nut witli a head-dress. Filbert has been regarded as a corruption of the 
 word " full-beard," referring to the fringed envelope. 
 
 History. — The history of this plant is very obscure. It is indigenous to the 
 countries of the Levant. It was originally brought into Italy from Pontus, 
 and was called by the Komans mix Pontlca, which name was changed in 
 process of time into nux aveliana, because the plant was first cultivated near 
 the city Avellino, in the kingdom of Naples. It now grows all over middle, 
 southern, and western Europe. 
 
 Use. — The hazelnut is a common dessert nut, and in parts of western Asia 
 and Europe it constitutes an important article of food. 
 
 The wood of the C. colurna is white, and of a fine'grain ; it is used for hoops 
 and fishing-rods. The wood of the other species is wortliless for timber. The 
 fruit is an article of considerable economic and commercial importance. 
 
 FAGUS, L. (Beech.) Staniinate flowers in drooping, globose, head- 
 like catkins, 3 to 4 in a gronp or head, accompanied by minute 
 deciduous bracts ; calyx bell-shaped. 5-7-parted ; stamens 8-1*2, and 
 sometimes 16 in number, attached to the bottom of the calyx, and 
 extending above its mouth ; filaments slender, with 2-celled anthers. 
 Pistillate flowers, in groups of 2 to 6, usually in 2's, inclosed within a 
 pitcher-shaped 4-lobed involucre, made up of a number of scale-like 
 processes, interior united ; calyx with 6 awl-shaped lobes ; styles 3 in 
 number, slender. Fruit, an edged, three-faced nut, dark : shell tough ; 
 kernel white and sweet, edible. Leaves simple and alternate. Flowers 
 apetalous, presenting a green hue. 
 
 1. F. ferruginea, Ait. (American Beech.) Stem 40 to 60 feet high, and 1 to 3 
 feet in diameter, regularly and densely branched, forming a symmetrical head ; 
 bark ashy-gray, smooth. Leaves oblong-ovate, pointed, toothed, veins extend- 
 ing into the teeth. Fruit-covering armed with spreading and crooked 
 prickles. 
 
 2. F. sylvatica, L. (Beech of Europe.) Trunk from fiO to 80 feet high, 2 
 to 4 feet in diameter. Leaves ovate, dentate, glabrous, with margins cihate. 
 Fruit inclosed in a rough envelope, armed with blunt prickles, otherwi.se a.s 
 F. ferruginea Under this species there are several well marked varieties or 
 subspecies. 
 
 3. F. obliqua, Mx. (Oblique-leaved Beech ) Leaves ol)li(iue, otherwi.se like 
 F. sylvatica. 
 
 4. F. colorata, DC. f. (Cuprea. Copper Beech ) Leaves copper colored. 
 
 5. F. betuloides. Mx. (Birch-leaved Beech.) Leaf like the birch, and ever- 
 green ; forms forests in Tierra del Fuego; also native in VanDieman's Land. 
 
256 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY 
 
 Remarkable for the production of an edible fungus, which appears on its 
 branches. There are three other well marked species in South America. 
 
 Geography. — The beech grows well in the temperate zones up to 60° north 
 latitude, and as far south as 50°, but does not flourish in the tropics. 
 
 Etymology. — Fagus, the generic name, comes from the Greek word cpayeTu, 
 eat, because the Greeks used the nuts for food. The specific names are de- 
 rived from the Latin: ferruginea, iron-wooded; sylvatica, from sylva, growing 
 in the woods ; betuloides, from betula, bircWike ; obliqua, oblique-leaved. The 
 common name, beech, signifies "eat." 
 
 History. — The beech was a well-known tree in ancient times, esteemed for 
 its fruit and for its shade by both the Greeks and the Romans. Vergil im- 
 mortalized it. He describes Tityrus in his First Eclogue as reclining beneath 
 the shade of a broad-spreading beech tree. All the species have been intro- 
 duced into the gardens and planted grounds of Europe. 
 
 Use. — The nut of the beech in the north of Europe is a highly prized 
 dessert nut, and constitutes an important part of the food of the inhabitants 
 of northeastern Poland and western Russia. A delicate oil, rivalling that of 
 the olive, is obtained from it, which is used for the table, and also for illumi- 
 nating purposes, and large droves of swine are fattened upon it. 
 
 The wood is hard, and is prized for fuel, and used in cabinet ware for chairs, 
 bedsteads, screws, and wooden shovels ; also for shoemakers' lasts. The 
 F. ferruginea of North America and F. sylvatica of Europe are the most 
 important for ornamental purposes. 
 
 Order LIII. SALICACE^. 
 
 SALIX, L. (Willow.) Catkins with entire imbricated scales, sub- 
 cylindrical ; stamens 1 to 5 or more, with 1 to 2 little glands. Fertile 
 
 flower, with a little gland at 
 base of ovary; pistil stalked 
 or sessile ; stigmas 2, short, 
 each occasionally 2 - lobed. 
 Leaves simple, alternate, 
 mostly stipulate, usually lan- 
 ceolate and serrate. Trees 
 and shrubs. A large genus ; 
 170 species. 
 
 \. S. Babylonica, L. (Weep- 
 ing Willow.) Stem 50 to 70 feet 
 high, branching low and irregu- 
 larly ; young twigs slender and 
 weeping. Leaves exstipulate, 
 lanceolate, acuminate, finely ser- 
 rate, glabrous and glaucous be- 
 
 Salix Babylonica (Weeping Willow). 
 
 neath ; catkins appearing with the leaves. 
 Geography. — Western and southern Asia. 
 
 Of this species there are three well marked varieties, as follows : — 
 Var, vulgaris. Young shoots pale-green, slender, with an annular or wing- 
 like twist iust above the axil of the leaf. Leaves furnished with large 
 stipules. Flowers appear in June. 
 
SALIC ACEtE. 257 
 
 Geograpfnj. — This variety abouuds in the southern parts of England, espe- 
 cially about Loudon. 
 
 Var. Napoleona. Shoots reddisli-greeu ; leaves as in var. vulgaris, but 
 exstipulate. 
 
 Geof/raphi/. — This variety is supposed to have arisen from cuttings carried 
 from England and planted in St. Helena. In 1823 cuttings were taken from 
 a tree which stood near Napoleon's grave, and plante<l in England ; from 
 these plantings cuttings were brought to America, and the weeping willows 
 of the eastern parts of the United States agree in botanical characteristics 
 with this variety. 
 
 Var. crispa, syn. S. annularis. (Curled Willow. Ring-leaved Willow.) 
 Leaves lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, glabrous and glaucous underneath, 
 curled into a ring. 
 
 Geographij. — The variety native to England has been brought l)y nursery- 
 men to America, and is found frequently in planted grounds throughout the 
 eastern United States. 
 
 Etipnologij. — Salix, the generic name of the willow, is derived f r(jm the two 
 Celtic word.s, sal, near, and lis, water, due to tlie circumstance that it delights 
 in wet places. Willow, the common name, comes from the Low German word 
 wichel, give way, or bend, and is due to the pliancy of the branches. Babt/- 
 lonica, the specific name, is said to have been suggested to Liuuaius by the 
 following passage from the 137th Tsalm : — 
 
 " By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down ; 
 Yea we wept when we remembered Zion ; 
 We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof." 
 
 Historij. — Tt is generally believed that the first tree of this s])ecies grown 
 in England was the celebrated Twickenham tree, which has the following 
 history : Alexander Pope, the poet, received from the Levant a box of fresh 
 figs, packed in willow leaves. The poet noticed that tlie small twigs to which 
 the leaves were attached were alive, and hoping to get a new plant, rooted 
 one, which grew into the renowned tree. Another account says that the poet 
 was present when a package oi merchandise from Spain was opened ; tlie 
 hoops that bound it were willow, one of which Pope planted, and thus obtained 
 the tree. This is said to have taken place in 1730. Another date is also 
 claimed for the advent of the weeping willow into England, 1692, tliirty-eight 
 years previous. If it was i)lanted at the earlier date, Po])e couhl have had no 
 agency in its planting, for he was then in his fourth year. 
 
 In the Magazine of American Ilistorv. it is stated that Sir Henry Clinton 
 brought cuttings of the weeping willow to America, which were planted 
 on the estate of John P. Custis, in Virginia. 
 
 If Sir Henry Clinton brought the ^first, ho could not have brought the var. 
 Najxjleona, for that was first planted in England in 1823, and Clinton came to 
 America in 177.'), and died in 179'). If he brought the willow, it wa.*j a cutting, 
 most likely from the variety vulgaris, which is very common in England, and 
 not the Napoleona, which is the variety that prevails among our nurserymen, 
 . and has been lirought to Ainerica since 1823. It cannot be true that no 
 weeping willows grew lu^re previous to 1823, for it .«!eems improl)able that 
 some of the large willows should have grown to the size they have attained 
 in so few years. In 1848 a tree in a garden in Flushing measured 14 feet in 
 circumference, making it al)out 4^ feet in diameter. 
 ^.K. Fl.— 18 
 
258 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — The weeping willow is used as an ornamental tree ; it is a very rapid 
 grower, and forms a beautiful and picturesque object in planted grounds. The 
 
 wood is soft and light, and does 
 not make valuable lumber nor 
 good fuel. Its charcoal is used 
 by chemists in some blow-pipe 
 experiments. 
 
 2. S. viminalis, L. (Osier Wil- 
 low.) Stem 20 to 30 feet high, 
 slender, shooting up 10 to 12 
 feet in a single growing season. 
 Leaves linear-lanceolate, acumi- 
 nate, sparingly toothed, long, 
 silky beneath ; stipules small, 
 aments appearing before the 
 leaves ; scales roundish and very 
 hairy; silky down on the under 
 side of leaf, white. The shoots 
 are best for wicker-work and 
 baskets when two years old. 
 
 Geography. — Native all over 
 Europe and northwestern Asia; 
 grows easily from slips, and is 
 grown largely in middle Europe. 
 
 Etymology. — Viminalis, the 
 specific name, is from the Latin 
 viminalia, an osier. 
 
 Use. — The osier willow is used 
 for wicker-work, baskets, chairs, 
 settees, hoops, etc. There are 
 several other species used for the same purposes. 
 
 The charcoal of willow is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. 
 
 Salix viminalis (Osier Willow), 
 
 Order LIV. ORCHIDACE-aS. 
 
 Flowers perfect, or imperfect by arrest, terminal, solitary, or in a 
 spike, raceme, or panicle, bracteate, occasionally springing from the 
 middle of a leaf. Perianth superior, petaloid irregular, made up of 
 6 parts in two series, free or coherent, persistent or falling ; the outer 
 whorl or sepals 3 in number, 2 lateral and 1 inferior, mostly superior 
 by torsion peduncle. Petals 3, alternating with the sepals, the 2 lat- 
 eral ones similar, the other lip-shaped, mostly inferior by torsion, 
 varying greatly in form and color, limb of the lip 3-lobed or entire. 
 Stamens usually 1, opposite to the odd sepal, accompanied by 2 rudi- 
 mentary stamens, adnate to the style in gynandrous columns, 
 pollen-grains often united into masses. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, or 
 occasionally 3-celled, with 3 parietal placentae. Capsule membranous 
 or leathery, cylindric, ovoid, winged, or a dehiscent pod. Seeds small 
 and very numerous, testa crustaceous and black. Perennial herb, 
 
ORCHIDACE^. 
 
 259 
 
 terrestrial or epiphytic. Stem oi- scape usually simple, cyliiidric or 
 angular. Leaves mostly radical, those on the stems close together and 
 equitant, alternate or opposite sheathing, and glabrous, cylindrical 
 or linear-lanceolate, entire or eniarginate, sometimes cordate; veins 
 usually parallel. 
 
 Xo. of genera, 384 ; species 5,000 ; in warm and temperate regions. 
 
 VANILLA, Swz. (Vanilla.) Calyx composed of 3 sepals, outer side 
 greenish and petaloid. Petals of the same size and similar to the 
 sepals ; lip entire, its claw adnate to the gynandrous column, its limb 
 broad and concave around the column. 
 Anthers terminal, forming a sort of 
 lid ; pollen granular. Fruit a pod, 
 cylindrical, 6 to 10 inches long, and 
 half an inch in diameter, fleshy ; seeds 
 numerous, imbedded in a soft black 
 pulp. Natives of the tropical coun- 
 tries of both hemispheres. They are 
 lianes, climbing over lofty trees. K^ 
 
 1. V. aromatica, Swz. (Spicy Vanilla.) 
 Stem 4-side(l climbing, 15 to 30 feet long, 
 epiphytic, but not parasitic, fastening itself 
 to the bark by rootlets given off at every 
 node. Leaves from 10 to 15 inches Ion jr. 
 narrow and fleshy. Flowers greenish. 
 
 2. V; planifolia, Andrews. (Flat-leaved 
 Vanilla.) Stem cylindrical and slender, 
 very long. Leaves alternate, sessile, 4 to 
 6 inches long, oval and pointed, sheathing 
 at the base, persistent, dark-green above, 
 paler underneatli. Flowers 2 inches in 
 diameter, pale yellowish-green, sessile, in 
 loose axillai-v s])ikes, witli 8 to 10 siiort, 
 triangular, green bracts. Perianth made up of 6 fleshy deciduun.s leaves, in 
 two rows. Ovary inferior, 2 inches long, cylindrical and stalk-like, fleshy and 
 1 -celled. Fruit a Heshy pod, 5 to 9 indies long slender, filled witli small 
 black lens-like seeds. 
 
 These two species produce the vanilla of commerce. It is propagated by 
 cuttings; hence there is little opportunity for sporting, and the number of 
 varieties is accordingly limited ; there are a few varieties however. 
 
 The cuttings are fastened to trees upon wliich they are to grow, and the 
 fertilization is artificial, by placing the i)ollen ui)on the stigma with a splinter 
 of bamboo, or some other delicate instrument. 
 
 Geographji. — Vanilla is a tropical and subtropical ])lant, found native in 
 the damp, wooded districts of southern Mexico, and in the coast regions of 
 Vera Cruz and adja<ent provinces. It is also cultivated in Guatemala. 
 Guadaloupe, Brazil, .Mauritius, Bourbon, Madagascar, and Java. 
 
 EtijDioloyi/. — Vanilln is tiie diminutive of the Spanish word vaina, sheath, 
 
 Vanilla planifolia (Vauilla). 
 
260 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 due to the resemblance of the pod to the sheath of a knife. Aromatica, the 
 specific name, signifies " spicy." Planifolia means " flat-leaved." 
 
 History. — Vanilla is the only orchid whose product is of commercial impor- 
 tance. It is a native chiefly of tropical America, and was brought to the 
 notice of Europeans by the Spaniards, who found it in use among the Aztecs 
 when they invaded Mexico. 
 
 Chemistry. — The flavoring substance of vanilla is called by chemists vanil- 
 lin. It has been produced artificially in the laboratory. 
 
 Preparation. — The best vanilla is the product of the V. planifolia. The 
 beans are removed from the vine as soon as they have attained their full size, 
 but before they are ripe, and are placed in a situation that exposes them to 
 the heat of the sun or to artificial heat, — a part of the time wrapped in cloths, 
 and a part of the time exposed. Under this treatment they attain their aroma 
 and dark color, and are made fit for the market. The pods are fleshy, flexible, 
 compressed or cylindrical, five to ten inches long, dark-brown, slender, hooked 
 at the stalk end, the surface furrowed lengthwise, with a greasy, shining 
 appearance when properly cured. After a few months the surface becomes 
 covered with a bloom of fine crystals of vanillin. The pods are prepared for 
 market by sorting into lengths and qualities, tying up iu parcels of fifty 
 each, and packing the bundles in tin boxes that hold twenty to fifty pounds 
 each, which are then incased in cedar boxes, holding four to six tins. 
 
 Use. — Vanilla was formerly used as a medicine for stomach disorders and 
 indigestion. Its use at present is for flavoring. It is added to chocolate, ice- 
 cream, sauces, syrups for soda-Avater, tobacco, snuffs, liquors, and perfumery. 
 
 Order LV. ZINGIBERACE^. 
 
 Flowers irregular, in a raceme, or a terminal or lateral bracteate 
 panicle. Perianth superior, formed of 3 to 4 whorls. Calyx green, 
 3-Ieaved, imbricate. Corolla of 3 imbricated divisions, alternating 
 with the divisions of the calyx, colored and tubular at the base ; sta- 
 mens 1-6. Ovary inferior, 1-3-celled ; style sometimes dilated, 
 petal-iike, straight or curved, sometimes slender. Stigma terminal; 
 capsule 1-3-celled. Seeds globular or angular ; testa leathery. Leaves 
 alternate, simple ; petioles sheathing ; blade plane large, entire, veins 
 extending from the midrib. Herbs, frequently gigantic. 
 
 No. of genera, 36 ; species, 450 ; in warm climates. 
 
 CURCUMA, L. Calyx tubular, 3-toothed. Corolla tube dilated 
 upwards; divisions of the limb equal; upper lip open. Filament 
 petal-like, dilated, fleshy at the top ; lateral staminodia united with it 
 below, 3-lobed. Ovary inferior, 3-celled. Style thread-like ; stigma 
 capitate. Capsule 3-celled ; cells 3-valved. Seeds numerous, arillate. 
 Root tuberous and palmate, perennial. Leaves herbaceous ; petioles 
 sheathing; scope simple. Flowers in a simple, erect spike, yellow. 
 Stemless herb. 
 
 C. long-a, L. (Turmeric.) Stem wanting. Leaves sheathing each other, 
 lanceolate, a foot long, springing from the crown of the root ; the scape passes 
 
ZTNGTBEKArETE. 261 
 
 through tlie center of the leafy tuhe formed hy tlie sheathing petioles; scape 
 leafy and crowned with a simple sj)ike of small Howers, creamy yellow. 
 
 Of this genus there are about twenty-tive species, several of them yielding 
 arrow-root ; but the C. louga is the only one that yields the coloring-matter 
 known as curcuma, or turmeric. 
 
 Geographij. — The curcuma is indigenous to the south of Asia and the 
 Malay peninsula ; it tlourislie;^ only in the regions of no frost. It is culti- 
 vated and made an article of ct)mmerce in Hindustan, Cochin China, southern 
 India, Bengal, Java, and the isles of the I'acitic. 
 
 Eti/molof/i/. — Ctu'cu ma, the generic name, is the Latinized form of the Arabic 
 name /ciirLum, signifying "yellow." Longa, the specific name, is Latin, signi- 
 fying " long," and refers to the length of the scape The connnon name, 
 turmeric, is of unknown origin. 
 
 Histury. — The home of the curcuma is Farther India and the Asiatic 
 islands. Where its products were first introduced into domestic economy or 
 the arts is not recorded. The drug was known to the 
 people of the countries of the Levant and southern 
 Europe prior to the commencement of tlie Ciiristian era. 
 Dioscorides speaks of it under the name of Cyperus In- 
 (ficiis ; and it is believed to be the " saffron " spoken of 
 in the Scriptures. 
 
 Chemistry. — It yields to tlie chemist a substance to 
 which the color is due, called curcumin .- the aromatic 
 taste and smell reside in another substance known under 
 the name of tnrmerol. 
 
 Use. — The young tubers do not contain a coloring- 
 matter, and are largely used for food in the islands of 
 the coast of Asia and in the Pacific. The voung root, 
 dried and reduced to a powder, is the arro^v-root of the Curcuma lonoa 
 East Indies. The pulverized ripened root is used prin- (Turmeric), 
 
 cipally for coloring. 
 
 In India it enters into curry powder and other culinary pre))arations. Its 
 dye is not permanent, yet it is largely used. 
 
 The medicinal ])roperties are stomachic, slightly tonic, and cordial. It is 
 used in coloring foods, medicines, and cosmetics. In the East it is made into 
 a paste with oil, and used to anoint the body at marriage festivities. 
 
 Paper colored with turmeric is used for testing tlie presence of alkalies in 
 liquids ; if alkali is present, the paper becomes brown. 
 
 MARANTA, Plum. (Arrowroot.) Calyx of :] distinct lanceolafp 
 sepals ; staminodia petaloid, united at base with stamens. Flower 
 perfect, bracted ; bracts under the branches narrow, appressed; 
 corolla tubular at the base, curved, ^ imbricated divisions at the 
 limb, alternating with the sepals. 
 
 M. arundinacea, W. (Arrowroot.) Stem 2 feet high, branched ; rhizome 
 fleshy. Leaves lanceolate, hairy. Flowers in clusters; 2 flowers on a stalk, 
 peduncles short. Fruit globular, (»ne eiorhth of an inch in diameter ; rhizomes 
 from 10 to 15 inches long, half an inch in diameter, enveloped by membrana- 
 ceous scales. 
 
262 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geographi/. — The maranta is a tropical and subtropical plant ; it has been 
 found growing in Florida about the 28th parallel. 
 
 Etymologji. — The name maranta is derived from Bartholomew Maranti, 
 a physician of Venice ; and the specific name, arundinacea, reed-like, is from 
 the Latin arundo, a reed. The popular name, arroiv-root, is said to have been 
 applied to this plant because of its efficacy in curing wounds inflicted by 
 poisoned arrows. 
 
 History. — When this plant was introduced by civilized man into the materia 
 medica, or as a food plant, is not known, — evidently since the discovery of 
 the New World, as it is a native of tropical America. 
 
 Chemistrij. — 100 parts of arrow-root yield to the chemist the following 
 substances : — 
 
 Starch 26. 
 
 Woody fiber 6. 
 
 Albumen . . 1.50 
 
 Gummy extract, volatile oil, and salts ... 1. 
 Water 65.50 
 
 100.00 
 
 Its starch-grains are convex-elliptical, approaching triangular shape, nearly 
 uniform in size. In commerce it is frequently adulterated with rice, flour, 
 
 wheat-starch, or potato-starch. These 
 foreign substances are readily detected 
 by the microscope. 
 r-/ yst=&s ^^^' — '^^^ rhizomas when a year 
 
 old are dug with instruments made of 
 German silver, and knives made of the 
 same metal are employed for remov- 
 ing the scales. They are then reduced 
 to a pulp in wooden mortars, or by 
 the use of a cylindrical rasp. The 
 mass is placed in water, which holds 
 it temporarily in suspension. After 
 straining to remove the woody fiber, 
 it is repeatedly stirred, and allowed to 
 settle, the water being afterward care- 
 fully poured off. The starchy sub- 
 stance which remains as a sediment is 
 s--^; then dried, either in the shade or sun- 
 
 light. These manipulations are all 
 conducted with great care. After dry- 
 ing, it is reduced to powder or flour, 
 and is used for puddings, custards, 
 Maranta arundinacea (Arrowroot). ^^^^ Q^her culinary preparations. It is 
 
 a favorite food for the sick-room. It 
 constitutes the principal food for the people of many tropical and subtropical 
 countries of the New World. In the West Indies it is administered to 
 counteract the effects of poisons. 
 
 Tacca integrifoUa, Presl, and other species of this genus furnish starchy 
 products which are used as substitutes for arrow-root in the East Indies. 
 
zinglberaceyE. 263 
 
 Thorp are also other plants whose roots yield starches, among which the most 
 prominent are: several cannas, as C echinus, C. glauca, Kosc, C. edulis, and 
 C. flaccida, Hose. These cannas are now under cultivation in Australia. The 
 C. glauca and C. coccinia yield the starch known in commerce as tons les mois. 
 The Englisii have also introduced the cultivation of arrow-root-yielding plants 
 into India, New South Wales, and Queensland. But no plant yields so much 
 and of so good quality as the maranta arundinacea. 
 
 ELETTARIA, Maton. Calyx menibranous, tubular, short, and 3-lobed. 
 Corolla cylindrical, as long as the calyx ; anterior lobe oblong, erect, 
 and concave ; side lobes narrower, curved backwards, slightly ^-lobed 
 or toothed ; lip obovoid ; anthers inserted on the corolla, sessile and 
 linear. Ovary 8-celled, containing many ovules. Style thread-like ; 
 stigma rising a little above the anthers. Fruit globular or ovoid; 
 seed-vessel tough, and not opening when ripe ; seed obovoid and 
 rugose. Rootstock thick, growing just under the surface of the 
 ground. Perennial. 
 
 E. cardamomum, Maton. Stems numerous, smooth, 6 to 12 feet high. 
 Le.aves sheathing, alternate, 9 to 12 inches long, and 1 to 5 inches wide, 
 elliptical-lanceolate pointed, entire, smooth, and dark-green above, pale be- 
 neath, with .strong midribs ; foot-stalks short ; flower-stalls starts from the 
 base of the stem, prostrate. Flowers in a panicle ; calyx tubular, toothed at 
 the margin ; corolla funnel-shaped, border lipped, 3-lobed, and spurred at the 
 base. Fruit a 3-celled capsule, many-seeded. 
 
 There are five species of this genus, all natives of the tropical regions of 
 Asia; but the cardamoms of commerce are from this species. 
 
 Geography. — The plant grows and fruits well at an elevation of 3,000 to 
 5,000 feet along the .southern coast of India ; but the seeds of commerce are 
 shipped from Madras, Allepy, and Ceylon. 
 
 The plant yields fruit both in a wild state and under cultivation. It requires 
 a temperature that does not fall below 70° Fahrenheit. It flourishes best in 
 the mountains of Malabar, at an elevation of about 4,000 feet, under an annual 
 rainfall of ten feet. 
 
 Etymology. — Elettaria is the name of t\\e cardamom plant in the Malabar 
 tongtie; its meaning is not known. Cardamom is from the Greek KapSd/xccuov, 
 a spice, believed to have been applied first to the elettaria by Pliny, on account 
 of the pungent spice of its seeds. The cardamoms of commerce are known 
 under names derived from the places where they are grown : the Malabar, 
 Madras, Allepy, and Ceylon. 
 
 Cultivation. — The cultivation consists in clearing the forest in spots where 
 specimens of the plant are found growing spontaneously, and then keeping 
 the ground free from weeds and underlirush. The rhizome or underground 
 stem throws up from fifteen to twenty leafy stems or branches. The stems 
 each throw off four flowering stalks near the ground, upon which the fruit 
 finally appears. The plant fruits when four years old. An acre yields about 
 twenty -eight pounds. 
 
 Use. — Tho medicinal ])roperties of thcsccMls as well as tlioir aromatic char- 
 acter are due to the presence of an essential oil, of whicli they yield three to five 
 per cent. Their effect upon the human systom is stiinulant, carminative, and 
 
264 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 stomachic. They are used for flavoring sauces and for disguising unpleasant 
 tastes in medicinal mixtures, and m tinctures, in confectionery and cordials, 
 and they are a well-known masticatory. 
 
 ZINGIBER, Adans. Calyx membranous, tubular, and short, 3- 
 lobed. Corolla tubular, cylindrical, dilated above ; lobes narrov^', 
 inner ones incurved, concave, lateral ones spreading ; lip small, 
 middle lobe longer, entire or bifid. Anther on the erect filament 
 oblong ; connective linear, or awl-shaped, extending beyond the 
 anther cells. Ovary 3-celled, containing many ovules. Style thread- 
 like ; stigma projecting beyond the anther cells, sometimes very 
 small and globose. Capsule oblong or globular; seed-vessel hard, 
 opening irregularly ; seed large and oblong. It flowers in September, 
 the stem withers away by the first of the following January, and the 
 root is harvested in February. 
 
 Z. officinalis, Rose. (Ginger.) The stem is subterranean, of the rhizome 
 character ; the branches or aerial stems are 2 to 5 feet high, solid, erect, with 
 
 imbricated membranous sheaths. Leaves 
 lanceolate, acute, smooth, 5 to 6 inches long 
 and 1 inch wide, alternate, with ovate, acu- 
 minate sheaths. The scapes are terminated 
 with spikes of whitish or dirty yellowish 
 / "^tT; /MMM flowers, whose lips are streaked with purple, 
 
 and spotted ; spikes bracteate, oval, and ob- 
 tuse ; bracts yellowish-green, with mem- 
 branous edges. 
 
 The roots or underground stems are 3 to 
 4 inches long, made up of a number of short 
 lobe-like shoots or knobs, whose tops are 
 marked each with a scar, showing the spot 
 where the stem grew. There are other spe- 
 cies of this genus, about twenty in all ; but 
 the officinalis furnishes the ginger of com- 
 merce. 
 
 Geography. — The ginger plant is tropical, 
 or, strictlv speaking, subtropical. It is cul- 
 
 ZiNGiBER OFFICINALIS (Ginger). ^;^.^^^g^ in southern Asia, and on the southern 
 
 slopes of the Himalayas. It is an important 
 
 crop in the West Indies, whither it has been carried by Europeans from 
 
 southern Asia. In the same manner it has found its way to the western coast 
 
 of Africa, where it is also largely cultivated. 
 
 Etijinologfj. — Zingiber, the botanic name, is claimed by some to be geograph- 
 ical, from the Island of Zanzibar, where it first became known to Europeans. 
 By others it is believed to be the Latinized form of the Sanscrit word cringa, 
 a horn, due to the fancied resemblance of the root to a stag's horn. Ginger, 
 the popular name, is a corruption of the word zingiber. Officinalis is the Latin 
 for "useful," or "serviceable." 
 
 Histori/. — Ginger was known to the Greeks and Romans in the first century 
 of the Christian era, and was in common use in England before the Norman 
 
ZTNOIBKRACK^.. 265 
 
 conquest, a. r». 1066. Whcro or wlion it was first ( ultivatcd is not known. It 
 nuist have been brought under cultivation very early in the history of the 
 iVsiatic peoples, for it is not now known to be growing in a wild state. There 
 is good reason to believe that it is a native of southern Asia, whence it has 
 been carried to the western coast of Africa and to the West Indies. 
 
 Chemistry, — It yields to the chemist many distinct substances, among which 
 starch is the largest in quantity. The pungency is due to an oily, resinous 
 principle, called f/inyerine. The perfume and delicate flavor reside in an essen- 
 tial oil, wliich is entirely free from ])ungency. 
 
 Preparation. — There are three varieties of the root in American commerce : 
 tlie Jamaica, Cochin, and African. The Jamaica and the Cochin are prepared 
 before they are brought to market, by the removal of the epidermis, and are 
 of a dull-yellow or buff color. The African root, or black ginger, is sent to 
 market without preparation, and bears a dark, earthy hue. The Jamaica 
 ginger of the shops is white, having been subjected to a l)lcaching process, 
 and then whitewashed. This variety is preferred on account of its fine flavor 
 and its light color. The Cociiin ginger is valuable on account of its strength, 
 and is much used by the manufacturers of the extract. The ground ginger 
 of the grocers is made from the Airicau root, which produces a dull, brownish- 
 yellow powder. 
 
 Use. — As a medicine, ginger is stimulant, carminative, and anti-dysjiejitic. 
 It is used as a tonic for flatulency, a carminative in colic, and enters into the 
 preparation of many medicines to assist their action. It is an ever-present 
 domestic remedy. It is an important culinary spice and condiment for flavor- 
 ing pies, preserves, cake, and aerated waters, beers, and cordials. In China, 
 the root is largely preserved by cooking it in syrup. It reaches us in stone 
 jars holding from a pint to a half-gallon. The Chinese also prepare an 
 excellent candy by slicing the root and cooking it in syrup. 
 
 MUSA, Plum. Perianth attached to the ovary, 'J-lipped or 2-parted, 
 thi' lo\V(M- lip cut at the extremity in five divisions. Stamens 5, ovary 
 inferior, o-celled ; ovules numerous. Styles thick, shorter than the 
 stamens, .3-6-lobed. Fruit oblong, angled, and o-celled, 3-9 inches 
 long, curved, 1^-2 inches in diameter. Seeds numerous, in a soft, 
 fleshy pulp; covering of the seed black. Flowers in an axillary 
 spadix. 
 
 1. M. paradisiaca, L. (Plantain, or Yellow Banana.) Stem herbaceous, 
 about 18 feet high, sumt, formed by a succession of large sheathing. Leaves 
 4 to 8 feet long, 15 to 20 inches broad, oblong, entire. Flowers terminal, in a 
 dense spike. 2 to 4 feet in length, nodding. Fruit .3 to 9 inches long. 1 to 2 
 inches m diameter, .scimitar-shaped, pale-yellow when ripe, skin thick and 
 coriaceous, pulp sweet and delicate to the" ta.ste, seeds distril)uted along the 
 axis of growth in the pulj). Under cultivation the .seeds seldom ripen, but the 
 plant is propagated by offshoots at the ba.se. If left in a state of nature, 
 the seed matures, and many varieties are obtained. There are about thirtv 
 varieties under cultivation in Asia and the Asiatic i.slands. of which the M. 
 paradisiaca is the j.arent or a fair type of the numerous species and varieties 
 of the plantain. 
 
 2. M. sapientum. L (F^anana. or Hed Rauaua.) The de.scription of No. 1 
 covers the characteristics of the M. sapientum exactly, except that the stalk 
 
266 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 is marked with purple spots, and the fruit is shorter, more cylindrical, of a 
 dark greenish-red color, and 2 to 2^ inches in diameter, and has a more deli- 
 cious taste. 
 
 There are many varieties of this species, differing in size and quality of the 
 fruit. It is held by some botanists that the species M. troglodytarum, a 
 native of the Molucca Islands, is the parent of all the cultivated species and 
 
 varieties. But it is 
 also held that the M. 
 sapientum answers all 
 the conditions of a 
 parent. 
 
 Geographij. — The 
 geographical distribu- 
 tion of the banana and 
 plantain is very wide, 
 extending all around 
 the globe, between 38° 
 north latitude and 35° 
 south latitude. A 
 mean temperature 
 above 64° Fahrenheit 
 is necessary to its ex- 
 istence, and it does 
 not fruit freely where 
 the temperature falls 
 below 40°. It is found 
 in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, China, Cochin 
 China, and Hindustan. 
 It grows in Australia 
 and the islands of the 
 Pacific, in Madagas- 
 car, and on the west- 
 ern shores of Africa. 
 It also adorns the gar- 
 dens of the Morea, of 
 Sicily, and the south 
 of Spain. In the New 
 World it is grown 
 in Mexico, Central 
 America, Colombia, 
 Peru, northern Brazil, 
 Guiana, and in the 
 greater part of the West Indies. Recently it has been introduced into the 
 gardens of southern Florida and Louisiana. 
 
 Etymologij. — The name musa is said to come from the Arabic mouz. It is 
 also said to have been given by Plumier, a French botanist, in honor of Musa, 
 a celebrated physician of Rome, who cured Augustus Casar of a disease which 
 had been pronounced by the imperial practitioners incurable ; for which ser- 
 vice the emperor knighted him. The specific name sapientum is due to the 
 circumstance that in India the leaves grow to a great height, and its groves 
 were a favorite resort for sages (sapientes), who were accustomed to repose 
 
 Musa pakadisiaca (Yellow Banana). 
 
ZIXGIBERACE^. 267 
 
 under their shade wliilc partaking of the fruit ; hence, the fruit of the wise. 
 The name paradlslaca arises from the story that the banana of this species 
 was the forbidden fruit of I^aradise. The English or common name, banana, 
 is very obscure in its origin as well as its signitieation, but is supposed to be a 
 Portuguese corruption of some native name. 'I'he word plantain is from the 
 Latin /dantuyo, applied on account of its broad, spreading leaf. 
 
 /listori/. — Many things point to Asia as the home of the banana, vet it is 
 claimed that it had reached the western coast of JSouth America Ijefore the 
 arrival of the Europeans. It has also been suggested that it is indigenous to 
 America, but the weight of history makes it an introduced plant ; hence we 
 are constrained to reckon the banana among the food plants of Asia. It was 
 unknown to the ancient Egyptians, but is said to have been made known to 
 the Greeks by Alexander's expedition iuto ludia. 
 
 Cultivation. — The banana has been very properly pointed out as an 
 illustration of the wonderful fertility of tropical regions. In the temperate 
 zones a fruit-tree requires years to mature fruit ; but the dweller between the 
 tropics takes a sucker from a banana-plant, places it in the soil on the river 
 bank, and at the end of a few months gathers a crop of delicious fruit. 
 
 Use. — The banana is highly prized as a dessert. The natives of the tropics 
 slice and fry it ; it is baked in ovens, and is dried and ground into flour, of 
 which bread and cakes are made. Two intoxicating drinks known as banana 
 tcine and banana beer are made from the juice by the Africans. 
 
 As to the economic value of the plantain and banana, they stand ne.xt to 
 wheat and rice as food plants, Simmons, a recent English writer on tropical 
 food plants, says : " The l)anana is to thousands of the dwellers of the tropics 
 what rice is to the Hindoo, rye to the Muscovite, and wheat to the English- 
 man ; it is their main dependance, in more senses than one, their staff of life, 
 grown everywhere in small (juantities throughout the tropics." Again he 
 says : " Among the splendid, varied, and profuse vegetation with which tropi- 
 cal countries abound, . . . the magnificent herbaceous plant, the plantain, 
 attracts particular notice." 
 
 The individuals of this family rank high among endogenous herbs. Tiieir 
 gigantic size, the magnificence of their foliage, the abundance and character 
 of their fruit, the grandeur of their flowers, give them the very highest 
 place among stemless endogens. The banana is the queen among ornamental 
 herbs, and the household god of the laborer's cottage. 
 
 The structure of the .•^tem furnishes a fiber, of which cordage, mats, and a 
 coarse doth and paper are manufactured. See Mum tertili.'i. 
 
 The Chinese use the top of the stem for its juice, which also f4)rms an impor- 
 tant ingredient in the manufacture of ink. The pith of the stem and the top 
 of the spike and the young shoots are edilile. Humboldt estimated that an 
 acre will yield 134.900 pounds of food. This far exceeds the product of any 
 of the tuber-bearing plants of the temperate zones. 
 
 3. M. textilis. Xees. (Manilln ) This species of musa is treated separately 
 because its characteristics are so different from the others. First, it is larger 
 than any other, rising to the height of 30 to .'lO feet. All tlie musas produce 
 fiber, but the M. sapientum, .M violacea, and M. textilis furnish the best (juality. 
 and most of it. 
 
 Gencjraphi/. — The musa textilis is, like the other species, a tropical or sul)- 
 tropical plant. It grows ])est on the slopes of volcanic mountains, among the 
 larger trees that usually cover such declivities. The fiber of commerce, 
 
268 DESCKIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 obtained from the M. textilis, thus far has been grown in the southern Philip- 
 pines. Attempts have been made to grow it in other localities without 
 much success. It is now cultivated in India and other parts of the south 
 of Asia. 
 
 Etymology. — Textilis, the specific name, is from the Latin texo, weave, 
 alluding to the use made of the fiber obtained from it. Manilla, the popular 
 name, is due to the seaport of that name, from which most of the fiber and its 
 products are exported. 
 
 History. — When this plant was first introduced into domestic economy, or 
 when it assumed a commercial importance, is not known. The first recorded 
 export was in 1850, and in 1856, 600,000 pounds were sent from three ports in 
 the Philippines, three fourths of which came to the United States. In 1 880 
 45,584,000 pounds reached England, a large part of which came thence to 
 America. The amount used is rapidly increasing, and the uses to which it is 
 applied are multiplying. 
 
 Preparation and Use. — Manilla is the prepared fiber of the musa. The 
 plant is cut when eighteen months old. Just before it flowers, the leaves are 
 removed ; the stem is then opened lengthwise, and the flower-stalk, which 
 forms a central column, is removed. From this, three successive coats of fiber 
 are taken. The outer coat is the coarsest, and furnishes the material for 
 making ropes, cordage, coarse bags, and mats. The next coat is of finer 
 texture, and is used for manufacturing cloths and paper. The third and 
 inner fiber is much more delicate than the outer coatings, and of it are made 
 the finest fabrics, elegant shaAvls, and material for soft and delicate under- 
 clothing. Ropes and cordage made of the fiber of the outer coating are one 
 fourth stronger than when made of the best hemp. 
 
 The fiber is prepared by bruising it between rollers in a mill ; it is then 
 boiled in large coppers, — potash, soda, or lime having been added to the water 
 to remove the mucilage. It is taken from the coppers and hung up over 
 manilla ropes on bamboo poles to dry. It is then beaten or combed, when it 
 is fit for market or the factory. The three different sorts are kept separate. 
 Formerly the preparation was all done by hand, but machinery is now 
 employed, which does the work much better. Mixed with silk or cotton, it 
 makes a very fine fabric. 
 
 Order LVI. BROMELIACE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, usually regular, occasionally irregular, spiked, 
 racemed, or panicled. Perianth inferior or superior, 6-parted, in two 
 series, the outer series or calyx leaf -like, one sometimes shorter ; inner 
 whorl or corolla petioled, more or less coherent, twisted in the bud. 
 Stamens 6, variously arranged ; filaments subulate, dilated at the base, 
 free or connate ; anthers introrse. Ovary inferior, sometimes supe- 
 rior, 3-celled ; style simple, 3-cornered, occasionally 3-parted ; stigmas 3. 
 Fruit a 3-celled berry, or capsule ; seeds numerous. Leaves mostly all 
 at the base of the stem, or scape ; sheathing stiff, channelled ; margin 
 armed with spines, or toothed ; epidermis clothed with scale-like hairs. 
 Herbaceous, and occasionally woody plants, mostly without stems, 
 sometimes epiphytic. Root perennial. 
 
 No. of principal genera, 27 ; species, 350 ; warm parts of America. 
 
BROMELIACE^. 
 
 269 
 
 ANANASSA, Lind. (Pineapple.) Inflorescence densely strobiliform. 
 Calyx ;}-parte(l ; petals 3. Stamens G; style 1, 3-parted. Fruit a 
 spike of densely packed berries, and fleshy l)racts, forming a conical- 
 shaped body from 6 to 12 inches long and 3 to 6 inches in diameter, 
 crowned with a tuft of leaves. 
 
 A. sativa, Sclmlt. (Pineapple.) Stem wanting, the flower-stalk springing 
 from the midst of a tuft of radical leaves which are larger than the leaves 
 that crown the fruit, armed with sharp, hooked teeth, curving upwards and 
 tipped with a strong, sharp spine, lanceolate and fleshy. 
 
 There are numerous native sports, iu a wild state. The ]>Uiut, when not 
 under cultivation, ripens seed, from which varieties are produced, which when 
 found to be good are brought under cultivation. 
 
 Ananassa sativa (Pineapple). 
 
 The principal varieties under cultivation are as follows, varying in size and 
 (piality of the fruit ; Hipley, Knville, Prickly Cayenne, Smooth Cayeuue, 
 Providence, Charlotte Kothscliild. 
 
 These are the favorite varieties grown in the British West Indies. 
 
 Geograp/tij. — The cultivation of tlie pinea])i)le was at one time confined to 
 one of the islands of the Baliama group (Eleuthera), and neighboring islets ; 
 but it is now spread to all the tropical regions wliere civilized man has taken 
 up his abode. It is the only important fruit which cannot l)e traced to Asia 
 as its home. Now the southern shores of the T^astern Continent, the fields of 
 eastern Africa, the isles of the Pacific, as well as the tropical regions of 
 .Vmerica, all give place to this interesting and delightful ])roduct. In India il 
 has escaped from cultivation, grows and proi)agates itself in the jungles, and 
 has liecome thoroughly naturalized. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Linnanis named the pineapi)le Bvomdia, in honor of < »laf 
 liromel, a Swedish botanist. IMie name ananassa was given by Thuuberg. 
 from the Peruvian name nana. Satira, the specific name, signifies " planted," 
 or "sown." The names of varieties are for the originators or their friends, or 
 from some (pinlitv of the plant. The common nAum, j>inea^jile, arose from the 
 resemblance of tlie fruit to pine cones. 
 
270 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 History. — The home of the pineapple is tropical America. It is related 
 that the Spaniards found it in Peru and took it to the West Indies, whence it 
 was carried by the Portuguese to the East Indies. About the middle of the 
 seventeenth century it was taken to Holland by Mr. Le Count, a Dutch mer- 
 chant, who cultivated it under glass at his country seat near Leyden. It was 
 thence carried to England, where it was successfully fruited under what is 
 known in England as stove culture. 
 
 Use. — The pineapple is a most fragrant fruit, and is used for a dessert. 
 It is also preserved in sugar and in brandy, and forms an important article of 
 commerce, both raw and preserved. At Nassau, about two million cans are 
 filled annually and sent to the United States. 
 
 Propagation. — The pineapple is propagated by suckers or by the tuft from 
 the top of the fruit. 
 
 Marts. — New York is the great mart for this fruit ; but it is now carried 
 to Europe, in a crude state, by the fast steamers. It is matured in England 
 under glass, and is sold for ten times more than the imported article. 
 
 Order LVII. IRIDACE-^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, regular or irregular, terminal in a spike, corymb, or 
 loose panicle, or solitary, each with 2 spathe-like bracts. Inflorescence 
 with a double subfoliaceous bract. Perianth superior, petaloid, tubu- 
 lar, 6-parted, regular or bilabiate ; segments in two series, equal, or 
 the inner whorl smaller, dissimilar, usually falling early. Stamens 
 
 3 ; filaments equal, free ; anthers 
 extrorse. Oyary inferior, 3-celled, 
 usually many-ovuled. Stigmas 3, 
 opposite the stamens, or alternate, 
 often dilated or petaloid. Capsule 
 3-cornered or lobed, 3-celled. Seeds 
 numerous, subglobose or com- 
 pressed, sometimes winged ; testa 
 membranous or papery, sometimes 
 leathery or fleshy. Leaves usually 
 radical, equitant, ensiform or linear, 
 angular, entire, flat or longitudi- 
 nally folded, those on the stem 
 alternate, sheathing. Perennial 
 herbs, with tuberous or bulbous 
 rhizome. 
 No. of genera, 57 ; species, 700 ; warm parts of both hemispheres. 
 
 Crocus sativus (Saffron). 
 
 CHOCUS, L. Flowers nearly sessile, among leaves, tube long and 
 slender, the limb bell-shaped, divided into 6 nearly equal segments. 
 Stigmas dilated, and colored at the top, often fringed ; capsule buried 
 among the radical leaves. Rootstock bulbous, coating fibrous and 
 netted. 
 
 C. sativus, L. (Saffron.) Scape 1 to 3 inches high. Leaves radical, 
 linear ; margins revolute, with white furrow above. Elower-tube long, white, 
 
DIOSCOKKACE^. 271 
 
 crowned witli i>urple olliptii-al segments. Stigmas long, emarginate, red ur 
 deep orange, extending beyond the tuhe. 
 
 There are many other species, but the sativiis is the most important. 
 
 Geo;/raphij. — The geographical range is tiiroughout the southern parts of 
 the north temperate zone. 
 
 Etyinologji. — Crocus, the generic name, was given to this plant by Theo- 
 phrastus, but tlie meaning is obscure. Satlvus is Latin for " sown " or 
 " cultivated." 
 
 History. — This plant was known to the ancients; it is mentioned by 
 Dioscorides, Theoi)hrastus, and Pliny. The Romans cultivated it fur its per- 
 fume ; and in later times it was an important crop in England. The parts 
 producing the dye are the style and stigma; and it has been estimated that 
 a single pound of saffron is composed of the stigmas of 200,000 flowers. 
 
