College This book was presented 511145 A45 56226 This BOOK may be kept out TWO WEEKS ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FIVE CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on the day indicated below: r- — ■'* NOV 3 li62 988 Commission of Conservation Constituted under " The Conservation Act," S-Q Edward VII., Chap. 37, igoQ, and amending Acts, g-io Edward VII, Chap. 42, iQio, and 3-4 George V., Chap. 12, 1913. Chairman : Hon. Clifford Sifton Members: Hon. AuBiN E. Arsenault, Summerside, P.E.I. Dr. Howard Murray, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. Dr. Cecil C. Jones, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Fred- ericton, N.B. Mr. William B. Snowball, Chatham, N.B. Hon. Henri S. Bbland, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. MoNSEiGNEUR Charles P. Choquette, St. Hyacinthe, Que., Superior, Seminary of St. Hyacinthe and Member of Faculty, Laval University Mr. Edward Gohier, St. Laurent, Que. Dr. James W. Robertson, C.M.G., Chairman, Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Sandford Fleming, K.C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont., Chancellor, Queen's University Hon. Senator William Cameron Edwards, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Edmund B. Osler, M.P., Governor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Mr. Charles A. McCool, Ottawa, Ont. Mr. John F. Mackay, Business Manager, "The Globe," Toronto, Ont. Dr. Bernard E. Fernow, Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Dr. George Bryce, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man. Dr. William J. Rutherford, Member of Faculty, University of Saskat- chewan, Saskatoon, Sask. Dr. Henry M. Tory, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. Mr. John Hendry, Vancouver, B.C. Members, ex-oflBlcio: Hon. Martin Burrell, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa Hon. William J. Roche, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa Hon. Louis Coderre, Minister of Mines, Ottawa Hon. John A. Mathieson, K.C, President, Premier and Attorney- General, Prince Edward Island Hon. Orlando T. Daniels, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia Hon. James K. Flemming, Premier and Surveyor-General, New Bruns- wick Hon. Jin.ES Allard, Minister of Lands and Forests, Que. Hon. William Hearst, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario Hon. James H. Howden, Attorney-General, Manitoba Hon. James A. Calder, Minister of Railways, Telegraphs and Telephones, Saskatchewan Hon. Arthur L. Sifton, Premier, Minister of Railways and Telephones, Alberta Hon. William R. Ross, Minister of Lands, British Columbia Assistant to Chairman and Deputy Head : Mr. James White Commission of Conservation CANADA COMMITTEE ON FORESTS ^ TRENT WATERSHED SURVEY A RECONNAISSANCE By C. D. HOWE. Ph.D.. AND J. H. WHITE. B.A.. B.Sc.F. With AN INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION By B. E. FERNOW. LLD. Printed by THE BRYANT PRESS Toronto 1913 Committee on Forests Chairman : Senator W. C. Edwards Members : Dr. B. E. Fernow Mr. John Hendry Hon. William J. Roche Mr. W. B. Snowball and the Ex-oflficio Members of the Commission who represent the var- ious provinces. To Field Marshal His Royal Highness Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught and of Strathearn, K.G., K.T., K.P., etc., etc., Governor-General of Canada. May it Please Your Royal Highness : The undersigned has the honour to lay before Your Royal Highness the attached report on the "Trent Watershed Survey," which was prepared for the Commission of Conservation by B. E. Femow, LL.D., C. D. Howe, Ph.D., and J. H. White, B.A., B.Sc.F. Respectfully submitted CLIFFORD SIFTON Chairman Ottawa, August g, 19 13 56226 Ottawa, Canada, August 7, 19 13 Sir : I beg to submit the attached report on the "Trent Watershed Survey," by B. E. Femow, LL.D., C. D. Howe, Ph.D., and J. H. White, B.A., B.Sc.F. It contains the account of a reconnaissance carried on by Dr. C. D. Howe and Mr. J. H. White, prefaced with an introductory discussion of the subject by Dr. Femow. Respectfully submitted JAMES WHITE Assistant to Chairman Hon. Clifford Sifton Chairman Commission of Conservation Ottawa CONTENTS I. Conditions in the Trent Watershed and Recommendations FOR their Improvement. A Discussion by B. E. Fernow, LL.D. PAGE Introduction 1 Reasons for the Survey 2 Value of the Canal 2 Forest and Waterflow 3 Causes op Deterioration 4 Procedure of the Survey 6 History op the Region 7 Results op the Survey 10 Farming Conditions 11 Forest Conditions 11 Ownership Conditions 14 Industrial Development 14 Mining Industry 15 Tourist Traffic 15 Recommendations 15 Municipal Ownership 16 Government Ownership 18 Classification of Lands 21 Summary of Assessors' Returns 29 Addenda : Forest Fires of 1913 31 11. Physiographic and Forest Conditions, by C. D. Howe, Ph.D. Drainage, Topography, Geology and Soils 35 Drainage 35 Topography 37 Geology 37 Soils 38 Condition of the Various Forest Types 39 In General 39 Hardwood Type 41 Mixed Type 47 Coniferous Type 50 Poplar-Birch Type 51 Tudor Township 52 Limerick and Cashel Townships 53 Chandos Township 55 Anstruther Township 56 Burleigh Township 56 Harvey Township 58 Galway Township 58 Cavendish Township 58 Lutterworth Township 58 Methuen Township 58 CONTENT S— Continued PAGE Financial Losses by Forest Fires 60 Fire Protection 64 Brief Description of Conditions by Townships 68 Hastings County : Marmora Township 68 Lake Township 69 Tudor Township 70 Limerick Township 71 Cashel Township 72 Wollaston Township 73 Faraday Township 74 Peterborough County : Chandos Township 74 Methuen Township 7.5 Burleigh Township 76 Anstruther Township 77 Cavendish Township 78 Gal WAY Township 79 Harvey Township 80 Victoria County : Somerville Township 81 Haliburton County : Cardiff Township 81 Monmouth Township 83 Glamorgan Township 83 Lutterworth Township 84 Snowdon Township 85 Minden Township 85 Dysart Township 86 Dudley Township 87 Guilford Township 87 Stanhope Township 88 Anson and Hindon Townships 89 Harburn Township 89 Sherborne, Havelock and Eyre Townships 89 III. Economic and Industrial Conditions, by James H. White, M.A., B.Sc.F. Farming Conditions 91 Details of Farm Distribution 92 Hastings County 92 Peterborough County 92 Haliburton County 93 Farming Methods 93 Abandoned Farms 94 Social Conditions 97 Early Advice 97 Lumbering Conditions 98 Tourist Traffic Conditions 101 Ownership Conditions 101 CONTENT S— Continued IV. Appendices. PAGE I. Notes on the Lumbering Industry in the Trent Watershed 103 II. Physical Features of the Area 108 III. Geology of the Area 114 IV. MiNER.AL Occurrences in the Area included in the Trent Watershed Map 115 V. Extracts from Letters of Township Clerks and Reeves to the Dominion Forestry Branch regarding Con- ditions in the Trent Watershed and Neighbour- ing Counties 120 V. Index 135 ILLUSTRATIONS I. Former Pineries Frontispiece II. Water Storage Basin Surrounded by an Old Burn 3 One of the Numerous Undeveloped Water Powers 3 III. A Natural Barren 5 A Man-made Barren 5 IV. Prospective Farm 11 Abandoned Farm 11 V. Abandoned Farm Still used for Pasture 38 Bank Showing Cross-Section of Sub-Soil 38 VI. Two Examples of Maple Forests 41 VII. Mixed Type — Birch and Pine, on Thin Granitic Soil 47 Similar Type Which Has Suffered Successive Fires 47 VIII. Two Types of Reproduction after Fire 51 IX. Seed Trees Left after Cutting ; Reproduction of Pine in Com- mercial Quantities 60 X. Former Pineries : Insufficient Seed Trees Left to Re-Establish Crop on Commercial Basis 63 XI. Cutting in Hardwood Forest : Little Danger of Fire 67 Cutting in Pine Forest : Much Inflammable Material on Ground 67 XII. Balsam-Cedar Swamp : Common Type in Northern Tier of Town- ships 89 Natural Meadow between Granitic Ridges 89 XIII. Sample of Tillable Soil to be Found on Upland Granitic Areas ... 92 Farm on a Glacial Moraine 92 XIV. Field Strewn with Limestone Boulders : Good Pasturage between Them 95 Poor Pasturage 95 XV. Typical Upland Farm 97 Better Type of Fakming Country : Gull River Valley Near Min- den 97 XVI. White Pine Log Cut 23 Years Ago and Left as Defective Accord- ing to Standards of that Time 99 The Present Harvest 99 MAPS I. Forest Fires, 1913 32 II. Forest Distribution in Trent Watershed In pocket III. Crown Timber'Lands In pocket i 1 ^ j 1 1 Z"- ""^ «■ \ fcflli^k: * I ^J^^^^^^^ J ^ rm pMi ^fll^^ W^¥^ Mei'gHi,*^ n FORMER PINERIES These areas once supported sixty merchantable trees per acre. Now no seed trees remain to re-establish another pinery. 150,000 acres in this condition in the Trent Watershed Trent Watershed Survey I Conditions in the Trent Watershed Introduction THE following report on the conditions of a section of a once rich forest area in Old Ontario, will serve to exhibit in a precise and detailed manner the consequences of mis- management under the old system of timber licenses, con- sequences which afford a warning against a continuance of that system. The report is also intended to suggest possible methods of recovery. Furthermore, an area has been considered in which the conditions are typical of those in thousands of square miles of cut-over lands in the eastern provinces of Canada. In the autumn of 191 1, Mr. John H. Biimham, M.P., invited the writer to look over a portion of the watershed of the Trent canal, situated in Hastings, Peterborough, Haliburton and Victoria counties, Ontario, in company with the Superintendent of the Canal, with a view to formulating suggestions for taking care of the forest cover. It appeared that the Dominion Government had spent some ten million dollars on this canal and watershed, building dams at some 40 lakes to regulate the waterflow, although control of the watersheds, from which this flow derives its source, had not been secured by the govern- ment. The slopes, once, for the most part, covered with valuable pine and hardwood forest, had been cut over. A large area, the pinery in partictdar, had been repeatedly subjected to fires and rendered liable to eventual total destruction, especially since the commercial interest in the lands had to a large extent disappeared, through the removal of the merchantable pine timber. A short inspection trip made it clear that these conditions pre- sented a problem of peculiar and particular interest ; one of sufficient size and importance to call for carefiil analysis and consideration ; a problem meriting the development of some plan for its solution. The proposition to make a detailed reconnaissance and description of the area as a basis for recommendations, appealed to the Chairman of the Commission of Conservation, the Honourable Mr. Sifton. As the timber had been nearly cut out, the Provincial Government was only receiving a trifling revenue from this portion of the coimtry ; on the other hand, the interest of the Dominion, on account of the capital in- Library N. C, State Ccilos^f^ 2 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION vested in the canal, was considerable. It was, therefore, decided to make a survey of the entire watershed north of the Kawartha lakes, or of at least as much as could be done in one season. By carefid planning and diligent application, on the part of the field party, it was possible to accomplish the necessary field work for all of the water- shed covered by this report, consisting of 2,100 square miles, during the summer of 191 2, although the travel by foot in connection with the survey amounted to not less than 4200 miles. The writer was charged with organizing the survey and laying out the plans of procedure. The party, consisting of Dr. CD. Howe and Mr. J. H. White, both of the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, and three student assistants, Messrs. Christie, McVickar and Watt, started in May, 19 12, and, by the middle of September, the survey in the field was finished. Reasons for the Survey It may be desirable at the outset to enlarge somewhat on the reasons for selecting this particular area and to indicate what par- ticular interest attaches to it. As stated, this area is illustrative of conditions prevailing over a very large territory of mismanaged lands, for which it is desirable to formulate a policy of reconstruction and recuperation. In addition to this, however, the fact that the water- way and waterpowers developed in the Trent canal draw their supjjly from this watershed lends more significance to this territory than to others. Value of the Canal — The Trent Canal project has been a subject of public criticism and often of ridicule, ever since it was conceived, 85 years ago. The criticism and ridicule are not, however, deserved by the original project but only by the irrational, slow manner in which it was executed. The canal project, in fact, has been sub jected to precisely the same kind of mismanagement as the territory through which it passes. The chief value of a canal lies in connecting markets and resources, and, therefore, depends mainly on its outlets. The first outlet of the canal, the one into lake Ontario, is now, after nearly a century of dilatory work, being completed ; the other, which affords access to Georgian bay, stiU hangs fire. So long as the out- lets to larger markets or for through-trafiic were lacking, only a very limited local traffic could develop. Since the canal does not pass through agricultural coimtry, and, since the principal resource of the region it serves was timber — a staple which needs more than local markets for a profitable and rational development — the value of the incomplete canal was limited indeed. Since this outlet was unavailable, the timber, owing to the expense of transportation to market, was cut in a more or less wasteful manner. As a result, the government derived WATER STORAGE BASIN SURROUNDED BY AN OLD BURN ONE OF THE NUMEROUS UNDEVELOPED WATER-POWERS REASONS FOR THE SURVEY 3 scarcely any profit from this industry, and the returns to the lumber- men were also relatively small. If the cheap transportation which a canal furnishes had been in existence earlier, much more conservative logging operations could have been carried on ; much closer utilization of material could have been made by mills situated along the route ; much more profit could have been secured from this resource by both operators and the people, and, moreover, the source could have been managed for perpetuity, as a basis for manufacturing industries. As it is, the principal local freight, that from the timber-lands, is almost exhausted, and a large part of the usefulness of the canal has gone, at least in so far as local development is concerned. Outside of the water-power which it supplies, through traffic, which may follow upon the completion of the two outlets, can alone justify its existence for the present ; unless by careful planning and management a revival of the industrial activity, to which, at one time, the lumberman gave rise, can be seciired. Forest and Waterflow — Meanwhile, another important factor in the problem, which is closely connected with the timber question, has been entirely lost sight of, namely, the securing of adequate water supplies for canal and power purposes by the conservation of a forest cover on the watersheds. Indeed, this factor, the conservation of water supplies, is one of paramount importance to the canal. What- ever may be said regarding the influence of deforestation on climate, an influence which, it must be admitted, is only imperfectly under- stood, there can be no question as to the influence on waterflow which a forest cover exercises. That such a cover prevents extremes of low- water and high-water stages, and generally regulates and equalizes waterflow, has been proved both by experience and experiment in all parts of the world. The effect of this influence can be readily explained if it is assumed to act under extreme conditions. Consider a watershed with bare, rocky slopes. It is obvious that the water precipitation on it will run off as fast as it falls ; that the water stages in the river will be as erratic and fitful as the rainfall ; and that low-water and high-water stages will alternate in conjunction with dry and wet periods. Now, consider the rock covered not only with soil and vegetation, but also with a dense forest growth, and then compare this condition of the watershed with the one previously mentioned. The rapid run- off is prevented by percolation ; the surface drainage is largely changed into subdrainage ; the river is to some extent fed by springs instead of surface flow ; the time during which the waters reach the river is length- ened ; and the flow becomes more even. Although in the case of un- usual rains and precipitous slopes even the forest cover may not prevent 4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION floods ; yet they certainly will not be as frequent nor as severe as if the impediments to rapid surface drainage were absent. The soil, the litter, the moss and small vegetation, all contribute towards the for- mation of a water reservoir from which supplies gradually reach the river. Between these assumed extremes of unfavourable and favourable conditions there exist all the intermediate conditions of surface cover, with corresponding efficiencies in changing surface drainage to sub- drainage : the barren soil covering the rocky slope, the bare pasture of grass and weed growi:h, the ploughed field, the farm crop, the shrub growth and slash, the young forest growth, the old stand of timber, virgin or culled, and more or less dense, — these conditions in infinite variation, vary also in effectiveness as to control of run-off in the sequence given above. There is one other influence of the forest cover, even of the poor stands, in regulating waterflow, which other vegetable cover or surface conditions only possess in a smaller degree. Water, as it runs over the slope, is apt either to dissolve soil particles or to carry them in sus- pension, thus eroding the soil, filling the river bed with sediment and decreasing the capacity of the channel. Even a grassy slope is not as efficiently protected against this erosion as a tree-clad one. Engineers have sometimes thought that dams alone may effect the satisfactory regulation of the waterflow, but the wiser ones have recognized that, for the best service, dams need to be supplemented by a forest cover such as a watershed furnishes. Especially for city water supplies the practice of forestation of the watersheds has now been generally recognised as essential, mainly for the reason that erosion and the filling up of water reservoirs is thereby prevented. These ex- planations of the importance of the forest influence may perhaps serve to show the bearing of this survey on the Trent canal. Causes of Deterioration — At the present time, the pine timber, at least, is practically gone from this watershed. A forest cover still exists, but, with the present commercial value almost entirely extracted, interest in its condition is gone ; fires have swept through it repeatedly, each time causing further deterioration of the forest cover, until, finally, the bare rock condition or man-made desert is the result. At present only beginnings of these conditions can be seen here and there, yet in the three townships of Methuen, Anstruther and Burleigh alone, nearly 150,000 acres of such desert exist. And, if the present policy of indifference and neglect continues, what might have been a continuous source of wealth will become not only a useless waste, but, through the changes which the water conditions will undergo, may also prove a menace to industries which have been developed to utilize the water- powers of this watershed. Commission of Cons NATURE NEVER MADE A COMMERCIAL FOREST HERE, ~A NATURAL BARREN NATURE HAD MADE A COMMERCIAL FOREST HERE, A MAN-MADE BARREN REASONS FOR THE SURVEY The region tinder consideration lies on Archsean rock, planed by- glacial action, and not easily disintegrated ; it is covered with only a thin soil which is easily washed into the streams, and, hence, the danger of turning it into an irredeemable waste is much more imminent than it would be in many other localities. The effect of repeated fires, such as still occur quite generally, on the future of the forest cover can be studied in this region with con- siderable precision, and this has been done in a most painstaking man- ner by Dr. Howe. The financial aspect of this question of fire loss would alone justify this inquiry. If the reader will turn to page 60 and the following pages, where this aspect of the situation is dis- cussed, he will be enabled to realize that this is more than an academic problem. Here is a sample area of thousands of square miles in other parts of the Eastern provinces, and the conditions in this watershed are by no means extraordinary. They repeat themselves wherever axe and fire have been permitted to destroy the original growth in the Archaean rock cotmtry, that is to say, wherever lumbering under the license system has been permitted, without safeguarding the property as a producer. The sequence of this mismanagement is everywhere the same. The removal either of the best or of all timber, without disposing of the debris, leaves a slash which is invariably subject to fire ; after this, a loss of interest takes place on the part of the licensee and, what is still worse, on the part of the government. Nature then attempts to reproduce the forest and this is followed by a repetition of the fires, which kill the seed trees and seedlings of the better kinds. The groimd is then re-covered by aspen and birch for a time ; but, through repeated conflagrations, it is finally rendered useless for any productive purpose. A similar sequence takes place in connection with the small-farm portions : at first, through the home market made by the lumbermen, a fair living may be made by the occupant ; gradually this market vanishes and the soil becomes worked out ; the surface wears away, the rocks are exposed, and the people are left destitute and miserable. There is still another reason for the prosecution of the survey and that lies in the fact that a portion of the population of this region occupies farms unfit for sustaining civilized conditions. Not only have many farms been abandoned by the removal of their occupants to more hopeful conditions, but a considerable niunber that ought to be abandoned remain occupied by those who lack the means and energy to move, thus forming a poverty-stricken commvmity. A far-reaching poUcy for the management of this region must include a plan for the removal of this degenerating population. 6 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The problem presented by this region reqmres the formiilation of a broad and far-reaching scheme of development and recuperation. The water-flow should be safe-guarded, and industries should be de- veloped to utilize such small resources as are left, and to contribute freight to the canal, thus assuring a better future for this area than can be anticipated under the present policy of indifference and neglect. Procedure of the Survey Preliminary to going into the field a correspondence was carried on with the reeves and township clerks of the counties involved, in order to obtain their co-operation. Letters were also exchanged with the Dominion Forestry Branch and the Provincial Department of Lands, with a view to securing the data which they subsequently were kind enough to supply. Plans of the townships on a scale of one half mile to one inch were used in plotting the information. The survey party started at Marmora, in the south-east corner of the portion of the watershed that was to be included in the survey, and camped through the country, moving camp every four or five days as the plotting of the information proceeded. The party usually divided, each member taking a section, travelling on foot over the townships, lot by lot, and securing by interviews with reeves, township clerks and other informed people, information of unvisited areas and of conditions not visible in the field, such as economic conditions, and from assess- ment rolls. The general instructions for the party read as follows : "This survey is to furnish a detailed description of the economic and natural conditions and resources of the watershed in Peter- borough, Hastings, HaliburtOn and Victoria counties feeding the Trent Canal waters, and to serve as a basis for a plan of manage- ment. The economic conditions to be ascertained are to comprise : (a) Ownership and status of timber limits ; (6) Mimicipal regu- lations and tax conditions ; (c) Farm development, crops, charac- ter and quantities ; (d) Manufactures and mills in existence, and possibilities of industrial development locally ; (e) Means of transportation and development of water-powers, so far as useful for developing local industries ; (/) Tourist traffic, game and fishing interests. The natural conditions to be ascertained and, so far as possible, to be mapped, are : (a) Topography (in the rough) and segrega- tion of watersheds ; (6) Land classification by parcels, down to lo acres lowest limit ; (c) Statements regarding character of cli- mate and soil ; (d) Character and conditions of forest growth in connection with (6), including estimates of merchantable timber HISTORY OF THE REGION standing, and of young growth ; (e) Fire damage ; (/) Repro- duction and rate of growth studies." Dr. Howe paid special attention to the study of fire damage and reproduction, and has treated the physiographic side of the inquiry, while Mr. White undertook more particularly the investigation into the economic conditions. History of the Region The Trent Canal route is the old canoe route which the Indians were already using when Champlain, in 1615, travelled over it. The history of the canal itself and of its gradual development can be traced from the reports of the Department of Public Works* and, later, of the Department of Railways and Canals of the Dominion.f Until 1905, the Provincial Government also exercised control over the waters, having built dams and timber slides, to assist logging operations, and, also, a few locks, as at Youngs Point, to assist local navigation. The first suggestion to connect lake Ontario and Georgian bay was made in 1827, and, in 1833, an act was passed by the legislature of Upper Canada appointing commissioners to receive plans and to execute the works necessary for the improvement of the inland waters of the Newcastle district. In the same year the first survey was made and the cost of the construction of the works was estimated at $933,789. The survey of the second portion of the route was made in 1835, and the estimated cost of the work was $1,048,271, making the estimate for the total work $1,982,000. In 1836, a loan of $64,000 for the Trent River works was authorized by Act of Parliament and in 1837 a further loan of $3 10,030 was author- ized, to be applied to the inland division. On the commencement of the works in that year the Receiver-General set aside the sum of $136,266 to be applied to the works on the Trent river. Previous to the union of the provinces in 1841 the progress of the work had been slow, and in fact had been often stopped altogether, owing, it appears, to the Hmited advances made by the Receiver-General to the commissioners. The total expenditure prior to this time had amounted to $177,592. In the 'forties,' after the union of the provinces, the through route idea was abandoned, but local development of the waters for logging purposes went on, until, in 1855, the cost of maintenance of the slides, * Department of Public Works Reports, 1867 (which relates the earUer history), and 1882. t Department of Railways and Canals Reports, 1885, 1888, 1890, 1892, 1897, 1906, 1909. 8 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION booms and other works being greater than the revenue resulting from them, they were handed over to a corporation — the "Trent Slide Committee"— which was to keep them in repair by means of tolls on the timber floated. Between the years 1841 and 1867 the amount expended by the Committee amounted to $492,486, but something over $47,000 of this was spent on roads and bridges so that the outlay on the waterway for that period may be put at $445,269. This amount, together with the $177,592 expended prior to 1841, makes a total expenditure of $622,861 up to the year 1867. Dviring the early 'sixties' a great movement to secure the timber limits on this watershed took place, and, by 1865, about 1000 square miles, the pine area, had been alienated, mostly without or with only a nominal bonus paid to the provincial government, which also built locks and dams here and there, to aid the limiber industry. In 1870, a flood destroyed many of these works, which were then, in part, aban- doned. Some feeble attempts were made by some of the lumbermen to revive the canal project, but they were unsuccessftd, although by 1872 there were twenty lumber firms in operation and producing considerably over 100 million feet of pine lumber. However, the water stored by the dams that had been constructed continued to be available for logging purposes. Further progress in canal building was made in the years 1883-88, but not until 1896 was the "driblet" policy abandoned and the pro- position taken up seriously, with yearly appropriations of several hundred thousand dollars, which in 1909-10 were increased to a mil- lion, in 1911 to $1,750,000, and in 1912 to $1,938,136.48. In the Canal Superintendent's report for 1892 we find the first recognition of the need of water control for the canal. He writes : "Owing to the immense country drained becoming cleared, and to the fact that the lumbermen's dams, which formerly checked the flow, are being abandoned, there is a liability, until some provision is made to counteract it, of the heavy spring freshets damaging the several struc- tures along the route. Need of control of the upper reservoirs becomes every year a more serious question to those interested in navigation and water-power." This need was not supplied, nor was this incon- gruity of control removed until 1905, when by Order in Council the province ceded all the works in the back lakes and the water surfaces of all rivers, streams and lakes, tributary to the Trent river north of Peterborough, excepting the Crow River basin, to the Dominion Gov- ernment, and also agreed to sell to the Dominion unpatented lands along the water surfaces at 50 cents per acre. Two thousand acres have, so far, been acquired by the Dominion under this provision. HISTORY OF THE REGION The principal headwaters of the system are, however, situated on private lands in the central part of Haliburton county, more especially in the townships of Sherborne, Havelock, Eyre, Stanhope, Guilford, Harbum, Minden, Dysart and Dudley. These headwaters consist of a series of connected lakes of not less than 130,000 acres of water surface, which is not under control of the Dominion. The feeders to the canal, under the control of the Dominion, lie in nine different basins, comprising over 100,000 acres of water surface. These nine basins are, the Gull river and the Burnt river , the two largest, and, in sequence of their size, the Mississagua, Jack creek. Eels creek, Deer Bay creek, Nogie creek, Buckhom creek, and Squaw river. Exclusive of lakes Simcoe and Couchiching (with 283 square miles of water surface), the total water area of the canal and its feeders covers nearly 300 square miles. When the Dominion took over these watercourses it immediately repaired the old wooden dams or replaced them by concrete structures, organized a systematic management of the waterflow, and, as a result, doubled the waterflow at Peterborough and at other power-houses without interfering with, but rather improving, the operations of the lumbermen. Meanwhile, the lumber industry has dwindled to one-tenth of its size in 1872, the pine cut in 191 1 being less than 18 million feet, out of a total cut of approximately 42 million feet B.M. of lumber. By the time the last pine log is cut, which will be probably within five years, or thereabout, the cheap transportation which would have made a conservative forest policy possible will be just established. The first part of the problem is how to develop and foster small industries along the more than 160 miles of completed waterway, in order to make the most of the horse-power available,* and of the re- maining wood supplies ; the second part concerns the building up of the timber production in order to provide future local traffic on the canal, as well as to conserve the waterflow for the development of water- powers along its line, and for the maintenance of a sufficient supply of water in the canal after its completion. The agricultural settlement of most of the region was a con- comitant or consequence of the lumber industry, and in many, if not most cases, was dependent for its financial success entirely on that industry. Owing to its geological history, the country very rarely exhibits really agricultural soils. As Dr. Coleman in a memorandum on the geology of the region states, "The combination of kames (hills of sand and gravel with boulders) with pure sand deposits, through *More.than 100,000 H.P. 10 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION which rise occasional hills of the harder Archaean rocks, makes a region entirely unsuited for agriculture, and useftd only for forest growth. The result of glacial action north of the Palaeozoic rocks has been the formation of poor soils deficient in lime and often also in clayey con- stituents, except for the occasional lime-stone or shale and clay de- posits." While the lumber industry was thriving and a home market existed, the farmer on these poor soils could produce and sell enough potatoes, oats, hay, and meat products, to make a fair living. With the extinc- tion of this market, however, the trouble began, and at present aban- doned farms — abandoned by the more enterprising young men of a new generation — and run-down farms and farmers, too poor and too lacking in enterprise to move, testify to the mistaken policy of allowing ir- responsible settlement on non-agricultural soils. Conservation of human life and energy, conservation of decency in popiilation, conser- vation of soils for useful production, alike call for a readjustment of this undesirable state of affairs. That these statements are not overdrawn is shown by the fann statistics and is corroborated by the testimony of the people living in the area reported on.