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DYEING: 
 
 coiiPiiisiNa 
 
 THE DYEING AND BLEACHING OF \YOOL, SILK, 
 COTTON, FLAX, HEMF, CHINA GRASS, &c. 
 
 AINTO^'IO SAIS^SOI^E, 
 
 Author of " The Printing of Cotton Fabrics," leading Contributor to the Colourist 
 
 Section of " The Textile Manufacturer" late Director of the School of 
 
 Byeing at the Manchester Technical School. 
 
 miugtratcU toitij uumcroug IJlatcs anti Specimens. 
 
 ;2iTaud)cstei' : 
 
 Abel Hevwood .*c Son, 56 & 08, Oldham Stkekt. 
 
 SiMPKiN, Marshall, & Co., Stationers' Hall Gouut; 
 
 Hamilton Adams, k. Co.. ;!2, Paternoster Row. 
 
 1S88. 
 
Abel IiE\"«ooD k Sox, 
 
 Prixters, 
 
 Oldham Street, Maxchestee. 
 
PRE FACE. 
 
 Ix publishing this vokime, which may be considered as 
 a complement to my first work — " The Printing of Cotton 
 Fabrics," I have tried to give as complete an account as 
 possible of the present state of the Dyeing Industries. 
 
 All the information has been brought up to date by the 
 untiring kindness of the manufacturers of dyestuffs and 
 machinery makers, to whom I am under great obligations. 
 
 Owing to their kind support I have been enabled to give 
 a greater number of illustrations of machinery than I at 
 first intended. 
 
 The number of patterns which have been also so plenti- 
 fully contributed by several firms have been gradually 
 growing up to such an extent that it has been deemed 
 necessary to form the pattern cards into a second volume. 
 
 I must here express my thanks to all those firms and 
 gentlemen who have helped me in the publication of this 
 work. 
 
 Manchester, July, 188S. 
 
 96296 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chapter I. — 
 
 HISTORY OF DYEING " 1 
 
 Chapter II. — 
 
 HISTOEY OF COAL TAR COLOURS 5 
 
 Chapter III. — 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES 18 
 
 Chapter IV.— 
 
 TESTING COLOURING SIATTERS BY DYEING ... 33 
 
 PKACTICAL PROCESSES: 
 Chapter V. — 
 
 COTTON — BLEACHING COTTON 45 
 
 COTTON DYEING, LOOSE COTTON, YARN, AND CLOTH 53 
 
 BASIC ANILIXK COLOUES^ACID COAL TAB COLOURS — THE 
 
 EOSINES — AZO COLOURS XEW CLASS AZO COLOURS 
 
 ALIZARINE COLOURS DYEWOOD EXTRACT COLOURS. 
 
 DYEING AND FINISHING BLACK ITALIAN COTTON 
 
 CLOTH 86 
 
 OTHER DYEWOOD COLOURS: BROWNS, YELLOWS, 
 
 REDS, ETC 94 
 
 INDIGO BLUES ... 98 
 
 Chapter VI.— 
 
 LINEN, JUTE, CHINA GRASS, ETC 105 
 
 Chapter VII.— 
 
 WOOL lis 
 
 SCOURING WASHING BLEACHING DYEING MECHANICAL 
 
 DYEING PROCESSES BASIC — ACID ALKALINE COAL TAR 
 
 COLOURS ALIZARINES. 
 
 DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC COLOURING 
 
 ISIATTERS 145 
 
 INDIGO DYEWOODS ONE DIP DYES. 
 
VI. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chapter A'lII.— 
 
 SILK 1-59 
 
 ANILINES ALIZARINE COLOURS ON SILK. 
 
 WEIGHTING OF SILK IG-i 
 
 COMMUNICATIONS, ABSTRACTS, ETC. 
 Chapter IX.— 
 
 ALIZARINE COLOURS IN AVOOL DYEING IGG 
 
 VARIOUS NEW DYESTUFFS 181 
 
 PREPARING SOAPS FOR WOOL SCOURINGS 18-i 
 
 GAJIBINE NEW SERIES OF COLOURS DIRECTLY FIXED ON 
 
 THE FIBRE STIBINE, ETC. SALUFER CUDBEAR AND 
 
 ARCHILL. 
 
 HERMITE BLEACHING PROCESS 191 
 
 COCHINEAL CARMINE BLACK WITH DINITROSOEESORCINE, 
 
 ETC. BENZIDINE COLOURS — PARAPHENGLENE BLUE, 
 
 RHODOMINE. 
 
 CHINA GRASS OR RHEA RAMINE FIBRE 200 
 
 MORDANTING WOOL AND WOOL DYEING. 
 
 Chapter X. — 
 
 MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING 203 
 
 Chapter XL — 
 
 EXPLANATION TO THE DYED PATTERNS 230 
 
 TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-ONE PATTERNS ON TWENTY-NINE 
 PLATES FORM THE SECOND VOLUME. 
 INDEX 247 
 
Some irregularity in the numbering of 
 the Plates has occurred through several 
 having been added after the printing of 
 the greater part of the book had been 
 completed. 
 
T 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 The Obermeyer Meclianical Dyeing Process... (Frontispiece) 
 
 FACE PAGE. 
 
 I. — Low Pressure Kier 
 
 II. — Circulating Kier... 
 III. — Yarn Bleaching Apparatus 
 IV. — Hydroextractor for yarn 
 Y. — Circular Yarn Washinsf Machine 
 YI. — Yarn Y^ashing and Soaping Machine 
 YII. — Pierson & Dehaitre's Hank Drying 
 Machine 
 
 YIII. — Haubold's Circulating Hank Drying 
 
 Machine 
 
 IX. — Mather & Piatt's Hank Yarn Drying 
 
 Machine 
 
 X. — Haubold's Eapid Yarn Drying Apparatus 
 
 XI. — \Varp Drying Machine ... 
 
 XII. — Eobertshaw's Yarn Dyeing Machine 
 
 XIII. — Sizing and Wringing Machine for yarn 
 
 XIY. — Corron's Yarn Dyeing Machine 
 
 XY. — Corron's Yarn Dyeing ]\[achine 
 
 XYI. — Yarn Polishing Machine 
 
 XYIL— Jig AVinch 
 
 XYIII. — Dyeing Jiggers ... 
 XIX. — Cloth Dyeing Machine (jiggers) 
 XX. — Open AYashing Machine 
 XXI.— Cloth AVashing Machine 
 XXII. — Open Washing Machine 
 XXIII. — Hydro Extractor for cotton cloth 
 XXI Y. — Cylinder Drying Machine 
 XXY. — Stentering and Drying Machine 
 
 48 
 49 
 50 
 52 
 5G 
 58 
 
 GO 
 
 G2 
 
 G4 
 
 GG 
 
 G8 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 77 
 
 85 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 101 
 
 104 
 
 222 
 
 •^•7 -2 
 
Till. LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 FACE PAGE. 
 
 XXVI.— Beetling Machine 222 
 
 XXVII. — Finishing: Brushinof Machine for velvets 
 
 and plush ... ... ... ... 224? 
 
 XXVIII. — Painting Machine for velvets and plush 224 
 
 XXIX. — Drying and Finishing Machine ... 224 
 
 XXX. — Singeing Machine . . 224 
 
 XXXI. — Fixinsr Machine for woollen cloth ... 224 
 XXXII. — Drying and Burling (extracting) Machine 
 
 for woollen cloth ... ... ... 224 
 
 XXXIII.— Washing Machine for silk yarn ... 224 
 
 XXXIV.— Rotary Hot Press 224 
 
 XXXV.— Modern Bleaching Plant— Plan ... 220 
 XXXVI. — Modern Bleaching Plant — Transverse 
 
 Section 220 
 
 XXXVII. — Modem Bleaching Plant — Longitudinal 
 
 Section 220 
 
 XXXVIIL— Back Filling Mangle 224 
 
 XXXIX.— Ten Bowl Calender 224 
 
 XL. — Five Bowl Calender for soft goods . , . 232 
 XLI. — Combined Starch Mangle Drying 
 
 Machine and Engine ... ... 232 
 
 XLII. — Spray Damping and Batching Machine 236 
 XLIII. — Three Bowl Swizzinof Calender with sras 
 
 heatmg apparatus to metal roll . . . 236 
 XLIV. — Petrie's Scouring and Washing Machine 
 
 for loose wool ... ... ... 240 
 
 XLV. — Petrie's Continuous Diying Machine for 
 
 loose wool ... ... ... ... 240 
 
ILLUSTRATIOIsrS. 
 
 FIG, 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 -Treble Crabbing Machine, front elevation 
 -Treble Crabbing Machine, end elevation 
 
 -Lancashire Jigger 
 
 -Yorkshire Jigefer 
 
 ""JDye Vats 
 
 9- 
 10.- 
 11.- 
 12.- 
 13.- 
 14.- 
 15.- 
 16.- 
 17.- 
 18.- 
 19.- 
 20.- 
 21.- 
 22.- 
 23.- 
 24.- 
 25.- 
 26.- 
 27.- 
 
 -Parsy's Betting Kier for flax ... 
 -Parsy's Drying Apparatus for flax 
 -Cerrutti-Sella Dyeing Apparatus 
 -Apparatus employed in Smithson's Dyeing 
 Process 
 
 -Sliver Dyeing Apparatus — Sutcliffe's Patent 
 
 -Yarn Mordanting Machine 
 -Yarn Finishing Machine 
 -Table Drying Machine for wool 
 -Hydroextractors 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 87 
 88 
 91 
 91 
 
 93 
 
 105 
 107 
 126 
 127 
 128 
 129 
 130 
 131 
 205 
 205 
 205 
 205 
 206 
 207 
 216 
 218 
 224 
 227 
 228 
 227 
 229 
 
HISTORY OF DYEING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The art of dyeing seems to have been practised from 
 remote antiquity, and may be said to be as old as civilisa- 
 tion itself. The most ancient historical records we have 
 respecting dyeing date from the time of the Phcenicians, 
 about 14 or 15 centuries B.C. This people seem to have 
 brought the art to a high degree of perfection, if we may 
 judge from the accounts preserved in history, especially in 
 regard to the famous Tyrian purple, a very costly dye, 
 wliich was applied on wool, and which, according to Pliny 
 and Aristotle, was obtained from a species of mollusc. 
 This dye was so highly prized, that even in the time of 
 Augustus one pound of wool dyed with the Tyrian purple 
 sold for the then enormous price of 1000 denarii, or about 
 £36 sterling. The material so dyed was only worn by those 
 invested with the highest dignities, and severe penalties, 
 extending under the late emperors even to death, were 
 inflicted on those who presumed to wear the purple without 
 occupying these high positions. 
 
 The Egyptians had good knowledge of dyeing, and were 
 even acquainted with the employment of indigo, evidence 
 for this fact being furnished by their dyed mummy band- 
 ages, some of Avhich are preserved in the British and other 
 Museums. It is very likely that metallic salts, such as 
 copperas and alum, were also loiown to the Egyptians, who 
 no doubt derived the Imowledge of dyeing and other useful 
 arts from India, which countr}^ may be considered the birth- 
 place both of dyeing, and, later on, of the art of staining 
 fabrics. Although no direct historical records exist to 
 prove this, there seems nevertheless to be no doubt that 
 
 O. H. HILL LIBRARY 
 
 North Carolina State Col leg* 
 
DYEING. 
 
 the Egyptians derived their knowledge of dyeing and 
 staining principally from Hindostan, where the art had 
 been practised for many centuries. 
 
 Although the ancient Greeks derived their civilisation in 
 a great degree from the Egyptians, yet in the art of dyeing 
 they do not seem to have acquired much proficiency ; at 
 any rate they did not go so far as the Komans, who brought 
 the art to greater perfection, and who, it has been proved, 
 were acquainted with the use of madder, woad, nutgalls, 
 alkanet roots, alum, blue and green vitriol, and even with 
 certain lead salts. 
 
 The Chinese do not appear to have practised the art of 
 dyeing to any great extent, until they derived a more 
 thorough knowledge of it from the Hindoos and the 
 Persians. India and Persia attained in ancient times a 
 very high degree of civilisation, and the art of dyeing 
 spread from them westward to Egypt, and thence to Greece 
 and to Rome. 
 
 At the fall of the Pioman Empire, through the over- 
 running of Italy by the barbarians, all progress in the 
 sciences and arts was stopped, and the knowledge and 
 experience therein originally possessed by the Romans 
 seems to have been almost entirely lost during the fifth 
 century. A little, hoAvever, was still preserved in Italy, and 
 was afterwards developed in Venice, where, through the 
 increase in the commerce — principally with the Orient — of 
 that republic, the arts were afterwards brought to a high 
 deo-ree of development. While at the fall of the Roman 
 power all Europe was thrown into darlaiess, the Moors or 
 Saracens attained a high degree of civilisation, and brought 
 their arts and manufactures, such as paper making and the 
 extraction and use of dyes, to a very forward state. They 
 were most likely acquainted with the so-called Turkey red 
 dyeing, which was so skilfully carried on at Adrianopolis in 
 Turkey. These Saracens or Arabs were also the means of 
 re-introducing the sciences and arts into Europe. 
 
 At the time of the Crusades, the Christians brought back 
 from the Holy Land the arts of the East, and by reason of 
 
HISTORY OF DYEING. 3 
 
 tlie increased importance of tlie commerce of Venice and of 
 the other republics of Italy, the manufactures and the aits 
 of dyeing were greatly developed in the peninsula, Venice, 
 Florence, and Genoa becoming famous for their produc- 
 tions in this line. In the 14th century Florence possessed 
 over 200 dyeworks, and Archil or Roccella must have been 
 extensively employed, as a street was called after its name 
 Strada de Roccellarii. It is interesting to note that in 
 1429 the first collection of processes used in dyeing was 
 published in Venice under the title of Mariegola delUArte 
 del Tintori, and that a second and improved edition of the 
 work appeared in 1510. An Italian, Giovanni Ventura 
 Rossetti, after travelling a great deal through Italy and 
 other countries, also published a work under the title, 
 Plictho dell'Arte dei Tintori, &c., dated 1548. 
 
 From Italy the art of dyeing and other manufactures 
 spread over Europe, and penetrated into England by way 
 of France. The first account published in the English 
 language of the methods and operations used by dyers 
 seems to be that contained in Dr. Spratt's " History of the 
 Royal Society," being a paper by Sir WiUiam Petty, 
 entitled "An Appendix to the History of the Common 
 Practices of Dyeing." In France a great impetus was 
 given by Colbert to the industrial arts, and dyeing 
 attracted the special attention of that great minister, who 
 caused a work to be printed under his special supervision, 
 entitled Instruction generate ijoiir la teinture des Laines 
 et Manufactures de Laine de toides nuances et pour la 
 culture des drogues et ingredients qu'on employe. This 
 work, which had been especially prepared in order to 
 prevent frauds in the practice of dyeing, is divided into two 
 parts : grand teint and 2)etit teint — fast and loose colours. 
 
 France since Colbert's time has done a great deal 
 towards the progress of the tinctorial arts by the researches 
 of her distinguished chemists and men of science, who 
 have devoted themselves to this branch of industry. 
 
 The discovery of America helped considerably towards 
 the development of the dyeing industries, as new colouring 
 
4 DYEING. 
 
 matters from there were introduced into practice, among 
 such being logwood, cochineal, annatto, Brazil Avood, &c. 
 Curiously enough, indigo, although known to the ancient 
 Romans, and at the time regularly imported from India, 
 was not re-introduced into ordinary practice in Europe until 
 the 17th century, at the time of the journeys made by the 
 Portuguese and the Dutch to India, although the dye must 
 have been in actual employment in Italy before this date. 
 
 It is also curious to note that the introduction of indigo 
 into the practice of dyeing was strenuously resisted at the 
 beginning, especially by the planters of woad, which v/as 
 at the time being used for the production of blue-dyed 
 fabrics. The opposition was so strong, and at one time so 
 effective, that the employment of indigo was forbidden by 
 law in different countries, including England under the 
 reio-n of Queen Elizabeth. Logwood also was under ban 
 for some time, it being classed among the loose colours. 
 
 Great progress was achieved in the tinctorial arts during 
 the ISth centur}^ especially in France, from which country 
 these industries were carried into England and elsewhere. 
 These arts, which formerly were carried on principally in 
 small establishments, have attained, during the course of 
 the last 100 years, to the rank of great industries, and it 
 was principally in France that large establishments 
 ori<Tinated. The progress achieved in mechanical, physical, 
 and especially in chemical science, has been the principal 
 cause of the development of dyeing and printing in 
 Europe generally, and this country in particular. 
 
 But the greatest impetus to the development of tinctorial 
 arts in modern times has been given by the discovery and 
 introduction into practice of the coal tar colours, an event 
 of such importance as to cause a complete revolution in the 
 arts of colouring or printing fabrics, and consequently a 
 special chapter is requisite to deal with the history of the 
 development of coal tar colours. 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 
 
 CHAPTER II, 
 
 Unlike many other industries, the manufacture of coal tar 
 colours has not been brought about by the practical appli- 
 cation of understood facts, but here theory has preceded 
 practice. The attention of chemists being first called to 
 the study of the tar itself, several products were isolated 
 and studied, and this led, in 1834, to the discovery, by 
 Runge, of a basic substance in coal tar, which he called 
 kyanol, on account of the blue reaction it gave when treated 
 with a solution of bleaching powder. The same substance 
 had already been discovered, in 1826, by Unverdorben, who 
 obtained it by the destructive distillation of indigo, and 
 named it krystaline. Fritsche, in 1840, described a sub- 
 stance having the same properties as krystaline, resulting 
 from the treatment of indigo with alkalies, which he called 
 aniline, from indigofera aml,t\\Q name of the indigo plant, 
 and subsequent investigations by Hofmann proved that 
 the three products were indentical. Runge's reaction 
 remained until 1856 a scientific curiosity, when W. H. 
 Perkin succeeded in producing, for the first time on a large 
 scale, a violet colouring matter, which he obtained by 
 treating a solution of aniline sulphate with bichromate of 
 potash ; this colouring matter was called mauve. 
 
 Perkin may be considered the pioneer in the manufacture 
 of artificial colours, and his success called the attention of 
 chemists to this new field of discoveries, wherein their 
 efforts have been crowned with the most brilliant results. 
 The appearance of mauve created quite a sensation in the 
 dyeing and printing world, and the new colour could not 
 be manufactured fast enough to supply all demands ; now. 
 
6 DYEING. 
 
 lioAvever, this product has been almost completely abandoned, 
 having been superseded by brighter violet colouring matters. 
 In 1858, or only two years after Perkin's patent, A. W. 
 Hofmann, the distinguished German chemist, whose labours 
 and discoveries have had so much influence on the progress 
 of the industry of coal tar colours, discovered aniline red, 
 now better known by the name of magenta or fuchsine. 
 Quite independently of Hofmann, Yerguin, in France, dis- 
 covered the same product, and he was the first to start the 
 manufacture of the new colour in Lyons in the works 
 of Messrs. Renard Freres and Franc, whose patent is dated 
 April, 1859. 
 
 The new product was obtained by the oxidation of aniline 
 by means of perchloride of tin, the colour being extracted 
 from the melt Avith boiling water, filtered, and brought 
 into the market. The first advance was made in precipi- 
 tating the colouring matter from the solution, and sending 
 it out in paste form or as a dry powder ; later on crystals 
 were obtained, and in this form the colour is even now 
 mostly used. Other processes were soon discovered for the 
 manufacture of magenta, and several patents taken, among 
 which the method with arsenic acid, which is even now 
 mostly employed. Medlock patented the employment of 
 arsenic acid in England, in January, 1860 ; while Girard 
 and Delaire patented the same process in France, on May 
 26th, of the same year. Repeated attempts have been made 
 to do away with the poisonous arsenic acid in the 
 manufacture of magenta, and some works have succeeded 
 in manufacturing magenta without this acid, by the 
 so-called Coupler's process. 
 
 We owe to the classical researches of Hofmann much of 
 our knowledge respecting magenta. In 1861, Girard, while 
 trying the action of aniline on the salts of rosaniline (the 
 base of magenta), discovered violet and blue colouring 
 matters, phenyl violets, and phenyl or aniline blue, and the 
 new products were soon introduced into practice ; but as 
 they required to be dissolved in spirit their use w\as rather 
 limited, until Nicholson succeeded in 1862 in obtaininsf 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 7 
 
 blues soluble in water, by treating the aniline blues with 
 sulphuric acid in order to obtain sulpho derivatives ; these 
 blues were named after the inventor "Nicholson Blues," 
 and still bear this name. 
 
 In 1862 also, Cherpin, a foreman in M. Usebe's works, at 
 St. Ouen, in France, discovered the first green that main- 
 tains its colour by artificial light, and therefore was called 
 light or aldehyde green. Lauth had obtained a blue 
 colouring matter by treating rosanilirie dissolved in muriatic 
 or sulphuric acid with aldehyde ; but the blue obtained on 
 fabrics was very fugitive. Cherpin complained to a friend 
 that all his eftbrts to fix this colour on the fibres had met 
 with no success ; whereupon, the friend, who was a 
 photographer, told him that he always fixed his prints by 
 means of hyposulphite of soda. Cherpin accordingly tried 
 this fixing medium, and was greatly astonished at obtaining 
 a green colouring matter ; he worked hard upon it until he 
 perfected a process for the manufacture of this new green, 
 which he sold to his employer for 30,000 francs. This 
 dyestuff has now completely disappeared from the 
 market. 
 
 Hofmann brought out in 1863 the Hofmann's violets, 
 colouring matters obtained by treating rosaniline with 
 methyl or aethyl iodide, and methyl alcohol in autoclaves ; 
 these violets have been superseded by the methyl or Paris 
 violets of cheaper manufacture, and this has also been the 
 fate of the iodine green which was obtained by Heisser in 
 Lyons, and by Wanklyn and Paraf by treating the Hofmann's 
 violet with iodide of methyle, the iodine green being 
 superseded by methyl green. 
 
 Bardy made great progress in the manufacture of 
 dimethyl aniline on a large scale ; while Lauth, Avith his 
 very original idea of oxidising the dimethyl aniline by means 
 of sand and a copper salt, brought forward the methyl or 
 Paris violets. Samples of Paris violets were shown at the 
 Paris Exhibition of 1867. 
 
 Although it was formerly believed that the Hofmann's 
 violets were identical with the dimethyl aniline violets. 
 
8 DYEING. 
 
 further researclies have proved that this is not the case, 
 and in fact, according to the opinion of many dj^ers, the 
 methyl are not so fast as the Hofmann's violets. 
 
 Shortly after the violets, methyl green made its appear- 
 ance ; it was first manufactured by the action of methyl 
 iodide on the methyl violet, but as iodine is ver}^ expensive, 
 methyl nitrate was tried with success : unfortunatelv the 
 latter is so explosive that its use had to be abandoned after 
 two fearful explosions had taken place, one in Paris, the 
 other in a Geinnan works. Methyl green has lost much of 
 its importance since the introduction of the new greens, all 
 derivatives of dimethyl aniline. The priorit}' of this dis- 
 covery is claimed b}' Otto Fischer on the one hand, and 
 Oscar Doebner on the other ; the latter patented his process 
 in 1878. 
 
 Attempts have repeatedly been made to obtain blues 
 direct from aniline derivatives without the employment 
 of rosaniline, and although these have not been quite 
 successful, as in the case of the violets, products have 
 nevertheless been obtained from diphemd amine and 
 methyl diphenyl amine, which have found ready acceptance 
 for dyeing purposes. Bardy in 1869 produced blue d3'es 
 by the oxidation of the methjd diphenyl amine, but as the 
 colour was only soluble in spirit and was of a greenish cast, 
 it only found limited emplo3'ment. M. Emile Kopp obtained 
 in 1874 a blue colouring matter soluble in water by the 
 action of oxalic and sulphuric acid on methjd diphenyl 
 amine ; the same process had already been discovered by 
 Girard, but kept secret until Kopp's process was published. 
 More recently a blue colouring matter has been obtained by 
 the action of chloranil on methyl diphenyl amine, the 
 process being patented in 1879, and the piroduct is now 
 being manufactured pretty extensively. The colour is 
 soluble in spirit, but can also be rendered soluble in ^ater 
 by treatment with sulphuric acid. 
 
 Of the phenyle colouring matters, aurine (rosolic acid) was 
 discovered m 1834 by Runge, but it was not until 1859 that 
 a practical method was invented bv Mr. Jules Persoz. 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 9 
 
 Picric acid, whicli was formerly manufactured from different 
 substances, is now produced on a large scale from phenol. 
 
 Of tlie naphthalene colours, although several Avere known 
 up to seven or eight years ago, only naphthol or Manchester 
 yellow had been manufactured on a large scale ; Magdala red 
 iiad also been produced, but only in small quantities, its price 
 being excessively high. Naphthalene is now extensively 
 used for the manufacture of naphthol, the starting point of 
 the naphthol scarlets ; these were discovered about seven or 
 eight years ago, having appeared for the first time at the 
 Paris Exhibition, 1878 ; they are due, although indirectly, 
 to the labours of Hofmann, in the same way as the 
 other beautiful products known under the name of azo 
 colours. 
 
 In 187G, Otto N. Witt discovered, at the same time, and 
 independently from Griess and Caro, chrysoidine, an 
 orange colouring matter, which he obtained by treating a 
 solution of phenylendiamine hydrochlorate with a solution 
 of the muriate or nitrate of diazobenzol, the colour being 
 afterwards precipitated by means of common salt. A whole 
 series of colouring matters may be obtained by substituting 
 for aniline the homologues tolnidine, xylidine, &c., and 
 for phenylendiamine the homologues toluendiamine, &c. 
 Hofmann, in analysing this product, called attention to this 
 dyestuft" and to analogous reactions, the result being that 
 experiments were undertaken in most aniline dyeworks, 
 and many brilliant discoveries were effected. Witt himself 
 discovered the beautiful tropeolines, which range from 
 yellow to a red orange, while similar products were also 
 brought out by Roussin. 
 
 This again contributed still further to attract the atten- 
 tion of chemists, and other remarkable discoveries have 
 followed, among them being the scarlets, which are now 
 produced by several different processes, and have proved 
 very formidable rivals to cochineal, which they will ulti- 
 mately supersede. 
 
 The azo colours range from yellow, orange, and scarlet, 
 to a bluish red, but only a few have established themselves 
 
10 DYEING. 
 
 in practice, wLile some of tliem, sucli as the orange and the 
 scarlets, are produced on a very large scale. A very inteiesting 
 apphcation of the azo scarlet has been introduced into 
 practice by HoUidaj-, the process, which is patented, 
 relying on the precipitation on the libre of an azo or naphthol 
 scarlet, the shades obtained being remarkably fast against 
 soaping and light. The first azoic colouring matter made 
 its appearance on the market in 1864, under the name of 
 anihne yellow. It was manufactured by reacting with 
 nitrous acid fumes on aniline, but was soon abandoned on 
 account of its looseness. Bismarck bro-s^Ti belongs to the 
 same class of azo colours, and has met with great favour. 
 It was manufactured at first very largely in Manchester, 
 then passed to a London firm, and is produced now in most 
 of the important works in England and abroad in ver}- 
 large quantities. 
 
 Safranine, a very important red colouring matter, was 
 introduced into commerce in 1868 by Perkin, and was fully 
 investigated by Hofmann and Geiger. It is an important 
 product, and is manufactured on a pretty large scale ; its 
 name is derived from safllower, the shades of which it 
 imitates to a certam extent, without, however, matching 
 completeh\ 
 
 The indulines are reddish-blue colours, which are pro- 
 duced in moderately large quantities, the water soluble 
 being especially useful for wool and silk d3'eing, on which 
 they give fast shades. The induhnes soluble in spirit only 
 are sparingly used ; they have been recommended as 
 substitutes for indigo dyeing on cotton, but are far from 
 matching the latter either in shade or fastness. They were 
 introduced into commerce about 1878. It is a well-known 
 fact that some solutions when viewed by transmitted light 
 v.'ill appear of a certain tint, while if held in another 
 position, or viewed by reflected light, they show quite a 
 ditferent colour. This is the well-kno^^^l phenomenon of 
 fluorescence, and can be observed to a marked degree in a 
 solution of Magdala red, as also in some of the eosines, 
 which, when viewed against the hght, show a pale red 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 11 
 
 colour, while in another position it shows a beautiful 
 greenish tint. Fluoresceine was thus named by Prof. 
 Baeyer, of Munich (who discovered it in 1871), on account 
 of the beautiful fluorescence it shows. In 1874 a bromi- 
 nated derivation of fluoresceine was placed upon the market, 
 and was followed by an iodine, and afterwards by a 
 chlorine derivative, both of which are manufactured from 
 fluoresceine, the bromine compound giving a yellow shade, 
 while the iodine product gives bluer tints. Later on other 
 interesting allied colouring matters were brought out, such 
 as rose bengale, phloxine, and cyanosine, by E. Noelting, 
 in 1875. Even a yellow and scarlet have been produced 
 belonging to this class, but have not found much employ- 
 ment. Methyl cosine gives pretty pinks on cotton, but is 
 only sparingly used. It is, however, matter for regret that 
 these interesting and beautiful colours are so fugitive 
 before light. 
 
 Galleine and ceruleine are allied colouring matters, also 
 discovered by Professor Baeyer, of Munich, which give fast 
 shades on cotton both for dyeing and printing ; but they 
 are not so extensively employed as might be expected. 
 Caro patented in 1877 a process for the manufacture of 
 methylene blue, a colouring matter belonging to a class of 
 dyes discovered by Lauth, and this product is manufactured 
 in pretty large quantities, and renders very good services 
 both to the dyer and to the printer. Ethylene blue is an 
 analogous product which was introduced later on. 
 
 A special feature in some of the colours introduced into 
 practice during the last few years is their useful property 
 of being able to be fixed on wool in an acid bath ; they are, 
 in fact, acid colours. Without mentioning the oranges and 
 azo scarlets which belong to this class, special attention is 
 demanded by the products known as acid magenta, acid 
 brown, acid yellow, and acid naphthalene yellow, &c. All 
 these products are obtained by treating with sulphuric acid 
 the old and well-known colours, as magenta, Bismarck 
 brown, aniline, and naphthol yellow ; they are, in fact, sulpho 
 derivatives ; the same is the case with acid violets and 
 
12 DYEING. 
 
 acid greens. It is to be observed tliat the shades obtained 
 ■with these new products are faster than those obtained 
 with the original old colours. It is weU known what a 
 revolution the appearance of artificial alizarine has caused 
 in the dveing and printing industries. The discovery of 
 this dyestuti was not the result of chance, but of scientific 
 investigations. Graebe and Liebermann found that 
 alizarine, the colouring matter of madder, was a derivative 
 of anthracene ; they then set to work and devised a method 
 for producing alizarine artificially from anthracene, and in 
 1S6S patented a process which they soon improved by 
 substituting sulphuric acid for the expensive bromine, 
 taking out another patent in 1869 in connection with Caro. 
 Perkin also patented a process in the same year, and 
 became a successful manufacturer of aUzarine. This 
 manufacture is now mostly in the hands of Germans, there 
 being only three firms in England producing it, and one or 
 two in France. 
 
 Other colouring matters have been obtained from alizarine, 
 such as alizarine orange, which was discovered in 1S72 by 
 Perkin, and formed on the fibre itself by Strobel, who, by 
 exposing alizarine prints to the action of nitrous fumes, 
 obtained a bright and fast orange. Caro patented in 1S77 
 a process for its manufacture. From the orange, alizarine 
 blue has been produced, but it has not been much used on 
 account of its high price, and because it is not absolutely sohd 
 against light. An alizarine brown is also known ; but of all 
 these products only alizarine orange has found employment, 
 and that to a merely limited extent. 
 
 To complete the history of coal tar colours, it is necessary 
 to mention aniline black, now one of the most important 
 colours in printing. Unlike the other aniline colours, 
 aniline black is not used as a readv formed colourinij 
 matter, but is onl}' developed on the fabric itself 
 
 John Lightfoot, of Accrington, near Manchester, was the 
 first to invent a practical process for printing aniline black, 
 which he patented in 1863. It consisted in the employment 
 of a mixture of starch paste, with aniline, muriatic acid. 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 13 
 
 chloride of ammonia and percliloride of copper ; but was 
 soon abandoned on account of the colour attacking the 
 rollers and doctors of the printing machines, and of its 
 tenderinQf the fibre too much. 
 
 Lauth, in 1864, effected a great advance by substituting 
 insoluble sulphide of copper for a soluble copper salt, and 
 the process was further modified and brought into a 
 practical shape by Koechlin, the well-known Alsatian 
 manufacturer, who also introduced the use of tartaric 
 instead of muriatic acid, so that the process was made 
 capable of being applied on the most delicate fabrics. 
 Cordillot also contributed to the progress of aniline black 
 printing by introducing a process which alloAved the black 
 to be developed by steaming. It relies on the use of 
 ferro, or ferricyanide of potassium, but unfortunately it 
 is rather expensive. Both Lauth's and Cordillot's process 
 are even now employed, but aniline black is now printed, 
 especially in England, mostly by means of vanadium 
 salts, bivanadiate of ammonia being chiefly used. This 
 is a very expensive chemical, but as one gallon of thickened 
 colour only requires about one grain of bivanadiate of 
 aixmionia, the high price of the latter does not much affect 
 the cost of printing. The use of vanadium was first recom- 
 mended by Lightfoot himself in 1871, and a patent Avas 
 obtained in the same year by Mr. Robert Pinkney for the 
 same object. 
 
 Other metallic salts have been recommended — such as 
 those of cerium, while recently Grawitz has patented the 
 employment of chromium compounds, and still more recently 
 Schmidlin's patent recommends the employment of insoluble 
 chromates.* 
 
 Those who at first printed aniline black experienced a 
 great deal of trouble on account of the greening of the 
 colours, and as this defect was not only a source of trouble 
 but of great losses to manufacturers, strenuous eftbrts were 
 made to get over it, and many remedies have been suggested. 
 
 * These different methods of application of aniline black are fully 
 illustrated in the author's work on the Printinor of Cotton Fabrics. 
 
1 4 DYEING. 
 
 Jeanmaire, after studying the causes of tlie greening, re- 
 commended in 1876 that the pieces, after the black had 
 been developed, should be passed for about half an hour m 
 a solution of persulphate of iron at 180° F. Other oxydizers, 
 such as chromic acid, chlorate of alumina, &c., have been 
 recommended, and some investigators have tried to produce 
 an ungreenable black on the fibre at once ; Cordillot's black 
 was the first ungreenable colour obtained. Grawitz obtains 
 an ungreenable black by means of soluble chromates, while 
 Schmidlin uses insoluble chromates ; others have tried to 
 use an aniline which gives by itself an ungreenable black 
 by the ordinary process, and have patented mixtures of 
 aniline and toluidine, or aniline, and xylidine, or cumidine 
 for this purpose. Aniline black, in printing, is now used to 
 an enormous extent, but this is not the case in dyeing, 
 where it has found till now only limited application. 
 
 Experiments for dyeing blacks with aniline date from 
 Lightfoot's time. In 1865 Allard patented a process — 
 relying on the emplo3'ment of bichromate of potash and 
 aniline salt in separate baths ; the same method was 
 employed by Paraf Javal in Alsace about the same time, 
 but without much success. J. Persoz, in 1867, applied 
 aniline solution and bichromate of potash, either together 
 or alternately by means of brushes, and the green colour at 
 first formed was changed into black by soaping. Lauth 
 proposed, in 1873, to pass the pieces first in chloride of 
 mansranese, then in soda, and afterwards in chloride of lime, 
 and finally to dj-e with aniline salt. More recently several 
 processes have been patented for dyeing aniline black — 
 among which may be mentioned those of Delory, Grawitz, 
 and Gatty. The two former processes rely on the employ- 
 ment of bichromate of potash with aniline in a single bath, 
 muriatic acid being used by Grawitz, and sulphuric acid by 
 Delory, Grawitz's process is pretty extensively used for 
 cotton dyeing, either for hanks or loose cotton, for which it 
 does very good services. But although considerable progress 
 has been made in the dyeing of aniline black, there is still 
 much room for improvement, in view of the fact that aniline 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 15 
 
 is still far from having superseded logwood in tlie dyeing of 
 blacks. 
 
 Witliin the last seven or eight years several new colouring- 
 matters have been discovered ; in fact, the latest feature of 
 these discoveries is that whole classes of colouring matters 
 have been discovered, while formerly they were only brought 
 out one by one. Of these new products the greens, violets, 
 reds or blues, may in future be employed industrially. 
 One of the most important events in the history of coal 
 tar colour chemistry was the discovery by Prof Baeyer of a 
 method of producing indigotin artificially. Although the 
 discovery has not been of such practical and commercial 
 importance as Avas at the time (1880) anticipated, since 
 the artificial product, in spite of the strenuous efforts 
 of many chemists, cannot be produced at a price low 
 enough to compete with natural indigo, still the dis- 
 covery is there, and may yet effect a revolution in the 
 industry, if a practical method can only be found. The 
 artificial indisfo is not brousfht on the market as a finished 
 product, but in the shape of nitro phenyl propiolic acid, 
 which produces indigotin on the fibre by a process of 
 reduction, in which caustic soda and glucose or grape sugar 
 was originally employed. The reduction was afterwards 
 effected by means of xantate of soda, and this method is 
 even now employed in some printworks, but only on a very 
 limited scale on account of the high price of the artificial 
 product. This is only used for special purposes, and for 
 producing fine patterns, which on account of the small 
 amount of colouring matter used, renders its price of 
 secondary importance. The new processes of fixing indigo 
 by printing with natural indigo, which have been of late 
 successfully introduced into some printworks, have also 
 tended to diminish the importance of Baeyer's discovery.* 
 
 * From a statement in the Chemical News it appears that since the 
 introduction of the ammonia process in the manufacture of indigo in 
 India, the yield of this colouring matter has been considerably increased, 
 and therefore Baeyer's discovery is not likely at present to be of any 
 practical utility, although it is of high scientific value. 
 
16 DYEING. 
 
 Among tlie latest acquisitions to tlie already large stock 
 of colouring matters may be mentioned auramine, a yellow 
 dyestutf, very moderately fast against soap and ligHt, which 
 has up to the present not found such an extended employ- 
 ment as was anticipated ; also Victoria blue a naphthalene 
 derivative which would be a splendid product but that 
 unfortunately it is not fast against light. Of the numerous 
 discoveries made in the last few years in the well-worked 
 field of colour chemistry, very few have been of real 
 importance, and in fact, looking at what has been brought 
 upon the market in the shape of new dyestuffs in the last 
 four or five years, it will be readily seen that ver}" few new 
 products have estabhshed themselves in practice. Since 
 the discovery of the azo colours, and principally of the 
 azo scarlets, there has not been anything so striking 
 or anything so useful discovered among the colouring 
 matters. It must be said, however, that the methods 
 have been greatly improved, that some new processes 
 have been successfully tried for the manufacture of some 
 of the older colours, and that prices have been very 
 considerably reduced, and this especially in the case of 
 alizarine, which is sold now at very low figures. 
 
 Among the latest acquisitions must be mentioned the 
 dyestuffs having congo red as their prototype, such as 
 benzo purpurine, chrysamine, &c., which are so far of interest 
 that they can be dyed on cotton w^ithout the aid of any 
 mordant, and in one single bath. Of these the new reds, 
 although very fast to soap, do not stand long exposure to 
 hght well, and have not come quite up to the expectations 
 entertained of them. On the whole it seems that the field 
 of coal tar colours, which has been found so rich, and given 
 rise to so many brilliant discoveries, shows now signs of 
 exhaustion (as far as really useful products are concerned), 
 and the hopes of those who beheved that all natural organic 
 colouring matters would be artificially produced on a large 
 and commercial scale have up to now not been realised. 
 The future will show whether industrial chemistry will 
 accomplish this feat. 
 
HISTORY OF COAL TAR COLOURS. 17 
 
 Before concluding, it is necessary to mention the most 
 noteworthy of recent discoveries in the field of coal tar 
 colour chemistry— the production of blacks by means of 
 artificial dyestufts, a feat which up to a few months a-o 
 might be considered as beyond the reach of colour chemists 
 The fact is interesting, both from a theoretical and practical 
 point of view, and may have a very important bearino- on 
 the future mdustry of dyeing and the colour trade generally 
 Ihat we are now able to produce good blacks on wool by 
 means of these new dyestuff-s is beyond doubt, the question 
 being how far it will affect logwood. 
 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Here will be given a short description of the properties of 
 the textile fibres, in which cotton will only be shortly treated, 
 more attention being given to the less-known fibrous ma- 
 terials. Fibres are divided into two classes — the mineral 
 and the organic. To the first belongs asbestos, the only one 
 in reality which has been practically employed. In the time 
 of the Romans this material was pretty largely used on 
 account of its power of resisting fire ; it was employed in 
 the making of sheets in which the Romans cremated their 
 dead. The use of this material has largely increased during 
 the last few years, and it is now largely employed for 
 machinery purposes ; as, for instance, in packing joints, prin- 
 cipally those which have to stand a high temperature, &c. 
 
 The organic fibres, as the name implies, are derived either 
 from the vegetable or the animal kingdom, and consequently 
 are sub-divided into vegetable fibres and animal fibres. The 
 first comprise cotton, flax, hemp, jute, China grass or rhea 
 fibre, &c. The animal fibres — wool, silk, &c. 
 
 The vegetable and the animal fibres differ greatly from 
 one another in point of chemical combination, the animal 
 fibres, in all cases, containing nitrogen, and being therefore 
 capable of yielding ammonia under proper conditions. The 
 vegetable fibres do not contain nitrogen, and are formed of 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. They also differ from one 
 another in the way they stand the different reagents, prin- 
 cipally the acids and alkalies; in fact, as a general rule, it may 
 be said that while animal fibres stand diluted acids even at 
 the boil, such is not the case with the vegetable fibres. The 
 reverse is the case with alkalies, which, if diluted, do not 
 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 19 
 
 attack vegetable fibres, while they act very injuriously upon 
 the animal fibres, especially at the boil ; and in the con- 
 centrated form they even destroy the latter. Under certain 
 conditions, for instance of great concentration, or under 
 pressure, alkalies completely destroy the animal fibres by 
 converting them into soluble compounds. 
 
 Another point of diiference in the two classes of fibres is 
 in the way they behave against certain dyestuffs, for instance, 
 some of the aniline colours — such as magenta, violets, &c., 
 which dye the animal fibres very easily, while the vegetable 
 fibres have to be specially prepared before they are able 
 to take up the dyes. They may also be distinguished 
 from one another by the smell they emit Avhen burning, but 
 this is not a very reliable test. 
 
 The best way of distinguishing the two classes of fibres, 
 in fact of distinguishing the different fibres from each other, 
 is by viewing them under the microscope ; this is, in fact, 
 the only absolutely reliable method for the discrimination 
 of the different fibres. 
 
 A method of separating the fibres from each other in 
 mixtures, for instance of cotton or wool, is based upon 
 the different way they stand the treatment with acids. If 
 such a mixture of wool and cotton be treated with a 
 solution of sulphuric acid, and dried in a hot stove, the 
 cotton can be destroyed, and the wool remains behind if the 
 fabric is washed. A quantitative separation of cotton, or 
 indeed of vegetable substances, can be carried on by treat- 
 ment with mineral acids, or with suitable salts; this 
 operation is conducted on a large scale, and is called 
 chemical burling or wool extracting. 
 
 Wool containing straw or vegetable impurities is exposed 
 to these operations of chemical burling or extracting, for 
 which either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid or chloride of 
 aluminium are employed ; the same is performed on 
 mixtures of wool and cotton, in which the latter is required 
 to be removed. These operations are conducted on a large 
 scale in Yorkshire, and, in fact, in all industrial centres 
 where wool is manufactured. 
 
20 DYEING. 
 
 VEGETABLE FIBRES. 
 
 Cotton. — Cotton is the down that envelopes the seeds 
 of different species of Gossipiiim, of the family of Malvacae. 
 It is the most important vegetable fibre, and, as regards the 
 amount produced, is the most important of all fibrous 
 materials. It is grown in warm chmates in many countries, 
 but principally in the United States, India, and Egypt. 
 
 Cotton consists of cellulose (Cg Hjo O5), with about 5 per 
 cent, of natural impurities. The impurities consist of 
 fatty and resinous matters, with pectine wax, &c., and are 
 mostly removable by alkahes; also yellowish colouring 
 matter, which is destroyed by hypochlorites (chlorine). 
 
 Bleachmg effects the removal of the natural impurities and 
 the destruction of colouring matter to form pure cellulose. 
 
 Action of Chemicals. — Cotton stands well : weak mineral 
 acids in the cold; acetic and tartaric acids even by 
 steaming ; weak alkaUes at the boil and under pressure ; 
 weak hypochlorite solutions. Does not stand: strong 
 mineral acids, even in the cold; weak mineral acids, if 
 heated or exposed to steaming or dry heat ; oxalic acid by 
 steaming ; strong hypochlorites ; is mercerised by strong 
 caustic soda solutions ; is tendered if boiled with caustic 
 lime in contact with air, or if steamed with caustic soda 
 with access of air. 
 
 Flax (Linen) is the fibre found on the stems of the 
 plant linum usitatissimus of the order of Liniuv, of which 
 there are three principal varieties. Very likely the plant 
 is a native of Egypt, where it is even now extensively 
 cultivated. It is an annual, and does not reach quite a 
 yard in length. The cultivation of flax is a very important 
 one, and is carried on in several countries, principally 
 Russia, Italy, Holland, Belgium, the North of France, India, 
 and very extensively in Ireland, the latter country being 
 one of the most, if not the most, important centre of the 
 production of linen goods. The plant is not onl}^ important 
 on account of its fibre, but also on account of its seed 
 
GENEEAL CHAEACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 21 
 
 (linseed), Avliicli is extensively used in medicine, and which 
 forms the raw material for the extraction of linseed oil, and 
 gives rise to a very important industry. This oil, being a 
 drying oil, is very largely employed in paints and varnishes. 
 Like cotton, the flax fibre is also principally constituted of 
 cellulose, but this is accompanied by a thick incrustating 
 substance of a greyish brown colour, which is very difficult 
 to eliminate. The fibrous part is found surrounding the 
 wooden portion of the stems, which is also called straw, and 
 from which of course it has to be separated. 
 
 Although efforts have been repeatedly made to employ 
 a more reasonable method of separation of the flax fibre 
 from the woody part or the straw, no system has yet been 
 found so thoroughly successful as the retting process. 
 
 Retting consists in exposing the dried flax stems immersed 
 in water to a kind of fermentation, which reacts on the 
 incrustating substances, and then allows the fibre to be 
 more easily separated from the straw. The retting is an 
 operation very unhealthy for the neighbourhood, as the 
 flax is generally immersed in ditches of stagnant water, 
 which give off putrid emanations. When the retting is 
 complete, the stems are removed, dried, and broken up by 
 suitable means, in order to separate the fibre from the 
 straw, which operation is called scutching. Many new 
 methods have been recommended, some of which are in 
 successful operation ; one of these relies on the employment 
 of tepid water, the other on the employment of machines 
 to separate the fibre from the dry flax stems without 
 undergoing any retting ; but, as said before, that primitive 
 operation is still now mostly employed. 
 
 The flax fibre is of much greater length than that ot 
 cotton ; in fact, it runs almost through the whole length 
 of the stem, and it possesses also greater strength than 
 cotton. On account of the incrustating substances, flax is 
 much more difficult to bleach than cotton, and as it does 
 not stand the same treatment with bleaching powder 
 solution, the bleaching process is therefore a more compli- 
 cated operation than is the case with cotton. The flax 
 
22 DYEIXG. 
 
 fibre being very easily injured by bleacliing liquor, great 
 care must be taken in the bleaching processes. "When 
 properly bleached, flax or linen is of a beautiful white and 
 very glossy, more so indeed than cotton. Under the 
 microscope it shows hollow cylinders provided at intervals 
 with knots. 
 
 Quite recently improvements have been effected in the 
 production of the flax fibre in France by the introduction 
 of machines eflecting a better separation of the fibre from 
 the flax stems. Quite lately a process of retting has been 
 discovered by M. Parsy, by means of which the pectine 
 substances are rendered soluble by treatment with water 
 under high pressure ; this process, which is being tried on a 
 large scale in France, will be described in the practical 
 part of this work. 
 
 Hemp. — Hemp is an annual plant, cannabis sativa, 
 which is much taller than flax, reaching the height of -ih to 
 7h feet. Also in this case the fibre runs through the whole 
 length of the stem ; and, as in the case of flax, the fibre is 
 found around the stick or wood which forms the interior of 
 the stems. Hemp fibre is very strong, but of much coarser 
 texture than flax, and is even more diflicult to bleach, as it 
 contains more mcrustating substances. Like flax it is 
 separated by the retting and scutchmg processes. The 
 cellulose is also the principal constituent of the fibre, which 
 may be distinguished from j^ax by means of the microscope, 
 under which it also shows hollow cylindrical tubes provided 
 with knots at intervals, surrounded by ha.irj appendices. 
 Hemp is principally used for rope making, and also very 
 largely for the production of coarse fabrics in the countries 
 where it is grown, where it is also largely spun by hand. 
 
 Jute. — This fibre has acquired a very great importance 
 in the last 20 or 30 years, during which its production has 
 enormously increased. It is grown very extensively in 
 India, which is indeed the only country where it is produced 
 on a very large scale. Its principal employment is for 
 
GENERAL CHAEACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 23 
 
 bao"£fingf or sack cloth, coarse canvas, etc., and it is also 
 largely employed in the manufacture of floor cloths, forming 
 the ground on which the colours are applied. It is also an 
 annual plant, of which there are two varieties, corchorus 
 acutangulus and corchorus capsidaris. It reaches in 
 India several feet in height, in some cases as much as 10 
 feet. The jute fibre is also found, as in the case of flax and 
 hemp, in the bark around the wooden stick, and indeed all 
 these fibres might be called bark fibres. 
 
 The fibre is separated from the wood by a process similar 
 to retting, which is in fact a rottening process. The stems 
 are immersed in water for several days, and a fermentation 
 speedily sets in ; this process is carefully watched, the sticks 
 being tried repeatedly to see if the fibre can be easily 
 removed, and when this is the case it is separated. But, 
 thus obtained, it is never very strong, as the fibre is spoilt 
 by the process of fermentation, which is sometimes allowed 
 to go too far. 
 
 Jute is not a very strong fibre, and is even more difficult 
 to bleach than the other vegetable fibres, so much so that 
 at one time it was considered impossible to bleach it. 
 
 Jute does not contain cellulose under the ordinary foiTQ ; 
 but one or more other derivatives of a cellulose to which 
 Messrs. Cross and Bevan give the name of bastose. 
 Cellulose belongs to the class of carbohydrates, while 
 bastose stands between these and the aromatic compounds. 
 For this reason jute cannot be bleached in the same way as 
 the other vegetable fibres, as when treated with chlorine it 
 is converted into a chlorinated compound. When treated 
 with alkalies, bastose is decomposed into insoluble 
 cellulose on one side, and insoluble compounds belonging 
 to the class of tannic acid derivatives. 
 
 Jute is in a certain sense already a naturally mordanted 
 cellulose, containing tannin, and this explains why it (jute) 
 so readily takes up the aniline colours. 
 
 Under certain circumstances jute undergoes a complete 
 decomposition ; for instance, left to itself in large masses in 
 a wet state, especially when exposed to the action of sea 
 
24 DYEING. 
 
 water, jute is gradually converted into tannic acid, and an 
 acid resembling pectic acid, and in some cases it is even 
 converted into a friable powder. The fibre does not stand 
 well the action of acids ; it is easUy attacked by mineral 
 acids, even in the cold, and more especially by heating, 
 when it acquires a deep brown colouration, and is at the 
 same time partially converted into volatile compounds of 
 disagreeable odour. These effects are sometimes perceived 
 on jute goods which have been treated with mineral acids. 
 
 In jute dyeing the same processes as for cotton cannot be 
 emploj'ed. Permanganate of potash would also in the case 
 of jute give very good results for bleaching; but it is, 
 unfortunately, far too expensive, so that the only available 
 products are also in this case the hypochlorites. But the 
 chloride of lime must be avoided, as it readily forms 
 chlorine compounds with jute, while such is not the case 
 when the sodium or magnesium hypochlorites are employed. 
 The chlorinated comj)ounds of jute give with lime insoluble 
 combinations, and consequently the emplo3TQent of the 
 bleaching powder must also be avoided for this reason. A 
 ready method of ascertaining whether jute has been acted 
 upon and converted into chlorinated compounds is by 
 treatment with sodium sulphite, w^hen a magenta coloura- 
 tion is observed. The formation of these chlorinated 
 compounds must be avoided as much as possible, as they 
 become decomposed by steaming, with the liberation of 
 hydrochloric acid, which forms a deep brown colouration, 
 and in some cases even destroys the fibre altogether. 
 
 China Grass, Khea or Ramie Fibre. — Up to now this 
 fibre has not been largely employed, although it possesses 
 very valuable properties. No doubt it will have a great 
 future, as it is very strong, and, bleached or unbleached, is 
 of a nice sUky appearance, and could be grown at a low 
 price. The obstacle to the extensive employment of this 
 fibre is its high price, caused by the difficulty of separating 
 the fibre from the stems, which, up to a few months ago, 
 could only be successfully accomplished by hand, and was 
 
GENEEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 25 
 
 consequently a very expensive method; but very con- 
 siderable progress in the processes of separation has been 
 made within the past few years, and there is ground for 
 hope that the growing and the working ot this fibre will 
 greatly develop. 
 
 The fibre is found contained in the bark of the stems of 
 plants belonging to the U'liicacae nettle family, of which 
 there are several varieties, two or three of special import- 
 ance — the Urtica nivea, or Boehmeria nivea, or white 
 nettle, with a white underleaf, and the Urtica utilis, or 
 tenacissima Boehmeria utilis. 
 
 The plants are not as yet extensively cultivated, but 
 they grow easily in China, where they have been cultivated 
 for centuries for the production of the fibre employed in 
 the manufacture of peculiar Chinese fabrics, and they can 
 be cultivated with profit in India, Egypt, Algiers America, 
 Italy, &c. 
 
 There are several methods of separation of the fibre from 
 the stems. They may be treated first of all either in the 
 dry or in the green state. In the dry state the fibre can be 
 pretty easily separated by means of suitable machines ; the 
 only difficulty being experienced in the drying of the stems, 
 which is all but impossible in rainy seasons, especially in 
 India. The methods of dealing with green stems are 
 various, some relying on the employment of machines ; one 
 on the steaming of the green stems, which allows the 
 stripping off" of the bark containing all the fibre, and this is 
 afterwards brought into commerce and worked into fibre by 
 a chemical process. 
 
 Much progress has been made of late, and by the methods 
 now existing the extraction of the fibre is successfully and 
 economically accomplished. The fibre is also mostly 
 composed of cellulose, and can be easily bleached ; but it is 
 also very sensitive against bleaching powder liquor. It is, 
 besides, very strong, and of a nice silky appearance.* 
 
 * In another part of this work will be found a more detailed account 
 of the methods lately tried or recommended for the extraction of this 
 fibre. 
 
 D. H. HILL LIBRARY 
 
 North Carolina State GolleK« 
 
2G DYEING. 
 
 ANIMAL FIBRES. 
 
 "WTooL. — "Wool is very probably the first fibrous material 
 utilized by man, having been employed in the production 
 of fabrics from the remotest times. 
 
 Wool belongs to the organic substances known as epidermic 
 products, and is composed of filaments secreted by the skin 
 of sheep and some varieties of goats. The length of the 
 fibre varies from 40 to 180 millimetres, and its thickness 
 from aVth to e'jth of a m.m., the quality varying consider- 
 ably according to the species of sheep from which it has 
 been obtained, while it also varies according to the part of 
 the body of the sheep from which it has been shorn. 
 
 The production of wool is of great importance, and after 
 cotton, the bulk and value of wool produced probably 
 exceed that of any other fibre. Many countries produce it 
 in abundance, but large quantities are exported from 
 Australia and South America, Wool is shorn once a year 
 from the sheep, and in this state it contains a large quantity 
 of impurities, which are removed by washing, when a loss of 
 20 to 50, and, in some cases, as much as 70 per cent., takes 
 place. The amount of wool produced by each sheep also 
 varies considerably, 3 to 12 lbs. per head being the highest 
 and lowest limits. 
 
 Wool is generally washed while still on the sheep, by 
 giving the animals, in the majority of cases, a washing in 
 a running stream. When shorn it is also subjected to 
 washing, preferably by means of stale urine, but sometimes 
 also by means of carbonate of soda or ammonia, silicate of 
 soda or potash, &c., but stale urine is now preferred by 
 some wool-washing establishments, as it leaves the wool 
 softer than any of the other detergents. This washing of 
 the wool is now conducted in large and special establish- 
 ments, and generally by means of the wool-washing 
 machines. 
 
 Wool differs from the vegetable fibres, especially on 
 account of its structure and chemical composition. Under 
 the microscope the fibre of wool shows long cylinders, with 
 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 27 
 
 projections in regular order, which, to a certain extent, may 
 be compared to the scales of fishes. The peculiarities in the 
 behaviour of wool are due to these projections, as for 
 instance, the felting, which is due to the projections, under 
 certain circumstances, getting out of their normal position, 
 and running into each other in such a way that they 
 cannot be easily separated. This property is taken 
 advantage of in the manufacture of felt articles, such as of 
 felt hats, and also in the fulling of woollen fabrics. In the 
 treatment of wool, great care must be taken, since by long 
 boiling or hot steaming, or by friction and rough treatment, 
 it is apt to produce felting. 
 