 Use. — The medicinal properties are not important. It was formerlv admin- 
 istered in infusions in a multitude of disorders, but especially to bring eruptive 
 diseases to the surface. Modern practice has brought in remedies which have 
 crowded it out. 
 
 There are two active principles contained in saffron flowers : an oil to which 
 its flavoring and medicinal properties are due ; and a coloring substance which 
 furnishes the dye. 
 
 As a coloring agent saffron is now used to color creams and biscuits, and to 
 color and flavor confectionery and cordials. As a dye, it is an important sub- 
 stance. The dye is produced by the presence of a principle which the 
 chemists call polychroite ; this substance, when brought into contact with 
 different chemical reagents, produces a variety of beautiful colors and tints. 
 
 Order LVIII. DIOSCOREACE^. 
 
 Flowers dioecious, small, inconspicuous, regular, in axillary racemes 
 or spikes. Perianth herbaceous, petal-like, in 6 parts, 2 seriate, equal, 
 and persistent. Stamens 6, inserted at the base of the segments of 
 the perianth ; filaments short, free. Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; styles ;3, 
 short ; stigma blunt or 2-lobed ; ovules 1-2 in each cell. Fruit cap- 
 sular, 3-angled or winged, 3-celIed ; seeds compressed, winged. Leaves 
 alternate or opposite, petioled, simple, prominently palminerved. 
 entire or lobed. Perennial herbs, with twining stems; tuberous, 
 fleshy roots. 
 
 Xo. of genera. 8; species, 160; chiefly tropical. 
 
 DI03C0REA, L. Flowers small ; stamens 6, at the base of the peri- 
 anth ; filaments awl-shaped. Styles of the fertile flowers '■) ; cells of 
 the capsule usually 2-seeded. Seeds margined by thin membrane ; 
 pods 3-angled. 
 
 1. D. sativa, L. (Yam.) Stem long, slender, terete, smooth, twining or 
 clambering over shrubbery. Leaves alternate, broad, ovate-cordate, glabrous, 
 nerved, outer nerves forked, margin sinuate. Flowers in dense, axillary 
 spikes, greenish-white. Root gives rise to large edible tubers. 
 
 2. D. batatas, Decaisne. (Chinese Yam.) Stem very long, resembling that 
 of D. sativa. Leaves opposite, smooth, lieart-shaped or halbert-shaped, in the 
 
272 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 axils of which bulblets appear. The roots are large, tuberous processes, 
 largest at the bottom, sometimes 6 feet loug, taperiug from the bottom 
 (where they are sometimes 8 inches in diameter) to the top, the crown be- 
 ing an inch in diameter, the whole tuber sometimes weighing 40 pounds; 
 edible. 
 
 There are about 150 species known to botanists. The most important edible 
 species are the D. sativa and D. batatas, D. japonica and D. alata. 
 
 Geography. — The yam is tropical and subtropical, though it arrives at 
 maturity in higher latitudes ; but the tubers do not reach perfection except 
 
 under a high temperature. The geo- 
 graphical distribution of this genus is 
 a belt all around the earth, between 
 the parallels of 30° on both sides of 
 the equator. Some of the species are 
 indigenous to America, some to Africa, 
 but more to Asia. It is but recently 
 that it has been brought under cultiva- 
 tion. Its cultivation is confined prin- 
 cipally to Japan, the East India Islands, 
 and Siam. 
 
 Etymology. — Dioscorea, the generic 
 name, was given by Linnagus in honor 
 of Dioscorides, the Greek botanist. 
 The specific name, sativa, signifies the 
 " sown," or " cultivated," plant. The 
 name batatas is supposed to signify " a 
 club," referring to the shape of the 
 tuber, which is small at the upper end 
 and large at the other. The common 
 name, yam, is supposed to be of Afri- 
 can origin, the meaning being un- 
 known. 
 
 Use. — The yam is used for a table vegetable, and is prepared by boiling, 
 baking, frying, or roasting in hot embers. It is also beaten into a paste and 
 made into cakes ; also boiled, mashed, and made into puddings and custards. 
 It constitutes a large portion of tlie food of the savage and half -civilized tribes 
 of Africa and Malaysia. 
 
 DiOSCOKEA SATIVA (Yam). 
 
 Order LIX. LILIACE^. 
 
 Flowens perfect, mostly terminal, solitary, racemose or spiked. 
 Perianth tubular, inferior ; limb 6-lobed or parted, or perianth leaves 
 distinct. Stamens 6, inserted on the receptacle or perianth-tube. 
 Ovary free, usually 3-celled ; cells few to many-seeded ; style simple 
 or 3-cleft. Fruit capsular. Leaves simple, entire, sheathing fascicled 
 at the base, and sessile on the stem, flat or channelled. Herbaceous 
 perennials, sometimes tree-like and woody. Root bulbous, tuberous, 
 or with a creeping rhizome. 
 
 No. of genera, 187; specie>;, 2000; cosmopolitan; mostly in damp 
 places, but not in the water. 
 
LILIAOE^. 
 
 273 
 
 SMILAX, Tourii. Flowers dicecious, small, greenish, axillary ; peri- 
 anth deciduous, segments 0, in two series, outer ones broader, spread- 
 ing, sepaloid ; stamens equal to the number of divisions, shorter than 
 the segments and inserted on their bases. Anthers adnate, 1-celled, 
 with a cross partition. Ovary superior, usually 3-celled ; stigmas 8, 
 spreading, 2 ovules in a cell. Fruit a l)erry, ghjbose, G seeds, sometimes 
 1-celled, with 1 seed only. Leaves entire, petioled, alternate, palmately 
 3-5 veined. Woody perennials. 
 
 1. S. officinalis, H. & Bonpl. (Sarsaparilla.) Stem woody, twining, nearly 
 scjuare, smooth, with scattered spines or prickles ; slender, long, young shoots, 
 witliout prickles. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, corchite, 5 to 7 ])alniately nerved, 
 thick and leathery, very large, 8 to 12 inches long, and half as wide. Foot-stalks 
 an inch long, smooth, with tendrils. Root with long, creeping rootstocks. 
 
 Stem prickly, nearly square, climbing 
 and 4 to 5 inches wide, oblong-ovate, 
 
 2 S. sarsaparilla, L. (Sarsaparilla.) 
 by tendrils. Leaves 6 to 8 inches l<^ng, 
 deep-green cuspidate, subcordate at 
 base, and 5-nerved. Flowers greenish, 
 on long, fiat, axillary peduncles. Ber- 
 ries large, globose, 1-seeded, pinkish- 
 red when ripe, persistent. Root with 
 long, creeping rhizomes. 
 
 This species has found its way into 
 the southern United States, or is native 
 there. 
 
 3 S. medica, Schlech et Cham. As 
 above, except that the leaves are very 
 smooth, prominently heart-shaped on 
 the lower part of the stem, and ovate 
 above. 
 
 This species furnishes the Mexican 
 root. 
 
 4. S. papyraceae, Poir. Leaves mem- 
 
 brnnacoous, ob]oii<X-oval, blunt, other- Smilax sarsapariuv (Sarsaparilla). 
 
 wise as S. officinalis. 
 
 This species yields the root known as the Para or Rio Xegro Sarsaparilla. 
 
 Geocjraphfi. — The species of smilax producing sarsaparilla are found in 
 Mexico, and in central and northern South America. 
 
 Eti/molor/!/. — Swilnx is from the Greek word (rfxiK-r}, a grater, alluding to 
 tlie armed stems. Officinalis, the specific name, is from the Latin, signifying 
 " of the shops." Sarsapnrilia, the common name, is from the Spanish zarza, 
 a bramble, and pariJJa, a little vine ; hence a prickly vine, or prickly little 
 vine. The specific name medicn is due to the medical i)roperties of this 
 species; and papyracea' indicates the membranous or paper-like character of 
 the loaf. 
 
 flisfon/. — Sarsaparilla was iMtro(hiced into medical practice about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, and attained a great reputation, which it has 
 not been aide to sustain. 
 
 Use. — "When sarsaparilla first bocami' known to the healing art, it claimed 
 to be specific in all diseases which affected the blood. 
 pR. Fl. — 19 
 
2T4 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Its effects upon the system are alterative, sudorific, and secretive ; it is used 
 for chronic rheumatism, skin diseases, and is considered especially efficacious 
 as a restorative after an excessive mercurial course. At the present day it is 
 largely used in the manufacture of patent medicines, — the regular physicians 
 havdng found substitutes which they consider more efficaciou.s. 
 
 Marts. — It is believed that the S. sarsaparilla has the same medicinal prop- 
 erties as the S officinalis ; but this is disputed, and it is claimed that the root 
 which supplies the market is from the S. officinalis only. Jamaica sarsaparilla 
 is from Central America, and takes its name from the fact that it is shipped 
 from Jamaica to Europe. The cortex of the root is red, and clothed with 
 short rootlets ; it is sent to market in bundles 1 8 inches long and .5 inches in 
 diameter ; these are made up into bales for shipment. 
 
 The North American market is supplied with Honduras sarsaparilla, pro- 
 cured from a species which is not known to botanists, or is not well determined ; 
 it is shipped from Balize in large bales, made up of small bundles, 30 inches 
 long and 6 in diameter, weighing 3 to 5 pounds each ; the ends of the bales 
 being covered with green raw-hides. 
 
 The market of the United States is partly supplied by what is known as 
 Mexican sarsaparilla ; it is shipped from A'era Cruz, and is the root of the 
 S, medica. It is a slender, shrivelled root, done up in large bundles, of 300 
 pounds each, fastened together with ropes. 
 
 Another sort, of very good quality, is known as Eio Xigro sarsaparilla, 
 which is the root of S. papyracene. It is shipped at Para in neat rolls 3 feet 
 long and 1 foot in diameter, bound together by a vine. Xearly all of this 
 variety goes to Spain and Portugal. 
 
 ASPARAGTIS, L. Flowers perfect; calyx with 6 equal, narrow, 
 oblong, petal-like sepals, barely connected at the base, spreading. 
 Stamens united near the base ; anthers peltate ; style short ; stigmas 3. 
 Ovary 3-cornered, top-shaped, and 3-celled; cells 2-seeded. Leaves 
 reduced to minute scales. Branches thread-like. Fruit, globular 
 berry; seed angular, outer covering black and leathery; embryo 
 curved and eccentric. Root a mass of long fleshy fibers, about an 
 eighth of an inch in diameter. Perennial herb. 
 
 A. officinalis, L. (Asparagus or Sparrow Grass.) Stem paniculately 
 branched, 3 to 4 feet high, .starting from the root in a stout shoot. Branchlets 
 in fascicles, thread-like, bristly, and flexible, from haK an inch to an inch and 
 a half in length, pale pea-green. Flowers very small, axillary on the branches, 
 solitary or in twos, yellowish-green. Berry Avith 6 seeds. 
 
 There are about 100 species, but the A. officinalis is the only one cultivated 
 for food. 
 
 The asparagus is propagated from the seed, and sports. There are many 
 varieties; but there are two known to the market gardeners as favorites, 
 under the names of red top and green top. These change in form and size by 
 high culture. 
 
 Geography. —The asparagus grows in the middle latitudes of the north 
 temperate zone, is largely cultivated in England, Holland, throughout central 
 Europe, in the countries of the Mediterranean, and on the sandy plains of 
 Poland and southern Russia, about the Caspian Sea.^^^ was introducedii]*©. 
 Hindustan by the English, and is extensively cultivatedJSb^rf^ : it is hIso found 
 
LILIACE^. 
 
 275 
 
 in Japan, an<l lias a native name, which seems to point to its being indigeuouR 
 to that region. It grows ontside of cultivation in Great Britain. It is indig- 
 enous to the countries of the Levant; was brought to North America by 
 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 Asparagus officinalis (Asparagus). 
 
 European colonists, where it is under cultivation, and is a favorite table vege- 
 table. It has escaped from the garden, and is growing wild, especially along 
 the seacoast. 
 
 Asparagus officinalis (Asparaprus). 
 
 Etymoloi] ij . — The name asparagus is derived from the Greek word (rirapda-aru, 
 tear, alluding to the thorny character of some of the species. Officinalis, 
 
m 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 the specific uame, is from the Latin officina, belonging to trade, or the market. 
 The common name, sparrow gjxiss, is a corruption of asparagus. 
 
 History. — Asparagus was known to the Greeks and Romans at least two 
 thousand years ago. 
 
 Use. — Asparagus is a very delicate vegetable, and most highly prized as a 
 pot-herb. It is greatly improved by cultivation, both in size and quality. Its 
 tender, fleshy shoots are the parts eaten. When boiled in a small quantity 
 of water with a little salt, it retains its natural delicate flavor, which to the 
 epicure is not improved by disguising sauces. It is also cut into short 
 pieces a quarter of an inch in length, boiled, and served as green peas are. 
 Its medicinal properties are diuretic, and it is recommended for complaints 
 of the kidneys. Its seeds have been used in Europe as a substitute for 
 coffee. 
 
 PHORMIXJM, Forst. Perianth incurved, segments connate at the 
 base, in a short, top-shaped tube, the three exterior segments lanceo- 
 late, the three interior sometimes a little longer and narrower at the 
 apex ; stamens 6, attached to the base of the tube ; filaments thread- 
 like ; anthers oblong or oblong-linear, erect, attached along their 
 backs to the filaments; filaments intruding into the anther-cells. 
 Ovary sessile, oblong, 3-cornered, and 3-valved ; style filiform ; stigma 
 short, head-shaped; ovules numerous; capsule somewhat leathery, 
 3-sided, cylindrical, often strongly twisted. Perianth cylindrical, 
 funnel-formed, united below. Leaves radical, keeled, not fleshy. 
 Seeds oblong, flattened; seed-vessel black, membranaceous, sharply 
 dilated at the margin, but not properly winged. Embryo long. 
 
 P. tenax, L. (New Zealand Flax.) Rhizome short, thick, radical fibers 
 densely matted. Leaves radical, 3 to 9 feet long, narrow, linear, sword-shaped, 
 leathery, tenacious, arranged a little way up the stem in 
 two rows on opposite sides for a short distance from the 
 root. Scape leafless and branching above ; bracts under 
 the branches, which sometimes fall off. Flowers pedi- 
 celed, in terminal panicles, or fascicled with the bracts 
 along the branches, varied in color ; flower-stalk jointed 
 under the flower. The seed matures in the third year, 
 the stalk rising to the height of 16 feet, when the whole 
 plant dies down, and renews itself from its roots. 
 
 Geography. — Its home is New Zealand, where it was 
 applied by the natives to the manufacture of clothing, 
 cordage, and mats before the arrival of Europeans. It 
 has been introduced into southern Europe and northern 
 Africa. It grows in the open air in the southern parts 
 of England and of Ireland ; and is grown in the United 
 States in greenhouses. 
 
 Etymology. — Phormium is from the Greek (pop/j-os, 
 
 wicker-work, or a basket, in reference to the use made of 
 
 the fiber of the leaves. Tenax is Latin, signifying " tenacious," due to the 
 
 strength of the fiber. New Zealand flax, the common name, indicates the 
 
 country where it is found native. 
 
 Phormium tenax 
 (New Zealand Flax) 
 
LILIACE.K. 277 
 
 Histori/. — The plaut was (liscuvered in New Zealand, and carried to Europe 
 by Captain Cook in 1773, and described by Linnaeus. It is found wild and 
 also under cultivation in its native country. 
 
 Preparation. — The leaves are cut into strips, and the outer green part 
 scraped off ; the tihcrs are then separated and kept straight, and are washed, 
 rubbed, and bleached in the sun ; it is then creamy white, and has a silky 
 luster. While growing, it resembles the American agave or century -plant. 
 
 Use. — It is used in New Zealand for fabrics for garments, and for cordage, 
 and enters into commerce as a material for cordage and coarse bagging. It is 
 also used to adulterate the tiber of the musa textilis in the manufacture of 
 manilla cordage. 
 
 ALOE, L. Perianth tubular, contracted above, straight or slightly 
 curved, (i-lobed at the summit, nearly closed. Stamens 6, inserted 
 below the ovary, exserted ; filaments awl-shaped, as long as the 
 perianth ; anthers linear-oblong, introrse, 3-celIed, many-ovuled ; style 
 thread-like ; stigma small ; capsule leathery, ovoid or oblong ; seeds 
 numerous, 3-angled or flattened, 3-winged ; testa membranaceous and 
 black. Leaves thick, fleshy, in two or three series, crowded near the 
 base of the stem, lanceolate, ends curved down; margins dentate; 
 teeth armed with spines ; scape terminal. Flowers yellowish. 
 
 1. A. vulgaris, Lamarck. (Aloes.) Stem perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, 6 to 8 
 inches in diameter, crowned with a dense cluster of leaves, bases wide, lower 
 ones spreading, up])er ones more erect, lanceolate, thick, Heshy, concave 
 above, convex beneath ; margins toothed ; teeth armed with hooked prickles ; 
 surface of the leaf smooth, dark green or mottled ; scape either sim])le or 
 branched, rising from the crown of leaves, terminated with a slender spike of 
 flowers ; bracts triangular, acute, longer than the jjedicels, veined, and per- 
 sistent. Stamens 6, a little longer than the perianth ; anthers small, oblong. 
 Ovary oblong-oval, bluntly triangular, :?-celled, double row of ovules in each 
 cell ; style as long as stamens ; stigma terminal. Fruit oblong-ovoid, blunt 
 capsule, an inch long, .S-celled ; ])ericar]) tliin, brown, smooth ; seeds numerous, 
 flattened ; testa thin and membranaceous. Flowers yellow, tinged with 
 green. 
 
 1 A. socotrina. Lam. This species differs from the last in a taller stem, 
 which, as it gr(»ws old, becomes forkedly branched, with tufts of leaves at the 
 summits of the branches, prickles on tlie leaves. Perianth an inch and a half 
 long, red or pinkish, with greenish-white tips, part of the stamens extending 
 beyond the perianth. 
 
 8. A spicata, L. f. Stem about .3 feet high. Leaves enveloping the base 
 of the stem, curved, and then deflexed, al)out 2 feet long, flat near the base, 
 becoming nearly cylindrical near the end, armed with strong, sharp, tri- 
 angular prickles, with several small ones at the sununit. Flowers bright 
 orange-yellow. Stamens longer than perianth ; style longer than stamens. 
 
 There arc in all about SO species of this genus, natives of the hot regions 
 of the Old World. But the aloe of connnerce is the product of the species 
 above described, and of others whose ))otaiiical characters have not been deter- 
 mined, and whose home is not known. 
 
278 DESCRIPT'IVE BOTANY. 
 
 Geography. — The aloe is a tropical and subtropical plaut, and may be culti- 
 vated in all regions of no frost. It is found in southern Asia, Arabia, 
 southern Europe, and northern Africa ; but it abounds in south Africa, near 
 the Cape of Good Hope. It is largely cultivated in the British AVest Indies. 
 
 Etymology. — Aloe, the generic name, is said to be derived from alloch, an 
 Arabic word. The Greek for the same is d\07j ; and the Latin, aloe, whose 
 figurative meaning, " bitterness," seems to suit the case, for the name could 
 not be more appropriate. Vulgaris, the specific name, is Latin for " common." 
 Socotrina is from the Island Socotra, where it was formerly cultivated. Spicata, 
 Latin for " spike-bearing," alludes to the form of inflorescence. Ferox, Latin 
 for " wild," in this case signifies " coarse" and "strong." 
 
 History. — The aloe was known to the Greeks and Romans ; it was men- 
 tioned during the first century by both Dioscorides and Pliny. Its home is 
 Asia and Africa ; and it has been carried to the West Indies by Europeans, 
 and is cultivated there. 
 
 Preparation. — There are three kinds of aloe known in commerce, namely : 
 Cape aloes, Barbadoes aloes, and the aloes of Socotra. The Cape aloes is obtained 
 from the leaves of A. spicata and A. ferox, and perhaps other species. The 
 leaves are cut from the plant and set into vessels to drain ; the sap, or juice, 
 is evaporated in iron vessels over a fire ; when reduced to a thick syrup, it is 
 poured into vessels to cool, in which condition it is sent to market in large 
 cases. At a temperature below 40° Fahrenheit, it is hard and brittle ; at a 
 higher temperature, it runs like pitch. The Barbadoes aloes is the product of 
 the A. vulgaris, which is under cultivation in that island, and in Jamaica. 
 
 The juice, or sap, having been drained from the leaves, is stored in casks 
 until the collecting is over, when it is evaporated in copper kettles to a syrup, 
 then poured into gourds holding from three to seventy pounds, and thus sent 
 to market. This kind was first sold in Loudon in 1693. 
 
 Socotrlne aloes is manufactured somewhere in the interior of Africa, taken to 
 the ports on the Red Sea, and thence to Zanzibar, from which place it is sent 
 to Bombay, where it is purified and shipped to England. Where the plants 
 grow that yield it, or hoAv it is prepared, is not very Avell known, but it is very 
 certain that the drug does not come from Socotra. 
 
 Use. — Its medicinal properties are, when administered in small doses, stim- 
 ulant, tonic, stouiachic, and anti-bilious. When taken in large doses, it acts 
 violently upon the bowels, producing drastic purgation. It was formerly 
 extensively used in complaints of the liver. 
 
 In Africa cords and nets are made of its leaf-fiber. Its juice has been used 
 in embalming, and as a varnish to protect against insects. 
 
 Note. — The aloe of the Bible is a different plant. The reference made in 
 the Bible to aloe is always to the wood, and not to the plant ; and it is believed 
 that the resinous wood known to the Egyptians and Avestern Asiatics was the 
 product of a tree found in eastern Asia, Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb., of the 
 order Thymeleaceje. The wood is very valuable, mostly for its fragrance when 
 burned. It sells in Bombay as high as $3.00 per pound for fine specimens. 
 
 Okdek LX. PALM-aJ. 
 
 Flowers small, dioecious or monoecious, seldom perfect, sessile or on 
 short pedicels ; perianth double, persistent, leathery, formed of a calyx 
 and calyx-like corolla ; sepals 3, distinct or coherent ; petals o, usually 
 
PALM^. 
 
 279 
 
 distinct, valvate in the bud of the male flower, imbricate in the female ; 
 stamens hypogynous, or perigynous, G in two whorls, opposite the 
 sepals and petals. Inflorescence axillary. Fruit a berry or drupe, 
 with smooth or scaly epicarp ; sarcocarp fleshy, oily or flbrous ; endo- 
 carp membranous, fibrous, woody, or bony. Seed oblong, ovoid, or 
 spherical. Leaves springing from the terminal bud, alternate, base 
 of petiole sheathing the stem, petiole convex below ; blade pinnate, 
 fan-shaped or simply split. Perennial woody plants, mostly beautiful 
 and majestic trees. Trunks often tall and slender. 
 
 Xo. of genera, 132 ; species, 1100 ; tropical and subtropical. 
 
 ARECA, L. (Betel Xut. Feather Palms.) Flowers monoecious, small, 
 numerous, sessile, bractless, spadix branched. Staminate flowers very 
 numerous ; calyx with 3 small ovate segments ; 
 petals 3, much longer than the calyx, broadly 
 ovate, smooth, thick, and yellow ; stamens 3-6 ; 
 filaments short, red, and attached to the backs 
 of the arrow-shaped anthers. Pistillate flowers 
 with a calyx of 3 ovate rigid sepals ; petals 3, 
 like the sepals, but thinner. Ovary large, 
 1-celled, one ovule in each cell ; stigmas 3. 
 Fruit two and a half inches long, containing 
 a single seed an inch long and two thirds of 
 an inch in diameter, somewhat in shape of a 
 nutmeg, distinctly marked by a network of red 
 veins, which penetrate the mass and give a 
 marbled appearance to the internal structure. 
 A tree produces about 300 nuts. Leaves pin- 
 nately divided. 
 
 A. catechu, L. (Betel Nut.) Stem slender, 40 to 
 60 feet high, 18 to 20 inches in diameter. Fronds 
 3 to 4 feet long, all terminal. Leaflets numerous 
 and opposite. 
 
 Georji-dphij. — The geography of the areca is trop- 
 ical and subtropical. It has spread tlirough the 
 Sunda Isles, the Philippines, Cochin China, Sumatra, 
 and southern India, and has names in each of these 
 countries which point to tlie probability that it is 
 native to all these localities; but there seems to be insufficient evidence to 
 locate its home in any one of them. It grows best on plains and terraces. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Areca is from «rfc, the name applied to the young tree in 
 Malabar. Cutecliu was applied to this species becau.se it was erroneously sup- 
 posed to yield the gum catechu. The fruit is called betel nut, because the leaf 
 of the piper betel is used in connection with it. Feather Palm alludes to the 
 feathery appearance of the leaves, and is apphed to several of the genera of 
 this order. 
 
 Histori/. — When the betel nut was first used as a masticatory is not known ; 
 it was in use in the East Indies when the country became known to Euro- 
 peans, and its use upon state occasions dates l»ack to the iV.urtli centurv. 
 
 Areca catkchtt 
 (Betel-nut). 
 
280 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 jjgQ AVhen the uut is in an unripe state it is cut into slices and wrapped 
 
 in the leaves of the piper betel, with a little lime, and in this condition it is 
 chewed. It affects the nervous system, somewhat in the same manner as tea, 
 coffee, and cocoa ; it is stimulant and astringent, and is said to check perspi- 
 ration and alleviate fatigue. When used moderately it is supposed to preserve 
 the teeth, and to fasten tliem when loose in the gums ; but used to exce.ss it 
 destrovs the teeth, causing them to crumble and Avaste away and eventually 
 it causes the death of its victim. It is of very general use among the inhabi- 
 tants of southeastern Asia, extending to all classes, and it is offered to guests 
 on state and other ceremonial occasions. It is carried in a box, frequently of 
 gold or silver, or ornamented with precious stones, corresponding to the snuff- 
 box used for tobacco snuff. 
 
 A liniment made of the juice from the leaves, mixed with oil, is considered 
 a specific in lumbago ; the nut is also a reputed remedy for tape-worm. 
 
 PH(ENIX, L. (Feather Palm.) Flowers dicecious, very small, in 
 large clusters, emerging from a spathe or fleshy shield ; number of 
 flowers in a spadix sometimes reaching 12,000. Staminate flowers 
 oblong or ovoid ; calyx cup-shaped, 3-toothed ; petals 3, oblique, oblong, 
 or ovoid, slightly attached at base ; stamens 6, sometimes 3-9, inserted 
 on the base of the corolla ; filaments awl-shaped ; anthers linear, oblong, 
 erect, and attached to the filaments along their backs. Pistillate 
 flowers with a rotund calyx; stigma sessile. Fruit oblong, terete, 
 1-seeded. Pericarp fleshy ; seed hard, somewhat cylindrical, plane on 
 one side and convex on the other, with a groove extending the whole 
 length of the plane side, from half an inch to an inch in length, having 
 sweet, nutritious pulp. Leaves all terminal, pinnate. 
 
 P. dactylifera, L. (Date Palm ) Stem 30 to 60 feet high, 12 to 18 inches 
 in diameter, scarred with the marks of fallen leaves, which are pinnate, glau- 
 cous, 8 to 10 feet long; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, pinnae close together. 
 Flowers in branching spadices, the main flower stem long, the heavy mass 
 of flowers causing it to bend downward, each cluster of the female tree bearing 
 from 150 to 200 dates ; each flower produces three, two of which are usually 
 abortive. The fruit has a vinous, gummy, sugary taste. 
 
 There are twelve species of the phoenix, but the only one of importance as 
 a food plant is the P. dactylifera. The varieties of this species are very great ; 
 it is propagated by seed and sports freely, producing varieties which differ 
 from each other in the size and quality of the fruit. 
 
 Geography. —The geographical distribution of the date is throughout the 
 hot and arid region between 15° and 30° north latitude, from the Atlantic 
 coast along the fringes of the great deserts to the river Indus, and on the 
 oases of the Sahara. It can grow in a higher latitude, but refuses to ripen its 
 fruit except in a very high temperature. The tree itself will live just iu the 
 edge of the region of no frost, but will not fruit, nor even flower. Somewhere 
 in the above-named region it had its origin, but no naturalist has been able 
 to name the spot. According to Loudon, the date derives its generic name. 
 Phoenix, from the fact that the best dates were brought from Phoenicia. But 
 if fine dates came from Phoenicia, they must have been carried there from 
 further south, for the temperature of the most soutliern part of Phoenicia is 
 too low to ripen the date. They may have been taken from Arabia or from 
 
VALMJE. 
 
 281 
 
 i^t, 
 
 more southern parts of Syria, hy caravans, to the seaports of Syria in oarlv 
 times, antl shipped there for southern and western Eurojje. 
 
 The date-tree is becoming rare in Syria. It is common near Acre, skirting 
 the lagoons and crowuing the sandhills which altound there. The city of Pal- 
 myra got its name from this tree, which is still ai)Uiidant in its vicinity. It 
 was the symbol of Palestine in the time of the Jews. It adorned the medals 
 of \'es])asian and Titus, as emblems of the country. It is now carefnllv culti- 
 vated near Jaffa. 
 
 Etymoloijii. — The derivation of 
 Phienix, the generic name, has been 
 given, hactfilifcra is from the (ireek 
 hoLKTvKos, finger, from a fancied re- 
 semblance of the fruit to the portion 
 of the finger between the joints. 
 Date, the common name, is said to be 
 a corruption of dactnl, and is also 
 claimed to be a Sanscrit word signify- 
 ing " fruit," or " finger fruit." 
 
 Historij. — The date has been culti- 
 vated as a food plant since prehistoric 
 times. The ancient Egyptians under- 
 stood the sexes of the trees, and learned 
 to assist nature by taking the pollen 
 from the male to the female tree. 
 Cakes of dates have been found in the 
 tombs of Thebes, one of which is j)re- 
 served in the British museum. The 
 ancient Hebrews must have been ac- 
 quainted with the date, though it could 
 not have been among the fruits of Pal- 
 estine, for it is only indirectly referred 
 to in the Scri])tures. The tree grows 
 in Judiua, and it is said that the fruit 
 ripens as far north as Jerusalem. 
 Bethany, which is near Jerusalem, sig- 
 nifies "the home of dates." It has 
 been represented as a tree delighting 
 in dry and arid regions, but recent 
 investigations reveal the fact that it 
 requires an abundant supply of water ; 
 and wherever it is found, even in the 
 midst of the desert, it indicates the presence of surface sjjrings. 
 
 Cultlvatiou.— \t is artificially fertilized by shaking a branch .rf staminato 
 flowers over the pistillate inflorescence. 
 
 6^se. — The date is eaten raw in all case.s and furnishes the o,dv f..o<i f..r 
 thousands of the inhabitants of the regi.)n where it grows. It is "conserved 
 with sugar, and packed in l)ags made of the leaf. It is .<^aid that the native 
 Arab will exist for days without inconvenience on a few handfuls of this fruit, 
 while his camels are content with date-stones, this may .serve to indicate the 
 remarkable amount of nutriment which the date contains. 
 
 The uses of the leaf and stem are somewhat similar to tiie uses to which 
 cocos is applied. Date trees are empl..yed as articles of trade and .lower. 
 
 Phcenix daotylifera (Date Palm). 
 
 th 
 
282 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 GOCOS, Linnaeus. (Feather Palm.) Flowers monoecious, on the 
 same spadix. Spathe simple, woody, spindle-shaped ; staminate flowers 
 on the upper part of the spadix, and the pistillate ones below. Calyx 
 of the staminate flower 3-leaved ; sepals lanceolate, keeled, and fre- 
 quently united at the base ; corolla o-parted, membranous or fleshy, 
 usually erect. Stamens 6 ; filaments awl-shaped, nearly equal in 
 length ; anthers linear and erect ; calyx of the pistillate flower ovate 
 or sub-orbicular, 3-leaved ; sepals convolute ; corolla o-parted ; petals 
 membranaceous, imbricated; ovary ovate or flattened-giobose, 1-celled; 
 style short or wanting ; stigmas 3. Fruit ovate-elliptical or 3-sided, 
 outer coating thick and fibrous, 6 to 12 inches long, and 4 to 8 inches 
 in diameter. Seed nearly globular ; testa horny, marked with three 
 spots at the top. Large palms; trees with a crown of feathery 
 leaves. 
 
 C. nucifera, Linnasus. (Cocoanut Palm.) Trunk .50 to 100 feet high, and 
 I to 2 feet in diameter. Leaves springing from the terminal bud, alternate, 
 
 pinnate, sheathing at base ; . 
 pinnies with decurved margins. 
 Flowers enveloped in a spathe. 
 Fruit in clusters of 10 to 20, 
 3-sided, tapering to a blunt 
 point, 6 to 9 inches long and 3 
 to 5 in diameter; outer husk 
 fibrous, enveloped in a smooth, 
 glossy cuticle ; the whole an 
 inch or more in thickness. Seed 
 a prolate spheroid, 4 to 5 inches 
 long and 3 to 4 in diameter, in- 
 closed in a horny shell, rough 
 on the outside, and one fourth 
 of an inch thick, inside of which 
 and adhering to it is a coating 
 or wall lialf an inch thick, hard, 
 Avhite, crisp, oily, and edible ; 
 the cavity within is filled with 
 a rich, limpid liquor, which is 
 very grateful to the palate. A 
 single tree sometimes has upon 
 it 120 of these gigantic nuts at 
 one time. 
 
 There are about thirty spe- 
 cies to this genus, all tropical 
 or strictly subtropical. 
 
 Geoqraphy. — The geographical zone of the cocoanut is equatorial, extending 
 twenty-five degrees both sides of the equator in seacoast regions. It is found 
 in higher latitudes, but does not fruit well above 25°, except in localities 
 especially favored by a high temperature, — a temperature which is seldom 
 below 75° Fahrenheit. It abounds in the coast regions of Brazil, on the West 
 ItKlia Islands, the western and eastern coast, and islands of Central America; 
 
 Cocos NtrciPEEA (Cocoanut Palm). 
 
PALM^:. 283 
 
 it is extensively grown in Ceylon, and in all the coa-st couutrie.s of southern 
 Asia, especially in Farther India and southwestern China, and delights in a 
 sea exposure. 
 
 Etyuiology. — Cocos, the generic name, is sup])Osed to be derived from the 
 l^ortuguese word coco, a monkey, due to the three spots on the end of the nut, 
 which make it resemble the face of that animal. It is also believed to come 
 from the Greek word kokkos, a fruit or berry. Nuc'ifera, the specific name, is 
 compounded of the two Latin words, nux, a nut, and fero, bear, and signifies 
 " nut-bearing." Cocoanut, the common name, is made up of coco and nut. 
 
 Histori/. — It is on record that this fruit, if not the tree, was known to the 
 ancient Egyptians centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. 
 Columbus found it growing in Central America on his fourth voyage to the 
 New World. The Arabs were acciuaiuted with it, and their phvsicians wrote 
 of it during the Middle Ages. It has Indian, Arabic, Persian, and Malay 
 names, showing it to be native in those countries four thousand years ago. 
 The bulk of evidence is that the home of the cocoanut is the East Indian 
 Archipelago, whence it has sown itself, by means of the ocean currents, on the 
 coasts of eastern Africa and the far off shores of western America. The 
 character of its fruit is highly favorable to its distribution by sea ; and its 
 preference for the seacoast leads to the inference that it lias drifted across 
 the ocean and been thrown upon the isles and low shores, where it has become 
 naturalized, — the seed being covered by a strong shell, and the whole inclosed 
 in a light, porous husk, which is impervious to water, on account of a smooth, 
 glossy cuticle which envelops it. 
 
 Use. — There is not another individual of the whole vegetable kingdom 
 which furnishes so many useful substances to man, no single tree of the vast 
 flora of the world is so completely utilized, as the cocoanut palm. Its products 
 are : sugar, milk, solid cream, wine, vinegar, oil, cordage, cloth, cups, timber 
 for building, and materials for implements of husbandry, furniture, baskets, 
 mats, and culinary utensils. The inhabitants of large districts subsist almost 
 exclusively upon its fruit alone. The shells are used for goblets, ornamented 
 with carving. 
 
 In Ceylon a man's credit and commercial standing is measured by the num- 
 ber of cocoanut trees he has in his plantation. 
 
 The fruit is largely used in America and Europe for the preparation of 
 dessert dishes, as pies, custards, cakes, and confections ; and the desiccating 
 of the cocoanut has become an important industry in the eastern United 
 States. The oil of the nut is treated to extract the stearine which is employed 
 for the manufacture of candles ; the more fluid parts are used for salad dress- 
 ings, for illuminating purposes, and for the manufacture of soap. Soap made 
 with this oil is so soluble as to make it capable of use in sea water. Among 
 fibrous plants the cocos holds high rank. The fiber of the husk (coir) is em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of floor cloths, door mats, strings, bags, brushes, 
 brooms, and many other articles for domestic use. It does not decay m 
 water. The leaves serve for thatch, and their strong midribs are divided into 
 splints, and woven into baskets. 
 
 METROXYLON, Rottb. (Feather Palm.) Flowers polygamous. 
 Stamiiiatf Howcrs with funnel-shaped calyx, 3-toothed; corolla 
 3-parted, lapping each other; stamens G, inserted on the base of 
 the corolla ; filanu'uts united at tlie ba.^e ; anthers linear and dorsi- 
 
284 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 fixed. Pistillate flowers much like the staminate ones ; ovary oblong, 
 3-celled, conical, with 3 tooth-like stigmas ; ovules 3. Fruit ellipsoidal 
 or subglobular, 1-celled, 1-seeded ; pericarp clothed with scales, imbri- 
 cated. Leaves terminal, nearly erect, pinnatisect; segments usually 
 opposite, linear-lanceolate, acuminate ; petiole convex underneath, 
 furrowed above. Spadix large, branched, loose ; spathe leathery. 
 Flowers immersed in a woolly covering, small. 
 
 M. sagu, Rottb. (Sago Palm.) Trunk 30 to 50 feet high, aud 6 to 15 
 inches in diameter, straight, cylindrical, gray, while young armed with strong, 
 sharp spines to protect it against the attacks of the wild hog ; these spines 
 fall off when the rind has become hard. Outer coat of the trunk hard, inner 
 part spongy. Leaves few, crowning the stem ; entire leaf, including petiole, 
 
 about 20 feet long, erect, slightly curved ; 
 petiole 6 to 8 inches in diameter near the 
 base, clasping ; rachis square below, and 
 keeled or triangular above. Leaflets many 
 and opposite, middle ones longer, straight, 
 stiff, narrow, linear-lanceolate, acute, entire, 
 leathery and smooth, 3 veined, bright-green 
 above, pale beneath. Flowers unisexual or 
 perfect, sometimes mixed in the same spadix, 
 numerous, small, each with three small 
 bracts, smooth within, covered on the out- 
 side with a yellowish wool, and in the axil 
 of a strong smooth bract. Inflorescence in 
 a cylindrical, dense spike, 4 inches long. 
 The whole inflorescence consists of numer- 
 ous spikes arranged along on 6 to 9 main 
 stalks, which crown the tree, making a 
 center-piece for the leaves. Calyx rigid, 
 smooth, and 3-lobed ; corolla much larger 
 than the calyx, cut into three obtuse, thin 
 segments ; stamens 6, as long as the corolla, 
 and inserted on it at its base ; ovary short-stalked, imperfectly 3-celled, 1 ovule 
 in a cell ; style conical, tapering, pointed. Fruit one and a half inches in 
 diameter, spherical, mucronate at summit, clothed with greenish-red scales. 
 Seed solitary, enveloped in a dark-brown testa. The tree matures in from 
 1 5 to 20 years, when it flowers and fruits and dies. The seeds seldom mature, 
 and the tree is propagated by stolons. 
 
 There are six species of this palm, but the sago of commerce is obtained 
 from the following species : — 
 
 M. sagu, M. spinosa, and M. Igevis. 
 
 Geographjj. — This tree is found only in the tropics, in the hottest and wet- 
 test parts of Asia. It flourishes throughout the Eastern Archipelago, extend- 
 ing about 10 degrees both sides of the equator, abounding in swampy localities. 
 
 Etymology. — Metroxylon is from the Greek iirirpa, the heart or pith ; i,v\ov, 
 wood or tree ; hence pith-tree. Sagu is the Malay name for " bread " or 
 " food." Sago is a corruption of sagu. 
 
 History. — There is no reason to believe that the ancients were acquainted 
 with the product of this tree. When the East Indies were first visited by 
 
 Metroxylon sagu (Sago Palm). 
 
GKAMINE^.. 286 
 
 Europeans the sago loustitutecl the ijiiiicipal I'<km1 of the natives of Malacca, 
 soutliern China, and the adjacent isles. 
 
 Preparation. — The tree grows best in a muddy l)i)g. An acre yields about 
 300,000 pounds, and a single tree produces about 500 pounds, — a very large 
 tree, 900 pounds. It is cut at the foot, just as it is about to fruit, which 
 occurs when the tree is from fifteen to twenty years old. The top is taken off, 
 and a strip of the shell or outer coating is removed the wliole length of the 
 trunk, and with an instrument constructed by fastening a sharp stone to a 
 stick the pith is removed, leaving a thin shell not more than an inch thick. 
 The pith is kneaded in water, in large trouglis, by which jjrocess the starch or 
 sago is washed out and sinks to the bottom ; the water is tlien run off. This 
 starch, or sago, is then made into balls or rolls, which weigh thirty pounds 
 each, when it is ready for use, as crude or raw sago. The natives make it 
 into cakes, and bake it, iu which condition it will keep for years, and when 
 used it merely needs soaking. One tree will produce sufficient food to keep a 
 man for a year. 
 
 There are several varieties of the sago, due to different methods of prepara- 
 tion. Pearl sago, the variety which reaches the American market, is prepared 
 in Singapore by the Chinese ; the raw sago is made into a paste, forced 
 through sieves and dried in pans over fire, and constantly stirred while under- 
 going the process. 
 
 Use. — Sago furnishes the inhabitants of Malaysia and southern Asia a 
 food material equal in importance to rice in other parts of Asia. Many mil- 
 lions know no other food but fish and the crude sago. 
 
 In Europe and the United States it is a popular material for puddings 
 and custards. It is pure starch, free from all irritating character, and 
 hence constitutes an excellent food for infants, old people, and convalescent 
 invalids. 
 
 The leaves are used for thatching ; the leaf-stalks, immense in size, furnish 
 building material, and the fiber is used for cordage ; in fact, all parts of the 
 plant are applied to some use. 
 
 Order LXI. GRAMINE^. 
 
 Flowers perfect, occasionally monoecious or dioecious, sometimes 
 polygamous, each mostly with 2 opposite bracts or pale;^, the lower of 
 which is larger. Inflorescence in spikelets, the spikelets variously col- 
 lected into panicles or spikes. Perianth imperfect, seldom wanting, 
 composed of whorled hypogynous, membranous, or fleshy, irregular 
 scales, free or connate, 3, 2, or 1 in number, the outer alternate with 
 the paleae. Stamens hypogynous, 3 or 6 in number, seldom 4-2 or 1 ; 
 ovary free, 1-celled, 1-ovuled ; styles 2, very rarely 3, free or connate 
 at base, or united : stigmas with simple or branched hairs. Leaves 
 alternate, springing from the nodes; petiole dilated, convolute, sheath- 
 ing; sheath split in front, blade entire, mostly linear; stipule axillary 
 at the top of the leaf-sheath. Stem cylindrical, rarely flattened, fistular 
 or solid, mostly jointed at the insertion of the leaves; nodes annular, 
 solid, and swollen. 
 
 Annuals or perennials, with fibrous or creeping rhizome, frequently 
 stoloniferous at the lower node. 
 
286 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Some of the cultivated species of this order are not known in a wild 
 state. Number of genera, 1,298 ; species, 3,200 ; found in all parts of 
 the world. Our most useful plants belong to this order. The stems 
 and culms of most of species are largely composed of silicates. 
 
 ZEA, L. Flowers monoecious ; staminate flowers in terminal pani- 
 cles ; pistillate flowers in 1-3 axillary spikes ; staminate spikelets 
 2-flowered, with 2 concave glumes, the lower one 3-nerved, the upper 
 one 2-nerved. Palese membranous and without arms, the two col- 
 lateral and fleshy scales glabrous. Stamens 3 in number, and the 
 linear anthers 4-sided. Pistillate flowers with very short glumes 
 on an axillary spike, which is inclosed by many spathe-like bracts; 
 these form the husk by which the fruit is protected. Style simple, 
 very long, thread-like, far exserted, and hanging. 
 
 Z. mays, L. (Indian Corn, Maize.) Stem or culm from 3 to 15 feet high, 1 
 to 2 inches in diameter, composed of bundles of woody fiber imbedded in pith ; 
 the whole inclosed in a smooth, flinty cortex, terete, grooved on one side with 
 a smooth, semi-circular channel, and divided into nodes whose intervals are 
 from 5 to 9 inches long, crowned at the top with a compound panicle of 
 staminate flowers called "the tassel." Root fibrous; the stem throws off 
 aerial roots from the nodes next to the ground, which are called "brace 
 roots." 
 
 The pistillate flowers are borne on a close axillary spike, inclosed in a mass 
 of spathe-like bracts, called " the husks," and are characterized by the elon- 
 gated, filiform styles, which extend far beyond the orifice of the bracts and 
 hang in tresses over the ear or head, like bundles of silk threads ; they are 
 called the "silk," The leaf appears at the nodes, clasping the stalk by striate 
 sheaths, which are eared, from 2 to 4 feet long, and from 2 to 4 inches broad, 
 linear-lanceolate. There are no radical leaves. 
 
 Emit a flat, reniform or cuneate-shaped seed, arranged in rows on the rachis, 
 which is from .'j to 12 inches long, and called the " cob " ; the number of rows 
 on a cob varies from 8 to 14, with from 20 to .50 seeds in a row. The cob 
 ranges from three fourths of an inch to two inches in diameter. 
 
 Flowers in July or August, and ripens its fruit in September and October. 
 
 In common Avith other plants grown from seed, it sports and forms varieties 
 which depart from the specific character in color, size, and shape of the grain 
 and quality of the meal made therefrom. The gourd-seed varieties are in 
 every way larger, and the seeds not so hard and flinty. The flour-corn 
 has reniform seed, but is softer, and is used largely in the Southern States 
 for bread. The gourd-seed A'arieties are raised in the South and West. The 
 eight-rowed flint, both white and yellow, are grown in New York and the 
 eastern Atlantic States north of New York, 
 
 The number of forms resulting from free sporting is very great ; about .30 
 of these are sufficiently characteristic and constant to make species, and would 
 be so regarded if outside of cultivation. 
 
 Geography — Indian corn is now cultivated and is an important crop in all 
 the United States, Upper Canada, Mexico, South America, southern Europe, 
 Africa, and western Asia. It does not grow well above the forty-fifth parallel, 
 but flourishes best below the fortieth, and delights in a hot, sunny clime. 
 
OnAMlNE^.. 
 