* Results of the Survey Preliminary to the formulation of recommendations, a summary of the findings of Messrs. Howe and White, as detailed in their reports, was drawn up. A table gives a classification of the whole area in i8 classes. t Since the seven northern townships are, for the most part, still covered with a virgin or semi -virgin forest, they have been enumerated separately, and the discussion refers, therefore, mainly to the 1,171,614 acres in the lower watershed. Here, 83.5 per cent is still forest-covered, but only 700 acres are virgin forest, and less than 90,000 acres have been moderately culled ; the rest have been severely culled and are, therefore, in unmerchantable condition. Nearly 60,000 acres are waste lands, the result of fires. Some 580,000 acres are covered with young and second-growth trees ; less than 12 per cent, 134,000 acres, are farmed. A table compiled from assessors' returns is added for com- parison and to give an idea of values. J Discrepancies in details of area from the survey are explained in part by either inclusion or exclusion of areas in the two lists, in part by difference of method in statement. On the whole, however, the results coincide fairly in so far as percentages are concerned. * Sec p. 95 and Appendix v, p. 120. t See pp. 21-28. t See p. 29. TTdAWtii .: j^fimtitdM THE BEGINNING With the exception of patches containing a few square feet, there is, on this prospective farm, no soil that approaches a loam in texture. It is mostly gravel and sand 'K -...--„ of' Conservation THE END One of the many abandoned farms in the Trent Watershed. The amount of human energy expended in attempting to make a living from such areas has been, and still is enormous RESULTS OF THE SURVEY 11 Farming Conditions — The fact that, half a century after the opening of this region to settlement, its 2,100 square miles contain less than 15,000 people, and that hardly 10 per cent of the area of all the 35 townships included in the survey has been cleared for farm purposes, would indicate that it is not suitable for agriculture. Indeed, if the five best townships, so far as farm land is concerned, Chandos, Marmora, Minden, Somerville, and WoUaston, are omitted, the remain- der averages little more than 8 per cent of cleared land, and only about 1.5 per cent is tilled land, the other 6.5 per cent being found in the shape of more or less fair pasture land. Further evidence of the mis- fortunes which come from farming rocks or the shallow glacial drift covering them, is furnished by the abandoned farms which are found through the whole region in large numbers, and which are sold from time to time for non-payment of taxes at less than 6 cents per acre on the average.* In consequence, during the last decade, the decrease of the population has been 15 per cent, as against 5 per cent decrease of rural population in the whole province. This is, of course, a desirable solution of the problem, for it is to be expected that those who left are elsewhere doing better than merely eking out a precarious existence ; the land which they left, being fit for nothing else but forest growth, gradually reforests itself. There is, of course, the excuse that the results could not be foreseen ; that the province needed the revenues from the timber limits ; and that the settlement on these farms at the time when the lumbermen's business was thriving was a natural result. The further excuse may be made that, at the time in question, employment in the lumber camps pro- vided an additional source of income for the support of these people. Even though this be true, it does not alter the fact that the time for correction of the policy is now at hand. Here is a native population, the welfare of which should be of more concern than that of new immi- grants. Here is a natural resource to be recuperated for the sole purpose for which it is adapted. Forest Conditions — The original forest on the lower watersheds was to the extent of fully two-thirds, a magnificent pinery, or in part hardwood with white pine admixture ; the other third was a pure hard- wood forest, of which maple and beech formed 75 to 85 per cent, and hem- lock 2.5 per cent. Now, the white pine is all but removed, and, with the exception of 700 acres still virgin, the whole lower watershed is more or less severely culled. The pinery has been burnt over at least once and in most places several times. * 194 of these farms were for sale in 1911, 12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION This statement, as intimated before, leaves out of consideration the holdings of the Canada Land and Immigration Company in the northern headwaters. This is a hill country quite different in character from the lower watersheds, being still largely covered by a virgin forest of hardwood, either pm"e or mixed with spruce, pine and hem- lock. This region has been only partly culled, and little or not at all damaged by fire. The forest cover of the lower watershed, a round one million acres, can be divided into foiu* types, in addition to the barren country — 3 . 2 per cent — ^which was originally forest-covered, and that recently biirned over, nearly 2 per cent (22,000 acres), which may, or may not, recuper- ate. The types of mature timber are pure hardwood, pure conifer growth, and mixed hardwood and conifer, these being types of the original forest. The fourth type is the result of forest fires; it is the original pinery, now occupied by a young growth of poplar and birch, pure or with more or less young pine intennixed. Less than 90,000 acres of mature timber remain in a condition which can be called "moderately culled ;"* somewhat over 300,000 acres have been severely culledf ; some 20,000 acres are immature timber of the original type ; and the balance, some 560,000 acres, is of the poplar-birch type. This latter type represents not only the largest area, 57.3 per cent of the whole forest and 42.2 per cent of the whole area, but is also the most important and most valuable for the future, as it fiunishes an opportunity for reproducing the pinery, which once represented the chief asset of this territory. According to the severity and frequency of the fires, more or less of pine regeneration is found interspersed with the poplar and birch. The whole area has been burned over at least once. Including the 37,000 acres which originally belonged to this type and are already turned into barrens or semi-barrens, and 22,500 acres of recent bums which win change into this type, we have 620,000 acres of these burned areas, one-quarter of which has been so often burned that neither seed trees nor young pine growth exist on it ; these 156,000 acres are there- fore unable to recuperate by natural processes. Nearly two-thirds of the area (389,000 acres) have been burned over two or three times and are practically also beyond natural recuperation, with only six young pines, on the average, to the acre. Only 75,000 acres, burned once, promise, if fire is kept out, to recuperate naturally, with 30 young *t.e. Btill containing sawlogs of commercial value. ti«. with no commercial timber and fit only for cordwood. REjSULTS OF THE SURVEY 13 pine and seed trees — as compared with 60 to 80 in the original stand — left to the acre. Occasionally, conditions are much better than this average would indicate. In Cashel township, for instance, was found an area burned over once, the fire disposing of the loggers' debris. On this area 280 trees of white and red pine were counted per acre, which would be quite a satisfactory reproduction. Another stand in Cashel which escaped fires after the first one of 75 years ago, and which, therefore, may be called 70 years old, indicates what might result from protection. Here, 360 trees to the acre were found, of which 280 were white and red pine, averaging 6.7 inches in diameter (i inch in 10.4 years), which may be estimated at 12,000 feet B.M. (175 feet per year). In spite of such good showings, the average of 500 acres of sample areas distributed over the entire area and carefiilly investigated by Dr. Howe, gives the low figures just cited as averages. By means of these countings, it has, for the first time, been possible to attempt, on a definite basis, and in a convincing manner, an ap- proximate estimation of the fire loss by the destruction of the young growth. With the most modest assumption of values, Dr. Howe comes to the conclusion that, on this area of less than 1,000 square miles, over 12 million dollars worth of prospective stumpage dues and stumpage values have been lost to the province, or $20 per acre. There seems to be no reason to doubt that twice that amount would be nearer the truth, and, indeed, in many cases, the whole producing capital has been des- troyed. Not less than 37,000 acres are reported as being barren, owing to fires, and 150,000 acres as showing no reproduction of pine or seed trees. As this is only a small sample area of the thousands of square miles of similar country, in similar condition, in other parts of the province, a realization may be had of the enormous losses that have resulted from lack of protection of young growth. Since, in the Trent watershed, on the average, 14,000 acres are burned yearly, the annual loss by forest fires may be placed at $250,000. For detail of such calculations Dr. Howe's report furnishes ample data. Yet, in these same pineries, through natural processes of recuperation, there are still prospective values of not less than $8,000,000 left in young pine and poplar, which it is certainly worth while to save by more efficient protection against fire. It should be realized that the capital value of this 1,000,000 acres of forest property, based on its productive capacity, would, under proper management, represent not less than $50,000,000, and the solution of the problem of securing such management would appear to be worth while. 14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Ownership Conditions — It appears that the bulk of the land is privately owned, the provincial government retaining title to only one- third, or 725 square miles. The important fact which the 'Ownership' map reveals is that these government holdings are largely situated in a compact block with only few outlying parcels, a condition which renders a conservative policy practicable. That the farming country lies mainly on the outskirts of this forest coimtry is also a favorable factor. It is also significant that another 340 square miles is owned by large corporations, one of these holding a compact block of 171,000 acres, the other 67,000 acres. Such large ownerships make conservative management at least possible. The Dominion government owns, as previously stated, some 2,000 acres, which, however, represents merely locations for dams, buildings, and other easements. Of the provincial property, a little over one-third (275 square miles) represents limits which have reverted to the Crown, after the licenses had lapsed or been abandoned. The other 450 square miles are still under licenses, which, since the pine has practically all been cut, are, however, apt to run out or could, probably, be easily terminated. Industrial Development — From the description of the forest con- ditions, it is evident that the hey-day of the lumber industry is passed ; a few years will see the end of it, at least in so far as pine is concerned. At the present time the aggregate cut of some ten limibering concerns is at the rate of about 10 million feet B.M. a year. Hardwood logging is but little developed ; the fact that the old timber is very defective requires that, to be profitable, it must be manufactured near the source of supply and utilized most closely. The establishment of small woodenware manufactures is most desirable. Tindle and Jackson, an American firm of wide experience in this line of manufacture, have lately acquired some 40 square miles in Glamorgan, Monmouth, Cavendish, and Anstruther townships. They propose to establish a plant near Gooderham, and to work these limits. Similar . development over the whole hardwood area should be encouraged. Small amounts of pulpwood, of cedar poles and posts, cooperage stock, railroad ties, tanbark, and fuelwood are being shipped. Since the one at Fenelon Falls was destroyed by fire, only one wood-alcohol plant is in operation in the northern portion of the watershed, viz., the Donald Wood Products Company — -a plant of thoroughly modern con- struction. The Mining Industry — Appendix IV* contains notes regarding * See p. 115. RECOMMENDATIONS 15 the mineral industry. They have been summarized from the report on the Haliburton and Bancroft areas by Dr. F. D. Adams and Dr. A. E. Barlow. Gold, iron, iron pyrites, talc, marble, and rock for road metal form the mineral resources so far discovered and, in a small way, developed. Lately, the Cordova gold mine under new management, has taken on new life. Similarly iron mining, which collapsed owing to inability to compete with the iron ore production of the Lake Superior and Minnesota ranges, promises to revive, the Central Ontario Railway Company having centralized the various small operations in a con- centrating plant at Trenton. Altogether, while nothing phenomenal has been so far developed in mining and quarrymg, there are materials in the district which, by careful management, may be expected to support small industries. Tourist Traffic — On account of its scenic attractions and the fish and game which abound there, this region is eminently suited for tourist travel. Thus far, this is considerably developed only on the Kawartha lakes, but the region abounds in lakes, which, eventually, will also be utilized in this way. This resource, as well as the timber and water resources, has suffered from the forest fires, which have rendered un- attractive many previously beautiful spots. The region is by no means inaccessible, the Grand Trunk, Central Ontario, and Irondale, Bancroft and Ottawa railways, furnishing access; and existing canoe routes could be easily improved right up to the headwaters. Recommendations Nobody who has studied the conditions presented in this report will hesitate a moment in agreeing that the bulk of the country involved should be placed in, and managed as, a permanent forest reserve for the growing of timber. The only question can be : How this is to be brought about ? There are at least five interests to be considered or reckoned with and to be brought into co-operation in building up such a territory— the Dominion Government, the Provincial Government, the municipalities in which the territory is situated, the private owners of properties and of timber licenses, and the public at large. ' Besides the general interest which the governments naturally have in the economic condition and development of any portion of the com- monwealth, the Dominion Government, as pointed out, has a special interest in maintaining the canal. The Provincial Government still controls about one-third of the area, partly under timber Hcenses, partly in cancelled or abandoned lots. The municipalities are naturally 16 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION most closely interested in seeing as much of their land as possible put to profitable use, in order to reduce the individual tax assessments and, at the same time, to permit of a higher degree of civilization through increased industrial activities and educational facilities. Private landholders will be benefited by better protection. Their property will increase in value owing to the improved environment, partictdarly if a continuous improvement of conditions is assured in place of the present tendency towards deterioration. With manage- ment for perpetuity, instead of exploitation for a short time, per- manent manufactures can be established, industrial development will increase, and the pubHc at large will gain in prosperity. Co-operation of all these agencies will be necessary to carry through any far-sighted, persistent policy. The co-operation of the three administrative agencies, the Dominion, Provincial and Municipal governments, is especially needed to develop anything like a per- manent forest policy, for forest growth is slow, and financial results from timber growing, the only incentive for private enterprise, are slow in coming, so that only persistent entities like governments can be expected to carry on the business of timber growing. The policy, then, should be to bring all the lands which are not strictly farm lands as rapidly as possible imder the control of one, or any, of these three agencies. These lands should be combined into one or more forest reserves, and a forest administration should be provided for. Municipal Ownership — The most natural owners of such forest reserves are undoubtedly the municipalities as representatives of the people who are on the ground, and who, therefore, should take the greatest interest in its condition. One of the counties has already recognized the propriety of getting possession of these cut-over lands. The county of Hastings, under the leadership of Reeve P. P. Clark of Limerick township, organized a Forest Committee in 191 1, with this end in view. It secured legislation from the Provincial Parliament permitting municipalities to acquire such lands and to expend funds in purchase of such to a limit of $25,000. In pursuance of this legisla- tion the County has acquired 2,200 acres in the township of Grims- thorpe, outside of the Trent watershed, paying therefor the accrued taxes at the rate of about 17 cents per acre. At the instance of the writer, and, as a result of his address to the County Council of Peter- borough, a similar committee to look into the matter of municipal ownership of cut-over lands was appointed in that county last summer. Since this legislation marks a new and important phase of the forestry movement, the Act (I Geo. V. Chap. 74, 191 1) is below, printed in full. RECOMMENDATIONS 17 "His Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Ontario enacts as follows : 1 . This Act may be cited as ' ' The Counties Reforestation Act." 2. The Municipal Council of a county may pass by-laws :— (a) For acquiring by purchase, lease or otherwise, such lands designated in the by-law as the council may deem suitable for reforestation purposes ; (6) For planting land so acquired and for preserving and protecting the timber thereon ; {c) For the management of such lands and the sale or other disposal of the timber grown thereon ; {d) For the issuing of debentures from time to time for the purpose of providing for the purchase of such lands to an amount not exceeding $25,000 to be owing at any one time. 3- No by-law shall be finally passed under this Act until the same shall have been approved in writing by the Minister of Agriculture. 4. (a) Municipal Councils of townships in districts without county organization shall have all the powers, privileges and authonty conferred by paragraphs (a), (6), and {c) of section 2 hereof, on councils of counties. (6) The councils of such townships shall have power and auth- ority to levy by special rate a sum not exceeding $200 in any year for the purpose of providing for the purchase of such lands." While this legislation is undoubtedly of the right kind, it would seem that, on account of financial inability, these provisions by them- selves are not apt to promise a rapid development of municipal own- ership. In order to overcome this difficulty, it has been suggested that, if the Province sees in municipal ownership a solution of the problem, it should hand over to the counties, free of cost, limits on which licenses have lapsed, under conditions which would tend to assure the results looked for. While we may readily agree that such municipal ownership increases the interest of the resident population in the property, and hence, especially in its protection against fire, which is the foremost need, yet there are some practical arguments, which are mainly financial, against this policy. The need of control by the Doininion, for the regulation of water supplies, may also, in part, clash with such a plan. While, under municipal ownership it might be easier than under Provincial or Dominion ownership, to utilize profitably the small values that even a mismanaged wood-lot can often still yield, large areas of these lands not only contain no values of any kind, but, to become useful at aU, require expenditure for planting ; others to yield better and quicker results require expenditure in thinning. These constitute present expenditures for the sake of future returns. Technical advice 18 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION as to these procedures is also required, and this would also entail ex- penditure. It may be pointed out in passing that a first-class forest manager is only fully occupied when the planning for and management of a tract of 50,000 to 100,000 acres and more is involved, hence it is doubtful whether a municipality could employ a competent man fully. The size of the property influences the financial success of the manage- ment also in other ways, namely, when the gain from the good acres can be used to recuperate the poor acres. This is, in part, the secret of the financial and managerial success of the German forest administrations. Moreover, a successful forestry business requires a long continued and persistent plan, which, with the shifting conditions of municipal ad- ministration, is not very likely to be followed. Even in Germany, the success of municipal forest administration — and it is a thorough suc- cess — is secured only by a more or less strict State supervision. The best results from a financial point of view in municipal forests, are secured in Baden, where the State manages the municipal forest pro- perties for a stated sum per acre paid by the municipality. Altogether, the financial ability and especially the patience of the mimicipality in waiting for returns, will be taxed, if a real management of these properties for sustained yield is to be inaugurated. Government Ownership. — It is here that the co-operation of the financially strong government, with its superior credit and organi- zation, is needed. If, as appears probable from the appointment of a provincial forester, the provincial government assumes its responsibility for the future of the timber resources of the province, this region offers a most promising first field for action. A plan should be drawn up for recovering licensed lands and for dividing them into units to facilitate management, some to be managed by the province and some by the municipalities. The plan should allow for the provision of technical advice for their management, and for the furnishing of such financial assistance as may be necessary through a mtmicipal and state bonding scheme. The rights of super- vision and participation in eventual returns should be retained by the province. Some such plan of co-operation should obviously be elabor- ated ; the province selecting for transfer to the municipality such tracts as entail merely protection, and undertaking the management of the more complicated tracts as its own reserves. The first step for the Province to take would appear to be to re- possess itself of the licensed lands which have practically ceased to produce the quantity of logs contemplated under the original licenses. The next thing would be to impose upon the timber limit holders, who have still some valuable timber left, such conditions as would prevent th e jeopardizing and the destruction of the property itself. RECOMMENDATIONS 19 If the Province assumes the responsibility of such a conservative forest policy, the Dominion might well be relieved of participation in it, for its interests would then be subserved. If, however, it is not the intention of the Province to efficiently protect, recuperate, and manage these forest areas, the Dominion should, by control of the watersheds, be placed in a position to protect its water rights. As pointed out, an efficient forest management, especially of cut-over lands, can be satisfactorily carried on only if compact pro- perties of sufficient size are placed under one management. It is a great advantage that such conditions are found here, namely, compact areas of land in the hands of the Province, which could be placed in one reserve under one manager. The man in charge of such property must be a real and circumspect manager, continuously active on the ground. His first duty would be to make a careful survey and map of the property, showing conditions in detail, at the same time, organizing an effective service for protection against fire, building watch-towers, and, where roads or ready means of travel do not exist, he should provide trails, gradually perfecting the pro- tective service. Next, he must make it his business to encourage the establishment of small woodworking manufactures that can utilize the mature hardwood timber, as well as the minor forest products now going to waste. The small values that can be secured by an efficient local manager so far as possible, must be made to pay the cost of re- cuperation. He must also encourage private enterprise to develop the tourist travel and foster the fish and game resources as a not unim- portant asset of the forest reserve. Then follows the improvement of existing stands and of natural regeneration by thinnings, the proceeds of which should, together with the profits of such logging of mature timber as may still be done, pay for the operation. Next comes the question of planting to improve or make productive the partly or wholly waste lands. This is a task worthy of strenuous effort on the part of an efficient man, properly supported by either the Provincial or Dominion Government. Is it not time to begin such actual practical forest management instead of merely talking of con- serving our forest resources, theorizing on their value, and letting them go to ruin ? The field for reform is, to be sure, so wide, that the re- formers are staggered by the problem of where to begin ; but here is a concrete case with which a beginning could be made, a case presenting a definite situation and a definite problem. If begun not half-heartedly and in the picayune manner in which such things are usually under- taken, but with a full realization that only a thorough-going business 20 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION administration on a large enough scale promises success, the result cannot fail to prove satisfactory. As to financial outcome we can quite reasonably figure that a 500,000 acre reserve, half the present forest area, managed in the manner indicated, even in the poor condition in which it is found, could almost from the beginning pay for its maintenance by the sale of odds and ends of available timber at the rate of 5 cents per acre, or $25,000 per year. Within a decade, when the first 750,000 cords of poplar pulpwood become available this would yield, if cut off in 25 years, at least $100,000 per year, or 20 cents net revenue per acre, from this sotirce alone. By the time this is exhausted and replaced by a young pine stand, further pulpwood areas and some pine woiild have become ready for the axe, wood values would have increased, and an annual income of not less than $2 per acre from a sustained wood yield may be assured forever. This would be less than one-third of the net revenue derived from a forest property of approximately the same size in Germany, the State Forest of Wiirttemberg — not an unreasonable expectation ! The natural reproduction on the areas that are kept free from fires is found unusually favourable ; it would therefore not be too sanguine to expect eventually an annual increment of 100,000 M. feet of saw timber besides other materials ; that means an aimual business in growing, harvesting, transporting, and manufacturing of not less than $5,000,000 to $6,000,000. A special problem is that of the poor population. With such a development as would come from the management of the forest re- serves, there would be occupation for a number as guards and labourers in the reserves, and some of the better farm locations within the reserves might be of advantage in keeping these on the ground. But the greater portion needs to be re-located on more suitable lands, and, as far as could be ascertained, they would be most willing to accept assistance from the government to secure new locations, say in the Northern Ontario Clay Belt. It is important that this matter be made a subject of special inquiry. In conclusion, I would point out that this survey and report with these suggestions as to procedure, is to be taken only as a basis for further inquiry and planning, a clearing of the decks as it were, and that the Commission of Conservation should follow up this work by formulating in more detail plans of co-operation and by bringing them to an issue.* *At present writing, following up this suggestion, the Commission haa put Dr. Howe in the field to secure further information, especially as to reproduction and rate of growth, as a basis for further financial discussion. 21 00 lO ccoo oo coo 050 OOiO .°^ >^.^.>^ O'^ >> I -« S 2 2 _ .h t-i fl c '^ M f O 3 Cl ••-c 5 g p C2 bC J- O 3 O 2 2 •• o m o % o o o T3 s 22 OOi C5(M r^ (MfC(NCO 00 lO CO-* (NO CXr(M" ©5 0O Co 00 00 CO 2^^ o o 00 (NN-* .