 In chemical combination wool differs from vegetable fibres, 
 on account of the nitrogen it contains. It also contains a 
 fairly large quantity of sulphur, and for this reason in dyeing 
 of bright and light shades, copper or lead vessels ought to 
 be avoided. The pure fibre contains an organic substance 
 called keratine, and yields from 0-3 to 0-5 per cent, of ash 
 containing phosphate of lime and magnesia, sulphate and 
 carbonate of lime, silica and peroxide of iron. Keratine is 
 formed of protein substances, and contains a pretty large 
 amount of sulphur, which can be mostly removed by means 
 of alkalies. 
 
 The following will show the percentage of pure fibre in a 
 commercial sample of raw merino wool, as analysed by M. 
 Chevreul : — 
 
 Earthy matters removed by washing with water 26-06 
 
 Suintoryolk 32-74 
 
 Neutral fats 8-57 
 
 Earthy matters obtained after the removal of fats 1-40 
 Textile fibre 31-23 
 
 100.00 
 The next analysis gives the approximate composition of 
 a sample of washed wool. 
 
 Mineral matters 0-94 
 
 Suint 21-00 
 
 Pure wool 72-00 
 
 Moisture 6-06 
 
28 DYEING. 
 
 Suint or yolk is a kind of saponified grease, soluble in 
 cold water, and containing a large percentage of potash, 
 which is sometimes recovered from the washing liquors, 
 these being evaporated to dryness, and then ignited to 
 bum the organic substances. The recovery of potash is not 
 now of much importance, owing to the cheap production of 
 potash salts from the Stassfurth Works, the product 
 obtained being a very good quality of potash, with only a 
 small percentage of carbonate of soda. Wool stands the 
 reagents in the following way : — 
 
 Sulphuric acid, when diluted, has no action whatever on 
 wool, even at the boil ; when concentrated it does not act 
 at once, but destroys the fibre in the long run. Nitric 
 acid, Avhen diluted, gives wool a yellow colour, and when 
 concentrated, destroys it after a while. In a mixture of 
 nitric and sulphuric acid, wool is dissolved with the 
 formation of nitro compounds, but by the addition of water 
 a yellow mass is precipitated. By this reaction wool can be 
 distinguished from cotton, which, under the same circum- 
 stances, gives soluble compounds. By this treatment with 
 nitric and sulphuric acid wool can also be separated from 
 cotton. 
 
 Alkalies react strongly on wool, especially when con- 
 centrated. Caustic soda dissolves it readil}^ with formation 
 of ammonia. Wool, however, stands pretty fairly the treat- 
 ment with carbonate of soda; in fact, it may be boiled with 
 a small amount of same without sustaining any appreciable 
 injury. 
 
 Wool has great afiinity for colouring matters, principally 
 those of the aniline series, with which it can be dyed without 
 the aid of any mordants. 
 
 Several oxides, or, in some cases, basic salts, are precipitated 
 on wool by boiling — thus acting as valuable mordants, as 
 in the case of alumina, iron, chrome, &c. Wool asserts a 
 reducing action generally, in fact it can reduce peroxydes 
 to protoxydes. 
 
 Before spinning, wool is prepared with a certain amount 
 of oil. For this purpose olive oil was formerly exclusively 
 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 29 
 
 used; later on other products have been tried, among which 
 is commercial oleine or oleic acid, the byproduct of the 
 stearine candle manufacture. In the further treatment of 
 woollen yam this fact of the oiling must be taken into 
 account, and, of course, all grease must be removed before 
 the yam can be bleached or dyed. 
 
 The suint or yolk of the wool, which is washed off the 
 wool, and is then allowed to contaminate rivers, seems to 
 be on the point of being successfully converted into a useful 
 product, it having been found that the suint, if converted 
 into a sulphur compound, can afterwards be utilised in the 
 manufacture of soap, a good commercial product being thus 
 obtained. The lanoline or wool fat is also a product of 
 recent introduction in commerce.* 
 
 Silk. — Silk is the most beautiful, the strongest, and at 
 the same time the most costly fibre. It is the product of 
 an insect, the mulberry silkworm, or Bombyx or FJtalaena 
 onori, which is of Chinese origin, and which subsists on 
 the leaves of the mulberry tree. Silk has been used in 
 China from very ancient times ; in fact, it is calculated that 
 the silk culture existed there at least 2,000 3'ears before the 
 Christian era. It was brought over to Europe in the seventh 
 century of our era by missionaries, who brought it over first 
 to Constantinople, from whence through Greece it spread 
 over to Sicily, Italy, and the South of Europe. 
 
 * M. A. Buisine has conducted some interesting experiments on very 
 large quantities of raw material, from which it appears that this so far 
 unutilised product contains substances which will well repay its being 
 worked up. It will also be apparent that the yolk of wool is much more 
 complex than has been generally admitted. When raw wool is washed 
 with water the washings contain free carbonic acid, carbonate of ammonia, 
 carbonate of potash, besides such volatile acids as acetic, propionic, 
 butinic, valerianic, and capronic acids, etc. Besides these were also found 
 oleic, stearic, and cerotic acids, which are of course found in the wash 
 waters in combination with alkalies, and are either found naturally in the 
 wool or are formed by the reaction of the carbonate of potash on the 
 impurities of the wool fibre. Other organic acids were also detected. 
 M. Buisine thinks that it would pay to extract useful products out of the 
 washings of wool ; in fact, the suint of a sample of Australian wool 
 contained in 100 parts dry substance : — 7*1 acetic acid, 4 propionic, 26 
 benzoic, 2-5 lactic, and I caprillic acid. 
 
30 DYEING. 
 
 There are several varieties of silk, according to the species 
 of silkworms from which it is derived. The silk industry 
 is a very important one, but not so important as that of wool 
 or cotton. Unlike the other fibres, silk is very long ; it is 
 drawn from the cocoons, which are generally either yellow 
 or white, and the fibre is coloured accordingly. In the 
 production of silk, the silkworm has first to be reared ; this 
 is done in China and Japan, but also to a very large extent 
 in the South of Europe, principally in Italy and France. 
 The seed was up to a few years ago mostly imported from 
 China, and the worms developed and reared in Italy and 
 also in the South of France. In the last few years, how- 
 ever, the Italians have succeeded in becoming thoroughly 
 independent of foreign seed by bringing the production of 
 the indigenous sorts to great perfection, owing to the 
 introduction of scientific methods. The worms, after 
 having reached a certain size, begin to form their cocoons, 
 in which they ultimately envelope themselves completely. 
 The silk is obtained from these cocoons by softening them 
 in hot water, which allows the thread to be drawn out. 
 This work is done by women in special establishments, 
 of which a large number are to be found in Italy, where 
 the industry is the most important in Europe, The 
 operation is called reeling ; as a rule, three or more 
 cocoons are placed in a basin with water, which is kept 
 boiUng all the time, and the threads of each of these 
 cocoons are joined together so as to form a single thread. 
 This is easily done by means of the gum which is found 
 naturally in the silk, and which, being softened by means 
 of the hot water, allows the threads to stick to each 
 other, forming a single one. The length of the fibre 
 extracted from, the cocoons reaches sometimes 350 yards, 
 but not all the silk can be extracted from the cocoons, 
 as there still remains a certain amount on the body of 
 the insect. A second quality is now obtained from the 
 residues of the silk reeling establishments, which is " silk 
 waste," and is made afterwards into what is known now 
 as spun silk. 
 
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 31 
 
 Silk is formed of an interior part called Flhroine, which 
 constitutes the true fibre, while the external coating consists 
 of a mixture of albuminoids, nitrogenous, fatty, and resinous 
 substances, and containing also the colouring matter of the 
 coloured silks. 
 
 The following analysis by Mulder will give an idea of the 
 constituents of raw silk : — 
 
 Naples yellow silk. White Levant. 
 
 Fibroine 53-37 54 
 
 Gelatine 2066 19 
 
 Albumen 24-4 25-5 
 
 Wax 1-39 1-11 
 
 Colouring matter 0*05 
 
 Fatty and resinous matters 0*1 0*3 
 
 Fibroine has a glossy appearance similar to that of silk 
 itself, but not quite so strong or brilliant. Both fibroine 
 and silk are dissolved by an ammoniacal solution of oxyde 
 of copper, but no precipitate is obtained by the addition of 
 salts, sugar, or gum to this solution, as is the case with 
 cotton. Dilute acids, however, precipitate white floculent 
 masses out of this ammoniacal copper oxyde solution. 
 
 Basic chloride of zinc at 60" Be dissolves silk in the cold, 
 and more readily by heating, and it forms a kind of varnish. 
 Sulphuric acid does not act in the cold, neither in the 
 heat if diluted ; but if concentrated it dissolves silk when 
 heating, and gives a brown solution, which turns afterwards 
 to red. Mixed with water no precipitate is obtained with 
 this solution ; but a precipitate is produced by the addition 
 of tannin. 
 
 Nitric and Tnuriatic acids dissolve silk readily at 
 ordinary temperature. Alkalies give a precipitate with 
 this solution. 
 
 Nitric acid alone, when diluted, gives a yellow colouration 
 to silk, and this reaction has been utilised for obtaininsf a 
 yellow colour on silk. Hot nitric acid destroys the silk 
 with the formation of oxalic acid. 
 
 Diluted cdJmlies do not dissolve silk, but ousfht not to be 
 employed in connection with it, as they render it less 
 
32 DYEING, 
 
 brilliant. Ammonia and weak carbonate of potash or soda 
 solutions do not react on silk, but concentrated caustic soda 
 or potash dissolves it readily. 
 
 Unlike wool, silk does not contain any sulphur, but it 
 contains nitrogen. When burnt it leaves about 0'3 per 
 cent, of ash. 
 
 The fibroine has the property of combining with tannic 
 acid to form regular chemical combinations in the same 
 way as hide does in the production of leather ; this property 
 is utilised in the weighting of silk, especially black silks, 
 which are very largely increased in weight by means of 
 tanningf materials, iron salts, &c. Silk also combines with 
 stannic chloride to proper chemical combinations, which 
 property allows also of the possibility of weighting either 
 white or coloured silks. 
 
 Silk is very hygroscopic, and being such a costly material, 
 the amount of moisture contained in the article is a question 
 of great importance ; consequently in the centres of the 
 commerce of silk there are special establishments where 
 the silk is officially tested for its amount of moisture — the 
 so-called " conditioning " of silk. Samples are taken out of 
 the bales and weighed, then weighed again after having 
 been exposed to hot air for drying in the conditioning 
 apparatus, and the amount of moisture is thus calculated. 
 
 Within the last few years other varieties of silk have 
 been introduced into the industry, such as the Tussah silk 
 of India, etc., and although not so beautiful as the others, 
 they have still been found very useful. At first it was 
 found difficult to dye and especially to bleach these new 
 varieties, but these difficulties have now been overcome. 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS 
 BY DYEING. 
 
 LABORATORY WORK. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 With the ever increasing number of dyestuffs employed in 
 dyeing it has become of great importance that dyers should 
 possess a certain amount of practice in the manipulations 
 of the laboratory, and at the same time be capable of 
 estimating the value of the products. It has, therefore, 
 been deemed necessary to collect here the necessary 
 information relatinof to the testinof of culourino: matters. 
 
 It must here be observed that only the comparative 
 methods of dyeing will be mentioned, since the purely 
 chemical methods which may yield reliable results in the 
 hands of the sldlful chemist are not capable of general 
 application, and are therefore very seldom used in practice. 
 The comparative method consists in dyeing patterns with 
 the different samples of dyeing materials against each 
 other, and in judging of their value by the comparison of 
 their colouring power. 
 
 But it must not be understood that the comparative 
 method of testing by dyeing is unscientitic or inexact ; on 
 the contrar}^ it relies on scientific principles, and on methods 
 of exact weight and measurement. No strict and definite 
 rule can be given for the dyeing methods which are to be 
 employed in the testings, but it may be said that it is 
 advisable that the methods which are used in practice 
 should also be employed in the testings. The choice of the 
 material also ought to depend upon circumstances, as it 
 cannot be laid down as a strict rule that the dyeings must 
 
34 DYEING. 
 
 be made either on wool, silk, or cotton, but I should advise 
 every dyer to make bis tests on tbe material for which the 
 colouring matters are intended ; for instance, it would be 
 very undesirable that a cotton dyer should perform his 
 tests on wool, and still more so that a wool dyer should try 
 his colours on cotton, or a silk dyer perfoiTQ his experiments 
 with either of the other materials. A cahco printer also 
 will have more reliable results if he tests his dyestuffs by 
 printing rather than b}?^ dyeing, and this for obvious 
 reasons. 
 
 "Wool is the most convenient material for testing dye- 
 stuffs generally, and in fact in the majority of works engaged 
 in the manufacture of colouring matters the testings are, as 
 a general rule, performed on wool ; but this practice cannot 
 always be followed, since some colouring matters which will 
 work one way on wool will work quite differently on cotton, 
 and besides, it will be found difficult to convince cotton 
 dyers that they have to perform their trials on wool. 
 
 To the consumer it is, as a rule, quite immaterial what a 
 dyeware contains, and also what is the percentage of pure 
 colouring matter contained in a given sample, provided that 
 the product answers for his purpose, both in regard to cost 
 of production and brightness of the shades produced ; and 
 the chemist or the practical man must in this mstance never 
 lose sight of the commercial aspect of the question. 
 
 In the comparative method one sample is generally used 
 as a standard, that is, a sample is selected which has been 
 used before, or one of a known quaUty, and against this 
 standard sample the other sample or samples of the other 
 colouring matters are dyed or printed. 
 
 A rule which Avill be found useful in jDractice is always 
 to take into account the price of the dilierent products, and 
 calculate the amounts of the materials to be used in the 
 testings in proportion to their prices. If the prices are not 
 known, then this plan cannot of course be followed, but in 
 this case equal quantities are taken, or it is sought to find 
 out by how much per cent, one sample is stronger or weaker 
 than the other. 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS BY DYEING. 35 
 
 The apparatus used in the testings of the dyewares are of 
 rather a simple character. Some chemists prefer glass 
 beakers, heated in a water bath ; some use earthenware 
 vessels, also heated in a water or an oil bath ; it is merely a 
 question of personal experience and liking. The writer 
 prefers enamelled iron dishes, simply heated on a Bunsen 
 burner, and these answer very well if not many tests arc 
 required at once ; but if several tests by dyeing are required 
 at once, then the glass beakers or the earthenware vessels 
 are preferable. The beakers have, however, the great draw- 
 back of easily breaking, while the glazed earthenware 
 vessels are not open to this objection. These latter have 
 been found very useful in the English schools of dyeing, 
 and I have seen them in use with great advantage in a 
 large cotton and wool dyeworks of this city. These earthen- 
 ware vessels have the capacity of about one litre, and are 
 provided with a ring at a distance of one inch from the top, 
 by means of which they sit on the perforated lid of the 
 water-bath, while the body of the vessel is immersed in the 
 water. Of course graduated glasses or flasks are required 
 for the purpose of dissolving the colouring matters, and 
 pipettes are also necessary for measuring out the solutions 
 of the dyestufFs, when added to the dyebath. 
 
 To describe all the methods of testing the different 
 dyestuffs necessitates a description of the processes for 
 fixing the different colouring matters, and therefore the 
 reader is referred to the practical part of this work. In 
 this chapter a general idea of the plan which may be fol- 
 lowed will suffice. It may here be remarked that it is not 
 such an easy matter to conduct the testings of dyewares, as 
 is often imagined ; it requires at the hands of the chemist 
 who devotes himself to this branch of commercial chemical 
 analysis a more extended knowledge of the different 
 colouring matters and their mode of fixation than can be 
 gathered from test books, and in fact there have been up 
 to the present no test books published, either in the English 
 or any other language, in which a student could gather 
 information about the different methods of fixing- the 
 
36 . DYEING. 
 
 colouring matters, so as to form a plan of conducting his 
 tests in a systematic manner. There are, nevertheless, 
 excellent books on dyeing and calico printing exceedingly 
 useful to practical men, and even to students, which show 
 the difterent methods of employment of the colouring 
 matters. 
 
 The colouring matters may be divided into two classes — 
 the mineral and the organic dyestuffs. The mineral 
 colouring matters are generally formed on the fibres, such 
 as chrome yellow and orange, manganese brown, &c., and 
 the substances used in these cases are of so well known and 
 definite properties that they are tested according to the 
 ordinary methods of chemical analysis. 
 
 The organic dyestufts are divided into natural and 
 artificial products. I will describe first the 
 
 Artificial Organic Colouring Matters, which are 
 found in commerce in such a profusion, and sometimes 
 in a ver}^ high degree of purity, as being those of more 
 easy application. Of the artificial dyestufts used in 
 dyeing we have the benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene 
 derivatives; the benzene products comprise those generally 
 known as aniline colours, beside phenol derivatives, such 
 as picric acid, aurine, &c., and resorcine colours, such as 
 eosine, &c. Of the naphthalene products the azo compounds 
 are of great importance, while of the anthracene derivatives 
 the alizarine and allied products form a most important 
 and distinct group of colouring matters. 
 
 The aniline colours are subdivided into basic and acid 
 products ; among the basic dyestufts may be reckoned in 
 the first place magenta, the rosaniline blues, methyl violets, 
 methyl and malachite green, methylene blue, induline 
 soluble in spirit, and the blue dyestufts derived from methyl 
 diphenyl amine, and soluble in alcohol, beside safranine, 
 phosphine, chrysoidine, and last, but certainl}' not the 
 least in importance, Bismarck brown, or phenylendiamine 
 brown. 
 
 The acid products are generally the sodium or ammonium 
 salts of the sulphonic acid derivatives of some of the above 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS BY DYEING. 87 
 
 basic colouring matters, such as acid magenta, acid violets, 
 the alkaline, soluble and cotton blues, the induline soluble 
 in water, &c. The majority of the azo colouring matters 
 are also acid colours, and so are the cosines. The denomi- 
 nation of acid colours for these colouring matters is perhaps 
 not quite correct, but this name has been given on account 
 of the fact that all these products can be employed on wool 
 in an acid bath. 
 
 The basic colouring matters are generally fixed on cotton, 
 previously mordanted with sumach and tin crystals, or 
 tannic acid and tartar emetic, and they are tested 
 accordingly. For the material to be used in the testings, 
 either bleached cotton yam or cotton cloth may be used ; 
 for the yarn a medium count is used, neither too thick nor 
 too thin, while for the calico, one is preferable which is not 
 too closely woven. The yarn which is preferably employed 
 is the one which can be easily divided in a known quantity. 
 It is preferable to mordant a large quantity of cotton yarn 
 or cloth at once, and keep it for use, rather than to have to 
 prepare the cotton every time for each testing. 
 
 For preparing the cotton the following plan may be 
 adopted : lOOgrs. of bleached cotton yarn are worked for 20 
 to 30 minutes in a bath prepared with 3 to 5grs. of tannic 
 acid in 1 htre of water, at about 70° C, then immersed in 
 the liquor and left overnight. Next morning the cotton is 
 lifted out of the bath, wrung, and passed into a new bath 
 prepared with 2grs. of tin crystals (stannous chloride) in 
 1^ to 2 litres of cold water. The yarn is worked in this 
 bath for 20 to 30 minutes ; it is then washed and is ready 
 for the dyeing tests, or it may be dried and kept for use. 
 
 For cloth the same plan of the mordant can be followed, 
 and the dried cloth may afterwards be cut into bits of about 
 3 to 4 inches by 6 or 8 inches, or weighed in pieces of 4 or 
 ogrs. each and kept ready for use. 
 
 ■ For the solution of the samples of dyestufts any measured 
 vessel may be used, either a glass beaker or flask, or even an 
 earthenware or porcelain vessel of Imown capacity ; a half 
 litre flask, or one measured to hold 200 cubic centimetres. 
 
38 DYEING. 
 
 will be found useful. One gramme of tlie product is gener- 
 ally -weiglied and put into tlie flask or beaker, and then 
 boiling "water is poured on the same in small portions at a 
 time by well shaking the flask, or if it is in a beaker by 
 acfitatincf well with a orlass rod, then more water is added 
 until the ^ litre mark is reached. For the dyeing, the 
 solution of the dj'estufli' is measured out of the pipette and 
 added into the dye vessels previously filled with cold water. 
 The cotton is always immersed while thoroughly wet ; that 
 is if it has been mordanted and kept ready for use, it must 
 be thoroughly wetted with cold water before adding to the 
 dyebath. 
 
 The dyeing is started cold, and then it is heated gradually 
 up to the boil, the material being constantly agitated with 
 a fjlass rod. "When the dyeing is finished, if no excess of 
 dyestuft" has been used (which ought never to be the case, 
 since only enough solution of the colouring matter ought 
 to be added to saturate the mordant), then the bath is 
 perfectly clear, or at all events will become perfectly clear 
 when the dyebaths have stood for a little while before the 
 swatches are washed. The amount of colourinrr matter to 
 be used varies according to the products employed, but 
 about one per cent, of the majority of aniline colours will 
 be found sufiicient to obtain a full shade, and in the case of 
 magenta and methyl violets, even ^ per cent, of colouring 
 matter to the weight of the material -svill give a medium 
 shade. By this method, with tannic acid and tin can be 
 tested magenta, aniline blues soluble in spirit, methyl 
 violets, meth3'l and malachite gi'eens, auramine yellow, 
 methylene blue, the Victoria blues, safranine, phosphine, 
 chr}-soidine, and Bismarck brown. 
 
 With the tannic acid method can also be tested the so- 
 called cotton blues, derivatives of phenylated rosanilines ; 
 these are of an acid character, and are in fact the sodium, 
 potassium, or ammonia salts of the sulphonic acid com- 
 pounds of threephenyl rosaniline. These cotton blues, which 
 are met in commerce of diflerent shades, from reddish 
 to greenish blue, can be tested on cotton mordanted with 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS BY DYEING, 39 
 
 sumacli or tannic acid and tin by adding the colouring 
 matter and 5 to 10 per cent, of alum into the dyebath, 
 which is brought up to the boil and kept boiling for about 
 20 or 30 minutes, left to cool in the bath, and then slightly 
 Avashed and dried. 
 
 The following method of mordanting cotton will be found 
 very useful, as by its means almost all the acid colouring 
 matters can be fixed, and also some of the dyewoods. The 
 cotton is mordanted with a 10 per cent, solution of alizarine 
 oil, wrung and dried in the stove ; then it is mordanted 
 again with acetate of alumina at about 10° Tw. ; wrung and 
 dried again in the stove, left to air for a day or two, and 
 kept ready for use ; when it is required the material is cut 
 or divided into swatches of about 5 grs., and well wetted 
 with cold water. The dyestuff is dissolved in the usual 
 way, and added to the dyebath, which is gradually heated 
 up to the boil ; then the material is allowed to cool in the 
 bath, and is slightly rinsed and dried. 
 
 The dyestuft's that can be fixed by this means are the 
 aniline blues for cotton, the azo dyestufts, from yellowish 
 orange to red orange, yellowish reds and scarlets ; also acid 
 naphthol yellow, the cosines, &c. 
 
 Alizarine can also be tested on cotton so mordanted, only 
 in this case the material before being dyed is passed into a 
 warm bath at about 150^ F., with 10 per cent, whiting 
 (chalk) to the weight of the cotton ; it is then washed and 
 dyed in a new bath with the colouring matter by the 
 ordinary alizarine dyeing process, after which may follow 
 the oiling and steaming and soaping. 
 
 Alizarine is very often tested in printworks on calico 
 which has been previously printed with stripes of thickened 
 mordants, such as acetate of alumina, acetate of iron, and a 
 mixture of both, and after ao-eino* and duncfino*, weiohed or 
 measured quantities of the calico are dyed with the different 
 samples of alizarine to be tested. As this is an old method 
 well known to every calico printer's chemist ever since 
 madder was used, it need not be described. All the acid 
 colours can be tested with the greatest ease on wool, which 
 
40 . DYEING. 
 
 is also a very convenient material for the basic colouring 
 matters derived from coal tar. 
 
 The methods of dyeing wool with coal tar colours, such 
 as magenta, violets, &c., are so well known that it would be 
 useless to mention them, and as for the acid dyestuffs the 
 majority of them can be tested by dyeing the wool in a bath 
 acidulated with acetic, or, in the majority of cases, sulphuric 
 acid ; two to five per cent, of the latter acid added to the 
 dyebath is quite sufficient, and in some cases an addition of 
 Glauber salt, five to ten per cent., is deemed advisable. 
 The dyeings are generally started cold, and in many cases 
 the colour is completely fixed before reaching the boiling 
 point, but in some instances, as, for example, in the case of 
 scarlets a boiling is necessary, and especially in the case of 
 soluble blues and indulines, a protracted boiling will be 
 found indispensable. 
 
 Of this class of acid colouring matters we must make an 
 exception in the case of the alkaline blues, which cannot be 
 properly tested on wool in an acid bath, but have to be tried 
 in an alkaline bath, as they are used in practice, for the 
 following reason. When manufacturing the aniline blues 
 with sulphuric acid, in order to render them soluble in 
 water, according to the quantity of sulphuric acid employed, 
 and the temperature and duration of the operation, three 
 special classes of products are obtained of very distinct 
 properties, viz., the alkaline blues, sodium salt of mono 
 sulphonic acid of triphenyl rosaniline ; the soluble blues, 
 generally salts of the disulpho products ; and the three and 
 tetra sulphonic acid derivatives which form the so-called 
 cotton blues. The alkaline blues are generally used for 
 wool and silk dyeing in a bath made alkaline with soda 
 cr3'stals or borax, and the blue is afterwards developed in a 
 new bath acidulated with sulphuric acid. The disulphonic 
 acid products, which are principally used for dyeing silk in 
 an acid bath, would not work at all in an alkaline bath, and 
 this would also be the case with the so-called cotton blues, 
 which would never be fixed on wool by d3-eing in an 
 alkaline bath. Then, again in the case of the cotton blues. 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS BY DYEING. 41 
 
 these are soluble in water, and even soluble in weak acid 
 solutions, and are not precipitated out of the dyebatbs by the 
 addition of alum, and for this reason can be used in cotton 
 dyeing, and are sometimes dyed on cotton which has had 
 no preparation in a bath containing the dyestuf! and alum. 
 Therefore, especially in the case of the aniline blues 
 soluble in water, the testings must be made on the materials 
 for which they are employed in practice, and by the same 
 methods of fixation as are used in the works, since the three 
 different classes of products w^ork quite differently on the 
 different materials. 
 
 For the Natural Organic Dyestuffs I also recommend 
 that the same method of fixation of these products be 
 employed in the testings, and the latter ought to be done 
 on the materials on which they are used in the works, and 
 this in spite of the fact that with some of the colouring 
 matters the dyebath is not exhausted in the first dyeing ; 
 but this is a difticulty that can be easily overcome by 
 dyeing several swatches in the same dyebath, and adding 
 less colouring matter for the following dyeings than for 
 the first. 
 
 , A method of general application for estimating the 
 colouring power of some of the dyewood extracts, and even 
 of tannic acid and tanning materials generally, consists in 
 preparing cotton cloth in a bath of iron acetate, then drying 
 and exposing to air for a day or two, and the material is 
 cut into weighed or measured quantities, and kept in stock 
 for use. 
 
 "When performing the tests, the bits of cloth are either 
 well wetted, and then introduced into the respective dye- 
 baths, or, better still, they are passed into a chalk or 
 whiting bath first, then well rinsed and dyed with the 
 samples of dyewood extracts to be tested. With this 
 method, logwood, chestnut extract, as well as sumach and its 
 extracts, tannic acid, &c., can be tested by comparison with 
 a standard sample ; greys or blacks will be formed on the 
 fibre, and the relative strength may be judged by comparing 
 
42 DYEING. 
 
 the shades obtained with each. On this mordant could 
 be also tested the majority of the other dyewoods, but 
 this is not advisable, since fustic or quercitron, or any 
 of the red woods, are seldom dyed on iron mordants. 
 Consequently for the remaining natural colouring matters, 
 the ordinary methods of fixation should be employed in 
 the trials for the commercial value of colouring matters ; 
 for instance, in the case of barwood the well known methods 
 of fixation on sumach and tin had better be followed, 
 and for quercitron, or its extract of its purer derivative, 
 flavine, the well known methods of the fonnation of 
 the fine yellows on cotton must also be followed. Catechu 
 cannot be tested by any other method than by dyeing 
 catechu brown by means of bichromate of potash, since 
 any method for the estimation of the catechu tannin will 
 be unreliable on account of the, organic impurities which 
 are always to be found in commercial samples of catechu, 
 and indeed of the majority of the extracts of natural 
 dyestufis. 
 
 Xo colouring matter has been so much discussed as 
 IxDiGO, and in no other case have so many methods been 
 recommended as for the estimation of indigotine, and veiy 
 many chemical methods are published in the test books. 
 I do not propose to discuss the best chemical methods now 
 in use for the quantitative analysis of indigotine, for which 
 I beg to refer the reader to the remarks on the subject 
 contained in my first volume on Printmg. I state it 
 again as my opinion on the general applications of the 
 chemical methods for indigo testings that they are no 
 doubt very valuable, but that they are all more or less 
 open to the objection that in some cases they may not 
 yield true results. The}' are quite correct when the 
 samples are of medium purity, but if they are very poor 
 in colouring matter, then the results will be very greatly 
 influenced by the organic impurities ; and therefore, in the 
 case of indigo testing especially, I am not able, even now, to 
 change an opinion formed several years ago — that the 
 dyeing tests are the only reliable ones. Tt must be admitted 
 
TESTING COLOURING MATTERS BY DYEING. 43 
 
 that the dyeing tests also offer many difficulties, and that 
 they may cause errors if not carefully performed, but still 
 in all cases they furnish us with direct results, and can also 
 be performed with quickness. 
 
 The reduction of indigo by the Schlitzenberger and de 
 Lalande's process gives the readiest means of forming a 
 dyevat on a small scale, in which the colouring power of 
 indigoes can be estimated. The samples of indigoes are 
 first well ground dry in a mortar, then mixed with water, 
 and ground again very finely ; zinc dust is then added, and 
 also the bisulphite of soda, the whole being Avell stirred by 
 means of the pestle, and finally a certain quantity of caustic 
 soda solution is added, and the whole well agitated. The 
 indigo will be reduced at once, and can be added to a bath 
 of cold water to form a miniature vat, where the cotton can 
 be dyed in a few minutes. As I have it now, this method 
 will give good results, and not more than half an hour will 
 be required to perform two or more tests of indigo samples 
 by it. The latter are weighed out in proportion to their 
 prices, so in this case the colouring power will at once be 
 commercially estimated. For this test the following pro- 
 portions may be employed : 1 gr. indigo, 2 to 3 grs zinc 
 dust, 10 cc. bisulphite solution ; stir, then add 2 grs. caustic 
 soda powder 98 %. After reduction make up to 1 litre 
 with water, and dye in this vat with 30 to 50 grs. cotton 
 yarn at the time. 
 
 To average chemists the methods of estimation of the 
 dyestuffs by simple dyeing operations may perhaps not 
 appear a scientific system to follow, but those who look a 
 little closer into the matter will soon perceive that the 
 methods by dyeing are really scientific, since they rely on 
 exact methods of measurement or weisfhinsf, and in fact 
 when we perform a dyeing operation we simply go through 
 the chemical process of precipitation of the colouring matter 
 on the weighed material, and thus have definite data of the 
 amount of the dyeing product employed, and of the material 
 on which it had been precipitated. We might without any 
 difficulty again weigh the dyed material, and find out the 
 
44 DYEING. 
 
 actual quantity precipitated on the fibre, thus performing 
 a simple operation of quantitative analysis, but this is 
 seldom done in practice, since we judge by the eye of the 
 amount of dyestufFs thrown down on a fibrous material by 
 comparison with another of loiown quality. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 
 
 CHAPTER Y, 
 BLEACHING COTTON. 
 
 BEFORE SPINNING, LOOSE COTTON, 
 
 Cotton is seldom bleached in the loose state, as it is not 
 often required in this form, except in the manufacture of 
 waddings and for other similar purposes, as for lint, &c 
 The chemical process is simple, since it seems that cotton 
 before spinning is more easily bleached than after it has 
 undergone the spinning process ; at all events, so it has 
 appeared to be in the hands of the author in some experi- 
 ments made in the laboratory. By following the same 
 process on both loose and spun cotton at the same time, a 
 better white was always obtained on the unspun material, 
 and this may perhaps be accounted for by admitting that 
 cotton takes up in contact with machinery or the hands of 
 the operatives a certain amount of grease, which, by forming 
 a very thin film, prevents to a certain extent the action of 
 the chemicals, especially if these be applied in the cold, as 
 was the case in the experiments referred to. The process 
 employed was as follows : — 
 
 1st. — Prepare solution of sodium h3'pochlorite by dis- 
 solving 50 to 100 grs. bleaching powder in 1 litre cold water. 
 Leave to settle, decant or filter, then add a strong solution 
 of carbonate of soda until no more precipitation of carbonate 
 of lime takes place, which is easily ascertained by filtering 
 a small quantity through a paper filter, and then adding 
 more of the carbonate of soda solution to see whether a 
 precipitation takes place. A slight excess of carbonate of 
 
46 DYEING. 
 
 soda will be rather beneficial, and seems to help in the 
 bleaching process. This hypochlorite solution is made up 
 to 4° Tw., and can be kept in bottles for use. 
 
 For the Bleachixg Process. — Immerse the cotton just 
 as it is taken out from the bale in a bath prepared with the 
 sodium hypochlorite solution, showing from T to 4° Tw. 
 Work it in this bath until thoroughly impregnated, and 
 leave to rest for three or four hours, or even overnight, then 
 take out, leave to drain, and wash. 
 
 2nd. — Place in bath with weak bisulphite of soda solution 
 showing about 2° to 3" Tw. (or a weak sulphurous acid 
 solution will do as w^ell), work for one hour, or until 
 thoroughly penetrated, and wash. If the cotton is not 
 perfectly white, the operations may be repeated. If neces- 
 sary the material may be blued or softened in the usual way 
 in the cold. The cotton so bleached is not at aU tendered. 
 
 A weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid bath might be 
 employed instead of the bisulphite solution, but it must be 
 observed that loose cotton is difficult to wash, and that any 
 trace of mineral acid left behind will react on the cotton, 
 and tender it when the material is being dried. Therefore 
 if any mineral acid be used the cotton must either be 
 repeatedly washed to remove all trace of acid, or it must be 
 passed through a weak bath of bisulphite of soda, which 
 has the further advantage of neutrahsing the injurious 
 effect of any excess of chlorine left on the fibre after the 
 bleachino- operation. By the employment of weak bisulphite 
 solutions washing with Avater may also be dispensed with, 
 and the operations rendered shorter and simpler. 
 
 Such good results were obtained in these experiments 
 that the idea was entertained of seeing whether it would 
 not be of more advantage to bleach the cotton in the loose 
 state before spinning rather than to do it after weaving, as 
 is now done for printing and market bleaching. It is true 
 that the cotton becomes to a certain extent soiled through 
 the operations of spuming and weaving, but this would not 
 stand in the way, since a scouring, and, if necessary, a very 
 sho-ht bleach would make the cloth perfectly clean and 
 
PRACTICAL PEOCESSES. 47 
 
 white again. The idea was, however, not acted upon, as no 
 opportunity was offered for trying the process on a large 
 scale. It may, however, be worth a trial by those who are 
 favourably situated. 
 
 The ordinary process of bleaching, such as the one 
 followed for yarn, and described later on, cannot very well 
 be followed, owing to the state of the material. First of all 
 a boiling under pressure (unless done in a kier Avith a largo 
 number of diaphragms to divide the mass of material into 
 several lots) does not give good results, because the loose 
 cotton is apt to clot together, and some of the cotton will 
 remain untouched, as the liquor cannot penetrate through- 
 out the mass. In the ordinary apparatus also it will be 
 found difficult to treat larsfe masses of loose cotton at one 
 time, owing to the same drawback of the liquors not 
 penetrating throughout the mass. 
 
 For this reason, in the processes ordinarily followed, the 
 boiling is in many cases dispensed with altogether, and the 
 bleaching effected in tubs or vats on small quantities at a 
 time by treatments with bleaching liquor, and followed by 
 washing and acid solutions, the operations being repeated 
 until the desired white is produced. 
 
 In the author's experiments with the sodium hypochlorite 
 solution, which was rather alkaline owing to a slight excess 
 of carbonate of soda, the cotton was very readily penetrated 
 throughout the mass, the white produced was good, the 
 fibre as strong as before, and according to the opinion of 
 friends engaged in cotton spinning, it would not offer any 
 difficulty in the spinning 'process. 
 
 BLEACHING OF COTTON YARN (IN THE 
 LABORATORY). 
 
 1st. — Scour the j^arn with 3 to 5 per cent, soda ash, or 
 2 to 3 per cent, caustic soda. Boil for one to two hours and 
 wash. 
 
 2nd. — Prepare a bleaching powder solution of 1"' Tw., 
 proceeding in two ways — (a) With the bleaching powder. 
 
48 DYEING. 
 
 Weigh 10 grs. of bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, and 
 put in a mortar with just enough water to make a thin paste, 
 grind the whole wdth a pestle, then leave to settle a few 
 minutes, and filter the liquor through a cahco or paper 
 filter ; to the residue in the mortar add more water, grind 
 again, and filter the liquor, and treat the residue again 
 with water until the whole of it has been brought on the 
 filter. Collect all the filtered Hquors, and make up to 1° Tw. 
 by means of cold water, (h) Take the commercial bleaching 
 liquor and make it up to 1° Tw. with cold water, using a 
 large earthenware jar of 1 litre for the purpose. 
 
 3rd. — Enter the yarn in this bleaching solution, and work 
 it for 1 to 2 hours occasionally, or until the cotton is 
 quite white ; take out of bath and wash. 
 
 4th. — Make up a new bath with sulphuric or muriatic 
 acid of 1° Tw. in an earthenware jar, or any other suitable 
 vessel to hold 1 or 2 litres. Work for 1 or Ih hours in 
 this acid bath, then wash well. 
 
 5th. — Prepare a soap bath with o grs. of soap in boiling 
 Avater ; boil cotton in this bath for 1 hour, then wash and 
 dry. The result will be a cream white, but if a blue white 
 is wanted, then some blue must be added to the soap bath. 
 This is done in the followmg way : dissolve h gr. of alkaline 
 blue 3 B in 100 cc. of boiling water, then make up to 1 litre 
 Avith hot water. Add of this solution 1 or 2ccs. or as much 
 as will be required to give a blueish tinge to the soap bath. 
 Work cotton in this soap blueing bath lor 1 hour, then wash 
 and dry. 
 
 N.B. — If the cotton is not blue enough, more alkaline 
 blue solution may be added to the soap bath. In some 
 cases ultramarine blue is used instead of alkaline blue. 
 Methylene blue is also preferred b}- others, while in some 
 instances even a greenish hue is required, which is produced 
 by means of methyl green, blue shade ; but ultramarine is 
 the blueing agent mostly employed on the large scale, and 
 is employed along with the soap after bleaching. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
I 
 
 INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 49 
 
 BLEACHING OF COTTON YARN. 
 
 The process generally followed consists — 1st, in the 
 scouring or boiling, by means of alkalies, for which, as 
 a rule, soda ash or caustic soda is employed. Of soda 
 ash about 3 to 5 per cent, is used, while in the case of 
 caustic soda the amount employed averages about 2 to 3 
 per cent, to the weight of the cotton. This operation is 
 generally performed in the closed iron vessels called kiers, 
 which work by steam, and are constructed to stand pressure, 
 and as a rule are supplied with an arrangement for creating 
 a circulation in the apparatus. Sometimes also open kiers 
 or boilers are employed for the scouring process, but when 
 working with closed kiers the scouring is found to be more 
 effective. 
 
 The same treatment is employed for those yarns which 
 have not to be bleached, but to be dyed, and in some cases, 
 especially for dark colours and common work, the soda ash 
 is completely omitted, and the yarns are simply boiled by 
 means of water for the purpose of thoroughly wetting them. 
 The pressure employed in the scouring process varies con- 
 siderably in the works ; in some cases only a few pounds 
 pressure is allowed, in others the pressure is allowed to 
 go over 20 and even 30 or 3olbs. or more per square inch. 
 
 The duration of the boiling varies also in the different 
 works, but as a rule the operation is so performed that the 
 kier is charged with the yarn and the necessary amount of 
 alkaline solution, and made to go up to the pressure 
 required ; then the steam is stopped, and the pressure 
 allowed to go down during the night of itself. Sometimes 
 a second and short boiling with water alone is resorted to. 
 Then follows a thorough washing, ivhich is sometimes 
 performed in the kier without removing the yarn, or is 
 performed on the washing machine, or even by hand. 
 
 2nd. — the bleaching or chemicking process by means of 
 bleaching liquor. For this purpose bleaching powder or 
 choloride of lime liquor of about 1 to 2° Tw. is employed, in 
 which the yarn is worked for about two hours. When the 
 
50 DYEING. 
 
 amount of yarn to be bleached is small, the chemicking can 
 be performed in an ordinary dyebeck, by putting the yarn 
 on sticks and working it in the same way as in dyeing ; 
 but when large quantities of yarns are to be bleached, then 
 other methods must be employed. As a rule, the yam is 
 allowed to remain stationary, and the liquor is made to 
 react on the same, and allowed to circulate through the 
 mass of the cotton by different mechanical arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 One of these methods consists in the employment of 
 stone cisterns or tanks supplied with false bottoms, and in 
 which the yarn is placed after scouring and washing. The 
 bleaching liquor is then poured on the yam through a zinc 
 grating placed at the top of the cistern ; through a hole at 
 the bottom of the tank the liquor, after permeating through 
 the cotton, is allowed to run into a cistern constructed 
 below the tank, and out of which it is again pumped and 
 made again to descend on the yarn through the zinc 
 grating, so that it is in a certain sense a circulation which 
 is kept up all the time to help the bleaching process. 
 
 After the bleaching liquor has reacted for the necessary 
 length of time, it is made to run off through the hole at 
 the bottom in the cistern below, and the yarn is exposed to 
 a washing with cold water, either without removing, or on 
 the washing machines, and then soured by means of 
 sulphuric or hydrochloric acid of about 1° Tw. This 
 operation is performed either in the same tank or cistern, 
 or in a bystanding one, in which the yarn is placed if it 
 has been removed for washing after being chemicked. 
 
 The acid is made to react in the same way, that is, it is 
 pumped out of the acid cistern below the tank, and made to 
 descend through a wooden grating, which has been supplied 
 at the top of the cistern, and thus permeates the yarn. The 
 acid liquor is made to react for about ^ to 1 hour by 
 keeping up a circulation in the same way as described in 
 connection Avith the bleaching solution ; the Hquor is then 
 run off into the acid cistern below, and the yam is removed 
 and well washed. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES 51 
 
 In maiiy cases the yarn, after being well washed, is dried, 
 and thus a cream white is obtained, which has, however, a 
 yellowish tinge. But if a blueish white be required, then 
 the yarn is passed through a bath containing either 
 ultramarine in suspension or a solution of an aniline blue 
 As a rule, however, this blueing operation is connected with 
 the soaping of the yarns after they have been bleached and 
 well washed. In this case the yarn is worked into a soap 
 bath containing the blue, either ultramarine or a small 
 amount of a solution of an aniline blue, principally alkaline 
 blue of about 3 B shade, and well manipulated by hand or 
 by machine until the colours are evenly taken up by the 
 yarn ; afterwards it is washed, wrung, or better passed 
 through the hydro-extractor, to remove the excess of water, 
 and then dried. 
 
 Many systems have been recommended for creating the 
 circulation during the bleaching operations, some even 
 relying upon the employment of closed vessels, in which 
 the liquids are applied by means of force pumps, and 
 thus allowed to permeate the cotton by pressure. 
 
 One system works exactly on the opposite principle, that 
 is by means of the vacuum (Mason's) process. A closed 
 vessel or kier is employed, which is internally lined with 
 lead, in order to be able to stand both the acid and the 
 chlorine liquors. By means of a pump the vacuum is 
 produced in the interior of the apparatus, and by opening 
 the corresponding taps either the bleaching liquor or the 
 acid, which in this case is always sulphuric acid, is sucked 
 from the corresponding cisterns constructed below the kiers 
 and allowed to react on the cotton. 
 
 By running o£^" the liquor again, creating the vacuum and 
 sucking up the liquor again from the cistern, a kind of 
 circulation is also created, and thus the bleaching is very 
 effectually performed. The yarn is first treated in this 
 vacuum kier Avith the chemick two or three times accordino: 
 to requirements ; then the bleaching liquor is run off, and 
 the hanks washed in the kier, and without removing them ; 
 then exposed to the souring in the same vessel, Avashed and 
 
52 DYEING. 
 
 Avaslied again thorouglily on the machine, being finally 
 bkied while soaping, washed, and dried. 
 
 By this vacuum system large quantities of yams are 
 bleached at the same time. One iron kier is employed for 
 the boiling, in which the yarn is also washed, and the other 
 kier, which is lined inside with lead, serves for the bleaching. 
 This system is especially useful in saving labour. The 
 bleaching liquor in this case is made to stand at about h to 
 1' or Ih Tw., is used over and over again, and is now and 
 again strengthened by means of strong bleaching solution. 
 The same is done with the sulphuric which is kept in the 
 cistern. 
 
 This process I have seen very successfully at work for 
 the bleaching of yarns at Messrs. Barlow and Jones's in 
 Bolton, whilst at the School of Dyeing I have also had, by 
 the kind pennission of Mr. Mason, the use of a model of his 
 bleaching and boiling kier, and can therefore confidently 
 speak of this method of cotton yarn bleaching, which is one 
 of the simplest that could be followed. 
 
 BLEACHING COTTON CLOTH, AND NEW 
 BLEACHING PROCESSES. 
 
 Bleaching Cotton Cloth. — The bleaching of cotton in 
 the form of cloth has been pretty minutely described in 
 the author's "Printing of Cotton Fabrics," and therefore 
 need not be repeated here. Bleached goods, which are very 
 largely produced, are always afterwards passed through a 
 finishing process, in order to make them ready for the 
 market, and mention of the processes will be made in the 
 chapter relating to the finishing operations. 
 
 New Bleaching Peocesses. — Respecting the new pro- 
 cesses recommended, rather contradictory accounts are 
 given of the electrical bleaching method known as the 
 Hermite 2y''occss. While on one side very promising reports 
 on the cost of this method are put forward by some 
 authorities, and good accounts are also recorded of the 
 production of the bleaching liquors, these statements are 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 53 
 
 denied by others. Although believing in the future of 
 electricity as a bleaching medium, I cannot at present say 
 that I consider the method to be as yet out of the experi- 
 mental stage. So long as it is not employed on the large 
 manufacturing scale, there is time to aAvait the results 
 before passing a decided opinion. 
 
 HerteVs Method. — Hertel, in a communication to the 
 Faerherei Muster Zeitimg, publishes some results of very 
 interesting experiments made by him in bleaching cotton 
 yarn by means of hypochlorous acid gas. He decomposes 
 the bleaching liquor or powder by means of weak sulphuric 
 acid, and allows the gas evolved to react on the cotton 
 yarn, which has been previously scoured and washed, and 
 is placed while still wet in a closed vessel. The bleaching 
 is stated to proceed very quickly and very effectively with 
 a much less quantity of bleaching poAvder, and to be perfect 
 in every respect. In this case also the method is only in 
 the experimental stage, and having been tried only on a 
 comparatively small scale, we must wait for further trials. 
 The vacuum bleaching kiers would be well adapted for this 
 process on the large scale, but the penetrating of the gas 
 throughout may be found difficult of accomplishment. 
 
 COTTON DYEING. 
 
 Although it may be said that the methods of producing 
 colours on cotton are the same either for unspun material, 
 yarn, or cloth, and that only the mechanical arrangements 
 are different, still there are some methods that are 
 preferably employed for the one which are not followed for 
 the other, and consequently these methods will be discussed 
 heie separately. 
 
 The Dyeing of Loose or Unspun Cotton. — For the 
 production of cotton goods this fibre is seldom if at all dyed 
 before spinning, since the methods of yarn or cloth dyeing 
 are so convenient, and the results so good that no necessity 
 is found for the more complicated process of dyeing cotton 
 in the unspun state. But if the cotton has to be mixed 
 
54 DYEING. 
 
 with wool, and spun with this latter for production of mixed 
 goods, then it is dyed in the loose state, the process being 
 conducted on a large scale, especially in Yorkshire. The 
 reason of dyeing cotton before spinning will be apparent 
 when it is considered that the dyed material, by passing 
 through the mixing process previous to its being made into 
 yam, gives a product which will appear of a very even 
 colour. 
 
 Few colours are dyed on a very large scale on loose 
 cotton, and they are chiefly those that are fast against light, 
 and principally against soaping, and which have afterwards 
 to stand the fulling or milling process, such for instance as 
 aniline black, indigo blues, &c. Logwood blacks are also 
 largely dyed, and so are also bro"v\Tis and many fancy shades. 
 
 Several arrangements are employed for the dyeing of 
 loose cotton, ditfering from each other according to the 
 quantity to be dyed. For a small quantity either copper 
 boilers or wooden tubs are employed, the latter heated by 
 free steam and supplied with double bottoms. For large 
 quantities either round iron vats or square cisterns are 
 used, generally provided with false bottoms, on which the 
 material can be laid. In order to create a circulation of 
 the liquors through the mass, several contrivances are 
 employed. For small quantities, wicker baskets are some- 
 times used, in which the cotton is placed, and the basket is 
 gently moved about. For larger quantities the material is 
 either worked by means of wooden poles or by specially 
 devised mechanical an-angements, such as by means of the 
 vacuum or other systems — Obermeyer's, Smithson's, and 
 others — which will be mentioned when treatincj of loose 
 wool dyeing, the latter being of more importance. The 
 machinery for the washing and dr3'ing of loose wool will be 
 illustrated ; this machinery can also be employed for loose 
 cotton. 
 
 The vacuum apparatus, such as is used for the bleaching 
 of yarn, has been successfully employed for the dyeing of 
 loose cotton, and some colours, such as logfwood blacks, &c„ 
 have been successfully produced on the large scale 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 55 
 
 The colours generally produced on loose cotton are the 
 following, for which only short indications will here be 
 given, if the processes are described in another part of the 
 work on cotton yarn. 
 
 Blacks. 
 
 Large quantities of loose cotton are dyed with aniline 
 black, owing to the great fastness of this colour. The 
 dyeing process does not ofter anything special over the one 
 generally employed for the yarn, and is principally performed 
 in the cold in large square vats or oblong cisterns. 
 
 Logwood Black — No. 1. 
 
 Cotton wool lOOlbs. 
 1st. — Prepare boiling bath with 
 
 25lbs. logwood extract. 
 2^1bs. bark extract. 
 6ilbs. sulphate of copper. 
 Enter cotton, boil 1 h hour, leave in bath over night, lift out, 
 drain, and leave in heap for 48 hours. 
 
 2nd. — Enter in cold bath previously prepared Avith 
 161bs. copperas. 
 41bs. chalk. 
 Work two hours, leave in heap over night or longer, then 
 rinse and dry. This black will stand milling. 
 
 Black— No. 2. 
 
 Sometimes a black is produced on loose cotton by 
 impregnating the same with a mixture of logAvood liquor, 
 to which the necessar}' amount of acetate of iron has been 
 added, and some bark or fustic, if a jet black be Avanted. 
 After the cotton is thoroughly impregnated, it is left to air 
 for some time and then steamed. 
 
 The steam black of the calico printers (the special 
 preparations sold under this name) could also be employed 
 
56 DYEING. 
 
 for the purpose, and after the cotton is impregnated with 
 the mixture of the preparations, containing of course the 
 mordant and drying, the black can be developed by steaming, 
 and a very good black can thus be produced. Other colours 
 could be obtained in the same way, such as dark blues or 
 greys, olives, &c., by diluting the original black colour, or by 
 adding the necessary amount of bark liquor and acetate of 
 chromium. This method, however, is not often followed on 
 account of its requiring steaming for the development of 
 the colours. 
 
 Indigo blues are largely dyed on loose cotton, and the 
 preparation of the vats does not ofter anything different from 
 those employed for yarn. Other colours do not call for 
 special remarks here. 
 
 YARN DYEING. 
 
 This is a very important branch of the tinctorial arts, and 
 represents of itself a ver}' important industry. Previously 
 to dyeing, the cotton yarn must be wetted, or better, 
 scoured ; first of all with the object of cleansing the same 
 from impurities, but principally also with the object of 
 wetting the material all through in order that it may be 
 then penetrated by the dyeing or mordanting liquor, other- 
 wise uneven shades would result. For common work the 
 dyers do not scour their yarn, but simply boil it with water 
 in an open wooden tub or cistern with direct steam ; but for 
 finer work the yarn is either boiled in the kier with water 
 only, or is properly scoured with soda ash, or better, caustic 
 soda. 
 
 The scouring is performed in the kier by taking 
 
 2 to 5 per cent, soda ash. 
 or 
 
 1 to 3 per cent, caustic soda, 
 
 and is followed by a thorough wash. In order to prevent 
 the yarn from becoming entangled before being put into 
 the kier, it is either bound up with strings, or the hanks 
 are chained to one another two by two, or are bound together 
 
.i«iiiiHff!li'l«tf''i 
 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 <; 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 I 
 
 > 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 <; 
 
 0. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 57 
 
 by string to form a long rope. The duration of the scouring 
 is about one hour. After a thorough wash the scoured 
 yarn is ready for dyeing. 
 
 Cotton yarn is either dyed in the fomi of hank or in a 
 continuous manner in the form ofwarps, andthe mechanical 
 arrangements necessarily differ. 
 
 Only the methods of producing the colours on the fibre 
 will be here described, while the machinery will be men- 
 tioned and illustrated later on. 
 
 Yarn is dyed a great variety of colours, which may be 
 classified as follows : — 
 
 1. — Fancy colours, principally with coal tar dyes 
 and dyewood extract shades. 
 
 Mineral colours — 
 
 2. — Indigo blues. 
 
 3.— Blacks. 
 
 4. — Turkey red yarns. 
 
 1. Fancy Shades. — There is now the possibility of 
 producing no end of these shades. 
 
 Shades iiroduced luith Coal Tar Colours. — The coal tar 
 colours are applied on cotton by distinct classes of methods 
 according as they are basic or acid colours. 
 
 Basic Dyestufs. — To this class belong those colouring 
 matters which are neutral salts of (principally) hydrochloric 
 acid, with the colouring base, such as magenta, the violets, 
 &c. They are all fixed by the same method, viz., on 
 mordant of tannic acid or sumach, followed by the fixing 
 bath, either tin or antimony. 
 
 Methods of Mordanting Cotton for Basic Aniline 
 Dyestuffs. — The principal methods of mordanting cotton 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1st. — With tannic acid, or the corresponding sumach 
 infusion or extract, and the fixation of the tannin on the 
 fibre by either stannous chloride, stannic acid, antimony 
 mordants, and seldom iron salts. 
 
 The first operation of mordanting with tannin is per- 
 formed in a hot bath, prepared with either 4 to 5 per cent, 
 commercial tannic acid, or the infusion of 20 per cent, of a 
 
58 DYEING. 
 
 good quality of sumach (preferably Sicily sumach). For 
 light and bright shades, tannic acid, although more 
 expensive, is certainly to be preferred, and in this case the 
 temperature of the bath had better not be over 70° C. The 
 duration depends upon the intensity of shade required; 
 some dyers leave in bath over night, deeper shades being 
 the result ; but for very light colours 40 to 60 minutes' 
 working is sufficient. After the cotton is mordanted with 
 tannin the yarn is lifted out of the bath and wrung (seme 
 dyers prefer to press it instead). 
 
 The second or fixing bath is prepared either Avith 2 
 to 3 per cent, of stannous chloride (tin crystals), or same 
 amount of antimony mordant, either the emetic, double 
 oxalate, or neutral oxalate (as lately recommended), or 
 even oxymuriate of antimony, for which the reader is 
 referred to the chapter dealing with antimony mordants 
 in the author's previous work on the " Printing of Cotton 
 Fabrics." This second bath is generally given cold, and 
 the duration is 30 to 45 minutes for yarn. After this 
 the cotton is thoroughly washed. Some dyers afterwards 
 give a hot (but not boiling) soap bath, which not only 
 removes the excess of mordant not fixed on the fibre, but 
 gives a softness and brightness to the yarn and colour 
 which is very pleasing. 
 
 The fixing of tannin on cotton with stannate of soda, 
 followed by a sulphuric acid bath, is now not often followed, 
 and there is no reason to employ this more complicated 
 method when there are other means of simple and effective 
 fixation with antimony mordants. 
 
 The fixation of tannin with iron salts for aniline colours 
 is seldom resorted to unless dark shades are required of 
 colours to which the slate coloured bottom of the tannate 
 of iron is no detriment, such as, for instance, in the 
 dyeing of imitation indigo blues for yarn or cloth with 
 methylene blue. Either copperas, or preferably acetate 
 of iron, is employed for the second fixing baths, which are 
 sometimes also followed by a chalk bath and a thorough 
 wash. 
 