 287 
 
 Tropi.al MM.l sul.trupi."il conntries seem io he the lands of its hirth As \t 
 
 becomes acclimateci farther uorth. the ears diminish in size, ami the who e 
 
 plant becomes dwarfed. In the warm regions it reaches the height of "2 to 
 
 Io feet; m Maine anrl southern Canada it ranges from 3 to 4 feet The ears 
 
 m Canada seldom exceed 8 inches in length, while in the southern United 
 
 States the length is from 8 to 15 inches. "^"'tcu 
 
 Et,jmolo,jij. — Ze<i is from the Greek Caw, 
 
 . live, alluding to the capacity this grain has to 
 
 sustain life. Mays and maize are derived from 
 
 inahiz, the name b}- which the American 
 
 aborigines called this plant, — the meaning of 
 
 whicli is obscure. Indian corn is a name 
 
 given by Europeans, on account of the use of 
 
 the jjlant by the aborigines of America. 
 
 ///s/o/y. — This cereal is undoubtedly of 
 American origin. Attempts have been made 
 to show that in an old Chinese book found 
 in the national library in Paris there is a 
 figure of a plant identical with corn; and 
 hence the inference is drawn that it is also 
 indigenous to Asia ; but there is good reason 
 to doubt that it was known in the Old World 
 before the discovery of America, or before 
 Columbus introduced it into Spain in 1520, 
 twenty-eight years after the discovery of the 
 New World. Humboldt and other good au- 
 thorities do not hesitate to say that it origi- 
 nated solely in America. In a marvelously 
 sliort time it spread over southern Europe, 
 northern Africa, and western Asia, showing 
 conclusively that had it been known in Asia 
 It would have reached Europe before the 
 discovery of America. It is found in the 
 tombs of the ancient Peruvians, and in the 
 mounds of the Mississippi. C. Darwin found 
 It buried with shells fifty-five feet above tide- 
 water. It is nowhere found wild, propagatin<r 
 
 Itself. r r e, to 
 
 Cultivation. — Maize delights in a light 
 loam, which cannot be made too rich by fer- 
 tilizers. In the well-worn lands of the Atlantic 
 States large supplies of fertilizers are neces- 
 sary to abundant crops; but in the rich allu- 
 vial bottoms of the Missi.ssippi Valley nothing is nce.led to insure an abun 
 dant harvest but to plough and plant, and stir the soil. It is n ^ te inZ' 
 mtersections of cross-drills, four feet apart each wav, bv ^.^Z^ 
 
 thirt^y to forty bushels to the acre are a satisfactorv vield ; fiftv an.l seventv- 
 fi;e bushels are frequentlv reached ; in the bottoni lands of the MiSl S 
 \ alley, sixtv to eighty bushels are not uncommon. i'^^'^^Mppi 
 
 In the Atlantic States north of New Jersey the vellow and white fiint varie- 
 ties are grown, but in the lowlands of New Jersey and further south the 
 
 7.KK MAYS (Indian Corn). 
 
288 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 gourd-seed varieties are planted, which require a longer season than the climate 
 north of central New Jersey affords. 
 
 Use. — As an article of food, Indian corn is used for bread, mush, griddle- 
 cakes, puddings, dumplings, etc. When merely cracked, it is called " samp," 
 and is prepared for the table by boiling and serving like a vegetable, or by 
 boiling it with salt meats. When coarsely ground it is called " hominy," and 
 is cooked and served as oatmeal, and eaten with milk or sauce. 
 
 Large quantities of starch are manufactured from it, both for the table and 
 the laundry. It is also used in large quantities for distilling, and is the chief 
 material for manufacturing the celebrated Bourbon w^hiskey. 
 
 But the most important use made of this grain is as feed for cattle, sheep, 
 horses, and swine ; it excels all other feed for its fattening properties. 
 
 The leaves and upper parts of the stalks are good substitutes for hay, and 
 the cobs are excellent fuel. The quantity of corn raised in the United States 
 exceeds the amount of all the other cereals combined. It yields the largest 
 returns of all the cereals. 
 
 Marts. — The great marts of North America are Chicago, Buffalo, St. Louis, 
 New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco, in the United States, and Toronto 
 in Canada. 
 
 TRITICUM, L. Spikelets from 2- to many-flowered, in a stout spike. 
 Florets distichous ; rachis zigzag ; glumes nearly opposite, not quite 
 equal, sometimes with awns ; inner palege herbaceous, lower one con- 
 cave and sometimes awned or mucronate, upper one with 2 aculeate 
 and ciliate keels. Scales 2, usually entire and ciliate. Stamens 3. 
 Ovary sessile, crowned with 2 plumose stigmas. 
 
 T. vulgare, L. (Wheat.) Stem or culm 2 to 5 feet high, tapering from the 
 root to the base of the head or the ear, divided by nodes into several inter- 
 nodes, or lengths, from 4 to 7 inches long. At each node is a single, clasping, 
 lance-shaped leaf, strongly veined and rough on the upper side. Flowers 
 appear at the top of the culm in a close panicle. 
 
 The grains, or seeds, are OA^al in shape, a quarter of an inch in length, flat, 
 and marked on the side next the rachis by a groove the whole length, outside 
 convex. It is an annual, and when planted in early spring, it flowers and fruits 
 the same season; when thus cultivated it is known as ".summer wheat" or 
 " spring wheat." The best wheat is biennial ; it is planted in early autumn, 
 in time to take root and form root or radical leaves before winter sets in ; it 
 ripens in July of the following year, and is called " winter wheat," because it 
 remains in the ground during the winter. 
 
 As wheat is grown from the seed it sports or produces ncAv forms ; growers 
 have taken advantage of this circumstance to obtain improved varieties, and 
 very many such varieties have from time to time been recommended by wlieat 
 growers, especially in Europe and America. The varieties under which the 
 forms may be classified in America are : — 
 
 Var. hybernum. Winter Wheat. T. hybernum, L. 
 
 Var. aestivum. Summer AVheat. T. aestivum, L. 
 
 Var. nudum. No-bearded Wheat. 
 
 Var. album. White Wheat. 
 
 Var. rubrum. Red Wheat, or Mediterranean Wheat. 
 
 There are many otlier forms, all referable to the above, which are sufficiently 
 constant to be considered varieties. 
 
GRAMINE^.. 
 
 289 
 
 T. compositum deserves to be treated as a species, and m all respects resem- 
 bles T. viilgare, except that the stalk is thicker, aiul the head branchiug It 
 IS growu m nurtheru Africa, aud in suutiiern Italv, and was no doubt the 
 wheat ot the ancient Hebrews and the Romans. 
 
 Geofjraphy. — Wheat does not grow well north of the fiftieth degree of 
 Dorth latitude in North America, nor south <.f tlie thirtieth degree. In Europe 
 It grows well in southern liussia below 51°, 
 and is cultivated with success throughout 
 central and western Europe, and as far south 
 as southern Italy. It is also cultivated suc- 
 cessfully in Turkey, Syria, northern and 
 southern Africa, and in the south temperate 
 zone in South America, — in Brazil, Chile 
 and Buenos Ay res ; also in Australia, wliere 
 it constitutes the most important object of 
 agriculture. The great wheat-gro\\ing re- 
 gions of the world are the southwestern 
 plains of Kussia, the great central plain of 
 North America, the southern ])lains of Cali- 
 fornia, and recently, northern India and 
 England. 
 
 Etymology. — Triticum is from the Latin 
 verb tero, whose ])articiple is tritus, rubbed, 
 — alluding either to the practice of rubbing 
 it to separate the grain from the chaff, or 
 to the mode of grinding it into flour. The 
 specific name vuU/are is the Latin for " com- 
 mon." The word wheat, the common name, 
 is supposed to be derived from the Sanscrit 
 sereta, meaning " white," and arises from the 
 circumstance that the flour made from this 
 grain is white. 
 
 History. — No form of wheat, nor any 
 species closely resembling it, has ever beeii 
 seen wild. It must, therefore, either have 
 been very much altered from the original 
 wild grass, which tradition and probability 
 would lead one to consider a native of some 
 part of central Asia ; or else, by reason of 
 changes of climate in the country of its 
 origin, it has become extinct as a wild plant. 
 In favor of the latter supposition in prefer- 
 ence to the former is the fact that, like other 
 annual cereals, the wheat shows very little 
 tendency to vary. The forms cultivated in 
 ancient Egypt, in China, and in Talestine. 
 
 appear to be identical in all respects with'those we are now familiar with. 
 The home of the wheat is gener.illy believed to be western Asia in the coun- 
 tries watered by the Tigris an.l Euphrates, whence it ha., found'its wav into 
 every favorable clime where a.-ri.-ulture is practiced. Among tho ancient 
 Egyptians, and the inhabitants of Talestine, MesojM.f:„nia. and northern Svria 
 Pk. Fi. — 20 " '' 
 
 Triticum vuloabe (Wheat). 
 
290 J)E«C'KirnVK KOTANV. 
 
 it was the most iinportaut crop. In the western hemisphere wheat was not 
 Icnown until the sixteenth century. Humboldt mentions that it was accident- 
 ally introduced into Mexico with rice brought from Spain by a negro slave 
 belonging to Cortes, and the same writer saw at Quito the earthen vase in 
 which a Flemish monk had introduced from Ghent the first wheat grown in 
 South America. 
 
 Cultivation. — Wheat is a true patrician ; it will not thrive upon scanty fare, 
 nor flourish without attention. It is what agriculturists call a gross feeder ; 
 it not only demands a deep, heavy soil, but the soil must be well tilled and 
 highly fertilized in order to satisfy this prince of the cereals. Without these 
 conditions it refuses to yield largely, but responds with liberal harvests to 
 generous cultivation. 
 
 In the rich bottom lands of the Mississippi valley, the southern plains of 
 California, and the wheat-growing lands of southern Russia, nothing is needed 
 but to prepare the ground and sow the seed to insure a large yield ; but in 
 old and long cultivated districts the most careful attention to suitable fertil- 
 izers is necessary to secure even moderate crops. The yield per acre varies 
 from ten to sixty bushels. In the well-worn fields of the Atlantic states the 
 yield is frequently not more than twelve bushels, and thirty bushels is a very 
 satisfactory crop. In the rich alluvial soil of the central states the yield fre- 
 quently reaches fifty bushels, and sometimes sixty. The quantities vary with 
 soil, climate, and mode of cultivation. 
 
 A notable case of high farming was brought before the court in ancient 
 Eome. A farmer was accused of sorcery for raising better crops of Avheat than 
 his neighbors. When the accused appeared before his judges, who sat in the 
 open air, he brought with him and exhibited his agricultural implements, supe- 
 rior in construction, his well-fed oxen, and his callous hands. Pointing to his 
 cattle and implements, he exclaimed : " Here, O Romans, are my tools of 
 witchcraft, which I employ to make my crops." His judges pronounced him 
 innocent, reprimanded his accusers, and advised them to follow his example. 
 
 Use. — A bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds and will make 47 pounds of 
 flour, leaving 13 pounds of middlings, bran, and waste. 
 
 This grain now constitutes the staple food of most of the ci%ilized peoples 
 of the earth. The flour is made into bread, cakes, puddings, pastry, crackers, 
 biscuit, etc., and is so well known as to need no further description. The Jews 
 were acquainted with the making of leavened bread, which they no doubt 
 learned while in Egyptian bondage. When leavened bread was first used, 
 and who first made it, is nowhere recorded. Homer speaks of leavened bread 
 at the time of the Trojan War. Pliny states that there were no public bakers 
 in Rome until about 200 years before Christ. 
 
 The straw of wheat is used for the manufacture of hats for both men and 
 women. The fine Leghorn straws are manufactured from the stalks of the 
 wheat collected while green, and bleached in the sun. Wheat is sometimes 
 used as a forage crop. A variety has been introduced from Japan which 
 seems to be very useful for this purpose. 
 
 Marts. — The great wheat markets of the world are : Odessa, on the Black 
 Sea ; Riga, on the Baltic ; the North German ports ; Constantinople ; London 
 and Liverpool, in England ; Chicago, San Francisco, and New York, in the 
 United States ; and Toronto, in the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 ORYZA, L. (Rice.) Spikelets 1-flowered, in compound panicles ; 
 flowers perfect, with 2 very small, bristle-formed glumes ; paleje 2 in 
 
ORAMIXE^?^. 
 
 291 
 
 number, boat-shaped and fattened, the lower one broader, and tipped 
 with a straight awn; stamens 6 in number; stigmas clothed with 
 hairs. 
 
 1. 0. sativa, L. (Cunuuon Ku-e.) Stem from 2 to 5 feet high, somewhat Hke 
 the cuhu of wheat, with shorter iuteruodes. Leaf liuear, elougated, aud rough. 
 Flowers iu close ])auicles. Branches erect, from 5 to 10 inches long, outer pale, 
 strongly veiued and keeled ; hisi)id ciliate, termiuating iu an awu. Grain 
 white, somewhat fusiform, compressed, slight grooves aud ridges extending 
 lengthwise, one fourth of an inch long, and about an eightli of an inch in 
 diameter. Flowers in July ; fruits iu August and September. 
 
 Besides the sativa, we have the following species : — 
 
 2. 0. praecox, Early Kice. 
 
 3. 0. mutica. The mountain Kice. 
 
 4. 0. glutinosa. Clammy Rice. 
 
 These last three and several others are said to be well-marked and constant 
 species ; but as rice is grown from the seed, it sports freely, and many varieties 
 have arisen. 
 
 Geography. — Rice grows well in all the low lands of the tropics where 
 alternate flooding and drying can be effected, and in the temperate zones as 
 high as the thirty-sixth parallel. In India there 
 is a species, O. coarctata, that grows upon the 
 uplands, and as high above the sea as 4,000 feet. 
 It is extensively cultivated in China, Japan, the 
 East Indies, especially in the southern parts, in 
 Japan and the islands of the Indian Ocean, and in 
 Africa, having been introduced into Egypt in the 
 days of the caliphs. It has in later years been 
 raised sparingly in southern Europe. The moun- 
 tain or upland rice has been successfully grown iu 
 Hungary. It is planted and successfully grown in 
 South America and in the southern United States. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — The word 07\i/za is Latinized from 
 eruz, an old Arabic or Sanscrit word, which signi- 
 fies " grow," and is supposed to have been applied 
 to this plant on account of its prolific cliaracter. 
 Sativa, the specific name, means " sown," or "cul- 
 tivated." The common name rice is supposed to 
 be a corruption of the botanic name. 
 
 Histori/. — There is no record that reveals tlie 
 time when rice first became a food of the luiman 
 family. It is one of the cereals yearly sown by 
 the Emperor of China ; the first record of such 
 sowing was made in the year 2S00 b. r. The little 
 that is known about its early hi.story points to 
 southern Asia as the land of its nativity. Alex- 
 ander the Great l)rought it to the notice of the 
 
 Greeks on his return froju his expedition to India 330 n. c. Its cultivation 
 in Italy dates fro'm 1468 of the present era. Since anything has been known 
 of Asia, rice has constituted the principal food of all classes in that country 
 uot only on the continent, but also on the adjacent islands. 
 
 OnTZA SATIVA (Rice). 
 
292 DESCRITTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 The growth of rice in America dates from about the year 1 700. It is related 
 that a vessel from Madagascar entered one of the ports of South Carolina, 
 believed to be Charleston, and the captain of the vessel presented Mr. Wood- 
 ward, a settler, with a small quantity of seed rice, which he planted. Soon 
 after this occurrence Mr. Dubois, the treasurer of the East India Co., sent to 
 Carolina a bag of rice. From these two small quantities of seed, coming from 
 different countries, sprang the three varieties of rice grown in America, one 
 of which is now the favorite in the markets of America, as well as in Europe, 
 and is pronounced the best in the world. 
 
 Rice of excellent quality is raised in the Sandwich Islands, most of which is 
 brought to the United States via San Francisco. 
 
 Cultivation. — The mode of culture is to prepare the ground, plant the seed 
 in drills a foot apart in the row, with the rows far enough apart to work 
 between them in keeping the ground free from weeds. After planting, the 
 field is flooded for some days, and then the water is drained off. AVhen the 
 plants make their appearance above the ground the water is again let on to 
 kill the young weeds. After two or three weeks, in the month of April, the 
 water is again withdrawn, and the ground kept free from weeds with the hoe. 
 AVhen the plants are some eight inches to a foot in height, late in August or 
 early in September, the water is let on and left till the grain is ripe. Then 
 the water is finally withdrawn, and as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry, 
 the crop is reaped, bound in sheaves, and taken to the high land to cure and 
 to be threshed. 
 
 A continuation of rainy weather about harvest time, which frequently 
 occurs in southern India, renders the rice crop uncertain there. In 1770 the 
 crop failed, or was destroyed, and ten million persons died of starvation ; in 
 1860 one and a half million persons perished from the same cause. 
 
 Use. — Rice, in the United States, is used in many ways : it is prepared by 
 boiling in water and eaten as a vegetable ; cooked with milk and eaten as a 
 porridge for dessert ; baked with milk and eggs for dessert puddings ; ground 
 into flour and used to thicken soups and gravies ; and also made into griddle- 
 cakes. It is said that the modes of cooking rice in the East are very numerous ; 
 but the masses of Asia boil it in the most simple manner, and eat it without 
 any sort of dressing. 
 
 Rice, in India, China, Japan, Egypt, and the islands off the coast of Asia, 
 forms the principal article of food for more than five hundred million persons. 
 The greater part of the teeming millions of Japan, China, and southern India 
 seldom taste any other food. It furnishes food for a far greater number of 
 people than any other plant. Rice does not possess the nutritive qualities of 
 the other food grains, being constituted largely of starch ; it should not be 
 eaten until six or eight months after harvesting. 
 
 SACCHARTTM, L. (Sugar Cane.) Spikelets panicled, in pairs, one 
 pedicellate, and the other sessile, spikelets made up of 2 flowers each, 
 at the base of which is a tuft of long silky hairs ; lower floret without 
 stamens or pistils, a single bract at the base ; upper floret perfect ; 
 glumes 2, equal, and without awns ; stamens 1 to 3 ; ovary sessile, 
 glabrous ; styles 2, elongated ; stigma plumose ; hairs simple and 
 toothed. Fruit free, perennial. 
 
 S. officinarum, L. (Sugar Cane.) Stem or culm 10 to 20 feet high, com- 
 posed of a strong cortex filled with a pith, charged with a sugary substance. 
 
GRAMIXEyE. 
 
 293 
 
 Internodc's short. Leaves flat, liuear-lauceolate, c]asj)ing, like the leaves of 
 maize. Flowers in a panicle, 2 feet long ; racemes thread-like, erect, and 
 spreading, clothed with silky hairs. 
 
 Sugar cane grown from the seed spcn-ts freely, hence there are many species. 
 — The following have been found growing witliout cultivation : S. contractum, 
 S. polystachyum. S. dubium, S. rubicundum. S. atrorubens, S. fragile. 
 
 (Jeofjnip/ii/. — The sugar cane is a tropical and subtropical plant. The 
 geographical range is a belt extending around the earth, including the torrid 
 zone and some twelve additional degrees l)oth north and scjuth of the tropics. 
 The West Indies, Brazil, Mexico, and the southern United States, in America, 
 the Isle of Mauritius, southern India, the islands of the Pacific, and uortliern 
 Australia produce most of the sugar of commerce. In the United States, 
 Louisiana is the sugar-producing region. A small part of Mississippi, and also 
 of Missouri, produce cane. 
 
 Etymology. — The name sacchantm is from 
 the Arabic name sakknr, snk-kar, corrupted into 
 sfifjai-. The specific names are all due to some 
 characteristic of the plant ; as, officinarum, of 
 the shops ; contractum, smallness of the whole 
 plant, etc. 
 
 History. — The sugar cane is a native of 
 Cochin China ; but where it was first brought 
 under cultivation is not known. Circum- 
 stances point to India. It is known that the 
 Venetians imported it thence by way of the 
 Ked Sea as early as the middle of the twelfth 
 century ; and ])revious to the discovery of 
 America it was grown upon the islands of the 
 eastern Mediterranean, — having been intro- 
 duced by the Saracens, and carried to southern 
 Spain by the same enterprising people. Soon 
 after the discovery of the \Vest Indies the Dutch 
 manufactured sugar in the Isle of St. Thomas, 
 in 1610, and the English, in 1643, commenced 
 its manufacture in Barbadoes and Jamaica. 
 Pliny and (lalen both speak of sugar as " sweet 
 salt," which was used at that time as a medical 
 remedy. It was first substituted for honey in compounding medicines by 
 Actuarius, a physician of the tenth century, and was then called "Indian 
 salt," which points to India as the country of its origin. 
 
 Five hundred years ago sugar as an article of food was not known in 
 Europe, now it is (jue of tlie neces.saries of life thnmghout the civilized world, 
 and has largely superseded honey, whose sweetness was so mucli extolled 
 hy the ancients. About the end of the sixteenth century the Portuguese 
 began to import it from Brazil ; it was then used in medicine or as a great 
 delicacy. 
 
 L'p to 1872 the varictv known as the Creole liad been cultivated in the 
 LTnited States to tho exclusion of all others. It was found to have greatly 
 degenerated, and this led to efforts to introduce new varieties. Mr Ln]iice. 
 one of the largest and most ex])erienced sugar ])lanters. visited the Ea.st Indies 
 and the islands of tlie Pacific to examine the chnracter and condition of the 
 cane. Selecting what seemed to liim the best, he sent lioiue a sliii> loaded 
 
 SACCHARrM OFFICIXARC.M 
 
 (Sugar Cane). 
 
294 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 with 11,000 cuttings of new varieties. No report has thus far been made of 
 the comparative productiveness of the kinds introduced. 
 
 A few years ago thirty-two varieties were sent from Mauritius to the British 
 West Indies ; about one half of these proved to be constant, and worthy of the 
 attention of sugar-growers. Besides these forms there are many others, which 
 are either sports or modifications, due to the effects of soil, climate, and mode 
 of culture. 
 
 Chemistry. — Saccharose or cane-sugar yields to the chemist carbon, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen, C12H22O11, and has a specific gravity of 1.60. It crystallizes 
 in prisms, which are phosphorescent when broken or electrified. Its solutions 
 turn polarized light to the right, and are hence called dextrose. It fuses at 
 .310° F. ; it is soluble in water, and slightly so in alcohol. 
 
 Preparation. — Sugar is obtained by crushing the cane between grooved 
 rollers, whose grooves are armed with iron. The expressed juice is then 
 evaporated in pans at a low temperature and in a partial vacuum. By the 
 use of lime, charcoal, etc., it is refined. The drainings and uncrystallized 
 parts are molasses and syrup. 
 
 The cane, after passing through the press, is soaked in water, and the strain- 
 ings and rougher parts of the molasses are mixed with the water ; then it is 
 allowed to ferment. It is then distilled, and produces rum. Large quantities 
 of sugar are obtained from the beet in Europe, and from the maple tree in 
 America. (See Beet, and Sugar Maple.) The sugar of China is obtained 
 from sorghum. 
 
 Use. — Sugar is so well known that a description of its use would seem 
 superfluous. It is found on our tables in some form at every meal. It is a 
 perfect preservative for fruits of every description, and the principal ingre- 
 dient in all confectionery. In fact, few articles of food have attained so wide 
 a usefulness. 
 
 Propagation . — To preserve the constancy of species and varieties, the cane 
 is propagated from cuttings either from the upper nodes of the culm or from 
 the rootstock. The new varieties are seedlings, though the plant seldom 
 matures seed in a .state of cultivation. 
 
 SORGHUM, L. Spikelets panicled in twos* or threes on the spreading 
 branches ; the middle spikelet 2-flowercd, perfect, lower flower abor- 
 tive ; side spikelets sterile, without awns ; pedicels usually smooth. 
 Glumes leathery. Stamens 3. Annual. 
 
 S. saccharatum, L. (Broom Corn.) (Andropogon saccharatum, Pers.) 
 Culm 6 to 9 feet liigh, solid, with pith intermingled with woody fiber like 
 Indian corn, about | of an inch in diameter. Leaves 1^ to 2\ feet long, Sc- 
 inches wade, lanceolate, acuminate, smooth, pubescent at the base ; panicle 
 2 feet long, branches simple or nearly so ; flexuous, rough, with short hairs. 
 
 This plant is propagated from seed, hence it sports freely, ])roducing many 
 varieties. 
 
 Geographij. — Sorghum grows best in the warmer parts of the temperate 
 zone, but will mature its seed in eastern Massachusetts. It is grown in south- 
 ern India, northern Africa, southern and middle Europe, and throughout the 
 United States of North America. 
 
 Etymology. — The word sorghum is derivpd from sorghi, the Indian name of 
 this plant, the meaning of which is obscure. The common name, broom com, 
 
GRAMTNE^E. 
 
 295 
 
 arises from the use to wliich the ripjid hvaiiches of tlio panicle is applied, ?'. c, 
 the makiug of brooms, ."^accliaratnm owes its name to the fact that this 
 species is used for making sugar. 
 
 Hislonj. — Surghum is native in the middle of Africa, and was taken to 
 England in the latter part of the eighteenth century, whence it was Ijrought 
 by colonists to ea.>^tern North America, where it has for many years been 
 cultivated. It lias also been cultivated in Egypt, Al)y.ssiuia, and the Deccan. 
 
 (Jse. — Sorghum was grown formerly in the eastern United States for the 
 manufacture of brooms, and in the South for feed for cattle. A coarse meal 
 is made of the seed, which is fed to poultry. During recent years it has been 
 used for making syrup and sugar. 
 
 The government of the United States lias given much attention to this plant, 
 in order to ascertain its value as a sugar producer, in comparison with that of 
 the cane. I\Ir, Leonard Wray claims that varieties grown in Natal compare 
 with the sugar cane in the ratio of five to six ; that is, where the cane yields 
 thirty, sorghum yields twenty-five. It is cultivated in P>ance and French 
 Africa for the production of alcohol, and in Italy for a syrup used in doctoring 
 
 SECALE, L. Spikelets 2-flowered, crowded into a cylindrical spike ; 
 florets sessile, distichous, perfect, with a linear rudiment of a third 
 terminal floret. Glumes subopposite, nearly equal, 
 keeled, and sometimes awned. Palea?. herbaceous, the 
 lower one awned, and keeled with unequal sides, 
 outer side broader and thicker, the upper palea shorter, 
 2-keeled ; scales 2 in number, entire, ciliate ; stamens 
 3; ovary sessile, hairy; stigmas 2, subsessile, termi- ''MsXMI/// 
 nal, and plumose ; hairs lengthened, simple, and ,^ 
 sharply denticulate ; grains hairy at the top. Spike 
 simple, compressed, and linear. 
 
 S. cereals, L. (Rye.) Stem hairy near the head, and 
 ranging from 3 to 5 feet in height. Leaves lance-linear, 
 edges and upper side rough, glaucous. Heads about 5 
 inches long, linear, flattened. PalciU lower, ciliate on the 
 keel and margin. Awns rough and ciliate, long, straight, 
 erect. Annual and biennial. 
 
 There is l)ut one species under cultivation, S. cereale ; but, 
 like all plants grown from the seed, it sports, and the varie- 
 ties are numerous, though far le.ss attention has been paid 
 to its cultivation in that direction than to wheat. 
 
 (T€Offra/i/n/. — Tlie geograjihical range of rye is the colder 
 ])arts of the temperate regions of the world, between 48° 
 and 69° north latitude all around the globe, where the cere- 
 als are cultivated. In northeastern United States it is an 
 important crop for bread ; in the central states it is largely Secale cerrale 
 raised for distilling. It grows well, and is tlie great cereal (Rye), 
 
 of northern Europe, and especially of the sandy districts 
 of the TJaltic provinces, and the shores of the Cnlf of Finland 
 
 T?ye of an excellent (jn-ility for bread making is grown upon the great 
 plain on Long Island. William Cobbet, who in his ih\\- owned a large tract 
 
296 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 on the uortheru edge, near the west end, boasted that his rye bread was better 
 than, and nearly as white as, the Englishman's wheaten loaf. Cobbet named 
 his place Hyde Park, a name it still retains. 
 
 Etymology. — The word secale is supposed to be derived from the Celtic 
 word sega, a sickle, or from the Latin seco, cut, in allusion to the sharp, 
 rough edges of the leaves. The specific name, cereale, means " bread-corn " or 
 " bread-material," from Ceres, the goddess of food plants. The common name, 
 rye, is from the Anglo-Saxon ryge. 
 
 History. — We have no positive knowledge when rye was first cultivated. 
 It was spoken of by writers in the first century of our era. It is native to 
 southern Russia, and the regions north of the Black and Caspian seas. To 
 tlie North German, the Pole, the Norwegian, the Swede, and the Russian, rye 
 is what wheat is to the inhabitant of southern Europe, the Briton, and the 
 American. 
 
 It was used largely in England in early times, probably having been intro- 
 duced by the Danes and Saxons. The wheat introduced earlier by the Romans 
 was regarded as a delicacy, and its use was confined to a few. History relates 
 that among the upper classes in Great Britain hospitality was a prominent 
 feature, and Avhen visitors came, the most lavish jjrofusion was exercised 
 in their entertainment. Among the delicacies proffered on such occasions 
 was wheat bread ; but when the guest prolonged his stay, he began to be 
 treated as a member of the household, and the rye bread was returned to the 
 table. At first this was taken as a compliment, but it finally came to be 
 understood as a hint that the visit had been sufficiently long. Hence the 
 proverb : " Do not prolong your visit till the rye loaf comes on." 
 
 [Ise. — Bread, cakes, biscuit, and puddings are made of rye ; in fact it is 
 applied to most of the purposes for which wheat is used. In the central 
 states rye is extensively used in the manufacture of whiskey. In Holland it 
 is mixed with both barley and buckwheat for distilling ; the liquors thus pro- 
 duced are called " Hollands," and when flavored with juniper berries, they 
 form gin. 
 
 Rye is an excellent feed for cattle, and especially for cows when giving 
 milk. 
 
 HOEDETJM, L. (Barle3\) Three spikelets at each point of the 
 rachis, each 1-flowered, the side florets sometimes abortive ; glumes 
 linear-lanceolate, fiat, stiff, awn's awl-shaped ; paleae herbaceous, lower 
 one concave, terminating in an awn, upper one 2-keeled; scales 2, 
 sometimes 2-lobed, ciliate, sometimes smooth ; stamens 3 ; ovary 
 sessile, hairy at the top ; stigmas 2, nearly terminal, and sessile. 
 Caryopsis terminating in a hairy summit. It is an annual, flowering 
 and fruiting the same season it is sown. 
 
 1. H. vulgare. L. (Barley.) Culm or stem 2 to 3 feet high, smooth. 
 Leaves linear-lanceolate, keeled, and striate, smoothish, eared at the throat ; 
 heads 3 inches long, stout, 4-sided, sometimes somewhat 6-sided, lower paleae 
 crowned with long awns, serrulate on the margin ; upper palese obtuse or 
 emarginate. Flowers in May. Fruits in July. 
 
 2. H. distichum, L. Stem 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves like the last. Heads 
 about 4 inches long, flattened, and 2-ranked. Husk attached to the ripe grain. 
 Flowers in June, and ripens in last of July to August. 
 
GRAMINE^. 
 
 297 
 
 Like other plants raised from the seed, it sports freely, and varieties are 
 numerous; hut the two species here deserihed arc pretty constant, and little 
 attention has heen paid to inijiroving or perpetuatinfj varieties, especially in 
 America. The distichum ripens later, and is in some places preferred for that 
 reason. 
 
 In Kurope the following species are also grown : — 
 
 .?. H. hexastichon. Six-rowed Harley. 
 
 4. H. zeocriton, Battledoor Harley. 
 
 Harlev stands next to rye in importance as a food plant. Its characteristics 
 a.s to cultivation so resemble those of wheat and rye that little needs to be 
 said about them. It is, however, a more gross feeder than rye, and will not 
 yield heavily without high tillage. 
 
 Geography. — Barley grows and ripens over a larger geographical range 
 than either wheat or rye. It ripens and yields generous crops in latitudes 
 where no more than two mouths in the year are free from frost. It grows 
 well in northern Kussia and Siberia, where the 
 ground thaws out only to the depth of two feet, 
 and even less. It will ripen also in warm cli- 
 mates, even in the regions of no frost, but de- 
 lights in a short, hot summer, such as charac- 
 terizes the higher regions of the temperate 
 zones, and like wheat and rye is to be found au 
 emigrant to all the cereal-growing abodes of 
 civilized man. 
 
 Etymology. — The name Iwrdeum is derived 
 from the Latin hordiis, heavy, because bread 
 made from it is usually heavy. The specific 
 name vulgare signifies "common," and distichum, 
 "two-ranked." The common name, barley, is 
 supposed to mean " bearded grain." 
 
 History. — The ancient home of the grain is 
 not known. A traditional history of barley 
 among the Egyptians makes it the first grain 
 used by man. They liold that their goddess Isis 
 taught men its use. It was among the food plant 
 as we have any history of human customs. 
 
 A six-ranked barley, H. hexastichon, cultivated by the ancients, has been 
 found in Egyptian monuments and in the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland, in 
 deposits belonging to the Stone Age. A species known to the ancient Greeks, 
 and denominated the "sacred barley," was used to decorate the hair of the 
 goddess Ceres. Some make its native country Tartary, while others claim 
 that it is indigenous to Siberia. Ili.story bears out the belief that its home is 
 in the middle parts of the temjierate zone in western Asia. It does not fruit 
 without cultivation ; when it escapes cultivation it ceases in a year or two to 
 ripen its seed, and is lost. In fact this is the case with other cereals, and is 
 looked upon as a great mystery ; it does not favor or bear out the doctrine of 
 development, for the other species under this genus refuse under the most 
 careful cultivation to be anything more than ordinary forage grasses. Barley 
 among the Romans was used for feed for horses and cattle, and it also con- 
 stituted the bread-grain of the plebeian classes. Tliny informs us that the 
 gladiators were called " hordcarii " (barley-eaters), from the circumstance that 
 they subsisted on barley. 
 
 HoRUEUM VTTLOARE (Barley), 
 i used bv man as far back 
 
298 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — Barlev at the present day is not largely used as a bread plant. It is 
 regarded us a valuable fattening feed for cattle. In England and Germany it 
 forms the beer-making grain. In Holland and north Germany it is used for 
 distilling, and is the principal grain from which whiskey and Hollands are 
 distilled. 
 
 It is used to thicken soups, and sparingly for porridge and cakes. Pearl 
 barley is prepared by removing the hull, and is cooked as rice is. In northern 
 Scotland and adjacent isles it is an important bread grain, and with oats con- 
 stitutes a large part of bread material. 
 
 Marts. — For Russia the principal markets are Odessa on the Black Sea, 
 and Riga on the Baltic ; for Turkey, Constantinople and Rodosto on the Sea 
 of Marmora ; for France, Marseilles on the Mediterranean, and Havre on the 
 English Channel ; for Germany, Hamburg on the Elbe, and Bremen on the 
 Weser. In the United States the markets are local, being confined to brewing 
 centers, as Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, etc. 
 
 AVENA, L. Spikelets paiiicled, each having 2 to 5 flowers ; glumes 
 2, loose, membranous, and without terminal awns, about as long as 
 the paleje, the lower one usually toothed at the top, with a twisted 
 awn on the back ; the upper one awnless, with two keels ; scales 
 forked and large ; stamens 3 ; stigmas 2, sessile. Fruit subterete, 
 sulcate on the upper side, summit hairy. Annual with pendulous 
 spikelets, or perennial with erect spikelets. 
 
 A. sativa, L. (Oats.) Stem 2 to 4 feet high, smooth. Leaves about a 
 foot long, linear or linear-lanceolate, nerved and rough; sheaths striate and 
 loose, ligulae cut; panicle loose and nodding; spikelets all with peduncles, 
 and hanging ; lower floret usually with an awn on the back, upper one awn- 
 less. Annual. Flowers in July. Fruits in August. 
 
 Oats, like wheat and the other cereals, have a tapering stem and numerous 
 root leaves, and possess the same habit of tillering ; but the plant is wholly 
 different in its inflorescence and the form of its head, which in wheat, rye, and 
 barley is a compressed spike, or compound compressed spike, whose spikelets 
 are sessile. In the oat the head is a loose panicle ; the branches near the base 
 of the head in some cases are four inches long, decreasing towards the top, 
 forming a pyramidal or conical-shaped head. Some varieties have the branch- 
 ing all on one side, and on that account are called one-sided or secund oats. 
 
 As this grain is raised from the seed, it departs from the specific form, pro- 
 ducing varieties. 
 
 The A. sativa, however, is very constant, and little or no attention has been 
 given to the perpetuation or improvement of its varieties. A large-grained 
 secund form and a black-seed variety have in turn attracted the notice of cul- 
 tivators, but neither of these has become constant enough to gain importance. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical range of oats is not so great as that of any 
 of the cereals before described. It endures a colder climate than any other, 
 but does not fill well south of the fortieth parallel in the north temperate zone ; 
 in the regions of no frost it does not fruit, except in elevations far above 
 the sea. 
 
 Etymology. — Arena, the botanic name of the oat, was given by Linnaeus, 
 and is supposed to be derived from the Celtic word alen, eat. The specific 
 
GRAMINE.E. 
 
 299 
 
 name sativa means " sown," or " c-iiltivate.l." Oats, thr common name, is sup- 
 
 posed to come from the Anglo-Saxon word ata, food. These derivations are 
 
 not entirely clear, but are the most probable. 
 
 Historf/. — The native country of this grain is supposed to be west-central 
 
 Asia and east-central Euro])e. It was knov.ni to the ancient Greeks and 
 
 Homans, and was used by them to feed horses and cattle. It also constituted 
 
 the food of the slaves and plebeians. It was found in the Swiss Lake-dwell- 
 ings and in the ancient tombs in (iermany. 
 
 Though it po.ssesses less nutritive material tlum either wheat «»r rve, it has 
 
 held and still holds an important place as a food plant. It is found upon the 
 
 tables of the ricli, as well as of the poor in Great 
 
 Britain, northern Europe, and in the United States 
 
 and Canada. As a feed for live stock it is as highly 
 
 valued in the British Isles as is maize in the United 
 
 States. 
 
 In attestation of its value as a bread plant as well 
 
 as for feed, the following anecdote is in point. Dr. 
 
 Johnson, the English lexicographer, had a dee])- 
 
 rooted di.slike for the Scotch, and lost no opportunity 
 
 to make it manifest. At one time, in conversation 
 
 with a Scotch gentleman. Dr. Johnson remarked 
 
 that oats were a grain that Englishmen fed to their 
 
 horses, but that Scotchmen ate it themselves. To 
 
 which the gentleman with characteristic Scotch 
 
 readiness replied : " Indeed it is true ; but see what 
 
 horses you have in England, and what superior men 
 
 we have in Scotland." 
 
 Cultivation. — Oats need a generous soil to vield 
 large crops. The ground is prepared by the plough 
 and harrow ; the seed is sown broadcast in most 
 countries, though in Scotland it is sown in drills and 
 worked with a hoe. It is sown as soon as the frost 
 leaves the ground in the early spring, and ripens 
 about the first of August. It fills best where the 
 days are sunny and the nights cool. The market 
 value of oats varies according to qualitv ; northern 
 oats, so-called, — that is, oats grown in a cool climate, 
 — are preferred. In good soil and a cool climate an 
 average yield is forty-five bushels to the acre, hut 
 uncommon yield. 
 
 Use. — In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of Europe, especiallv in Norway, 
 oats constitute a large portion of the bread material. Thev are used as "a 
 porridge, cooked with milk, or made into a thick pmhling'and eaten with 
 milk; they are also eaten in the form of griddlo-cakes or "scons." In most 
 countries where horses are used, oats are the stajde feed. Ordinarily they 
 are be.st when ground ; but the trainers of race-horsos prefer to feed the oats 
 to them in the grain, since, when thus fed. the horse needs no hav, or not so 
 much. 
 
 The grain of oats is largely composed of starch ; it contains al.<o sugar, gum, 
 and oil. About 12 per cent of its substance is a proteid. known to chenu'sts as 
 avenine. a substance resembling casein. It is mixed with barley in the manu- 
 facture of whiskev. Its chnff is u.^^ed for fiUinir beds. 
 
 AVEXA SATIVA (O.lts) 
 
 dxtv bushels is not r 
 
300 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 SETARIA, Beauv. (Millet. Bengal Grass.) Inflorescence a spike- 
 like panicle ; spikelets 2-flowered, surrounded by persistent bristles ; 
 the upper floret perfect, lower one staniinate or neutral or wanting ; 
 lower glume usually short. Stamens in the perfect flowers 3, the col- 
 lateral scales truncate, fleshy, and smooth. Number of styles 2, 
 terminal, elongated. Stigmas plumose ; inflorescence a spike. Seeds 
 free and compressed. 
 
 S. Italica, Beauv., Var. Germanica, Kunth. Stem or culm 2 to 5 feet high, 
 terete, leafy. Leaves from 6 to 15 inches long, linear-lanceolate, broad, flat, 
 and finely serrate on the edges, clasping the stem in a striate sheath ; spike 
 compound, yellowish or purplish, oblong, ovoid, or somewhat cylindrical; 
 rachis hirsute, hairs long. Flowers in July. Fruit ripens in August. 
 
 Geography. — It grows well where oats and rye can be successfully culti- 
 vated ; it has escaped in America, and is ranked among the weeds when with- 
 out cultivation. 
 
 Etymology. — Setaria is from the Latin word seta, a bristle, on account of 
 the bristly character of the spikelet involucres. The specific name Italica 
 denotes the plant's home ; and the name of the variety indicates that it arose 
 in Germany. Millet is from the French millet, diminutive of mil, the old 
 French name of the plant. Bengal grass is named from Bengal, where this 
 plant is native. 
 
 History. — Setaria is one of the grains which the Emperor of China sows at 
 a public ceremony which has occurred annually since 2700 b. c, and it is 
 believed to be native to China, Japan, and India. Its cultivation spread toward 
 the west through Russia. It is found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings of the Stone 
 Age. It is either completely naturalized or native to western Asia, southern 
 Europe, and Egypt. Though cultivated for forage, it is so inferior in 
 every way to oats that little attention is paid to its improvement. There 
 are a number of species, but the var. Germanica is altogether superior to 
 the others. 
 
 Use. — This plant is grown in Italy for seed, used to feed caged birds. 
 
 Order LXII. CONIFERS. (Cone Family.) 
 
 Flowers in catkin-like spikes, monoecious or dioecious, naked, or 
 without floral envelopes. Staminate flowers composed of anther- 
 bearing scales ; catkins longer than broad. Pistillate catkin more or 
 less conical, subglobular -or cylindrical, with few or many flowers, 
 occasionally 1-flowered ; ripened catkin becoming a strobile or conical 
 subglobular body, formed of woody, imbricated scales, bearing 1 — 
 many naked ovules, with 2-15 cotyledons. Seed in most cases fur- 
 nished with a membranous wing, sometimes solitary, in a fleshy cup. 
 Leaves simple, needle-shaped, alternate, linear or lanceolate, in some 
 cases in groups, inclosed at the base in a membranous sheath, resinous. 
 Trees or shrubs. 
 
 No. of genera, 32 ; species, 300 ; temperate zones and mountains. 
 
 PINTJS, L. Evergreen trees, ranging from 30 to 100 feet in height. 
 Leaves linear, grouped, 2 to 5 in a group, very rarely solitary, inclosed 
 at the base in a scaly sheath. Male flowers grouped in catkins. 
 
COXIFER.E. 801 
 
 Female floweis in cones mostly ovate, their scales dry, thickened at 
 the tips and spiny, inclosing 2 ovules. Cotyledons :i or none. 
 Flowers appear in spring ; seeds mature in the autumn of the fol- 
 lowing year. 
 
 Travellers and naturalists speak of the pine forests of Carolina and Missis- 
 sippi as possessing au unsurpassing roniautic beauty. The tall trunks rising 
 50 to 70 feet without a branch, witii no undergn^wtli to break the view, the 
 branches festooned with the gray tillandsia mingling and contrasting with 
 the deep-green foliage, give the appearance of a vast decorated roof supported 
 by a countless number of graceful colunnis, which, fading away in the dark 
 distance, present a scene whose beauty is exceeded only In- its grandeur. 
 These valuable piue forests are undergoing rapid destruction, and unless 
 some mode of economic forestry be at once adopted, this valuable timber will 
 soou be exhausted. 
 
 1. P. monophylla, Torr. and Fremont. (Single-leaved Nut-pine.) Small 
 tree, branching irregularly, forming an unsymmetrical head. Bark ]>ale, and 
 falling off in plates. Leaves solitary, tapering, 1| inches long, terminating 
 iu a spine ; sheaths one third to half an inch in leugtli. Male flowers inclosed 
 by 6 bracts ; cones nearly glol)ular, about 2 inches in diameter ; seeds long 
 egg-shaped, half an inch in lengtli, sliell thick, yellowish-brown ; cotyledons 
 10 or less. 
 
 Geography. — The nut-piue is an American tree ; the zone of growth is 
 between the parallels of 30° and 45° north latitude. It grows along tlie 
 eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at great elevations, iu arid 
 localities. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Pinus is derived from the Latin piniis, a ])ine-tree. Mouo- 
 phylla is from the Greek fx6t/us, one, and <pvWov, leaf, one-leaved, referring to 
 the solitary leaf. 
 
 Use. — The tree is of no value iu planted grounds on account of its small 
 size and irregular branching. The wood is. hard, and makes excellent fuel; 
 it is too small for use as lumber. The fruit is sweet and edible ; it cou.sti- 
 tutes an important article of food for the wandering aborigines of the Pacific 
 slope. It is collected and sold to passengers on the line of the Northern 
 Pacific Railway. 
 
 2. P. Austriaca, Iloffm. (Austrian Pine.) Synonym, P. nigra, Link. Stem 
 from 80 to 120 leet in height. When growing iu open grounds it forms a 
 subcyliudrical head, branching regularly, though the branches are crooked. 
 Bark grayish. Leaves long, rigid, slender, mucrouate iu twos, incurved, and 
 inclosed in short, dark-green sheaths ; cones 2 to 3 inches long, curved, light- 
 brown ; scales smooth, shining, armed with a blunt spine. 
 
 Geofjraphi/. — Its geographical range is Lower Austria, Carinthia, Styria, 
 and tlie neighboring regions. 
 
 Eti/wolof/i/. — The sjiecific name, as well as the common name <»f this tree, 
 is from the country where it is found native, Austria. 
 
 History. — It is not long since it was brought to the notice of nurserymen 
 and planters. Its fine head, hardy character, and deep dark-green foliage 
 have brought it into favor. 
 
 Use. — The tree is valuable for ornamental ])urpo!<es, and is found iu mo.st 
 planted grounds. The wood is good for lumber and for fuel. 
 