-ICDlO(M (N ^ -O) (NIC •C0(MO5 •IN CO CO CO t^ ::3- o 5 •^ > K CC >-i 03 « S;=i te^ j2 • 3 uj (u "J O CO ^ 'f ooo O COI>-(N ^I^(N oTrH 23 >>>>, C-iooo H O O O < CO — • 24 C5 CO 00 GO Tt■ oi cc ^-^ CO u £ Ss^s g Library N. C, State Collegr^' 25 ^ a § 60 • • • ^ >H eo f^ -(N s (^ ... ^<^ iQ ^" 3 i° > PLH u " eo ,_) t- 00 1—1 O -K^ •CD -CO ^ C^ O CO 00 . ct\ Q> s •o l^ to o to (N Oi o* c^ 1 o t; '^- «l =^., 05_ -lO lO CO Oi C^l 00 oc Oi s m ^ oo (N Oi m" ! so" 5" ^^ fe ^_, C3 0) ~<(- ... >^ eo to •^ : . ^ « .^j u z C3 <3Q .... 90 ; « fe e^ ^ . o fS g n t^CO • o ooo ?^ •■* ^ • v^ s o^ (NtJh ?^ (N ^ . ^ t. CO TP05 00 co_^ to • 92_ 02 ^ cc^ o CO so" : •i i^^ ■(.^ 00 (N * P 1 -^ 00 • O o ^ ^2?3 5? s^ ^ o § §^2= § £; i>.^ (M(N lO ns Oi iCi ^CO >oo *o A < ^ •o J? CO^TtT o"^" 00- (M ©■J ^ •c x o J> 3 3 '3 w « o ^ >, 3^ "o 'Z "3 .1^ ■1^ 2 ^i o 0/ .1 1 : .9 'a 1 a 1 Jill • • ^ > a: M > 1111 . I|l 1 < -^ > «2 M >■ > llll CO ..ill 1? 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CO ©5 HH CO 1 S ^ ^ i^ < -< : :§ 1 : : 1 1 00" c/:! w c H o 12: 8 o • • § ^ ^ ^ d ^ 1 o o •^ o -* o '-'5 rH >~, g S ►^ (M ©> GO 00 oo 6~ -< S"2- 1 ■*" ~> _>;> w "o 1 "Oi :1 1 2 1 e i o ll g.S Si 11 IJ o sll III ■> b h c 5 I 1 > 5 -2 c :^-|>^ §>^^ 1 r-( CO "c rt a; f- i-i (N CO 't' H-l Ofe 1— I "-^ »- ASSESSORS' RETURNS 29 A somewhat incomplete compilation of assessors' returns gives the folloi,\'ing picture of conditions, the discrepancies in areas, as ex- plained, being due to inclusions of outlying sections not included in the Trent watershed. It appears that the total assessment averages only $2.30 per acre. g,2 00O»OC0t^C0 -t^ -OO • 05 t^ Oi CO -H '^ (Nt^OO CCl^ -00 -coco • (N ■* ■* CO CO lO (M iC 10 IC CO • CO • 00 • I> ■* (N 00 ■(Mcocot^^coooroio •05-HO>oioa5Ci00i-i ■fCfC'OOOcOcOCO'+iGO OTt<0-^t^O^OOOOiOI^OU30C^»00 0>»OCDOOr^OOT};_»0^iO CC CO ■^"oo c»t-'"t^'~(M'"cf o t^ o (N '^"cf cfr-^of io~co"co O— t^©:t^GOCOOOI>iCOCOO ^(N .-1 .-H (M CDCOOOCOCO ooo»on< t^(N oqco t-^CRoooo lO'cO iCCO^OTfT 00 00 CO '* CO CO • iO ^^ O iC 10 •iCOCOt^ CO 00 -OOiCiOiOC^ • 10 c^i 00 00 Oi CO C^l ^ t- 05 »OOOOCOO ■CD(MCOC<1"5}HCO-*C5COOOCOCO CD 00 10 »C CO CO (N O3oo-*r- 05 00 (N •* Tt< GO CO ^<1 QJCOt^Cl O ■* (N 00 00 (N 00 1^ CDC5 cooo-^^cor^coooio l ooo •^ 00 O >-0 1.0 "^i iC CO !>• "^ • C2^ !--__ o_ co_ ao O^ CO oq_ i-^ CO -* (N O I> ^'' .-T CO CO .-(CO.-I ^ t^ -coooioocoeoOfN S00»O^Tt^0 ICOO o o co^t-^ li 00 co'od oo't^'i<~cD'"r~'"co"cD~co"od r-Tic -^ ,_, CO .-H i^ mills. FOREST FIRES OF 1913 31 ADDENDA This report and the foregoing tabulation of forest conditions were compiled in 1912. Extensive forest fires during the summer of 1913 have altered the conditions on about 175,000 acres. Dr. Howe has made an investigation of the extent and origin of these fires and estimates the actual and prospective loss at not less than $3,000,000. Dr. Howe's report is as follows : It is stated in the body of this report, on page 63, that 620,000 acres of cut-over pine lands in the Trent watershed had been burned in the past 3ot0 4oyears,andof this area nearly 390,000 acres had been burned two and three times: 156,000 acres.four to eight times,while only 75,000, or one-eighth of the whole, had escaped with only one burning. An idea of what these repeated fires have cost the Province in terms of potential dues and stumpage values may be obtained by referring to the table on page 63 . It was shown that these burned-over lands contained enough poplar ar.d young pine to justify an attempt on the part of the proper authorities to save them t:3m ftu-ther destruction by fire. At the present time, for reasons seated on pages 64 and 65, they are entirely unthottt fire protection. The necessity of effective protective measures has been forcibly prescribed by the widespread and destructive fires of last summer. The fires of last Jtdy and August burned over approximately 175,000 acres in the region considered by this report. This represents over 15 per cent, of the forested area within the Trent watershed and 31 per cent of the area clashed as former pineries. The extent and dis- tribution of these biuns are indicated on the accompanjdng map*, as well as in the table below. The four largest areas are grouped to represent continuous bums. Areas Burned in 1913 Township Acres Total Anstruthcr 36,480 Burleigh 19,560 Cavendish 15,740 Glamorgan 3,360 Harvey 1,830 Monmouth 800 77,780 Methuen 29,600 Lake 14,500 Burleigh 1,000 WoUaston 500 45,600 Glamorgan 15,480 Snowdon 12,700 Dysart 500 28,680 Lutterworth 9,000 Anson 5,680 14,680 * See page 32. 32 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Township Acres Total Limerick 7,500 Tudor 1,500 Cardiff 1,200 Harvey 1,000 Guilford 500 Stanhope 250 Eyre 150 12,100 178,840 (At least 175,000 acres of the total given above are in the former pine lands.) The fire in Anson and Lutterworth had its origin outside the region considered by this report, where it burned over much larger areas. The Tudor lire also burned a much larger area outside the territory upon which this report is based. The burning of the areas given above was due to i6 separate fires. The origin of 4 of these fires is reported as unknown ; 4 as having been set with malicious intent ; 3 from farmers working in hay marshes ; 2 from a railway engine ; i from the camp fire of tourists ; i from berry pickers ; and i from lightning. Ten of these 16 fires started on crown lands not patrolled by a fire ranger* Two of the six fires occurring on patrolled lands are reported as having been set deliberately. The destruction on the three largest areas, namely, the Anstruther-Bur- leigh-Cavendish area, the Glamorgan-Snowdon area and the Lake- Methuen area, totalling 148,420 acres, or 84 per cent of the entire area burned, was the result of 5 fires, and three of these started on crown lands where there was no actual fire patrol. The other two fires started in patrolled timber limits in a region where one ranger is charged with the surveillance of about 100 square miles. In regions not suffering from forest fires there is a tendency to minimize the damage they cause. One often hears the expression : "No particiilar damage was done, as the fire ran through cut-over lands." It is well to consider how Httle comprehension of the facts of the case such statements involve. For example, we may make the following charges to the account of the recent forest fires in the Trent valley. Expenditures in Fighting Forest Fires Peterborough Lumber Co $2,500 Wood Products Co. of Canada 350 Gull River Lumber Co 250 Minden village, 100 days' labour 200 Farmers in Anson and Lutterworth, 75 days' labour 150 Farmers in Glamorgan and Snowdon, ISO days' labour 360 Farmers in Anstruther, Burleigh, and Cavendish, 200 days' labour 400 Farmers in Lake and Methuen, 50 days' labour 100 Total $4,310 * The cut-over lands within timbc^r limits are not actually patrolled by the fire rangers for reasons stated on pages 64 and 84. FOREST FIRES OF 1913 33 The sums accredited to the lumber companies were actually expended in wages and provisions for men fighting fires. The labour of farmers is placed at $2.00 per day. The number of days employed is obtained by accrediting to each farmer, whose property was endangered, an average of three days' work — a ver>^ moderate estimate. In most cases the women and children aided as well. While in the field the licensees of the timber berths were interviewed with a view to arriving at an approximation of the amount of merchan- table timber killed, but at the time of writing this valuation had not been completed by all of the owners. However, from estimates by the chief sufferers it appears probable that this will exceed $50,000. Much of the standing timber killed by fire will be saved by imme- diate cutting, but every large operator reports more timber killed than he can possibly cut before it is rendered useless by disease. Moreover, as is well known, the cost of cutting and handling burned timber is greater than that of green timber. On account of these factors, it is difficult to estimate the actual loss in fire-killed timber. The coming of the rain during the last week of August was pro- vidential, as it found the fire endangering farm buildings in nearly ever>' township, and several villages would doubtless have been burned. Therefore, the loss of buildings was not as great as might have been expected. No farm buildings within the area considered by this report were burned, but several just outside of it were destroyed. One lum- ber company estimates its loss by way of camps, dams and equipment burned, at $15,000. Farmers suffered severe losses through the burning of marsh hay. The farmers in some of the townships are always dependent upon the supply of marsh hay, and this was all the more pronounced during the past summer on account of the almost complete failure of the cultivated hay crop. In one township alone over 200 tons were burned. A mod- erate estimate would place the marsh hay burned at 800 tons. The hay was considered to be worth $8 a ton, which means a loss of $6,400. Another item to charge to the fire account in this re- spect is the destruction of the marshes upon which the farmers are de- pendent. Many of them were burned to the depth of two feet, the roots of the grasses being completely killed, so that it wiU be several years before they can regain their productiveness. The cost of rebuild- ing fences will be no small item to the farmers, for many miles of these have been burned. The estimate of the actual damage caused by these fires, as given above, is sufficient to refute the claim that "No particular damage was done, as the fire ran through cut-over lands" ; but it is a mere bagatelle when compared vnth the potential loss in youth growth. On page 64 of this report, it is estimated that the cut-over lands, in which most of the recent fires were located, would yield at maturity on the average, 34 COMMISSION OFCONSERVATION seven cords of poplar pulpwood per acre. Of this area, 175,000 acres have been biimed or, in other words, 1,225,000 cords of potential pulp- wood. This at maturity, say in 25 years, would be worth one dollar a cord on the stump, or $1,225,000. The present value of $1,225,000 due in 25 years with interest at 4 per cent per annimi, is $559,090. It is stated in the table on page 63 of the report that 75,000 acres within the Trent watershed contain on the average 30 young pine per acre. At least 50,000 acres of this type of land were burned by the recent fires. Had the yoimg pines not been killed, they would have yielded 3,000 feet per acre at maturity, 50 years hence, or, in other words, 150,000 M feet. Reckoning the dues at $2 per M and the stumpage value at $7 per M, the value of this timber would have been $1,350,000. The present value of $1,350,000 due in 50 years at 4 per cent interest is $189,945. It is also shown in the table referred to above, that approximately 390,000 acres contain on the average 6 young pine trees per acre. Of this type 100,000 acres were burned. They would have yielded at matiuity, 75,000 M feet of pine lumber with a value in dues and stvimpage of $675,000. The present value of this sum due in 50 years with interest at 4 per cent per annimi is $98,972. It will be seen by the above estimates that the fires in the Trent valley last summer, destroyed yoimg pine worth nearly $2,000,000 at mattuity, and pulpwood worth nearly $1,000,000 at maturity. The present value of these sums is $848,000. This must be charged to the fire account, for the present capital stock of the forest in the Trent val- ley has been reduced by that amount. This reduction of future forest values by fire goes on without apparent abatement, yet the future sup- ply of timber must come from these cut-over lands, which at the present time are without fire protection. As stated above the crown lands containing merchantable timber are efiiciently protected, but under the present system the cut-over lands are, as a general rule, entirely neglected. There are two causes of this condi- tion of affairs. In the first place, there is the wide-spread belief that the cut-over lands are worthless, a belief that may be readily proven erron- eous by anyone who studies the - ate of reproduction of pine and poplar on such areas. Secondly, the timbci -limit holder has no vital financial inter- est in his cut-over areas because they will eventually revert to the Crown. In fact it is not just to the Hmit holder that he should be required to pro- tect the lands under this condition. Therefore in any far-sighted policy of forest administration it is essential that some method be devised ade- quately to protect the cut-over lands from fire. Forest fires can never be entirely eliminated, any more than can the fires in a town, but like the fires in a town, experience proves that they can be reduced to a minimum, even in a dry season. They must be reduced to a minimum if there is to be an adequate supply of forest products in the future. 11 Physiographic and Forest Conditions I. Drainage, Topography, Geology, and Soils The territory to which the present report refers is the drainage basin of the Trent Canal waters lying in the townships enumerated below, in general, those north of Kawartha lakes and Crow lake. The eastern boundary of the territory is formed by the drainage basin of Beaver creek, a tributary of the Crow river, in Hastings county ; and the western boundary by the drainage basin of Gull river in Haliburton and Victoria counties. The townships in Peterborough county lying be- tween Stony lake and Rice lake were not included in the survey because of their prevailingly agricultural character. For the same reason the township of Verulam, lying north of Sturgeon lake, was not explored. With these exceptions, all the territory draining from the north into the Canal and lying between the eastern and western boundaries as given above, was explored. The region includes portions of Marmora, Tudor, Limerick, Cashel, Faraday and WoUaston townships and the whole of Lake township in Hastings county ; Methuen, Burleigh, Harvey, Gal- way, Cavendish, Anstruther and Chandos townships in Peterborough county ; Cardiff, Monmouth, Glamorgan, Snowdon, Lutterworth, Minden, Dysart, Guilford and Stanhope townships, and portions of Harcourt, Dudley, Harbum, Havelock, Sherborne, Hindon, and Anson townships in Haliburton county ; Somerville township in Victoria county, and a small portion of Ridout township in Muskoka district. The total area surveyed was 1,345,500 acres. Drainage Basins^The Crow River drainage basin is the largest in the Trent watershed, including an area of 497,900 acres. The name is applied to the outlet stream of Round lake, in the township of Bel- mont. Its upward extension from Round lake is called North river. Between Round and Belmont lakes, it receives the waters of Otter creek ; Deer river falls into Belmont lake, and near the outlet of Crow lake, Beaver creek falls in. Of the tributaries, Deer river, and its northern extension, Paudash creek, is the largest, and drains 214,200 acres. Its headwaters are in southwestern Faraday and southeastern Cardiff. On its way to the Crow river it flows through three large lakes, the Paudash lakes in Cardiff, Belmont lake in Belmont, and Crow lake in Marmora, and receives the drainage of Loon lake in Chan- dos. Beaver creek drains 150,800 acres, and its principal storage basins are Salmon lake in Limerick and Little Salmon lake, and Devil lake in Cashel. Otter creek and North river drain only 57,500 acres. The latter has a large storage basin in Kasshabog lake in Methuen town- ship. All of these waters reach the Trent canal in the township of 36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Seymour, where Crow river falls into the Trent. The total lake surface of the basin is 16,150 acres. Two streams flow into Stony lake, namely, Jack creek, with a basin containing 46,900 acres, and Eels brook, with a basin containing 66,700 acres. The former is practically confined to the townships of Bur- leigh and Methuen, while the latter has a long narrow valley extending to southern Cardiff and Monmouth townships. The principal bodies of water in these two basins are Jack lake in northwestern Methuen and Eels lake, and the Monmouth lakes in the adjoining portions of Anstruther, Cardiff and Monmouth. The lakes in the two basins have an area of 6,900 acres. Between Burleigh Falls and Hall Bridge, the canal receives the waters of Deer Bay creek and the Mississauga river. The former drains an area of 48,000 acres, and the latter an area of 99,900 acres. The Deer Bay Creek basin contains some twenty small lakes, mostly in the township of Burleigh, having a surface area of 2,550 acres, while the Mississauga has its storage basins in the Katchacoma-Mississauga- Gold-Eagle lake series in southern Cavendish and Anstruther, the total area of the lakes in its valley being 7,000 acres. Between Hall Bridge and Fenelon Falls, the canal has several small feeders, the more im- portant being Squaw river and Harvey brook. The combined area of these drainage basins is 81,500 acres. With the exception of Swamp lake in Galway and Salmon lake in Cavendish, they do not contain lakes of considerable size. The lakes of the two basins cover 2,000 acres. The Burnt River drainage basin is the second largest in size within the area, and contains 371,300 acres. The largest confluent of Burnt river, Irondale river, meets the main stream in the southwestern comer of Snowdon. It has its headwaters in Farquart lake in the township of Harcourt, and flows in a southwesterly direction through Monmouth, Glamorgan, and Snowdon. The main stream, commenc- ing as the Haliburton river out of Drag lake in the township of Dudley, flows through the Kashogawigamog-Canning lake series in Dysart and Minden. The basin contains about 30 lakes of considerable size and they have an aggregate surface of nearly 23,000 acres. Gull river, which flows into Balsam lake, drains an area of 324,200 acres, constituting the third largest drainage basin within the territory included by this report. The headwaters are formed by a network of lakes in Stanhope, Guilford, Havelock, and Sherborne townships. The basin as a whole contains 80 or more lakes. Three of the lakes, Redstone in Guilford, Kennjsis in Havelock, and Gull lake in Lutter- worth township have a combined surface area of 8,700 acres. The total lake surface in the basin is 40,900 acres. Smaller basins not specifically mentioned have a total area of 127,400 acres. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 37 Some 400 lakes are indicated on the map of this region. These reservoirs have a total area of 103,000 acres — 7 per cent of the entire area. Topography. — The country consists of innumerable low rounded hnis and ridges. In the great majority of cases there is less than 100 feet difference in altitude between the streams and the ridges which separate them. Often the divides between the smaller streams are nearly flat or slightly rolling in character. When the higher ridges are ascended one sees an even sky-line and the country has the appear- ance of a flat plain into which countless depressions have been etched by the streams. Scattered over the region are occasional hills and ridges which stand from 200 to 300 feet above the general level of the plain, as, for example, in Tudor township between Millbridge and Glanmire, the Blue mountains in Methuen, the Green mountains in Glamorgan, and the granite ridges in central Anstruther. Along the northern limits of the watershed, the valleys are deeper and narrower, and the general elevation of the plain or plateau is about 1,250 feet above sea level. The northern portion of the watershed in Haliburton coimty is approximately 500 feet higher than Stony lake, and the southward slope of the plain is about 8 feet to the mile. The ridges, for the most part, have a northeast-southwest direction, and practically all the larger streams flow towards the southwest. Geology. — The rocks of the region consist of various kinds of granite and gneiss, crystalline limestone, amphiboHte, gabbro, diorite, syenite, and sedimentary limestone of Black River age. Except the Trenton limestone, none of these occur in large areas in pure condition, since both the granites and crystalline limestones are often mixed with bands of gneiss and amphiboHte. The whole region was once covered with sedimentary rock, mostly limestone, and in some crustal movement of the earth the granite and other plutonic rocks were pushed up through it. The forces concerned changed the limestone into its present crystalline form and brought the amphibolites and gneisses into existence. Three distinctive lines of these intrusive rocks cross the area in a northeast-southwest direction, and, being harder than the sur- rounding rock, they constitute the higher points in the topography. The eastern line of intrusive rock is interrupted, but it can be traced through the Blue mountains in Methuen, "The Ridge" in southern Wollaston, and the rugged diorite ridges in the northeastern portion of the towTiship. The middle line of eruptive rock extends northward through portions of Burleigh, Harvey, and Anstruther in a soHd mass of gneissic granite, and then, with some interruptions, joins the great granitic outcrop to the north of the Trent watershed. The western outcrop of eruptive rock, begins in Galway and extends through 38 COMMISSIONOFCONSERVATION Snowdon and Glamorgan into Dysart, where it is interrupted, and then continues to the great northern mass of granite. The last two lines are composed of granite and related rock, the former averaging about ID and the latter 8 miles in width. These two, as well as the east- em outcrop of volcanic rocks are surroimded by transformed sedi- mentary rocks. This sedimentary rock being softer, many of the stream valleys lie in it. This is notably the case with Deer creek, Jcick creek, Eels brook, Irondale river, and Gull river for the greater part of its length. The rocks described above belong to what the geo- logists call the Grenville-Hastings series of the Palaeozoic Era. Sedimentary limestone of a different geological age (Cambro- Silurian) occurs in southern Marmora in a large block, continuing in '-mattered patches westward to central Harvey, where it extends with some intrusions of other kinds of rock, in a northwest direction through southern Galway and nearly diagonally through Somerville to the limits of the watershed. i Sails. — The region has suffered severely from glaciation, and the nature of the soils has been determined by it and by the excessive flow of waters during and immediately subsequent to the ice age. Many of the ridges were scoured clean of their soils, and the elapsed time since has not been long enough to restore them by natiu-al processes to more than a very shallow depth. The killing of the protecting trees and the destruction of the humus by fires have resulted in washing off the soil in many cases, especially on the granite, so that now the ridges are bare. The rock of the low ridges and upland areas is covered by a thin mantle of glacial debris, mostly sand, gravel, and pebbles. It is rarely that one finds the soil on the uplands more than i8 inches deep, except in local pockets. This applies to farm lands, as well as to the forest lands. The flats between the low ridges have, at one time, been covered by glacial waters, and the debris has been more or less sorted, but the top layer of soil is sand interspersed with thin layers of gravel. These are the areas which were originally occupied by pine, and, unfortunately, they are now often occupied by farms. The stream valleys were filled with glacial drift and the present streams have worn their channels through it, forming sandy terraces along the slopes. In the western portion of the watershed particularly, most of the farms are in the stream valleys. The lower terraces, and especially the flood plains, contain, indeed, fairly good agricultural soil, but these areas are very limited in extent except in the lower courses of the larger streams. As a whole, the soils of the area may be roughly grouped into three classes, which in sequence of their abundance are : stony, light, sandy ■2 W pi o, " D I o ^ HPPiP^f'^'''-i1 m|^^^Vv -'^IIUHI PXSK^ • 'A '»:*'• I'-'V "i rf^ill^ :'I^I^^H S^OBmS^^^^^^S^^. CONDITION OF FOREST TYPES 39 loams ; sand ; and the heavier loams (silt loam and clay loam). The last named, however, are very restricted and form a very small per- centage of the entire area. II. The Condition of the Various Forest Types In General With reference to the kind of species, and, at the same time, to the character of the soils on which they grow, the forests of the Trent watershed were divided into the following four types : the hardwood type, the mixed coniferous-hardwood type, the pure coniferous type, and the poplar-birch type. Each of these will be discussed in detail in the following pages. With reference to the degree of cutting, each of these types was classified as virgin, moderately culled, and severely culled. With reference to the age of reproduction, after clean cutting or after fire, the young forests were classified as second growth and young growth. In the final tabulation of the results of the field work — it was found that the area of virgin forests, with the exception of that in the holdings of one company in the extreme northern portion of the territory — amounted to less than 700 acres. The virgin condition was, therefore, grouped with the moderately culled condition. By 'moderately culled' is meant a forest from which the better class of saw-logs has been removed. This condition is most common in the hardwood forests, where the bass wood, elm, ash, and, sometimes, the better quality of maple have been cut, leaving the forest almost pure maple and beech, yet of a quality which could be further utilized for saw-logs. In such cases the crown cover remains practically unbroken. Only 22 per cent of the mature forest is in the condition designated as moderately culled. In the severely culled forest, practically all the merchantable saw-logs have been removed, leaving material fit only for cordwood, charcoal, or wood distillation products in the case of the hardwoods. This condition is the prevailing one in the hardwood type because a large percentage of it is composed of farm wood-lots, in which a long continued selection system of cutting has led to this result. In the ma- jority of cases the crown cover in such a forest is unbroken, and it is only by a close inspection of the interior that the real condition of the forest is disclosed. Where, however, cuttings for fuel or for wood distillation products have been made in the hardwood forest, the crown cover has been very severely broken ; in fact, only scattering trees of non-commercial species remain. Nearly 8,000 acres of this type of cutting were found in the northern townships, principally in Dysart and Dudley. Under the heading of 'severely culled' in the hardwood type, therefore, a considerable range of conditions is included. The greater 40 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION portion of it still has an unbroken crown cover and is composed of over- mature trees and abundant young material nearly ready for the axe. While the saw-logs considered merchantable under the present standards have been chiefly removed, yet the severely culled hardwood forest type contains large quantities of material utilizable in the minor wood- working industries. In the mixed types and in the pure coniferous types, the severely culled condition prevails, for the limiberman takes practically everything, so that only scattered poles and saplings remain. Excluding the recent bums, the old bums, the barrens, and the young growth, mature forests in the Trent watershed occupy 397,700 acres, and of these 310,300 acres, or 78 percent, have been severely culled. As a result of clean cutting or fires, frequent young stands of maple, beech, and birch; of pine, hemlock and balsam; and of a mixture of these are foimd. Such stands were divided according to age into ' young growth' and 'second growth', the former being from 20 to 40 years, and the latter from 40 to 60 years old. The stands of young growth ag- gregate 12,070 acres, and the stands of second growth only 7,890 acres. The young growth and second growth of birch and poplar, mostly aris- ing as the result of fires, were classified separately. The classification of the mature forest areas into three general types, namely, 'pure hardwood,' 'pure conifer,' and 'mixed,' is based upon the degree of intermixture of the two classes. For example, a hardwood forest was considered pure, if the mixture of conifers among the domi- nant trees did not exceed 10 per cent ; a coniferous forest was con- sidered pure, if the intermixture of hardwoods was not greater than 10 per cent ; stands of greater than a 10 per cent mixture of conifers or hardwoods were designated as a mixed type. The areas represented on the maps and in the tables as 'recently bumed,' i.e. bumed within the past four years, do not give the real extent of the recent fires because they refer only to the areas where the trees were killed. Areas over which fires had run, killing the young growth but not the mature trees, were classed as forested. The barrens and semi-barrens recently bumed were not included. It should be noted that in those townships not lying wholly within the Trent watershed, the percentages of the area and distribution of the forest refer only to the portions surveyed and not to the townships as a whole. In the appended tables certain townships are separately enumer- ated, and the area of these lands is not included in determining the per- centages of the various forest types. These lands are privately owned, mostly by one company, and with one exception they are practically unsettled, and, for the most part, almost entirely untouched. They HARDWOOD TYPE 41 represent a different type of forest than that farther south, being pure hardwoods, or mixed conifers and hardwoods, in virgin or semi- virgin condition. The primary object of the survey being to determine the conditions on cut-over and burned-over lands, these townships were considered separately. The composition of the various forest types as described in the fol- lowing pages was determined by means of sample plots, which for the most part, were made in strips one chain wide and ten chains long, so as to obtain as nearly as possible the average conditions. The trees of the various species were classified as saplings, poles, standards, and veterans. The saplings are from i inch to 4 inches in diameter ; the poles from 4 to 12 inches ; the standards from 12 to 24 inches ; and the veterans over 24 inches in diameter. The Hardwood Type The hardwood forest type occupies a little over one-quarter of the area included in this report, and almost one-third of the total woodland area. Excluding the young growth of all kinds we find that the mature hardwood forest occupies over three-quarters of the entire mature forest ; in other words, pure hardwood is the prevailing type. Within the hardwood type only 0.15 per cent is in virgin con- dition, and 19.7 per cent of it is semi-virgin. On most of the balance nearly all the saw-logs have been removed, that is, it has been severely culled. Young growth less than 40 years old covers less than three per cent of the hardwood area, and second growth, nearly ready for the axe, hardly one per cent. The hardwoods occupy the deeper glacial drift soils, which, for the most part, are sandy loams, but stony. They are found on the higher ridges, if these are well covered with soil, without regard to the nature of the underlying rock. They also often occur on the low sandy flats lying betewen the ridges once occupied by pine. There seems to be little difference in the composition of the soil of such sites and that of the adjoining pine lands, except that the water-table is higher, and hence the soil is much more moist. In addition, since these areas have never been burned over, the soil contains more vegetable matter. Such hardwoods as occupy relatively shallow soils are confined to those overlying the sedimentary limestone, which skirts the southern por- tion of the region. In the southern two-thirds of the drainage basin, the hardwoods are localized and irregularly distributed in patches, being surroimded by former pine lands. There are, however, some exceptions to this condition. For example, there is a large, continuous block of hard- 42 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION woods in the eastern portion of Lake township. Another of the same kind may be found in northern Anstruther and southeastern Monmouth. These are areas where the rocks have been covered to much more than the usual depth with glacial debris. In the northern third of the drainage basin, the townships of Stanhope, Guilford, Minden, Dysart, and Dudley are deeply overlain by drift, and the forest conditions of the southern portion are reversed, that is, the hardwoods or mixed forests are the prevailing types, and the pine lands are localized within them. In order to determine the composition of the hardwood type, the trees of the various species were counted and classified according to diameters, after the manner explained above. Sample plots to the extent of i6 acres were made in various places scattered through the region. Most of these were taken in small patches of virgin stands or, if trees had been removed, the stimipswere counted as standing trees, the object being to determine the composition of the original hardwood forest. The results of such determinations are given in the following pages. The three plots given below were made in Lake township. Number of Trees per Acre on a Low Flat Between Slopes Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Sugar Maple Basswood . Beech Yellow Birch. Elm Hemlock. . . . Ash Standards 12 4 4 4 4 Poles 4 4 4 Total 28 16 12 12 8 Total... Per cent . Species — Sugar Maple . Beech Hemlock Yellow Birch . Basswood .... ....4 32 16 36 88 .... 