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practical processes. 59 
 
 Methods for Mordanting Cotton for Acid Coal 
 Tar Colours: — 
 
 1st. — On tannic acid mordant fixed with tin crystals. 
 
 2nd. — Stannate of soda and sulphuric acid. Stannic 
 acid can also be produced on fibre by passing in perman- 
 ganate of potash, and afterwards in new bath with tin 
 crystals. 
 
 3rd. — Alumina mordant. 
 
 4th. — Alizarine oil and alumina mordant. 
 
 The first method with tannic acid and tin is only employed 
 for aniline blues soluble in water, which are dyed with alum 
 in bath. 
 
 The second method is now seldom followed, and is 
 performed in the usual way as mentioned for calico printing 
 in two separate baths, while the method of fixation of 
 stannic acid on the fibre with first bath of permanganate of 
 potaah at 2 to 5° Tw., followed by second with stannous 
 chloride bath at same strength, and well washing afterwards 
 is only of interest for the laboratory. One important point 
 connected with this stannic acid mordant is that the cotton 
 must be dyed immediately after mordanting, otherwise the 
 mordant by standing will lose considerably the power of 
 attracting colouring matters. The ahimina is fixed on the 
 fibre either by means of acetate of alumina, or by the 
 aluminate of soda method, but alumina mordants are now 
 generally connected with alizarine or Turkey red oil, and 
 therefore the methods are the same as used for alizarine or 
 Turkey red dyed calicoes, and have been elsewhere fully 
 described. 
 
 Dyeing Methods for Coal Tar Colours.— The methods 
 of dyeing vary according as the colours are basic or acid, 
 and may be divided as follows : — 
 
 1st. — Aniline colours of basic character. 
 
 2nd. — The acid dyestuffs, comprising — 
 Acid aniline colours. 
 The cosines. 
 The azo colours. 
 Alizarine and allied dyestufi's. 
 
60 DYEING. 
 
 ANILINE COLOURS OF BASIC CHARACTER. 
 
 Mail}' metliods were originally tried and recommended 
 for the fixation of these dyestuffs on cotton, but they 
 have, with almost one or two exceptions, been completely 
 abandoned in favour of the one w^iich relies on the employ- 
 ment of tannic acid. The complete range of colours can 
 now be produced on cotton yarn, which will be illustrated 
 by patterns and recipes in another part of this work ; here 
 only a general idea will be given. 
 
 The colours mostly produced on cotton yarn of this class 
 are the 
 
 Reds, for which safranine and the scarlets derived from 
 it and magenta are employed. Safranine gives from pinks 
 to full blueish reds, which, however, are not so extensively 
 used for cotton now as they used to be, since the eosines 
 and azo reds yield shades which are brighter. Safranine 
 colours, when fixed on cotton on tannic acid mordant, 
 stand soaping fairly well, but not so air and light ; but in 
 this respect they are better than magenta. The scarlets 
 produced with safranine and phosphme also stand soaping 
 fairly well, but the cheaper scarlets produced with safranine 
 and chrysoidine, although cheaper, are not so serviceable in 
 this respect, since chrysoidine is a loose colour towards soap. 
 
 The production of scarlets by means of safranine by 
 aid of these mixtures with either chrysoidine or phosphine, 
 has lost its importance considerably since the introduction 
 of azo scarlets, and lately of the Congo and benzopurpurine 
 reds. For some purposes, however, the old scarlets with 
 safranine are produced, but for a yellow the auramine is 
 used instead of the two others, and with the advantages of 
 cheapness in one case and greater fastness in the other. 
 These safranine scarlets, however, cannot be considered in 
 all cases as fast. A scarlet at one time pretty extensively 
 dyed was produced by the aid of a yellow bottom with 
 quercitron or flavine, and topped with scarlet. 
 
 Of scarlets and reds also of basic character, although not 
 exactly belonging to this class, are the Yacanceine reds of 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 61 
 
 Holliday, an example of which will be found among the 
 patterns, where also the method of production on the fibre 
 will be mentioned. Magenta, for the production of reds on 
 cotton, is scarcely ever employed now-a-days ; when so 
 used, it is principally in connection with other colours, such 
 as for browns on cotton velvets, &c. 
 
 Blues. — Several products of basic character are em- 
 ployed, the oldest of which is spirit aniline blue (opal 
 blue). This product is now little employed, although at 
 one time very largely used ; it has been substituted, to a 
 very great extent, by methylene blue. The aniline blues 
 soluble in spirit range from blueish violets to greenish blue, 
 but only the latter shade is now employed in the dyeing 
 of cotton yarns. This greenish aniline blue, commonly 
 called opal blue, gives very bright shades, which stand 
 unrivalled, and which, although imitated, have never been 
 surpassed by the other blues. The method of employment 
 is as follows : — 
 
 Blue on Cotton with Spirit Opal Blue. 
 
 1st. — Mordant the cotton in soap bath, prepared with 10 
 parts Marseilles soap, dissolved in 100 parts boiling water ; 
 wring out as equally as possible and dry. 
 
 2nd. — Dye bath, prepared with acetate of alumina at 
 T Tw., and corresponding amount of spirit solution of the 
 blue (as below). 
 
 Enter cotton, work at first cold, then bring up to the 
 boil, and boil one hour. According to the length of boiling, 
 different shades of blue are produced ; by bringing up to 
 the boil, a reddish blue is formed, which becomes then 
 greenish by boiling. 
 
 Dissolving the Opal Blue. 
 
 3 to 4 ozs., 2 to 2igrs. opal blue, are dissolved into one 
 gallon (100 grs.) of methylated spirit at the boiling, by 
 placing the vessel in boiling water ; it is allowed to settle a 
 few minutes, and filtered or sieved into the dyebath. Some- 
 times a little acetic acid is added along Avith the blue while 
 dissolving. 
 
62 DYEING. 
 
 This blue is still dyed on yams, used along with silk, in 
 the production of silk goods, and especiall}' on those yarns 
 which are polished. For a number of years solutions of 
 these opal blues have been sold, being the acetate of 
 triphenylated rosaniline, which is more soluble than the 
 hydrochloiic acid salt. 
 
 Methylene Blue, for cotton dyeing, is one of the most 
 useful products ever introduced into practice. It is princi- 
 pally used for light and bright shades, which, however, do 
 not equal those Avith aniline opal blue in brilliancy ; but 
 they are much cheaper, and also stand light better. 
 Methylene blue is not so much used for dark shades by 
 itself, as the colour produced is not very bright, but is 
 pretty extensively used for the production of navy or 
 marine blues in connection with methyl violet. For light 
 shades, the cotton, after mordanting in sumach or tannin, 
 and fixingf in tartar emetic or the oxalate, is washed and 
 soaped, and the dyeing is then performed in a hot (but not 
 boiling) bath. Some dyers prefer to add a certain amount 
 of soap to the dyebath, and state that they obtain brighter 
 and softer shades. 
 
 Victoria Blues are employed both for greenish and 
 reddish blues, but, owing to their instability against Hght, 
 their use is not very extensive. 
 
 Of Dark Blues there are several on the market, some 
 being simply mixtures of violets and greens, others self 
 colours of recent introduction, possessing great fastness 
 against soaping, and belonging in some cases to the induline 
 class. The dyer has now at his command various products 
 with which he can produce dark indigo blue shades by 
 dyeing, and methylene blue is one of the principal. For 
 
 Dark Blues. 
 
 1st. — Mordant with 20 per cent, of sumach, or corres- 
 ponding amount of extract, leave over night ; wring. 
 
 2nd. — Pass through bath prepared with acetate of iron, 
 black iron liquor, and 3 to 5^ Tw. ; work half-an-hour, 
 wring, and wash. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. G3 
 
 3rd. — Dye with methylene blue, with or without violet, 
 until the desired shade is produced. 
 
 This method gives nice dark indigo-like shades on cotton 
 cloth, imitating indigo fairly well, but they are not so fast. 
 The method of mordanting may be inverted by mordanting 
 with iron first, but without any advantage. 
 
 The Violets and Greens do not call for any special 
 remark, and the methods of dyeing with these products are 
 of the easiest, except that owing to their great attraction 
 for the mordants, it is not an easy matter to obtain even 
 shades ; this is, however, only a matter of practical 
 experience in the manipulations. They are often employed 
 together in the dyeing of dark blues on sumach or iron 
 mordants. 
 
 Bismarck Brown is a product still largely employed in 
 cotton dyeing, both for yarn and cloth, and its employment 
 also does not offer any special difficulty. 
 
 Chrysoidine and Phosphine are not so largely used now, 
 the latter on account of its high price, and the former by its 
 having been substituted by other dyestufts possessing 
 greater brilliancy or fastness. 
 
 General Remarks on the Dyeing with Basic Aniline 
 Colours : — 
 
 Dissolving. — In the dissolving of these dyestuffs, it is 
 well to use pure, and, if practicable, even distilled water, 
 since calcareous water renders a portion of the product 
 insoluble by forming a kind of lake. It is better to add the 
 colouring matter in a vessel, and then pour the boiling 
 water on it by gentle stirring, than to do the reverse, that is, 
 to add the colouring matter to the boilincc water. Before 
 the solution is added to the dyebath, it is necessary to see 
 that it is quite clear, that is, either thoroughly settled or 
 sieved, or better, filtered, since any undissolved part Avill 
 settle itself on the goods, and cause spots and irregularity 
 in the dyeing. 
 
 Temperature of dyebath and duration of dyeing. No 
 general rule can be given, but it may be set down as a good 
 plan to begin dyeing in the cold, and bring up to the boil ; 
 
64 DYEING. 
 
 long boiling, however, is unnecessaiy, and, in fact, detri- 
 mental. Many dyers start the bath lukewarm, and dye 
 without going up to the boil. One hour to li should be 
 the longest time employed for the dyeing process, which, 
 according to requirements, may be considerably shortened. 
 It is advisable to add the colouring solution in two or three 
 portions to the dyebath, rather than to add it all at once. 
 
 Amount of dyestuff : I to I per cent, for light shades, 
 and up to 1 and Ih per cent for darker hues, may be taken 
 as a general rule. 
 
 Amount of water in dyehath : From 10 to 20 or 30 parts 
 of water to weight of cotton. 
 
 Compov/iul Shades. 
 
 By the combination of two or more of the basic aniline 
 colours an enormous amount of different shades could be 
 produced, but they are seldom used for the purpose, since 
 it is very difficult to get even shades, as the colours seem to 
 precipitate each other in the dyebath, very likely owing to 
 the common salt, which is very often added to some of these 
 products as an adulterant. Aniline colours are very largely 
 used for topping the shades obtained with dyewoods 
 
 Aniline Black. — Aniline black is not sold as a ready- 
 made colouring matter ; it is formed on the fibre during 
 the dyeing process, but is nevertheless a basic dyestuff, 
 and is therefore treated of here. 
 
 The first condition to obtain good blacks is to use an 
 aniline that is as pure as possible, namely, an anihne 
 containing no toluidines, which are generally found as 
 impurities in the aniline sold. 
 
 For lOOlbs. Yarn.* 
 
 Make up a dye beck with about 120 to 130 gallons of 
 cold water, add to it — 
 
 161bs. bichromate of potash dissolved in a sufficient 
 quantity of hot water. 
 
 * I am obliged for these three recipes to the kindness of Dr. Dreyfus' 
 of the Clayton Aniline Company. 
 
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PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 65 
 
 lUbs. sulphate of iron dissolved in hot water. 
 161bs. sulphuric acid at 168 Tw. 
 Then dissolve separately 81bs. special oil for black 
 in 121bs. hydrochloric acid at 32 Tw., add 2 
 galls, water, and put into the dye beck. 
 Stir the beck well up. Then enter the yarn rapidly, work 
 it very briskly for three-quarters of an hour, in the cold 
 dye beck; then heat up gradually, and bring it to the 
 spring boil in another three-quarters of an hour ; leave in 
 five minutes ; lift and wash well. 
 
 If a blue-black is required, soap in a hot soap bath half- 
 an-hour. 
 
 This gives the best black ; cheaper blacks can be produced 
 by using less of the materials. 
 
 Instead of special oil for black you may use — 
 
 11 lbs. SPECIAL SALT FOR BLACK. 
 
 21bs. hydrochloric acid. 
 For lOOlbs. Cotton, either Yarn or Piece Goods. 
 170 to 200 gallons water, to which add — 
 
 1 15^1bs. bichromate of potash dissolved in 
 
 7 galls, boiling water. 
 
 2 2^ galls, of cold water. 
 
 |ths. of a gallon of sulphuric acid at 168 to 170° 
 Tw., or in weight 14flbs. 
 
 3 5ilbs. nitrate of iron (48° Be, or 100° Tw.) 
 
 If aniline is used — 
 
 4 2^galls. of cold water. 
 
 lOflbs. muriate acid at 36° Tw. (22° Be.) 
 8f lbs. aniline oil for dyeing, 
 
 If aniline salt is used — 
 4 2^galls. hot water. 
 12Jlbs. aniline salt. 
 These materials are added to the dyebath in the order 
 given above. Stir up the bath well, and then enter the 
 
 O' 
 
 up 
 
 goods. Turn without stopping for piece goods, and work 
 well in the bath for yarns ; | hour after having begun to 
 dye, start heating the bath gradually so as to take another 
 I hour to get to the boil. Then stop the heat, work another 
 quarter of an hour in the dye bath, then take out the goods 
 
66 DYEING. 
 
 and ivash fhem thorougJdy. After wasiiing, pass tlie goods 
 (I hour) througli a bath heated up to 50° centigrade (120° 
 Fahrenheit), and containing 1 oz. of vitriol to every 6 
 gallons of water, say, 1 part in weight of vitriol to 1,000 
 parts in weight of water. Wash well and soap at 70/80° 
 centigrade (160° to 170° Fahrenheit), with 7 lbs. good olive 
 oil soap. The soaping is to be specially recommended in 
 preference to a passage through carbonate of soda. The 
 goods that have been soaped feel softer and do not dust so 
 much as those passed through soda. The dyeing is done 
 in wooden dye becks with a copper coil to heat the bath. 
 The bath must be heated by dry steam, and not with live 
 steam — this latter would dilute the bath too much. 
 The nitrate of iron for above is made as follows : — 
 In a stone jar put oOlbs. nitric acid at 36° Be (66° Tw.), 
 and add, gradually, 6 to 71bs. hoop iron ; Avhen the iron is 
 dissolved bring the solution to the degree required. 
 
 Fast Bronze Black for Sizing. 
 
 For 1 OOlbs. Cotton (Yarn). 
 lOOgalls. water. 
 10 ,, sohition C. 
 10 ,, solution D. 
 Mix well, and then enter the cotton. Dye 15 minutes 
 cold, and then gradually heat up to 160° F. in 30 to 45 
 minutes. Wash well. Dry and size. 
 
 Solution C. 
 lOOgalls. water. 
 
 SOlbs. pure aniline F.F. 
 1501bs. sulphuric acid. 
 Mix well. 
 
 Solution D. 
 lOOgalls. water. 
 
 1501bs. bichromate of potash, or soda. 
 Dissolve and mix well. 
 
 It is a curious fact that aniline black is dyed much more 
 largely on the Continent, principally in France, in the 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 67 
 
 neighbourhood of Rouen, than in this country. It is also 
 of interest to note that some cheap blacks are d3'ed there 
 with about 4 to 5 per cent, of anihne. This is made possible 
 by the employment of concentrated baths and specially 
 constructed machines, on which a large quantity is dyed at 
 the same time. In the majority of cases, the cold process 
 is employed when dyeing with aniline black, the yarn being 
 left ovemifrht in the baths. Sometimes the aniline black 
 is topped with logwood, or with aniline violet. 
 
 By a modification of the ordinary aniline black dyeing 
 process a colour is produced which will stand a moderate 
 bleaching process, and can be employed in such goods as 
 have been woven in white grounds with black patterns. 
 
 Phenylendidiuinc Brown. 
 
 V>y following the same process as for aniline black, the 
 author obtained, some years ago, very fast brown and bronze 
 colours by means of phenylendiamine. The only drawback 
 to its employment for cotton dyeing is its price ; otherwise, 
 the colours are of such fastness, that they would be very 
 usefully employed in practice. 
 
 ACID COAL TAR COLOURS. 
 
 Of these only the blues are worth mentioning as being 
 largely employed. They are found on the market, either 
 capable of being fixed on cotton simply in a bath with alum, 
 or they can be dyed on tannin and tin mordant with alum 
 in bath, as mentioned before. 
 
 The cotton blues have lost their importance considerably 
 since the introduction of methylene blue, but they are still 
 used to a certain extent, and yield shades which cannot be 
 produced by any other means, and at a low price. The 
 colours produced, however, are very loose against washing, 
 and are not fast to light, although they stand exposure to a 
 certain extent. A method of employment of great 
 importance some years ago for the dyeing of these 
 
68 DYEING. 
 
 soluble aniline blues (cotton blues) on cotton is the 
 following : — 
 
 CoTTOX Blues for light or medium shades — 
 1st. — Mordant — 
 
 201bs. alum 400 grs. 
 
 lOlbs. scda crystals 200 grs. 
 
 2|lbs. tartar emetic 50 grs. 
 
 5 galls, water 1 litre. 
 
 Dissolve the alum in the boiling water, leave to cool, and 
 add the other ingredients; when all dissolved, leave to 
 settle, and use clear liquor. 
 
 2nd. — Dyebath for lOOlbs. cotton. Prepared with: — 
 Solution of colouring matter (about ^ to 1 per cent, or more, 
 according to strength of dj^estuff and shade required), and 
 add— 
 
 IJ galls, of above mordant 12^cc. per 100 grs. cotton. 
 
 Dye at a temperature of 80 to 90' C. 
 
 Dark Shades. — Dark blues are produced by simply 
 preparing a bath of the colour solution — 
 Along with lOlbs. of alum, 
 And olbs. soda crystal, 
 For every lOOlbs. of cotton. 
 As may be easily imagined, these shades never stand 
 washing with water. The dyebaths are always kept, since 
 they are not exhausted, and still contain a large amount 
 of dyestuff. 
 
 The other acid aniline colours, such as acid magenta or 
 acid violet, &c., have no special interest for cotton dyeing, 
 but are of great value for the dyeing of wool. 
 
 THE EOSIXES. 
 
 These dyestuffs have lost their importance considerably 
 during the last few years, oAving, first, to the fugitive- 
 ness of the shades produced, but more especially on 
 account of the introduction of some azo reds of blueish 
 shade, which are faster against light, and, moreover, much 
 cheaper in price. For pinks of a very bright line, the 
 
PLATE XL— WARP DRYING MACHINE. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 69 
 
 eosines are, however, still employed, and, in the majority of 
 cases, on bleached cotton, without any mordant, and by the 
 addition or not of acetic acid in the bath. Eosines ior fuller 
 shades can be dyed on cotton, mordanted with soap and 
 acetate of lead solutions, the yarn being alternately first in 
 the soap then in the lead bath, and the operation repeated, 
 in order to fix a lead soap on the fibre, which, after washing, 
 is then dyed in the eosine bath. Although this method 
 gives fine shades, it has the drawback of being liable to 
 blacken if exposed to sulphuretted hydrogen fumes. The 
 method of mordanting with alizarine oil, and then acetate 
 of alumina, is free from this objection. 
 
 Another method of mordanting cotton for eosine colours 
 is as follows : — 
 
 1st.— Boil cotton for half-an-hour in strong soap bath— 
 10 parts soap to 100 of water ; wring out. 
 
 2nd. — Work in red liquor (acetate of alumina 12° Tw.) ; 
 lift, wring, wash. 
 
 3rd.— Dye in lukewarm bath, allow to cool down during 
 the dyeing. Add the colours gradually, and for yellower 
 shades add further a small amount of acetic acid. Eosine 
 colours are very fugitive against light, and of course do not 
 stand soaping. 
 
 THE AZO COLOURS. 
 
 The number of azo colours found on the market, 
 and their diversity of name, make it almost an im- 
 possibility to describe them individually, and therefore only 
 a few broad hints will be given here, the more so that 
 all the manufacturers of coal tar colours, as a rule, give the 
 method of employment of their products. 
 
 Of the orange azo dyestuffs few are found of utility, while 
 the scarlets are very largely employed. 
 
 Of the various methods of employment, Ave may mention 
 that very often, and this especially in the case of cotton 
 cloth, no mordant at all is used, the goods being simply 
 impregnated with the dyestuff solution A soap and acetate 
 
70 DYEIXG. 
 
 of alumina mordant is often employed, or alizarine oil and 
 acetate of alumina mordant may be used. In no case are 
 colours produced which stand even a good washing with 
 water alone, not to mention soap, which would strip the 
 colours off entirely. These remarks will be supplemented 
 by dyed patterns, with particulars, in another part of this 
 work. 
 
 In later times special azo reds have been introduced, 
 which, Hke some of the older aniline soluble blues, only 
 require alum for their dyeing on cotton. 
 
 In another part of this work will be found dyed patterns, 
 with corresponding methods of employment of this interest- 
 ing class of dyestuffs, being communications from coal 
 tar colour manufacturers. 
 
 Here will be described only the general methods of 
 application of the different azo colours. 
 
 Azo Oranges, Tropeolines, c&c, are not largely used for 
 cotton dyeing, and in the majority of cases are utilised 
 simply as impregnation colours. The cotton is previously 
 boiled in a soap bath, then lifted, cooled, wrung, and 
 worked in the dyebath, which is made rather concentrated 
 with the addition of a little alum. 
 
 Azo Scarlets (Ponceaux). Mordant — 
 201b3. alum. 
 lOlbs. soda crystals. 
 3Jibs. tartar emetic. 
 Dissolve in sufficient water, aliow to settle, draw off" clear 
 liquor, and make up to 70" Tw. Work cotton in this bath 
 cold ; lift, wring out ; dye in very concentrated bath of the 
 dyestuff, at about GO' C. 
 
 Another method — 
 
 1st.— Work in stannic chloride solution at o" Tw. for 
 half-an-hour, wring. 
 
 2nd. — Work half-an-hour in second bath, with acetate of 
 alumina, 5'' Tw. ; wring, wash slightly. 
 
 3rd. — Dye in concentrated bath at about 60' C. 
 
PLATE XII.— ROBERTSHAW'S DYEING MACHINE. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 71 
 
 NEW CLASS OF AZO COLOURS. 
 
 Congo Class. — These products, which come on the 
 market in such a variety of shade, and which are very 
 interesting, as being the only class of coal tar colours 
 dyeing cotton without mordants, are applied on cotton 
 generally in an alkaline bath. The following recipes are 
 due to the kindness of Messrs. Bryce and Rumpf, the 
 Manchester agents of the Bayer Colour Works, Elberfeld, 
 who have given special attention to these products. 
 These dyestuffs, with the exception of chrysamine yellow, 
 which is fast, do not stand light so well as might be 
 wished ; but they are found very useful for a variety of 
 purposes. The most interesting property of the colours 
 produced on the fibre is that they stand soaping, and in 
 many cases boiling soap exceedingly well. 
 
 They dye cotton, wool, silk, jute, linen, half-silken, half- 
 woollen, half-linen oroods in a boiling bath without a 
 mordant, and owing to their great affinity to each other 
 they allow a general combination, and thus the production 
 of any required shade from yellow to red, violet, blue, olive 
 and brown. 
 
 In order to make the colours fall on better still, and 
 more especially to obtain full dark shades, it has proved 
 advantageous to add weak alkaline or neutral acting 
 mordants to the dye-bath, such as soap, potash, soda, 
 phosphate, silicate or stannate of soda, salt or glaubersalts, 
 that the dyer may have it within his power to exhaust the 
 bath more or less. 
 
 In consequence of their homogeneousness and affinity 
 to the fibre, the whole of these products allow, whenever it 
 is contemplated to produce mixed shades, the addition of two 
 or more of these colours to the dye-bath simultaneously, and 
 no longer by degrees, as has been the general rule hitherto. 
 
 As regards fastness to air and light, these dye-stuffs are 
 at least quite as good as any aniline colours known hitherto. 
 The chrysamine will retain its colour even if exposed for 
 months to the most concentrated sunlight. 
 
72 DYEING. 
 
 Besides the above mentioned properties, these interesting 
 new products liave the singular pecuHarity of serving 
 as a mordant for all other aniline colours, the azo or 
 naphthol colours excepted, i.e., if the cotton has first been 
 dyed, and has then been topped with other aniline colours, 
 the shade becomes fixed in the most perfect way without 
 the cotton being tanned first, or prepared with another 
 mordant ; thus in this way also, an unlimited number of 
 compound shades can be obtained. 
 
 CHRYSAMINE. 
 
 This dye-stuff is against air and light the fastest aniline 
 colour in existence. It is supplied in paste as well as in 
 powder, for printing or dyeing purposes. Chrysamine has 
 proved of great importance as a direct yellow, also for 
 topping other colours, or as a substitute for annatto with 
 turkey red. 
 
 On cotton not mordanted. — For a medium yelloAV shade 
 dye with 
 
 10 per cent, phosphate of soda. 
 
 2^ per cent, olive oil soap. 
 
 1 per cent, chrysamine powder. 
 
 Short liquors are recommended. Raise the bath to 
 boiling point, enter the yarn and dye for one hour, turning 
 oft* steam. Should the dyeing be done at the boil, a reddish 
 yellow will appear. Wash Avell after dyeing. 
 
 The first bath not being exhausted may be used again, 
 for further parcels three-fourths or less of the former 
 quantity of colour or mordant are required ; of the latter 
 finally no more need be added. 
 
 Jute, hemp and linen goods are dyed the same as 
 cotton. 
 
 Silk should be dyed the same as cotton, and brightened 
 by acetic acid. Dyeing in a pure soap bath (without the 
 phosphate of soda) may also be done, and is especially to be 
 recommended for combination dyeing with green, methyl- 
 violet, magenta, saft'ranine, etc. 
 
PLATE XIII.— SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 73 
 
 Half-silken goods are dyed the same as the recipe for 
 cotton yam. and a tine last yellow is obtained in one bath. 
 
 Half-woollen goods are dyed with phosphate of soda 
 alone (no soap), boiling for one hour. 
 
 HESSIAN YELLOW. 
 
 This product does not fall on so well as the chrysamine, 
 and yields a somewhat redder shade. 
 I'repare a bath of 
 
 25 litres water (5^ gallons) 
 to 1 kilo cotton (2), lbs.) 
 with 100 grammes common salt (3|oz.) 
 raise to 65° C. or 149'' F., add the solution of colour, and 
 now enter with the cotton, adding at the same time 100 
 grammes (4oz.) Turkey red oil, dyo up to shade for about 
 half an hour, rinse in cold water and dry. If dyed in 
 copper, a reddish yellow results, therefore wooden, or tin 
 vessels should be used. 
 
 I'.HILI.IAXT YELLOW. 
 
 Dyes on cotton a fine greenish yellow, in a weak acidu- 
 lated bath ; but contrary to the other yellow dye-stuffs it 
 has this peculiarity, that it turns red by soap or alkali. 
 Prepare a liquor of 
 
 2') litrps water (;H gallons.) 
 to 1 kilo cotton (2^1bs.) 
 with 200 grammes common salt iTioz.) 
 enter the cotton, add the solution of colour and 
 
 20 grammes of acetic acid of 35 per cent. (ifOZ.) 
 and dyo for about half an hour at GO" to 70° C. = 140 to 
 150° F., wring and rinse slightly. 
 
 BENZOPURPUIUXE 1 1! AND 4 B, DELTA-PURPURINE 
 G AND 5 ]{, CONGO G AND 4 R. 
 
 All these dye-stuffs will yield fiery scarlet and Turkey 
 red shades, fast to soap. Congo and all products of the 
 
74 DYEING. 
 
 same dcnomirication dye a full yellow to medium red, but 
 have the property of being very sensitive to acids, though 
 for many purposes this may not be important. Benzopur- 
 purine 4 B, although in its other properties resembling 
 Congo, will withstand diluted acids, and consequently 
 resists air better. The benzopurpurine 1 B, Delta-purpurine 
 G and 5 B, are the red products fastest to acids of this class 
 of colours. The latter, therefore, will be used wherever 
 colours fast to acids and suitable for underclothing purposes 
 are wanted. They fall on somewhat more slowly than 
 Congo and benzopurpurine 4 b, but by increasing the 
 quantity of mordant, as already stated, they dye stronger 
 and more quickly. 
 
 On cotton not mordanted. — Dye boiling for one hour 
 with : — 
 
 3 to 5 per cent, carbonate of potash. 
 2^ per cent. soap. 
 3 per cent, of the respective dye-staff. 
 
 The use of water containing lime must be avoided, there- 
 fore before dissolvinfj the colour, and before adding: the 
 soap or the respective mordant, remove the lime. 
 
 Instead of carbonate of potash, the following mordants 
 will also do — 
 
 — 10 per cent, phosphate of soda, 
 or 8 — 5 per cent, soda crystals, 
 or 5 per cent, borax, 
 or per cent, silicate of soda, 
 or 5 per cent, stannate of soda, 
 or 5 — 10 per cent, glaubersalts. 
 To improve the resisting properties of this colour to light 
 and air, pass the goods, after dyeing, through a cold bath, 
 to which add 
 
 5 per cent, soda crystals. 
 
 A brighter and deeper shade of red is obtained by 
 giving the goods after dyeing a second cold bath, to 
 which 
 
 5 — 10 per cent. Turkey red oil solution 
 is added. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 75 
 
 This Turkey red oil solution is made up as follows — 
 5 parts soda dissolved 
 in 75 ,, water, then 
 
 25 ,, Turkey red oil (neutral) 
 added and the whole well mixed. 
 
 After taking the goods through the above-mentioned cold 
 water bath (with from 5 to 10 per cent, of this Turkey red 
 oil solution added), dry without further washing. 
 
 If this Turkey red oil bath is applied, of course the soda 
 bath mentioned above is left out. 
 
 The dyebaths may be kept for further use, and for new 
 lots of cotton proportionately less colour and mordant 
 have to be added to the original bath. 
 
 Pink shades are got by adding very little, say one-tenth 
 per cent, of dye-stuff. 
 
 On silk a full red shade is dyed with : 
 
 5 per cent, phosphate of soda, 
 or 5 per cent, olive oil soap, 
 and 3 per cent dye-stuff, 
 kept just under the boiling point for three-quarters of 
 an hour; and the baths may be retained for further 
 use. 
 
 Half-silken goods are dyed same as silk, and a fine red is 
 obtained in one bath. 
 
 Half-woollen goods : In order to get the wool as well as 
 the cotton to correspond in shade, add to the solution of 
 colour 
 
 2 per cent, carbonate of potas-h, 
 8 per cent, phosphate of soda, 
 dye boiling for one hour. 
 
 Jute, hemp, and linen goods are dyed like cotton. 
 
 ROSAZURINE. 
 
 This product dyes cotton a fine clear blueish-red, and is 
 well adapted as a substitute for saffranine, or to give the 
 colours as stated under, in the last recipe, a more blueish 
 and yet brighter shade. 
 
76 DYEING. 
 
 Resisting acids very well, and dyeing vegetable and 
 animal fibre a perfect even shade, it is besides well adapted 
 for dyeing half-silken and half-woollen goods in one 
 bath. 
 
 Rosazurine dyes the same as benzopurpurine or Congo. 
 
 Rosazurine dyed on wool is exceedingly fast to milling. 
 
 HESSIAN PURPLE. 
 
 This colour is in shade similar to rosazurine, but not so 
 bright ; further, it does not stand the light as well as the 
 latter. 
 
 Hessian purple dyes with common salt only, just under 
 the boiling point 205 to 210"' F. for half-an-hour ; then 
 wring, and without rinsing, turn in a solution of 5 per cent 
 soda crystals, wring and dry without rinsing. By giving 
 the soda solution an addition of a little neutral Turkey red 
 oil, the shades will turn more brilliant and more fiery. All 
 vegetable fibres are dyed in the same manner. 
 
 AZOBLUE, BENZOAZURIXE R AND C 
 
 These products also dye in one bath, yielding respectively 
 a blue violet and a medium blue shade ; they correspond 
 generally with the dyestufts mentioned above, but absolutely 
 resist acids, even strong nitric acid, and to a great extent 
 air and light. 
 
 Whereas the yellow and red products of this class dye 
 the vegetable as well as the animal fibre one and the same 
 shade ; the azoblue or benzoazurine dye the animal fibre a 
 more reddish shade than the vegetable fibre. The evenness 
 of both fibres (half-silk and half- wool) is, however, easily 
 obtained by adding the corresponding colour, which dyes 
 the animal fibre alkaline, e. g., alkali blue (acidulated in the 
 water bath), or topping in a fresh bath, e.g., methylene 
 blue. 
 
 On cotton not raordanted. — Dye boiling for one hour 
 with — 
 
i 
 
 INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 77 
 
 5 to 10 per cent, glaubersalts, 
 
 2^ per cent, soap, 
 2 to 3^ per cent, azoblue or benzoazurine, 
 according to shade required. 
 
 Instead of glaubersalts, 5 to 10 per cent, phosphate of 
 soda may be added. 
 
 While in the dye bath the shade will turn reddish, and 
 on lifting, the yarn must be well rinsed in cold water, when 
 a blueish tinge appears ; dry in an airy room. (Azoblue if 
 dried hot will turn reddish, but will lose this red tinge as 
 soon as the yam has cooled). 
 
 The liquors are not exhausted, and may therefore be kept 
 for further use. Only two-thirds of the quantity of colour 
 and glaubersalts, or less even, are taken in the following 
 bath (and of the glaubersalts finally none). 
 
 Water containing lime must be avoided, therefore, before 
 dissolving the colour, and before adding the soap or the 
 respective mordant, remove the lime. If indigo shades are 
 wanted, the addition of a small quantity of chrysamine 
 to the dye bath gives good results (before adding the 
 latter it must, however, be thoroughly dissolved in boiling 
 water). 
 
 To 100 parts of benzoazurine, 3 to 5 parts of chrysamine 
 powder are added (according to the shade of indigo 
 required). All such shades dyed on cotton with 
 benzoazurine and chrysamine are considered superior to 
 indigo, as the colour does not rub off in the least. 
 
 For combination with white, the cotton dyed with 
 azoblue or benzoazurine is first rinsed in a lukewarm soap 
 bath, so that the colour mechanically adhering to the fibre 
 is removed, and after that it is requisite to rinse thoroughly 
 again in cold water. 
 
 Benzoazurine— just as well as the other colours belonging 
 to this class — has the peculiar property of acting as a 
 mordant by itself ; therefore, if the cotton, for instance, is 
 first dyed with a bottom of benzoazurine, any other aniline 
 colour (magenta, imperial green, emera,ld green, saffranine, 
 violet, &c.) may be dyed on the yarn without adding any 
 
78 DYEING. 
 
 Other mordant for topping, thereby immensely facihtating 
 shading off into other tints. 
 On silk dye with — 
 
 10 per cent, pliosphate of soda, 
 5 per cent, olive oil soap, 
 3 per cent, colour, 
 just under the boiling point 205 to 210° F., for three-quarters 
 of an hour, reviving with acetic acid. 
 
 The liquors may be kept for further use. 
 Half-silken goods are dyed the same as silk. 
 Half- woollen with phosphate of soda only (no soap). 
 Jute, hemp, and linen goods are dyed like cotton. 
 The following dyestuff's — chrysamine, benzopurpurine, 
 Congo, azoblue, benzoazurine — are exceedingly suitable for 
 dyeing lime, plaster of Paris, soap, &c., without any 
 addition whatever. 
 
 Corozo-nut buttons, wood, are dyed same as cotton. 
 
 CONGO-CORINTH AND CONGO-CORINTH B, 
 
 Which give dark purplish reds, are appropriate for dyeing 
 cotton in one bath without previous mordanting, and besides, 
 are recommendable for mixing purposes. The dye method 
 is the same as with the benzopurpurine or congo, and the 
 mordants best adapted for the purpose would be — 
 Borax and common salt, 
 
 or 
 
 Phosphate of soda and soap. 
 
 ALIZARINE COLOURS. 
 
 Of the applications of alizarine for cotton dyeing, only 
 that for the production of red deserves attention. Other 
 colours, of course, can be produced with alizarine on cotton 
 with different mordants ; but, with the exception of purples, 
 and to a less extent chocolates or browns, alizarine is almost 
 exclusively employed in cotton dyeing for the production 
 of reds, turkey reds, and alizarine reds. 
 
PEACTICAL PROCESSES. 79 
 
 The dyeing of reds on cloth, and the theory of the 
 formation of the red lake, have been extensively treated in 
 the author's previous work on " Printing," and will, there- 
 fore, not be mentioned here. The following remarks will 
 only treat upon the dyeing of reds on cotton yarn, and in 
 another chapter mention will also be made of the 
 machinery or apparatus employed in some dycworks, 
 principally on the Continent. 
 
 ALIZARINE RED. 
 
 On Cotton Yarn lOOlhs. 
 
 1st. — Boil with 3 per cent, caustic soda ; wash and dry. 
 
 2nd.— Mordant with acetate of alumina at 6 to 8° Tw. ; dry and 
 leave to air, or preferably age in a damp and moderately heated 
 stove. 
 
 3rd. — Pass for balf-an-hour in a dunging bath containing lOlbs. 
 chalk (or whiting), or dung with dung substitutes such as 
 binarseniate of soda ; wash Avell. 
 
 4tb. — Dye in batb with 7 to 8 per cent., alizarine 20 per cent., 
 blue or yellow shade, according to colour required. 
 3 to 5 per cent, alizarine oil, 
 1 to 2 per cent. Sicily sumach, 
 or corresponding amount of tannic acid. Start cold, beat gradually 
 so as to reach about 65 to 70° C, in from 1 hour to 1^ bours ; 
 lift out and wring. If tbe yarn be washed it must only be done 
 slightly; dry. 
 
 5th. — Give an oil bath prepared with 10 parts alizarine oil in 
 100 of water ; dry. 
 
 6tb. — Steam 1 hour. 
 
 7th.— Soap with 3 to 5 per cent. oUve oil soap, and dry. 
 
 N.B. — Some dyers prefer to add some tin crystals to the 
 acetate of alumina mordant; for the purpose, however, 
 acetate of tin would be preferable to the chloride. Others 
 again prefer to add some tin crystals to the oil bath before 
 steamuig, by the addition of ammonia at the same time. 
 Others prefer to add stannous chloride solution, and a 
 small amount of soda crystals, say 1 to 2 per cent, each, 
 
80 DYEIXG. 
 
 while soaping after steaming. Some even mordant the 
 cotton previously with stannate of soda, and pass them in 
 weak sulphuric acid. As is well known, the addition of tin 
 improves the heauty of the reds considerably, by imparting 
 to them a yellower and brighter shade. The best method 
 of applying tia is, however, the one recommended by M. 
 Horace Koechlin, at a sitting of the Societe Industrielle 
 de Mlilhouse. By this method the tin is applied in the 
 dyebath, and in the form of a precipitated hydrate, being 
 in fact the precipitate produced by treating a stannic 
 solution by means of carbonate of soda. 
 
 Brighter and fuller reds are in all cases obtained by 
 giving one or more oilings at the beginning, by means of 
 the ordinary alizarine oils (prepared from castor oil), and 
 these reds are distinguished from the others by applying 
 to them the name of Turkey reds, a name which really 
 belongs to the reds produced by the long process, with 
 tournant or emulsive oils. The long process has been 
 mentioned elsewhere, and need not be repeated here. 
 
 The short process for 
 
 TUKKEY REDS, 
 
 Cotton yarn IQOlhs. — Is as follows — 
 
 1st. — Boil cotton 1^ hours with 3 per cent. Greenbank caustic 
 soda, wash and dry. 
 
 2nd. — Mordant in a solution of alizarine oil at 5 to 10 per 
 cent., wring and dry in stove at about 45° C. for 8 hours. 
 
 3rd. — Mordant, with acetate of alumina, at 6 to 8° Tw., dry in 
 stove 8 hours. 
 
 4th. — Dunging bath, containing lOlbs. chalk, olbs. cowdung, 
 temperature G0° C. for one hour, wash well. 
 
 5th. — Dyebath — Alizarine 7 to 8 per cent., alizarine oil 1 to 3 
 per cent., sumach 1 per cent. Start cold, heat gradually up to 
 65° C. and keep it at this temperature up to 70° C. for 20 to 30 
 minutes. Lift out. Dry at as low temperature as possible. 
 
 6th. — Steam for 1 hour. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 81 
 
 7th. — Soap — with 3 per cent, soap, 
 
 1 per Cent, soda crystal, 
 
 1 per cent, tin crystal, 
 at the boil for 1 hour or under pressure, wash and dry. 
 
 This is the outline only of the method which is generally 
 followed, but it undergoes very many modifications at the 
 hands of different dyers. Some give a steaming after the 
 first oiling, and steam also after the last oiling. Others 
 prefer to oil the yarns two or three times at first instead of 
 only once, and thus dispense with the oiling at the end. 
 Another important modification consists in employing a 
 basic alumina mordant mstead of the acetate of alumina 
 by taking 
 
 About 20 per cent, to 25 per cent, alum to weight of cotton, 
 dissolving in boiling water, and making up a bath at about 
 35° C. with sufiicient water only that the yarn can be easily 
 laid in the bath after having been well impregnated. 
 Before entering the yarn in this bath, the alum is rendered 
 basic by the addition of about 6 to 71bs. soda crystals, or a 
 corresponding amount of soda lye in sufiicient quantity to 
 form a basic mordant, without, however, precipitating any 
 hydrate of alumina. The yarn is left in this basic mordant 
 over night, and next morning, after wringing, is either 
 washed, or preferably dunged, and then dyed in the usual 
 
 way. 
 
 Although the method of mordanting cotton cloth by the 
 alkaline process, viz., aluminate of soda, is practised with 
 regularity in some printworks, the author does not (at the 
 time of writing) know of any instance of its being in success- 
 ful employment in any works for the dyeing of yarn ; but 
 from many experiments undertaken it seems very likely 
 that the method of mordanting cotton yam by means of 
 aluminate of soda will be introduced in the practice of the 
 works at no very distant date, and he hopes to be able to 
 pubUsh the results obtained by experiments, now proceeding, 
 in another part of this volume. 
 
 A modified method of the old process of turkey ^ red 
 dyeing is still employed in practice ; it consists m oihng 
 
82 DYEING. 
 
 the yarns three tiraes by a white bath of emulsive oil and 
 soda, exposing every time to stoving. The mordanting is 
 effected also by means of a basic alum bath, and after 
 dyeing, no oiling is necessary, but the goods are steamed 
 and soaped as usual. 
 
 In regard to the emplo3"ment of tin mordants, along with 
 alumina, the same remarks apply here even with greater 
 importance than in the dyeing of alizarine reds. The 
 emplo}'ment of the precipitated tin oxide in the dyebath, 
 aloncf with the alizarine, and which, according to the 
 communication already alluded to of M. Horace Koechlin 
 to the Societe Industrielle of Mlilhouse, has been used at 
 the Loerrach works (Koechlin Baumgarten) for the last ten 
 years, is a very sensible application, which will give excellent 
 results. It has been so far principally used for cotton 
 cloth dyeing, but will also be found very effective for yams. 
 
 OTHER ALIZARINE COLOURS. 
 
 ALIZARINE PURPLES. 
 
 These are pretty extensively produced, although to a 
 considerably less extent than the reds. 
 
 They are obtained as follows : — 
 1st method. 
 
 1st. — Mordant cotton with alizarine oil (oleine) in the 
 usual way as for reds, and dry, 
 
 2nd. — Work in acetate of iron (black iron liquor) at 
 about 3 to 5° Tw., according to the shade wanted, dry and 
 air 12 hours. 
 
 3rd. — Pass through hot whiting bath of 10 per cent. 
 chalk, rinse, &c. 
 
 4th. — Dye in alizarine bath, with or without oleine or 
 sumach in the bath. Enter cold, bring up to the boil, 
 boil 20 minutes, wash, 
 
 5th. — Soap with 5 per cent, soap, and dry. 
 
 This colour can be topped with methyl violet, by which 
 it is brightened very considerably. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 83 
 
 2nd method. lOOlbs, cotton. 
 
 1st. — Lay overnight in 20lbs. sumach. Wring. 
 
 2nd. — Work in acetate of iron (black iron Hquor) at 4° to 
 6° Tw, for 30-45 minutes, and wring. 
 
 3r(i. — Give a dunging bath, with chalk or silicate of soda. 
 Wash. 
 
 4th. — Dye with alizarine, and finish as before. 
 
 By connecting acetate of alumina with the iron mordant 
 in either method, 1st or 2nd, and then drying, dunging, and 
 following all the other operations, fast colours are obtained, 
 which can be greatly modified by the addition of other 
 dye-stuffs to the dye-baths, such as fustic, quercitron bark, 
 etc., and a great many shades can be produced. The 
 alizarine will already by itself give a different shade, 
 according as it is of a yellow or blueish hue. 
 
 Of the other alizarine colours very few applications 
 have been made, either for the dyeing of yarns or cloth. 
 Alizarine blue, for instance, is too expensive to compete 
 with indigo on the one side, or with aniline colours on the 
 other, while alizarine orange, also, is costly, and cannot eve 
 compete for shade with chrome orange. 
 
 CERULEINE OLIVES. 
 
 These might also be dyed with advantage, owing to 
 the peculiar shades produced, but the application of this 
 dye-stuff is not at all extensive in cotton dying, owing to 
 the costliness of the mordanting operation. The best 
 method of mordanting is by means of oxide of chrome, 
 and as is well known, no very satisfactory method exists, 
 except the alkaline methods, which have been fully described 
 in the work on " Printing," in which a sample has been 
 inserted of gallocyannie, along with bark dyed on cloth 
 mordanted with chromium alkaline mordant. This method 
 of mordanting is also too costly for extended appli- 
 cation. 
 
 An interesting application might be made of the new 
 class of azo colours belonging to the class of Congo red, 
 
84 DYEING. 
 
 for utilising tliem in the soap baths where ahzarine shades 
 are being soaped, which would then be modified according 
 to the dye-stufi employed. 
 
 DYEWOOD EXTRACT COLOURS. 
 
 The dyewood extracts are still largely used in cotton 
 dyeing for a great range of shades, but principally for the 
 following : — 
 
 Blacks, Greys, &c. 
 
 Browns. 
 
 Yellows. 
 
 Reds. 
 
 BLACKS. 
 
 Logwood still holds a strong position in the dyeing of 
 blacks, and is far from having been displaced by aniline 
 black for ordinary purposes. In one branch, however, 
 the black dyeing with logwood has suffered to a certain 
 extent, and it is the production of fast blacks with indigo 
 bottom that has been to a great extent displaced by aniline 
 black. The logwood cotton blacks are divided into iron 
 blacks and chrome blacks. 
 
 The Iron Blacks. 
 
 1st method. lOOlbs. cotton. 
 1st. — ^Vork cotton in acetate of iron at 6" Tw. (pyrolignate 
 of iron or black iron liquor) in the cold untU well impreg- 
 nated. ^Vring and dry. 
 
 2nd. — Pass through hot chalk bath with 10 per cent, of 
 whitino- 30 to 40 minutes, at 120 to 150° F., then wash well. 
 3rd. — Dye in fresh bath with decoctions from 
 75 to lOOlbs. logwood or corresponding amount of extract. 
 lOlbs. sumach ,, ,, 
 
 and, if necessary, same amount of fustic. Enter lukewarm, 
 and bring up to boil until black is perfectly developed. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES, 85 
 
 A better black is produced if some acetate of alumina be 
 employed at same time with the iron liquor, and the yarn 
 be aged or aired after drying and before dunging, but the 
 difficulty connected with this method is to obtain even 
 shades. 
 
 2nd method. lOOlbs. cotton. 
 
 1st. — Work an infusion of 20lbs. sumach, and lay over- 
 night in this bath. Wring. 
 
 2nd. — Pass through clear lime water (which will fix the 
 tannin as tannate of lime). 
 
 8rd. — Through acetate of iron at 4 to 6° Tw. for 1 hour ; 
 wring, and preferably leave in heap or air for some hours. 
 
 4th. — Through clear lime water again and wash. 
 
 5th. — Dye in logwood bath as above, with logwood, or 
 logwood extract and fustic, but without sumach. 
 
 Instead of using sumach in the first bath, any other 
 astringent may be used. 
 
 The first limebath is often left out, and the second is also 
 replaced by chalk or any other dunging bath, the object 
 being of course to fix the tannate of iron on the cotton. 
 Catechu is also often employed instead of sumach for fast 
 blacks, and after the iron bath a bichromate of potash bath 
 is often resorted to. 
 
 Nitrate of iron, or rather persulphate of iron, is in some 
 cases employed instead of the acetate, and no airing is then 
 necessary to oxydise the ferrous oxyde to the ferric as in 
 the last case. 
 
 Chrome Black. lOOlbs, cotton. 
 
 1st. — Prepare bath with extracts corresponding to 
 lOOlbs. logwood. 
 lOlbs. bark. 
 Boil cotton in this bath (without previously scouring) 
 for 1 hour, and then wring. 
 2nd. — Enter bath prepared with 
 
 41bs. bichromate of potash. 
 21bs. sulphate of copper. 
 Work 1 hour at about 100° F. ; wring and wash. 
 
86 DYEING. 
 
 3rd.— Re-enter 1st bath, work for 1 hour at about 150° F.; 
 Hft out and wash. 
 
 Instead of re-entering the first bath, a new bath of log- 
 wood may be used, in this case the three baths being kept 
 as standing baths, to be refreshed after every lot with new 
 ingredients. 
 
 Black yarns are generally softened after dyeing, either by 
 an oil and soap bath, or by special preparations, such as 
 so-called soluble oils, and now preferably by means of oleine 
 or alizarine oils. 
 
 DYEING AND FINISHING OF BLACK ITALIAN 
 COTTON CLOTH. 
 
 The dyeing of these goods forms an important speciality, 
 which is still in the hands of Yorkshire dyers, and the 
 following particulars on the subject, abstracted from a 
 lecture by such a practical dyer as Mr. James Sharp, of 
 Bradford,* will give a good idea how the processes of dyeing 
 and finishing are conducted. 
 
 In Yorkshire the machinery and mode of treatment differ 
 entirely in several important particulars from those in use 
 in Lancashire, and therefore any special aptitude which the 
 Yorkshire dyers have acquired in the dyeing and finishing 
 of cotton goods, and more particularly in that class known 
 as " Italian cloths," is principally owing to the application 
 of principles distinct from those in use in the Lancashire 
 trade, and to the use of machinery capable of producing 
 different results. 
 
 The drawings (figs. 1 and 2) represent a treble crabbing 
 machine, by Messrs. Elkanah Hoyle and Sons, Limited, 
 Halifax, which is not used in the Lancashire dyehouses, but 
 is indispensable in the finishing of worsted and mixed goods, 
 and which has some advantages in the finishing of cotton 
 goods. Fig. 1 shows the front, and fig. 2 the end elevation. 
 
 * Before the Manchester Section of the Society of Chemical Industry 
 in 1884. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 
 
 87 
 
88 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 bb 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 89 
 
 Simple as this crabbing machine may appear, it is by the 
 skilful use of it in preparing, or as we term it, " gray- 
 finishing," all the various kinds of goods, that the length is 
 increased by two or three yards per piece, the gloss or lustre 
 on alpaca goods produced, the smooth, close silky finish given 
 to Italian cloths or other goods, also the soft cloth handle 
 imparted to all-wool goods and cashmeres, and, what is more 
 miportant, the finish put upon the goods by this machine 
 is permanent, and withstands the action of the boiling dye- 
 vat. The drawing represents a treble crabbing machine, 
 each crab having separate motion or gearing. Practically 
 these crabs are identical one with the other, and each crab 
 has nine parts, used to produce the various finishes. These 
 are marked alphabetically in the order in which they are 
 used, A is the beaming or batching roller, B is the brake 
 to put tension on the cloth, C is the trough for boiling 
 alkaline solution, D is the roller in the trough to give 
 increased tension, E is the iron squeezing or crab roller, F 
 is the rack for raising or lowering the top roller, G the lever 
 for putting pressure on the top roller, H the expanding 
 roller to prevent creasing, and I the taking-out or rolling 
 motion. To bes^in with, the workman causes about five 
 pieces of worsted or cotton Italians to be stitched in one 
 length, with wrappers to protect the outer ends. The batch 
 of goods is taken from the singeing and laid in open fold, 
 convenient for being wrapped or batched round the beaming 
 roller A. This only places the goods in a convenient 
 position for treatment on the first crab. The trough C is 
 made ready with boiling alkaline solution, when the wrapper 
 which is stitched to the end of the goods is threaded, in 
 open Avidth, through the boiling water under the small 
 roller D, then wrapped round the bottom crab roller E, as 
 shown in the drawing. The brake B is adjusted to give the 
 proper tension to the goods, and the top crab roller E, which 
 has hitherto been raised, is now lowered to bear upon the 
 cloth, and when necessary additional pressure is put upon 
 the cloth by the lever G. The crab is put in motion, and 
 under these conditions the cloth is drawn or made to travel 
 
90 DYEING. 
 
 from the becaming roller A through the boiling alkaline 
 solution on to the bottom crab roller E. This process is 
 repeated upon the goods as they are made to travel in like 
 manner to the second and third crabs, after Avhich they are 
 taken on to rollers by the taking-out motion I. The 
 expanding roller E, as already mentioned, is for the purpose 
 of keeping the goods free from creases during the process of 
 batching on to rollers. AVorsted goods require to undergo 
 other processes which are not necessary in the case of cotton 
 o-oods. The steaming and reversing appliances attached to 
 the crab, and marked J, are only applicable to the finishing 
 of Bradford stuffs, and are the patent rights of Messrs. 
 Elkanah Hoyle and Sons, Halifax. This crabbing machine 
 is capable of preparing about twenty pieces per hour, or 200 
 pieces per day of 10 working hours. In treating cotton 
 Italians with the crab in the same manner as real Italians, 
 we obtain an increased length, a smooth, close, even surface, 
 a softer or more cloth-like handle, and the condition of the 
 goods is not only most suitable for dyeing black, but, what 
 is of very great importance, the weight of the cloih is fully 
 10 per cent, heavier than that of similar goods which are 
 prepared by kier bleaching. The object of the Yorkshire 
 dyer is to maintain the size as far as possible, and we are of 
 opinion that the process of crabbing is best calculated to 
 maintain the original weight of the goods, and to produce 
 increased length and improved handle. 
 
 The process of mordanting, as practised in Yorkshire, is 
 performed by means of jiggers. The smaller one (tig. 3) 
 represents the most improved jigger as used in the Lancashire 
 dye-houses, and as far as regards size it is the same as was 
 first used in Yorkshire. The larger drawing (tig. 4) represents 
 the largest size used in Yorkshire dye-houses. A batch or 
 charge for the small jigger is generally five pieces of 75yds. 
 each, whilst a batch or charge for the large jigger, as worked 
 in Yorkshire, is 40 pieces of 7oyds. each, so that in preparing 
 40 pieces they employ in Lancashire eight jiggers with 
 four men, whilst in Yorkshire 40 pieces are prepared on one 
 larsre iiesfer with two men to attend to it. The goods, after 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 
 
 91 
 
 Side Elevation 
 
 Fiff. 4. 
 
92 DYEING. 
 
 having been crabbed in tbe very way described, are brought 
 on to these large jiggers, and the first process is to sumach 
 or impregnate the cloth with any of the substances usually 
 employed which are richest in tannin, after Avhich the goods 
 are saddened, as it is termed, as a rule with solutions of 
 salts of iron. These processes produce a deep slate colour, 
 inclining to black. After this the goods are taken into the 
 dye-house, where the processes of dyeing are performed 
 with boiling-hot solutions, in the very large dye-vats, which 
 are represented in the drawings (figs. 5 and 6). These vats are 
 made in two sizes. The smaller one is capable of dyeing 
 40 pieces, and the larger one 80 pieces at once. The 
 drawings will give an idea of the working principle of the 
 dyeing machines. These vessels are always worked in pairs 
 In the first the goods are boiled in a solution of bichromate 
 of potash or soda. This process causes the dye to unite 
 firmly with the cloth, and gives a deeper shade of black. 
 In the second vat the goods are dyed with logwood, and in 
 some cases with the addition of fustic. The dye is fixed 
 boilins: hot, after which the o-oods are washed. 
 
 Now it is a fact that in the case of all cotton goods dyed 
 black — no matter what may be the processes or materials 
 employed — when they leave the dye-bath they are a red 
 shade of black, which is afterwards corrected t:> the proper 
 shade in various ways, and by the use of a variety of 
 materials. In Lancashire, soluble oil is one of the articles 
 much in favour. AVhether the goods are bottomed with 
 cutch, sumach, divi-divi, myrabolams, iron salts, copper salts, 
 or by a judicious mixture of some of these, good blacks can 
 be produced, but whilst in Lancashire the processes of 
 preparing and dyeing black are generally done on small 
 jiggers, where the d3^e is not fixed boiling hot, in Yorkshire 
 the goods are dyed in the large vats represented in the 
 drawings, after which they pass through the usual processes 
 to condition them for finishins^, which in Yorkshire is done 
 by hot pressing. This process enables the workman to 
 produce a watered eftect on the back, and a satin finish on 
 the face side of the goods. The Lancashire method is to 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 
 
 93 
 
 fcb 
 
 to 
 
94 DYEIXG. 
 
 finisli generally on calenders ; and excellent as is the finish 
 produced in that way, it is distinct in every characteristic 
 from that produced by the Yorkshire mode, whilst goods 
 treated by the Lancashu'e method, in all the processes, feel 
 thinner, handle more papery, and, if anyone spends a short 
 time in cutting them up with shears, more especially in the 
 case of coloured goods, he will find the cut is harsh, and 
 gives the idea of dryness and a grating sensation. On the 
 other hand, the Yorkshire dried goods feel more kind and 
 clothy, and cut more freely. 
 