302 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 3. P, strobus, L. (White Pine. Weymouth Pine. Apple Pine. Sapling 
 Pine. New England Pine. Pumpkin Pine.) Trunk 50 to 160 feet in height, 
 from 3 to 7 feet in diameter. With other timber the stem frequently rises to 
 the height of 80 feet without a branch. Branches whorled in the young trees. 
 Bark light gray. Leaves 3 to 4 inches long, bluish-green, in fives, and glau- 
 cous, forming a soft, beautiful foliage ; sheaths deciduous ; cones 5 to 6 inches 
 in length ; scales 1 to 2 inches long, one half to three fourths of an inch wide ; 
 seed less than a quarter of an inch in length, obovate, tapering to a point 
 below with a wing ; cotyledons 6 to 5. 
 
 Geography. — It is native to all parts of North America, from the Atlantic 
 west, reaching as far south as Virginia. 
 
 PiNus STROBUS (White Pine). 
 
 Etymology and History. — Strobus is the Latin for an odoriferous gum. It 
 was successfully grown in the grounds of Lord Weymouth (England), and 
 was hence called Weymouth pine. It was introduced into England in 1705. 
 
 Use. — This tree is a symmetrical grower ; it forms a beautiful object, and 
 produces a pleasant contrast with other evergreens in planted grounds. 
 
 The wood is fine-grained, white, and free from resin, strong, easily worked, 
 takes a good polish, and does not warp easily. It is highly prized in carpen- 
 try and in joiner's work. The woodwork of the insides of dwellings, doors, 
 sashes, floors, wainscoting, etc., are largely composed of white pine. It is the 
 most valuable lumber tree in the United States. 
 
 4. P. mitis, Mx. (Yellow Pine. Spruce Pine.) Synonym : P. variabilis, 
 Pursh. Trunk 30 to 80 feet high. 18 inches to 3 feet in diameter, branching 
 regularly ; bark dark and rough. Leaves channelled, slender, 3 to 5 inches 
 long, in twos or threes, inclosed in lengthened sheaths, bluish-green, scattered 
 over the branches. Cones lateral, conical, or egg-shaped, 2 iaclies long, soli- 
 tary ; seeds small, with reddish wings. 
 
roNTFKR^. 
 
 303 
 
 Gtuyraphii. — I'ho P. niitis is t'ouiid in tlie eastern L'uited States, frmn New 
 Kuglaud to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. It attains its full size south 
 of Virgiuia, and flourishes in the hot sands of tlie ( 'aroliuas and the Gulf 
 states. 
 
 Etymologij. — Mills, the spe«-ihc uanie of tliis pine, is derived from the Latin 
 mitis, soft, or tender, and is due to the delicate feel of the soft youug leaves. 
 Variabilis, Latin for variable, refers t(j tlie inconstant number of leaves in a 
 oluster, — usually 2, but occasionally :i. Yellow pint refers to the color of the 
 wood. The origin of the uame spruce pine is not apparent. 
 
 PlNUS 8VLVE8TRIS (Scotcll Piue). 
 
 Use. — The P. niitis is sparingly used in planted grounds ; it forms a sym- 
 metrical pyramidal head, and its bluish-green foliage makes it a desirable 
 ornamental tree. The wood is rich in resin, fine-grained, and takes a good 
 polish ; it is used for flooring, and of late years ha.s been largely used in naval 
 architecture, taking the place of oak, especially for decks. 
 
 5. P. sylvestris, Ait. (Scotch Pine. Scotch Fir.) Trunk fiO to 100 feet high, 
 sometimes reaching the diameter of 6 feet. Branches somewhat straggling, 
 forming a picturesque head. Grows rapidly in planted grounds. The new 
 gro\vth is frequently crooked by its own weight before it becomes hardened, 
 by reason of which the trunk is frecjuently very crooked. Leaves rigid, in 
 
304 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 pairs, 1^ to 3 inches long, twisted, bluish-green ; sheaths short, and torn ; 
 cones conical, ovate, 2 to 3 inches long, color grayish-brown ; point 4-sided, 
 recurved. Seeds small, with a long reddish wing. Cotyledons 5 to 7. 
 
 There are about a dozen varieties, for as it is propagated from the seed it 
 sports freely. 
 
 Geography. — Its home is in the upper and northern exposures of the 
 Pyrenees, and the Tyrolese, Swiss, and Vosgian mountains It forms exclu- 
 sive forests throughout P^urope and northern Asia, and its trunks are found 
 in great abundance buried in the peat bogs of Great Britain ; hence the name 
 bog fir. It grows with great rapidity in almost any soil. On account of its 
 straggling, irregular branching, it forms a picturesque rather than a beautiful 
 object ; yet it is a favorite with nurserymen and amateurs. 
 
 Eti/mologi/. — Pitius sylvestrls maybe translated " the pine of the woods." 
 The common name, Scotch pine, would seem to indicate that its home is Scot- 
 laud, but there is no reason to believe it is indigenous there. 
 
 Use. — The pinus sylvestris, besides being a favorite ornamental tree, is for 
 Europe what the pinus strobus is for America ; it is the red and the yellow 
 deal of England ; it enters into the structure of buildings, and is largely used 
 in naval architecture all over Europe. 
 
 6. P. resinosa, Ait. (Red Pine.) Synonyms : P. rubra, Mx. P. Canadensiss 
 bifolia, Du Hamel. Trunk varying in size from 50 to 80 feet in height, and 
 2 feet in diameter, branching regularly ; when standing alone forming a 
 symmetrical head. Bark smooth and red. Leaves in pairs, channelled, and 
 semi-cylindrical, dark-green, 4 to 6 inches long, appearing near the ends of 
 the branches ; sheaths long. Cones egg-shaped, 2 inches long, in clusters, on 
 short peduncles ; scales unarmed ; wood fine-grained, moderately charged with 
 resin, heavy, strong, and very durable. 
 
 Geography. — Its home is northeastern North America, from Canada to 
 southern Pennsylvania. 
 
 Etymology. — Resinosa is from the Latin resina, resin, due to the resin- 
 bearing character of the wood, although it is one of the least resinous of the 
 pines. Rubra is from Latin ruber, red, referring to the color of the bark. 
 Canadensis bifoUa is Latin, meaning Canadian two-leaved pine. 
 
 Use. — The wood of the red pine is hard and strong, valuable for frames 
 of buildings, and for boards and planks. It is used for flooring and wain- 
 scoting. 
 
 7. P. rigida, Miller. (Pitch Pine.) Trunk 40 to 70 feet in height, branched 
 irregularly. Bark dark, deeply furrowed. Leaves in threes, rigid, 6 inches 
 long, sheaths short. Cones ovoid, pyramidal, in clusters ; scales tipped Avith 
 short, stout, reflexed spines ; seed nearly smooth ; cotyledons 5 ; Mood heavy, 
 with resin. 
 
 Geography. — The P. rigida is native throughout eastern North America, 
 but north of Virginia it does not attain to its full size. In Georgia, the 
 Carolinas, Alabama, and Mississippi it is a tree 60 to 80 feet high. 
 
 Etymology. — Rigida is from the Latin rigidus, stiff, referring to the leaf. 
 Pitch Pine owes its name to the sap which exudes from the bark. 
 
 Use. — The pitch pine is used in the South for the manufacture of turpen- 
 tine, resin, and tar. The wood is very hard, takes a fine polish, is much used 
 for tloors and ship building, and is excellent fuel. 
 
CONrFERTE. 805 
 
 8. P. cembra, L. (Swiss riiie. Stone Pine.) 'F>iink 50 to 80 feet iu 
 heiglit, brauchiug iu wliorls, hniuches seiui-uprighi. Hark smooth aud dark. 
 Leaves in fives, 2 to 3 iuches loug, triangular, slender, straight, crowded, 
 dark-green, sheaths falling. Cones egg-shaped, 3 inches long ; scales blunt, 
 hooked ; seeds large, wedge-shaped, shells hard ; cotyledons about 13 ; .seeds 
 edible. 
 
 There are two varieties to be found in planted grounds. 
 
 Var. Siberica, Loudon. Leaves shorter, lighter green, and longer cones ; 
 said to be indigenous to eastern Siberia. 
 
 Var. pygmaea, Fischer. Dwarf, 2 to 4 feet in height. Leaves short ; coues 
 globular. Found iu dry, sterile grounds and rocky hills. 
 
 Geography. — The pinus cembra may be found in a range of territory 
 extending from the mountains of Switzerland, through Austria, northeastward 
 to Siberia. It adai)ts itself to almost any soil or climate. 
 
 Etymolofji/. — The specific name of this tree signifies " pine ; " so that /nrius 
 cembra may be translated " piue pine." The common name, stone pine, is due 
 to the hard shell of the seed. 
 
 Histon/. — The stone piue was introduced into planted grounds about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century, and was brought from elevations in the 
 Alps, ranging from four thousand to six thousand feet. 
 
 Use. — The Swiss stone pine is a favorite evergreen with amateurs, on 
 account of its symmetry of growth, its compact branches, and its deep green 
 foliage. Its slow growth adapts it to the wants of those who have small 
 grounds. It bears the knife well, and can be kept back, and almost dwarfed. 
 The wood is .soft, has a fine grain, takes a good polish, aud is a favorite 
 wood for joiners, turners, and carvers. Large quantities are used iu Switzer- 
 land in the manufacture of toys. It also furnishes a fragrant resin. The 
 seeds are eaten iu Siberia. 
 
 9. P. palustris, L. (Southern Pine. Green Pine. Long-leaved Pine. Broom 
 Pine. Yellow Pine. Pitch Pine. Georgia Pine. Red Pine. Fat Wood.) 
 Trunk 60 to 80 feet high, and 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Bark furrowed. Leaves 
 in threes, sometimes reaching the length of 4-8 inches, dark-green, crowded 
 at the euds of the branches-, sheaths long, lanceolate, light-colored; cones 
 cylindrical, tapering at each end, 10 iuches long; seeils in a thin white 
 covering or testa. 
 
 Var. excelsa, Loudon. Whole tree larger. Found in the north of Euro))e ; 
 said also to have been seen on the northern Pacific coast. 
 
 Geography. — This pine has a narrow geographical limit, which extends 
 from southeastern Virginia south to middle Florida, thence along the (iulf 
 coast to Louisiana and Texas, iu a strip less thau 200 miles wide. 
 
 Eti/mology. — The name /)a/?<s/r/.s, the Latin for " swampy," does not seem 
 very ap])ropriate, as this ti-ee does not grow in swamps. The number of 
 popular or common names applied to this species is very unusual, due no doubt 
 to the great value of its products 
 
 Use. — The pinus palustris is one of the most important of all our timber 
 trees ; no other yields so many valuable products. The wt)od is hard, takes a 
 fine polish, aud is very heavy, weighing 4:>.r)2 j)ounds to the cubic foot, and 
 is highly valuable for building purpo.ses, furnishing tinjber for the frame of 
 a building, boards for the covering, beams ami planks for the Ho<»r.>-. aud 
 material for the joiner's work. It is also excellent fuel. 
 Pk. Fl — 21 
 
306 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Turpentine is the product of this pine. It is obtained by cutting a pocket- 
 like cavity in the side of a tree. The wound tlius made discharges the fluid 
 into the pocket or box, which holds about three pints. These cavities fill in 
 about ten days ; the contents are then removed, two grooves are cut in the 
 bark above the pocket leading to the cavity, another filling takes place, and 
 the process is continued. The liquid is put into casks made on the spot, aud 
 hardens or becomes a semi-fluid, and forms the turpentine of commerce. 
 There are in the markets of the world several varieties obtained from other 
 coniferous trees. 
 
 In America a single person attends to the emptying of 4,000 pockets, 
 which yield in a season sixteen barrels, Aveighing net 320 pounds to the' 
 barrel. The crude turpentine has a fixed resin dissolved in oil, with succinic 
 acid. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine is procured by distilling crude turpentine and water ; 
 the water and spirits go over together, and are allowed to cool in a vat. The 
 mass will arrange itself into two layers, when the spirits may be drawn off 
 into vessels for market. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine is largely used in the arts for dissolving gum resins, 
 for varnishes, aud for mixing paints, and before the discovery of petroleum 
 was used for illuminating purposes ; mixed with alcohol it formed the burning 
 fluid previously used for illuminating. As a medicine it is diaphoretic and 
 anthelmintic, acting directly upon the kidneys, and in large doses it is power- 
 fully cathartic. It is used by veterinary practitioners as a liniment. The 
 annual product in the United States is about 17,500,000 gallons. Rosin (or 
 colophony) is a residuum of distillation, after the volatile oil of turpentine has 
 gone over. 
 
 Tar is obtained from the dead branches and trunks of trees that have been 
 exhausted by six or more years' tapping. The wood is cut into suitable 
 lengths and placed on end in a pyramidal stack upon a floor made of clay, 
 well pounded and concave, outside of which is a well, also lined with clay. In 
 arranging the wood a cavity is left in the center, and filled with combustibles, 
 such as dry cones, shavings, etc. ; the whole is then well covered with earth, a few 
 openings being left around the base. When all is ready fire is thrown down 
 among the combustibles in the center, and when well lighted the top is closed. 
 Great heat is produced, by which the tar is liquefied ; it then passes down into the 
 dish-like floor, whence it flows through an opening made for the purpose into 
 the well outside, from which it is ladled into barrels. It is interesting to note 
 that the Greeks obtained tar by a process precisely similar, centuries prior to 
 the beginning of the Christian era. The entire annual yield of tar in America 
 is about 100,000 barrels. It is also obtained in large quantities from Norway 
 and Sweden. 
 
 Tar is largely used in the manufacture of naval cordage, as a paint, aud 
 otherwise, in naval architecture. As a medicine it was formerly used as a 
 diaphoretic, and as an ointment for scald head, and the vapor was inhaled for 
 lung affections. Tar water, that is, water which has for a time rested upon 
 tar, is also used for stomach disorders. 
 
 Oil of tar is procured by distilling tar. 
 
 Pitch is a solid black substance, the residuum of distilling tar for tar oil, 
 and is largely used in pavements, and for waterproof cements. 
 
 Resin oil is a viscid whitish opalescent liqxaid obtained by the distillation of 
 resin, and was formerly used as a lubricating substance, and for the manufac- 
 ture of illuminating gas. 
 
CONIFKRJE. 
 
 307 
 
 PICEA, Don. (Spruce.) Leaves scattered, articulated to the per- 
 sistent base of the petiole, partly tetragonal, rigid. Staniiuate flowers 
 solitary in the axils, the connective not produced as a scale-like 
 appendage. Scales of the reflexed cone persistent, mostly concealing 
 the small subtending bract. 
 
 1. P. nigra, Liuk. (Black Spruce.) Trunk 70 to 80 feet high. Branchlets 
 spreading linrizoutally. Bark smooth aud dark. Head pyramidal, symmet- 
 rical, aud when young very graceful. Leaves half an inch long, erect, stiff, 
 *4-si(led, very dark-green. Cones egg-shaped, hanging, al)0ut 2 inches long, 
 dark-purple, changing to reddish-hrown ; scales ellipsoid ; margin unevenly 
 toothed. 
 
 Geof/rap/ii/. — This tree was introduced into England in 1700, and grows 
 well there; hut it nowhere rises to its native grandeur except in its forest 
 home, in the highlands of southern Canada, and the northern United States. 
 Its geographical range is from the Atlantic coast west to the head waters of 
 the Mississippi, hetweeu 39° and 50° north latitude. 
 
 Etymologi/. — The generic name is from the Latin piceus, pitchy. Nigra, 
 the specific name, is Latin, signifying "black," given to tliis tree on account of 
 the heavy, dark-greeu color of 
 its foliage aud bark. It forms a 
 fine conical head with a taper- 
 ing trunk. The common name 
 spruce is derived from the old 
 English Spruce or Pruse, Prussia, 
 the tree having been first known 
 as a native of Prussia. 
 
 Use. — The black spruce is 
 largely used in planted grounds. 
 The wood is hard, light, strong, 
 and elastic ; it is extensively 
 used for architectural purposes, 
 for framework and flooring in 
 the construction of dwellings. 
 ( )n account of its elastic aud so- 
 norous qualities it is mnch used 
 for piano sounding-l)oards. Picea alba (White Spruce). 
 
 2. P. alba. Link. (White Spruce.) Trunk .50 feet high. 1 to 2 feet in diam- 
 eter, tapering, forming a pyramidal head. Leaves less than an inch long, 
 sprinkled over the branchlets, needle-shaped, curved upwards, light, glaucous, 
 green. Cones about 2 inches long, subcylindrical ; scales entire; the winged 
 seeds very small. 
 
 Geography. — When y<Muig this tree is very beautiful, and rivals the cele- 
 brated Norway spruce. Its geographical range is between 42° and 67° north 
 latitude. It abounds in the forests of southern Canada ami the northern 
 United States. 
 
 Eti/mologj/. — Allxt, the specific name, is Latin, moaning " white," and refers 
 to the lic^ht color uf the foliage ; the popular name is due to the same 
 characteristic. 
 
308 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 Use. — The white spruce is a favorite with nurserymen and amateurs, for 
 planted grounds. The wood is stroug, and makes excellent lumber for build- 
 ing purposes, and is largely used for floor planks. 
 
 3. P. excelsa, Link. (Norway Spruce.) Trunk 80 to 150 feet high, branched 
 profusely. As the branches lengthen, the weight of their ends causes them 
 more and more to assume a horizontal position, and finally to droop. Leaves 
 elongated, and though scattered assuming a semi two-ranked arrangement, 
 quadrangular. Cones cylindrical, terminal, and pendent, sometimes 8 inches 
 long and 2 in diameter ; scales broad, apex projecting and notched ; seed 
 small, one eighth of an inch in length, and half as broad, witli a wing. Coty- 
 ledons 7 to 9. Flowers in May, and the cones ripen the following year in the 
 spring. 
 
 This tree sports freely, and there are about a dozen well-marked varieties, 
 by the use of which the nurserymen and amateurs are enabled to produce 
 varied effects in planted grounds. 
 
 Geographxj. — The Norway spruce is indigenous throughout northern and 
 middle Europe, and on the northern declivities of the mountains of southern 
 France and Spain. A^ast forests on the Alps, at an elevation of nearly 7,000 
 feet, are wholly composed of the Norway spruce ; but it is said to attain its 
 perfection in the forests of Norway, its home and the country from which it 
 derives its common name, where it is the grand monarch of the woods. It is 
 propagated in America from seeds brought from Europe, formerly from 
 Norway. It grows to its full size in deep, damp soils. 
 
 Etijinology. — The specific name of this tree, excelsa, is the Latin for lofty, 
 and usually relates to excellence in rank or character, not to size or height ; 
 but in its application to this fine tree, it seems to have been used with 
 the latter signification. 
 
 Use. — On account of its hardness and the symmetrical head it forms, its 
 beautiful deep green, and the patience with which it bears the knife, the 
 Norway spruce has become the most popular and the standard evergreen in 
 our nurseries and in planted grounds, for ornamental purposes. In Europe, 
 though not in America, its wood is used for architectural purposes. The wood 
 is light, elastic, durable, and of a yellowish-white color. It is charged with 
 resin, which is the base of Burgundy pitch. The young trees are cut when 
 six to ten inches in diameter, and used by builders for scaffolding. The larger 
 trees are sawed into planks for flooring. On account of its elasticity and 
 sonorousness it enters into the structure of musical instruments, — especially 
 of the backs of violins and of piano sounding-boards. Cabinet makers line 
 furniture Avith it, and it is largely used for boxes for packing merchandise. 
 It is fine-grained, takes a good polish, receives a black stain well, and is es- 
 pecially suitable for picture-frames and other articles that are gilded. It is 
 also highly prized by carvers for their purposes. 
 
 ABIES, Link. (Fir.) Flowers monoecious ; aments in terminal or 
 nearly terminal clusters ; scales of the cones thin and flat ; seeds 
 v\ inged. Leaves solitary, and without sheaths at the base, scattered, 
 bearing a slight scar, linear, flat above. Staminate flowers solitary 
 in the axils, the connective being barely prominent above the 
 anthers. Scales of the erect cone deciduous with the seeds, the sub- 
 tending bract conspicuous, but not thickened nor prickly tipped, often 
 equalling or exceeding the ovuliferous scale. 
 
COXTFKKyE. 309 
 
 A. balsamea, Miller. (Balsam Kir. Halm of Gilead. Called in F)ij<i;lan(l 
 American Balsam Fir.) Syiiouynis : Pinus balsamifera, L. ; Picaabalsamifera, 
 Marshall. Trunk 20 to 50 feet in height, I to -l feet in diauKiter. I>ark dark- 
 gray, smooth or blistered, with resinous vesicles. Branches nearly horizontal, 
 numerous and slender, drooping when old. Leaves about an inch long, nar- 
 row, linear, spreading, and slightly turned hack, green above, silvery under- 
 neath. Cones cylindrical, 4 inches long, violet colored, scales thin, smooth, 
 obo^'ate or subspatulate, and slightly mucronate. Seeds small, angular. 
 
 Var. longifolia. Booth. Leaves longer, branches more ujn-ight, than 
 A. balsamea. 
 
 \'ar. variegata. Knight. Some of the leaves have a yellowish cast, con- 
 trasting with the silvery sheen of the others, and forming a beautiful object 
 for the lawn. This feature is made the most of by nurserymen and dealers 
 in trees. 
 
 Geography. — The home of the l)alsain tir is northeastern \orth America. 
 Lower Canada, especially Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia al)0und 
 in this tree. It is found in the mountainous parts of the middle states, 
 especially in the Adirondack regions, and west to Wisconsin. It loves a cold, 
 damp soil. 
 
 Etjpnologij. — Abies is the Latin for fir tree. Balsamea, Latin for "of 
 balsam," is due to the resinous character of the bark. Fir is from the 
 Anglo-Saxon f'ur/i, a kind of oak. Balm is a contraction of halsan,. 
 
 Histori/. — The balsam fir is a native of North America, and was introduced 
 into England by Bishop Compton about the end of the seventeenth century. 
 It is a beautiful object while young, but on account of the dense rann'ficatinn, 
 the branchlets and leaves of the lower branches near the trunk die for want 
 of light, and the tree becomes unsightly ; on this account it has been for many 
 years discarded by planters. In its native woods, in Nova Scotia jiartieularly, 
 the snow lodging upon its branches causes them to droop, and thus partially 
 conceal the silvery sheen of the under surface of the leaves. In the hilly 
 regions of Nova Scotia the sides of the wood-roads are walled forty to fifty 
 feet in height with the silvery green of this beautiful tree. 
 
 Use. — The wood of the lialsam fir is resinous, yellow, soft, and easily 
 worked, but is not large enough to be valuable for building purposes. The 
 gum, or resin, known as Canada Balsam, is obtained from the bark by punc- 
 turing it. From these wounds the resin fiows out in a viscid fiuid, about the 
 consistency of honey, which hardens after exposure to the air. 
 
 It enters into the materia medica, and is administered in the form of pills 
 for stomach troubles, and also for l)ronchial affections. It is transparent, and 
 used to incase in.sects and other perishable »)bjects, for the microscojje, and for 
 sotting the glasses of microscopic lenses, and is an ingredient in the manufae- 
 ture of varnish. 
 
 LAEIX, Mx. (Larch. Tamarack. Ilackmatac.) .\ments scattered 
 over the branches, resembling buds; anthers 2-celled ; cone's retlexed. 
 subglobnlar ; scales persistent, the subtending .scale conspicuous ; 
 seeds winged. Leaves deciduous, .soft, thread-like, in fascicles or 
 scattered on this year's shoots. 
 
 1. L. laricina, Hu ]^)i. (.Vmorican Larch. Black Larch.) Trunk SO to 100 
 feet in height. Bark dark and rough. Branches horizontal or lirooping; 
 
310 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 branchlets pendent, regular, forming a graceful pyramidal head. Leaves 
 thread-like, slender, and soft to the touch, in fascicles of 10 to 20. Cones 
 ovoid when young, when open subglobular and purplish, about an inch long, 
 and nearly the same in diameter ; scales thin ; margins turned in. Seeds 
 small, with short wings. 
 
 2. L. Europaea, DC. (European Larch.) Trunk same as No. 1. Branchlets 
 more pendulous. Leaves an inch long, obtuse, and flat, bright-green. Cones 
 much larger than No. 1, long egg-shaped, l-li inches in length. Scales 
 orbicular, reflexed, bracts extending beyond the 
 scales. Seeds small, ovate, winged. Cotyledons 
 about 7. 
 
 Of this species there are several varieties ; the 
 most interesting one is a dwarf, remarkable for 
 its pendent or weeping branches. 
 
 Geography. — The American larch is found 
 native as far south as southern New York, and 
 north to the fiftieth parallel, in a belt quite 
 across the continent to the Pacific coast. The 
 European larch is found in the mountainous re- 
 gions of middle Europe. 
 
 Etymology. — Larix, the generic name, and 
 laricina, the specific name of this tree, are de- 
 rived from the Celtic lar, fat, due to the resi- 
 nous wood. Tamarack and Hachnatac are Indian 
 names of obscure meaning. Eiiropa;a indicates 
 that this species is a native of Europe. The 
 common name, larch, seems to be merely a cor- 
 ruption of the word larix. 
 
 History. — The larch was much used in Venice, 
 in the period of its prosperity, for frames and 
 other parts of buildings ; and it is said that 
 buildings framed of that material shoAV no signs of decay even at the present 
 day. The paintings of some of the great masters were executed upon larch 
 panels, and their excellent preservation is said to be due to the hardness and 
 perfect condition of the wood upon which the work was executed. 
 
 Use. — The larch is a favorite in planted grounds; no collection of trees 
 would be considered complete without it. The wood is hard, heavy, strong 
 and durable ; it is used for fencing, for agricultural instruments, bridges, 
 and for heavy and strong carriages for transporting stone, hardware, coal, 
 lime, and other coarse and hard articles. It is prized for dock logs and frames 
 for canal gates. When the larch log is sawed into planks it is necessary to 
 season them in close piles to prevent warping. The bark is highly charged 
 with tannin, and is used in the manufacture of leather. The resin of this 
 tree yields Venice turpentine, which is used in medicine. 
 
 Larix laricina (Larch). 
 
 JTJNIPERTJS, L. (Juniper. Cedar.) Flowers dioecious, occasionally 
 monoecious, on separate branches ; aments usually axillary, sometimes 
 lateral, small, ovoid; stamens many, inserted on all sides of the axis. 
 Fertile aments imbricately bracted at the base. Involucre composed 
 of 3 to 6 scales, united at the base, a concave ovule at the base of ench 
 
CONIFER^?^:. 
 
 311 
 
 scale. Fruit formed of the fleshy scales, subglobose, berry-like, con- 
 taining 1 to 3 hard seeds. Cotyledons oblong, 2 in number. Leaves 
 scale-like, subulate, lanceolate, evergreen. Trees and shrubs. 
 
 I. J. communis, L. (Common Juuiper.) Trunk ;") to 10 feet in height (in cul- 
 tivation 15 to -20 ieet liigh), branches numerous, erect. Leaves in whorls, from 
 half to three quarters of an inch long, sharply lanceolate, channelled, keeled 
 l)elow, and l)ristly pointed, green underneath, and glaucous above. Sterile 
 flowers in little axillary cones. Fertile flowers, on a separate plant, axillary 
 and sessile. Fruit dark-blue, subglobose : berries ripening tlie next year after 
 the flower appears ; sweet, witli a taste of turpentine ; they contain sugar, and 
 on fermentation yield a beverage resembling gin. 
 
 Var. pyramidalis of tlie nurserymen is a seedling, and is a very compact, 
 graceful form in planted grounds. 
 
 Var. prostrata (synonyms: Var. alpina, L., J. nana, Willd.) is a prostrate, 
 straggling form, covering sometimes an area of tifty square feet ; branchlets 
 assurgent. 
 
 2 J. Virginiana. L. (Red Cedar.) Trunk 25 to 50 feet in height, branches 
 
 extended, making a broad, pyramidal head, 
 on the old branches, longer and sharper on 
 the young wood, closely iml)ricated, and 
 very dark-green ; the fertile and sterile 
 florets on separate trees, inconspicuous in 
 longish terminal aments. Fruit, a blue 
 berry, covered with a whitish bloom, size 
 of a small pea; sap wood white; heart 
 wood reddish, light, close-grainetl, and very 
 durable. It sows itself and sports freely, 
 producing several forms as to foliage and 
 ramification, one of which is sufficiently 
 conspicuous to be entitled to the dignity 
 of a variety. 
 
 Var. forma cylindrica. Stem 10 to .30 
 feet high, branching profusely, branches 
 growing nearly ])arallel with the trunk, 
 forming a compact, cylindrical head, mak- 
 ing a beautiful object in the landscape. 
 
 Leaves verv small and scale-like 
 
 JuNTPERus VmoiNiANA (Red Cedar). 
 
 .3. J. Bermudiana, L. (Pencil Cedar.) This species is a beautiful, long-leaved 
 variety found in the West Indies. The wood is soft and close-grained, and 
 used for making lead pencils. 
 
 There are other cedars in Europe and Asia. 
 
 Geograph I/. — The J. communis is a native of middle and western Europe, 
 northern Asia, and North America. J, Virginiana is a native of North 
 America and the West India islands ; it is found all aloncr the eastern coa.st 
 of the Atlantic, and as far we.st as the foothills of the Kockv .Mountains. 
 
 Ef,/mo/orj,/.—J„n;penis is the Latin for juniper, from jurenis, voung, and 
 p.trere, produce, referring to the presence of the old fruit after the new has 
 appeared. Cedar is from the Greek K^Spos. a cedar-tree. 
 
 Use. — The J. communis is a favorite in planted jrrounds; it bears the 
 knife, and may be pruned into any degree of dwarfage. The fruit is used to 
 
312 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 flavor gin, and in medicine is administered for kidney complaints ; it is con- 
 sidered one of the most active diuretics known. The J. Virginiaua or red 
 cedar of North America is used sparingly as an ornamental tree, Ijut the wood 
 is very durable, tine grained, and takes a good polish. Its durability makes it 
 valuable for fencing ; its fine grain adapts it to tiue cal>iuet work and for fancy 
 boxes. Trunks are also made of it for storing furs and woollens to protect 
 them against the depredations of the moths, to which its odors are destructive. 
 The wood of this species, as well as that of Bermudiaua, is largely used in the 
 manufacture of lead pencils. 
 
 THUJA, Tourn. (Arbor Vitae.) Flowers monoecious, on the ends 
 of separate branches ; sterile flowers in an egg-shaped anient. Anther- 
 cells 4 in number, on a scale-like connective or filament. Fertile 
 aments or cones rough or angular, subglobose ; scales few. Seeds 
 winged, 2 under each scale, covering membranaceous. Cotyledons 2. 
 Leaves evergreen, imbricated ; scales lying close to the flattish 
 branchlets. 
 
 T. occidentalis, L. (American Arbor Vitse.) Trunk 30 to 50 feet high, 
 and 1 to 2 feet in diameter, branching profusely. Branches upright and com- 
 pact, forming a pyramidal or oblong cylindrical 
 head. Leaves small, scale-like, imbricated, in 4 
 rows on the 2-edged branchlets. Cones egg- 
 shaped ; scales spreading ; seeds winged. The 
 frond-like l)ranchlets are densely ramified, and 
 spread in a lateral direction. The leaves when 
 bruised emit an aromatic odor. 
 
 Geographij. — The T. occidentalis is a native 
 of North America, north of 40° north latitude. 
 It has been introduced into England as an orna- 
 mental tree. 
 
 Etymologi/. — Thuja is derived from tlie Greek 
 word dvia, an African tree with sweet-smelling 
 wood. Occidentalis is Latin for western, and re- 
 fers to the western world, the home of this species. 
 The popular name arbor vitce is Latin for " tree 
 of life," and is supposed to arise from the cir- 
 cumstance that the fruit of some of the species 
 is used for medicine. In the East the cypress is called the tree of life, for the 
 reason that the berries are supposed to be a remedy for all diseases. 
 
 Use. — The Thuja occidentalis is largely used for ornamental purposes in 
 planted grounds. It bears the knife well, and is on that account well adapted 
 for hedging purposes. 
 
 The wood is light, durable when exposed to the weather, and furnishes 
 excellent material for fencing. It is also extensively used in the manufacture 
 of casks for packing 
 
 Thuja occidentalis 
 
 (Arbor Vitae). 
 
 TSTJGA, Endl. (Hemlock.) Flowers monoecious ; aments in ter- 
 minal or nearly terminal clusters. Scales of the cones thin and flat, 
 reflexed and persistent, nearly hiding the subtending bract. Leaves 
 linear, flat, and somewhat 2-ranked. 
 
C()NIKEH/E. 
 
 313 
 
 T. Canadensis, Carr. (Ilornlock Sj)rnco.) Trunk ">() to 100 foot in height, 
 l)niiKhing freely. Hark gray, smooth on youug trees, hut very rough and 
 furrowi'd on old trees. Leaves solitary. Hat, slightly toothed, hlunt at the 
 apex, in 2 ranks, half an inch long, and less than an eiglith of an inch wide. 
 Cones three fourths of an inch in length, and less than half an inch in diameter , 
 .scales suhorhic.ular, half an inch long; wing less than half an inch hroad. 
 Flowers in June; seed matures in the following year in June. 
 
 Geocjraphy. — The geographical range of the hemlock is confined to a belt 
 on both sides of the forty-fifth ])arallel, in the Northern Hemisphere, reaching 
 down to Pennsylvania iu mountainous regions, and even to North Carolina, 
 and as far north as Oregon and Hudson Bay. 
 
 TsuGA Canadensis (Hemlock Spruce). 
 
 Etymology. — Tsuf/a is Japanese for yew-leaved or evergreen The name 
 Canaflensis comes from Canada, the home of the tree. Tlie origin of hemlock, 
 the common name, is not so easily determined ; it is suggested that it comes 
 from //e/H.tho edge or border, and /or, fasten, inclose, alluding to the use of the 
 tree in hedging. Again, hem means "injure" or "cripple," and may allnde 
 to the poisonous properties of the cicuta, called hemlock. The.se inferences 
 are not to be relied upon, and the origin and meaning of the name must be 
 left in obscurity. 
 
 History. — The hemlock is an American tree; it was taken to Europe soon 
 after the settlement of northoa.stern America, and grows well in the northern 
 parts of England. 
 
 Use. — As an ornamental tree the hemlock is a favorite in large grounds 
 When not crowded it ri.«ies to the height of 40 to 80 feet, a perfect jiyramid, 
 its lower branches resting on the ground. Its foliage is the most debcato of 
 all the coniferjc. It bears the knife well, ami makes a compact and beautiful 
 hedge. The wood is soft, easily split, and has a very coarse grain : yet it is 
 
314 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 
 
 strong, holds a uail well, requires a great force to produce a cross fracture, 
 and is very durable. It is largely used in the frames of edifices, for joists and 
 for sheathing, being the cheapest of all the soft-wood lumber. The lumber is 
 obtained from the stripped trunks, which are sawed into 13-feet lengths, 
 which during the following winter are drawn to the frozen streams and left 
 till the spring thaw, when they are floated down to the saw-mills, where they 
 are sawed into boards, scantling, and ceiling laths, and thence sent to 
 market. 
 
 The bark is highly charged with tannin, and is used in immense quantities 
 for manufacturing leather. It is obtained by felling the tree in the early 
 summer when the sap is in its greatest activity ; girdles are cut around the , 
 trunk and large branches by means of an axe, and with a wedge-shaped bar 
 the bark is stripped ; it is then piled to dry. Its value is estimated by the 
 cord. 
 
 CHAMiECYPARIS, Spach. (Cypress.) Flowers monoecious, <>n dif- 
 ferent branches of the same tree, in terminal catkins. Staminate 
 flowers in ovoid aments, 4 anthers under the scales. Pistillate flowers 
 in a globular cone ; ovules bottle-shaped ; scales thick and woody, 
 peltately dilated, bossed in the middle ; cones globose ; seeds few. with 
 narrow wings attached to the base ; cotyledons 2, or 3. Trees with 
 closely appressed evergreen leaves. 
 
 1. C. thyoides, L. (Cupressus thyoides, L.) (White Cedar.) Trunk 40 to 
 80 feet in height, and 1 to 3 feet in diameter. Branches somewhat spreading, 
 and pendent at the extremities. Bark brown, ragged, soft, exfoliating in 
 strips. Leaves imbricated in four rows, short, scale-like, with a small tubercle 
 on the back of each. Cones in groups ; very small, globular scales, shield- 
 shaped, blunt-pointed ; seeds small, subglobular. 
 
 There are many species, but the thyoides is the most important in eastern 
 North America. 
 
 2. C. sempervirens, L. (Cupressus sempervirens, L.), is a native of the coun- 
 tries of the Levant. It is there the gloomy sentinel of the graveyard. It is 
 pyramidal, and hence the emblem of death. 
 
 3. C. pendula (Cupressus pendula), of China, has pendulous branches ; in 
 habit like the weeping willow. 
 
 Geography. — The geographical zone of the chamsecyparis is from 30° to 42° 
 north latitude. In ^Vmerica it extends across the continent, and it occupies 
 about the same zone in the ( )ld World. It is found sparingly in the middle 
 Atlantic States, especially in New Jersey, and Avest to the Great Lakes, but it 
 reaches perfection in the swamps of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. 
 
 The cedar swamps of New Jersey, made famous by the botanical excursions 
 of Pursh, Nuttall, Michaux, Bartram, and Gray, have since their day been 
 the Mecca to which every young botanist longs to make a pilgrimage. In 
 these swamps a very important industry is carried on, consisting of mining 
 sunken logs of the cypress, and working them into shingles and barrel 
 staves. 
 
 Etymology and History. — Chamcecyparis is derived from the Greek x«M«^' 
 on the ground, and Kvirdpitra-os, cypress, from kvw, produce or contain, and 
 Trdpitros, equal, alluding to the regularity of the branches. According to some 
 
conifp:r^.. -B15 
 
 authors, the nameisderived from Ci/parissus, sou of Tflephns, who f(jr killiu^' 
 the stag of the gods was transformed into a cypress tree, l^ie common name 
 was derived from the isle of Cvprus, where a tree of tiiis genus ahouuded. 
 
 ^"^se. — The wood of chamacyparis thyoides is light, soft, and easily worked, 
 has a fine grain, and takes a good polish. It is used in the manufacture of 
 trunks, boxes for jjreserving linen and woollen goods, shingles, and staves for 
 casks. Cabinet-makers use it for drawers in fine cabinet ware ; and large use 
 is made of the small trees by builders for scaffolding poles, — the poles being 
 light, slender, and strong. It is also used for masts for small vessels. It is 
 remarkable for its durability. The doors of St. Peter's church at Rome were 
 of cypress wood from the Levant, and were found to be quite sound after a 
 service of 1,100 years. Its peculiar l)itterness preserves it from the attacks 
 of insects, and in part explains its durability. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 ab uor'mal, ciniti(tiii lu the usual or natural 
 structure. 
 
 ab o rlg'i iial, original in the strictest sense. 
 
 abSr'tion, non-development of a part. 
 
 ab rQpt', terminating suddenly. 
 
 ab sQrp'tiou, the act of tnhing in or sucking 
 up. 
 
 ac au lSs'(;ent, apparently stemless. 
 
 ac ^Ss'so ry, something added. 
 
 ac crSs'c^ent, grou-ing after flowering. 
 
 ac Crete', groicn to. 
 
 ac cum'bent, lying against. 
 
 5 gSph'a lous, without head. 
 
 iq'er ose or S^'er ous, needle-shaped. 
 
 a che'ni uni (pi. acheuia), a small, dry, 
 hard-shelled, one-celled, one-seeded, inde- 
 hiscent fruit. 
 
 Soil la myd'e ous, without floral envelopes. 
 
 a ^'Tc'u lar, flnely needle-shaped. 
 
 a'corn, the fruit of the oak. 
 
 a cot y ISd'o nous, without cotyledons. 
 
 Sc'ro gens, summit growers. 
 
 a cu'Ie ate, armed ivith prickles. 
 
 acu'minate, drawn out into a point. 
 
 a cute', ending in a sharp angle. 
 
 adglph'ous, /trtrm(/ the stamens joined in a 
 frutern ity. 
 
 ad e n5ph'o rous, producing glands. 
 
 ad her'ent, growing to. 
 
 ad he'sion, the union of organs of different 
 kinds, as .ftamens to petals, etc. 
 
 Sd'nate, growing fast to. 
 
 ad prSssed', or ap prSssed', brought into con- 
 tact with, but not united. 
 
 ad ven tT'tious, out of the usutd order ; acci- 
 dental. 
 
 ad vgii'tive, applied to foreign plants spar- 
 ingly introduced into a country, but not 
 naturalized. 
 
 aera'tion, same as respiration. 
 
 ae ry'gi nous, verdigris-colored. 
 
 ses ti va'tion, arrangement of the parts of a 
 flower in the bud. 
 
 af fTn'i ty, resemblance in fssential organs. 
 
 Sg'a nious, sexless. 
 
 Sg'gre gate, assembled close toyether. 
 
 a glu ma'ceous, tcUhout glumes; same as 
 
 petaloid. 
 a j^res'tis, growing infields. 
 air' blSd'der, a sac filled with air. 
 air' plants, plants whose roots are in the air. 
 a'kene, or a ke' ni um, an indehiscent seed- 
 vessel ; a nutlet. 
 a'la {pi. ahe), a wing. 
 al a bSs'trum, a flower-bud. 
 a'late, winged. 
 
 alb6s'?eut, whitish, or turning white. 
 al bu'men, a deposit of nutritive material 
 
 within the seed -coats. 
 al bu'mi nous, like albumen. 
 al bQr'num, sap-wood. 
 51 'g*, sea weeds. 
 
 al li a'ceous, having the odor of garlic. 
 al ISg'amous, having cross-fertUization. 
 51'pTne, belonging to high mountains above 
 
 the limit of forests. 
 al ter'nate, distributed singly at different 
 
 heights of the stem. 
 51've o late, u-ith pits like the honey-comh. 
 Sm'ent, a deciduous spike. 
 am en ta'ceous, catkin-like, or catkin-bearing. 
 a uior'phous, without definite form. 
 am phi car'pous, producing two kimls of 
 
 fruit. 
 am phTt'ro pons, turned both ways. 
 Sm'pho ra, a pitcher-shaped organ. 
 am plgc'tant, embracing. 
 am plgx'i caul, clasping the stem, as the ba.te 
 
 of some leaves. 
 am pul la'ceous, su-elling out like a bottle or 
 
 bladder. 
 am yl la'ceous, 5m'y loid, composed of starch ; 
 
 starch-like. 
 anSl'y sis (botanical), the process of cla.i.fify- 
 
 ing and finding the names of plants. 
 ail Sn'drous, without .stamens. 
 an Sn'ther ous, an Sn'thous, without anthers. 
 a nas to mo'sis. union of vessels or veins. 
 a nS'tro pons, having the ovule inverted at an 
 
 early period in its development, .so that 
 
 the rhidaza is at the apparent aper. 
 an i;Tp'i tal, two-edged. 
 an 'Irrn'fi iiin, the stamens oj a flower taken 
 
 together. 
 
 817 
 
318 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 an dr5g'y nous, having stamens and pistils 
 
 on the same peduncle. 
 Sn'dro phore, a colitmn of united stamens, as 
 
 in the Malloiv. 
 an e moph'i loiis, wind-loving, said oj ivind- 
 
 fertilized flowers. 
 an frac'tu ose, boit hither and thither, as the 
 
 anthers of a Squash. 
 Sn'gi o sperms, plants whose seeds are in- 
 closed in a vessel. 
 an'gu lar, a kind of divergence of leaves. 
 an i somber ous, having the parts unequal in 
 
 number. 
 an i so pet'a lous, with unequal petals. 
 an i soph'yl lous, having the leaves of a pair 
 
 unequal. 
 an not'i nous, yearly, or in yearly growths. 
 Sn'nu al, yearly. 
 
 an'nu lar cells, cells with ring-like markings. 
 an'nu late, marked by rings, or furnished 
 
 with a ring like that of the spore-case of 
 
 most ferns. 
 an te'ri or, adjacent to the bract. 
 an the'la, an open paniculate cyme. 
 an thel min^tic, expelling or killing worms. 
 another, the part of the stamen that contains 
 
 the pollen. 
 an ther Td'i um, the organ in cryptogams 
 
 corresponding to the anther in flowering 
 
 plants. 
 an ther Tf'er ous, anther -bearing. 
 an the'sis, the opening of the flower ; flower- 
 ing. 
 an tho car'pous, having the fruit and flower 
 
 united. 
 Sn'tho phore, a stipe between the calyx and 
 
 the corolla. 
 an tr6rse', facing toward the anterior. 
 a pet''a Ise, plants icithout petals. 
 a pet'a lous, without petals. 
 a'pex, the top or point, especially of a leaf. 
 aph'yl lous, without leaves. 
 ap'ic al, belonging to the apex or point. 
 a pTc'u late, tipped with a small, distinct 
 
 point. 
 ap o car'pous, having the several pistils of 
 
 the same flower separate. 
 ap o pet'a lous, having the petals entirely 
 
 disconnected. 
 a poph'y sis, a swelling. 
 ap sep'a lous, having separate sepals. 
 ap o the'gi um, the fructification of lichens 
 
 forming masses of various shapes. 
 ap pend'age, any superinduced part. 
 ap pen dic'u lar, having appendages. 
 ap pressed', see adpressed. 
 5p'ri cate, to grow in dry and sunny places. 
 ap'ter ous, without wings. 
 aquat'ic, living in water. 
 arach'noid, resembling cobwebs. 
 ar bo re'tum, a collection of trees. 
 ar'bor ous, tree-like. 
 ar ehe go'ni um, the organ in mosses aiialo- 
 
 gous to the pistil of flowering plants. 
 
 arc'u ate, arched or curved like a boiv. 
 
 ar'e nose, growing in sand. 
 
 a re'o late, having the surface divided into 
 
 little spaces or areas. 
 ar gen'te ous, or ar'gen tate, silvery. 
 argil'lose, or argll'lous, growing in clay. 
 ar gu'tus, acutely dentate. 
 ar'il, an extra seed-covering. 
 aris'tate, with an arista or awn, as the 
 
 Barley. 
 a ris'tu late, short-awned. 
 armed, bearing prickles, spines, etc. 
 ar rect', upright in position. 
 as cend'ing or as cend'ent, arising obliquely ; 
 
 assurgent. 
 as Qid'i um, a tubular, horn-shaped, or 
 
 pitcher-like formation. 
 Ss'cus, a sac ; the spore-case of lichens and 
 
 some fungi. 
 as per gil'li form, shaped like the brush used 
 
 to sprinkle holy ivater, as the stigmas of 
 
 many grasses. 
 Ss'per ous, rough to the touch. 
 as sim i la'tion, the function of producing 
 
 starch or other plant food. 
 as sQr'gent, same as ascending, 
 at'ropous or at'ro pal, not inverted ; orthot- 
 
 ropous. 
 at ten'u ate, becoming slender or thin. 
 au ran'ti a'ceous, orange-colored. 
 au're ous, golden. 
 au tog'a my, self-fertilization. 
 awl'-shaped, sharp-pointed from a cylindri- 
 cal base. 
 awn, the bristle or beard of Barley and I He 
 
 plants. 
 ax'ial root, the main root grotving (hnin. 
 
 ward; tap-root. 
 ax'il, the angle betiveen the petiole and the 
 
 branch on the upper side. 
 ax'il la ry, growing out of the axils. 
 Sx'is, the stem. 
 