4.5 36.4 18.2 40.9 Number of Trees per Acre on a Gentle Slope Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent 31.8 18.2 13.6 13.6 9.1 9.1 4.6 100.0 24 512 320 32 600 416 48 8 Total 8 40 168 864 1,080 100.0 Percent 0.8 3.6 15.6 80 Number of Trees per Acre on a Bench about 50 Feet above the Flat Species — Sugar Maple Beech Yellow Birch Basswood Hop Hornbeam Balsam Large-toothed Aspen Veterans 40 Standards 8 24 Poles 32 80 24 48 8 24 288 136 144 48 48 lings Total 240 176 96 56 24 Per cent 38.0 24.8 18.2 9.9 5.8 2.5 8 100.0 Total 40 40 224 664 961 Percent 4.1 4.1 23.2 68.6 These plots were taken successively from the base to near the top of the .slope, where the type was mixed. HARDWOOD TYPE 43 The average of the three sites — low flat, slope and bench — shows the average composition of the hardwood type to be : sugar maple, 41.8 per cent ; beech, 25.6 per cent ; yellow birch, 10.8 percent; bass- wood, 9.6 percent; hemlock, 4.5 percent; elm, 3 percent; hop hornbeam, 1.9 per cent; ash, 1.8 per cent; balsam, 0.8 per cent ;•; large-toothed aspen, 0.2 per cent. If we ignore the poles and saplings and consider only the dominant or log trees the composition becomes: sugar maple, 46.4 per cent ; beech, 31.7 per cent ; yellow birch, 14.7 per cent ; basswood. elm, and hemlock, each 2.4 per cent. And, if we assume that the poles and saplings as given above all come to maturity, replacing the dominant trees, the complexion of the forest would still remain much the same. The poles and saplings per acre aggregate 1,972, and, as a class, their composition is distributed as follows : sugar maple, 46.7 per cent ; beech, 31.23 per cent ; yellow birch, 8.72 per cent ; bass- wood, 5.9 per cent ; hornbeam, 2.9 per cent ; hemlock, 2.6 per cent ; balsam, 1.2 per cent ; aspen, 0.4 per cent ; ash and elm, each 0.2 per cent. This shows strikingly that the two leading species, maple and beech, will hold their present position in the future forest, and, since this is in virgin forest, it indicates that they are fully adjusted to their environment. It is what is called a "climax forest, " the ultimate result of adaptations. To show the variations which may occur in this type, the following sample areas are enumerated. A strip run through the northwestern comer of Lake township from the base of a slope to a mixed type on its crest, showed the following composition. Number of Trees per Acre on a Flat at the Base of a Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 10 20 70 100 58.8 Beech 30 10 30 70 41.2 Total ". 40 30 100 170 100.0 Percent 23.6 17.6 58.8 Number of Trees per Acre on a Gentle Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 4 4 16 36 60 60 Beech 16 20 4 40 40 Total 4 20 36 40 100 100 Per cent 4 20 36 40 Number of Trees per Acre on a Bench near the Top of a Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Beech 4 36 56 96 45.3 Sugar Maple 20 24 ..44 88 41.6 Hop Hornbeam .. 4 16 20 9.4 Hemlock 8 .. .. 8 3.7 Total 20 36 40 116 212 100.0 Per cent 9.4 17 18.9 54.7 Taking the average composition of these three site classes, we find the com- position as a whole to be : maple, 53.4 per cent ; beech, 42.2 per cent ; hop horn- beam, 3.1 per cent. ; hemlock, 1,2 per cent. 44 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION A sample strip of an acre in Wollaston showed the following composition of the hardwood type. Number of Trees per Acre on a Medixjm Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 20 52 40 20 132 85.0 Beech 8 .. .. 8 5.0 Basswood .. 8 .. .. 8 5.0 YeUow Birch .. 4 .. 4 2.5 Hop Hornbeam .. 4 .. 4 2.5 Total 20 68 48 20 156 100.0 Percent 12.8 43.6 30.8 12.8 In the township of Chandos a sample acre in a virgin hardwood forest revealed an almost pure maple tj'pe as is shown below. Number of Trees per Acre on a Medium Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 28 124 .. 152 95.0 Elm 4 .. 4 2.5 Hop Hornbeam 4 4 2.5 Total 4 28 124 4 160 100.0 Percent 2.5 17.5 77.5 2.5 Sample plots in the large block of hardwoods in northern Anstruther show them to be of the following composition. Number of Trees per Acre on a Flat Plateau Species— Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Beech >6 42 80 46 174 63.5 Sugar Maple 12 .. 2 80 94 34.3 Hemlock .. 4 .. 4 1.5 Yellow Birch 2 .. .. .. _2 0.7 Total 20 42 86 126 274 100.0 Percent 7.3 15.3 31.4 46 Regarding only the dominant trees one finds the stand to be 77.4 per cent beech, 19.4 per cent sugar maple, and 3.2 per cent yellow birch. The soil was a foot deep to a pavement of stones. Compared with the maple, the beech occupies the thinner, more stony soils. This fact is known to the farmers of the region, who avoid clearing beech lands. On an adjacent ridge where the soil was from 24 inches to 30 inches deep the stand was mostly maple, as is shown below. Number of Trees per Acre on a Low Ridge Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 4 50 54 70 178 69.2 Hemlock 2 2 22 .. 26 10.1 Basswood 6 8 . . 14 5.5 Hop Hornbeam .. 12 .. 12 4.7 White Ash 2 2 6 10 3.9 Beech 2 6 1 9 3.5 YeUow Birch 4 2 .. .. 6 2.3 Balaam .. 2 2 0.8 Total 10 64 104 79 257 100.0 Per cent 3.9 24.9 40.5 30.7 Considered from the standpoint of the dominant trees, the stand shows 73 per cent maple, 8.1 per cent each of basswood and yellow birch, 5.4 per cent hemlock, 2.7 per cent each of white ash and beech. HARDWOOD TYPE 45 In the virgin hardwood in Cavendish a sample acre showed the following com- position. Number of Trees per Acre on a Flat between Low Ridges Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple. Ehn Basswood. . . . Yellow Birch . Hemlock .... Black Cherry , 10 V8 20 180 74.4 24 10.0 22 9.1 8 3.3 6 2.4 2 0.8 242 100.0 [ Total 10 48 86 98 Percent 4.2 19.8 35.5 40.5 As to dominant species the stand consisted of sugar maple 82.7 per cent, elm 13.8 per cent, yellow birch 2.5 per cent. The trees were counted on four acres in the hardwood forest lying between Eagle lake and Redstone lake in the township of Guilford. The composition on the various sites is as follows. Number of Trees per Acre at the Base of a Slope Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saphngs Total Per cent Sugar Maple 2 9 14 26 51 60.0 Basswood 1 3 4 3 11 13.1 Beech 3 4 2 9 10.5 YeUow Birch 3 2 2 7 8.2 Hemlock 3 3 3.5 Hop Hornbeam. . . 3 3 2.3 Ehn i *i 1 1 1.2 Balsam 1.2 Total 7 17 31 31 86 100.0 Per cent 8 20 36 36 If one considers only the dominant trees, the stand becomes : maple 45.8 per cent ; yellow birch 20.8 per cent ; basswood 16.7 per cent ; beech 12.5 per cent ; elm 4.2 per cent. Species — Beech Sugar Maple . . Basswood YeUow Birch.. Elm Hop Hornbeam Number of Trees per Acre on a Medium Slope Veterans adard^ i Poles Saphngs Total Per cent 12 44 34 90 46.4 12 2 32 52 26.8 12 4 10 32 16.5 10 2 16 8.3 2 2 1.0 2 2 1.0 194 100.0 Total 16 46 56 76 Per cent 8.2 23.7 28.9 39.2 Considering only the mature trees, one finds the stand to be 29 per cent each of maple and basswood, 22.6 per cent of yellow birch, 19.4 per cent of beech. Species — Sugar Maple . . . Beech Basswood Hop Hornbeam. Yellow Birch... Number of Trees per Acre on a High Bench Veterans adards } Poles Saplings Total Per cent 5 23 45 81 61.0 16 25 41 30.8 3 1 1 6 4.5 3 3 2.2 1 2 1.5 Total 10 25 52 46 133 100.0 Percent 7.5 18.8 39.1 34.6 The composition of the dominant trees on this area is distributed as follows : beech 45.7 per cent ; maple 37.2 per cent ; basswood 11.4 per cent ; yellow birch 5.7 per cent. 46 COMMIISSION OF CONSERVATION Number of Trees per Acre at the Top of a Slope Skecies — Veterans Beech 2 Sugar Maple 2 YeUow Birch 2 Hemlock Hop Hornbeam Total 6 Percent 3.1 Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent 48 22 66 138 71.9 4 4 30 40 20.9 4 4 110 5.2 2 . ■ 2 1.0 2 ?■ 2 1.0 58 32 96 192 100.0 30.2 16.7 50 Without the poles and saplings, the stand has the following composition : Beech 78.1 per cent ; maple and yellow birch each 9.4 per cent ; hemlock 3.1 per cent. It is characteristic of the beech to be more abundant in the shallow soils at the top of the ridges. Regarding these four site classes as representative, we would 6nd the composi- tion of the hardwood forest near Redstone lake in Guilford to be : maple 42 per cent ; beech 40 per cent ; basswood 8.6 per cent ; yellow birch 5.8 per cent ; hop hornbeam 1.6 per cent ; hemlock 1.1 per cent ; elm 0.6 per cent ; and balsam 0.3 per cent. The tables above give a good idea of the variations in composi- tion of the hardwood forest in the northern and central portions of the area under consideration in this report. The hardwood forest on the sedimentary limestone which occurs interruptedly across the southern boundary of the watershed contains, relatively, more basswood, hop hornbeam, ash, red oak, and white oak, and it was the only place where burr oak was seen. Pure stands of hop hornbeam and of oak were frequent. Since settlement is more extensive on these soils, some difficulty was experienced in finding a virgin stand on the sedimentary limestone. The following plot, however, was made on a lot in Harvey township, where there was no indication that trees had been removed. Number of Trees per Acre on a Gentle Slope Species- Sugar Mapl€ Hop Hornbeam. Ash Beech Red Oak White Pine Hemlock Total. . . Per cent . Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent 4 25 1 108 138 29.7 1 12 50 60 123 26.5 7 110 117 25.2 5 48 53 11.4 2 18 20 4.3 2 6 8 1.7 1 3 4 0.8 1 1 2 0.4 5 37 69 354 465 100.0 1.1 8.0 14.8 76.1 4 _;f*^T" ^m^ ^^3r ^J*, A MIXED TYPE— BIRCH AND PINE, ON THIN GRANITIC SOIL i%#. ^* Commisi tan a-T Conservation ^ A SIMILAR SITUATION WHICH HAS SUFFERED SUCCESSIVE FIRES MIXED TYPE 47 The average number of trees of the various age classes per acre, and the average composition by species of 16 acres of sample plots are given in the table below. Average Number of Trees of Various Species per Acre on Sample Plots Aggregatinq 16 Acres Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple Beech . Basswood Yellow Birch . . . Hop Hornbeam . Hemlock Elm Balsam Ash Aspen Red Oak White Pine Black Cherry . . Total. .. Per cent . 8.7 20.8 30.0 104.2 163.7 51.19 0.5 14.5 25.3 44.8 85.1 26.61 0.5 3.0 7.9 17.5 28.9 9.04 1.2 2.5 2.5 9.2 15.4 4.82 2.8 11.1 13.9 4.34 0.1 1.0 3.1 2.3 6.5 2.03 0.3 0.7 1.3 2.3 0.72 1.5 0.1 1.6 0.50 0.1 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.35 0.5 0.5 0.16 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.13 0.06 0.2 0.26 0.08 0.1 0.1 0.03 11.3 42.6 75.56 190.3 319.76 100.00 5.1 20.3 30.7 43.9 As will be seen from these records, the poles and saplings of the leading species are abundant, a hopeful condition, assuring the repro- duction of the forest of the same nature. Where the forest has been thinned by limibering, the vigoiir of the reproduction is all the more striking. In such situations one often finds dense thickets of young maple, beech, and yellow birch. Maple, however, is by far the most abundant among the seedlings and small saplings. One finds it every- where. Sometimes a dense carpet of maple seedlings covers several acres to the exclusion of nearly all other plants. The Mixed Type The mixed forest type as exhibited on the accompanying map represents in reality a combination of two distinct types, namely the mixed hardwood-conifer type of the well drained areas, and a mixed swamp type. This swamp type representing nearly one-half of the combination, is the ordinary black ash-cedar-balsam swamp. In the former type, which is found on the fiats and at the bases of slopes along streams and lakes, and on some of the low ridges rising above the pure hardwood forest, the principal conifer associated with the hardwood is hemlock ; balsam usually holds the second place. The combination, as given on the map, occupies 59,600 acres, or 5.1 per cent of the entire area and 6.1 per cent of the forested area. A little more than one- fifth of the mixed type is moderately culled ; nearly three-fourths is severely culled ; and the remaining one-twentieth is yoimg growth and second growth. 48 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION A few sample plots were made in the former type, and the tables below indicate its composition. Number of Trees per Acre on the Crest of a Low Ridge, Lake Township Species— Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Hemlock 40 136 160 336 44.4 Sugar Maple 8 32 168 208 27.3 Beech 24 48 104 176 23.1 YeUow Birch 16 ... 16 32 4.2 Hop Hornbeam .. 8 ... 8 1.0 Total 88 224 448 760 100.0 Percent 11.6 29.5 58.9 A sample plot was made in Wollaston on a gentle slope rising from a cedar swamp. While the stand was mostly composed of hardwoods, yet it contained enough hemlock to bring it into the mixed type. Number of Trees per Acre on a Gentle Slope near a Swamp, Wollaston Township Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 10 10 60 20 100 58.2 Hemlock 20 30 .. 50 29.0 Beech 20 .. 2 22 12.8 Total 10 50 90 22 172 100.0 Percent 5.8 29.1 52.3 12.8 A slope arising from a stream in Anstruther had a mixed forest with the com- position given below. Number of Trees per Acre on a Slope from a Stream, Anstruther Township Species — ■ Veterans Standards Poles Hemlock 25 12 Sugar Maple 2 15 7 Balaam . . . . 5 Basswood . . 1 9 YeUow Birch 19 3 Beech 1 6 Hop Hornbeam . . . . 7 Cedar . . 2 Ash Total 3 51 51 Percent 2.1 37.0 37.0 The sample plot below was made in Guilford township on a gentle slope from a small lake. Number of Trees per Acre on a Gentle Slope from a Lake Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Hemlock 32 40 .. 72 35.0 Balsam 12 .. 22 34 16.5 Sugar Maple 2 22 6 ..30 14.5 Yellow Birch 6 18 4 28 13.6 Basswood 6 12 4 22 10.7 Hop Hornbeam .. 12 2 14 6.7 Cedar .. .. 4 4 2.0 Black Spruce 2 .. .. 2 1.0 Total 2 80 88 36 206 100.0 Percent 1.0 38.8 42.7 17.5 SapUngs Total Per cent 14 51 37.0 24 17.4 11 16 11.6 3 13 9.4 13 9.4 3 10 7.2 7 5.1 1 3 2.2 1 1 0.7 33 138 100.0 23.9 MIXED TYPE The average number and percentage of individuals of the various species, and of the various age classes, on an acre, is shown in the table below. Average Number of Trees per Acre of the Various Species and Age Classes — Highland Type (4 Acres) Species— Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Hemlock 29.2 54.5 43.5 127.2 40.0 Sugar Maple 3.5 13.7 26.2 47.0 90.4 28.4 Beech 11.2 13.5 27.2 51.9 16.3 Yellow Birch 0.2 7.7 5.2 5.0 18.1 5.7 Balsam 3.0 1.2 8.2 12.4 3.9 Basswood 1.7 5.2 1.7 8.6 2.5 Hop Hornbeam... CeJar 6.7 0.5 7.2 2.3 0.5 1.2 1.7 0.6 Black Spruce 0.5 0.5 0.2 Ash...!^ . 6.2 0.2 0.1 Total 3.7 67.0 113.0 134.5 318.2 100.0 Per cent 2.2 29.1 40.4 28.3 The mixed swamp type is foimd on the lowlands bordering streams and lakes. While frequent throughout the Trent watershed, it is most abimdant in the two southern tiers of townships. In the northern townships, it is replaced by coniferous swamps. As a rule, black ash and cedar comprise three-fourths of the stand, and it is from such swamps that large quantities of cedar poles are taken. When these swamps are cleared and drained they make excellent farm soils, in fact, in some townships the only good farms are on such soils. Sample plots totaUing an acre were made in the mixed swamp in various places in the township of WoUaston, and the results are shown in the table below. Number of Trees per Acre in the Mixed Swamp Type, Wollaston Township Species— Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Black Ash 26 24 44 80 368 180 438 294 47.0 Cedar 10 31.5 Balsam 2 62 80 144 15.5 YeUow Birch. . . . 18 16 34 3.7 Hemlock 4 6 6 16 1.7 Ehn 4 4 0.4 Basswood 2 0.2 Total 10 56 212 654 930 100.0 Per cent 1.1 6.0 22.7 70.2 A strip a chain wide and ten chains long was run through a mixed swamp on Paudash creek in Chandos with the following result : Number of Trees per Acre in the Mlxed Swamp Type, Chandos Township Species — Veterans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Black Ash 32 14 49 65 91 83 172 162 36.9 Cedar 34.8 Balsam 3 14 18 35 7.5 Black Spruce Hemlock 9 15 10 34 7.3 1 6 20 5 32 6.9 YeUow Birch.... 16 6 3 25 5.4 Maple 2 2 4 0.8 Ehn 2 2 0.4 Total 1 80 173 212 466 100.0 Percent 0.2 17.2 37.1 45.5 50 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The average acre shows the following age class relations. Average Number of Trees per Acre of the Various Species and Age Classes — Swamp Type (2 Acres) Species — Black Ash Cedar Balsam YeUow Birch Hemlock Black Spruce Ehn Maple Basswood Total. . . Per cent . erans Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent 29.0 46.5 229.5 305.0 41.9 19.0 72.5 131.5 228.0 33.2 2.5 38.0 49.0 89.5 11.5 8.0 12.0 9.5 29.5 4.6 .5 5.0 13.0 5.5 24.0 4.3 4.5 7.5 5.0 17.0 3.6 1.0 2.0 3.0 .4 1.0 1.0 2.0 .4 1.0 1.0 .1 .5 68.0 192.5 433.0 699.0 100.0 .6 11.6 29.9 57.9 The Coniferous T5rpe The coniferous forest type, as presented on the accompanying maps and in the appended tables, is composed of three distinct types : the hemlock type, the pine type, and the coniferous swamp type. Taken together, they occupy to-day only a small area, less than 5 per cent of the total woodland. Only a few acres are virgin ; about one- third is moderately culled, while four-fifths of the area is severely culled. The second growth and young growth occupy about one- eighth of the coniferous forest type. The hemlock type is found in patches on low land surrounding lakes throughout the area, but is most extensive in the northern portion. The largest block in the southern portion of the area is found in western Anstruther and eastern Cavendish. No sample plots were made in this type, but it is safe to say that three-fourths of such stands is hem- lock. Some 500,000 acres, or 57.3 per cent of the forested area were once occupied by pine, chiefly white pine, but, owing to repeated fires, following limibering operations, the pine forests now exist only in re- latively small patches. Such as do exist are advanced second growth from 60 to 100 years old ; the original virgin pine has been practically eUminated from the area. Sample plots were made in a stand of white pine between 60 and 70 years old in the township of Marmora. The stand had occupied about 57 acres and had been recently cut. The pine occupied two site classes, the ridges and the flats between the ridges. The soil, a sandy loam, averaged 17 inches in depth on the flats and 8 inches on the ridges. From the former site, 150 trees per acre, averaging 11.9 inches in dia- meter had been taken, while, from the latter, 55 trees per acre averaging 1 1.5 inches in diameter had been removed. The average yield per acre was 3,400 board feet. Fire scars on the trees revealed the fact that the < 01 S H O ft a. POPLAR-BIRCH TYPE 51 stand had been burned at least three times. It suffered a light fire, mostly on the ridges, 20 years ago, and heavy fires 45 and 57 years ago. The stand probably originated from a fire between 75 and 80 years ago. No sample plots were made in the coniferous swamp type. The species are cedar, balsam, black spruce, and tamarack, and they occur in various proportions, sometimes one species and sometimes another predominating. While such swamps are common throughout the area, they are most abundant and of largest extent in the northern tier of townships. These swamps occupy some 14,600 acres, or 66 per cent of the coniferous type. They are the chief source of supply of cedar poles. The coniferous forest is practically cut clean in the process of lum- bering. Very little remains to establish the future crop. For example, on a licensed lot in Anstruther an average of 30 mature white pine trees per acre had been removed. A strip half a chain wide and 20 chains long was run through the cutting, and on this area (2 acres) a carefiil search failed to disclose a young pine tree of any kind. A similar strip was made in a cutting of hemlock, and it was found that 93 hemlock trees per acre had been removed. To reproduce the hem- lock, there were left 5 poles and 2 saplings. That is, where 93 trees were taken only 7 were left to establish a future crop, and the chances are that these will be blown down or burned. Cases like these might be multiplied indefinitely ; in fact, such is the usual condition on cut- over crown lands. There is no hope for a future supply, which must come from such cut-over lands. Another fact should be pointed out in this connection : it is the custom of the Government to consider revenues from cuttings like these as current receipts ; whereas, since forest lands so treated become non-productive and useless, they, in reality, represent money taken from the capital stock. The Poplar-Birch Type The most important type, because occupying the largest area, is the poplar-birch type, which is almost entirely the result of forest fires. It comprises 57.3 per cent of the forested area. It is not a permanent forest type but represents only the prelimininary stages in the replace- ment of the original forest. That is, this would be the natural process, were it not for the destructive and retarding influence of man's agency, through fires which, if repeated on the same area, eventually kill all seed trees of the original species and so prevent their re-establishment, or at least delay it to a very distant future. Where fire does not follow the cutting of the commercial species, or where only one fire follows. 62 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION the young growth of the original species generally estabHshes itself, in the course of twenty or thirty years, in their former numerical quanti- ties. When, however, repeated fires occur, resulting in the destruction of the seed trees, the young growth can invade the burned area only from the margins of the unbiuned forest. With pines it is only accident- ally that seeds are deposited more than 200 or 300 feet from the mother tree, it would, therefore, require many generations of trees to advance the new growth of the commercial species across a burned area a mile wide. Areas of this size intervening between seed trees are very com- mon on the old bums of the Trent valley. Therefore, to say nothing of the disastrous effects of repeated fires upon the humus content of the soil, repeated fires retard the natural re-establishment of valuable species in their original proportions by several hundred years. The poplar-birch stands for the most part represent former pineries, and they occur in the thin soils of the crystalline limestones and the gran- itic rock, and upon the deeper soils of the sand plains and sand ridges. The composition of these stands was determined in detail in several representative places from township to township, with special reference to the reproduction of the commercial species. Tudor. — The greater portion of Tudor township lying within the Trent water- shed, some 14,400 acres, or 64 per cent of the area, was severely burned about 32 years ago. Various portions have been re-burned since, the most recent fire being in 1911. The most sterile conditions in this old burn are to be found along the crest of the rocky ridge on the Hastings road about four miles from the village of Mill- bridge, where not more than one-fourth of the area has soil of any kind, being com- posed of ridges and hillocks of great blocks of rock. The poorer sites are occupied by poplar saphngs and poles at the rate of only 150 per acre. On better sites, paper birch occurs at the rate of 190, and sugar maple at the rate of 60 trees per acre, while, at the foot of slopes and in deep ravines, one finds pure maple stands having 170 saplings and 240 poles per acre. The only reproduction of coniferous species (balsam and cedar) is found aroimd the margins of swamps and in some of the deeper ravines. North of Horseshoe lake and Jordan lake, where the country is made up of low sandy or rocky ridges with swamps in the depressions, one finds on the burn of about 32 years ago on the average acre the following : Number of Trees per Acre, Old Burn, Sandy Ridge Species — ■ Standards Poles Saphngs Total Per cent Poplar 10 90 360 460 56.1 Sugar Maple .. ... 170 170 20.7 Paper Birch .. ... 70 70 8.6 Hop Hornbeam... .. ... 50 50 7.3 Pin Cherry .. 20 40 60 6.1 Balsam .. ... 10 10 1.2 Total 10 110 700 820 100.0 Percent 1.2 13.4 85.4 POPLAR-BIRCH TYPE 53 Number of Trees per Acre, Base of Slopes, Transitional to Swamps Species — Poles Saplings Total Per cent Poplar 110 540 650 51.5 Sugar Maple 340 340 27.0 Black Ash 20 90 110 8.7 Hop Hornbeam 60 60 4.8 Paper Birch 40 40 3.2 Juneberry 30 30 2.4 Pin Cherry 20 20 1.6 Elm 10 10 0.8 Total 130 1,130 1,260 100.0 Percent 10.4 89.6 If these figures may be considered as representative, it would appear that the number of trees per acre along the base is 60 per cent greater than along the top of the ridges ; i.e. the reproduction along the base of the ridges is more promismg. There is practically no reproduction of coniferous species on this area except balsam. This, however, together with cedar, is plentiful in the moister situations. The stumps on the ridges disclose the fact that pine, now entirely absent, once occupied them at the rate of 60 trees to the acre. In a thin strip next to the highway along the Hastings Road grants, however, second growth white pine may be found in sufficient numbers to indicate future commercial quantities. In the old bum to the eastward of Bass lake, one finds patches of good reproduction in lots 17 and 18 in the 17th concession, where the stand is of the following composition : Number of Trees per Acre in an Old Burn, Gentle Slope Species— Poles Saplings Total Per cent Sugar Maple 30 460 490 40.2 White Pine 200 180 380 31.1 Paper Birch 90 40 130 10.7 Hop Hornbeam 130 130 10.7 Beech 40 40 3.3 Balsam 10 20 30 2.4 Cedar 20 20 1.6 Total 330 890 1,220 100.0 Percent 27.1 72.9 There were about 50 acres in this stand and, with the exception of a few small patches, this stand contained the only white pine reproduction discovered in travel- ling two miles through the old burn. Limerick and Cashel. — North of Salmon lake and Devil lake in Limerick and Cashel, an old burn covers some 16,000 acres within the watershed and extends beyond it on the eastern and western sides. The area has been burned at least three times, 35, 20, and 10 years ago. A few patches of pine reproduction, however, appear to date from a fire 75 years ago. These were probably too small to be cut when the region was lumbered about 35 years ago, and escaped the subsequent fires. In order to determine what might be expected after 75 years on an area burned but once, sample plots were made in these stands with the following results. Number of Trees per Acre on an Area Burned 75 Years Ago Species— Poles SapUngs Total Per cent White Pine 180 20 200 55.6 Red Pine 80 ... 80 22.2 Cedar 40 30 70 19.4 Yellow Birch 10 ... 10 2.8 Total 310 50 360 100.0 Percent 86.1 13.9 54 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The average diameter of 20 white pine in this stand was 6.7 inches and the average age 70 years, so the growi;h was 1 inch in diameter in 10.4 years. Balsam reproduction was abmidant beneath the stand, in the densest portion yielding 109 to the square rod. They were not over four feet high and ranged between 12 and 19 years old. The larger area was severely burned after the lumbering of about 35 years ago The difference in the character of the stands arising from that fire aUows a differen- tiation into several well defined site classes, \'iz : the tops of the ridges, the base of slopes and the flats between the ridges — the latter being the best, the first the poor- est as regards pine reproduction Sample plots taken on these sites reveal the composition given in the three tables below. Number of Trees per Acre, Top of Ridge Species— Poplar Paper Birch. White Pine. Pin Cherry . Red Pine. . . Total. . . Per cent . Poles 30 90 23.1 Saplings 170 80 10 40 300 76.9 Total 170 100 50 40 30 390 Per cent 43.6 25.6 13.0 10.2 7.6 100.0 Species — Poplar White Pine. . Balsam Paper Birch. . Red Pme White Spruce . Number of Trees per Acre at the Base of Slopes Total.... Per cent . Poles 10- 20 30 6.3 Saplings 170 140 90 10 20 20 450 93.7 Total 180 140 90 30 20 20 480 Per cent 37.5 29.2 18.7 6.2 4.2 4.2 100.0 Number of Trees per Acre on Flats between Ridges Species — White Pine . . Poplar White Spruce . Paper Birch . . Tamarack. . . Red Maple . . Red Oak Poles 100 30 Total... Per cent . 130 26.6 Saphngs 170 110 30 20 10 10 10 360 73.4 100.0 These plots represent patches which escaped a second fire that ran over the area 15 years later. The results of this later fire are their stands now 20 years old. Sam- ple plots made in these indicate 250 poplar, 190 sugar maple, 20 pin cherry, 10 white pine and 10 red pine saplings per acre. About 5,000 acres of the 16,000 acres were burned a third time 10 years ago arid the result is a region of poplar and birch thickets, of hazel and bracken fern, with no reproduction of pine, although the skeletons of young trees indicate their former presence. The old bum south of Salmon lake and Devil lake has apparently never been re-burned and its reproduction is excellent. There are frequent patches several acres in extent of red pine and white pine, and the general average of pine repro- duction may be takf-n as that given in the tables above for the area burned only once. Alcug the •southern shores of Salmon lake and in moist situations farther inland a thick un iergrowth of balsam is found under the birch and poplar. This area of ggod reproduction of coniferous species covers about 6,000 acres. POPLAR-BIRCH TYPE 55 Chandos. — An old burn in the northwestern portion of Chandos contains 7 800 acres and it extends over 2,500 acres in the adjoining township of Cardiff. The average age of the poplar now occupying the area is 26 years. Frequent pine seed trees remain, and as a whole the area is fairly re-stocked. The young growth exhibits a number of site classes, viz ; the higher ridges, (originally evidently covered by hardwoods with only scattering coniferous growth) ; the lower ridges, (ori- ginally covered with pine) ; the benches above the streams, and the immediate banks of the streams. Sample plots were made in these sites with the results given in the tables below. NxjMBEK OF Trees peu Acke on the Higher Ridges c ^^^,S-^^'^~ Po^^s Saphngs Total Percent Sugar Maple 20 300 320 60 4 Poplar 60 30 90 17 S^n^'^W-Y 30 30 5.6 Yellow Bu-ch 30 30 5 6 Pin Cherry 10 10 20 3.'7 Hop Hornbeam 20 ... 