 There is another point connected with the dyeing of 
 black cotton Italians which is of the greatest importance 
 both to dyers and merchants. Some dyers rely almost 
 exclusively, if not entirely, upon copper salts as their 
 mordants. Now, although goods dyed upon such a mordant 
 can be made to present a very satisfactory appearance for a 
 short time, yet when such goods are shipped, as they have 
 been, to distant Eastern markets, the consequences are 
 most serious, for the combination between mordant and 
 dye is a very feeble one in the case of such dyes, and log- 
 wood, with which all ordinary blacks are dyed, is not itself 
 a fixed dye. Its permanency depends entirely on the 
 application of proper mordants. Now, when copper mordants 
 are relied upon, and more especially if in the last process 
 the dyer uses alkalis or ammoniacal solutions, the copper 
 salts, or otherwise the oxides of copper, continue to exercise 
 an influence on the logwood and fustic (when present), until 
 the black dye is changed into green olive. This is, of 
 course, a great drawback, and has been a cause of great 
 trouble to some dyers. 
 
 BROWNS 
 
 are mostly dyed by means of cutch or catechu, the colour 
 being fixed with bichrome. 
 
 lOOlbs. Cotton. 
 1st. — Boil 20lbs. cutch in 100 to 150 galls, water, to which 
 add 2lbs. copper sulphate. Enter cotton, w^ork 20 to 30 
 minutes, leave in bath 2 hours, and then wring. 
 
PLATE XVII.— JIG WINCH. 
 
O 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 I— 1 
 
 >^ 
 Q 
 
 > 
 X 
 
 H 
 •-I 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 95 
 
 2nd. — Enter new boiling bath, prepared with olbs, 
 bichrome. Work A hour and wash. 
 
 By adding logwood or other dyewoods to the first bath 
 the shade can be greatly modified ; also by altering the 
 proportions, lighter shades can be produced, which are 
 often topped with magenta or other aniline or dye- 
 wood. 
 
 Colours. — The shade may also be modified by passsing 
 through an iron bath after dyeing, and dark browns almost 
 to a black can thus be produced. In fact, blacks on cotton 
 are also sometimes produced by giving them first a brown 
 bottom with cutch and chrome. 
 
 YELLOWS. 
 
 Since the introduction of auramine, the dyewood yellows 
 have to a certain extent fallen into the background ; they 
 are, however, still used, especially the shades produced with 
 quercitron, its extracts, or flavine. 
 
 As a rule cotton mordanted with alumina will dye a 
 yellow colour either with quercitron, fustic., or Persian berry 
 extracts, and the yellow produced is all the better if the 
 cloth has been oiled at the same time, as for alizarine red 
 d3'eing. This process of mordanting is, however, rather 
 expensive, in fact, the method of mordanting with alumina, 
 through acetate of alumina, is in all cases expensive and 
 cumbrous, and is only resorted to when there is no help for 
 it, which, of course, is not the case with yellows, which can 
 now be so easily dyed, principally by means of auramine on 
 cotton mordanted with tannic acid, and tin or antimony 
 mordants. 
 
 Very often light shades of yellows, or so-called straw- 
 colours, are dyed by means of fustic extract, and a small 
 amount of alum in the dye-bath. 
 
 Turmeric yellows are even now produced on cotton, which 
 is not mordanted, the dyeing being also simply effected in 
 one bath by acidulating the colour solution by means of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
96 DYEING. 
 
 Xnnatto is also pretty largely employed for fancy shades 
 of salmon up to orange colours. For the purpose the dye- 
 stuff is simply dissolved in a soda lye, and the solution, after 
 separating from the undissolved, is simply added to the dye- 
 bath where the cotton is worked, according to the shade 
 required. The colour is afterwards fixed or not, as the 
 case may be, with weak sulphuric acid in a fresh bath. 
 
 Among the patterns will be found a yellow, dyed with 
 flavine, for which the method will also be indicated, and 
 consequently will not be described here. 
 
 It is sufficient to say that with quercitron or flavine, 
 yellows can be produced of more or less deep shade by 
 simply working in a bath containing the dyestuff solution, 
 along with tin crystals, and raising the temperature 
 gradually up to 80° C. Deeper shades will be obtained if 
 the cotton has been previously mordanted with sumach or 
 tin. 
 
 REDS. 
 
 For red dyeing on cotton the dyewoods and natural 
 organic colouring matters generally are of very secondary 
 importance. The numerous coal tar colours, especially 
 alizarine and the azo scarlets and reds, have, to a great 
 extent, driven them out from the dye-houses. 
 
 Bariuood Reds are, however, still dyed, but in diminishing 
 quantities, even since the scarlets with safranine and 
 phosphine, and especially the scarlets of safranine and 
 chrysoidine or auramine, were introduced, and the cheap 
 new direct reds will also be very powerful competitors, not 
 to mention alizarine reds, which are being dyed so cheaply 
 now-a-days. Barwood red is dyed on cotton mordanted 
 with sumach and stannic mordants. 
 
 Peacliwood Reds have little or no importance, and 
 Cochineal also is very little employed. 
 
 Saffl^ower pinks, however, are still dyed, in spite of the 
 competition of the cosines, on account of the peculiar shade 
 they produce. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 97 
 
 OTHER FANCY SHADES. 
 
 A large number of fancy shades are produced with 
 dyewoods, such as : — 
 
 Oreys by passing the cotton — 1st, in sumach sohition, 
 and then in iron liquors or copperas sokition. Logwood or 
 cutch if taken instead of sumach produces other shades of 
 grey, which may be further modified by the employment of 
 copper sulphate or bichrome for the second bath. 
 
 Olives of great variety of shade can be produced, for 
 instance, by means of quercitron and logwood, such as : — 
 
 Olives — No. 1. 
 
 1st. — Mordant in sumach over-night ; Avring. 
 
 2nd. — Through iron solution dyed to a grey, wash, &c. 
 
 3rd. Dye in new bath with bark extract, to which add 
 
 5 to 10 per cent, alum to weight of cotton, and at the end 
 loo-wood extract solution, according to the shade required. 
 2nd method. 
 Boil cotton in mixture of fustic and logwood solutions, 
 then add copper sulphate in same bath, work to shade, 
 wash, and finish. 
 
 3rd method. lOOlbs. cotton. 
 1st. — Prepare boiling bath with — 
 5 to 7ilbs. cutch ; 
 enter yarn, give 6 turns, lift. 
 2nd. — Add in same bath — 
 
 3 to 41bs. copperas ; 
 irive 5 turns, lift, leave 2 hours on sticks. 
 3rd. — New bath with — 
 
 2 1 to 51bs. fustic extract ; 
 1 to 21bs. copper sulphate ; 
 bring up to boil ; after 9 turns, wash and dry. 
 
 Of other dyewood colours produced, the blues, with log- 
 wood, have now no interest for cotton dyeing, except for 
 the purpose of topping indigo dyed goods, as dark blues 
 
 H 
 
98 DYEING. 
 
 are seldom, if at al], produced on cotton with logwood 
 alone by adding copper sulphate and alum to the dyebath. 
 
 IXDIGO BLUES. 
 
 Indigo blues still form a veiy important branch of cotton 
 dyeing, and the preparation of the vats has not been the 
 subject of any real improvements since the introduction of 
 the hydrosulphite method of Schiitzemberger and De 
 Lalande. A recent proposal has been for the fermentation 
 vat by a known quantity of glucose and sugar ; in other 
 words, the old fermentation vat under a more scientific 
 management, and with materials which can easily be kept 
 under control. So far, however, the other methods are still 
 employed. 
 
 TheCopperasVat is still largely employed among the cotton 
 dyers, and gives very good results when well conducted ; it 
 has, however, the drawback of fonxiing a large proportion 
 of sediment, and consequently requires not only very deep 
 vats, but also a certain time for settling after it has been 
 agitated, othenvise it will be too muddy and will not work 
 well on the yarn. 
 
 The proportions employed vary very considerably in the 
 difterent works, and depend, not only upon the quality of 
 the indigo, which, as is well known, varies very greatly in 
 strength and price ; but also upon the kind of work and 
 depth of shade required. 
 
 The conduct of the vats, and indigo dyeing generally, 
 cannot be taught by recipes or directions in books, but has 
 to be learned practically by experience in the works ; since, 
 although the theory of the reduction of the indigo blue into 
 mdigo white appears very simple, the practice on a working 
 scale is of much greater difficulty, since there it is only a 
 question of making the dyeing pay, or not pay, according to 
 the ability of the dyer. 
 
 By referrmg to books on dyeing, and also to the experi- 
 ence of practical men, it will be found that the proportions 
 of indigo, lime, and copperas vary considerably according 
 
s 
 
 o 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I— I 
 
 < 
 Z 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 >< 
 
 X 
 h 
 
 <; 
 
 0. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 99 
 
 to different authors or practical dyers ; the fact is that an 
 excess of the reducing power must be at hand, and this 
 excess if too great will help to swell the volume of the 
 sediment at the bottom of the vat. On the other hand, 
 too small an amount of either lime or copperas will also act 
 injuriously by not utilising all the colouring power of the 
 indigo. 
 
 The following proportions may be taken as an example : 
 
 Copperas Vat. 
 
 10 grs. indigo, finely pulverised lib. 
 
 15 to 20 grs. copperas 1^ to 21bs. 
 
 25 to 30 grs. burnt lime 2^ to 31bs. 
 
 1 litre water 10 galls. 
 
 The indigo is perfectly ground to impalpable pulp in a wet 
 mill, and added to the vat. The copperas is then added 
 after having been previously dissolved in hot water, and left 
 to cool. Finally, the lime, which has been slacked with water, 
 and made into a thin milk, is added, and the whole well 
 raked up with a wooden rake. Some dyers leave the 
 reduction in the vat to act for twenty-four hours before 
 they use it, and keep raking it every four hours during this 
 time before they begin the dyeing. As a rule several vats 
 are worked at the same time, and the goods are dipped first 
 in the one and then in the other, until the desired shade is 
 produced. After every dip the yarn is wrung by taking 
 good care that the liquor falls back again into the vat. 
 The yarn is then allowed to lie, when the change of colour 
 or the greening will be soon apparent. The skill of the indigo 
 dyer is shown, not only in the setting up of the vat, but in 
 the working of the sets of vats, which he generally keeps 
 going, and which he manipulates in such a way that he 
 exhausts them one after another, while keeping the rest 
 sufficiently strong to go on with the work without 
 interruption. 
 
 The Zinc or Composition Vat. — The zinc vat is prepared 
 with zinc dust, a by-product in the zinc manufacture, 
 
100 DYEING. 
 
 which is now in successful employment in indigo dyeing. 
 This zinc dust is also called composition or preparation. 
 The advantages of this vat over the other with copperas is 
 that it does not form so much sediment, and this is besides 
 not so light and slimy as the iron oxide, and consequently 
 settles more quickly, and more work can be had out of the 
 same vat, which lasts longer, because the sediment does 
 not accumulate so quickly, and less indigo is wasted by 
 being carried with the sediment. The proportion also in 
 this case varies considerably, and the preparation of this 
 vat is sometimes so effected that a strong vat is first formed, 
 which is then added to water in another vat, according to 
 the shade required. 
 
 The following proportions may be taken as an example for 
 the preparation of a 
 
 Zinc Vat: 
 
 10 grs. finely ground indigo lib. 
 
 5 gi'S. preparation T>lb. 
 
 10 grs. burnt lime lib. 
 
 2 to 3 litres water 20 to 30 galls. 
 
 The reduction takes place in from 12 to 18 hours, when 
 the vat, which has become in turns greyish blue, green, and 
 yellowish green, turns a pure yellow. To remove the froth, 
 which is caused by the evolution of hydrogen, an occasional 
 good stirring and raking is necessary. As a rule, in one 
 hour the vat is sufficiently settled to allow the cotton to be 
 dyed. Too much frothing in this vat is caused by too 
 much composition having been used, and this can be 
 prevented by removing some of the composition from the 
 bottom after settling very carefully with a shovel, arranged 
 at right angles at the end of a long pole, which is carefully 
 immersed down to the bottom of the vat. A muddy vat is 
 also set right by stirring and allowing to settle. 
 
 From the practical experience of several dyers, it may 
 here be mentioned that with a fair quality of indigo, 
 according to a friendly communication obtained from 
 
i 
 
 INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 101 
 
 Messrs. Schloesser, who kindly supplied information and 
 material to the author for his pupils' experiments while at 
 the School of Dyeing, it appears that about the following 
 proportions have been found to answer well in practice : — 
 A piece dyer takes for — 
 
 About 40 to SOlbs. indigo. 
 24]bs. preparation. 
 561bs. slacked lime. 
 Another piece dyer takes — 
 
 About 60 to 651bs. indigo. 
 341bs. preparation. 
 231bs. lime. 
 171bs. iron borings. 
 A yarn dyer takes — 
 
 About 3 to 51bs. indigo, 
 lib. preparation. 
 21bs. lime. 
 The Hydrosulphite Vat — The following particulars the 
 author owes to the kindness of Messrs. Read, Halliday and 
 Son, to whom he is indebted for the indigo blue yarn and 
 loose cotton, also kindly supplied by them ; likewise for more 
 than one visit to their extensive works at Huddersfield, 
 where he was kindly shown both the plant for the prepara- 
 tions of the Schiitzemberger's and De Lalande's vat, and 
 the practical manipulations and apparatus for dyeing loose 
 cotton and wool. 
 
 To set a vat, say 6 feet square by 7 feet deep : — 
 Fill with clean water. 
 Take 781bs. bisulphite of soda, 
 Mix in a zinc or galvanised iron pail for ten minutes with 
 
 61bs. zinc preparation, 
 and add this mixture to the vat ; then add 
 
 61bs. dry slacked lime, 
 and indigo solution sufficient for shade required.* 
 
 Cotton is dyed cold in this vat, and it is advisable to be 
 rather on the lime side, that is, even to increase the above 
 
 * The indigo solution ia specially prepared by this firm on purpose for 
 this vat, and practical dyers are generally sent to show the method of 
 employment. 
 
102 DYEING. 
 
 proportion of limo if it should be found necessary. The 
 vat should feel soft and slippery. 
 
 To replenish the vat, for every lOOlbs. of goods to be 
 dyed, add — 
 
 lOlbs. bisulphite of soda, 
 previousl)'' mixed for ten minutes with 
 13oz. zinc preparation, 
 then add — 
 
 ^Ib. slacked lime, 
 
 and indisfo solution to shade. 
 
 Grinding of Indigo. — Indigo is often ground dry, but in 
 many cases it is ground on the wet mill also, with a small 
 amount of water, and this Avet orrindins^ is to be recommended. 
 The indigo mills either for dry or wet grinding have been so 
 often described that it is unnecessary to give any description 
 here. It is of great importance that the dyestuft should be 
 reduced to very fine powder, in fact, to impalpable pulp, 
 before it is added to the vat, otherwise loss of colouring 
 matter will result. 
 
 Some dyers effect even the reduction to indigo Avhite on 
 the mill, and then add the reduced indio^o to the vat. 
 Indigo-dyed yarn, after greening, is generally passed 
 through a weak sulphuric acid bath, at 1 to 2° Tw., with 
 or without alum, well washed and dried ; the lime is 
 removed, and the yarn thus cleansed. 
 
 Topping Indigoes. — Indigo being an expensive dyestuff', 
 it has been at all times sought to reduce the cost by topping 
 indigo-dyed goods with cheaper colours, such as with 
 logwood, methyl violet, &c. 
 
 Methyl violet has been pretty largely employed for the 
 purpose in the last few years, since it imparts to indigo on 
 yarn or cloth a redder and brighter shade, and gives to it 
 the appearance of a darker blue. As may easily be 
 supposed it is not fast, as in the majority of cases the 
 indigo-d3^ed yarn is simply passed through a bath containing 
 the violet solution, and dried without any further process. 
 The violet is seldom fastened on the cotton by previous 
 mordanting, with sumach and antimony or tin mordant. 
 
PRACTICAL PROCESSES. 103 
 
 Topping with logwood is also very largely practised, and, 
 like the other, it is simply a sophistication, since the top 
 colour does not possess the solidity of the indigo bottom. 
 This topping with logwood is performed by passing the goods, 
 after having been dyed in the vat, and soured and washed, 
 through a new bath with the necessary amount of logwood, 
 to which copper sulphate has been added. 
 
 In the last few years a special logwood preparation 
 (indigo substitute) has been introduced in practice for 
 topping indigoes, and answers fairly well for many purposes. 
 
 Bottoming Indigoes. — Indigo-dyed goods, either yarn or 
 cloth, often receive a bottom of cutch brown on Cachou de 
 Laval,* over which the goods are then dyed in the usual 
 way. Aniline black, or rather a greyish blue with aniline, 
 by the aniline black process, is produced on cotton yarn, and 
 then dyed in the vat ; but the black bottom, by undergoing 
 reduction in the vat loses a great deal of its former fastness. 
 
 Indigo Mordants. — Under this name preparations have 
 been sold for years, which are stated to accelerate the 
 dyeing of indigo on cotton, since they reduce the number 
 of dips required. In many instances this saving is more 
 apparent than real, while in many cases these so-called 
 mordants are of no utility whatever. As a rule manganese 
 salts have been employed for the purpose. 
 
 The preparation of the vat by the electrical current is too 
 costly and complicated to be at present of an}^ practical 
 utility. The old vat for fermentation of the indigo in 
 connection with woad, bran, and madder is still employed 
 for cotton yarn dyeing in the older countries, and apparently 
 with good results, and the yarn, after dyeing, is not even 
 washed, but simply shaken from hanging dust, and this 
 is possible in this case, since no lime is employed in the 
 preparation of the vat, but the potash lye produced by the 
 lixiviation of wood ashes. Very cheap dyeings are produced 
 
 * Cachou de Laval. — Under this name a product is employed in cotton 
 dyeing, which yields shades resembling to a certain extent those produced 
 with cutch ; they are fast against light and soap, and cheap, but not very 
 bright. Cachou de Laval dyes cotton without mordant, but can be fixed 
 by means of copperas or bichrome bath. 
 
104 DYEING. 
 
 by this method, and the author has seen very good results 
 obtained by means of this vat by dyers in South Italy. 
 It is also stated by some authorities that indigo blues, dyed 
 in the fermentation vat, are faster than those produced by 
 the dj'eing in the vats with metallic reducers. 
 
 It will be interestino; before concludinoj this notice on 
 indigo dyeing, to mention the following practical method of 
 
 Indigo Testing : — 
 
 1 gr. indigo ; powder very finely in mortar ; first dr}^ 
 then with very little water, enough to make paste. 
 When fine enough, add 2 grs. zinc powder, then lOcc. 
 bisulphite of soda solution 50'. Mix well for five or 
 six minutes, then add 2 grs. caustic soda; stir well. 
 The indigo will at once be reduced ; add water to fill the 
 mortar, and mix well ; then pour the whole into an earthen- 
 ware jar, and wash mortar with water, pouring the liquor 
 into the jar. Make up to 1 litre. Dye in this bath, with 
 40 to 50 grs. cotton, either yarn or cloth. 
 
LINEN JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 LINEN. 
 
 parsy's new retting process. 
 
 This method consists in flic treatment of the dried flax 
 stems in a closed kicr under pressure, by means of water 
 and steam, and the followini;- particulars, from an article by 
 Renouard, in the Imliistrir Trj-tilr, will be found interesting. 
 The apparatus employed is shown in Fig. 7. 
 
106 DYEING. 
 
 It is a horizontal boiler strongly constructed, is capable 
 of standing heavy pressure, and is supplied with gauge and 
 safety valves, &c. The front of the kier may be taken out 
 and closed up at will by means of the stout cover, which is 
 constmcted for the purpose, and which can be unbolted 
 and lifted up when the apparatus has to be charged or 
 emptied. The flax straw is simply placed in a wagon or 
 carriage, which fits closely into the boiler, and which can 
 easily be taken in and out. The apparatus, it will be seen, 
 resembles in construction the Mather steamer kier (described 
 in the bleaching process section of the author's book on 
 " Printing ") ; but in the present case artificial circulation 
 is caused to take place. The bottom of the kier is supplied 
 Avith a discharge pipe for letting out the spent liquor. 
 
 The operation is started by opening up the cover, which 
 is held by hinges at the top end ; the carriage, laden with 
 flax stems, is introduced, and the apparatus closed up 
 again by bolting the cover to the kier. Boiling water 
 is then introduced. This water consists of the Hquor 
 of a preceding operation, to which one-third of fresh 
 water had been added. This point is of importance, 
 since pure water would deprive the retted flax of its 
 brilliancy and softness ; but by employing this water over 
 agam, M. Parsy succeeds in preserving to the fibre that 
 brilliancy and feel which it would otherwise lose during 
 the operation. Another precaution is also necessary', which 
 is to allow the air to get out of the apparatus when the 
 water is introduced, and this is easily accomplished by a 
 suitable pipe arranged at the top of the apparatus from 
 which the air and steam are driven out, and which is 
 afterwards closed. The flax is exposed in the kier for half 
 an hour to the action of the water, the pressure being so 
 an-anged that it corresponds to a temperature of 125°. 
 After this the liquor is let out, and steam at five atmospheres 
 is introduced, and allowed to react for one hour. The 
 kier is then opened by lifting up the front cover, and the 
 camaee is let out. It wiU be found that the stems so 
 treated have already lost one-quarter of their original 
 
LINEN JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C. 
 
 107 
 
 volume. Each carriage is constructed to contain 400 kilos 
 of flax stems, and in twelve hours 2,400 kilos of stems may 
 be treated by this method in one kier, giving about two 
 tons of retted product. 
 
 The drying of the stems, which has ahvays been a 
 difficulty with the retting of flax, is performed by an 
 arranged apparatus, also devised by M. Parsy, as shown in 
 Fig 8. The stems, after having been taken out of the 
 
 carriage, are opened up and separated from each other, and 
 then placed in a vertical position in the dr3ing apparatus. 
 This is composed of a series of chambers — a, b, c, p, e, com- 
 municating with each other by means of the open space — 
 F, G, H, I, J. The chambers are covered by means of wooden 
 covers — p, m, n, p, nine of which are laid on troughs filled 
 with sand^ and thus form a convenient covering, which can 
 be easily removed. The flax, as seen in the figure, is 
 placed in the chambers on a suitable stand, and under this 
 stand is a series of pipes for the heating of the chamber. 
 The last flue, J, communicates with the chambers by the 
 flue z ; and the dampers, u, v, \v, x, y, allow the com- 
 munication between the flue and the chambers to be closed 
 or opened at will. 
 
 By means of a ventilator, air can be blown into the 
 chambers through a flue, and the communication can also 
 be opened or closed by the dampers, u, v, w, x, y. The 
 work is proceeded with as follows : — Air is first blown into 
 the chamber E, and passing through the flue J, into the 
 
108 DYEING. 
 
 flue z, penetrates into the chamber A by u, and, after 
 having got heated by passing through the range of heating 
 f)ipes T, ascends through the flax., and then through the flue 
 F, into the other chambers, as shown by the direction of the 
 arrow, and it finally goes out of the chamber D, the cover of 
 which has been purposely removed. When the material 
 in the chamber e is dr}', it is removed, and the chamber is 
 agam charged Avith new flax, and the cover left open, while 
 chamber D is covered up, and the air is blown this time 
 through A iirst, going out by E, The apparatus is thus 
 kept continuously working, each chamber being emptied 
 and filled in its turn. The dry stems are now scutched in 
 the usual way, or preferably by Cardon's machine, which 
 efiects the scutching and the combing at the same time. 
 
 In regard to the theory of this new method, M. Parsy 
 states that the process depends upon the conversion of the 
 insoluble pectose into the partially soluble pectine or pectic 
 acid, by the action of the high temperature of the water, 
 and that even a further conversion of the pectic into the 
 metapectic acid takes place by the subsequent action of 
 the steam, the metapectic acid being ver}' soluble in 
 hot water. The object of employing steam instead of water, 
 in the second part of the operation, is to prevent the 
 removal of too much of the pectose, as pectic and metapectic 
 acid, which would impoverish the fibre, and deprive it of 
 brilliancy and feel. 
 
 When properly retted, flax only loses 25 per cent, by the 
 process, as by an ordhiary retting. The water, after coming 
 out of the boiler, only contains li parts its own weight of 
 water, and, therefore, does not offer so much difficulty as 
 the product of the ordinary retting. 
 
 LINEN BLEACHING. 
 
 As before observed, the fibre of flax is more sensitive against 
 re-agents, such as bleaching liquor, &c., than is cotton, and 
 consequently the same process which is employed for 
 cotton cannot be employed for linen goods. Great care 
 
LINEN JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C. 109 
 
 must be taken in treating linen with chlorine liquors, 
 otherwise the fibre may easily be damaged, and in some 
 oases be completely rottened. 
 
 The processes of linen bleaching are also more compli- 
 cated and tedious than those generally employed for cotton, 
 and, in the majority of cases, the goods are even exposed 
 to the action of the atmosphere by the so-called " grassing," 
 by spreading them on the grass in the fields. This exposure 
 in the fields is still carried on to a great extent in localities 
 where flax is bleached. The old process consisted mainly 
 in this, that the goods were boiled with lyes of ashes, Avell 
 rinsed, and exposed on grass for several weeks, the boiling 
 and grassing being repeated until the flax was completely 
 bleached. 
 
 Modern processes cfiect the bleaching by means of 
 chlorine, or rather chlorine liquor. The hypochlorites, as 
 a rule, are used, chloride of lime being employed, while 
 other hypochlorites, especially the magnesia and soda salts, 
 are used with advantage, in this latter case dispensing 
 altogether with grassing. 
 
 Linen Yarn. lOOlbs. 
 
 ]st. — Boil with 8 to lOlbs, soda ash, or 5 to Gibs, caustic 
 soda, for 8 to 6 hours, in low-pressure kiers. 
 
 2nd. — Expose to action of bleaching liquor V Tw. for 1 
 hour, by working on sticks in ordinary dyebecks or on 
 reels ; then Avash. 
 
 3rd. — Give acid bath in sulphuric acid 1° Tw., and after 
 working until yarns are thoroughly imbibed, immerse in 
 bath for 1 hour ; then take out and wash. 
 
 4th. — Boil second time in kier, with 3 to 4 per cent, 
 carbonate of soda, or 2lbs. NaOH. ; wash. 
 
 5th. — Treat again with bleaching liquor and wash. 
 
 6th. — Pass through acid at 1° Tw., as mentioned before ; 
 wash well. 
 
 A half bleach only is obtained by this method, while, if a 
 thorough bleaching be required, the yarns are exposed 
 
110 DYEING. 
 
 again two or tliree times to tlie same processes until 
 perfectly white. As a rule, after the third boiling with 
 alkalies, the yarns are exposed in the tields for a week, and 
 then submitted to the other operations. 
 
 The apparatus employed does not differ very much in 
 principle from that used for cotton. The kiers are either 
 the same or of similar construction, and in many cases 
 stone cisterns are employed, or vacuum apparatus is used, 
 in which a circulation is effected in the same way as for 
 cotton yarn. 
 
 In some cases, for the treatment with bleaching liquors 
 and acid, special arrangements are devised, the yarns being 
 suspended on reels, which allow the same to revolve, while 
 the hanks are only immersed at their lower ends in the 
 bleaching liquor contained in shallow stone or wood vessels, 
 and thus, after working with liquor, are exposed to the 
 action of the air. 
 
 Many have been the methods and processes recommended 
 for the bleaching of flax, such as, for instance, the employ- 
 ment of permanganate of potash, followed by a further 
 treatment with sulphurous acid or bisulphite, in order to 
 remove the brown manganese compound formed on the 
 fibre ; but these methods are too expensive, although they 
 might give good results. As in the case of cotton, nothing 
 has been found so effective, and at the same time so cheap, 
 as the chlorine compounds, 
 
 BLEACHING LINEN CLOTH, 
 
 In spite of repeated trials and efforts, the bleaching of 
 linen goods, either yam or cloth, and especially the latter, is 
 not much shorter now than was the case twenty years ago. 
 Of course, linen might be bleached in much less time than 
 formerly, but it would be at the expense of the strength of 
 the fibre, which is considerably affected by severe treatment 
 with the hypochlorites. 
 
 In fact, it may even be doubted whether the majority of 
 bleached linen goods, of the present day, although of a 
 
LIXEX JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C. Ill 
 
 nicer appearance than those which were the pride of our 
 fathers, possess the same sohdity, and especially the same 
 durability. It may be said that the whiteness of the 
 modern linen goods is gained at the expense of their 
 durability, as the fibre is more or less injured. For linen 
 bleaching, generally the hypochlorites of soda or magnesia 
 are preferable to the lime salt, as they are not so severe in 
 their action. 
 
 The following process will give an idea of the operations 
 which are now still followed : — 
 
 Bleaching Linen Cloth. For every lOOlbs. cloth, 
 
 1st. — Boil with 8 to lOlbs. lime for 12 to 14 hours; wash, 
 
 2nd. — Hydrochloric acid bath 2^" Tw. ; leave in cistern for 
 six hours ; wash. 
 
 3rd. — Boil 10 hours with resin soap, prepared with 
 21bs, dry caustic soda, 
 21bs. resin, 
 previously boiled together with the necessary amount of 
 water for dissolving. After running off, there follows 
 another boiling with lib. caustic soda for 7 hours ; wash. 
 
 •ith. — Expose in the fields for about one week. 
 
 5th.— Bleaching powder liquor, |° Tw., 5 hours; wash. 
 
 6 til. — Acid bath 1°, 2 hours ; wash. 
 
 7th. — Boil for o hours with I to fibs, caustic soda ; wash, 
 
 8th. — Expose in the fields for 4 to 5 days. 
 
 9th. — Bleaching liquor ^° Tw., 5 days ; wash, 
 
 10th. — Rub with soft soap. 
 
 11th. — Expose in the fields. 
 Following, if necessary, by another bleaching bath, a souring, 
 and final wash. 
 
 All these operations are performed on a2:)paratus similar 
 to those employed for the bleaching of cotton goods. 
 
 BLEACHING OF HEMP, 
 
 Hemp is seldom employed for the production of fine 
 goods, and consequently it is very rarely bleached, but it 
 
112 DYEING. 
 
 can be eSected by foilowing a similar treatment to that 
 of flax. 
 
 JUTE. 
 
 BLEACHING METHOD. 
 
 1st. — Scour goods at 70° C, with a weak solution of 
 silicate of soda, containing about O'o per cent, silicate, ^yash. 
 
 9nd. — Pass through bleaching solution, consisting of 
 sodium hypochlorite, obtained by treating bleaching powder 
 liquor with necessary amount of carbonate of soda. This 
 liquor must not contain more than 07 to 1 per cent, of 
 available chlorine (corresponding to about 2lbs. bleaching 
 powder per 10 gallons water). Wash well. 
 
 3rd. — Acid bath, consisting of hydrochloric acid, at h to 
 1° Tw., containing a small amount of sulphuric acid. 
 Wash well. 
 
 Goods so treated have a pale cream-white colour, and are 
 of soft and lustrous appearance, and they can be dyed at 
 once, but, if intended for printing, they must still be treated 
 as follows : 
 
 4th. — Work in a bisulphite of soda bath, containing 1 to 
 2 per cent, sulphurous acid, and then immerse in same 
 bath for 2 to 3 hours ; then squeeze out the excess of 
 liquor, and dry on cylinder. 
 
 By this operation sulphurous acid is driven off, and the 
 o-oods are impregnated with sulphite of sodium, which 
 prevents any oxydizing action on the fibre during the 
 process of steaming. The goods are also considerably 
 whitened by this means. 
 
 Jute cloth so treated loses 7 to 8 per cent, of its weight. 
 
 The following recipe is taken from the "Teinturier 
 Pratique " : — 
 
 White on Jatc—lOOlhs. 
 
 Work three times in bath heated to 65'' C. with 
 81bs. b5-drochloric acid, 
 and leave one hour in a cold bath prepared with 
 201bs. chloride of lime. 
 
LINEX JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C. 113 
 
 Wring, and give two turns in fresh bath with 
 
 lOlbs. muriatic acid, 
 SO that the goods remain half an hour in this bath, then 
 rinse. For a purer white, re-enter in a new chloride of lime 
 bath, prepared with 
 
 20Ibs. bleaching powder, 
 and folloAv with a second acid bath ; rinse, and give the 
 blueing or tinting, if necessary. In bleaching jute, it is 
 advisable not to give the blue in connection with alkalies, 
 because the goods thus acquire a brownish tint. The best 
 plan is to begin at once with the bleaching, which is done 
 by suspending the goods in a room in which the chlorine 
 gas is allowed to circulate. 
 
 It is almost impossible to obtain a perfect white on jute 
 without tendering the fibre considerably; in fact, it is 
 difficult to obtain a good white at all. 
 
 CHINA GRASS. 
 
 BLEACH IXG. 
 
 The bleaching of this fibre stands between the two pro- 
 cesses for the bleaching of cotton and that of flax. It is 
 more readily bleached than flax, with which it shares, to a 
 certain extent, the sensitiveness against hypochlorites, and, 
 consequently, care must be taken in this respect, and the 
 hypochlorites of soda on magnesia had better be employed, 
 or if the lime salt is used diluted, liquors must be employed.' 
 
 The boiling is preferably performed with caustic soda, 
 and an ordinary process of cotton bleaching may be followed' 
 with the difl:erence that greater care is exercised in the 
 employment of bleaching liquors, which are taken weaker, 
 and used more repeatedly than is the case with cotton. 
 
 DYEING OF LINEN, JUTE, &c. 
 
 Linen goods are dyed by almost the same methods as 
 those followed for the dyeing of cotton. Linen and all 
 
114 DYEING. 
 
 bark or bast fibres do not take the dyes as readily as cotton, 
 and the colours do not penetrate so well into the inside. 
 Linen goods, however, are mostly sold in the bleached form 
 as damasks and other goods, for which no other fibre can 
 be substituted ; but cotton has undoubtedly the advantage 
 over linen for the majority of dyed goods. Indigo is 
 largely dyed on linen, yarn, and cloth, principally in France, 
 where it enters so largely in the clothing of the peasantry 
 and working classes. 
 
 I shall give here only a few examples of the dyeing of 
 linen and jute goods. The dyeing of jute has been greatly 
 developed in the last few years, but it does not keep the 
 colours well, and they are apt to fade very readily, especially 
 those of the aniline class. Jute contains, to begin with, a 
 certain amount of tannin, and consequently all the basic 
 dyestufis are generally dyed without the aid of any mordant. 
 A collection of jute-dyed patterns will be found at the end 
 of this work among the pattern sheets, where also the linen 
 and china grass fibre will be found duly illustrated. 
 
 Blade. 
 
 For lOOlbs. Linen Yarn. 
 Boiling infusion of SOlbs. to lOOlbs. logwood, or corres- 
 ponding amount of extract. 
 
 41bs. sulphate of copper. 
 41bs. soda ash. 
 When cooled to about 180° F., enter yarn. Work for 20 to 
 :iO minutes, lift out, wring ; leave on heap a few hours, and 
 wash. 
 
 Instead of soda ash, ammonia can be used in such a 
 proportion that the precipitated hydrate of copper is 
 re-dissolved. The bath in this case is used cold or hot, and 
 the yarn after working in this bath is wrung out, and hung 
 in a cool place to allow the ammonia to evaporate and fix 
 the black on the fibre. This method may also be used for 
 cotton, and can be folloAved by an iron bath. 
 
LINEN JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C. 115 
 
 Chome Blacks 
 
 are produced in the same way as with cottons, and so are 
 
 Sumach and Iron BlacLs. 
 
 The following recipes for linen, jute, and manilla hemp 
 may be taken as illustrations : 
 
 Briglit Red on Linen Goods — lOOlbs. 
 
 Bleach goods as follows : 1st. Boil five hours with 
 
 51bs. soda ash, 
 
 lib. lime; 
 rinse, then pass through cold baths containing 
 
 olbs. hydrochloric acid, 
 and rinse again. 
 2nd. Dissolve 
 
 51bs. chloride of lime 
 in water, leave to settle, pour of! clear solution, in which 
 immerse the goods for six or seven hours ; lift out and wash. 
 Pass through hydrochloric acid at f to 1° F., and wash well 
 Mordant with 
 
 61bs. to ] Olbs. tannic acid 
 in boiling bath, wring and dye with 
 
 lib. safranine yellow shade 
 in new bath at 170° F. 
 
 Greenish Mode on Linen Goods — lOOlbs. 
 
 Mordant for one hour in 
 
 201bs. sumach, 
 
 41bs. solid fustic extract. 
 Wring and enter new bath, containing 
 
 201bs. copperas. 
 Dye in new bath at 170° F. with 
 
 21b s. dry fustic extract, 
 
 51bs. alum, 
 and either indigo, carmine or magenta solution, according 
 to shade required. 
 
116 DYEING. 
 
 Blueish Mode. 
 
 Mordant with sumach and copperas, and dye up to shade 
 with akim, indigo, carmine, and magenta. 
 
 Reddish Mode on Linen Goods— lOOlhs. 
 
 Work at 150° F. in sohition of 
 
 41bs. prepared cutch, 
 for one hour ; wring. Enter in new bath at 180° F. with 
 
 21bs. bichromate of potash. 
 Rinse and dye in fresh bath, with ahim, indigo, carmine and 
 magenta. 
 
 Yellowish Ecru on Linen Yarn — lOOlbs. 
 
 Boil half hour in bath, with 
 
 51bs. soda ash. 
 Work one hour at 140° F. in bath prepared with 
 
 fib. yellow catechu. 
 
 fib. quercitron extract. 
 Lift out of bath, to which add 
 
 lib. nitrate of iron at 50° Be. 
 Re-enter goods ; work half hour ; rinse in cold water. Dye 
 in new bath at 120° F., with 
 
 2|lbs. alum 
 and the necessary amount of Bismarck brown, phosphine, 
 and a few drops of a solution of quercitron and logwood 
 extract. Wash, wring, or whiz and dry. 
 
 Olive on Jute — lOOlbs. 
 
 Work in bath, prepared with 
 
 lib. fustic extract. 
 
 151bs. sumach. 
 When well impregnated, lay down for three hours. Lift 
 out, leave to drain, and enter in new bath, containing 
 
 fib. nitrate of iron. 
 Work one hour, rinse. Dye in fresh bath, with necessary 
 amount of malachite green and fustic extract. 
 
LINEN JUTE, CHINA GRASS, &C, 117 
 
 Red on Jute. 
 
 Boil in water for 1 i hours ; wash and work in new bath 
 with 
 
 2 per cent, azo red, 
 
 2 per cent, alum, 
 for one hour at 170" F., whiz and dry. 
 
 Black on Manilla Hemp. 
 I. Ordinary Black — oOlbs. 
 
 2ilbs. logwood extract. 
 
 lib. lime. 
 
 21bs. copperas. 
 Work the goods three times in the boiling bath of the 
 extract, leave to drain, then immerse without rinsing in the 
 lime, and immediately afterwards in the copperas ; give 
 three turns and the dyeing is complete. 
 
 II. Finer Black— 50lbs. 
 Employ 
 
 3|^lbs. logwood extract, 
 and proceed as for ordinary black. After draining after the 
 iron mordant the goods are re-entered in the logwood bath, 
 then after wringing hang up in the stove or open air. One 
 man will be able to dye 250kilos ordinary, and 200kilos 
 tine black in one day. 
 
WOOL. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 SCOUEING. 
 
 Wool is scoured either in the iinspun or loose state, or in 
 the form of yarn or cloth, and consequently the processes 
 vary accordingl3^ 
 
 It will be remembered that wool contains a pretty large 
 amount of yolk or suint ; this will have to be removed, and 
 all impurities be eliminated, if the wool is to be dyed in the 
 unspun state, as is very often the case. 
 
 For the scouring process, weak alkalies are generally 
 employed, as stale urine, soda or potash, and soap. Soda 
 is the agent mostly employed ; in some cases also silicate of 
 soda. As a rule, the scouring is preceded by the steeping 
 of the loose wool in water, in order to remove the yolk, 
 Avhich, as is well known, is soluble in water. This is 
 effected in a systematic manner by treating the wool in a 
 series of tanks. The liquor, after having reacted in one 
 tank on one lot, is allowed to react on the other, and so on, 
 until it is obtained in a concentrated form, when it can be 
 evaporated to dryness for the recovery of potash, or better, 
 treated with acid, in order to separate the fatty matters. 
 
 The scouring process, which is likewise applied to yarn 
 or cloth, is also performed by means of alkalies (principally 
 carbonate of soda or soft potash soap), at a temperature 
 which is never allowed to go very high, especially for good 
 qualities of wool, in which case soda crystals, or, at all 
 events, a carbonate of soda, is employed, perfectly free from 
 caustic soda, at a temperature of 400° C. In some instances, 
 even ammonia, or carbonate of ammonia, is employed ; 
 
WOOL. 119 
 
 these are excellent for the purpose, but are too high in 
 price. If soap be used, a 3 to 5 per cent, solution will be 
 found to give good results, while a soda solution is generally 
 employed at 1 to 2^ Tw., containing 1 to 2grs. per cent., at 
 a temperature not exceeding 45 to 50" C. 
 
 In the last few years, the employment of volatile solvents, 
 such as benzene, petroleum spirits, and bisulphide of carbon, 
 have been recommended for the extraction of grease from 
 raw wool, and the processes have been found in some cases 
 very useful, the only drawback attached to these methods 
 being the danger of fire. 
 
 When scouring yarn it must be remembered that it 
 contains about 10 to 15 per cent, of oil, which was added 
 previous to spinning. 
 
 The operation is performed also by means of alkaline 
 solutions, at low temperature, by working in ordinary dye- 
 becks heated by steam, the hanks being worked- as when 
 dyeing, and, if necessary, scoured twice in a new bath. In 
 many instances scouring machines are employed, the hanks 
 beino- linked tosfether in the form of a chain. The same 
 remarks apply to woollen cloth, which is also scoured on 
 machines in a continuous way, 
 
 WASHING WOOL.* 
 
 A potash soap always should be used, if it is desired to 
 get the wool in the best possible condition for carding or 
 spinning, with a minimum loss of weight in washing. The 
 use of potash instead of soda soap for this purpose cannot 
 be too strongly insisted upon. It is a very " penny wise 
 and pound fooHsh " proceeding to use soda soap, or soda in 
 any form, for washing wool. The ditierence between the cost 
 of potash and potash soap, as compared with soda and soda 
 soap, is not one-twentieth part of the loss incurred by the 
 inferior handle and condition of the wool, and the greater loss 
 
 * The above particulars on the washing of wool have been abstracted 
 from a pamphlet by Mr. W. J. Menzies, of the Greenbank Alkali Works, 
 by kind permission of the author, and represent a very valuable experience 
 on the subject. 
 
120 DYEING. 
 
 in weight when soda is used; this is no theory, but an 
 estabhshed fact, which has been verified by many large wool 
 washers and worsted spinners both in England, Germany, 
 and the United States. As a matter of fact also, if the 
 potash soap is made by the consumer himself, it will not 
 cost so much as is paid to the soap boiler for a good hard 
 soda soap. 
 
 The quantity of potash soap necessary will depend very 
 much on the quahty and condition of the wool. If of common 
 quality, dirty, and very greasy, it will require more potash 
 soap than the finer qualities, and should then be assisted 
 by the addition of a little refined carbonate of potash or 
 pure pearl ash — an article specially made for the purpose. 
 
 The potash soap should be made up into a strong sud by 
 dissolving it in about five times its weight of water, and this 
 added to the washing bowls as required. The refined car- 
 bonate of potash should also be dissolved in twice its own 
 weight of water, and a small quantity added, from time to 
 time, as the sud gets exhausted with washing ; or the two 
 may be previously boiled together, and thus added to the 
 machine. On no account should soda ash, carbonate ot 
 soda, or crystal carbonate be used with potash soap, as this 
 simply destroys the whole advantage gained by its use. 
 
 In the case ot very common wools, or Scotch laid wools, 
 a good quantity of refined carbonate of potash should be 
 used to assist the soap. 
 
 Skin wools must be specially treated, as they are very 
 difiicult to scour. They have been removed from the dead 
 skin either with lime, an acid, or sulphides. An ordinary 
 soap has no effect on these wools if treated in the usual 
 manner. The best method is to thoroughly steep this wool 
 in lukewarm water, to which a small quantity of refined 
 carbonate of potash has been added. By following this 
 course the acid is neutralised, or the lime which kills the 
 soap removed, and the wool can then be washed as other 
 wool. 
 
 Another important point is the temperature of the water. 
 It should not be too hot. Hot water certainly washes more 
 
WOOL. 121 
 
 quickly, but it causes a greater loss in weight. Any tem- 
 perature that the hand cannot bear is too great, though dirty, 
 very greasy wools require a greater heat than the cleaner 
 qualities ; no exact temperature therefore can be given. 
 Hot Avater also takes out the natural curl of the wool, and 
 thus destroys its spinning power. Nothing can be more 
 important than close attention to all these points in washing 
 wool. It is a fiir more important operation than is generall}' 
 suspected. Many a bad spin is due to nothing else than 
 bad washing in too hot water with soda soap ; or, what is 
 infinitely worse still, by washing with soda ash alone, car- 
 bonate of soda, or crj^stal carbonate, which is often recom- 
 mended by the makers for washing wool. These articles 
 are quite unsuitable for the purpose, and also destructive 
 to the fibre of the wool. 
 
 A good washing machine is a great assistance in washing 
 wool. It should have several bowls and good rollers. 
 Petrie, and also McXaught, of Rochdale, and Jefferson 
 Brothers, of Bradford, are all good makers. In America, 
 Sargent's Sons, of Graniteville, Mass., turn out a good 
 machine. AVith apparatus of this kind, soap can be 
 economised, and the wool more completely cleansed than is 
 possible by the old hand method. In the first bowl the 
 soap should be strengthened by the addition of the refined 
 carbonate of potash ; in the last bowl many wool washers 
 prefer to use potash soaj) alone, so as to lubricate the fibres, 
 and give the wool a soft and silky touch, which can only 
 be obtained with a pure potash soap. 
 
 Although, as it has been already said, it is diflicult to 
 give precise directions as to the exact proportions for use 
 of soap and refined carbonate of potash, and the method of 
 proceeding in wool washing, each manufacturer varying 
 somewhat in these details according to the class of wool 
 used, yet it may be useful, as an illustration, to give the 
 actual practice of one of the largest avooI washing establish- 
 ments of Great Britain. The wool generally used is of 
 average greasy quality. The machines here have three 
 bowls. The soap used is a cotton-seed oil potash one, made 
 
122 DYEING. 
 
 on the spot. . It is dissolved in the proportion of two pounds 
 of soap to the gallon of water, with one quarter of a pound 
 of Greenbank refined carbonate of potash added, the whole 
 being boiled up together. The machine is supplied with 
 this liquid potash soap as follows : 
 Third or last bowl — Six gallons of liquid potash soap added. 
 
 Temperature, 120 F. 
 Second bowl — Receives soap suds from third bowl, with further 
 
 3 to 6 galls, of the liquid potash soap added as required. 
 First bowl — Receives soap suds from second bowl, with 3 galls, 
 of the liquid potash soap added. Temperature, 130 to 140 F. 
 If. however, the wool is \erj dirty, three gallons of a 
 liquid soap made up as follows are added to the first bowl 
 2-ilbs. potash soap, 
 721bs. refined carbonate potash, 
 80 galls, water. 
 This mixture is most ettective with very dirty wools. 
 
 The average consumption of soap in this establishment is 
 19lbs. of potash soap, and 2^1bs. of Greenbank refined 
 carbonate of potash to the pack of 240lbs. of wool. The 
 wool is most thoroughly cleaned, and in handle and 
 appearance nothing could be better. 
 
 In another part of the work will also be found directions 
 for the making of potash soaps. 
 
 BLEACHING. 
 
 The bleaching is accomplished by means of sulphurous 
 acid, principally by exposing the wet goods to vapours of 
 burning sulphur in closed chambers ; in late 3'ears also by 
 the employment of bisulphites, principally bisulphite of 
 soda and hydrochloric acid, either in the same bath or in 
 two separate baths. If it were not so dear, the perox3'de 
 of hydrogen (H2 Oo) or oxygenated water would be the 
 best, 
 
 A process describing the method now emploj-ed on the 
 Continent, for bleaching woollen goods by means of the 
 hydrogen peroxyde, will be found in the author's work on 
 
WOOL. 128 
 
 " The Printing ot Cotton Fabrics," being a communication 
 by M. Horace Koechlin, of Loerroch, the method being 
 employed for woollen tissues that are bleached before 
 printing, and a very good white is obtained. 
 
 The following series of operations is often emplo3-cd in 
 the bleaching of Avoollen goods : 
 
 For 40 pieces of 20 — 30 yards each. 
 
 1st. — Singeing.* 
 
 2nd. — Pass three times through bath, containing 11 — 121bs. soda 
 crystals, 5 — 61bs. soda to 60 — 70lbs. water, and which is heated 
 to about 40° C. After each passage through the bath, add 4 — 8ozs. 
 soap. 
 
 3rd.— Rinse in two clean waters of same temperature. 
 
 4th. — Run again three times in a similar bath to the first, but 
 without soap, and add after the first passage 4ozs. more soda. 
 
 5th. — Sulphur for 12 hours in the chamber, by burning 11 — 
 121bs. sulphur. 
 
 6th. — Run again three times through bath containing 13 — 141bs. 
 soda to 60 — 701bs. water, at a temperature of about 50° C ; 
 adding ^Ib. more soda after every passage. 
 
 7th. — Second sulphuring as before. 
 
 8th.— Repeat No. 6. 
 
 9th.— Wash in two waters at 30° C. 
 
 10th. — Third sulphuring for 12 hours. 
 
 11th. — Wash twice in lukewarm and once in cold water. 
 
 12th. — Finally blue with indigo carmine. 
 
 These operations are generally sufficient for ordinary 
 woollens ; if they contain much colouring matter, or if they 
 are destined for line colours, the process is as follows : 
 
 1st. — Singeing and washing in water. 
 
 2nd. — Pass through alkaline soap bath containing 11 — llilbs. 
 soda crystals, and 4 — 61bs. soap for 00 — 70 galls, water at a 
 temperature of 60 — 70° C. 
 
 3rd. — Rinse in warm water. 
 
 4th. — Give two passages in a bath like the No. 2, but without 
 soap, at the same temperature. 
 
 5th. — Wash once in warm water. 
 
 * This operation is performed for fine woollen tissues, and relies on the 
 same principle as the singeing of cotton goods. The singeing machine is 
 shown on plate 30. 
 
124 DYEING. 
 
 6th.— Sulphur for 10 hours with 11 — 121bs. sulphur for 25 pieces. 
 
 7th. — "Wash once. 
 
 8th. — Pass twice through a bath of 7 — 7ilbs. soda to the same 
 quantity of water as No. 2, but at 60 — 70° C. 
 
 9th. — Run twice through a bath of 61bs. soda for the same 
 quantity of water, and at the same temperature. 
 
 10th. — Wash once in warm water. 
 
 11th. — Sulphur again with 81bs. sulphur for 25 pieces of goods. 
 
 12th. — Wash once, and 
 
 13th. — Blue with indigo carmine or extract. 
 
 To preserve tlie whiteness of goods pass after the sulphur- 
 bleach in a bath of 4i oralis, water containins^ 1 — lilb. hard 
 soap, and h — fib. ammonia, which preserves the goods from 
 becoming yellow^ in store, and keeps them soft to the feeb 
 
 THE BLUEING OF WOOLLEN GOODS AFTER BLEACHING. 
 
 The blueing or tinting is still an important operation in 
 the bleaching of wool, and is yet performed to a certain 
 extent with indigo, carmine, or the extract of indigo, which 
 being of a greenish hue used to be employed along with a 
 certain amount of cochineal carmine in order to give a 
 redder shade. 
 
 Since the introduction of aniline colours special prepara- 
 tions of reddish blues have been used, which are generally 
 employed m solution, and added to the final scouring bath ; 
 but ever}^ firm has its own method of emplo3"ment, and 
 the dyestuff solution is selected according as a reddish or 
 greenish shade is wanted. 
 
 WOOL DYEING. 
 
 "Wool is dyed very largely in the unspun state, because in 
 this form it allows the production of very even colours on 
 the finished cloth, since, during the process of spinning, the 
 fibre, by undergoing the mixing process, forms a thread in 
 which the colours are evenly distributed, and, consequentl}', 
 the finished cloth also joins considerably in this respect. 
 Much attention has been given of late to the dyeing of wool 
 
WOOL. 125 
 
 before spinning, and tlio numerous processes patented and 
 taken out, are a proof of the importance of this branch of 
 dyeing. Among the different methods introduced of late 
 into practice, the following are worth mentioning. They all 
 refer, of course, to the introduction of mechanical arrauGre- 
 ments to substitute the work of the hand, since they do not 
 bring with them any changes in the chemical dyeing 
 operations. All these methods may be classed therefore 
 under the name of mechanical processes for dyeing loose 
 wool, and among them may be noted the Cerrutti-Sella, 
 Fig. 9, the Smithson, the Obermeyer, &c., of which the 
 apparatus will be illustrated here, with a description of their 
 principle of working. 
 
 THE SMITHSOX'S DYEING PROCESS.* 
 
 Most people who have worked with steam as a water- 
 heating agent will have noticed that when the water gets 
 up to, or near, the boil, all around the steam pipe the water 
 rises up considerably higher than in any other part of the 
 vessel. Many have, no doubt, noticed it scores of times, 
 and taken no further note. Not so with ^Ir. Smithson, 
 however. He seems to have asked himself the question, 
 " If there is this current with one pipe, what will there be 
 with a number ? " and b}^ persevering Avith the idea 
 succeeded in bringing the thing into practical shape shown 
 before us. To enable us to realise better the action of the 
 apparatus, it is necessary to imagine the current that Ave 
 notice boiling and rising up outside the steam pipe in a 
 cistern of boiling hot Avater to be taking place inside, and 
 the steam pipe itself being surrounded by steam in place of 
 Avater — in fact, just reverse the picture, and put Avatcr 
 Avhere we usually have steam, and steam Avliere we usually 
 have Avater, the only difference being that a number of 
 pipes are used instead of one. 
 
 * From a lecture by Mr. J. B. Wilkinson, before the Society of Dyers and 
 Colourists in Bradford in 1887. 
 
126 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 p^ 
 
 K&' 
 
 • <6A ■"■• 
 
 
 E7 
 
 H 
 -*! 
 
 P5 
 <J 
 O, 
 
 <5 
 
 is 
 I— I 
 
 ft 
 <1 
 
 l-H 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 Ph 
 
 w 
 
 
WOOL, 
 
 127 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 In the apparatus the dye cistern is at a. and from the 
 bottom a current of water comes into b, and the pipes 
 contained in the cyhndrical vessel c are surrounded by 
 steam, the steam heating the water in the same way we 
 know it does in the ordinary cistern. The water coming 
 from the dye-bath being near boihng, the heat carries it 
 upwards till it is delivered at d. e is a flange wdiich 
 prevents the steam getting higher, the pipes being open at 
 the top. The current rises up above these, and passes 
 forward into the vessel f, which we may term the 
 " extractor." This vessel contains the chipped wood — 
 logwood, fustic, or whatever it may be. The water passes 
 down pipe g outside the vessel, and is delivered from 
 underneath, entering in between the bottom of the vessel 
 and a perforated grate h, which sustains the dye materials. 
 The water, which is perhaps a trifle above the ordinary 
 hot water point, passes up through the wood and down 
 another pipe k, then discharging itself into the dye vessel. 
 
128 
 
 DYEING 
 
 Yiii. 11. 
 
 Fig. 11 is a cross section, in which we see the top of the 
 pipes. Here, if we could see it in actual work, the water 
 would be springing up through these pipes. At d it would 
 pass forwards, and down pipe G to the bottom of the 
 extractor. The perforated bottom is shown at h, and near 
 the top is another perforated plane m, the object of which is 
 to prevent any bits of wood or other foreign matter from 
 passing with the water into the dye cistern. Fig. 12 is a side 
 view of the machine just as it stands. At s is a pipe going 
 from the dye vat. c is the steam box and the pipe 
 supplying steam to heat the water, and at r is the exhaust 
 which takes the condensed steam away from the steam box, 
 this condensed steam being either blown into this vessel, 
 containing extracted matter, or turned out of the vessel 
 altogether at will. At Q there is an open space, which 
 allows any excess of steam to pass out. Fig. 13, again, is a 
 front view of the apparatus. We have here two extractors 
 shown ; the reason why there are two being that whilst one 
 is working the other may be emptied and refilled, and, 
 
WOOL. 
 
 129 
 
 therefore, there will be no loss of time. You will notice 
 that there is a valve or tap r for the purpose of letting out 
 any little particles of matter, bits of wood, etc., which 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 happen to fall through the perforated bottom. We may note 
 here that it is not necessary to have the extractor close to 
 the cistern. It may be anywhere about the place, the only 
 difficulty being the loss of heat which would occur through 
 the pipes being long. The idea seems to have been that if 
 the logwood place is handy, the extractor should be placed 
 in it, and so have the whole affair quite separate and 
 altogether distinct from the dyehouse. The only objection 
 so far as can be seen to that is the amount of cooling 
 which would take place if the passage was of any great 
 length. 
 