 B. 
 
 bac'cate, berry-like ; covered with pulp. 
 bac te'ri um, the smallest organism known; 
 
 micro-organisms, destitute of chlorophyll, 
 
 which multiply with marvelous rapidity 
 
 and cause putrefaction and disease. 
 bSn'ner, the tipper petal of a papilionaceous 
 
 flower. 
 bar'bate, bearded. 
 barbed, furnished with a barb or double 
 
 hook. 
 bar'bel late, beset with stiff, short hairs, as 
 
 bri.^tles. 
 bar bel'lu late, diminutive of barbellate. 
 bark, the outer covering of an exogenous tree 
 
 or shrub. 
 base, the extremity of any organ by tchich 
 
 it is attached to its support. 
 ba'si fixed, attached by Us base. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 319 
 
 bSs'i lar, attached to ihi hnsr ; baxnl. 
 bast-cellb, long cells of bark. 
 beaked, ending in an extended tip. 
 beard'ed, Itaring tuj'ts oj' long hairs. 
 bl ar tie'u late, twice-jointed ; two-jointed. 
 bl au Tie'u late, having two ears, as the Jig- 
 leaf. 
 bi cSl'Iose, having two hard spots. 
 bi cSr'i nate, two-keeled. 
 biQlp'ital, two-headed; dividing into two 
 
 parts. 
 bl'color, two-colored. 
 bi cSu'ju gate, twice-paired, as when a petiole 
 
 forks twice. 
 bi ciis'pid ate, with two points or cusps. 
 bi d6i/tate, uith two teeth. 
 bi 6n'ui al, of two ijears^ duration. 
 bl'fid, cleft into tao parts. 
 bi to'li ate, uith two leajiets. 
 bi tQr'cate, forked ; twice forked. 
 bij'u gate, bearing two pairs. 
 bila'biate, two-lipped. 
 bi ISm'el late, of two plates. 
 bi'lobed, two-lobed. 
 
 bi lo (;enate, divided into two secondary cells. 
 bi I5c'u lar, divided into two cells. 
 bl''nate, two by two ; in pairs. 
 bino'dal, having two nodes. 
 bi uo'mi al, having two names. 
 bi pSKmate, twice palmately divided. 
 bip'arous, having two branches or axes 
 
 {applied to a cyme). 
 bi piii'uate, twice pinnate. 
 bi pin nSt'i lid, twice pinnatifid. 
 bi pin nat'i sect, twice pinnately divided. 
 btp'licate, twice folded together. 
 bi se'ri al, bi se'ri ate, occupying two rows, 
 
 one icilhin the other. 
 bi sgr^rate, doubly serrate ; as when the teeth 
 
 of a leaf are themselves serrate. 
 bi s5x'u al, having both stamens and pistils. 
 bi ter'nate, tivice ternate. 
 bi'vSlved, ttvo-valved. 
 blade, the expanded part of the leaf. 
 blanched, whitened by lack of light. 
 bloom, a whitish powder on fruits, leaves, etc. 
 boat'-shaped, concave within and keeled trith- 
 
 oiif, like a small boat. 
 b5t'a ny, the science trhich treats of plants. 
 brSch'eate, tcith opposite spreading 
 
 branches. 
 brSct, the small leaf or scale from the axil 
 of which a dower or its pedicel proceeds. 
 hT^c'te Ate, furnished with bracts. 
 brXc'te o late, furnished with bractlets. 
 brSct'let, brSc'teole, a bract on the pedicel 
 
 or flower-stalk. 
 branrh, a shoot growing from the stem. 
 biTs'tles, stiff, sharp hairs. 
 brTst'ly, beset with bri.ifles. 
 brush'-shaped, a.spergilliform : .'shaped like 
 
 the hriisli used in sprinkling holy water. 
 bry ol'o gy. thai pari of botany which treats 
 of mosses. 
 
 bry 5pli'y ta, moss-like plants. 
 j bQd, the growing point : an nndevelopfl 
 
 plant or (lower. 
 bOd'ding, ll,e process of forming buds. 
 bild'-. scales, coverings of a bud. 
 bulb, an undirgrouml bud. 
 bul blf'er out-, hearing or producing bulbs. 
 btilb'lets, little bulbs. 
 bOriate, appearing as if blistered. 
 byssa'ceous, composed of Jine, jiax-like 
 
 threads. 
 
 ca du'cous, dropping off early. 
 caes'pitose, turf-like; having many stems 
 from one root.stock, or front many en- 
 tangled roots. 
 ca lath'i form, cup-shaped . 
 cS,Vca.r a,te, furnished with a spur. 
 cSl'qe late, slipper-shaped. 
 cSl'lous, hardened. 
 
 ca \yq i flo'rous, having the petals and sta- 
 mens adnate to the calyx. 
 c5Ky Qiue, calyx-like. 
 
 calye'ulate, having an outer calyx or calyx- 
 like involucre. 
 calyp'tra, the hood of the spore-case of a 
 
 7noss. 
 ca lyp'tri form, shaped like a candle-extin- 
 guisher. 
 ca'lyx, the outer floral en relope. 
 cSm'bi um, an old name for the sappy cells 
 between the wood and bark; nascent 
 structure. 
 cam pSn'u late, bell-shnped. 
 cam py 15t'ro poi;s, having the ovule curved, 
 
 with the apex iierr the hilum. 
 can a ITc'u late, channelled. 
 cSn'gel late, latticed; resembling lattice-work. 
 cSn'di dus, pure white. 
 cangs'^ent, grayi.fh white. 
 cSp'il la ry, or cap il la'ceous, resembling 
 
 hair; long and slender. 
 cSp'itate, head-shaped, gr'otring in close 
 
 clusters or heads. 
 ca pTt'u lum, a little head. 
 cSp're o late, bearing tendrils. 
 cSp'sule, a dry, dehiscent seed-vessel with 
 
 more than one carpel. 
 car'bon di SxTde, a substance consisting of 
 
 one atom of carbon to two of oxygen. 
 cari^na, a keel. 
 cSr'i nate, boat-shaped ; having a sharp ridge 
 
 beneath. 
 cSr i op'sis, the one-seeded fruit of grain or 
 
 grasses. 
 car'ne ous. flesh-colored ; pale red. 
 car' pel, a pistil. 
 car pOl'o gy, that department of botany which 
 
 relates to fruits. 
 car'po phore. part of a receptacle prolonged 
 between the carpels. 
 
820 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 CRT ti lag'i nous, Jirm and tough in ferture, 
 
 like cartildfie. 
 cSr''un cle, an excrescence near the hilum of 
 
 some seeds. 
 cSr y o phyl la'ceous, relating to the Pink 
 
 family. 
 car y op'sis, a grain ; a thin, dry, one-seeded 
 
 pericarp. 
 cas sTd'e ous, helmet-shaped. 
 cas'sus, empty ; sterile. 
 cSt'e nate, or ca ten'u late, end to end, as in 
 
 a chain. 
 cSt'kin, an anient. 
 cau'date, tailed, or tail-pointed. 
 cau'dex, the trunk or stem of a plant. 
 cau'di cle, the stalk of a pollen-mass. 
 cau les'gent, having a distinct stem. 
 cau'li cle, a little stoii, or rudimentary stem 
 
 of a seedling. 
 cau'line, relating to the stem. 
 cau lo car'pic (stems), same as perennial, 
 cau'lome, the cauline parts of a plant. 
 c611, a sac or bag-like body containing pro- 
 toplasm. 
 cell-growth, formation and enlargement of 
 
 cells. 
 cgl'lular tis'sue, tissue formed of cells. 
 cel'lulose, the substance of which cell-icalls 
 
 are formed. 
 cen trif u gal in flo res'cence, a flowering 
 
 from the center. 
 centrTp'etal in flo res'cence, a flowering 
 
 outside toward the center. 
 Qeph'alous, head-shaped ; groiving in close 
 
 clusters ; capitate. , 
 qe're al, relating to grains, corn, etc. 
 Qer'nuous, nodding, but less inclined than 
 
 pendulous. 
 chaff, the husks of grasses and grains. 
 chaff' y, abounding in or resembling chafl^. 
 ehala'za, the part of an ovule where the 
 
 covering and the nucleus join. 
 chan'nelled, holloived out like a gutter. 
 char'ac ter, a ivord expressing the essential 
 
 marks of a species, genus, etc. 
 char ta'ceous, having the texture of paper. 
 chlo'ro phyll, the green substance of leaves 
 
 and bark. 
 chloro'sis, a condition in ivhich naturally 
 
 colored parts turn green. 
 cho ri pet'a lous, having separate petals ; 
 
 polypetalous. 
 cho^ri sis, separation of an organ into ttvo 
 
 or more parts. 
 chro'mule, coloring matter in plants, 
 qie'a, trix, the scar left by the fall of a leaf or 
 
 other organ. 
 qiVi ate, fringed tvith marginal hairs. 
 q! ne're ous, ashy-gray, ash color. 
 51 'on, a young shoot. 
 cir^Qi nate, rolled inward from the top. 
 cir cu la'tion, a moving around {as of the 
 
 sap). 
 cir cum acls'sile, opening by a transverse slit. 
 
 cir cum scrTp'tion, ge7ieral outline. 
 
 gir'rhose, furnished with a tendril. 
 
 git're ous, lemon-yellow. 
 
 claMose, branched or ramose. 
 
 clath'rate, latticed; cancellale. 
 
 cla'vate, club-shaped. 
 
 cla vTc'u late, having claviculce, or little ten- 
 drils or hooks. 
 
 claw, the narrow or stalk-like base of some 
 petals, as of Pinks. 
 
 cleft, cut into lobes. 
 
 dels tog'a nious, fertilized in closed buds. 
 
 cleistog^amy, fertilization in closed buds. 
 
 climb'ing, rising by clinging to other objects. 
 
 clyp'e ate, buckler -shaped. 
 
 CO a les'gent, growing together. 
 
 CO are'tate, contracted, draivn together. 
 
 coat'ed, having an integument, or covered in 
 layers. 
 
 cob'web by, bearing hairs like cobwebs or 
 gossamer ; arachnoid. 
 
 coc Qin'e ous, scarlet-red. 
 
 coccus {pi. cocci), a berry; a one-seeded 
 carpel of separable fruits. 
 
 coeh le ar'i form, spoon-shaped. 
 
 coch'le ate, spiral, like a snail-shell. 
 
 CO he'sion, imion of one organ with another 
 of the same kind. 
 
 co'hort, a division next above the Order. 
 
 col latter al, placed side by side. 
 
 col'lum, the part of the root where the stem 
 meets it. 
 
 col'ored, of any color except green, which in 
 botany is not a color, while white is. 
 
 col u mel'la, the axis to which the carpels of 
 a compound pistil are often attached, as 
 in Geranium; or which is left when a 
 pod opens, as in Azalea. 
 
 col'umn, the combined stamens and styles. 
 
 CO lum'nar, shaped like a column or pillar. 
 
 co'ma, a tuft of hair. 
 
 com'mis sure, the joining of the carpels of 
 the creniocarp. 
 
 com'mon, belonging alike to several. 
 
 complete' flow'er, one that has all the or- 
 gans, — calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils. 
 
 com'pli cate, folded upon itself. 
 
 com 'pound flow'er, one composed of a num- 
 ber of separate flowers crowded on the 
 torus. 
 
 com'pound leaf, one composed of separate 
 leaflets, or little leaves. 
 
 com pressed'', flattened on the sides. 
 
 con'chi form, shell- or half -shell-shaped. 
 
 con'col or, all of one color. 
 
 con du'pli cate, folded on itself lengthwise. 
 
 cone, a strobile ; a multiple fruit having 
 the shape of a cone. 
 
 con fer ru'ml nate, stuck together, as the 
 cotyledons in a Horse-chestnut. 
 
 con'fluent, uniting; coherent. 
 
 con formed', similar to something associated 
 or compared; closely fitted, as the skin to 
 the kernel of a seed. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 321 
 
 con g&6^tei\,roiitJlomerti/(' ; croiKh-d together. 
 
 von glOiu'er ate, croirdrd luijether ; ileusely 
 clustered. 
 
 f5u'uate-per 16'li ate, Imrituj the leaves euii- 
 Hule, or united round <i stem. 
 
 con tTn'u ous, not jointed or articulated. 
 
 cou tort'ed, twisted. 
 
 con tor tu'iili oate, twisted back upon itself. 
 
 con trSL-'ted, either narrowed or shortened. 
 
 c5u'trary, turned in an opposite direction to 
 /he ordinary way. 
 
 cor'date, heart-shaped. 
 
 cor i a'ceous, Icalher-like. 
 
 cOrk'y, oj' the texture oj cork. 
 
 conn, a sort oJ' bulb, or fleshy stem. 
 
 cor'ne ous, horn-like in texture. 
 
 cor uTc'u late, having a small horn or spur. 
 
 cor'uute, horned ; bearing a horn-like pro- 
 jection or appendage. 
 
 CO r51'la, inner perianth, made up of petals. 
 
 cor ol la'ceous, like, or belonging to, a corolla. 
 
 c5r'ol line, pertaining to the corolla. 
 
 CO ro'na, a crown. 
 
 c5r'onate, crowned; furnished with a 
 crown. 
 
 c6r'ti cal bark, outer bark. 
 
 cSr'ti cate, coated with bark or bark-like 
 covering. 
 
 c5r'ymb, a flat-topped or convex cluster of 
 flowers, each on its own foot-stalk, and 
 arising from different points of a common 
 axis. 
 
 cor ym bif'er ous, bearing corymbs. 
 
 CO ryni'bose, in corymbs; approaching the 
 fornt of a corymb, or branched in that way. 
 
 c5s'tate, ribbed ; having rib-like ridges. 
 
 cot y le'dons, lobes or seed-leaves, or flrst 
 leaves of the embryo. 
 
 era tSr'i form, of the form of a goblet. 
 
 creep'er, a pUmt that trails on the ground. 
 
 crSiu'ocarp, a dry fruit of two one-sided 
 carpels, ivhich separate tvhen ripe. 
 
 cre'nate, bordered with rounded teeth. 
 
 cr6n'u late, finely scalloped. 
 
 crgst'ed or crTs'tate, having an elevated 
 ridge. 
 
 ere ta'ceous, chalky, or chalk-like. 
 
 crlb'ri form, pierced like a .neve with small 
 apertures. 
 
 cri'nite, bearing long hairs. 
 
 cro'ceous, .saffron-colored ; of a deep reddish- 
 brown. 
 
 crSss'-breeds, the progeny of interbred va- 
 rieties. 
 
 crSas-fer ti li za'tion, the fertilization of a 
 plant by pollen from a difl'erent individual. 
 
 cru'ci form, in the form of a Roman cross. 
 cnjde sap, sap before it has been exfto.ved to 
 
 the sun in the leaf. 
 crus ta'ceous, hard, thin, and brittle. 
 cryp to pa'mi a, name of the division <>f plants 
 
 without flowers. 
 cu'cnl late, rolled tip into a hood shape. 
 cGlm, the straw of grasses. 
 
 Th, i l. — 22 
 
 cQl'trate, shaped like a trowel or broad knife. 
 
 cu'ne ate, or cii ne'i form, wedge-shape<t. 
 
 cQp'-bhaped, in the form of a drinkingcup. 
 
 cu'pu late, provided with a cupule. 
 
 cu'pule, a little cup, as the cup of the acorn. 
 
 cu pu lifer ous, cupule-bearing. 
 
 cQr vi-se'ri al, in oblifjue or .spiral ranks. 
 
 cfir'vi-veined, with curved ribs or veins. 
 
 cush'iou, the enlargement at the insertion or 
 base of a petiole. 
 
 cus'pi date, having a sharp, stifl' point. 
 
 cut, having sharp or deep divisions; inci.sed. 
 
 cu'ti cle, outer lamina of wall of epidermi.i. 
 
 gy Sn'ic, blue, or of any color except yellow. 
 
 qy Sth'i form, cup-shaped. 
 
 Qyc'lic al, rolled up circularly, or coiled into 
 a complete circle. 
 
 gyclo'sis, the circulation of protoplasmic 
 granules within a living vegetable cell. 
 
 cy lln dra'ceous, approaching to the cylin- 
 drical form ; not tapering ; coluniiiar. 
 
 (jym'bi form, boat-shaped. 
 
 gyme, flower-cluster with the oldest flowers 
 at the lop or center. 
 
 gy'mose, gy^mous, having the nature of a 
 cyme ; bearing cymes. 
 
 (•y'mule, a partial diminutive cyme. 
 
 qy to bias te'ma, the viscous fluid in irhich 
 vegetable cells are produced and held 
 together. 
 
 Qy'tode, a nucleated mass of protoplasm. 
 
 ^y'to plasm, a vessel or chamber ivhich sur- 
 rounds or contains the protoplasm. 
 
 D. 
 
 de cSg'y nous, having ten pistils or styles. 
 
 de cam'er ous, having ten parts. 
 
 de cSu'drous, having ten stamens. 
 
 de Qid'u ous, falling at the end of the season. 
 
 dec'linate, bent doivnward. 
 
 de com pound', much compounded or di- 
 vided. 
 
 decum'bent, reclining with the top ascend- 
 ing. 
 
 decur'rent, running down into, or upon. 
 
 de cus'sate (leaves), opposite and having 
 the pairs at right angles. 
 
 de du pli caption, separation of an organ into 
 many parts. 
 
 de flSxed', bent downward. 
 
 de flo'rate, pa.st the flowering .'date, a.s an 
 anther after it has discharged its pollen. 
 
 de fo li a'tion, the casting ofl' of leaves. 
 
 de hTs'c^ence, mode of the opening of seed- 
 ve.s.sel or anther. 
 
 de liTs'»'ent, opening by regular dehi.scence. 
 
 del i qugs\>ent, branching, .so that the stem 
 is lost in branches. 
 
 d61'toi«l, like the (ireek letter A in form. 
 
 de niersed', growing beloiv the surface of 
 water. 
 
 dSn'droid, tree-like inform. 
 
322 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 dSn'tate, toothed. 
 
 den tic'u late, toothed ivith fine or small 
 teeth. 
 
 de nu'ded, become naked. 
 
 de pau'per ate, less developed than usual. 
 
 de pend'ent, hanging down. 
 
 de pressed' ^ flattened from above; low. 
 
 de scend'ing, tending gradually downwards. 
 
 de scend''ing ax'is, the root. 
 
 dSx'trin, a gummy substance produced by 
 the action of diastase upon starch. 
 
 dex'trorse, twining; turning to the right. 
 
 di a del'phous, having stamens grouped into 
 two sets by united filaments. 
 
 di ag no'sis, a brief statement of the distinc- 
 tive character of a plant or group. 
 
 di al y pet'a lous, having separate petals; 
 polypetalous. 
 
 di 5n''drous, with two stamens. 
 
 di Sph'a nous, transparent, or translucent. 
 
 di'astase, a peculiar ferment in malt, alter- 
 ing starch into dextrine. 
 
 di car'pel la ry, having tivo carpels. 
 
 di ehla myd'e ous, having both calyx and 
 corolla. 
 
 di chog'a mous, having stamens which ripen 
 before the pistils, or vice versa. 
 
 di ehot'o mous, forked, or two-forked. 
 
 dic'li nous, having flowers of separate sexes. 
 
 dicoc'eous, splitting into two cocci or closed 
 carpels. 
 
 di cot y led'on ous, having tivo cotyledons or 
 seed-lobes. 
 
 di cot y le'dous, plants ivhich have two seed- 
 leaves in their embryos. 
 
 did'y mous, double. 
 
 didyn'amous, having the stamens of afour- 
 androus flower in two. pairs, one pair 
 shorter than the other. 
 
 diffuse', much divided and spreading. 
 
 dig'i tate, having several distinct leaflets 
 palmately arranged, as in the leaf of the 
 Horse-chestnut. 
 
 dig'y nous, having two pistils or styles. 
 
 dlm'er ous, made up of two parts, or having 
 organs in tivo. 
 
 di mTd'i ate {anther), halved. 
 
 di m8r'phous, having two forms. 
 
 dice'cious, having staminate and pistillate 
 floivers borne on different plants, 
 
 di pet'al ous, having tivo petals. 
 
 diph'yl lous, two-leaved. 
 
 dip'ter ous, having two tvings. 
 
 dis'gi form, or disc-shaped, flat and circu- 
 lar, like a disk or quoit. 
 
 dis'eoid, having no rays. 
 
 discol'or, of two different colors or hues. 
 
 dis Crete', separate ; opposite of concrete. 
 
 di sSp'al ous, having two sepals. 
 
 disk, face of an organ, or a circular spot 
 on cells. 
 
 dlsk-flow'ers, flowers of the disk in Com- 
 positce. 
 
 dia sSct'ed, ctit into deep lobes. 
 
 dis sep'i ment, a partition, a separating 
 tissue. 
 
 dis sil'i ent, bursting into pieces. 
 
 dis'tich ous, arranged in tivo rows. 
 
 dis tiuct', separate ; not united. 
 
 dithe'cous, having two thecce, or anther- 
 cells. 
 
 di var'i cate, ividespread ; straggling. 
 
 di ver'gent, spreading with a smaller angle. 
 
 divid'ed {leaves), cut into divisions, down 
 to the base or midrib. 
 
 do de cag'y nous, having twelve pistils. 
 
 do de can'drous, having twelve stamens. 
 
 do lab'ri form, ax-shaped. 
 
 d8r'sal, on, or relating to, the back. 
 
 dot'ted cells, cells ivith small spots. 
 
 dot'ted ducts, ducts with spots or dots. 
 
 doii'ble flow'er, a flower in which the sta- 
 mens become petals. 
 
 dowai'y, clothed with short, weak hairs. 
 
 dru pa'ceous, like a drupe. 
 
 drupe, a stone fruit, as the Peach and 
 Cherry. 
 
 dry'ing-press, an apparatus for drying bo- 
 tanical specimens. 
 
 diicts, elongated cells through which the 
 fluids of a plant pass. 
 
 dumose', bushy; like a bush. 
 
 du'plicate, in pairs; double. 
 
 du ra'men, heart-wood. 
 
 dwari'ing, preventing a plant from growing 
 to its full size. 
 
 E. 
 
 eared, auriculate ; having ears. 
 
 e brSe'te ate, ivithout bracts. 
 
 eeh'i nate, prickly ; with rigid hairs. 
 
 e den'tate, toothless. 
 
 ef fete', sterile, exhausted. 
 
 ef fuse', very loosely branched and spread- 
 ing. 
 
 e glan'du lose, destitute of glands. 
 
 el'a ters, spiral, elastic threads accompany- 
 ing certain spores. 
 
 el lip soi'dal, shaped like an ellipsoid. 
 
 el ITp'tic, el ITp'tic al, having the form of an 
 ellipse. 
 
 elon'gated, lengthened ; extended. 
 
 e mar'gi nate, having a notch at the apex or 
 top. 
 
 Sm'bry o, the young plant in the seed. 
 
 gm'bry o sSc, the cell in the ovule in ivhich 
 the embryo is formed. 
 
 em'bryonal, belonging, or relating to, the 
 ovary. 
 
 e mersed', raised out of water. 
 
 en de cSg'y nous, having eleven pistils or 
 styles. 
 
 en dSm'ic, peculiar to a country geogi'aphi- 
 cally. 
 
 6n'do carp, the inner layer of a seed-vessel. 
 
 Sn'do chrome, the coloring matter of plants. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 328 
 
 eud6g'euou» struc'ture, structure m ichivh 
 
 the pith and woody fiber are indiscnmi- 
 
 nately mingkd. 
 Sn'dogeus, plunls ivho.se structure is eii- 
 
 dogenuns. 
 eii do phloe'um, the inner layer of bark. 
 eu do pleii'ra, the inner coating of a seed. 
 eudo rhrzal, ratticle, or root, sheathed tu 
 
 germination. 
 Sn'dos mose, a thrusting, causing liquids of 
 
 different densities to pass through thin 
 
 membranes and mingle. 
 Sn'do sperm, the (dbumen of a seed. 
 Sn'do stoine, the orifice in l/te inner coat of 
 
 an ovule. 
 eu ue 5g'y nous, having nine pi.itils or styles. 
 eu ne Su'drous, having nine .stamens. 
 6n'si form, sword-shaped. 
 entire', mar'giued, huving a continuous 
 
 edge. 
 en to m5ph'i lous (flowers), frequented and 
 
 fertUized by insects. 
 e phem'er al, enduring for one day. 
 ep i ca'lyx, an involucel like that of the 
 
 Malvacece. 
 gp'i carp, the outer layer of a seed-vessel. 
 ep i der'mis, outer layer of cells. 
 ep i ge'ous, growing on the earth, or close to 
 
 the ground. 
 e pig'y nous, adnate upon the top of the 
 
 ovary. 
 ep T pSt'a lous, growing upon the petals. 
 e pTpli'yl lous, borne on a leaf. 
 Sp'i phytes, plants on other plants. 
 e pTp'te rous, winged at the top. 
 6p'i sperm, the skiii of the seed. 
 e'qual, alike in number or length: 
 Sq'ui taut, astraddle. 
 e ros'trate, not beaked. 
 e ryth ro car'pous, red-fruited. 
 es sSn'tial or'gaus (of a flower), stamens and 
 
 pistils. 
 e'tiolated, colorless for want of light. 
 ex al bu'mi uous, without albumen. 
 ex cur'rent, running through oi beyond. 
 ex Tg'u ous, puny ; small. 
 Sx'o carp, outer layer of a pericarp. 
 ex 5g'e ne, gx'o gens, plants which in- 
 crease by the addition of new material 
 
 outside of last year's growth. 
 ex 5g'e uous struc'ture, structure like an 
 
 eiogen. 
 exorhl'zal, radicle in germination, not 
 
 sheathed. 
 Sx'os nioae, flowing out. 
 6x'o stome, the orifice in the outer coat of the 
 
 ovule. 
 6x'pla nate, spread or flattened out. 
 8x serf, projecting out of or beyond. 
 ex stTp'u late, without .ttipules. 
 Sx'tine, outer coat of a pollen grain. 
 Sx'tra-Sx'il la ry, growing from without the 
 
 arils. 
 ex trdrse', turned outward. 
 
 F. 
 
 fSl'cate, scythe-shaped ; curved. 
 
 fSm'i ly, in botany, same us Order. 
 
 fa ri'na, meal or starchy matter. 
 
 far i im'cAioua, flour-like in texture. 
 
 fSr'i nose, mealy on the surface. 
 
 fSs'ci ate, banded; also applied to mon- 
 strous .items whieh grow flat. 
 
 f5s'(;i cle, '/ bundle. 
 
 fSs'^icled, fas Qic'u late, fas(,ic'u la'ted, in 
 the form of a fascicle; growing in a bun- 
 dle or tuft., as the leaves of Larch and 
 roots of Peony. 
 
 fas tig'i ate, close, parallel, and upright ; as 
 the branches of Lombard y 'Poplar. 
 
 faux {pi. fau'ces), the throat of a calyx, 
 
 . corolla, etc. 
 
 fa ve'o late, honeycombed ; alveolate. 
 
 fSatli'er-veined, ivith all veins from the 
 sides of the midrib or niidvein. 
 
 fe'male flow'er or plaut, one having pistil 
 only. 
 
 fe nSs'trate, pierced with one or more large 
 holes, like tvindows. 
 
 fer rii'gi uous, of the color of iron-rust. 
 
 fer'tile flow'er, seed-producing flower. 
 
 fer ti li za'tion, act of making fertile. 
 
 fibril'la {pi. ^hv\\\d?), fibril, minute thread. 
 
 fi bro-vSs'cu lar, containing woody fibers and 
 ducts. 
 
 fid 'die-shaped, obovate, with a deep recess 
 on each side. 
 
 fTl'a ment, the stalk of a stamen. 
 
 fil'i form, slender ; like a thread. 
 
 fim'hri Ate, fringed ; having the edge bor- 
 dered with slender proces.<ies. 
 
 fis'sion, a splitting into parts. 
 
 fis sTp'a rous, multiplying by division of one 
 body into two. 
 
 fis'tu lar, hollow, as the leaf of an Onion. 
 
 fla bSl'li form, fan-shaped. 
 
 fla gSl'li form, whip-shaped ; long, tapering, 
 and supple. 
 
 fla vSs'Qent, yellowish ; turning yellow. 
 
 flSsh'y, composed affirm pulp, or fle.th. 
 
 flgx'u ous, zigzag, or wary. 
 
 fl5c'cose, having tufts of soft hairs. 
 
 flo'ra, the spontaneous vegetation of a coun- 
 try ; a written description of the .<!ame. 
 
 flo'ral, relating to flowers. 
 
 flo'ral Sn'vcl ope, the perianth of a flower. 
 
 flo'ret, one of the small flowers composing n 
 compound flower. 
 
 flo rTf 'er ous, producing flowers. 
 
 fl5s'cule, a floret. 
 
 flow'er, the organ which produces the 
 seed. 
 
 flow'er bud, an undeveloped blossom ; the 
 dormant, or .ileepiug, flower. 
 
 fo li i'ceous, leaf -like in texture or form. 
 
 fo'li ate, provided uith leaves. 
 
 fo li a'tion, the net of leafing. 
 
 f5'li u late, relating to or bearing leaflets. 
 
324 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 fo'liole, a leaflet ; a distinct part of a com- 
 pound leaf. 
 fo'li ose, bearing many leaves. 
 fo'li um {pi. folia or foliums), « leaf. 
 f51'licle, a one-celled, many-seeded carpel, 
 
 opening by the ventral suture. 
 fol lic'u lar, like, pertaining to, or consisting 
 
 of follicles. 
 f oot'stalk, a pedicel, petiole, or peduncle. 
 fo ra'men, a small opening or orifice. 
 fo ram in if 'er ous, having small openings. 
 fo ram'i nous, full of holes. 
 fOrked, branched into two or three or more. 
 f6r'm cate, having an arch or scale over the 
 
 throat of the corolla. 
 fOr'uix, a small arched scale in the throat of 
 
 a corolla, as in Comfrey. 
 fo've late, having shalloiv pits. 
 free, not adherent or adnate. 
 fringed, edged with soft hairs. 
 frond, an organ which is both stalk and leaf. 
 fron'deut, covered with leaves. 
 fron des'cence, the act of bursting into leaf. 
 fron'dose, frond-bearing, leafy. 
 fruc ti fi ca'tion, the act of producing fruit. 
 fruit, a ripened pistil ; a seed-vessel with its 
 
 contents. 
 fru tes'gent, shrubby in character. 
 fu ga'cious, lasting but a short time. 
 ful'cra, accessory organs, such as tendrils, 
 
 stipules, etc. 
 fu ITg'i nous, of a sooty color ; smoky-brown ; 
 
 blackish. 
 ful'vous, dull yellow ; tawny. 
 fu'nicle, funic'ulus, the stalk of an ovule 
 
 or seed. 
 fQr'cate, forked ; forked-veined. 
 fur fu ra'ceous, scurfy. 
 ffir'rowed, marked lengthwise with channels. 
 fQs'cous, grayish or blackish brown. 
 fu'si form, spindle-shaped. 
 
 ^'bu lus, the ivoody cone of the Juniper and 
 
 Cypress. 
 ga'le a, the name applied to the upper lip of 
 
 labiate corollas. 
 ga'le ate, shaped like a helmet. 
 gSm o pet'a lae, plants ivhose petals are 
 
 united. 
 gSm o pet'al ous, having the petals united ; 
 
 sympetalous. 
 ga moph'yl lous, having united perianth 
 
 leaves. 
 gam o sgp'al ous, 7vith the sepals united. 
 gem'i nate, having tivo together. 
 gem ma'tion, formation of new individuals 
 
 by budding. 
 gSm'mule, a small bud ; the plumule. 
 gen'e ra, see genus, 
 ge nSr'ic, pertaining to a genus. 
 ge ntc'u late, bent at an angle. 
 
 ge'nus {pi. genera), a group of species alike 
 
 in their fructifying organs. 
 germ, the ovary. 
 
 ger'meu, the old name for the ovary. 
 ger mi na'tion, the development of the seed 
 
 into a plant ; sproutiiig. 
 gib'bous, having a rounded protuberance at 
 
 the side or base. 
 gla'brate, becoming glabrous, or almost gla- 
 brous, with age. 
 gla'brous, s7nooth ; not hairy. 
 glad'i ate, sword-shaped. 
 gland, an organ of a leaf or branch which 
 
 secretes a fluid, as oil, resin, etc. 
 glan'du lar, consisting of glands. 
 glans, the acorn or mast of the Oak and 
 
 similar fruits. 
 glar'e ose, growing in gravel. 
 glau Qcs'cent, slightly glaucous, or bluish 
 
 gray. 
 glau'eous, with a bloom or whitish waxy 
 
 powder, as on fresh plums. 
 globose', nearly spherical inform. 
 glo ehid'i ate, tipped ivith barbs, or ivith a 
 
 double-hooked point. 
 glom'er ate, collected into close heads. 
 glom'er ule, a cyme grown in the form of a 
 
 head. 
 glu ma'ceous, glume-like ; glume-bearing. 
 glu melles', the inner husks of grasses. 
 glumes, bracteal coverings offloivers or of the 
 
 seeds of grains and grasses. 
 gon'o phore, a stipe beloiu stamens. 
 gos'sy pine, cottony ; floccident. 
 graft'ing, the act of inserting a shoot or 
 
 scion from one tree iJito the stem or some 
 
 other part of another, so (hat they unite 
 
 and produce fruit of the kind from which 
 
 the shoot was taken. 
 grain, tlte gathered seeds of cereal plants; 
 
 a grain-like prominence or tubercle, as on 
 
 the sepals of Bock. 
 gra min'e ous, grass-like. 
 gran 'u lar, composed of grains. 
 gris'e ous, gray ; bluish gray. 
 gru'mous, or gru mose', formed of coarse, 
 
 clustered grains. 
 gut'tate, spotted as if by sjiots of something 
 
 colored. 
 gym no car'pous, having a naked fruit, 
 gym no sper'mae, a class of exogenous plants 
 
 characterized by naked seeds. 
 gjrm no sperm ous, having naked seeds. 
 gy nan'drous, bearing stameiis on the pistils. 
 gyn'obase, a process of the torus, on or 
 
 around which the carpels are suspended. 
 gy noe'Qi um, the collective pistils of afloiver. 
 gyn'o phore, a produced torus bearing the 
 
 ovary on its summit. 
 gyn o ste'gi um, a sheath around pistils. 
 gyn ste'mi um, the column in Orchids con- 
 sisting of s/i/lf and stigma with stamens 
 
 combined. 
 gy'rate, curved inward; vircinate. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 325 
 
 H. 
 
 hSb'it, (he general aspect of n plant. 
 
 \AWi tat, the natural locdlilii or growth of 
 a wild plant. 
 
 hSirs, outgrowths of epiiicrinnl cpUs. 
 
 hSir'y, con red with hair ; made of or re- 
 sembling hair ; hirsute. 
 
 hal'bprd-shaped, lia.state. 
 
 halved, one half apparently deficient. 
 
 lia'mate, or lia luose', having the end hooked 
 or curved. 
 
 liSm'u lose, having a small hook. 
 
 liap lo stgm'o nous, having only one series of 
 stamens. 
 
 hSs'tate, triangular., with the base-lobes ab- 
 ruptly spreading, as in a halberd. 
 
 hgnd, vapitulum ; a form of i7i florescence. 
 
 heart'-fihapcd, a form ivhich n-ould be pre- 
 sented by the .section of a sheep\<; heart, if 
 cut in halves. 
 
 heart'-wood, the wood near the central part 
 of (171 erogenous tree or shrub. 
 
 hgl'i coid, coiled like a helix or the shell of a 
 snail. 
 
 hSl'met, the hood-formed upper sejiol or 
 petal of so7nefiowers, as of the Mo7ikshood. 
 
 hgl'vo lous, grayish-yellow. 
 
 hgni'i carp, half-fruit ; one carpel of an 
 umbelliferous ]>lant. 
 
 hep tag'y nous, having .leven pistils or styles. 
 
 hep tamper ous, having the parts in sevens. 
 
 hep tan'drous, having seven stamens. 
 
 herb, a plant whose stei7i is 7iot persistently 
 woody, and does not re/nain per/nanent, 
 hut dies at least down to the ground after 
 floicering. 
 
 her ba'ceous. greeji and cellular m texture. 
 
 her ba'ri uin, a collection of dried phmts, for 
 the use of stude7its of botany. 
 
 hermSph'ro dl te {flower), having both sta- 
 mens and pistils. 
 
 hes perid'i uni, a berry with a thick rind, 
 as the ora7ige, etc. 
 
 het er o car''pous, bearing fruit of two ki7ids 
 or shapes. 
 
 het er <.'5ph'a lous, having heads of two 
 .sorts on the same plant. 
 
 Iiet er 5g'a mous, having tiro sorts of flowers 
 on the same head. 
 
 heterSg'ony, having stamens or pistils of 
 tuo sorts. 
 
 het er o uior'phous, of tivo or 7nore shapes. 
 
 het er 5ph'yl lous, having two .wrts of leaves 
 on the .same ste7n. 
 
 het er Sfro pous, having the etnbryo ob- 
 lii/ue or transverse to the funiculus; 
 a/iiphitropous. 
 
 hex Sg'o nal, six-sided. 
 
 hex Xm'er oiis, in .sir parts. 
 
 hex Si/drous, having six stajnens. 
 
 hi ber nSc'u luiii, n winter bud. 
 
 hl'e nial, occurring in u-inter. 
 
 hi Hal, belongi7ig to the hilum. 
 
 hl'lMin, the eye. or scar of the seed. 
 
 liip ))o crfp'i form, hor.se-shoe shaped. 
 
 hirhUte', hairy, with rather long hairs. 
 
 hirt^l'lou. , minutely hirsute. 
 
 hia'pid, bristly; having stiff hairs. 
 
 his tOl'o gy, tlie science of cells and tissues. 
 
 hoar'y, frost-colored ; grayish-white. 
 
 ho Uiod'ro U10U8, runni/ig in one direction. 
 
 ho niog'a mous, having all t lie flowers alike. 
 
 ho mo ge'iie ous, of the same kind or nature. 
 
 ho mol'o gous, of the same type. 
 
 ho mSt'ro pous, having the radicle of the seed 
 
 directed toicard llic hilain. 
 hood, the heli/iet-shaped upper petal of some 
 
 flowers. 
 hooked, hook-shaped ; ha77iate. 
 hor teii^sial,yi7/or a garden. 
 hor'tus sic'cus, an herbariu/u ; a collection 
 
 of dried plant specimens. 
 hu'mi fuse, spread over the surface of the 
 
 ground ; procumbe7it. 
 liy'a ITiie, t/'ansparent, or nearly so. 
 liy'brid, a cross-breed betueen two species. 
 hy'dro phyte.s, water-plants. 
 liy me'ui um, the spore-bearing surface of 
 
 .some fungi. 
 hy pSn'thi um, a hollow flower-receptacle, as 
 
 of a rose. 
 hy per bo're an, inhabiting northern regio?is. 
 hyp o era t6r'i form, .salver-shaped. 
 hypo ge'an, growing under ground. 
 hy pog'ynous, inserted below the pistil. 
 hys ter Sn'thous, having the blossoms develop 
 
 earlier than the leaves. 
 
 i CO sSu'drous, having twenty sta7nens in- 
 serted in the calyx. 
 
 Im'bri cate, imbricated, overlapped so as to 
 break joi7its, like sJi ingles on a roof. 
 
 im mar'gin ate, having no rim or boider. 
 
 im mersed', grouing uhnlly under water. 
 
 Tm'par i pTn'nate, pinnate with a single leaf- 
 let of the apex. 
 
 im per'fect How'er. '/ floirer ivanting either 
 stamens or pi.slils. 
 
 inane', empty; said of an anther which 
 pi'oduces no pollen. 
 
 in a]) pen dlc'u late, not appendaged. 
 
 in ca nSs'cjent, r)/- in ca'iious, Ao^rv / having 
 a soft ivhite pubescence. 
 
 in car'nate. flesh-colored. 
 
 in clsed'. divided deeply, as if cut. 
 
 includ'cd, inclosed or confined within : as 
 short stamens in a coi'olla. 
 
 in com plete' flow'er. wanting calyx or corolla. 
 
 in crSs'sate, thickened. 
 
 In'cu bous, having the tip of one leaf lying 
 flat over the base of the next above. 
 
 in cHmljent, having the radicle lying against 
 the back of one of the cotyledons. 
 
 incfirvcil'. ar rd-rrl'i/ curviua inuard. 
 
326 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 in dSf'i nite, too numerous or variable for 
 
 specific enumeration. 
 in dSf i nite in flo res'genQe, or in de ter'mi- 
 nate in^orescence, a process of inflores- 
 cence in which the flowers all arise from 
 axillary buds, the terminal bud con- 
 tinuing to grou-, and extending the stem 
 indeflnitely. 
 in de hTs'(;ent, not opening. 
 
 in de ter'mi nate, see indefinite. 
 
 in dig'e nous, native to a country. 
 
 in du men'tum, any hairy covering or pubes- 
 cence which forms a coating. 
 
 in du'pli cate, having the edges bent abruptly 
 toward the axis. 
 
 in du''si um, the shield of the fruit dots (sori) 
 in many ferns. 
 
 indu'viate, clothed with old and withered 
 parts. 
 
 in e qui lat'er al, unequal-sided, as the leaf of 
 a Begonia. 
 
 in er'mis, devoid of prickles or thorns. 
 
 in fer'tile, not producing seed or pollen, as 
 the case may be. 
 
 in flatbed, turgid and bladdery. 
 
 infleet'ed, bent inward; inflexed. 
 
 in flo res^Qenge, mode of flowering, or the 
 arrangement of flowers on a plant. 
 
 in fra-ax'il la ry, situated beneath the axil. 
 
 in fun dib'u li form, funnel-shaped. 
 
 Tn^nate, growing on the top of the part that 
 sustains it. 
 
 in no va^tion, a young shoot or new growth. 
 
 in sert'ed, .situated upon, growing out of, or 
 attached to some part. 
 
 in ser'tion, the attachment of one part to 
 another. 
 
 Tn^te gral, entire, not lobed. 
 
 in teg' u ment, a coat or covering. 
 
 in ter'ca la ry, inserted or introduced among 
 others. 
 
 inter qeV\u\nT {passages, spaces), lying be- 
 tween the cells or cellules. 
 
 in ter fo li a'ceou.s, situated between opposite 
 or whorled leaves. 
 
 in^'ternode, the space between tivo nodes. 
 
 in ter pet'i o lar, between the petioles. 
 
 in ter rupt'ed ly pTn''nate, pinnate without a 
 terminal leaflet. 
 
 Tn'tTne, innermost coating of a pollen grain. 
 
 in tra fo li a'ceous {stipules, etc.), groiving be- 
 tween the leaf or petiole and the stem. 
 
 in trQr^e' {anthers), turned imvard, or toward 
 the axis. 
 
 in truse', projpcted or pushed inward. 
 
 in tus sus ^ep'tion, the interposition of neiv 
 vital or formative material among the 
 particles already in existence, as in the 
 growth of a cell trail by the introduction 
 of new matter throughout the structure, 
 and not by adding to the surface. 
 
 in verse', or in vert'ed, having the apex in 
 the opposite direction to that of the organ 
 it is compared with. 
 
 in vSl'u Qel, a partial or small involucre. 
 
 in vo lu'cel late, furnished with an involucel. 
 
 in vo lu'crate, furnished with an involucre. 
 
 Tn'vo lu ere, a cluster of bracts around the 
 base of a flower. 
 
 Tn'vo lute, rolled inward. 
 
 ir reg'u lar flowers, flowers whose like parts 
 difl'er either in size or shape. 
 
 i som'er ous, composed each of an equal num- 
 ber of parts, as the members of the several 
 circles of a floiver . 
 
 i so stem'o nous, having the stamens equal in 
 number to the sepals or petals. 
 
 joint'ed, having johits or separable pieces. 
 ju'gum, one of the ridges commonly found on 
 
 the fruit of umbelliferous plants; a pair 
 
 of opposite leaflets. 
 ju'li form, or ju lu'gent, having the form of 
 
 a catkin or julus. 
 
 K. 
 
 keel, the two lowest petals of the corolla of a 
 papilionaceous flower united and inclosing 
 the stamens and pistil ; a carina. 
 
 keeled, having a longitudinal prominence 
 on the back; carinate. 
 
 ker'nel, the ivhole body of the seed within the 
 coats. 
 
 key-fruit, a dry, indehiscent, usually one- 
 seeded, winged fruit ; a samara. 
 
 kid'ney-shaped, having the shape of a kid- 
 ney ; reniform. 
 
 la bel'lum, the lower petal of an orchidaceous 
 
 floiver. 
 la'bi ate, lip-shaped. 
 la'bi a'ti flo'rous, having flowers with labiate 
 
 corollas. 
 lag'er ate, torn irregularly by deep incisions ; 
 
 jagged. 
 la Qin'i ate, slashed into deep, narrotv, irreg- 
 ular lobes. 
 lac tes'cent, containing a thick milk-like fluid 
 
 or juice. 
 lac tTf 'er ous tTs'sue, a tissue who.se cells and 
 
 ducts bear milk-like fluid. 
 lac'u nose, having lacunce or holes; fur- 
 
 roivrd ; pitted. 
 la cii^'trine, groiving in lakes. 
 IcCv'i gate, smooth, as if polished. 
 la ge'ni form, bottle-shaped. 
 lago'pous, densely covered with long, soft 
 
 hairs. 
 lam'el lar, or lam'el late, consisting of flat 
 
 plates or lamellrp. 
 la'nate. wooly : clothed with long, soft, erif 
 
 tangled hairs. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 327 
 
 lSn'<;e o late, Innce-shnped. 
 
 la nu'gi nose, covered with down, or fine soft 
 hair. 
 
 'appa'cjeous, covered with forked points. 
 
 la'teiit, concealed or umkveloped. 
 
 lat'cr al, belonging to the side. 
 
 15t er I'tious, brick-colored. 
 
 la'tex, the turbid or milky juice of plants. 
 
 lat i fo'li ous, broad-leaved. 
 
 leaf, a colored expansion, growing from the 
 stems or branches of a plant. 
 
 leaf bud, a bud that develops into a leaf or 
 leafy branch. 
 
 leaflet, one part of a compound leaf. 
 
 leaf scar, a cicatrix on a stem from which a 
 leaf has fallen. 
 
 ISath'er y, having the consistency of leather ; 
 coriaceous. 
 
 Igg'ume, a seed vessel which opens by both a 
 ventral and dorsal opening, as the bean, 
 pea, etc. 
 
 le gu'mi nous, belonging to the legumes. 
 