20 37 Paper Birch 10 ... 10 2 Ash 10 ... 10 2.0 Total 130 400 530 100 Percent 24.6 75.4 Number op Trees per Acre on the Lower Ridges Species— Standards Poles Saphngs Total Per cent Poplar 10 100 490 600 76 1 Hop Hornbeam. . . ... 80 80 10 1 Balsam ... 50 50 63 Elm 10 ... 20 30 3 8 Paper Birch . . ... 20 20 25 Sugar Maple 10 ... ... 10 1.2 Total 30 100 660 790 100 Percent 3.8 12.7 83.5 Number op Trees per Acre on the Benches Species— Poles Saphngs Total Per cent Balsam 280 280 45.8 Poplar 50 170 220 36 1 gfdar- 80 80 13.1 Black Spruce . . 20 20 3 2 Juneberry . . n n j "g Total 50 561 611 100.0 Percent 8.2 91.8 Number op Trees per Acre on the Stream Banks Species— Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Cedar 10 10 230 250 49 Poplar .. 110 120 230 45 White Spruce .... . . ... 20 20 4 Balsam ... 10 10 2 Total 10 120 380 510 100 Percent 2.0 23.5 74.5 These plots are fairly representative of the old burn in this region and it will be seen from them that the sugar maple is replacing itself in the probable original quantities (page 47) on its characteristic site. The low sandy ridge is the best site or poplar and here the stands closely approximate the average composition usually 56 COMMISS ION OF CONSERVATION found in such situations. The best situations for the balsam are the benches or terraces from 10 to 20 feet above the streams, while the cedar predominates on the present erosion channels of the streams. The reproduction of white pine, however, is chiefly confined to tlie moist depressions between the ridges and to the edges of the swamps where occasional seed trees still stand. In the latter situation, on the average, 28 balsam and IG white pine sapUngs and poles were found per acre. A sample strip a chain wide and 135 chains long (13.5 acres) over the ridges and through the depressions, disclosed 11 white pine sapUngs and poles per acre. Five acres of this strip, however, averaged 28 young pine trees to the acre. Here two seed trees per acre had been spared both by fire and by the lumberman. The greater reproduction in this case shows the wisdom of leaving a few seed trees. Ansirulher. — In the township of Anstruther nearly 35,000 acres, or 51.4 per cent, of the land area has been burned. A good portion has been burned three times, with the result that the originally thin soil overlying the granite ridges has been destroyed and the interior of the township, especially, very closely approaches desert conditions. The pine reproduction was counted on 50 acres, and it was found to average 8 pine saplings and poles per acre. The pine stumps from former cuttings average 80 per acre. No seed trees remain. If these 8 young trees are allowed to mature, then the repeated fires have reduced the potential value of the land in terms of pine by nine-tenths. North of this area a 20-acre plot revealed only one red pine and three white pine sapUngs per acre. A strip containing 12 acres west of the Twin lakes contained an average of 8.7 young pices per acre. These areas have been burned twice in the past 20 years and they were formerly pure pineries. Aroimd many of the lakes and in the ravines there are patches of second growth 30 years old, evidently arising from a fire, which show good reproduction of pine. For example, on the shores of Twin lakes in lots 30 and 31, in the 11th concession, there are, on an acre, 34 saphngs and 54 poles of white pine, also 1 sapUng and 4 poles of red pine. On the slopes rising from swamps and in the numerous deep gullies in this vicinitjr one finds dense thickets of balsam about 30 years old. One of these contained on an acre the following : Species — Poles Saplings Total Per cent Balsam 155 1,625 1780 73.4 Paper Birch 20 410 430 17.7 White Pine 30 55 85 3.5 Red Maple 15 30 45 1.9 Red Oak 20 15 35 1.5 Pin Cherry 5 15 20 0.8 Poplar 5 10 15 0.6 Red Pine 5 5 10 0.4 Black Spruce 5 5 0.2 Total 255 2,170 2,425 100.0 Percent 10.6 89.4 Along the margins of the mature forest an abundant reproduction of balsam is found beneath the old bum type, represented by seedlings and saplings, in many cases at the rate of 1,600 to the acre. Some of the semi-barren ridges support considerable oak coppice but, under the present soil conditions, it probably will never become commercial, even though it should escape fire. Many of these ridges have already been burned four times in the past 30 years. On one of these, an acre showed 206 red oak, 60 {)aper birch, 40 white oak and 22 red maple saplings. As a whole, not more than one-twentieth of the 35,000 acres of burned lands in Anstruther is reproducing the original pine in commercial quantities. Burleigh. — Burleigh has 54,750 acres of burned areas — the largest amount within one township in the Trent watershed — and they represent 72 per cent of the land surface of the township. Much of the township has been burned three times, and some of it four time? within the past 30 or 35 years. Like the interior of Anstruther, the interior of Burleigh is much like a desert. The reproduction after the various bums was studied in detail in the region lying between Eels brook and Jack lake. The oldest stand was approximately 30 years since the fire, the poplars being 27 years POPLAR-BIRCH TYPE 57 of age on the stump. It lies mostly in the ravines and protected pockets where it escaped the subsequent fires. Sample strips totalling 4 acres were run through these stands and the occurrence of the various species on the average acre is given below. Poles and Saplings of Various Species on an Area Burned but Once: Number of Trees per Acre Species — Trees Per cent Poplar 208.0 51.2 White Pine 62.2 15.3 Paper Birch 50 .0 12.3 White Spruce 37.5 9.2 Balsam 29.5 7.3 Cedar 13.5 3.3 Red Pine 4.5 1.1 Tamarack 1.0 0.24 Hemlock 0.2 0.06 Total 406.4 100.00 Sample plots to the extent of 7.6 acres were made in a stand arising from a fire 20 years ago with the following results : Poles and Saplings of Various Species on an Area Burned Twice: Number of Trees per Acre Species — ■ Trees Per cent Poplar 320.0 71.3 Paper Birch 78.0 17.4 White Pine 19.0 4.3 Balsam 12.0 2.7 Cedar 11.4 2.5 White Spruce 4.0 0.9 Red Pine 3.2 0.7 Tamarack 0.9 0.2 Total 448.5 100.0 The areas burned three times, the last time 12 years ago, have the composition given in the table below. Poles and Saplings op Various Species on an Acre Burned Three Times : Number of Trees per Acre (Average of 2.7 acres) Species — Trees Per cent Poplar 328.0 46.8 Pin Cherry 125.0 17.9 Paper Birch 93.0 13.3 Red Maple 60.0 8.6 Willow 58.0 8.3 Red Oak 22.0 3.1 White Oak 3.4 0.50 WTiite Spruce 2.2 0.31 Basswood 2.0 0.30 \VhitePine 1.8 0.25 Red Pine 1.8 0.25 Balsam 1.1 0.15 Elm 1.0 0.14 Cedar 0.7 0.10 Totixl 700.0 100.00 So far as could be discovered, the area burned the fourth time, in 1911, is without the possibility of pine reproduction, since all of the seed trees have been killed except an occasional one in the margin of a swamp. 58 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Harvey. — In northeastern Harvey some 8,000 acres were burned over 40, 20, and 12 years ago. The last two fires ran only here and there, and second growth from the three fires may be found on the same area. A strip of 7.8 acres was made across the ridges and through the depressions with the following results : Number of Poles and Saplings of Various Species per Acre (Average of 7 .8 acres) Species — Trees Per cent Poplar 271.0 90.30 Paper Birch 16.0 5.32 White Pine 9.7 3.23 "WTiite Spruce 1.6 0.53 Cedar 1.0 0.30 Balsam 0.6 20 Hemlock 0.2 0.08 Black Spruce 0.1 0.04 Total 300.2 100.00 The coniferous species only were counted on 18 acres on a limestone plateau and the average per acre was found to be : white spruce, 25 ; tamarack, 13 ; cedar, 11.6 ; balsam, 7.S ; white pine, 7.8 ; red pine, 5.4 ; black spruce, 0.8. Galway. — With the exception of relatively small areas occupied by farms, the three northern concessions of Galway, about 14,000 acres in all, were burned 35 years ago. Judging from 36 acres of sample strips made in various places, the young pine averages 3.5 trees per acre. This was originally a pure pinery. Patches oc- cur, however, where the reproduction is much better than this, especially on the moist flats, where sample plots amounting to five acres disclosed 27.2 white pine ; 11.6 hemlock ; 6.4 cedar ; 3.4 balsam ; and 0.4 tamarack poles and saphngs per acre. Cavendish. — Cavendish has 21,000 acres of burned lands, constituting 45 per cent of the township. In the northwestern corner the reproduction of coniferous species is very good. A sample strip consisting of 8.6 acres revealed 65 balsam, 18.3 cedar, 13.1 white pine, 8.1 white spruce, 3 hemlock, 2.9 tamarack, 0.9 black spruce and 0.3 red pine poles and saplings per acre. East of Pencil lake the region was burned 15 years ago, and 10 acres of sample strips showed 3.5 white pine and 1.3 red pine poles and saplings to the acre. The same area contained 66 pine stumps over a foot in diameter per acre. LiuUerworth. — Lutterworth township contains 29,000 acres — 77.8 per cent of its area — of burned lands. Most of this was burned in 1881 and by far the greater portion is without reproduction of pine in commercial quantities. Two strips were run through the old burn in the southeastern portion of the township. One of 24 acres revealed young pine at the rate of 1.4 trees per acre ; the other of 29 acres disclosed one pine tree to every six acres. This region was formerly a pure pinery. Methuen. — The township of Mcthuen has suffered severely from fires. Only 13 per cent of the land surface is covered by mature forest and the farms constitute only 2.6 per cent of the area of the township. The rest, 53,000 acres, is bush land, semi-barren and barren, owing to repeated fires. The Blueberry 'barrens,' situated in the east central portion of the township, are the most severely burned areas and they cover some 9,400 acres. The area is composed of low granitic ridges with frequent swamps between them. The rock is in the last stages of decay, frequently crumbling between the fingers, and it yields a soil of gravel and coarse sand. The ridges probably originally supported trees only sparingly, owing to the dearth of soil, but the flats between the ridges have a soil of sufficient depth to support a forest, and that they can do so is shown by the presence of scattering red pine a foot or more in diameter. The fire scars on these trees tell the story of the barrens. They indicate that fires of an intensity sufficient severely to wound the trees occurred in 1836, 1853, 1865, 1874, 1882, 1897, and in 1911. The trees are 98 years old and they record fires at the rate of one every 14 years. The age of the young growth indicates several intermediate fires too small or too local to injure the larger trees. POPLAR-BIRCH TYPE 59 The trees were counted on a strip 100 chains long and a chain wide across the barrens. The table below indicates the number of trees of various sizes and kinds on the 10 acres. Number of Trees per Acre, Methuen Barrens (Average of 10 acres) Species— Standards Poles Saplings Total Per cent Poplar 0.85 25.45 25.35 57.4 Red Oak 0.1 1.80 7.15 9.00 20.2 White Oak 0.3 1.25 2.15 3.70 8.3 JackPme .... 2.65 2.65 5.9 Red'Pine 0.2 0.55 0.70 1.45 3.2 WTiitePine 0.05 0.20 0.95 1.20 2.6 Paper Birch 0.10 0.45 0.55 1.2 Tamarack 0.35 0.35 0.7 Red Maple 0.05 0.25 0.30 0.5 Total 0.70 5.00 38.85 44.55 100.0 Per cent 1.6 11 .2 87.2 ?< ►-, |f* As previously stated, the table above indicates the present composition and the size of the trees on an area which has been severely burned, in addition to numerous surface fires, occmring seven times in the past century. Occasional pockets which escaped the fires indicate what the forest might be now, were it not for the repeated fires. For example, sample strips wore rim through a patch of 5 acres which had apparently arisen from a fire about 30 years ago, but had escaped subsequent fires, owmg to its position between a lake and a marsh. The composition of the stand is given below. Number of Trees per Acre on a Low Flat, Methuen (Average of 5 acres) Species— Standards Poles Saplings Total Percent Red Pine 76 212 288 55.8 Poplar 4 102 52 158 30.6 White Pme 18 20 38 7 4 Paper Birch 4 18 22 4.3 Red Oak 6 2 8 1.5 Jack Pine 2 ... ... 2 0.4 Total 6 206 304 516 100.0 Percent 1.1 40.0 58.9 The poplar and jack pine standards are remnants of the forest burned 30 years ago. Another stand of about the same area, similarly protected from fire, was found on a dry gravelly knoll. A sample plot in it revealed the following composition. NtTMBER OF Trees per Acre on a Gravelly Knoll, Methuen (Average of 5 acres) Species— Poles SapUngs Total Percent Poplar 40 70 110 56.7 Red Pme 18 44 62 32.0 Red Oak 4 g 12 6 2 White Pine 6 2 8 4.1 Paper Birch 2 .. 2 l!o Total 70 124 194 100.0 Percent 36.1 63.9 These two plots represent sites on which pines, if not burned, would grow in other portions of the barrens. Here, on ten acres, we find potentially commercial red pme at the rate of 35 trees, and white pine at the rate of 4.6 trees per acre. Com- parmg this with ten acres on the adjacent seven-times-bumed area, as given in the 60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION third table above, we find there red pine at the rate of 1.4 trees and white pine at the rate of 1.2 trees per acre. In one case, 39.6 and in the other, 2.6 pine trees per acre. Thus, if we regard those sample plots as representing average conditions in the two cases, we see that repeated fires have reduced the commercial possibilities of one area, in terms of pine, by 15, or, stated the other way about, protection from fire for only 30 years has increased the commercial possibilities of one of the areas by 15. In addition to the barrens, 17,600 acres in Methuen were classified as without prospect of timber in commercial quantities unless planted. The whole of the area has been burned three times, and portions of it five times, since lumbering operat ions of about 30 years ago. The most severely bvu^ned portions are now thickets of poplar with scattered birch and oak, and are without reproduction of coniferous species. A sandy flat burned 16 years ago now has on the average acre, 20 poles and 174 saplings of trembUng aspen ; 6 poles and 156 saplings of large-toothed aspen, and 66 saplings of paper birch. The composition percentage of these species in the order enumerated is 46.1, 38.3, and 15.6. On a rocky ridge burned ten years ago there were per acre the following number of saphngs : large-toothed aspen, 580 (70.3 per cent) ; trembhng aspen, 228 (27.6 per cent) ; red oak, 10 (1.2 per cent) ; white oak, 8 (0.9 per cent.) The major portion of the area has been burned three times and it contains scat- tered reproduction of pine and other conifers. A strip 300 chains long was run through this in a direction more or less parallel with the ridges and the coniferous saplings and poles were counted. The average number of young conifers per acre on the 30 acres thus examined was as follows : red pine, 2.5 ; white pine, 1.5 ; jack pine, 1.4 ; tamarack, 0.3 ; hemlock, 0.1 ; balsam, 0.05 ; white spruce, 0.05. Another strip, a chain wide, comprising 40 acres, was run so as to cross the ridges and depressions and it was found to contain 292 young red pine and white pine. The 30-acre plot contained 120 young trees of these species, so the average of the 70 acres was 5.8 trees per acre. At the same time the stumps of the trees removed from the area were also counted. Those over a foot in diameter averaged 60 per acre. Therefore where 60 commercial trees were removed only 5.8 potentially commercial remain to take their place. The repeated fires have killed practically every seed tree, so this reduction in value in terms of pine is essentially permanent. Thus the lack of fire protection on these 17,600 acres, has resulted in a growth with a potential value of only one-tenth of the original forest. In the northern portion of the township there are 7,500 acres that have been burned but once since lumbering. The stand is composed of the usual poplar and birch and the coniferous species are returning in commercial quantities. Balsam and white spruce are abundant in the ravines and in the moister situations. Sample plots reveal young pine at the rate of 25 trees per acre. Numerous seed trees remain BO the area is all the time increasing its stock. In course of time, if not burned, the area will reproduce its original stock of pine. Financial Losses by Forest Fires In reading the preceding pages one is impressed by the action of repeated fires in retarding, and, in some cases, entirely destroying the reproduction of pine. Since the soil is fit only for the growing of trees and is especially adapted to pine, it is evident that any treatment involving a reduced future production of pine on such areas will result in considerable financial loss to the owner, in this case, the Crown. An attempt is made in the following pages to reach an approximation of these losses. For example, in the township of Cashel the first fire, of 35 years ago, doubtless left numerous seed trees which gave rise to the pine in the quantities indicated in the tables on pages 53 and 54. The second fire apparently ran over about three-fourths of the second growth resulting from the first fire, and killed most of the remaining WHERE SEED TREES WERE LEFT AFTER CUTTING AND WHERE NOT TOO SEVERELY BURNED. THE PINE IS REPRODUCING ITSELF IN COMMERCIAL QUANTITIES This is taking place on 75,ooo acres in the Trent Watershed FINANCIAL LOSSES BY FIRES 61 seed trees as one woiild infer from the numerous fire-killed ram- pikes scattered over the area. The third fire apparently killed the few seed trees that may have escaped the second fire. The average number of young pine trees per acre resulting from the first fire is 170, from the second fire 20, and from the last fire none. Regarding these plots as averages for the whole burned area and supposing that the 170 trees would have come to maturity and had yielded 100 board feet apiece, the average acre, if burned but once, would have yielded 17,000 board feet, upon which the dues accruing to the Crown at the present rate would be $34 per acre. The second fire reduced the potential dues to $4 per acre and the third fire eliminated them entirely. This is a striking illustration of the manner in which repeated fires reduce the future values of cut-over lands and it becomes all the more striking when the acreage involved is considered. If we deduct one-eighth of the area for the swamps, we have in Cashel about 14,000 acres of poten- tial pine lands. If we suppose that this acreage had been burned but once and that the young pine occupied the whole area in the quantity indicated above, namely 170 trees per acre, and that the yield at maturity would be $34 in dues, then the potential dues would aggre- gate $476,000. At present, however, there are only 3,500 acres with 170 trees per acre and the dues on this would amount to $119,000. Besides this, there are 9,000 acres worth $4 an acre in dues according to the calculation above, total $36,000. Therefore, the potential dues on the 14,000 acres with its present stand of young pine amounts to $155,000, when, if it had been burned but once, they might have amount- ed to $476,000. Or, in other words, the repeated fires on one area alone have cost the Government $321,000 in potential dues alone. By referring to the tables of reproduction in Burleigh on page 57, it will be seen that the area burned but once now contains, per acre, 148 trees of the various commercial species that will eventually produce saw-logs. The second fire reduced this number to 50, the third to 36, and the fourth to nothing. Disregarding the other species and taking the red pine and white pine alone, it is seen that the area burned only once, now averages 66 trees, that burned twice 32, and that burned three times only 4 trees per acre. Asstuning that these pine trees escape future fires and at maturity yield 100 board feet apiece, we find that the first area would be worth $13.20 per acre in dues. The second fire reduced the potential dues to $6.40 per acre ; the third fire to 60 cents, and the fourth fire wiped out the 60 cents. Unfortunately the extent of the bums 30, 20 and 12 years ago was not determined, other- wise these sums might be multipHed into the acreage in each case and the loss in potential dues in the whole township might be thus estimated. The area of the fourth fire, however, is 6,000 acres in Burleigh and 1,000 62 COMMISSION OFCONSERVATION acres in adjacent Anstruther. If we assume that, had the area been burned but once, it would have produced pine at the same rate as that given above in the once-burned, 30-year-old stand, then the three sub- sequent fires on this 7,000 acres have cost the Province $92,400 in potential dues. Methuen offers an excellent opportunity to study the effects of repeated fires upon the reproduction of pine. Here, areas burned but once now have 30 poles and saplings per acre ; those burned three times 5.8 and those burned eight times 1.7 young pine trees per acre. This dep.reciation in value may be stated in dollars. Supposing that the original pinery on these areas contained 60 trees over a foot in diameter per acre and that each tree yielded 150 board feet, then the stand contained 9,000 board feet per acre. At the present time the Government would receive $18 per acre in dues alone for this. The area burned but once now contains 30 trees per acre, which with the estimate above would yield at maturity $6 per acre in dues. By the same calculation the area burned three times would be worth at maturity $1.80 and that burned eight times 30 cents per acre in dues. Consider- ing the acreage in each class we can make the following calculation : 7,500 Acres Burned Once. Value of dues if fully stocked (60 trees per acre) $135,000 Potential value of dues with present stock (30 trees per acre) 45,000 Loss by one fire $90,000 17,600 Acres Burned Three Times. Value of dues if fully stocked (60 trees per acre) $316,800 Potential value of dues with present stock (5.8 trees per acre) 31,680 Loss by three fires 285,120 9,400 Acres Burned Eight Times. Value of dues if fully stocked (60 trees per acre) 169,200 Potential value of dues with present stock (1.7 trees per acre) 2,820 Loss by eight fires 166,380 Total Loss in Potential Dues bv repeated Fires on 34,500 Acres .' $541,500 The $541,500 represents simply the loss in potential dues. It in- cludes neither the potential stumpage value of the timber nor its value to the community in preparing the timber for market. The tables on pages 2 1 — 26 show that 560,500 acres of the 1,345,500 acres included in this report were classified as young growth and second growth of the poplar-birch type after fires. Besides these, 37,300 acres were classed as barrens and semi-barrens due to repeated fires. The recent bums amount to over 2 2 , 500 acres. These make a total of 620,000 acres which have been burned, or 46 per cent of the entire area. The rate FORMER PINERIES A few seed trees remain, but not enough to re-establish the crop on a commercial basis. 389,000 acres in this condition in the Trent Watershed FINANCIAL LOSSES BY FIRES 63 of pine reproduction on the old bums was actually determined by counts on over 500 acres of sample area scattered through the various townships. This was done by running long strips, usually a chain wide, so as to approach as nearly as possible the average conditions, and by counting the trees on such areas. Besides these actual measure- ments, mental calculations in regard to reproduction were constantly made when passing through the old bums. As a result of these studies the bumed areas may be classified with reference to the number of times bumed and the amount of pine reproduction. These are shown in the table below, together with an estimate of what the repeated fires mean in terms of loss in potential dues by retarding or destroying the replacement of pine. The areas of the former pinery bumed only once, now average 30 young pines per acre, and this, rather than the number of trees in the original stand, is taken as the basis of the cal- culations given below. It is assumed that each tree now standing will mature and, at maturity, will yield 100 board feet, or, in other words, since the once bumed areas average 30 young pine per acre, 3,000 board feet per acre is regarded as the expected yield ; a moderate estimate, when compared with the original yield of these pineries, which cannot have been less than three to four times as large. The stumpage value is regarded as $7 per M and the dues are reckoned on the present basis of $2 per M. Pine Reproduction on Burned Areas with Estimates of its Value and the Loss in its Value by Repeated Fires Acres Potential value of dues if burned but once Potential value of dues with present stock Loss of dues by repeated fires Potential stumpage value if burned but once Potential stumpage value of the present stock Loss of stumpage values by repeated fires Total loss in potential dues. Total loss in potential stum- page value Grand total , Bumed once Average 30 yoimg pine trees per acre 75,000 $450,000 450,000 1,575,000 1,575,000 Burned two to three times Average 6 yoimg pine trees per acre 389,000 ,334,000 466,800 ,867,200 ,169,000 624,000 545,000 Burned four to eight times. No reproduction of pine 156,000 $936,000 Nil 936,000 3,276,000 Nil 3,276,000 $2,803,200 9,821,000 $12,624,200 64 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION From the above it will be seen that the total loss in dues and stumpage under our assumptions is $12,624,200. This sum, of course, must be offset by the value of the second growth, which, in this case, is principally poplar. The aggregate of sample strips taken in poplar stands from 20 to 35 years old was 56 acres. The average number of poplar trees per acre on these 56 acres was 250. On some 300 poplar stumps, in all, the annual rings were counted and diameters measured in the various townships. Their average age was found to be 32.23 years and their average diameter 6.28 inches. From the volume tables of poplar we find that it takes 33 trees, 6 inches in diameter and 50 feet high, to make a cord of peeled pulpwood. If we regard 250 trees per acre as the average for the entire area and apply the above factor, we find that the average acre, in its present condition, woiild eventually yield 7.5 cords of pulpwood. Regarding poplar pulpwood as worth $1.00 per cord on the stump, then its value on the 560,000 acres at 32 years of age would be $4,200,000. In other words, referring to the figures above in regard to the pine, the fires destroyed $12,600,000 worth of pine and replaced it by $4,200,000 worth of poplar, thus leaving $8,400,000 still to charge to the fire account. As suffi- cient data to give these figures scientific accuracy is lacking, they must be regarded simply as approximations, but there is no doubt respect- ing the great financial loss both in the quantity and quality of the forest products through the agency of fires. It is very desirable that extensive studies be made upon these old bums in order to detennine as nearly as possible the actual and potential decrease in value as the result of successive fires. If data of this kind could be prepared and given wide circulation it would lead to a greater appreciation of the value of the second growth and so help to make the pubHc more cautious in regard to fires. At present there is a widespread belief in the public mind, that a fire in second growth does no particular harm, because it does not destroy saw-logs. The people forget, or perhaps do not reahze, that from these burned-over lands must come our future supply of pine — if we are to have a future supply ; that there can be no saw-logs when the mature trees are once removed, if their young, the future producers, are killed by periodic fires. Fire Protection The discussion on the previous pages naturally leads to a consider- tion of fire protection in the Trent watershed. It is apparent, from the summer's observation in the field, that the areas containing mer- chantable timber are thoroughly and efficiently protected. It is, of course, to the limit-holder's interest to do this, and his interest extends FIRE PROTECTION 65 to the cut-over and bumed-over portions of his limits only so far as fire in them might endanger his standing timber. The other portions are entirely neglected, and since the recent change in the fire protection regulations of the Province has thrown the entire cost of protection upon the limitholder, it is only natural that this should be so. Most of the limit-holders cutting pine will finish their operations in a few years, (One of the largest limit-holders expects to clean up all his remaining merchantable pine in four years.) Under such circumstances, the limit- holder feels under no obligation to pay for the protection of young growth which will soon automatically revert to the Crown. So far as could be ascertained, the limits which have already reverted to the Crown in the region are not protected by the Provincial authorities. The result of these circumstances is that over j 6 0,000 acres of potentially merchantable timber are without fire protection. From the table on page 63 it will be found that the area contains enough pine, if allowed to come to maturity, to be worth $4,115,800 at the present dues and present stumpage value. A like rough estimate gives the stumpage value of poplar for pulpwood on the same area as $4,200,000. To an unprejudiced observer, it would seem worth while to attempt to save property whose potential value at present prices is $8,315,800, to say nothing of its value to the community in transfonning that value of raw products into finished products. ' The preceding statement is made on the assiimption, that, if the area is not protected from fire, the young timber will never come to maturity, an assumption amply justified by the past history of the area. The old pineries, with the exception of those in one township, have suffered at least three extensive fires in the past 35 or 40 years. Within the same period, many have had four severe fires, and others five. As a whole, 560,000 acres have been burned in the past 40 years. This is at the rate of 14,000 acres burned yearly. As only the portions where they killed standing timber or advanced second growth are indicated, the map accompanying this report does not give the actual extent of the recent fires. Surface fires were not included. Most of the lands classed as barrens have been burned in the past four years, the time limit of recent bums. The recent bums and the barrens total 60,000 acres. This means that the average yearly rate of 14,000 acres, for the past 40 3^ears has been maintained in recent years. There- fore it is evident that there has been no appreciable diminution in the occurrence of fires in this region. Moreover, as the young growth gets older, as the dead leaves and litter accumulate on the ground, and especially as the resinous trees will occupy, relatively, more space, there will be more material for the fires to feed upon and the danger of destructive fires will materially increase. 