 Now, having described the apparatus, let us turn our 
 attention to its capabilities for the use of the dyer — First, 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 lor loose wool, rags, etc. ; second, for slubbing, yarn, etc. ; 
 third, for piece goods. Taking these first in order then — 
 viz., loose wool dyeing — for our purpose let us take black 
 dyeing, as perhaps being the best for illustrating our 
 subject. The usual process is first to prepare, then wash, 
 .and then dye. This requires th6 wool to be hfted twice 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 once out of the chrome bath and once out of the dyebath, 
 and we may lift out of the chrome bath either (a) by hand 
 direct, (b) by fishing out with a long pole, or (c) by lifting 
 -altogether in a cage let down in the bath. 
 
 So far as labour is concerned there is not much difference 
 between the first and second, as a man will fish out pretty 
 near as soon as another could let off, and wash, or cool 
 do-sMi ; but there is a distinct saving of heat and liquor, 
 because the liquor is not run out of the pan, only what is 
 carried alons^ with the wool. 
 
WOOL. 
 
 131 
 
 Then we come to the third or cage method. Here, 
 although we get the material out of the liquor quicker than 
 by either the first or second methods, there are other 
 drawbacks and disadvantages that have to be set against it ; 
 for instance, there is not that free circulation of the liquor 
 that there is without the cage ; and again, if the cage be of 
 wire, as usually is the case, the men must be more careful 
 with their handling up, and men who are accustomed to 
 the use of long poles in a dyehouse are not, as a rule, the 
 most careful class ; besides, it requires a dyehouse to be 
 pretty lofty, or there is not room to wind up sufficiently 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 high ; and again, besides all this, there is the large amount 
 of room taken up in the vessel by the cage itself, which 
 prevents the same quantity of material being dyed at one 
 time than otherwise might be when the cage is not used ; 
 and there are also the extra wear-and-tear expenses that have 
 to be taken to account. So far, then, we have discussed 
 the methods that are in ordinary use daily — viz. («) lifting 
 out in ordinary way ; (b) fishing out by means of the pole ; 
 (c) lifting it out in the cage altogether. 
 
 We will now examine another method Avhich Mr. Smithson 
 proposes, and which he claims will have nearly all the 
 advantages, and obviate some of the difficulties, of the 
 other systems. Fig. 14 is a sketch of the proposed arrange- 
 ment, consistino: of three vessels, which we will call A, b, 
 and c, and in imagination, we will go through the routine 
 of dyeing in these vessels. 
 
132 DYEING. 
 
 First, tlien, we fill the vessel a, heat up, and prepare in 
 the ordinary way. "When finished, we pass the Hquor in a 
 reserve b, which may either be above, as shown in the 
 drawing, or may be in a tank below the vessel A. This may 
 be arranged according to circumstances. Whichever way 
 we do we have the Hquor once to lift, which is done by 
 means of an ordinary steam pump. We now wash our 
 prepared wool, which is then ready for dyeing. 
 
 Meantime, whilst we have been preparing the wool in a, 
 we have also our vessel c got up with logwood for dyeing 
 the wool prepared in a, and accordingly we will lift out of a, 
 throw into c, and dye in the usual wa}*. Whilst dyeing, 
 however, we bring back our preparing liquor into a from b, 
 and commence to prepare another lot, which we do in the 
 usual wa}'. After preparing we wash, and by this time our 
 liquor in c is consequently exhausted. We now bring our 
 new apparatus into work, and bring over the exhausted 
 liquor from c into A, put the required amount of chipped 
 logwood into the extractor, and set it going. When our 
 vessel c is emptied of its Hquor we empty out the wool, 
 and commence to prepare same as we have done in A, by 
 bringing the liquor from the reserve B that was last used in 
 A into c, give it its time, etc., then bring back again the 
 exhausted Hquor from a, and so on indefinitely until it is 
 thought desirable to change the liquor altogether. 
 
 Now, having described the method of procedure, let us 
 see what we gain by it, as unless some advantage is to be 
 gained, the <?ame will not be worth the candle ; therefore we 
 will endeavour to carefully examine the advantages that are 
 claimed for it. 
 
 First, then, upon process which we will call No. 1, there 
 is a distinct gain of both fuel, labour, and time, because the 
 hot liquor is reserved, thus requiring less fuel to heat next 
 time, and less labour, because we have it to lift out only 
 once instead of twice, and of time because less is required 
 to prepare the bath for the next round, and thus to enable 
 more work to be got through in a given time. There is an 
 advantage over the Xo. 2 plan through a saving of time, as it 
 
WOOL. 133 
 
 will be run off quicker than it could be fished out, and also 
 less liquor will be wasted than by fishing out, and labour is 
 saved because it is only once to lift, as is explained before ; 
 therefore we have again time, fuel, and labour saved. 
 Coming now to the third or cage method, we do away with 
 all cross-bars over the pans, leaving all clear for handling 
 up the material, and we save the labour and time of once 
 lifting ; also there is saving of logwood bags. 
 
 Now let us turn our attention to slubbing dyeing. Here 
 the material is in a better condition for lifting and handling 
 about. But whilst the slubbing dyer has this advantage 
 over the loose-wool dyer, he has a disadvantage that more 
 than counterbalances it, which is that he must handle and 
 lift it about as little as possible, or he finds himself in 
 difficulties that the loose-wool dyer does not dream of; and 
 to see the difference between an old-fashioned loose-wool 
 dyer, Avho likes to see pans boiling and lifting like a 
 fountain, and the careful handling of a slubbing dyer, 
 is marvellous, when you think they are both dyeing the 
 same kind of fibre. The one believes in giving it a thorough 
 rousing up — the other is careful to keep every hair as 
 straight as possible ; one believes in boiling his colour into 
 it — the other believes in its being out of the boil, if he can 
 obtain his colour without. They are at the antipodes of 
 each other, and each believes the other is in a perfect para- 
 dise from his own : the one because he says the slubbing dyer 
 can lift out his materials so much easier, and add anything 
 to his bath that he wishes, and the slubbing dyer because 
 he says the other has nothing to do but throw his stuff" in 
 and boil till he gets his shade. 
 
 For slubbing dyeing an arrangement is suggested in 
 which the slubbing should be laid on a perforated bottom, 
 the apparatus set in motion, and by circulating the liquor 
 up and through the wool it will be lightly suspended, and 
 in consequence will allow the colouring matter to circulate 
 freely — more so than if a current of liquor was circulating 
 downward, which would, perhaps, have a tendency to lay 
 sadder at the bottom of the vessel. 
 
184 DYEING. 
 
 The present apparatus seems'to combine the utility of the 
 circulation principle, and we ma}- preserve the simplicity 
 of the ordinary stick when it ma}- be desirable, as commonly 
 used, by allowing the sticks to dip below the surface ; and 
 putting a perforated plate over the liquor we get a complete 
 circulation of the liquor in the bath. Seeing that it is 
 possible to have the delivery anywhere where required, it 
 seems to my mind well worth the attention of slubbing 
 dj'crs, as with their existing plant ver}- little attention 
 would be required. It would, in the matter of heat, be a. 
 distinct Sfain, since if we blow steam direct into the bath 
 we run the risk of blowing the materials, whilst to lift and 
 heat up involves loss of time ; whereas by the use of the 
 apparatus we may keep up the heat, not only as well, but 
 actually better than by the ordinary methods, because, as , 
 has been previously stated, the liquor is delivered in a 
 hotter condition than it could be b}" blowing in steam 
 direct. Again, whilst b}' the admission of steam direct into 
 the bath it is continuously becoming weaker through the 
 condensed steam, by this the tendency would be in an 
 opposite direction, which is of distinct advantage in all 
 colours that are ver}^ soluble. 
 
 As applicable for black dj-eing, it will undoubtedly have 
 a tendency to produce evenness of shade, because by com- . 
 mencing in an exhausted liquor, and gradually working up, 
 the whole batch has a better chance than when one portion is 
 dipped down into a full-strength liquor, the same as at present. 
 
 What maj' be fairl}^ claimed for its interests to the 
 slubbing dyer, then, are as follows : — First, a steady circula- 
 tion of liquor ; second, a higher temperature in the bath 
 without the use of direct steam ; third, a saving of labour 
 and time where chipped woods are used ; fourth, an intimate 
 admixture of the colouring matter in the bath, without 
 the necessity of lifting his slubbing out ; fifth, freedom from 
 bits of wood, etc., that get in from torn bags, etc., and also 
 the expense of the bags is saved. 
 
 For the yam dyer much the same may be said as for the 
 slubbing dyer, as being worked in a similar manner 
 
WOOL. 13ot 
 
 For piece dyeing it must be a distinct advantage. We 
 may, however, divide them into two classes — those who use 
 chipped woods (i.e., the heavy cloth dyers), and who throw 
 the wood into the vessel ; and secondly, for stuff dyers, who 
 mostly use rasped wood. Let us take the heavy cloth dyer 
 first. His method is usually to throw in his chipped woods, 
 boil down and enter his goods, and so on, until his wood 
 has accumulated at the bottom of his vessel in such, 
 quantity that he must either let off or fish out (usually with 
 a kind of net), or send it down the drain. This answers 
 well enough for some classes of goods that are of a close 
 and fine texture, such as fine worsteds, or what are generally 
 known as fine goods. In this class of goods the small, 
 pieces of wood leave the goods without adhering, and may 
 be easily shaken off. Not so, however, in some other 
 classes of goods, such as curls, etc., in which the surface of 
 the goods is very rough ; here the small particles of wood 
 become entangled in the cloth, and are difficult to detach, 
 except by special hand labour, which must of necessity add 
 to the cost. To keep the woods out, then, from such goods, 
 is of special importance to any dyer who has this class of 
 work to deal with, and he has resort either to extracts of 
 the woods or strong liquors, either of his own make or 
 bought for the purpose. Neither of them are as economical 
 as if he could use his woods direct. To such the apparatus 
 is like the renowned pens ; it comes as a boon and a 
 blessing to them, for it not only enables them to use the 
 woods direct, but it keeps them free from the troublesome 
 bits before mentioned. Now the other class of dyers, such 
 as stuff dyers. These people use rasped woods, and, like 
 the others, they put them direct into the baths. But woods 
 cost more to the dyers rasped than chipped ; in fact, of all 
 the various methods of using woods, and more especially 
 say logwood, none are so cheap as using it in the chip. 
 Well-matured chipped logwood is in the very best condition 
 that a dyer can have it, and that being so, it is not the 
 stuff dyer who wishes to use logwood in a dearer form if he 
 can have it in a cheaper. Here, then, the appamtus steps 
 
136 DYEING. 
 
 in to his aid, and enables him to use the wood in its cheapest 
 and best condition, with every advantage that he has from 
 the rasped; and if, considering the extra cost per ton of 
 rasped wood, we note how distinct its advantages are, it 
 must, in a very short time, pay its own cost. 
 
 For the piece dyers, then, the following advantages may 
 be claimed: — First, a readier method of extracting the 
 colouring matter of the woods for direct use; second, 
 complete immunity from small bits of the woody fibre, so 
 difficult to rid when fixed once ; third, the use of the chips 
 in place of rasps, which is a direct saving in cost ; fourth, 
 being better able to keep the drain clear from wood, etc., 
 a distinct saving of time, labour, and expense of lifting. 
 
 THE OBERMEYER MECHANICAL DYEING PROCESS.* 
 
 That modern industry ceaselessly aims to make itself 
 independent of hand labour is a fact well known, and many 
 useful apparatus and contrivances have been already 
 devised for effecting this object in the different branches of 
 the tinctorial trades. The dyeing of loose wool and cotton 
 also have had their share of attention at the hands of 
 inventors, without, however, bringing forward any very 
 striking changes over the old methods, until within the 
 last few years. The process under consideration may be 
 considered as a thoroughly modern method. It relies, of 
 course, on the well-known and necessary principle of 
 effecting a circulation of the dyeing or mordanting liquids ; 
 but, unlike the older systems, the material is left standing, 
 while the liquids are kept in motion. It is to the 
 mechanical arrangements, therefore, that our attention 
 must be first given, and then to the amount and quality of 
 the work performed. As will be seen from the illustration, 
 the dyeing apparatus consists of a cistern in which the 
 dyeing or mordanting operations are performed. The 
 material is placed in the cylinder, which is a perforated 
 vessel of copper, or even galvanised iron, according to the 
 
 • From the Textile Mamifacturer, January, 1S87. 
 
WOOL. 137 
 
 nature ot the bath, and this cylinder is fixed at the bottom 
 of the cistern, and ,'put in communication with a centrifugal 
 pump, which forces the dyeing or mordanting liquors 
 through a pipe into the cylinder, and after reacting on the 
 material through the perforations all over the surface of 
 the cylinder, back again into the dyeing cistern. This 
 latter is filled only Avith sufficient liquor to effect the dyeing 
 or the mordanting of the material, and consequently it is 
 possible to work with stronger liquors, which means also a 
 saving in the fuel, since only small quantities of liquors 
 have to be heated, and not as in the old process of having 
 to heat comparatively a large amount of liquor for a small 
 quantity of the material. The liquors in the cistern only 
 average in all about 15 inches. The construction of the 
 cylinder or receptacle for holding the material to be treated, 
 differs according to the nature of the material itself, and 
 consists either of a plain cylinder, with a perforated column 
 in the middle with which it communicates with the pump, 
 or the apparatus is of more complicated construction, 
 having one central cylinder, and several others protruding 
 from it, in which the material is placed, and is especially 
 suitable for the dyeing of tops. In both cases the main 
 cylinder is supplied with a lid to press down the material 
 and keep it in its place, and at the same time to allow, by 
 means of a hook at the top of the lid, the whole of the 
 cylinder to be lifted up and down by a crane, and thus a 
 great saving of labour and handling is effected. To this 
 must also be added the advantage of its being possible to 
 do all the operations of mordanting, dyeing, or washing, 
 without removing the material from the cylinder. The 
 drying may similarly be done without removal of the 
 material, it being only necessary to put hot air through 
 after the drying and washing off' are completed, since from 
 the first placing of wool in the apparatus, to its being 
 completed in a dyed and thick state, there is no handling 
 required. As to the amount turned out, three men will do 
 12,000lbs. to 15,000lbs. of wool a- week, of course according 
 to the quality of the wool. The dyeing of blacks especially 
 
138 DYEING. 
 
 seems to be effected with special ease and thoroughness by 
 this sj^stem, either for wool in the sliver or loose wool ; the 
 method of dyeing being the well-known process of 
 mordanting with bichromate. This operation lasts one 
 hour; the dyeing itself takes li hours for the washing, 
 or 2h hours in all. 
 
 A large cyHnder will hold 200lbs. to SOOlbs., and a larger 
 one has just been constructed to hold oOOlbs. of wool. The 
 process of dyeing can be closely watched, and samples 
 taken out by a small manhole arranged at the top of the 
 lid. All colours are dyed by this system without any 
 difficulty; either dyewoods on mordanted material, or 
 aniline and coal tar colours generally without any 
 mordants ; and in all cases it seems possible to obtain 
 ver}^ even dyeings, the wool keeping all the time its lustre, 
 and not being exposed to any rough handling, is not liable 
 to felting. 
 
 A further advantage claimed for this process is that it 
 renders the re-combing of the dyed wool not absolutely 
 necessary, as in many cases it can be dispensed with. The 
 author has seen the above process and apparatus at w^ork at 
 Mr. E. Markendale's, Adelphi, Salford, to whom he is also 
 indebted for information regarding its workinsf. 
 
 The Yarn and Cloth Dyeing have not undergone 
 much change in the last few years, since they attained a 
 high state of development years ago, and the machinery 
 employed had then already reached a very high degree of 
 perfection. 
 
 Although machines for dyeing woollen yarns have been 
 introduced, the work of the hand is still the one mostly 
 employed, and, for the majority of cases, could scarcely be 
 substituted by the work of the machine. Consequently, in 
 the following remarks, attention will principally be given 
 to the classification of the now very numerous methods of 
 dyeing the wool fibre, irrespective of being either loose or 
 in the form of j-arn or cloth. 
 
 The dyeing of the wool fibre may be divided in two 
 great classes: dyeing on mordants, and dyeing without 
 
WOOL. 139 
 
 mordants. But we will follow the other classification of the 
 cotton dyeing, and divide the methods according as they 
 employ : The Coal Tar Colours, and the Natural Organic 
 Dyestuffs (Dynvoods, Indigo, etc). So far as the mineral 
 colours are concerned, we may say that they have practically 
 ceased to have any interest for wool dyeing. 
 
 The Coal Tar Colours must also be here subdivided 
 into basic and acid dyestuifs, as the difference between the 
 two classes is of even greater importance for wool than for 
 cotton dyeing. To these two classes may be added also the 
 alkaline dyestuffs : those which are fixed in an alkaline 
 bath; and, finally, the alizarine colours, which, although 
 they could be classified as acid colours, differ from these 
 in that they require a mordant for their fixation, and 
 consequently must be regarded as a class thoroughly 
 distinct. 
 
 The Basic Aniline Colours. 
 
 These have lost importance considerably since the develop- 
 ment of the now very numerous class of acid colours for 
 wool. Of the basic dyestuffs, Avhich are all dyed in a 
 neutral bath (seldom by the addition of acetic acid, which 
 is indeed only added to neutralise any lime in the water), 
 sometimes by the addition of a little glauber salt, we may 
 mention Magenta or Roseine for light rose colours, up to 
 blueish reds. 
 
 Cerise, Cardinal, Mciroon, cCr., being impure magenta 
 colours, giving special shades of red, and not so bright as 
 magenta. 
 
 Bismarck Brown, chrysoidinc and phosphine the 
 violets. 
 
 Methyl and. Malachite Greens are seldom used now for 
 wool dyeing, being substituted by the more convenient 
 acid greens. 
 
 Aniline Blues, soluble in spirit, are of little importance 
 now for wool dyeing, but they are still employed when 
 colours are required which have to stand milling, also 
 for tinting or blueing to a moderate extent. Under the 
 
140 DYEFNG. 
 
 name of stoving blue a product Is sold giving shades 
 standing^ milling^ and stovinsf. 
 
 Other blues, such as Victoria blue, methylene, etc., are 
 seldom employed. 
 
 ACID DYESTUFFS. 
 
 Of the coal tar colours for wool dyeing, this class is the 
 most important and valuable addition, since it gives a very 
 convenient series of dyestuffs, which can be employed on 
 wool in an acid bath, which is a great advantage for this 
 fibre. There is no end to the shades that can now be 
 produced by means of these acid colours by themselves, 
 and in connection Avith each other. These products are all 
 sulpho compounds of the basic dyestuffs. 
 
 Reds. — Acid magenta is a valuable product, being faster 
 to light than ordinary magenta. 
 
 Azo Scarlets. — A great variety of products are now on 
 the market, under different names, such as ponceaux, scarlets, 
 croceine and others, giving very fine colours, beginning 
 from purplish reds, full reds, scarlets of a red or yellow 
 shade, and in fact the range of colours does not stop there, 
 but goes down to Oranges of different gradation down to 
 Yellows, etc. 
 
 It would not be of very great interest to describe all 
 these colours individually, the more so that they come on 
 the market under so many different names that a description 
 of the method for each single colour Avould be hopeless. 
 
 It will be well, therefore, to consider all these dyestuffs 
 as a class of acid colours, and the method of their employ- 
 ment is the same for all. They require an addition of 
 sulphuric acid to the bath, to which glauber salt is also 
 added in the proportion of 10 to 20 per cent. As far as 
 the proportion of sulphuric acid is concerned, it depends 
 upon the different dyestuffs ; some dyers acidulate their 
 bath until it is frankly acid. About 2 to 5 per cent, of 
 sulphuric acid will be found sufficient in all cases. The 
 amount of dyestuft' required depends upon the shade 
 required. For scarlets, for instance, 2 to 3 per cent, of 
 
WOOL. 141 
 
 some brands will give a very full shade. Among the other 
 acid colours may be mentioned — acid naphthol yellow, 
 picric acid, etc. 
 
 Blues. — The soluble blues of greenish shade are preferably 
 employed, as alkaline blues will be mentioned later on. 
 The soluble blues of red shade, such as for serge, navy 
 blues, etc., are common soluble blues, which are fixed on 
 wool in the ordinary way in a bath strongly acidulated 
 with sulphuric acid, and with the further addition of 
 glauber salt, a lengthy boiling being required if dark 
 shades are wanted. 
 
 The Induline Blues give navy blue shades, up to blue 
 blacks, which stand light remarkably well, and they also 
 are dyed in an acidulated bath, and require a long boiling 
 for the fixation. Often also they are dyed on wool, 
 mordanted with bichromate of potash, when more intense 
 and even faster shades are the result. It is well in dyeing 
 with these colours to start first in a neutral or slightly 
 alkaline bath ; enter warm, bring quickly to the boil, boil 
 half hour. Then add in small portions at a time 5 to 10 
 per cent, sulphuric acid, and keep boiling until the desired 
 shade is obtained. Blues dyed with induline are considered 
 the best substitute for indigo dyed blues. 
 
 Acid Violets and Acid Greens do not call for any special 
 remarks for their method of employment, except that they 
 are found very useful as combination colours, the greens 
 especially being employed to a certain extent as substitutes 
 for indigo extract and carmine in compound shades. 
 
 THE ALKALINE COLOURS. 
 
 This class comprises, besides the alkaline blues, which 
 are very important, some other products, such as alkaline 
 violets and screens, Avhich have, however, not been found so 
 useful as the other. They are also called Nicholson 
 blues. 
 
 The new class of azo colours, which dye cotton without 
 mordant, might also be classed here, since they are also dyed 
 
14^ DYEING. 
 
 in an alkaline mordant, but they have already been described 
 in the chapter relating to cotton. 
 
 AlJcaline or Nicholson Blues.'* 
 
 To make a solution. — Dissolve about one pound of colour 
 in ten gallons of water, and boil for 15 or 20 minutes. 
 
 The liquid Nicholson blues also found on the market will 
 be found to effect a great saving of time and trouble. 
 
 For wool. — These colours, which are very largely used 
 for wool dyeing, both for pieces, yarns, slubbing, and all 
 classes and kinds of wool, are specially characteristic for 
 brilliancy ot shade, power of penetration of even the 
 thickest fabrics, and the peculiar method of dyeing. Two 
 baths are required : the dye bath, and the acid or developing 
 bath. 
 
 To the dyebath, an amount of borax or soda approximately 
 equal to the weight of colour used should be dissolved and 
 added, together with the quantity of colour necessary to 
 produce the required shade. The wool should be entered 
 at about 100^ Fahrenheit, the temperature quickly raised 
 to the boil, and kept there about half-an-hour. Take out, 
 and wash well ; the cleanliness of the ultimate colour 
 depends largely on the goods being well washed at this 
 stage. The goods should now appear a greyish or only pale 
 blue. 
 
 Develope the colour by passing the goods through Avater 
 slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, at about 120* 
 Fahrenheit ; wash again well in cold water, and dry. On 
 no account must the acid be put in the same bath as the 
 colour. The water in the dyebath should be as free from 
 lime salts as possible. In some cases, where the water is 
 particularly soft, less borax or soda than above-named is 
 necessary. 
 
 To match a given shade, cut off from time to time a 
 
 * The following' particulars I owe to Messrs. Brooke, Simpson, and 
 Spiller, of the London Atlas Works, where, as is well known, these products 
 were first discovered and manufactured by Nicholson. 
 
WOOL. 143 
 
 small piece of the goods while still in the dyebath, wash, 
 and then develop it in the acidulated bath. 
 
 In working these colours for the first time, more dye is 
 required than for subsequent operations. For instance, if 
 you start a bath with Slbs. of colour, the material to be 
 dyed will not take up much more than about 2lbs. ; but in 
 a second operation, the addition of 21bs. of colour to the 
 dj^ebath will give about the same result as the first Slbs. 
 As, therefore, the bath cannot be exhausted, it should be 
 saved until again wanted, or the colour may be precipitated 
 with sulphuric acid, collected on a filter, washed with cold 
 water, and kept in that state till wanted ; then dissolved 
 afresh with the addition of a little extra borax or soda. 
 
 When wishing to make colour as fast as possible against 
 milling and scouring, it is a good plan to bottom with a 
 little vat indigo. Many dyers think that developing in a 
 rather hot acid bath, also tends to make these colours stand 
 milling better. 
 
 Though stronof soda will discolour an alkali blue, it will 
 not destro}^ the colour, acid bringing it back to its original 
 brilliancy. 
 
 It may be reckoned that from 5 to 10 per cent, ot borax 
 or soda crystals to weight of wool, is the quantity generally 
 employed in the first bath. 
 
 THE ALIZARINE COLOURS. 
 
 In another part of this work will be found a detailed 
 account of the alizarine colours, with methods of employ- 
 ment in connection with two pattern sheets, kindly supplied 
 by the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik; also patterns 
 of loose wool, dyed with alizarine colours, supplied by the 
 Hoechst Colour Works. There will also be given recipes 
 for alizarine dyeing 
 
144 DYEING. 
 
 DYEING WOOL WITH ALIZARINE.* 
 
 All on IOOots. cotton. 
 
 1. Prepare bath of 
 
 4grs. tin crystals, 
 2 „ oxalic acid, 
 
 4 ,, calcium acetate, 
 
 5 „ alizarine (medium shade). 
 
 Heat to 160'' F., enter wool, raise to a boil, and continue 
 till exhausted. Dyed in one bath. 
 
 2. Mordant wool at a boil for two hours Avith 
 
 lOgrs. alum, 
 
 4 ,, tartai", 
 
 2 ,, tin crystals. 
 Heat, etc., as in 1, using in dye-bath lOgrs. alizarine 
 (medium shade). 
 
 3. Mordant as in 2, using in dye-bath lOgrs, alizarine 
 (blue shade). 
 
 4. Prepare bath of 
 
 4grs. tin crystals, 
 2 ,, oxalic acid, 
 4 ,, calcium acetate, 
 15 ,, alizarine (medium shade). 
 Heat, etc., as in 1. Dyed in one bath. 
 
 5. Mordant as in 2, and use in dye-bath l"25grs. alizarine 
 carmine and 1-25 grs. tartar. 
 
 6. Mordant wool at a boil for one hour with 
 
 2gi-s lum, 
 0.5 ,, tin crystals, 
 0*5 ,, tartar. 
 And in dye-bath use 
 
 0"65grs. calcium acetate, 
 10 ,, alizarine (blue shade). 
 
 7. Mordant wool at boil for one hour with 
 
 2grs. alum, 
 
 Igr. tin crystals, 
 
 1 ,, tartar. 
 
 * These recipes were obtained from the British Alizarine Co., at the time 
 of the author's connection with the Manchester School of Dyeing. 
 
WOOL. 145 
 
 Use in dye-bath 
 
 l*25grs. alizarine carmine, 
 2-5 ,, tartar, 
 0'25 ,, calcium acetate. 
 
 8. Prepare bath with 
 
 2grs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 Igr. uranium acetate. 
 Heat, etc., as in 1. 
 
 9. Prepare bath containing 
 
 8grs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 Igr. uranium acetate, 
 Heat as in 1. Dyed in one bath. 
 
 10. Prepare bath of 
 
 0'5grs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 I'O gr. uranium acetate. 
 Heat as in 1. Dyed in one bath. 
 
 11. Mordant wool two hours at a boil in 
 
 3grs. bichromate of potash or soda, 
 
 2 ,, oxalic acid. 
 Wash and enter in dye-bath with 
 
 Igr. alizarine (medium shade), 
 
 4grs. extract fustic. 
 Heat as in 1. 
 
 12. Mordant the wool, by boiling two hours in 
 
 4grs. sulphate of iron, 
 
 2 ,, tartar, 
 
 2 „ oxalic acid. 
 Wash. In dye-bath use 
 
 2-5grs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 10 ,, extract fustic. 
 
 13. Manipulate mordant as in 11, and use in dye-bath 
 
 5grs. alizarine (medium shade). 
 Heat, etc , as in 1. 
 
 14. Mordant wool for two hours in 
 
 6grs. ah;m, 
 
 3 ,, bichromate of potash or soda, 
 
 2 ,, oxalic acid. 
 
146 DYEING. 
 
 Take out, wasli, and enter in dye-bath of 
 
 lOgrs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 5 ,, extract fustic. 
 Heat as in 1. 
 
 15. Mordant as in 14. In dye-bath put 
 
 5grs. alizariue (medium shade). 
 
 16. Manipulate mordant as in 6, and use in dye-bath 
 
 lOgrs. alizarine (medium shade), 
 
 10 ,, extract fustic. 
 Heat, etc., as in 1. 
 
 In another part of this vohime, in chapters relating to 
 communications received from different sources, and 
 explanations of dyed patterns, -will be found a description 
 of methods of employment of some very interesting 
 novelties in the class of coal tar colours for wool dyeing. 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC 
 DYESTUFFS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 INDIGO DYEING. 
 
 The indigo vat is still employed in woollen d3'eing, 
 although not so much as formerly, for the production of 
 those goods where great fastness is required against light 
 and air. The fermentation or German vat is the one still 
 employed for the purpose, which is prepared as follows: * 
 For a vat of the capacity of 
 
 14 to 15,000 litres (320 to 350 galls.), 
 take 
 
 about 
 
 1 bag of bran, 
 
 2 litres treacle (h gall.), 
 
 20 kilos soda ash (45 lbs.), 
 
 10 kilos indigo, very finely ground in water (22^ lbs.) ; 
 by means of a steam pipe the temperature is raised to GO 
 to 70° C. 
 
 After eight to fourteen days the fermentation may show 
 itself, but sometimes it takes longer; this is due to the 
 presence or absence of the necessary ferments to set up the 
 fermentation. In order to hasten the beginning of the 
 fermentation it is advisable to add to the vat a small 
 portion from the bottom of another vat already in fermenta- 
 tion, Avhich will contain the necessary ferment, and Avill 
 start the fermentation in the new vat very rapidly. This 
 is ascertained by the coppery line acquired by the surface 
 
 * The above details are extracted from an article by M. A. Renard iu 
 L^Industrie Textile. 
 
148 DYEING. 
 
 of the liquid in the vat, which is covered at the same time 
 with a thin film, the frothing of which also shows itself on 
 the surface, and which becomes blue in contact with air. 
 It is also recognised by the presence of blueish veins when 
 the Hquid is agitated. 
 
 By leaving the vat to itself for a few days, with only the 
 precaution of agitating twice every 24t hours, the reduction 
 will easily take place, and the vat be ready for work. The 
 wool is introduced into the vat in a kind of basket, which 
 is immersed in the liquor, but without allowing it to touch 
 the bottom. The wool is gently moved in the basket in 
 order to allow the liquor to penetrate throughout, and 
 after 15 to 20 minutes, the basket is lifted bodily out of the 
 vat, and the liquor allowed to drain back. These immersions 
 and liftings out are repeated until the wool has reached the 
 proper shade. Five or six dips can thus be made in one 
 day. Every evening, after the work is over, the vat is 
 stirred up after adding 
 
 About 10 litres bran (2 to 2^ galls.), 
 ^ litre treacle about 1 pint), 
 
 2 kilos soda (4ilbs.i, 
 
 5 ,, indigo (10 to 121bs.), 
 and a certain amount of Ume, which can onl}- be detennined 
 by practical experience. The temperature is brought to 35 to 
 40^ C. A good vat shows the following characteristics : it 
 is of a nice yellow colour, and shows a blueish froth at the 
 top of the Hquor, and numerous pellicles of a bronzy or 
 coppery hue. On raking the liquor it should show blueish 
 veins, and the bottom be of a greenish hue. The vat must 
 show a slight ammonia smell. In all cases the conduct of 
 this vat, as, indeed, of indigo vats generally, requires a 
 larf*'e amount of practical experience, and no amount of 
 description will make an efficient indigo dyer, without the 
 necessary long practice. 
 
 The Benoist fermentation vat: It was proposed not 
 many years ago to do away with the uncertainty in the 
 managements of the fermentation vat, by emplo3-ing a 
 mixtiure of glucose and potato starch, made soluble by a 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC DYESTUFFS. 149 
 
 previous boiling with carbonate of soda, and by employing 
 a special ferment, capable of resisting and reproducing 
 itself at a temperature of 70 to 72° C, so that the dyeing 
 might be eftected at a higher temperature^ and in a clearer 
 liquor, than in the ordinary vat. By employing products 
 of definite composite, it is possible to calculate exactly the 
 amount required. The author is not aware that this new 
 vat has offered, in practice, any advantage over the older 
 process. 
 
 The Bisulphite, or Schutzemberger and Lalande 
 methods. Vide Holliday and Son's vat: 
 
 For Woollens. — To set a vat, say Gft. square by 7ft. deep, 
 fill with clean water, and heat up to 130° F., then take 
 78lbs. of bisulphite of soda, which kill with Gibs, zinc 
 preparation, and stir for ten minutes (a zinc or galvanized 
 iron pail is best for this) ; the bisulphite of soda will then 
 be thoroughly killed, and have taken up all the zinc 
 preparation, add this to the vat, then add 6lbs. dry slaked 
 lime, then indigo solution sufficient for shade required. 
 
 To replenish vat, take for every lOOlbs. of woollen goods, 
 lOlbs. bisulphite of soda, killed with 13oz. zinc preparation, 
 and stirred ten minutes before adding to bath : then add 
 8oz. dry slaked lime (free from stones, etc.), and then 
 indigo solution to shade wanted — always keep the liquor 
 to feel slightly rough and hard. 
 
 The vat is heated with a coil of pipes so arranged that 
 the condensed water does not enter the liquor. Wool and 
 woollen pieces should be dyed at 120° F., and woollen 
 yams at 105° to 110° F. 
 
 Observe that the proportion of bisulphite of soda, zinc 
 preparation, and lime, for the quantity of wool to be dyed 
 must be the same, irrespective of shade wanted, whether a 
 quart or 10 gallons of indigo solution is required. 
 
 dyeing with dyewood. 
 
 The dyewood colours still occupy a very prominent 
 position in the dyeing of the wool fibre, and their 
 
150 DYEING. 
 
 employment has not been diminished by the introduction 
 of coal tar colours. Whether this will still remain the case 
 in the future is very difficult to tell. It will depend upon 
 the discovery of some artificial series of new colouring 
 matters, capable of being entirely substituted for the 
 natural dyestuffs. In certain branches, of course, the 
 dyewood colours have been affected to a certain extent ; but 
 on the whole they have held their own. 
 
 Madder is still employed in the wool-dyeing establish- 
 ments, principally for compound shades, but cochineal has 
 suffered very considerably since the introduction of the 
 azo scarlets, which have been found a very cheap and 
 effective substitute. With reference to cochineal it is of 
 interest to note, that in spite of assertions by the manu- 
 facturers that the azo scarlets are as fast as, and in respect 
 of washing, even faster than cochineal, the fact remains 
 that military cloth, not only in this country, but also on the 
 Continent, is still dyed by means of cochineal, the authorities 
 still insisting upon a cochineal dye being delivered. 
 
 Logwood is still almost exclusively employed in the 
 dyeing of blacks on wool, for which the mordanting method 
 with bichromate of potash is principally followed, as in the 
 following examples : 
 
 CHROME BLACK ON WOOL. — No. 1. 
 
 Wool lOOlbs. 
 1st. — Boil li hours with 
 
 2ibs. bichromate of potash, 
 2 „ sulphate of copper, 
 1 ,, sulphuric acid. 
 Wash well. 
 
 2nd. — Dye in new bath with 
 
 5 Dibs, logwood, for a blue black. 
 For jet black use 
 
 45lbs. logwood, 
 8 ,, fustic. 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH l^^ATURAL ORGANIC DYESTUFFS. 151 
 CHROME BLACK. — No. 2. 
 
 For lOOlbs. 
 1st. — Boil 1 hour in bath with 
 5lbs. glauber salt, 
 5 ,, bichromate of potash. 
 Lift out and wash. 
 
 2nd. — Dye in new boiling bath with 
 
 161bs. logwood extract, 51° F. 
 1^ „ fustic „ 51° F. 
 
 Give 8 turns, lift, wash, and dry. 
 
 Iron blacks are not so often used for wool. 
 Logwood enters in many compound colours, such as 
 olives, browns, etc. ; but the logwood blues are not much 
 employed, there being such a variety of coal tar blues, 
 which are very effective and advantageous substitutes for 
 the purpose. 
 
 All dyewoods may be dyed on mordanted wool, the 
 mordants mostly employed being : 
 
 Alumina Mordant. 
 
 AlutQ 5 to 10 per cent., 
 Tartar 2i to 5 per cent., 
 according to depth of shade required. 
 
 Iron Mordant. 
 
 Copperas 5 to 10 per cent„ 
 Tartar 2 to 5 per cent. 
 
 Chromium Mordant. 
 
 3 per cent, bichromate of potash, 
 •25 (or J) per cent, sulphuric acid. 
 
 Tin Mordant. 
 
 Stannous chloride (tin crystals) 3 to 4 per cent. 
 Oxalic acid 3 per cent. 
 
152 DYEING. 
 
 Tin and Alumina Mordant. 
 
 Alum or sulphate of alumina 10 per cent. 
 
 Tin crystals 2 ,, 
 
 Argol 5 „ 
 
 On these mordants can be dj^ed the dyewood colours, 
 such as fustic, bark, logwood, barwood, sanders, etc. 
 
 Persian berry extract gives good yellow on alumina and 
 tin mordants, which are, however, too expensive ; but bark 
 or flavine give very good and cheap colours on the same 
 mordant : alumina and tin, or tin alone. A good mordant 
 for cochineal is 2 per cent, stannous chloride, or 3 parts 
 stannic chloride, 3| parts oxalic acid. In mordanting 
 with all about 1 to li hours' boiling is generally employed. 
 
 The following examples will be found interesting : — ■ 
 
 Mordant with 2 per cent, bichromate potash ; boil one 
 hour. Dye with fustic barwood, logwood, and sanders- 
 wood. 
 
 Mordant with 1 per cent, alum and 1 per cent, chrome ; 
 boil one hour. Dye with fustic, barwood, logwood, and 
 sanderswood. 
 
 Sadden half of each shade with copperas. 
 
 Mordant with 3 per cent, alum and li per cent, tartar ; 
 boil one hour. Dye with fustic, barwood, logwood, sanders- 
 wood, madder, archil, and cudbear. 
 
 CHROME FOR BLACK. 
 
 Blue reflection : 3 per cent, chrome, 25 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid ; boil li hours. Dye with 50 per cent, logwood. 
 
 For violet reflection, add 5 per cent, muriate tin to 
 mordant. 
 
 For green reflection, add 10 per cent, fustic to dye-bath. 
 
 COCHINEAL SCARLET. 
 
 On lOOlbs. wool, in one bath. 
 
 7 to lOlbs. cocliineal, finely ground, 
 21b 8. tartar, 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC DYESTUFFS. 153 
 
 51bs. tin composition, 
 lib. oxalic acid, 
 8 to lOoz. flavine. 
 Boil together 10 minutes, then fill the dyebath with cold 
 water ; enter wool, and heat gradually, and boil for one 
 hour. 
 
 For the other lots, keep the same bath, to which add 
 further for every fresh lot : 
 
 ^ to lib. cochineal, 
 ilb. tartar, 
 ^Ib. oxalic acid. 
 Cochineal reds or scarlet are also dyed on wool previously 
 mordanted with tin composition, or ordinary stannous 
 chloride and oxalic acid, as mentioned before, when giving 
 the different proportions of mordant. Cochineal-dyed wool, 
 when immersed in ammonia or soda solution, will become 
 purplish, and be thus distinguished from reds produced 
 with madder or coal tar colours. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 Tin composition for cochineal dyeing is prepared as 
 follows : 
 
 lOlbs. nitric acid, 
 lOlbs. water, 
 14ozs. sal ammoniac, 
 add in small portions at a time, Ifibs. metallic tin in thin 
 ribbons. Leave 24 hours, and keep in stoppered bottles 
 for use. 
 
 It is also more often prepared by dissolving feathered tin 
 in aqua regia, i.e., a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 Cochineal is also employed for rose or pinks on a weaker 
 mordant, and without the addition of flavine, which would 
 give a yellow shade. 
 
 Cochineal can also be employed on alum mordanted 
 wool, but the reds produced, although faster, are not so 
 bright as with tin mordants. 
 
lo^ DYEING. 
 
 MADDER. 
 
 Madder is still employed to a certain extent in wool 
 d3'eing, botli as self colour and in combination with other 
 dye woods, not only for woollen goods, but also for felt hat 
 dyeing, for which purpose it has not been as yet displaced 
 by alizarine. 
 
 Bed. 
 
 On lOOlbs. wool. 
 
 Mordant for 1 J hours in bath prepared with 
 141bs. alum, 
 71bs. tartar, 
 
 41bs. stannous chloride solution 50"^ Tw. 
 Enter material at 65° C, bring up gradually to the boil, lift, 
 cool, and leave to stand (without washing) for 8 to 10 hours, 
 then wash. 
 
 Dyehatli. — According to depth of shade, prepared with 
 36 to 70lbs. ground madder, 
 and 
 
 41bs. tin solution, 50= T. 
 ^\'hen the madder has been properly mixed up with the 
 water, the wool is entered, and the temperature gradually 
 raised so that it reaches the boiling point in 1 to 1 i hours. 
 Boil 10 minutes, lift out, wash immediately. 
 
 The proportion given of 70lbs. madder is for a very deep 
 shade ; for a medium colour, 40 to oOlbs. will be found 
 amply sufficient. Of course madder can be dyed on iron 
 and chromium mordants, or a mixture of these with alumina. 
 Of the other natural organic dyestufts, such as archil, 
 cudbear, etc., also indigo extract or carmine, methods of 
 employment will be indicated in the chapter relating to 
 the explanation to dyed patterns. 
 
 OXE DIP DYES. 
 
 For several years some special methods have been 
 introduced in wool dyeing, which dispense with the 
 mordanting altogether, since the dyeing is eftected in one 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC DYESTUFFS. 1.55 
 
 bath, and without any special preparation. The majority 
 of wood shades can now be produced by this means. 
 
 ELACKS. 
 
 Some preparations are sold in commerce for black 
 dyeing, which, under the name of direct black, &c., contain 
 about 
 
 2 parts dx*y logwood extract, 
 : 2 per cent, copperas, 
 
 1 per cent, copper sulphate. 
 They are employed by first dissolving in water, acidulated 
 with oxalic or sulphuric acid in sufficient proportion to 
 make a perfectly clear solution. 
 
 The method of dyeing is as follows : — 
 
 For lOOlhs. Wool 
 
 the bath is prepared with 
 
 15 to 201bs. direct black, 
 dissolved in acidulated water, when a clear and yellowish 
 solution is obtained. The wool is introduced, and it is 
 heated up gradually to the boil, and kept at this temperature 
 for 1 to 1 ^ hours. Oxalic acid is the best adapted for this 
 process, but good results may also be obtained with 
 sulphuric acid if great care is taken. Cream of tartar and 
 tartaric acid can also be employed, but are, of course, much 
 more expensive. As for the amount of acid to be employed 
 it is very difficult to give any exact proportions, as it depends 
 to a great extent on whether the water is hard or soft. In 
 ordinary cases, however, with a soft water from 1 to 2lbs. of 
 oxalic acid ought to be sufficient. If too much acid has 
 been employed in the first instance, this can be corrected 
 by the addition of carbonate of soda or ammonia to the 
 bath, until the bath just begins to show a slight turbidity. 
 When the proportions are correct, a fine blue black is 
 produced, and if a jet black is required it is only necessary 
 to add a small quantity of fustic extract. The colour 
 obtained is very intense, does not rub when the operation 
 
156 DYEING. 
 
 has proceeded satisfactorily, and can well be compared with 
 the blacks produced by the ordinary processes in which the 
 goods are mordanted previously. 
 
 MORDANT FOR DYEING IN A SINGLE BATH WITH DYEWOODS. 
 
 M. Cheneau Fonteneau employs the following mordant 
 for the dyeing in one single bath of blacks, blues, greens, 
 bronzes, etc., and obtains shades that stand fulling well, and 
 also the atmosphere. The proportions are as follows : 
 
 Iron sulphate (copperas) 381bs. 
 
 Copper sulphate (bluestone) 25,, 
 
 Binoxate of potash 30 ,, 
 
 Eaw tartar 2,, 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 5 ,, 
 
 Fast Black on lOOlhs. Wool. 
 
 Boil for 1| hours with 
 
 ] 21bs. soluble mordant, 
 12 ,, logwood carmine, 
 
 4 ,, fustic carmine, 
 2 ,, ammonia soda. 
 
 After boiling, the wool is taken out of the bath, left to cool, 
 and is then washed. By dyeing the wool previously in the 
 vat, a light shade of 
 
 A Fast Blue 
 s produced with 
 
 lOlbs. soluble mordant, 
 
 5 ,, logwood carmine, 
 2 ,, soda. 
 
 In this latter case the boiling is only performed for 75 minutes. 
 
 Blueish Bottle Green, 
 
 lOlbs. mordant, 
 10 ,, fustic carmine, 
 10 ,, logwood carmine, 
 lib. soda, 
 by boiling for 1 1 hours. 
 
DYEING WOOL WITH NATURAL ORGANIC DYESTUFFS. 157 
 
 LigJit Green. 
 
 lOlbs. fustic carmine, 
 
 6 ,, logwood carmine, 
 3 ,, sulphate of indigo, 
 lib. soda, 
 
 lOlbs. soluble mordant, as above. 
 
 Fast Bronze. 
 
 lOlbs. soluble mordant, 
 15 ,, fustic carmine, 
 
 7 ,, logwood carmine, 
 lib. soda. 
 
 Boil \\ hours. 
 
 The following mordant is much recommended by French 
 dyers for dyeing in one single bath with dyewood extract : 
 
 Alum 1 to 3 per cent. 
 
 Binoxalate of potash ....„ 3 per cent. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc 1 per cent. 
 
 Copper sulphate 2 to 3 per cent. 
 
 The following proportions give good results for 
 
 Black Dyeing. 
 
 12 per cent, logwood extract, 50° T., 
 4 to 5 per cent, bluestone, 
 1 to 1^ per cent, oxalic acid. 
 Greenish blacks are produced, while with copperas alone 
 reddish or violet blacks are produced, and consequently 
 better results are obtained with both. The best proportions 
 are 
 
 Logwood extract, 10 to 15 per cent. 
 Bluestone and copperas, each 1 to 3 per cent. 
 The baths may be kept for subsequent operations, when 
 they can be refreshed with more logwood, bluestone, or 
 copperas. 
 
 YELLOWS, 
 
 with quercitron bark or flavine. 
 
lo8 DYEING. 
 
 100^6.5. Wool. 
 21b8. flavine or corresponding amount of bark liquor. 
 51bs. alum. 
 Enter wool at the boil, give five turns, lift out ; then add 
 
 lib. stannous chloride, 
 give four turns, wash, etc. 
 
 YELLOW WITH FUSTIC. 
 
 Although more employed for compound shades, fustic may 
 be employed for yellow dyeing as follows : — 
 Prepare boiling bath with 
 
 10 to 151bs. fustic extract, 5 per cent., 
 give live turns, lift out. 
 Add— 
 
 l^lb. tin crystals, 
 re-enter wool, give four turns, etc. 
 
SILK. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 Scouring, — As is well known, silk contains a pretty large 
 amount of gum, and, if coloured, the colouring matter, 
 according as more or less of the gummy substances are 
 eliminated, different varieties of silks are produced, such 
 as ecru, boiled, and souple silk. 
 
 BoiLED-OFF Silk. — The ungumming of silk is performed 
 by means of soap solutions, heated to about 90 to 95'' C. 
 By boiling the yarns several times in these soap baths, the 
 silk is deprived of its gum or glue, and acquires softness 
 and lustre, but it loses from 28 to 30 per cent, in weight, 
 according to the variety employed. 
 
 The soap baths are utilised as much as possible, and then 
 are worked up for the recovery of the fatty acids, by treat- 
 ment with sulphuric acid. These soapsuds have been found 
 very useful as an addition to dye-baths when dyeing silks 
 with aniline colours. 
 
 As a rule, boiled silks are stretched on specially con- 
 structed machines, in order to impart to them increased 
 lustre. 
 
 The Bleaching is effected also by means of sulphurous 
 acid, by exposure in the wet state to the action of sulphurous 
 acid gas, in the same way as for wool, for about six hours, 
 the operation being repeated several times until a good 
 white is obtained, or with solution of aqua regia, HNO3 and 
 HCl. 
 
 Souple Silk. — Silk which only loses 5 to 8 per cent, of 
 its weight, and is consequently not completely deprived of 
 its gum. 
 
 1st, Softening: Work 1 to 2 hours in 10 per cent, soap, 
 ;30to35°'c. 
 
160 DYEING. 
 
 2nd, Bleaching: Work for 10 to 15 minutes in stone 
 vessels, containing solution of aqua regia 40 Tw., at 25 to 
 30' C. Wash well 
 
 Aqua regia is prepared by mixing 5 parts HCL 32" Tw, 
 1 part HXO3, 62= Tw. 
 
 3rd, Storing with SOo in chamber. 
 
 4th, Soupling : "SVork 1^ hours in water, containing 
 3 to 4 grains cream of tartar per litre. Silk so treated is 
 Tery well adapted for dyeing. 
 
 £cRU Silk is the fibre, deprived of its gum to the extent 
 of from 2 to 5 per cent., by washing or light soaping, and 
 then sulphuring. 
 
 Also, in the case of silk, the blueing or tinting is neces- 
 sary ; this is now mostly performed by means of anihne or 
 alkaline blues, indigo extract, or carmine, but principally 
 by means of methyl violet of a very blue shade. 
 
 TussAH Silk cannot be bleached in the same way as the 
 other varieties ; for this, peroxyde of hydrogen is now 
 mostly used. The fibre, after it has been well cleansed by 
 soaping, is immersed in a solution of the commercial 
 peroxyde (commonly called also hydroxyl), to which a 
 small amount of ammonia is added, until its smell is per- 
 ceptible, and the silk is left in the bath for several hours, or 
 over night. A quicker and more efl:ective process is to 
 steep the silk into a strong peroxyde solution, and, after 
 wringing out the surplus liquor, to steam it in a cask or 
 suitable wooden box. 
 
 SILK DYEIXG 
 
 with coal tar colours. 
 
 The aniline colours are mostly dyed on silk in a soap 
 bath, for which the baths are used which have been 
 originally employed in the boihng off of silk. The acid 
 colours do not require any diti'erence from the basic in their 
 general method of emplo}TQent, except, perhaps, that a 
 slightly larger amount of acid is used. The soap bath is 
 
SILK. 161 
 
 preferably acidulated slightly by means of acetic or sul- 
 phuric acid. Silk has great affinity for the aniline colours, 
 and the soap bath is only employed to let the dye take 
 evenly, as silk dyed in a bath Avithout the addition of the 
 soap is sure to come out uneven, the colour being precipi- 
 tated so quickly on the fibre. 
 
 The temperature at which the best results are obtained 
 is at 130 to 140 or 150^ F., only in special cases is it 
 necessary to go up to the boil, as for instance in the case of 
 azo scarlets. The amount of colour is according to the 
 shade required. The dyestutf is previously dissolved, the 
 solution filtered, and the filtered liquor added gradually to 
 the dyebath. After lifting out of the dyebath the silk 
 is washed, then passed in a new bath acidulated with 
 sulphuric or acetic acid, which brightens the fibre consider- 
 ably. There is no special remark to ofier in the dyeing 
 with the ordinary aniline and azo colours, which will mostly 
 be illustrated by dyed specimens at the end of this 
 work. 
 
 The Alkaline Colours. — Alkaline or Nicholson blues 
 are dyed on silk by using a soap bath in which the neces- 
 sary amount of dye solution is employed along with borax, 
 and the colour is then developed in an acid bath as in the 
 case of wool. 
 
 The new class of azo colours, dyeing cotton in an alkaline 
 bath, are so far of interest for silk, that goods of cotton and 
 silk can be dyed in the same bath, and without the aid of 
 any mordant. 
 
 ALIZARINE colours ON SILK. 
 
 On ordinary iron mordant of 20 to 25° Tw., alizarine gives 
 fast violet and purples, 5 to 10° of the dye-stuffs being 
 found sufficient for a medium shade, while by having a 
 stronger mordant, and increasing the amount of alizarine, 
 deeper shades are produced. It is preferable also in this 
 case, to use soap suds in the dyeing process, to which, how- 
 ever, a small amount of acetic acid must be added. 
 
 M 
 
162 DYEING. 
 
 Alizarine Reds. — Place tlie boiled silk in an alum bath, 
 stowing 6 to 9" Tw. ; leave 15 to 20 hours, wring and wash, 
 or better pass before washing in bath at about 1° Tw. of 
 silicate of soda. Dye in a soap bath, with the necessary 
 amount of alizarine. 
 
 Alizarine Orange is dyed in the same way; on iron 
 mordants it yields reddish violets of browner shade than 
 those obtained with alizarine. With alumina mordant, a 
 bright and fast orange is the result. 
 
 Alizarine Blue is fixed on silk by means of a chromium 
 mordant. This is prepared by dissolving precipitated 
 hydrate of chromium, by means of commercial hydrochloric 
 acid, taking care that an excess of the hydrate of chromium 
 is employed to prevent having the bath acid. The chloride 
 of chromium is made up to 20 to 25° Tw., and the silk 
 immersed in the bath for 4 to 5 hours. 
 
 Alizarine Broivn is dyed on alumina or iron mordants. 
 
 GaZ^er/ie, either on alumina, chromium, or iron mordants; 
 the latter giving duller but faster shades. 
 
 Ceruleine, or chromium chloride mordant, 20 to 25' 
 Tw. 
 
 Galloflavine, or chromium mordant, gives fancy yellow 
 olive shades, very fast to boiling soap, and of very agreeable 
 tints. 
 
 DTEWOOD COLOUES 
 
 are not so much used in silk dyeing as they used to be, but 
 they still play a very important part in the dyeing of blacks. 
 
 Black No. I— for lOClbs. Silk 
 
 1. Boil off and rinse as usual. 
 
 2. Iron bath (nitrate or persulphate of iron}, wash. 
 
 3. Work quarter hour in bath, at 50"" C. with 
 
 10 lbs. bark or fustic, or corresponding amount of extract. 
 5 ,, cutcb. 
 Heat up to 60° C, then work half hour ; lift, rinse, whizz 
 out. 
 
SILK. 163 
 
 4. New bath 
 
 10 lbs. soap. 
 100 ,, logwood or corresponding amoant of extract. 
 Enter silk at 65°, and bring up to the boil. 
 
 0. Brighten in new tepid bath Avith weak acetic acid. 
 
 Black No. 2— on Silk ■ 
 
 1. Wash the silk in Aveak alkaline solution. 
 
 2. Ibbu mordant, with basic persulphate of iron, 20 to 
 80' Tw., wring out and wash. 
 
 8. Carbonate of soda bath, to fix the iron mordant, wash. 
 
 4. Dyeing with yellow prussiate, to obtain prussian blue. 
 
 5. Tannin solution Avith cutch, sumach or myrobolam, 
 according to the quality of the black, which is required at 
 90 to 95° C. 
 
 G. Fixing the tannin by means of stannous solution. 
 
 7. Dyeing Avith logAvood. 
 
 8. Soap bath. 
 
 9. Brightening in acid bath, Avith or Avithout an oil 
 emulsion. 
 
 This series of operations is noAv generally folloAved in the 
 dyeing of the best blacks, Avhich are more or less Aveighted 
 by repeating the iron and fixing baths, as also the tannin 
 and tin fixing baths. 
 
 Chesnut extract is employed for the tannin bath for the 
 production of the cheaper blacks. According to Gianoli, 
 in the Italian Journal L'Industria, the superiority of the 
 blacks dyed at St. Chamond is due to Avhat had already 
 been maintained before by practical men, namely, the 
 extreme purity of the Avater, Avhile blacks dyed in Italy do 
 not turn out as bright, on account of the lime contained in 
 the Avater. Lime forms an insoluble soap on the fibre, 
 Avhich impairs the brightness of the colours. Magnesia 
 Avould act in the same Avay. 
 
 The method of black dyeing noAV mostly folloAved, 
 although varying considerably in the amount of operations, 
 all follow the aboA^e principals. 
 
164 DYEING. 
 
 THE WEIGHTING OF SILK. 
 
 The Tveigliting of silk, in the process of dyeing, has 
 unfortunately acquired such a hold in the silk industry 
 that it has obtained a recognised position, although, strictly 
 speaking, it is nothing less than adulteration, and con- 
 sequently a fraud, and cannot any more be defended than 
 can the weighting or charging of cotton or woollen goods, 
 so as to give them a fictitious weight and appearance. 
 
 Silks in some cases are charged more than 100 per cent, 
 of their original weight, and in some cases even still more. 
 The thread acquires, besides, a heaviness and size which it 
 did not possess when pure, and is apt to deceive the buyer 
 who only judges by the feel and the appearance. 
 