 I§n'ti gel, a small, oval, rounded spot upon 
 a stem or branch, from which the under- 
 lying tissues may protrude, or roots may 
 issue, either in the air or when the stem 
 or branch is covered with loater. 
 
 len tic'u lar, resembling a lentil in size and 
 form. 
 
 leu tig'i nose, bearing numerous dots resem- 
 bling freckles. 
 
 Igp'rous, covered with scurfy scales. 
 
 II 'bar, the inner bark lying next to the 
 wood. 
 
 li'chen, a jiowerless plant growing upon 
 rocks, trees, and various bodies. 
 
 ITd, the cover of the spore case of mosses ; 
 ■the top of an ovary ichich opens trans- 
 versely ; an operculu m . 
 
 ITg'ue ous sys'tem, tvoody system. 
 
 ITg'u late, strap-shaped. 
 
 ITg'ule, a stipule of grasses. 
 
 lil i a'ceous, like a lily. 
 
 ITmb, border of a petal or sepal. 
 
 JTni'bate, bordered, as ichen one color is 
 edged ivith another. 
 
 line, the twelfth of an inch. 
 
 iTn'e ar, long and narroiv. 
 
 iTn'e ate, marked longitudinally with de- 
 pressed par(dlel lines. 
 
 lYn'gui form, tigulate. 
 
 ITn'gu late, tongue-shaped. 
 
 ITp, one of the lobes of a labiate corolla. 
 
 ITt'to ral, belonging to the shore. 
 
 ITv'id, clouded with bluish broirn or gray. 
 
 lo'bate, lohed. 
 
 lo cSl'late, divided into secondary compart- 
 ments or cells. 
 
 iSc'u lar, relating to the cell or coinparlment 
 of an ovary. 
 
 loculicl'dal, dehi.^cent through the middle 
 of the hack of each cell. 
 
 loctis'ta, the spikelet of a flower clu.<iter of 
 grasses. 
 
 I ISd'i cule, one of the scales nnt^nering in 
 
 grass flowers to the perianth. 
 lo'ment, a jointed legume. 
 lo men tS'ceous, like a loment ; having fruits 
 
 like laments. 
 lo'rate, strap-shaped ; ligulate. 
 lu'nate, crescent-.'shaped . 
 lu'pulin, a fine, yelloic, resinous powder, 
 
 found upon strobiles or fruit of hops. 
 lu'teous, yellowish; more or less buff. 
 lutSs'ceut, of a yellowish color. 
 ly'rate, lyre-shaped, or spatulate and ohlnng, 
 
 with small lobes toward the base. 
 
 M. 
 
 mSc'ro spore, a large .<>pore of certain flower- 
 less plarits. 
 
 mSc'u late, marked xvith spots or blotches. 
 
 male, staminate. 
 
 mam mose', breast-shaped. 
 
 marcSs'cent, icithering, but persistent. 
 
 mar'gin al, pertaining to the margin or 
 border. 
 
 mar'gin ate, having a margin distinct in ap- 
 pearance or structure. 
 
 mSr'i time, belonging to seacoasts. 
 
 mar'mo rate, variegated like marble. 
 
 meal'y, farinaceous. 
 
 me'dial, or me'di an, running through the 
 middle; belonging to the middle. 
 
 medul'la, pj7A; soft cellular tissue occupy- 
 ing the center of a stem or branch. 
 
 mgd'ul la ry rays, rays of cellular tissue seen 
 in a transverse section of exogenous wood, 
 tchich pass from the pith to the bark. 
 
 mgd'ullary sheath, the tube formed by the 
 spiral vessels around the central column 
 of pith. 
 
 mei o stSm'o nous, having fewer stamens 
 than the parts of the corolla. 
 
 mem bra na'ceous, membra'uous, thin, and 
 rather .toft or pliable, as the leaves of the 
 Ro.te. Peach-tree, and Aspen Poplar. 
 
 me nls'coid, crescent-shaped. 
 
 mSr'i carp, one carpel of a cremocarp of an 
 umbellifer. 
 
 mer is mSt'ic, dividing into cells or segments 
 by the formation of internal partitions. 
 
 mSs'ocarp, the middle layer of a pericarp, 
 consisting of three distinct layers. 
 
 mes o phlce'um, the middle or green bark. 
 
 me tSb'o lism, transformation of one kind of 
 sub.ttance into another in assimilation. 
 
 mi'cropyle, an opening in the outer coat of 
 a seed through which the fecundating pol- 
 len ertfers the ovule. 
 
 mi'cro sjiiire. an exceed inglu minute spore 
 found in rfrtain fltnrerless plants. 
 
 niTd'rih, or niTd'vpin. the central vein of a 
 leaf 
 
 mTlk'-vSs'nels. certain cells in the inn^r hark 
 of plants rnnlaining milky juice. 
 
328 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 min'iate, vermilion. 
 
 mit'ri form, having the form of a miter or 
 
 peaked cap. 
 mon a del'phous, having the stamens united 
 
 in one body by the Jilaments. 
 mo nan'drous, having hut one stamen. 
 mo nil'i form, jointed or constricted at regu- 
 lar intervals, to resemble a string of beads. 
 mon o car'pic, fruiting but once. 
 mon o chla myd'e ous, having a single floral 
 
 envelope, either calyx or corolla. 
 mon o cot y le'dou, a plant having only one 
 
 cotyledon or seed lobe. 
 mo noe'cious, having stamens and pistils on 
 
 the same plant. 
 mo nog'y nous, having only one style or 
 
 stigma. 
 mon o pet'al ous, having but one petal. 
 mo noph'yl lous, having but one leaf. 
 mon o sep'al ous, having the calyx in one 
 
 piece. 
 mon o sper'mous, having but one seed. 
 mon'strous flow'ers, floivers ichose stamens 
 
 have developed into petals. 
 morphol'ogy, that branch of biology which 
 
 deals with the structure of animals and 
 
 plants, and treats of the forms of orgayis, 
 
 describing their varieties, homologies, and 
 
 metamorphoses. 
 mos'ehate, exhaling the odor of musk. 
 mu'cro, a minute, sharp, abrupt point, as of 
 
 a leaf. 
 mu'cro nate, ending abruptly in a sharp 
 
 point. 
 mu cron'u late, tipped with a small point or 
 
 points. 
 miirti fid, cut into many segments. 
 mu'ri cate, full of sharp points or prickles. 
 mu'ri form, resembling a wall of mason work. 
 mus col'o gy, bryology ; that part of botany 
 
 which relates to mosses. 
 mu'ticous, without a point ; blunt. 
 my ce'li um, the white threads or filamentous 
 
 growth from ivhich a mushroom or fungus 
 
 is developed. 
 
 N. 
 
 na'ked seeds, seeds not in a. seed vessel. 
 na'pi form, turnip-shaped. 
 na'tant, floating in water ; submersed. 
 nat'u ral ized, growing spontaneously, but 
 
 not native. 
 na vTc'u lar, boat-shaped , as the glumes of 
 
 many grasses. 
 neck'lace-shaped, looking like a string of 
 
 beads. 
 nSc'tar, honey. 
 nee tar if 'er ous, .'secreting honey ; having a 
 
 nectary. 
 nec'tar y, a vessel containing honey. 
 ngm'o ral, or nem'o rous, pertaining to a 
 
 wood or grove ; woody ; inhabiting groves. 
 nerves, reins. 
 
 ner vose, ' conspicuously nerved. 
 net 'ted, or net-veined', having the veins in- 
 terlaced so as to present the ajrpearance 
 
 of a net. 
 ueu'tral flow'er, a flower without stamens or 
 
 pistils. 
 nit'id, bright; lustrous; shining. 
 ni 'val, living in or near snoiv. 
 niv'e ous, snoivy ; .snow-white. 
 n5d'ding, nutant ; having the summit bent 
 
 over, (IS in the Snoicdrop. 
 node, (I Joint of a stem. 
 
 nodose', knotty; having numerous or con- 
 spicuous nodes. 
 uod'u lose, having small nodes or knots; 
 
 dim inutively nodose. 
 no'men cla ture, the technical names used in 
 
 any particular branch of science or art. 
 nSr'mal, regular ; according to rule. 
 no'tate, marked with spots or lines, which 
 
 are often colored. 
 nu ca men ta'ceous, resembling a small nut; 
 
 bearing one-seeded, nut-like fruits, 
 mi c&ilws, nucleus ; kernel. 
 nu'ci form, shaped like a nut. 
 nu cle'o lus, a dense rounded body within a 
 
 nucleus. 
 nu'cle us, a kernel; an incipient ovule of 
 
 soft, cellular tissue. 
 nut, the fruit of certain trees and shrubs, 
 
 consi.'sting of a hard and indehiscent shell 
 
 inclosing the kernel. 
 nu'tant, nodding; having the top bent 
 
 doicnivard. 
 nut'let, a small nut ; the stone of a drupe. 
 
 o. 
 
 ob com ^ve?,s,&(\' , flattened back and front. 
 obcSr'date, heart-shaped, with the attach- 
 ment at the pointed end. 
 oblan'ceolate, lanceolate, narrowing toward 
 
 the point of attachment. 
 oblique', having unequal sides, as the leaves 
 
 of an Elm . 
 ob'long, longer than broad, the sides being 
 
 nearly parallel. 
 ob'o vate, egg-shaped, having the broad part 
 
 at the apex. 
 ob tuse', blunt at the apex. 
 ob'verse, having the base, or end next the 
 
 attachment, narrower than the top. 
 ob'vo lute, overlapping. 
 o eel 'late, marked ivith eye-like spots of color. 
 o'chrea, a kind of sheath formed by two 
 
 stipules uniting around a stem. 
 och ro leu'cous, yellowish-ivhile. 
 oc tSn'drous, having eight distinct stamens. 
 oc tog'y nous, having eight pistils. 
 oc'u la ted, having spots or holes resembling 
 
 eyes. 
 of fic'i nal, used in medicine, — therefore 
 
 kept in the shops. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 329 
 
 5flf'set, n short, prostrnte shoot, uhirh takct 
 
 root and produces a iuj't of leavei). 
 ol er a'«eou8, esculent, as a pot herb. 
 ol i gSn'drous, having few stamens. 
 ol J va'ceous, olive-green; resembling the 
 
 olive. 
 o'o phore, an alternately produced form of 
 certain cryptogamous plants, which bear 
 opposite fructifying organs. 
 o'o pho rtd'i uui, the spore-case containing 
 
 the larger female spores. 
 opaque', dull, not shining. 
 o per'cu lar, having a lid. 
 6p'po site, set over against each other, but 
 separated by the whole diameter of the 
 stem ; placed directly in front of another 
 part or organ. 
 6p pos'i ti fo'li ous, placed opposite a leaf. 
 or bic'u lar, or or bTc'u late, having a circu- 
 lar or nearly circular outline. 
 or chi da'ceous, like an Orchid inform. 
 8r'der, a group below Class. 
 6r'gau, any member of a plant, as a leaf, a 
 
 stamen, etc. 
 or ga iiog'ra phy, a description of the organs 
 
 of (I plant. 
 or'thos'ti clious, straight-ranked. 
 or thot'ro pons, having the axis of an ovule 
 or seed straight from the hilum or chalaza 
 to the orifice. 
 Ss'se ous, bony ; hard, as the peach-stone. 
 out'growth, growth from the surface of a 
 
 leaf, petal, etc. 
 o'val, shaped like the longitudinal section of 
 
 an egg. 
 o'va ry, that part of the pistil containing the 
 
 ova. 
 o'vate, oval. 
 
 o'void, resembling an egg in .'shape. 
 o'vule, the yoitng seed. 
 
 P. 
 
 pSl'ate, a projection of the lower lip of n 
 labiate corolla into the throat, as in Snap- 
 dragon, etc. 
 
 pa'le a, chajf, or chaff-like bract. 
 
 pa le a'ceous, chaffy ; having palea. 
 
 pa le'o la, a diminutive palea. 
 
 pa le'o late, having paleoltr, or narrow palerp. 
 
 I'STet, same as jtalea. 
 
 pSl'inate, lobed so that the sinu.tr s point to 
 the a per. 
 
 pal mSt'i fid, palmate, with the divisions .lep- 
 arated but little more than half way to the 
 common renter. 
 
 pal mSt'i lobed, palmate, with the divisions 
 .separated not half way to the common 
 center. 
 
 pal mSt'i sect, divided down to the midrib. 
 
 pSl'mi veined, having veins or nervr.i erf end- 
 ing toward the aprr. 
 
 pSl'u dose, living in n)arshe.<s. 
 
 pan dil'ri form, fidd/e-'!hai>/;d. 
 
 pSn'i clc, a branching raceme. 
 
 pSn'i cled, or pan Tc'u late, having panicles. 
 
 pSn'nose, covered with a felt of wooly 
 
 hair. 
 pa'pery, of about the lonsistence of letter 
 
 paper. 
 pa pll'io na'ceous, resembling the butterfly. 
 papiria(;>/. papTl'lie), little nipple-shaped 
 
 protuberancrs. 
 pSp'il late, or pap'il lose, covered with pap- 
 
 ill(v ; rrsembling papilhe. 
 pSp'pus, the scales, awns, or bristles which 
 
 represent the calyx in Compositae. 
 pap y ra'ceous, of t/ie consistence of paper ; 
 
 papery. 
 pSr'al lel-veined, having the veins or nerves 
 extending from the base of the leaf to the 
 apex, parallel to the midvein. 
 parSph'ysis, a minute-jointed filament 
 among the archegonia and anther idia 
 of mosses. 
 pSr'asite, a plant obtaining nourishment 
 immediately from another plant, to which 
 it attaches itself. 
 pargy'chy ma, soft cellular substance of a 
 tissue, like the pulp of leaves, having no 
 wood fibve. 
 pa reu'chy mal, consisting of parenchyma. 
 par eu chym'a tons, pertaining to the paren- 
 chyma of a tissue or organ. 
 parl'etal, attached to the main icall of the 
 
 ovary. 
 pSr i pTn'nate, having an equal number of 
 
 leafirts on each side, with no odd leafiei. 
 part'ed, deeply divided into parts. 
 par'the nogSn'e sis, the proiluction of seed 
 
 without fertilization. 
 par'tial Tn'vo In ere, a .secondary or .wiall 
 
 invoh/rre ; involurel. 
 par'tial pedun'cle. a branch of a peduncle. 
 par'tial pSt'i ole, a division of a main leaf- 
 stalk, or the stalk of a leafiet. 
 par'tial ilm'bel, an umbellet. 
 par tT'tion, a wall in a capsule, anther, etc. 
 patSlliform, disk-,shaped, like the patella, 
 
 or knee-pan. 
 pSt'ent, aide open ; spreading. 
 pSt'u Ions, half open ; expanded. 
 peSr'-shaped. obovoid, and larger above. 
 pSc'ti nate, having teeth like a comb ; finely 
 
 pinnatifid. 
 pSd'ate, shaped like a bird's foot. 
 p6d'i<;e]. a stalk which supports one finwer 
 or fruit, uhrthrr .solitary or one of mnnii 
 nltimatr divisions of a common peduncle. 
 p8d'i rSled, ped i cJl'late, having a pedicel; 
 
 .snppovled on a pedicel. 
 pe dfln'cle, a flower -stalk supporting a single 
 
 fiower or fiouer-cluster. 
 pe lo'ri a, an abnormal return to regnlnrify 
 and symmetry in an irregular fiower. 
 romutouest in Sunpdragon. 
 pe lo'ric, abnormally regular or symmetrical. 
 pSl'tate, shield-shaped. 
 
330 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 pSud'eiit, or pSn'dulous, supported from 
 above; suspended; hanging; drooping. 
 
 pen i cSriate, jurnished with a pencil of fine 
 hairs ; ending in a tuft of hairs. 
 
 pen'uate, pinnate ; having several leaflets 
 arranged on each side of a common petiole. 
 
 pen'ni nerved, feather -veined. 
 
 pen tSm'er ous, five-par ted ; having the parts 
 in fives. 
 
 pen tan'drous, having five stamens. 
 
 perSn'ni al, living several years. 
 
 per'fect flow'er, a flower having both sta- 
 mens and pistils. 
 
 per fo'li ate, having the basal part produced 
 around the stem. 
 
 per'fo rate, pierced ivith holes or transparent 
 dots resembling holes, as an Orange leaf. 
 
 pgr'ianth, calyx or corolla, or both; the 
 leafy parts of a flower surrounding the 
 stamens and pistils. 
 
 pSr'i carp, the ripened ovary ; the covering 
 of the seed. 
 
 per i car'pic, belonging to the pericarp. 
 
 pgr'i gone, or per i go'ui um, an organ inclos- 
 ing the essential organs of a flower ; a 
 perianth. 
 
 per i gyn'i um, the bristles, scales, or more 
 or less inflated sack which surroimds the 
 pistil, as in Carex. 
 
 pe rig'y nous, surrounding the pistil ; hav- 
 ing a tubular ring or sheath surrounding 
 the pistil, on which the various parts of 
 the flower are inserted. 
 
 per i pher'ic, around the outside or periphery 
 of any organ. 
 
 pSr'i sperm, the albumen of a seed, especicdly 
 that part for nied outside the embryo sac. 
 
 pgr'i stome, the fringe of teeth to the spore 
 case of mosses. 
 
 persTst'ent, remaining long in place. 
 
 per'son ate, masked by a closing of the throat 
 of the corolla, as in the Snapdragon. 
 
 per tuse', punched ; pierced with holes ; slit. 
 
 pgr'u la, a scale of a leaf bud. 
 
 pSr'u \9,te, furnished with scales. 
 
 pgt'al, one of the leafy expansions of the 
 corolla. 
 
 petSl'ody, metamorphosis of .stamens or 
 pistils info petals, as in double floicers. 
 
 pSt'al oid, pertaining to a petal ; resembling 
 a petal. 
 
 pet'i late, having a stalk or petiole. 
 
 pet'i ole, a leaf-stalk ; foot-stalk of a leaf 
 connecting the leaf with the stem. 
 
 pet i 31'u late, supported by its own petiohile. 
 
 pet'i o lule, a small petiole, or the petiole of 
 a leaflet. 
 
 plise no ga''mi a, or phan e ro ga'mi a, name of 
 that division of the vegetable kingdom 
 rvhich bears visible floivers. 
 
 pha'lanx ( pi. pha ISn'ges), a group or bun- 
 dle of stamens. i 
 
 phy col'o gy, the science of Algce, or sea- 
 weeds. \ 
 
 phyl lo cla'di um, a flattened stem or branch 
 which more or less resembles a leaf, and 
 performs the functions of a leaf. 
 
 phyl lo'di um, a petiole dilated into the form 
 of a blade. 
 
 phyl'lome, a foliar part of a plant ; an or- 
 gan homologous with a. leaf, or produced 
 by the metamorphosis of a leaf. 
 
 phyl'lotaxy, the order or arrangement of 
 leaves on a stem. 
 
 phys i log'i cal bot'an y, that division of the 
 science of botany which treats of the func- 
 tions of plants. 
 
 phy tog 'ra phy, the .science of describing 
 plants in a systematic manner. 
 
 phy tol'o gy, an account of the composition 
 of plant organs and the substances that 
 compose them. 
 
 pi 'le us, the expanded upper portion of many 
 of the fungi. 
 
 pi lifer ous, bearing a slender bristle or 
 hair ; beset icith hairs. 
 
 pi lose', covered with long slender hairs. 
 
 pTu'na, a primary division, ivith its leaflets, 
 of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf. 
 
 pTn'nate, composed of several leaflets, or 
 separate portions, arranged on each side 
 of a CO mm 071 petiole. 
 
 pTn'nate ly lobed, lobed in a pinnate manner. 
 
 pin nat'i fid, divided in a pinnate manner, 
 the divisions not reaching to the midrib. 
 
 pin nat'i sect, p innately divided to the midrib. 
 
 pin'nule, one of the small divisi07is of a de- 
 compound frond or leaf. 
 
 pi 'si form, resembling a pea in size or shape. 
 
 pis'til, organ of a flower, made up of ovary, 
 style, and stigma, or ovary and stigma. 
 
 pis'til late, having a pistil or pistils, — usu- 
 ally said of flowers having a pistil but no 
 stamens. 
 
 pis til lid 'i um, archegonium ; the organ in 
 mosses ivhich is analogous to a j)istil in 
 floicering plants. 
 
 pitch'er, a tubidar or cup-like appendage 
 or expansion of the leaves of certain 
 plants. 
 
 pith, the soft tissue in the center of the stems 
 of dicotyledonous plants. 
 
 pTt'ted, having depressions or excavations. 
 
 pit'ted cells, cells tvith spots or depressions 
 on their ivalls. 
 
 plaQen'ta. the part of a pistil or fruit to 
 ivhich the ovules or seeds are attached. 
 
 pla Qen'ti form, having the shape of a circu- 
 lar thickened disk, somewhat thinner about 
 the middle. 
 
 plait'ed, folded ; doubled over. 
 
 plSnt, an organized body possessing vitality 
 but not sensation. 
 
 plant growth, the manner in ivhich a plant 
 is built up. 
 
 plat y phyl'lous, broad-leaved. 
 
 plei oph'yl lous, having several leaves. 
 
 pli'cate, plaited like a fan ; folded. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 331 
 
 plfim'be OU8, resembling lend in color. 
 plu raose', feathery. 
 
 plii'mule, the first bud or gemule of a young 
 plant; the bud, or growing point, of the 
 embryo above the cotyledons. 
 plu ri fo'li o late, having several or many 
 
 leaflets. 
 p5d, a capsule, especially a legume. 
 pod ocSph'alous, having a head of Jloivers 
 on a long pcJuncle. 
 
 pSd'o sperm, the stalk of a seed or ovule. 
 
 point'less, destitute of any pointed tip, such 
 as a mucro, awn, acumination, etc. 
 
 pSl'len, the fructifying cells contained in 
 the anthers. 
 
 p51'len mSss, the united mass of pollen, as 
 in the Milk-weed and Orchij;. 
 
 p51'len tiibe, the slender tube sent doiv: 
 throu'jh the style of the pistil, through 
 u-hich the protoplasm of the pollen cell 
 is conveyed to the ovum. 
 
 pol li ua'tiou, the act of furnishing pollen to 
 the stigma. 
 
 pol ITn'i um {pi. pol ITii'i a), a mass of pollen. 
 See pollen mass. 
 
 pol y a del'phous, having the stamens in sev- 
 eral groups. 
 
 pol y Sn'drous, having tn any stamens, — tnore 
 than twelve. 
 
 polycar'pic, term used by T>e Candolle in 
 the sense of perennial. 
 
 pol y cot y le'don ous, haviiig many {more 
 than two) cotyledons, as Pi7ies, 
 
 polyg'amous, having both hermaphrodite 
 and unisexual flotvers. 
 
 po lyg'y nous, ivith many pistils or styles. 
 
 po lym'er ous, having many parts or mem- 
 bers in each set. 
 
 pol y mor'phous, of several or varying forms. 
 
 pol y pgt'al .ne, a group of dicotyledonous 
 plants having separate petals forming a 
 circle inside the calyr. 
 
 pol y pSt'al ous, having several or many sep- 
 arate petals. 
 
 pol y sSp'al ous, having the sepals separate 
 from each other. 
 
 pol y sper'mous, many-seeded. 
 
 pome, a fruit lik^ an apple. 
 
 po mTf er ous, pome-bearing. 
 
 p5r'rect, outstretched. 
 
 pos te'ri or, next the axis. 
 
 pouch, the silicle or .short pod, as of Shep- 
 herd\'i-p ur.se. 
 
 pre co'ciou:^, flowering before the leaves. 
 
 pre fo'li a'tion, vernation. 
 
 pre m8rse', ending abruptly. 
 
 prTck'les, slender thorn-like proce.swes. 
 
 prtck'ly, bearing prickles or sharp projec- 
 tions. 
 
 pri'mTne, the outermost of the two integu- 
 ments of an ovule. 
 
 pri mor'di al, earliest formed. Primordial 
 leaves are the first after the cotyledons. 
 
 pris mSt'ic. prisnt-shaped. 
 
 prSc'ess, any projection from the surf arc or 
 
 edge of a body. 
 pro cQm 'bent, trailing ; prostrate. 
 procQr'rent, running through, but not pro- 
 jecting. 
 pro duued', extended more than u.iual 
 pro irferous, bearing offspring, ~ applied 
 
 to a fiOw:r ivll'il.i which another is pro- 
 duced, or to a branch or frond from 
 
 which another ari.ses. 
 propS^'.i 1"in, a runner lerminateil by a 
 
 germinating bud. 
 prosCn'chyma, pUml (issue made up of 
 
 lengthened cells. 
 prSs'trate, lying flat on the ground. 
 pro tau'drou"?, pro ter Sn'drous, having the 
 
 staincis come to maturity before the pistil. 
 pro tcr ?:.i'thous, having flowers which ap- 
 
 pca,' before the leaves. 
 pro tcr og'y nous, pro t5g'y nous, //w/wh^ the 
 
 pistils come '? maturity before the .<ttamens. 
 pro t'lSrii r '., pro tliSl'liis, the minute pri- 
 mary growth from the spore of ferns, 
 
 which bears the true sexual organs. 
 pro t5ph'y ta, 07ie of the primary divisions 
 
 of vegetable life, containing the smallest 
 
 and simplest plants. 
 pro'to plasm, the primary organic substance 
 
 of plants. 
 pru'inose, covered u-ith dtist or bloom, .to as 
 
 to give the appearance of frost. 
 pter i d5i)li'y ta, a class of flowerle.'^s plants.^ 
 
 embracing ferns, horse-tails, club mosses, 
 
 etc. 
 pu b6r'u lent, very minutely downy. 
 pu bes'cent, covered with fine short hairs. 
 pul ver a'ceous, or piil vSr'u lent, having a 
 
 finely powde, : / surface. 
 pul'vi nate, having the form of a cushion. 
 punc'tate, dotted with small .tpots of color, 
 
 or with minute depressions or pits. 
 punc tlc'u late, minutely punctate. 
 pQn'gcnt, prickly-pointed ; hard and sharp. 
 pu nT'ceous, of a bri^^hl red color. 
 purpu'real, of a purple color, or bluish 
 
 red. 
 py rSm'i dal, in the form of a cone or 
 
 pyramid, 
 py re'na, or py'rene, a nutlet resembling a 
 
 seed ; the kernel of a drupe. 
 pyr'iform, in the form of a pear. 
 Y>yX'ida,te, furnished with a lid. 
 pyx'is, a box which divides circular hi into 
 
 an upper and lower half the former 
 
 being a k-ind of lid. 
 
 <iuad rilu'gu Inr, four-angled. 
 
 quad ri fo'li ate, four-leaved. 
 
 quad rlj'u gato. u-ifl, four pairs of leafieit. 
 
 qimd ri IXt'er al, ha ring four sides. 
 
 qui 'nate. grmring in sets of five. 
 
332 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 quin cun'^ial, having the leaves of a pentam- 
 erous calyr or corolla so imbricated that 
 two are exterior, two interior, and the fifth 
 has one edge exterior and one interior. 
 
 quin'tu pie, five-fold. 
 
 R. 
 
 race, a variety of stich fixed character that 
 
 it may be propagated by seed. 
 raceme', a flower cluster with an elongated 
 
 axis and many one-flowered lateral ped- 
 icels. 
 rSg'e mose, groiving in the form of a raceme. 
 ra'ehis, or rha'chls, the principal axis in a 
 
 spike, raceme, panicle, or corymb. 
 ra'dial, consisting of, or like, radii or 
 
 rays. 
 ra'di ant, having a ray-like appearance. 
 ra'di ate, diverging from a common center. 
 rad'i o.al, belonging to or proceeding from the 
 
 root. 
 rad'i cant, taking root on or above the ground; 
 
 rooting from the stem. 
 rad'i cle, the rudimentary stem of a plant 
 
 which supports the cotyledons in the seed, 
 
 and from ivhich the root is developed 
 
 downward ; a rootlet. 
 ra'mal, pertaining, to a branch. 
 ram en ta'ceous, beset with thin brownish 
 
 scales (ramenta), as the scales of many 
 
 ferns. 
 ram'i fi ca'tion, process of branching. 
 raiii'u lose, having many small brunches. 
 ra'phe, the continuation of the seed stalk 
 
 along the side of an anatropous ovule 
 
 or seed, forming a ridge or seam. 
 rays, radiating branches of an umbel. 
 re gep'ta cle, the apex of the flower stalk, 
 
 from, which the organs of the flower groiv, 
 
 or into ivhich they are inserted. 
 rec^ti nerved, having the nerves or veins 
 
 straight. 
 re cQrved', curved in an oppo.iite direction ; 
 
 bent back. 
 re du'pli cate, ra/m/e, icith the margins 
 
 curved ontirardly, — said of the cestiva- 
 
 tion of certain flowers. 
 re flexed', bent backward excessively. 
 re fract'ed, bent backicard angularly, as if 
 
 half-broken. 
 reg'ma, a dry fruit consisting of three or 
 
 more cells, each of ivhich at length breaks 
 
 open at the inner angle. 
 reg'u lar, having all the parts of the same 
 
 kind alike in size and shape. 
 ren'i form, kidney-shaped. 
 repand', having a slightly undulating 
 
 margin. 
 re'pent, prostrate and rooting. 
 re'plum, the framework of some pods {as of 
 
 the Prickly Poppy and Cress), persistent 
 
 after the valves fall aicay. 
 
 rep'tant, repent; creeping. 
 
 res pi ra'tion, breathing ; the absorption by 
 plants of oxygen, the oxidation of assimi- 
 lated products, and the release of carbon 
 dioxide and watery vapor. 
 
 resu'pinate, inverted; appearing to be up- 
 side down or reversed. 
 
 re tic'u late, netted. 
 
 ret'i nerved, having reticulate veins. 
 
 re'tro flexed, bent or turned abruptly back- 
 ward. 
 
 re tr6rse', bent backward or downward. 
 
 re tuse', having the end rounded and slightly 
 indented. 
 
 rev'o lute, rolled backward or downward. 
 
 rha'chis, see rachis. 
 
 rha'phe, the continuation of the seed stalk 
 along the side of an anatropous ovule or 
 seed, forming a ridge or seam. 
 
 rhaph'i des, minute, transparent, often 
 needle-shaped crystals, found in the tis- 
 sues of plants. 
 
 rhi zan'thous, producing flowers from a 
 rootstock, or apparently from a root. 
 
 rhizo'ma, or rhizome', a rootstock; a stem 
 which has the appearance of a root. 
 
 rhom'bic, .shaped like a rhomb. 
 
 rhomboid'a], shaped like a rhomboid. 
 
 ribs, the chief reins of a leaf; ridges. 
 
 ri mose', full of fissures or chinks. 
 
 rtn'gent, gaping, like an open mouth. 
 
 rings of wood, circular rings which appear 
 in a cross section of an exogenous stem. 
 
 ri pa'ri ous, growing along river banks. 
 
 root, the desceiiding axis of a plant ; the part 
 of a plant that groivs doivnward into the 
 ground. 
 
 root' cap, a mass of dead cells which cover 
 and protect the growing cells at the end, 
 of a root. 
 
 root'lets, .<iingle roofs or roof liranches. 
 
 rdot'stoek, a perennial underground stem, 
 producing leafy stems or fiower-sfpms 
 from year to year. 
 
 rosa'ceous, like a ro.se in shaj)P or 
 appearance. 
 
 ros'tellate, having a ro.^teUum, or small 
 beak; terminating in a beak. 
 
 rostel'lum, a small beak-like extension of 
 some part. 
 
 ros'trate, beaked; having a process resem- 
 bling the beak of a bird. 
 
 ro'su late, arranged in little rose-like clus- 
 ters, — said of leaves and bracts. 
 
 ro'tate, having the parts spreading out tike 
 a wheel ; ivheel-shaped. 
 
 ro ta'tion, circulation of fluids in the cell. 
 
 ro'tund, round or roundish in outline. 
 
 rii'bicund, red; ruddy. 
 
 ru'di ment, an imperfect organ or part ; a 
 minute part. 
 
 ru fes'cent, reddish ; tinged with red. 
 
 rugose', irrinkled; having the veinlets sunken 
 and the spaces between them elevated. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 333 
 
 ry'iui ua ted, having a hard albumen pene- 
 trated by irregular channels filled with 
 softer matter. 
 
 rflii'i;i nate, pinnately cut^ with the lobes 
 doping dounwards. 
 
 rQu'uer, a slender prostrate branch, rooting 
 at the end. 
 
 s. 
 
 sSb'u lose, growing in sandy places. 
 
 sSc, any closed membrane, or a deep purse- 
 .shaped cavity. 
 
 sSc'cate, .sac-shaped. 
 
 sSg'it tate, arrou-shaped. 
 
 sal su'gi nous, growing in brackish places, or 
 .salt 7narshes. 
 
 sSl'ver-shaped, tubular, with a spreading 
 border. 
 
 sa lua'ra, a winged fruit or seed vessel. 
 
 sSra'aroid, resembling a samara, or winged 
 seed vessel. 
 
 s5p, the watery fluid taken up by the root, 
 and moved through the vessel up to the 
 leaves. 
 
 sSp'wood, the last growth of tvood in an 
 exogen. 
 
 sar'cocarp, the fleshy part of a drupaceous 
 fruit. 
 
 sar'ment, a prostrate, filiform stem or run- 
 ner, like the Strawberry. 
 
 sar men ta'ceous, bearing sarments or run- 
 ners, either .spreading or procumbent. 
 
 sar men tose', long and filiform, and almost 
 naked, or having leaves only at the joints 
 where there are roots; bearing sarments ; 
 sarmenlaceous. 
 
 saw'-toothed, serrate. 
 
 sca'brous, rough ; scaly. 
 
 sea ISr'i form (cells), resembling a ladder; 
 having transver.se bars or markings, like 
 the rounds of a ladder. 
 
 scale, a thin, scarious body. 
 
 scal'loped, having the edge or border cut or 
 marked with segments of circles. 
 
 acai'y, furnished with srale.s, or .scale-like ijt 
 texture. 
 
 scSn'deut, climbing. 
 
 scape, a flower .stalk .springing from the 
 ground. 
 
 sca'pi form, resembling a scape. 
 
 scar, a mark left upon a stem or branch by 
 the fall of a leaflet or frond, or upon a 
 seed, by the .separation of its support. 
 
 sca'ri ose, or sca'ri ous, thin, dry, membra- 
 nous and not green. 
 
 BcSt'tered, irregular in position ; haxnng 
 no regular order : .sometimes used for 
 alternate. 
 
 8^1 'on, a young shoot used for grafting. 
 
 scle r?n'chy ma, hard, .stony tis.sue. 
 
 sole'rous, hard ; bony ; indurated. 
 
 acSb'i form, resembling sawdust. 
 
 scro bic'u late, having numerous small shal- 
 low depressions or hollows ; pitted. 
 scQrf, minute scales on the surface of many 
 
 leaves, as in the (Joosefoot. 
 scQr'fi ness, quality of being scurfy. 
 scu'tate, or scu'ti form, buckler-shaped ; 
 
 shield-shaped ; round, or nearly round. 
 scu'tel late, or scu tgl'li form, saucer-shaped, 
 
 or jjlatter-.shaped. 
 sea'green, light bluish-green; glauce.scent. 
 se'cund, arranged on one side only ; turned 
 
 only one u-ay. 
 sSc'uu dine, the second coat or integument 
 
 of an ovule ; legmen. 
 seed, matured ovule. 
 sgg'ment, a subdivi,sio7i or lobe oj any cleft 
 
 body. 
 sgg're gate, separated from others of the 
 
 .same kind. 
 sem i lu'uar, shaped like a half moon. 
 sSm'i na.\,pertai?iing to, containing, or con- 
 sisting of, .seed or semen. 
 sem i nif 'er ous, seed-bearing ; producing 
 
 seeds. 
 sem i-sSg'it tate, partly sagittate. 
 sem per vl 'rent, always fresh; evergreen. 
 s§n'ary, containing six ; in sixes. 
 se'pal, one of the foliaceous parts of the calyx. 
 sSp'al old, sepal-like. 
 sgp'arated flowers, those having stamens or 
 
 jjis. ' : only. 
 sSp'tate, divided by partitions. 
 sep'ten ate, having parts in sevens; hep- 
 
 tamerous. 
 sgp'ti qi dal, dividing the partitions ; said of 
 
 a method of dehiscence in which the pod 
 
 splits through the partitions and is divided 
 
 into its component carpels. 
 sep tTf 'ra gal, breaking from the partitions ; 
 
 said of a method of dehiscence in which 
 
 the valves of a pod break away front the 
 
 partitions, and these remain attached to 
 
 the common axis. 
 sSp'tum, a partition between two spaces. 
 se'rial, or se'ri ate, in roics ; as biserial, in 
 
 tivo rows. 
 se rl'ceous, silky. 
 Rer^t'inons, appearing or blossoming later 
 
 in the season than is customary with tdlied 
 
 species. 
 sSr'rate, notched on the edge like a sau-. 
 sSs'sile, resting directly upon the main stem 
 
 or branch, without a petiole or footstalk. 
 se ta'ceous, bristle-like ; set with bri.stles 
 se'tae, bristles. 
 se'tous, or se tTg'er ous, covered nith 
 
 bristles. 
 sSt'ula, a diminutive bristle. 
 sSt'u lose, provided u-ifh .setnlcp. 
 sex Sn'pii lir, .six-angled. 
 slieatli. Ihe base of a leaf when covering a 
 
 .stem or branch. 
 slieath'ing, inclosing with a sheath. 
 shiSld '-shaped, scutate ; peltate. 
 
334 
 
 GLOSSARY, 
 
 shrub, a woody perennial plunl less than 
 fifteen feet in height. 
 
 sTg'moid, curved in two directions, like the 
 letter s or the Gh-eek sigma. 
 
 sil'i cle, the short pod of many cruciferous 
 plants. 
 
 sil'ique, the long pod of many cruciferous 
 plants. 
 
 sTl'i quose. bearing siliques {us the crucifers). 
 
 sTlk'y, glossy, with a coat of fine and soft, 
 close-pressed, straight hairs. 
 
 sil'ver y, shining white or bluish-gray, usn- 
 ally from a silky pubescence. 
 
 sTm'ple, of one piece ; not compound. 
 
 sTn'is trorse, twining from right to left. 
 
 sTn'u ate, having a wavy margin or edge. 
 
 si'mis, a recess or bay ; the reentering angle 
 between two lobes or projections. 
 
 sleep of plants, a state of plants, usually at 
 night, when their leaflets approach each 
 other, and the flowers close and droop, or 
 are covered by the folded leaves. 
 
 sob o lifer ous, bearing shoots from near 
 the ground {sob'o les). 
 
 sol'i ta ry, growing alone or singly. 
 
 sOr'did, dull or dirty in hue. 
 
 so re'di ate, bearing patches of granular 
 bodies on the surface. 
 
 soro'sis, a fleshy multijile fruit, as the 
 Mulberry. 
 
 so'rus, a fruit dot of ferns. 
 
 spadT'ceous, chestnut-colored ; bearing flow- 
 ers on a spadix. 
 
 spa'dix, a spike with a fleshy axis. 
 
 span, the distance between the tip of the 
 thumb and the little finger when the hand 
 is outstretched, — about six or seven inches. 
 
 spa tha'ceous, having or resembling a spathe. 
 
 spathe, a large bract, or a pair nf bracts, 
 inclosing a floiver cluster. 
 
 spSt'ulate, shaped like a druggisfs spatula. 
 
 spe''cies, the unit in natural history classifl- 
 cation; a group of individuals believed 
 to be descended from common ancestors, 
 agreeing in essential characteristics, and 
 capable of continued fertile reproduction. 
 
 sper'ma to phore, sper'mo phore, or sper'- 
 ino spore, one of the names of the placenta. 
 
 spi 'cate, or spi 'ci form, resembling a spike ; 
 spike-shaped. 
 
 spike, an inflorescence in which the flowers 
 are sessile on a lengthened axis. 
 
 spike 'let, a little spike, as in grasses. 
 
 spTn'dle-shaped, tapering from the middle 
 both ways. 
 
 spine, a looody thorn. 
 
 spi nSs'cent, armed icith spines ; becoming 
 hard and thorny ; tapering gradually to 
 a rigid, leafless point. 
 
 spi nif 'er ous, or spi 'nose, thorny; full of 
 spines. 
 
 spi'ral arrangement {of leaves), an arrange- 
 ment wherein the leaves are alternately 
 arranged around the stem or branch. 
 
 spi'ral cells or vessels, long, slender cells 
 arranged in a coil. 
 
 sponge'let, or spon'gi ole, a su,pposed spuiiye- 
 like expansion of the tip of a rootlet for 
 absorbing water. 
 
 spo rad'ic, widely dispersed. 
 
 spo ran'gi um, a spore case in cryptogamous 
 plants. 
 
 spore, rt reproductive grain in flowerless 
 plants, analogous to seeds in flowering 
 plants. 
 
 spore case, a sporangium. 
 
 spo'ro phore, the generative organ in certairi 
 plants which reproduces asexually. 
 
 sport, a newly appeared variation. 
 
 spor'ule, a little spore ; a spore. 
 
 spumes'cent, appearing like froth. 
 
 spQr, a stiff, sharp spine; a slender pro- 
 jecting appendage. 
 
 squa ma'ceous, squa'mate, or squa mose', 
 covered with or consisting of scales ; re- 
 sembling a scale. 
 
 squa'mi form, having the shape of a scale. 
 
 squam'ulate, or squam'ulose, having little 
 scales. 
 
 squar rose', divided into shreds or jags ; 
 having ividely divaricating scales, as the 
 involucral scales of the CompositcB. 
 
 stalk, the stem, petiole, peduncle, etc., of a 
 plant. 
 
 sta'mens, the organs that produce pollen, 
 consisting of filament and anther. 
 
 stSm'inate, furnished with stamens; pro- 
 ducing stamens. A staminate floiver is 
 one having stamens, but lacking pistils. 
 
 stSm'i no'di um, a stamen ivithout an an- 
 ther ; an organ resembling an abortive 
 stamen. 
 
 stSnd'ard, the upper petal, or banner, of a 
 papilionaceous corolla. 
 
 starch, a ividely diffused vegetable substance 
 found especially in seeds, bidbs, and tu- 
 bers, from which it is extracted as a white 
 granular or powdery substance, without 
 taste or odor. 
 
 sta'tion, the particidar situation in which 
 a plant occurs. 
 
 stel'late, or stel'lular, starry, or star-like; 
 spreading out from a common center, like 
 a star. 
 
 stem'less, destitute, or apparently destitute, 
 of a stem. 
 
 ste noph'yl lous, having narrow leaves. 
 
 ster'ile, barren; not bearing seeds ; unpro- 
 ductive. 
 
 stig'ma, the part of the pistil, usually the 
 end, fltted to receive the pollen. 
 
 stig mSt'ic, of or pertaining to a stigma. 
 
 stings, stinging hairs; hairs sufiUciently 
 rigid to perforate animal tissue, and of 
 ivhich, having entered, the apex breaks 
 off, discharging an irritating fluid. 
 
 stipe, the stalk of the ovary or ovaries; the 
 stem of a Mushroom, 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 33n 
 
 sti'pel, u)i apiH-nduye to a leaflet corrpsijund- 
 
 ing to a stipule in o leu/. 
 Bti^Vla.te, J'urnis/ied irith stipelx, us in the 
 
 bean tribe. 
 stTp'i tate, supported on d stipe. 
 stlp'u late, furnished with stipules. 
 stTp'ule, an appendage, or little leaf, on 
 
 each side of the base of a petiole or 
 
 leaf. 
 stSck, a word used for race or source ; also, 
 
 for any root-like base from which the herb 
 
 grows up. 
 sto'lon, a branch at the base of a plant which 
 
 roots easilij. 
 sto'lo infer ous, producing stolons. 
 tito'ma, a mouth ; one of the openings in 
 
 the epidermis of a leaf ; a breathing 
 
 pore. 
 stramin'e ous, straw-like, or straw-colored. 
 strSp'-shaped, yf«/, narrow, and straight. 
 stri 'ate, or stri 'at ed, marked with slender 
 
 longitudi)Hd bars or strijies. 
 strict, erect and very straight. 
 stri gose', set ivith stiff, straight bristles. 
 8tr5b'ile, a multiple fruit in the form of a 
 
 cone, as of the Hop and Pine. 
 Strom bu'li form, twisted, like a spiral shell. 
 stro'phi o late, furnished with a strophiole 
 
 or caruncle about the hilum. 
 stro'phi ole, a crest-like excrescence about the 
 
 hilum of certain seeds. 
 struc'tur al b5t'an y, the science which treats 
 
 of the organs or parts of plants, of their 
 
 forms and uses. 
 Btnj'ma, a wen ; a swelling or protuberance 
 
 of any organ. 
 stu pose', composed of or having tufted fila- 
 ments like low. 
 style, that part of the pistil between the ovary 
 
 and the stigma. 
 sty ITf 'er ous, bearing one or more styles. 
 sty'loid, having the form of or resembling a 
 
 style. 
 sty lo po'di um, an epigynous disk, or en- 
 largement at the base of the style. 
 sQb' class, a natural group, more important 
 
 tfutn an Order, 
 sube'reous, or su'berose, having a corky 
 
 texture. 
 Riih or'der, a group of genera a little lower 
 
 in rank than an Order, and of greater im- 
 portance than a Tribe or Family, 
 sfib' tribe, a divi.s-inn of a Tribe, 
 eu'bu late, awl-shaped ; very narrow, and 
 
 tapering gradually to a fine point from a 
 
 broad ish base, 
 am- else', appearing as if cut off at the 
 
 extremity. 
 sfic'cu bona, having the leaves so placed that 
 
 the upper part of each one is covered by 
 
 the base of the leaf above. 
 sHc'cu lent, very juicy and celhdar. 
 sfick'er, (/ shoot coining from a part of the 
 
 stem beneath the ground. 
 
 suf fru tds'ceut, slightly woody at the base. 
 
 8uf f rij'ti cose, woody in the lower part of Ihi 
 stem ; more woody than suffrutescent. 
 
 bQl'cate, furrowed. 
 
 su pe'ri or, above the ovary. 
 
 8u pe'ri or ca'lyx, calyx adherent to ovary. 
 
 su pe'ri or o'vary, ovary free from calyx. 
 
 su per nu'mer ar y (buds), exceeding the num- 
 ber stated or prescribed. 
 