66 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The region could be effectively protected from fire with a small outlay of money in proportion to the value of the property involved. The topography of the country affords numerous excellent sites for look-out stations, and the numerous rural telephone lines would render very effective assistance. The following places are suggested as good points for such look-out stations : a point between Devil lake and Dixon lake commands a \'iew of the major portion of Cashel within the watershed, and the eastern portion of Limerick. It is 8 miles from the telephone at St. Ola and 2 miles from a farmhouse where the look-out man could stay. The diorite ridge in Tudor on the Hastings road drops off in a sheer precipice 200 feet or more. A tower 30 feet high on the edge of this bluff would give a view of the greater portion of the townships of Tudor and Lake. The village of Millbridge, with a telephone line, is about four miles distant and there are farmhouses within two miles. A sub-station might be established on 'The Ridge' in the south central portion of WoUaston. This is a farming area and a farmer could be employed. Any one of the several farmers on the ridge could, from his farm, see the southern half of Wollaston, the northwestern portion of Lake, and portions of Limerick and Chandos. In the northeastern comer of Wollaston are some high hills which command a view of northern Wollaston, northwestern Limerick and southern Faraday. Here, a look-out station could be constructed within two miles of a farmhouse, and could be connected with the telephone at Coehill, a distance of four miles. The Green mountains in southern Glamorgan are 250 feet above the general level and present a view which covers the southern half of Glamorgan and Monmouth and the northern portions of Cavendish and Anstruther. They are within two miles of farms and could be con- nected by telephone with Gooderham, four miles distant. From the Blue mountains in the west central portion of Methuen, one can see practically the whole of that township, as well as the western portion of Lake, the eastern portion of Burleigh, and the southeastern portion of Anstruther. The hills are within four miles of a farm- house and within 8 miles of Apsley, the nearest telephone connection. In lot 22, concession viii, of Harvey, there is a high point which commands a view of the eastern portion of that township and the western portion of Burleigh, besides part of southern Cavendish. In a straight line, it is 5 miles from the nearest telephone connection at Hall Bridge. About a mile and a half east of Bass lake in Galway, a knob rises about 200 feet above the general level, and, from its summit, one can see all the southern half of the township, the northeastern portion of Har- CUTTING IN A HARDWOOD FOREST: LITTLE DANGER OF FIRE CUTTING IN A PINE FOREST: MUCH INFLAMMABLE MATii JAL ON G.iOUND FIREPROTECTION 67 vey and southwestern Cavendish. At its base is an abandoned farm- house where the station keeper might Hve during the simimer. A tele- phone Hne could be run to tap the one along the Bobcaygeon road about 4 miles to the westward. Three other look-out stations should be established ; one, near the boundary of Glamorgan and Snowdon, about midway between the two railways, to control the large burned-over areas in the adjoining por- tions of these two townships; a second, in northern Somerville or south- ern Lutterworth to protect the extensive areas of second growth in that region ; a third should be in northern Lutterworth somewhere be- tween Little Bob lake and Deer bay of Gvill lake. There are favour- able points in the last three places mentioned, but the writer is not sufficiently familiar with the topography to locate them exactly. Twelve look-out stations located as indicated above would cover practically aU the old pinery area now occupied by second- growi;h poplar and pine. Connecting these points with the nearest telephone lines would enable the look-out keeper to summon help from the neighbotiring villages to fight the fire. The territory is well sup- plied with logging trails and cadge roads, and, except for the bridges, which are now generally broken down, these roads could be made passable at a relatively small cost. The great point in fighting fire is to get the men on the spot at its inception. So far as means of quick transportation are concerned, the region, as a whole, is remarkably accessible. The game-wardens should be made firewardens as well, and with police powers, especially with power to summon men to fight fire at a fixed rate per diem. The tourists, campers, and sportsmen who enter the region should be required to register with the fire warden nearest their point of entry, giving him their probable routes of travel, camp sites and length of stay. Many of the fires are started by settlers burning brush. They should be made responsible to the fire warden for doing this at the proper time. The country adjacent to the three railways has been thoroughly burned. These railways should be required to take pre- cautions in regard to fires and, if necessary, to patrol their lines during the summer months. To increase the efficiency of the system an in- spector should be provided. If measures like those indicated above could be efficiently enforced, disastrous fires in the Trent watershed would be reduced to a minimum, and this at a cost that would not be prohibitive, considering the value of the property thus protected. A rough estimate of the cost may be given : ' 68 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 40 miles of telephone lines ; materials and installation $2,400 Building towers and shelters for look-out keepers 1,200 12 field glasses for look-out keepers 300 Salaries of 12 look-out keepers ; 5 months at $60 per month 3,600 Salary of an inspector 1,800 Annual cost of fighting fires and incidentals 700 Total $10,000 On the 7S,ooo acres referred to on page 63 some of the poplar is already near merchantable size. Cuttings should be made in this for pulp wood within ten years. On the greater portion of the area, however, the poplar will not be ready for cutting before 25 years. Assuming it would be 2 5 years before the cuttings could be on sufficiently large scale to pay oflE the debt of previous fire protection, the sums given above at 4 per cent compound interest for 2 5 years would attain the following values : $3,900 initial cost, 25 years at 4 per cent $ 10,396 . 60 $5,400, salaries annually, 25 years at 4 per cent. . . . 224,887 . 85 $700, fire-fighting, annually, 25 years at 4 per cent. 29,152.15 Total $264,436.60 By spending approximately a quarter million dollars distributed over a period of 25 years the Government woidd have at the end of the period poplar alone worth $4,200,000 : in addition to this, pine at maturity worth $4,115,800 in dues and stumpage, at the present rates. It would be a very profitable transaction even at the present prices. From the facts stated in the previous pages, namely, that the average rate of 14,000 acres burned yearly in the past 40 years is still being main- tained, and that the cut-over lands are now without fire protection, it is reasonably certain that the 560,000 acres under consideration will be without commercially valuable timber at the end of the next 2 5 -year period unless an adequate system of fire protection is installed. No Government can afford to allow this amount of forest land to remain continuously tuiproductive. III. A Brief Description of Conditions by Townships Hastings County Marmora Township Watersheds. — About 70 square miles in Marmora township drain into the Trent canal by the way of Beaver creek and its tributaries. The remaining portion of the township is drained by Moira river. The portion of Crow lake lying in Marmora has a surface area of nearly 2,000 acres. The only lakes lying entirely within the township are the Twin Sisters, and they have hardly 200 acres of surface. Topography. — The portion of Marmora drained by Beaver creek is a series of broad, flat plateaus and ridges, which increase in ruggedness CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 69 in going northward. A fairly continuous ridge, extending across the township in a northeast-southwest direction separates the waters of the Beaver from those of the Moira. Another ridge runs from the north- em side of Crow lake in a northeasterly direction and meets the water- shed ridge near the centre of the township. Spurs from these two main ridges divide the] lesser streams and form rounded hills and knolls. The remaining portion of the township has the appearance of a moderately dissected plateau on which the drainage is feeble, and consequently swamps are numerous. These vary in size from little pockets in the limestone to one containing 700 acres. Rock and Soil. — The plateaus and broader ridges are underlain by limestone, while the sharper ridges represent intrusions of hornblende and gneissic rock through the limestone. In the northwestern corner of the township these intrusions have vertical strata forming sharp crested ridges with precipitous slopes, and the region between the slopes, not occupied by swamps, is strewn with broken fragments of rock. Portions of the limestone plateaus are also covered with boulders. Forest Conditions. — The forest occupies 73.8 per cent of the town- ship. The plateau area south of Crow lake, the region between Bron- son creek and Beaver creek, and the ridges in the northwestern portion of the township were originally pineries. The pines have been re- moved and, as a whole, their reproduction is scanty. This comprises 13.4 per cent of the area and is now covered with the poplar-birch type. The greater portion of the township was, and still is, covered by the hardwood type, in which maple and beech are dominant, with scattering basswood, ash, elm, and hemlock. This type is represented chiefly by farm wood-lots and covers 48 per cent of the area. The numerous swamps, containing black ash, ekn, balsam, black spruce, and cedar, occupy 12.1 per cent of the area. The pine-coniferous type is. very restricted, only 0.2 per cent. Recent fires have also been practically absent, burning only o.i per cent of the area. Lake Township Watersheds. — The drainage of Lake township is about equally divided between Beaver creek and Deer river, whose waters fall into Crow river, which, in tiim, flows into the Trent canal. The township has 2,600 acres of water surface, the aggregate of a dozen and a half of lakes. The largest lakes are Tangamong, Trout, Whetstone, Dickey Islands, Clear, Jack, and Copeway, in the northern portion of the township. Topography. — The streams are separated by broad rounded ridges, and they are the highest and the most precipitous on the diorite out- 70 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION crop along the Hastings road. While not so elevated, the country is very rough in the northwestern portion of the township around Tan- gamong and Copeway lakes. The rest of the township, with the exception of scattered, steep-bluffed hills, has the usual low ridges characteristic of the Archaean. Rock and Soil. — The rocks covering the greater area are hornblende- schist and crystalline limestone. There are three large intrusions of volcanic rock through them. The largest of these is two miles wide and extends northeastward, from Mud Turtle lake ; another, in the same direction from Whetstone lake, and still another from Tangamong lake. The Tudor intrusion of diorite extends four miles in a westerly direction into the township. Copeway lake lies in an outcrop of massive granite and there is a patch of sedimentary limestone in the southwestern comer near Vansickle post office. The eastern portion of the township is deeply covered with glacial drift soil of sandy loam, which, however, is filled with pebbles and stones. The soils of the western half are much thinner, more sandy, and, in many places, the bare rock is exposed. Forest Conditions. — The prevailing forest type of the township is hardwood, with sugar maple as the most abimdant species, this and beech making up three-fourths of the stand. The minor species are basswood, hemlock, elm, and ash. While the more valuable hardwoods have been removed, the cutting has not been sufficient to break the crown cover, so that the eastern portion of the township, especially, appears as an unbroken forest. A strip of the same nature extends half way down the western side from the north. This type occupies 56.4 per cent of the area. Between the hardwood areas there is a belt of the poplar-birch-old bum type, which comprises 38.6 per cent of the town- ship. Around the lakes in the northeastern comer, there is consider- able intermixture of hemlock and pine, but the mixed type, as a whole, covers only 1.4 per cent of the area. The pure coniferous type is prac- tically lacking. One and one-half per cent of the area was burned in 1911. Tudor Township Watersheds. — Only the northern and western portions of this township, some 35 square miles, drain to Beaver creek, and thence to the canal waters, the remaining portion draining to the Moira river. Tudor has only 800 acres of water surface within the Trent watershed, the largest body being Horseshoe lake near Glanmire. Topography. — The most conspicuous feature of the township is the diorite ridge entering Tudor from Lake township in Hastings Road lots 46 to 57, and extending eastward to lot 12, concession xi. CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 71 The ridge rises abruptly on the southern side, often in precipitous cliffs between 300 and 400 feet above the general level of the country ; on the northern side the slope is less abrupt. South of this diorite ridge the topography has little relief, while to the northward the country consists of low ridges 50 to 100 feet above the general level. The most pronounced of these ridges extends in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction along the northern side of Beaver creek to Bass lake. Rock and Soil. — The rock on the diorite ridge is very near the sur- face, much of the area along the crest being entirely exposed or strewn with boulders, and there is not even sufficient soil for normal tree growth. North of this ridge the region is underlain by amphibolite and lime- stone with amphibolite intrusions. Through these at several places, especially at Glanmire, southeast of Bass lake, and at the township line south of St. Ola protrude low rounded bosses of massive granite. The amphibolite is micaceous, erodes with difficulty and makes a thin, sandy soil when eroded. The limestone is siliceous and also gives rise to a similar soil. Forest Conditions. — The portion of Tudor township within the Trent watershed is forested to the extent of 88 per cent of its area. Most of this was originally pine land and is now covered with poplar and birch from 20 to 40 years old.* This type extends over 64.3 per cent of the area. The hardwoods, covering 14.3 per cent of the area, have been culled of the more valuable species such as bass- wood, elm, ash, and, to a certain extent, hemlock. Only about 800 acres were classed as semi- virgin, and they lie near Horseshoe lake. The mixed coniferous-hardwood type occupies 5.7 per cent, and the pure conifer type 1.2 per cent of the drea. The latter is found in the swamps, since only small patches of pure second growth pine remain. Along the Hastings road on the summit and northern slope of the diorite ridge, are some 600 acres which were burned about ten years ago, as well as an area of equal size in the northeast portion of the township which was burned six years ago. The greater portion of the territory south of Horseshoe lake, about ten square miles, was run over by a surface fire last year. The recent fires ran over i . i per cent of the area . Limerick Township Watersheds. — Of the 80 square miles of the township of Limerick, 47 square miles are drained by Beaver creek and 20 square miles by Deer river into the Trent canal, while the remaining portion drains northeastward by the York river into the Ottawa. The township contains 3,000 acres of water surface, one-half of which is contained in Salmon lake, the largest body of water. *See page 52. 72 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Topography. — The whole township has the appearance of a dis- sected plateau with no high elevations. The more rugged portions are in the northern portion of the township. Rock and Soil. — The rocks are about equally divided in area be- tween hornblende schists and crystalline limestones mixed with amphi- bolite. There are outcrops of diorite along the western border south of Ormsby and south of Salmon lake. The strata is tilted and much of it is vertical. Outcropping ledges of rock are more abundant and the soil is thinner than in the townships to the southward. In many places it is not over six inches deep, the deepest upland soil covering the rocks by not more than i8 inches. Forest Conditions. — ^About one-third (32.7 per cent) of the township is covered by mature forest and 12 per cent is under cultivation. The mature forest is mostly of the pure hardwood type, which covers 22.1 per cent of the area. The best stands of this type are found north of Salmon lake, where about 2,000 acres have been only slightly culled. The remaining 6,000 acres is severely culled or is second growth arising from clean cutting. Eight per cent of the area is a mixed forest oc- cupying the wetter situations and 2.6 per cent is of the coniferous swamp type. The old pineries occupy 45.5 per cent of the area and are now of the poplar-birch type, in which there are patches of excellent pine and balsam reproduction.* Nearly 4,000 acres, or 9.7 per cent of the area, were burned over in 191 1. Cashel Township Watersheds. — The portion of Cashel under consideration, about 35 square miles of the western part, is drained by the headwaters of Beaver creek. It contains 1,400 acres of water surface, mostly in Little Salmon and Devil lakes. Topography. — A well defined ridge separates Beaver creek from the waters flowing eastward. Another ridge extends northeastward from Little Salmon lake until it reaches the main ridge in concession xi. These ridges are about 200 feet above the level of the lake. Numerous small streams divide the spurs of these ridges into many small hills, resulting in a diversified topography. Rock and Soil. — The rock and soil conditions are of the same nature as those already described for Limerick. Forest Conditions. — The ridges mentioned above are capped with hardwoods, which, for the most part, have not been severely culled. These cover 26.8 per cent of the area. The remaining portion of the mature forest is 2 per cent of the mixed type and 3.7 per cent of the pure coniferous type. The region north of Little Salmon lake was *See pages 53 and 54. CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 73 once covered principally with pine, but has suffered at least three severe fires in the past thirty-five years. Various escaped patches, especially around Devil lake, show excellent pine reproductions. The old bum type occupies 60.9 per cent of the area. Wollaston Township Watersheds. — The southeastern portion of the township to the ex- tent of some 8 square miles is drained by a stream that falls into Dickey lake and forms the headwaters of the Otter branch of Beaver creek, while the remainder, with the exception of three square miles in the northeastern part which drains into the York river, is drained by Deer river, one of the tributaries of Crow river. Eagle lake, contain- ing some 600 acres, is the largest body of water. Extensive swamps are frequent. Topography. — The township contains a series of ridges running in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction. The Ormsby-Coehill-Glen- alda road, which runs through the centre of the township, traverses six main ridges, having an elevation of about 200 feet above the streams. To the northward the elevation increases to the height-of-land in Fara- day township ; southward the ridges are of the same general elevation, with the exception of the ridge separating Deer river and Beaver creek waters, which is between 400 and 500 feet above the streams. Rock and Soil. — About two-thirds of the township is underlain by limestone with amphibolite intrusions. There are diorite outcrops in the southeastern and northeastern portions of the township, granite in the southern portion, gneissic rocks in the southwestern and west- central portions, and a small area of syenite near Coehill. The granite outcrops, especially along the line of contact with the other rocks, are almost entirely lacking soil. A belt of sand, approximately a mile wide, extends across the centre of the township from east to west. The soil on the limestone is, for the most part, thin and sandy. Where deeper, it has a bed of boulders and pebbles for subsoil. Forest Conditions. — Somewhat more than 80 per cent of Wollas- ton is forested. With the exception of the sand belt and the granite areas, the township was originally covered with hardwoods, which, as usual, are chiefly composed of sugar maple and beech. This type makes up 42.6 per cent of the area. It has not been culled as severely as most of the southern tier of townships, and nearly half of it was classed as semi-virgin. Approximately 14 per cent of the area is swampy, and much of the lumber industry is concerned in harvesting cedar poles from the swamps. The mixed type, mostly swamps, comprises 5.7 per cent, and the ptu-e coniferous type — all swamps — covers 8.5 per cent 74 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION of the area. Approximately one-quarter of the township is now in possession of poplar and birch, the area of the former pineries. Faraday Township Watersheds. — The western half of the township or approximately 45 square miles, drains into Deer river by the way of Pandash brook, and thence by way of Crow river into the Trent waters. The waters of the eastern portion of the township flow into the York river. Small lakes are numerous, but the largest has an area of less than 300 acres. Topography. — The numerous ridges are all approximately the same height until the northern part of the township is reached, where the granite outcrops extend from 50 to 100 feet higher than the limestone ridges to the southward. Tho slopes are steep, often precipitous, and the valleys are narrow, the widest being not over a half mile wide. Rock and Soil. — The greater portion of the township is underlain by limestone, thinly covered by soil on the ridges and deeply covered by sand in the valleys. The major portion of the three northern con- cessions is occupied by gneissic granite, with many amphibolite inclu- sions. Where the forest is unbumed, the soil is gt-avelly loam covering the rock to a moderate depth, but, on the burned areas, the bare rock is largely exposed. Forest Conditions. — Eighty-seven and one-half per cent of the town- ship is forested. The mature forest is of the maple-beech type and it covers 35.1 per cent, while the immature poplar-birch type covers 34.9 per cent of the township. The least culled portions of the hard- wood forest are in the northern and southern portions of the area lying within the watershed. The mixed forest and the coniferous forests are found in the swamps, and they comprise 3.4 per cent and 1.8 per cent of the area, respectively. Eight and one-tenth per cent of the township has been recently burned. Peterborough County Chandos Township Watersheds. — Practically all of Chandos township discharges its waters into Deer river. Its water surface comprises 4,500 acres, and it is practically all contained in Loon lake. Topography. — South of concession xiv, Chandos is a series of broad, rounded ridges and hills, having about the same elevation, 150 to 200 feet above the lakes and stream valleys. The region has the ap- pearance of a plateau which has been dissected by the streams. North of concession xiv the elevation increases rapidly in a series of ridges CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 75 to about 500 feet, above Loon lake. The northern portion of the township belongs topographically to the more rugged regions in Cardiff and Faraday, while the southern portion corresponds to the flatter regions to the southward. Rock and Soil. — North of Loon lake the rock is about equally divided between crystalline limestone and hornblende schist and a mixture of the two intimately associated. The soil is a light sandy loam. South of Loon lake it is mostly granite and nearly related rock. Forest Conditions. — ^Apparently the forests of Chandos were origi- nally about equally divided between coniferous and hardwood lands. The former pine lands are now covered with poplar and birch, which extend over 32.1 per cent of the area. Some 18,890 acres, or 36.6 per cent of the area, now support a hardwood forest, of which all but 2,600 acres have been severely culled. The better class of hardwoods is foimd along the eastern margin of the township. Mixed swamps containing cedar, fir, hemlock, black spruce, black ash, elm, and maple are frequent along the slow-moving Paudash creek and Deer river. These swamps occupy ii.i per cent of the area, and from them come most of the merchantable timber cut in the township. As a whole, 91.9 per cent of the township is forested. Methuen Township Watersheds. — The central and eastern portions of Methuen drain through Kasshabog lake into North river, thence by Crow river into the Trent. The waters from the northwestern portion of the township flow through Jack creek into Stony lake. The township has nearly 6,000 acres of water surface, mostly contained in Jack lake and in Kasshabog lake. Topography. — The most conspicuous topographic feature of the township is a high ridge running in a northeast-southwest direction, and separating the Jack creek from the North river drainage. The ridge is 1,100 feet above the sea, between Jack creek and Kasshabog lake, where the ridge and its spurs are called the Blue mountains, and it rises about 300 feet above the surrounding plain. In the other por- tions of the township the ridges are not more than 100 feet above the streams, and, in most places, much less. The east-central portion of the township is nearly flat, and is called the Blueberry 'barrens,' an apt designation, for huckleberries are about the only things of com- mercial value that grow upon them. The drainage is sluggish and marshes and swales are abundant. South of this area the country is much broken by low ridges with the exception of the outcrops of sedi- 76 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION mentar>' limestone near Vansickle P.O. and near Oak lake, where the topography is rolling. Rock and Soil. — Most of the rocks are granite and hornblende schist and they are about equal in distribution. The granite lies be- tween the schist in a band about four miles wide, extending from the southwestern comer of the township. Much of this rock is so far de- cayed that it can be crumbled in the hand and it gives rise to nearly pure gravel. The soil on the hornblende schist is very sandy. A small outcrop of crystalline limestone along the road in the northern portion, and the two patches of sedimentary limestone in the southern portion of the township, are the only places where a soil approaching a loam in texture can be found. Forest Conditions. — The greater portion of Methuen was once a pinery, and 43.3 per cent of the area of the township is now a man-made barren, while 41 per cent is covered with poplar and birch arising from fires. The hardwoods occupy 12.8 per cent of the area, and they are found mostly in the northern portion, the largest patch being in the northwestern comer around Jack lake. They are all severely culled. Onl}' 2.7 per cent of the township is under cultivation. Burleigh Township Watersheds. — The waters from Burleigh flow into the Trent waters by three routes : Jack creek, Eels brook into Stony lake, and Deer Bay creek into Deer bay. The latter receives the waters of a dozen lakes in the northwest quadrant of the township. The total lake surface is 3,500 acres. Topography. — The highest points are in the north central portion of the township, where the highest ridges are about 150 feet above the general level of the low ridged plain-lilce surface. East of Eels brook, the plain-like character of the surface is still more apparent. The out- crops of sedimentary limestone south of the Cedar lakes are flat. Rock and Soil. — A line drawn from the southwestern comer to the northeastem comer of the township would divide about equally the granite and crystalline limestone areas, the former being on the western side and the latter on the eastern side of the line. The crystalline limestone area contains a number of intrusions of granite which occur as low rounded ridges. The soil is absent on the higher granite ridges, a condition due to repeated fires. In fact, this is the condition on most of the granite outcrops. In local pockets and along the bases of the ridges, the soil is a light gravelly loam, and it is usually not over 8 inches deep. The soil on the crystalline limestone is of the same char- acter, but, as a rule, it contains more sand and pebbles. On the sedi CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 77 mentary limestone, the soil is a heavy loam. Near the township line, while the soil on the limestone is of good quality (silt loam and clay loam) it is too shallow for really successful agriculture on most of the farms. Forest Conditions.