 The charging of silk, which by some is recognised as an 
 art, has been the cause of injuring the prosperity of the 
 industry very considerably, and this beautiful fibre, which 
 in olden time was the symbol of strength and durabiht}', 
 is now-a-days simply the emblem of the hollow and 
 presumptuous show in which this age heartily delights. ' I 
 do not think that modern chemists need after all be so 
 proud of their achievement in this direction. It must be 
 o^\Tied, however, that in recent times attempts have been 
 made to atone, in a certain sense, by introducing methods of 
 weio^htinof the silk Avhich should not be detrimental to the 
 fibre. The methods mostly employed for the purpose rely 
 on the selection of ingredients, according as the silk is 
 white, hght coloured, or heavy coloured. 
 
 Sugar and glucose were, at one time, favourite products 
 for sophistication, but the weighting cannot be made very 
 hia"h, and, accordingly, these ingredients, although harmless, 
 are not now in favour. 
 
 For white and light colours, stannic chloride solution is 
 employed, which is made up to 85 — 45'' Tw., the silks being 
 immersed, lifted out, wrung, and finally washed, being 
 treated in a boiling soap and soda bath ; each treatment 
 increases the weight by about 8 per cent., being repeated 
 according to the amount of weighting required. Silks so 
 
SILK. 165 
 
 charged are easily deteriorated by long exposure to sun- 
 light. 
 
 For dark shades, and especially for blacks, the ferric 
 hydrate or peroxide is the weighting mostly employed in 
 the shape of the old and well-known iron mordant, for silk 
 the nitrate or persulphate of iron, which is prepared from 
 copperas by the addition of sulphuric and nitric acid, and 
 has the formula 2 Foo O3, 5 SO3. The application relies on 
 the employment of this liquor made up to 45° Tw. or 25° Tw., 
 according as it is a boiled or a souple silk. 
 
 After immersing in this liquor for the time necessary to 
 ensure thorough impregnation, the silk is lifted out, wrung, 
 then washed, and finally passed through a tepid soda bath, 
 and soaped at the boil ; by repeating the operation every 
 time the weight increases by about 10 per cent. Silks so 
 charged are generally employed for blacks ; the iron charge 
 does not deteriorate the fibre so readily as the stannic 
 chloride, but the silks have a tendency to ignite 
 spontaneously, and this has been the cause of fires on board 
 ships carrying these heavily charged silk goods. 
 
 Tannins are also largely used for the weighting of silks, 
 and they do not act so injuriously towards the strength of 
 the fibre as the metallic charges do, but they can only be 
 employed for dark colours. Special tannin products, 
 artificially purified or bleached, have, however, been 
 introduced of late, which allow tannins to be employed even 
 with some lighter colours. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &c- 
 
 COMMUNICATIOXS, ABSTRACTS, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 In this chapter I have inchided some friendly communi- 
 cations received from different sources relating: to new or 
 important dyestuffs, etc., which oft'er special points of 
 interest to those engaged in the tinctorial arts. 
 
 ALIZARINE COLOURS IN WOOL DYEING. 
 
 The importance of alizarine and allied dyestuffs for wool 
 dyeing is increasing every 3'ear, especiall}' on account of the 
 lower price at which these products can be obtained, and 
 also on account of the fast shades which are produced with 
 this class of colouring matters. Wishing to give the latest 
 and most reliable information on the subject, I have here 
 collected the following particulars, due to the kindness of 
 the Messrs. the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik, who, as the 
 first discoverers and producers of these dyestuffs on a large 
 scale, have for years given special attention to the employ- 
 ment of these colours for wool dyeing. I must also thank 
 this firm and their Manchester agents, Messrs. Schott, 
 Sequer and Co., for the fine collection of woollen damasks 
 dyed with the alizarine colours, which have been prepared 
 on purpose for this work. 
 
 For wool dyeing, the alizarine and allied products are 
 employed not only on the loose material, but also on 
 slubbings, yarn and cloth, and I understand that the 
 Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik have put up in their works 
 a complete plant of the system for dyeing loose wool in 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS. &C. 167 
 
 order to show practically to dj^ers the way in which to go 
 about to produce their shades. 
 
 The alizarine colours introduced into commerce for wool 
 dyeing are as follows, the dates being indicated so as to form 
 an interesting addition to the history of coal tar colours. 
 
 Alizarine (for red) 1878 
 
 Alizarine orange 1879 
 
 Galleine 1880 
 
 Ceruleine 1880 
 
 Alizarine blue 1880 
 
 Alizarine blue S 1881 
 
 Alizarine maroon 1885 
 
 Alizarine red S 1885 
 
 Anthracene browu 1886 
 
 Galloflavine 1886 
 
 Alizarine black 1887 
 
 This last product is of great interest, and may have a great 
 influence upon the wool dyeing industry. As is well known, 
 logwood is still the only dyestuff largely employed in the 
 production of blacks, and with the recent introduction of 
 black dyestufts derived from coal tar, a revolution may be 
 in store at no distant date. 
 
 It is an interesting fact to note that all the alizarine 
 colours have the property of forming lakes with metallic 
 oxydes, and, on this property, depends their employment 
 in dyeing. In fact, they are in reality Aveak acids, Avhich 
 belong to the class of Phenoles. 
 
 The principle of the fixation of these dyestuffs on wool, 
 is, therefore, only the formation of an insoluble alizarate on 
 the fibre, or rather of the corresponding salt of the dyestuff 
 with the metallic oxyde, best adapted for the formation of 
 the lake. As for cotton dyeing, the fibre requires to be 
 previously mordanted with the metallic compound, while 
 the dyeing is performed in a separate bath ; the difference, 
 however, lies in the nature of the two fibres, which therefore 
 require a diflerent method of application of the mordant. 
 For wool d^'eing, the fibre allows the mordanting to be 
 performed in one bath, and by the single operation of the 
 
168 DYEING 
 
 boiling of tlie goods, while, as it will be remembered, the 
 process is of a much more complicated nature for the 
 mordanting of cotton. It is also worthy of notice, that the 
 colours produced with the alizarine dyestuffs are not only 
 fast to soap, but stand light well, without mentioning that 
 they stand milling, and to a great extent also acids ; in fact, 
 as far as the latter part is concerned, in some cases they act 
 like acid colours. It will be readily understood that they 
 can be connected with dyewood extracts, and, indeed, any 
 other dyestuffs which are fixed on wool by means of metallic 
 oxydes ; also, when employed mixed with each other, they 
 yield a great number of shades, which can of course bo 
 modified by topping them with some aniline or other colours. 
 
 The preliminary oj)erations for wool dyeing with alizarine 
 do not differ from those of the other colours, and consequently 
 the scouring or washing of wool must be done with the 
 ordinary precautions, either with weak alkalies, or prefer- 
 ably with ammonia, &c. 
 
 As far as the cheinical hurling or extracting is concerned, 
 that is the destruction of the vegetable matters generally, 
 which is performed by exposing the wool to dry heat after 
 having been impregnated Avith sulphuric acid or aluminium 
 * chloride, or even hydrochloric acid gas, it must be observed 
 that as the alizarine colours are not affected by these agents, 
 the burling may be performed even on the dyed material. 
 
 MORDANTING. 
 
 The mordants mostly employed are : — alumina, chromium, 
 iron, and tin salts, which are generally applied in a bath in 
 connection with weak acids or acid salts, by choosing of 
 course the mordant according to the dyestuff and shade 
 required. The acids employed are : — sulphuric, oxalic, or 
 tartaric acids, while for acid salts, acid potassium, oxalate, 
 and tartar are used. As is well known to all dyers conversant 
 with wood colours, tartar is the best, although, unfortunately 
 the dearest agent, especially for the fixation of alumina 
 mordant on the wool fibre. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 169 
 
 In mordanting wool for alizarine colours, the same 
 ordinary precautions are to be observed, viz. : that the goods 
 should be first well scoured and rinsed ; if the water is too 
 calcareous, this fact must be taken into account by- 
 increasing correspondingly the amount of the acid, or the acid 
 salt. It is also necessary that the goods should be boiled 
 sufficiently in the mordant, and, especially that the 
 temperature of the bath should reach as nearly as possible 
 the boiling point as can readily be ascertained by means of 
 a thermometer. Finally, the goods must be well rinsed 
 after the mordant, otherwise, by leaving part of the mordant 
 still loosely adhering to the fibre, the colour produced is 
 apt to rub off, a great drawback with woollen goods which 
 must be guarded against. 
 
 MORDANTS. 
 
 Chromium mordants. — These are for alizarine dyeing 
 the most perfect mordants, as they produce colours which 
 are perfectly fast against air, light, soap, etc., and when em- 
 ployed with due knowledge and precautions give thoroughly 
 reliable results. The bichromate of potash is the most 
 useful and reliable of the chromium mordants, although 
 the cheaper soda salt can also be employed, if of good 
 quality. The best proportions, found with a water that 
 possessed 10" (German) of hardness, was 
 
 3 per cent, bichromate of potash, 
 2^ per cent, tartar, 
 the amount of water beinof 
 
 30 to 50 parts for 1 part of wool. 
 This was, of course, for a full colour, while for lighter 
 shades the amount of mordant is correspondingly 
 reduced. 
 
 Sulphuric acid can also be employed for the purpose, but 
 better results are produced with tartar or argol. 
 
 Alumina mordants are only employed for the pro- 
 duction of reds or orange shades. The proportions most 
 convenient are 
 
170 DYEING. 
 
 6 per cent, alum, 
 •4 per cent, tartar. 
 The latter must be increased if the water is very hard. 
 
 Iron mordants are mostly employed for darkening or 
 saddening purposes after the goods have been dyed on 
 alumina or chromium mordants in the usual way. They 
 can also be employed for mordanting by themselves, but 
 are seldom used for the purpose. The salt mostly used 
 is copperas, although the acetate and nitrate of iron, and 
 even iron alum are sometimes employed. 
 
 Tin QTwrclants are principally employed for the purpose 
 of brightening or modifyuig the other shades. Tin cr3'stals, 
 or tin salt, is the product most conveniently employed, 
 when required for self-colour, which is very seldom the 
 case. The proportions are 
 
 3 per cent, tin crystals. 
 2 per cent, tartar. 
 The tin salt, however, is principally emplo3'ed in con- 
 nection with alumina mordant with the proportions of 
 6 per cent, alum, 
 4 per cent, tartar, 
 ^ per cent, tin salt. 
 
 THE DYEING. 
 
 The dyeing of wool with alizarine colours is a ver}^ simple 
 operation, but it requires a few precautions, foremost among 
 which is that the ofoods should have been well mordanted 
 and thoroughly rinsed. 
 
 The quality of the water also is of great importance, 
 since if the Avater be very calcareous the lime combines 
 with alizarine, producing a lake which is not of a very brilliant 
 tone, and which, besides, does not possess sutiicient fastness. 
 This drawback, however, can be got over by the addition 
 of acetic acid to the dj^ebath, which prevents the formation 
 of the lime lake. The amount of acetic acid to be emploj'ed 
 depends upon the amount of lime contained in the water. 
 The addition of acetic acid to the dvebath is useful, even 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 171 
 
 when distilled water is employed. For water containing lime 
 to the extent of 10° (German) hardness, 1 litre commercial, 
 containing about 30 per cent, of pure acetic acid, is 
 recommended for every 1,000 litres of water. It is easily to 
 be understood that the material must be thoroughly wetted 
 before it is immersed in the dyebath, or uneven results will 
 be obtained. 
 
 The dyeing is started quite cold, or at about 30° C. = 8G° 
 Fahrenheit, then gradually heated to the boil, and the 
 goods allowed to boil for two to three hours. This is 
 necessary in order to fix the lake properly on the fibre. 
 
 The best results are obtained by dyeing in tinned copper 
 vessels or in wooden dye becks, not so good colours being 
 produced in copper vessels. 
 
 MORDANTING AND DYEING 
 
 in a single bath. This can be effected in one single bath, 
 but is accompanied by a certain loss of the colouring 
 matter, and consequently is not to be recommended, except 
 in some special instances, such as in the case of alizarine 
 red S., the soluble alizarine sulphonic acid, which gives 
 good results, even if dj'ed and mordanted in one single bath. 
 The following details Avill also be found interesting, as an 
 addition to the history of coal tar colours, and to the 
 chemistry of the alizarine dyestuffs, for which, however, the 
 reader is referred to the volume, by the present author, on 
 the " Printing of Cotton Fabrics." As it is not intended to 
 repeat here, in full, what has already been published on 
 this account, a short notice only will be given of the most 
 saliest points, since it is not the author's intention to enter 
 very fully into the chemistry of coal tar colours, so ably 
 treated by other writers in the English, German, and 
 French languages. 
 
 ALIZARINE. 
 
 Discovered by Graebe and Liebermann in 1869, the 
 process was given up to the Badische Anilin and Soda 
 
172 DYEING. 
 
 Fabrik the same year, and introduced into working order 
 through the improvements effected by Caro the same year. 
 
 Anthracene, according to the now well-known process, 
 is oxydised into anthraquinone, by means of bichromate 
 of potash and sulphuric acicL The anthraquinone is then 
 converted into a sulphuric acid, the latter fused ^sdth caustic 
 soda, yields alizarate of soda, from which by decomposition 
 with an acid, alizarine will be obtained. As has been 
 previously mentioned the necessary explanations concerning 
 the modifications of alizarine, flavo, and anthrapurpurine, 
 will be found in the " Printing of Cotton Fabrics," 
 
 The first experiments for the employment of alizarine 
 in wool dyeing were made by the above-named company in 
 1878, when the artificial product was recommended instead 
 of madder. Later on came the proposal for dyeing alizarine 
 colours on chromium mordants as substitutes for wood 
 colours, principally instead of sanders. Under the generic 
 name of alizarine are, of course, understood the three modi- 
 fications above named, which give different shades ; pure 
 alizarine yields on wool a blueish red, while flavopui-purine 
 gives a red with a yellowish cast, and anthrapurpurine a 
 shade between the two. Of the commercial brands the 
 W.B. — consists of pure ahzarine. 
 W.R. — mixtures of equal parts of alizarine and 
 
 anthrapurpurine. 
 "W.G. — anthrapurpurine, and 
 AV.G.G. — flavopurpurine. 
 
 With alumina mordant wool can be dyed in different 
 gradations of colours from a blueish to a yellowish red ; 
 the shades can also be modified considerably by the 
 employment of tin along with the alumina mordant, when 
 the shades produced are brighter and of a yellower tone. 
 
 With chromium mordants reddish brown colours are 
 produced, which, of course, can be greatly modified by the 
 addition of other colouring matters. 
 
 In 1878 the firm Przibram and Co., of Vienna, patented 
 a sulphonic acid of alizarine, but the product was not at 
 the time produced on a manufacturing scale. The matter. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 173 
 
 however, was taken up again in 1884 by the Badische 
 AniHn and Soda Fabrik, who, having recognised the merit 
 of the product for wool dyeing, brought it into the market 
 under three brands of ahzarine S., 2 S., and 3 S., being 
 the sulphonic acids of ahzarine, anthra, and flavopurpurine 
 respectively, 3 S, of course, giving the yellowest shades. 
 These products, which are water soluble, give colours which 
 are brighter than those obtained with the ordinary 
 alizarines. They are also more usefully employed on 
 account of their solubility m water for such goods as, 
 being thick, are not easily penetrated all through by the 
 insoluble or sparingly soluble dyestufi's. They also offer the 
 further advantage of allowing the mordanting and dyeing 
 operations to be performed in one single bath. It may be 
 of interest to note that for the production of full shades on 
 wool about 4 per cent, of these soluble alizarine colours will 
 be found useful. 
 
 Of the other ordinary alizarine colours (not sulpho 
 products) about 10 per cent, to the weight of the wool is 
 necessary for the production of full shades, the 20 per cent, 
 paste being employed. 
 
 Alizarine Orange. 
 
 The alizarine orange or f3 nitroalizarine was first 
 produced on the fibre, by Strobel, in 1875, by exposing 
 goods dyed with alizarine red to the action of nitrous acid 
 fumes. Rosenstiehl isolated the dyestuft' from the fibre, 
 and produced it by transferring dry alizarine with nitrous 
 acid. On the other hand, and at the same time while 
 Rosenstiehl's process had not been published, Caro, the 
 well known manasfinQ- chemist of the Badische Anilin and 
 Soda Fabrik, also based on Strobel's reaction, introduced 
 into practice a manufacturing process which was patented 
 in England in 1876 (No. 1229). 
 
 Alizarine oranc^e skives on wool a reddish orange on 
 alumina mordant, while on chromium mordant, a brown 
 red is produced. 
 
174 DYEING. 
 
 Tlie dyeing properties of alizarine orange correspond 
 almost to those of alizarine, with the difference that as the 
 orange is on more acid dyestuff, it is not so easily affected 
 by lime. 
 
 Alizay'ine Blue. 
 
 Discovered by Prudhomme in 1877, by the reaction of 
 glycerine and sulphuric acid on alizarine orange. The 
 product of the reaction consists of a mixture of two colouring 
 matters, one gjivinq- with alumina mordant, a violet and iron, 
 a greenish blue shade, Avhile the other, with the same 
 mordants, gave brown colours. 
 
 These reactions were not further followed up by 
 Prudhomme, but Brunck, a chemist of the Ludwigshafen 
 works, took the matter up, and isolated the blue dyestuff", 
 the alizarine blue, and found out a method for the produc- 
 tion of the new dyestuff", which was started on a large scale 
 in 1878. Brunck found further that a soluble combination 
 could be obtained from alizarine blue by combining the 
 same with bisulphites, and thus a new product was 
 introduced into the market, under the name of alizarine 
 blue S., which is recommended in wool dyeing as a substitute 
 for indigo, possessing very valuable properties. The ease 
 and certainty with which it can be applied on wool, com- 
 bined with an absolute fastness against light, makes this 
 soluble alizarine blue a very useful product for the wool 
 dyer, especially when it is considered that the dyeing in the 
 indigo vat is accompanied by many ditficulties, which can 
 only be overcome by means of long experience. 
 
 Goods dyed with alizarine blue will not allow of their 
 colour being rubbed off' in the same way as those dyed by 
 indigo, an advantage much appreciated when clean goods 
 are required. Alizarine blue can be d3'ed along with all 
 the other acid dyestuffs, and gives in all respects satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 The great draAvback that has prevented the employment 
 of this dyestuff in former years was its high price, but 
 since all alizarine colours have been reduced to such low 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 175 
 
 prices as are now ruling, this difficulty is no more in the 
 way. 
 
 In respect of the cost of dyeing with alizarine bhie S., the 
 following results may be perused with interest: — Of the 
 three shades, S.W., S.M.W, and S.R.W. paste, which arc 
 produced of this dyestuff, 270 grs. were employed for 
 dyeing one kilo wool, which would come to about one 
 shilling per kilo. 
 
 The only really useful mordant for alizarine blue is the 
 chromium mordant, for Avhich bichromate of potash, in 
 connection with tartar, is employed ; for the latter product, 
 however, tartaric, oxalic acids, or acid oxalate of potash, 
 maybe emploj'ed. Sulphuric acid does not yield such 
 satisfactory results. Other mordants cannot be recommended 
 for alizarine blue. 
 
 AVhen properly dyed, alizarine blue colours on wool are 
 stated to stand light better than indigo blue dyed goods. 
 Against acids also alizarine blue behaves just as well, while 
 it stands chlorine much better than indigo. 
 
 The commercial qualities of ordinary alizarine blue are : 
 10 or 20 per cent, paste, contains the dyestuff in the 
 form of a finely divided pigment, almost insoluble in 
 water, which is especially useful for the dyeing of loose 
 Avool. 
 
 The water soluble varieties are sold, either in the form of 
 a liquid or as a dry powder. These soluble varieties are to 
 be recommended in the dyeing of very thick goods, which, 
 by their means, are thoroughly dyed all through. They arc 
 also more advantageously employed when dyeing in copper 
 vessels, which are somewhat attacked by the paste colour. 
 
 Galleine or Ccrideine. 
 
 Galleine yields violet colours on avooI, which are verv 
 fast against light, and stand milling thoroughly well. The 
 violet produced with galleine is not very bright, and 
 consequently this dyestuff is not so much employed for 
 itself, but principally for compound shades. The commercial 
 
176 DYEING. 
 
 articles are in the form of a 10 per cent, or a powder, both 
 sparingly soluble. 
 
 Ceruleine, discovered by Bayer in 1871, at the same time 
 as galleine. Like alizarine blue, the ceruleine is converted 
 into a soluble product by means of sodium bisulphite, and 
 brought in commerce under the name of ceruleine S. It is 
 also best fixed by means of chromium mordants. The 
 shades produced by ceruleine are olive greens of great 
 fastness against light. The principal employment of the 
 dyestuff is also for compound shades. It yields cheaper 
 and faster colours than those produced by means of indigo 
 carmine and fustic. 
 
 Anthracene Broivn. 
 
 Discovered by Seuberlich in 1877, is the result of the 
 reaction of benzoic and gallic acids, when treated with 
 sulphuric acid. The manufacture of this product was 
 started by the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik in 1886, on 
 the large scale, after its valuable property of very great 
 fastness for wool dyeing had been properly recognised. 
 
 As a self colour, but especially for compound shades, this 
 new dyestuff will be found very useful, and capable of 
 being substituted for many of the older and more com- 
 plicated methods with the dyewoods. Here again the 
 best mordants for fixation are the chromium mordants, and 
 the resulting colours are perfectly fast against light. In the 
 dyeing operation it must be remembered that anthracene 
 brown is a colour which can only be very slowly fixed on 
 the fibre, and in fact two to three hours' boiling are required 
 for the proper fixation ; this is, however, compensated by 
 the fact that the colours produced are much more even 
 than they otherwise would be. The product is brought 
 into the market in paste form, under two marks, anthracene 
 brown W. and W.G. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 177 
 
 Gallojiavhie. 
 
 Discovered and introduced by Bohn, in 1886, in the 
 works of the Badische Anihn and Soda Fabrik, by 
 the oxydation of galHc acid in alkaline alcoholic solution 
 by means of air. The commercial article forms a greenish 
 yellow paste. It gives on wool, on chromium mordants, 
 olive yellow shades which stand light and milling. It is 
 found especially useful for fancy mode shades and com- 
 pound colours, and is recommended as a substitute for 
 fustic. 
 
 A I iza r ine Ma roon 
 
 Has been produced since 1885, by a secret process, and 
 brought into commerce as a paste. On chromium mordants 
 red browns are obtained which are similar to those pro- 
 duced by means of alizarine. Alumina mordants give light 
 reddish browns with this dyestuff. The dyeing methods 
 are similar to those of the other alizarine colours. 
 
 Alizarine Black. 
 
 This is undoubtedly the most interesting addition to this 
 valuable class of coal tar colours. It has been recently 
 introduced by the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik as a 
 bisulphite derivative of naphthazarine. Both this product 
 and its employment by means of chromium mordant have 
 been the object of recent patents by the above company. 
 For employment in wool dyeing the product comes in 
 commerce under the name of alizarine black S. W., and 
 according to the quantity of dyestuti employed, shades are 
 obtained, varying from light greys to deep black ; for the 
 latter 25 per cent, of the dyestuff to the weight of the 
 wool is found necessary. As may easily be conceived, 
 this dyestuff can be employed in connection with the 
 others of the same class for the production of compound 
 shades. 
 
 N 
 
178 DYEING 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE EMPLOYMENT OF 
 ALIZARINE COLOURS IN ^VOOL DYEING. 
 
 Those of tlie alizarine dyestuffs wliich are sold in paste form 
 are, as is well known, insoluble in water, but tbey are in the 
 form of a very finely precipitated pigment, which acts almost 
 as well as if the dYestutf were perfectly in solution. The 
 reason why such dyestuffs are employed in the paste form 
 and not as dr}- powders is easily understood by the fact that 
 if in the latter form they do not yield the same amount of 
 colouring power as if employed in the paste form. Besides 
 this there would be the possibility of specks being found 
 on the goods by the little insoluble particles. This ex- 
 perience has been gained from the very first time that 
 alizarine was introduced into practice, and consequently the 
 product from the very first has been employed as a paste. 
 It is only in recent times that attempts have been made to 
 use the alizarine in the dry state, and although several 
 patents have been taken, and processes recommended, it 
 does not seem that the emplo3TQent of these insoluble 
 alizarine powders has been successful These remarks, 
 however, do not refer to the soluble (bisulphite) alizarine 
 colours, which have become well established in practice for 
 suitable purposes. 
 
 When employing paste colours it is necessary to give a 
 good stirring to the contents of the cask, since the ahzarine 
 pigment is apt to settle at the bottom. 
 
 In keeping the alizarine casks of paste colours it is well 
 not to keep them in too warm places, and in the second 
 instances, when a cask is open, to cover it well, so as to 
 prevent evaporation of the water and drying of the colour, 
 since it is a mistake to suppose that if the dry cake is 
 mixed asfain with water it will act iust as well as before. 
 In all cases it is advisable when keeping casks open for a 
 loncf time to add now and a^^ain the water which has been lost 
 by evaporation, and before used to give a thorough stirring. 
 
 The attention of woollen dyers is called to a very 
 interesting property of the alizarine paste, namely, that of 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 179 
 
 becoming thicker if mixed with acids, while alkahes have a 
 tendency to make the paste much thinner. Consequently, 
 the addition of a small quantity of sulphuric acid may be 
 found useful for the purpose of preventing the paste from 
 settling at the bottom of the casks, and this acidulated 
 alizarine paste would not be a drawback in wool dyeing. 
 
 It is also advisable, when adding any alizarine colour in 
 paste form to a dyebath, to push it through a fine hair 
 sieve after it has been well mixed up with water. 
 
 It must also be observed that the water-soluble alizarine 
 colours, alizarine blue, and ceruleine powders, must be 
 dissolved in cold and not in warm water, and the solution 
 then added to the dyebath through a fine sieve. 
 
 The water-soluble alizarine for red S., 2S., and 3S., are 
 better dissolved in hot water. 
 
 Water. — The purity of the water has a great influence 
 upon dyeing with alizarine colours. Lime and magnesia 
 form special lakes, with alizarine colours, which would 
 greatly modify the results if the water be too calcareous. 
 There is, however, a simple means of overcoming this 
 difficulty, by the addition of acetic acid to the dyebath. 
 
 Apparatus and MacJdnes. — No special apparatus are 
 required for dyeing wool with alizarine colours, other than 
 those generally employed for other dyestuffs. The mechanical 
 dyeing processes, such as those of Oberm oyer's, Cerruti 
 Sella, and others, may be employed in the case of the 
 material before spinning. 
 
 Dyeing Vessels. — Copper vessels can be employed in the 
 majority of cases with alizarine colours. In some special 
 instances, however, they act injuriously, such as for instance 
 for the dyeing of reds and scarlets, when a small amount of 
 copper will considerably impair the beauty of the colour. 
 In this case, wooden vessels are certainly to be preferred. 
 The copper vessels must also be avoided when dyeing with 
 insoluble alizarine blue and ceruleine pastes, or else the 
 dyeing is accompanied by a loss of the colouring power ; this 
 is, however, not the case with the water-soluble (bisulphite 
 compounds) of alizarine blue and ceruleine, which is 
 
180 DYEING. 
 
 undoubtedly due to the corrective action of the bisulphite 
 contained in the colour. 
 
 The best results, as far as scarlets and reds are concerned, 
 are achieved in tinned copper vessels, and these latter are 
 certainly to be recommended. The heating, which is done 
 on the Continent by free fire, can be performed in the 
 ordinary way, but preferably by a copper coil, when this 
 metal is not objectionable, or this coil may even be tinned 
 with advantasje for reds and scarlets. 
 
 DYEING LOOSE WOOL. 
 
 Chromium Mordant — For lOOlbs. Wool. 
 
 31bs. bichromate of potash, 
 
 2|^lbs. tartar, 
 each dissolved separately, and then added to dyebath. 
 Brinsf in, li to 2 hours to the boil ; lift, cool, rinse. If well 
 mordanted the wool will have acquired a light greenish 
 colour, which must be either yelloAvish or whitish. 
 For very hard water take 
 
 41bs. bichromate, 
 
 3 to 3 1 lbs. tartar. 
 Dyebath. — Temperature, 25 to 35'' C, the colour is added 
 by following the precautions pointed out before, that is, the 
 insoluble are mixed up with water, the soluble are dissolved 
 m cold water, and then wrung through a fine sieve into the 
 dyebath, which is of course well agitated. Then add 
 further for every 100 gallons water, lib. acetic acid; by 
 very hard water use instead li to 2lbs. acetic acid. Enter 
 the wool, work \ hour cold, heat gradually, and bring up to 
 boil in h hour. Boil 2 to 3 hours to fix the colour properly 
 on the fibre. Goods so dyed only require a slight rinsing 
 to be perfectly clean. 
 
 Alumina Mordant. — For 100^6s. Wool. 
 
 61b s. alum, 
 41bs. tartar, 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 181 
 
 for brighter and yellower shades, add further 
 
 ^ to lib. tin crystals. 
 Mordant and dye as mentioned before. 
 
 VARIOUS NEW DYESTUFFS. 
 
 Brilliant Crocein, M. and 9B., which also are derivatives 
 of the gama disulphonic acid of beta naphthol, discovered 
 by Leopold Cassella and Co. The brilliant croceines have 
 more affinity to the fibre, and therefore give deeper shades 
 than the crocein scarlet made with beta naphtholmono 
 siilpho-acid, and for this reason greater care must be taken 
 not to add too much alum to the dyebath. 
 
 Milling Red, G. and B. are azo colours, which possess a 
 remarkable resistance against alkalies ; they stand a fair 
 milling, and white wool being milled together will not be 
 stained in this process; of course if the milling be 
 exaggerated, these colours will recede as well as any other. 
 The mark G, if dyed on silk, stands washing perfectly well. 
 
 Archill Substitute, produced by nitrodiazobenzol and the 
 naphtholmono sulpho-acid, possesses the valuable quality of 
 setting slowly on the fibre, and combines with almost all 
 colours dyeing in a sour bath to uniform shades, and 
 therefore deserves its name. It is indeed a practical 
 substitute for archill. 
 
 Cotton Brown and Diamin Red belonsf to the class of 
 colours dyeing cotton without mordant in an alkaline bath 
 Cotton brown is very fit for mixed shades. Diamin red is 
 the bluest of those reds known commonly as direct colours, 
 and is at the same time a most brilliant dye. 
 
 Napldhol Black, B and 45, important for felt hat dyeing, 
 produced by combination of diazonaphthalin sulpho-acid with 
 naphthol sulpho-acid. These products dye animal fibres, 
 especially wool, a fair black. The colour dyes evenly in an 
 acid bath, resists washing, and is very fast to light. 
 
 Neutral Red — Neiv Blue, B and R. — The neutral colours 
 are produced by the action of nitrosodimethylamin upon 
 
182 DYEING. 
 
 metadiamin. The different isomeres s^ive red to blue 
 products — neutral red made from toluylendiamin. In close 
 connection with the neutral colours stand the new blues, of 
 which the two typical shades, R and B, will be found 
 illustrated in the pattern sheets, but nine different marks 
 are manufactured, all of which are different in shade. This 
 group of dyestufts has the advantage of dyeing cotton very 
 easily, and being fast to light, especially the new blues. 
 
 Scarlet 6R. — The first azo colour, which has been put in 
 the market in perfectly pure crystals, produced from 
 diazonaphthalin, and the gama disulphonic acid of beta 
 naphthol, a very rich, brilliant blue shade scarlet. 
 
 Naplithol Green is the fastest to the influence of light of 
 all existing tar colours. It is dyed in a sour bath, to which 
 the addition of a small quantity of sulphate of iron is very 
 advisable. The colour obtained appears a bright green in 
 artificial (gas) light, whilst the same shade produced in any 
 other way seems brownish in artificial light. For this 
 reason this dyestuft" is specially recommendable for 
 billiard cloth. 
 
 Proportions for lOOlhs. Wool. 
 
 51bs. dyestuflf, 
 5 ,, copperas, 
 10 ,, glauber salt, 
 in acidulated bath. 
 
 cassella's new blues in neutral colours. 
 
 Cotton : Method of dyeing \00lhs. 
 
 Dissolve in order to obtain full shades — 
 
 31bs. of colouring matter in 15 gallons of boiling water, 
 Avith addition of some muriatic acid ; stir well until all is 
 dissolved. 
 
 Boil the cotton well, leave it 4 to 5 hours, or better over 
 night, turning from to time in 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 183 
 
 1st bath tepid, containing — 
 
 5 to lOlbs. tanniu, or the proportional quantity of sumach, 
 
 and 
 
 21 to 5lbs. acetic acid at 8 deg. Tw. 
 
 Wring well ; leave the cotton 1 hour, turning frequently in 
 
 2nd bath cold, containing — 
 
 2^ to 51bs. tartar emetic, 
 or a o-ood quality of oxalate of antimony, wash and dye in 
 
 3rd bath containing the necessary quantity of colouring 
 
 matter and 
 
 1 to 2]bs. muriatic acid. 
 
 Enter at 90^ F., raise temperature to the boil. (The bath 
 will be completely exhausted). Brighten if necessary with 
 a weak solution of muriatic acid. 
 
 Preserve the baths 1 and 2, adding for further use one- 
 half or even one-third of the quantities of mordants used 
 for the first operation. 
 
 Where the use of antimony mordants is excluded 
 Stannate of soda at 1-|- deg. Tw. 
 
 or Pink salt ,, 2^ — 3 ,, 
 
 or Perchoride of tin ,, 2i — 3 ,, 
 is recommended, of which stannate of soda is the best, but 
 antimony mordants give faster shades. If no fastness to 
 washing is required, 100 parts of alum with 15 parts of 
 carbonate of soda at about 4° Tw. may be used ; in this case 
 give no acid to the dyebath. 
 
 MILLING RED G AND R, 
 
 Wool is dyed in a hot sour bath (sulphuric acid and 
 glaubers salt). The dyeings not being influenced by a 
 previous chrome-mordant, these products can be recom- 
 mended for mixtures with vegetable dyes. 
 
 Silk is dyed in an acidulated soap-bath; silk dyeings 
 with milling-red G do not let the colour go in water, and 
 even withstand hot soap. 
 
 These dyestufts are also very suitable for printing on 
 wool and silk, giving shades fast to washing. 
 
184 DYEING. 
 
 PREPARING SOAPS FOR WOOL SCOURING. 
 
 Many wool dyers and bleachers prefer to prepare for 
 themselves the soap employed in the scouring process, and, 
 consequently, I have thought it useful to give some directions 
 thereon, which I am enabled to do by the kindness of ]\Ir. 
 Menzies, of the Greenbank Alkali "Works. 
 
 POTASH SOAP FOR WOOL SCOURING. 
 
 501bs. Greenbank caustic potash. 
 
 SOlbs. weight (5 English galls. ) of water. 
 
 1901bs. of tallow. 
 Break up the contents of a 50lbs. can, by first striking it all 
 round, on the outside of the can, with a hammer. Pure 
 caustic potash is packed in solid blocks in cans, it being 
 impossible to prepare it in a powdered form, like pure 
 caustic soda, it being so much more deliquescent an article. 
 Now open the can and empty the contents into an 
 earthenware or iron vessel, with 5 gallons (50lbs. weight) of 
 water. Stir, and the potash dissolves almost immediately, 
 heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until just 
 warm to the hand (say about 80° F). Melt lOOlbs. of tallow 
 or grease, which must be free from salt, and let it cool until 
 fairly warm to the hand (say 120"^ F). Now pour the caustic 
 potash lye into the melted tallow, stirring for one or two 
 minutes with a wooden stirrer, until both are thoroughly 
 mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be 
 done in the pan used to melt the tallow, or in a wooden 
 tub, or an oil barrel. Cover up well and put away in 
 a warm place for two or three days (stirring again the 
 second day to thoroughly remix) during which time 
 the mixture saponifies. This gives about 290lbs. of 
 highly concentrated potash soap. For making hquid 
 soap for use in an ordinary wool washing machine, it 
 should be dissolved in five or six times its weijjht of water, 
 with a small quantity of refined carbonate of potash 
 added. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 185 
 
 There is no difficulty about mixing mucli larger batches 
 than the above of potash soap, as the saponification is 
 effected more easily than with soda soap. For instance, a 
 drum of potash of about SOOlbs. can be dissolved at once 
 in 80 gallons (SOOlbs.) of water, and mixed with 3,040lbs. of 
 melted tallow. 
 
 For simple wool washing cottonseed oil, if cheaper, may 
 be substituted for tallow, otherwise there is no advantage. 
 On no account, however, must cottonseed oil be used for 
 making a soap for washing finished goods, or for milling 
 purposes, on account of the unpleasant smell that a cotton- 
 seed oil soap leaves in them. 
 
 POTASH SOAP FOR FINISHING FINE GOODS, OR FOR 
 MILLING PURPOSES. 
 
 COlbs. of pure caustic potash. 
 
 dOlbs. (5 English gallons) of water. 
 
 2001bs. of clean well rendered tallow, free from salt. 
 Made just in the same manner as the previous soap, but 
 should always be kept for two or three weeks in a dry room 
 before it is used, thereby improving the quality. 
 
 For fine washing purposes Avith delicate colours this is 
 the very best and purest soap that can possibly be obtained. 
 Olive oil may be substituted for tallow, and makes a most 
 beautiful soap, but it is more expensive. If this olive soap 
 be re-melted in the proportion of two pounds of soap to one 
 pound of water, a fine clear soap will be obtained. No 
 boiling is necessary— just heating sufficiently to thoroughly 
 mix the water and soap together. 
 
 GAMBINE. 
 
 I owe to Messrs. Read Holliday and Sons the following 
 instructions for using their new patented product : In all 
 cases the gambine should be mixed with three or four 
 times its weight of cold water before adding to the dye- 
 bath. 
 
186 DYEING. 
 
 Brown. — Gambine 20 to SOlbs., mix as above witli water, 
 add to the bath, and bnng the temperature to boihng point, 
 enter lOOlbs. of jute, and work for a quarter of an hour. 
 Then add 3lbs. bichrome, and work for another half hour. 
 
 Brown Olive — .Proceed exactly as for brown, and then 
 add 2lbs. of sulphate of iron (copperas) to the bath, and 
 work the jute for a quarter of an hour longer. 
 
 Green. — Gambine 20 to 25lbs., mix with cold water, add 
 to the bath, and bring temperature to boiling point, enter 
 lOOlbs. jute, work for half an hour, then add olbs. sulphate 
 of iron (copperas), and work for another quarter of an hour. 
 
 Combined shades are obtained as follows : First dye the 
 jute wath gambine, and fix with bichrome or copperas, as 
 above, then add 2lbs. of bisulphate of soda (nitre cake), and 
 then acid mauve or claret red, or other azo or acid colour ; 
 quantity of colour to be regulated according to shade 
 desired. The colours are fast to light and washing. 
 
 Instructions for dyeing loose wool, wool yams and cloth : 
 In all cases the gambine should be well mixed with three 
 or four times its weight of cold water before adding to the 
 dyebath. Wood vessels should be used, iron in any form 
 having a tendency to green the shades produced. 
 
 Brownf<. — The material to be dyed is first prepared by 
 boiling about one hour in a bath containing for each lOOlbs. 
 material 31bs. bichromate of soda (or potash) and lib. 
 tartar ; or if very red shades are required, take 4lbs. 
 bichrome and lib. sulphuric acid (some prefer oxalic 
 instead of sulphuric acid). If only light shades are 
 required no acid need be used with the bichrome. 
 
 Wash ofi[ well after preparing. 
 
 Then dye in a bath containing from 1 to SOlbs. gambine, 
 quantity to be regulated according to depth of shade 
 required ; heat up to boil, and dye like logwood, for half an 
 hour or more. 
 
 Gambine R. gives red browns and gambine Y. yellower 
 shades, when prepared as above. 
 
 Olives.— OYixQ shades are obtained by proceeding in the 
 above manner and then saddening to shade with sulphate 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 187 
 
 of iron (copperas) The longer in this bath and the more 
 copperas used the greener the shade. 
 
 Greens. — lOOlbs. material is prepared with 31bs. sulphate 
 of iron and 2 to 31 bs. of tartar, Avell washed off and then 
 dyed with gambine ni another bath, in the same manner as 
 for browns, only the sulphate of iron is used instead of 
 bichrome. If the wool is afterwards boiled with bichrome 
 the shade can be turned to an olive. 
 
 The shades produced by gambine are very fast to light, 
 and a variety of shades can be obtained by combining with 
 alizarin, logwood fustic, redwood, yellow N., claret red, acid 
 mauve, milling red, and other colours. 
 
 The alizarin, logwood, etc., can be added to the same bath 
 as the gambine. 
 
 SERIES OF COLOURS FOR REDS, ORANGES, 
 AND YELLOWS. 
 
 From Messrs. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Limited, I 
 have received the following particulars concerning a new 
 series of colours for producing various shades of red, 
 orange, and yellow of great fastness. The ingrain red, 
 the most important of the series, compares favourably 
 with turkey red as regards fastness to milling, scouring, 
 acid and other tests, but is not so fast aq-ainst lidit. 
 
 Frimuline. — This yellow colouring matter is the starting 
 point for all the shades belonging to the new series. It is 
 easily soluble in boiling water (free from acid). For wool 
 and silk work at a boil, in an acidulated bath, wash and dry. 
 It will also dye wool or silk well from a neutral or slightly 
 alkaline bath containing common salt. For cotton and 
 mixed goods, cotton and wool, or cotton and silk : work 
 at a boil in a strong bath with a good quantity of common 
 salt, wash and dry. No mordant whatever is required. 
 The addition of soda crystals to the bath when dyeing 
 mixed goods diminishes the affinity of the colour for the 
 wool or silk, but increases it for the cotton ; a small quantity 
 of acid has an opposite effect. 
 
188 DYEING. 
 
 Ingrain Red. — To produce this shade on wool, cotton, or 
 silk, dye the goods yellow with primuline as above, wash 
 and pass through a cold bath containing about one or two 
 ounces of nitrite of soda to every gallon of water, smartly 
 soured with oil of vitriol. Wash again well, and develop 
 the red by passing the goods through a cold or warm bath, 
 not above 100° Fahr., containing about a quart of " red 
 developer" to every 10 gallons of water. When fully 
 developed wash and dry. The nitrite bath must be cold, 
 and must be freshly made ; it Avill not keep more than a 
 day, but the developing bath can be used repeatedly if 
 about 2 or 3 quarts of developer are added for every lOOlbs. 
 of goods dyed. After passing through the nitrite of soda 
 bath, the goods should appear of a golden orange shade, and 
 the developing must at once be proceeded with, or the 
 colour will decompose and the red will not appear. 
 
 Ingrain Orange. — Proceed as for red, but use the 
 "orange developer." Dyed on wool, cotton, or silk, these 
 colours stand milling and scouring ; are free from bleeding, 
 and acids do not affect them. They dye cotton without 
 any mordanting whatever ; mixed goods, both cotton 
 and wool, or cotton and silk, are dyed at one operation, and 
 without the cotton being mordanted or prepared. They act 
 as a mordant for all the basic colours, such as bismarck 
 brown, meldoline blue, roseine, hofmann or methyl violets, 
 malachite green, safranine, &c., &c., so that an immense 
 variety of shades can be obtained from them. By mixing 
 the orange and red developers intermediate shades can be 
 produced. 
 
 STIBINE. 
 
 The following particulars are due to Mr. Dupee, of 
 Walpole Dye and Chemical AVorks, near Boston, Mass., 
 U.S.A. 
 
 Stibine is a perfect substitute for tartar emetic or oxj-mu- 
 riate of antimony, and is superior in every way to oxalate 
 of antimony. It is used precisely the same as tartar 
 emetic, pound for pound, and at the low price at which it is 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 189 
 
 sold will show great advantages over the latter article, as a 
 single trial will prove. Use from 1 to 5 pounds stibine to 
 100 pounds goods, as a light or dark shade is desired. At 
 first a difficulty was experienced in dissolving the stibine, 
 as it had a tendency to cake with age. But these dis- 
 advantages have now been overcome by improvements in 
 the manufacture, whereby an article is produced that is 
 perfectly pure, being free from iron or other metallic 
 substance injurious to colours. Stibine has special 
 advantages over oxymuriate of antimony, as it gives more 
 brilliant shades and a regular bath can be kept, while with 
 the oxymuriate of antimony the bath grows acid by standing, 
 and not only injures the shades but tenders the goods. In 
 fact, wherever a metallic mordant is needed in connection 
 with any tannin matter, such as extract of sumach, nut 
 galls, myrabolans or tannic acid, stibine will be found very 
 valuable. This mordant is equally adapted to the use of 
 raw cotton, cotton yarn, or warp dyers, calico printers and 
 silk dyers. 
 
 BLACK MORDANT. — No. 1. 
 
 For fast Milling Black on Raw Cotton at one operation. — 
 The black made with this mordant on raw cotton is the 
 best milling black that can be obtained. It is easy to 
 colour, and is obtained at a single operation. The black, in 
 richness of shade, softness, and milling, equals the best 
 black on wool ; and the cost is less than of that produced by 
 many of the old methods. 
 
 FAST YELLOW D. 
 
 For Cotton, Sllh, Wool, Jute, &c. — This dye gives a rich 
 shade of old gold on all kinds of animal and vegetable fibre, 
 Avithout the aid of a mordant, and at one operation. It 
 dyes easily and evenly, and produces shades remarkable for 
 their fastness to light, milling with soap and alkali. In 
 conjunction with logwood, a great variety of rich shades of 
 olive may be obtained. Fast Yellow D is particularly 
 
190 DYEING. 
 
 useful for d3^emg cotton flannels, cotton warps, silk noils, 
 and raw cotton for mixing with wool. 
 
 SALUFER, THE NEW ANTISEPTIC. 
 
 Salufer is the trade-mark name for a substance, sodium 
 silicofluoride, found by Mr. WilHam Thomson, F.R.S. Edin., 
 of Manchester, to be a powerful antiseptic. It has the 
 advantage of not being volatile, so that when mixed with 
 size it does not evaporate from it. It is a much more 
 powerful antiseptic than chloride of zinc, 1 part of this 
 substance being equivalent to about 14 parts of chloride of 
 zinc in its power of preventing mildew. A very small 
 quantity, therefore, of this substance is required to prevent 
 mildew and decomposition in goods in which it is intro- 
 duced. From 1 to lilbs. of salufer per cwt. of ordinary 
 dry flour or starch is all that is required. 
 
 Salufer is not easily soluble in water, a gallon dissolving 
 about 1 ounce when cold, and about 3 ounces when hot. 
 It is not poisonous. 
 
 CUDBEAR AND ORCHILL. 
 
 These two dyewares are prepared from Orchella weed 
 by oxidation with the addition of an alkali. Cudbear is a 
 dark-red powder, and orchill a liquid or paste. Both are 
 made in two shades, one red and the other blue, to suit the 
 preferences of dyers. These dyes are seldom used for self- 
 colours, but are largely employed in dyeing compound 
 shades, especially with indigo. The colouring matter 
 (orcein) contained in them gives best results when a neutral 
 bath is used ; but the addition of a small quantity of acid 
 or alkah does not aftect its dyeing properties, except that 
 acids redden the shade and alkalies turn it bluer. Wool 
 and silk are readily dyed by cudbear and orchill without 
 the aid of mordants ; but they do not dye cotton, and this 
 circumstance is taken advantage of in testing for purity. 
 The patterns shown among the others on the pattern 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 191 
 
 cards are dyed without mordants. These details are due to 
 the kindness of Messrs. J. Marshall, Son & Co., who have 
 also supplied the corresponding patterns, having had them 
 dyed on purpose for this work. 
 
 THE HERMITE BLEACHING PROCESS. 
 
 Some progress has been made during the last few months 
 in the development of this electrical bleaching method, 
 which, as is well known, depends upon the employment of 
 magnesium chloride. Opinions are still rather conflicting 
 being very favourable on one side and equally unfavourable 
 on the other. While awaiting for further improvements 
 before forming a decisive judgment in the matter, it seems 
 to me that the inventor and his co-operators have already 
 achieved a certain amount of success in some special appli- 
 cations. From information received, it appears that the 
 method has given good results in manufacturing trials on 
 the large scale for linen bleaching and also for paper pulp. 
 
 My opinion is that the electrical method of the prepara- 
 tion of bleaching solutions to be immediately used for 
 bleaching of vegetable fibre will be the method of the 
 future. The following particulars are taken from a 
 pamphlet kindly sent me by Messrs. Patterson & Cooper, 
 the electrical engineers who have devised the plan and tried 
 the method in connection with M. Hermite : — 
 
 The process is based on the following operations : — 
 
 "When an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride (con- 
 sisting of 5 per cent, of magnesium chloride, and 95 per 
 cent of Avater) is electrolysed in a suitable apparatus, this 
 salt is decomposed at the same time as the water. 
 
 The nascent (i.e., newly liberated) chlorine of the 
 magnesium chloride and the nascent oxygen of the water 
 (resulting from the electrolysis) unite at the positive pole, 
 and produce an unstable oxygen compound of chlorine of 
 very high bleaching power. The hydrogen and the magne- 
 sium go to the negative pole ; this last decomposes the water 
 and forms magnesium oxide, whilst the hydrogen is dis- 
 
192 DYEING. 
 
 engaged. If in this liquid coloured vegetable fibres be 
 introduced, tlie oxygen compound acts on the colouring 
 matter, oxydising it ; chlorine combines with the hydrogen 
 to form hydrochloric acid, which, finding itself in presence 
 of the magnesia in the liquid, combines with it and forms 
 the initial chloride of magnesium. Thus a complete cycle 
 of changes goes on so long as the electric current acts on 
 the solution in presence of colouring matter. The cycle is 
 a perfect one, in which there are four elements — the electric 
 current, chloride of magnesium, the water, and the colour- 
 ing matter. Only two of these elements are used up in 
 bleachinsf the colourinsf matter — the electric current, or, 
 what is the same, the motive power and the water. Thus 
 the chloride of magnesium serves over and over again. 
 There is only a simple displacement of molecules, and the 
 chlorine acts as a vehicle to discharge the nascent oxygen 
 on the colouring matter. 
 
 It will be asked, Why employ magnesium chloride in 
 preference to any other chlorides of the alkalies or alkaline 
 earths ? The reply is, because the inventor of the process 
 has found out, after prolonged research, that it is magnesium 
 chloride which of all these chlorides gives the most practical 
 and most complete results. 
 
 M. E. Hermite was the first to demonstrate — 
 
 1. That in the electric decomposition of chlorides in 
 solution there is a special and peculiar ox3'gen compound of 
 chlorine formed at the positive pole, and not merely chlorine 
 gas, as has hitherto been supposed, or hypochlorites, pro- 
 duced by the combination of this chlorine gas, when 
 liberated with the alkali formed at the negative pole. 
 
 2. That masfnesium chloride is the salt that chives the best 
 results from an economical point of view. 
 
 It is stated above that the bleaching liquor obtained by 
 this method has a bleaching power greater and more rapid 
 than that of ordinary bleaching powder. It is easy to 
 demonstrate this fact by the following experiment : 
 
 Take two equal volumes of a fresh solution of bleaching 
 powder and of the electrolysed magnesium chloride. These 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 193 
 
 two solutions are to be of the same degree of strength of 
 nascent oxygen, as tested by the arsenious acid method. 
 Add the same weight of the vegetable fibre to be bleached 
 to each solution, and it is seen that the bleaching proceeds 
 much more rapidly in the electrolysed solution than m the 
 solution of bleaching powder ; but what is more remarkable 
 is, that if the two samples are allowed to bleach to the same 
 degree of whiteness, the electrolysed solution has only lost 
 about half the oxygen strength of that of the bleaching 
 powder. Thus to arrive at the same colour, there has been 
 required much less oxygen with the new process. This fact 
 has been verified in numerous experiments, with all sorts of 
 veofetable fibres. It has also been verified that the fibres 
 undergo less loss of weight by this method than Avith 
 the ordinary process with bleaching powder. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF THE PROCESS. 
 
 The installation varies according to the arrangement of 
 the bleachworks, but it is established on the following 
 general principles : — 
 
 The ordinary plant of the works is not interfered with. 
 The storage tanks, where the bleaching powder is usually 
 stored, are filled with a solution of mao^nesium chloride of 
 specific gravity of 1.022, or containing 2h per cent, of 
 anhydrous magnesium chloride, and these tanks are con- 
 nected with the electrolysers by means of pipes, so that the 
 solution can circulate, with the aid of a pump, between the 
 tanks and electrolysers till it is raised to the right degree of 
 bleaching strength. The solution is then conveyed into the 
 ordinary bleaching tanks, or potchers, but instead of being 
 allowed to exhaust itself, it is constantly pumped back into 
 the main reservoir in connection with the electrolysers, so 
 as to maintain a constant strength. 
 
 The material being bleached to the required degree of 
 whiteness is taken out and pressed or drained. All the 
 liquid obtained in this way is carefully pumped back into 
 the reservoir to be electrolysed afresh ; the only loss being 
 
194 DYEING. 
 
 that retained meclianically in tlie material, which cannot 
 be squeezed out, and even this loss can be reduced by a 
 proper system of washing of the fibre. The plant consists of : 
 
 1st. One or more Dynamos. 
 
 2nd. One or more Electrolysers. 
 
 3rd. The pumps and pipes for circulation. 
 
 Measuring instruments are also supplied, indicating the 
 work done by each apparatus. 
 
 The size of the plant is calculated so as to replace the 
 amount of bleaching powder in daily use. 
 
 COCHINEAL CARMINE. 
 
 The method of production of this beautiful pigment is 
 even now kept a secret, and it will, therefore, be interesting 
 to peruse the following particulars, which I owe to the 
 kindness of M. Horace Koechlin, who has discovered the 
 method after very many trials : — 
 25 litres C. 
 75 c.c. S. 
 2^ kilos acetate of soda, 
 125 c.c. tin salt solution at lOOgrs. per litre. 
 The whole is left to boil, then filtered, and the preci- 
 pitate washed. 
 
 Yield obtained': — lOOgrs. dry carmine 
 C. 
 250 grs. Cochineal powder, 
 10 litres water. 
 60 grs. cream of tartar. 
 Boil 1 hour and filter. 
 S. 
 
 1 kilo sulphate of alumina. 
 
 2 litres water. 
 
 ^ kilo soda crystals. 
 With the mother liquor of the manufacture of carmine 
 (after the precipitate has been separated by filtration as 
 above) tin lakes can be obtained which will be found use- 
 ful in wool printing and for other purposes. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &G. 195 
 
 To the same gentleman I owe the following particulars 
 concerning the dyeing of 
 
 BLACK WITH DINITROSORESORCINE : 
 
 1st, mordant the cotton in tannic acid solution at 20 grs, 
 per litre, or of sumac extract at 40° gr. per litre. Leave 
 goods to stand on heap without drying and without wash- 
 ing until next day, then wash. The goods are next passed 
 in the bath N., left to stand again on heap, then washed, 
 when they are ready for dyeing with — 
 
 2 grs. dinitrosoresorcine paste. 
 2 ,, alizarine orange. 
 2 ,, gallocyanine. 
 5 ,, calcium chloride 20° be 
 for every 100 grs. of tissue. 
 
 Dye in one hour up to 70° C, allow to remain half an 
 hour at this temperature, then wash and dry. 
 Bath N. 
 ■J litre water 
 ^ ,, nitrate of iron 
 ^ ,, white glycerine 
 ■^ „ soda 
 •| ,, pyrolignite of iron, 10° 
 
 Of this liquor 1 litre is mixed with 3 litres of water in 
 making up the bath. 
 
 With this latter. Nankin shades can also be produced by 
 simply passing the goods through the bath more or less 
 diluted with water, and leaving the goods to stand a little 
 while before washing. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF ANILINE OIL AND SALT. 
 
 Dr. Dreyfus, of the Clayton Aniline Co., has communicated 
 to me some interesting details concerning the amount of 
 aniline produced in their works. The firm started 12 years 
 ago with a production of 30 tons per month, and are now 
 
196 DYEING. 
 
 producing 100 to 110 tons per month of aniline oil and 
 aniline salt combined, comprising a nitrification of 900 to 
 1000 gallons pure benzol or toluole for aniline or toluidine 
 manufacturing. The firm prepare their own nitric acid, 
 and purify their benzol and toluol as well. This aniline 
 production is very likely the largest in the coal tar colour 
 industry. 
 
 BENZIDINE COLOURS. 
 
 These direct colours have been fully described in another 
 part of this work. The following additional information is 
 abstracted from a lecture by Hurst, before the Society of 
 Dyers and Colourists, at Bradford, February 25, 1888. 
 
 DYEING COTTON WITH 
 
 Hessian Purple, Hessian Violet. — 3 per cent, colour, 10 
 per cent, common salt ; boil for half an hour, then rinse in 
 bath of carbonate of soda. 
 
 Azo Blue and Benzoazurine can be dyed on cotton also 
 in bath of borax or 5 to 10 per cent. Glauber salts. 
 
 Hessian Yellow. — Same as Hessian purple, or with addi- 
 tion of a small amount of alizarine oil. 
 
 The dyebath is kept at 150° F., since a higher temperature 
 will redden the yellow. 
 
 Clirysoplienine and Brilliant Yellow. — Dyebath prepared 
 with 20 per cent, salt, 2 per cent, acetic acid, besides 
 necessary amount of colour. Temperature of dyebath to be 
 kept at about 150^ F. 
 
 Alkalies or soap would redden this yellow. 
 
 FOR WOOL DYEING. 
 
 These colours have only lately been applied, the necessity 
 of usmg an alkaline or neutral bath havinsr been against 
 their employment. 
 