 Hu'per vo lute', rolled upfront the .tides. 
 
 su'piue, lying flat, with face upward. 
 
 su'pra-Sx'il la ry, situated above the axU. 
 
 su'pra-de c5m'pouiid, divided many times. 
 
 sQr'cu lose, producing suckers, or shoots re- 
 .sembling suckers. 
 
 sus p§nd'ed, hanging downward. 
 
 su'tural, jfcrtaining to a suture; taking 
 place at a suture. 
 
 su'ture, the line of junction of two contiguous 
 parts grown together. 
 
 syco'nus, a collective, fleshy fruit, in which 
 the ovaries are hidden within a hollow 
 receptacle, as in the Fig. 
 
 syl ves'tri an, growing in woods; sylvan. 
 
 sym'me try, equality in the number of par It 
 of the successive circles in a flower ; like- 
 ness in form and size of floral organs of 
 the same kind; regularity. 
 
 sym pSt'al ous, having the petals united; 
 gamopetalous. 
 
 sym phyl'lous, with perianth leaves united. 
 
 sym'pode, or sjTn po'di um, a stem resem- 
 bling a simple axis, but composed of su- 
 perposed branches, as the .stem of the 
 grapevine. 
 
 synSn'therous, having the staniens united 
 by their anthers. 
 
 syn car'pi imi, an aggregate fruit, in which 
 the ovaries cohere in a solid mass. 
 
 syii car 'pons, composed of several carpels, 
 united into one ovary. 
 
 syn ge ne'sious, having the stamens attached 
 to each other so as to form a ring. 
 
 syn'o nym, an equivalent name. 
 
 sjTi sSp'al ous, Aarinjr united sepals; ga mo- 
 sepal ous. 
 
 sys tern St'ie b5t'an y, that department of 
 botany uhich pertains to the classification 
 of plants. 
 
 T. 
 
 tail, any long and slender prolongation of 
 
 an organ. 
 ta'per-point'ed, acuminate. 
 tSp'root, a simple descending root. 
 taw'ny, a dull, yellowish brown. 
 tax 5n'o my, that division of natural science 
 
 ivhich treats of the classification of animals 
 
 and plants. 
 tSg'men, the inner seed coat. 
 tSn'dril, a shred-like pmcess. irhirh helps 
 
 the plant to cling to other plants. 
 
336 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 terat51'ogy, that branch oj biological sci- 
 ence u'hich treats of abnormal and un- 
 usual formations. 
 te rete', cylindrical and slightly tapering ; 
 columnar. 
 
 ter'mi ual, situated at the end or apex. 
 
 ter mi nol'o gy, the terms used in a busi- 
 ness or science; nomenclature; technical 
 terms. 
 
 ter'nate, in threes. 
 
 tes'sel la ted, checkered ; marked like a 
 checker-board. 
 
 tes'ta, tJie outer seed coat. 
 
 testa'ceous, having a dull red-brick or 
 brownish-yellow color. 
 
 tet'ra dyii'a mous, having four long and tivo 
 short stamens. 
 
 te trag'o ual, having four prominent longi- 
 tudinal angles. 
 
 te trSg'y nous, having four pistils. 
 
 tet'ra spore, a non-sexual quadruple spore. 
 
 thal'a mi flo'rous, bearing the stamens and 
 petals directly on the torus or thalamus. 
 
 thal'a mus, the receptacle of a flower; a 
 torus; a thallus. 
 
 thSl'lo geu, or thal'lo pbji;e, one of a large 
 class or division of the vegetable kingdom, 
 including all flowerless plants, composed 
 of cellular tissue, and showing no distinc- 
 tion of root, stem, and leaf. 
 
 thal'lus, a 7nass of cellular tissue, usually in 
 the form of a flat stratum or expansion, 
 instead of stem and leaves. 
 
 the'ca, shenth ; case ; spore case. 
 
 the'ca phore, a surface or receptacle bearing 
 a theca or theciv ; the stipe upon which a 
 simple pistil is sometimes borne, being the 
 petiole of the carpellary leaf. 
 
 thorn, a hard and sharp-pointed projection 
 from a tvoody stem ; a spiiie. 
 
 throat, orifice of a monopetalous corolla. 
 
 thyrse, or thyr'sus, a dense egg-shaped pan- 
 icle, as in the Lilac. 
 
 tTs'sues, the materials of which plants are 
 composed. 
 
 to'men tose, covered ivith short, matted, 
 woolly hairs. 
 
 tongue'-shaped, lojig and fiat, but thickish 
 and blunt. 
 
 ioothedi, furnished with teeth or sharp pro- 
 jections of any sort on the margin; as a 
 saw-toothed margin. 
 
 top '-shaped, inversely conical. 
 
 tor'ulose, cylindrical, with alternate swel- 
 lings and contractions. 
 
 to'rus, the axis on which all the parts of a 
 fiower, except the calyx, are seated. 
 
 tra'che a, a spiral duct. 
 
 tra chy sper'mous, rough-seeded. 
 
 transverse', across; being right and left, 
 instead of up and down. 
 
 tree, a woody plant, branching so as to form 
 a symmetrical head, growing to tJtf height 
 of tiventy feet, or higher. 
 
 tri a dgl'phous, having stamens joined by fila- 
 ments into three bundles. 
 
 tri an'drous, having three distinct and equal 
 stamens in the same flower. 
 
 tribe, a group higher than a Genus. 
 
 tri ehom'a tous, having the nature of hair or 
 pubescence. 
 
 trieh'ome, a hair on the surface oj a leaj or 
 stem, or any modification oj a hair. 
 
 tri ehot'o mous, three-forked ; trifurcate. 
 
 trieoc'cous, havhig three roundish one- 
 seeded carpels. 
 
 tri 'col ored, having three colors. 
 
 tri cus'pid ate, ending in three points ; three- 
 pointed ; tridentate. 
 
 tri eu'ui al, lasting three years. 
 
 tri fa'ri ous, facing three ways; in three ver- 
 tical ranks. 
 
 tri 'fid, three-cleft; split to the middle into 
 three j^arts. 
 
 tri fo'li ate, with three leaves or leafiets. 
 
 triffir'cate, three-forked ; trichotomous ; 
 triangular. 
 
 trlg'ynous, having three pistils or styles. 
 
 trilo'bate, having three lobes. 
 
 tri loc'u lar, having three cells or cavities. 
 
 tri'mer ous, having the parts in threes. 
 
 tri nerv'ate, three-nerved, or with three slen- 
 der ribs. 
 
 trioe'cious, having three sorts of fiower s on 
 the same or different plants,^ as in the Red 
 3faple. 
 
 tri part'i ble, divisible into three parts. 
 
 trip'artite, divided into three parts; more 
 deeply split than trifid. 
 
 tri pet'al ous, having three petals. 
 
 triph'yl lous, having three leaves. 
 
 tri pTn'nate, th7-ice pinnate. 
 
 tri'ple veined, having three veins or nerves. 
 
 tri que'trous, three-sided; three-angled. 
 
 trise'rial, or trise'riate, arranged in three 
 vertical or spiral rows. 
 
 tris'tieh ous, arranged in three vertical 
 rows. 
 
 tri stig mat'ic, or tri stig'ma tose, having 
 thi'ce stigmas. 
 
 tri sul'cate, having three furrows or forks. 
 
 tri ter'nate, thrice ternate. 
 
 triv'i al name, the specific name. 
 
 troch'le ar, pulley-shaped. 
 
 trum'pet-shaped, tubular, and enlarged at 
 or toivard the summit. 
 
 trun'cate, cut off at the tip. 
 
 trunk, the main stem. 
 
 try'ma, a drupe, or drupaceous nut, tvith a 
 fieshy exocarp. 
 
 tube, a hollow, elongated body, usually 
 cylindrical ; applied especially to a gamo- 
 petalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx. 
 
 tube'-form, tubular ; trujnpel-shaped. 
 
 tu'ber, a fieshy underground stem, or branch, 
 with buds. 
 
 tuber'cular, having the form of a tuber; 
 bearing tvbei-cles. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 887 
 
 tu ber'cu late, covered with warls or tu- 
 bercles. 
 tu ber If er ous, bearing or producing tubers. 
 tu'berose, consisting of or bearing tubers; 
 
 resembling a tuber. 
 tu'bu lar co rSl'la, a corolla having the form 
 
 of a tube. 
 tu'bu li flo'rous, having the flowers of a head 
 
 all with tubular corollas. 
 tu'inid, swollen or inflated. 
 tu'ni cate, covered or coated with layers, as 
 
 a bulb. 
 tQr'binate, shaped like a top or inverted 
 
 cone. 
 tu'ri on, a shoot or sprout from the ground. 
 twin'ing, ascending by coiling round a 
 
 support. 
 type, the ideal pattern. 
 typ'i cal flow'er, a flower which serves for a 
 
 pattern. 
 
 u. 
 
 u ITg'i nose, growing in muddy or swampy 
 
 places. 
 Qm'bel, an inflorescence in which the pedi- 
 cels all spring from the same point, like 
 
 the ribs of an umbrella. 
 um'bellate, bearing umbels. 
 Qm'bel let, a small or partial umbel. 
 um bTl'i cate, having a sharp depression at 
 
 one end. 
 Qm'bo nate, bossed ; having a conical or 
 
 rounded projection, like a boss {umbo). 
 um brSc'u li form, umbrella-shaped. 
 un armed', having no stings or thorns. 
 Qn'cial, an inch in length. 
 Qn'ci nate, hooked ; bent at the tip in the 
 
 form of a hook. 
 llu'der shrub, a low shrub. 
 Qn'dulate, wavy. 
 une'qual lj» pin'nate, pi««cr/c, n-ith an odd 
 
 terminal leaf. 
 un gulc'u late, furnished with hooks or claivs. 
 un i cgl'lu lar, composed of a single cell. 
 un i flo'rous, having only one flower. 
 un i fo'li ate, having only one leaf. 
 u'ui form, having always the same form. 
 u ni ISt'er al, one-sided ; on one side only. 
 u ni 15c'u lar, having only one cell or cavity. 
 u ni se'ri al, having only one row or series. 
 u ni s6x'u al, having stamens or pistils only. 
 u'ni valved, having but one valve. 
 un sym mSt'ri cal flow'ers, flowers in which 
 
 similar parts are of different size or 
 
 shape, or the parts of successive circles 
 
 differ in number. 
 Qr'ce o late, shaped like a pitcher or urn. 
 u'tri cle, a Utile bladdery seed-vessel ; a 
 
 little sac or vesicle, as the air cell of a 
 
 sea-iceed. 
 u trTc'u lar, resembling a small bladder or 
 
 bag. 
 
 J'R. Fl. — 23 
 
 vSg'i nate, invested with a sheath. Vaginate 
 leaf, 07ie invested by the tubular base of a 
 leaf 
 vSlv'ate, opening as by doors. 
 vSlve, one of the pieces into which a capsule 
 naturally separates when it bursts; a 
 small portion of certain anthers, opening 
 like a trap-door. 
 vSlv'u lar, having valves; serving as a valve. 
 va ri 'e ty, a particular form of species. 
 vSs'cu lar cryp'to gams, cryptogams that ha ve 
 
 vascular tissue. 
 vSs'cu lar tls'sue, tissue furnished ivith ves- 
 sels or ducts. 
 vault'ed, arched. 
 veins, the syston of branching vascular 
 
 woody tissue seen in leaves. 
 vein'lets, or vein'u lets, tittle veins, or 
 smaller branches in the network of a leaf. 
 ve'late, having a veil; veiled. 
 ve lu'ti nous, velvety. 
 vSn'e nate, poisoned. 
 venose', having numerous or conspicuous 
 
 veins ; veiny. 
 vSn'tral, pertaining to that side of an organ 
 of a flower which looks towards the axis or 
 center of the flower ; opposite 0/ dorsal. 
 vSn'tricose, swelling otit on one side, or- 
 
 unequally. 
 vSn'ulose, having veinlets. 
 vermic'ular, worm-like; shaped like a 
 
 worm. 
 ver'nal, appearing in the springtime. 
 ver na'tion, the arrangement of leaves within 
 
 the leaf bud ; prefoliation. 
 ver'ni cose, having a brilliantly polished 
 
 surface. 
 vgr'rucose, covered with warts; tubercn- 
 
 late ; warty. 
 ver'satile (anther), swinging or turning on 
 
 its support. 
 ver'tex, summit ; apex. 
 ver'ti cal, up and down ; parallel with the 
 
 axis. 
 ver ti ?il ISs'ter, a whorl of flowers, appar- 
 ently of one cluster, but composed of two 
 opposite axillary cymes. 
 ver tiQ'il late, whorled. 
 ve sTc'u lar, bladdery. 
 vgs'pertine, blossoming in the evening. 
 vSs'sels, ducts. 
 
 vexTl'lum, the upper petal of a papiliona- 
 ceous flower ; the standard. 
 vil lose', covered uith long, fine hairs. 
 vi mln'e ous, producing long, slender twigs 
 
 or shoots. 
 vine, a woody climbing or ttrining stem. 
 vi rgs'cent. or vir i dSs'cent, greenish ; turn- 
 ing green. 
 vir'gate, straight and slender ; having the 
 
 form of a straight rod. 
 vTe'cid, or vTa'cous, sticky ; glutinous^ 
 
3S8 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 vitSl'line, pe7-iaining to the yolk of the egg ; 
 
 vTt'ta (pi. vit'tse), one of the oil tubes in the 
 fruit of umbelliferous plants. 
 
 vi vip'ar ous, sprouting or ger?ninating while 
 attached to the parent plant. 
 
 vol'uble, having the poiver or habit of turn- 
 ing or twining. 
 
 vo lute', rolled up in any direction. 
 
 Tol'va, a sac-like envelope of certain fungi, 
 which bursts open as the plant develops, 
 
 w. 
 
 wav'y, undulating on the border or surface. 
 
 wax'y, resembling ivax in texture or appear - 
 ance. 
 
 wedge '-shaped, broad and truncate at the 
 summit, and tapering down to the base. 
 
 wheel-shaped, expanding into aflat, circular 
 border at top, with scarcely any tube, as a 
 wheel-shaped corolla. 
 
 whSrl, a circle of tivo or more leaves, flow- 
 ers, or other organs, about the same part 
 or joint of a stem. 
 
 wh6rled, arranged in whorls. 
 
 wing, any membraneous expansion ; either 
 of the ttvo side jjefals of a papilionaceous 
 floiver. 
 
 ■winged, fur 7iished icith a leaf-like append- 
 age, as the fruit of the Ash and Elm. 
 
 witch grass, a troublesome weed, with creep- 
 ing underground stems, 
 
 wood, the hard or solid part of a stem or 
 branch. 
 
 wood cell, a slender cylindrical or pris- 
 matic cell, usually tapering to a point at 
 both ends, and the principal constituent 
 of woody fiber. 
 
 wood'y plant, a shrub, tree, or plant in 
 which the stems and branches are woody. 
 
 wool'ly, clothed with long and entangled 
 soft hairs. 
 
 xan'thic, yellowish. 
 
 xe nog'a my, cross-fertilization ; fertiliza- 
 tion of a flower by pollen from a flower 
 of another plant of the same species. 
 
 xe'rophil, a plant that requires great heat and 
 little moisture, and is specially adapted to 
 arid regions. 
 
 xy'lem, that portion of a fibro-vascidar bun- 
 dle developed into wood cells. 
 
 xy'lo carp, a hard and woody fruit. 
 
 Y. 
 
 yeast plant, a unicellular plant which is the 
 active agent of fermentation ; it has the 
 power of disintegrating starch and setting 
 carbon dioxide free. 
 
 Z. 
 
 zo'o phyte, any one of the numerous species 
 of itivertebrate animals which more or 
 less resemble plants in appearance or 
 mode of growth. 
 
 zo'o spore, a spore provided ivith one or 
 more slender cilia, by the vibration of 
 which it swims in the water. 
 
 zyg'o spore, a spore formed by the union of 
 two or more cells. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 BIES 
 
 29, 308, 309 
 
 balsamea .'Jf '9 
 
 var. loiigifolia ■><•'.* 
 
 var. variegata 309 
 
 Acacia IS, 111, 112 
 
 Catechu 112 
 
 dealbata 112 
 
 pycnantha 112 
 
 Senegal 111, 112 
 
 Seyal 112 
 
 Suiua 112 
 
 Acer 10,91-93 
 
 nigrum 91 
 
 saccharinum 91 
 
 var. nigrum 91 
 
 Achras sapota 17G 
 
 ^gilops 253, 254 
 
 Agave 277 
 
 Alexandrian Senna 108 
 
 Allspice 20, 135, 130 
 
 Almond 19, 122 
 
 Aloe, aloes 28, 277, 278 
 
 ferox 278 
 
 socotrina 277 
 
 apicata 277, 278 
 
 vulgaris 277 
 
 American Arbor Vita' 312 
 
 American Balsam Fir 3(i9 
 
 American Beecli 255 
 
 American Elm 231, 232 
 
 American Gooseberry 13(1 
 
 American Hazelnut 254 
 
 American Ipecacuanha 103 
 
 American Larcli 309, 310 
 
 American Senna 108 
 
 American Strawberry 110 
 
 American Turkey Oak 249 
 
 Amorpha fruticosa 90 
 
 Ampelide* 0, 10, 88-91 
 
 Am j-gdalus communis 122 
 
 Anacardiaceae 7, 10, 93-90 
 
 Anacardium occidentale 10.95 
 
 Ananassa sativa 2S, '2i<'.K 270 
 
 Andropogon saccharatmn 
 
 294, 295 
 Anemone 12, 30-33 
 
 acutiloba 31 
 
 Caroliniana 30 
 
 cylindrica 30 
 
 decapetala 30 
 
 dichotoma 30, 31 
 
 hepatira 31 
 
 multifida 31,32 
 
 nemorosa 31, .32 
 
 parvitlora 32 
 
 patens 32 
 
 Anemone patens, var. Nut- 
 
 taliana 32 
 
 Pennsylvanica 30, 31 
 
 Virginiana 32, 33 
 
 Anemonella thalictroides 
 
 12, 33 
 Augiosperms, apetalous 
 
 dicotyledonous 0-8, 9, 10 
 dicotyledonous 5, 12-27 
 glumiferous monocot- 
 
 yledonous 1 1 
 
 monocotyledonous 5, 28, 29 
 petaloideous monocot- 
 yledonous 10 
 spadiciflorous mono- 
 cotyledonous 10 
 sympetalous dicotyled- 
 onous S, 9 
 Anise 21, 147, 148 
 Annatto 14, 03, (^4 
 Anthemis 22, 100, 107 
 arvensis 100 
 nobilis 100 
 var. tiore pleno 100 
 Apetake 5 
 Apetalous dicotyledonous 
 
 angiosperms 9, 10 
 
 Apium graveolens 21, 140, 147 
 Apocynaceie 90 
 
 Apopetahe 5 
 
 ApopetalfT, inferior 12-21 
 Apopetalous dicotyledon- 
 ous angiosperms 0-8 
 Apple 19, 123-125 
 Apple, Carthage 139 
 Crab 125 
 Apple-bearing Sage 204 
 Apple Pine .302 
 Apricot 18. 120 
 Arachis hypog.-pa 17, 99, 100 
 Arbor Vit'n- 29, 312 
 Areca Catechu 29, 279, 2S0 
 Arrow-leaved Violet (X), (H 
 .\rrowroot 28, 201-203 
 Asafivtida 21, 149-151 
 Asclepiadaceap iXi 
 Asparagus officinalis 28, 274 
 Astragalus 17, 97-99 
 gummifer 98, 90 
 tragacantha 98 
 Atropa 24, 191, 192 
 belladonna 191 
 Mandragora 191 
 Austrian Pine .'501 
 Autumnal Marrow 144 
 Avena 29, 29S, -;•;» 
 sativa 298, 299 
 
 339 
 
 E 
 
 ALM of Gilead 
 
 Balsam Fir 309 
 
 Banana 28, 265, 266 
 
 Banyan Tree 235 
 
 Baptisia tiuctoria 96 
 
 B.irbadoes aloes 278 
 
 Barberry 13, 42 
 
 Barley 29, 296-298 
 
 Bassia latifolia 176 
 
 Parkii 176 
 
 Battledoor Barley 297 
 
 Beaked Hazelnut 254 
 
 Beau 17, lOS-105 
 
 Beech 27, 25.5, 250 
 
 Beech of Europe 255 
 
 Beechwood Muskmelon 141 
 
 Beer '2M, 267 
 
 Beet 20, 208, 209, 2^ 
 
 Bell Flower 170, 171 
 
 Bell Pepper 193 
 
 Bell-shaped Cranberry 173 
 
 Bengal Grass 300 
 
 BerberidaceiB 6, 13, 42, 43 
 
 Berberis vulgaris 13, 42 
 
 Bertholletia excelsa 20, 137 
 
 Beta 20, 208, 209 
 
 maritima 209 
 
 vulgaris 208, 209 
 
 var. cicla 208 
 
 var. mangel-wlirzel 208 
 
 var. rapa 208 
 
 Betel Nut 29, 279, 280 
 
 Betel Pepper 214 
 
 Beverage-producing Plants — 
 
 Apple (cider) 125 
 
 Banana (beer and wine) 2(V7 
 
 Barley (whiskey) 298 
 
 Cocoa 72 
 
 Cocoanut Palm (milk, 
 
 vinegar, and wine) 283 
 Coffee 162 
 
 Currant (wine) 129 
 
 Grape (wine) 90 
 
 Hops (beer) 234 
 
 Indian Corn (whiskey) 
 
 28r>-288 
 Maize (whiskey) 288 
 
 New Jersey Tea 88 
 
 Oats (whiskey) 299 
 
 Peach (brandy) 122 
 
 Pear (perry) 127 
 
 Raspberrv (brandy) 114 
 Rye (whiskey) 296 
 
 Tea 66 
 
 Bind-weed .T.ilap 184. 186 
 
 Birch-leaved Beech 255, 256 
 
340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bird-foot Violet 
 
 59 
 
 Bird Pepper 
 
 193 
 
 Bird's-eye Maple 
 
 01 
 
 Biting Crowfoot 
 
 34 
 
 Bitter Almond 
 
 122 
 
 Bitter Cassava 
 
 227, 228 
 
 Bitter Orange 
 
 81 
 
 Bixa orellana 
 
 14, i\3, 64 
 
 Bixinese 6, 
 
 14, 63, 64 
 
 Blackberry 
 
 18 
 
 Black Cap 
 
 113 
 
 Black Currant 
 
 128, 129 
 
 Black Huckleberry 
 
 172 
 
 Black Jack Oak 
 
 249 
 
 Black Larch 
 
 309, 310 
 
 Black Maple 
 
 91 
 
 Black Mustard 
 
 48, 49 
 
 Black Oak 
 
 248 
 
 Black Pepper 
 
 214, 215 
 
 Black Raspberry 
 
 113 
 
 Black-rock Muskmelon 141 
 
 Black Spanish Watermelon 
 
 
 142 
 
 Black Spruce 
 
 307 
 
 Black Tea 
 
 06 
 
 Black Walnut 
 
 239, 240 
 
 Blackwood 
 
 108, 109 
 
 Black-wooded Walnut Tree 
 
 
 239, 240 
 
 Ble Saracin 
 
 211 
 
 Blood Orange 
 
 79 
 
 Blueberry 
 
 172 
 
 Blue Cardinal Flower 170, 
 
 Blue Sweet Violet 
 
 
 
 Bliunea balsamifera 
 
 218 
 
 Bog Fir 
 
 304 
 
 Bore Cole 
 
 47 
 
 Borneo Camphor 
 
 218 
 
 Borraginaceae 8, 23 
 
 , 182, 183 
 
 Box 
 
 27, 225 
 
 Bradford Watermelon 142 
 
 Brandy 
 
 114, 122 
 
 Brassica 
 
 13, 46-5i 
 
 alba 
 
 48,49 
 
 campestris 
 
 49-51 
 
 var. rutabaga 
 
 50 
 
 juncea 
 
 48,49 
 
 napus 
 
 51 
 
 nigra 
 
 48,49 
 
 oleracea 
 
 47,48 
 
 rapa 
 
 50 
 
 var. depressa 
 
 50 
 
 Brazil Nut 
 
 20, 137 
 
 Brazil Wood 
 
 17, 109 
 
 Bread-producing Plants — 
 
 Arrowroot 
 
 262 
 
 Barley 
 
 •298 
 
 Bitter Cassava 
 
 228 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 211 
 
 Cocoanut Palm 
 
 283 
 
 Date Palm 
 
 281 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 288 
 
 Oats 
 
 299 
 
 Rice 
 
 292 
 
 Rye 
 
 296 
 
 Sago Palm 
 
 285 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 228 
 
 Wheat 
 
 288 
 
 Bristly Crowfoot 
 
 37 
 
 British Oak 
 
 246, 247 
 
 BromeliacefB 10, 28, 268-270 
 
 Broom Corn 29 
 
 , 294, 295 
 
 Broom Pine 
 
 305, 306 
 
 Buckthorn 
 
 16, 87, 88 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 26, 211 
 
 Bugle-shaped Cranberry 173 
 
 Bulbous Crowfoot 35 
 
 Bull Pepper 193 
 
 Burr Oak 248, 249 
 
 Bush Beau 103, 104 
 
 Buttercup 12, 33-38 
 
 Butternut 27, 238, 239 
 
 Butter Tree 176 
 
 Buxus 27, 225 
 
 sempervirens 225 
 
 var. angustifolia 225 
 
 var. suffruticosa 225 
 
 C 
 
 CABBAGE 
 
 47, 48 
 
 Caesalpmia 17, 109 
 
 Braziliensis 109 
 
 Crista 109 
 
 Calisaya 157 
 
 Caltha 12, 39, 40 
 
 leptosepala 40 
 
 palustris 4(» 
 
 Camomile 22, 1()6, 167 
 
 Campanulaceae 8, 22, 170, 171 
 
 Camphor Tree 27, 217, 218 
 
 Canada Pumpkin 145 
 
 Canada Violet 56, 57 
 
 Canna coccinia 263 
 
 echinus 263 
 
 edulis 263 
 
 flaccida 263 
 
 glauca 263 
 
 Cannabis sativa 27, 236-238 
 
 Cannon-ball Tree 137 
 
 Cantaloupe 140-142 
 
 Caoutchouc 27, 223, 224 
 
 Cape Aloes 278 
 
 Caper 13, 54, 55 
 
 Capparidaceae 6, 13, 54^6 
 
 Capparis 13, 54-56 
 
 ferruginea 55 
 
 soldada 55 
 
 spinosa 54, 55 
 
 Capsella Bursa-pastoris 13, 
 
 46,47 
 
 Capsicum 24, 192-194 
 
 annuum 102, 193 
 
 fastigiatum 193 
 
 frutescens 193 
 
 grossum 193 
 
 Caraway 156 
 
 Cardamom 28 
 
 Cardinal Flower 170 
 
 Carob Tree 17, 108 
 
 Carolina Anemone 30 
 
 Carolina Indigofera 96 
 
 Carolina Watermelon 142 
 
 Carrot 21, 154, 155 
 
 Carthage Apple 139 
 
 Carthamus tinctorius 22, 
 
 169, 170 
 
 Carum 21. 155, 150 
 
 Carui 156 
 
 petroselinum 155, 156 
 
 Carya alba 241 
 
 sulcata 241 
 
 Cashew Nut 16, 95 
 
 Cassava, Bitter 227, 228 
 
 Cassia 17. 107, 108 
 
 acutifolia 107, 108 
 
 angustifolia 107, 108 
 
 fistula 107 
 
 Marilandica 107, 108 
 
 obovata 107, 108 
 
 Castanea 27, 243, 244 
 
 pumila 243, 244 
 
 vesca 243, 244 
 
 var. Americana 243 
 
 Castilloa elastica 223 
 
 Castor-oil Plant 27, 228, 229 
 Catmint 206, 207 
 
 Catnip 25, 206, 207 
 
 Cauld Kail 48 
 
 Cauliflower 47 
 
 Cayenne Pepper 24, 193 
 
 Ceanothus Americanus 16, 88 
 Cedar 29, 310-312 
 
 Celery 21, 146, 147 
 
 Celery-leaved Crowfoot 37, 
 38 
 Celery Parsley 155 
 
 Century-plant 277 
 
 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha 22, 
 162, 163, 223 
 Ceratouia Siliqua 17, 108 
 
 Chamaecyparis 29, 314, 315 
 pendula 314 
 
 sempervirens 314 
 
 thyoides 314 
 
 Charlotte Rothschild Pine- 
 apple 269 
 Cheese Pumpkin 145, 146 
 Cheese-shaped Cranberry 173 
 Chenopodiacese 9, 26, 208-210 
 Cherry 18, 118 
 Cherry Currant 128 
 Cherry-shaped Cranberry 173 
 Chestnut 27, 243, 244 
 Chestnut Oak 250, 251 
 China Orange 79 
 Chinese Yam 28, 271, 272 
 Chrysanthemum 22, 167, 168 
 carneum 167 
 cinerariifolium 167 
 var. rotundlfolium 167 
 corymbosum 167 
 roseima 167 
 Wilmoti 167 
 Cicuta 313 
 Cider 125 
 Cinchona 21, 157-159 
 calisaya 157 
 cordlfolia 157 
 lancifolia 157 
 micrantha 157 
 officinalis 157 
 Pitayensis 157 
 succirubra 157 
 Cinchonacese 96 
 Cinnamomiun 27, 217-220 
 camphora 217, 218 
 cassia 219, 220 
 iners 220 
 obtusifolium 220 
 pauciflorum 220 
 Zeylanicum 219, 220 
 Cinnamon 27, 219 
 Citron 83 
 Citron Muskmelon 141 
 Citron Watermelon 142 
 CitruUus vulgaris 20, 142, 143 
 Citrus 15, 78-83 
 aurantium 78-81 
 var. sanguinea 79 
 decumana 81, 82 
 Limetta 82, 83 
 Limonum 82 
 Medica 83 
 m3Ttifolius 81 
 vulgaris 81 
 
IXDKX. 
 
 341 
 
 Clammy Rice 
 
 '2(11 
 
 Cleariug Nut 
 
 Ihl 
 
 Clematis 
 
 IJ, 40-42 
 
 crispa 
 
 4(t 
 
 cyliiidrica 
 
 40 
 
 ocliroleuca 
 
 40 
 
 Pitoheri 
 
 41 
 
 vcrticillaris 
 
 41 
 
 viuriia 
 
 41 
 
 Virginiaiia 
 
 41 
 
 Cloves 19 
 
 134, K5;-) 
 
 Cluster Cucumber 
 
 14(( 
 
 Coca 
 
 15, 7(i 
 
 Coccus lacca 
 
 '2;5(; 
 
 CoclUearia 
 
 13, 52 
 
 anuoracia 
 
 
 officinalis 
 
 52 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 14, 70-72 
 
 Cocoanut 
 
 •29 
 
 Cocoauut Palm 
 
 282, '283 
 
 Cocos nucifera 'J'J, 
 
 282, 283 
 
 Coffea '-'1 
 
 , i(;o-it)2 
 
 acuminata 
 
 1(30 
 
 Arabica 
 
 100 
 
 Australia 
 
 IGO 
 
 biflora 
 
 IGO 
 
 Chamissonis 
 
 100 
 
 ciliata 
 
 160 
 
 densitiora 
 
 100 
 
 ludica 
 
 100 
 
 jasminoides 
 
 160 
 
 kaduaua 
 
 lai 
 
 laurina 
 
 160 
 
 Liberica 
 
 160 
 
 longifolia 
 
 160 
 
 magnolifolia 
 
 160 
 
 meridionalis 
 
 160 
 
 Mexicaua 
 
 minor 
 
 Mozambicana 
 
 nitida 
 
 nodosa 
 
 obovata 
 
 occideutalis 
 
 paguiodes 
 
 parvifolia 
 
 pedunculata 
 
 racemosa 
 
 rosea 
 
 semiexserta 
 
 sessilis 
 
 spicata 
 
 stipulacea 
 
 subsessilis 
 
 tetrandra 
 
 Travancoreusis 
 
 truncata 
 
 innbellata 
 
 verticillata 
 
 Wiglitiana 
 
 Zaiiguebarica 
 Coffee 
 Cold Chou 
 Cold Slaw 
 Colophony 
 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 KiO 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 1(«» 
 \m 
 160 
 16(t 
 160 
 UiO 
 KiO 
 160 
 21, 160-H;2 
 4S 
 4.S 
 3(»(; 
 
 Coloring Indigofera 96 
 
 Combretaceu- 7, 19, 131. 132 
 Comfrey 23, 182, 18.3 
 
 Common Bhie Violet 58 
 
 Common Cabbage 47 
 
 Common Camoniili- 166 
 
 Common FieM I'linipkin 145 
 Common Fig 234, 235 
 
 Common Flax 74 
 
 Common Hop 2.33. 2.34 
 
 Common Juniper 311 
 
 Common Marjoram 202 
 
 Common Myrtle 1.33 
 
 Common Potato i:t4 
 
 Common Red Currant 128 
 
 Common Rice 291 
 
 Common Sage 204 
 
 Common Sumach 93 
 
 Common Virgin's Bower 41 
 
 Compositie 8, 22, 165-170, 21K 
 
 Cone Family .3(10-315 
 
 Conifene 5, 11, 29, :iOO-315 
 
 Coniferous gymnosperms 11 
 
 Constanthiople Hazelnut 254 
 
 Convolvulaceae 8, 24, 183-185 
 
 Copper Beech 255 
 
 Corchorus 14, 73, 74 
 
 capsularis 73 
 
 olitorius 73 
 
 siliquosa 73 
 
 Cordage-producing Plants — 
 
 Aloe 278 
 
 Aunatto 64 
 
 Banana 267 
 
 Cocoanut Palm 283 
 
 Flax 76 
 
 Manilla 268 
 
 New Zealand Flax 277 
 
 Sago Palm 284 
 
 Coriander 21, 152, 153 
 
 Coriandrum sativum 21, 152, 
 
 153 
 
 Cork 252, 253 
 
 Cork Tree 252 
 
 Corky Elm 232 
 
 Corn, Broom 29, 294, 295 
 
 Indian 29, 286-288 
 
 Corn Poppy 44 
 
 Corylus 27, 254, 255 
 
 Americana 254 
 
 avellana 254 
 
 colurua 254 
 
 rostrata 2.54 
 
 Cotton 14, (;s-70 
 
 Cotton Plant 67-70 
 
 Cow Cabbage 47 
 
 Cowslip 12, 39. 40 
 
 Cow Tree 1 76 
 
 Crab Apple 125 
 
 Cranberry 23, 172-174 
 
 Creeping Crowfoot 37 
 
 Creeping Spearwort 36 
 
 Crocus sativus 28, 270, 271 
 
 Croton tiglium 27, 22(> 
 
 Croton-oil Plant 27, 226 
 
 Crowfoot 12, 33-38 
 
 Crowned Squash 144 
 
 (>iirifpr:r. 6. 13. 46-54 
 
 C ucumber ' 20. 139, 14(r 
 
 Cucumis 20, 139-142 
 
 melo 140-142 
 
 sativus 1.39, 14o 
 
 Cucurbita 20. 143-146 
 
 maxima 144, 146 
 
 var. corona 144 
 
 melopepo 143 | 
 
 ovifera 144 i 
 
 var. meduUosa 
 pppo 
 
 144 
 145, 146 
 verrucosa 143, 144 
 
 Cucurbitacese 6, 20. 139-146 
 Cumin 21, 153 
 
 Cuminum 21, 15.3 
 
 (•yminiini 1.53 
 
 s.ilivum 153 
 
 Cujuea 255 
 
 Cupressus pendula 314 
 
 Cupressus sempervirens 314 
 thyoides 314 
 
 Cupuiifera- 9, 27, 242-256 
 
 Cura<;oa Orange 81 
 
 Curcuma longa 28, 2<M), 261 
 Curled Willow 2.57 
 
 Currant 19, 128-131 
 
 Currants, Zante 89 
 
 Cursed Crowfoot 37, 38 
 
 Custard Squash 144 
 
 Cynauchum olea-folium 108 
 Cypress 29, 314, 315 
 
 TJALBERGIA 17, 108, 109 
 
 latifolia 109 
 
 nigra 108, 109 
 
 Damson Plum 117 
 
 Date Palm 29, 280, 281 
 
 Daucus 21, 154, 155 
 
 carota 1.54 
 
 var. sativa 1.54 
 
 Deadly Nightshade 24.191, 
 
 192 
 
 Delicate Violet 56 
 
 Dew of the Sea 205, 206 
 
 Dichopsis gutta 23, 174, 175 
 
 Dicotyledonous angio- 
 
 sperms 5, 12-27 
 
 Dioscorea 28, 271, 272 
 
 alata 272 
 
 batatas 271, 272 
 
 Japonica 272 
 
 sativa 271, 272 
 
 Dioscoreacea' 10, 28, 271, 272 
 
 Diospyros 23, 176, 177 
 
 ebenum 176, 177 
 
 melanoxylon 176 
 
 Virginiana 176 
 
 Dog Violet 57 
 
 Downy-leaved Oak 248 
 
 Downy Yellow Violet 60 
 
 Drinks. See Beverages. 
 
 Drumhead Cabbage 47 
 
 Dryobalanops Camphora 218 
 
 Dwarf Almond 122 
 
 Dwarf Curled Parsley 155 
 
 Dwarf Tobacco 187 
 
 Dwarf Whortleberry 171, 172 
 
 Dyer's Oak 248 
 
 Dye-producing Plants — 
 
 Annatto 64 
 
 Black Oak 248 
 
 Bl.ack Walnut 240 
 
 Brazil Wood 109 
 
 Butternut 239 
 
 Cranberry 174 
 
 Overs' Oak 248 
 
 Gall Oak 253 
 
 Indigo 97 
 
 Logwood 107 
 
 Madder 164 
 
 Myrobalans 132 
 
 Pomegranate 139 
 
 Saftlower 170 
 
 Saffron 271 
 
 Sumach 95 
 
 Teak 198 
 
 Turmeric 261 
 
 Villon ia Oak 254 
 
 Violet 62 
 
 Woad 5;{ 
 
 Yellow-barked O.ik 248 
 
 Yellow Berries 88 
 
342 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 UARLT Crowfoot 35, 36 
 
 Food Vegetables — 
 
 
 Gooseberry 19, 128-131 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 48 
 
 Gossypium 14, 67-70 
 
 Early French Cucumber 140 
 
 Caraway 
 
 156 
 
 Gossypium arboreum 67, 68 
 
 Early Rice 291 
 
 Carrot 
 
 155 
 
 Barbadense 67 
 
 Early Russian Cucumber 140 
 
 Fennel 
 
 149 
 
 herbaceum 67 
 
 Ebenaceae 9, 23, 176, 177 
 
 Jute 
 
 74 
 
 Gourd 143-146 
 
 Ebouy 23, 176 
 
 Lentil 
 
 101 
 
 Gourd Squash 144 
 
 Elecampane 22, 165, 166 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 152 
 
 Graminese 11, 29, 285-300 
 
 Elettaria 28, 263, 264 
 
 Pea 
 
 103 
 
 Grape Vine 16, 88-91 
 
 cardamomura 263, 264 
 
 Potato 
 
 195 
 
 Great-leaved Tobacco 187 
 
 Elm 27, 231-233 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 213 
 
 Great lobelia 170, 171 
 
 Emetic Weed 170 
 
 Rice 
 
 292 
 
 Great-spurred Violet 61 
 
 English Cherry 118 
 
 Spinach 
 
 210 
 
 Green Pine 305, 306 
 
 English Elm 232 
 
 Sweet Potato 
 
 184 
 
 Green Tea 66 
 
 English Strawberry 116 
 
 Turnip 
 
 51 
 
 Ground Nut 99, 100 
 
 English Violet 57 
 
 Yam 
 
 272 
 
 Ground Pea 99, 100 
 
 English Walnut 240, 241 
 
 Four-valved Tobacco 
 
 187 
 
 Guaiacum 15, 77, 78 
 
 Enville Pineapple 2G9 
 
 Fox Grape 
 
 89 
 
 officinale 77, 78 
 
 Erythroxylon 15, 70, 77 
 
 Fragaria 18, 
 
 116, 117 
 
 sanctum 78 
 
 coca 76 
 
 vesca 
 
 116 
 
 Guaiacum Wood 77, 78 
 
 Eugenia 19, 20, 131-138 
 
 Virginiana 
 
 116 
 
 Guernsey Parsnip 151 
 
 caryophyllata 134, 135 
 
 Fruits — 
 
 
 Gum, Senegal 110 
 
 pimenta 13j, 136 
 
 Achras sapota 
 
 176 
 
 Turkey 110 
 
 Euphorbia Ipecacuanha 27, 
 
 Apple 
 
 125 
 
 Gum Arabic 18, 111, 112 
 
 163, 222, 223 
 
 Apricot 
 
 120 
 
 Gum Elastic 223 
 
 Euphorbiaceae 10, 27, 222-229 
 
 Banana 
 
 267 
 
 Gums, Resins, etc. — 
 
 European Larch 310 
 
 Barberry 
 
 42 
 
 Asafcetida 150 
 
 European Wine Grape 89 
 
 Cashew Nut 
 
 95 
 
 Balsam Fir 309 
 
 
 Cherry 
 
 119 
 
 Cashew Nut 95 
 
 
 Cow Tree 
 
 176 
 
 Comfrey 183 
 
 
 Cranberry 
 
 174 
 
 Gum Arabic 112 
 
 pABA sativa 104 
 
 Currant 
 
 129 
 
 Gum Tragacanth 99 
 
 Date Palm 
 
 281 
 
 Gutta Percha 175 
 
 Fagopyrum 26, 211, 212 
 
 Fig 
 
 236 
 
 Hemp 237 
 
 emarginatum 211 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 131 
 
 Larch 310 
 
 esculentum 211 
 
 Grape 
 
 90 
 
 Norway Spruce 308 
 
 Tartaricum 211 
 
 High Blackberry 
 
 115 
 
 Oats 299 
 
 Fagus 27, 255, 256 
 
 Huckleberry 
 
 172 
 
 Pitch Pine 304 
 
 betuloides 255, 256 
 
 Lemon 
 
 82 
 
 Prosopis juliflora 112 
 
 colorata 255 
 
 Muskmelon 
 
 141 
 
 Southern Pine 300 
 
 ferruginea 255 
 
 Orange 
 
 80 
 
 Swiss Pine 305 
 
 obliqua 255 
 
 Peach 
 
 122 
 
 Tamarind 110 
 
 sylvatica 255 
 
 Pear 
 
 126 
 
 Gum Tragacanth 17, 98, 99 
 
 Fascicle-rooted Crowfoot 35, 
 
 Persimmon 
 
 176 
 
 Gun-cotton 69 
 
 36 
 
 Pineapple 
 
 270 
 
 Gutta Percha 23, 174, 175 
 
 Fat Wood 305, 306 
 
 Plum 
 
 118 
 
 Gymnosperma 5, 11, 29 
 
 Feather Palms 279, 280 
 
 Pomegranate 
 
 139 
 
 
 Fennel 21, 148, 149 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 145 
 
 
 Ferula narthex 21,149-151 
 
 Quince 
 
 127 
 
 
 Ficus 27, 234-236 
 
 Raspberry 
 
 114 
 
 TTACKMATAC 309, 310 
 
 Bengalensis 235 
 
 Red Mulberry 
 
 231 
 
 Carica 234, 235 
 
 Shaddock 
 
 82 
 
 Hgematoxylon Campechia- 
 
 elastica 223, 235 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 117 
 
 num 17, 105-107 
 
 Field Camomile 166 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 143 
 
 Halberd-leaved Violet 57 
 
 Field Pea 102 
 
 
 
 Hamburg Large-rooted Pars- 
 
 Field Turnip 49-61 
 
 
 
 ley 155 
 
 Fig Tree 27, 234-236 
 
 
 
 Hand-shaped-leaf Crowfoot 
 
 Filbert 254 
 
 /^ALL Oak 
 
 253 
 
 38 
 
 Fine Rosewood 108, 109 
 
 
 Hand-shaped Violet 58 
 
 Fir 29, 308, 309 
 
 Garden Buttercup 
 
 34 
 
 Haricot 103 
 
 Flanders Spinach 210 
 
 Garden Carrot 
 
 154 
 
 Hazehiut 27, 254, 255 
 
 Flat Dutch Cabbage 47 
 
 Garden Pea 
 
 101, 102 
 
 Heartsease 61 
 
 Flat-leaved Vanilla 259 
 
 Garden Poppy 
 
 44 
 
 Hemlock 29, 312-314 
 
 Flat Squash 143 
 
 Garden Raspberry 
 
 rs 
 
 Hemlock Spruce 313, 314 
 
 Flat Turnip 50 
 
 Garden Sage 
 
 204 
 
 Hemp 27, 236-238 
 
 Flax 15, 74-76 
 
 Gaylussacia 23, 
 
 171, 172 
 
 Henbane 191 
 
 Flax, New Zealand 276, 277 
 
 dumosa 
 
 171, 172 
 
 Hepatica acutiloba 31 
 
 Flour 211, 288 
 
 frond osa 
 
 172 
 
 triloba 31 
 
 Flowering Plants 5-11, 12-29 
 
 resinosa 
 
 172 
 
 Herb Cotton 67 
 
 Foeniculum 21, 148, 149 
 
 Georgia Pine 
 
 305, 306 
 
 Hevea Braziliensis 27, 223, 
 
 dulce 149 
 
 Ginger 28, 
 
 254, 265 
 
 224, 231 
 
 vulgare 148, 149 
 
 Glastum 
 
 • 53 
 
 Hickory Nut 27, 241, 242 
 
 Food Vegetables - 
 
 Glumiferae 
 
 5 
 
 Hicoria 27, 241, 242 
 
 Asparagus 276 
 
 Glumiferous monocotyled- 
 
 olivaeforinis 242 
 
 Bean 105 
 
 onous angiosperms 
 
 11 
 
 ovata 241, 242 
 
 Beet 209 
 
 Glycyrrhiza glabra 
 
 17, 105 
 
 sulcata 241, 242 
 
INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Hide-taiminp; Rhus 
 
 High Blarkberry 
 
 High Blueberry 
 
 Hoarhouml 
 
 Holly 
 
 Hooked Crowfoot 
 
 Hop, Common 27, 
 
 Hordeum '-"J 
 
 distichum 
 
 hexastichou 
 
 vulgare 
 
 Zeocriton 
 Horse Radish 
 Hubbard Squash 
 Huckleberry "23, 
 
 Humulus lupulus 27, 
 Hymena'a combaril 
 
 verrucosa 
 
 94 
 
 114, 11. '> 
 
 172 
 
 '25, 207 
 
 8.')-«7 
 
 37 
 
 233, 234 
 
 2<JG-21tS 
 
 290, 297 
 
 297 
 
 29G, 297 
 
 297 
 
 13, 52 
 
 144 
 
 171, 172 
 
 233, 234 
 
 IIU 
 
 110 
 
 Juniperus nana 311 
 
 Virginiana 311,312 
 
 var. forma cylindrica 31 1 
 
 Jute 73 
 
 ILEX Paraguayeusis 15, 
 85-87 
 Ilicinefe 7, 15, 85-87 
 
 lUicium auisatum 148 
 
 India Ink 132 
 
 India Rubber 223, 224, 235 
 Indian Corn 29, 286-288 
 
 Indian Fig 235 
 
 Indian Rosewood 109 
 
 Indian Tobacco 22, 170, 171 
 Indigo 17, 90, 97 
 
 ludigofera 17, 9t>, 97 
 
 argentea 90 
 
 Caroliniana 9G, 97 
 
 tinctoria 96 
 
 Indigo Plant 90 
 
 Inferior apopetalae 12-21 
 
 Ink-producing Plants — 
 Banana 207 
 
 Brazil Wood 109 
 
 Cashew Nut 95 
 
 Gall Oak 253 
 
 Myrobalans 132 
 
 Sumach 95 
 
 Inula Helenium 22, 165, 100 
 Ipecac, Ipecacuanha 22, 103, 
 223 
 Ipomoea 24, 183-185 
 
 batatas 183, 184 
 
 purga 184, 185 
 
 Iridacese 10, 28, 270, 271 
 
 Irish Potato 194 
 
 Iron Oak 249 
 
 Isatis tinctoria 13, 53 
 
 Ivy, Poison 93 
 
 JAPAN Quince 
 
 127 
 
 Jatropha manihot 
 
 227, 228 
 
 Jesuits' Bark 
 
 l.'')7 
 
 Juglandaceae 9, 27 
 
 238-242 
 
 Juglans 27 
 
 238-241 
 
 cinerea 
 
 238, 239 
 
 nigra 
 
 2.T.I, 240 
 
 regia 
 
 240, 241 
 
 var. maxima 
 
 240 
 
 var. serotina 
 
 240 
 
 var. tenera 
 
 240 
 
 Juniper 
 
 310-312 
 
 Juniperus 29 
 
 310-312 
 
 Btrnuidlana 
 
 311 
 
 conimunis 
 
 311 
 
 var. alpina 
 
 311 
 
 var. prostrata 
 
 311 
 
 var. pyramidalis 
 
 311 
 
 K 
 
 IDNEY Bean 
 
 103 
 
 Kittatinny Blackberry 115 
 
 LABIATE 8, 24, 25, 198- 
 207 
 Lance-leaved Violet 57 
 
 Larch 29, 309, 3lo 
 
 Large-fruited Cranberry 172, 
 173 
 Large Prickly Spinach 210 
 Large-ribbed Muskmelon 141 
 Large-rooted Beet 208 
 
 Larix 29, 309, 310 
 
 Europea 310 
 
 laricina 309, 310 
 
 Lauraceie 9, 26, 27, 217-220 
 Lavandula 25, 198, 199 
 
 spica 198 
 
 var, alba 198 
 
 var. latifolia 198 
 
 stoechas 198 
 
 vera 198 
 
 Lavender 25, 198 
 
 Lawton Blackberry 115 
 
 Leather 240, 248, 251, 310, 314 
 Leather Back 145 
 
 Leather Flower 41 
 
 Leguminosie 7, 16-18, 90-112 
 Lemon 15, 82 
 
 Lens 17, 100, 101 
 
 esculeuta KX) 
 
 var. lutea 100 
 
 var. Provence 100 
 
 Lentil 17, 100, 101 
 
 Lettuce-leaved Spinach 210 
 Lignum- vitic 15, 77, 78 
 
 LiUaceiB 10, 28, 272-278 
 
 Lima Bean 103, 104 
 
 Lime 82, 83 
 
 Lime Juice 83 
 
 Linace;e G, 15, 74-77 
 
 Linseed Oil 70 
 
 Liuum 15, 74-70 
 
 angustifolium 75 
 
 usitatissimum 74 
 
 Virginianum 75 
 
 Liquorice 17, 105 
 
 Live Oak 2.52 
 
 Lobelia 22, 170, 171 
 
 cardinalis 170, 171 
 
 inflata 170, 171 
 
 syphilitica 170, 171 
 
 LoganiaceiB 9, 23, 180-182 
 Logwood 17, 105-107 
 
 Long Beet 208, 209 
 
 Long-fruited Anemone .30 
 Long-leaved Pine 305, .300 
 Long-leaved P«ippy 44 
 
 Long-necked Scpiash 143, 144 
 Long-spurred Violet 00 
 
 Lycopersicum escjilentJira 
 
 24, 1S5, 18G 
 LythraceaB 7, 20, 138, 139 
 
 M 
 
 ACE 
 
 210 
 
 M.idder 22, 10.3. 10 J 
 
 Magnoliace» 148 
 
 .Mahogany 15, 83, 84 
 
 Maize 28G-288 
 
 Malvaceae 6, 14, 67-70 
 
 Mandarin Orange 81 
 
 Mandragora officinalis 43 
 offlcinarum 191 
 
 Mandrake 13, 42, 43 
 
 Manihot 27, 227, 228 
 
 api 227, 228 
 
 utilissima 227, 228 
 
 Manilla 28, 2G7, 208 
 
 Many-cleft Anemone 31, 32 
 Maple IG, 91-93 
 
 Maple, Sugar 294 
 
 Maple Sugar 92 
 
 Maranta aruudinacea 28, 
 
 2G1-2G3 
 Marjoram 25, 20'J 
 
 Marrubium \-ulgare 25, 207 
 Marsdenia tinctoria 9G 
 
 Marsh Marigold 12, 39, 40 
 Marsh Violet 59 
 
 May Apple 13, 42, 43 
 
 Meadow Rue 12, 39 
 
 Meadow Violet 59 
 
 Meconium 45 
 
 Medicinal Plants — 
 
 Allspice 136 
 
 Aloe 278 
 
 Anise 148 
 
 Annatto 64 
 
 Asafoetida 151 
 
 Asparagus 276 
 
 Balsam Fir 309 
 
 Barberry 42 
 
 Betel Nut 280 
 
 Betel Pepper 214 
 
 Bind-weed Jalap 185 
 
 Black Pepper 215 
 
 Blue Cardinal Flower 171 
 Box 225 
 
 Butternut 239 
 
 Camomile IGG, 107 
 
 Camphor Tree 218 
 
 Caper 56 
 
 Caraway 156 
 
 Cardamom 263 
 
 Cashew Nut 95 
 
 Cassia 220 
 
 Castor-oil Plant 229 
 
 Catnip 207 
 
 Celery 147 
 
 Cinchona Bark 159 
 
 Cinnamon 219 
 
 Cloves 135 
 
 Coca 77 
 
 Comfrey 183 
 
 Common Hop 234 
 
 Conunon Juniper 312 
 
 Common Sumach 95 
 
 Coriander 152, 153 
 
 Cotttm 70 
 
 Croton-oil Pl.int 226 
 
 Cumin 153 
 
 F.lecampane lt»6 
 
 Emetic Weed 171 
 
 Fennel 149 
 
 Fig 236 
 
 Flax 76 
 
 Ginger 265 
 
 Great Lobelia 171 
 
 Gum Arabic 112 
 
 Gum Tragacanth 99 
 
 Henbane 192 
 
 High Blackherrv 115 
 
 Hoarhound 207 
 
344 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Medicinal Plants — 
 
 
 Horse Radish 
 
 52 
 
 Indian Tobacco 
 
 171 
 
 Ipecac 
 
 163 
 
 Jute 
 
 74 
 
 Larch 
 
 310 
 
 Lavender 
 
 199 
 
 Lignum-vitae 
 
 78 ! 
 