— Oi this township, 95 per cent is forest land, and 82 per cent of this has been btimed within the past forty years. In 191 1, 9.5 per cent of the area was burned ; 3 per cent ten years ago ; 70.4 per cent has been burned at various times between 20 and 40 years ago. The latter areas are covered with birch and poplar. The original forest was pine interspersed with hardwood ridges and hard- wood fiats around some of the lakes. The stumps show that the pine occiured in many places at the rate of 60 trees upon an acre. With the exception of a few scattered patches, 70 per cent of this area has no young white pine to take the place of that cut and burned. On 12 per cent of the area, however, there is a fair reproduction of white pine. This is most pronounced on the areas which have been burned but once. Many of the farm wood-lots on the sandy terraces of Eels brook show excellent second-growth white pine. In the northeastern and the southwestern comers of the township, there is a culled hardwood forest, constituting 8 per cent of the total forest area. Maple and beech are the predominant remaining species, the merchantable ash, elm, and basswood having been removed. The remaining 10 per cent of the forest area consists mostly of swamps and semi -barrens. Anstruther Township Watersheds. — The greater portion of Anstruther is drained by headwaters of the Mississagua river, which flows into Buckhom lake. A strip about 2}^ miles wide along the whole eastern border of the township is drained by Eels brook. The township contains fourteen lakes of considerable size, the largest. Eagle lake, near the southern border, containing 1,400 acres. The whole lake surface of the township is approximately 5,000 acres. Topography. — The highest points are a series of rounded granite hills, about 100 feet above the general level in the south central portion of the township. There are hills of about the same elevation around Eels lake in the northeastern comer of the township. The remaining portion has the usual topography of an elevated plain interspersed by ridges 25 to 50 feet above the general level. Rock and Soil. — The township is practically all granite and rock of a similar nature, except in the valley of Eels brook, where homblende schist and crystalline limestone occur. In the four most northem concessions across the township, the granite is covered by a loam to an 78 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION average depth of 15 inches, well sprinkled with boulders and pebbles. There is a similar soil west of Eagle lake, Deer lake and Cranberry lake, and scattered patches in the eastern part along Eels brook. The rest of the soil throughout the township is mostly shallow gravel and sand. The granite hills in the interior are largely devoid of soil of any kind, a condition brought about by repeated fires. Forest Conditions. — The forests of the township have been thorough- ly culled, with the exception of some 5,000 acres in the neighborhood of Eagle lake, where the commercial timber is chiefly hemlock. There were about 1000 acres of pine and hemlock in concessions xiii and XIV along Stony creek, but one more season's cut will finish that. These two groups, with some other areas of a similar nature, make 15.5 per cent of the forest now standing, as coniferous. Approximately 7 per cent of the forest is of the mixed type — maple, beech, pine, and hem- lock — and 20 per cent is pure hardwoods. Last year 1.5 per cent was burned. The remaining 56 per cent is second growth, of which 51 per cent is the poplar-birch type, the result of fire. Cavendish Township Watersheds. — About three-fourths of the area of Cavendish drains into the Mississagua river ; most of the remaining portion is drained into Squaw river and thence into Pigeon lake. A few square miles in the extreme northwestern comer are drained into the Irondale river and thence by Burnt river into Cameron lake. The water surface of the township is 7,600 acres, or 14 per cent of the total area. The largest lakes are Catchacoma and Mississagua. Topography. — There is very little diversity of topography in the township, it being a succession of low ridges of similar elevation and depressions, and the highest points are in the northwestern comer of the township, where they are about 100 feet above the general level. Rock and Soil. — The rock is, for the most part, crystalline limestone, with frequent intmsions of granite and hornblende schist. The soil is shallow, sandy, filled with pebbles and stones, and only in a few places approaches a loam below the first two or three inches. Forest Conditions. — ^A little more than one-half of the forest area is, or was, controlled by the hardwoods. On the flats and gentle slopes, maple is the principal species, often composing three-fourths of the stand. On the ridges and other situations where the soil is shallow, the beech replaces the maple. The minor species are elm, basswood, hemlock, yellow birch, black cherry, and hornbeam. Thirty-six per cent of the hardwood forest is moderately culled, i.e. the merchant- able elm, basswood, and hemlock have been cut ; 1 7 per cent has been CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS severely culled. Much of this has been burned in patches. Around the upper end of Catchacoma lake there is a good forest in which hemlock is the prevailing species. This joins to the eastward with the block of hemlock in Anstruther. This, with patches of coniferous forest in other places, makes 7 per cent of the forest area belonging to the coniferous type. Of the area 2 per cent is composed of mixed forest. This has been severely culled. The remaining 38 per cent of the forest area has been burned at various times and is now chiefly covered with birch and poplar. Galway Township Watersheds. — The southern and western portions of the township drain southerly by Squaw river and Harvey brook into Pigeon lake, while the central western and northwestern portions drain southerly and westerly by Union creek into Four-mile lake in Somerville township and thence into Balsam lake. The largest body of water, Swamp lake, contains 1,000 acres. Lakes are not so frequent as in other townships, since only 3.5 per cent of the township is water. Topography. — The topography, especially that of the eastern portion is similar to that already described for Cavendish. There is less relief and the ridges are broader and flatter in the western por- tion of the township. A high point, about a mile east of Bass lake, commands a view of the southern half of the township. Rock and Soil. — Crystalline limestone covers the greater portion of the township. The sharper ridges are composed of hornblende schist. There are outcrops of granite and related rock in the north-eastern portion. The soil on the top of the ridges is not more than 8 inches deep ; on the slopes it is deeper but sandy, while, at the base of the more gentle slopes, good loam occurs. It is, however, patchy and restricted in distribution. In common with the whole region, swamps occupy the depressions between the ridges. Forest Conditions. — The township is forested to the extent of 87.6 per cent of its area, a little more than one-half of which, 53.2 per cent is the old bum type. The hardwoods occupy 17.3 per cent of the area, and they are found in best development in the central portion of the township. They have been for the most part severely culled, only 900 acres being classed as virgin and semi-virgin. The mixed type as usual is found on the low lying land, and as usual makes up a small percentage of the area (4.4 per cent). The area of the coni- ferous type (12.2 per cent) is relatively large. This is due to a block of pine in the western portion of concessions v, vi, vii, and viii. Four-tenths per cent of the township has been recently burned. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Harvey Township Watersheds. — The principal stream in the township of Harvey is the Mississagua river, which drains Mississagua, Catchacoma, Gold, Eagle, and other lakes of this series in the townships of Cavendish and Anstruther. The most northern headwaters of the stream are found in Glamorgan township not far from the village of Gooderham. The river meets the canal waters in Buckhom lake about a mile east of Hall Bridge. This stream and its tributaries drain the eastern portion of the township. The central and northwestern portion of the town- ship is drained into Pigeon lake by Squaw river and Harvey brook, while the southeastern portion is drained by Deer Bay creek, which has its origin in the lakes of Burleigh. Buckhom lake and its water- connections with Stony lake form the southern boundary of the town- ship, while the southwestern boundary is formed by Pigeon lake. Compared with the townships to the eastward, Harvey contains few lakes in the interior. Topography. — The higher and rougher portions are in the granite areas in the eastern portion of the township. This is due to elevation, as well as to the presence of niunerous ridges and knolls of glacial drift. The western half of the township is quite fiat, except where the streams have worn through, or where granite out-crops through the prevailing sedimentary limestone. Rock and Soil. — As indicated above, the rock is mostly granite and sedimentary limestone. The eastern and northern portions of the township are mostly granite, with outlying patches of sedimentary limestone. West of Harvey brook and in the area Ijang between Buck- hom lake and Pigeon lake sedimentary limestone with local patches of granite is found. The soil on the granite areas is very thin and, in many places, entirely absent, while that of the limestone areas is, for the most part, of agricultural quality, being silt loam and clay. Forest Conditions. — ^A little over one-half (50.8 per cent) of the township has been thoroughly culled and burned, and is now occupied by the poplar-birch type of forest. * It is apparent that the granite areas were originally occupied by pine, hemlock and spruce, and the limestone areas by hardwoods. The coniferous forests at the present time cover only 1.4 per cent of the area, and the largest block may be found in the northeastern comer of the township. The hardwoods are mostly maple, beech and basswood, and they occupy 22 per cent of the area. f The mixed coniferous-hardwood type is poorly developed, comprising only 1.7 per cent of the area. The granite areas, with the soil mostly absent, are barrens. These are found in the southeastern comer of *For a description of the composition of this type see page 58. fSee pages 46 and 47. CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 81 the township and near the mouth of the Mississagua river, and they cover 8.6 per cent of the area. A Httle over i per cent of the township has been recently burned. Victoria County Somerville Township Watersheds. — The township is drained almost entirely into Balsam lake by three streams. Burnt river flows diagonally from the north- eastern to the southwestern comer of the township, Gull river forms the western botmdary of the township. Midway between these streams, near the central portion of the township, is Four-Mile lake, which, with its receiving and discharging streams, makes another valley parallel to those of the first mentioned rivers. The drainage of the extreme southeastern comer of the township flows into Sturgeon lake after passing through the northern half of Verulam. Topography. — The topography of the township is determined by the three streams mentioned above, since they have worn rather wide valleys into a plateau. The ridges are low, often with flat divides between the streams. Rock and Soil. — If an irregular wavy line be drawn from the south- eastem comer of the township to the central point of its northern bound- ary, it would separate in general the granitic rocks on the east and north from the sedimentary limestone on the west and south. The extreme northwestern portion of the township, however, is granitic. The transition from the granite to the limestone is in many places marked by an abmpt escarpment, as may be seen along the road on the 13th concession line. The soils both on the limestone and on the granite in the northern portion of the township are thin and sterile. Those on the limestone in the southern half of the township are deeper, but even there the best farms are in the wide valleys of the Burnt and Gull rivers. Forest Conditions. — Somerville has practically no forest containing saw-logs, outside of a few swamps and farm wood-lots. Sixty-one and seven-tenths per cent of the area is occupied by the old biun type. The mixed forest comprises 5.1 per cent, the hardwoods 4.4 per cent, and the conifers 1.3 per cent of the area ; and all three of these types have been severely culled. Haliburton County Cardiff Township Watersheds. — About 12 square miles in the northeastern comer of Cardiff township drain eastward into the York river waters ; the drainage of the remainder of the township goes into the Trent waters. 82 COLMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The waters from a little more than one-half 'of the area drain into Paudash lake in the east-centre of the township. From this, they flow by Paudash creek and Deer river into Crow river and thence into the Trent canal. The waters of the southwestern quadrant of the township collect in Eels lake and are carried by Eels brook into Stony lake. A portion of the northwestern quadrant of the township is drained southwesterly into Irondale river and thence by Burnt river into the canal, at Cameron lake. The township contains 5,330 acres of water surface. The largest lake is the Paudash group which contains about 1,400 acres. Topography. — The eastern half of the township is a high plateau which has been dissected into broad rounded ridges. The plateau ascends in going northward, and in the northern portion of the town- ship is 50 to 100 feet higher than in the southern. The most pronounced ridges in this area He west of Paudash lake and on the divide between the York and Trent waters. The ridges in the north- western part of the township are nearer together and sharper in outline. The highest points in Cardiff are in the granitic outcrop in the southwest quadrant of the township. Swamps are frequent; the largest, containing some 2,500 acres, is found in the southeastern comer of the township. Rock and Soil. — The rocks of the township are about equally divided between granite, hornblende schist, crystalHne limestone and gneiss. The granite lies in the northeastern and the southwestern comers of the township, and the two outcrops are connected by a narrow band west of the north arm of Paudash lake. A large area of homblende schist lies between these two granite masses. Most of the limestone is in the southeastern comer of the township. The gneiss lies for the most part aroimd the borders of the granite. From Cheddar post- office eastward and northeastward nearly to the township Hne there is a belt of fairly deep glacial drift soil, on which the good upland farms of the township are located. In the rest of the township the soils are thin or sandy. Forest Conditions. — The township is covered with forests to the extent of 93 per cent of its area. Somewhat more than half (56.6 per cent) of the area was originally covered mostly with pine, but it has been replaced by the old-bum poplar-birch type. The coniferous forest is now confined to the swamps ; it occupies 7.7 per cent of the area, and has been thoroughly culled of its commercial timber. The hardwoods cover 13,000 acres, one-quarter of the township, and only 200 acres of these were classified as virgin and semi-virgin. The mixed coniferous and hardwood type occupies 4.3 per cent of the town- ship. Only o.i per cent of the area has been recently burned. CONDITION SBY TOWNSHIPS 83 Monmouth Township Watersheds. — The waters of Monmouth are carried to the Trent canal by the way of the Irondale and Burnt rivers. A small portion, however, in the southeastern comer is drained southward by Eels brook. Otter lake is situated in the northeastern portion of the town- ship, and contains only 600 acres. The entire water surface of the township is 2,100 acres. Topography. — The highest points in the township are in the granite region in the southeastern comer of the township, the region west of Otter lake, and the extreme southwestem comer. These places look really mountainous when compared with the general dissected-plateau topography of the rest of the township. Rock and Soil. — The geological stmcture of the township is much diversified, since it contains representatives of nearly all the different kinds of rocks found in the Trent watershed. The greater portion of the rock, however, is crystalline limestone with its various impurities. The deepest and finest textured soil is found in the south central portion of the township, it being an extension of the drift soil, covering northern Anstmther. The upland soils in the other portions of the township are usually thin or, if deep, very stony. Bare ridges and ledges, are frequently exposed. Forest Conditions. — The southern portion of the township, with the exception of the southeastem comer, was originally a pinery, while the northem half was, and still is, of the hardwood type, with former pineries on the stream terraces. The old pinery is now occupied by poplar and birch, a type that covers 38.4 per cent of the township. At present only i.i per cent of the township is coniferous. The hard- woods, as a rule, contain little saw-log material. They cover 47.7 per cent of the area. The mixed type covers 1.9 per cent, and recent bums 2 per cent of the township. Glamorgan Township Watersheds. — The township of Glamorgan drains into the Trent canal by the way of the Bumt and Irondale rivers, the latter taking most of the drainage. It contains eight rather small lakes, the largest being Koshlong, in the north-central portion of the township, with an area of 770 acres. The water surface of the township is 3,900 acres. Topography. — The roughest and the highest portion of the township may be found in the diorite in the southeastem comer. Greens moun- tain at the western edge of the outcrop has an altitude of 1,466 feet above sea level, and it stands about 250 feet above the general level 84 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION of the plateau. The rest of the township has the characteristic topo- graphy of low, broad, major ridges and lower, sharper-crested minor ridges. Rock and Soil. — The eastern portion of the township south of Mink lake and in the valley of the Irondale river on the south, is underlain by crystalline limestone. Most of the remaining portion, except for the diorite area in the southeastern comer is granite. The upland soils throughout the township are, almost without exception, absolute forest soils, being too thin, too sandy, or too stony for successful farming. Forest Conditions. — Of the area of the township, 68.5 per cent is of old-bum type, mostly the result of an extensive fire about 30 years ago. This was once a pinery. At present only 0.5 per cent of the area is covered with a coniferous forest. The hardwood type occupies 20.7 per cent of the township, most of it being in the southeastern comer. This is composed of farm wood-lots, and it has been severely culled of its saw-logs. The mixed coniferous-hardwood type has an extent of I.I per cent, and the recent bums cover 1.3 per cent of the township. Lutterworth Township Watersheds. — The drainage of the major portion of Lutterworth is into Gull river. The southeastern comer of the township, however, is drained by tributaries of Burnt river. Seven per cent of the town- ship is covered by water. Topography. — The portion of Lutterworth north and west of Gull lake is very rough, a maze of ridges and monadnock hills, but, as one goes southward, the altitude decreases, the ridges are lower, broader and farther apart, until, at the southern border, the region has the ap- pearance of a plain into which the streams have worn narrow valleys. Rock and Soil. — The rock of the township is about equally divided between granite and crystalline limestone with frequent intmsions of granitic and homblende rock. The latter lies in a strip about five miles wide, passing diagonally through the township on the southern and eastern side of Gull river. In the south central portion of the township there are outcrops of sedimentary limestone. Except in the immediate stream valleys, the soil throughout the township is either thin and sandy, or deep and stony. Obviously, nature never intended it for a farming township. Forest Conditions. — The greater portion of the township was evi- dently once an immense pinery, but now only o.i per cent of its area is covered by a coniferous forest. The former pinery, 78 per cent of the area, is now covered with poplar, most of which is the result of CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 85 fire in the early 'eighties.' The mature forest is now represented by maple-beech wood-lots from which most of the merchantable saw-logs have been removed. These comprise 9.9 per cent of the area. One and five-tenths per cent of the township supports a mixed coniferous- hardwood forest, also severely culled. Snowdon Township Watersheds. — The township of Snowdon is drained by Burnt river and its tributaries. The largest of these, the Irondale (in reality the main stream, but not so named), after collecting the waters of the southeastern third of the township, meets the Burnt river at Kinmount Junction. Near the same point another stream enters from the north, flowing just back of the Bobcaygeon lots nearly across the township. Near the centre of Snowdon, Burnt river receives another branch flowing from the Canning-Kashagawigamog lake series in Minden and Dysart. Topography. — The eastern portion of Snowdon is the more diversi- fied, having numerous rather sharp crested ridges. The western half of the township is a broad plateau, not dissected to the usual extent. Rock and Soil. — The township is composed chiefly of granitic rock. A narrow strip along the northern boundary and the northwestern comer, as well as the southeastern comer, are occupied by outcrops of crystalline limestone. The northern third of the township is fairly well covered with glacial drift, with loamy but rather stony soils. To the southward the soils are thinner, with frequent outcrops of bare rock, especially in the areas lying between the Burnt and Irondale rivers. Forest Conditions. — Like Lutterworth, the greater portion of Snow- don was once covered with pine, and it, too, is now practically without mature forests, since the aggregate of the scattered patches amounts to only 7 per cent of the area. Of this, 3.1 per cent is of the hardwood type, 2.3 per cent mixed, and 0.6 per cent coniferous. All of these have been severely culled of their saw-logs. The present forest is, to the extent of 81.5 per cent of the area, of the poplar-birch old-bum type. Minden Township Watersheds. — The waters of Minden reach the Trent canal through Burnt and Gull rivers, the former draining the northwestern half and the latter the southeastern half of the township. Minden is well supplied with lakes. Little Boshkung, Twelve-mile, Mountain and Horseshoe lakes, through which Gull river passes, total about 2,600 acres of water surface, and Soyers, Kashagawigamog, and Canning lakes, 86 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION drained by a branch of Burnt river, have approximately the same area. Water forms 11.7 per cent of the total area of the township. Topography. — The highest points and most rugged topography of the township are found in the outcrop of volcanic rock lying west of Kashagawigamog and Soyers lakes. The rest of the township has the usual dissected plateau appearance. Rock and Soil. — The greater portion of the township is underlain by crystalline limestone, with the usual intrusions of gneissic and homblendic rock. A large outcrop of volcanic rock appears in the central portion of the township. Its crest forms the watershed be- tween the two principal streams and the contact between it and the limestone is marked by a pronounced escarpment, especially along the western side of the outcrop. The northwestern portion of the town- ship, west of Mountain and Twelve-mile lake is underlain by gneissic granite. The eastern two-thirds of Minden is deeply covered with glacial drift, and the soil varies from a clay loam, through sandy loam to al- most pure sand, the poorer upland soils being in the southern portion of the township. Excellent farm soils are found on the first terraces of the lakes, and on the flood plains of the streams, especially along Gull river. The soils within the granite area, except in the stream valleys, are thin and sandy. Forest Conditions. — Minden was originally covered with hard- woods, except for the sandy terraces along the streams and lakes, which were covered with pine. This forest is now, for the most part, repre- sented by severely culled wood-lots, which constitute 44.4 per cent of the area. About 14 per cent of the hardwood type has been only moderately culled. The largest block of this lies west of Twelve- mile lake. The mixed type occupies 4.3 per cent of the area, while only 1.6 per cent is coniferous, and this is mostly spruce-balsam swamp ^not pine. Only 18.1 per cent of the township is composed of the poplar-birch type, and this probably represents the extent of the original pineries. Dysart Township Watersheds. — Burnt river and its tributaries carry the surface waters of Dysart into the canal. The eastern extension of the northern tributary is called the Haliburton river, while Burnt river proper drains the southern portion of the township. The largest body of water is Kashagawigamog lake, which extends into the township from Minden and Grass lake. Together they present a water surface of about 820 acres. Topography. — The southern half of the township is of the broad plateau type, with the most dissected part in the eastern portion. CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 87 North of Kashagawigamog lake and Halibiirton river the summits are from 200 to 400 feet higher than in the southern portion of the township ; the valleys are deeper and the topography more rugged. The Hali- burton river flows through a narrow valley about 300 feet below the general level of the plateau. Rock and Soil. — A band of crystalline limestone about two miles wide crosses the central portion of the township in an east and west direction. On both sides of this the rock is gneissic granite, with many amphibolite inclusions. The contact of the limestone with the granite on the north is marked by the valley containing Kashagawigamog, Grass and Head lakes, and Haliburton river. The soils on the granite throughout are thin and stony, and are of little agricultural value. Some good upland farm soils occur on the limestone south and southwest of Haliburton village. Forest Conditions. — The forests of the township are prevailingly of the hardwood type (57.1 per cent) of the area. They have been depleted of their timber trees and, in some places, have been very severely culled. The poplar type occupies the next largest area (24.6 per cent) ; 3.4 per cent of the area is mixed conifer and hardwood and 1.8 per cent pure conifer. The latter is mostly balsam-spruce swamp. Recent fires cover only 1.7 per cent of the township. Dudley Township Dudley was not visited by the writer. It is drained by Burnt river and the Haliburton and Irondale branches. Drag lake in the central western border of the township is the largest body of water, and covers about 1,700 acres. Two other lakes of considerable size, Lake Miskwabi and Lake Kennibik, are found in the south central portion of the township. The total water siirface of the township is 4,800 acres. Except for the region about the two last -mentioned lakes, where the rock is crystalline limestone, the prevailing rock of the township is gneissic granite. The township is characterized by a hardwood forest which occupies 89.7 per cent of the area, and, as a whole, it has not been severely culled. Four and four-tenths per cent is of the mixed and 4.9 per cent of the poplar type. Farms occupy only i per cent of the area. Guilford Township Watersheds. — The township of Gidlford belongs to the Gull River drainage system. The streams are mostly only short connecting links between the numerous lakes. The township has the largest water sur- face of any of those considered in this report, nearly 6,000 acres in aU, 88 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION or 13 per cent of its area. Redstone, situated in the northeastern portion of the township, is the largest lake, having a surface of 2,500 acres. Topography. — The topography of the township increases in diver- sity, and the ridges become higher towards the north, where they stand about 300 feet above the water courses. Rock and Soil. — The valley containing Eagle, Cranberry, Grass and Pine lakes is crystalline limestone. The rest of the township is gneissic granite. The whole township is well covered with glacial drift soil, which is, for the most part, a stony sandy loam, and is thinly dis- tributed on the higher slopes. Forest Conditions. — Apparently there was considerable pine scat- tered through the original forest, but this has now been removed, except for a patch of some 3,000 acres in the northwestern comer of the township. Along the streams and around the margins of the lakes, hemlock is abundant, especially around the chain of lakes lying west- ward of Redstone lake. As a whole, the proportion of conifers is greater in the northern portion of the township. The forest is, however, prevailingly of the hardwood type, which comprises 62 per cent of the area.* The coniferous type is next in abundance, covering 23.1 per cent of the area. Four and six-tenths per cent of the township is cov- ered by the old-bum type and 3.8 per cent by the mixed mature forest. Stanhope Township Watersheds. — Stanhope has the most picturesquely situated lakes within the area of this report, being for the most part surrotmded by mature forests. The three largest, all about the same size, are Bosh- kung, Kashagawi, extending clear across the western border of the township, and Pipikwabi. Each of these has a surface of about 1,600 acres. The total water surface of the township is 4,500 acres, or 12 per cent of its area. This township drains into Gull river. Topography. — The southern half of the township has the typical plateau topography, with frequent sharp peaks and knolls standing a hundred feet or so above the general level. The ridges are more fre- quent, and the valleys deeper, in the northern half of the township. Rock and Soil. — The southeastern portion of the township is underlain by crystalline limestone. The remaining portion of it is gneissic granite. The southern third of the township is deeply covered with drift soil, frequently of sufficient fineness to make good agricul- tural soils. The soils in the northern portion are thin and stony. * For the composition of this type see pages 45, 46. BALSAM-CEDAR SWAMP: A VERY COMMON TYPE ESPECIALLY IN THE NORTHERN TIER OF TOWNSHIPS NATURAL MEADOWS AND SWALES ARE FREOUENT BETWEEN THE GRANITE RIDGES CONDITIONS BY TOWNSHIPS 89 Forest conditions. — The southern portion of the township was originally covered with hardwoods, now represented by farm wood-lots. In the northern portion conifers were, and still are, more abundant. The areas occupied by various types are as follows : hardwoods 29.8 per cent ; poplar-birch 26.9 per cent ; mixed 17.3 per cent ; conifers 10.7 per cent ; recent bums 3.2 per cent. Anson and Hindon Townships Some 15,700 acres along the eastern side of Anson lie within the Trent watershed. Most of this area (62.8 per cent) was once covered with pine, but is now occupied by the usual poplar-birch type which follows burning. The hardwoods cover 22.9 per cent of the area and have been severely culled. The mixed coniferous-hardwood type occupies only 1.5 per cent of the area. Twelve and six-tenths per cent of the township within the drainage basin is cleared land. Only 5,000 acres of Hindon are contained within the Trent water- shed. Of these, 3,200 acres — or 62.5 per cent — are now controlled by the poplar-birch type. Severely culled hardwoods cover 1,680 acres, or 32.4 per cent of the area. The remaining portion, 266 acres (5.1 per cent) is farm land. Harburn Township The township of Harburn was not visited by the writer, so he is unable to describe it from a topographic standpoint. The lakes of the township form the easternmost headwaters of the GuU River system. Haliburton lake is the largest body of water and it covers some 2,400 acres. With the exception of the southwestern corner, which is under- lain by crystalline limestone, the rocks are gneissic granite. As swamps are more ntmierous than in the other northern townships of the Trent watershed, spruce, balsam, and cedar are more abundant. With regard to the proportion of the area occupied, the forests were classified as follows : hardwoods 58.1 per cent ; conifers 28.4 per cent ; mixed type 12 per cent ; poplar type 0.5 per cent. Only i per cent of the township is cleared for farming purposes. Sherborne, Havelock and Eyre Townships Portions of Sherborne, Havelock, and Eyre belong to the Gull River drainage system. Their topography and geology are similar to those already described for northern Stanhope and Guilford. The prevailing type in Sherborne is the mixed coniferous-hardwood forest, which occupies 72.5 per cent of the area within the watershed and four- fifths of this, some 8,000 acres, is virgin or semi-virgin. The old burns 90 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION occupy about one-quarter of the area. Havelock has a prevailing coniferous forest of spruce, hemlock, balsam and pine, covering 28,000 acres within the watershed, and it is all virgin and semi- virgin. The forests of Eyre are also coniferous ; the western half of the drainage basin containing spruce, balsam, and pine ; the eastern half spruce, balsam, hemlock and scrubby hardwoods. These cover some 25,000 acres and they have been only slightly culled. Ill Economic and Industrial Conditions Farming Conditions It is evident from the geological origin and nature of the soil of the region under discussion * that it is, for the most part, unsuited to agricultural pursmts ; yet the bulk of the popula- tion is engaged in farming. In general, the soil is shallow sand or gravel of glacial origin, only in limited areas of sufficient depth to permit the growth of crops. It follows that the farming settlements are foimd mostly in segregated blocks wherever the latter condition ob- tains. For the same reason, the area under cultivation on each farm is very small. Neglecting the three or four best agricultural townships, the land which is being actually tilled does not average more than 15 to 20 acres per hundred acres cleared or farmed. Under certain conditions of soil and market, and with intensive farming, this would suffice for a good living, but not under the present conditions prevailing in the Trent watershed. This low figure of actually tilled land is in itself indicative of the non-agricultural nature of the region. This is further brought out in the following table, which gives the percentage of land cleared for farming purposes in each of the townships investigated. Anstruther 3.5 Limerick 12.1 Burleigh 4.7 Lutterworth 10.4 Cardiff 7.0 Marmora 26.2 Cashel 6.6 Methuen 2.7 Cavendish 1.4 Minden 31.5 Chandos 18.2 Monmouth 8.9 Dysart 114 Snowdon 12.4 Faraday 12.5 Somerville 27.3 Galway 12.4 Stanhope 12.1 Glamorgan 7.9 Tudor 12.3 Harvey 14.0 WoUaston 16.1 Lake 2.0 These percentages include the land under tillage and pasturage, the latter usually in a worn-out condition or even grown up with brush. Needless to say, not all the clearings were mapped ; their patchy nature, in many cases, led to their being overlooked, and, in other cases, this would have made an exact estimate of the total clearings on a farm too costly in time, especially since this information was only secondary to the forest investigation. The above figures, as a rule, are higher than those given in the returns of township assessors, because the latter generally reduce the area of fields by allowance for rock exposures, stone pUes, swamp, thickets, etc. * See pages 37, 38 ; 68-89 for a brief description of the geology of the region by townships ; and 108-113. 