 The Congoes are best dyed in a boiling bath with salt and 
 a little potash. 
 
NEW COLOURING :\rATTERS, &C. 197 
 
 The Hessian purples, violets and yellow, hrilliant yellow 
 and chrysoiohenine, must be dyed in a bath with salt and at 
 a hailing heat for half an hour to an hour. 
 
 These colours go very well on to wool, with which, very 
 likely, they enter into chemical union. 
 
 The henzopvurpiivlnes, delta-piirpwrines, and roseazurines 
 can be dyed in a bath acidulated with a little acetic acid, 
 but a neutral or even slightly alkaline bath is prefer- 
 able. 
 
 Ckrysamine is dyed in the same way. 
 
 Azo blue, azo violet, benzoaziirines, and heliotrope can be 
 dyed in an acid bath with acetic acid. 
 
 It is a notable fact that the shade produced by all the 
 blue and violet colours of this class on wool is much redder 
 than that on cotton. 
 
 On wool the colours are universally faster to light, air, 
 and acid than on cotton. They perfectly withstand the 
 operations of milling or fulling, and are therefore suitable 
 for using in mixed q-oods. 
 
 For goods of woollen and cotton these colours can be 
 used ; in the case of the Congoes, purpurines, roseazurines, 
 chrysamine, the dyebath should be made with 2 per cent, of 
 potash and 10 per cent, of phosphate of soda; the cotton and 
 wool both take the same shade. 
 
 In the case of the Hessian colours no difficulty is expe- 
 rienced, the bath for wool is the same as for cotton ; the 
 violet, however, will require a little alkali blue adding to the 
 bath to ensure the colour of both wool and cotton beinsf 
 even. 
 
 Azo blue, azo violet, benzoazurine, heliotrope, all dye 
 wool a redder shade, especially if acetic acid is used in the 
 bath for these colours ; a bath with phosphate of soda is 
 best for mixed wool and cotton ofoods, with the addition, if 
 necessary, of a little alkali blue. 
 
 These colours yield, on wool, shades which stand soaping 
 well, and do not soil the whites if woven toarether. 
 
 As regards fastness to light, it has been proved that the 
 colours are uniformly faster on wool than on cotton. The 
 
198 DYEING. 
 
 yellows and blues are liardl}' affected. The reds are the 
 most fugitive, and they are all darkened to a more or less 
 extent, the Congo and Congo 4R and most benzopurpurines ; 
 Hessian purples rank next, followed by the brilliant Congoes 
 and delta-purpurines, which are the fastest of these colours. 
 
 PARAPHENYLENE BLUE. 
 
 The folio wins: information I have obtained from 'Mr. 
 Theodore Bang, the agent for Messrs. Dahl and Co., of 
 Barmen. The product belongs to the group of soluble 
 indulines, and is distinguished by great fastness against 
 light and air ; likewise against alkahes generally, and soap ; 
 it also stands acids well. 
 
 For cotton dyeing, the goods are mordanted with tannin 
 or sumac and antimony mordant in the usual way. 
 
 The dyebath, in which the necessary amount of solution 
 of the colour has been added, is started at about 25° C, and 
 then gradually brought up to 80° C, while the goods are 
 worked. 
 
 After the dyeing it is advisable to pass the goods in an 
 oxj^dizing bath, which helps very considerably in the 
 fixation of the colour on the fibre. For the purpose either 
 the bichromate of soda, or potash, or chlorate of potash, or 
 even iron perchloride may be taken, but the bichromate will 
 be no doubt found mostly employed. 
 
 The oxydation might be performed in the same dyebath, 
 but this is not to be recommended, as it is better to keep 
 two separate baths. About 1 to 1 i per cent, of bichrome is 
 employed for the oxydation, and the bath is employed 
 pretty hot. The fastest shades are produced when a 
 thorough oxydation has taken place ; in this instance, 
 however, the brightness of the colour is somewhat impaired, 
 which, however, is not always a disadvantage, as, for 
 instance, in the case of imitation indigo blues, which are 
 produced b}^ taking a larger amount of bichrome in the 
 oxydizing bath. By topping the blues with other coal tar 
 colours a great variety of shades may be produced. 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 199 
 
 The paraphenylene blue is also employed for wool dye- 
 ing, and is found useful in the dyeing of mixed wool and 
 cotton goods, for which purpose it will be found useful, 
 especially as the cotton can be dyed first, and on account of 
 the colour standing acid, the wool can afterwards be dyed 
 in an acid bath. 
 
 Silk can be dyed with the product as usual in an 
 acidulated soap bath. 
 
 The colouring matter is soluble in water. It is brought 
 into commerce in three different shades, R, B, and Y. 
 
 To dye a full shade on cotton 2 per cent, dyestuff is 
 sufficient, while 0"2 per cent, bichromate of potash is 
 sufficient for the oxydation. 
 
 RHODAMINE. 
 
 This beautiful pink dyestuff, introduced by the Badische 
 Anilin and Soda Fabrik, is one of the most recent dis- 
 coveries of coal tar colour chemistry, and forms a welcome 
 addition, as it yields, especially on wool, shades which unite 
 with great brilliancy the desirable property of a fastness 
 superior to that possessed by other eosine colours. 
 
 The product is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid 
 for 3 to 4 hours at 180 to 190° temperature on anhydrous- 
 phtalic acid, and the chlorhydrate of meta amido phenol. 
 The dyestuff, which is consequently phtaleine, is soluble in 
 water, and as it dyes cotton on acetate of alumina or tannic 
 acid and antimony mordant, it may be considered as a 
 basic dyestuff'. 
 
 Wool is dyed either in a slightly acidulated bath with 
 sulphuric acid and glauber salt, or simply in a neutral 
 bath. In this latter case bricjhter shades are the 
 result. 
 
 Silk is dyed in the usual way in a soap bath slightly 
 acidulated. 
 
 Curiously enough, the colours dyed on cotton with 
 rhodamine do not stand light so well as those obtained on 
 wool, which show a very fair amount of fastness. 
 
200 DYEING. 
 
 CHIXA GRASS, OR RHEA-RAMIE FIBRE. 
 
 It was tlie author's intention to devote a chapter to the 
 important question of the utihsation of this fibre, especially 
 in regard to its extraction and separation from the stems. 
 The mass of matter already on hand in the present volume, 
 however, has prevented this, and, in order to fulfil the 
 promise made in another part of the work, the different 
 methods or processes employed or recommended will here 
 be very briefly mentioned. 
 
 I. — For the separation of the bark from the stem : 
 
 (a) A Death and Ellwood machine working on green 
 stems which are pushed against a revolving beater that 
 breaks the woody part of the stem. A powerful jet of 
 water, adapted so as to play under the stems, helps in 
 removing the broken wood and washincr the raw fibre which 
 is thus produced. 
 
 (b) Separation by hand : 
 
 "When stems are quite freshh* cut the bark can be readily 
 separated from the woody portion by hand. 
 
 AVhen the stems have been standing for some time, the 
 bark adheres more strongly to the wood, and cannot be so 
 easily separated b}' hand. In order to effect this separation, 
 the steaming of the stems has been proposed for 15 to 30 
 minutes in a wooden box (Faviers process). 
 
 According to the author's numerous experiments, a short 
 boiling of the stems in a carbonate of soda or caustic soda 
 SDlution will allow of the bark being removed very easil}- by 
 hand. For fresh stems about 5 to 10 minutes are sufficient. 
 Even dr}' stems can be decorticated in this manner by 
 boilinsr them for 20 to 30 minutes. 
 
 O 
 
 When the bark is well separated from the wood it contains 
 all the fibre, none being left on the wood. Green stems can 
 be kept without undergoing fermentation by immersing 
 them in a solution of a bisulphite or of sulphurous acid, as 
 the author has recommended as the result of his experi- 
 ments. Several machines are on the market for effecting: 
 the separation from green or dry stems, among others those 
 
NEW COLOURING MATTERS, &C. 201 
 
 of Berthet, in Rouen, and of the Ramie Frangaise, at 
 Avimon. 
 
 Tlie fibre can also be separated from the woody portion 
 by treating the stems when dry on suitable machines, which, 
 however, in some cases are apt to injure the fibre and occa- 
 sion loss by filaments adhering to the wooden pieces. 
 
 But stems that are very dry can easily be worked by 
 these machines, as the wood becomes brittle. One method 
 recommended consists in exposing the stems in a stove to a 
 moderate heat, and then scutching them. 
 
 II. — The bark, when separated by hand and thoroughly 
 dry, yields a fibre capable of being spun without difficulty on 
 the ordinary flax machinery, and this would be the simplest 
 method. The difliculty, however, lies in the drying of these 
 barks or ribbons containing the fibre, and also in the amount 
 of hand labour required for this decortication. 
 
 As will be seen, there are many methods recommended ; 
 but, in spite of this, even now the question of the industrial 
 application of the fibre is far from having reached that point 
 of advancement which might be expected. But no doubt a 
 great future is in store for this fibrous material. 
 
 To those interested in the question I beg to refer to the 
 pages of the Textile Manufacturer ior 1885-6-7, wherea series 
 of articles on the subject will be found embodying my lectures 
 in Bradford, before the Society of Dyers and Colourists, and in 
 Manchester, before the Society of Chemical Industry. Also 
 articles will be found which comprise all that has been 
 published on the subject in the last few years, among which 
 are some investigations on the dyeing of the fibre by M. 
 Blondel, of Rouen, and a very practical and interesting letter 
 from Mr. Taylor Burrows, of Lille (May, 1886, page 217). 
 
 MORDANTING WOOL AND WOOL DYEING. 
 
 Several papers of investigation and practical experience 
 on this subject have been read before the Society of Dyers 
 and Colourists, at Bradford, among which may be mentioned 
 one by Wilkinson, on chromium mordants, and one by 
 
202 DYEING. 
 
 Topper, on the application of logwood in wool dyeing 
 (May number, page 70, of the Journal of that Society, for 
 1886). It had been my idea to insert in this volume an 
 abstract from these lectures, but as it is not possible to do 
 for want of room, I beg to refer all those interested to the 
 papers on the subject contained in that Journal, reproduced 
 in the Textile Manufacturer and other technical publica- 
 tions. Articles on the investigations of Liechti and Suida 
 are also of great interest to wool dyers and colourists 
 generally. 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FOR COTTON. 
 
 Up to a few years ago very few establisliments have made 
 use of dyeing machines, or machines generally that would 
 do away with the hand labour, except, perhaps, in turkey red 
 dyeing, where, for many years, special machines have been 
 employed for mordanting, washing, etc. But of late years 
 the prices obtained for the dyeing of cotton yarns have 
 descended to such a low figure that it has become a 
 question of very great importance to treat large quantities 
 at once, and by mechanical means, so as to reduce the 
 labour charges to a minimum, and consequently different 
 machines have been introduced into practice, some of which 
 bid fair to become very useful for large dyeing establish- 
 ments. Of course, the dyeing of warps by mechanical 
 arrangements, imitating those used in cloth dyeing, has 
 been in actual use for many years, especially for such 
 colours as blacks, indigo blues, etc., which, being produced 
 on a very large scale, made the employment of machinery 
 quite imjDerative. 
 
 The mechanical arrangements for the dyeing of the cotton 
 fibre generally, which are now being introduced into practice, 
 rely on different principles. Some inventors begin with the 
 beginning, that is, start altogether with the loose cotton, 
 the fibre before spinning, and there is no doubt that the 
 principle is right, although there are two difficulties in the 
 way, one being that of the penetration of the colours all 
 through the mass, when large quantities are operated upon. 
 
204 DYEING. 
 
 Another difficulty is, that in some cases the spinning is 
 made, to a certain extent, more difficult by the cotton being 
 dyed ; but neither of these two drawbacks is an insurmount- 
 able barrier, and it is now a question at which stage the 
 d3'eing had better be performed, on cotton just from the 
 bale, or after it has undergone a certain amount of opening 
 and cleaning. The latter is certaiuly preferable, and we 
 have seen many inventors following this plan, by dyeing 
 the cotton in the sliver, while some others go farther and 
 dye it in the cops. The methods are various, and it cannot 
 be said that any one of them has so far estabhshed itself as 
 a general method of appUcation, but some of the manu- 
 factuiincf trials made on the lar^e scale with some of these 
 processes have been very encouraging. For the dyeing of 
 loose cotton, the same apparatus can be used as is now 
 being successfully employed for loose wool, and which has 
 been mentioned before. There is, without doubt, a very 
 wide and promising field for inventors of processes for 
 dyeing the cotton fibre in large quantities at a time, either 
 before spinning or after. 
 
 XEW :\IECHAXICAL PROCESS FOR DYEING COTTON OR 
 WOOL IN THE SLIVER. 
 
 The following particulars, with the accompanying illustra- 
 tions, have been taken from a pamphlet issued by the 
 Patent Process D3'eing Company, and kindly sent to the 
 author by Messrs. Ely Sutclifte and Son, of Mirfield, York- 
 shire : — 
 
 " The process, as applied to cotton, begins at the cotton 
 card coder, and it will be best understood when described 
 with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein Fig. 
 15 is a sectional view of a machine suitable for use in the 
 dyeing of cotton sliver, parts of the machine not necessary 
 to the proper illustration of the invention not being 
 represented in the drawing. Figs. 16, 17, and IS illustrate 
 the formation of the package of sliver which is to be treated 
 in the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 15. For convenience of 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 
 
 205 
 
206 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Fig. 18. Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 
 
 207 
 
 ^ ■^ 
 
 4=R 
 
 ■ ■^'»S'.VSS%SSSV 
 
 ^ 
 
 <V) 
 
208 DYEING. 
 
 description we will refer in the first place to the drawings 
 in Fig. 16 representing the said package of sliver. Fig. 17 
 represents a cross section of the same, and Fig. IS illustrates 
 the method of formation of such package. In the latter 
 figure a is a can which is the same as an ordinary coiler can, 
 with the exception that it is not provided with a fast bottom, 
 h is the perforated tube, and c is the ordinary coiler of the 
 carding engine. The can a rests upon a plate d, which is 
 provided with a stump upon which is placed the perforated 
 tube h, the said stump keeping the tube in an upright and 
 central position within the can. The can is provided with 
 a spiral spring as usual, and upon this spring is placed a 
 dished plate e, which receives the coiled sliver, and slides 
 down the perforated tube as the sliver accumulates. The 
 sliver is coiled around the tube in the manner indicated in 
 Fief. 17. When the can is full it is lifted off the coil and a 
 second dished plate e^ is placed upon the top of the mass 
 and is forced down by means of a nut which is screwed upon 
 the end of the perforated tube. The coiled sUver is thus 
 formed into a bobbin shaped package resembling the indica- 
 tion in Fig. 16, the plates e. e^ forming end flanges which 
 keep the sliver from escaping from the tube. In Fig. 15 the 
 said package is represented in position within a chamber A, 
 which in the example is supposed to be of a cylindrical 
 form, but the formation of the said chamber may be varied. 
 The shell or casing /", in which the said chamber is formed, 
 is provided with a removable door or cover g, which is 
 secured by means of clamps h, or by other suitable means. 
 "Within the said chamber is mounted a hollow shaft i, 
 one end of the shaft being seated in a step or bearing in the 
 door g, the other end passing through a gland j to the out- 
 side, and being provided Avith a belt pulley k. Between the 
 said gland and the chamber a is a smaller chamber I, and 
 the portion of the shaft which crosses this latter chamber is 
 perforated, so that any fluid which may be forced or passed 
 into the chamber will flow into the space within the 
 tubular shaft, and will pass out through other perforations 
 into the main chamber a, or on the contrary, fluid forced 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IX DYEING. 209 
 
 into the latter chamber will flow into the chamber I. The 
 portion of the shaft which is within the chamber A is pro- 
 vided with collars i^, which are of a diameter to suit the 
 bore of the aforesaid perforated tube h, so that the space 
 between the shaft i, and the interior of the said tube is 
 divided into a number of small annular-shaped isolated 
 chambers. Each of these chambers communicates with the 
 bore of the shaft by means of a perforation or slot, or of two 
 or more such openings, and these are so proportioned as 
 that the stream of fluid shall be equally divided amongst the 
 said annular chambers, so that there shall be an equal flow 
 into all the said annular chambers. The perforations in the 
 tube h, which is within the package of sliver, are preferably 
 numerous and small, and are evenly distributed through- 
 out the length of the tube. The shaft i is provided with a 
 cyhndrical cage m to receive the package of sliver, the said 
 cage being made of perforated sheet metal or of wire gauze. 
 The said cage is connected with the shaft by means of ends 
 71 v}, the former being permanently secured to the shaft 
 and the latter being removable, but being capable of being 
 secured by means of a screw or other suitable means. The 
 chamber a is connected by means of a branch, with a two- 
 way cock o, and the chamber I is connected with a second 
 two-way cock p. The plugs of these cocks are connected 
 together, so that they work in unison when a handle upon 
 one of the plugs is operated upon. When the two plugs 
 are turned in one direction passages are opened for the flow 
 of fluid through the pipes r and the cock 2^ i^^^ the chamber 
 I, and thence into the chamber a, and for the flow out of the 
 chamber a through the cock o into a pipe s. When the 
 cocks are reversed the direction of the flow of the current is 
 also reversed, the fluid then flowing through the cock into 
 the chamber a, and through the cock -p out of the chamber 
 I into the pipe s. When che machine is used in the dyeing 
 of sliver the two pipes /• and s are connected with a cistern 
 vat or reservoir of dye liquor, the pijoe r withdrawing 
 liquor from the cistern, and the pipe s returning 
 liquor to the cistern. In practice a pumping apparatus 
 
210 DYEING. 
 
 of anv ordinary or suitable description is interposed 
 between tlie dj'e cistern and the cocks, so that the 
 hquor can be forced into the chamber a, The pipes r 
 and s or the pipe r alone are also connected with a water 
 supply pipe, adopting suitable cocks or valves for shutting 
 off communication with the dye cistern, and opening the 
 passage for the flow of water at the required times, but it 
 has not been considered necessary to show these appliances 
 in the drawings, as they may be of an ordinary description. 
 The manner in which the apparatus is used may be de- 
 scribed as follows. The package of sliver is by preference 
 enclosed within a bag envelope or wrapper of cotton cloth, 
 flannel, wire gauze or other suitable material to protect the 
 sliver which appears at the outside of the package. This 
 having been done, the package is introduced into the cage, 
 the tube 6 sliding upon the hollow shaft i, and the cage 
 end n^ is placed upon the shaft, pushed up tightly against 
 the package and secured. The two cage ends are provided 
 with elastic washers or packings at t, t, to prevent the fluid 
 from flowing out of or into the hollow shaft without passing 
 through the package of sliver. The door g having been 
 shut or placed in position and secured, the dyeing opera- 
 tion may be commenced, but preparatory to the treatment 
 with the d3'e Hquor we in some cases pass water through 
 the package, the shaft i being revolved or not as preferred. 
 A vent cock u is opened to permit air to escape from the 
 chambers. The dye liquor is then forced through the pipe 
 ■/•, the package being revolved and the liquor passing, say 
 for example, into the chamber I through the shaft, and the 
 package of shver into the chamber a, whence it passes into 
 the pipe s, which conveys the liquor back to the dye vat, or 
 it may be conveyed to a second vat to be re-inforced with 
 dye. After a time the cocks are reversed and the liquor 
 then passes directly into the chamber a. and through the 
 slivei into the shaft i. These reversals are caused to take 
 place at frequent intervals during the operation. The 
 revolution of the mass of fibres during the flow of the dye- 
 ing liquor tends greatly to the even distribution of the 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 211 
 
 liquor throughout the mass of fibres, because the Hquor is 
 caused to pursue a lengthened curved course instead of 
 merely passing radially in straight lines through the mass. 
 The said revolution also tends to prevent the liquor from 
 principally following lines of least resistance, that is to 
 say, from passing to too great an extent through the parts of 
 least density. The combination of the reversing of the 
 direction of the flow of liquor and the rotation of the pack- 
 age of sliver has still more important effect in conducing to 
 the production of uniformity of result and evenness of shade. 
 When the dyeing operation has been conducted for a suit- 
 able period the supply of dye liquor is stopped and the 
 chamber is drained. The package of sliver is then revolved 
 more rapidly in order to discharge as much as possible of 
 the dye liquor remaining within the mass of fibre. A 
 counter shaft or any suitable driving gear may be employed 
 to impart the varying speeds to the shaft i. The dye 
 liquor having been sufficiently discharged, if desirable water 
 is passed again through the package to rinse out the re- 
 mammg unfixed dye, and the package is rapidly revolved to 
 drive out the excess of water. This ability to discharge the 
 contained dye liquor or water, as the case may be, is an im- 
 portant feature, as not only is there a saving in dye liquor, 
 but there is a great saving in the time required to dry the 
 fibres, and there is greater uniformity of shade owing to the 
 fact that less coloured or discoloured water is left in the 
 mass to be dried out of the same, and thereby to leave 
 irregular deposits of matter in the fibres." 
 
 "The package of sliver may then be removed to the drying 
 machine. All methods of drying consist in causing the 
 water contained in the material to evaporate into the atmo- 
 sphere. The usual method adopted is the application of 
 heat, as it is a general law that the greater the heat the 
 more rapid the rate of evaporation. Heat is, however, very 
 injurious to many textile fibres, especially when it exceeds 
 the boiling point. It is impossible to make all parts of the 
 material completely dry at one time, and, consequently, the 
 parts that are dry first become too dry before the others are 
 
212 DYEIXG. 
 
 dry enough, and we find as a result that after stoving, fibrous 
 materials are very much reduced in strength. 
 
 " The method here preferred is to dispense with heat, and 
 to obtain a rapid evaporation bypassing ordinary atmospheric 
 air rapidly through the material; in this manner the evapo- 
 ration is quite as quick as the method of stoving, and does 
 not in any way injure the fibre. 
 
 '■'In Fig. 19 is represented an elevation, partly in section, 
 of the drying apparatus, and it also shows a package of sliver 
 as when undergoing the dr}^ing treatment. A represents 
 the said package, which we will suppose has been produced 
 by coihng around a perforated tube a, flanges h h having 
 been applied at the two ends of the package. 
 
 " In Pig. 19 cc^ are two air pipes which are connected 
 together by means of an air conduit cZ, which conveys air from 
 a Root's blower, or from a suitable blowing apparatus. The 
 air may be at a normal temperature or be warmed, as pre- 
 ferred The pipe c is provided with a fixed nozzle e, which 
 is coned so as to enter one end of the perforated tube which 
 is within the package. The other pipe c^ is also provided 
 with an air nozzle, but in this case the nozzle is made 
 adjustable in directions toward and from the other nozzle, 
 in order that the package of sliver may be readily placed in 
 and removed from the position represented in Fig. 19. The 
 nozzle / is fitted to sUde in a bored pap g upon the pipe, 
 and is provided with a screw, which works in a nut in a 
 second pap A. By turning this screw the nozzle can be 
 slid toward the package, and be caused to enter to some 
 extent into the end of the perforated tube a, and be pressed 
 into the same, so as to make a sufliciently air tight con- 
 nection. If preferred, both nozzles might be adjustable. 
 When the package is thus mounted in position the air blast 
 enters the tube a, and passes through the perforations in 
 the said tube into the sUver, through which it passes in all 
 directions from the tube to the outside of the package, 
 where it escapes, carrying with it an amount of moisture 
 taken up from the shver. Although only one package 
 appears in Fig. 19, it will be readily understood that by 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 213 
 
 making the air pipes c c^ suitably long they may each be 
 provided with more than one delivery nozzle, so that two, 
 three, or more packages of sliver may be undergoing the 
 drying treatment at the same time, the air pipes c c^ being 
 made suitably large in cross section, or being supplied with 
 air at two or more points in their length. 
 
 " In this manner the drying can be eft'ected much quicker 
 than by the ordinary process of stoving, and without the 
 slightest injury to the fibre. 
 
 " When the diying process is complete the central per- 
 forated tube can be withdrawn, and the sliver put into an 
 ordinary coiler can, and taken direct to the drawing frame. 
 
 " It has formerly been found much more ditticult to work 
 dyed cotton than when v,forked in the grey, especially in 
 dry, frosty weather, but this was when the art of dyeing was 
 much less understood. Of recent years some of our best 
 dyers have overcome this objection in a very simple and 
 economical manner. 
 
 " Cotton always works best when it contains a certain per 
 centage of moisture, and when in its natural state it 
 usually retains this degree of moisture, even in the hot 
 spinning room, by virtue of its hydroscopic properties. 
 These hydroscopic properties are due to potash and other 
 salts which cotton contains, and Avhich, havinfr a s^reat 
 affinity for moisture, are the means of preventing the 
 moisture from being entirely removed from the fibres. In 
 dry frosty weather, however, even cotton in its natural 
 state is found more difficult to work, because then these 
 salts are not sufficient to resist the intensely dry atmosphere. 
 When cotton is dyed these salts are dissolved out, and, if 
 left so, the fibres become too dry to be worked. 
 
 " It is this dryness that gives rise to the troublesome 
 electrical phenomena which have been observed in the 
 working of dyed cotton. 
 
 " The electricity is caused by the friction of the dry fibres 
 over each other while being drawn in the machines; when 
 the fibres have their natural moisture it acts as a conductor 
 to convey the electricity away. 
 
214 DYEING. 
 
 " The cause of the difficult}* only needs to be recognised 
 to at once suggest the remedy, and efficient dyers now wash 
 off with a solution of the proper salts, and thus give back to 
 the fibres their natural hydroscopic properties. 
 
 " It will be easily seen that in this process liquors can be 
 made to circulate through the material at any temperature 
 and in an infinite variety of directions. The process is, 
 moreover, a purely mechanical one, and is devised to reduce 
 the expenditure of hand labour, and to prevent any waste 
 of dye liquors by extracting in the same machine and con- 
 veying the liquors back to the bath. 
 
 " The fibres are not in any way injured either b}- the 
 dyeing or drying, and the trouble of having the dyehouse 
 filled with steam is entirely removed. 
 
 "It is evident that the dyeing machines can be 
 made of any size and to hold any quantity required ; they 
 have been made hitherto of a size to suit the coiler at 
 present in use, so that they are applicable to the existing 
 trades. 
 
 " It must be remembered, however, that though they are 
 small, their power of work is very great, the time required 
 for dyeing is very much reduced, and the machines can be 
 packed so closely together. Although the above description 
 is confined to the consideration of textile fibres, and more 
 particularly cotton in the form of shvers, it must not be 
 understood that the process and apparatus are suitable only 
 for sliver. 
 
 " Anything that can be put in the form of a rope or ribbon, 
 and coiled in the manner described, can be dyed by it. 
 
 " "Warps can be dyed in this way, and in fig. 20 a plan is 
 given of t3'ing hanks into a long string on the reel so that 
 they can be coiled and d^-ed by this process. After the 
 hanks have been tied on the reel in the usual way, every 
 alternate two are tied together, then the reel turned half 
 a revolution, and each alternate two tied together at that 
 point, taking care that the two tied together are not the 
 same in one as in the other ; thus the hank Xo. 1 is tied to 
 hank Xo. 2 at h, hank 2 to hank 3 at c, and hank 3 to hank 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING, 215 
 
 4 at d, and so on. In this way the hanks come off the reel 
 in one long string, and are coiled round a tube by an 
 ordinary coiler. 
 
 " This method of dyeing hanks by tying them together 
 has been tried before by passing them through warp-dyeing 
 rollers, but it was found that the parts of the hank where 
 the tie was were a different shade to the rest. This defect 
 does not arise where the hanks are coiled, as the connecting 
 string does not grasp the hank tightly as in former methods, 
 and puts no more stress on the hank than the threads of the 
 hank do upon each other. 
 
 " The process is also applicable to the dyeing of textile 
 fibres in the raw state. It can likewise be adapted for 
 dyeing yarn on the beam." 
 
 MACHINERY EMPLOYED FOR COTTON YARN 
 DYEING. 
 
 FOR BOILING OR SCOURING. 
 
 Large establishments employ kiers of low or high pressure, 
 just on the same principle as those employed in the bleaching 
 of cotton cloth, and illustrated in Plates I. and II. 
 
 Plate III. shows an arrangement of cisterns for bleaching. 
 
 Plate IV. shows a hydroextractor or whiz, an apparatus 
 now always to be found in all the best works, and which 
 does away with the wringing by hand. 
 
 Plate V. shows the principle of a circular washing machine, 
 which has been for years successfully employed in turkey 
 red dyeworks. 
 
 Plate VI. illustrates another principle of a washing 
 machine, which is also used for the soaping of yarns, and in 
 fact constitutes an open soaper for yarn. 
 
 MORDANTING YARN. 
 
 Fig. 21 shows a machine mostly used in turkey red dye- 
 works on the Continent for the mordanting of cotton yarns 
 
216 DYEIXO. 
 
 The lianks, after having heen unpregnated with the mordant 
 by passing through a basin containing the same, and being 
 squeezed between two cj'Hnders to allow the Uquor to 
 penetrate well, are wrung by a special arrangement devised 
 on the apparatus. 
 
 TAEX MURDAXTLNG MACHINE. — FIG. 21. 
 
 « DRYIXG. 
 
 Special attention has been given in the last few years to 
 the drying arrangements for cotton yarns in order to eifect 
 the drying of large quantities, and the Plates VII., VIII., IX., 
 and X. illustrate different apparatus devised for the purpose, 
 Plate XI. being designed for the drying of warps. 
 
 Of these apparatus, the one shown in Plate VII., by 
 PieiTon and Dehaitre, is constructed to work on a continuous 
 principle, and, as seen from the illustration, the hanks enter 
 on the left hand side through the lower part of the machine. 
 The yam is put on sticks or bars, and then placed by the 
 workman on the chain working in front of the apparatus ; 
 the hanks then travel from the lower part to the higher 
 portion of the machuie, first in a vertical, then in a hori- 
 zontal position, and, coming out at the top quite dry, are 
 taken off from the chain. The drying is effected by a cur- 
 rent of hot air which comes from the top, and goes through 
 the drying chamber or chest in a direction opposite to that 
 followed by the hanks. The cun*ent of air is produced by 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 217 
 
 an aspirating ventilator placed at the bottom of the machine, 
 as shown in the illustration. 
 
 The air is heated by passing through a series of pipes 
 placed at the top part of the chamber, and heated by steam 
 ■or other means. 
 
 The bars or sticks on which the hanks are laid are them- 
 selves exposed to a rotatory motion. 
 
 A machine of this system, 5 metres in length by 3*50 
 metres in width and 4 metres in height, is capable of drying 
 from 1300 to 1400 kilos, in 11 hours. 
 
 The machines shown in Plates VIII. and X., by Haubold, 
 are also designed for the rapid drying of cotton yarns. In 
 the first instance the hanks are placed on bars fixed on 
 frames, which in their turn are fixed on a common 
 central axis, by means of which they are made to revolve. 
 The apparatus is enclosed in a room, and the air is heated 
 from below by a series of pipes, which are, however, not 
 shown in the illustration. 
 
 The drying machine shown in Plate X. works by a current 
 of hot air, and is supplied with an exhauster or ventilating 
 machine. 
 
 Plate IX. — Messrs. Mather and Piatt's hank drying 
 machine — works in a continuous manner by passing the 
 hanks spread out in their full width, and bound together, 
 end to end, by suitable coupling links, as shown in the 
 illustration. 
 
 DYEING MACHINE FOR HANKS. 
 
 A rather large number of hank-dyeing machines have 
 been patented in the last few years, and some of them 
 introduced into practice in different works. The great 
 extent of the cotton yarn dyeing industry, and the lowering 
 •of prices in the dyeing of cotton explain why so many 
 efforts are being made to reduce labour to a minimum in 
 this industry. Among the numerous machines, figs. 1 and 
 2 on Plate XII. show the principle of the Robertshaw's 
 apparatus, fig. 2 on Plate XIII. being the sizing and 
 
218 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 wringing machine. Corron's dyeing machine is shown in 
 Plates XIY. and XV. 
 
 Robertshaw's machine consists of a system of porcelain 
 reels revolving on their axes, the hanks being hung on these 
 reels, and made to revolve in the dyeing liquor. The reels 
 are fixed together on a common frame in such a way that 
 they can be bodily lifted from the beck, or sunk in order to 
 let the hanks fish in the liquor. On one side Avill be found 
 the wrino^ino- arrangement for the hanks. 
 
 Plates XIV. and XY. show Corron's dyeing machine, 
 which has attracted considerable attention of late, and, like 
 the other one, was shown at the Manchester Exhibition, 
 1887. It consists of a long dyebeck, to which is applied a 
 suitable frame, on which moves backwards and forwards the 
 central arrangement coming at the top of the beck, which 
 is plainly visible, especially on Plate XIV. 
 
 By this arrangement each stick (which is made square for 
 the purpose, and is especially constructed with a wooden 
 
 YARN FINISHING MACHINE. — FIG. 22. 
 
SLA.CHINERY EMPLOYED IX DYEING. 219 
 
 frame attached to it) is seized and lifted up, and in so doing 
 the stick is turned, and the 3^arn with it, on account of the 
 frame attached to the stick. The yarn is then immersed 
 ao-ain when the stick has reached the other side of the 
 
 o 
 
 arrangement, after describing the movement of an arc or 
 semicircle. Every stick is being worked in turn; every 
 hank is consequently turned. The working arrangement 
 moves from one side of the beck to another and back at 
 will, and thus the dyeing is proceeded with. 
 
 These- machines for yarn d3"eing are being more and more 
 introduced into dyeworks. It must, however, be owned that 
 handwork, so far, still holds its own for the majority of purposes. 
 
 After dyeing, cotton yarn is often subjected to a process 
 oi finishing or sateening by passing the hanks between two 
 cylinders, which, by pressing on one another, give a certain 
 bright look to the fibre. Fig. 22 illustrates a yarn finishing 
 machine. 
 
 THE POLISHING OF COTTON YARN 
 
 is really a branch of the sizing of cotton. It is performed 
 by impregnating the hanks with a composition of starch or 
 flour paste, china clay, and paraflin wax, and then stretching 
 the hank spread over two cylinders of the polishing machine, 
 where it is exposed to the action of revolving brushes, 
 which dry the yarn and impart to it a high degree of 
 brightness or polish. A yarn polishing machine, the 
 illustration of which is due to Haubold, is shown on 
 Plate XVI. 
 
 MACHINES EMPLOYED IN THE BLEACHING AND 
 DYEING OF COTTON CLOTH. 
 
 THE MATHER'S BLEACHING PROCESS. 
 
 The following particulars, with the corresponding illustra- 
 tions, Plates XXXY., XXXYL, XXXYII., of most recent 
 arrangements for the bleaching process for cotton cloth, have 
 
220 DYEING. 
 
 been abstracted from a series of articles in the Italian 
 journal, L'lndustria, of Milan, as reproduced in the Textile 
 Manufacturer. 
 
 The illustrations show the plant as at present arranged in 
 the establishment of Messrs. E. de Angeli and Cie., of Milan, 
 where the steaming scouring process with caustic soda has 
 been lately introduced, and the older plant modified to suit 
 the improved conditions of bleaching. 
 
 Plate XXXY. is the plan of the arrangement of all the 
 apparatus on the ground floor capable of bleaching 50,000 
 to 60,000 kilos calico per week. The apparatus being put 
 down is as follows : — 
 
 F, steamer kier already put down. 
 
 F, steamer kier shown in dotted lines is space left for 
 another. 
 
 C\ centrifugal pump. 
 
 /, g, h, cistern for caustic soda lyes, 
 
 P, g, platforms and rails for wagons, 
 
 V, Y, wagons for pieces. 
 
 If U, cisterns for pieces, 
 
 M M, N X, ordinary boiling circulating kiers, with in- 
 jectors used either for lime or soda boiling in the old pro- 
 cess, or for heating the water for the new method. 
 
 E, roller washinof machine for alkaline bath. 
 
 D, squeezers. 
 
 C, washinof machine also used for alkaline bath. 
 
 B, machine for acid bath. 
 
 X, hydro-extractor, 
 
 A, washing machine. 
 
 G, chlorinating. 
 
 H, roller machine for acid bath. 
 I, roller machine for washing bleached pieces. 
 Y, squeezing machine for bleached pieces. 
 L, squeezing machine. 
 P, Q, R, S, depositing cisterns. 
 
 The bleaching operations in Messrs, E, de Angeli and 
 Cie's establishment are as follow : — 
 1st, washing on machine A. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 

222 DYEING. 
 
 There is beside the saving of time a great saving of 
 chemicals, labour and coal, so as to render it one of the 
 most important improvements introduced in the last few 
 years in the bleaching of cotton cloth. 
 
 DYEING :MACHIXE FOR COTTON CLOTH. 
 
 The dveing machines for cotton dyeing have not under- 
 crone any marked change in the last few years. They may 
 be divided into two principal classes, one working one or 
 two pieces at a time, as the jigger, and the other the 
 proper dyeing machine as employed in ahzarin dyeing (see 
 the " Printing of Cotton Fabrics "). 
 
 These machines are too well known to require description, 
 and only the illustrations are shown in this work. 
 
 Plate XYIL, jig winch. 
 
 Plate XYIIL, dyeing jiggers. 
 
 Plate XIX., jiggers of French construction. 
 
 In some cases special machines are employed, as for 
 instance in indigo dyeing, where iron oblong tanks are 
 emploved, supplied with a system of rollers to compel the 
 cloth to pass through the vat ; the process being conducted 
 in a continuous manner. 
 
 Dvein^:'- machinery for black dyeing will be found 
 described on page 86 and following pages. 
 
 Of other apparatus employed in the treatment of cotton 
 cloth, three among the now very numerous systems of 
 washin^j- machines are shown in Plates XX , XXL, and XXII. 
 
 Plate XXIII. illustrates a hydro-extractor for heay)' 
 goods, principal!)' velvets, &c. 
 
 Plate XXIV., cylinder drying machine. 
 
 Plate XXV., stentering and drying machine. 
 
 THE FINISHING OF COTTON GOODS, 
 
 The important question of the finishing of cotton goods 
 could not be found space for in a work of this description. 
 It is, in fact, a subject that requires a volume of itself, and 
 
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MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 223 
 
 the author becfs to refer those interested in the matter to 
 the fine work published in French by Depierre, " Traite des 
 Apprets des tissues de Cotton," in Avhich all the details are 
 fully described and illustrated. 
 
 In the present volume I only give some illustrations of 
 finishing machinery, principally ior the sake of reference and 
 general information, and also the illustrations of some of the 
 machines introduced in France for woollen sroods, &c., for 
 the same reason. 
 
 Plate XXVI., beetling machine. 
 
 Plates XXVII. and XXVIIL, being finishing machines for 
 velvets. 
 
 Plate XXIX., drying and finishing machine for Avoollen 
 goods, &c. 
 
 Plate XXX., gas singeing machine for woollen goods. 
 
 Plate XXXI., fixing machine for woollen sfoods, 
 
 Plate XXXIL, drying and burhng machine for wool 
 extracting. 
 
 Plate XXXIIL, washing machine for silk yarns. 
 
 Plate XXXIV., rotatory hot press, especially suitable for 
 fine woollen tissues and other purposes. 
 
 Other illustrations of finishing machinery for cotton o-oods 
 will be found on the following plates : — 
 
 Plate XXXVIIL, back filling mande. 
 
 Plate XXXIX., ten bowl calender. 
 
 Plate XL., five bowl calender for soft ofoods. 
 
 Plate XLL, combined starch mangle, drjdng machine 
 and steam engine. 
 
 Plate XLII., spray damping and batching machine. 
 
 Plate XLIII., three bowl swizzing calender, with o-as 
 heating apparatus to metal roll. 
 
 I must now refer to the illustrations received at the last 
 moment. From Mr. John Petrie, Jun., of Rochdale, of 
 scouring and Avashing apparatus for loose wool, as shown on 
 Plate XLIV, and continuous drying machine constructed 
 Avith continuous feed and delivery, and capable of drying 
 oOOOlbs. of wool per day : Plate XLV., Fig. 24, the improved 
 table wool drying machine, also constructed by the same firm. 
 
224 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 TABLE DRYING MACHINE FOR WOOL.— FIG. 23. 
 
 I must express my thanks to those gentlemen, and to the 
 other firms of machinery makers, Messrs. Bentley and 
 Jackson, Messrs. Pierron and Dehaitre, Mr. Haubold, Jun., 
 and Messrs. Mather and PLatt, for the information and 
 blocks of illustrations so kindly placed at my disposal. 
 
 THE HYDRO-EXTRACTOR. 
 
 The hydro-extractor plays a very important part in 
 modern yarn dyeworks, and also in establishments where 
 the loose fibres are being dyed. Among the many machines 
 of different construction, figs. 24, 25 illustrate the "Weston" 
 Hydro-Extractor, which is constructed on the principle of 
 allowmg the revolving basket to oscillate within certain 
 limits, so that it may be free to assume, as a centre of 
 gyration, the centre of gravity of the basket and its load, 
 thus balancing itself and reducing to a minimum the 
 power required to drive the machine, as also the amount of 
 vibration transmitted to the frame or building to which 
 it is attached. The basket is not compelled by fixed 
 bearings to revolve about a certain fixed centre, but by the 
 use of elastic bearings is permitted to find its own 
 proper centre of rotation. When the load is evenly 
 balanced, the basket will swing a little at starting, and then 
 spin perfectly true. When there is a considerable inequality 
 in the load, the basket will swing through a longer arc as it 
 begins to revolve, but the oscillations will grow smaller and 
 smaller as the speed gets up. Whenever there is an unequal 
 
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 w 
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PLATE XXXIX.-TEN BOWL CALENDER. 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 225 
 
 load there is, necessarily, in every form of extractor, a 
 tendency to oscillate on the part of the basket, and, instead 
 of wasting power and setting up severe strains by trying to 
 restrain this tendency and to hold the basket to a fixed 
 centre, this latter is allowed to go as it likes, within the 
 limits required by practice, and always under the control 
 of the elastic bearings. Vibration in the framing of the 
 machine, or in the floor upon which it rests, is thus pre- 
 vented by this simple but most efficient expedient, and 
 consequently the massive foundations required for the 
 ordinary class of hydro-extractors can be dispensed with — a 
 fact of great importance. 
 
 To Messrs. Watson, Laidlaw, and Co., of Glasgow, I am 
 obliged for the illustrations and details concerning this 
 make of hydro-extractor, which was originally invented by 
 Mr. Weston, of Boston. Fig. 24 shows a machine with 
 suspended cage, of which fig. 25 is the sectional view. 
 
 A, spindle on which the cage is suspended ; B, bracket ; 
 C, supporting column; G, cage; D, outcasing; E, F, fast and 
 loose pulleys; C\ a hollow cylinder serving as a cover round 
 the shaft or spindle A, to prevent any dirt or grease falling 
 in the cage, which can be further covered up on the top of 
 the casing D. 
 
 Fig. 26 shows an underdriven hydro-extractor with engine 
 attached. Fig. 27 is also underdriven, and specially recom- 
 mended for small establishments, and shows the section of 
 the cage and outer casing. 
 
 Before concluding this chapter relating to the machinery 
 and apparatus employed in dyeing industries, I must 
 express my thanks to the machinery makers for their great 
 kindness in allowing me to make use of the illustrations of 
 their machinery, and besides those who have already been 
 named, I must express my thanks also to Messrs. Jackson 
 and Bror., of Bolton, the makers of bleaching, finishing, and 
 dyeing machinery, principally for goods manufactured in 
 the Bolton district, and my regret that I could not insert 
 the excellent illustrations kindly placed at my disposal, as 
 they arrived too late. The large number of illustrations 
 
 Q 
 
226 DYEING. 
 
 which the author has been enabled to collect in this work 
 represent a great deal of trouble taken by the different firms 
 of machinery makers, and to them my best thanks are here 
 recorded. 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 
 
 227 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fi?. 26. 
 
228 
 
 DYEING. 
 
MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN DYEING. 
 
 229 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Pattern Cards I., II. „ and III. 
 
 I AM indebted for tlie patterns on tliese cards to the kindness 
 of Cavalier E, De Angeli, the energetic President of the 
 Chamber of Commerce of Milan, who has obtained them 
 for me from the two Como firms as below. To him also I 
 am obliged for the complete series of patterns of cotton 
 goods on Cards X., XL, and XIL 
 
 Signori Carcano, Musa and Co., of Como, have kindly 
 supplied the three patterns on Card I. 
 
 No. 1 Pattern. — (Faille Franeaise) light blue, dyed in the 
 yarn, with water-soluble aniline blue. 
 Organzine : boiled. 
 Trame : soaple. 
 No. 2 Pattern. — (Duchesse, paille) straw colour, dyed in 
 the yam with picric acid and annatto and anihne yellow. 
 Organzine : boiled ofi". 
 Trame : souple. 
 No. 3 Pattern. — (Polanaise rose vif) dyed in the piece 
 with tannic acid mordant and safranine or magenta, accord- 
 ing to shade required. 
 
 Pattern Card II. 
 
 All the samples, except one, on this card are due to 
 Messrs. Bartolotti and Corti, of Como. 
 
 Yellow: dyed in the piece on tannic acid mordant, 
 with auramine yellow. 
 
 Bluish grey, piece dyed with mixture of aniline blue, 
 yellow, and red. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 231 
 
 Dark navy blue, piece dyed with aniline blue. 
 
 Black : piece dyed on iron and tin mordant, with logwood 
 in connection with catechu and prussiate. 
 
 Black: combination of aniline (induline) blues, yellow 
 and red. 
 
 The fine damask pattern in the middle consists of 
 boiled-off silk entirely. 
 
 Yam dyed with the respective coal tar colours, aniline 
 violet, blue, yellow, and red. 
 
 Yellow, is the new azo yellow, dyeing cotton and silk 
 without mordant, kindly supplied by Messrs. Leonhardt and 
 Co., of Muhlheim, under the name of " chrysophenine." 
 
 Pattern Card III. 
 
 Pink, with coal tar dye, for which magenta, safranine, 
 new geranium pink, eosine, or magdala red could be used 
 according to shade required. 
 
 Olive : coal tar yellow and archil. 
 
 Liffht blue, with soluble anilme blue or with alkaline 
 blue. 
 
 Light violet, with methyl violet, red shade. 
 
 Red : can be obtained with safranine, etc. 
 
 Brown stripes on yellow ground, with aniline colours: 
 blue, yellow, and archil. 
 
 Blue, red, and yellow. 
 
 Black and white, both boiled-ofF; black, ordinary iron 
 black with logwood. 
 
 Pattern Cards IV. and V. 
 
 These fine silk yarn patterns have been kindly supplied 
 by Messrs. W. G. Thompson and Co., of Cooper Street, 
 Manchester, who have gone to considerable trouble and 
 expense in getting them dyed purposely for this work ; to 
 these gentlemen also are due nine of the cotton yarn 
 patterns found on other sheets, as also all the patterns on 
 Plate XIV. All the colours are produced by dyeing in a 
 
232 DYEING. 
 
 soap lather, acidulated with sulphuric acid with the corre- 
 sponding dyestuffs : — 
 
 Midclleton Green No. 45. 
 
 Blue for silk 18. 
 ,, Safranine. 
 
 Blue RS 
 
 Purple BS. 
 ,, Orange 64. 
 ,, Safranine 0. 
 
 Navy Blue RS. 
 ,, Violet B. 
 ,, Orange RS. 
 
 Blue BS. 
 
 Green ABS. 
 
 Violet xls P. 
 ,, Eosine YS. 
 
 Yellow R. 
 
 Pattern Card VI. 
 
 Illustrates the different stages of the linen manufacture, 
 beginning with the unspun fibre, grey, bleached, and 
 coloured yarn, and grey and bleached cloth. All these 
 patterns are due to the kindness of the well-known firm, 
 The York St. Flax Spinning Co., Limited, of Belfast. 
 
 Pattern Cards VII. and VIII. 
 
 The series of these fine wool damasks, which have been 
 purposely dyed for this volume, has been kindly supplied by 
 the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik, and illustrates the 
 result obtained in wool dyeing by means of this valuable 
 class of alizarine colours. A description of the methods of 
 employment, along with some interesting details concerning 
 these dyestuffs, will be found in Chapter IX. I am obliged 
 to the above firm and their Manchester agents, Messrs. 
 Schott, Segner, and Co., for the great trouble taken on this 
 account. 
 
PLATE XL.— FIVE-BOWL CALENDER FOR SOFT GOODS. 
 
1—1 
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EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 233 
 
 Pattern Card IX. 
 
 The six finely dyed and finished cotton satins are the 
 production of Messrs. Dollfus, Mieg, and Co., of Mulhouse, 
 and are produced as follows : 
 
 Green. — Padding of alumina and iron mordant, ageing in 
 the stove, dunging, dyeing with bark and sumac ; wash, 
 rinse, and top with methyl green ; wash and finish. 
 
 Turkey Red. — Ordinary steaming process. 
 
 Light Blue. — Mixture of methylene, blue, and violet, 
 printed on one side on the cloth previously mordanted with 
 tannic acid ; then steam and finish. 
 
 Pink or Rose. — Padded with steam, alizarine pink, 
 steam, &c. 
 
 Bordeaux. — Pad in mixture of alumina and iron mordants, 
 age, dung, dye in alizarine by the addition of lima and 
 quercitron extract ; wash and finish. 
 
 Ficelle. — Mixture of yellow and red ochre, with lamp 
 black fixed by means of albumen and steaming. 
 
 Pattern Cards X., XL, and XLL. 
 
 Due to Signori De Angeli and Cie., from the extensive 
 printing and dyeing works, at the Maddalena, near Milan. 
 
 Pattern Card X. 
 
 No. 1. — With quercitron bark, tin crystals, and annatto. 
 
 No. 2. — Iron buff with nitrate of iron and soda in two 
 separate baths. 
 
 No. 3. — Cutch and bark fixed with bichromate of potash 
 and alum. 
 
 No. 4. — Cutch, logwood, bark, fixed with alum and 
 bichrome. 
 
 No. 5. — Tannic acid and tin mordant, dyed with 
 magenta. 
 
 No. 6. — Logwood, bark, cutch fixed with sulphate of 
 copper and bichrome. 
 
234 DYEING. 
 
 No. 7. — Azo scarlet (ponceau) or stannate of soda mor- 
 dant. 
 
 No. 8. — Tannin and tartar emetic mordant, dyed with 
 auramine and malacliite green. 
 
 Pattern Card XI. 
 
 No. 1. — Tannin and tartar emetic mordant, dyed with, 
 auramine and methyl green. 
 
 No. 2. — Acetate of lead, ammonia, and bichromate of 
 potash (ordinary chrome yellow). 
 
 No. 3. — Tannm and tartar emetic mordant, dyed with 
 basic aniline blue (methylene blue and violet, or Victoria 
 blue). 
 
 No. 4. — Acetate of lead, ammonia, bichrome, and hme. 
 (Chrome orange). 
 
 No. 5. — Logwood, bark, iron acetate, topped with methyl 
 or malachite green. 
 
 No. 6. — Alizarine red. 
 
 No. 7. — Stannate of soda, nitrate of iron, yellow prussiate^ 
 sulphuric acid, topped with magenta. 
 
 No. 8. — Aniline black, produced by oxydation. 
 
 Pattern Card XII. 
 
 No. 1. — Auramine on tannin and tartar emetic mordant. 
 No. 2. — Iron buff ; nitrate of iron and soda. 
 No. 3. — Cutch, bark, alum, and bichrome. 
 No. 4. — Cutch, bark, logwood, and bichrome. 
 No. 5. — Cutch, bark, alum, and bichrome. 
 No. 6. — Logwood, bark, bluestone, topped with aniline blue. 
 No. 7. — Chrome orange, topped with an azo orange. 
 No. 8. — Tannin and tartar emetic mordant, dyed with 
 methylene blue and violet. 
 
 Pattern Card XIII. 
 
 Loose cotton and loose wool, purposely dyed for this 
 work and kindly supplied by ^Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons, 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 235 
 
 of Hiiddersfield, along with other dyed patterns, and many 
 useful hints and information, for which the author is very 
 thankful, and regrets that he has been compelled for want 
 of room to leave out some of the patterns. 
 
 The loose cotton had been dyed as follows : 
 
 Yellow — 
 851bs. cotton, lib. chrysamine, 21bs. soap, 21bs. soda, 2Ibs. fustic 
 
 extract. Boil 1 hour, then raise with 2oz. sulphate of copper. 
 
 Brown — 
 (1) lOOlbs. cotton, steeped 8 hours; (2) SOIbs. cutch. If lbs. 
 sulphate of copper; (3) 51bs. bichrome ; (4) fill up with 71bs. 
 fustic extract, 91bs. redwood extract, and 21bs. rasped logwood. 
 
 Dark Indigo. Bottomed in R. H. & Sons' vat — 
 221bs. cotton, topped with loz. No. 1 violet 40, and 2oz. No. 1 
 
 violet 28, and 81bs. rasped logwood. Work at about 150° F. 
 
 Light Indigo. Bottomed in same vat after last half 
 strength — 
 
 221bs. cotton, topped with l^oz. No. 1 violet 65. 
 Indigo Stain. Bottomed after No. 7, in same bath, half 
 strength — 
 
 221bs. cotton, topped with Joz. No. 1 violet 28. 
 Green — 
 121bs. cotton, 6oz. tannic acid, ^-pint double muriate of tin, 2oz. 
 No. 1 fast green 1. 
 Lavender — 
 lib. cotton, 5oz. rasped logwood, |oz. fustic extract, 2 dracbms 
 No. 1 violet 28. 
 The patterns inserted m this card are : (on loose cotton) 
 No. 1, grey; No. 2, aniline black; No. 3, light indigo; 
 No. 6, light indigo ; No. 5, brown ; (on loose wool) No. 4 
 and 8, dyed in the indigo vat. 
 
 Pattern Cards XV. and XVI. 
 
 Dyed patterns on jute yarn, kindly supplied by Messrs. 
 Read Holliday & Sons, Huddersfield. 
 
 lOOlbs. jute in each case for weight of drugs specified : 
 
236 DYEING. 
 
 Brown — 
 201bs. gambine R. add to bath and bring to boiling point, enter 
 jute, and work |^-hour, then add 31bs. bichrome, and work ^-hour. 
 Brown — 
 
 201bs. gambine Y. ; otherwise as above. 
 Brown — 
 201bs. gambine Y., as above, then lift and wash in cold water ; 
 next dye in a clean bath with lib. maroon orseilline. 
 Brown — 
 20!bs. gambine Y., and then in the same bath add 21bs. bisulphate 
 of soda, and 31bs. cardinal red. 
 Green — 
 201bs. gambine Y., in same manner as No. 1, only using 51be. 
 sulphate of iron ( copperas; instead of bichrome. 
 Crimson Y — 
 
 lilbs. dyed without mordant. 
 Cerise — 
 
 lilbs. dyed without mordant. 
 Green P — 
 
 31bs. dyed without mordant. 
 Indigo Blue R — 
 
 lib. dyed without mordant. 
 No. 1 Violet 28— 
 
 lib. dyed without mordant. 
 Pure Blue D.S.— 
 
 31bs.. dyed with 51bs. alum, and 51bs. bisulphate of soda. 
 No. 1 Blue BX— 
 
 31bs., dyed with 51bs. alum, and 51bs. bisulphate of soda. 
 No. 2 Canary — 
 
 41bs. dyed without mordant. 
 Green Chrystals Y — 
 
 l^lbs. dyed without mordant. 
 Fancy shade — 
 401bs. gambine R, half boil, enter jute, then add 5lbs. copperas and 
 work J-hour. 
 
 Pattern Card XVII. 
 
 Dyed Cotton Yarn. — Messrs. W. G. Thompson and Co., 
 have kindly supplied nine patterns, dyed with Middleton 
 
z 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 2 
 
 X 
 o 
 
 h 
 < 
 ffl 
 
 Q 
 
 Z 
 <l 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 
 CL 
 
 I. 
 
 a 
 
LATE XLIir.— THREE-BOWL SWIZZING CALENDER, WITH 
 GAS HEATING APPARATUS TO METAL ROLL. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 237 
 
 safranine, indigo blue A, red C No. 24, green 45, blue GSS, 
 blue G, chromeine, purple, and Middleton blue V, of which 
 Nos. 1, 3, 6, 7, 8 are shown on this plate. 
 
 No. 5. — Aniline black, supplied by the Clayton Aniline Co. 
 
 No. 4. — Regina purple : Messrs. Brooke, Simpson, and 
 Spiller. 
 
 No. 2. — Hessian purple : Messrs. Leonhart and Co. 
 
 Pattern Card XVIII. 
 
 Cotton Yarns — 
 No. 1. — Soluble cotton blue : Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller 
 
 (B. S. & S.) 
 
 No. 2.— Indigo : Read Holliday and Sons (R. H. & S.) 
 No. 3. — Neutral red on tannin mordant : Cassella (Cass.) 
 No. 4. — New fast blue on tannin and antimony mordant : 
 
 (Cass.) 
 
 No. 5.— Aniline black : (R. H. & S.) 
 
 No. 6. — Vacanceine red, fast azo red : (R. H. & S.) 
 
 No. 7.— Green 45: W. G. Thompson and Co. (W. G. 
 
 T. & Co.) 
 
 No. 8. — New fast blue, red shade : (Cass.) 
 
 Pattern Card XIX. 
 
 Cotton Yarns — 
 No. 1. — Hofmann's violet, tannin mordant : (B. S. & S.) 
 No. 3. — Opal blue, soap, and acetate of alumina mordant : 
 
 (B. S. & S.) 
 