 Liquorice 
 
 105 
 
 Logwood 
 
 lOG 
 
 Mace 
 
 216, 217 1 
 
 Madder 
 
 164 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 85 
 
 Mandrake 
 
 43 
 
 Marjoram 
 
 202 
 
 Mustard 
 
 49 
 
 Mjrrobalans 
 
 132 
 
 Myrtle 
 
 134 
 
 Nutmeg 
 
 216, 217 1 
 
 Parsley 
 
 156 
 
 Pennyroyal 
 
 201 ^ 
 
 Pepper 
 
 193 
 
 Peppermint 
 
 201 
 
 Pomegranate 
 
 139 
 
 Poppy 
 
 45,46 
 
 Quince 
 
 127 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 213 
 
 Safflower 
 
 170 
 
 Sage 
 
 204 
 
 Sandal-wood Tree 222 
 
 Sarsaparilla 
 
 273 
 
 Sharp-lobed Hepatica 33 
 
 Slippery Elm 
 
 233 
 
 Southern Pines 
 
 306 
 
 Spearmint 
 
 201 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 117 
 
 Strychnine 
 
 182 
 
 Tamarind 
 
 110 
 
 Tansy 
 
 169 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 228 
 
 Thyme 
 
 203 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 261 
 
 Vanilla 
 
 260 
 
 Violet 
 
 62 
 
 Mediterranean Wheat 288 
 
 Meliaceae 
 
 7, 15, 83-85 
 
 Melon 
 
 142, 143 
 
 Mentha 
 
 25,199-201 
 
 piperita 
 
 200 
 
 var. subhirsuta 
 
 200 
 
 pulegium 
 
 201 
 
 viridis 
 
 199, 200 
 
 Metroxylon 
 
 29, 283-285 
 
 Isevis 
 
 284 
 
 sagu 
 spinosa 
 
 284,285 
 
 284 
 
 Milk Vetch 
 
 97-99 
 
 Millet 
 
 29, 300 
 
 Mimusops elata 
 
 176 
 
 Much-divided-leaved Crow- 
 
 foot 
 
 Mulberry 
 
 Musa 
 
 paradisiaca 
 sapientum 
 textilis 
 violacea 
 
 Muskmelon 
 
 Mustard 
 
 36 
 
 27, 230, 231 
 
 28, 265-268 
 
 265 
 
 265, 266, 267 
 
 267, 268 
 
 267 
 
 20, 140-142 
 
 13, 46-51 
 
 Nux Avellana 
 Pontica 
 Vomica 
 
 O 
 
 AK 
 
 255 
 23, 180, 181 
 
 27, 245-254 
 
 Myatt's Triple-curled Pars- 
 ley 
 Myristica 
 
 fatua 
 
 fragrans 
 
 spuria 
 Myristicaceae 
 Myrobalans 
 Myrtacese ' 
 Myrteae 
 Myrtle 
 Myrtus 
 
 communis 
 
 var. Belgica 
 
 var. Boeotica 
 
 var. mucronata 
 
 var. Romana 
 
 var. Tarentiua 
 
 155 
 
 26, 215-217 
 
 216 
 
 216 
 
 216 
 
 9, 26, 215-217 
 
 19, 131 
 
 19, 20, 132-137 
 
 132-137 
 
 19, 133, 134 
 
 19, 133, 134 1 
 
 133 ' 
 
 Oak of the Barrens 249 
 
 Oats 29, 298, 299 
 
 Oblique-leaved Beech 255 
 Oblong-leaved Crowfoot 36 
 Odell's Large Watermelon 142 
 
 Oil of Tar 
 Oil-producing Plants 
 Allspice 
 
 N 
 
 APA-BRASSICA 
 
 133 
 133 
 133 
 133 
 133 
 
 50 
 
 Mitchell's Matchless Parsley 
 
 155 
 Monkey Nut 99, 100 
 
 Monocotyledonous angio- 
 
 sperms 
 MoreUo Cherry 
 Morus 2' 
 
 alba 
 
 var. multicaulis 
 rubra 
 Moss-cup Oak 
 Mossy-cup White Oak 248, 
 
 249 
 
 Mountain Rice 291 
 
 Mountain Sumach 93 
 
 Moxintain Sweet Watermelon 
 
 142 
 
 28,29 
 118 
 230, 231 
 230, 231 
 231 
 230, 231 
 248, 249 
 
 Naples Parsley 155 
 
 Narrow-leaved Flax 75 
 
 Nasturtium 13, 53, 54 
 
 officinale 53, 54 
 
 Nectarine 121 
 
 Nepeta cataria 25, 206, 207 
 
 Nerium tinctorium 96 
 
 Nettle Family 230-238 
 
 New England Pine 302 
 
 New Jersey Tea 16, 88 
 
 New Rochelle Blackberry 115 
 
 New Zealand Flax 28, 276, 
 
 277 
 
 Nicotiana 24, 187-191 
 
 macrophylla 187 
 
 nana 187 
 
 Persica 187 
 
 quadrivalvis 187 
 
 re panda 187 
 
 rustica 187 
 
 tabacura 187 
 
 Norway Spruce 308 
 
 Nut-gall 253 
 
 Nutmeg 26, 216 
 
 Nutmeg Muskmelon 141 
 
 Nuts — 
 
 Almond 123 
 
 Beech-nut 256 
 
 Black Wahlut 240 
 
 Brazil Nut 137 
 
 Butternut 239 
 
 Cashew Nut 95 
 
 Chestnut 244 
 
 English Walnut 240, 241 
 
 Hazelnut 255 
 
 Hickory Nut 241, 242 
 
 Peanut 100 
 
 Pecan Nut 242 
 
 Pine Nut 301 ^ 
 
 Shag-bark 241, 242 
 
 SheU-bark 241, 242 
 
 Thick Shell-bark 241, 24-. 
 Walnut 
 White Walnut 
 
 Asafoetida 
 
 Beech 
 
 Black Walnut 
 
 Brazil Nut 
 
 Butternut 
 
 Butter Tree 
 
 Camomile 
 
 Camphor Tree 
 
 Caraway 
 
 Cardamom 
 
 Castor-oil Plant 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Cocoanut Palm 
 
 Coriander 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Croton-oil Plant 
 
 Cumin 
 
 English Walnut 
 
 Fennel 
 
 Flax 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Lavender 
 
 Lime 
 
 Mace 
 
 Marjoram 
 
 Mustard 
 
 Nutmeg 
 
 Oats 
 
 Olive 
 
 Orange 
 
 Peanut 
 
 Pennyroyal 
 
 Peppermint 
 
 Poppy 
 
 Rape 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Saffron 
 
 Sandal-wood Tree 
 
 306 
 
 136 
 148 
 150 
 256 
 239 
 137 
 238 
 176 
 167 
 218 
 156 
 263 
 229 
 219 
 135 
 283 
 152 
 69 
 226 
 153 
 240, 241 
 149 
 76 
 237 
 199 
 83 
 217 
 203 
 49 
 217 
 299 
 180 
 81 
 100 
 201 
 201 
 
 51 
 
 206 
 
 271 
 222 
 197 
 41, 242 
 242 
 306 
 
 241 
 
 Shag-bark 
 
 SheU-bark 
 
 Southern Pine 
 
 Tansy 169 
 
 Teak 198 
 
 Thick Shell-bark 242 
 
 Thyme 203 
 
 Oils 81, 149, 153, 156, 169, 
 
 179,180,199,201,222,306 
 
 Oil Seed 195-197 
 
 Olea 23, 178-180 
 
 240-242 Oleaceae 
 241, 242 ! Olive 
 
 Europeae 
 var. buxifolia 
 var. ferruginea 
 var. latifolia 
 var. longifolia 
 var. obliqua 
 var. sylvestris 
 9, 
 
 178 
 178 
 178 
 178 
 178 
 178 
 178 
 3, 178-180 
 3, 178-180 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 Opium 45, 4G 
 
 Opium Poppy 44 
 
 Orange lu 
 
 Orange, Sweet 78-81 
 Orange Gourd-Squash 144 
 
 Orchidaceae 10, '2S, '258-'Jt;() 
 Origanum '25, '2U1-Ji;5 
 
 marjoraua -O-i 
 
 vulgare -O'J 
 t^rnaniental Plants — 
 
 Acacia llli 
 American Arbor Vitas 312 
 
 American Beech '250 
 
 American Elm -'S'-i 
 
 Anemone 32, 33 
 
 Austrian Pine 301 
 
 Barberry 42 
 
 Beech of Europe 25(; 
 
 Black Spruce 307 
 
 Box 225 
 
 Castor-oil Plant 22!» 
 
 Clematis 42 
 
 Clove Tree 135 
 
 Common Juniper 311 
 
 English Elm 233 
 
 Hemlock Spruce 313 
 
 Japan Quince 127 
 
 Larch 310 
 
 Logwood 107 
 
 Marjoram 203 
 
 Moss-cup Oak 249 
 
 Myrtle 134 
 
 Norway Spruce 308 
 
 Pin Oak 250 
 
 Pomegranate 139 
 
 Poppy 44 
 
 Ranunculus 38 
 
 Red Cedar 312 
 
 Red Oak 261 
 
 Rosemary 200 
 
 Sage 204 
 
 Scarlet Oak 248 
 
 Scotch Pine 304 
 
 Shaddock 82 
 
 Spanish Oak 248 
 
 Swiss Pine 305 
 
 Thyme 203 
 
 Violet (;2 
 
 Weeping Willow 258 
 
 White Pine 302 
 
 White Spruce 308 
 
 Willow-leaved Oak 250 
 
 Yellow Pine 303 
 Orjza 29,290,291 
 
 coarctata 291 
 
 glutinosa 291 
 
 mutica 291 
 
 prx'cox 291 
 
 sativa 291 
 
 Osier 28 
 
 Osier Willow 258 
 
 Ox Heart 118 
 Oxycoccus 23, 172-174 
 macrocarpus 172, 173 
 
 palustris 173 
 
 )ALE Violet 
 
 01 
 
 Palm, Cocoanut 282, 283 
 
 Date 29, 280, 281 
 
 Sago 29, 284, 285 
 
 Palmae lo, 20, 278-285 
 
 Palms, Feather 279, 280, 281, 
 
 282, 283. 284, 285 
 
 Pway 61 
 
 Papaver 13, 43-40 
 
 dubium 44 
 
 orientale 44 
 
 Rhoeas 44 
 
 uomniferum 44 
 
 Papaveraceae 0, 13, 43-10 
 
 Paper 74, 208 
 
 Para Sarsaparilla 273 
 
 Paraguay Tea 15, 85-87 
 
 Parsley 21, 155, 15t; 
 
 Parsnip 21, 151, 152 
 
 Pasque-flower 32 
 
 Pastinaca sativa 151,152 
 
 Pea 17, 101-103 
 
 Pea, Ground 99, 100 
 
 Peach 18, 121, 122 
 
 Peach, Wolf 186 
 
 Peanut 17, 99, 100 
 
 Pear 19, 123-127 
 
 Pear-shaped Cranberry 173 
 Pear Tree 125, 120 
 
 Pearl Sago 285 
 
 Pecan Nut 27, 242 
 
 Pedaline* 8, 24, 195-197 
 
 Pekoe 00 
 
 Pencil Cedar 311 
 
 Pennsylvaniau Anemone 30, 
 31 
 Pennsylvaniau Crowfoot 37 
 Pennyroyal 25, 201 
 
 Pepper, Bell 193 
 
 Betel 214 
 
 Black 214, 215 
 
 Cayenne 193 
 
 Red 192, 193 
 
 Peppermint 200 
 
 Perfume-produciug Plants — 
 Butter Tree 17G 
 
 Hemp 237 
 
 Lavender 199 
 
 Mace 217 
 
 Rosemary 200 
 
 Sandal-wood Tree 222 
 
 Perry 127 
 
 Persian Berries 87, 88 
 
 Persimmon 23, 170 
 
 Peruvian Bark 21, 157 
 
 Petaloide* 5 
 
 Petaloideous mouocotyled- 
 
 onous angiosperms 10 
 
 Peucedanum 21, 151, 152 
 
 pastinaca 151, 152 
 
 Phaenogams 5-11, 12 29 
 
 Phase, lus 17,103-105 
 
 lunatus 103, 104 
 
 vulgaris 103 
 
 var. nanus 103, 1()4 
 
 Phoenix dactylifera 29, 280, 
 
 281 
 
 Phormium tenax 28, 276, 277 
 
 Picea 29, 307, 30S 
 
 alba 307, ;5<iS 
 
 balsamifera 309 
 
 excelsa 308 
 
 nigra 307 : 
 
 Pimpinella anisum 21, 147, 
 
 148 ' 
 Pine 29, 300-306 | 
 
 Pineapple 28, 2r>9, 270 
 
 Pin Oak 249, 250 
 
 Pinus 29, 300-306 ' 
 
 Austriaca 301 | 
 
 balsamifera 309 
 
 Canadensis bifolia ;5(H 
 
 cembra 305 j 
 
 var. pygmsea 306 | 
 
 PinuH cembra, var Siberica305 
 
 mitis 302, 303 
 
 monophylla 301 
 
 nigra 301 
 
 palustris 305, 306 
 
 var. excelsa 305 
 
 resinosa 304 
 
 rigida 304 
 
 rubra 304 
 
 strobus 302 
 
 sylvestris 303, »>4 
 
 variabilis 302, ;j03 
 
 Piper 26, 214, 215 
 
 betel -JH 
 
 Piper nigrum 214, 215 
 
 var. longum 214 
 
 Piperaceae 9, 20, 213-215 
 
 Pisum 17, 101-103 
 
 arvense 102 
 
 sativum 101, 102 
 
 Pitch 30G 
 
 Pitch Pine 304, 305, 3(J6 
 
 Plantain 2<>5 
 
 Plum 18,117-123 
 
 Plum, Damson 117, 118 
 
 Podophyllum peltatum 13, 
 
 42, 43 
 
 Poison Ivy 93 
 
 Poison Oak 93 
 
 Poisonous Plants — 
 
 Aloe 278 
 
 Box 225 
 
 Camphor 218 
 
 Chrysanthemum 167, 168 
 
 Hemlock 313 
 
 Poison Ivy 95 
 
 Poison Oak 95 
 
 Poison Sumach 95 
 
 Red Cedar 312 
 
 Strychnine 182 
 
 Tapioca 228 
 
 White Cedar 315 
 
 Poison Sumach 95 
 
 Pole Beau 103 
 
 Polygala tiuctoria 96 
 
 Polygalaceae 96 
 
 Polygonaceae 9, 26, 210-213 
 
 Polygonum aviculare 9(» 
 
 barbatum 96 
 
 Chinense 96 
 
 fagopyrum 21 1 
 
 P|erfoliatum 9<; 
 
 tinctorium 96 
 
 Pomegranate 20, 138 
 
 Pomum Puuicum 139 
 
 Poppy 13, 43-K; 
 
 Post Oak 24'.) 
 
 Potato 24, 194 
 
 Potato, Sweet 24, 18;^, 184 
 
 Prickly Cayenne Pineapple 
 
 269 
 
 Prickly-seeded Crowfoot 3<; 
 
 Primrose-leaved Violet 60 
 
 Providence Pineapple 269 
 
 Prunus 18, 19, 117-12,3 
 
 Armeuiaca 120 
 
 avium 118 
 
 cerasus 118 
 
 commiuus 122 
 
 var. amara 122 
 
 domestica 117 
 
 nana 122 
 
 Persioa 121, 122 
 
 var. brvis 121 
 
 Pumpkin 20, 143-14<. 
 
 Pumpkin Pine 302 
 
846 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Punica 20, 138, 139 
 
 granatum 138 
 
 var. alba 138 
 
 var. plena 138 
 
 Puuy Crowfoot 37 
 
 Puritan Squash 144 
 
 Purple Cabbage 47 
 
 Purple Sweet Violet 57 
 
 Purplish Meadow Rue 39 
 
 Pyrus 19, 123-127 
 
 communis 125-127 
 
 Cydonia 127 
 
 Japonica 127 
 
 mains 123-125 
 
 QUERCUS 27, 245-254 
 
 SEgUops 253, 254 
 
 var. latifolia 253 
 
 var. peudula 253 
 
 alba 245 
 
 var. pinnatifida 245 
 
 var. repauda 245 
 
 bicolor 247 
 
 coccinea 247, 248 
 
 var. tinctoria 248 
 
 falcata 248 
 
 Ilex 8G 
 
 infectoria 253 
 
 macrocarpa 248, 249 
 
 nigra 249 
 
 obtusiloba 249 
 
 palustris 249, 250 
 
 pedunculata 246, 247 
 
 Phellos 250 
 
 var. latifolius 250 
 
 var. sylvatica 250 
 
 Prinus 250 
 
 var. acuminata 250, 251 
 
 var. monticola 251 
 
 pseudococcifera 245 
 
 robur 246, 247 
 
 var. fastigiata 246 
 var. foliis variegatis 246 
 
 var. heterophylla 246 
 
 var. pendula 246 
 
 var. pubescens 246 
 
 var. purpurea 246 
 
 var. sessiliflora 246 
 
 rubra 250, 251 
 
 var. runcinata 251 
 
 suber 252 
 
 var. angustifolium 252 
 
 var. dentatum 252 
 
 var. latifolia 252 
 
 virens 252 
 
 Quince 19, 127 
 
 Quince, Japan 127 
 
 R 
 
 ANDIA aculeata 
 
 96 
 
 Ranunculaceae 6, 12, 30-42 
 
 Ranunculus 12, 33-38 
 
 abortivus 33, 34 
 
 var. micranthus 34 
 
 acris 34 
 
 alismaefolius 34 
 
 ambigens 34 
 
 aquatilis 35 
 
 var. tricophyllus 35 
 
 bulbosus 35 
 
 Cymbalaria 35 
 
 fascicularis 35, 36 
 
 flammula 36 
 
 Ranunculus flammula, var. 
 
 intermedins 36 
 
 var. reptans 36 
 
 micranthus 34 
 
 multitidus 36 
 
 var. terrestris 36 
 
 muricatus 36 
 
 oblongifolius 36 
 
 palmatus 38 
 
 parviflorus 36 
 
 Pennsylvanicus 37 
 
 pusillus 37 
 
 recurvatus 37 
 
 repens 37 
 
 rhomboideus 37 
 
 sceleratus 37, 38 
 
 septentrionalis 38 
 
 Rape 51 
 
 Raspberry 18, 113, 114 
 
 Red Banana 265, 266 
 
 Red Cabbage 47 
 
 Red Cedar 311 
 
 Red Cherry 118 
 
 Red Cinchona Bark 157 
 
 Red Dutch Currant 128 
 
 Red Elm 232 
 
 Red Grape Currant 128 
 
 Red Mulberry 230, 231 
 
 Red Oak 251 
 
 Red Pepper 24, 192, 193 
 
 Red Pine 3U4, 305, 306 
 
 Red Raspberry 88 
 
 Red Root 88 
 
 Red Top Turnip 50 
 
 Red Wheat 288 
 
 Revalenta 101 
 
 Rhamnacese 16, 87, 88 
 
 Rhamnus 16, 87, 88 
 
 chlorophorus 87 
 
 infectorius 87, 88 
 
 utilis 87 
 
 Rheum 26, 212, 213 
 
 compactum 212 
 
 pabnatum 212 
 
 rhaponticum 212 
 
 undulatum 212 
 
 Rhomboid-leaved Crowfoot 37 
 
 Rhubarb 26, 212, 213 
 
 Rhus 16, 93-95 
 
 copallina 93 
 
 coriaria 94 
 
 Cotinus 93, 94 
 
 glabra 93, 94, 95 
 
 Toxicodendron 93, 95 
 
 typhina 93 
 
 venenata 93, 95 
 
 Ribes 19, 128-131 
 
 cynosbate 129, 130 
 
 floridum 128 
 
 Grossularia 129 
 
 hirtellum 130 
 
 nigrum 129 
 
 oxyacanthoides 130 
 
 rotundifolium 130 
 
 rubriun 128 
 
 Rice 29, 290, 291 
 
 Ricinus 27, 228, 229 
 
 communis 228, 229 
 
 Ring-leaved Willow 257 
 
 Rio Negro Sarsaparilla 273 
 
 Ripley Pineapple 269 
 
 Rock Chestnut Oak 251 
 
 Rock Maple 91 
 
 Rock Oak 251 
 
 Roman Camomile 166 
 
 Rosacese 7, 18, 19, 113-127 
 
 Rosemary 25, 205, 206 
 
 Rosewood 17, 108, 109 
 
 Rosin 306 
 
 Rosmarinus 25, 205, 206 
 
 officinalis 205 
 
 var. variegata 205 
 
 Roimd-leaved Violet 60 
 
 Round-lobed Hepatica 31 
 
 Rubia 22, 163, 164 
 
 Chiliensis 164 
 
 cordifolia 164 
 
 tinctorum 163, 164 
 
 Rubiaceae 9, 21, 22, 157-164, 
 
 223 
 
 Rubus 18, 113-115 
 
 fruticosus 115 
 
 Idaeus 113 
 
 occidentalis 113 
 
 strigosus 88, 113, 114 
 
 vUlosus 114, 115 
 
 var. frondosus 115 
 
 var. humifusus 115 
 
 Rue Anemone 12, 33 
 
 Russia Turnip 50 
 
 Russian Rhubarb 213 
 
 Rutabaga 50 
 
 Rutaceae 7, 15, 78-83 
 
 Rye 29, 295, 296 
 
 QACCHARUM 29, 292-294 
 
 atrorubens 293 
 
 contractum 293 
 
 dubium 293 
 
 fragile 293 
 
 officinarum 292, 293 
 
 polystachyum 293 
 
 rubicundum 293 
 
 Sacred Barley 297 
 
 Saflflower 22, 169, 170 
 
 Saffron 28, 169, 170, 270, 271 
 
 Sage 25, 204 
 
 Sago, Pearl 285 
 
 Sago Palm 29, 284, 285 
 
 Salads — 
 
 Beet 209 
 
 Cabbage 48 
 
 Caper 56 
 
 Celery 147 
 
 Cowslip 40 
 
 Cucumber 140 
 
 Fennel 149 
 
 Ranunculus ficaria 38 
 
 Tomato 186 
 
 Water-Cress 54 
 
 Salicacea? 9, 28, 256-258 
 
 Salix 28, 256-258 
 
 annularis 257 
 
 Babylonica 256 
 
 var. crispar 257 
 
 var. Napoleona 257 
 
 var. vulgaris 256, 257 
 
 viminalis 258 
 
 Salvia 25, 204 
 
 officinalis 204 
 
 var. variegata 204 
 
 pomifera 204 
 
 Sandal-wood Tree 27, 220-222 
 
 SantalaceiB 9, 27, 220-222 
 
 Santalum 27, 220-222 
 
 album 220, 221 
 
 Freycinetianum 221 
 
 niyrtifolium 221 
 
 yasi 221 
 
 Sapiadaceae 7, 16, 91-93 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 8apotarpnf» 0, 23, 174-176 
 
 SapliiiR Pine 302 
 
 Sarasiu Wheat 211 
 
 Sarsaparilla 28, 273, 274 
 
 Savoy Cabbage 47 
 
 Saxifragacea> 7, ll», 12M-131 
 Scarlet Oak 247, 248 
 
 Scotch Fir 303, 3()4 
 
 Scotch Phie 303, 304 
 
 Scurvy Grass 52 
 
 Sea Island Cotton 07 
 
 Seaside Crowfoot 35 
 
 Secale cereale 29, 2t»5, 2% 
 Secor's Maiumotli Black- 
 berry 115 
 Senna 17, 107, 108 
 Sesame 24, I'JC. 
 Sesamum 24, 195-107 
 Indicuiu 190 
 orientale 190 
 Setaria 29, 300 
 Italica m) 
 var. Germauica 30tt 
 Seville Orange 79, 81 
 Shaddock 81, 82 
 Shag- bark 241 
 Sharp-lobed Hepatica 31 
 Sliell-bark 241 
 Shepherd's Purse 13, 40, 47 
 Sickle-leaved Oak 248 
 Silk 231 
 Silver-leaved Iiidigofera 90 
 Silver-leaved Oak 247 
 Single-leaved Nut-pine 301 
 Six-rowed Barley 297 
 Slippery Elm 232 
 Small Cranberry 17.5 
 Small-flowered Anemone 32 
 Small-flowered Crowfoot 33, 
 34,30 
 Smaller Spearwort 30 
 Suiilax 28, 273, 274 
 medica 273 
 officinalis 273, 274 
 papyracefB 273, 274 
 Sarsaparilla 273, 274 
 Smoke Tree 93 
 Smooth Cayenne Pineapple 
 
 209 
 
 Smooth Sumach 93 
 
 Snake-wood 181 
 
 Socotrine Aloes 278 
 
 Solanaceae 8, 24, 185-195 
 
 Solanum 24, 194, 195 
 
 Commersonii 194 
 
 immite 194 
 
 tuberosum 194 
 
 verrucosum 194 
 
 Sorghum saccharatum 29, 
 
 294, 295 
 
 Sour Clierry 118 
 
 Southern Pine 305, 300 
 
 Spadiciflora- 5 
 
 Spadicirtorous monoi'otyled- 
 
 onous angiosperms 10 
 
 Spanish Oak 248 
 
 Sparrow Grass 274-270 
 
 Spearmint 25, 199, 200 I 
 
 Spearwort 34, 36 | 
 
 Spires, Condiments, etc. — 1 
 Allspice 130 ' 
 
 Anise 148 ] 
 
 Asafa'tida 151 , 
 
 Black Pepper 215 
 
 Caper 50 i 
 
 1K« I 
 
 Spices, Condiments, etc. — 
 Cardamom 203, 204 
 
 Cassia 
 
 220 
 
 Cinnamom 
 
 219 
 
 Cloves 
 
 135 
 
 Coriander 
 
 152 
 
 Cumin 
 
 153 
 
 Femiel 
 
 149 
 
 Ginger 
 
 2(;5 
 
 Horse Radish 
 
 52 
 
 Mace 
 
 210, 217 
 
 Mustard 
 
 49 
 
 Nutmeg 
 
 210, 217 
 
 Parsley 
 
 150 
 
 Pepper 
 
 194 
 
 Sage 
 
 204 
 
 Spearmint 
 
 201 
 
 Thyme 
 
 203 
 
 Vanilla 
 
 200 
 
 Spicy Vanilla 
 
 259 
 
 Spinach, Spinage 20, 209, 210 
 Spinacia oleracea 20, 209, 210 
 Spotted Violet 58 
 
 Spruce 29, 307, 308 
 
 Spruce, Hemlock 313, 314 
 Spruce Pine 302, 303 
 
 Spurge 27, 222, 223 
 
 Spurge Family 222-229 
 
 Squash 20, 143-140 
 
 Stag-horn Sumach 93 
 
 Staining Buckthorn 87, 88 
 Star Anise 148 
 
 Sterculiace* 7, 14, 70-72 
 
 Stone Pine 305 
 
 Strap-leaved Turnip 50 
 
 Strawberry 
 Streaked Violet 
 String Bean 
 Striped Violet 
 Stryclmos 
 
 colubrina 
 
 Ignatii 
 
 uux vomica 
 
 potatorum 
 
 tieute 
 
 toxifera 
 Student Parsnip 
 Sugar Cane 2i 
 
 Sugar Loaf Cabbage 
 Sugar Maple 
 
 18, 110, 117 
 
 58 
 
 103 
 
 01 
 
 23, 180-182 
 
 181 
 
 181 
 
 180, 181 
 
 181 
 
 181 
 
 181 
 
 151 
 
 29, 292-294 
 
 47 
 
 91, 294 
 
 Caraway 
 
 156 
 
 Sugar-producing Plants — 
 Beet 209 
 
 Broom Corn 295 
 
 Cocoanut Palm 283 
 
 Oats 299 
 
 Sugar Cane 294 
 
 Sugar Maple 92 
 
 Sugar Pumpkin 145, 140 
 
 Sugar Tree 91 
 
 Sumach 10, 93-95 
 
 Summer Wheat 288 
 
 Swamp Chestnut O.ik 250 
 Swamp Spanisli Oak 249, 250 
 Swamp Wliite Oak 247 
 
 Swedish Turnip 50 
 
 Sweet Marjoram 202 
 
 Sweet Orange 78-81 
 
 Sweet Potato 24, 183, 1S4 
 
 Sweet Potato Squiislj 144 
 
 Sweet Tliyme 2.'>. 203 
 
 Sweet Violet 57 
 
 Swiet«nia mahogani 15, S3-85 
 Swiss Pine 305 
 
 Sympetal.T 5. 21-27 
 
 Sympetalous dicotyledo- 
 nous angiosperms 8, 9 
 
 Symi)hytum 23, 182, 183 
 
 officinale 182, 183 
 
 var. Bohemicum 182 
 
 ''pACCA iutegrifolia 262 
 
 Tall Meadow Rue 39 
 
 Tamarack 309, 310 
 
 Tamarind IS, 109-111 
 
 Tamarindus Indica is, 109- 
 
 111 
 
 Tanacetum vulgare 22, 108, 
 
 169 
 
 Tangleberry 172 
 
 Tannin-producing Plants — 
 
 Allspice 136 
 
 Black Jack Oak 249 
 
 Black Oak 248 
 
 Chestnut Oak 251 
 
 Dyers' Oak 248 
 
 Gall Oak 253 
 
 Gum Arabic 112 
 
 Hemlock Spruce 314 
 
 Larch 310 
 
 Moss-cup Oak 249 
 
 Myrobalans 132 
 
 Myrtle 134 
 
 Pin Oak 250 
 
 Pomegranate 139 
 
 Red Oak 252 
 
 Rock Oak 251 
 
 Scarlet Oak 248 
 
 Silver-leaved Oak 247 
 
 Spanish Oak 248 
 
 Sumach 94 
 
 Valonia Oak 254 
 
 White Oak 240 
 
 Willow-leaved Oak 250 
 
 Yellow-barked Oak 248 
 
 Tansy 22, 108, 109 
 
 Tapioca 27, 227, 228 
 
 Tar 304, 306 
 
 Tea 14, 04-07 
 
 Tea, New Jersey 10, 88 
 
 Paraguay 15, 85-87 
 
 Teak 24, 197, 198 
 
 Tectoua grandis 24, 197, 198 
 
 Teplirosia apoUinea 96 
 
 tinctoria 96 
 
 toxicaria 96 
 
 Terminalia 19, 131, 132 
 
 augustifolia 132 
 
 bellerica 132 
 
 catappa 132 
 
 chebula 131 
 
 citrina 132 
 
 Temstnvmiaceap 7, 14, 64-67 
 
 Textile Fabrics 
 
 Cocoanut Palm 283 
 
 Common Hop 234 
 
 Cotton 69 
 
 Flax 76 
 
 Hemp 237 
 
 Jute 74 
 
 Manilla 268 
 
 New Zealand Flax 277 
 Thalictrum 12, 39 
 
 anemonoides 33 
 
 clavatum 39 
 
 Coruuti 39 
 
 dioicum 39 
 
 polygamum 39 
 
 purpurascens 39 
 
 var. ceriferum 39 
 
348 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Thea 
 
 14, 64-67 
 
 Bohea 
 
 64 
 
 viiidis 
 
 64 
 
 Thebaicum 
 
 45 
 
 Theobroma 
 
 14, 70-72 
 
 angustifolia 
 
 71 
 
 bicolor 
 
 71 
 
 cocoa 
 
 70,71 
 
 Guianensis 
 
 71 
 
 microcarpa 
 
 71 
 
 ovatifolia 
 
 71 
 
 sylvestris 
 
 71 
 
 Thick Shell-bark 
 
 241 
 
 Thimble Berry 
 
 113 
 
 Thimble Weed 32, 33 
 
 Thuja occidentalis 29, 312 
 Thunderbolt Flower 196 
 
 Thyme 203 
 
 Thymeleacete 278 
 
 Thymus 25, 203 
 
 serpyllum 203 
 
 vulgaris 203 
 
 Tiliacese 7, 14, 72-74 
 
 Tinnevelly Senna 108 
 
 Tobacco 24, 187-191 
 
 Tobacco, Indian 22, 170, 171 
 Tomato 24, 186 
 
 Trachylobium Horneman- 
 
 nianum 110 
 
 Tree Cabbage 47 
 
 Tree Cotton ■ 67, 68 
 
 Triticum 29, 288-290 
 
 sestivum 288 
 
 compositum 289 
 
 hybernum 288 
 
 vulgare 288, 289 
 
 var. sestivum 288 
 
 var. album 288 
 
 var. hybernum 288 
 
 var. nudum 288 
 
 var. rubrum 288 
 
 Tropaeolum 54 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis 29, 312-314 
 
 Turkey Rhubarb 213 
 
 Turmeric 28, 200, 261 
 
 Turnip 13, 46-51 
 
 Turnip-rooted Beet 208 
 
 Turpentine 304, 306 
 
 Turpentine, Spirits of 306 
 
 Venice 310 
 
 U 
 
 LMUS 
 
 alata 
 
 Americana 
 campestris 
 fulva 
 
 27, 231-233 
 
 232 
 
 231, 232, 233 
 
 232, 233 
 
 232 
 
 racemosa 232 
 
 Umbellifera^ 6, 20, 21, 146-156 
 Upland White Oak 249 
 
 Urticaceae 10, 27, 223, 230-238 
 
 VACCINIACE^ 8, 23, 
 
 ' 171-174 
 
 Vaccinium macrocarpum 172, 
 
 17;! 
 
 oxycoccus 173 
 
 Valonia Oak 253, 254 
 
 Valparaiso Squashes 141 
 
 Vanilla 28, 259, 2(;o 
 
 aromatica 259 
 
 planifolia 259 
 
 Van-Mais 38 
 
 Vegetable Marrow 144 
 
 Venetian Sumach 93, 94 
 
 Venice Turpentine 310 
 
 Verbenacese 9, 24, 197, 198 
 
 Versailles Currant 128 
 
 Vicia faba 104 
 
 Vine, Grape 88-91 
 
 Vinegar 283 
 
 Viola 14, 56-62 
 
 blanda 56, 60 
 
 Canadensis 56, 57 
 
 canina 57 
 
 var. sylvestris 57 
 
 cordata 59 j 
 
 cucullata 58, 59 I 
 
 var. cordata 59 i 
 
 var. reniformis 59 j 
 
 var. striata 58 \ 
 
 hastata 57 I 
 
 lanceolata 57, 60 
 
 Muhlenbergii 57 
 
 odorata 57 
 
 palmata 58 
 
 palustris 59 
 
 pedata 58, 59, 60 
 
 var. bicolor 60 
 
 primulsefolia 60 
 
 pubescens 60 
 
 var. scabriuscula 60 
 
 rostrata 60 
 
 rotundifolia 60 
 
 sagittata 60, 61 
 
 var. ovata 61 
 
 Selkirkii 61 
 
 sorosis 59 
 
 striata 61 
 
 tenella 61, 62 
 
 tricolor 61, 62 
 
 var. arvensis 61, 62 
 
 villosa 59 
 
 Violaceae 6, 14, 56-62 
 
 Violet 14, .56-62 
 
 Virginian Anemone 32, 33 
 
 Virgin's Bower 12, 40-42 
 
 Vitis 16, 88-91 
 
 labrusca 89 
 
 vinifera 89 
 
 "ly^I^^UT 
 
 239-241 
 
 Warty Squash 143, 144 
 
 Water Cress 13, 53, 54 
 
 Watermelon 20, 142, 143 
 
 Water Oak 249, 250 
 
 Water Plantain 34 
 
 Wattle Barks 112 
 
 Wavy Tobacco 187 
 
 Way-adorner 41 
 
 Wayside Crowfoot 34 
 
 Weeping Elm 231, 232 
 
 Weeping Willow 250 I 
 
 Weymouth Pine 302 
 
 Wheat 29, 288, 289 
 
 Wheat, Sarasin 211 
 Whiskey 288, 296, 298, 299 
 
 White Cabbage 47 
 
 White Cedar 314 
 White Dutch Currant 128 ! 
 
 White Elm 231, 232 
 
 White Mulberry 230, 231 
 
 White Mustard 48, 49 
 
 White Oak 245 
 
 White Pine 302 
 
 White Potato 194 
 White Spine Cucumber 140 
 
 White Spruce 307, 308 
 
 White Stone Turnip 50 
 
 White Sweet Violet 57 
 
 White Walnut 241 
 White Water Crowfoot 35 
 
 White Wheat 288 
 Whorled-leaved Virgin's 
 
 Bower 41 
 
 Wicked Crowfoot 37, 38 
 
 Wild Carrot 154 
 
 Wild Flax 75 
 
 Wild Gooseberry 129, 130 
 Wild Red Raspberry 113, 114 
 Willow 28, 256-258 
 
 Willow-leaved Oak 250 
 Windflower 12, 30-33 
 Wine 90, 129, 267, 283 
 
 Winged Elm 232 
 
 Winter Squash 144 
 
 Winter Wheat 288 
 
 Woad 13, 53 
 
 Wolf Peach 186 
 
 Wood Anemone 32 
 
 Wood Crowfoot 37 
 Woods — 
 
 American Arbor Vitae 312 
 Apple 125 
 Austrian Pine 301 
 Beech 256 
 Black Jack Oak 249 
 Black Oak 248 
 Black Spruce 307 
 Black Walnut 239, 240 
 Box 225 
 Brazil Wood 109 
 British Oak 247 
 Butternut 239 
 Cherry 118 
 Chestnut 244 
 Chestnut Oak 251 
 Cloves 135 
 Cocoanut Palm 283 
 Constantinople Hazel- 
 nut 255 
 Cork Tree 252 
 Dyers' Oak 248 
 Ebony 176 
 English Elm 233 
 English Wahiut 241 
 Hemlock Spruce 313,314 
 Larch 310 
 Ligiuim-vitae 78 
 Live Oak 252 
 Logwood 107 
 Mahogany 85 
 Moss-cup Oak 249 
 Myrobalans 132 
 Norway Spruce 308 
 Olive 180 
 Orange 80 
 Pecan Nut 242 
 Pin Oak 250 
 Pitch Pine 304 
 Post Oak 249 
 Red Cedar 310 
 Red Mulberry 231 
 Red Oak 251, 252 
 Rock Maple 92, 93 
 Rock Oak 251 
 Rosewood 109 
 Sandal-wood 222 
 Scarlet Oak 248 
 Scotch Pine 304 
 Shag-bark 242 
 Shell-bark 242 
 Silver-leaved Oak 247 
 Single-leaved Nut-pine 301 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 WoodB — I 
 
 Southern Pine 305 I 
 
 Spanish Oak 248 1 
 
 Strychniuf 182 
 Su^'ar Maple 'J2, 93 I 
 Swamp Chestnut Oak 25() | 
 
 Swiss Pine 305 
 
 Tamarind 110 
 
 Teak 198 
 
 Thick Shell-bark 242 
 
 Valonia Oak 254 
 
 White Cedar 315 
 
 White Oak 24f; 
 
 White Pine 302 
 
 Woods — 
 
 White Spruce 
 
 Yellow-barked Oak 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 Wrightia tinctoria 
 Wrinkled Cabbage 
 
 AM 
 
 308 
 
 248 
 
 :i03 
 
 47 
 
 ! Yellow Jute 14, 73, 74 
 
 Yollow Lentil 1(K) 
 
 Yellow Pine3«J2, 303, 305, 3(JG 
 Yellow Water Crowfoot 36 
 Yerba Mat6 85-87 
 
 28, 271,27'. 
 
 Yellow Banana 
 Yellow-barked Oak 
 Yellow Berries 
 Yellow Cinchona Bark 
 
 2C.5 
 
 248 
 
 .S7, 88 
 
 157 
 
 Z 
 
 ANTE Currants 
 
 Zea mays 29, 286-288 
 
 Zingiber officinalis 28, 264, 
 26ii 
 Zingiberaceae 10, 28, 260-268 
 Zygophyllaceae 7, 15, 77, 78 
 
 ^^M.aiUiGEUBUtOL 
 
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