92 C O M IM I S S 1 O N O F C O N S E R V A T I N The average per cent of cleared land for the 1,171,614 acres in- vestigated was 1 1.4.* The township of Minden leads in the percentage of land devoted to farm purposes, with Somerville, Marmora, Chandos and Wollaston next in order. Neglecting these five, which for special reasons will always remain farming townships, and those where too small a portion lies within the watershed for arriving at a fair propor- tion (Anson, Herschel, Hindon, Ridout), we find that the typical con- dition in the forest townships is 8 per cent of cleared land. The assessors' figures would give a smaller percentage, and figures of land really adapted to farming, still less. Details of Farm Distribution A brief description by townships will serve to present the typical state of affairs in attempting to farm soils which are much better adapted to forest use. 1. Hastings county — Referring to the Forest Distribution map ac- companying this report and beginning in the east, the Hastings road, with the townships of Lake and Wollaston on the west and Tudor and Limerick on the east, — an early colonization road — presents to-day a picture of more abandoned farms than occupied ones. Lake township is almost without settlement. Cashel contains one small settlement in the south-west. Tudor and Limerick, though thinly settled, contain but little agricultural soil. Wollaston, wdth the exception of the Ridge settlement, is farming a ridge of sand. The western portion of Faraday, embraced within this watershed, possesses considerable settlement, despite the unsuitable character of the soil. This is largely owing to accessibility to railway transportation in three directions — Bancroft, Deer Lake and Coehill. Much of this township is patented under the Mining Act. 2. Peterborough county— The Wollaston sand ridge extending west through Chandos furnishes that township its best farming area ; the farms in southern Chandos are rough and stony. Methuen, with one road running down the eastern portion, has a few farms in the north, one settler at Sandy Lake near the centre, and two small settlements (Oak Lake and Vansickle) in the south-east, on limestone areas ; the remainder of this barren township is totally uninhabited. The re- maining townships of Burleigh, Harvey, Galway, Cavendish and Anstruther form a block provided with three roads, the Burleigh, Buckhom and Bobcaygeon, running northerly. Farming in Burleigh *This calculation omits the practically unsettled townshipe of Bruton, Dudley, Eyre, Guilford (in part), Harburn, Harcourt and Havelock, to the extent of 173,932 acres The inclusion of these would bring the percentage still lower. TILLABLE SOIL ON UPLAND GRANITE AREAS IS CONFINED TO SMALL PATCHES BETWEEN THE RIDGES FARM ON A GLACIAL MORAINE. NOTE THE STONE PILES F A R M D I S T R I B U T I O N 93 township is confined to a straggling settlement along the Burleigh road, the very narrow former bed of Eels brook being utilized for the purpose, and another, westward, towards Burleigh Falls. Summer visitors to Mt. Julian, Burleigh Falls, and Buckhom are famiHar with the poor character of the soil in those vicinities ; the whole of Burleigh township is also as little adapted to farming operations. Burleigh road continues up the east side of Anstruther with a thin sprinkling of farms from Apsley to Clanricarde, and this, together with the Hadlington community, is the extent of settlement in this township. Ten deserted farms were counted within that compass. To the west of Anstruther lies the town- ship of Cavendish with the Buckhom road up the centre and a cross road to Mt. Irwin ; about a dozen families live within the township. The portion of Harvey east of the Buckhom road is unsettled, the land being similar to that of Burleigh township. The relatively high per- centage of cleared land in Harvey given on page 91 is due to the in- clusion of south Harvey and the part adjacent to the Bobcaygeon road — a limestone area on which fine farms are found. In Gal way, outside of the Mt. Irwin and Bobcaygeon Road settlements, there are few farms to be seen. Somerville, with 27 per cent of the land cleared, though much of it is unsuited for farming, was included in this report merely to round out the watershed. 3. Halihurton county — In Lutterworth the fanns are confined to the Bobcaygeon road and the region south-west from Minden, many of them abandoned. Proceeding easterly through the other townships the settlement is largely related to the railways. Snowdon, with 22 abandoned farms, has its farming industry centred mostly about Gelert. Glamorgan's farming is mostly confined to the vicinity of the railway ; 17 abandoned farms out of a total of 143 attest their owners' opinions as to the suitability of the soil for this purpose. In Monmouth, the farms occur scattered through the country tributary to the railway, the main settlements being Hotspur, Tory Hill, Essonville and Wilberforce. In Cardiff the farms occur in small remote settlements, principally in the northern half. The township has some 18 abandoned farms ; 9 of them almost in succession are to be seen on the road running along the south side of Paudash lake. Minden is an old farming township, one of the best. Stanhope has settlements scattered through the south half. The remaining northern townships are privately owned and practically unsettled with the exception of central Dysart. Farming Methods This sparse and checker-board-like distribution of the farming settlements in a territory which has been open for settlement for over forty years is indicative of the difficulty of finding soil to till. The 94 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION striking number of abandoned farms occurring in every township tells its own story. Neglecting the townships of Wollaston, Chandos, Somerville and western Harvey, the three southerly tiers of townships in the region concerned contain, as a whole, few agricultural areas be- yond mere gardens, such areas not totaling even lo per cent of the land area. They constitute a territory whose obvious use is for forest growth. The farming practice is along lines especially called forth by the natural conditions already described. Generally speaking, the only crops are hay and oats, but it is a struggle for each settler to grow even enough of these for his own use. The shallow soil requires fre- quent rains as an absolute necessity for the vegetation, so that two weeks of hot dry weather means poor crops, as was evidenced in many districts during the past season. However, with an abundance of rough grazing land, the main interest centres in dairying. Scattered throughout the whole region, especially the eastern portion, in each settlement is to be found a farmers' co-operative cheese factory, and one is impressed with the extent to which each settler is dependent on his cows. In the western portion and especially along the Irondale, Bancroft and Ottawa railway, the dairy industry takes more usually the form of cream shipments to centres of consumption farther south, or to local creameries. Worthy of note among these latter is the creamery at Kinmount, which manu- factures some 30,000 pounds of butter annually. But, as a general rule, the cattle are not high grade and the returns are not very satis- factory. The average gross returns are about $20 to $30 per cow for the season, or about $5 per cow per month. In addition, as the number of cattle a settler can winter is controlled by the crops he can raise in the summer, the size of each individual operation is limited. The dearth of hay land is partially met by the natural meadows and marshes which are eagerly sought out. There is no doubt that there is room for improvement in the farm- ing methods followed, especially as regards rotation of crops, soil manuring and improvement of stock. Relatively little sheep raising is done, and fruit growing is not attempted at all. The formation of co-operative breeding associations and farmers' institutes, together with the circulation of farm journals, would help the general status of the agricultural industry. But the fact remains that the soil is only here and there suited to that use. Abandoned Farms With conditions so unfavourable to agricultural activities the re- turns suffice for a bare living, which must usually be supplemented from some other source. Many, after years of struggle, have given up FIELD STREWN WITH LIMESTONE BOULDERS: GOOD PASTURAGE, HOWEVER, BETWEEN THE BOULDERS POOR PASTURAGE: MAXIMUM DEPTH OF SOIL LESS THAN TWELVE INCHES ABANDONED FARMS 95 the fruitless attempt, and to-day the whole region with which this report deals is dotted with abandoned farms.* During the survey it was made the practice to ascertain why the former owner had left, though a glance at the fields was generally sufficient. There was always the same explanation — inability to make a living. Time and again, following a spur road, it would be found ending in a remote pocket of soil, which had once been ferreted out as good farm land, but which had, after all, been finally abandoned. Along the earlier col- onization highways one finds long stretches unsettled to-day and with no signs of any former occupation beyond the mute testimony of neat piles of stones or occasional ornamental or fruit trees. There is not a single township but has its quota of such examples as indicated on the map. Often, these abandoned farms are among the best in the settle- ment, but their owners could not continue getting a mere subsistence despite their best efforts. Instances were met where the owner had simply left his farm, often with buildings above the average, unable to find a purchaser. The follomng statistics of population, taken from the Dominion Census returns, indicate the extent of decline during the last decade. Population Population Census Census Census Census Township : 1901 1911 Township : 1901 1911 Anstruther .. 542 290 Harvey . 1199 1027 Burleigh Cardiff .. 145 352 Lake and Marmora . . . 1931 1762 .. 698 518 Limerick . 597 448 Cashel .. 200 176 Lutterworth . 464 411 Chandos .. 806 .. 80 753 30 . 247 . 1170 107 Dudley Minden 984 Dysart .. 643 475 Monmouth . 629 699 Faraday .. 1339 752 Snowdon . 856 760 Galway .. 698 338 Somerville . 2105 1870 Glamorgan .. 527 482 Stanhope . 500 489 Guilford .. 263 262 Tudor . 632 643 Harbum .. 78 56 WoUaston . 834 911 Total... . 17.183 14,595 From these figures it is seen that there has been a decline of 15.2 per cent. How much of this is due to the same causes as are accountable for the rural decline throughout Ontario generally cannot be known, but it can be surmised from the fact that the average decline of Ontario is only 4.2 per cent. As is to be expected, it is usually the more pro- gressive settlers and the young people who have fewer ties who are not content to stay. * The term "abandoned" is here applied to a farm which from the appearance of the buildings, etc., it is evident to the passer-by has been deserted by the original owner ; the land, however, is generally in use by a neighbour. 96 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION In daily talks with settlers throughout the investigation there was general agreement that, in their own language, "this country was never meant to be farmed" and that " they would get out if they could." They were anxious to know the possibilities in Northern Ontario and the western prairies, and envied the immigrant farmer with his fertile soil. It may be here explicitly stated that the settlers throughout are an energetic, hard-working, resourceful people ; but they face an impossible proposition. They are, to a large extent, emigrants from the more southerly townships attracted years ago by free land. In addition, work in the lumber woods was plentifiil and a livelihood was assured. A study of the conditions of occupancy shows that some 75 per cent of the lots were patented when the patentee had the right to the timber without pine reservation. It cannot be doubted that much of the land was patented for the timber it carried, and not on account of its agri- cultural suitability. But, with the gradual disappearance of lumbering activities the settler was finally forced to make a living by farming. This largely explains the present conditions. The yearly sale by the county treasurer of lands for taxes unpaid for three years is the closing scene in this struggle to wrest a living from non-agricultural soil. Incidentally, these sales reveal the low cash value placed upon these farms by their owners. The following figures are compiled from the official lists for 19 12 : I. Peterborough County : Number of Farms Township Advertised FOR Sale Methuen 6 Burleigh 6 Chandos 6 Galway 9 Cavendish 4 Harvey 4 35 3,961 $418.82 Aggregate Acreage II. Hastings County : Township Lake Faraday Limerick Tudor WoUaston 35 4 17 27 23 4,517 532 965 2,325 1,140 $ 289.5.5 54.00 131 78 239.30 297.75 106 9,479 $1,012 38 TYPICAL UPLAND FARM AND FARM BUILDINGS ^^^^^^^^^HHH|pf' M Commission of Conservsufion t ^^^^M A BETTER TYPE OF FARMING COUNTRY. GULL RIVER VALLEY NEAR MINDEN SOCIAL CONDITIONS 97 III. Haliburton County (1911 List) : Township Cardiff 7 Dudley 1 Dysart 1 Glamorgan 6 Guilford 2 Harbum 3 Lutterworth 7 Minden 5 Monmouth 13 Snowdon 8 700 $ 222.89 100 25.36 64 33.61 552 210.62 162 20-42 200 69.97 332 176.89 434 273.74 1,318 409.15 783 304.44 53 4,645 $1,747.09 A total of 194 farms comprising 18,085 acres to be sold for three years back taxes aggregating $3,178.29, or at the rate of less than 6 cents per acre per year. Social Conditions It is a matter of universal observation, that, with such economic conditions as have been described, there is associated more or less social degeneracy, and many of the settlements show that this territory is no exception to the rule. Mental and physical defectives were commonly encountered, and the moral tone of some communities was very depressing. The explanation is traceable to the conditions of securing a livelihood, not to the people. For the same reason the status of education is, in the majority of the townships, far from satisfactory. Sparse settlements with meagre returns from the soil make the efficient maintenance of schools very difficult. In some schools the teachers were found to be professionally unqualified, other schools were found closed, and, in other cases, the dwindling of the settlement is making the financial up-keep too heavy for those remaining. The impression received daily throughout the season's investiga- tion was the dreary hopelessness of attempting to secure returns by agricultural activities, from a soil inherently adapted only for forest use. The amount of human energy unavailingly expended in this attempt, represents an incalculable asset lost to the Province. It is but another example of past misguided or rather unguided occupancy of townships which should never have been thrown open for settlement, and of the lack of appreciation by Government of its obvious duties. Early Advice — That this was not done through ignorance of condi- tions is shown by various reports of the early Commissioners of Crown Lands and of Parliamentary inquiries. Extracts from two of these \\ill suffice to show that, even in those days, there were men who were 98 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION aware of the necessity of segregating agricultural from absolute forest lands, and the setting aside of the latter as forest reserves. As early as 185s a committee of the House of Commons, Hon. A. T. Gait, Chair- man, reported, among other things : "It appears from the evidence that settlement has been unreasonably pushed in some localities quite luifit to become the permanent residence of an agricultural popialation. Especially has this been the case in some of the Free Grant roads and adjacent country, lying between the waters of the Ottawa and Lake Ontario. Your Committee would refer to the evidence and recommend that the Government should, in all cases, ascertain positively the charac- ter of the country before throwing open any tract of land for settlement, so that such lands that are really not fit for profitable cultivation may not be thrown upon the market. There being considerable diversity of opinion among the witnesses in regard to some of the localities adverted to, it seems to the committee that the Government should have an examination made by some thoroughly competent and reliable officer, whose report would be available in any further consider- ation of this subject." Again, in 1865, the Hon. A. Campbell, Commissioner of Crown Lands, in his report for that year, stated : "Though much of it (the pine coimtry) has been denuded of its valuable timber, it is the opinion of the best informed, that a large area remains untouched ; happily for the interests of the coimtry, the pine exists on lands for the most part imfit for settlement. It needs a careful discrimination between pine lands exclusively and lands fit for settlement, to place it in the power of the Government to conserve this valuable source of national wealth. Should the whole of our uncultivatable land be set apart, as I think shoiild be done, as a pine region, and no sales made there, the land would, if the trees were cut under a system of rotation such as is now adopted in Norw^ay and Sweden and in many of the German States, recuperate their growth of merchantable pine in cycles of 30 and 40 years, and pine growing might be continued and preserved for ages to come. In view of the future requirements of this continent and of Europe, and of the singiilar advantages Canada enjoys as a pine-producing country, I himibly submit that it is of the utmost importance that we should now take steps in this direction." If the warnings of such men had been heeded it would have been better for the prosperity of Ontario. Lumbering Conditions In former times, the region under consideration lay within the southern fringe of the vast pinery that covered the southern slope of the Laurentian shield. In nearly all the townships, licenses had WHITE PINE LOG CUT 23 YEARS AGO AND LEFT AS DEFECTIVE ACCORDING TO STANDARDS AT THAT TIME In certain townships there is still much material of this kind in the woods. In some cases, lumbermen are now hauling such logs to their mills '«fcl^*t%^r^ THE PRESENT HARVEST. COMPARE SIZE OF THESE LOGS WITH THAT IN ILLUSTRATION ABOVE LUMBERING been issued in the early 'sixties,' and by the 'seventies' the lumbering industry was one of the first magnitude. During the season 1872-73, the cut of pine from this watershed amounted to some 120 million feet ; last season probably less than 10 million feet of pine were cut. The same season saw the close of operations by the largest pine lumbering concern of the region ; probably but four concerns remain able to scrape together a million feet of pine yearly. Five years will see the end of the pine so far as commercial quantities are concerned. With the exhaustion of the remaining softwood stands, mainly hemlock, in cer- tain portions of Stanhope, Sherborne, Gal way, Cavendish, and An- struther, the lumbering of coniferous species will be practically at an end, and this will be within a decade. The present limit holders realize this and are buying all they can from settlers. One mill was found whose sole supply of logs came from discarded logs of former operations and pine 'rampikes' dead many years. It will be seen from the table on page 26 that the coniferous areas in existence constitute but 4.5 per cent of the forested area ; the areas of mixed composition likewise aggregate only 6.1 per cent ; and not all of either these two types is mature timber. At present there are ten lumbering concerns whose operations within the watershed exceed one million feet of logs a year each. The total cut in 1911-12 was in the neighbourhood of 40 to 45 million feet, distributed approximately as follows : pine 40 per cent, hem- lock 20 per cent, with small amoimts of spruce, basswood, ash, elm, cedar, birch, balsam, maple, tamarack and beech. Probably 10 million feet of this came from the semi-virgin townships in the north owned in fee simple, with which we are not here concerned. As al- ready intimated, the 191 2-13 cut will show much less pine. The bulk of the logs are sawed at Marmora, Peterborough, Lakefield, Lindsay, and Coboconk. Besides the saw-log industry there is a small production of cedar poles, posts and cross ties, shipped principally from Coehill, Kin- moimt and Haliburton. But the opinions of those engaged in the business confirm the field observations that the cedar swamps are nearly exhausted. Cedar is a species of such slow growth that its extinction, commercially, is unavoidable. A small amount, probably not over 3,000 cords of spruce, balsam and poplar, cut by settlers, is shipped out of the region, mostly from Kinmount and Gooderham, for manufacture into pulp and paper. Some of this goes to CampbeUford, Thorold, etc., but the bulk of it goes to Pennsylvania despite the long transportation. This is pro- bably owing to the fact that the majority of the Ontario mills possess 100 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION their own limits. During the past season the average prices paid the settler were $4 per cord for poplar, and $5.50 for spruce and balsam. In addition to the pulpwood there is a small trade in basswood and poplar for excelsior, and cord wood, for fuel, to various Ontario towns and cities, as well as a small quantity of tanbark, which is shipped to factories at Acton, Toronto and Omemee. An example of close utilization is seen in the shipment of fire-killed pine, with cull pine and hemlock, to Toronto brickyards, from certain points along the Hali- burton branch of the Grand Trunk railway. There are also a few small cooperage plants at Marmora, Deer Lake, Glanmire and Kin- mount, but elm, the species most largely used, is getting scarce. In the wake of the lumbering operations, fire has followed, so that to-day over one-half (57.3 per cent) of the forested area is composed of poplar stands, the majority of them 15 to 30 years old. These, with the hardwood areas, which as yet have been but little exploited, con- stitute the future source of wood supply in this region. The hardwoods cover one-third of the total forested area. The future of the lumbering of the region lies mainly in the utiliza- tion of the poplar and maple. Some of the lumbermen, when discussing with them the possibilities of future industrial development, claimed that the maple, owing to seam and black heart, is unprofitable. But it must be borne in mind that the handling of hardwood is a proposition of so different a nature from pine lumbering, that success cannot be expected where it is treated as a minor adjunct to a softwood business. Hardwoods as a whole are more defective, and the closest utilization of every log, not of maple only but of all the species, for the particular product for which it is best smted, is necessary to secure proper returns in the hardwood business. The field for the development of local minor wood-using industries, especially the manufacture of small woodenware, has not, as yet, been developed, although waterpower is available everywhere. The other species, poplar, now covering some 560,000 acres as a result of past fires, will, in the coiu-se of 15 to 20 years be mature, and ready for manufacture into pulp, matchwood, etc. It represents a forest resource of great value, not only owing to the great quantity in almost pure stands, but also on account of the favourable conditions of transportation and water-power manufacture. Despite the deterioration during the last forty years in the character of the forested area of the Trent watershed this region still possesses much forest wealth — one worthy of conservation by progressive methods of treatment. TOURIST TRAFFIC 101 Tourist Traffic Conditions From the climatic and scenic standpoints, central and northern Ontario will always attract their share of summer tourists. In the Trent watershed, with the exception of the Kawartha Lakes region, this traffic is undeveloped. This region is very accessible, with the lakes dotted with islands. Practically all of these islands, especially in Stony lake, are the sites of summer homes to which the cottagers return yearly for the hot season. In addition to this class, the transient tourists find accommodation at the numerous summer hotels scattered along the Trent Canal system, notably at Mt. Julian, Burleigh Falls, Buckhom, Bobcaygeon, Fenelon Falls, Rosedale, etc. The townships to the north of these lakes offer unknown possibilities in this respect. A glance at the Forest Distribution map shows that all contain numerous lakes for camping purposes. These are well wooded, mostly with hardwood in the northern and poplar in the southern portion, with plenty of fishing, and with a connecting net-work of streams for canoeing. Some of them are not very accessible as yet, but with many people this is an added asset. The altitude throughout the region precludes any hot weather, and the nights are always cool. The region is particularly an inexpensive recreation ground for the great mass of urban citizens who have but a short vacation in which to tone up. Ownership Conditions A classification upon the basis of ownership of the land area here considered gives approximately the following figures : (i) Under license to cut timber last season 450 sq. miles (2) Old licenses reverted to the Crown 275 sq. miles (3) Owned in fee simple in large holdings 340 sq. miles The land held in fee simple presents the unusual aspect of two corporations alone owning some 218,000 acres of it. The Canada Copper Company owns some 67,000 acres in the eastern portion of the watershed in the townships of Faraday, Wollaston, Limerick and Tudor ; some of this, however, is in the Moira River watershed. The Canadian Land and Immigration Company owns nine townships in the northern portion adjacent to Algonquin Park, some 17,000 acres of it tributary to Trent waters. These were grants given, in early days, at a nominal price per acre, for colonization purposes. Settlement within the region concerned is at an end though the locating of single lots is stiU in vogue to a slight extent. The locators usually finish with them within three years, and then abandon them 102 CO MM SSION OF CONSERVATION without having paid any taxes to the municipality. The licensed land carries only timber privileges, the land itself remaining provincial property. On the map showing ownership conditions the outstanding feature to be noted is the large amount of logged out land in the hands of the Crown. It must also be taken into account that, as the com- mercial timber will be exhausted within the next decade, the bulk of the area at present under license will revert gradually to the Crown. Furthermore, the licensed lands adjoin lands already in the possession of the Crown. Such a condition of block ownership facilitates any management that the Crown may deem expedient to undertake. Appendix I Notes on the Lumbering Industry in the Trent Watershed Mr. J. B. McWilliams, for many years Crown Timber Agent in the region, has compiled from the records of the Department of Lands and Forests of the Province, the data in part, upon which the" Ownership" map has been based, and has furnished, in addition, interesting his- torical and local data, of which the following are reproduced : Original Licenses Anson. — The first license in Anson was issued to Walter Gowan, season 1861-62, area 28M square miles. No bonus paid. Anstruther. — The first hcenses in Anstruther were issued to R. H. Scott, season 1862-63, area 443^ square miles. No bonus paid. To A. H. Campbell, season 1867-68, area 173<£ square miles. No bonus paid. Belmont. — The first licenses in Belmont were issued to T. McCabe in 1866-67, area Q}4 square miles. No bonus paid. To William Sutherland, season 1875-76, area }i mile. Bonus paid .S2.10. Burleigh. — The first license in Burleigh (South Division) was issued to John Ludgate, season 1862-63, area 25 square miles. No bonus paid. Cardiff. — The first hcenses in Cardiff were issued to Sanford Baker, season 1863- 64, area 50 square miles. No bonus paid. To Sanford Baker, 1863-64. area 28 square miles. No bonus paid. To Gilmour & Co. 1864-65, area 3}4: square miles. No bonus paid. Cashel. — The first hcenses in Cashel were issued to Sanford Baker, season 1860- 61, area 9 square miles. No bonus paid. To Potts, Eaaton, Gilmour & Co., season 1862-63, area 41 J4 square miles. No bonus paid. Cavendish. — The first hcenses in Cavendish were issued to Piatt & Bissonnette, season 1862-63, area 57 }4 square miles. No bonus paid. To Strickland Bros., season 1867-68, 8K square miles. No bonus paid. Chandos. — The first licenses in Chandos were issued to Gilmour & Co., season 1862-63, area 3i]4 square miles. No bonus paid. To J. C. Hughson, season 1864-65, area 19M square miles. No bonus paid. To J. C. Hughson, season 1864-65, area 43^ square miles. No bonus paid. Galway. — The first licenses in Galway were issued to Gilmour & Co., season 1862- 63, area 49 square miles. No bonus paid. To Matthew Thompson, season 1870-71. area one square mile. Bonus paid $4.00. Glamorgan. — The first licenses in Glamorgan were issued to Mossom Boyd, season 1863-64, area 16^ square miles. Bonus paid $33.35. To John R. Rodgers, season 1863-64, area 24 ^^ square miles. Bonus paid $25.20. Harvey. — The first licenses were issued to John Langton, season 1855-56. area 16^ square miles. No bonus paid. To John Langton, season 1862-63, area 7 square milos. No bonus paid. To Anderson & Paradis, season 1862-63, area 6 square miles. No bonus paid. To John Maloney, season 1862-63, area 2 square miles. No bonus paid. To James Cummins, season 1862-63, area 4 square miles. No bonus paid. Lake. — The first hcenses in Lake were issued to James Cummins, season 1862-63, area 36i<4 square miles. No bonus paid. To James Cummins, season 1862- 63, area 16) OC30O C 1»OC<)01005>OCO(N ?S: , 05CO«0 "" GOOOCiOOr-iCO-^^QOO-* COOCSCOCOOOIMOt^OlO .-I -H (N (N -* r-l ^ CO CO OO-^Ot^C^^OOCOCDiOiOCOO -^.-Ht^OlMO— iiO^t^t^C0X(N Tj