 Nos. 2 & 7.— Blues, tannin mordant : (W. G. T. & Co.) 
 No. 5. — Red, tannin mordant : (W. G. T. & Co.) 
 No. 8. — Chromeine, tannin mordant : (W. G. T. & Co.) 
 No. 4 & 6. — Vacanceine reds, azo reds formed direct on 
 
 the fibre, as by Holliday's patent : (R. H. & S.) 
 
 Pattern Card XX. 
 
 Cotton and Woollen Yarns — 
 
 No. 1. — Ingrain red on cotton : (B. S. cK: S.) 
 
238 DYEING. 
 
 No. 2. — Diamine red on cotton : (Cass.) 
 No. 3. — Fancy colour on sateened cotton : Kerr and 
 HoeQ:2fer. 
 
 No. 4. — Milling red on wool : (Cass.) 
 No. 5. — Hessian red on wool : Leonhardt and Co. 
 No. 6. — Alkaline blue on wool : (B. S. & S.) 
 No. 7. — Acid magenta on wool : (R. H. & S.) 
 No. 8. — Acid violet on wool : (R. H. & S.) 
 
 Pattern Card XXI. 
 
 No. 1. — Brilliant croceine scarlet on cotton : (Cassella.) 
 No. 2. — Naplitliol black on wool 
 
 No. 3. — Naphthol green 
 No. 4. — Milling red, G 
 No. 5. — Brilliant croceine, 9R 
 No. 7.— Napbthol black 
 No. 8. — Cr3'stal scarlet, 6B 
 No. 6. — Dinitroso resorcine black on cotton cloth, kindly 
 supplied by Mr. Horace Koechlin. 
 
 Pattern Card XXII, 
 
 Contains six pieces cotton velvet dyed with the new series 
 of direct colours, and supplied by Messrs. Bryce and Rumpf, 
 the Manchester agents of the Baeyer Colour Works, of 
 Elberfeld, to whom I am indebted also for the following 
 friendly communication : 
 
 The patterns have been dyed as follows : — 
 
 Chrysamine — 
 1 per cent, colour, 10 per cent, phosphate soda, 2^ per cent, soap, 
 dyed at boiling heat as near as possible, without actually 
 boiling. 
 
 BenzopiLrpurine 4-B — 
 
 3 per cent, colour, 5 per cent, potash, 2^ per cent. soap. 
 
 Deltapurpiirine SB — 
 
 4i per cent., same as above. 
 
 Rose Az urine B — 
 
 4 J per cent., same as above. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 239 
 
 Congo Corinth B — 
 
 3 per cent., same as above. 
 
 Benzoazurine G — 
 3 per cent, colour, 10 per cent, phosphate of soda, 2^ per cent, 
 soap. 
 
 These were all dyed boiling for one liour. This is the 
 actual per cent, colour used in dyeing these patterns. It is 
 no more than just to add that some dyers, who are using 
 these colours extensively, get good and perfectly satisfactory 
 results in the standing bath with much less colour than the 
 quantities stated. A full shade, for instance, is got in the 
 standing bath with 2 per cent, benzopurpurine, and we 
 know of cases where only IJ per cent, is used with 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 The deltapurpurine 5B and rose azurine G are very fast 
 against acid, much more so than benzopurpurine orcongo or 
 benzo. A bath of oleine, mixed with a little soap and soda, 
 when applied after dyeing benzopurpurine materially 
 improves the shade, and renders it reasonably fast against 
 light. 
 
 The benzoazurine G produces full indigo shades, at a 
 very cheap cost, if the yarn or cloth is first dyed with a 
 weak bath of aniline salts or aniline oil, and then topped 
 with benzoazurine G. This colour so dyed will not turn 
 greenish by exposure to light. It also dyes with logwood 
 extract, and gives cheap results. 
 
 Pattern Card XXIII. 
 
 Loose wool, dyed with alizarine colours, due to the 
 kindness of Mr. Liebermann, the Manchester agent of the 
 Hoechst Colour Works, from whom are also the following 
 particulars : — 
 
 Mordant. DyestufF. 
 
 No. l.^l^^r P^' cent, alum | per cent, alizarine 1 W.S. 
 p^ \ 6 „ tartar) ^ 
 
 No. 7. Ditto, 10 „ alizarine 2 abb. 
 
 No. 4. Ditto, 10 „ „ orange. 
 
240 DYEING. 
 
 ^^«- 6- { potash S^rta' tar } ^^ P^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ abb. 
 
 No. 3. Ditto 10 ., „ orange. 
 
 No. 2. Ditto 10 „ „ brown. 
 
 No. 5. Ditto 15 „ „ blue, D.N 
 
 Xo. 8. — Supplied by ^lessrs. Read Holliday and Sons. 
 
 Pattern Card XXIV. 
 
 Woollen cloth, due to Messrs. J. ^Marshall and Son, of Leeds. 
 169_Orcliill extract. 
 170 — Cudbear blue shade. 
 171 — Cudbear red shade 
 172 — Indigo extract, N 1. 
 
 173- „ „ N2. 
 
 174— „ „ N3. 
 
 PaUern Card XXV. 
 
 176, 177, 178, and 179, due to the kindness of :Mr. John 
 "Walton, of CoUyhurst, Manchester. To this gentleman and 
 to Mr. Downs, the manager, the author is much obHged for 
 much useful practical information, and for permission to 
 visit the extensive works of the firm. They are all iron 
 blacks and specimens of calender and beetle finish. 
 
 No. 175, due to the Clayton Aniline Co. ; aniline black 
 produced by Mr. Joseph Jackson, Smedley Bridge Works. 
 
 Pattern Card XXVI. 
 
 These fine series of Hght fancy shades have been dyed by 
 Messrs. Kerr and Hoegger, of Grimshaw Lane Dye Works, 
 Newton Heath, Manchester. To Mr. Kerr I am especially 
 obho-ed for much kind attention, practical information, and 
 many useful hints, extending over several years. The 
 shades are produced as follows : — 
 
 ISO — Yellow, with flavine and tin on sumach and tin 
 mordant. 
 
a 
 o 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 lu 
 
 W 
 
 z 
 
 X 
 o 
 < 
 
J 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 u. 
 
 w 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 z 
 
 I— ( 
 
 Q 
 w 
 
 D 
 O 
 D 
 
 Z 
 
 h 
 z 
 O 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 1— ( 
 q: 
 
 h 
 
 w 
 
 Oh 
 
 I 
 
 >■ 
 J 
 
 X 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 0. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 241 
 
 181 — Drab : cutch iron and chrome, 
 
 182 — Olive : sumach, iron, akim, fustic. 
 
 183 — Slate : sumach and logwood, iron, alum. 
 
 184 — Terra cotta : cutch, chrome, alum, new oransre. 
 
 185 — Olive drab : cutch, fustic, alum. 
 
 186 — Cuir : cutch, alum. 
 
 187 — Grey : sumach and vitriol, iron, alum. 
 
 Pattern Card XXVII. — China Grass Pattern. 
 
 188 — China grass as imported, after bleaching. 
 
 189 — Bleached yarn, 
 
 190, 195 — Dyed and sateened by Messrs. Kerr and 
 Hoegger, wood and coal tar colours. 
 
 190 — Bismarck Brown. 
 
 191 — Slate bottom, sumach, Avith little vitriol, then iron, 
 then methyl green. 
 
 192 — Sage, sumach and iron, alum and methyl green. 
 
 193 — Aniline blue on sumach and antimony mordant. 
 
 194, 195 — Flavine 3'ellow. 
 
 To the following firms I am also obliged for additional 
 information, besides the patterns mentioned above. 
 
 From Messrs. Cassella and Co., through their Manchester 
 agents, Messrs. Ch. Hy. Saul and Co. : 
 
 Neutral Red; Neutral Violet ; New Blues. 
 
 To these gentlemen I am obliged also for various other 
 patterns, and much useful information. 
 
 I give here some of the details of amount of dyestuft" 
 employed in the dyeing of the different patterns which have 
 been purposely prepared for this work by Messrs. Cassella 
 and Co. 
 
 Naphthol black B, on serge, dyed with 5 per cent. 
 Naphthol black 4B, on serge, dyed with 5 per cent. 
 Naphthol green B, on cloth, dyed with 5 per cent. 
 Crystal scarlet 6R, on serge, dyed with 2 per cent. 
 Brilliant croceine 9B, on cotton (piece goods), dyed with about 10 
 per cent. 
 
242 DTEING. 
 
 Brilliant croceine M, on cotton (piece goods).' 
 Archil substitute I, extra on serge, dyed with 2 per cent. 
 Milling red G, on serge, dyed with 3 per cent. 
 New blue B, on cotton yarn, dyed with 2 per cent. ^ On 
 
 New blue R, on cotton yarn, dyed with 2 per cent. > tannic acid 
 Neutral red, on cotton yarn, dyed with 2 per cent. J mordant. 
 Diamine red, on cotton yarn, dyed with about 7i per cent., belongs 
 to the direct class of azo colours, and is dyed in some way 
 without the need of mordant. 
 Milling red R, on woollen yarn, dyed with 6 per cent. 
 
 From Messrs. Leonliardt and Co. has also come tlie 
 following friendly communication : 
 
 New series of colours : — 
 
 Red Colours. — Hessian purple B and N, Hessian scarlet. 
 
 Yellow Colours. — Brilliant yellow, curcumine S, chryso- 
 plienine, Hessian yellow. 
 
 Violet. — Hessian violet. 
 
 Blue-Black. — Mikado black. 
 
 All the above have the property of dyeing cotton with- 
 out mordant. 
 
 The yellow dyestuffs also, with the exception of Hessian 
 yellow, dye wool m an acid bath, fast to fulling. 
 
 The reds can also be used for printing on wool, and do 
 not bleed when washed. 
 
 Chrysophenine requires especial mention, as it is the only 
 yellow of the Tetrazo class of colours, also called Congo 
 class, that is insensible to alkali. It will not turn red when 
 brought into contact with alkali, which all others do, more 
 or less. 
 
 Pattern Cards XXVI I I. and XXIX. 
 
 Are due to the Berlin Actien Gesellschaft flir Anilin 
 Fabrikation through the kindness of Dr. Martins. To that 
 firm and this gentleman I must express my thanks, not 
 only for these patterns, but also for a fine collection of 
 patterns and pattern cards, illustrating the employment of 
 their numerous products on cotton, silk, wool, leather, and 
 even for paper dyeing, which they have kindly presented tome. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 243 
 
 The patterns on the above cards have also been dyed 
 specially for this work, and thus bring up to date the latest 
 discoveries effected in the interesting class of direct or 
 substantive azo colours of the Congo series, the manufacture 
 of which was originally started by this fiiTQ, 
 
 These substantive colours work very well on wool, and as 
 they stand milling can be dyed on woollen yams which are 
 woven with white in such goods that are afterwards soaped 
 or milled. 
 
 Card XXVIII. — Substantive colours on cotton damasks : 
 
 196_Congo red N 371. 
 
 197 — Benzoazurine G 494. 
 
 198— BrilHant Congo R 514. 
 
 199— Chrysamme R 519. 
 
 200 — Benzopurpurine 6B 521. 
 
 201— Congo corinth B 495 
 
 202— Hessian purple N G 488. 
 
 203 — Olive, mixture of 
 
 4 parts chrysamine R 
 1 part benzoazurine G. 
 
 For the methods of dyeing and printing with the above 
 and other substantive colours I beg to refer to a pamphlet 
 published by the above firm — " Instructions for using the 
 Substantive Cotton Dyes," and which they kindly placed at 
 my disposal. 
 
 I will only give here a few details relating to the dyeing 
 of the patterns : 
 
 Reds. — Congo red, N 371, and brilliant Congo, benzopur- 
 purine, 6B, and others not illustrated here, such as Delta 
 and Rosazurine : as also Congo Corinth. 
 3 per cent, colouring matter. 
 2^ per cent. soap. 
 10 per cent, glauber salt. 
 Raise to the boil, enter unmordanted cotton, and dye at the 
 boil for one hour. Instead of glauber salt 10 per cent, 
 phosphate of soda or 5 per cent, common soda, borax or 
 
244 J DYEING. 
 
 stannate of soda may be used. A passage after dyeing in a 
 5 to 10 per cent, oleine solution will increase the beauty of 
 the shades. 
 
 Hessian Purple. — Bath prepared with sufficient amount 
 of colouring matter and 10 per cent, common salt. 
 
 Work at the boil one hour and pass through weak soda 
 bath and dry without washing. 
 
 Benzoazurine Blue. — Dye Bath : 
 
 10 per cent, glauber salt or phosphate of soda. 
 2|- per cent. soap. 
 2 — 3^ per cent. dyestufF. 
 Bring to the boil and enter cotton, boil one hour, &c. 
 
 Card XXIX.— 
 
 204.— Scarlet 2R, No. 234, dyed in boiling bath with the 
 addition of glauber salt and sulphuric acid. 
 
 205. — Alkaline Blue 4B, No. 65. Dyed in boiling bath 
 with the addition of carbonate of soda, then followed by 
 fresh bath with sulphuric acid. 
 
 206.— Fast blue black, R A, No. 387, bottomed with cop- 
 peras. Then soured in a new bath with weak sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 207 — Chinoline yellow, No. 354. Dyed like the scarlet 
 with glauber salt and acid in dyebath. 
 
 208 — Guinea Green G, No. 890, with chinoline yellow, 
 dyed with acid in bath as above. 
 
 209— Bordeaux S, No. 347, Do. 
 
 210— Methyl violet, 4 B, neutral bath. 
 
 211— Rubine crystals, neutral bath. 
 
 The Manchester Aniline Co. (C. Truby and Co.) promised 
 a series of dyed cotton yarn patterns, illustrating some 
 specialities of coal tar colours, but they were not received 
 in time. 
 
 In concluding this reference to the patterns and pattern 
 cards, I must heartily thank all the manufacturers who 
 have given me patterns and information relating to them. 
 They will also excuse me, in cases where I have been com- 
 pelled, by want of room, not to insert all the patterns 
 supplied. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF DYED PATTERNS. 245 
 
 The collections of patterns, which it has, been found 
 necessary to make into a separate volume, represent all the 
 principal dyestuffs employed in the dyeing industries, and 
 will give a good idea of the enormous development attained 
 by the manufacture of artificial colouring matters, and the 
 wonderful achievements of modern colour chemistry. 
 
 D. H. HILL LIBRARY 
 
 North Carolina State ColleB« 
 
IIsTDEX. 
 
 Acid Coal Tar Colours, 67 
 
 Acid Coal Tar Colours, Mordanting 
 Cottons, for, 59 
 
 Acid DyestufEs, 140 ; Reds. Azo Scar- 
 lets, Blues, Induline Reds, Violets, 
 Greens. 141 
 
 Alizarine, 171 
 
 Alizarine Black, 177 
 
 Alizarine Maroon, 177 
 
 Alizarine Orange, 173 ; Blue, 174 
 
 Alizarine Colours, 78, 143; Dyeing 
 Wool, with, 144; Silk Dyeing, with, 
 161 ; in Wool Dying. 166 
 
 Alizarine Colours in Wool Dyeing, 
 General Remarks concerning, 178 
 
 Alkaline Colours, 141 
 
 Alkaline or Nicholson's Blues, 142 
 
 Animal Fibres, 26 ; Wool, 26 ; 
 Silk, 26 
 
 Aniline Colours, Basic, 139 ; of 
 Basic character, 60 : General Re- 
 marks in Dyeing, with, 63 ; Black, 
 64 
 
 Aniline DyestufFs, Basic-Mordanting 
 Cottons, for, 57 
 
 Aniline Oil and Salt, Production of, 
 195 
 
 Anthracine, 6 
 
 Archil Substitute, 181 
 
 Artificial Organic Colouring Matters, 
 36 
 
 Azo Colours, the, 69 ; Oranges, 70 ; 
 Scarlets, 70, 141 ; Blues, 76. 
 
 Azo Colours, New Class of . 71 ; Congo 
 Class, 71; Chrysamine, 72; Hessian 
 Yellow, Brilliant Yellow, Benzo- 
 purpurine, Della-Purpurine, 73 ; 
 Rosazurine, 75 ; Hessian Purple, 
 Azo Blue, Benzoazurine, 76 ; Co- 
 rinth Congo, 78 
 
 Basic Aniline Colours in Wool 
 Dyeing, 139 ; Ceiise, Cardinal, 
 Maroon, Bismark Brown, Methyl 
 and Malachite Greens, Alkaline 
 Blues, 139 
 
 Basic Aniline Colours, General Re- 
 marks en Dyeing, with, 63 
 
 Basic Aniline Dyestuffs, Mordanting 
 Cotton for, 57 
 
 Basic Character, Aniline Colours of, 
 eO ; Reds, 60 ; Blues, 61 ; Violets, 
 Greens, Bismark Brown, Chrysoi- 
 dine, Phosphine, 63 ; Compound 
 Shades, 64 ; Black for Sizing, Fast 
 Bronze. Brown, Phenelen-Dia- 
 mine, 66 
 Bezidine Colours, 196 ; Dyeing Cot- 
 tons with, 196 ; for Wool Dyeing, 
 196 
 Benzoazurine, 76 
 Benzopurpurine, 73 
 Bisulphite Method of Indigo Wool 
 
 Dyeing, H9 
 Black, Alizarine, 177 
 Black, Aniline, en Cotton, 64 
 Black, Chrome, Dyewood extract, 85 
 Black, Chrome, on Wool, 152 
 Black Dyeing, one Dip, 157 
 Black, Dyewood Extract. 84 
 Black Dyewood on Silks. 162, 163 
 Black, for Sizing. 66 ; for Chrome, 152 
 Black Italian Cotton Cloth, Dyeing 
 
 and Finishing, 86 
 Black Iron on Linen, Jute, &c., 115 
 Black Linen. Jute, &c.. Dyeing, 114 
 Black Mordant, No. 1, 189 
 Black, Naphthol, 181 
 Black on Manilla Hemp, Chrome, for 
 
 Linen. Jute, &c., 115 
 Black with Dinitrosoresorcine, 195 
 Blacks, Cotton Dyeing, 55 
 Blacks, Iron, Dyewooi Extract, 84 
 Blacks, One Dip Dyes, 154 
 Bleaching, China Grass, 113 ; Cot- 
 ton, 45; Hemp, 111 ; Jute, 112; 
 Linen, 109 ; Linen Cloth, 110 ; 
 Silk, 159 : Wools, 122 
 Bleaching Cotton, 45 ; Before Spin- 
 ning, 45 ; Cotton Yarns. 47, 49 ; 
 Cotton Cloth, 52; New Processes, 
 52 
 Bleaching Process, the Hermite, 191 
 Bleaching Processes, New, 52 
 Blue, Alizarine. 174 
 Blue, Fast, One Dip Dye, 156 
 Blue. Paraphenylene 
 Blues, Acid, 141 ; Alkaline or Nichol- 
 son, 142 ; Aniline, 61 ; Basic 
 Aniline, 139 ; Dark Cotton, 63 ; 
 
248 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Indigo, 98; Induline, 141 ; Light 
 
 Cotton, 63 
 Blues, Cassella's New, in Neutral 
 
 Colours 
 Blueish. Bottle Green. One Dip Dye, 
 
 156 
 Blueish Mode in Linen Goods, 116 
 Boiled off Silk, 159 
 Bottle Green, Blueish, On<} DijD Dje. 
 
 156 
 Bottoming Indigoes, 103 
 Bronze, Fast. One Dip Dye, 157 
 Brown, Aniline, 66 ; Anthracene, 
 
 176 ; Bismark Aniline, 63 : Bis- 
 
 mark, Basic Aniline, 139 ; Cotton, 
 
 181 
 Browns in Italian Cotton Cloth, 87 
 
 Cardinal, 1.39 
 
 Carmine, Cochineal, 19-1 
 
 Cassella's New Blues in Neutral 
 
 Colours. 182 
 Cerise, 139 
 Cerulein, 173 
 Cerulein 01ive>i. 83 
 China Grass, Rhea, or Eamie. 2-1. 200 
 China Grass. 113; Bleaching, 113 
 Chrome for Black, 152 
 Chrysamine, 72 
 Chrysoidine, 63 
 Coal Tar Colours, Acid, 67; 
 
 Mordanting Cotton, for, 59 
 Coal Tar Colours, Dyeing Methods 
 
 for, 59 
 Coal Tar Colours, History of, 2 
 Coal Tar Colours, Silk Dyeing with, 
 
 J 60 
 Coal Tar Colours, Wool Dyeing with, 
 
 139 
 C ;chineal Carmine 19i 
 Cochineil Scarlet, 152 
 Colouring Matters : — Artificial Or- 
 ganic, 36 ; Natural Organic, 41 ; 
 
 Testing by Dyeing, 33 ; Indigo, 
 
 42 ; New, 166 
 Compound Shades, Aniline, 64 
 Congo Class of Azo Colours, 71 
 Congo, Corinth. 78 
 Copperas, Vat, 99 
 Cotton, 20 
 Cotton, Bleaching. 45 ; Dyeing, 53 ; 
 
 Dyeing with Benzidine Colours, 
 
 196 
 Cotton Blues, Cial Tar, 68 
 Cotton Cloth, Bleaching, 52 
 Cotton Cloth, Machinery employed 
 
 in Bleaching and Dyeing of, 109 ; 
 
 Dyeing Machine, 222 ; Finishing, 
 
 222 
 
 Cotton Dyeing Machinery, 203 ; New- 
 Mechanical Process for Dyeing 
 Cotton on Wool in the Silver, 204 
 
 Cotton, Italian Black, Dyeing and 
 Finishing. 86 
 
 Cotton Yarn, Bleaching, 47, 49 ; 
 Dyeing, 56 
 
 Cotton Yarn Dyeing Machinery, 215 ; 
 for Boiling or Scouring, 215 ; 
 Mordanting, 215 ; Drying, 216 ; 
 Drying Jlachine for Hanks, 217; 
 Polishing. 219 
 
 Cottms, Mordanting, 57 
 
 Crocein. Brilliant, 1 81 
 
 Cudbear, 190 
 
 Delta-Pukpurine. 73 
 
 Dyed Patterns. Explanation of, 231 
 
 Dyeing and Finishing Cotton Cloth, 
 Black Italians, 86 ; Browns, 94 
 Yellows. 95 ; Reds, 96 ; other 
 Fancy Shades, Greys, Olives, 97 
 
 Dyeing Cottons, 53 ; Loose or Un- 
 spun, 53 ; Blacks, 55 
 
 Dyeing, History of, 1 
 
 Dyeing in a Single Bath Dyewoods, 
 Mordant, for, 156 
 
 Dyeing, Indigo, 147 
 
 Dyeing Linen. Jute, &c., 113; Silk, 
 160; Wool, 124, 147 
 
 Dyeing loose Wool, ISO ; Chromium 
 JMordant, 180 ; Alumina Mordant, 
 ISO 
 
 Dyeing, Machinery employed in, 203, 
 
 Dyeing, Methods for Coal Tar 
 Colours, 59 
 
 Dyeing Process. Ob armeyer Mechani- 
 cal. 136 
 
 Dyeing Process, Smithson's, Wool,125 
 
 Dyeing, Testiag Colouring Matters 
 by, 33 
 
 Dyeing with Dyewood, 149 
 
 Dveing Wool with Natural Organic 
 Dyestuff, 147 
 
 Dyeing Yarn, 56 
 
 Dyeing Yarn and Cloth, Wool, 133 
 
 Dyes, One Dip, 154 
 
 Dyestuffs, Natural Organic, Dyeing- 
 Wool with, 147 
 
 Dyestuffs, Various New, 131 ; 
 Brilliant Crocein, 181 ; Milling 
 Red, 181 ; Archil Substitute, 181 ; 
 Cotton Brown. 181 ; Diamin Red, 
 181 ; Naphtol Black, 181 ; Neutral 
 Red, 181 ; Scarlet, 182 ; Naphlhol 
 Green. 182; Proportion for lOOlbs. 
 Wool. 182 
 
 Dyewood Colours, 162 ; Blacks, 162 
 163 
 
INDEX. 
 
 249 
 
 Dyewood, Extra Colours, 84 ; Blacks, 
 Iron Blacks. 84; Chrome Blacks, 65 
 
 Dyewoods. Mordant for Dyeing in a 
 single Bath with, 15(3 
 
 Ecru, Yellowish, Linen Yarn, 116 
 Eosines, The, G8 
 
 Fancy Shades on Black Italian 
 
 Cotton Cloth, 8G 
 Fancy Shades, Yarn Dyeing, 57 
 Fast Blacks, Blues, 156 ; Bronze, C6, 
 
 157 
 Fibres General Characteristics of , 
 
 18 ; Vegetable, 20 ; Animal, 20 
 Flax. 20 
 Fustic, Yellow with, 158 
 
 Galleine or Ckrulein, 175 
 
 Galloflavine, 177 
 
 Gambine, 185 
 
 Greenish Mode on Linen Goods, 115 
 
 Green, Light. One Dip Dye, 157 
 
 G-reen, Naphthol, 182 
 
 Greens, Aci'l, 141 
 
 Greens, Aniline, of Basic Character, 
 
 G3 
 Greens. Methyl and Malachite, 139 
 Greys on Cotton, 117 
 Grinding of Indigo, The, 102 
 
 Hemp, 22 
 
 HemiJ. Bleaching', 111 
 
 Hemp, Manilla, Black on, 117 
 
 Hermite BleacbiDg Process, the, 191 ; 
 
 Industrial Application of, 198 
 Hessian Purple, 76 ; Yellow, 73 
 Hydro Extractor, the, 224 
 
 Indigo, 42 
 
 Indigo Blues, 98 
 
 Indigo Dyeing, 147 
 
 Indigo, Grinding, 102 ; Topping, 102 ; 
 
 Bottoming, 103 ; Testing, 104 
 Indigo Mordants, 103 
 Induline Blues, 141 
 Ingrain Red, 1S8; Orange, 188 
 Iialian Cotton Cloth Blacks — Dyeing 
 
 and Finishing, 86 
 Jute, 22, 1U4, 112; Bleaching 
 
 Method, 112 ; White on, 112 
 Jute Dyeing, ] 13 
 Jute, Olive on, 116 
 Jute, Red on, 117 
 
 Linen, 104 ; Parry's New Retting 
 Process, 105 ; Bleaching, 109 ; 
 Yarn, 1C9 ; Cloth Bleaching, 110 
 
 Linen Cloth, Bleaching, 110 
 
 Linen Dyeing, 113; Black, 114; 
 Chrome Blacks, Sumach and Iron 
 Blacks, Bright Red, Greenish Mode, 
 115 ; Blueish Mode, Reddish Mode, 
 116 
 
 Linen Goods — Bright Red on, Green- 
 ish Mode on, 115; Blueish Mode 
 on, Reddish Mode on, 116 
 
 Linen Yarn, 109 ; Yellowish Ecru 
 on, 116 
 
 Machinery employed in Dyeing, 
 
 203 ; for Cotton. 203 ; for Cotton 
 
 Yarn, 215 ; for Cotton Cloth, 219 
 Madder, 154 
 
 Malachite Green in Wool, 139 
 Manilla Hemp, Black in, 117 
 Maroon, Alizarine, 177 
 Maroon in Wool, 139 
 Methyl Green in Wool, 139 
 Mordant for Dyeing in a Single Bath 
 
 with Dyewoods. 156 
 Mordanting and Dyeing in a Single 
 
 Bath, 171 
 Mordanting Cotton for Acid Coal 
 
 Tar Colours, 59 
 Mordanting Cotton for Basic Aniline 
 
 Dyestuffd, 57 
 Mordanting for Alizarine Colours in 
 
 Wool Dyeing, 168 
 Mordanting Wool and Wool Dyeing, 
 
 201 
 Mordants for Alizarine Colours in 
 
 Wool Dyeing, 169 
 Mordants for Indigo, 103 ; for Wool, 
 
 151 
 
 Naphthol Black, 181 ; Green, 182 
 Natural Organic Colouring Matters, 
 
 41 
 Natural Organic DyestufEs, Dyeing 
 
 Wool with, 147 
 Nicholson's Blues, 142 
 
 Obermeyer Mechanical Dyeing 
 Process, 136 
 
 Olive, Ceruleine. 83 
 
 Olive on Jute, 116 
 
 Olives on Cotton, 97 
 
 One Dip Dyes, 5 ; Blacks, 155 ; Fast 
 Blacks and Blues. Blueish Bottle 
 Green, 156; Light Green, Fast 
 Bronze, Black Dyeing, Yellows, 
 157 ; Yellow with Fustic, 158 
 
 Orange, Alizarine, 173 
 
 Orange, Ingrain, 188 
 
 Oranges, Azo, 70 
 
 Oranges, Series of Colours for, 187 
 
 Orchill, 190 
 
250 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Orgranic Colouring' Matters, Artificial, 
 36 ; Natural, 41 
 
 Pakaphenylbne Blue, 1 98 
 
 Parry's New Retting: Process, 105 
 
 Phenylendiamine, GG 
 
 Phosphine, G3 
 
 Potash Soap for Wool Scouring-, 184 ; 
 for Finishing Fine Goods for Mill- 
 ing Purposes, 185 
 
 Practical Processes, 45 ; Bleaching 
 Cotton, 45 ; Cotton Dyeing, 53 ; 
 Yarn Dyeing, 5G ; Dyeing and 
 Finishing Black Italian Cotton 
 Cloth, 86 
 
 Production of Aniline Oil and Salt, 
 195 
 
 Purple, Hessian, 76 
 
 Purples, Alizarine, 82 
 
 Ramie, 24, 200 
 
 Red. Alizarine, 79 ; Turkey, ?0 ; 
 
 Milling, 181, 183; Diamin, 181; 
 
 Neutral, 181 ; Ingrain, 188 
 Red, Bright, on Liui n Goods. 115 
 Red on Jute, 157; on Wool, 154 
 Reddish Mode on Linen Goods, 11 G 
 Reds, Acid, 141 ; Aniline, GO 
 Reds on Cotton, 9G 
 Reds, Series of Colours for, 187 
 Retting Process, Parry's New, 105 
 Rhea or Ramie, 24, 200 
 Rhodamine, 199 
 Rosazurine, 75 
 
 Salufer, the New Antiseptic, 190 
 
 Scarlet, New Dyestuflf, 182 
 
 Scarlets — Azo, 70 ; Acid, 141 
 
 Scouring Wool, 118 
 
 Series of Colours for Reds, Oranges, 
 and Yellows, 187; Ingrain Red, 
 Ingrain Orange, 188 
 
 Silk, 29, 159; Boiled off, 159; 
 Bleaching, 159 ; Souple, 159; Dye- 
 ing, IGO; Weighting. 164 
 
 Silk Dyeing, 160 ; with Coal Tar 
 Colours, IGO; Alizarine Colours, 
 IGl ; Dyewood Colours. 162 
 
 Smithson's Wool Dyeing Process, 125 
 
 Soap, Potash, 184 
 
 Soaps for Wool Scouring, Preparing, 
 184 
 
 Souple Silk, 159 
 
 btibine, 188; Black Mordant, No. 1, 
 189 ; Fast Yellow D, 182 
 
 Sumach, 115 
 
 Testing CoLOURiNa Matters by 
 Dyeing, 33 
 
 Testing Indigo. 104 
 Turkey Red, 80 
 
 Vegetable Fibres, 20 ; Cotton, 20 ; 
 
 Flax, 20 ; Hemp, 22 ; Jute, 22 ; 
 
 Ch'na Grass, Rhea, or Ramie, 24^ 
 
 200 
 Violets, Acid, 141 ; Aniline, 63 
 
 Washing Wool, 119 
 
 Weighting of Silk. 164 
 
 White on Juce, 112 
 
 Wool, 26 ; 118 
 
 Wool Mordanting and Dyeing, 201 
 
 Wool Scouring, 118 ; Washing, 119 ; 
 Bleaching. 122 ; Dyeing. 124 
 
 Wool Scouring. Preparing Soaps for,. 
 184 ; Potash Soap, 184 
 
 Wool Drying, Table Machine for, 
 223 
 
 Wool Dyeing, 124 : — Smithson's Pro- 
 cesses, 1 25 ; Obermeyer Mechanical 
 Procci^ses, 136; Yarn and Cloth 
 Dyeing. 138; Coal Tar Colours, 
 139; Basic Aniline Colours, 131); 
 Acid Dyestuffs. 140; Alkaline 
 Colours, 141 ; Alizarine Colours, 
 143 ; Natural Organic Dyestulfs, 
 147 ; One Dip Dyes, 154 ; Benzidine 
 Colours for. 196 
 
 Wool Dyeiug, Alizarine Colours in, 
 166 ; General Remarks on, 178 
 
 Wool, loose, Dyeing, 180 
 
 Woollen Goods, Blueing * after 
 Bleaching, 124 
 
 Yarn and Cloth Dyeing. Wool, 138 
 Yarn, Cotton, B'eaching, 47, 49 
 Yarn. Cotton, Dyeing. 56: — Fancy 
 Shades, 57 ; Mordanting for Basic 
 Aniline Dyestuffs, 57 ; for Acid 
 Coal Tar Colours, 59 ; Methods for 
 Coal Tar Colours, 59; Aniline 
 Colours of Basic Character, GO ; 
 Acid Coal Tar Colours, 67 ; The 
 Eosines, 68 ; The Azo Colours. 69 ; 
 Alizarine Colours, 78 ; Dyewood 
 Extract Colours, 84. 
 Yarn, Linen, Bleaching, 109 
 Yarn, Linen, Yellowish Ecru on. 1 1(> 
 Yellow, Brilliant. 73 ; Hessian, 73 
 Yellow, Fast. 189 
 Yellow, with Fustic. 158 
 Yellow Ecru on Linen Y''arn, 116 
 Yellows on Cotton, 95 ; One Dip, 
 
 157 
 Yellows, Series of Colours for, 187 
 
 Zinc, Vat, 100 
 
Price 15 - bound in Cloth, 
 
 AViTU NuJiEKous Illustrations and Mounted Samples. 
 
 THE PRINTING 
 
 COTTON FABRICS, 
 
 C03IP1;ISING 
 
 CALICO BLEACHING, PRINTING, AND DYEING, 
 
 ANTONIO SANSONE, 
 
 Leading Contributor to the Colourist Section of "Tiie Textile Manufacturer, 
 late Director of the School of Dyeing at the Manchester 
 Technical School. 
 
 MAXCHFSTER : 
 Abel Hetwood & t«o>-, 50 & 58, Olpuah Steeet. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SiMPKiN. Marshall, & Co., Stationei!s' Hall Court. 
 
 Hamilton, Adams, & Co., 32, Pateenostee Row. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " The present volume ought to be especially welcome to those eng-aged 
 in the trade as well as to students, the author having endeavoured to place 
 before his readers all the latest industrial methods and scientific discoveries, 
 while at the same time only such matter has been selected as might prove 
 to be of practical utility. The arrangement of the subjects is excellent, 
 the illustrations, which are for the most part full page engravings or 
 plates, are well executed, and the work is well got up. It forms a valu- 
 able addition to our English technical literature, and is to be highly re- 
 commended." — Journal of the Soviet ij of Dyers and Cohoiristx. 
 
 '• We consider it simply our duty to recommend this book very strongly. 
 Owners of printworks, managers, colourists, and technological students 
 will alike find it useful."' — Chemical llerieiv. 
 
 " Our opinion of the book is most emphatically favourable. It is both 
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 " Mr. Antonio Sansone, has neglectfd nothing to offer to the public a 
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 Paris. 
 
 "A fine work on Calico Printing. The work contains in a clearway 
 the principles of bleaching and printing, and will be very useful to many 
 of our readers who know English."— I-'aiherie-JUvster-Zeitung, Leipsig. 
 
 I 
 
ESTABLISHED 1820. 
 
 JOHN MARSHALL, SON & CO., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Cudbear, Orehill, Reiinel Inligo, 
 
 Carmine and Extract of Indigo, 
 
 Soluble Indixo, &c., &c. 
 
 DYEWOOD CUTTERS AND DRYSALTERS. 
 
 Samples and Prices on Application. 
 
 ■VitLXJiiBLaG T3ECBE1TICAL "VST O 3R Kl . 
 
 NOW READY. 
 
 CITIOI SPIillG MD 
 
 A Practical and Theoretical Treatise. 
 
 HERBERT EDWARD WALMSLEY. 
 
 Second Edition — Enlarged and Revised. 
 
 price 10/6 Clotb. 
 
 Abel Heywood axd Sox. 5tj and 5S, Oldham Stbeet. 
 Slmpkin. Marshall i; Co.. Stationee-;" Hall Cocet. 
 
E:st£t.l>lisl^ed 1835. 
 
 JACKSON &. BROTHER, 
 
 WHARF FOUNDRY, BOLTON, LANCASHIRE, 
 IRON & BRASS FOUNDERS. 
 
 ^fnlipv.i of all Jiinda of Blcaehhtri, Bycivg. and Finishing Machinery ; Singeing 
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 PATENT com 
 
 STEEL BOWLS. 
 
 made from specially 
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 J .A^CKSON AND 
 
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 supplied lar^e num- 
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 one the users have 
 invariably adopted 
 them tlirnug-hout 
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 throwing out new 
 bowls in some cases 
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 BRASS BOWLS. 
 
 Jackson and 
 Brother have, for 
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 special attention to 
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 Brass Bowls, and 
 have put down a 
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 jiortant machine 
 makers, as well as 
 users, with them. 
 They are made in 
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 suit dilferent pur- 
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 to withstand the 
 action of acids. 
 
 EMBOSSING 
 BOWLS. 
 
 In ordering these 
 bowls it is necessary 
 to state whether 
 they are required 
 hard, medium, or 
 soft; for t'ai)er Bowls 
 whether re(iiii red of 
 brown, bleached or 
 cotton paper, or else 
 to state what class 
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 intended for; and 
 for Cotton Bowls 
 whether theyarere- 
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 Jackson a n i> 
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 Bowls to the full ex- 
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 supply all kinds of 
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 f|uality. 
 
 PRESSES AND PUMPS. 
 
 Engines & Boilers 
 
 HYDRAULIC 
 
 IMPROVED FRICTION BOXES. , „ ,. 
 
 by which the lieaviest machinery can be thrown m and out of gear, either gradually or at 
 once, without noise or risk of damage. 
 
 Makers of all kinds of BLEACHERS' CALENDERS and FINISHERS' BOWLS. 
 
VIEXXA, 1S7.;. 
 
 MANCHESTER ANILINE Co. 
 
 (CHARLES TRUBY cS: Co), 
 
 MANUFACTURING CHEMISTS, 
 
 WORKS : CLIFTON JUNCTION, near MANCHESTER. 
 
 MANCHESTER 
 GLASGOW 
 BRADFORD 
 DUNDEE 
 
 ©ffices : 
 
 ... 55, Hig"h Street. 
 
 ... 136, Welling-ton Street. 
 
 ... 23, Bentley Street. 
 
 ... 41, Cowg-ate. 
 
 SPECIALITIES— ANILINE OIL AND ANILINE SALT CRYSTALS 
 FOR DYEING AND PRINTING BLACK. 
 
 Aniline Colours, Alizarine Oil (Oleine), Soluble Oil, Arseniate of 
 
 Soda. Binarseniate of Soda, 
 
 Nitric Acid, Muriatic Acid, and every finishing requisite 
 
 for Calico Printers, Finishers, and Sizers. 
 
 Samples Matched. Correspondence Invited. 
 
 £>vcvy> Cash bears cur 
 
 THE LION 
 
 IReoistercO CraDe/Dbark 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Special Arrangements viable with Aniline Dye Manufacturers for their 
 su_pj>lies of Aniline, Binitro Benzole, and Binitro Tuloul. 
 
WALPOLE DYE & CHEMICAL WORKS. 
 HENRY D. DUPEE, 
 
 PROPRIETOR, 
 
 44 & 46, OLIVER STREET, 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 E^^es anb Cbemtcale. 
 
 Special Dyes and Colours for Calico Printers, 
 AND Cotton, Wool, and Silk Manufacturers 
 AND Dyers. 
 
 Full Information witli Prints, and Dyed Samples on Application. 
 
 EXPORTER OF 
 
 American Dyewoods and Extracts, Logwood, Fustic, 
 Ouercitron Bark, Hemlock and Sumach. 
 
 Corre5pou^encc solicited witb Consumers oX tbe 
 
 above. 
 
W. G. THOMPSON & Co, 
 
 Aniline Dye Manufacturers, 
 
 5, Cooper Street, 
 
 ♦♦♦♦ MANCHESTER, 
 
 Works: Tonge Springs, MIDDLETON. 
 
 MAGENTAS, BLUES, GREENS, 
 VIOLETS, REDS, ORANGES, 
 
 YELLOWS, BROWNS, 
 
 And all the litest discoveries in ANILINE & RESORCINE DYES. 
 
 SPECIALITIES fof DYEfXil, PltlXTIXG, 
 PAPEIt-STAINiyO, .tr. 
 
 SAMPLES TESTED. 
 
 Iprice Xistt?, Saniplct*, anb 3ui5tructioni5 o\\ 
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THE IflTESTON^ I>AXENT 
 
 SELF-BALANCING 
 
 HYDRO - EXTRACTOR, 
 
 Pivot, or Under-driven Type, with Special High-speed Steam Engine. 
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 Suspended, or Over-driven Type with Special High-speed Steam Engine. 
 The engine is pardy enclosed in the swan-neck standard from which the 
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 the man working the machine, whilst the goods are entirely free from 
 risk of injury from oil or dirt. 
 
 ffullv? Bcscriptive Catalogues en application. 
 
 WATSON, LAIDLAW, & CO., 
 
 ENGINEERS, 
 
 KINCSXOW, Gl-ASGOW. 
 
 Poreign Representatives ;— GEO. THOMAS & CO., MANCHESTER. 
 
THE IflTESTON I>JLTENT 
 
 SELF-BALANCING 
 
 HYDRO -EXTRACTOR. 
 
 Pivot, or Under-driven Type, with Patent Automatic Friction Drive. 
 Recommended for Dyeing and Cleaning Works and similar ebtablishments. 
 
 Suspended, or Over-driven Type, with Patent Automatic Friction Driver. 
 Suitable for every Textile purpose, particularly for heavy goods. Can be 
 arranged to hang from beam overhead so as to give absolutely clear space 
 ail round machine. 
 
 3Fulls Descriptive Catalogues on Zlpplication. 
 
 WATSON, LAIDLAW, & CO., 
 
 ENGINEERS, 
 
 KIWGSXOIM5 Gl-ASGOW. 
 
 Toreign Kepresentatives:-GEO. THOMAS & CO., MANCHESTEB 
 
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TEXTILE COLORIST. 
 
 A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO 
 
 PRACTICAL DYEING, BLEACHING, PRINTING, & FINISHING, 
 
 Dyes, Dye Stuffs, and Chemicals as Applied to Dyeing, 
 
 Textile Machinery, Carding", Spinning", Weaving", 
 
 Designing and Improved Processes in Textile 
 
 Manufacturing. 
 
 lEstabl^sbc^, 3anuaiY!, 1879. 
 
 Published on the 15th of each month, at 506, Arch Street, Philadelphia, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 THE CHEMICAL REVIEW. 
 
 A TRADE JOURNAL 
 
 For Manufacturing Chemists, Drysalters, Dyers, Calico Printers, 
 Bleachers, Sizers, Paper Makers, &c. 
 
 Furnival Street, Holborn, LONDON, B.C. 
 
 This Review (established in 1871) has ever since its first appearance 
 been recognised as the Organ of the Dyeing, Tissue-Printing, Colour- 
 Making, and kindred arts in the United Kingdom and the Colonies, and 
 as a representative of Chemical Manufactures and Trades. As such it is 
 widely read throughout Europe, America, and wherever industrial 
 Chemistry exists. 
 
 It supplies the fullest information on all new inventions and improve- 
 ments connected with the Chemical Arts and Manufactures, and keeps its 
 readers aware of what is being done by their rivals and competitors 
 abroad. 
 
 Jt is not the proper tt/ of, nor is it any ovay tvliatever connected, either 
 directly or indirectly, with any firm of Mamifacturing Chemists, or 
 Dyers, etc. 
 
 THE REVIEW is forwarded to subscribers within the United Kinp;dom and most 
 parts abroad, for Ten Shillings per annum Post Free. To India, China. Australia, 
 etc., and Countries not in the Postal Union, for Twelve SniLLiNTiS a Year, also 
 including Postage. All communications should be addressed, and remittances made 
 payable to Mr. John Walsh, 5r, Furnival Street, Holborn, London, England. 
 
Established 1866. 
 
 Greenbank Alkali Works Company, 
 
 ST. HELENS, LANCASHIRE. 
 
 Powdered 98 percent. Caustic Soda, 
 
 Pure Caustic Potash, 
 
 Refined Carbonate of Potash, 
 
 Chlorate of Potash, 
 
 Chloride of Lime, or Bleaching 
 
 Powder of Extra Strength, 
 
 Pure Hydrate of Alumina, and 
 Aluminate of Soda, 
 
 SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR DYERS' USE. 
 
 Put up in all sized packages to suit all consumers, large or small. 
 Also specially packed for export. 
 
 Correspondence solicited — Practical in- 
 formation given as to the use of any of our 
 specialities. 
 
 Can refer to many of the largest "Woollen 
 Manufacturers, Dyers, Bleachers and Calico 
 Printers who are regularly using our Articles. 
 
GOPDGTIOH OF BLL PPIjlES 
 
 Gold Medal, Vienna, 1873 
 
 ,, „ Paris, 1878. 
 
 Diplome of Honour, Rouen, 1884. 
 
 BLEACHING, DYEING, 
 
 FINISHING, 
 
 PRINTING OF ALL KINDS 
 
 OF FABRICS. 
 
 SINGEING MACHINES. HYDRO-EXTRACTORS. 
 
 STENTERING FRAMES. FINISHING MACHINES. 
 
 CALENDERS. 
 
 FERNAND DEHAITRE, 
 
 (Late Picrroii & Fd. Deliaitrc,) 
 ENGINEERS' ^^ IVTACHINIST, 
 
 6, Rue d'Oran, PARIS, formerly 19, Rue DoudeYille. 
 
 SPECIAL PLANT FOR 
 
 TreatingWool.Cottoii, Silk, and 
 Mixed Goods. 
 
 Velvets and Peluclies, 
 
 Linen Cloth, Jute, etc. 
 
 For handling Yarns. 
 
 Garment Dyers, and for the Dry 
 Cleaning by means of 
 Benzine. 
 
 Mechanical Laundries. 
 
 Manufactures of Oil-Cloths, Lin- 
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 MOTIVE POWER. TRANSMISSIONS. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. 
 
 STUDIES. PROJECTS. 
 
 COMPLETE INSTALLATION OF WORKS. 
 
A. LEONHARDT & C9. 
 
 MUHLHEIM IN HESSEN, 
 
 Near FRANKFORT °/M., 
 
 CSERM AN Y. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF 
 
 A]^ILIKE DYES 
 
 FOB 
 
 PRINTING AND DYEING. 
 
 HESSIAN PURPLE 
 HESSIAN YELLOW 
 BRILLIANT YELLOW 
 VICTORIA YELLOW 
 
 DYEING COTTON FAST 
 
 WITHOZT 
 JIOJRDAXT, 
 
 mmmtiim (agid^^yelloiy) 
 
 For Dyeing and Printing Wool, fast to 
 
 light and fulling, does not bleed when 
 
 steamed or fulled. 
 
Engineers, contractors, & exporters of 
 
 all classes of MACHINERY for SPINNING and 
 WEAVING Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Shoddy, 
 Flax, Hemp, Jute, Silk Waste, &c. 
 BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, 
 FINISHING, and their accessories. 
 
 PLAIN and ENGRAVED COPPER 
 ROLLERS, METALS, Chemical Products, 
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 NISHERS, MILL GEARING, SHAFT- 
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 BOILERS, ECONOMISERS, &c. //<.^ 
 TOOLS, ROLLING MILLS, WOOD ^"^ ' 
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 ^V 
 
 Oy 
 
 >2 
 
 G. T. & Co. Supply and Contract 
 for the fitting up and setting A. 
 to worii of any description of 
 Plant for 
 
 TEXTILE 
 
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 ADDRESS •— 
 
 'SA'/IOHT.^Manchester 
 
 SOLE AGENTS 
 FOR 
 
 DOBSON&B'RLOWVS C Sweden. 
 BOL TON, I'S. J Norway, 
 Cotton Spinning [^ \ and 
 
 Machinery. ) h ( Denmark. 
 
 JOSEPH SYKES BROS., ) ,S ( Continent 
 LINDLEY, >;;:-! (except 
 
 Card Clothing. ) |( Russia). 
 
 /"Alsace and the 
 HUDSWELL, CLARKE S, CO , LEEDS, ! Vosges. 
 
 Rodger's Pat. Wrot. I. Pulleys \ g^itz'^erland * 
 HOLDEN & BROOKE, SALFORD, / 
 
 " Influx' & "Exhaust" Injectors, t ^"'"°P^- 
 
 BLACKWIAN AIR PROPELLER f Sweden, Alsace 
 VENTILATING CO., LTD. '* N"i-«-:«y, Switzerland. 
 
 >^>. 
 
 STAUB'S PATENT UNIVERSAL YARN-ASSORTING BALANCE. 
 
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 <o 
 
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 -British and Foreign Patent Agents. - 
 
 N.B.-HOME DEPARTMENT: 
 
 PATENT AMERICAN & OTHER COTTON & HAIR BELTING 
 
 90 per cent, stronger than Leather. 
 SAMPLES. PRICES. AND ALL INFORMATION ON APPLICATION. 
 
ESTABLISHED 1837. 
 
 C. G. HAUBOLD, Jim.. Chemnitz, Saxony, 
 
 Recommends his 
 
 PATENT ROLL CALEXDERS, with 
 
 2 — 12 rolls to S meter breadth. 
 CALENDERS FOR GOODS, with 7 rolls, 
 with hydraulic pressure, to produce 
 silky lustre on printed cotton goods. 
 SIMPLE FRICTION CALENDERS, with 
 
 2—4 rolls (Patent). 
 DOUBLE FRICTION CALENDERS, 
 to glaze either one piece in one passing 
 on both sifies. or two pieces on one side. 
 
 UNIVERSAL MANGLE CALENDERS, 
 with 4 and 5 rolls. These are applicable 
 to Roll Friction Calenders as well as to 
 Mangles. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MANGLES of newest con- 
 structii n, a compensation of Chest 
 Mangles. 
 
 GOUFFRIZ CALENDERS, or EMBOS- 
 SING CALENDERS, with 2 and 3 rolls, 
 to impress patterns in cloths, as Moiree, 
 &c. 
 
 WATER CALENDERS, with 3 to 8 rolls, 
 with rolls in wood, cotton and cocoa. 
 
 STAMPING CALENDERS, with simple 
 iron stamping rows. 
 
 CHILLED-IRON ROLLS of hardest 
 quality, solid or hollow, to heat by 
 vapour or gas, superfine polished. 
 
 STEEL ROLLS, hollow and solid, fine 
 polished. 
 
 LATTEN ROLLS, hollow or with iron 
 corf. 
 
 ROLLS in Cloth, Felt, Cotton, or Paper. 
 
 The Manufacturer constructs Calenders of 
 every kind, as specified for many years. 
 
 These Calenders have been working for 
 more than 40 years, with the first Paper 
 Rolls, without requiring repairs. To 
 construct these Calenders there is a 
 special manufactory of 48,000 square feet, 
 aud furnished ivith the best machine- 
 tools, among which are also four polish- 
 ing machines, to polish the rolls 
 mathematically exact. To construct the 
 Paper, Cotton, and Cocoa Rolls, there 
 are erected four hydraulic presses, among 
 which is one that works with a pressui'e 
 of 6,000,000 lbs. The rolls constructed 
 thereupon have proved themselves ex- 
 cellent in practice, and give the best 
 result till now attained. 
 
 Complete arrangements for Turkey-Red 
 Yarn Dyeings, as well by the old as by 
 the new method. He recommends 
 especially his Entering Machines, of 
 which 200 are in use. New Hydro- 
 Extractors, constructed especially for 
 Turkey-Red, to throw out a quantity 
 absolutely equal to the mordant. Dye- 
 ing Machines, &c. 
 
 Hydro - Extractors, which require no 
 foundation, and which can be placed in 
 the sixth story, w.thout causing the 
 least vibration, and executed for the 
 highest drying effect. There are over 
 1,500 in use. 
 
 Machines to size and impregnate the yams 
 in single pounds, which work quite self- 
 acting. The machine is speciall.v 
 qualified for yarns which are to be im- 
 pregnated as much as possible with size. 
 
 Moreover, the Manufacturer builds on the most improved construction : — 
 
 WASHING MACHINES, to wash textures 
 in full breadth or in hank form. 
 
 SIZING AND GUMMING MACHINES, 
 
 FINISHING DRUMS, with or without 
 cloth. 
 
 STEAM PRODUCER. 
 
 BENZINE WASHING WHEELS. 
 
 UNIVERSAL YARN ENTERING and 
 
 WRING MACHINES (Patent) 
 YARN WASHING MACHINES 
 YARN RINSING MACHINES. 
 YARN WRING MACHINES. 
 YARN BRUSH SIZING MACHINES. 
 YARN DRYING MACHINES 
 CYLINDER DRYING MA.CHINES 
 
 (Patent) 
 UNIVERSAL BREADTH WASHING 
 
 MACHINES 
 JIGGERS (Dveing Machines). 
 GIG MACHINES 
 BEAT AND BRUSH LOOMS; BEAMING 
 
 LOOMS. 
 FOLDING MACHINES : LUSTRE 
 
 MACHINES. 
 YARN SQUEEZING MACHINES. 
 
 YARN PRESSES, for packing short and 
 
 long at the same time. 
 YARN STRETCHING AND LUSTRE 
 
 MACHINES, working horizontally and 
 
 vertically. 
 YARN MANGLES of newest construction, 
 
 to soften yarns, or to lustre and glaze 
 
 crape. &c. 
 PADDING MACHINES. 
 GAS SINGEING MACHINES. 
 MOISTENING MACHINES, of newest 
 
 construction. 
 INJECT MACHINES, with Ventilator or 
 
 Brushes. 
 SOAPING OR PLANING MACHINES. 
 
 YARN SQUEEZING AND STRETCH- 
 ING MACHINES. 
 
 YARN BATTING, WASHING, AND 
 CLEANING MACHINES, for Silk. 
 
 INDIGO MILLS AND COCHINEAL 
 MILLS. 
 
 DYEWOOD BOILERS SUMACH AND 
 BOILERS. 
 
 RASPING MILLS. 
 
 VACUUM BLEACHING APPARATUS. 
 
 ALL FURTHER PARTICULARS ON" APPLICATION. 
 
BRYCE & RDMPF, 
 
 18 & 20, BOOTH-ST., MQSLEY-ST., 
 
 MANCHESTER ; 
 
 ALSO AT 
 
 Sole Agekts for 
 
 THE> FARBENFABRIKEN, 
 
 Formerly Friedr Bayer & Co., 
 
 Specialities : 
 
 Benzopurpurines, Congo Reds, Azo Blue, Benzo- 
 azurines, Rose Azurines, Chrysamine, Soluble Cotton 
 and Spirit Blues, Methyl, Malachite, Acid and Brilliant 
 Greens, Methyl and Acid Violets, Croceine Scarlets, 
 Ponceau Yellow, Orange, Bismark and Acid Brown, 
 Nig'rosine, Saffranine, Eosine, Crimson, Magenta, 
 Indigcen, &.C., Alizarine Red, Alizarine Orange, Alizarine 
 Slue, Alizarine Powder. 
 
 Aniline Salts, Oleine, Leads, Acids, Chronne Alum, 
 Sulphate of Alumina, Prussiate of Potash, Prussiate 
 of Soda, Tartar Emetic, Albumen, Ultramarines and 
 Chemicals of all kinds for Printers. 
 
Ik CHITON ANILINE Co,, Limited, 
 
 CHARLES DREYFUS, Managing Director. 
 GENERAL OFFICES AND WORKS: 
 
 CLAYTON, NEAR MANCHESTER. 
 
 TOWN OFFICE: 
 
 111, PORTLAND-ST., MANCHESTER. 
 
 /IDanufacturers ot 
 
 PURE BENZOLE, TOLUOLE, XYLOLE, SOLVENT NAPHTHA, 
 
 BURNING NAPHTHA, NITRO BENZOLE, 
 
 NITRO TOLUOLE, NITRO XYLOLE, BINITRO BENZOLE, 
 
 BINITRO TOLUOLE, ESSENCE OF MIRBANE. 
 
 PURE ANILINE, TOLUIDINE, XYLIDINE. 
 
 J^LNILINE FOR BLACK:, 
 
 Specially prepared for Dyeing and Printing. 
 
 ANILINE SALT 
 
 IN CRYSTALS AND IN POWDER. 
 
 BASIC ANILINE SALT. 
 
 CHLORATE OF SODA, CHLORATE OF BARIUM, 
 
 SULPHOCYANIDES OF POTASH, BARIUM AND ALUMINA, 
 
 TARTAR EMETIC, TANNIC ACID, &c. 
 
 SPECIALITIES ^°^ CaLICO^^PR.NTERS AND 
 
 ANILINE COLOURS -%^-- 3, .c. 
 
 Samples scut on application anD matcbeZ). 
 
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